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California Academy of Sciences

January 19,1949

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IMALAYAN JOURNALS.

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P1.VI.

Snow beds at 13.000 feet, in the Thlonok Valley;

with Rhododendrons in blossom, Kinchin-junga

ina distance.

HIMALAYAN JOURNALS;

NOTES OF A NATURALIST

IN BENGAL, THE SIKKIM AND NEPAL HIMALAYAS,
THE KHASIA MOUNTAINS, &c.

By JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S.

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.— VOL. IT.

LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1854.

Lhe author reserves to himself the right of authorising a translation of this work.

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CONTENTS.

i

CHAPTER XVIII.
PAGE
Arrangements for second journey into Sikkim—Opposition of Dewan—Lassoo

Kajee—Tendong—Legend of flood—Lama of Silok-foke—Namtchi—Tchebu
Lama—-Top of Tendong—Gigantic oak—Plants—Teesta valley —Commence-
ment of rains —Bhomsong—Ascent to Lathiang—View—Bad road—Orchids
—Gorh—Opposition of Lama —Arrival of Meepo—Cross Teesta—Difficulties
of travelling—Lepchas swimming—Moxa for sprains—Singtam—Grandeur
of view of Kinchinjunga—Wild men—Singtam Soubah—Landslips—Bees'’-
‘nests and honey-seekers— Leeches, &c.—Chakoong—Vegetation — Gravel
terraces—Unpleasant effects of wormwood—Choongtam, scenery and vege-
tation of—Inhabitants—Tibetan salute—Lamas—Difficulty of procuring
food—Contrast of vegetation of inner and outer Himalaya—Rhododendrons
—Yew—Abies Brunoniana—Venomous snakes—Hornets and other insects
—Choongtam temple—Pictures of Lhassa—Minerals—Scenery . : : 1

CHAPTER XIX.

Routes from Choongtam to Tibet frontier—Choice of that by the Lachen river—
Arrival of supplies—Departure—Features of the valley—Eatable Polygonum
—Tumlong—Cross Taktoong river—Pineg, larches, and other trees—Chateng
pool—Water-plants and insects—Tukcham mountain—Lamteng village—
Inhabitants—Alpine monkey—Botany of temperate Himalaya—European
and American fauna—Japanese and Malayan genera—Superstitious objections
to shooting—Customs of people—Rain—Run short of provisions—<Altered
position of Tibet frontier—Zemu Samdong—Imposition—Vegetation— Uses
of pines—Ascent to Thlonok river—Balanophora wood for making cups—

_ Snow-beds—Eatable mushrooms and Smilacina— Asarabacca—View of
Kinchinjunga—Arum-roots, preparation of for food—Liklo mountain—Beha-
viour of my party—Bridge constructed over Zemu—Cross river—Alarm of
my party—Camp on Zemu river : ; ; : . 29
VOL. II. b

vi

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XX.

Camp on Zen-u river—Scenery—Falling rocks—Tukcham mountain—Height of

Top

glaciers—Botany—Gigantic rhubarb — Insects— Storm—Temperature of
rivers—Behaviour of Lachen Phipun—Hostile conduct of Bhoteeas—View
from mountains above camp—Descend to Zemu Samdong—Vegetation—
Letters from Dorjiling—Arrival of Singtam Soubah—Presents from Rajah—
Parties collecting arum-roots—Insects—Ascend Lachen river—Thakya-zong
—Tallum Samdong village—Cottages—Mountains—Plants—Entomology—
Weather—Halo—Diseases—Conduct of Singtam Soubah—His character and
illness—Agrees to take me to Kongra Lama—Tungu—A ppearance of country
—Houses—Poisoning by arum-roots—Yaks and calves—Tibet ponies—
Journey to Kongra Lama—Tibetan tents—Butter, curds, and churns—
Hospitality — Kinchinjhow and Chomiomo— Magnificent scenery— Reach
Kongra Lama pass

CHAPTER XXI.

of Kongra Lama—Tibet frontier—Elevation—View— Vegetation—Descent
to Tungu—Tungu-choo—Ponies—Kinchinjhow and Chango-khang mountains
—Palung plains—Tibetans—Dogs—Dingcham province of Tibet—Inhabit-
ants—Dresses—Women’s ornaments—Blackening faces—Coral—Tents—
Elevation of Palung—Lama—Shawl-wool goats—Shearing—Siberian plants
—Height of glaciers, and perpetual snow—Geology—Plants, and wild
animals—Marmots—Insects—Birds—Choongtam Lama—Religious exercises
—Tibetan hospitality — Delphiniwm — Perpetual snow — Temperature at
Tungu—Return to Tallum Samdong—To Lamteng—Houses—Fall of baro-
meter—Cicadas—Lime deposit—Landslips—Arrival at Choongtam—Cobra
—Rageu—Heat of climate—Velocity and volume of rivers measured—Leave
for Lachoong valley—Keadom—General features of valley—Lachoong village
—Tunkra mountain — Moraines — Cultivation —Lachoong Phipun—Lama
ceremonies beside a sick-bed .

CHAPTER XXII.

Leave Lachoong for Tunkra pass—Moraines and their vegetation—Pines of great

dimensions—Wild currants—Glaciers—Summit of pass—Elevation—Views
—Plants—Winds—Choombi district—Lacheepia rock—Extreme cold—Kin-
chinjunga — Himalayan grouse— Meteorological observations—Return to
Lachoong—Oaks—Ascend to Yeumtong—Flats and deb&cles—Buried pine-
trunks—Perpetual snow—Hot springs—Behaviour of Singtam Soubah—
Leave for Momay Samdong—Upper limit of trees—Distribution of plants—
Glacial terraces, &c.— Forked Donkia — Moutonnéed rocks—Ascent to
Donkia pass—Vegetation—Scenery—Lakes—Tibet—Bhomtso—Arun river
—Kiang-lah mountains—Yaru-Tsampu river—Appearance of Tibet—Kam-

PAGE

80

CONTENTS. vil

BaD}
bajong—Jigatzi—Kinchinjhow, and Kinchinjunga—Chola range—Deceptive -
appearance of distant landscape—Perpetual snow—Granite—Temperatures
—Pulses—Plants—Tripe de roche—Return to Momay—Dogs and yaks—-
Birds — Insects — Quadrupeds — Hot springs — Marmots — Kinchinjhow
glacier ; : A ; , ‘ ; , ; ‘ , Pen

CHAPTER XXIII.

Donkia glaciers—Moraines—Dome of ice—Honey-combed surface—Rocks of
Donkia—Metamorphic action of granite veins—<Accident to instruments—:
Sebolah pass—Bees and May-flies—View—Temperature—Pulses of party—
Lamas and travellers at Momay—Weather and climate—Dr. Campbell leaves
Dorjiling for Sikkim—Leave Momay—Yeumtong—Lachoong—Retardation
of vegetation at low elevations—Choongtam—Landslips and deb&acle—Meet
Dr. Campbell—Motives for his journey—Second visit to Lachen valley—
Autumnal tints—Red currants—Lachen Phipun—Tungu—Scenery—Ani-
mals—Poisonous rhododendrons—Fire-wood— Palung—Elevations—Sitong
—Kongra Lama—Tibetans—Enter Tibet— Desolate scenery— Plants—Ani-
mals-—Geology— Cholamoo lakes—Antelopes— Return to Yeumtso—Dr.
Campbell lost—Extreme cold—Headaches—Tibetan Dingpun and guard—
Arms and accoutrements—Temperature of Yeumtso—Migratory birds—
Visit of Dingpun—Yeumtso lakes . A , : , ; : » 1386

CHAPTER XXIV.

Ascent of Bhomtso—View of snowy mountains—Chumulari—Arun river—
Kiang-lah mountains—Jigatzi—Lhassa—Dingcham province of Tibet—Mis-
application of term ‘‘ Plain of Tibet ”’—Sheep, flocks of—Crops—Probable
elevation of Jigatzi—Yaru-Tsampu river—Tame elephants—Wild borses—
Dryness of air—Sunset beams—Rocks of Kinchinjhow—Cholamoo lakes—-
Limestone—Dip and strike of rocks—Effects of great elevation on party—
Ascent of Donkia—Moving piles of débris—Cross Donkia pass—Second visit
to Momay Samdong—Hot springs— Descent to Yeumtong— Lachoong —
Retardation of vegetation again noticed—J erked meat—Fish—Lose a thermo-
meter—Lepcha lad sleeps in hot spring—Keadom—Bucklandia—Arrive
at Choongtam—Mendicant—Meepo—Lachen-Lachoong river—Wild grape—
View from Singtam of Kinchinjunga—Virulent nettle : . P Sod

CHAPTER KXV.

Journey to the Rajah’s residence at Tumloong—Ryott valley—Rajah’s house—
Tupgain Lama—Lagong nunnery—Phadong Goompa—Phenzong ditto—
Lepcha sepoys—Proceedings at Tumloong—Refused admittance to Rajah—
Women’s dresses—Meepo’s and Tchebu Lama’s families—Chapel—Leave for
Chola pass—Ryott river—Rungpo, view from—Deputation of Kajees, &c.
—Conference—Laghep—Katable fruit of Decaisnea—Cathcartia—Rhodo-
dendrons — Phieung-goong—Pines—Rutto river—Barfonchen—Curling of
rhododendron leaf—Woodcock—Chola pass—Small lakes—Tibet guard and

Vili

CONTENTS.

sepoys—Dingpun—Arrival of Sikkim sepoys—Their conduct—Meet Singtam
Soubah—Chumanako—We are seized by the Soubah’s party—NSoubah’s con-
duct—Dingpun Tinli—Treatment of Dr. Campbell—Bound and guarded—
Separated from Campbell—Marched to Tumloong—Motives for such conduct
—Arrive at Rungpo—At Phadong—Presents from Rajah—Visits of Lama—
Of Singtam Soubah—I am cross-questioned by Amlah—Confined with
Campbell—Seizure of my Coolies—Threats of attacking Dorjiling

CHAPTER XXVI.

Dr. Campbell is ordered to appear at Durbar—Lamas called to council—Threats

—Searcity of food—Arrival of Dewan—Our jailer, Thoba-sing—Tempera-
ture, &c., at Tumloong—Services of Goompas—Lepcha girl—Jews’-harp—
Terror of servants—Ilam-sing’s family—Interview with Dewan—Remon-
strances—Dewan feigns sickness—Lord Dalhousie’s letter to Rajah—Treat-
ment of iIndo-Chinese—Concourse of Lamas—Visit of Tchebu Lama—Close
confinement—Dr. Campbell’s illness—Conference with Amlah—Relaxation
of confinement—Pemiongchi Lama’s intercession—Escape of Nimbo—
Presents from Rajah, Ranee, and people—Protestations of friendship—
Mr. Lushington sent to Dorjiling—Leave Tumloong—Cordial farewell—
Dewan’s merchandize—Gangtok Kajee—Dewan’s pomp—Governor-General’s
letter—Dikkeeling—Suspicion of poison—Dinner and_ pills—Tobacco—
Bhotanese colony—Katong-ghat on Teesta—Wild lemons—Sepoys’ insolence
—Dewan alarmed—View of Dorjilmg—Threats of a rescue—Fears of our
escape—Tibet flutes—Negociate our release— Arrival at Dorjiling—Dr.
Thomson joins me—Movement of troops at Dorjiling—Seizure of Rajah’s
Terai property

CHAPTER XXVII.*

Leave Dorjiling for Caleutta—Jung Bahadoor—Dr. Falconer—Improvements in

Botanic Gardens— Palmetum— Victoria—A mherstia—Orchids spread by
seed—Banyan—Cycas—Importation of American plants in ice—Return to
Dorjiling—Leave with Dr. Thomson for the Khasia mountains—Maha-
nuddy river—Vegetation of banks—Maldah—Alligators—Rampore-Bauleah
—Climate of Ganges—Pubna—Jummul river—aAltered course of Burram-
pooter and Megna Dacca—Conch shells—Saws—Cotton muslins—Fruit—
Vegetation—Elevation—-Rose of Bengal—Burrampooter—Delta of Soormah
river — J heels—Soil— Vegetation — Navigation —Mosquitos—A tmospheric
pressure—Effects of geological changes—Imbedding of plants—Teelas or
islets—Chattuc—Salubrious climate—Rains—Canoes—Pundua—Mr. Harry
Inglis—Terrya Ghat—Ascent to Churra—Scenery and vegetation at foot of
mountains—Cascades

PAGE

190

215

242

* In the body of the work, the latter part of this chapter has been accidentally numbered
XXVIII., and the three succeeding XXIX., &c.

CONTENTS. iX

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Churra, English station of—Khasia people—Garrow people—Houses—Habits— on
Dress—Arms—Dialects—Marriages— Food—Funerals—Superstitions—Flat
of Churra—Scenery—Lime and coal—Mamloo — Cliffs—Cascades—Cha-
meerops palm—Jasper-rocks—Flora of Churra—Orchids—Rhododendrons—
Pine—Climate—Extraordinary rain-fall—lIts effects— Gardens of Lieuts.
Raban and Cave—Leave Churra to cross the mountain range—Coal, shale,
and under-clay— Kala-panee river—Lailangkot—Luculia Pinceana—Con-
glomerate—Surureem wood—Boga-panee river—View of Himalaya—Green-
stone—Age of pine-cones—Moflong plants—Cotx—Chillong mountain —
Extensive view—Road to Syong—Broad valleys—Geology—Plants—Myrung
—Granite blocks—Kollong rock—Pine-woods—Features of country—Orchids
—lIron forges ! ; : : : : : , s) 272

CHAPTER XXIX.

View of Himalaya from the Khasia—Great masses of snow—Chumulari—Donkia
—Grasses—Nunklow—Assam valley and Burrampooter—Tropical forest—
Bor-panee—Rhododendrons—Wild elephants—Blocks of Syenite—Return to
Churra—Coal—August temperature—Leave for Chela—Jasper hill—Birds
—Arundina—Habits of leaf-insects—Curious village—Houses—Canoes—
Boga-panee river—J heels—Chattuc—Churra — Leave for Jyntea hills—
Trading parties—Dried fish—Cherries—Cinnamon— Fraud — Pea-violet—
Nonkreem—Sandstone—Pines—Granite boulders—Iron washing—Forges
—Tanks—Siberian Vymphea—Barren country—Pomrang—Podostemon—
Patchouli plant—Mooshye—Enormous stone slabs—Pitcher-plant—J oowye—
Cultivation and vegetation—Hydropeltis—Sulky hostess—Nurtiung—Ham-
amelis chinensis—Bor-panee river—Sacred grove and gigantic stone struc-
tures— Altars — Pyramids, &c.—Origin of names—Vanda carulea—
Collections—November vegetation—Geology of Khasia—Sandstone—Coal
—Lime—Gneiss—Greenstone—Tidal action—Strike of rocks—Comparison
with Rajmahal hills and the Himalaya . : : : : ; SW Ah

CHAPTER XXX.

Boat voyage to Silhet—River—Palms—Teelas—Botany—Fish weirs—Forests of
Cachar—Sandal-wood, &c.—Porpoises—A lligators—Silchar—Tigers—Rice-
erops — Cookies — Munniporees — Hockey — Varnish — Dance— Nagas—
Excursion to Munnipore frontier—Elephant bogged—Bamboos—Cardiop-
terts—Climate, &c., of Cachar—Mosquitos—Fall of banks—Silhet—Oaks
—Stylidium— Tree-ferns—Chattuc—Megna — Meteorology — Palms—Noa-
colly—Salt-smuggling—Delta of Ganges and Megna—Westward progress of

x CONTENTS.

PAGE
Megna—Peat—Tide—Waves—Earthquakes—Dangerous navigation—Moon-

light scenes—Mud island—Chittagong—Mug tribes— Views—Trees—Churs
—Flagstaff hill—Coffee—Pepper—Tea, &c.—Excursions from Chittagong—
Dipterocarpi or Gurjun oil trees—Harthquake—Birds—Papaw—Bleeding
of stems—Poppy and Sun fields—Seetakoond—Bungalow and hill—Perpe-
tual flame—Falconeria—Cycas—Climate—Leave for Calcutta—Hattiah
island—Plants—Sunderbunds—Steamer—Tides—Nipa fruticans—Fishing
—Otters—Crocodiles—Phenix paludosa—Departure from India ; yi)

APPENDIX . : ‘ y : . , : ’ , ; f ; oe

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

———~>——
LITHOGRAPHIC VIEWS. |
Fig. Page
VI. VIEW OF KINCHINJUNGA FROM SINGTAM, LOOKING NORTH-WESTWARD : 14

VII. KINCHINJUNGA FROM THE THLONOK RIVER, WITH RHODODENDRONS IN
FLOWER (Ffrontispiece.) ‘ : : : ' : See page 50

VUlI. TIBET AND CHOLAMOO LAKE FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE DONKIA PASS,
LOOKING NORTH-WEST : 5. We ; ; : : : - 124

IX. KINCHINJHOW, DONKIA, AND CHOLAMOO LAKE, FROM THE SUMMIT OF
BHOMTSO, LOOKING SOUTH; THE SUMMIT OF CHUMULARI IS INTRO-
DUCED IN THE EXTREME LEFT OF THE VIEW . F ‘ . i GG

X. THE TABLE-LAND AND STATION OF CHURRA, WITH THE JHEELS, COURSE
OF THE SOORMAH RIVER, AND TIPPERAH HILLS IN THE EXTREME

DISTANCE, LOOKING SOUTH . : : : d ‘ i ay 2h
XI. THE BHOTAN HIMALAYA, ASSAM VALLEY, AND BURRAMPOOTER RIVER,

FROM NUNKLOW, LOOKING NORTH . ‘ : : ; ; . 3800
XII. SEETAKOOND HILL : ; ; : ; ; ; : 20 852

WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

1. PANDANUS IN THE TEESTA VALLEY . : ; é : : : : 9
2. CANE-BRIDGE OVER THE LACHEN-LACHOONG RIVER, BELOW CHOONGTAM.
TUKCHAM MOUNTAIN IS BROUGHT INTO THE VIEW, AS SEEN FROM A
HIGHER ELEVATION. . ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ ’ pear, ek
3. JUNIPERUS RECURVA, THE WEEPING JUNIPER . ‘ ; ; . ~- 2S
4, LAMTENG VILLAGE, WITH TUKCHAM IN THE DISTANCE : ’ “1s 388
5. BLACK JUNIPER AND YOUNG LARCH 2 : , : ; 4 a 55
6. TUNGU VILLAGE, WITH YAKS IN THE FOREGROUND . , ' rp eee
7. WOMEN’S HEAD-DRESSES—THE TWO OUTER, LEPCHA GIRLS; THE TWO
INNER, TIBETAN WOMEN . , ; : : ; c ; eG
8. TIBET MARMOT. SKETCHED BY J. E. WINTERBOTTOM, ESQ. . : Ba od

9. LACHOONG VALLEY (LOOKING SOUTH), LARCH TREE IN THE FOREGROUND 103

l DIE

13.

1S;

16.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

CONICAL ANCIENT MORAINES IN THE LACHOONG VALLEY, WITH ABIES
BRUNONIANA AND SMITHIANA . ; c - . . ° .

HEAD AND LEGS OF TIBET MARMOT. SKETCHED BY J. E. WINTERBOTTOM, ESQ.
BLOCK OF GNEISS WITH GRANITE BANDS, ON THE KINCHINJHOW GLACIER .

SUMMIT OF FORKED DONKIA MOUNTAIN, WITH GOA ANTELOPES IN THE
FOREGROUND ; FROM 17,500 FEET ELEVATION . : ; : 5

VIEW OF THE EASTERN TOP OF KINCHINJHOW, AND TIBET IN THE
DISTANCE, WITH WILD SHEEP IN THE FOREGROUND; FROM AN
ELEVATION OF 18,000 FEET A ; 2 : : : ame

HEAD OF CHIRU ANTELOPE, THE UNICORN OF TIBET. FROM A SKETCH BY
LIEUT. H. MAXWELL . 2 “ . : “ - : . .

A PHUD, OR TIBETAN MENDICANT. SKETCHED AT DORJILING BY MISS
COLVILE . . . 5 ° : . : : - Pye

TEA (BRICK OF), TEA-POT, WOODEN cup, &Cc.
PORTRAIT OF ADEN TCHEBU LAMA. SKETCHED BY LIEUT. H. MAXWELL .

SILVER CHAIN AND HOOKS, ORNAMENTED WITH TURQUOISES, USED TO
FASTEN WOMEN’S CLOAKS . : ‘ ' " g : F

HORNS OF THE SHOWA STAG OF TIBET (CERVUS WALLICHII). SKETCHED
BY LIEUT. H. MAXWELL . : ° : : . ° .

RAJAH’S HOUSE AT TUMLOONG, IN THE FOREGROUND THE COTTAGE IN
WHICH DR. CAMPBELL WAS CONFINED, WITH THE DEWAN’S RETINUE
PASSING. THIS IS PARTLY EXECUTED FROM MEMORY . . °

TIBETAN TOBACCO-PIPE AND TINDER-POUCH, WITH STEEL ATTACHED . .

LEPCHA SEPOYS, THE RIGHT HAND FIGURES, AND TIBETAN ONES ON THE
LEFT ° : - - 5 - : ° : . . .

DR. FALCONER’S RESIDENCE, CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDENS; FROM SIR L.
PEEL'S GROUNDS, LOOKING ACROSS THE HOOGLY . ° . ASs

VIEW IN THE JHEELS OF BENGAL, WITH KHASIA MOUNTAINS IN THE DISTANCE
LIVING BRIDGE, FORMED OF THE AERIAL ROOTS OF FIGS.

DEWAN’S EAR-RING OF PEARL AND TURQUOISES . ; ° : Bon ac
WATERFALLS AT MAMLOO, WITH FAN-PALMS 5 * 5 - .
KOLLONG ROCK . ‘ : : . .

CHELA, ON THE BOGA-PANEE RIVER ° ° 4 ° ° °
NONKREEM VILLAGE, WITH BOULDERS OF DENUDATION . . Dh ac
BELLOWS OF IRON SMELTERS IN THE KHASIA MOUNTAINS . . .
OLD BRIDGE AT AMWEE ° ‘ é ° . . . ° awase
STONES AT NURTIUNG ° 4 . : . . . . ° .
DIPTEROCARPUS TURBINATUS, GURJUN OR WOOD-OIL TREE . ° ei 4

Page

104
106
135

139

140
158
187
189
193

195

214

219

HIMALAYAN JOURNALS.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Arrangements for second journey into Sikkim—Opposition of Dewan—Lassoo
Kajee—Tendong—Legend of flood—Lama of Sillok-foke—Namtchi—Tchebu
Lama—Top of Tendong—Gigantic oak—Plants—Teesta valley—Commence-
ment of rains—Bhomsong—Ascent to Lathiang—View—Bad road—Orchids
—Gorh—Opposition of Lama—Arrival of Meepo—Cross Teesta—Difficulties
of travelling—Lepchas swimming—Moxa for sprains—Singtam—Grandeur of

view of Kinchinjunga— Wild men—Singtam Soubah—Landslips—Bees’-nests
and honey-seekers—Leeches, &c.—Chakoong— Vegetation—Gravel terraces
—Unpleasant effects of wormwood—Choongtam, scenery and vegetation of—
—Inhabitants—Tibetan salute—Lamas—Difficulty of procuring food—Con-
trast of vegetation of inner and outer Himalaya—Rhododendrons—Yew—
Abies Brunoniana—Venomous snakes—Hornets and other insects—Choong-
tam temple—Pictures of Lhassa—Minerals—Scenery.

AFTER my return from the Terai, 1 was occupied during
the month of April in preparations for an expedition to
the loftier parts of Sikkim. ‘The arrangements were the
same as for my former journey, except with regard to food,
which it was necessary should be sent out to me at
intervals ; for we had had ample proof that the resources
of the country were not equal to provisioning a party of
from forty to fifty men, even had the Dewan been favour-
able to my travelling, which was clearly not the case.

Dr. Campbell communicated to the Rajah my intention

of starting early in May for the upper Teesta valley, and,
VOL, If, B

2 DORJILING. Cuap. XVIII.

in the Governor-General’s name, requested that he would
facilitate my visiting the frontier of Sikkim, north-east of
Kinchinjunga. The desired permission was, after a little
delay, received; which appeared to rouse the Dewan to
institute a series of obstructions to my progress, which
caused so many delays that my exploration of the country
was not concluded till October, and I was prevented
returning to Dorjiling before the following Christmas.
Since our visit to the Rajah in December, no Vakeel
(agent) had beén sent by the Durbar to Doryjiling, and
consequently we could only communicate indirectly with

the truth of various reports promulgated by the Dewan,
and meant to deter me from entermg the country. In
April, the Lassoo Kajee was sent as Vakeel, but, having on
a previous occasion been dismissed for insolence and
incapacity, and again rejected when proposed by the
Dewan at Bhomsong, he was refused an audience; and he
encamped at the bottom of the Great Rungeet valley,
where he lost some of his party through fever. He retired
into Sikkim, exasperated, pretending that he had orders to
delay my starting, in consequence of the death of the heir
apparent ; and that he was prepared to use strong mea-
sures should I cross the frontier.

No notice was taken of these threats: the Rajah was
again informed of my intended departure, unless his
own orders to the contrary were received through a proper
accredited agent, and I left Dorjiling on the 3rd of May,
accompanied by Dr. Campbell, who insisted on seeing me
fairly over the frontier at the Great Rungeet river.

Arrangements were made for supplies of rice following
me by instalments; our daily consumption being 80 Ibs.,
a man’s load. After crossing into Sikkim, I mustered my

May, 1849. ASCEND TENDONG.

party at the Great Rungeet river. I had forty-two in all,
of whom the majority were young Lepchas, or Sikkim-
born people of Tibetan races: all were active and cheerful
looking fellows ; only one was goitred, and he had been
a salt-trader. J was accompanied by a guard of five
Sepoys, and had a Lepcha and Tibetan interpreter. I
took but one personal servant, a Portuguese half-caste
(John Hoffman by name), who cooked for me: he was a
native of Calcutta, and though hardy, patient, and long-
suffering, and far better-tempered, was, in other respects,
very inferior to Clamanze, who had been my servant the
previous year, and who, having been bred to the sea, was
as handy as he was clever ; but who, like all other natives
of the plains, grew intolerably weary of the hills, and
left me.

The first part of my route lay over ‘T'endong, a very
fine mountain, which rises 8,613 feet, and is a conspicuous
feature from Dorjiling, where it is known as Mount Ararat.
The Lepchas have a curious legend of a man and woman
having saved themselves on its summit, during a flood
that once deluged Sikkim. The coincidence of this story
with the English name of Ararat suggests the probability
of the legend being fabulous ; but I am positively assured
that it is not so, but that 1t was current amongst the
Lepchas before its English name was heard of, and that
the latter was suggested from the peculiar form of its
summit resembling that given in children’s books as the
resting-place of the ark.

The ascent from the Great Rungeet (alt. 818 feet) is
through dry woods of Sal and Pines (P. longifolia). 1
camped the first might at the village of Mikk (alt. 3,900
feet), and on the following day ascended to Namte (alt.
3,600 feet).

B 2

4 TENDONG.,. Cuap. XVIII.

On the route 1 was met by the Lama of Silokfoke
Goompa. Though a resident on the Lassoo Kajee’s
estates, he politely brought me a present, at the same
time apologising for not waiting till I had encamped,
owing to his excessive fat, which prevented his climbing.
I accepted his excuses, though well aware that his real
reason was that he wished to pay his respects, and show
his good feeling, in private. Besides his ordinary canonicals,
he carried a tall crozier-headed staff, and had a curious
horn slung round his neck, full of amulets; it was short,
of a transparent red colour, and beautifully carved, and
was that of the small cow of Lhassa, which resembles the
English species, and is not a yak (it is called “'Tundro”’).

Namtchi was once a place of considerable importance ;
and still possesses a mendong, with six rows of inscribed
slabs; a temple, and a Lama attached thereto: the latter
waited on me soon after I had encamped, but he brought no
present, and I was not long kept in suspense as to his
motives. ‘These people are poor dissemblers; if they
intend to obstruct, they do it clumsily and hesitatingly : in
this instance the Lama first made up to my people, and,
being coolly received, kept gradually edging up to my
tent-door, where, after an awkward salute, he delivered
himself with a very bad grace of his mission, which was
from the Lassoo Kajee to stop my progress. I told him
I knew nothing of the Lassoo Kajee or his orders, and
should proceed on the following morning: he then urged
the bad state of the roads, and advised me to wait two
days till he should receive orders from the Rajah ; upon
which I dismissed him.

Soon afterwards, as I sat at my tent-door, looking along
the narrow bushy ridge that winds up the mountain, I
saw twenty or thirty men rapidly descending the rocky

May, 1849. MEET TCHEBU LAMA. D

path: they were Lepchas, with blue and white striped
garments, bows and quivers, and with their long knives
gleaming in the sun: they seemed to be following a figure
in red Lama costume, with a scarlet silk handkerchief
wound round his head, its ends streaming behind him.
Though expecting this apparition to prove the renowned
Kajee and his myrmidons, coming to put a sudden
termination to my progress, I could not help admiring the
exceeding picturesqueness of the scenery and party. My
fears were soon dissipated by my men joyfully shouting,
“The Tchebu Lama! the Tchebu Lama!” and I soon
recognised the rosy face and twinkling eyes of my friend
of Bhomsong, the only man of intelligence about the
Rajah’s court, and the one whose services as Vakeel were
particularly wanted at Dorjiling.

He told me that the Lassoo Kajee had orders (from
whom, he would not say) to stop my progress, but that |
should proceed nevertheless, and that there was no
objection to my doing so; and he despatched a messenger
to the Rajah, announcing my progress, and requesting
him to send me a guide, and to grant me every facility,
asserting that he had all along fully intended doing so.

On the following mornmg the Lama proceeded to
Dorjiling, and I continued the ascent of Tendong, sending
my men round the shoulder to Temi im the Teesta valley,
where I proposed to pass the night. ‘The road rapidly
ascends by a narrow winding path, covered with a loose
forest of oaks, rhododendrons, and various shrubs, not
found at equal elevations on the wetter Dorjiling ranges :
amongst them the beautiful laburnum-like Piptanthus
Nepalensis, with golden blossoms, was conspicuous.
Enormous blocks of white and red stratified quartz and
slate, some 20 and even 40 yards long, rest on the narrow

TEESTA VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

a

ridge at 7000 feet elevation. The last ascent is up a steep
rounded cone with a broad flat top, covered with dwarf
bamboo, a few oaks, laurels, magnolias, and white-flowered
rhododendron trees (2. argenteum), which obstructed the
view. I hung the barometers near one of the many
chaits on the summit, where there is also a rude temple,
in which worship is performed once a year. The elevation
is 8,671 feet by my observations.* The geological forma-
tion of ''endong in some measure accounts for its peculiar
form. On the conical summit are hard quartzoze
porphyries, which have apparently forced up the gneiss
and slates, which dip in all directions from the top, and
are full of mjected veins of quartz. Below 7000 feet,
mica-schist prevails, always inclined at a very high angle ;
and I found jasper near Namtchi, with other mdications of
Plutonic action.

The descent on the north side was steep, through a rank
vegetation, very different from that of the south face. The
oaks are very grand, and I measured one (whose trunk was
decayed, and split into three, however), which I found to
be 49 feet in girth at 5 feet from the ground. Near Temi
(alt. 4,770 feet) I gathered the fruit of Kadsura, a
climbing plant allied to Magnolia, bearing round heads of
large fleshy red drupes, which are pleasantly acid and
much eaten; the seeds are very aromatic.

From Temi the road descends to the Teesta, the course
of which it afterwards follows. The valley was fearfully hot,
and infested with mosquitos and peepsas. Many fine plants
grew in it: t I especially noticed Aristolochia saccata,

* 8,663 by Col. Waugh’s trigonometrical observations.
‘+ Especially upon the broad terraces of gravel, some of which are upwards of a
mile long, and 200 feet above the stream: they are covered with boulders of rock,
and are generally opposite feeders of the river.

May, 1849. VEGETATION. f

which climbs the loftiest trees, bearing its curious pitcher-
shaped flowers near the ground only ; its leaves are said to
be good food for cattle. Houttuynia,a curious herb allied
to pepper, grew on the banks, which, from the profusion of
its white flowers, resembled strawberry-beds ; the leaves
are eaten by the Lepchas. But the most magnificent plant
of these jungles is Hodgsonia, (a genus I have dedicated
to my friend, Mr. Hodgson), a gigantic climber allied to
the gourd, bearing immense yellowish-white pendulous
blossoms, whose petals have a fringe of butff-coloured
curling threads, several inches long. ‘The fruit 1s of a rich
brown, like a small melon in form, and contains six large
nuts, whose kernels (called ‘ Katior-pot ”’ by the Lepchas)
are eaten. The stem, when cut, discharges water profusely
from whichever end is held downwards. ‘The ‘Took ”’
(/ydnocarpus) is a beautiful evergreen tree, with tufts of
yellow blossoms on the trunk: its fruit is as large as an
orange, and is used to poison fish, while from the seeds an
oil is expressed. ‘Tropical oaks and Terminalias are the
giants of these low forests, the latter especially, having
buttressed trunks, appear truly gigantic; one, of a kind
called “‘Sung-lok,” measured 47 feet in girth, at 5 feet,
and 21 at 15 feet from the ground, and was fully 200 feet
high. I could only procure the leaves by firing a ball into
the crown. Some of their trunks lay smouldering on the
ground, emittmg a curious smell from the mineral matter
in their ashes, of whose constituents an account will be
found in the Appendix.

Birds are very rare, as is all animal life but insects, and
a small fresh-water crab, Thelphusa, (“'Ti-h” of the
Lepchas). Shells, from the absence of lime, are extremely
scarce, and I scarcely picked up a single specimen: the
most common are species of Cyclostoma.

8 TEESTA VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

The rains commenced on the 10th of May, greatly
increasing the discomforts of travelling, but moderating
the heat by drenching thunder-storms, which so soaked
the men’s loads, that I was obliged to halt a day in the
Teesta valley to have waterproof covers made of platted
bamboo-work, enclosing Phrynium leaves. I was delighted
to find that my little tent was impervious to water, though
its thickness was but of one layer of blanket: it was a
single ridge with two poles, 7 feet high, 8 feet long, and
S feet broad at the base, forming nearly an equilateral
triangle in front.

Bhomsong was looking more beautiful than ever in its
rich summer clothing of tropical foliage. I halted durmg
an hour of heavy rain on the spot where I had spent the
previous Christmas, and could not help feeling doubly
lonely in a place where every rock and tree reminded me
of that pleasant time. The isolation of my position, the
hostility of the Dewan, and consequent uncertainty of the
success of a journey that absorbed all my thoughts,
the prevalence of fevers in the valleys I was traversing,
and the many difficulties that beset my path, all crowded
on the imagination when fevered by exertion and depressed
by gloomy weather, and my spirits involuntarily sank as I
counted the many miles and months intervening between
me and my home.

The little flat on which I had formerly encamped was now
covered with a bright green crop of young rice. ‘The house
then occupied by the Dewan was now empty and unroofed ;
but the suspension bridge had been repaired, and its light
framework of canes, spanning the boiling flood of the
‘Teesta, formed a graceful object in this most beautiful
landscape. ‘The temperature of the river was 58°, only 7°
above that of mid-winter, owing to the now melting snows.

May, 1849. VEGETATION AND SCENERY OF BHOMSONG. 9

I had rather expected to meet either with a guide, or with
some further obstruction here, but as none appeared, I
proceeded onwards as soon as the weather moderated.
Higher up, the scenery resembles that of Tchintam on
the Tambur: the banks are so steep as to allow of no road,

PANDANUS. SIKKIM SCREW-PINE.

and the path ascends from the river, at 1000 feet, to
Lathiang village, at 4,800 feet, up a wild, rocky torrent
that descends from Mainom to the Teesta. The cliffs here
are covered with wild plantains and screw-pines (Pandanus),

10 TEESTA VALLEY. Cuar. XVIII.

50 feet high, that clasp the rocks with cable-hke roots,
and bear one or two crowns of drooping leaves, 15 feet
long: two palms, Rattan (Calamus) and Areca gracilis,
penetrate thus far up the Teesta valley, but are scarcely
found further. 3

From the village the view was superb, embracing
the tropical gulley below, with the flat of Bhomsong
deep down in the gorge, its bright rice-fields gleammg
like emeralds amid the dark vegetation that surrounded
it; the Teesta wmding to the southward, the pine-
clad rocky top of Mainom, 10,613 feet high, to the
south-west, the cone of Mount Ararat far to the south, to
the north black mountains tipped with snow, and to the
east the magnificent snowy range of Chola, girdling the
valley of the Ryott with a diadem of frosted silver. The
-coolies, each carrying upwards of 80 lb. load, had walked
twelve hours that day, and besides descending 2000 feet,
they had ascended nearly 4000 feet, and gone over innu-
merable ups and downs besides. |

Beyond Lathiang, a steep and dangerous path runs
along the east flank of Maimom, sometimes on narrow
ledges of dry rock, covered with long grass, sometimes
dipping into wooded gullies, full of Adgeworthia Gardnert
and small trees of Andromeda and rhododendron, covered
with orchids * of great beauty.

Descending to Gorh (4,100 feet), I was met by the
Lama of that district, a tall, disagreeable-looking fellow,
who informed me that the road ahead was impassable.
The day being spent, 1 was obhged to camp at any rate ;
after which he visited me in full canonicals, brmging me a
handsome present, but assuring me that he had no autho-

* Especially some species of Sunipia and Cirrhopetalum, which have not yet been
introduced into England.

May, 1849. ARRIVAL OF MEEPO. 11

rity to let me advance. I treated him with civility, and
regretted my objects being so imperative, and my orders so
clear, that I was obliged to proceed on the following
morning: on which he abruptly decamped, as I suspected,
in order to damage the paths and bridges. He came again
at daylight, and expostulated further ; but finding it of no
use, he volunteered to accompany me, officiously offering
me the choice of two roads. I asked for the coolest,
knowing full well that it was useless to try and out-wit
him in such matters. At the first stream the bridge was
destroyed, but seemg the planks peeping through the
bushes in which they had been concealed, I desired
the Lama to repair it, which he did without hesitation.
So it was at every pomt: the path was cumbered
with limbs of trees, crossing-stones were removed from
the streams, and all natural difficulties were imcreased.
I kept constantly telling the Lama that as he had volun-
teered to show me the road, I felt sure he intended
to remove all obstacles, and accordingly I put him to all
the trouble I possibly could, which he took with a very
indifferent grace. When I arrived at the swinging bridge
across the 'Teesta, I found that the canes were loosened, and
that slips of bamboo, so small as nearly to escape observation,
were ingeniously placed low down over the single bamboo
that formed the footing, intended to trip up the unwary
passenger, and overturn him into the river, which was deep,
and with a violent current. Whilst the Lama was cutting
these, one of my party found a charcoal writing on a tree,
announcing the speedy arrival from the Rajah of my old
guide, Meepo; and he shortly afterwards appeared, with
instructions to proceed with me, though not to the Tibetan
frontier. The lateness of the season, the violence of the
rams, and the fears, on the Rajah’s part, that I might

12 TEESTA VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

suffer from fever or accident, were all urged to mduce
me to return, or at least only to follow the west branch of
the Teesta to Kinchinjunga. ‘These reasons failing, I was
threatened with Chimese interference on the frontier. All
these objections I overruled, by refusing to recognise any
instructions that were not officially communicated to the
Superintendent of Dorjiling.

The Gorh Lama here took leave of me: he was a friend
of the Dewan, and was rather surprised to find that the
Rajah had sent me a guide, and now attempted to pass
himself off as my friend, pompously charging Meepo with
the care of me, and bidding me a very polite farewell.
I could not help telling him civilly, but plamly, what I
thought of him ; and so we parted.

Meepo was very glad to join my party again: he isa
thorough Lepcha in heart, a great friend of his Rajah and
of Tchebu Lama, and one who both fears and hates the
Dewan. He assured me of the Rajah’s good wishes and
intentions, but spoke with great doubt as to the probability
of a successful issue to my journey: he was himself igno-
rant of the road, but had brought a guide, whose appearance,
however, was against him, and who turned out to be sent
as a spy on us both.

Instead of crossing the Teesta here, we kept on for two
days up its west bank, to a cane bridge at Lingo, where the
bed of the river is still only 2000 feet above the sea, though
45 miles distant from the plains, and flowing in a valley
bounded by mountains 12,000 to 16,000 feet high. The
heat was oppressive, from the closeness of the atmosphere,
the great power of the sun, now high at noon-day, and
the reflection from the rocks. Leeches began to swarm as
the damp increased, and stinging flies of various kinds.
My clothes were drenched with perspiration during five

x ee

May, 1849. LEPCHAS SWIMMING. MOXA. 13

hours of every day, and the crystallising salt irritated the
skin. On sittmg down to rest, | was overcome with lan-
euor and sleep, and, but for the copious supply of fresh
water everywhere, travelling would have been intolerable.
The Coolies were all but naked, and were constantly
plunging into the pools of the rivers; for, though filthy in
their persons, they revel in cold water in summer. ‘They
are powerful swimmers, and will stem a very strong cur-
rent, striking out with each arm alternately. It 1s an ani-
mated sight when twenty or thirty of these swarthy
children of nature are disporting their muscular figures in
the water, diving after large fish, and sometimes catching
them by ticklmg them under the stones.

Of plants I found few not common at similar elevations
below Dorjilmg, except another kind of 'l'ree-fern,* whose
pith is eaten in times of scarcity. The India-rubber fig pene-
trates thus far amongst the mountains, but is of small size.
A Gentian, Arenaria, and some sub-alpine plants are met
with, though the elevation is only 2000 feet, and the whole
chmate thoroughly tropical: they were annuals usually
found at 7000 to 10,000 feet elevation, and were growing
here on mossy rocks, cooled by the spray of the river, whose
temperature was only 56°3. My servant having severely
sprained his wrist by a fall, the Lepchas wanted to apply a
moxa, which they do by lighting a piece of puff-ball, or
Nepal paper that burns like tinder, laying it on the skin,
and blowing it till a large open sore is produced: they
shook their heads at my treatment, which consisted in
transferring some of the leeches from our persons to the
inflamed part.

* Alsophila spinulosa, the “ Pugjik” of the Lepchas, who eat the soft watery
pith: it is abundant in East Bengal and the Peninsula of India.. The other

Sikkim Tree-fern, A. gigantea, is far more common from the level of the plains to
6,500 elevation, and is found as far south as Java.

14 LACHEN-LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

After crossing the Teesta by the cane bridge of Lingo,
our route lay over a steep and lofty spur, round which the
river makes a great sweep. On the ascent of this ridge
we passed large villages on flats cultivated with buck-
wheat. The saddle is 5,500 feet high, and thence a rapid
descent leads to the village of Singtam, which faces the
north, and is 300 feet lower, and 8000 feet above the
river, which is here no longer called the Teesta, but is
known as the Lachen-Lachoong, from its double origin
in the rivers of these names, which unite at Choongtam,
twenty miles higher up. Of these, the source of the
Lachen is in the Cholamoo lakes in Tibet; while the
Lachoong rises on the south flank of Donkia mountain,
both many marches north of my present position. At
Singtam the Lachen-Lachoong runs westward, till joined
by the Rihi from the north, and the Rimoong from the
west, after receiving which it assumes the name of Teesta:
of these affluents, the Rinoong is the largest, and drains
the south-east face of Kinchinjunga and Pundim, and the
north of Nursing: all which mountains are seen to the
north-north-west of Singtam. ‘The Rinoong valley is culti-
vated for several miles up, and has amongst others the
village and Lamasery of Bah. Beyond this the view of
black, rugged precipices with snowy mountains towering
above them, is one of the finest in Sikkim. There is a
pass in that direction, from Bah over the Tekonglah to the
Thlonok valley, and thence to the province of Jigatzi in
Tibet, but 1t is almost impracticable.

A race of wild men, called ‘“ Harrum-mo,”’ are said to
inhabit the head of the valley, living in the woods of a dis-
trict called Mund-po, beyond Bah; they shun habitations,
speak an unintelligible tongue, have more hair on the face
than Lepchas, and do not plait that of their heads, but

in —— ae ee”, ,Clh—Fo Ne er

1 AVA

J.D. delt John Murracy, Albemazle Street 1854 W.L.Walton, lith

Kinchinjunéa from Singtam (Flev® 5000f*) lookmé West.

ray

May, 1849. CHEPANGS. SINGTAM SOUBAH. TS

wear it ina knot; they use the bow and arrow, and eat
snakes and vermin, which the Lepchas will not touch. Such
is the account I have heard, and which is certainly believed
in Sikkim: similar stories are very current in half civilized
countries ; and if this has any truth, it possibly refers to
the Chepangs,* a very remarkable race, of doubtful affinity
and origin, inhabiting the Nepal forests.

At Singtam I was waited on by the Soubah of the dis-
trict, a tall portly Bhoteea, who was destined to prove a
most active enemy to my pursuits. He governs the
country between Gorh and the Tibet frontier, for the
Maha-Ranee (wife of the Rajah), whose dowry it is; and she
bemg the Dewan’s relative, I had little assistance to expect
from her agent. His conduct was very polite, and he
brought me a handsome offering for myself; but after
delaying me a day on the pretext of collecting food for my
people, of which I was in want, I was obliged to move on
with no addition to my store, and trust to obtaining some
at the next village, or from Dorjiling. Owing, however, to
the imcreasing distance, and the destruction of the roads by
the rains, my supplies from that place were becoming irre-
cular: I therefore thought it prudent to reduce my party,
by sending back my guard of Sepoys, who could be of no
further use.

From this pomt the upper portion of the course of the
Teesta (Lachen-Lachoong) is materially different from what
it is lower down ; becoming a boisterous torrent, as suddenly
as the ‘l'ambur does above Mywa Guola. Its bed is narrower,
large masses of rock impede its course, nor is there any place
where it is practicable for rafts at any season; the only
means of passing it being by cane bridges that are thrown
across, high above the stream.

* Hodgson, in “ Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journal” for 1848.

16 LACHEN-LACHOONG VALLEY. ~ Cuap. XVIII.

The slope on either side of the valley is very steep ; that
on the north, in particular, appearing too precipitous for any
road, and being only frequented by honey seekers, who
scale the rocks by cane ladders, and thus reach the pendu-
lous bees’-nests, which are so large as in some instances to
be conspicuous features at the distance of a mile. This
pursuit appeared extremely perilous, the long thread-like
canes in many places affording the only footing, over many
yards of cliff: the procuring of this honey, however, is the
only means by which many of the idle poor raise the rent
which they must pay to the Rajah. can

The most prominent effect of the steepness of the valleys
is the prevalence of land-slips, which sometimes descend for
3000 feet, carrying devastation along their course: they
are caused either by the melting of the snow-beds on the
mountains, or by the action of the rains on the stratified
rocks, and are much increased in effect and violence by
the heavy timber-trees which, swaying forwards, loosen the
earth at their roots, and give impetus to the mass. This
phenomenon is as frequent and destructive as in Switzer-
land, where, however, more lives are lost, from the country
being more populous, and from the people recklessly
building in places particularly exposed to such accidents.
A most destructive one had, however, occurred here the
previous year, by which a village was destroyed, together
with twelve of its mhabitants, and all the cattle. The
fragments of rock precipitated are sometimes of enormous
size, but being a soft mica-schist, are soon removed by
weathermg. It is m the rainy season that landslips are
most frequent, and shortly after rain they are pretty sure to
be heard far or near. I crossed the debris of the great one
alluded to, on the first march beyond Singtam: the whole
face of the mountain appeared more or Jess torn up for fully

EEE ee

- May, 1849. RAINS. LEECHES AND INSECTS. th

a mile, presenting a confused mass of white micaccous clay,
full of angular masses of rock. The path was very difficult
and dangerous, being carried along the steep slope, at an
angle, in some places, of 35°; and it was constantly shifting,
from the continued downward sliding, and from the action -
of streams, some of which are large, and cut deep channels.
In one I had the misfortune to lose my only sheep, which
was carried away by the torrent. These streams were crossed
by means of sticks and ricketty bamboos, and the steep
sides (sometimes twenty or thirty feet high), were ascended
by notched poles.

The weather continued very hot for the elevation (4000
to 5000 feet), the rain brought no coolness, and for the
greater part of the three marches between Singtam and
Chakoong, we were either wading through deep mud, or
climbing over rocks. Leeches swarmed in incredible pro-
fusion in the streams and damp grass, and among the
bushes: they got into my hair, hung on my eyelids, and
crawled up my legs and down my back. I repeatedly took
upwards of a hundred from my legs, where the small ones
used to collect in clusters on the instep: the sores which
they produced were not healed for five months afterwards,
and I retain the scars to the present day. Snuff and
tobacco leaves are the best antidote, but when marching in
the rain, it is impossible to apply this simple remedy to any
advantage. The best plan I found to be rolling the leaves
over the feet, inside the stockings, and powdering the legs
with snuff.

Another pest is a small midge, or sand-fly, which causes
intolerable itching, and subsequent irritation, and is in this
respect the most insufferable torment in Sikkim; the
minutest rent in one’s clothes is detected by the acute

senses of this insatiable bloodsucker, which is itself SO
VOT. Ir, Cc

18 LACHEN-LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

small as to be barely visible without a microscope. We
daily arrived at our camping-ground, streaming with blood,
and mottled with the bites of peepsas, gnats, midges, and
mosquitos, besides being infested with ticks.

Asthe rains advanced, insects seemed to be called into
existence in countless swarms; large and small moths, cock-
chafers, glow-worms, and cockroaches, made my tent a
Noah’s ark by night, when the candle was burning; together
with winged ants, May-flies, flying earwigs, and many
beetles, while a very large species of 7ipula (daddy-long-legs)
swept its long legs across my face as 1 wrote my journal,
or plotted off my map. After retiring to rest and putting
out the light, they oradually departed, except a few
which could not find the way out, and remained to disturb
my slumbers. |

Chakoong is a remarkable spot in. the bottom of the

valley, at an angle of the Lachen-Lachoong, which here
receives an affluent from Gnarem, a mountain 17,557 feet
high, on the Chola range to the east.* There is no village,
but some grass huts used by travellers, which are built
close to the river on a very broad flat, frmged with alder,
hornbeam, and birch: the elevation is 4,400 feet, and many
European genera not found about Dorjilng, and belonging
to the temperate Himalaya, grow intermixed with tropical
plants that are found no further north. The birch, willow,
alder, and walnut grow side by side with wild plantain,
Erythrina, Wallichia palm, and gigantic bamboos: the
Cedrela Toona, figs, Melastoma, Scituminee, balsams,
Pothos, peppers, and gigantic climbing vines, grow mixed
with brambles, speedwell, Paris, forget-me-not, and nettles

* This is called Black Rock in Col. Waugh’s map. I doubt Gnarem being a
generally known name: the people hardly recognise the mountain as sufficiently
conspicuous to bear a name.

|

May, 1849. VEGETATION AND GEOLOGY OF CHAKOONG. 19

that sting like poisoned arrows. he wild English straw-
berry is common, but bears a tasteless fruit: its inferiority
is however counterbalanced by the abundance of a grateful
yellow raspberry. Parasitical Orchids (Dendrobium nobile,
and densiflorum, &c.), cover the trunks of oaks, while ZZa-
lictrum and Geranium grow under their shade. Monotropa
and Balanophora, both parasites on the roots of trees (the
one a native of north Europe and the other of a tropical
climate), push their leafless stems and heads of flowers
through the soil together: and lastly, tree-ferns grow asso-
ciated with the Pferis aquilina (brake) and Lycopodium
clavatum of our British moors; and amongst mosses, the
superb Himalayan Lyellia crispa,* with the English Funaria
hygrometrica.

The dense jungles of Chakoong completely cover the
beautiful flat terraces of stratified sand and gravel, which
rise in three shelves to 150 feet above the river, and whose
edges appear as sharply cut as if the latter had but lately
retired from them. They are continuous with a line of
quartzy cliffs, covered with scarlet rhododendrons, and in
the holes of which a conglomerate of pebbles is found, 150
feet above the river. Everywhere immense boulders are
scattered about, some of which are sixty yards long: their
surfaces are water-worn into hollows, proving the river to
have cut through nearly 300 feet of deposit, which once
floored its valley. Lower down the valley, and fully
2000 feet above the river, I had passed numerous
angular blocks resting on gentle slopes where no land-
slips could possibly have deposited them; and which I
therefore refer to ancient glacial action: one of these,

* This is one of the most remarkable mosses in the H imalaya mountains, and
derives additional interest from having been named after the late Charles Lyell,
Esq., of Kinnordy, the father of the most eminent geologist of the present day.

oe’

20 LACHEN-LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XVIII.

near the village of Niong,. was nearly square, eighty feet
long, and ten high.

It is a remarkable fact, that this hot, damp gorge is
never malarious ; this is attributable to the coolness of the
river, and to the water on the flats not stagnating; for at
Choongtam, a march further north, and 1500 feet higher,
fevers and ague prevail in summer on sunilar flats, but
which have been cleared of jungle, and are therefore exposed
to the sun.

I had had constant headache for several mornings on
waking, which I did not fail to attribute to coming fever,
or to the unhealthmess of the climate; till I accidentally
found it to arise from the wormwood, upon a thick couch
of the cut branches of which I was accustomed to sleep,
and which in dry weather produced no such effects.*

From Chakoong to Choongtam the route lay northwards,
following the course of the river, or crossing steep spurs of
vertical strata of mica-schist, that dip into the valley, and
leave no space between their perpendicular sides and the
furious torrent. Immense landslips seamed the steep
mountain flanks; and we crossed with precipitation one
that extended fully 4000 feet (and perhaps much more) up
a mountain 12,000 feet high, on the east bank: it moves
every year, and the mud and rocks shot down by it were
strewn with the green leaves and twigs of shrubs, some of
the flowers on which were yet fresh and bright, while others —
were crushed: these were mixed with gigantic trunks of
pines, with ragged bark and scored timbers. The talus
which had lately been poured into the valley formed a gently
sloping bank, twenty feet high, over which the Lachen-

“ This wormwood (Artemisia Indica) is one of the most common Sikkim plants
at 2000 to 6000 feet elevation, and grows twelve feet high: it is a favourite
food of goats.

May, 1849. CANE-BRIDGE. OVER LACHEN-LACHOONG, 21

Lachoong rolled, from a pool above, caused by the damming
up of its waters. On either side of the pool were cultivated
terraces of stratified sand and pebbles, fifty feet high, whose
alder-fringed banks, jomed by an elegant cane bridge, were
reflected in the placid water ; forming a little spot of sin-
gular quiet and beauty, that contrasted with the savage
grandeur of the surrounding mountains, and the headstrong
course of the foaming torrent below, amid whose deafening
roar it was impossible to speak and be heard.

CANE-BRIDGE AND TUKCHAM MOUNTAIN.

The mountain of Choongtam is about 10,000 feet high ; it
divides the Lachen from the Lachoong river, and terminates
a lofty range that runs for twenty-two miles south from the
lofty mountain of Kinchinjhow. Its south exposed face is
bare of trees, except clumps of pines towards the top, and is

22 CHOONGTAM. CuHap. XVIII.

very steep, grassy, and rocky, without water. It is hence
quite unlike the forest-clad mountamsfurther south, and mdi-
cates a drier and more sunny climate. ‘The scenery much
resembles that of Switzerland, and of the north-west Hima-
laya, especially in the great contrast between the southern
and northern exposures, the latter being always clothed
with a dense vegetation. At the foot of this very steep
mountain is a broad triangular flat, 5,270 feet above the
sea, and 300 feet above the river, to which it descends by
three level cultivated shelves. The village, consisting of a
temple and twenty houses, is placed on the slope of the
iull. I camped on the flat in May, before it became very
swampy, close to some great blocks of gneiss, of which
many he on its surface: it was covered with tufts of sedge
(like Carex stellulata), and fringed with scarlet rhododen-
dron, walnut, Andromeda, Hleagnus (now bearing pleasant
acid fruit), and small trees of a Photinia, a plant allied
to hawthorn, of the leaves of which the natives make
tea (as they do of Gualtheria, Andromeda, Vaccinium, and
other alhed plants). Rice, cultivated * in pools surrounded
by low banks, was just peeping above ground ; and scanty
crops of millet, maize, and buckwheat flourished on the
slopes around,

The inhabitants of Choongtam are of ‘Tibetan origin; few
of them had seen an Englishman before, and they flocked
out, displaying the most eager curiosity: the Lama and
Phipun (or superior officer) of the Lachoong valley
came to pay their respects with a troop of followers, and
there was lollmg out of tongues, and scratching of ears, at
every sentence spoken, and every object of admiration.

* Choongtam is in position and products analogous to Lelyp, on the Tambur
(vol. i. p. 204). Rice cultivation advances thus high up each valley, and at either
place Bhoteeas replace the natives of the lower valleys.

May, 1849. IMPEDIMENTS CAUSED BY THE DEWAN. 23

This extraordinary Tibetan salute at first puzzled me exces-
sively, nor was it until reading MM. Hue and. Gabet’s
travels on my return to England, that I knew of, its being
the zon at Lhassa, and in all civilised parts of Tibet.

As the valley was under the Singtam Soubah’s autho-
rity, I experienced a good deal of opposition ; and the Lama
urged the wrath of the gods against my proceeding. This
argument, I said, had been disposed of the previous year,
and I was fortunate in recognising one of my Changachel-
ling friends, who set forth my kindly offices to the Lamas
of that convent, and the friendship borne me by its monks,
and by those of Pemiongchi. Many other modes of dis-
suading me were attempted, but with Meepo’s assistance
I succeeded in gaining my point. The difficulty and
delays in remittance of food, caused by the landslips having
destroyed the road, had reduced our provisions toa very low
ebb ; and it became not only impossible to proceed, but
necessary to replenish my stores on the spot. At first pro-
visions enough were brought to myself, for the Rajah had
issued orders for my being cared for, and having some prac-
tice among the villagers m treating rheumatism and goitres,
I had the power of supplying my own larder ; but I found
it impossible to buy food for my people. At last, the real
state of the case came out ; that the Rajah having gone to
Choombi, his usual. summer-quarters in Tibet, the Dewan
had issued orders that no food should be sold or given to
my people, and that no roads were to be repaired during
my stay in the country; thus cutting off my supplies
from Dorjiling, and, in short, attempting to starve me
out. At this juncture, Meepo received a letter from
the Durbar, purporting to be from the Rajah, com-
manding my immediate return, on the grounds that I had
been long enough in the country for my objects : it was not

24 CHOONGTAM. Cuap. XVIII.

addressed to me, and I refused to receive it as an official
communication ; following up my refusal by telling Meepo
that if he thought his orders required it, he had better
leave me and return to the Rajah, as I should not stir
without directions from Dr. Campbell, except forwards. He
remained, however, and said he had written to the Rajah,
urging him to issue stringent orders for my party being
provisioned.

We were reduced to a very short allowance before the
long-expected supplies came, by which time our neces-
sities had almost conquered my resolution not to take by
force of the abundance I might see around, however
well [ might afterwards pay. It is but fair to state that
the improvident villagers throughout Sikkim are extremely
poor in vegetable food at this season, when the winter store
is consumed, and the crops are still green. They are
consequently obliged to purchase rice from the lower
valleys, which, owing to the difficulties of transport, is very
dear; and to obtain it they barter wool, blankets, musk,
and Tibetan produce of all kinds. Still they had cattle,
which they would willingly have sold to me, but for the
Dewan’s orders.

There is a great difference between the vegetation of
Dorjling and that of similar elevations near Choongtam
situated far within the Himalaya: this is owing to the
steepness and dryness of the latter locality, where there is an
absence of dense forest, which is replaced by a number of
social grasses clothing the mountain sides, many new and
beautiful kinds of rhododendrons, and a variety of European
genera,* which (as I have elsewhere noticed) are either

* Deutzia, Saxifraga ciliata, Thaiictrum, Euphorbia, yellow violet, Labiate,
Androsace, Leguminose, Coriaria, Delphinium, currant, Umbellifere, primrose,
Anemone, Convallaria, Roscoea, Mitella, Herminium, Drosera.

May, 1849. RHODODENDRONS. PINES. SNAKES. 25

wholly absent from the damper ranges of Dorjiling, or found
there several thousand feet higher up. On the hill above
Choongtam village, I gathered, at 5000 to 6000 feet,
Rhododendron arboreum and Dalhousie, which do not
generally grow at Dorjiling below 7,500 feet.* The
yew appears at 7000 feet, whilst, on the outer ranges
(as on Tonglo), it is only found at 9,500 to 10,000
feet; and whereas on Tonglo it forms an immense tall
tree, with long sparse branches and slender drooping
twigs, growing amongst gigantic magnolias and oaks, at
Choongtam it is small and rigid, and much resembling in
appearance our churchyard yew.t At 8000 feet the Adzes
Brunoniana is found ; atree quite unknown further south ;
but neither the larch nor the Adbzes Smithiana (Khutrow)
accompanied it, they being confined to still more northern
regions.

I have seldom had occasion to allude to snakes, which
are rare and shy in most parts of the Himalaya ; I, how-
ever, found an extremely venomous one at Choongtam ;
a small black viper, a variety of the cobra di capello,{

* T collected here ten kinds of rhododendron, which, however, are not the
social plants that they become at greater elevations. Still, in the delicacy and beauty
of their flowers, four of them, perhaps, excel any others ; they are, &. Aucklandiz,
whose flowers are five inches and a half in diameter; R. Maddeni, R. Dalhousie,
and R. Edgeworthii, all white-flowered bushes, of which the two first rise to the
height of small trees.

+ The yew spreads east from Kashmir to the Assam Himalaya and the Khasia
mountains ; and the Japan, Philippine Island, Mexican, and other North American
yews, belong to the Same widely-diffused species. In the Khasia (its most southern
limit) it is found as low as 5000 feet above the sea-level.

+ Dr. Gray, to whom I am indebted for the following information, assures me
that this reptile is not specifically distinct from the common Cobra of India;
though all the mountain specimens of it which he has examined retain the same
small size and dark colour. Of the other Sikkim reptiles which I procured, seven
are Oolubride and innocuous; five Crotalide are venomous, three of which are
new species belonging to the genera Parias and Trimesurus. Lizards are not
abundant, but I found at Choongtam a highly curious one, Plestiodon Stk-
kimensis, Gray ; a kind of Skink, whose only allies are two North American
congeners; and a species of Agama (a chameleon-like lizard) which in many

26 CHOONGTAM. Cuar. XVIII.

which it replaces in the drier grassy parts of the interior
of Sikkim, the large cobra not inhabiting in the mountain
regions. Altogether I only collected about twelve species
in Sikkim, seven of which are venomous, and all are
dreaded by the Lepchas. An enormous hornet (Vespa
maynifica, Sm.), nearly two inches long, was here brought
to me alive in acleft-stick, lolling out its great thorn-like
sting, from which drops of a milky poison distilled: its
sting is said to produce fatal fevers in men and cattle,
which may very well be the case, judgmg from that
of a smaller kmd, which left great pain in my hand
for two days, while a feeling of numbness remained in the
arm for several weeks. It is called Vok by the Lepchas, a
common name for any bee: its larvee are said to be greedily
eaten, as are those of various allied insects.

Choongtam boasts a profusion of beautiful insects,
amongst which the British swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio
Machaon) disports itself in company with magnificent
black, gold, and scarlet-winged butterflies, of the Trojan
group, so typical of the Indian tropics. At might my tent
was filled with small water-beetles (Berosz) that quickly
put out the candle; and with lovely moths came huge
cockchafers (Aucerris Grifithii), and enormous and feetid
flying-bugs (of the genus Derecterix), which bear great
horns onthe thorax. The irritation of mosquito and midge
bites, and the disgusting insects that clung with spiny legs
to the blankets of my tent and bed, were often as effectual
in banishing sleep, as were my anxious thoughts regarding
the future.
important points more resembled an allied American genus than an Asiatic one,
The common immense earth-worm of Sikkim, Jchthyophis glutinosus, is a native
of the Khasia mountains, Singapore, Ceylon and Java. It is a most remarkable

fact, that whereas seven out of the twelve Sikkim snakes are poisonous, the
sixteen species I procured in the Khasia mountains are innocuous,

May, 1849. TEMPLE AND GEOLOGY OF CHOONGTAM. 27

The temple at Choongtam is a poor wooden building,
but contains some interesting drawings of Lhassa, with
its extensive Lamaseries and temples; they convey the
idea of a town, gleaming, like Moscow, with gilded and
copper roofs ; but on a nearer aspect it is found to consist
of a mass of stone houses, and large religious edifices many
stories high, the walls of which are regularly pierced with
small square ornamented windows.”

There is nothing remarkable in the geology of Choong-
tam: the base of the hill consists of the clay and mica
slates overlain by gneiss, generally dipping to the eastward ;
im the latter are granite veins, containing fine tourmalines.
Actinohtes are found in some highly metamorphic gneisses,
brought by landslips from the neighbourmg heights. The
weather in May was cloudy and showery, but the rain
which fell was far less in amount than that at Dorjiling :
during the day the sun’s power was great ; but though it
rose between five and six a.m., it never appeared above the
lofty peaked mountains that girdle the valley till eight a.m.

* MM. Huc and Gabet’s account of Lhassa is, I do not doubt, excellent as to
particulars; but the trees which they describe as magnificent, and girdling the
city, have uniformly been represented to me as poor stunted willows, apricots,
poplars, and walnuts, confined to the gardens of the rich. No doubt the impres-
sion left by these objects on the minds of travellers from tree-less Tartary, and of
Sikkimites reared amidst stupendous forests, must be widely different. The
information concerning Lhassa collected by Timkowski, “ Travels of the Russian
Mission to China” (in 1821) is greatly exaggerated, though containing much that
is true and curious. The dyke to protect the city from inundations I never heard
of ; but there is a current story in Sikkim that Lhassa is built in a lake-bed, which
was dried up by a miracle of the Lamas, and that in heavy rain the earth trembles,
and the waters bubble through the soil: a Dorjiling rain-fall, I have been assured,
would wash away the whole city. Ermann (Travels in Siberia, i., p. 186), men-
tions a town (Klinchi, near Perm), thus built over subterraneous springs, and in
constant danger of being washed away. MM. Huc and Gabet allude to the
same tradition under another form. They say that the natives of the banks
of the Koko-nor affirm that the waters of that lake once occupied a subterranean
position beneath Lhassa, and that the waters sapped the foundations of the temples
as soon as they were built, till withdrawn by supernatural agency.

28 CHOONGTAM. Cap. XVIII.

Dark pines crest the heights around, and landslips score
their flanks with white seams below ; while streaks of snow
remain throughout the month at 9000 feet above; and
everywhere silvery torrents leap down to the Lachen and
Lachoong.

»

nul
AB Nd

NU if
dda

J. D. H, delt.
JUNIPERUS RECURVA.

Height 30 feet. (See p 45.)

CHAPTER XIX.

Routes from Choongtam to Tibet frontier—Choice of that by the Lachen river—
Arrival of Supplies—Departure—Features of the valley—Eatable Polygo-
num—Tumlong—Cross 'T'aktoong river—Pines, larches, and other trees—
Chateng pool—Water-plants and insects — Tukcham mountain — Lamteng
village—Inhabitants—Alpine monkey— Botany of temperate Himalaya —
European and American fauna—Japanese and Malayan genera—Superstitious
objections to shooting— Customs of people—Rain—Run short of provisions—
Altered position of Tibet frontier—Zemu Samdong—Imposition— Vegetation
—Uses of pines—Ascent to Thlonok river-—Balanophora wood for making
cups—Snow-beds—Eatable mushrooms and Smilacina—Asarabacca— View of
Kinchinjunga—Arum roots, preparation of for food—Liklo mouutain—Belha-
viour of my party — Bridge constructed over Zemu—Cross river—Alarm of
my party—Camp on Zemu river,

From this place there were two routes to Tibet, each of
about six days’ journey. One lay to the north-west up the
Lachen valley to the Kongra Lama pass, the other to the
east up the Lachoong to the Donkia pass. The latter river
has its source in small lakes in Sikkim, south of the Donkia
mountain, a shoulder of which the pass crosses, commanding
a magnificent view into Tibet. ‘The Lachen, on the other
hand (the prmcipal source of the Teesta), rises beyond
Sikkim in the Cholamoo lakes. The frontier at Kongra
Lama was described to me as being a political, and not a
natural boundary, marked out by cairns, standing on a
plain, and crossing the Lachen river. ‘To both Donkia
and Kongra Lama I had every right to go, and was deter-.
mined, if possible, to reach them, in spite of Meepo’s
ignorance, our guide’s endeavours to frighten my party

30 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XIX.

and mislead myself, and the country people’s dread of
incurring the Dewan’s displeasure.

The Lachen valley being pronounced impracticable in the
height of the rains, a month later, it behoved me to
attempt it first, and it possessed the attraction of leadmg
to a frontier described as far to the northward of the
snowy Himalaya, on a lofty plateau, whose plants and
animals were different from anything I had previously
seen.

After a week the coolies arrived with supplies: they had
been delayed by the state of the paths, and had conse-
quently consumed a great part of my stock, reducing it to
eight days’ allowance. I therefore divided my party,
leaving the greater number at Choongtam, with a small
tent, and instructions to forward all food to me as it arrived.
1 started with about fifteen attendants, on the 25th of May,
for Lamteng, three marches up the Lachen.

Descending the step-formed terraces, I crossed the Lachen
by a good cane bridge. ‘The river is a headstrong torrent,
and turbid from the vast amount of earthy matter which
it bears along ; and this character of extreme impetuosity,
unbroken by any still bend, or even swirling pool, it main-
tains uninterruptedly at this season from 4000 to 10,000
feet. It is crossed three times, always by cane bridges, and
I cannot conceive any valley of its nature to be more imprac-
ticable at such a season. On both sides the mountains
rose, densely forest-clad, at an average angle of 35° to 40°,
to 10,000 and 15,000 feet. Its extreme narrowness, and
the grandeur of its scenery, were alike recalled to my
mind, on visiting the Sachs valley m the Valais of Switzer-
land; from which, however, it differs in its luxuriant forest,
and in the slopes bemg more uniform and less broken up
into those imposing precipices so frequent in Switzerland,

perma ied
a

May, 1849. DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVELLING, 31

but which are wanting in the temperate regions of the
Sikkim Himalaya.

At times we scrambled over rocks 1000 feet above the
river, or descended into gorges, through whose tributary
torrents we waded, or crossed swampy terraced flats of
unstratified shingle above the stream; whilst 1t was some-
times necessary to round rocky promontories in the river,
stemming the foaming torrent that pressed heavily against
the chest as, one by one, we were dragged along by powerful
Lepchas. Our halting-places were on flats close to the
river, covered with large trees, and carpeted with a most
luxuriant herbage, amongst which a wild buckwheat
(Polygonum™) was abundant, which formed an excellent
spimach: it is called “Pullop-bi” ; a name I shall here-
after have occasion to mention with gratitude.

A few miles above Choongtam, we passed a few cottages
on a very extensive terrace at Tumlong; but between this
and Lamteng, the country is uninhabited, nor is it
frequented during the rains. We consequently found that
the roads had suffered, the little bridges and aids to climb
precipices and cross landslips had been carried away,
and at one place we were all but turned back. ‘This was
at the Taktoong river, a tributary on the east bank, which
rushes down at an angle of 15°, in a sheet of silvery foam,
eighteen yards broad. It does not, where I crossed it,
flow in a deep gulley, having apparently raised its bed by
an accumulation of enormous boulders; and a plank bridge
was thrown across it, against whose slippery and narrow
foot-boards the water dashed, loosening the supports on
either bank, and rushing between their foundation stones.

My unwilling guide had gone ahead with some of the

* Polygonum cymosum, Wall. This isa common Himalayan plant, and is also
found in the Khasia mountains.

32 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XIX.

coolies : I had suspected him all along (perhaps unjustly)
of avoiding the most practicable routes ; but when I found
him waiting for me at this bridge, to which he sarcastically
pointed with his bow, I felt that had he known of it, to
have made difficulties before would have been a work of
supererogation. He seemed to think I should certamly turn
back, and assured me there was no other crossing (a state-
ment I afterwards found to be untrue); so, comforting
myself with the hope that if the danger were imminent,
Meepo would forcibly stop me, I took off my shoes, and
walked steadily over: the tremor of the planks was lke
that felt when standing on the paddle-box of a steamer,
and I was jerked up and down, as my weight pressed
them imto the boilmg flood, which shrouded me with
spray. I looked neither to the right nor to the left,
lest the motion of the swift waters should turn my
head, but kept my eye on the white jets d’eau springing
up between the woodwork, and felt thankful when fairly on
the opposite bank: my loaded coolies followed, crossing
one by one without fear or hesitation. The bridge was
swept into the Lachen very shortly afterwards.

Towards Lamteng, the path left the river, and passed
through a wood of Adzes Smithiana.* Larch appears at
9000 feet, with Abies Brunoniana. An austere crab-apple,
walnut, and the willow of Babylon (the two latter perhaps
cultivated), yellow jessamine and ash, all scarce trees in
Sikkim, are more or less abundant in the valley, from
7000 to 8000 feet; as is an ivy, very like the English,
but with fewer and smaller yellow or reddish berries;

* Also called A. Ahutrow and Morinda. I had not before seen this tree in the
Himalaya: it is a spruce fir, much resembling the Norway spruce in general
appearance, but with longer pendulous branches. The wood is white, and consi-
dered indifferent, though readily cleft into planks; it is called “Seh.”

May, 1849. VEGETATION OF CHATENG. 39

and many other plants,* not found at equal elevations on
the outer ranges of the Himalaya.

Chateng, a spur from the lofty peak of Tukcham,t} 19,472
feet high, rises 1000 feet above the west bank of the river ;
and where crossed, commands one of the finest alpine views
im Sikkim. It was grassy, strewed with huge boulders of
gneiss, and adorned with clumps of park-like pines: on
the summit was a small pool, beautifully frmged with
bushy trees of white rose, a white-blossomed apple, a
Pyrus like Aria, another like mountain-ash, scarlet rhodo-
dendrons (arboreum and barbatum), holly, maples, and
Goughia,t a curious evergreen laurel-like tree: there
were also Daphnes, purple magnolia, and a pink sweet-
blossomed Spherostema. Many English water-plants$
grew in the water, but I found no shells; tadpoles, how-
ever, swarmed, which later in the season become large
frogs. The “ painted-lady” butterfly (Cynthia Cardui),
and a pretty ‘‘ blue” were flitting over the flowers, to-
gether with some great tropical kinds, that wander so far
up these valleys, accompanying Marlea, the only sub-
tropical tree that ascends to 8,500 feet in the interior of
Sikkim.

The river runs close under the eastern side of the

* Wood-sorrel, a white-stemmed bramble, birch, some maples, nut, gigantic lily
(Lilium giganteum), Euphorbia, Pedicularis, Spirea, Philadelphus, Deutzia, Indt-
gofera, and various other South Europe and North American genera.

+ “Tuk” signifies head in Lepcha, and “cheam” or “chaum,” I believe, has
reference to the snow. The height of Tukcham has been re-calculated by Capt. R.
Strachey, with angles taken by ‘myself, at Dorjiling and Jillapahar, and is
approximate only.

+ This fine plant was named (Wight, “Ic. Plant.”) in honour of Capt. Gough, son
of the late commander-in-chief, and an officer to whom the botany of the penin-
sula of India is greatly indebted. It isa large and handsome evergreen, very
similar in foliage to a fine rhododendron, and would prove an invaluable ornament
on our lawus, if its hardier varieties were introduced into this country.

§ Sparganium, Typha, Potamogeton, Callitriche, Utricularia, sedges and rushes.

VOL. II. D

34 LAMTENG VILLAGE. Cuap. XIX.

valley, which slopes so steeply as to appear for many
miles almost a continuous landslip, 2000 feet high.
Lamteng village, where I arrived on the 27th of May,
is quite concealed by a moraine to the south, which, with
a parallel ridge on the north, forms a beautiful bay in the
mountains, 8,900 feet above the sea, and 1000 above
the Lachen. ‘The village stands on a grassy and bushy
flat, around which the pine-clad mountains rise steeply to
the snowy peaks and black cliffs which tower above. It
contains about forty houses, forming the winter-quarters of
the inhabitants of the valley, who, in summer, move with
their flocks and herds to the alpine pastures of the Tibet
frontier. The dwellings are lke those described at
Wallanchoon, but the elevation being lower, and the situation
more sheltered, they are more scattered ; whilst on account
of the dampness of the climate, they are raised higher from
the ground, and the shingles with which they are tiled
(made of 4d7es Webbiana) decay im two or three years. Many
are painted lilac, with the gables in diamonds of red, black,
and white: the roofs are either of wood, or of the bark of
Abies Brunoniana, held down by large stones : within they
are airy and comfortable. They are surrounded by a
little cultivation of buck-wheat, radishes, turnips, and
mustard. The inhabitants, though paying rent to the
Sikkim Rajah, consider themselves as Tibetans, and are
so in language, dress, features, and origin: they seldom
descend to Choongtam, but yearly travel to the Tibetan
towns of Jigatzi, Kambajong, Giantchi, and even to
Lhassa, having always commercial and pastoral transac-

tions with the Tibetans, whose flocks are pastured on the.

Sikkim mountains during summer, and who trade with the
plains of India through the medium of these villagers.
The snow having disappeared from elevations below

EE

Ain

D

ON

¥
ry

LAMTENG VILLAGE.

5 OY, Sitka

7

May, 1849. NATURAL HISTORY OF LAMTENG. 37

11,000 feet, the yaks, sheep, and ponies had just been
driven 2000 feet up the valley, and the inhabitants were
preparing to follow, with their tents and goats, to summer
quarters at Tallum and Tungu. Many had goitres and
rheumatism, for the cure of which they flocked to my tent ;
dry-rubbing for the latter, and tincture of iodine for the
former, gained me some credit as a doctor: I could, how-
ever, procure no food beyond trifling presents of eggs,
meal, and more rarely, fowls.

On arriving, I saw a troop of large monkeys* gambolling
in a wood of Abies Brunoniana: this surprised me, as
I was not prepared to find so tropical an animal associated
with a vegetation typical of a boreal climate. ‘The only other
quadrupeds seen here were some small earless rats, and
musk-deer ; the young female of which latter sometimes
afforded me a dish of excellent venison; bemg, though
dark-coloured and lean, tender, sweet, and _ short-fibred.
Birds were scarce, with the exception of alpme pigeons
(Columba leuconota), red-legged crows (Corvus graculus,
L.), and the horned pheasant (AZeleagris Satyra, L.) In
this month insects are scarce, Hater and a black earwig
being the most frequent: two species of Serica also flew
into my tent, and at might moths, closely resembling
Kuropean ones, came from the fir-woods. The vegetation
in the neighbourhood of Lamteng is European and North
American ; that is to say, it unites the boreal and temperate
floras of the east and west hemispheres ; presenting also a
few features pecuhar to Asia. ‘This is a subject of very
great importance in physical geography; as a country
combining the botanical characters of several others, affords
materials for tracing the direction in which genera and

* Macacus Pelops? Hodgson. This is a very different species from the tropical
kind seen in Nepal, and mentioned at vol. i. p. 278.

38 LAMTENG VILLAGE. CHap. XIX.

species have migrated, the causes that favour the migra-
tions, and the laws that determine the types or forms of
one region, which represent those of another. A glance at
the map will show that Sikkim is, geographically, peculiarly
well situated for investigations of this kind, being centri-
cally placed, whether as regards south-eastern Asia or the
Himalayan chain. Again, the Lachen valley at this spot is
nearly equi-distant from the tropical forests of the Terai
and the sterile mountams of Tibet, for which reason
representatives both of the dry central Asiatic and Siberian,
and of the humid Malayan floras meet there.

‘The mean temperature of Lamteng (about 50°) is that
of the isothcrmal which passes through Britain in lat. 52°,
and east Europe in lat. 48°, cuttimg the parallel of 45° in
Siberia (due north of Lamteng itself), descending to lat. 42°
on the east coast of Asia, ascending to lat. 48° on the west
of America, and descending to that of New York in the
United States. ‘This mean temperature is considerably
increased by descending to the bed of the Lachen at 8000
feet, and diminished by ascending Tukcham to 14,000 feet,
which gives a range of 6000 feet of elevation, and 20° of
mean temperature. But as the climate and vegetation
become arctic at 12,000 feet, it will be as well to confine
my observations to the flora of 7000 to 10,000 feet; of
the mean temperature, namely, between 58° and 43°, the
isothermal lines corresponding to which embrace, on the
surface of the globe, at the level of the sea, a space varying
in different meridians from three to twelve degrees of
latitude.* At first sight it appears meredible that such a
limited area, buried im the depths of the Himalaya, should
present nearly all the types of the flora of the north

* On the west coast of Europe, where the distance between these isothermal lines
Is greatest, this belt extends almost from Stockholm and the Shetlands to Paris.

May, 1849. BOTANY OF LACHEN VALLEY. 39

temperate zone; not only, however, is this the case, but
space is also found at Lamteng for the intercalation of types
of a Malayan flora, otherwise wholly foreign to the north
temperate region.

A few examples will show this. Amongst trees the
Conifers are conspicuous at. Lamteng, and all are of genera
typical both of Europe and North America: namely, silver
fir, spruce, larch, and juniper, besides the yew: there are
also species of birch, alder, ash, apple, oak, willow, cherry,
bird-cherry, mountain-ash, thorn, walnut, hazel, maple,
poplar, ivy, holly, Andromeda, Riamnus. Of bushes ; rose,
berberry, bramble, rhododendron, elder, cornel, willow,
honeysuckle, currant, Spirea, Viburnum, Cotoneaster,
Hippophae. Herbaceous plants * are far too numerous. to
be enumerated, as a list would include most of the
common genera of European and North American plants.

Of North American genera, not found in Europe, were
Buddleia, Podophyllum, Magnolia, Sassafras ? Tetranthera,
fydrangea, Diclytra, Aralia, Panax, Symplocos, Trillium,
and Clintonia. The absence of heaths is also equally a
feature in the flora of North America. Of European
genera, not found in North America, the Lachen valley has
Coriaria, Hypecoum, and various Crucifere. ‘The Japanese
and Chinese floras are represented in Sikkim by Camellia,
Deutzia, Stachyurus, Aucuba, Helwingia, Stauntonia, Hy-
drangea, Skimmia, Eurya, Anthogonium, and Enkianthus.
The Malayan by Magnolias, 7a/awma, many vacciniums and
rhododendrons, Kadsura, Goughia, Marlea, both coriaceous
and deciduous-leaved Celogyne, Oberonia, Cyrtosia, Calanthe,

* Asan example, the ground about my tent was covered with grasses and
sedges, amongst which grew primroses, thistles, speedwell, wild leeks, Arwm, Con-
vallaria, Callitriche, Oxalis, Ranunculus, Potentilla, Orchis, Cherophyllum, Galium,
Paris, and Anagallis; besides cultivated weeds of shepherd’s-purse, dock, mustard,
Mithridate cress, radish, turnip, Thlaspi arvense, and Poa annua.

40 LAMTENG VILLAGE. Cuap. XIX.

and other orchids; Ceropeygia, Parochetus, Balanophora,
and many Sci/amince ; and amongst trees, by Lugelhardtia,
Goughia, and various laurels.

Shortly after my arrival at Lamteng, the villagers sent
to request that I would not shoot, as they said it brought
on excessive rain,* and consequent damage to the crops.
My necessities did not admit of my complying with their
wish unless I could procure food by other means; and I at
first paid no attention to thew request. ‘The people, how-
ever, became urgent, and the Choongtam Lama giving his
high authority to the superstition, it appeared impolitic to
resist their earnest supplication ; though I was well aware
that the story was trumped up by the Lama for the purpose
of forcing me to return. I yielded on the promise of pro-
visions being supplied from the village, which was done
to a limited extent; and I was enabled to hold out till
more arrived from Dorjiling, now, owing to the state of
the roads, at the distance of twenty days’ march. The
people were always civil and kind: there was no con-
cealing the fact that the orders were strmgent, prohibiting
ny party bemg supphed with food, but many of the
villagers sought opportunities by night of replenishing my
stores. Superstitious and timorous, they regard a doctor
with great veneration; and when to that is added his
power of writing, drawing, and painting, their admiration
knows no bounds: they flocked round my tent all day,
scratching their ears, lollng out their tongues, making a
clucking noise, smiling, and timidly peeping over my
shoulder, but flymg in alarm when my little dog
resented their familiarity by snapping at their legs. The

“In Griffith’s narrative of “Pembertou’s Mission to Bhotan ” (‘Posthumous
Papers, Journal,” p. 283), it is mentioned that the Gylongs (Lamas) attributed a
violent storm to the members of the mission shooting birds.

June, 1849. RAINS. LANDSLIPS AND AVALANCHES. 41

men spend the whole day in loitering about, smoking,
and spinning wool: the women in active duties; a few
were engaged in drying the leaves of a shrub (Symplocos)
for the 'Tibet market, which are used as a yellow dye;
whilst, occasionally, a man might be seen cutting a spoon
or a yak-saddle out of rhododendron wood.

During my stay at Lamteng, the weather was all but
uniformly cloudy and misty, with drizzling rain, and a
southerly, or up-valley wind, during the day, which changed
to an easterly one at night: occasionally distant thunder
was heard. My rain-gauges showed very little rain com-
pared with what fell at Dorjilmg during the same period ;
the clouds were thin, both sun and moon shining through
them, without, however, the former warming the soil:
hence my tent was constantly wet, nor did I once sleep
in a dry bed till the lst of June, which ushered in the
month with a brilliant sunny day. At night it generally
rained in torrents, and the roar of landslips and avalanches
was then all but uninterrupted for hour after hour : some-
times it was arumble, at others a harsh grating sound,
and often accompanied with the crashing of immense timber-
trees, or the murmur of the distant snowy avalanches. ‘The
amount of denudation by atmospheric causes is here quite
incalculable ; and I feel satisfied that the violence of the
river at this particular part of its course (where it traverses
those parts of the valleys which are most snowy and
rainy), 1s proximately due to impediments thus accumu-
lated in its bed.

It was sometimes clear at sunrise, and I made many
ascents of 'l'ukcham, hoping for a view of the mountains
towards the passes; but I was only successful on one
occasion, when I saw the table top of Kinchinjhow, the
most remarkable, and one of the most distant peaks of

42 LAMTENG VILLAGE. Cap. XIX.

dazzling snow which is seen from Dorjiling, and which, |
was told, is far beyond Sikkim, in Tibet.* I kept up a
constant intercourse with Choongtam, sending my plants
thither to be dried, and gradually reducing my party as
our necessities urged my so doing ; lastly, I sent back the
shooters, who had procured very little, and whose occupa-
tion was now. gone.

On the 2nd of June, I received the bad news that a large
party of coolies had been sent from Dorjilmg with rice,
but that bemg unable or afraid to pass the landslips,
they had returned: we had now no food except a kid, a
few handfuls of flour, and some potatos, which had been sent
up from Choongtam. All my endeavours to gain infor-
mation respecting the distance and position of the frontier
were unavailing; probably, indeed, the Lama and Phipun
(or chief man of the village), were the only persons who
knew; the villagers calling all the lofty pastures a few
marches beyond Lamteng “ Bhote” or ‘“ Cheen” (Tibet).
Dr. Campbell had procured for me information by which
I might recognise the frontier were I once on it; but no
description could enable me to find my way in a country
so rugged and forest-clad, through tortuous and perpetually
forking valleys, along often obliterated paths, and under
cloud and rain. ‘lo these difficulties must be added
the deception of the rulers, and the fact (of which I was
not then aware), that the ‘libet frontier was formerly at
Choongtam; but from the Lepchas constantly harassing
the Tibetans, the latter, after the establishment of the
Chinese rule over their country, retreated first to Zemu
Samdong, a few hours walk above Lamteng, then to
Tallum Samdong, 2000 feet higher; and, lastly, to

* Such, however, is not the case; Kinchinjhow is on the frontier of Sikkim,
though a considerable distance behind the most snowy of the Sikkim mountains.

JuNE, 1849. PROCEED TO ZEMU SAMDONG. 43

Kongra Lama, 16,000 feet up the west flank of Kin-
chinjhow.

On the third of June I took a small party, with my tent,
and such provisions as I had, to explore up the river. On
hearing of my intention, the Phipun volunteered to take
me to the frontier, which he said was only two hours dis-
tant, at Zemu Samdong, where the Lachen receives the
Zemu river from the westward: this I knew must be false,
but I accepted his services, and we started, accompanied by a
large body of villagers, who eagerly gathered plants for me
along the road.

The scenery is very pretty ; the path crosses extensive
and dangerous landslips, or runs through fine woods of
spruce and 4dzes Brunoniana, and afterwards along the
river-banks, which are fringed with willow (called “ Lama’),
and [ippophae. ‘he great red rose (Rosa macrophylla),
one of the most beautiful Himalayan plants, whose single
flowers are as large as the palm of the hand, was blossoming,
while golden Pofentillas and purple primroses flowered by
the stream, and Pyrola in the fir-woods.

Just above the fork of the valley, a wooden bridge
(Samdong) crosses the Zemu, which was pointed out to me
as the frontier, and I was entreated to respect two sticks and
a piece of worsted stretched across it; this I thought too
ridiculous, so as my followers halted on one side, I went on |
the bridge, threw the sticks into the stream, crossed, and
asked the Phipun to follow ; the people laughed, and came
over: he then told me that he had authority to permit of my
botanising there, but that I was in Cheen, and that he
would show me the guard-house to prove the truth of his
statement. He accordingly led me up a steep bank to an
extensive broad flat, several hundred feet above the river,
and forming a triangular base to the great spur which,

44 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XIX.

rising steeply behind, divides the valley. This flat was
marshy and covered with grass ; and buried in the jungle
were several ruined stone houses, with thick walls pierced
with loopholes: these had no doubt been occupied by
Tibetans at the time when this was the frontier.

The elevation which I had attained (that of the river being
8,970 feet) being excellent for botanising, I camped; and
the villagers, contented with the supposed success of their
strategy, returned to Lamteng.

My guide from the Durbar had staid behind at Lam-
teng, and though Meepo and all my men well knew that
this was not the frontier, they were ignorant as to its
true position, nor could we even ascertain which of the
rivers was the Lachen.* ‘I'he only routes I possessed
indicated two paths northwards from Lamteng, neither
crossing a river: and I therefore thought it best to
remain at Zemu Samdong till provisions should arrive.
I accordingly halted for three days, collecting many new
and beautiful plants, and exploring the roads, of which
five (paths or yak-tracks) diverged from this point, one on
either bank of each river, and one leading up the fork.

On one occasion I ascended the steep hill at the fork ; it
was dry and rocky, and crowned with stunted pines.
Stacks of different sorts of pme-wood were stored on the
flat at its base, for export to ‘Tibet, all thatched with the
bark of ddzes Brunoniana. Of these the larch (Lariz
Grifithii, “ Sah’’), splits well, and is the most durable of
any; but the planks are small, soft, and white.f The
silver fir (déies Webbiana, “ Dunshing’’) also splits well ;
it is white, soft, and highly prized for durability. The wood

* The eastern afterwards proved to be the Lachen.

+ [ never saw this wood to be red, close-grained, and hard, like that of the old
Swiss larch ; nor does it ever reach so great a size.

Junr 1849, SIKKIM PINES. 45

of Abies Brunoniana ( Semadoong’’) is like the others in
appearance, but is not durable; its bark is however very
useful. The spruce (4dies Smithiana, “Sch”’) has also white
wood, which is employed for posts and beams.* These
are the only pines whose woods are considered very useful ;
and it is a curious circumstance that none produce any
quantity of resin, turpentine, or pitch ; which may perhaps
be accounted for by the humidity of the climate.

Pinus longifolia (called by the Lepchas “ Gniet-koong,”’
and by the Bhoteeas “‘T'eadong’’) only grows in low valleys,
where better timber is abundant. The weeping blue juni-
per (Juniperus recurva, “Deschoo’), and the arboreous
black one (called “ Tchokpo”’ +) yield beautiful wood, like
that of the pencil cedar,t but are comparatively scarce, as
is the yew (Zaxus baccata, “'Tingschi”’), whose timber is
red. The “'T'chenden,” or funereal cypress, again, is valued
only for the odour of its wood: Pinus excelsa, “ 'Tongschi,”
though common in Bhotan, is, as I have elsewhere remarked,
not found in east Nepal or Sikkim ; the wood is admirable,
being durable, close-grained, and so resinous as to be used
for flambeaux and candles.

On the flat were flowering a beautiful magnolia with glo-
bular sweet-scented flowers like snow-balls, several balsams,
with species of Convallaria, Cotoneaster, Gentian, Spirea,
Kuphorhia, Pedicularis, and honeysuckle. On the hill-side
were creeping brambles, lovely yellow, purple, pink, and

* These woods are all soft and loose in grain, compared with their European
allies.

+ This I have, vol, i. p. 256, referred to the J. excelsa of the north-west Hima-
laya, a plant which under various names is found in many parts of Europe and
many parts of Europe and North America; but since then Dr. Thomson and I
have had occasion to compare my Sikkim conifers with the north-west Himalayan
ones, and we have found that this Sikkim species is probably new, and that J/.
excelsa is not found east of Nepal.

+ Also a juniper, from Bermuda (J. Bermudiana).

46 ZEMU VALLEY. Car, XIX,

white primroses, white-flowered 7/alictrum and Anemone,
berberry, Podophyllum, white rose, fritillary, Lloydia, &e.
On the flanks of T'ukcham, in the bed of a torrent, I gathered
many very alpine plants, at the comparatively low elevation of
10,000 feet, as dwarf willows, Pinguicula, (a genus not
previously found in the Himalaya), Oxyria, Androsace,
Tofieldia, Arenaria, saxifrages, and two dwarf heath-like
Andromedas.* he rocks were all of gneiss, with granite
veins, tourmaline, and occasionally pieces of pure plumbago.

Our guide had remamed at Lamteng, on the plea of a
sore on his leg from leech-bites: his real object, however,
was to stop a party on their way to Tibet with madder
and canes, who, had they continued their journey, would
inevitably have pointed out the road to me. The villagers
themselves now wanted to proceed to the pasturing-grounds
on the frontier; so the Phipun sent me word that I might
proceed as far as I liked up the east bank of the Zemu. I
had explored the path, and finding it practicable, and
likely to intersect a less frequented route to the frontier
(that crossing the 'Tekonglah pass from Bah, see p. 13), I
determined to follow it. A supply of food arrived from Dor-
jiling on the 5th of June, reduced, however, to one bag of
rice, but with encouraging letters, and the assurance that
more would follow at once. My men, of whom I had
eight, behaved admirably, although our diet had for five
days chiefly consisted of Polygonum ( Pullop-bi”), wild

* Besides these, a month later, the following flowered in profusion: scarlet
Buddleia? gigantic lily, yellow jasmine, Aster, Potentilla, several kinds of orchids,
willow-herb (Zpzlobium), purple Roscoea, Neillia, Morina, many grasses and Umbel-
lifere. These formed a rank and dense herbaceous, mostly annual vegetation,
six feet high, bound together with Cuscuta, climbing Leguminose, and Ceropegia.
The great summer heat and moisture here favour the ascent of various tropical
genera, of which I found in August several Orchidee (Calanthe, Microstylis, and
Celogyne), also Begonia, Bryonia, Cynanchum, Aristolochia, Eurya, Procris, Acan-
thacee, and Cyrtandracee.

JunNF, 1849. TIBETAN CUPS FROM BALANOPHORA. 47

leeks (“ Lagook ’’), nettles and Procris (an allied, and more
succulent herb), eked out by eight pounds of ‘Tibet meal
(“ Tsamba ”’), which I had bought for ten shillings by stealth
from the villagers. What concerned me most was the
destruction of my plants by constant damp, and the want
of sun to dry the papers; which reduced my collections
to a tithe of what they would otherwise have been.

From Zemu Samdong the valley runs north-west, for
two marches, to the junction of the Zemu with the
Thlonok, which rises on the north-east flank of Kinchin-
junga: at this place I halted for several days, while
building a bridge over the Thlonok. The path runs first
through a small forest of birch, alder, and maple, on the
latter of which I found Balanophora* growing abun-
dantly: this species produces the great knots on the
maple roots, from which the Tibetans form the cups
mentioned by MM. Huc and Gabet. I was so fortunate
as to find a small store of these knots, cleaned, and cut
ready for the turner, and hidden behind a stone by
some poor Tibetan, who had never returned to the spot :
they had evidently been there a very long time.

In the ravines there were enormous accumulations of ice,
the result of avalanches ; one of them crossed the river, form-
ing a bridge thirty feet thick, at an elevation of only 9,800
feet above the sea. This ice-bridge was 100 yards broad,
and flanked by heaps of boulders, the effects of combined
land and snowslips. These stony places were covered with a
rich herbage of rhubarb, primroses, Hyphorbia, Sedum, Poly-
gonum, Convallaria, and a purple Dentaria ( Kenroop-bi”’)
a cruciferous plant much eaten as a pot-herb. In the pine-
woods a large mushroom (“Onglau,’’+ Tibet.) was abundant,

* A curious leafless parasite, mentioned at vol. i. p. 133.
+ Cortinarius Emodensis of the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, who has named and

48 ZEMU VALLEY. Cuap. XTX. ©

which also forms a favourite article of food. Another pot-
herb (to which I was afterwards more indebted than any)
was a beautiful Si/acina, which grows from two to five feet
high, and has plaited leaves and crowded panicles of white
bell-shaped flowers, like those of its ally the lily of the valley,
which it also resembles in its mucilaginous properties. It is
called “ Chokli-bi,” * and its young flower-heads, sheathed
in tender green leaves, form an excellent vegetable. Nor must
I forget to include amongst the eatable plants of this hungry
country, young shoots of the mountain-hamboo, which are
good either raw or boiled, and may be obtained up to
12,000 feet in this valley. A species of Asarum (Asarabacca)
evows in the pine-woods ; a genus not previously known
to be Himalayan. The root, like its English medicinal con-
gener, has a strong and peculiar smell. At 10,000 feet
Abies Webbiana commences, with a close undergrowth of a
small twiggy holly. This, and the dense thicket of rhodo-
dendron t on the banks of the river and edges of the
wood, rendered the march very fatiguing, and swarms of
midges kept up a tormenting irritation.

The Zemu continued an impetuous muddy torrent, whose
hoarse voice, mingled with the deep grumbling noise ¢ of

described it from my specimens and drawings. It is also called “ Yungla tchamo”
by the Tibetans, the latter word signifying a toadstool. Mr. Berkeley informs me
that the whole vast genus Cortinarius scarcely possesses a single other edible species ;
he adds that C. violaceus and violaceo-cinereus are eaten in Austria and Italy, but not
always with safety.

* Tt is also found on the top of Sinchul, near Dorjiling.

+ Of which I had already gathered thirteen kinds in this valley.

+ The dull rumbling noise thus produced is one of the most singular pheno-
mena in these mountains, and cannot fail to strike the observer. At night,
especially, the sound seems increased, the reason of which is not apparent, for
in these regions, so wanting in animal life, the night is no stiller than the day, and
the melting of snow being less, the volume of waters must be somewhat, though
not conspicuously, diminished. The interference of sound by heated currents of
different density is the most obvious cause of the diminished reverberation during

the day, to which Humboldt adds the increased tension of vapour, and possibly an
echo from its particles.

Jung, 1849. CAMP AT JUNCTION OF ZEMU AND THLONOK. 49

the boulders rolling along its bed, was my lullaby for many
nights. Its temperature at Zemu Samdong was 45° to 46°
in June. At its junction with the Thlonok, it comes down
a steep gulley from the north, foreshortened into a cataract
1000 feet high, and appearmg the smaller stream of the
two ; whilst the Thlonok winds down from the snowy face
of Kinchinjunga, which is seen up the valley, bearing
W.S.W., about twenty miles distant. All around are
lofty and rocky mountains, sparingly wooded with pines
and larch, chiefly on their south flanks, which receive the
warm, moist, up-valley winds; the faces exposed to the
north being colder and more barren: exactly the reverse of
what is the case at Choongtam, where the rocky and sunny
south-exposed flanks are the driest.

My tent was pitched on a_ broad terrace, opposite
the junction of the Zemu and Thlonok, and 10,850 feet
above the sea. It was sheltered by some enormous
transported blocks of gneiss, fifteen feet high, and sur-
rounded by a luxuriant vegetation of most beautiful
rhododendrons in full flower, willow, white rose, white-
flowered cherry, thorn, maple and birch. Some great
tuberous-rooted Aruwms* were very abundant; and the
ground was covered with small pits, in which were large
wooden pestles: these are used in the preparation of food
from the arums, to which the miserable inhabitants of
the valley have recourse in spring, when their yaks are
calving. ‘The roots are bruised with the pestles, and
thrown into these holes with water. Acetous fermentation
commences in seven or eight days, which is a sign that the
acrid poisonous principle is dissipated: the pulpy, sour,
and fibrous mass is then boiled and eaten; its nutriment

* Two species of Arisema, called “Tong” by the Tibetans, aud “Sinkree” by

the Lepchas.
VOL, Il. E

50 ZEMU VALLEY. Cuap. XIX,

being the starch, which exists in small quantities, and which
they have not the skill to separate by grating and washing.
This preparation only keeps a few days, and produces
bowel complaints, and loss of the skin and hair, especially
when insufficiently fermented. Besides this, the “ chokli-bi,”
and many other esculents, abounded here ; and we had great
need of them before leaving this wild uninhabited region.
I repeatedly ascended the north flank of Tukcham along
a watercourse, by the side of which were immense slips of
rocks and snow-beds ; the mountain-side being excessively
steep. Some of the masses of gneiss thus brought down
were dangerously poised on slopes of soft shingle, and daily
moved a little downwards. All the rocks were gneiss and
granite, with radiating crystals of tourmaline as thick as
the thumb. Below 12,000 to 13,000 feet the mountain-
sides were covered with a dense scrub of rhododendron
bushes, except where broken by rocks, landslips, and
torrents: above this the winter’s snow lay deep, and black
rocks and small glaciers, over which avalanches were con-
stantly fallmg with a sullen roar, forbade all attempts to
proceed. My object mm ascending was chiefly to obtain
views and compass-bearings, in which I was generally dis-
appointed: once only I had a magnificent prospect of
Kinchinjunga, sweepmg down in one unbroken mass of
glacier and ice, fully 14,000 feet high, to the head of the
Thlonok river, whose upper valley appeared a broad bay
of ice; doubtless forming one of the largest glaciers in the
Himalaya, and increased by lateral feeders that flow
into it from either flank of the valley. The south side of
this (the Thlonok) valley is formed by a range from Kinchin-
junga, running east to Tukcham, where it terminates :
from it rises the beautiful mountain Liklo,* 22,582 feet

* D* of the peaks laid down in Colonel Waugh’s “ Trigonometrical Survey from

JUNE, 1849. GLACIERS OF THLONOK VALLEY. 51

high, which, from Dorjiling, appears as a sharp peak, but
is here seen to be a jagged crest running north and south.
On the north flank of the valley the mountains are more
sloping and black, with patches of snow above 15,000
feet, but little anywhere else, except on another beautiful
peak (alt. 19,240 feet) marked D’ on the map. This flank
is also continuous from Kinchin; it divides Sikkim from
‘Tibet, and runs north-east to the great mountam Chomiomo
(which was not visible), the streams from its north flank
flowing into the Arun river (in Tibet). A beautiful blue
arch of sky spanned all this range, indicating the dry
Tibetan climate beyond.

I made two futile attempts to ascend the Thlonok river
to the great glaciers at the foot of Kimchinjunga, followmeg
the south bank, and hoping to find a crossing-place, and so
to proceed north to Tibet. The fall of the river is not
great at this part of its course, nor up to 12,000 feet,
which was the greatest height I could attain, and about
eight miles beyond my tents; above that point, at the
base of Liklo, the bed of the valley widens, and the rhodo-
dendron shrubbery was quite impervious, while the sides
of the mountain were inaccessible. We crossed exten-
sive snow-beds, by cutting holes in their steep faces,
and rounded rocks in the bed of the torrent, dragging one
another through the violent current, whose temperature
was below 40°.

On these occasions, the energy of Meepo, Nimbo (the
chief of the coolies) and the Lepcha boys, was quite
remarkable, and they were as keenly anxious to reach the
holy country of Tibet as I could possibly be. It was

Dorjiling,” I believe to be the “Liklo” of Dr. Campbell's itineraries from Dorjiling to
Lhassa, compiled from the information of the traders (See “ Bengal Asiatic Society’s
Journal” for 1848); the routes in which proved of the utmost value to me.

E 2

52 ZEMU VALLEY. CuHap. XIX.

sometimes dark before we got back to our tents, tired,
with torn clothes and cut feet and hands, returning to a
miserable dinner of boiled herbs; but never did any of
them complain, or express a wish to leave me. In the
evenings and mornings they were always busy, changing
my plants, and drying the papers over a sulky fire at my
tent-door ; and at night they slept, each wrapt in his own
blanket, huddled together under a rock, with another
blanket thrown over them all. Provisions reached us so
seldom, and so reduced in quantity, that I could never
allow more than one pound of rice to each man im a day,
and frequently during this trymg month they had not
even that; and I eked out our meagre supply with a few
ounces of preserved meats, occasionally “splicing the main
brace” with weak rum and water.

At the highest poit of the valley which I reached, water
boiled at 191-3, mdicating an elevation of 11,903 feet. The
temperature at 1 p.m. was nearly 70°, and of the wet
bulb 55°, indicating a dryness of 0°462, and dew point
47-0. Such phenomena of heat and dryness are rare and
transient in the wet valleys of Sikkim, and show the
influence here of the Tibetan climate.* |

After boilmg my thermometer on these occasions, I
generally made a little tea for the party; a refreshment
to which they looked forward with child-like eager-
ness. ‘The fairness with which these good-hearted people
used to divide the scanty allowance, and afterwards the
leaves, which are greatly relished, was an engaging trait in
their simple character: I have still vividly before me their
sleek swarthy faces and twinkling Tartar eyes, as they lay

* I gathered here, amongst an abundance of alpine species, all of European and
arctic type, a curious trefoil, the Parochetus communis, which ranges through 9000
feet of elevation on the Himalaya, and is also found in Java and Ceylon.

Lt
mie
co

Jung, 1849. CAMP ON NORTH BANK,

stretched on the ground in the sun, or crouched in the
sleet and snow beneath some sheltermg rock; each with
his little polished wooden cup of tea, watching my notes
and instruments with curious wonder, asking, “ How high
are we?” ‘“‘ How cold is it?’ and comparing the results
with those of other stations, with much interest and intel-
higence.

On the 11th June, my active people completed a most
ingenious bridge of branches of trees, bound by withes of
willow; by which I crossed to the north bank, where I
camped on an immense flat terrace at the junction of the
rivers, and about fifty feet above their bed. ‘The first
step or ascent from the river is about five feet high,
and formed of water-worn boulders, pebbles, and sand,
scarcely stratified: the second, fully 1000 yards broad, is
ten feet high, and swampy. ‘The uppermost 1s fifteen
feet above the second, and is covered with gigantic
boulders, and vast rotting trunks of fallen pines, buried
im an impenetrable jungle of dwarf small-leaved holly
and rhododendrons. ‘The surface was composed of a rich
vegetable mould, which, where clear of forest, supported a
rank herbage, six to eight feet high.”

Our first discovery, after crossing, was of a good bridge
across the Zemu, above its junction, and of a path leading

* This consisted of grasses, sedges, Bupleurum, rhubarb, Ranunculus, Conval-
laria, Smilacina, nettles, thistles, Arum, balsams, and the superb yellow
Meconopsis Nepalensis, whose racemes of golden poppy-like flowers were as broad
as the palm of the hand; it grows three and even six feet high, and resembles a
small hollyhock; whilst a stately Heracleum, ten feet high, towered over all.
Forests of silver fir, with junipers and larch, girdled these flats, and on their
edges grew rhododendrons, scarlet Spiraea, several honeysuckles, white Clematis,
and Vibuwrnwm. Ferns are much scarcer in the pine-woods than elsewhere in
the forest regions of the Himalaya. In this valley (alt. 10,850 feet), I found
only ten kinds; Hymenophyllum, Lomaria, Cystopteris, Davallia, two Polypodia,
and several Aspidia and Asplenia, Selaginella ascends to Zemu Samdong (9000
feet). The Preris aquilina (brake) does not ascend above 10,000 feet.

54 ZEMU VALLEY. Cuap. XIX,

down to Zemu Samdong; this was, however, scarcely
traceable up either stream. My men were better housed
here in sheds: and I made several more ineffectual attempts
to ascend the valley to the glaciers. The path, gradually
vanishing, ran alternately through fir-woods, and over
open grassy spots, covered with vegetation, amongst
which the gigantic arum was plentiful, whose roots seemed
to be the only attraction in this wet and miserable valley.
On my return one day, I found my people in great
alarm, the Phipun having sent word that we were on the
Tibet side of the rivers, and that Tibetan troops were
coming to plunder my goods, and carry my men into
slavery. I assured them he only wanted to frighten them ;
that the Cheen soldiers were civil orderly people ; and that
as long as Meepo was with us, there was no cause for fear.
Fortunately a young musk-deer soon afterwards broke
cover close to the tent, and its flesh wonderfully restored
their courage: still I was constantly harassed by threats ;
some of my people were sufferig from cold and bowel com-
plaints, and [ from rheumatism ; while one fine lad, who
came from Doryjiling, was delirious with a violent fever, con-
tracted in the lower valleys, which sadly dispirited my party.
Having been successful in finding a path, I took my
tent and a few active lads 1000 feet up the Zemu, camping
on a high rock above the forest region, at 12,070 feet,
hoping thence to penetrate northwards. I left my collec-
tions in the interim at the junction of the rivers, where
the sheds and an abundance of firewood were great
advantages for preserving the specimens. At this elevation
we were quite free from midges and leeches (the latter had
not appeared above 11,500 feet), but the weather continued
so uniformly raimy and bad, that we could make no pro-
gress. I repeatedly followed the river for several miles,

JUNE, 1849. RAINY SEASON.

Sr
Tt

ascending to 13,300 feet; but though its valley widened,
and its current was less rapid, the rhododendron thickets
below, and the cliffs above, defeated all endeavours to reach
the drier climate beyond, of which I had abundant evidence
in the arch of brilliant blue that spanned the heavens to the
north, beyond a black canopy of clouds that hid every-
thmg around, and poured down rain without one day’s
intermission, during the eight which I spent here.

UG ‘i
\ ore

j
3

BLACK JUNIPER (height sixty feet) AND YOUNG LARCH,
(See p. 45.)

CHAPTER XX.

Camp on Zemu river—Scenery—Falling rocks—Tukcham mountain—Height of
glaciers—Botany—Gigantic rhubarb—Insects—Storm—Temperature of rivers
—Behaviour of Lachen Phipun—Hostile conduct of Bhoteeas—View from
mountains above camp—Descend to Zemu Samdong—Vegetation—Letters
from Dorjiling—Arrival of Singtam Soubah—Presents from Rajah—Parties
collecting Arum-roots — Insects — Ascend Lachen river—Thakya-zong—
Tallum Samdong village — Cottages — Mountains—Plants— Entomology —
Weather—Halo—Diseases—Conduct of Singtam Soubah—His character and
illness—Agrees to take meto Kongra Lama—Tungu—A ppearance of country —
Houses—Poisoning by arum-roots—Yaks and calves—Tibet ponies—Journey
to Kongra Lama—Tibetan tents—Butter, curds, and churns—Hospitality—
Kinchinjhow and Chomiomo—Magnificent Scenery—Reach Kongra Lama
Pass.

My little tent was pitched in a commanding situation,
on a rock fifty feet above the Zemu, overlooking the course
of that river to its Junction with the Thlonok. ‘The descent
of the Zemu in one thousand feet is more precipitous than
that of any other river of its size with which I am acquainted
in Sikkim, yet immediately above my camp it was more tran-
quil than at any part of its course onwards to the plains of
India, whether as the Zemu, Lachen or Teesta. On the
west bank a fine mountain rose in steep ridges and shrubby
banks to 15,000 feet; on the east a rugged cliff towered
above the stream, and from this, huge masses of rock were
ever and anon precipitated into the torrent, with a
roar that repeatedly spread consternation amongst us.
During rains especially, and at night, when the chilled
atmospheric currents of air descend, and the sound is not

ES eee

JUNE, 1849. FALL OF BLOCKS. TUKCHAM. 57

dissipated as in the day-time, the noise of these falls is
sufficiently alarming. My tent was pitched near the base
of the cliff, and so high above the river, that I had thought
it beyond the reach of danger; but one morning I found
that a large fragment of granite had been hurled during
the night to my very door, my dog having had a very
narrow escape. ‘lo what depth the accumulation at the
base of this cliff may reach, I had no means of judging,
but the rapid slope of the river-bed is mainly due to this,
and to old moraines at the mouth of the valley below. I
have seen few finer sights than the fall of these stupendous
blocks ito the furious torrent, along which they are
carried amid feathery foam for many yards before settling
to rest.

Across the Thlonok to the southwards, rose the magni-
ficent mountain of T'ukcham, but I only once caught a
glimpse of its summit, which even then clouded over before
Icould get my instruments adjusted for ascertaining its
height. Its top is a sharp cone, surrounded by rocky
shoulders, that rise from a mass of snow. _ Its eastern slope
of 8000 feet is very rapid (about 38°) from its base at the
Zemu river to its summit.

Glaciers in the north-west Himalaya descend to 11,000
feet ; but I could not discover any in these valleys even so
low as 14,000 feet, though at this season extensive snow-
beds remain unmelted at but little above 10,000 feet. The
foot of the stupendous glacier fillmg the broad head of the
Thlonok is certamly not below 14,000 feet ; though being
continuous with the perpetual snow (or néve) of the summit
of Kinchinjunga, it must have 14,000 feet of ice, in per-
pendicular height, to urge it forwards.

All my attempts to advance up the Zemu were fruitless,
and a snow bridge by which I had hoped to cross to the

58 ZEMU VALLEY. CaP, XX

opposite bank was carried away by the daily swelling
river, while the continued bad weather prevented any
excursions for days together. Botany was my only resource,
and as vegetation was advancing rapidly under the mflu-
ence of the southerly winds, I had a rich harvest: for though
Composite, Pedicularis, and a few more of the finer Hima-
layan plants flower later, June is still the most glorious
month for show.

Rhododendrons occupy the most prominent place, ¢
clothing the mountain slopes with a deep green mantle
slowing with bells of brilliant colours; of the eight or
ten species growing here, every bush was loaded with
as great a profusion of blossoms as are their northern
congeners in our English gardens. Primroses are next,
both in beauty and abundance ; and they are accompanied
by yellow cowslips, three feet gh, purple polyanthus, and
pink large-flowered dwarf kinds nestling in the rocks, and
an exquisitely beautiful blue miniature species, whose
blossoms sparkle like sapphires on the turf. Gentians begin
to unfold their deep azure bells, aconites to rear their tall
blue spikes, and fritillaries and J/econopsis burst ito
flower. On the black rocks the gigantic rhubarb forms
pale pyramidal towers a yard high, of inflated reflexed
bracts, that conceal the flowers, and over-lapping one
another like tiles, protect them from the wind and rain: a
whorl of broad green leaves edged with red spreads on the
ground at the base of the plant, contrasting in colour with
the transparent bracts, which are yellow, margined with
pink. This is the handsomest herbaceous plant m Sikkim:
it is. called ‘“‘Tchuka,’ and the acid stems are eaten
both raw and boiled; they are hollow and full of pure
water: the root resembles that of the medicinal rhubarb,
but it is spongy and inert; it attaims a length of four

JUNE, 1849. VIOLENT STORMS. 59

feet, and grows as thick as the arm. The dried leaves
afford a substitute for tobacco; a smaller kind of rhubarb
is however more commonly used in Tibet for this purpose ;
it is called “ Chula.”

The elevation being 12,080 feet, I was above the limit
of trees, and the ground was covered with many kinds of
small-flowered honeysuckles, berberry, and white rose.*

I saw no birds, and of animals only an occasional musk-
deer. Insects were scarce, and quite different from what
I had seen before ; chiefly consisting of Phryganea (May-
fly) and some Caradide (an order that is very scarce in
the Himalaya) ; with various moths, chiefly Geometre.

The last days of June (as is often the case) were marked
by violent storms, and for two days my tent proved no pro-
tection ; similar weather prevailed all over India, the baro-
meter fallmg very low. I took horary observations of the
barometer in the height of the storm on the 30th: the tide
was very small indeed (-024 inch, between 9°50 a.m. and
4 p.m.), and the thermometer ranged between 47° and 57° 8,
between 7 a.m. and midnight. Snow fell abundantly as
low as 13,000 feet, and the rivers were much swollen, the
size and number of the stones they rolled along producing
a deafening turmoil. Only 3°7 inches of rain fell between
the 23rd of June and the 2nd of July; whilst 21 imches
fell at Dorjilmg, and 6-7 inches at Calcutta. During the
same period the mean temperature was 48° ; extremes, a :.
The humidity was nearly at saturation-pomt, the wind
southerly, very raw and cold, and drizzling rain constantly

* Besides these I found a prickly Aralia, maple, two currants, eight or nine
rhododendrons, many Sedums, Rhodiola, white Clematis, red-flowered cherry, birch,
willow, Viburnum, juniper, a few ferns, two Andromedas, Menzesia, and Spirea.
And in addition to the herbs mentioned above, may be enumerated Parnassia,
many Saxifrages, Soldanella, Draba, and various other Crucifere, Nardostachys,
(spikenard), Epilobium, Thalictrum, and very many other genera, almost all typical
of the Siberian, North European, and Arctic floras.

60 ZEMU VALLEY. Cap, XX.

fell. A comparison of thirty observations with Dorjiling
gave a difference of 14° temperature, which is at the rate
of 1° for every 347 feet of ascent.”

The temperature of these rivers varies extremely at dif-
ferent parts of their course, depending on that of their
affluents. The Teesta is always cool i summer (where its
bed is below 2000 feet), its temperature being 20° below
that of the air; whereas in mid-winter, when there is less
cloud, and the snows are not melting, it is only a few degrees
colder than the air.t At this season, in descending from
12,000 feet to 1000 feet, its temperature does not rise 10°,
though that of the air rises 30° or 40°. It is a curious fact,
that the temperature of the northern feeders of the Teesta,
in some parts of their course, rises with the increasing eleva-
tion! Of this the Zemu afforded a curious example : during
my stay at its junction with the Thlonok it was 46°, or 6°
warmer than that river ; at 1100 feet higher it was 48°, and
at 1100 feet higher still it was 49°! These observations were
repeated in different weeks, and several times on the same
day, both in ascending and descending, and always with
the same result: they told, as certainly as if I had followed
the river to its source, that it rose in a drier and compa-
ratively sunny climate, and flowed amongst httle snowed
mountains.

* Forty-seven observations, comparative with Calcutta, gave 348 difference,
and if 5°5 of temperature be deducted for northing in latitude, the result is 1°
for every 412 feet of ascent. My observations at the junction of the rivers
alt. 10,850 feet), during the early part of the month, gave 1° to 304 feet, as the
result of twenty-four observations with Dorjiling, and 1° to 394 feet, from seventy-
four observations with Calcutta.

+ During my sojourn at Bhomsong in mid-winter of 1848 (see v. i. p. 805), the
mean temperature of the Teesta was 51°, and of the air 52°3; at that elevation the
river water rarely exceeds 60° at midsummer. Between 4000 feet and 300 (the
plains) its mean temperature varies about 10° between January and July; at
6000 feet it varies from 55° to 43° during the same period; and at 10,000 feet it
freezes at the edges in winter and rises to 50° in July.

JUNE, 1849. HOSTILITY OF BHOTEEAS. 61

Meanwhile, the Lachen Phipun continued to threaten us,
and I had to send back some of the more timorous of my
party. On the 28th of June fifly men arrived at the
Thlonok, and turned my people out of the shed at the
junction of the rivers, together with the plants they
were preserving, my boards, papers, and utensils. The
boys came to me _ breathless, saymg that there were
Tibetan soldiers amongst them, who declared that I was in
Cheen, and that they were coming on the following
morning to make a clean sweep of my goods, and drive me
back to Dorjiling. I had little fear for myself, but was
anxious with respect to my collections: it was getting late
in the day, and raming, and I had no mind to go down
and expose myself to the first brunt of their insolence,
which I felt sure a night of such weather would materially
wash away. Meepo was too frightened, but Nimbo, my
Bhotan coolie Sirdar, volunteered to go, with two stout —
fellows; and he accordingly brought away my plants and
papers, having held a parley with the enemy, who, as [I sus-
pected, were not ‘Tibetans. The best news he brought was,
that they were half clad and without food; the worst,
that they swaggered and bullied: he added, with some
pride, that he gave them as good as he got, which I could
readily believe, Nimbo being really a resolute fellow,* and
accomplished in Tibet slang.

On the following morning it rained harder than. ever,
and the wind was piercingly cold. My timid Lepchas
huddled behind my tent, which, from its position, was only
to be stormed in front. I dismantled my little observatory,
and packed up the instruments, tied my dog, Kinchin,
to one of the tent-pegs, placed a line of stones opposite

* In East Nepal he drew his knife on a Ghorka sepoy ; and in the following
winter was bold enough to make his escape in chains from Tumloong.

62 ZEMU VALLEY. CuHap. XX.

the door, and seated myself on my bed on the ground,
with my gun beside me.

The dog gave tongue as twenty or thirty people defiled
up the glen, and gathered in front of my tent; they were
ragged Bhoteeas, with bare heads and legs, in scanty
woollen garments sodden with rain, which streamed off
their shaggy hair, and furrowed their sooty faces: their
whole appearance recalled to my mind Dugald Dalgetty’s
friends, the children of the mist.

They appeared nonplussed at seemg no one with me,
and at my paying no attention to them, whilst the valiant
Kinchin effectually scared them from the tent-door. When
they requested a parley, I sent the interpreter to say that
I would receive three men, and that only provided all the
rest were sent down immediately ; this, as I anticipated,
was acceded to at once, and there remained only the Lachen
Phipun and his brother. Without waiting to let him speak,
I rated him soundly, saying, that I was ready to leave the
spot when he could produce any proof of my being in
Bhote (or Cheen), which he knew well I was not; that,
since my arrival at Lachen, he had told me nothing but
lies, and had contravened every order, both of the Rajah
and of Tchebu Lama. I added, that I had given him and
his people kindness and medicine, their return was bad,
and he must go about his business at once, having, as I
knew, no food, and I having none for him. He behaved
very humbly throughout, and finally took himself off much
discomfited, and two days afterwards sent men to offer to
assist me in moving my things.

The first of July was such a day as I had long waited
for to obtain a view, and I ascended the mountain west of
my camp, toa point where water boiling at 185° 7 (air 42°),
gave an elevation of 14,914 feet. On the top of the range,

JuLy, 1849. RETURN TO ZEMU SAMDONG., 63

about 1000 feet above this, there was no snow on the
eastern exposures, except in hollows, but on the west
slopes it lay in great fields twenty or thirty feet thick ;
while to the north, the mountains all appeared destitute of
snow, with grassy flanks and rugged tops.

Drizzling mist, which had shrouded ‘Tukcham all the
morning, soon gathered on this mountain, and prevented
any prospect from the highest point reached ; but on the
ascent I had an excellent view up the Zemu, which opened
into a broad grassy valley, where I saw with the glass some
wooden sheds, but no cattle or people. ‘To reach these,
however, involved crossing the river, which was now impos-
sible ; and I reluctantly made up my mind to return on the
morrow to Zemu Samdong, and thence try the other river.

On my descent to the Thlonok, I found that the herba-
ceous plants on the terraces had grown fully two feet during
the fortnight, and now presented almost a tropical luxu-
riance and beauty. Thence I reached Zemu Samdong in
one day, and found the vegetation there even more gay and
beautiful: the gigantic lily was in full flower, and scenting
the air, with the lovely red rose, called ‘‘ Chirring ” by the
Tibetans. Vei/lia was blossoming profusely at my old
camping-ground, to which I now returned after a month’s
absence.

Soon after my arrival I received letters from Dr. Campbell,
who had strongly and repeatedly represented to the Rajah
his opinion of the treatment I was receiving ; and this
finally brought an explicit answer, to the effect that his
orders had been full and peremptory that I should be
supplied with provisions, and safely conducted to the
frontier. With these came letters on the Rajah’s part from.
Tchebu Lama to the Lachen Phipun, ordermg him to take
me to the pass, but not specifying its position ; fortunately,

64 LACHEN VALLEY. CHAP, XX.

however, Dr. Campbell sent me a route, which stated the
pass to be at Kongra Lama, several marches beyond this,
and in the barren country of Tibet. |

On the 5th of July the Singtam Soubah arrived from
Chola (the Rajah’s summer residence) : he was charged to
take me to the frontier, and brought letters from his
highness, as well as a handsome present, consisting of
Tibet cloth, and a dress of China silk brocaded with gold :
the Ranee also sent me a basket of Lhassa sweetmeats,
consisting of Sultana raisins from Bokhara, sliced and
dried apricots from Lhassa, and Diospyros fruit from China
(called ‘“ Gubroon” by the Tibetans). The Soubah
wanted to hurry me on to the frontier and back at once,
being no doubt instigated to do so by the Dewan’s party,
and by his having no desire to spend much fime in the
dreary lofty regions I wanted to explore. I positively
refused, however, to start until more supplies arrived,
except he used his influence to provide me with food ; and
as he insisted that the frontier was at Tallum Samdong,
only one march up the Lachen, I foresaw that this move was
to be but one step forward, though in the right direction.
He went forward to Tallum at once, leaving me to follow.

The Lamteng people had all migrated beyond that point
to 'Tungu, where they were pasturing their cattle: I sent
thither for food, and procured a little meal at a very high
price, a few fowls and eggs; the messenger brought back
word that Tungu was in Tibet, and that the villagers
ignored Kongra Lama. <A large piece of yak-flesh being
brought for sale, I purchased it ; but it proved the toughest
meat I ever ate, being no doubt that of an animal that had
succumbed to the arduous duties of a salt-carrier over the
passes: at this season, however, when the calves are not a
month old, it was m vain to expect better.

q
:

JULY, 1849. INSECTS AT ZEMU SAMDONG. 65

Large parties of women and children were daily passing
my tent from 'Tungu, to collect arum-roots at the Thlonok,
all with baskets at their backs, down to rosy urchins of six
years old: they returned after several days, their baskets
neatly lmed with broad rhododendron leaves, and full of
a nauseous-looking yellow acid pulp, which told forcibly of
the extreme poverty of the people. .'The children were very
fair; mdeed the young Tibetan is as fair as an English
brunette, before his perennial coat of smoke and dirt has
permanently stained his face, and it has become bronzed
and wrinkled by the scorching sun and rigorous climate of
these inhospitable countries. Children and women were
alike decked with roses, and all were good-humoured and
pleasant, behaving with great kindness to one another, and
unafiected politeness to me.

During my ten days’ stay at Zemu Samdong, I formed a
large collection of insects, which was in great part destroyed
by damp: many were new, beautiful, and particularly inte-
resting, from belonging to types whose geographical distri-
bution is analogous to that of the vegetation. The
caterpular of the swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio Machaon),
was common, feeding on umbelliferous plants, as in
England ; and a Sphyne (like S. Luphorbie) was devouring
the euphorbias ; the English Cynthia Card (painted-lady
butterfly) was common, as were “sulphurs,’ ‘“ marbles,”
Pontia (whites), “blues,” and Zheela, of British aspect
but foreign species. Amongst these, tropical forms were
rare, except one fine black swallow-tail. Of moths, Voctue
and Geometre abounded, with many fles and Tipale.
Hymenoptera were scarce, except a yellow Ophion, which lays
its eggs in the caterpillars above-mentioned. Beetles were
most rare, and (what is remarkable) the wood-borers (/ongi-

corns and Curculio) particularly so. A large Telephora was
VOL. II. FR

66 ZEMU RIVER. Cap. XX,

very common, and had the usual propensity of its congeners
for blood ; /amellicorns were also abundant.

On the 11th of July five coolies arrived with rice: they
had been twenty days on the road, and had been obliged
to make great detours, the valley bemg in many places
impassable. ‘They brought me a parcel of English letters ;
and I started up the Lachen on the following day, with
renewed spirits and high hopes. The road first crossed
the Zemu and the spur beyond, and then ascended the west
bank of the Lachen, a furious torrent for five or six miles,
during which it descends 1000 feet, in a chasm from which
rise lofty black pme-clad crags, topped by snowy mountains,
14,000 to 16,000 feet high. One remarkable mass of rock,
on the east bank, is called “ Sakya-zong”’ (or the abode of
Sakya, often pronounced Thakya, one of the Boodhist
Trinity) ; at its base a fine cascade falls into the river.

Above 11,000 feet the valley expands remarkably,
the mountains recede, become less wooded, and more
grassy, while the stream is suddenly less rapid, meandering
in a broader bed, and bordered by marshes, covered with
Carex, Blysmus, dwarf Tamarisk, and many kinds of yellow
and red Pedicularis, both tall and beautiful. There are
far fewer rhododendrons here than in the damper Zemu
valley at equal elevations, and more Siberian, or dry
country types of vegetation, as Astragali of several kinds,
Habenaria, Epipactis, dandelion, and a caraway, whose
stems (called in Tibet “ Gzira’’) are much sought for as a
condiment.* The Singtam Soubah and Lachen Phipun

* Umbellifere abound here; with sage, Ranunculus, Anemone, Aconites, Halenia,
Gentians, Panax, Euphrasia, speedwell, Prunella vulgaris, thistles, bistort, Parnassia,
purple orchis, Prenanthes, and Lactuca. The woody plants of this region are
willows, birch, Cotoneaster, maple, three species of Viburnum, three of Spirea,
Vaccinium, Aralia, Deutzia, Philadelphus, rnododendrons, two junipers, silver fir,
larch, three honeysuckles, Neillia, and a Pieris, whose white blossoms are so full
of honey as to be sweet and palatable.

%

JULY, 1849. TALLUM VILLAGE. MOUNTAINS AROUND. 67

received me at the bridge (Samdong), at Tallum, and led
me across the river (into Cheen they affirmed) to a pretty
green sward, near some gigantic gneiss boulders, where I
camped, close by the river, and 11,480 feet above the sea.

The village of Tallum consists of a few wretched stone
huts, placed in a broad part of the valley, which is swampy,
and crossed by several ancient moraines, which descend
from the gulleys on the east flank.* ‘The cottages are from
four to six feet high, without windows, and consist of a
single apartment, containing neither table, chair, stool, nor
bed; the inmates huddle together amid smoke, filth, and
darkness, and sleep on a plank ; and their only utensils are
a bamboo churn, copper, bamboo, and earthenware vessels,
for milk, butter, &c.

Grassy or stony mountains slope upwards, at an angle of
20°,7 from these flats to 15,000 feet, but no snow is
visible, except on Kinchinjhow and Chomiomo, about fifteen
miles up the valley. Both these are flat-topped, and daz-
zlingly white, rising into small peaks, and precipitous on all
sides ; they are grand, bold, isolated masses, quite unlike
the ordinary snowy mountains in form, and far more
Imposing even than ecemye ge though not above 22,000
feet in elevation.

Herbaceous plants are much more numerous here than
in any other part of Sikkim; and sittmg at my tent-door,
I could, without rismg from the ground, gather forty-three
plants,{ of which all but two belonged to English genera.

* I have elsewhere noticed that in Sikkim, the ancient moraines above 9000
feet are almost invariably deposited from valleys opening to the westward.

+ At Lamteng and up the Zemu the slopes are 40° and 50°, giving a widely
different aspect to the valleys.

+ In England thirty is, on the average, the equivalent number of plants, which
in favourable localities I have gathered in an equal space. In both cases many
are seedlings of short-lived annuals, and in neither is the number a test of the

luxuriance of the vegetation ; it but shows the power which the different species

exert in their struggle to obtain a place.
F 2

\
68 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XX.

In the rich soil about the cottages were crops of dock,
shepherd’s-purse, Th/aspi arvense, Cynoglossum of two
kinds (one used as a pot-herb), balsams, nettle, Galeopsis,
mustard, radish, and turnip. On the neighbouring hills,
which I explored up to 15,000 feet, I found many fine
plants, partaking more or less of the Siberian type, of which
Corydalis, Leguminose, Artemisia, and Pedicularis, are fami-
liar instances. I gathered upwards of 200 species, nearly all
belonging to north European genera. ‘T'wenty-five were
woody shrubs above three feet high, and six were ferns ; *
sedges were in great profusion, amongst them three of
British kinds: seven or eight were Orchidee, meluding
a fine Cypripedium.

The entomology of Tallum, like its botany, was Siberian,
Arctic types occurring at lower elevations than im the wetter
parts of Sikkim. Of beetles the honey-feeding ones prevailed,
with European forms of others that inhabit yak-droppings.T
Bees were common, both Bombus and Andrena, but there
were no wasps, and but few ants. Grasshoppers and other
Orthoptera were rare, as were [lemiptera; Tipula was the
common dipterous insect, with a small sand-fly: there
were neither leeches, mosquitos, ticks, nor midges. Pigeons,
red-legged crows, and hawks were the common birds; with
a few waders in the marshes.

Being now fairly behind most of the great snow and
rain-collecting mountains, | experienced a considerable

* Cryptogramma crispa, Davallia, two Aspidia, and two Polypodia. I gathered
ten at the same elevation, in the damper Zemu valley (see p. 49, note). I gathered
in this valley a new species of the remarkable European genus Struthiopteris,
which has not been found elsewhere in the Himalaya.

+ As Aphodius and Geotrupes. Predaceous genera were very rare, as Carabus and
Staphylinus, so typical of boreal regions. Coccinella (lady-bird), which swarms at
Dorjiling, does not ascend so high, and a Clytus was the only longicorn.
Bupretis, Elater, and Blaps were found but rarely. Of butterflies, the Machaon

seldom reaches this elevation, but the painted-lady, Pontia, Colias, Hipparchia,
Aryynnis, and Polyommatus, are all found.

JuLy, 1849. TALLUM, CLIMATE, &c., OF. 69

change in the climate, which characterises all these rear-
ward lofty valleys, where very little rain falls, and that
chiefly drizzle; but this is so constant that the weather
feels chilly, raw, and comfortless, and I never returned dry
from botanising. ‘The early mornings were bright with
views northwards of blue sky and Kinchinjhow, while to the
south the lofty peak of Tukcham, though much nearer, was
seldom seen, and black cumuli and nimbi rolled up the steep
valley of the Lachen to be dissipated in mist over 'Tallum.
The sun’s rays were, however, powerful at intervals during
the forenoon, whence the mean maximum temperature of
July occurred at about 10 a.m. The temperature of the
river was always high, varying with the heat of the day from
A7° to 52°; the mean being 50°.

These streams do not partake of the diurnal rise and fall,
so characteristic of the Swiss rivers and those of the western
Himalaya, where a powerful sun melts the glaciers by
day, and their head-streams are frozen by night. Here
the clouds alike prevent solar and nocturnal radiation, the
temperature is more uniform, and the corroding power of
the damp southerly wind that blows strongly throughout
the day is the great melting agent. One morning I| saw a
vivid and very beautiful halo 20° degrees distant from the
sun's disc ; it was no doubt caused by snow in the higher
regions of the atmosphere, as a sharp shower of rain fell
immediately afterwards: these are rare phenomena in
mountaious countries.

The Singtam Soubah visited me daily, and we cnjoyed
long friendly conversations : he still insisted that the Yang-
choo (the name he gave to the Lachen at this place) was
the boundary, and that I must not go any further. His
first question was always “ How long do you intend to
remain here ? have you not got all the plants and stones

70 LACHEN VALLEY, CuHap. XX.

you want? you can see the sun much better with those
brasses and glasses * lower down; it is very cold here, and
there is no food :””—to all which I had but one reply, that
I should not return till I had visited Kongra Lama. He
was a portly man, and, I think, at heart good-natured: I
had no difficulty m drawing him on to talk about Tibet,
and the holy city of 'Teshoo Loombo, with its thousands of
gilt temples, nunneries, and convents, its hohest of all the
holy grand Lamas of Tibet, and all the wide Boodhist
world besides. Had it even been politic, I felt 1t would
be unfair to be angry with a man who was evidently in a
false position between myself and his two rulers, the Rajah
and Dewan; who had a wife and family on the smiling
flanks of Singtam, and who longed to be soaking in the warm
rain of Sikkim, drmking Murwa beer (a luxury unknown
amongst these Tibetans) and gathermg im his crops of rice,
millet, and buckwheat. Though I may owe hima grudge
for his subsequent violence, I still recal with pleasure the
hours we spent together on the banks of the Lachen. In
all matters respecting the frontier, his hes were circumstan-
tial; and he further took the trouble of bringing country
people to swear that this was Cheen, and that there was
no such place as Kongra Lama. I had written to ask Dr.
Campbell for a definite letter from T'chebu Lama on this
point, but unfortunately my despatches were lost; the
messenger who conveyed them missed his footing in
crossing the Lachen, and escaped narrowly with life, while
the turban in which the letters were placed was carried
down the current.

Finally the Soubah tried to persuade my people that one
so mcorrigibly obstinate must be mad, and that they had
better leave me. One day, after we had had a long discus-

* Alluding to the sextant, &e.

JuLy, 1849. SINGTAM SOUBAH., 71

sion about the geography of the frontier, he inflamed my
curiosity by telling me that Kinchinjhow was a very holy
mountain; more so than its sister-peaks of Chumulari
and Kinchinjunga; and that both the Sikkim and Tibetan
Lamas, and Chinese soldiers, were ready to oppose my
approach to it. This led to my asking him for a sketch
of the mountains ; he called for a large sheet of paper, and
some charcoal, and wanted to form his mountains of sand ;
I however ordered rice to be brought, and though we had
but little, scattered it about wastefully. This had its effect :
he stared at my wealth, for he had all along calculated on
starving me out, and retired, looking perplexed and
crestfallen. Nothing puzzled him so much as my being
always occupied with such, to him, unintelligible pursuits ;
a Tibetan “cui bono?” was always in his mouth: “ What
good will it do you?” ‘Why should you spend weeks
on the coldest, hungriest, windiest, loftiest place on the
earth, without even inhabitants?” Drugs and_ idle
curiosity he believed were my motives, and possibly a
reverence for the religion of Boodh, Sakya, and Tsong-
kaba. Latterly he had made up his mind to starve me
out, and was dismayed when he found I could hold out
better than himself, and when I assured him that I should
not retrace my steps until his statements should be verified
by a letter from T’chebu ; that I had written to him, and
that it would be at least thirty days before I could receive
an answer.

On the 19th of July he proposed to take me to Tungu,
at the foot of Kinchinjhow, and back, upon ponies, provided
I would leave my people and tent, which I refused to do.
After this I saw little of him for several days, and began
to fear he was offended, when one morning his attendant
came to me for medicine with a dismal countenance, and

72 e LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XX,

in great alarm: he twisted: his fingers together over his
stomach to symbolise the nature of the malady which pro-
duced a commotion in his master’s bowels, and which was
simply the colic. I was aware that he had been reduced to
feed upon “Tong” (the arum-root) and herbs, and had
always given him half the pigeons I shot, which was almost
the only animal food I had myself. Now TI sent him a
powerful dose of medicine ; adding a few spoonfuls of China
tea and sugar for friendship.

On the 22nd, being convalescent, he visited me, looking
wofully yellow. After a long pause, during which he
tried to ease himself of some weighty matter, he offered to
take me to ‘l'ungu with my tent and people, and thence to
Kongra Lama, if I would promise to stay but two nights.
T asked whether Tungu was in Cheen or Sikkim; he replied
that after great enquiry he had heard that it was really in
Sikkim; “Then,” said I, “we will both go to-morrow
morning to Tungu, and I will stay there as long as I
please :” he laughed, and gave in with apparent good grace.

After leaving Tallum, the valley contracts, passing over
great ancient moraines, and again expanding wider than
before into broad grassy flats. The vegetation rapidly
diminishes in stature and abundance, and though the
ascent to Tungu is trifling, the change in species 18 very
great. ‘The Spire@a, maple, Pieris, cherry, and larch
disappear, leaving only willow, juniper, stunted birch,
silver fir, white rose, Aralia, berberry, currant, and
more rhododendrons than all these put together ; *

* Cyananthus, a little blue flower allied to Campanula, and one of the most
beautiful alpines I know, covered the turfy ground, with Orchis, Pedicularis,
Gentian, Potentilla, Geranium, purple and yellow Meconopsis, and the Artemisia of
Dorjiling, which ascends to 12,000 feet, and descends to the plains, having a range
of 11,500 feet in elevation. Of ferns, Hymenophyllum, Cistopteris, and Crypto-
gramma crispa ascend thus high.

Jury, 1849. ARRIVAL AT TUNGU. x 73

while mushrooms and other English fungi *: grew amongst
the grass.

Tungu occupies a very broad valley, at the junction of
the Tungu-choo from the east, and the Lachen from the
north. The hills slope gently upwards to 16,000 feet, at
an average angle of 15°; they are flat and grassy at the

TUNGU VILLAGE.

base, and no snow is anywhere to be seen.f A stupendous

rock, about fifty feet high, lay m the middle of the valley,

* One of great size, growing in large clumps, is the English Agaricus comans, F'r.,
and I found it here at 12,500 feet, as also the beautiful genus Crucibulum, which
is familiar to us in England, growing on rotten sticks, and resembling a dimi-
nutive bird’s nest with eggs in it.

+ In the wood-cut the summit ‘of Chomiomo is introduced, as it appears from a
few hundred feet above the point of view.

74 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XX,

broken in two: it may have been detached from a cliff, or
have been transported thither as part of an ancient moraine
which extends from the mouth of the Tungu-choo valley
across that of the Lachen. The appearance and position
of this great block, and of the smaller piece lying beside
it, rather suggest the idea of the whole mass having fallen
perpendicularly from a great height through a crevasse in
a glacier, than of its having been hurled from so considerable
a distance as from the cliffs on the flanks of the valley: it
is faithfully represented in the accompanying woodcut. A
few wooden houses were collected near this rock, and
several black tents were scattered about. I encamped at
an elevation of 12,750 feet, and was waited on by the
Lachen Phipun with presents of milk, butter, yak-flesh, and
curds ; and we were not long before we drowned old enmity
in buttered and salted tea.

On my arrival I found the villagers i a meadow, all
squatted cross-legged in a circle, smoking their brass and
iron pipes, drinking tea, and listening to a letter from the
Rajah, concerning their treatment of me. Whilst my men
were pitching my tent, I gathered forty plants new to me,
all of Tartarian types.* Wheat or barley I was assured
had been cultivated at Tungu when it was possessed by
Tibetans, and mhabited by a frontier guard, but I saw
no appearance of any cultivation. The fact is an important
one, as barley requires a mean summer temperature of 48°
to come to maturity. According to my observations, the

* More Siberian plants appeared, as Astragali, Chenopodium, Artemisia, some
grasses, new kinds of Pedicularis, Delphiniwm, and some small Orchids. Three
species of Parnassia and six primroses made the turf gay, mixed with saxifrages,
Androsace and Campanula. By the cottages was abundance of shepherd’s-purse,
Lepidium, and balsams, with dock, Galeopsis, and Cuscuta. Several low dwarf
species of honeysuckle formed stunted bushes like heather; and Anisodus, a
curious plant allied to Hyoscyamus, whose leaves are greedily eaten by yaks, was
very common.

Juty, 1849. TUNGU, INHABITANTS, YAKS, &c. 75

mean temperature of Tungu in July is upwards of 50°,
and, by calculation, that of the three summer months,
June, July, and August, should be about 46°5. As, how-
ever, I do not know whether these cerealia were grown as
productive crops, much stress cannot be laid upon the
fact of their having been cultivated, for in a great many
parts of Tibet the barley is annually cut green for fodder.

In the evening the sick came to me: their complaints,
as usual, being rheumatism, ophthalmia, goitres, cuts,
bruises, and poisoning by ‘Tong (4rwm), fungi, and other
deleterious vegetables. At Tallum I attended an old woman
who dressed her ulcers with Plantago (plantain) leaves, a
very common Scotch remedy ; the ribs being drawn out
from the leaf, which is applied fresh: it is rather a strong
application.

On the following morning I was awakened by the shrill
cries of the Tibetan maidens, calling the yaks to be milked,
“Toosh-—toosh—toooosh,” in a gradually higher key ; to
which Toosh seemed supremely indifferent, till quickened
in her movements by a stone or stick, levelled with unerring
aim at her ribs; these animals were changing their long
winter's wool for sleek hair, and the former hung about
them in ragged masses, like tow. Their calves gambolled
by their sides, the drollest of animals, like ass-colts m their
antics, kicking up their short hind-legs, whisking their
bushy tails m the air, rushmg up and down the grassy
slopes, and climbing like cats to the top of the rocks.

The Soubah and Phipun came early to take me to Kongra
Lama, bringing ponies, genuine Tartars in bone and
breed. Remembering the Dewan’s impracticable saddle at
Bhomsong, I stipulated for a horse-cloth or pad, upon
which I had no sooner jumped than the beast threw back
his ears, seated himself on his haunches, and, to my

76 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap, XX.

consternation, slid backwards down a turfy slope, pawing the
earth with his fore-feet as he went, and leaving me on the
ground, amid shricks of laughter from my Lepchas. My
steed being caught, I again mounted, and was being led
forward, when he took to shaking himself like a dog till
the pad slipped under his belly, and I was again unhorsed.
Other ponies displayed equal prejudices against my mode
of riding, or having my weight anywhere but well on their
shoulders, being all-powerful in their fore-quarters ; and so
I was compelled to adopt the high demi-pique saddle with
short stirrups, which forced me to sit with my knees up
to my nose, and to grip with the calves of my. legs and
heels. All the gear was of yak or horse-hair, and the bit
was a curb and ring, or a powerful twisted snaffle.

The path ran N.N.W. for two miles, and then crossed
the Lachen above its junction with the Nunee* from the
west : the stream was rapid, and twelve yards in breadth ;
its temperature was 48°. About six miles above Tungu,
the Lachen is jomed by the Chomio-choo, a large affluent
from Chomiomo mountain. Above this the Lachen mean-
ders along a broad stony bed, and the path rises over a
great ancient moraine, whose level top is covered with
pools, but both that and its south face are bare, from
exposure to the south wind, which blows with fury through
this contracted part of the valley to the rarified atmosphere
of the lofty, open, and dry country beyond. _ Its north slope,
on the contrary, is covered with small trees and brush-
wood, rhododendron, birch, honeysuckle, and mountain-
ash. ‘These are the most northern shrubs in Sikkim, and
I regarded them with deep interest, as being possibly the

* I suspect there is a pass by the Nunee to the sheds I saw up the Zemu valley
on the 2nd of July, as I observed yaks grazing high up the mountains : the
distance cannot be great, and there is little or no snow to interfere.

Juuy, 1849. TIBET TENTS, CHURNS, Xe. sie

last of their kind to be met with in this meridian, for many
degrees further north : perhaps even no similar shrubs occur
between this and the Siberian Altai, a distance of 1,500
miles. The magnificent yellow cowslip (Primula Sikkin-
ensis) gilded the marshes, and Caltha,* Trollius, Anemone,
Arenaria, Draba, Saxifrages, Potentillas, Ranunculus, and
other very alpine plants abounded.

At the foot of the moraine was a ‘Tibetan camp of broad,
black, yak-hair tents, stretched out with a complicated
system of ropes, and looking at a distance—(to borrow
M. Huce’s graphic simile)—like fat-bodied, long-legged
spiders! ‘Their general shape is hexagonal, about twelve
feet either way, and they are stretched over six short posts,
and encircled with a low stone wall, except im front. In
one of them I found a buxom girl, the image of good
humour, making butter and curd from yak-milk. The
churns were of two kinds; one being an oblong box of
birch-bark, or close bamboo wicker-work, full of branched
rhododendron twigs, in which the cream is shaken: she
good-naturedly showed me the inside, which was frosted
with snow-white butter, and alive with maggots. The
other churn was a goat-skin, which was rolled about, and
shaken by the four legs. The butter is made into great
squares, and packed in yak-hair cloths; the curd is eaten
either fresh, or dried and pulverised (when it is called
“'T's’cheuzip ”’).

Except bamboo and copper milk-vessels, wooden ladles,
tea-churn, and pots, these tents contained no furniture but
goat-skins and blankets, to spread on the ground as a bed.
The fire was made of sheep and goats’-droppings, lighted
with juniper-wood ; above it hung tufts of yaks’-hair, one

* This is the C. scaposa, n. sp. The common Caltha palustris, or “marsh

marigold” of England, which is not found in Sikkim, is very abundant in the
north-west Himalaya.

78 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XX.

for every animal lost during the season,* by which means
a reckoning is kept. Although this girl had never before
seen a European, she seemed in no way discomposed at my
visit, and gave me a large slice of fresh curd.

Beyond this place (alt. 14,500 feet), the valley runs
up north-east, becoming very stony and desolate, with green
patches only by the watercourses: at this place, however,
thick fogs came on, and obscured all view. At 15,000 feet,
I passed a small glacier on the west side of the valley, the
first I had met with. that descended nearly to the river,
during the whole course of the Teesta. |

Five miles further on we arrived at the tents of the
Phipun, whose wife was prepared to entertain us with
‘Tartar hospitality: magnificent tawny Tibet mastiffs were
baying at the tent-door, and some yaks and ponies were
erazing close by. We mustered twelve m number, and
squatted cross-legged in a circle inside the tent, the Soubah
and myself being placed on a pretty Chinese rug. Salted and
buttered tea was immediately prepared im a tea-pot for us
on the mat, and in a great caldron for the rest of the party;
parched rice and wheat-flour, curd, and roasted maizet
were offered us, and we each produced our wooden cup,
which was kept constantly full of scaldmg tea-soup, which,
being made with fresh butter, was very good. ‘The flour
was the favourite food, of which each person dexterously
formed little dough-balls in his cup, an operation I could
not well manage, and only succeeded in making a nauseous
paste, that stuck to my jaws and in my throat. Our

* The Siberians hang tufts of horse-hair inside their houses from superstitious
motives (Ermann’s “ Siberia,” i., 281).

+ Called “ pop-corn” in America, and prepared by roasting the maize in an iron
vessel, when it splits and turns partly inside out, exposing a snow-white spongy
mass of farina, It looks very handsome, and would make a beautiful dish for
dessert.

%

JuLy, 1849, FALLING ROCKS, &ce. 79

hostess’ hospitality was too evzgeant for me, but the
others seemed as if they could not drink enough of the
scalding tea.

We were suddenly startled from our repast by a noise
hke loud thunder, crash following crash, and echoing through
the valley. The Phipun got up, and coolly said, “The
rocks are falling, it is time we were off, it will rain soon.”
The moist vapours had by this time so accumulated, as to
be condensed in rain on the cliffs of Chomiomo and Kin-
chinjhow ; which, being loosened, precipitated avalanches
of rocks and snow. We proceeded amidst dense fog, soon
followed by hard rain; the roar of falling rocks on either
hand imcreasing as these invisible giants spoke to one
another in voices of thunder through the clouds. The
effect was indescribably grand : and as the weather cleared,
and I obtained transient peeps of their precipices of blue
ice and black rock towering 5000 feet above me on either
hand, the feeling of awe produced was almost overpowering.
Heavy banks of vapour still veiled the mountains, but the
rising mist exposed a broad stony track, along which the
Lachen wandered, split mto mnumerable channels, and
enclosing little oases of green vegetation, lighted up by
occasional gleams of sunshine. ‘Though all around was
enveloped in gloom, there was in front a high blue arc of
cloudless sky, between the beetling cliffs that formed the
stern portals of the Kongra Lama pass.

CHAPTER XXII.

Top of Kongra Lama—Tibet frontier—Elevation—View —Vegetation—Descent
to Tungu—Tungu-choo-—Ponies—Kinchinjhow and Changokhang moun-
tains — Palung plains— Tibetans — Dogs— Dingcham province of Tibet —
Inhabitants—Dresses—W omen’s ornaments—Blackening faces—Coral—Tents
—Elevation of Palung—Lama—Shawl-wool goats—Shearing—Siberian plants
—Height of glaciers, and perpetual snow—Geology—Plants, and wild
animals—Marmots—Insects—Birds—Choongtam Lama—Religious exercises
—Tibetan hospitality —Delphinium—Perpetual snow—Temperature at Tungu
—Return to Tallum Samdong—To Lamteng—Houses—Fall of Barometer—
Cicadas—Lime deposit—Landslips—Arrival at Choongtam—Cobra— Rageu
—Heat of Climate—Velocity and volume of rivers measured—Leave for
Lachoong valley—Keadom—General features of valley—Lachoong village—
Tunkra mountain—Moraines—Cultivation—Lachoong Phipun—Lama cere-
monies beside a sick-bed.

We reached the boundary between Sikkim and Tibet early
in the afternoon ; it is drawn along Kongra Lama, which
is a low flat spur running east from Kinchinjhow towards
Chomiomo, at a point where these mountains are a few
miles apart, thus crossing the Lachen river: * it is marked
by cairns of stone, some rudely fashioned into chaits,
covered with votive rags on wands of bamboo. I made the
altitude by barometer 15,745 feet above the sea, and by
boilmg water, 15,694 feet, the water boiling at 184.1°; the
temperature of the air between 2. 40. and 4 p.m. varied
from 41° 3 to 42° 5, the dew-point 39°8°; that of the

* The upper valley of the Lachen in Tibet, which I ascended in the following

October, is very open, flat, barren, and stony; it is bounded on the north by —

rounded spurs from Chomiomo, which are continued east to Donkia, forming
a watershed to the Lachen on the south, and to the Arun on the north.

JuLy, 1849. KONGRA LAMA PASS. 81

Lachen was 47°, which was remarkably high. We were
bitterly cold; as the previous rain had wetted us through,
and a keen wind was blowing up the valley. The con-
tinued mist and fog intercepted all view, except of the flanks
of the great mountains on either hand, of the rugged snowy
ones to the south, and of those bounding the Lachen to the
north. The latter were unsnowed, and appeared lower
than Kongra Lama, the ground apparently sloping away in
that direction; but when I ascended them, three months
afterwards, | found they were 3000 feet higher! a proof
how utterly fallacious are estimates of height, when
formed by the eye alone. My informants called them
Peuka-t’hlo; “peu” signifies north in Tibetan, and
“t’hlo ” a hill in Lepcha. |
Isolated patches of vegetation appeared on the top of
the pass, where I gathered forty kinds of plants, most. of
them bemg of a tufted habit characteristic of an extreme
climate ; some (as species of Caryophylle@) forming hemi-
spherical balls on the naked soil ; others* growimg in matted
tufts level with the ground. The greater portion had no
woolly covering ; nor did | find any of the cottony species
of Sausswrea, which are so common on the wetter mountains
to the southward. Some most delicate-flowered plants
even defy the biting winds of these exposed regions ; such
are a prickly Meconopsis with slender flower-stalks and
four large blue poppy-like petals, a Cyananthus with a
membranous bell-shaped corolla, and a fritillary. Other
curious plants were a little yellow saxifrage with long
runners (very like the arctic S. flagellaris, of Spitzbergen

* The other plants found on the pass were ; of smooth hairless ones, Ranunculus,
Fumitory, several species of Stelluria, Arenaria, Crucifere, Parnassia, Morina,
saxifrages, Sedum, primrose, Herminium, Polygonum, Cumpanula, Umbellifere,
grasses and Carices: of woolly or hairy ones, Anemone, Artemisia, Myusotis,
Draba, Potentilla, and several Composile, &c.

VOL. II. G

4)
bo

KONGRA LAMA PASS. Cuap. XXI.

and Melville Island), and the strong-scented spikenard
(Nardostachys).

The rocks were chiefly of reddish quartz, and so was
the base of Chomiomo. Kinchinjhow on the contrary was
of gneiss, with granite veins: the strike of both was north-
west, and the dip north-east 20° to 30°.

We made a fire at the top with sheep’s droppings, of
which the Phipun had brought up a bagfull, and with it a
pair of goat-skin bellows, which worked by a slit that was
opened by the hand in the act of raising; when inflated, the
hole was closed, and the skin pressed down, thus forcing
the air through the bamboo nozzle: this 1s the common
form of bellows throughout Tibet and the Himalaya.

After two hours [ was very stiff and cold, and suffering
from headache and giddiness, owing to the elevation ; and
having walked about thirteen miles botanizmg, I was
glad to ride down. We reached the Plipun’s tents about
6 p.m., and had more tea before proceeding to Tungu.
The mght was fortunately fine and calm, with a few stars
and a bright young moon, which, with the glare from the
snows, lighted up the valley, and revealed magnificent
elimpses of the majestic mountains. As the moon sank,
and we descended the narrowing valley, darkness came on,
and with a boy to lead my sure-footed pony, I was at liberty
uninterruptedly to reflect on the events of a day, on which
I had attamed the object of so many years’ ambition.
Now that all obstacles were surmounted, and I was returning
laden with materials for extending the knowledge of a
science which had formed the pursuit of my life, will it be
wondered at that I felt proud, not less for my own sake, —
than for that of the many friends, both in India and at
home, who were interested in my success ?

We arrived at Tungu at 9 p.m., my pony not having —

JULY, 1849. EXCURSION TO TIBETAN CAMP. 83

stumbled once, though the path was rugged, and crossed by
many rapid streams. The Soubah’s little shaggy steed had
carried his portly frame (fully fifteen stone weight) the
whole way out and back, and when he dismounted, it
shook itself, snorted, and seemed quite ready for supper.

On the following morning | was occupied in noting and
arranging my collections, which consisted of upwards of
200 plants; all gathered above 14,000 feet elevation.*
Letters arrived from Dorjiling with unusual speed, having
been only seventeen days on the road: they were full of,
valuable suggestions and encouragement from my friends
Hodgson, Campbell, and Tchebu Lama.

On the 26th of July the Phipun, who waited on me
every morning with milk and butter, and whose civility and
attentions were now unremitting, proposed that I should
accompany him to an encampment of Jibetans, at the foot
of Kinchinjhow. We mounted ponies, and ascended the
Tunguchoo eastwards: it was a rapid river for the first
thousand feet, flowing in a narrow gorge, between sloping,
grassy, and rocky hills, on which large herds of yaks were
feeding, tended by women and children, whose black tents
were scattered about. The yak-calves left their mothers to
run beside our ponies, which became unmanageable, being
almost callous to the bit; and the whole party was
sometimes careering over the slopes, chased by the grunting
herds : in other places, the path was narrow and dangerous,
when the sagacious animals proceeded with the utmost
gravity and caution. Rounding one rocky spur, my pony
stumbled, and pitched me forward: fortunately I lighted
on the path.

* Amongst them the most numerous Natural orders and genera were, Crucifere
10; Composite 20; Ranunculacee 10; Alsinee 9; Astragali 10; Potentille 8 ;
grasses 12; Carices 15; Pedicularis 7; Boraginee 7.

a2

84 . PALUNG, Cuap. XXI.

The rocks were gneiss, with granite veins (strike north-
east, dip south-east): they were covered with Lphedra,*
an Onosma which yields a purple dye, Orchis, and species
of Androsace; while the slopes were clothed with the
spikenard and purple Pedicularis, and the moist grounds
with yellow cowslip and long grass. A sudden bend in
the valley opened a superb view to the north, of the full
front of Kinchinjhow, extending for four or five miles east
and west ; its perpendicular sides studded with the immense
icicles, which are said to have obtained for it the name
of “jhow,’—the “bearded” Kinchin. Eastward a jagged
spur stretches south, rising into another splendid mountam,
called Chango-khang (the Hagle’s crag), from whose flanks
descend great glaciers, the sources of the Tunguchoo.

We followed the course of an affluent, called the Cha-
choo, along whose bed ancient moraines rose m successive
ridges: on these I found several other species of European
genera.t Over one of these moraines, 500 feet high, the
path ascends to the plains of Palung, an elevated grassy
expanse, two miles long and four broad, extending south-
ward from the base of Kinchinjhow. Its surface, though
very level for so mountamous a country, is yet varied with
open valleys and sloping hills, 500 to 700 feet Ingh: it
is bounded on the west’ by low rounded spurs from
Kinchinjhow, that form the flank of the Lachen valley ;
while on the east it is separated from Chango-khang by

the Chachoo, which cuts a deep east and west trench along.

the base of Kinchinjhow, and then turns south to the

* A curious genus of small shrubs allied to pines, that grows in the south of

Europe. This species is the European £. vulgaris ; it inhabits the driest parts of

north-west India, and ascends to 17,000 feet in Tibet, but is not found in the
moist intervening countries.

+ Delphinium, Hypecoum, Sagina, Gymnandra, Artemisia, Caltha, Dracocephalum,
Leontopodium.

3

JULY, 1849. TIBETAN CAMP ON PALUNG PLAINS. 85

Tunguchoo. The course of the Chachoo, where it turns
south, is most curious: it meanders in sickle-shaped curves
along the marshy bottom of an old lake-bed, with steep
shelving sides, 500 to 600 feet deep, and covered with
juniper bushes.* It is fed by the glaciers of Kinchinjhow,
and some little lakes to the east.

The mean height of Palung plains is 16,000 fect: they
are covered with transported blocks, and I have no doubt
their surface has been much modified by glacial action.
I was forcibly reminded of them by the slopes of the
Wengern Alp, but those of Palung are far more level.
Kinchinjhow rises before the spectator, Just as the Jungfrau,
Monch, and Higher Alps do from that magnificent point of
view.

On ascending a low hill, we came in sight of the Tibet
camp at the distance of a mile, when the great mastiffs that
guarded it immediately bayed ; and our ponies starting off
at full gallop, we soon reached an enclosure of stone dykes,
within which the black tents were pitched. The dogs
were of immense size, and ragged, like the yaks, from their
winter coat hanging to their flanks in ereat masses ; each
was chained near a large stone, on and off which he leapt
as he gave tongue; they are very savage, but great
cowards, and not remarkable for intelligence.

The people were natives of Gearee and Kambajong, in
the adjacent province of Dingcham, which is the loftiest,
coldest, most windy and arid in Eastern Tibet, and in which
are the sources of ail the streams that flow to Nepal, Sikkim,
and Bhotan on the one side, and into the Yaru-tsampu on
the other. These families repair yearly to Palung, with
their flocks, herds, and tents, paying tribute to the Sikkim

* These, which grow on an eastern exposure, exist at a higher elevation than
any other bushes I have met with.

86 PALUNG. CHap, XX:

Rajah for the privilege: they arrive 1 June and leave m
September. Both men and women were indescribably
filthy ; as they never wash, their faces were perfectly black
with smoke and exposure, and the women’s with a pigment
of grease as a protection from the wind. ‘lhe men were

LEPCHA GIRLS (THE OUTER FIGURES), AND TIBETAN WOMEN.

dressed as usual, in the blanket-cloak, with brass pipes, long
knives, flint, steel, and amulets; the women wore similar,
but shorter cloaks, with silver and copper cirdles, trowsers,
and flannel boots. heir head-dresses were very remarkable.
A circular band of plaited yak’s hair was attached to the
back hair, and encircled the head like a saint's elory,* at

some distance round it. A band crossed the forehead,

* ] find in Ermann’s “Siberia” (i., p. 210), that the married women of Yekater-
inberg wear a head-dress like an ancient glory covered with jewels, whilst the
unmarried ones plait their tresses. The same distinguished traveller mentions
having seen a lad of six years old suckled, amongst the Tungooze of East Siberia.

JuLy, 1849. TIBETANS. FURNITURE OF TENTS. 87

from which coins, corals, and turquoises, hung down to
the eyebrows, while lappets of these ornaments fell over
the ears. Their own hair was plaited in two tails, brought
over the shoulders, and fastened together in front ; and a
little yellow felt cap, traversely elongated, so as not to
interfere with the shape of the glory, was perched on
the head. ‘Their countenances were pleasing, and_ their
manners timid.

The children crawled half-naked about the tent, or
burrowed like moles in an immense heap of goats’ and
sheep-droppings, piled up for fuel, upon which the family
lounged. An infant in arms was playing with a “coral,”
ornamented much like ours, and was covered with jewels
and coms. ‘his custom of decorating children is very
common amongst half-civilised people; and the coral is,
perhaps, one of the last relics of a barbarous age that is
retained amongst ourselves. One mother was nursing her
baby, and churning at the same time, by rolling the goat-
skin of yak-milk about on the ground. Extreme poverty
induces the practice of nursing the children for years ; and
in one tent | saw a lad upwards of four years of age
unconcernedly taking food from his aunt, and immediately
afterwards chewing hard dry grains of maize.

The tents were pitched in holes about two feet and a
half deep; and within them a wall of similar height was
built all round: in the middle was a long clay arched
fire-place, with holes above, over which the cauldrons were
placed, the fire being underneath. Saddles, horse-cloths,
and the usual accoutrements and implements of a nomade
people, all of the rudest description, hung about: there
was no bed or stool, but Chinese rugs for sleeping on.
I boiled water on the fire-place; its temperature (184° 5)
with that of the air (45° 5) gave an elevation of 15,867

88 PALUNG. Caap. XXI.

feet. Barometric observations, taken in October, at a
pomt considerably lower down the stream, made the
elevation 15,620 feet, or a few feet lower than Kongra
Lama pass.

A Lama accompanied this colony of Tibetans, a festival
in honour of Kinchinjhow being annually held at a large
chait hard by, which is painted red, ornamented with
banners, and surmounted by an enormous yak’s skull, that
faces the mountain. ‘The Lama invited me into his tent,
where I found a wife and family. An extempore altar
was at one end, covered with wafers and other pretty
ornaments, made of butter, stamped or moulded with the
fingers.* The tents bemg insupportably noisome, I
preferred partaking of the buttered brick-tea in the open
ar; after which, I went to see the shawl-wool goats
sheared in a pen close by. There are two varieties: one
is a large animal, with great horns, called “ Rappoo ;”+ the
other smaller, and with slender horns, is called “ 'T'silloo.”’
The latter yields the finest wool, but they are mixed for
ordinary purposes. I was assured that the sheep (of
which large flocks were grazing near) afford the finest
wool of any. The animals were caught by the tail, their
legs tied, the long winter’s hair pulled out, and the
remainder cut away with a broad flat knife, which was
sharpened with a scythe-stone. ‘The operation was clum-
sily performed, and the skin much cut.

Turnips are grown at Palung during the short stay of
the people, and this is the most alpine cultivation in
Sikkim: the seed is sown early m July, and the tubers are

fit to be eaten in October, if the season is favourable.

* The extensive use of these ornaments throughout Tibet, on the occasion of
religious festivals, is alluded to by MM. Huc and Gabet.

+ This is the “Changra,” and the smaller the “Chyapu” of Mr. Hodgson’s
catalogue. (See “ British Museum Catalogue.”)

|
;

JuLy, 1849. VEGETATION OF PALUNG PLAINS. 89

They did not come to maturity this year, as I found
on again visiting this spot in October ; but their tops had
afforded the poor Tibetans some good vegetables. The
mean temperature of the three summer months at Palung
is probably about 40°, an element of comparatively little
importance in regulating the growth and ripening of
vegetables at great elevations in Tibetan climates ; where a
warm exposure, the amount of sunshine, and of radiated
heat, have a much greater influence.

During the winter, when these families repair to Kam-
bajong, in Tibet, the flocks and herds are all stall-fed, with
long grass, cut on the marshy banks of the Yaru. Snow
is said to fall five feet deep at that place, chiefly after
January ; and it melts in April.

After tea, I ascended the hills overhanging the Lachen
valley, which are very bare and stony; large flocks of
sheep were feeding on them, chiefly upon small tufted
sedges, allied to the English Carew pilularis, which here
forms the greatest part of the pasture: the grass grows
mixed with it in small tufts, and is the common Scotch
mountain pasture-grass (Mestuca ovina).

On the top of these hills, which, for barrenness, reminded
me of the descriptions given of the Siberian steppes, I
found, at 17,000 feet elevation, several minute arctic plants,
with Rhododendron nivale, the most alpine of woody
plants. On their sterile slopes grew a curious plant
allied to the Cherleria of the Scotch Alps, forming great
hemispherical balls on the ground, eight to ten inches
across, altogether resembling in habit the curious Balsam-
bog (Bolax glebaria) of the Falkland Islands, which grows
in very similar scenes.*

* Arenariarupifraga, Fenzl. This plant is mentioned by Dr. Thomson (“Travels
in Tibet,” p. 426) as common in Tibet, as far north as the Karakoram, at an

90 PALUNG. Cuar. XXL |

A few days afterwards, I again visited Palung, with
the view of ascertaining the height of perpetual snow on
the south face of Kinchinjhow ; unfortunately, bad weather
came on before I reached the Tibetans, from whom I
obtained a guide im consequence. From this place a
ride of about four miles brought me to the source of the
Chachoo, in a deep ravine, containing the terminations of
several short, abrupt glaciers,* and into which were pre-
cipitated avalanches of snow and ice. I found it impossible
to distinguish the glacial ice from perpetual snow; the
larger beds of snow where presenting a flat surface, being
generally drifts collected in hollows, or accumulations that
have fallen from above: when these accumulations rest on
slopes they become converted into ice, and, obeying the
laws of fluidity, flow downwards as glaciers. I boiled
water at the most advantageous position I could select, and
obtained an elevation of 16,522 feet.— It was snowing
heavily at this time, and we crouched under a gigantic

elevation between 16,000 and 18,000 feet. In Sikkim it is found at the same
level. Specimens of it are exhibited in the Kew Museum. As one instance
illustrative of the chaotic state of Indian botany, I may here mention that this
little plant, a denizen of such remote and inaccessible parts of the globe, and
which has only been known to science a dozen years, bears the burthen of no less
than six names in botanical works. This is the Bryomorpha rupifraga of Karelin
and Kireloff (enumeration of Soongarian plants), who first described it from
specimens gathered in 1841, on the Alatau mountains (east of Lake Aral). In
Ledebour’s ‘‘Flora Rossica” (i. p. 780) it appears as Arenaria (sub-genus Dicranilla)
rupifraga, Fenzl, MS. In Decaisne and Cambessede’s Plants of Jaecquemont’s
“ Voyage aux Indes Orientales,” it is described as Flourensia ceexpitosa, and in the
plates of that work it appears as Periandra cespitosa ; and lastly, in Endlicher’s
‘‘Genera Plantarum,” Fenzl proposes the long new generic name of Thylacospermum
for it. I have carefully compared the Himalayan and Alatau plants, and find no
difference between them, except that the flower of the Himalayan one has 4 petals
and sepals, 8 stamens, and 2 styles, and that of the Alatau 5 petals and sepals, 10
stamens, and 2—8 styles, characters which are very variable in allied plants.
The flowers appear polygamous, as in the Scotch alpine Cherlerta, which it much
resembles in habit, and to which it is very nearly related in botanical characters.

* De Saussure’s glaciers of the second order: see “ Forbes’ Travels in the
Alps,” p. 79.

+ Temperature of boiling water, 183°, air 35°.

ULY, 1849. NATURAL HISTORY OF PALUNG. 91

boulder, benumbed with cold. I had fortunately brought
a small phial of brandy, which, with hot water from the
boiling-apparatus kettle, refreshed us wonderfully.

The spur that divides these plains from the Lachen
river, rises close to Kinchinjhow, as a lofty cliff of quartzy
gneiss, dipping north-east 30°: this 1 had noticed from the
Kongra Lama side. On this side the dip was also to the
northward, and the whole cliff was crossed by cleavage
planes, dipping south, and apparently cutting those of the
foliation at an angle of about 60°: it is the only decided
instance of the kind I met with in Sikkim. I regretted not
being able to examine it carefully, but I was prevented by
the avalanches of stones and snow which were continually
being detached from its surface.”

The plants found close to the snow were minute primroses,
Parnassia, Draba, tutted wormwoods (4rfemisia), saxi-
frages, gentian, small Composite, grasses, and sedges.
Our ponies unconcernedly scraped away the snow with
their hoofs, and nibbled the scanty herbage. When I
mounted mine, he took the bit between his teeth, and

* Textremely regret not having been at this time acquainted with Mr. D. Sharpe’s
able essays on the foliation, cleavage, &c., of slaty rocks, gneiss, &c., in the
Geological Society’s Journal (ii. p. 74, and v. p. 111), and still more so with his
subsequent papers in the Philosophical Transactions: as I cannot doubt that
many of his observations, and in particular those which refer to the great
arches in which the folia (commonly called strata) are disposed, would receive
ample illustration from a study of the Himalaya, At vol. i. p. 309, I have dis-
tantly alluded to such an arrangement of the gneiss, &c., into arches, in Sikkim,
to which my attention was naturally drawn by the writings of Professor Sedg-
wick (“ Geolog. Soe. Trans.) and Mr. Darwin (“ Geological Observations in South
America”) on these obscure subjects. I may add that wherever 1 met with the
gneiss, mica, schists, and slates, in Sikkim, very near one another, I invariably
found that their cleavage and foliation were conformable. This, for example,
may be seen in the bed of the great Rungeet, below Dorjiling, where the slates
overlie mica schists, and where the latter contain beds of conglomerate. In these
volumes I have often used the more familiar term of stratification, for foliation.
This arises from my own ideas of the subject not having been clear when the
notes were taken.

92 TUNGU. Caap. XXI.

scampered back to Palung, over rocks and_ hills, through
bogs and streams; and though the snow was so
blinding that no object could be distinguished, he
brought me to the tents with unerring instinct, as straight
as an arrow.

Wild animals are few in kind and rare in individuals,
at Tungu and elsewhere on this frontier; though there is
no lack of cover and herbage. This must be owing to the
moist cold atmosphere ; and it reminds me that a similar
want of animal life is characteristic of those climates at the
level of the sea, which T have adduced as bearing a great
analogy to the Himalaya, in lacking certain natural orders of
plants. ‘Thus, New Zealand and Fuegia possess, the former
no land animal but a rat, and the latter very few indeed,
and none of any size. Such is also the case in Scotland
and Norway. Again, on the damp west coast of Tasmania,
quadrupeds are rare; whilst the dry eastern half of the
island once swarmed with opossums and kangaroos. <A
few miles north of Tungu, the sterile and more lofty pro-
vinces of Tibet abound in wild horses, antelopes, hares, ~
foxes, marmots, and numerous other quadrupeds ; although
their altitude, climate, and scanty vegetation are apparently
even more unsuited to support such numbers of animals
of so large a size than the karroos of South Africa, and
the steppes of Siberia and Arctic America, which simi-
larly abound in animal life. The laws which govern the
distribution of large quadrupeds seem to be intimately
connected with those of climate; and we should have
regard to these considerations in our geological specula-
tions, and not draw hasty conclusions from the absence
of the remains of large herbivora in formations disclosing a
redundant vegetation.

Besides the wild sheep found on these mountains, a species

JuLyY, 1849. TUNGU. HOSPITALITY OF TIBETANS. 93

b)

of marmot * (“ Kardiepicu” of the Tibetans) sometimes
migrates in swarms (like the Lapland ‘“ Lemming”) from
Tibet as far as Tungu. There are few birds but red-

VW
if,
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(Wabi. Zs
a 4 UA i | Me eae
Wi, DW Mp LE ig amet ae
as ULF en Vite! Rare

TIBET MARMOT,

legged crows and common ravens. Most of the insects
belonged to arctic types, and they were numerous in
individuals. +

The Choongtam Lama was at a small temple near Tungu
during the whole of my stay, but he would not come to visit
me, pretending to be absorbed in his devotions. Passing
one day by the temple, I found him catechising two young
aspirants for holy orders. He is one of the Dukpa sect,
wore his mitre, and was seated cross-legged on the grass
with his scriptures on his knees: he put questions to the
boys, when he who answered best took the other some yards

* The Lagopus Tibetanus of Hodgson. I procured one that displayed an
extraordinary tenacity of life: part of the skull was shot away, and the brain
protruded; still it showed the utmost terror at my dog.

+ As Meloe, and some flower-feeding lamellicorns. Of butterflies I saw blues
(Polyommatus), marbled whites, Pontia, Colias and Argynnis. A small Curculio
was frequent, and I found Scolopendra, ants and earthworms, on sunny exposures
as high as 15,500 feet.

94 TUNGU. Cuap. XXI.

off, put him down on his hands and knees, threw a cloth
over his back, and mounted ; then kicking, spurring, and
cuffing his steed, he was galloped back to the Lama and
kicked off ; when the catechismg recommenced.

I spent a week at ‘Tungu most pleasantly, ascending the
neighbouring mountains, and mixing with the people, whom
I found uniformly kind, frank, and extremely hospitable ;
sending their children after me to invite me to stop at their
tents, smoke, and drink tea; often refusing any remunera-
tion, and giving my attendants curds and yak-flesh. If on
foot, | was entreated to take a pony ; and when tired I never
scrupled to catch one, twist a yak-hair rope over its jaw as
a bridle, and throwing a goat-hair cloth upon its back (f
no saddle were at hand), ride away whither I would.
Next morning a boy would be sent for the steed, perhaps
bringing an invitation to come and take it again. So I
became fond of brick-tea boiled with butter, salt, and
soda, and expert in the Tartar saddle; ridmg about
perched on the shoulders of a rough pony, with my feet
nearly on a level with my pockets, and my knees almost
meeting in front.

On the 28th of July much snow fell on the hills around,
as low as 14,000 feet, and half an inch of rain at Tungu ;*
the former soon melted, and I made an excursion to Cho-
miomo on the following day, hoping to reach the lower line
of perpetual snow. Ascending the valley of the Chomio-
choo, I struck north up a steep slope, that ended in a spur
of vast tabular masses of quartz and felspar, piled like slabs
in a stone quarry, dipping south-west 5° to 10°, and striking
north-west. These resulted from the decomposition of
gneiss, from which the layers of mica had been washed
away, when the rain and frost splitting up the fragments,

* An inch and a half fell at Dorjiling during the same period.

JULY, 1849. LEAVE TUNGU. ARRIVE AT CHOONGTAM. 95

the dislocation is continued to a great depth mto the sub-
stance of the rock. 7

Large silky cushions of a forget-me-not grew amongst
the rocks, spangled with beautiful blue flowers, and looking
hike turquoises set m silver: the Delphinium glaciale*
was also abundant, exhaling a rank smell of musk. It indi-
cates a very great elevation in Sikkim, and on my ascent far
above it, therefore, I was not surprised to find water boil
at 182° 6 (air 43°), which gives an altitude of 16,754 feet.

A dense fog, with sleet, shut out all view; and I did not
know in what direction to proceed higher, beyond the top
of the sharp, stony ridge I had attamed. Here there was
no perpetual snow, which is to be accounted for by the
nature of the surface facilitating its removal, the edges of
the rocks which project through the snow, becoming heated,
and draiming off the water as it melts.

During my stay at Tungu, from the 23rd to the 30th of
July, no day passed without much deposition of moisture, but
generally in so light a form that throughout the whole time
but one inch was registered in the rain-gauge ; during the
same time four inches and a half of rain fell at Dorjiling,
and three inches and a half at Calcutta. The mean tem-
perature was 50° ("="); extremes, =. The mean range
(23° 3) was thus much greater than at Dorjiling, where it
was only 8° 9. A thermometer, sunk three feet, varied
only a few tenths from 57° 6. By twenty-five comparative
observations with Calcutta, 1° Fahr. is the equivalent of
every 362 feet of ascent ; and twenty comparative observa-
tions with Dorjilmg give 1° for every 340 feet. The
barometer rose and fell at the same hours as at lower

* This new species has been described for the “ Flora Indica” of Dr. Thomson
and myself: it is a remarkable plant, very closely resembling, and as it were
representing, the D. Brunonianum of the Western Himalaya. The latter plant
smells powerfully of musk, but not so disagreeably as this does.

96 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XXI,

elevations; the tide amounting to 0°060 inch, between
9°50 a.m. and 4 P.M.

I left Tungu on the 30th of July, and spent that night
at T'allum, where a large party of men had just arrived,
with loads of madder, rice, canes, bamboos, planks, &c.,
to be conveyed to Tibet on yaks and ponies.* On the
followmg day I descended to Lamteng, gathering a
profusion of fine plants by the way.

The flat on which I had encamped at this place in
May and June, being now a marsh, I took up my
abode for two days in one of the houses, and paid the
usual penalty of communication with these filthy people ;
for which my only effectual remedy was boiling all my
garments and bedding. Yet the house was high, airy,
and light; the walls composed of bamboo, lath, and
plaster.

Tropical Cicadas ascend to the pine-woods above Lam-
teng in this month, and chirp shrilly in the heat of the —
day ; and glow-worms fly about at night. The common —
Bengal and Java toad, Bufo scabra, abounded im_ the
marshes, a remarkable instance of wide geographical dis-
tribution, for a Batrachian which is common at the level
of the sea under the tropics.

On the 3rd of August I descended to Choongtam, which
1 reached on the 5th. The lakes on the Chateng flat
(alt. 8,750 feet) were very full, and contained many English
water-plants :+ the temperature of the water was 92° near

* About 300 loads of timber, each of six planks, are said to be taken across
the Kongra Lama pass annually; and about 250 of rice, besides canes, madder, |
bamboos, cottons, cloths, and Symplocos leaves for dyeing. This is, no doubt, a
considerably exaggerated statement, and may refer to both the Kongra Lama and
Donkia passes.

+ Sparganium ramosum, Eleocharis palustris, Scirpus triqueter, and Callitriche
vernad ? Some very tropical genera ascend thus high; as Paspalum amongst
grasses, and Scleria, a kind of sedge.

Ava, 1849, LIME DEPOSIT. 97

the edges, where a water-msect (Vofonecta) was swimming
about.

Below this I passed an extensive stalactitic deposit of
lime, and a second occurred lower down, on the opposite
side of the valley. The apparently total absence of lime-
stone rocks in any part of Sikkim (for which I made
careful search), renders these deposits, which are far from
unfrequent, very curious. Can the limestone, which
appears in Tibet, underlie the gneiss of Sikkim? We
cannot venture to assume that these lime-charged streams,
which in Sikkim burst from the steep flanks of narrow
mountain spurs, at elevations between 1000 and 7000 feet,
have any very remote or deep origin. If the limestone be
not below the gneiss, it must either occur intercalated with
it, or be the remains of a formation now all but denuded in
Sikkim.

Terrific landslips had taken place along the valley,
carrying down acres of rock, soil, and pine-forests, into the
stream. I saw one from Kampo Samdong, on the opposite
flank of the valley, which swept over 100 yards in breadth
of forest. I looked in vain for any signs of scratching or
scoring, at all comparable to that produced by glacial
action. ‘The bridge at the Tuktoong, mentioned at p. 31,
being carried away, we had to ascend for 1000 feet (to a
place where the river could be crossed) by a very precipitous
path, and descend on the opposite side. In many places
we had great difficulty im proceeding, the track being
obliterated by the rains, torrents, and landslips. Along
the flats, now covered with a dense rank vegetation, we
waded ancle, and often knee, deep in mud, swarming with
leeches; and instead of descending into the valley of
the now too swollen Lachen, we made long detours, rounding
spurs by canes and bamboos suspended from trees.

VOL. IL. H

93 CHOONGTAM. Cuap. XXI.

At Choongtam the rice-fields were flooded: and the
whole flat was a marsh, covered with tropical grasses and
weeds, and alive with insects, while the shrill cries of
cicadas, frogs and birds, filled the air. Sand-fles, mos-
quitos, cockroaches, and enormous cockchafers,* J/aniis,
ereat locusts, grasshoppers, flying-bugs, crickets, ants,
spiders, caterpillars, and leeches, were but a few of the
pests that swarmed in my tent and made free with my
bed. Great lazy butterflies floated through the air;
Thecla and Hesperides skipped about, and the great
Nymphalide darted around like swallows. ‘The venomous
black cobra was common, and we left the path with great
caution, as it is a lazy reptile, and lies basking in the
sun; many beautiful and harmless green snakes, four
feet long, glided amongst the bushes. My dogs caught
a “Rageu,’ + a very remarkable animal, half goat and
half deer ; the flesh was good and tender, dark-coloured,
and lean.

I remained here till the 15th of August,{ arrangimg my

* Eucerris Grifithii, a magnificent species. Three very splendid insects of the
outer ranges of Sikkim never occurred in the interior: these are a gigantic Curculio
(Calandra) a wood-borer ; a species of Goliath-beetle, Chetrotonus Macleati, and a
smaller species of the same rare family, Trigonophorus nepalensis ; of these the former
is very scarce, the latter extremely abundant, flying about at evenings; both are
flower-feeders, eating honey and pollen. In the summer of 1848, the months at
Dorjiling were well marked by the swarms of peculiar insects that appeared in incon-
ceivable numbers ; thus, April was marked by a great black Passalus, a beetle one-
and-a-half inch long, that flies in the face and entangles itself in the hair; May, by
stag-beetles and longicorns; June, by Coccinella (lady-birds), white moths, and flying-
bugs; July, by a Dryptis? a long-necked carabideous insect ; August, by myriads
of earwigs, cockroaches, Goliath-beetles, and cicadas ; September, by spiders.

+ “Ragoah,” according to Hodgson: but it is not the Procapra picticaudata
of Tibet.

~ Though 5° further north, and 5,268 feet above the level of Calcutta, the mean
temperature at Choongtam this month was only 12° 5 cooler than at Calcutta ;
forty observations giving 1° Fahr. as equal to 690 feet of elevation ; whereas in
May the mean of twenty-seven observations gave 1° Fahr. as equal to 260 feet,
the mean difference of temperature being then 25°. The mean maximum of the
day was 80°, and was attained at 11 a. M., after which clouds formed, and the

Aue. 1849. VELOCITY AND DISCHARGE OF RIVERS. 99

Lachen valley collections previous to starting for the
Lachoong, whence I hoped to reach Tibet again by a
different route, crossmg the Donkia pass, and thence
explormg the sources of the Teesta at the Cholamoo
lakes.

Whilst here I ascertained the velocity of the currents of
the Lachen and Lachoong rivers. Both were torrents,
than which none could be more rapid, short of becoming
cataracts : the rains were at their height, and the melting of
the snows at its maximum. I first measured several hundred
yards along the banks of each river above the bridges,
repeating this several times, as the rocks and jungle
rendered it very difficult to do it accurately: then, sitting
on the bridge, I timed floating masses of different materials
and sizes that were thrown in at the upper point. I was
surprised to find the velocity of the Lachen only nine
miles per hour, for its waters seemed to shoot past with
the speed of an arrow, but the floats showed the whole
stream to be so troubled with local eddies and_back-
waters, that it took from forty-three to forty-eight
seconds for each float to pass over 200 yards, as it was
perpetually submerged by under-currents. The breadth of
the river averaged sixty-eight feet, and the discharge was
4,420 cubic feet of water per second. The temperature
was 57°.

At the Lachoong bridge the jungle was still denser,
and the banks quite inaccessible in many places. The
mean velocity was eight miles an hour, the breadth nmety-
five feet, the depth about the same as that of the Lachen,
giving a discharge of 5,700 cubic feet of water per

thermometer fell to 66° at sunset, and 56° at night. In my blanket tent the
heat rose to upwards of 100° in calm weather. The afternoons were generally
squally and rainy.

H 2

100 LACHOONG VALLEY. CuHap. XXI.

second ;* its temperature was also 57°. These streams
retain an extraordinary velocity, for many miles upwards ;
the Lachen to its junction with the Zemu at 9000 feet,
and the Zemu itself as far up as the Thlonok, at 10,000
feet, and the Lachoong to the village of that name, at. 8000
feet: their united streams appear equally rapid till they
become the Teesta at Singtam.t

On the 15th of August, having received supplies from
Jorjiling, 1 started up the north bank of the Lachoong,
following the Singtam Soubah, who accompanied me
officially, and with a very bad grace; poor fellow, he
expected me to have returned with him to Singtam, and
thence gone back to Dorjiling, and many a sore struggle
we had on this point. At Choongtam he had been laid up
with ulcerated legs from the bites of leeches and sand-flies,
which required my treatment.

The path was narrow, and ran through a jungle of
mixed tropical and temperate plants,{ many of which are
not found at this elevation on the damp outer ranges of
Dorjilmg. We crossed to the south bank by a fine cane-
bridge forty yards long, the river bemg twenty-eight across :
and here I have to record the loss of my dog Kinchin ; the
companion of all my late journeyings, and to whom I had
become really attached. He had a bad habit, of which I

* Hence it appears that the Lachoong, being so much the more copious stream,
should in one sense be regarded as the continuation of the Teesta, rather than the
Lachen, which, however, has by far the most distant source. Their united streams
discharge upwards of 10,000 cubic feet of water per second in the height of the
rains ! which is, however, a mere fraction of the discharge of the Teesta when
that river leaves the Himalaya. The Ganges at Hurdwar discharges 8000 feet
per second during the dry season.

t+ The slope of the bed of the Lachen from below the confluence. of the Zemu
to the village of Singtam is 174 feet per mile, or 1 foot in 30; that of the Lachoong
from the village of that name to Singtam is considerably less.

~ As Paris, Dipsacus, Circea, Thalictrum, Saxifraga ciliaris, Spiranthes, Malva,
Hypoxis, Anthericum, Passiflora, Drosera, Didymocarpus, poplar, Calamagrostis, and
Eupatorium.

Aue. 1849. KINCHIN DROWNED. 101

had vainly tried to cure him, of running for a few yards on
the round bamboos by which the cane-bridges are crossed,
and on which it was inpossible for a dog to retain his
footing: in this situation he used to get thoroughly
frightened, and lie down on the bamboos with his legs
hanging over the water, and having no hold whatever. I
had several times rescued him from this perilous position,
which was always rendered more imminent from the
shaking of the bridge as I approached him. On_ the
present occasion, [| stopped at the foot of some rocks
below the bridge, botanizing, and Kainchin _ having
scrambled up the rocks, ran on to the bridge. I could
not see him, and was not thinking about him, when
suddenly his shrill, short barks of terror rang above the
roarmg torrent. | hastened to the bridge, but before I
could get to it, he had lost his footing, and had dis-
appeared. [olding on by the canes, | strained my eyes
till the bridge seemed to be swimming up the valley, and
the swift waters to be standing still, but to no purpose ;
he had been carried under at once, and swept away miles
below. For many days I missed him by my side on the
mountain, and by my feet in camp. He had become a
very handsome dog, with glossy black hair, pendent
triangular ears, short muzzle, high forehead, jet-black
eyes, straight limbs, arched neck, and a most glorious tail
curling over his back.*

A very bad road led to the village of Keadom, situated
on a flat terrace several hundred feet above the river, and
6,609 feet above the sea, where I spent the night. Here
are cultivated plantains and maize, although the elevation

* The woodcut at vol. i. p. 90, gives the character of the Tibet mastiff, to which
breed his father belonged; but it is not a portrait of himself, having been
sketched from a dog of the pure breed, in the Zoological Society’s Gardens, by
C. Jenyns, Esq.

102 LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XXI.

is equal to parts of Dorjiling, where these plants do
not ripen.

The river above Keadom is again crossed, by a plank
bridge, at a place where the contracted streams flow
between banks forty feet high, composed of obscurely
stratified gravel, sand, and water-worn boulders. Above
this the path ascends lofty flat-topped spurs, which
overhang the river, and command some of the most
beautiful scenery in Sikkim. The south-east slopes are
clothed with Adbzes Brunoniana at 8000 feet elevation, and
cleft by a deep ravine, from which projects what appears -
to be an old moraine, fully 1500 or perhaps 2000 feet
high. Extensive landslips on its steep flank expose
(through the telescope) a mass of gravel and angular
blocks, while streams cut deep channels in it.

This valley is far more open and grassy than that of the
Lachen, and the vegetation also differs much.* In the after-
noon we reached Lachoong, which is by far the most pictu-
resque village in the temperate region of Sikkim. Grassy
flats of different levels, sprinkled with brushwood and scat-
tered clumps of pine and maple, occupy the valley ; whose
west flanks rise in steep, rocky, and scantily wooded grassy
slopes. About five miles to the north the valley forks; two
conspicuous domes of snow rising from the mtermediate
mountains. ‘The eastern valley leads to lofty snowed
regions, and is said to be impracticable; the Lachoong flows
down the western, which appeared rugged, and covered with
pme woods. On the east, Tunkra mountain f rises in a

* Umbellifere and Composite abound, and were then flowering; and an orchis
(Satyrium Nepalense), scented like our English Gymnadenia, covered the ground in
some places, with tall green Habenarie and a yellow Spathoglottis, a genus with
pseudo-bulbs. Of shrubs, Xanthoxylon, Rhus, Prinsepia, Cotoneaster, Pyrus, poplar
and oak, formed thickets along the path; while there were as many as eight and
nine kinds of balsams, some eight feet high.

+ This mountain is seen from Dorjiling ; its elevation is about 18,700 feet.

Aua. 1849, MORAINES AND VILLAGE OF LACHOONG. 103

superb unbroken sweep of dark pine-wood and cliffs, sur-
mounted by black rocks and white fingering peaks of snow.
South of this, the valley of the 'Tunkrachoo opens, backed
by sharp snowed pinnacles, which form the continuation of
the Chola range; over which a pass leads to the Phari
district of Tibet, which intervenes between Sikkim and
Bhotan. Southwards the view is bounded by snowy
mountains, and the valley seems blocked up by the
remarkable moraine-like spur which I passed above
Keadom.

Larch.
LACHOONG VALLEY AND VILLAGE, LOOKING SOUTH.

Stupendous moraines rise 1500 feet above the Lachoong
in several concentric series, curving downwards and out-
wards, so as to form a bell-shaped mouth to the valley of
the Tunkrachoo. ‘Those on the upper flank are much the

im _ LACHOONG VALLEY. Caan, SRE.

. eh re ; .
largest - and the loftiest of them terminates in a conical ~
hill crowned with Boodhist flags, and its steep sides cut into,
horizontal roads or terraces, one of which is so broad and
flat as to suggest the idea’ of its having been cleared by art.

Abus Sinithiana. Larch. Abies Brunoniana.

LOFTY ANCIENT MORAINES IN THE LACHOONG VALLEY, LOOKING SOUTH-EAST.

On the south side of the Tunkrachoo river the moraines
are also more or less terraced, as is the floor of the
Lachoong valley, and its east slopes, 1000 feet up.*

* I have since been greatly struck with the similarity between the features of
this valley, and those of Chamouni (though the latter is on a smaller scale)
above the Lavanchi moraine. The spectator standing in the expanded part below
the village of Argentiére, and looking upwards, sees the valley closed above by
the ancient moraine of the Argentiére glacier, and below by that of Lavanchi; and
on all sides the slopes are cut into terraces, strewed with boulders. I found traces

’

Ave 1849. CULTIVATION AT LACHOONG. ial 105°

The river is fourteen yards broad, and neither deep nor
rapid : the village is on the cast bank, and is large for
Sikkim ; it contains fully 100 good wooden houses, raised
on posts, and clustered together without order. It was
muddy and intolerably filthy, and intersected by some
small streams, whose beds formed the roads, and, at the
same -time, the common sewers of the natives. ‘There is
some wretched cultivation in fields,* of wheat, barley, peas,
radishes, and turnips. Rice was once cultivated at this
elevation (S000 feet), but the crop was uncertain ; some
very tropical grasses grow wild here, as “ragrostis and
Panicum. \n gardens the hollyhock is seen : it is said to be
introduced through Tibet from China; also Pinus eacelsa
from Bhotan, peaches, walnuts, and weeping willows. A
tall poplar was pointed out to me as a great wonder; it
had two species of Pyrus growing on its boughs, evidently
from seed; one was a mountain ash, the other lke Pyrus
Aria.

Soon after camping, the Lachoong Phipun, a very tall,
intelligent, and agreeable looking man, waited on me with
the usual presents, and a request that I would visit his sick
father. His house was lofty and airy: i the inner room
the sick man was stretched on a board, covered with a
blanket, and dying of pressure on the brain; he was sur-
rounded by a deputation of Lamas from 'T'eshoo Loombo,
sent for in this emergency. ‘The principal one was a fat
fellow, who sat cross-legged before a block-printed Tibetan

of stratified pebbles and sand on the north flank of the Lavanchi moraine how-
ever, which [ failed to discover in those of Lachoong. The average slope of
these pine-clad Sikkim valleys much approximates to that of Chamouni, and
neverapproaches the precipitous character of the Bernese Alps’ valleys, Kandersteg,
Lauterbrunnen, and Grindelwald.

* Full of such English weeds as shepherd’s purse, nettles, Solanum nigrum, and
dock ; besides many Himalayan ones, as balsams, thistles, a beautiful geranium,
mallow, Haloragis and Cucurbitaceous plants.

106 LACHOONG VALLEY. CHa. XXE

book, plates of raw meat, rice, and other offerings, and the
bells, dorje, &c. of his profession. Others sat around,
reading or chanting services, and filing the room with
incense. At one end of the apartment was a good library
ina beautifully carved book-case.

HEAD AND FEET OF TIBET MARMOT,

CHAPTER XXII.

Leave Lachoong for Tunkra pass—Moraines and their vegetation—Pines of great
dimensions—Wild currants—Glaciers—Summit of pass—Elevation—Views—
Plants—Winds — Choombi district—Lacheepia rock—Extreme cold—Kin-
chinjunga — Himalayan grouse — Meteorological observations — Return to
Lachoong—Oaks—Ascent to Yeumtong—Flats and debacles—Buried pine-
trunks—Perpetual snow—Hot springs—Behaviour of Singtam Soubah—Leave
for Momay Samdong—Upper limit of trees——Distribution of plants—
Glacial terraces, &c.— Forked Donkia — Moutonnéed rocks — Ascent to
Donkia pass — Vegetation — Scenery—Lakes—Tibet—Bhomtso—Arun river
—Kiang-lah mountains—Yaru-Tsampu river—Appearance of Tibet—Kamba-
jong—Jigatzi— Kinchinjhow, and Kinchinjunga—Chola range — Deceptive
appearance of distant landscape—Perpetual snow—Granite—Temperatures
—Pulses—Plants—Tripe de roche—Return to Momay—Dogs and yaks—Birds
—Insects—Quadrupeds—Hot springs—Marmots—Kinchinjhow glacier.

Tne Singtam Soubah being again laid up here from the
consequences of leech-bites, I took the opportunity of
visitng the Tunkra-lah pass, represented as the most
snowy in Sikkim; which I found to be the case. The
route lay over the moraines on the north flank of the
'Tunkrachoo, which are divided by narrow dry gullies,* and
composed of enormous blocks disintegrating into a deep
layer of clay. All are clothed with luxuriant herbage
and flowermg shrubs,t besides small larches and pines,

* These ridges of the moraine, separated by gullies, indicate the progressive
retirement of the ancient glacier, after periods of rest. The same phenomena
may be seen, on a diminutive scale, in the Swiss Alps, by any one who carefully
examines the lateral and often the terminal moraines of any retiring or dimin-
ishing glacier, at whose base or flanks are concentric ridges, which are successive
deposits.

+ Ranunculus, Clematis, Thalictrum, Anemone, Aconitum variegatum of Europe,

108 LACHOONG VALLEY. CuHap. XXII.

rhododendrons and maples; with Anhranthus, Pyrus,
cherry, Pieris, laurel, and Goughia. The musk-deer
inhabits these woods, and at this season | have never seen
it higher. Large monkeys are also found on the skirts of
the pine-forests, and the <dilurus ochraceus (Hodgs.), a
curious long-tailed animal peculiar to the Himalaya, some-
thing between a diminutive bear and a squirrel. In the
dense and gigantic forest of Abies Brunoniana and silver
fir, I measured one of the former trees, and found it
twenty-cight feet in girth, and above 120 feet in height.
The Abies Webbiana attains thirty-five feet in girth, with a
trunk unbranched for forty feet.

The path was narrow and difficult in the wood, and
especially along the bed of the stream, where grew ugly trees
of larch, eighty feet high, and abundance of a new species
of alpine strawberry with oblong fruit. At 11,560 feet
elevation, I arrived at an immense rock of gneiss, buried in
the forest. Here currant-bushes were plentiful, generally
erowing on the pine-trunks, in strange association with a

small species of Begonia, a hothouse tribe of plants in.

England. Emerging from the forest, vast old moraines
are crossed, in a shallow mountain valley, several miles
long and broad, 12,000 feet above the sea, choked with
rhododendron shrubs, and nearly encircled by snowy
mountains. Magnificent gentians grew here, also Sexecio,
Corydalis, and the Aconitum luridum (a. sp.), Whose root 1s
said to be as virulent as _4. ferow and A. Napellus.* The

a scandent species, Berberry, Deutzia, Philadelphus, Rose, Honeysuckle, Thistles,
Orchis, Habenaria, Fritillaria, Aster, Calimeris, Verbascum thapsus, Pedicularis,
Euphrasia, Senecio, Eupatorium, Dipsacus, Euphorbia, Balsam, Hypericum, Gentiana,
Halenia, Codonopsis, Polygonum.

* The result of Dr. Thomson’s and my examination of the Himalayan aconites
(of which there are seven species) is that the one generally known as A. ferox, and
which supplies a great deal of the celebrated poison, is the common A. Napellus
of Europe.

:
~
7
y

9

Ava. 1849. TUNKRA PASS. 109

plants were all fully a month behind those of the Lachen
valley at the same elevation. Heavy rain fell in the
afternoon, and we halted under some rocks: as I had
brought no tent, my bed was placed beneath the shelter of
one, near which the rest of the party burrowed. I supped
off half a yak’s kidney, an enormous organ in this animal.

On the followmg morning we proceeded up the valley,
towards a very steep rocky barrier, through which the river
cut a narrow gorge, and beyond which rose lofty snowy
mountains: the peak of Tunkra being to our left hand
(north). Saxifrages grew here in profuse tufts of golden
blossoms, and Chrysosplenium, rushes, mountain-sorrel
(Oxyria), and the bladder-headed Sausswrea, whose flowers
are enclosed in inflated membranous bracts, and smell like
putrid meat: there were also splendid primroses, the
spikenard valerian, and golden Potentillas.

The ascent was steep and difficult, up a stony valley
bounded by precipices; in this the river flowed in a
north-west direction, and we were obliged to wade along
it, though its waters were bitterly cold, the temperature
being 39°. At 15,000 feet we passed from great snow-
beds to the surface of a glacier, partly an accumulation of
snow, increased by lateral glaciers: its slope was very
gentle for several miles ; the surface was eroded by rain,
and very rough, whilst those of the lateral glaciers were
ribboned, crevassed, and often conspicuously marked with
dirt-bands.

A gently sloping saddle, bare of snow, which succeeds
the glacier, forms the top of the Tunkra pass; it unites
two snowy mountains, and opens on the great valley of the
Machoo, which flows in a part of Tibet between Sikkim
and Bhotan ; its height is 16,083 feet above the sea by
barometer, and 16,137 feet by boilmg-pomt. Nothing can

110 LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XXII.

be more different than the two slopes of this pass ; that by
which I had come presented a gentle snowy acclivity,
bounded by precipitous mountains ; while that which
opened before me was a steep, rocky, broad, grassy valley,
where not a particle of snow was to be seen, and yaks
were feeding near a small lake not 1000 feet down. Nor
were snowy mountains visible anywhere in this direction,
except far to the south-east, in Bhotan. This remarkable
difference of climate is due to the southerly wind which
ascends the Tibetan or Machoo valley being drained by
intervening mountains before reaching this pass, whilst the
Sikkim current brings abundant vapours up ~~ Teesta
and Lachoong alee

Chumulari lies to the E.N.E. of the Tunkra pass, and is
only twenty-six miles distant, but not seen ; Phari is two
marches off, im an easterly direction, and Choombi one to
the south-east. Choombi is the general name given to a
large Tibetan province that embraces the head of the
Machoo river, and includes Phari, Eusa, Choombi, and
about thirteen other villages, corresponding to as many
districts, that contain from under a dozen to 300 houses
each, varying with the season and state of trade. The
latter is considerable, Phari being, next to Dorjiling, the
greatest Tibetan, Bhotan, Sikkim, and Indian entrepot
along the whole Himalaya east of Nepal. The general
form of Choombi valley is triangular, the broader end
northwards: it is bounded by the Chola range on the
_ west from Donkia to Gipmoochi, and by the Kamphee
or Chakoong range to the east; which is, I believe,
continuous with Chumulari. ‘These meridional ranges
approximate to the southward, so as to form a natural
boundary to Choombi. The Machoo river, rising from
Chumulari, flows through the Choombi district, and enters

Aue. 1849. CHOOMBI AND PHARI. tka

Bhotan at a large mart called Rinchingoong, whence it
flows to the plains of India, where it is called at Cooch-
Behar, the Torsha, or, as some say, the Godadda, and
falls into the Burrampooter.

The Choombi district is elevated, for the only cultivation
is a summer or alpme one, neither rice, maize, nor millet
being grown there: it is also dry, for the great height
of the Bhotan mountains and the form of the Machoo
valley cut off the rains, and there is no dense forest. It is
very mountainous, all carriage bemg on men’s and yaks’
backs, and is populous for this part of the country, the
inhabitants being estimated at 3000, in the trading season,
when many families from Tibet and Bhotan erect booths at
Phari.

A civil officer at Phari collects the revenue under the
Lhassan authorities, and there is also a Tibetan fort, an
officer, and guard. ‘The inhabitants of this district more
resemble the Bhotanese than Tibetans, and are a thievish set,
finding a refuge under the Paro-Pilo of Bhotan,* who taxes
the refugees according to the estimate he forms of their
plunder. The Tibetans seldom pursue the culprits, as the
Lhassan government avoids all interference south of their
own frontier.

From Choombi to Lhassa is fifteen days’ long journeys
for a man mounted on a stout mule; all the rice passing
through Phari is monopolised there for the Chinese troops

* There was once a large monastery, called Kazioo Goompa, at Choombi, with
upwards of one hundred Lamas. During a struggle between the Sikkim and
Bhotan monks for superiority in it, the abbot died. His avatar reappeared in two
places at once ! in Bhotan as a relative of the Paro-Pilo himself, and in Sikkim as
a brother of the powerful Gangtok Kajee. Their disputes were referred to the
Dalai Lama, who pronounced for Sikkim. This was not to be disputed by the
Pilo, who, however, plundered the Goompa of its silver, gold, and books, leaving
nothing but the bare walls for the successful Lama! The Lhassan authorities
made no attempt to obtain restitution, and the monastery has been consequently
neglected.

’

112 LACHOONG VALLEY. Caap. XXII.

at Lhassa. The grazing for yaks and small cattle is excellent
in Choombi, and the Pinus excelsa is said to grow
abundantly there, though unknown in Sikkim, but I have
not heard of any other peculiarity in its productions.

Very few plants grew amongst the stones at the top of the
‘Tunkra pass, and those few were mostly quite different from
those of Palung and Kongra Lama. A pink-floweerd
Arenaria, two kinds of Corydalis, the cottony Saussurea, and
diminutive primroses, were the most conspicuous.* The
wind was variable, blowing alternately up both valleys,
bringing much snow when it blew from the Teesta, though
deflected to a north-west breeze ; when, on the contrary, it
blew from Tibet, it was, though southerly, dry. Clouds
obscured all distant view. The temperature varied —
between noon and 1°30 p.m. from 39° to 40° 5, the air
bemg extremely damp.

Returning to the foot of the glacier, | took up my
quarters for two days under an enormous rock overlooking
the broad flat valley in which I had spent the previous
night, and directly fronting Tunkra mountain, which bore
north about five miles distant. ‘This rock was sixty to
eighty feet high, and 15,250 feet above the sea; it was
of gneiss, and was placed on the top of a bleak ridge,
facing the north; no shrub or bush being near it. The
gentle slope outwards of the rock afforded the only shelter,
and a more utterly desolate place than Lacheepia, as it
is called, I never laid my unhoused head m. It com-
manded an mceomparable view due west across the
Lachoong and Lachen valleys, of the whole group of
Kinchinjunga snows, from Tibet southwards, and as such —
was a most valuable position for geographical purposes.

* The only others were Leontopodium, Sedum, Saxifrage, Ranunculus hyperboreus,

Ligularia, two species of Polygonum, a Trichostomum, Stereocaulon, and Lecidea
geographica, not one grass or sedge.

Aue. 1849. LACHEEPIA. GROUSE. 113

The night was misty, and though the temperature was 35°,
I was miserably cold; for my blankets being laid on the
bare ground, the chill seemed to strike from the rock to the
very marrow of my bones. In the morning the fog hung
till sunrise, when it rose majestically from all the mountain-
tops; but the view obtained was transient, for in less than
an hour the dense woolly banks of fog which choked the
valleys ascended like a curtain to the warmed atmosphere
above, and slowly threw a veil over the landscape. I
waited till the last streak of snow was shut out from my
view, when I descended, to breakfast on Himalayan grouse
(Letrao-perdix nivicola), a small gregarious bird which
mhabits the loftiest stony mountains, and utters a short
cry of “ Quiok, quiok ;”’ in character and appearance it
is intermediate between grouse and partridge, and is good
eating, though tough.

Hoping to obtain another view, which might enable me
to correct the bearmmgs taken that morning, | was tempted
to spend a second night im the open air at Lacheepia,
passing the day botanizing* in the vicinity, and taking
observations of the barometer and wet-bulb : I also boiled
three thermometers by turns, noting the grave errors likely
to attend observations of this instrument for elevation.t+
Little rain fell during the day, but it was heavy at night,
though there was fortunately no wind ; and I made a more
comfortable bed with tufts of juniper brought up from
below. Our fire was principally of wet rhododendron wood,

* Scarcely a grass, and no Astragali, grow on these stony and snowy slopes: and
the smallest heath-like Andromeda, a still smaller Menziesia (an arctic genus,
previously unknown in the Himalaya) and a prostrate willow, are the only woody:
stemmed plants above 15,000 feet.

+ These will be more particularly alluded to in the Appendix, where will be
found a comparison of elevations, deduced from boiling-point and from barometric
observations. The height of Lacheepia is 14,912 feet by boiling-point, and
15,262 feet by barometer.

VOL. IT. !

114 LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XXII.

with masses of the aromatic dwarf species, which, being full
of resinous glands, blazed with fury. Next day, after a
very transient glimpse of the Kinchinjunga snows, I
descended to Lachoong, where I remained for some days
botanizing. During my stay I was several times awakened
by all the noises and accompaniments of a night-attack or
alarm; screaming voices, groans, shouts, and ejaculations,
the beating of drums and firing of guns, and flambeaux of
pine-wood gleaming amongst the trees, and flitting from
house to house. The cause, I was informed, was the
presence of a demon, who required exorcisement, and who
generally managed to make the villagers remember his
visit, by their missing various articles after the turmoil
made to drive him away. The custom of driving out
demons in the above manner is constantly practised by the
Lamas in Tibet: MM. Huc and Gabet give a graphic
account of such an operation during their stay - at
Kounboum.

On the 29th of August I left Lachoong and proceeded
up the valley. The road ran along a terrace, covered
with long grass, and bounded by lofty banks of unstra-
tified gravel and sand, and passed through beautiful groves
of green pines, rich in plants. No oak nor chesnut
ascends above 9000 feet here or elsewhere in the imterior
of Sikkim, where they are replaced by a species of hazel
(Corylus) ; in the North Himalaya, on the other hand, an
oak (Quercus semecarpifolia, see vol. 1. p. 187) is amongst
the most alpme trees, and the nut is a different species,
more resembling the Kuropean. On the outer Sikkim ranges |
oaks (Q. annulata ?) ascend to 10,000 feet, and there is
no hazel. Above the fork, the valley contracts extremely,
and its bed is covered with moraines and landslips, which
often bury the larches and pies. Marshes occur here and

Ava. 1849. DEBACLES. ARRIVE AT YEUMTONG., 115

there, full of the sweet-scented Hierochloe grass, the Scotch
Thalictrum alpinum, and an Eriocaulon, which ascends to
10,000 feet. ‘The old moraines were very difficult to cross,
and on one [ found a barricade, which had been erected to
deceive me regarding the frontier, had I chosen this route
instead of the Lachen one, in May.

Broad flats clothed with rhododendron, alternate with
others covered with mud, boulders, and gravel, which had
flowed down from the gorges on the west, and which still
contained trees, inclined in all directions, and buried up to
their branches; some of these débicles were 400 yards
across, and sloped at an angle of 2° to 3°, bearmg on their
surfaces blocks fifteen yards nm diameter.* ‘They seem to
subside materially, as I perceived they had left marks many
feet higher on the tree-trunks. Such débiacles must often
bury standing forests in a very favourable material, climate,
and position for becoming fossilized.

On the 30th of August I arrived at Yeumtong, a small
summer cattle-station, on a flat by the Lachoong, 11,920 feet
above the sea; the general features of which closely resemble
those of the narrow Swiss valleys. The west flank is lofty
and precipitous, with narrow gullies still retaining the
winter's snow, at 12,500 feet ; the east gradually slopes up
to the two snowy domes seen from Lachoong ; the bed of
the valley is alternately a flat lake-bed, in which the river
meanders at the rate of three and a half miles an hour, and
sudden descents, cumbered with old moraines, over which
it rushes in sheets of foam. Silver-firs ascend nearly to
13,000 feet, where they are replaced by large junipers, sixty
feet high: up the valley Chango Khang is seen, with a
superb glacier descending to about 14,000 feet on its south

* None were to be compared in size and extent with that at Bex, at the mouth

of the Rhone valley.
it

116 LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XXII,

flank. Enormous masses of rock were continually precipi-
tated from the west side, close to the shed in which I had
taken up my quarters, keeping my people im constant
alarm, and causing a great commotion among the yaks,
dogs, and ponies. On the opposite side of the river 1s
a deep gorge; in which an immense glacier descends
lower than any I have seen in Sikkim. I made several
attempts to reach it by the gully of its discharging stream,
but was always foiled by the rocks and dense jungle of
pines, rhododendron, and dwarf holly.

The snow-banks on the face of the dome-shaped moun-
tain appearing favourable for ascertaining the position of
the level of perpetual snow, I ascended to them on the 6th
of September, and found the mean elevation along an even,
continuous, and gradual slope, with a full south-west
exposure, to be 15,985 feet by barometer, and 15,816
feet by boiling-pomt. These beds of snow, however
broad and convex, cannot nevertheless be distinguished
from glaciers: they occupy, it is true, mountain slopes,
and do not fill hollows (like glaciers commonly so called),
but they display the ribboned structure of ice, and being
viscous fluids, descend at a rate and to a distance
depending on the slope, and on the amount of annual ”
accumulation behind. Their termination must therefore
be far below that point at which all the snow that falls
melts, which is the theoretical line of perpetual snow.
Before returning I attempted to proceed northwards to
the great glacier, hoping to descend by its lateral moraine,
but a heavy snow-storm drove me down to Yeumtong. |

Some hot-springs burst from the bank of the Lachen a
mile or so below the village: they are used as baths, the
patient remaining three days at a time in them, only retiring
to eat in a little shed close by. The discharge amounts to

Sepr. 1849. HOT SPRINGS. SOUBAH’S CONDUCT. 117

a few gallons per minute; the temperature at the source is
112°6, and 106° in the bath.* The water has a slightly saline
taste ; it is colourless, but emits bubbles of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, blackening silver. A cold sprmg (tempera-
ture 42°) emerged close by, and the Lachoong not ten yards
off, was 47° to 50°. A conferva grows in the hot water,
and the garnets are worn out of the gneiss rock exposed to
its action.

The Singtam Soubah had been very sulky since leaving
Choongtam, and I could scarcely get a drop of milk or a slice
of curd here. I had to take him to task severely for sanc-
tioning the flogging of one of my men; a huntsman, who
had offered me his services at Choongtam, and who was a
civil, industrious fellow, though he had procured me little
besides a huge monkey, which had nearly bitten off the head
of his best dog. I had made a point of consulting the
Soubah before hiring him, for fear of accidents; but this
did not screen him from the jealousy of the Choongtam
Lama, who twice flogged him in the Goompa with rattans
(with the Soubah’s consent), allegmg that he had quitted
his service for mine. My people knew of this, but were
afraid to tell me, which the poor fellow did himself.

The Lachoong Phipun visited me on the 7th of Septem-
ber: he had officiously been in Tibet to hear what the
Tibetan people would say to my going to Donkia, and
finding them supremely indifferent, returned to be my
guide. A month’s provision for ten men having arrived
from Dorjiling, I left Yeumtong the followmg day for
Momay Samdong, the loftiest yak grazing station in
Sikkim (Palung being too cold for yaks), and withm a
day’s journey of the Donkia pass.

* This water boiled at 191° 6, the same at which snow-water and that of the

river did; giving an elevation of 11,730 feet. Observations on the mineral con-
stituents of the water will be found in the Appendix.

118 MOMAY. Cuap. XXII.

The valley remains almost level for several miles, the
road continuing along the east bank of the Lachen. Shoots
of stones descend from the ravines, all of a white fine-
erained granite, stained red with a minute conferva, which
has been taken by Himalayan travellers for red snow; * a
phenomenon I never saw in Sikkim.

At a fork of the valley several miles above Yeumtong,
and below the great glacier of Chango Khang, the ancient
moraines are prodigious, much exceeding any I have else-
where seen, both in extent, in the size of the boulders,
and in the height to which the latter are piled on one
another. Many boulders I measured were twenty yards
across, and some even forty; and the chaotic scene they
presented baffles all description : they were scantily clothed
with stunted silver firs.

Beyond this, the path crosses the river, and ascends
rapidly over a mile of steeply sloping landslip, composed of
angular fragments of granite, that are constantly falling from
above, and are extremely dangerous. At 14,000 feet, trees
and shrubs cease, willow and honeysuckle being the last ;
and thence onward the valley is bleak, open, and stony,
with lofty rocky mountains on either side. The south wind
brought a cold drizzling rain, which numbed us, and two
of the lads who had last come up from Dorjilmg were
seized with a remittent fever, originally contraeted in the
hot valleys; luckily we found some cattle-sheds, im which
I left them, with two men to attend on them.

Momay Samdong is situated in a broad part of the
Lachoong valley, where three streams meet; it is on the
west of Chango Khang, and is six miles south-east of Kin-

* D,: 7 i 1 i i

Red snow was never found in the Antarctic regions during Sir James Ross’s
South Polar voyage; nor do I know any authentic record of its having been seen
in the Himalaya.

SEPT. 1849. GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF MOMAY. 119

chinjhow, and seven south-west of Donkia: it is in the
same latitude as Palung, but scarcely so lofty. The mean
of fifty-six barometrical observations cotemporancous with
Calcutta makes it 15,362 feet above the sea; nearly the
elevation of Lacheepia (near the Tunkra pass), from which,
however, its scenery and vegetation entirely differ.

I pitched my tent close to a little shed, at the gently
sloping base of a mountain that divided the Lachoong river
from a western tributary. It was a wild and most exposed
spot : long stony mountains, grassy on the base near the
river; distant snowy peaks, stupendous precipices, moraines,
glaciers, transported boulders, and rocks rounded by glacial
action, formed the dismal landscape which everywhere met
the view. ‘There was not a bush six inches high, and the
only approach to woody plants were minute creeping willows
and dwarf rhododendrons, with a very few prostrate junipers
and Lphedra.

The base of the spur was cut into broad flat terraces,
composed of unstratified sand, pebbles, and boulders; the
remains, doubtless, of an enormously thick glacial deposit.
The terracing is as difficult to be accounted for in this
valley as in that of Yangma (Hast Nepal); both valleys
being far too broad, and descending too rapidly to admit of
the hypothesis of their having been blocked up in the lower
part, and the upper filled with large lakes.* Another

* The formation of small lakes, however, between moraines and the sides of
the valleys they occupy, or between two successively formed moraines (as I have
elsewhere mentioned), will account for very extensive terraced areas of this kind ;
and it must be borne in mind that when the Momay valley was filled with ice, the
breadth of its glacier at this point must have been twelve miles, and it must have
extended east and west from Chango Khang across the main valley, to beyond
Donkia. Still the great moraines are wanting at this particular point, and though
atmospheric action and the rivers have removed perhaps 200 feet of glacial
shingle, they can hardly have destroyed a moraine of rocks, large enough to block
up the valley.

120 LACHOONG VALLEY. Cuap. XXII.

tributary falls into the Lachoong at Momay, which leads
eastwards up to an enormous glacier that descends from
Donkia. Snowy mountains rise nearly all round it: those
on its south and east divide Sikkim from the Phari
province in ‘Tibet; those on the north terminate m a
forked or cleft peak, which is a remarkable and conspicuous
feature from Momay. This, which I have called forked
Donkia,* is the termination of a magnificent amphitheatre
of stupendous snow-clad precipices, continuously upwards
of 20,000 feet high, that forms the east flank of the upper
Lachoong. From Donkia top again, the mountains sweep
round to the westward, rising into fingered peaks of extra-
ordinary magnificence ; and thence—still running west—
dip to 18,500 feet, forming the Doukia pass, and rise again
as the great mural mass of Kinchinjhow. This girdle of
mountains encloses the head waters of the Lachoong, which
rises in countless streams from its perpetual snows, glaciers,
and small lakes: its north dramage is to the Cholamoo
lakes in Tibet; in which is the source of the Lachen, which
flows round the north base of Kinchinjhow to Kongra Lama.

The bottom of the Lachoong valley at Momay is broad,
tolerably level, grassy, and covered with isolated mounds
and ridges that pot down the valley, and are the remains
of glacial deposits. It dips suddenly below this, and some
gneiss rocks that rise in its centre are remarkably mouton-
nced or rounded, and have boulders perched on their sum-
mits. ‘Though manifestly rounded and grooved by ancient
glaciers, I failed to find scratches on these weather-worn
rocks.

* Its elevation by my observations is about 21,870 feet.

t Ihave repeatedly, and equally in vain, sought for scratchings on many of the

most conspicuously moutonnéed gneiss rocks of Switzerland. The retention of

such markings depends on other circumstances than the mere hardness of the
rock, or amount of aqueous action, Whatcan be more astonishing than to see

Sept. 1849. RIVER AND MORAINES AT MOMAY. 121

‘The Lachoong is here twelve or fifteen yards wide, and
runs over a pebbly bed, cutting a shallow channel through
the deposits, down to the subjacent rock, which is in some
cases scooped out six or eight feet deep by its waters. |
do not doubt that the flatness of the floor of the Momay
valley is caused by the combined action of the streams that
drained the three glaciers which met here; for the tendency
of retiring glaciers is to level the floors of valleys, by giving
an ever-shifting direction to the rivers which drain them,
and which spread detritus in their course. Supposing
these glaciers to have had no terminal moraines, they might
still have forced immense beds of gravel into positions that
would dam up lakes between the ice and the flanks of the
valleys, and thus produce much terracing on the latter.*

On our arrival, we found that a party of buxom, good-
natured looking girls who were tending yaks, were
occupying the hut, which, however, they cheerfully gave
up to my people, spreading a black tent close by for them-

these most delicate scratches retained in all their sharpness on rocks clothed
with seaweed and shells, and exposed at every tide, in the bays of Western
Scotland !

* We are still very ignorant of many details of ice action, and especially of the
origin of many enormous deposits which are not true moraines. These, so con-
spicuous in the lofty Himalayan valleys, are not less so in those of the Swiss Alps :
witness that broad valley in which Grindelwald village is situated, and which is
covered to an immense depth with an angular detritus, moulded into hills and
valleys ; also the whole broad open Upper Rhone valley, above the village of
Munster, and below that of Obergestelen. The action of broad glaciers on gentle
slopes is to raise their own beds by the accumulation of gravel which their lower
surface carries and pushes forward. I have seen small glaciers thus raised 300
feet ; leaving little doubt in my mind that the upper Himalayan valleys were thus
choked with deposit 1000 feet thick, of which indeed the proofs remain along the
flanks of the Yangma valley. The denuding and accumulating effects of ice thus
give a contour to mountain valleys, and sculpture their flanks and floors far more
rapidly than sea action, or the elements. After a very extensive experience of ice
in the Antarctic ocean, and in mountainous countries, I cannot but conclude that
very few of our geologists appreciate the power of ice as a mechanical agent,
which can hardly be over-estimated, whether as glacier, iceberg, or pack ice,
heaping shingle along coasts.

#22 MOMAY. CHap. XXII.

selves; and next morning they set off with all their effects
packed upon the yaks. ‘The ground was marshy, and
covered with cowslips, Ranunculus, grasses and sedges,
Cyananthus, blue asters, gentians, &c. ‘The spot appearing
highly favourable for observations, | determined to remain
here during the equinoctial month, and put my people on
“two-thirds allowance,” 7. e., four pounds of rice daily for
three men, allowimg them to send down the valley to cater for
what more they could get. ‘The SingtamSoubah wasintensely
disgusted with my determination: he accompanied me next
day to the pass, and having exhausted his persuasions,
threats, and warnings about snow, wind, robbers, starvation,
and Cheen sepoys, departed on the 12th for Yeumtong,
leaving me truly happy for the first time since quitting
Dorjiimg. 1 had now a prospect of uninterruptedly
following up my pursuits at an elevation little below that
of the summit of Mont Blanc, surrounded by the loftiest
mountains, and perhaps the vastest glaciers on the globe ;
my instruments were in perfect order, and I saw around
me a curious and varied flora.

The mornmg of the 9th of September promised fair,
though billowy clouds were rapidly ascending the valley.
‘lo the eastward my attention was directed to a double
rainbow ; the upper was an arch of the usual form, and the
lower was the curved illuminated edge of a bank of cumulus,
with the orange hues below. We took the path to the
Donkia pass, fording the river, and ascending im a north-
east direction, along the foot of stony hills that rise at a
gradual slope of 12° to broad unsnowed ridges, 18,000 to —
19,000 feet high. Shallow valleys, glacier-bound at their
upper extremities, descend from the still loftier rearward
mountains; and in these occur lakes. About five miles up, a
broad opening on the west leads to Tomo Chamo, as the

Sepr. 1849. GRASSES, LAKES, &e. 128

eastern summit of Kinchinjhow is called.* Above this the
valley expands very much, and is stony and desert: stupen-
dous mountains, upwards of 21,000 feet high, rear them-
selves on all sides, and the desolation and grandeur of the
scene are unequalled in my experience. The path again
crosses the river (which is split into many channels), and
proceeds northwards, over gravelly terraces and rocks with
patches of Scotch alpine grasses (Festuca ovina and Poa
lava), sedges, Stipa, dandelion, Al/ardia, gentians, Saus-
sured, and Astragalus, varied with hard hemispherical
mounds of the alsineous plant mentioned at p. 89.

I passed several shallow lakes at 17,500 feet; their banks
were green and marshy, and supported thirty or forty kinds
of plants. At the head of the valley a steep rocky crest,
900 feet high, rises between two precipitous snowy peaks,
and a very fatiguing ascent (at this elevation) leads to the
sharp rocky summit of the Donkia pass, 18,466 feet above
the sea by barometer, and 17,866 by boiling-pomt. The
view on this occasion was obscured by clouds and fogs, except
towards Tibet, in which direction it was magnificent ; but
as I afterwards twice ascended this pass, and also crossed
it, | shall here bring together all the particulars I noted.

The Tibetan view, from its novelty, extent, and smgularity,

* On one occasion I ascended this valley, which is very broad, flat, and full of
lakes at different elevations; one, at about 17,000 feet elevation is three-quarters
of a mile long, but not deep: no water-plants grew in it, but there were plenty
of others round its margin. I collected, in the dry bed of a stream near it,
a curious white substance like thick felt, formed of felspathic silt (no doubt the
product of glacial streams) and the siliceous cells of infusoriz. It much re-
sembles the fossil or meteoric paper of Germany, which is also formed of the
lowest tribes of fresh-water plants, though considered by Ehrenberg as of animal
origin. <A vein of granite in the bottom of the valley had completely altered
the character of the gneiss, which contained veins of jasper and masses of
amorphous garnet. Much olivine is found in the fissures of the gneiss : this
mineral is very rare in Sikkim, but I have also seen it in the fissures of the
white gneissy granite of the surrounding heights.

as

124 DONKIA PASS. Cuap. XXII.

demands the first notice: the Cholamoo lake lay 1500 feet
below me, at the bottom of a rapid and rocky descent ; it |
was a blue sheet of water, three or four miles from north |
to south, and one and a half broad, hemmed in by rounded |
spurs from Kinchinjhow on one side, and from Donkia ;
on the other: the Lachen flowed from its northern extre-
mity, and turning westward, entered a broad barren valley,
bounded on the north by red stony mountains, called
Bhomtso, which I saw from Kongra Lama, and ascended
with Dr. Campbell im the October following: though
18,000 to 19,000 feet high, these mountains were wholly
unsnowed. Beyond this range lay the broad valley of the
Arun, and in the extreme north-west distance, to the north
of Nepal, were some immense snowy mountains, reduced
to mere specks on the horizon. The valley of the Arun
was bounded on the north by very precipitous black rocky
mountains, sprinkled with snow; beyond these again,
from north to north-west, snow-topped range rose over
range in the clear purple distance. ‘The nearer of these
was the Kiang-lah, which forms the axis or water-shed of
this meridian ; its south drainage bemg to the Arun river,
and its north to the Yaru-tsampu: it appeared forty to
fifty miles off, and of great mean elevation (20,000 feet) :
the vast snowy mountains that rose beyond it were, I was
assured, beyond the Yaru, in the salt lake country.* A
spur from Chomiomo cut off the view to the southward
of north-west, and one from Donkia concealed all to the
cast of north.

‘The most remarkable features of this landscape were its —

* This salt country was described to me as enormously lofty, perfectiy
sterile, and fourteen days’ march for loaded men and sheep from Jigatm:
there is no pasture for yaks, whose feet are cut by the rocks. The salt is
dug (so they express it) from the margin of lakes; as is the carbonate of sc .,
“ Pieu” of the Tibetans.

W.L Walton, hth

J.D.H.delt John Murray,Albernarle Street ,1854.

Tibet and Cholamoo Lakes from Donkia Pass, 18,500£'

Sept. 1849. TIBET. CHOLAMOO. ARUN VALLEY. 12

Or

enormous elevation, and its colours and contrast to the black,
rugged, and snowy Himalaya of Sikkim. All the mountains
between Donkia pass and the Arun were comparatively gently
sloped, and of a yellow red colour, rising and falling in long
undulations like dunes, 2000 to 3000 feet above the mean
level of the Arun valley, and perfectly bare of perpetual snow
or glaciers. Rocks everywhere broke out on their flanks,
and often along their tops, but the general contour of that
immense area was very open and undulating, like the
ereat ranges of Central Asia, described by MM. Tuc and
Gabet. Beyond this again, the mountains were rugged,
often rising into peaks which, from the angles I took here,
and subsequently at Bhomtso, cannot be below 24,000
feet, and are probably much higher. The most lofty moun-
tains were on the range north of Nepal, not less than 120
miles distant, and which, though heavily snowed, were
below the horizon of Donkia pass.

Cholamoo lake lay in a broad, scantily grassed, sandy
and stony valley; snow-beds, rocks, and glaciers dipped
abruptly towards its head, but on its west bank a lofty
brick-red spur sloped upwards from it, conspicuously cut
into terraces for several hundred feet above its waters.

- Kambajong, the chief Tibetan village near this, after
Phari and Giantchi, is situated on the Arun (called in Tibet
“ Chomachoo ”), on the road from Sikkim to Jigatzi* and

* I have adopted the simplest mode of spelling this name that I could find,
and omitted the zong or jong, which means fort, and generally terminates it.
I think it would not be difficult to enumerate fully a dozen ways of spelling the
word, of which Shigatzi, Digarchi, ‘and Djigatzi are the most common.
The Tibetans tell me that they cross two passes after leaving Donkia, or
Kongra Lama, en route for Jigatzi, on both of which they suffer from head-
aches and difficulty of breathing; one is over the Kambajong range; the other,
much loftier, is over that of Kiang-lah: as they do not complain of Bhomtso,
which is also crossed, and is 18,500 feet, the others may be very lofty
‘ndeed. The distance from Donkia pass to Jigatzi is said to be ten days’
journey for loaded yaks. Now, according to Turner’s observations (evidently

126 DONKIA PASS. Cuap. XXII.

Teshoo Loombo. I did not see it, but a long, stony moun-
tain range above the town is very conspicuous, its sides
presenting an interrupted line of cliffs, resembling the port-
holes of a ship: some fresh fallen snow lay at the base, but
none at the top, which was probably 18,500 feet high.
The banks of the Arun are thence inhabited at intervals
all the way to Tingre, where it enters Nepal.

Donkia rises to the eastward of the pass, but its top is
not visible. I ascended (over loose rocks) to between
19,000 and 20,000 feet, and reached vast masses of blue
ribboned ice, capping the ridges, but obtained no further
prospect. ‘lo the west, the beetling east summit of Kin-
chinjhow rises at two miles distance, 3000 to 4000 feet
above the pass. A little south of it, and north of Chango
Khang, the view extends through a gap in the Sebolah
range, across the valley of the Lachen, to Kinchinjunga,
distant forty-two miles. The monarch of mountains looked
quite small and low from this point, and it was difficult to
believe it was 10,000 feet more lofty than my position. I
repeatedly looked from it to the high Tibetan mountains in
the extreme north-west distance, and was more than ever
struck with the apparently immense distance, and conse-
quent altitude of the latter: I put, however, no reliance on
such estimates.

To the south the eye wandered down the valley of the

taken with great care) that capital is in latitude 29° 4’ 20” north, or only
seventy miles north of Donkia; and as the yak travels at the rate of sixteen
miles a day, the country must be extraordinarily rugged, or the valleys tortuous.
Turner took eight or nine days on his journey from Phari to Teshoo Loombo,
a distance of only eighty miles; yet he is quoted as an authority for the fact
of Tibet being a plain! he certainly crossed an undulating country, probably
16,000 to 17,000 feet high; a continuation eastwards of the Chulamoo features,
and part of the same mountain range that connects Chumulari and Donkia: he had
always lofty mountains in sight, and rugged ones on either side, after he had
entered the Painomchoo valley. It is a remarkable and significant fact that
Turner never appears to have seen Chumulari after having passed it, nor
Donkia, Kinchinjhow, or Kinchinjunga at any time.

Sept. 1849, TIBETAN LANDSCAPE, 127

Lachoong to the mountains of the Chola range, which
appear so lofty from Dorjiling, but from here are sunk far
below the horizon: on comparing these with the northern
landscape, the wonderful difference between their respective
snow-levels, amounting to fully 5000 feet, was very apparent.
South-east the stupendous snowy amphitheatre formed by
the flank of Donkia was a magnificent spectacle.

This wonderful view forcibly impressed me with the fact,
that all eye-estimates in mountainous countries are utterly
fallacious, if not corrected by study and experience. [ had
been led to believe that from Donkia pass the whole
country of Tibet sloped away in descending steppes to the
'T'sampu, and was more or less of a plain; and could I have
trusted my eyes only, I should have confirmed this assertion
so far as the slope was concerned. When, however, the
levelled theodolite was directed to the distance, the reverse
was found to be the case. Unsnowed and apparently low
mountains touched the horizon line of the telescope; which
proves that, if only 37 miles off, they must, from the dip of
the horizon, be at least 1000 feet higher than the observer's
position. ‘The same infallible guide cuts off mountain-tops
and deeply snowed ridges, which to the unaided eye appear
far lower than the point from which they are viewed; but
which, from the quantity of snow on them, must be many
thousand feet higher, and, from the angle they subtend in
the instrument, must be at an immense distance. The want
of refraction to lift the horizon, the astonishing precision of
the outlines, and the brilliancy of the images of mountains
reduced by distance to mere specks, are all circumstances
tending to depress them to appearance. The absence of
trees, houses, and familiar objects to assist the eye in the
appreciation of distance, throws back the whole landscape ;
which, seen through the rarified atmosphere of 18,500 feet,

128 DONKIA PASS. Cuap. XXII.

looks as if diminished by being surveyed through the wrong
end of a telescope.

A few rude cairns were erected on the crest of the pass,
covered with wands, red banners, and votive offerings of
rags. | found a fine slab of slate, inscribed with the
Tibetan characters, “Om Mani Padmi hom,” which Meepo
allowed me to take away, as the reward of my exertions.
The ridge is wholly formed of angular blocks of white
gneissy granite, split by frost.* There was no snow on the
pass itself, but deep drifts and glaciers descended in hollows
on the north side, to 17,000 feet. The rounded northern
red shoulder of Kinchinjhow by Cholamoo lake, apparently
19,000 feet high, was quite bare, and, as I have said, J
ascended Donkia to upwards of 19,000 feet before I found
the rocks crusted with ice,t and the ground wholly frozen.
I assume, therefore, that 19,000 feet at this spot is not
below the mean level at which all the snow melts that falls
on a fair exposure to the south: this probably coincides
with a mean temperature of 20°. Forty miles further
north (in Tibet) the same line is probably at 20,000 feet ;
for there much less snow falls, and much more melts in
proportion.{ From the elevation of about 19,300 feet,

* It was not a proper granite, but a highly metamorphic felspathic gneiss, with
very little mica; being, I suspect, a gneiss which by metamorphic action was
almost remolten into granite : the lamination was obscure, and marked by faint
undulating lines of mica; it cleaves at all angles, but most generally along
fissures with highly polished undulated black surfaces. The strike of the same
rock near at hand was north-west, and dip north-east, at various angles.

+ Snow, transformed into ice throughout its whole mass: in short, glacial ice
in all physical characters. 3

+ Two secondary considerations materially affecting the melting of snow,. and -
hence exerting a material influence on the elevation of the snow-line, appear to
me never to have been sufficiently dwelt upon. Both, however, bear directly upon
the great elevation of the snow-line in Tibet. From the imperfect transmission of
the heating rays of the sun through films of water, which transmit perfectly the
luminous rays, it follows thatthe direct effects of the rays, inclear sunshine, are very
different at equal elevations of the moist outer and dry inner Himalaya. Secondly,

Serr. 1849, HALO. OBSERVATIONS ON DONKIA PASS. 129

which I attained on Donkia, I saw a fine illustration of
that atmospheric phenomenon called the “ spectre of the
Brocken,”’ my own shadow being projected on a mass of
thin mist that rose above the tremendous precipices over
which I hung. My head was surrounded with a_ brilliant
circular glory or rainbow.*

The temperature of the Donkia pass is much higher
than might be anticipated from its great elevation, and
from the fact of its being always bitterly cold to the
feelings. This is no doubt due to the warmth of the
ascending currents, and to the heat evolved during the
condensation of their vapours. I took the following
observations :—

Differ- Ten- tole
Temp. ID), IP). Seo AGE: Humidity.

Sept. 9 1:30—3°30 p.m. 41° 8 380° 38 11°5—C-1876 0°665
Peet 3A5 ewe 49°°2432° 96 -167:6—0:2037 0560
Oct. 19 3:0 —3:30 pm. 40° 1.25° 0 15°1=0°1551 0°585

‘The first and last of these temperatures were respectively
42° 3 and 46° 4 lower than Calcutta, which, with the
proper deduction for latitude, allows 508 and 460 feet as
equivalent to 1° Fahr. I left a mmimum thermometer on
the summit on the 9th of September, and removed it on
the 27th, but it had been lifted and turned over by the
action of the frost and snow on the loose rocks amongst
which I had placed it; the latter appearing to have
been completely shifted. Fortunately, the instrument
escaped unhurt, with the index at 28°.

naked rock and soil absorb much more heat than surfaces covered with vegetation
and this heat again radiated is infinitely more rapidly absorbed by snow (or other
white surfaces) than the direct heat of the sun’s rays is. Hence, at equal eleva-
tions the ground heats sooner, and the snow is more exposed to the heat thus
radiated in arid Tibet, than in the wooded and grassed mountains of Sikkim.

* Probably caused by spicule of ice floating in the atmosphere, the lateral surfaces
of which would then have an uniform inclination of 60°: this, according to the
observations of Mariotte, Venturi, and Fraunheefer being the angle neces:ary for
the formation of halos.

VOL. II. K

130 DONKIA PASS. Cuap. XXII.

A violent southerly wind, with a scud of mist, and
sometimes snow, always blew over the pass: but we found
shelter on the north face, where I twice kindled a fire, and
boiled my thermometers.“ On one occasion I felt the
pulses of my party several times during two hours’ repose
(without eating); the mean of eight persons was 105°, the
extremes being 92° and 120°, and my own 108°.

One flowermg plant ascends to the summit; the
alsinaceous one mentioned at p. 89. The Fescue grass,
a little fern (Woodsia), and a Saussurea + ascend very near
the summit, and several lichens grow on the top, as
Cladonia vermicularis, the yellow Lecidea geographica,
and the orange L. miniata;t also some barren mosses. At
18,300 feet, I found on one stone only a fine Scotch
lichen, a species of Gyrophora, the “tripe de roche” of
Arctic voyagers, and the food of the Canadian hunters ;
it is also abundant on the Scotch alps.

Before leaving, I took one more long look at the bound-
less prospect ; and, now that its important details were
secured, I had leisure to reflect on the impression it pro-
duced. There is no loftier country on the globe than that
embraced by this view, and no more howling wilderness ;
well might the Smgtam Soubah and every Tibetan describe
it as the loftiest, coldest, windiest, and most barren country
in the world. Were it buried in everlasting snows, or

* On the 9th of September the boiling-point was 181° 8, and on the 27th,
181° 2. In both observations, I believe the kettle communicated a higher
temperature to the thermometer than that of the water, for the elevations
deduced are far too low.

+ A pink-flowered woolly Saussurea, and Delphinium glaciale, are two of the most
lofty plants; both being commonly found from 17,500 to 18,000 feet.

+ This is one of the most Arctic, Antarctic, and universally diffused plants.
The other lichens were Lecidea atro-alba, oreina, elegans, and chlorophana, all
alpine European and Arctic species. At 17,000 feet occur Lecanora ventosa,
physodes, candelaria, sordida, atra, and the beautiful Swiss ZL. chrysoleuca, also
Kuropean species.

Sepr. 1849. PONIES. INCIDENTS AT MOMAY. 131

burnt by a tropical sun, tt might still be as utterly sterile ;
but with such sterility I had long been familiar. Here
the colourmgs are those of the fiery desert or volcanic
island, while the climate is that of the poles. Never, in
the course of all my wanderings, had my eye rested on a
scene so dreary and inhospitable. The “cities of the
plain” lie sunk in no more death-like sea than Cholamoo
lake, nor are the tombs of Petra hewn in more desolate
cliffs than those which flank the valley of the Tibetan Arun.

On our return my pony strained his shoulder amongst
the rocks; as a remedy, the Lachoong Phipun plunged a
lancet into the muscle, and giving me his own animal,
rode mine down.* It drizzled and sleeted all the way,
and was dark before we arrived at the tent.

At mght the Tibetan dogs are let loose, when they howl
dismally: on one occasion they robbed me of all my meat, a
fine piece of yak’s flesh. The yaks are also troublesome,
and bad sleepers; they used to try to effect an entrance
into my tent, pushing their muzzles under the flaps at the
bottom, and awakenmg me with a snort and moist hot
blast. Before the second night I built a turf wall round
the tent, and in future slept with a heavy tripod by my
side, to poke at mtruders.

Birds flock to the grass about Momay ; larks, finches,
warblers, abundance of sparrows, feeding on the yak-

* These animals, called Tanghan, are wonderfully strong and enduring ; they
are never shod, and the hoof often cracks, and they become pigeon-toed: they are
frequently blind of one eye, when they are called “ zemik” (blind ones), but this
is thought no great defect. They average 5/. to 10/. for a good animal in Tibet ;
and the best fetch 40/. to 50/. in the plains of India, where they become
acclimated and thrive well. Giantchi (Jhansi-jeung of Turner) is the best mart
for them in this part of Tibet, where some breeds fetch very high prices. The
Tibetans give the foals of value messes of pig’s blood and raw liver, which they
devour greedily, and it is said to strengthen them wonderfully ; the custom is, I
believe, general in central Asia. Humboldt (Pers. Nar. iv. p. 320) describes the
horses of Caraccas as occasionally eating salt meat.

K 2

132 MOMAY. Cuap. XXII.

droppings, and occasionally the hoopoe ; waders, cormo-
rants, and wild ducks were sometimes seen in the streams,
but most of them were migrating south. The yaks are
driven out to pasture at sunrise, and home at sunset, till
the middle of the month, when they return to Yeumtong.
All their droppings are removed from near the tents, and
piled in heaps; as these animals, unlike their masters, will
not sleep amid such dirt. These heaps swarm with the
maggots of two large flies, a yellow and black, affording
abundant food to red-legged crows, ravens, and swallows.
Butterflies are rare; the few are mostly Colias, Mipparchia,
Polyommatus, and Melitea ; these I have seen feeding at
17,000 feet ; when found higher, they have generally been
carried up by currents. Of beetles, an Aphodeus, in yak-
droppings, and an Avaphrus, a predaceous genus inhabiting
swamps, are almost the only ones I saw. ‘The wild quad-
rupeds are huge sheep, in flocks of fifty, the Oves Ammon
called “Gnow.” I never shot one, not having time to
pursue them for they were very seldom seen, and always
at great elevations. ‘The larger marmot is common, and
I found the horns of the ‘“Tchiru” antelope. Neither
the wild horse, fox, hare, nor tailless rat, cross the Donkia
pass. White clover, shepherd’s purse, dock, plantain, and
chickweed, are imported here by yaks; but the common
Prunella of Europe is wild, and so is a groundsel like
Senecio Jacobea, Ranunculus, Sibbaldia, and 200 other
plants. The grasses are numerous; they belong chiefly
to Poa, Festuca, Stipa, and other European genera.

I repeatedly attempted to ascend both Kinchinjhow and
Donkia from Momay, and generally reached from 18,000
to 19,000 feet, but never much higher.* ‘The observations

* An elevation of 20,000, and perhaps 22,000 feet might, I should think, easily
be attained by practice, in Tibet, north of Sikkim.

Sept. 1849. HOT SPRINGS. Me

taken on these excursions are sufficiently illustrated by
those of Donkia pass: they served chiefly to perfect my
map, measure the surrounding peaks, and determine the
elevation reached by plants; all of which were slew
operations, the weather of this month being so bad
that I rarely retwned dry to my tent; fog and drizzle,
if not sleet and snow, coming on during every day,
without exception.

I made frequent excursions to the great glacier of
Kanchinjhow. Its valley is about four miles long, broad
and flat: Chango-khang* rears its blue and white cliffs
4.500 feet above its west flank, and throws down
avalanches of stones and snow into the valley. Hot
springs ¢ burst from the ground near some granite rocks
on its floor, about 16,000 feet above the sea, and only a
mile below the glacier, and the water collects in pools : its
temperature is 110°, and in places 116°, or 4° hotter than
that of the Yeumtong hot-springs, though 4000 feet higher,
and of precisely the same character. A Barbarea and
some other plants make the neighbourhood of the hot-
springs a little oasis, and the large marmot is common,
uttering its sharp, chirping squeak.

The terminal moraine is about 500 feet high, quite

* The elevation of this mountain is about 20,560 feet, by the mean of several
observations taken from surrounding localities.

+ Supposing the mean temperature of the air at the elevation of the Momay
springs to be 26° or 28°, which may be approximately assumed, and that, as some
suppose, the heat of thermal springs is due to the internal temperature of the globe;
then according to the law of increment of heat in descending (of 1° for fifty feet)
we should find the temperature of 110° at a depth of 4,100 feet, or at 11,900
feet above the level of the sea. Direct experiment with internal heat has not,
however, been carried beyond 2000 feet below the surface, and as the ratio of
increment diminishes with the depth, that above assigned to the temperature
of 110° is no doubt much too little. The Momay springs more probably owe
their temperature to chemical decomposition of sulphurets of metals. I found
pyrites in Tibet on the north flank of the mountain Kinchinjhow, in limestones
asssociated with shales.

134 MOMAY. Cuap. XXII.

(>)

barren, and thrown obliquely across the valley, from north-
east to south-west, completely hiding the glacier. From
its top successive smaller parallel ridges (indicating the
periodic retirements of the glacier) lead down to the ice,
which must have sunk several hundred feet. This glacier
descends from Kinchinjhow, the huge cliff of whose eastern
extremity dips into it. The surface, less than half a mile
wide, is exceedingly undulated, and covered with large
pools of water, ninety feet deep, and beds of snow, and is
deeply corroded ; gigantic blocks are perched on pinnacles
of ice on its surface, and the gravel cones * are often twenty
feet high. ‘The crevassing so conspicuous on the Swiss
glaciers is not so regular on this, and the surface appears
more like a troubled ocean ; due, no doubt, to the copious
rain and snow-falls throughout the summer, and the
corroding power of wet fogs. The substance of the ice
is ribboned, dirt-bands are seen from above to form long
loops on some parts, and the lateral moraines, hke the
terminal, are high above the surface. These notes, made
previous to reading Professor Forbes’s travels in the Alps,
sufficiently show that perpetual snow, whether as ice or
elacier, obeys the same laws in India as in Europe ; and I
have no remarks to offer on the structure of glaciers, that
are not well illustrated and explained in the above-
mentioned admirable work.

Its average slope for a mile above the terminal moraines
was less than 5°, and the height of its surface above the sea
16,500 feet by boiling-point; the thickness of its ice
probably 400 feet. Between the moraine and the west
flank of the valley is a large lake, with terraced banks,
whose bottom (covered with fine felspathic silt) is several

* For a description of this curious phenomenon, which has been illustrated by
Agassiz, see “ Forbes’s Alps,” p. 26 and 347.

Sept. 1849. KINCHINJHOW GLACIER, 135

hundred feet above that of the valley; it is half a mile
long, and a quarter broad, and fed partly by glaciers of
the second order on Chango-khang and Sebolah, and partly
by filtration through the lateral moraine.

i

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i NT A a
ATCA
PL Prins lh

my Wii ;

GNEISS-BLOCK WITH GRANITE BANDS, ON THE KINCHINJHOW GLACIER.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Donkia glaciers — Moraines —Dome of ice—Honey-combed surface—Rocks of
Donkia—Metamorphic action of granite veins—Accident to instruments—
Sebolah pass—Bees and May-flies—View—Temperature—Pulses of party—
Lamas and travellers at Momay—Weather and climate—Dr. Campbell leaves
Dorjiling for Sikkim—Leave Momay—Yeumtong—Lachoong —Retardation of
vegetation at low elevations—Choongtam—Landslips and débacle—Meet Dr.
Campbell—Motives for his journey—Second visit to Lachen valley—Autum-
nal tints—Red currants— Lachen Phipun -— 'Tungu—Scenery—Animals—
Poisonous rhododendrons — Fire-wood — Palung — Elevations — Sitong—
Kongra Lama—Tibetans—Enter Tibet — Desolate scenery — Plants — Ani-
mals —Geology—Cholamoo lakes—Antelopes—Return to Yeumtso—Dr.
Campbell lost—Extreme cold—Headaches—Tibetan Dingpun and guard—
Arms and accoutrements—Temperature of Yeumtso—Migratory birds—
Visit of Dingpun—Yeumtso lakes.

On the 20th of September I ascended to the great Donkia
glaciers, east of Momay; the valley is much longer than
that leading to the Kinchinjhow glacier, and at 16,000
or 17,000 feet elevation, containing four marshes or lakes,
alternating with as many transverse moraines that have
dammed the river. ‘These moraines seem in some cases
to have been deposited where rocks in the bed of the
valley obstructed the downward progress of the ancient
glacier ; hence, when this latter finally retired, it rested at
these obstructions, and accumulated there great deposits,
which do not cross the valley, but project from each side
obliquely imto it. The rocks zz sitw on the floor of the
valley are all moufonnéed and polished on the top,
sides, and face looking up the valley, but are rugged on

Sret. 1849. DONKIA GLACIER. 187

that looking down it: gigantic blocks are poised on some.
The lowest of the ancient moraines completely crosses the
river, which finds its way between the boulders.

Under the red cliff of Forked Donkia the valley
becomes very broad, bare, and gravelly, with a confusion
of moraines, and turns more northwards. At the angle,
the present terminal moraine rises like a mountain (1
assumed it to be about 800 feet high),* and crosses the
valley from N.N.E. to $.S.W. From the summit, which
rises above the level of the glacier, and from which I
assume its present retirement, a most striking scene
opened. ‘The ice fillmg an immense basin, several miles
broad and long, formed a low dome,t with Forked Donkia
on the west, and a serried range of rusty-red scarped
mountains, 20,000 feet high on the north and east, separat-
ing large tributary glaciers. Other still loftier tops of
Donkia appeared behind these, upwards of 22,000 feet
high, but I could not recognise the true summit (23,176
feet). ‘The surface was very rugged, and so deeply honey-
combed that the foot often sank from six to eight inches in

* This is the largest and longest terminal moraine backed by an existing glacier
that I examined with care: I doubt its being so high as the moraine of the Allalein
glacier below the Mat-maark sea in the Sachs valley (Valais, Switzerland) ; but it
is impossible to compare such objects from memory: the Donkia one was much
the most uniform in height.

+ This convexity of the ice is particularly alluded to by Forbes (“Travels in
the Alps,” p. 386), as the “renflément” of Rendu and “surface bombée” of
Agassiz, and is attributed to the effects of hydrostatic pressure tending to press
the lower layers of ice upwards to the surface. My own impression at the time
was, that the convexity of the surface of the Donkia glacier was due to a subjacent
mountain spur running south from Donkia itself. I know, however, far too little
of the topography of this glacier to advance such a conjecture with any con-
fidence. In this case, as in all similar ones, broad expanses being covered to an
enormous depth with ice, the surface of the latter must in some degree be modified
by the ridges and valleys it conceals. The typical “surface bombée,” which is
conspicuous in the Himalaya glaciers, I was wont (in my ignorance of the
mechanical laws of glaciers) to attribute to the more rapid melting of the edges of

the glacier by the radiated heat of its lateral moraines and of the flanks of the
valley that it occupies.

138 MOMAY. Cuap. XXIII.

crisp wet ice. I proceeded a mile on it, with much more
difficulty than on any Swiss glacier: this was owing to the
elevation, and the corrosion of the surface into pits and
pools of water; the crevasses bemg but few and distant.
I saw no dirt-bands on looking down upon it from a point
I attained under the red cliff of Forked Donkia, at an
elevation of 18,307 feet by barometer, and 18,597 by
boiling-pomt. The weather was very cold, the thermometer
fell from 41° to 34°, and it snowed heavily after 3 P.m..
The strike of all the rocks (gneiss with granite veins)
seemed to be north-east, and dip north-west 30°. Such
also were the strike and dip on another spur from Donkia,
north of this, which I ascended to 19,000 feet, on the

26th of September: it abutted on the scarped precipices, ~
3000 feet nigh, of that mountain. I had been attracted 3
to the spot by its bright orange-red colour, which I found —
to be caused by peroxide of iron. The highly erystallme
nature of the rocks, at these great elevations, is due to the —

action of veins of fine-graimed granite, which sometimes alter

the gneiss to such an extent that it appears as if fused —

into a fine granite, with distinct crystals of quartz and
felspar; the most quartzy layers are then roughly crys-
tallized mto prisms, or their particles are aggregated ito
spheres composed of concentric layers of radiating crystals,
as is often seen in agates. The rearrangement of the mineral
constituents by heat goes on here just as in trap, cavities
filled with crystals being formed in rocks exposed to great
heat and pressure. Where mica abounds, it becomes

black and metallic ; and the aluminous matter is crystal-—

lised in the form of garnets.

At these great heights the weather was never fine for
more than an hour at a time, and a driving sleet followed
by thick snow drove me down on both these occasions.

Sept. 1849. ACCIDENT TO INSTRUMENTS. 139

Another time I ascended a third spur from this great
mountain, and was overtaken by a heavy gale and thunder-
storm, the latter is a rare phenomenon : it blew down my
tripod and instruments which I had thought securely

SUMMIT OF FORKED DONKIA, AND ‘‘GOA” ANTELOPES,

propped with stones, and the thermometers were broken,
but fortunately not the barometer. On pickmg up the
latter, which lay with its top down the lull, a large bubble
of air appeared, which I passed up and down the tube,
and then allowed to escape; when I heard a rattling of
broken glass in the cistern. Having another barometer *

* This barometer (one of Newman’s portable instruments) I have now at Kew :
it was compared with the Royal Society’s standard before leaving England ; and
varied according to comparisons made with the Calcutta standard 0:012 during
its travels ; on leaving Calcutta its error was 0; and on arriving in England, by

140 MOMAY. Cuap. XXIII.

at my tent, I hastened to ascertain by comparison whether
the instrument which had travelled with me from England,
and taken so many thousand observations, was seriously
damaged: to my delight an error of 0°020 was all I could
detect at Momay and all other lower stations. On my return
to Dorjiling in December, I took it to pieces, and found the
lower part of the bulb of the attached thermometer broken
off, and floating on the mercury. Having quite expected

VIEW FROM AN ELEVATION OF 18,000 FEET OF THE EAST TOP OF KINCHINJHOW, AND OF TIBET,
OVER THE RIDGE THAT CONNECTS If WITH DONKIA. WILD SHEEP (OVIS AMMON) IN THE
FOREGROUND,

this, I always checked the observations of the attached
thermometer by another, but—how, it is not easy to say—
the broken one invariably gave a correct temperature.

the standard of the Royal Society, +'004. Ihave given in the Appendix some
remarks on the use of these barometers, which (though they have obvious defects),
are less liable to derangement, far more portable, and stand much heavier shocks
than those of any other construction with which I am familiar.

Sepr, 1849, SEBOLAH PASS. 141

The Kinchinjhow spurs are not accessible to so great
an elevation as those of Donkia, but they afford finer
views over Tibet, across the ridge connecting Kinchinjow
with Donkia.

Broad summits here, as on the opposite side of the
valley, are quite bare of snow at 18,000 feet, though where
they project as sloping hog-backed spurs from the parent
mountain, the snows of the latter roll down on them and
form glacial caps, the reverse of olaciers. im valleys, but
which overflow, as it were, on all sides of the slopes, and
are ribboned * and crevassed.

On the 18th of September I ascended the range which
divides the Lachen from the Lachoong valley, to the Sebolah
pass, a very sharp ridge of gneiss, striking north-west and
dipping north-east, which runs south from Kinchinjhow to
Chango-khang. A yak-track led across the Kinchinjhow
glacier, along the bank of the lake, and thence westward
up a very steep spur, on which was much glacial ice
and snow, but few plants above 16,000 feet. At nearly
17,000 fect I passed two small lakes, on the banks
of one of which I found bees, a May-fly (Aphemera)
and enat; the two latter bred on stones in the water,
which (the day being fine) had a temperature of 538°,
while that of the large lake at the glacier, 1000 feet lower,
was only 39°.

The view from the summit commands the whole castel-
lated front of Kinchinjhow, the sweep of the Donkia
clifts to the east, Chango-khang’s blunt cone of ribbed snowt
over head, while to the west, across the grassy Palung
dunes rise Chomiomo, the Thlonok mountains, and Kinchin-

* The convexity of the curves, however, seems to be upwards. Such reversed
glaciers, ending abruptly on broad stony shoulders quite free of snow, should on
no account be taken as indicating the lower limit of perpetual snow.

+ This ridging or furrowing of steep snow-beds is explained at vol. 1. p. 287.

142 MOMAY. Cuae. XXTIL

junga in the distance.* The Palung plains, now yellow
with withered grass, were the most curious part of the view :
hemmed in by this range which rises 2000 feet above
them, and by the Lachen hills on the east, they appeared a
dead level, from which Kinchinjhow reared its head, like
an island from the ocean.t ‘The black tents of the Tibetans
were still there, but the flocks were gone. ‘he broad
fosse-like valley of the Chachoo was at my feet, with the
river winding along its bottom, and its flanks dotted with
black juniper bushes.

The temperature at this elevation, between | and 3 p.m.,
varied from 38° to 59°; the mean being 46°°5, with the
dew-point 34°°6. The height I made 17,585 feet by
barometer, and 17,517 by boiling-pomt. I tried the pulses
of eight persons after two hours’ rest; they varied from
80 to 112, my own beng 104. As usual at these heights,
all the party were suffering from giddiness and headaches.

Throughout September various parties passed my tent at
Momay, generally Lamas or traders : the former, wrapped
in blankets, wearing scarlet and gilt mitres, usually rode
erunting yaks, which were sometimes led by a slave-boy or a
mahogany-faced nun, with a broad yellow sheep-skin cap
with flaps over her ears, short petticoats, and striped boots.
The domestic utensils, pots, pans, and bamboos of butter,

* The latter bore 241° 30’; it was distant about thirty-four miles, and subtended
an angle of 3° 2/30.” The rocks on its north flanks were all black, while those
forming the upper 10,000 feet of the south face were white: hence, the top is
probably granite, overlaid by the gneiss on the north.

+ It is impossible to contemplate the abrupt flanks of all these lofty mountains,
without contrasting them with the sloping outlines that prevail in the southern
parts of Sikkim. All such precipices are, I have no doubt, the results of sea
action; and all posterior influence of sub-aérial action, aqueous or glacial, tends to
wear these precipices into slopes, to fill up valleys and to level mountains. Of all
such influences heavy rain-falls and a luxuriant vegetation are probably the most
active ; and these features are characteristic of the lower valleys of Sikkim, which
are consequently exposed to very different conditions of wear and tear from those
which prevail on these loftier rearward ranges.

:
:
|
|
|

Sa aT le el eee oe

Sepr. 1849. WEATHER AT MOMAY. LAMAS, &c. 143

tea-churn, bellows, stools, books, and sacred implements,
usually hung rattle on all sides of his holiness, and a
sumpter yak carried the tents and mats for sleepmg. On
several occasions large parties of traders, with thirty or
forty yaks* laden with planks, passed, and occasionally a
shepherd with Tibet sheep, goats, and ponies. I questioned
many of these travellers about the courses of the Tibetan
rivers ; they all agreed + in stating the Kambajong or
Chomachoo river, north of the Lachen, to be the Arun of
Nepal, and that it rose near the Ramchoo lake (of Turner’s
route). ‘The lake itself discharges either into the Arun,
or into the Pamomchoo (flowing to the Yaru) ; but this
point I could never satisfactorily ascertain.

The weather at Momay, durimg September, was gene-
rally bad after 11 a.m.: little snow or rain fell, but
thin mists and drizzle prevailed; less than one inch
and a half of rain was collected, though upwards of
eleven fell at Calcutta, and rather more at Dorjiling.
‘The mornings were sometimes fine, cold, and sunny, with
a north wind which had blown down the valley all mght,
and till 9 a.m., when the south-east wind, with fog, came
on. ‘Throughout the day a north current blew above the
southern; and when the mist was thin, the air sparkled
with spiculee of snow, caused by the cold dry upper current
condensing the vapours of the lower. ‘This southern
current passes over the tops of the loftiest mountains,
ascending to 24,000 feet, and discharging frequent showers

* About 600 loaded yaks are said to cross the Donkia pass annually.

+ One lad only, declared that the Kambajong river flowed north-west to Dobtah
and Sarrh, and thence turned north to the Yaru ; but all Campbell’s itineraries, as
well as mine, make the Dobtah lake drain into the Chomachoo, north of Wallan-
choon ; which latter river the Nepalese also affirm flows into Nepal, as the
Arun. The Lachen and Lachoong Phipuns both insisted on this, naming to me
the principal towns on the way south-west from Kambajong along the river to
Tingri Maidan, vié Tashirukpa Chait, which is north of Wallanchoon pass.

144 MOMAY. Cuarv. XXII

in Tibet, as far north as Jigatzi, where, however, violent
dry easterly gales are the most prevalent.

The equinoctial gales set in on the 21st, with a falling
barometer, and slect at night; on the 23rd and 24th it
snowed heavily, and being unable to light a fire at the
entrance of my tent, I spent two wretched days, taking
observations; on the 25th it cleared, and the snow soon
melted. Frosty nights succeeded, but the thermometer
only fell to 31° once during the month, and the maximum
once rose to 62°5. The mean temperature from the 9th to
the 30th September was 41°6,* which comceided with that
of 8 a.m.and 8 p.m. ; the mean maximum, 52°.2, minimum,
34°°7, and soneeaneat range, 17°°5.+ On seven nights the
radiating thermometer fell much below the temperature of
the air, the mean being 10°°5 and maximum 14°:2 ; and on
seven mornings the sun heated the black-bulb thermometer
eer on the mean to 62°°6 above the air ; maximum
75°2, and minimum, 43°. The greatest heat ai the day
occurred at noon: the most rapid rise of temperature (5°).
between 8 and 9 a.m., and the greatest fall (5°°5), between
3 and 4 p.m. A sunk thermometer fell from 52° 5 to
51°°5 between the 11th and 14th, when I was obliged to
remove the thermometer owing to the accident mentioned
above. The mercury in the barometer rose and _ fell
contemporaneously with that at Calcutta and Dorjiling,
but the amount of tide was considerably less, and, as is
usual during the equinoctial month, on some days it
scarcely moved, whilst on others it rose and fell rapidly.
The tide amounted to 0°062 of an inch.

On the 28th of the month the Singtam Soubah came up

* The result of fifty-six comparative observations between Calcutta and Momay,
give 40°°5 difference, which, after corrections, allows 1° Fahr. for every 438
feet of ascent.

ft At Dorjiling the September range is only 9°:5; and at Caleutta 10°.

Oct. 1849. YEUMTONG. BACKWARD* VEGETATION. 145

from Yeumtong, to request leave to depart for his home,
on account of his wife’s illness; and to inform me that
Dr. Campbell had left Dorjiling, accompanied (in com-
pliance with the Rajah’s orders) by the Tchebu Lama.
I therefore left Momay on the 80th, to meet him at
Choongtam, arriving at Yeumtong the same night, amid
heavy rain and sleet.

Autumnal tints reigned at Yeumtong, and the flowers
had disappeared from its heath-like flat; a small eatable
cherry with a wrinkled stone was ripe, and acceptable in a
country so destitute of fruit.* Thence I descended to
Lachoong, on the Ist of October, again through heavy
rain, the snow lyimg on the Tunkra mountain at 14,000
feet. The larch was shedding its leaves, which turn red
before they fall; but the annual vegetation was much
behind that at 14,000 feet, and so many late flowerers,
such as Umdbellifere and Composite, had come into
blossom, that the place still looked gay and green: the
blue chmbing gentian (Crawfurdia) now adorned the
bushes ; this plant would be a great acquisition in Enelish
gardens. <A Polygonum still in flower here, was in ripe
fruit near Momay, 6000 fect higher up the valley.

On the following day I made a long and very fatiguing
march to Choongtam, but the coolies were not all able to
accomplish it. ‘he backwardness of the flora in descending
was even more conspicuous than on the previous day: the
jungles, at 7000 feet, bemg gay with a handsome Cucurbi-
taceous plant. Crossing the Lachoong cane-bridge, I paid
the tribute of a sigh to the memory of my poor dog,
and reached my old camping-ground at Choongtam by

* The absence of Vaccinia (whortleberries and cranberries) and eatable Rubi
(brambles) in the alpine regions of the Himalaya is very remarkable, and they
are not replaced by any substitute. With regard to Vaccinium, this is the more

anomalous, as several species grow in the temperate regions of Sikkim.
VOL. Il. L

146 CHOONGTAM. Cuap. XXIII.

10 p.m., having been marching rapidly for twelve hours.
My bed and tent came up two hours later, and not before
the leeches and mosquitos had taxed me severely. On the
Ath of October I heard the nightingale for the first time
this season.

Expecting Dr. Campbell on the following morning, I
proceeded down the river to meet him: the whole valley
was buried under a torrent or débacle of mud, shingle, and
boulders, and for half a mile the stream was dammed up
into a deep lake. Amongst the gneiss and granite boulders
brought down by this débacle, [ collected some actinolites ;
but all minerals are extremely rare in Sikkim and I never
heard of a gem or crystal of any size or beauty, or of an
ore of any consequence, bemg found in this country.

I met my friend on the other side of the mud torrent,

and I was truly rejoiced to see him, though he was looking

much the worse for his trymg journey through the hot
valleys at this season ; in fact, | know no greater trial of
the constitution than the exposure and hard exercise that
is necessary in traversing these valleys, below 5000 feet, in
the rainy season: delay is dangerous, and the heat, anxiety,
and bodily suffermg from fatigue, insects, and bruises,
banish sleep, and urge the restless traveller onward to
higher and more healthy regions. Dr. Campbell had, I
found, in addition to the ordinary dangers of such a journey,
met with an accident which might have proved serious ;
his pony having been dashed to pieces by falling over a
precipice, a fate he barely escaped himself, by adroitly
shpping from the saddle when he felt the animal's foot
giving way.

On our way back to Choongtam, he detailed to me the
motives that had led to his obtaining the authority of the 7
Deputy-Governor of Bengal (Lord Dalhousie being absent)

Oct. 1849, MEET DR. CAMPBELL. 147

for his visiting Sikkim. Foremost, was his earnest desire
to cultivate a better understanding with the Rajah and his
officers. He had always taken the Rajah’s part, from a con-
viction that he was not to blame for the misunderstandings
which the Sikkim officers pretended to exist between
their country and Dorjiling; he had, whilst urgently
remonstrating with the Rajah, insisted on forbearance on
my part, and had long exercised it himself. In detailing
the treatment to which I was subjected, I had not hesitated
to express my opinion that the Rajah was more compro-
mised by it than his Dewan: Dr. Campbell, on the con-
trary, knew that the Dewan was the head and front of the
whole system of annoyance. In one point of view it
mattered little who was in the right; but the transaction
was a violation of good faith on the part of the Sikkim
government towards the British, for which the Rajah,
however helpless, was yet responsible. To act upon my
representations alone would have been unjust, and no course
remained but for Dr. Campbell to inquire personally into
the matter. The authority to do this gave him also the
opportunity of becoming acquainted with the country which
we were bound to protect, as well by our interest as by
treaty, but from which we were so jealously excluded, that
should any contingency occur, we were ignorant of what
steps to take for defence, and, indeed, of what we should
have to defend.

On the 6th of October we left Choongtam for my second
visit to the Kongra Lama pass, hoping to get round by the
Cholamoo lakes and the Donkia pass. As the country
beyond the frontier was uninhabited, the Tchebu Lama saw
no difficulty in this, provided the Lachen Phipun and the
Tibetans did not object. Our great obstacle was the

Singtam Soubah, who (by the Rajah’s order) accompanied
L 2

148 LACHEN VALLEY. Cuap. XXIII.

us to clear the road, and give us every facility, but who was
very sulky, and undisguisedly rude to Campbell ; he was in
fact extremely jealous of the Lama, who held higher authority
than he did, and who alone had the Rajah’s confidence.

Our first day’s march was of about ten miles to one of
the river-flats, which was covered with wild apple-trees,
whose fruit, when stewed with sugar, we found palatable.
The Lachen river, though still swollen, was comparatively
clear; the rains usually ceasing, or at least moderating, in
October : its water was about 5° colder than in the beginning
of August.

During the second day’s march we were stopped at the
Taktoong river by the want of a bridge, which the Singtam
Soubah refused to exert himself to have repaired ; 1ts waters
were, however, so fallen, that our now large party soon
bridged it with admirable skill. We encamped the second
night on Chateng, and the following day made a long
march, crossing the Zemu, and ascending half-way to
Tallum Samdong. The alpine foliage was rapidly changing
colour; and that of the berberry turning scarlet, gave a
warm glow to the mountain above the forest. Lamteng
village was deserted: turnips were maturing near the
houses, and buckwheat on the slope behind ; the latter is a
winter-crop at lower elevations, and harvested in April. At
Zemu Samdong the willow-leaves were becoming sear and
yellow, and the rose-bushes bore enormous scarlet hips, two
inches long, and covered with bristles ; they were sweet,
and rather good eating. Near Tungu (where we arrived
on the 9th) the great Sikkim currant was in fruit; ifs
berries are much larger than the English, and of the
same beautiful red colour, but bitter and very acid;
they are, however, eaten by the Tibetans, who call them
“ Kewdemah.”’

Oot. 1849. ARRIVE AT TUNGU., LACHEN PHIPUN. 149

Near the village I found Dr. Campbell remonstrating
with the Lachen Phipun on the delays and rude treatment
I had received im June and July: the man, of course,
answered every question with falsehoods, which is_ the
custom of these people, and produced the Rajah’s orders
for my being treated with every civility, as a proof that he
must have behaved as he ought! The Singtam Soubah,
as was natural, hung back, for it was owing to him alone
that the orders had been contravened, and the Phipun
appealed to the bystanders for the truth of this.

The Phipun (accompanied by his Larpun or subordinate
officer) had prepared for us a sumptuous refreshment of tea- _
soup, which was brewing by the road, and in which all ani-
mosities were soon washed away. We took up our abode at
Tungu in a wooden hut under the great rock, where we were
detained for several days by bad weather. I was assured
that during all August and September the weather had been
uniformly gloomy, as at Momay, though little rain had fallen.

We had much difficulty in purchasing a_ sufficient
number of blankets * for our people, and in arranging for
our journey, to which the Lachen Phipun was favourable,
promising us ponies for the expedition. The vegetation
around was wholly changed since my July visit : the rhodo-
dendron scrub was verdigris-green from the young leaves
which burst im autumn, and expose at the end of each
branchlet a flower-bud: covered with resinous scales, which
are thrown off in the followmg spring. The jungle was
spotted yellow with the withered birch, maple and
mountain-ash, and scarlet with berberry bushes; while
above, the pastures were yellow- brown with the dead
grass, and streaked with snow.

* These were made of goat’s wool, teazed into a satiny surface by little teazle-
like brushes of bamboo.

150 STUNG. Cuap. XXIII.

Amongst other luxuries, we procured the flesh of yak
calves, which is excellent veal: we always returned the foot
for the mother to lick while being milked, without which
she yields nothing. ‘The yak goes nine months with calf,
and drops one every two years, bearing altogether ten or
twelve: the common Sikkim cow of lower elevations, at
Dorjiling invariably goes from nine and a half to ten
months, and calves annually : ponies go eleven months, and
foal nearly every year. In Tibet the sheep are annually
sheared ; the ewes drop their young in spring and autumn,
but the lambs born at the latter period often die of cold
and starvation, and double lambing is unknown; whereas,
in the plains of Bengal (where, however, sheep cannot be
said to thrive without pulse fodder) twins are constantly
born. At Dorjiling the sheep drop a lamb once im the season.
The Tibetan mutton we generally found dry and stringy.

In these regions many of my goats and kids had died
foaming at the mouth and grinding their teeth; and
I here discovered the cause to arise from their eating the
leaves of Rhododendron cinnabarinum* (“Kema Kechoong, ”
Lepcha: Kema signifying Rhododendron): this species
alone is said to be poisonous; and when ‘used as fuel,
it causes the face to swell and the eyes to inflame; of
which I observed several imstances. As the subject of
fire-wood is of every-day interest to the traveller in these
regions, I may here mention that the rhododendron woods
afford poor fires; juniper burns the brightest, and with
least smoke. Abies Webbiana, though emitting . much
smoke, gives a cheerful fire, far superior to larch, spruce, ‘
or Abies Brunoniana. At Dorjilmg, oak is the common

* The poisonous honey Fe aiiea by other species is alluded to at vol. i, p. 201,
An Andromeda and a Gualtheria, I have been assured are equally deleterious.

+ The larch of northern Asia (Larix Europea) is said to produce a pungent
smoke, which I never observed to be the case with the Sikkim species.

Oct, 1849. FIRE-WOOD,. PHOSPHORESCENT WOOD. 151

fuel; alder is also good. Chestnut is invariably used for
blacksmith’s charcoal. Magnolia has a disagreeable odour,
and laurel burns very badly.

The phenomenon of phosphorescence is most conspicuous
on stacks of fire-wood. At Dorjiling, durmg the damp,
warm, summer months (May to October), at elevations of
5000 to 8000 feet, it may be witnessed every night by
penetrating a few yards into the forest—at least it was so
in 1848 and 1849; and during my stay there billets of
decayed wood were repeatedly sent to me by residents,
with inquiries as to the cause of their luminosity. It is
no exaggeration to say that one does not need to move
from the fireside to see this phenomenon, for if there is
a partially decayed log amongst the fire-wood, it is almost
sure to glow with a pale phosphoric light. A stack of
fire-wood, collected near my host’s (Mr. Hodgson) cottage,
presented a beautiful spectacle for two months (in July and
August), and on passing it at night, I had to quiet my
pony, who was always alarmed by it. The phenomenon
invariably accompanies decay, and is common on oak,
laurel (7etranthera), birch, and probably other timbers ; it
equally appears on cut wood and on stumps, but is most
frequent on branches lying close to the ground in the wet
forests. I have reason to believe that it spreads with great
rapidity from old surfaces to freshly cut ones. ‘That it is a
vital phenomenon, and due to the mycelium of a fungus,
I do not in the least doubt, for I have observed it occa-
sionally circumscribed by those black lines which are often
seen to bound mycelia on dead wood, and to precede a
more rapid decay. I have often tried, but always in vain,
to coax these mycelia into developmg some fungus, by
placing them in damp rooms, &. When camping in.
the mountains, I frequently caused the natives to bring

152 TUNGU. Crap Xk

phosphorescent wood into my tent, for the pleasure of
watching its soft undulating light, which appears to pale |
and glow with every motion of the atmosphere ; but except
in this difference of intensity, it presents no change m_
appearance night after night. Alcohol, heat, and dryness
soon dissipate it ; electricity I never tried. It has no odour,
and my dog, who had a fine sense of smell, paid no heed
when it was laid under his nose.”

The weather continuing bad, and snow falling, the
country people began to leave for their winter-quarters at
Lamteng. In the evenings we enjoyed the company of the
Phipun and T’chebu Lama, who relished a cup of sugarless
tea more than any other refreshment we could offer.
From them we collected much Tibetan information :—the
former was at inveterate smoker, using a pale, mild tobacco,
mixed largely with leaves of the small wild Tibetan
Rhubarb, called “Chula.” Snuff is little used, and is
principally procured from the plains of India.

We visited Palung twice, chiefly in hopes that Dr.
Campbell might see the magnificent prospect of Kinchinjhow,
from its plains: the first time we gained little beyond a
ducking, but on the second (October the 15th) the view
was superb; and I likewise caught a climpse of Kinchm-
junga from the neighbouring heights, bearing south 60°
west and distant forty miles. I also measured barometrically
the elevation at the great chait on the plains, and found it

* As far as my observations go, this phenomenon of light is confined to the
lower orders of vegetable life, to the fungi alone, and is not dependent on irrita-
bility. I have never seen luminous flowers or roots, nor do I know of any
authenticated instance of such, which may not be explained by the presence of
mycelium or of animal life. In the animal kingdom, luminosity is confined, I
believe, to the Invertebrata, and is especially common amongst the Radiata and
Mollusca; it is also frequent in the Entromostracous Crustacea, and in various
genera of most orders of insects. In all these, even in the Sertulariz, I have
invariably observed the light to be increased by irritation, in which respect the
luminosity of animal life differs from that of vegetable.

Oct. 1849. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 153

15,620 feet, and by carefully boiled thermometers, 15,283,
on the 138th October, and 15,566 on the 15th: the differ-
ence being due to the higher temperature on the latter
day, and to a rise of 0° 3 on both boiling-point thermometers
above what the same imstruments stood at on the 18th.
The elevation of ''ungu from the October barometrical
observations was only seven feet higher than that given by
those of July; the respective heights being 12,766 feet in
July, and 12,773 in October.* The mean temperature
had fallen from 50° in July to 41°, and that of the sunk
thermometer from 57° to 51° 4. ‘The mean range in July
was 23° 3, and in October 13°-8 ; the weather during the
latter period bemg, however, uniformly cold and misty, this
was much below the mean monthly range, which probably
exceeds 30°. Much more rain fell in October at Tungu
than at Dorjiling, which is the opposite to what occurs
during the rainy season.

October 15th. Having sent the coolies forward, with
imstructions to halt and camp on this side the Kongra
Lama pass, we followed them, taking the route by Palung,
and thence over the hills to the Lachen, to the east of
which we descended, and further up its valley jomed the
advanced party im a rocky glen, called Sitong, an advan-
tageous camping ground, from being sheltered by rocks
which ward off the keen blasts : its elevation is 15,370 feet
above the sea, and the magnificent west cliff of Kinchin-
jhow towers over it not a mile distant, bearing due east,

* The elevation of Tungu by boiling-point was 12,650 feet by a set of July
observations, 12,818 by a set taken on the 11th of October, and 12,544 bya set on
the 14th of October: the discrepancies were partly due to the temperature cor-
rections, but mainly to the readings of the thermometers, which were -—

July 28 sunset 189°5 air 47° 3 elev. 12,650
Ocho 1 “noon «18955 .,.37°..6 4 el 281s
Oct. 14 sunset 1901 ,, 45° 3 ,, 12,544

154 UPPER LACHEN VALLEY. Cap. XXIII.

and subtending an angle of 24°3’. The afternoon was
misty, but at 7 p.m. the south-east wind fell, and was
immediately succeeded by the biting north return current,
which dispelled the fog: hoar-frost sparkled on the ground,
and the moon shone full on the snowy head of Kinchin-
jhow, over which the milky-way and the broad flashing
orbs of the stars formed a jewelled diadem. The night
was very windy and cold, though the thermometer fell no
lower than 22°, that placed in a polished parabolic reflector
to 20°, and another laid on herbage to 17° 5.

On the 16th we were up early. I felt very anxious
about the prospect of our getting round by Donkia pass
and Cholamoo, which would enable me to complete the
few remaining miles of my long survey of the Teesta river,
and which promised immense results in the views I should
obtain of the country, and of the geology and botany of
these lofty snowless regions. Campbell, though extremely
solicitous to obtain permission from the Tibetan guard,
(who were waiting for us on the frontier), was never-
theless bound by his own official position to yield at
once to their wishes, should they refuse us a passage.

The sun rose on our camp at 7°30 a.m., when the north
wind fell; and within an hour afterwards the temperature
had risen to 45°. Having had our sticks * warmed and
handed to us, we started on ponies, accompanied by
the Lama only, to hold a parley with the Tibetans ;
ordering the rest of the party to follow at their leisure.
We had not proceeded far when we were joined by two
Tibetan Sepoys, who, on our reaching the pass, bellowed

* It was an invariable custom of our Lepcha and Tibetan attendants, to
warm the handles of our sticks in cold weather, before starting on our daily
marches. This is one of many little instances I could adduce, of their thought-

fulness and attention to the smallest comforts of the stranger and wanderer in
their lands.

Ocr. 1849. KONGRA LAMA. ENTER TIBET. 155

lustily for their companions ; when Campbell and the Lama
drew up at the chait of Kongra Lama, and announced
his wish to confer with their commandant.

My anxiety was now wound up to a pitch; I saw men
with matchlocks emerging from amongst. the rocks under
Chomiomo, and despairing of permission being obtained, I
goaded my pony with heels and stick, and dashed on up
the Lachen valley, resolved to make the best of a ‘splendid
day, and not turn back till I had followed the river to the
Cholamoo lakes. The Sepoys followed me a few paces, but
running being difficult at 16,000 feet, they soon gave up
the chase. :

A few miles ride in a north-east direction over an open,
undulating country, brought me to the Lachen, flowing
westwards in a broad, open, stony valley, bounded by
Kinchinjhow on the south, (its face being as precipitous as
that on the opposite side), and on the north by the Peuka-
thlo, a low range of rocky, sloping mountains, of which the
summits were 18,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea.
Enormous erratic blocks of gneiss strewed the ground,
which was sandy or gravelly, and cut into terraces along
the shallow, winding river, the green and sparkling waters
of which rippled over pebbles, or expanded into lagoons.
The already scanty vegetation diminished rapidly: it con-
sisted chiefly of scattered bushes of a dwarf scrubby honey-
suckle and tufts of nettle, both so brittle as to be trodden
into powder, and the short leafless twiggy Lphedra, a few
inches higher. ‘The most alpine rhododendron (2. xivale)
spread its small rigid branches close to the ground ; the
hemispherical Arenaria, another type of sterility, rose here
and there, and tufts of J/yosolis, Artemisia, Astragali, and
Androsace,formed flat cushions level with the soil. Grass was
very scarce, but a running wiry sedge (Carex Moorcroft)

156 TIBET. Cuap. XXIII.

bound the sand, like the Carex arenaria of our English
coasts. :

A more dismally barren country cannot well be con-
ceived, nor one more strongly contrasting with the pastures
of Palung at an equal elevation. The long lofty wall of
Kinchinjhow and Donkia presents an effectual barrier to
the transmission of moisture to the head of the Lachen
valley, which therefore becomes a type of such elevations
in Tibet. As I proceeded, the ground became still more
sandy, chirping under the pony’s feet; and where harder,
it was burrowed by innumerable marmots, foxes, and the
‘“Goomchen,” or tail-less rat (Lagomys badius), sounding
hollow to the tread, and at last becoming so dangerous
that I was obliged to dismount and walk.

‘The geological features changed as rapidly as those of the
climate and vegetation, for the strike of the rocks being north-
west, and the dip north-east, I was rising over the strata
that overlie the gneiss. The upper part of Kinchinjhow is
composed of bold ice-capped cliffs of gneiss; but the
long spurs that stretch northwards from it are of quartz,
conglomerates, slates, and earthy red clays, forming the
rounded terraced hills I had seen from Donkia pass.
Between these spurs were narrow valleys, at whose mouths
stupendous blocks of gneiss rest on rocks of a much later
geological formation.

Opposite the most prominent of these spurs the river
(16,800 feet above the sea) runs west, forming marshes,
which were full of Zannichellia palustris and Ranunculus
aquatilis, both English and Siberian plants: the waters
contained many shells, of a species of Zymnea ;* and the soil

* This is the most alpine living shell in the world; my specimens being from
nearly 17,000 feet elevation ; it is the Zymnawa Hookeri, Reeve (“ Proceedings of
the Zoological Society,” No. 204).

Oct, 1849. CHOLAMOO LAKES. 157

near the edge, which was covered with tufts of short grass,
was whitened with effloresced carbonate of soda. Here
were some square stone enclosures two feet high, used as
pens, and for pitching tents in; within them I gathered
some unripe barley.

Beyond this I recognised a hill of which I had taken
bearings from Donkia pass, and a few miles further, on
rounding a great spur of Kinchinjunga, I arrived in sight
of Cholamoo lakes, with the Donkia mountain rearing its
stupendous precipices of rock and ice on the east. My pony
was knocked up, and I felt very giddy from the exertion and
elevation ; I had broken his bridle, and so led him on by
my plaid for the last few miles to the banks of the
lake; and there, with the pleasant sound of the waters
rippling at my feet, I yielded for a few moments to those
emotions of gratified ambition which, bemg unalloyed by
selfish considerations for the future, become springs of
happiness during the remainder of one’s life.

‘The landscape about Cholamoo lakes was simple in its
elements, stern and solemn; and though my _ solitary
situation rendered it doubly impressive to me, I doubt
whether the world contains any scene with more sublime
associations than this calm sheet of water, 17,000 feet
above the sea, with the shadows of mountains 22,000 to
24,000 feet high, sleeping on its bosom.

There was much short grass about the lake, on which large
antelopes, ‘‘ Chiru” (Antelope Hodgsont),* and deer, “Goa”
(Procapra picticaudata, Hodgson), were feeding. There
were also many slate-coloured hares with white rumps

* I found the horns of this animal on the south side of the Donkia pass,
but I never saw a live one except in Tibet. The Procapra is described by Mr.
Hodgson, “Bengal As. Soc. Jour., 1846, p. 338,” and is introduced into the cut
at p. 139.

158 TIBET. CuapP. XXIII.

(Lepus ovostolus), with marmots and tail-less rats. The
abundance of animal life was wonderful, compared with the
want of it on the south side of Donkia pass, not five
miles distant in a straight line! it is partly due to the

ANTELOPE’S HEAD.*

profusion of carbonate of soda, of which all ruminants are
fond, and partly to the dryness of the climate, which is
favourable to all burrowing quadrupeds. A flock of
common English teal were swimming in the lake, the
temperature of which was 55°.

“ The accompanying figures of the heads of the Chiru (Antilope Hodgsoni),
were sketched by Lieut. Maxwell (of the Bengal Artillery), from a pair brought to
Dorjiling; it is the so-called unicorn of Tibet, and of MM. Huc and Gabet’s"
narrative,—a name which the profile no doubt suggested.

Oct. 1849. YEUMTSO. ARRIVAL OF DR, CAMPBELL. 159

I had come about fifteen miles from the pass, and arrived
at 1 p.m., remaining half an hour. I could not form
an idea as to whether Campbell had followed or not, and
began to speculate on the probability of passing the night
in the open air, by the warm side of my steed. Though |
the sun shone brightly, the wind was bitterly cold, and I
arrived at the stone dykes of Yeumtso at 3 P.m., quite
exhausted with fatigue and headache. I there found, to my
sreat relief, the T'chebu Lama and Lachen Phipun: they
were in some alarm at my absence, for they thought I was
not aware of the extreme severity of the temperature on the
north side of the snows, or of the risk of losmg my way ;
they told me that after a long discourse with the Dingpun
(or commander) of the Tibetan Sepoys, the latter had allowed
all the party to pass; that the Sepoys had brought on the
coolies, who were close behind, but that they themselves
had seen nothing of Campbell; of whom the Lama then
went in search.

The sun set behind Chomiomo at 5 p.m., and the wind
at once dropped, so local are these violent atmospheric
currents, which are caused by the heating of the upper
extremities of these lofty valleys, and consequent rarefaction
of the air. Intense terrestrial radiation immediately
follows the withdrawal of the sun’s rays, and the tempera-
ture sinks rapidly.

Soon after sunset the Lama returned, bringing Campbell ;
who, having mistaken some glacier-fed lakes at the back
of Kinchinjhow for those of Cholamoo, was looking for
me. He too had speculated on having to pass the night
under a rock, with one plaid for himself and servant ; in
which case I am sure they would both have been frozen to
death, having no pony to le down beside. He told me
that after I had quitted Kongra Lama, leaving him with

160 TIBET. Cuap. XXIII.

the Tchebu Lama and Phipun, the Dingpun and twenty
men came up, and very civilly but formally forbade their
crossing the frontier ; but that upon explaining his motives,
and representing that it would save him ten days’ journey,
the Dingpun had relented, and promised to conduct the
whole party to the Donkia pass.

We pitched our little tent im the corner of the cattle-pen,
and our coolies soon afterwards came up; mine were in
capital health, though suffermg from headaches, but
Campbell’s were in a distressing state of illness and fatigue,
with swollen faces and rapid pulses, and some were imsen-
sible from symptoms like pressure on the brain; * these
were chiefly Ghorkas (Nepalese). The Tibetan Dingpun and
his guard arrived last of all, he was a droll little object, short,
fat, deeply marked with small-pox, swarthy, and greasy; he
was robed in a green woollen mantle, and was perched on
the back of a yak, which also carried his bedding, and
cooking utensils, the latter rattlmg about its flanks, horns, ~
neck, and every point of support: two other yaks bore the
tents of the party. His followers were tall savage looking
fellows, with broad swarthy faces, and their hair in short
pig-tails. They wore the long-sleeved cloak, short trousers,
and boots, all of thick woollen, and felt caps on their
heads. Hach was armed with a long matchlock slung
over his back, with. a moveable rest having two prongs
like a fork, and a hinge, so as to fold up along the barrel,
when the prongs project behind the shoulders like antelope
horns, givmg the uncouth warrior a droll appearance.

* T have never experienced bleeding at the nose, ears, lips or eyelids, either in
my person or that of my companions, on these occasions; nor did I ever meet
with a recent traveller who has. Dr. Thomson has made the same remark, and
when in Switzerland together we were assured by Auguste Balmat, Francois
Coutet, and other experienced Mont Blane guides, that they never witnessed
these symptoms nor the blackness of the sky, so frequently insisted upon by
alpine travellers.

Oct. 1849. TEMPERATURE. BIRDS. 161

A dozen cartridges, each in an iron case, were slung
round the waist, and they also wore the long knife, flint,
steel, and iron tobacco-pipe, pouch, and purse, suspended
to a leathern girdle.

The night was fine, but intensely cold, and the vault of
heaven was very dark, and blazing with stars ; the air was
electrical, and flash lightning ilumimed the sky; this was
the reflection of a storm that was not felt at Dorjiling, but
which raged on the plains of India, beyond the Terai, fully
120 miles, and perhaps 150, south of our position. No
thunder was heard. The thermometer fell to 5°, and that
in the reflector to 3° 5; at sunrise it rose to 10°, and soon
after 8 a.m. to 33°; till this hour the humidity was great,
and a thin mist hung over the frozen surface of the rocky
eround ; when this dispersed, the air became very dry,
and the black-bulb thermometer in the sun rose 60°
above the temperature in the shade. ‘The light of the
sun, though sometimes intercepted by vapours aloft, was
very brilliant.”

This bemg the migrating season, swallows flitted
through the air; finches, larches, and sparrows were
hopping over the sterile soil, seeking food, though it was
difficult to say what. The geese + which had roosted
by the river, cackled; the wild ducks quacked and
plumed themselves; ouzels and waders screamed or

* My black glass photometer shut out the sun’s dise at 10°509 inches, from the
mean of four sets of observations taken between 7 and 10 a.m.

+ An enormous quantity of water-fowl breed in Tibet, including many Indian
species that migrate no further north. The natives collect their eggs for the
markets at Jigatzi, Giantchi, and Lhassa, along the banks of the Yaru river,
Ramchoo, and Yarbru and Dochen lakes. Amongst other birds the Sara, or
great crane of India (see “Turner’s Tibet,” p. 212), repairs to these enormous
elevations to breed. The fact of birds characteristic of the tropics dwelling for
months in such climates is a very instructive one, and should be borne in mind
in our speculations upon the climate supposed to be indicated by the imbedded
bones of birds.

VOL, II. M

162 TIBET. Cuap, XXIII.

chirped ; and all rejoiced as they prepared themselves for
the last flight of the year, to the valleys of the southern
Himalaya, to the Teesta, and other rivers of the Terai and
plams of India.

The Dingpun paid his respects to us in the morning,
wearing, besides his green cloak, a white cap with a green
glass button, denoting his rank ; he informed us that he had
written to his superior officer at Kambajong, explaining his
motives for conducting us across the frontier, and he drew
from his breast a long letter, written on Daphne* paper,
whose ends were tied with floss silk, with a large red seal ;
this he pompously delivered, with whispered orders, to an
attendant, and sent him off. He admired our clothes
extremely,t and then my percussion gun, the first he had
seen ; but above all he admired rum and water, which he
drank with intense relish, leaving a mere sip for his
comrades at the bottom of his little wooden cup, which they
emptied, and afterwards licked clean, and replaced in his
breast for him. We made a large basin full of very weak
erog for his party, who were all friendly and polite; and
having made us the unexpected offer of allowing us to rest
ourselves for the day at Yeumtso, he left us, and practised
his men at firing at a mark, but they were very indifferent
shots.

I ascended with Campbell to the lake he had visited

* Most of the paper used in Tibet is, as I have elsewhere noticed, made from the
bark of various species of Daphnew, and especially of Edgeworthia Gardneri, and is
imported from Nepal and Bhotan; but the Tibetans, as MM. Hue and Gabet
correctly state, manufacture a paper from the root of a small shrub: this J
have seen, and it is of a much thicker texture and more durable than
Daphne paper. Dr. Thomson informs me that a species of Astragalus is used
in western Tibet for this purpose, the whole shrub, which is dwarf, being reduced
to pulp.

+ All Tibetans admire and value English broad-cloth beyond any of our

products. Woollen articles are very familiar to them, and warm clothing is one of
the first requisites of life.

Oct. 1849, YEUMTSO LAKE. 163

on the previous day, about 600 or 800 feet above
Yeumtso, and 17,500 feet above the sea: it is a mile and a
half long, and occupies a large depression between two
rounded spurs, bemg fed by glaciers from Kinchinjhow.
The rocks of these spurs were all of red quartz and slates,
cut into broad terraces, covered with a thick glacial talus
of gneiss and granite in angular pebbles, and evidently
spread over the surface when the glacier, now occupying
the upper end of the lake, extended over the valley.

The ice on the cliffs and summit of Kinchinjhow was much
greener and clearer than that on the south face (opposite
Palung) ; and rows of immense icicles hung from the cliffs.
A conferva grew in the waters of the lake, and short, hard
tufts of sedge on the banks, but no other plants were to be
seen. Brahminee geese, teal, and widgeon, were swimming
in the waters, and a beetle (Avapirus) was coursing over
the wet banks; finches and other small birds were
numerous, eating the sedge-seeds, and picking up the
msects: No view was obtained to the north, owing to the
height of the mountains on the north flank of the Lachen.

At noon the temperature rose to 52° 5, and the black-
bulb to 104° 5; whilst the north-west dusty wind was so
dry, that the dew-point fell to 24° 2.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Ascent of Bhomtso— View of snowy mountains— Chumulari— Arun river—
Kiang-lah mountains—Jigatzi—Lhassa—Dingcham province of Tibet—Mis- —
application of term “Plain of Tibet”—Sheep, flocks of—Crops—Probable
elevation of Jigatzi—Yaru-Tsampu river—Tame elephants—Wild horses—
Dryness of air—Sunset beams—Rocks of Kinchinjhow—Cholamoo lakes—
Limestone—Dip and strike of rocks—Effects of great elevation on party— —
Ascent of Donkia—Moving piles of debris—Cross Donkia pass—Second Visit to
Momay Samdong—Hot springs—Descent to Yeumtong—Lachoong—Retar-
dation of vegetation again noticed—Jerked meat—Fish—Lose a thermometer
—Lepcha lad sleeps in hot spring—Keadom—Bucklandia—Arrive at Choong-
tam—Mendicant — Meepo— Lachen-Lachoong river— Wild grape— View
from Singtam of Kinchinjunga—Virulent nettle.

Ix the afternoon we crossed the valley, and ascended
Bhomtso, fording the river, whose temperature was 48°.
Some stupendous boulders of gneiss from Kinchinjhow are
deposited in a broad sandy track on the north bank, by

ancient glaciers, which once crossed this valley from Kin-—
chinjhow.

The ascent was alternately over steep rocky slopes, and
broad shelf-hke flats ; many more plants grew here than 1.
had expected, in inconspicuous scattered tufts.* The rocks

* Besides those before mentioned, there were Fescue-grass (Festuca ovina of
Scotland), a strong-scented silky wormwood (Artemisia), and round tufts of
Oxytropis chiliophylla, a kind of Astragalus that inhabits eastern and western Tibet ; —
this alone was green: it formed great circles on the ground, the centre decaying,
and the annual shoots growing outwards, and thus constantly enlarging the circle.
A woolly Leontopodium, Androsace, and some other plants assumed nearly the
same mode of growth. The rest of the vegetation consisted of a Sedum, Nardo-
stachys Jatamansi, Meconopsis horridula, a slender Androsace, Gnaphalium, Stipa,
Salvia, Draba, Pedicularis, Potentilla or Sibbaldia, Gentiana and Erigeron alpinus of
Scotland. All these grow nearly up to 18,000 feet.

Oct. 1849. SUMMIT OF BHOMTSO. 165

were nearly vertical strata of quartz, hornstone, and conglo-
merate, striking north-west, and dipping south-west 80°.
The broad top of the hill was also of quartz, but covered
with angular pebbles of the rocks transported from
Kinchinjhow. Some clay-stone fragments were stained
red with oxide of iron, and covered with Parmelia
miniata;* this, with Borrera, another lichen, which forms
stringy masses blown along by the wind, were the only
plants, and they are among the most alpine in the world.

Bhomtso is 18,590 feet above the sea by barometer, and
18,305 by boiling-point: it presented an infinitely more
extensive prospect than I had ventured to anticipate, com-
manding all the most important Sikkim, North Bhotan, and
Tibetan mountains, including Kinchinjunga thirty-seven
miles to the south-west, and Chumulari thirty-nine miles
south-east. Due south, across the sandy valley of the
Lachen, Kinchinjhow reared its long wall of glaciers and
rugged precipices, 22,000 feet high, and under its cliffs lay
the lake to which we had walked in the morning: beyond
Kongra Lama were the Thlonok mountains, where I had
spent the month of June, with Kinchinjunga in the distance.
Westward Chomiomo rose abruptly from the rounded hills
we were on, to 22,000 feet elevation, ten miles distant. To
the east of Kinchinjhow were the Cholamoo lakes, with the
rugged mass of Donkia stretching in cliffs of ice and snow
continuously southwards to forked Donkia, which overhung
Momay Samdong.

A long sloping spur sweeps from the north of Donkia first
north, and then west to Bhomtso, rising to a height of more

* This minute lichen, mentioned at p. 130, is the most Arctic, Antarctic, and
Alpine in the world; often occurring so abundantly as to colour the rocks of an
orange red. This was the case at Bhomtso, and is so also in Cockburn Island in
the Antarctic ocean, which it covers so profusely that the rocks look as if brightly
painted. See “ Ross’s Voyage,” vol. ii. p. 339.

166 TEBE. CuHap. XXIV.

than 20,000 feet without snow. Over this spur the cele-
brated Chumulari* peeps, bearing south-east, and from its
isolated position and sharpness looking low and small ; it
appeared quite near, though thirty-nine miles distant.
North-east of Chumulari, and far beyond it, are several
meridional ranges of very much loftier snowy mountains,
which terminated the view of the snowy Himalaya; the
distance embraced being fully 150 miles, and perhaps much
more. Of one of these eastern masses + I afterwards took

* Some doubt still hangs over the identity of this mountain, chiefly owing to
Turner’s having neglected to observe his geographical positions. I saw a much
loftier mountain than this, bearing from Bhomtso north 87° east, and it was called
Chumulari by the Tibetan Sepoys ; but it does not answer to Turner’s description
of an isolated snowy peak, such as he approached within three miles ; and though
in the latitude he assigned to it, is fully sixty miles to the east of his route. A
peak, similar to the one he describes, is seen from Tonglo and Sinchul (see vol. i.
pp. 125 and 185); this is the one alluded to above, and it is identified by both
Tibetans and Lepchas at Dorjiling as the true Chumulari, and was measured by
Colonel Waugh, who placed it in lat. 27° 49’ north, long. 89° 18’ east. The latter
position, though fifteen miles south of what Turner gives it, is probably correct ;
as Pemberton found that/lurner had put other places in Bhotan twenty miles too
far north. Moreover, in saying that it is visible from Purnea in the plains of
Bengal, Turner refers to Kinchinjunga, whose elevation was then unknown.
Dr. Campbell (“Bengal As. Soc. Jour.,” 1848), describes Chumulari from oral
information, as an isolated mountain encircled by twenty-one goompas, and per-
ambulated by pilgrims in five days; the Lachoong Phipun, on the other hand,
who was a Lama, and well acquainted with the country, affirmed that Chumulari
has many tops, and cannot be perambulated ; but that detached peaks near it may
be, and that it is to a temple near one of these that pilgrims resort. Again, the
natives use these names very vaguely, and as that of Kinchinjunga is often applied
equally to all or any part of the group of snows between the Lachen and Tambur
rivers, so may the term Chumulari have been used vaguely to Captain Turner or
tome. Ihave been told that an isolated, snow-topped, venerated mountain rises
about twenty miles south of the true Chumulari, and is called “Sakya-khang”
(Sakya’s snowy mountain), which may be that seen from Dorjiling ; but I incline to
consider Campbell’s and Waugh’s mountain as the one alluded to by Turner, and
it is to it that I here refer as bearing north 115° 30’ east from Bhomtso.

+ These are probably the Ghassa mountains of Turner’s narrative: bearings
which I took of one of the loftiest of them, from the Khasia mountains,
together with those from Bhomtso, would appear to place it in latitude
28° 10’ and longitude 90°, and 200 miles from the former station, and 90° east of
the latter. Its elevation from Bhomtso angles is 24,160 feet. I presume I also
saw Chumulari from the Khasia; the most western peak seen thence being
in the direction of that mountain. Captain R. Strachey has most kindly

te

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Oct. 1849. ARUN VALLEY FROM BHOMTSO. 167

bearings and angular heights from the Khasia mountains,
in Bengal, upwards of 200 miles south-east of its position.

‘Turning to the northward, a smgular contrast in the
view was presented: the broad sandy valley of the Arun
lay a few miles off, and perhaps 1,500 feet below me; low
brown and red ridges, 18,000 to 19,000 feet high, of stony
sloping mountains with rocky tops, divided its feeders, ’
which appeared to be dry, and to occupy flat sandy valleys.
For thirty miles north no mountain was above the level of
the theodolite, and not a particle of snow was to be seen :
beyond that, rugged purple-flanked and snowy-topped
mountains girdled the horizon, appearing no nearer than
they did from the Donkia pass, and their angular heights
and bearings being almost the same as from that point of
view. ‘The nearer of these are said to form the Kiang-lah
chain, the furthest I was told by different authorities are
in the salt districts north of Jigatzi.

To the north-east was the lofty region traversed by
Turner on his route by the Ramchoo lakes to Teshoo
Loombo ; its elevation may be 17,000 feet * above the sea.
Beyond it a gorge led through rugged mountains, by which
t was told the Painom river flows north-west to the Yaru ;
and at an immense distance to the north-east were the
Khamba mountains, a long blue range, which it is said

paid close attention to these bearings and distances, and recalculated the
distances and heights : no confidence is, however, to be placed in the results of
such minute angles, taken from immense distances. Owing in part no doubt
to extraordinary refraction, the angles of the Ghassa mountain taken from the
Khasia give it an elevation of 26,500 feet ! which is very much over the truth;
and make that of Chumulari still higher: the distance from my position in
the Khasia being 210 miles from Chumulari! which is probably the utmost limit
at which the human eye has ever discerned a terrestrial object.

_ * It is somewhat remarkable that Turner nowhere alludes to difficulty of
breathing, and in one place only to head-ache (p. 209) when at these great eleva-
tions. This is in a great measure accounted for by his having been constantly
mounted. I never suffered either in my breathing, head, or stomach when riding,
even when at 18,300 feet.

168 TIBET. CuHap. XXIV.

divides the Lhassan or “U” from the “Tsang” (or
Jigatzi) province of Tibet ; it appeared fully 100 miles off,
and was probably much more; it bore from N. 57° E. to
N. 70° E., and though so lofty as to be heavily snowed
throughout, was much below the horizon-line of Bhomtso ;
it is crossed on the route from Jigatzi, and from Sikkim
to Lhassa,* and is considered very lofty, from affecting
the breathing. About twenty miles to the north-east are
some curious red conical mountains, said to be on the west
side of the Ramchoo lakes ; they were unsnowed, and bore
N. 45° 30’ E. and N. 60° 30’ E. A sparingly-snowed group
bore N. 26° 30’ E., and another N. 79° E., the latter
being probably that mentioned by ‘Turner as seen by him
from near Giantchi.

But the mountains which appeared both the highest and
the most distant on the northern landscape, were those I
described when at Donkia, as being north of Nepal and
beyond the Arun river, and the culminant peak of which
bore N. 55° W. Both Dr. Campbell and I made repeated
estimates of its height and distance by the eye ; comparing
its size and snow-level with those of the mountains near us;
and assuming 4.000 to 5000 feet as the minimum height
of its snowy cap ; this would give it an elevation of 23,000
to 25,000 feet. An excellent telescope brought out no
features on its flanks not visible to the naked eye, and by
the most careful levellmgs with the theodolite, it was
depressed more than 0° 7’ below the horizon of Bhomtso,
whence the distance must be above 100 miles.

‘The transparency of the pale-blue atmosphere of these

* Lhassa, which lies north-east, may be reached in ten days from this, with
relays of ponies; many mountains are crossed, where the breath is affected, and
few villages are passed after leaving Giantchi, the “Jhansi jeung” of Turner's
narrative. See Campbell’s “Routes from Dorjiling to Lhassa.” (“Bengal As.
Soc. Journal.”)

Oct. 1849. DINGCHAM PROVINCE, ELEVATION OF. 169

lofty regions can hardly be described, nor the clearness
and precision with which the most distant objects are pro-
jected against the sky. From having afterwards measured
peaks 200 and 210 miles distant from the Khasia moun-
tains, I feel sure that I underrated the estimates made at
Bhomtso, and I have no hesitation in saying, that the mean
elevation of the sparmgly-snowed * watershed between the
Yaru and the Arun will be found to be greater than that
of the snowy Himalaya south of it, and to follow the chain
running from Donkia, north of the Arun, along the
Kaang-lah mountains, towards the Nepal frontier, at 'Tingri
Maidan. No part of that watershed perhaps rises so
high as 24,000 feet, but its lowest elevation is probably
nowhere under 18,000 feet.

This broad belt of lofty country, north of the snowy
Himalaya, is the Dingcham province of ‘Tibet, and runs
along the frontier of Sikkim, Bhotan, and Nepal. It gives
rise to all the Himalayan rivers, and its mean elevation is
probably 15,000 to 15,500 feet: its general appearance,
as seen from greater heights, is that of a much less moun-
tainous country than the snowy and wet Himalayan regions ;
this is because its mean elevation is so enormous, that
ranges of 20,000 to 22,000 feet appear low and insigni-
ficant upon it. The absence of forest and other obstruc-
tions to the view, the breadth and flatness of the valleys,
and the undulating character of the lower ranges that

* Were the snow-level in Dingcham, as low as it is in Sikkim, the whole of
Tibet from Donkia almost to the Yaru-Tsampu river would be everywhere inter-
sected by glaciers and other impassable barriers of snow and ice, for a breadth of
fifty miles, and the country would have no parallel for amount of snow beyond
the Polar circles. It is impossible to conjecture what would have been the
effects on the climate of northern India and central Asia under these conditions.
When, however, we reflect upon the evidences of glacial phenomena that abound
in all the Himalayan valleys at and above 9000 feet elevation, it is difficult to

avoid the conclusion that such a state of things once existed, and that at a
comparatively very recent period.

170 TIBET, Cuap. XXIV.

traverse its surface, give it a comparatively level appearance,
and suggest the term “maidan” or “plains” to the
Tibetan, when comparing his country with the complicated
ridges of the deep Sikkim valleys. Here one may travel
for many miles without rising or falling 3000 feet, yet
never descending below 14,000 feet, partly because the flat
winding valleys are followed in preference to exhausting
ascents, and partly because the passes are seldom more than
that elevation above the valleys; whereas, in Sikkim,
rises and descents of 6000, and even 9000 feet, are
common in passing from valley to valley, sometimes in one
day’s march.

The swarthy races of Dingcham have been elsewhere
described ; they are an honest, hospitable, and very hardy
people, differmg from the northern Tibetans chiefly in
colour, and in invariably wearing the pigtail, which
MM. Huc and Gabet assure us is not usual m Lhassa.*
‘They are a pastoral race, and Campbell saw a flock of 400
hornless sheep, grazing on short sedges (Carex) and fescue-
erass, in the middle of October, at 18,000 feet above the
sea. An enormous ram attended the flock, whose long
hair hung down to the ground ; its back was painted red.

There is neither tree nor shrub in this country; and a
very little wheat (which seldom ripens), barley, turnips, and
radishes are, I believe, the only crops, except occasionally

* Amongst Lhassan customsalluded to by these travellers, is that of the women
smearing their faces with a black pigment, the object of which they affirm to be
that they may render themselves odious to the male sex, and thus avoid tempta-
tion. The custom is common enough, but the real object is to preserve the skin,
which the dry cold wind peels from the face. The pigment is mutton-fat, black-
ened, according to Tchebu Lama, with catechu and other ingredients ; but I believe
more frequently by the dirt of the face itself. I fear I do not slander the Tibetan
damsels in saying that personal cleanliness and chastity are both lightly esteemed
amongst them; and as the Lama naively remarked, when questioned on the
subject, “the Tibetan women are not so different from those of other countries
as to wish to conceal what charms they possess.”

Oct. 1849. JIGATZI. YARU RIVER, ETC. 171

peas. Other legumes, cabbages, &c., are cultivated im the
sheltered valleys of the Yaru feeders, where great heat is re-
flected from the rocks; and there also stunted trees grow, as
willows, walnuts, poplars, and perhaps ashes ; all of which,
however, are said to be planted and scarce. Even at 'Teshoo
Loombo and Jigatzi* buckwheat is a rare crop, and only a
prostrate very hardy kind is grown. Clay teapots and pipkins
are the most valuable exports to Sikkim from the latter
city, after salt and soda. Jewels and woollen cloaks are
also exported, the latter especially from Giantchi, which is
famous for its woollen fabrics and mart of ponies.

Of the Yaru river at Jigatzi, which all affirm becomes
the Burrampooter m Assam, I have little information to
add to ‘Turner’s description: it is sixty miles north of
Bhomtso, and I assume its elevation to be 13—14,000
feet ;+ it takes an immense bend to the northward after

¢

* Digarchi, Jigatzi, or Shigatzi jong (the fort of Shigatzi) is the capital of the
“Tsang” province, and Teshoo Loombo is the neighbouring city of temples and
monasteries, the ecclesiastical capital of Tibet, and the abode of the grand (Teshoo)
Lama, or ever-living Boodh. Whether we estimate this man by the number of
his devotees, or the perfect sincerity of their worship, he is without exception one
of the most honoured beings living in the world. I have assumed the elevation of
Jigatzi to be 13—14,000 feet, using as data Turner's October mean temperature
of Teshoo Loombo, and the decrement for elevation of 400 feet to1° Fahr. ; which
my own observations indicate as an approximation to the truth. Humboldt
(“ Asie Centrale,” iii., p. 223) uses a much smaller multiplier, and infers the eleva-
tion of Teshoo Loombo to be between 9,500 and 10,000 feet. Our data are far
too imperfect to warrant any satisfactory conclusions on this interesting subject ;
but the accounts I have received of the vegetation of the Yaru valley at Jigatzi
seem to indicate an elevation of at least 13,000 feet for the bed of that river. Of
the elevation of Lhassa itself we have no idea: if MM. Huc and Gabet’s state-
ment of the rivers not being frozen there in March be correct, the climate must be
very different from what we suppose.

+ The Yaru, which approaches the Nepal frontier west of Tingri, and beyond
the great mountain described at vol.i. p. 265, makes a sweep to the northward, and
turns south to Jigatzi, whence it makes another and greater bend to the north,
and again turning south flows west of Lhassa, receiving the Kechoo river from that
holy city. From Jigatzi it is said to be navigable to near Lhassa by skin and
plank-built boats. Thence it flows south-east to the Assam frontier, and while
still in Tibet, is said to enter a warm climate, where tea, silk, cotton, and rice, are
grown. Of its course after entering the Assam Himalaya little is known, and in

172 TIBET. Cuap. XXIV.

passing Jigatzi, and again turns south, flowing to the west
of Lhassa, and at some distance from that capital. Lhassa,
as all agree, is at a much lower elevation than Jigatzi ;
and apricots (whose ripe stones Dr. Campbell procured for
me) and walnuts are said to ripen there, and the Dama or
Himalayan furze (Caragana), is said to grow there. The
Bactrian camel also thrives and breeds at Lhassa, together
with a small variety of cow (not the yak), both signs of a
much more temperate climate than Jigatzi enjoys. It is,
however, a remarkable fact that there are two tame
elephants near the latter city, kept by the Teshoo Lama.
They were taken,to Jigatzi, through Bhotan, by Phari; and
I have been informed that they have become clothed with
long hair, owing to the cold of the climate; but Tchebu
Lama contradicted this, adding, that his countrymen were
so credulous, that they would believe blankets grew on
the elephants’ backs, if the Lamas told them so.

No village or house is seen throughout the extensive area
over which the eye roams from Bhomtso, and the general
character of the desolate landscape was similar to that
which I have described as seen from Donkia Pass (p. 124).
The wild ass * grazing with its foal on the slopmg downs,

answer to my enquiries why it had not been followed, I was always told that the
country through which it flowed was inhabited by tribes of savages, who live on
snakes and vermin, and are fierce and warlike. These are no doubt the Singpho, Bor
and Bor-abor tribes who inhabit the mountains of upper Assam. A travelling
mendicant was once sent to follow up the Dihong to the Burrampooter, under the
joint auspices of Mr. Hodgson and Major Jenkins, the Commissioner of Assam;
but the poor fellow was speared on the frontier by these savages. The concurrent
testimony of the Assamese, that the Dihong is the Yaru, on its southern course to
become the Burrampooter, renders this point as conclusively settled as any,
resting on mere oral evidence, is likely to be.

* This, the Lqwus Hemionus of Pallas, the untameable Kiang of Tibet, abounds
in Dingcham, and we saw several. It resembles the ass more than the horse, from
its size, heavy head, small limbs, thin tail, and the stripe over the shoulder. The
flesh is eaten and much liked. The Kiang-lah mountains are so named from their
being a great resort of this creature. It differs widely from the wild ass of Persia,
Sind, and Beloochistan, but is undoubtedly the same as the Siberian animal.

*
=e

ee

Oct. 1849. TIBET ANIMALS. FALSE SUNSET. 173

the hare bounding over the stony soil, the antelope scouring
the sandy flats, and the fox stealing along to his burrow,
are all desert and Tartarian types of the animal creation.
The shrill whistle of the marmot alone breaks the silence
of the scene, recalling the snows of Lapland to the mind ;
the kite and raven wheel through the air, 1000 feet over
head, with as strong and steady a pinion as if that atmo-
sphere possessed the same power of resistance that it does
at the level of the sea. Still higher in the heavens, long
black V-shaped trains of wild geese cleave the air, shooting
over the glacier-crowned top of Kinchinjhow, and winging
their flight in one day, perhaps, from the Yaru to the
Ganges, over 500 miles of space, and through 22,000 feet
of elevation. One plant alone, the yellow lichen (Lorrera),
is found at this height, and only as a visitor; for, Tartar-
like, it emigrates over these lofty slopes and ridges,
blown about by the violent winds. I found a small beetle
on the very top,* probably blown up also, for it was a
flower-feeder, and seemed benumbed with cold.

Every mght that we spent m Tibet, we enjoyed a
magnificent display of sunbeams converging to the east,
and making a false sunset. I detailed this phenomenon
when seen from the Kymore mountains, and I repeatedly
saw it again in the Khasia, but never in the Sikkim
Himalaya, whence I assume that it 1s most frequent in
mountain plateaus. As the sun set, broad purple beams
rose from a dark, low, leaden bank on the eastern horizon,
and spreading up to the zenith, covered the mtervening
space: they lasted through the twilight, from fifteen to
twenty minutes, fading gradually ito the blackness of

* I observed a small red Acarus (mite) at this elevation, both on Donkia and
Kinchinjhow, which reminds me that I found a species of the same genus at
Cockburn Island (in latitude 64° south, longitude 64°49 west). This genus hence
inhabits a higher southern latitude than any other land animal attains.

174 TIBET. ' CHap. XXIV.

night. I looked in vain for the beautiful lancet beam of
the zodiacal light; its position was obscured by Chomiomo.

On the 18th of October we had another brilliant
morning, after a cold night, the temperature having fallen
to 4°. I took the altitude of Yeumtso by carefully boiling
two thermometers, and the result was 16,279 feet, the
barometrical observations giving 16,808 feet. I removed a
thermometer sunk three feet in the gravelly soil, which
showed a temperature of 43°,* which is 12° 7 above the
mean temperature of the two days we camped here.

Our fires were made of dry yak droppings which soon
burn out with a fierce flame, and much black smoke; they
give a disagreeable taste to whatever is cooked with them.

Having sent: the coolies forward to Cholamoo lake, we
re-ascended Bhomtso to verify my observations. As on
the previous occasion a violent dry north-west wind blew,
peeling the skin from our faces, loading the air with grains
of sand, and rendering theodolite observations very un-
certain ; besides injuring all my instruments, and exposing
them to great risk of breakage.

The Tibetan Sepoys did not at all understand our
ascending Bhomtso a second time; they ran after
Campbell, who was ahead on a stout pony, girding up
their long garments, bracing their matchlocks tight over
their shoulders, and gasping for breath at every step, the
long horns of their muskets bobbing up and down as they
toiled amongst the rocks. When I reached the top I
found Campbell seated behind a little stone wall which
he had raised to keep off the violent wind, and the
uncouth warriors in a circle round him, puzzled beyond
measure at his admiration of the view. My instruments
perplexed them extremely, and in crowding round me, they

* It had risen to 48° 5 during the previous day.

on ode res

Oct. 1849. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT 18,500 FEET. Wis

broke my azimuth compass. ‘They left us to ourselves
when the fire I made to boil the thermometers went out,
the wind being intensely cold. I had given my barometer
to one of Campbell’s men to carry, who not coming up, the
latter kindly went to search for him, and found him on the
ground quite knocked up and stupified by the cold, and
there, if left alone, he would have lain till overtaken by
death.

The barometer on the summit of Bhomtso stood at
15548 inches;* the temperature between 11°30 a.m. and
2°30 p.m. fluctuated between 44° and 56°: this was very
high for so great an elevation, and no doubt due to the
power of the sun on the sterile soil, and consequent
radiated heat. The tension of vapour was ‘0763, and the
dew-point was 5° 8, or 43° 5 below the temperature of the
air. Such extraordinary dryness ¢ and consequent evapo-
ration, increased by the violent wind, sufficiently accounts
for the height of the snow line; in further evidence of
which, I may add that a piece of ice or snow laid on the
ground here, does not melt, but disappears by evaporation.

The difference between the dry cold air of this elevation
and that of the heated plains of India, is very great.
During the driest winds of the Terai, im spring, the tempe-
rature is 80° to 90°, the tension of vapour is -400 to °500,
with a dew-point 22° below the temperature, and upwards
of six grains of vapour are suspended in the cubic foot of
air; a thick haze obscures the heavens, and clouds of dust
rise high in the air; here on the other hand (probably

* The elevation of Bhomtso, worked by Bessel’s tables, and using corrected
observations of the Calcutta barometer for the lower station, is 18,590 feet. The
corresponding dew-point 4° 4 (49° 6 below that of the air at the time of observa-
tion). By Oltmann’s tables the elevation is 18,540 feet. The elevation by
boiling water is 18,305.

+ The weight of vapour in a cubic foot of air was no more than ;8%, of a grain,
and the saturation-point *208.

176 TIBET. Cuar. XXIV, _

owing to the rarity of the atmosphere and the low tension —
of its vapours), the drought is accompanied by perfect
transparency, and the atmosphere is too attenuated to
support the dust raised by the wind.

We descended in the afternoon, and on our way up the
Lachen valley examined a narrow gulley in a lofty red
spur from Kinchinjhow, where black shales were in siéu,
striking north-east, and dipping north-west 45°. These
shales were interposed between beds of yellow quartz
conglomerate, upon the latter of which rested a talus of
earthy rocks, angular fragments of which were strewed
about opposite this spur, but were not seen elsewhere.

It became dark before we reached the Cholamoo lake,
where we lost our way amongst glaciers, moraines, and
marshes. We expected to have seen the lights of the camp,
but were disappointed, and as it was freezing hard, we
began to be anxious, and shouted till the echos of our
voices against the opposite bank were heard by Tchebu
Lama, who met us in great alarm for our safety. Our
camp was pitched some way from the shore, on a broad
plain, 16,900 feet above the sea.* A cold wind descended
from Donkia; yet, though more elevated than Yeumtso, the
climate of Cholamoo, from being damper and misty, was
milder. The minimum thermometer fell to 14.°

Before starting for Donkia pass on the following morning,
we visited some black rocks which rose from the flat to the
east of the lake. They proved to be of fossiliferous lime-
stone, the strata of which were much disturbed : the strike

* This, which is about the level of the lake, gives the Lachenriver a fall of
about 1500 feet between its source and Kongra Lama, or sixty feet per mile
following its windings. From Kongra Lama to Tallum it is 140 feet per mile;
from Tallum to Singtam 160 feet; and from Singtam to the plains of India 50
feet per mile. The total fall from Cholamoo lake to its exit on the plains of India

is eighty-five feet per mile. Its length, following its windings, is 195 miles,
upwards of double the direct distance.

Oct. 1849. LIMESTONE AT CHOLAMOO. Ly,

Si

appeared in one part north-west, and the dip north-east 45°:
a large fault passed east by north through the cliff, and it
was further cleft by jomts running northwards. The cliff
was not 100 yards long, and was about 70 thick; its
surface was shivered by frost into cubical masses, and
glacial boulders of gneiss lay on the top. The limestone
rock was chiefly a blue pisolite conglomerate, with veins
and crystals of white carbonate of lime, seams of shale, and
iron pyrites. A part was compact and blue, very crystalline,
and full of encrinitic fossils, and probably nummulites, but
all were too much altered for determination.

This, from its mineral characters, appears to be the same
limestone formation which occurs throughout the Himalaya
and Western ‘Tibet; but the fossils I collected are in too
imperfect a state to warrant any conclusions on this subject.
Its occurrence immediately to the northward of the snowy
mountains, and in such very small quantities, are very
remarkable facts. The neighbourmg rocks of Donkia were
eneiss with granite veins, also striking north-west and
dipping north-east 10°, as if they overlay the limestone,
but here as in all similar situations there was great
confusion of the strata, and variation in direction and strike.

And here I may once for all confess that though I believe
the general strike of the rocks on this frontier to be north-
west, and the dip north-east, I am unable to affirm it
positively; for though I took every opportunity of studying
the subject, and devoted many hours to the careful mea-
suring and recording of dips and strikes, on both faces of
Kinchinjhow, Donkia, Bhomtso, and Kongra Lama, I am
unable to reduce these to any intelligible system.”

The coolies of Dr. Campbell’s party were completely

* North-west is the prevalent strike in Kumaon, the north-west Himalaya
generally, and throughout Western Tibet, Kashmir, &c., according to Dr. Thomson.
VOL. Il. N

178 TIBET CHAP. XXIV:

knocked up by the rarified air; they had taken a whole
day to march here from Yeumtso, scarcely six miles, and
could eat no food at night. A Lama of our party offered
up prayers * to Kinchinjhow for the recovery of a stout
Lepcha lad (called Nurko), who showed no signs of anima-
tion, and had all the symptoms of serous apoplexy. The Lama
perched a saddle on a stone, and burning incense before
it, scattered rice to the winds, invoking Kinchin, Donkia,
and all the neighbouring peaks. A strong dose of calomel
and jalap, which we poured down the sick lad’s throat,
contributed materially to the success of these incantations.

The ‘Tibetan Sepoys were getting tired of our delays,
which so much favoured my operations; but though showing
signs of impatience and sulkiness, they behaved well to the
last; taking the sick man to the top of the pass on their
yaks, and assisting all the party: nothing, however, would
induce them to cross into Sikkim, which they considered
as “ Company’s territory.” |

Before proceeding to the pass, I turned off to the east,
and reascended Donkia to upwards of 19,000 feet, vainly
hoping to get a more distant view, and other bearings
of the Tibetan mountains. The ascent was over enormous
piles of loose rocks split by the frost, and was extremely
fatiguing. I reached a peak overhanging a steep pre-
cipice, at whose base were small lakes and glaciers, from
which flowed several sources of the Lachen, afterwards
swelled by the great affluent from Cholamoo lake. A few
rocks striking north-east and dipping north-west, projected

* All diseases are attributed by the Tibetans to the four elements, who are
propitiated accordingly in cases of severe illness. The winds are invoked in cases
of affections of the breathing; fire in fevers and inflammations ; water in dropsy,
and diseases whereby the fluids are affected ; and the God of earth when solid
organs are diseased, as in liver-complaints, rheumatism, &c. Propitiatory offerings
are made to the deities of these elements, but never sacrifices.

Ocr. 1849. MOVEMENT OF SLOPES OF DEBRIS. 179

at the very summit, with frozen snow amongst them,
beyond which the ice and precipices rendered it impossible
to proceed : but though exposed to the north, there was no
perpetual snow in the ordinary acceptation of the term, and
an arctic Huropean lichen (Lecidea oreina) grew on the
top, so faintly discolourmg the rocks as hardly to be
detected without a magnifying-glass.

I descended obliquely, down a very steep slope of 35°, over
upwards of a thousand feet of débris, the blocks on which
were so loosely poised on one another, that it was neces-
sary to proceed with the utmost circumspection, for I was
alone, and a false step would almost certamly have been
followed by breaking a leg. The alternate freezing and
thawing of rain amongst these masses, must produce a con-
stant downward motion in the whole pile of débris (which
was upwards of 2000 feet high), and may account for the
otherwise unexplained phenomenon of continuous shoots of
angular rocks reposing on very gentle slopes in other places.”

The north ascent to the Donkia pass is by a path well
selected amongst immense angular masses of rock, and over
vast piles of débris: the strike on this, the north face, was
again north-east, and dip north-west. I arrived at the top
at 3 p.m., throughly fatigued, and found my faithful Lepcha
lads (Cheytoong and Bassebo) nestling under a rock with
my theodolite and barometers, having been awaiting my
arrival in the biting wind for three hours. My pony
stood there too, the picture of patience, and laden with

* May not the origin of the streams of quartz blocks that fill gently sloping
broad valleys several miles long, in the Falkland Islands, be thus explained ? (See
- “ Darwin’s Journal,” in Murray’s Home and Col. Lib.) The extraordinary shifting
in the position of my thermometer left among the rocks of the Donkia pass
(see p. 129), and the mobile state of the slopes I descended on this occasion, first
suggested this explanation to me. When in the Falkland Islands I was wholly
unable to offer any explanation of the phenomenon there, to which my attention

had been drawn by Mr. Darwin’s narrative.
N 2

180 MOMAY. Cuap. XXIV.

minerals. After repeating my observations, I proceeded to
Momay Samdong, where I arrived after dusk. I left a small
bottle of brandy and some biscuits with the lads, and it was
well I did so, for the pony knocked up before reaching
Momay, and rather than leave my bags of stones, they passed
the night by the warm flank of the beast, under a rock at
18,000 feet elevation, without other food, fire, or shelter.

I found my companion encamped at Momay, on the spot
I had occupied in September; he had had the utmost
difficulty in getting his coolies on, as they threw down
their light loads in despair, and lying with their faces to
the ground, had to be roused from a lethargy that would
soon have been followed by death.

We rested for a day at Momay, and on the 20th,
attempted to ascend to the Donkia glacier, but were driven
back by a heavy snow-storm. ‘The scenery on arriving
here, presented a wide difference to that we had left ; snow
lying at 16,500 feet, whereas immediately to the north
of the same mountain there was none at 19,000 feet.
Before leavmg Momay, I sealed two small glass flasks
contaiming the air of this elevation, by closing with a spirit
lamp a very fine capillary tube, which formed the opening
to each; avoiding the possibility of heating the contents by
the hand or otherwise. The result of its analysis by
Mr. Muller (who sent me the prepared flasks), was that it
contained 36°538 per cent. in volume of oxygen; whereas
his repeated analysis of the air of Calcutta gives 21 per cent.
Such a result is too anomalous to be considered satisfactory.

I again visited the Kinchinjhow glacier and hot springs ;
the water had exactly the same temperature as in the
previous month, though the mean temperature of the air
was 8° or 9° lower. The minimum thermometer fell to
22°, being 10° lower than it ever fell in September.

Oct. 1849. AUTUMNAL VEGETATION. 181

We descended to Yeumtong in a cold drizzle, arriving
by sunset ; we remained through the following day, hoping
to explore the lower glacier on the opposite side of the
valley: which, however, the weather entirely prevented.
I have before mentioned (p. 140) that mm descending in
autumn from the drier and more sunny rearward Sikkim
valleys, the vegetation is found to be most backward in the
lowest and dampest regions. On this occasion, I found
asters, grasses, polygonums, and other plants that were
withered, brown, and seeding at Momay (14,000 to 15,000
feet), at Yeumtong (12,000 feet) green and unripe; and
2000 feet lower still, at Lachoong, the contrast was even
more marked. ‘Thus the short backward spring and
summer of the Arctic zone is overtaken by an early and
forward seed-time and winter: so far as regards the
effects of mean temperature, the warmer station is in
autumn more backward than the colder. This is every-
where obvious in the prevalent plants of each, and is
especially recognisable in the rhododendrons; as_ the
following table shows :—

16,000 to 17,000 feet, R. nivale flowers in July; fruits in September =2 months.
13,000 ,, 14,000 feet, R. anthopogon flowers in June; fruits in Oct. =4 months.

11,000 ,, 12,000 feet, R. campanulatum flowers in May; fruits in Nov.=6 months.
8,000 ,, 9,000 feet, R. argenteum flowers in April; fruits in Dec.=8 months,

And so it is with many species of Composite and Umbell-
Jere, and indeed of all natural orders, some of which I have
on the same day gathered in ripe fruit at 13,000 to 14,000
feet, and found still in flower at 9000 to 10,000 feet. 'T'he
brighter skies and more powerful and frequent solar radia-
tion at the greater elevations, account for this apparent
inversion of the order of nature.*

* The distribution of the seasons at different elevations in the Himalaya gives
rise to some anomalies that have puzzled naturalists. From the middle of

182 YEUMTONG. Cuap. XXIV.

I was disappointed at finding the rhododendron seeds
still immature at Yeumtong, for I was doubtful whether the
same kinds might be met with at the Chola pass, which I
had yet to visit; besides which, their tardy maturation
threatened to delay me for an indefinite period in the
country. Viburnum and Lonicera, however, were ripe
and abundant; the fruits of both are considered poisonous
in Europe, but here the black berries of a species of the
former (called ‘“‘ Nalum’’) are eatable and agreeable;
as are those of a Gualtheria, which are pale blue, and
called “‘Kalumbo.” Except these, and the cherry men-
tioned above, there are no other autumnal fruits above
10,000 feet: brambles, strange as it may appear, do not
ascend beyond that elevation m the Sikkim Himalaya,
though so abundant below it, both m species and indivi-
duals, and though so typical of northern Europe.

At Lachoong we found all the yaks that had been
grazing till the end of September at the higher elevations,
and the Phipun presented our men with one of a gigantic
size, and proportionally old and tough. The Lepchas

October to that of May, vegetation is torpid above 14,000 feet, and indeed almost
uniformly covered with snow. From November till the middle of April, vegeta-
tion is also torpid above 10,000 feet, except that a few trees and bushes do not
ripen all their seeds till December. The three winter months (December, January,
and February) are all but dead above 6000 feet, the earliest appearance of spring
at Dorjiling (7000 feet) being at the sudden accession of heat in March. From
May till August the vegetation at each elevation is (in ascending order) a month
behind that below it; 4000 feet being about equal to a month of summer weather
in one sense. I mean by this, that the genera and natural orders (and sometimes
the species) which flower at 8000 feet in May, are not so forward at 12,000
feet till June, nor at 16,000 feet till July. After August, however, the reverse
holds good; then the vegetation is as forward at 16,000 feet as at 8000
feet. By the end of September most of the natural orders and genera have
ripened their fruit in the upper zone, though they have flowered as late as July;
whereas October is the fruiting month at 12,000, and November below 10,000
feet. Dr. Thomson does not consider that the more sunny climate of the loftier
elevations sufficiently accounts for this, and adds the stimulus of cold, which
must act by checking the vegetative organs and hastening maturation.

ee ee

Oct. 1849. YAK SLAUGHTERED, JERKED MEAT. 183

barbarously slaughtered it with arrows, and feasted on the
flesh and entrails, singed and fried the skin, and made
soup of the bones, leaving nothing but the horns and hoofs.
Having a fine day, they prepared some as jerked meat,
cutting it into thin strips, which they dried on the rocks.
This (called “ Schat-chew,” dried meat) is a very common
and favourite food in Tibet, I found it palatable; but on the
other hand, the dried saddles of mutton, of which they
boast so much, taste so strongly of tallow, that I found it
impossible to swallow a morsel of them.*

We staid two days at Lachoong, two of my lads being
again laid up with fever; one of them had been similarly
attacked at the same place nearly two months before: the
other lad had been repeatedly ill smce June, and at all ele-
vations. Both cases were returns of a fever caught in the
low unhealthy valleys some months previously, and excited
by exposure and hardship. |

The vegetation at Lachoong was still beautiful, and the
weather mild, though snow had descended to 14,000. feet
on Tunkra. Composite were abundantly in flower, apples

* Raw dried split fish are abundantly cured (without salt) in Tibet; they are
caught in the Yaru and great lakes of Ramchoo, Dobtah, and Yarbru, and are
chiefly carp, and allied fish, which attain a large size. It is one of the most
remarkable facts in the zoology of Asia, that no trout or salmon inhabits any of
the rivers that débouche into the Indian Ocean (the so-called Himalayan trout
is a species of carp). This widely distributed natural order of fish (Salmonide)
is however, found in the Oxus, and in all the rivers of central Asia that flow north
and west, and the Salmo orientalis, M‘Clelland (‘Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist.” iii.,
p-. 283), was caught by Mr. Griffith (Journals, p. 404) in the Bamean river (north
of the Hindo Koosh) which flows into the Oxus, and whose waters are separated
by one narrow mountain ridge from those of the feeders of the Indus. The
central Himalayan rivers often rise in Tibet from lakes full of fish, but have none
(at least during the rains) in that rapid part of their course from 10,000 to 14,000
feet elevation: below that fish abound, but I believe invariably of different
species from those found at the sources of the same rivers. The nature of the
tropical ocean into which all the Himalayan rivers débouche, is no doubt the
proximate cause of the absence of Salmonidew. Sir John Richardson (Fishes of
China Seas, &c., “‘ in Brit. Ass. Rep. &c.”), says that no species of the order has
been found in the Chinese or eastern Asiatic seas.

184 COURAGE OF A LEPCHA. mar. XXIV.

in young fruit, bushes of Cofoneaster covered with scarlet
berries, and the brushwood silvery with the feathery heads
of Clematis.

I here found that I had lost a thermometer for high
temperatures, owing to a hole in the bag in which Cheytoong
carried those of my instruments which were in constant
use. It had been last used at the hot springs of the Kin-
chinjhow glacier ; and the poor lad was so concerned at his
mishap, that he came to me soon afterwards, with his
blanket on his back, and a few handfuls of rice in a bag, to
make his salaam before setting out to search for it. There
was not now a single inhabitant between Lachoong and
that dreary spot, and strongly against my wish he started,
without a companion. ‘Three days afterwards he overtook
us at Keadom, radiant with joy at havmg found the instru-
ment: he had gone up to the hot springs, and vainly
sought around them that evening ; then rather than lose the
chance of a day-light search on his way back, he had spent
the cold October mght zz the hot water, without fire or
shelter, at 16,000 feet above the sea. Next morning his
search was again fruitless; and he was returning disconsolate,
when he descried the brass case glistenmg between two
planks of the bridge crossing the river at Momay, over which
torrent the mstrument was suspended. ‘The Lepchas have
generally been considered timorous of evil spirits, and
especially averse to travelling at mght, even m company.
However little this gallant lad may have been given to
superstition, he was nevertheless a Lepcha, born m a warm
region, and had never faced the cold till he became my
servant; and it required a stout heart and an honest one,
to spend a night in so awful a solitude as that which reigns
around the foot of the Kinchinjhow glacier.*

* The fondness of natives for hot springs wherever they occur is very natural,

Oot. 1849. i ARRIVAL AT CHOONGTAM. 185

The villagers at Keadom, where we slept on the 26th,
were busy cutting the crops of millet, maize, and Amaran--
thus. A girl who, on my way down the previous month,
had observed my curiosity about a singular variety of the
maize, had preserved the heads on their ripening, and now
brought them to me. ‘The peaches were all gathered, and
though only half ripe, were better than Dorjiling produce.
A magnificent tree of Bucklandia, one of the most beautiful
evergreens in Sikkim, grew near this village; it had a
trunk twenty-one feet seven inches in girth, at five feet
from the ground, and was unbranched for forty feet.*
Ferns and the beautiful air-plant Celogyne Wallichii grew
on its branches, with other orchids, while Clematis and
Stauntoma climbed the trunk. Such great names
(Buckland, Staunton, and Wallich) thus brought before
the traveller’s notice, never failed to excite lively and
pleasing emotions: it is the ignorant and unfeeling alone
who can ridicule the association of the names of travellers
and naturalists with those of animals and plants.

We arrived at Choongtam (for the fourth time) at noon,
and took up our quarters in a good house near the temple.
The autumn and winter flowering plants now prevailed
here, such as Labiate, which are generally late at this
and has been noticed by Humboldt, “ Pers. Narr.” iv. 195, who states that on
Christianity being introduced into Iceland, the natives refused to be baptised
in any but the water of the Geysers. I have mentioned at p. 117 the uses to which

the Yeumtong hot springs are put; and the custom of using artificial hot baths
is noticed at vol. i., p. 305.

* This superb tree is a great desideratum in our gardens; I believe it would thrive
in the warm west of England. Its wood is brown, and not valuable as timber,
but the thick, bright, glossy, evergreen foliage is particularly handsome, and so is
_ the form of the crown. It is also interesting in a physiological point of view, from
the woody fibre being studded with those curious microscopic discs so character-
istic of pines, and which when occurring on fossil wood are considered conclusive
as to the natural family to which such woods belong. Geologists should bear in
mind that not only does the whole natural order to which Bucklandia belongs,
possess this character, but also various species of Magnoliacce found in India,
Australia, Borneo, and South America.

186 LACHOONG VALLEY. = CHap, XXIV;

elevation; and grasses, which, though rare in the damp forest. ©
regions, are so common on these slopes that I here gathered
twenty-six kinds. I spent a day here in order to collect
seeds of the superb rhododendrons * which I had discovered
in May, growing on the hills behind. The ascent was
now difficult, from the length of the wiry grass, which ren-
dered the slopes so slippery that it was impossible to
ascend without holding on by the tussocks.

A ragged Tibetan mendicant (Phud) was amusing the
people: he put on a black mask with cowrie shells for
eyes, and danced uncouth figures with a kind of heel
and toe shuffle, in excellent time, to rude Tibetan songs
of his own: for this he received ample alms, which a
little boy collected in a wallet. These vagrants live well
upon charity ; they bless, curse, and transact. little affairs of
all kinds up and down the valleys of Sikkim and Tibet ;
this one dealt in red clay teapots, sheep and puppies.

We found Meepo at Choongtam : I had given him leave
(when here last) to go back to the Rajah, and to visit his
wife; and he had returned with instructions to conduct me
to the Chola and Yakla passes, in Hastern Sikkim. These
passes, like that of Tunkra (p. 110), lead over the Chola
range to that part of Tibet which is interposed between
Sikkim and Bhotan. My road lay past the Rajah’s resi-
dence, which we considered very fortunate, as apparently -
affording Campbell an opportunity of a conference with his
highness, for which both he and the Tehebu Lama were
most anxious.

On the way down the Lachen-Lachoong, we found the
valley still flooded (as described at p. 20 and 146), and the
alders standing with their trunks twelve feet under water ;

“ These Rhododendrons are now all flourishing at Kew and elsewhere: they
are Lt. Dalhousie, arboreum, Maddeni, Edgeworthii, Aucklandii and virgatum.

Oot. 1849. START FOR EASTERN PASSES. 187

but the shingle dam was now dry and hard: it would probably
soften, and be carried away by the first rains of the following
year. I left here the temperate flora of northern Sikkim,
tropical forms commencing to appear: of these the nettle
tribe were most numerous in the woods. A large grape,

TIBETAN PHUD.

with beautiful clusters of round purple berries, was very fair
eating ; it is not the common vine of Europe, which never-
theless is probably an Himalayan plant, the tes Indica.”

* The origin of the common grape being unknown, it becomes a curious question

to decide whether the Himalayan Vitis Indica is the wild state of that plant: an
hypothesis strengthened by the fact of Bacchus, &c., having come from the Kast.

188 SINGTAM. Cuap. XXIV.

At Chakoong the temperature of the river, which in:
May was 54°, was now 51° 5 at 3 p.m. We did not halt®
here, but proceeded to Namgah, a very long and fatiguing
march. ‘Thence a short march took us to Smgtam, which
we reached on the 30th of October. ‘The road by which I
had come up was for half the distance obliterated in most
parts by landslips,* but they were hard and dry, and the
leeches were gone. :

Bad weather, and Campbell’s correspondence with the
Durbar, who prevented all communication with the Rajah,
detained us here two days, after which we crossed to the
Teesta valley, and continued along its east bank to
Tucheam, 2000 feet above the river. We obtained a
magnificent view of the east face of Kinchinjunga, its
tops bearing respectively N. 62° W., and N. 63° W.: the
south slope of the snowed portion in profile was 34°, and
of the north 40°; but both appeared much steeper to the
eye, when unaided by an instrument.

The great shrubby nettle (Utica crenulata) is common
here: this plant, called “Mealum-ma,” attains fifteen
feet m height; it has broad glossy leaves, and though
apparently without stings, is held in so great dread,+ that

* IT took a number of dips and strikes of the micaceous rocks: the strike of
these was as often north-east as north-west; it was ever varying, and the strata
were so disturbed, as materially to increase the number and vast dimensions of
the landslips.

+ The stinging hairs are microscopic, and confined to the young shoots, leaf
and flower-stalks. Leschenault de la Tour describes being stung by this nettle
on three fingers of his hand only at the Calcutta Botanical Gardens, and the
subsequent sneezing and running at the nose, followed by tetanic symptoms and
two days’ suffering, nor did the effects disappear for nine days. It is a remarkable
fact that the plant stings violently only at this season. I frequently gathered it
with impunity on subsequent occasions, and suspected some inaccuracy in my
observations ; but in Silhet both Dr. Thomson and I experienced the same effects
in autumn. Endlicher (“Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom”) attributes the causticity
of nettlejuice to bicarbonate of ammonia, which Dr. Thomson and I ascertained
was certainly not present in this species.

Oct. 1849. VIRULENT NETTLE. 189

I had difficulty in getting help to cut it down. I gathered
many specimens without allowmg any part to touch my
skin; still the scentless effluvium was so powerful, that
mnucous matter poured from my eyes and nose all the rest
of the afternoon, in such abundance, that I had to hold
my head over a basin for an hour. The sting 1s very
virulent, producing inflammation; and to punish a child
with “ Mealum-ma’’ is the severest Lepcha threat. Violent
fevers and death have been said to ensue from its sting ;
but this I very much doubt.

TIBETAN IMPLEMENTS.

TEA-POT, CUP, AND BRICK OF TEA ; KNIFE, TOBACCO-PIPE (ACROSS CHOP-STICKS), POUCH,
AND FLINT-AND-STEEL.

CHAPTER XXV.

Journey to the Rajah’s residence at Tumloong—Ryott valley—Rajah’s house—Tup-
gain Lama—Lagong nunnery—Phadong Goompa—Phenzong ditto—Lepcha
Sepoys—Proceedings at Tumloong—Refused admittance to Rajah—Women’s
dresses—Meepo’s and Tchebu Lama’s families—Chapel—Leave for Chola pass
—Ryott river—Rungpo, view from—Deputation of Kajees, &c.—Conference—

Laghep
goong—Pines—Rutto river—Barfonchen — Curling of rhododendron leaf—
Woodcock—Chola pass—Small lakes—Tibet guard and sepoys—Dingpun—
Arrival of Sikkim sepoys—Their conduct—Meet Singtam Soubah—Chuma-
nako—We are seized by the Soubah’s party—Soubah’s conduct—Dingpun
Tinli—Treatment of Dr. Campbell—Bound and guarded—Separated from
Campbell—Marched to Tumloong—Motives for such conduct—Arrive at
Rungpo—At Phadong—Presents from Rajah—Visits of Lama—Of Singtam
Soubah—I am cross-questioned by Amlah—Confined with Campbell—Seizure

of my Coolies—Threats of attacking Dorjiling.

We started on the 3rd of November for Tumloong (or
Sikkim Durbar), Dr. Campbell sending Tchebu Lama
forward with letters to announce his approach. A steep
ascent, through large trees of Ahododendron arboreum, led
over a sharp spur of mica-schist (strike north-west and
dip north-east), beyond which the whole bay-lke valley of
the Ryott opened betore us, presenting one of the most
lovely and fertile landscapes in Sikkim. It is ten miles
_ long, and three or four broad, flanked by lofty mountains,
and its head girt by the beautiful snowy range of Chola,
from which silvery rills descend through black pine-woods,
dividing innumerable converging cultivated spurs, and
uniting about 2000 feet below us, in a profound gorge.
Everywhere were scattered houses, purple crops of buck-

Eatable fruit of Decaisnea—Cathcartia—Rhododendrons—Phieung- «

Nov. 1849. RAJAH’S RESIDENCE. 191

wheat, green fields of young wheat, yellow millet, broad
green plantains, and orange groves.

We crossed spur after spur, often under or over
precipices about fifteen hundred feet above the river,
proceeding eastwards to the village of Rangang, whence
we caught sight of the Rajah’s house. It was an irre-
eular low stone building of ‘Tibetan architecture, with
slanting walls and small windows high up under the
broad thatched roof, above which, in the middle, was a
Chinese-looking square copper-gilt canopy, with projecting
eaves and bells at the corners, surmounted by a ball
and square spire. On either gable of the roof was a
round-topped cylinder of gilded copper, something like a
closed umbrella; this is a very frequent and charac-
teristic Boodhist ornament, and is represented in 'Turner’s |
plate of the mausoleum of Teshoo Lama (“ Tibet”
plate xi.); indeed the Rajah’s canopy at Tumloong is
probably a copy of the upper part of the building there
represented, having been built by architects from Teshoo
Loombo. It was surrounded by chaits, mendongs, poles
with banners, and other religious erections; and though
beautifully situated on a flat terrace overlooking the
valley, we were much disappointed with its size and
appearance.

On the brow of the hill behind was the large red
goompa of the Tupgain Lama, the late heir-apparent to
the temporal and spiritual authority in Sikkim; and near
it a nunnery called Lagong, the lady abbess of which
is a daughter of the Rajah, who, with the assistance of
sisters, keeps an enormous Mani, or praying-cylinder,
revolving perpetually to the prayer of “Om Mani
Padmi hom.” On this side was a similar spur, on
which the gilded pinnacles and copper canopy of the

192 RYOTT VALLEY. Cuap. XXV, 7

Phadong* goompa gleamed through the trees. At a con- —
siderable distance across the head of the valley was still a

third goompa, that of Phenzong.
We were met by a large party of armed Lepchas, dressed

in blue and white striped kirtles, broad loose scarlet jackets,

and the little bamboo wattle hat lined with tale, and sur-
mounted by a peacock’s feather ; they escorted us to the
village, and then retired.

We encamped a few hundred feet below the Rajah’s

house, and close by those of Meepo and the Tchebu —

Lama’s family, who are among the oldest and most
respectable of Tibetan origin in Sikkim. ‘The population
on this, the north side of the Ryott, consists principally of
Sikkim Bhoteeas and Tibetans, while the opposite is
peopled by Lepchas. Crowds came to see us, and many
brought presents, with which we were overwhelmed ; but
we could not help remarking that our cordial greetings
were wholly from the older families attached to the Rajah,

and from the Lamas; none proceeded from the Dewan’s
relatives or friends, nor therefore any in the name of the —

Rajah himself, or of the Sikkim government.

‘T'chebu Lama vainly used every endeavour to procure
for us an audience with his highness; who was sur-
rounded by his councillors, or Amlah, all of whom were
adherents of the Dewan, who was in Tibet. My man
Meepo, and the Tchebu Lama, who were ordered to
continue in official attendance upon us, shrugged their
shoulders, but could suggest no remedy. On the followmg
morning Campbell was visited by many parties, amongst
whom were the Lama’s family, and that of the late Dewan
(lam Sing), who implored us to send again to announce

* Phadong means Royal, and this temple answers to a chapel royal for the
Rajah.

Nov. 1849. VISITS AND PRESENTS AT TUMLOONG. 193

our presence, and not to dismiss at once the moonshic
and his office,* who had accompanied us for the pur-
pose of a conference with the Rajah. Their wishes
were complied with, and we waited till noon before pro-
ceeding.

TCHEBU LAMA,

A gay and anmated scene was produced by the con-
course of women, dressed in their pretty striped and crossed
cloaks, who brought tokens of good-will. Amongst
them Meepo’s wife appeared conspicuous from the large

* Tt is usual in India for Government officers when about to transact business,
to travel with a staff (called office) of native interpreters, clerks, &c., of whom the
chief is commonly called moonshie.

won, I, oO

194 TUMLOONG. Cap. XXV.

necklaces * and amulets, corals, and silver filagree work,
with which her neck and shoulders were loaded: she wore
on her head a red tiara (“Patuk’’) bedizened with seed pearls
and large turquoises, and a gold fillet of filagree bosses
united by a web of slender chains; her long tails were
elaborately plaited, and woven with beads, and her cloak
hooked in front by a chain of broad silver links studded
with turquoises. White silk scarfs, the emblem of peace
and friendship, were thrown over our hands by each party ;
and rice, eggs, fowls, kids, goats, and Murwa beer, poured
in apace, to the great delight of our servants.

We returned two visits of ceremony, one to Meepo’s
house, a poor cottage, to which we carried presents of
chintz dresses for his two little girls, who were busy
teazing their hair with cylindrical combs, formed of a single
slender jomt of bamboo slit all round half-way up into
imnumerable teeth. Our other visit was paid to the Lama's
family, who inhabited a large house not far from the
Rajah’s. The lower story was an area enclosed by stone
walls, into which the cattle, &c., were driven. An outside
stone stair led to the upper story, where we were received
by the head of the family, accompanied by a great con-
course of Lamas. He conducted us to a beautiful little
oratory at one end of the building, fitted up like a square
temple, and lighted with latticed windows, covered with
briliant and tasteful paintings by Lhassan artists. The
beams of the ceiling were supported by octagonal columns
painted red, with broad capitals. Everywhere the lotus,
the mani, and the chirki (or wheel with three rays,
emblematic of the Boodhist Trinity), were introduced ;
“Om Mani Padmi hom” in gilt letters, adorned the pro-

“ The lumps of amber forming these (called “ Poshea”) were larger than the
fist : they are procured in East Tibet, probably from Birmah.

Nov. 1849. DECORATIONS OF ORATORY. 195

jecting end of every beam;* and the Chinese “cloud
messenger,’ or winged dragon, floated m azure and
gold along the capitals and beams, amongst scrolls and
groups of flowers. At one end was a sitting figure of -
Gorucknath in Lama robes, surrounded by a glory, with

CLASP OF A WOMAN’S CLOAK.

mitre and beads; the right hand holding the Dorje, and
the forefinger raised in prayer. Around was a good
library of books. More presents were brought here, and
tea served.

The route to Chola pass, which crosses the range of that
name south of the Chola peak (17,320 feet) at the head of
this valley, is across the Ryott, and then eastwards along a

* A mythical animal with a dog’s head and blood-red spot over the forehead
was not uncommon in this chapel, and is also seen in the Sikkim temples and
throughout Tibet. Ermann, in his Siberian Travels, mentions it as occurring in the
Khampa Lama’s temple at Maimao chin ; he conjectures it to have been the Cyclops
of the Greeks, which according to the Homeric myth hada mark on the forehead,
instead of an eye. The glory surrounding the heads of Tibetan deities is also
alluded to by Ermann, who recognises in it the Nimbus of the ancients, used to
protect the heads of statues from the weather, and from being soiled by birds ;
and adds that the glory of the ancient masters in painting was no doubt
introduced into the Byzantine school from the Boodhists.

02

196 TUMLOONG. Cuap. XXV.

lofty ridge. Campbell started at noon, and I waited
behind with Meepo, who wished me to see the Rajah’s
dwelling, to which we therefore ascended; but, to my
euide’s chagrin, we were met and turned back by a scribe,
or clerk, of the Amlah. We were followed by a messenger,
apologising and begging me to return; but I had already
descended 1000 feet, and felt no inclination to reascend
the hill, especially as there did not appear to be
anything worth scemg. Soon after I had overtaken
Campbell, he was accosted by an excessively dirty fellow,
who desired him to return for a conference with the
Amlah; this was of course declined, but, at the same
time, Campbell expressed his readimess to receive the
Amlah at our halting place.

The Ryott flows in a very tropical gorge 2000 feet above
the sea; from the proximity of the snowy mountains, its
temperature was only 64° 3. Thence the ascent is very
steep to 'Tumloong, where we took up our quarters at a
rest-house called Rungpo (alt. 6008 feet). This road 1s
well kept, and hence onwards is traversed yearly by the
Rajah on his way to his summer residence of Choombi, two
marches beyond the Chola pass; whither he is taken to
avoid the Sikkim rains, which are peculiarly disagreeable
to Tibetans. Rungpo commands a most beautiful view
northwards, across the valley, of the royal residence,
temples? goompas, hamlets, and cultivation, scattered over
spurs that emerge from the forest, studded below with
tree-ferns and plantains, and backed by black pine-woods
and snowy mountains. In the evening the Amlah arrived
to confer with Campbell; at first there was a proposal of
turning us out of the house, in which there was plenty of
room besides, but as we declined to move, except by his
Highness’s order, they put up in houses close by.

Noy, 1849. CONDUCT OF THE AMLAH. RHODODENDRONS. 19%

On the following morning they met us as we were
departing for Chola pass, bringing large presents in the
name of the Rajah, and excuses on their and his part for
having paid us no respect at T'umloong, saying, that it was
not the custom to receive strangers till after they had rested
a day, that they were busy preparing a suitable reception,
&e.; this was all false, and contrary to etiquette, but there
was no use in telling them so. Campbell spoke firmly and
kindly to them, and pointed out their incivility and the
unfriendly tone of their whole conduct. They then destred
Campbell to wait and discuss business affairs with them ;
this was out of the question, and he assured them that he
was ever ready to do so with the Rajah, that he was now
(as he had informed his Highness) on his way with me to
the Chola and Yakla passes, and that we had, for want of
coolies, left some loads behind us, which, if they were really
friendly, they would forward. This they did, and so we
parted; they (contrary to expectation) making no objection
to Campbell’s proceeding with me.

A long march up a very steep, narrow ridge took
us by a good road to Laghep, a stone resting-house (alt.,
10,475 feet) on a very narrow flat. I had abundance of
occupation in gathering rhododendron-seeds, of which |
procured twenty-four kinds* on this and the following day.

A very remarkable plant, which I had seen in flower in
the Lachen valley, called “ Loodoo-ma”’ by the Bhoteeas,
and “Nomorchi” by Lepchas, grew on the ridge at 7000

* These occurred in the following order in ascending, commencing at 6000
fect.—1. R. Dalhousie ; 2. R. vaccinioides ; 3. R. camellieflorum ; 4. R. arborewn.
Above 8000 feet:—5. R. argenteum; 6. R. Falconeri; 7. R. barbatum; 8. R.
Campbellie ; 9. R. Edgeworthii ; 10. R. niveum ; 11. R. Thomsoni; 12. R. cinna-
‘barinum; 13. R. glaucum. Above 10,500 feet :—14. R. lanatum; 15. R.
virgatum ; 16. R. campylocarpum ; 17. R. ciliatum; 18. R. Hodysont ; 19. R. cam-
panulatum. Above 12,000 feet :—20. R. lepidotum; 21. R. fulgens; 22. R.
Wightianum ; 23. R. anthopogon s 24. R. setosum.

198 RYOTT VALLEY. CuHap. XXYV.

feet ; it bears a yellow fruit like short cucumbers, full of a
soft, sweet, milky pulp, and large black seeds; it belongs
to a new genus,* allied to Stauntonia, of which two Hima-
layan kinds produce similar, but less agreeable edible
fruits (“ Kole-pot,” Lepcha). At Laghep, iris was abun-
dant, and a small bushy berberry (2. concinna) with oval
eatable berries. The north wall of the house (which was
in a very exposed spot) was quite bare, while the south was
completely clothed with moss and weeds.

The rocks above Laghep were gneiss ; below it, mica-
schist, striking north-west, and dippimg north-east, at a
high angle. A beautiful yellow poppy-like plant grew in
clefts at 10,000 feet ; it has flowered in England, from seeds
which I sent home, and bears the name of Cathcartia.t

We continued, on the following morning, in an easterly
direction, up the same narrow steep ridge, to a lofty
emience called Phieung-goong (alt. 12,422 feet), from
being covered with the Phieung, or small bamboo.. Adzes
Webbiana begins here, and continues onwards, but, as on
onglo, Mainom, and the other outer wetter Sikkim ranges,
there is neither larch, Pinus excelsa, Abies Smithiana, or
A. Brunoniana.

* This genus, for which Dr. Thomson and I, in our “Flora Indica,” have
proposed the name Decaisnea (in honour of my friend Professor J. Decaisne, the
eminent French botanist), has several straight, stick-like, erect branches from the
root, which bear spreading pinnated leaves, two feet long, standing out horizon-
tally. The flowers are uni-sexual, green, and in racemes, and the fruits, of which
two or three grow together, are about four inches long, and one in diameter.
All the other plants of the natural order to which it belongs, are climbers.

+ See “ Botanical Magazine,” for 1852. The name was given in honour of
the memory of my friend, the late J. F. Cathcart, Esq., of the Bengal Civil
Service. This gentleman was devoted to the pursuit of botany, and caused a
magnificent series of drawings of Dorjiling plants to be made by native artists
during his residence there. This collection is now deposited at Kew, through the
liberality of his family, and it is proposed to publish a selection from the plates,
“as a tribute to hismemory. Mr. Cathcart, after the expiration of his Indian service,
returned to Europe, and died at Lausanne on his way to England.

Noy. 1849. EFFECTS OF FROST ON FOLIAGES. CHOLA PASS. 199

Hence we followed an oblique descent of 1,500 feet, to
the bed of the Rutto river, through thick woods of pines and
Rhododendron Hodgsoni,which latter, on our again ascending,
was succeeded by the various alpine kinds. We halted at
Barfonchen (alt. 11,233 feet), a stone-hut in the silver-
fir forest. Some yaks were grazing in the vicinity, and
from their herdsman we learnt that the Dewan was at
Choombi, on the road to Yakla ; he had kept wholly out of
the way during the summer, directing every unfriendly
action to be pursued towards myself and the government
by the Amlah, consisting of his brothers and relatives,
whom he left at Tumloong.

The night was brilliant and starlight : the minimum
thermometer fell to 27°, a strong north-east wind blew
down the valley, and there was a thick hoar-frost, with
which the black yaks were drolly powdered. The broad
leaves of R. Hodysoni were curled, from the expansion of
the frozen fluid in the layer of cells on the upper surface
of the leaf, which is exposed to the greatest cold of
radiation. ‘Lhe sun restores them a little, but as winter
advances, they become irrecoverably curled, and droop at
the ends of the branches.

We left Barfonchen on the 7th November, and ascended
the river, near which we put up a woodcock. Emerging
from the woods at Chumanako (alt. 12,590 feet), where there
is another stone hut, the mountains become bleak, bare,
and stony, and the rocks are all moutonnéed by ancient
elaciers. At 13,000 feet the ground was covered with
ice, and all the streams were frozen. Crossing several
rocky ledges, behind which were small lakes, a gradual
ascent led to the summit of the Chola pass, a broad
low depression, 14,925 feet above the sea, wholly bare
of snow.

200 RYOTT VALLEY. Cuap. XXV,

-Campbell had preceded me, and I found him conversing
with some Tibetans, who told him that there was no road
hence to Yakla, and that we should not be permitted to go
to Choombi. As the Chinese guard was posted in the
neighbourhood, he accompanied one of the Tibetans to see
the commandant, whilst I remained taking observations.
‘The temperature was 33°, with a violent, biting, dry east
wind. ‘The rocks were gneiss, striking north-east, and
horizontal, or dipping north-west. The scanty vegetation
consisted chiefly of grass and S7bdaldia.

In about an hour Meepo and some of my people came up
and asked for Campbell, for whom the Tchebu Lama was
waiting below: the Lama had remained at Rungpo, endea-
vouring to put matters on a better footmg with the Amlah,
Wishing to see the Tibet guard myself, I accompanied the
two remaining ‘Tibetans down a steep valley with cliffs
on either hand, for several hundred feet, when I was over-
taken by some Sikkim sepoys in red jackets, who wanted
to turn me back forcibly: I was at a loss to understand
their conduct, and appealed to the Tibetan sepoys, who
caused them to desist. About 1000 feet down I found
Campbell, with a body of about nimety Tibetans, a few of
whom were armed with matchlocks, and the rest with bows
and arrows. ‘They were commanded by a Dingpun, a
short swarthy man, with a flat-crowned cap with floss-silk
hanging all round, and a green glass button in front; he
wore a loose scarlet jacket, broadly edged with black
velvet, and having great brass buttons of the Indian
naval uniform; his subaltern was similarly dressed, but
his buttons were those of the 44th Bengal Infantry. The
commandant having heard of our wish to go round by
Choombi, told Campbell that the had come purposely
to inform him that there was no road that way to

Nov. 1849. CHOLA PASS. TIBET SEPOYS. 201

Yakla; he was very polite, ordering his party to rise and
salute me when I arrived, and doing the same when we
both left.

On our return we were accompanied by the Dingpun of
the Tibetans and a few of his people, and were soon met
by more Sikkim sepoys, who said they were sent from the
Durbar, to bring Campbell back to transact business ; they
behaved very rudely, and when still half a mile from the
Sikkim frontier, jostled him and feigned to draw their
knives, and one of them pointed a spear-headed bow to his
breast. Campbell defended himself with a stick, and
remonstrated with them on their rudeness; and I, who
had nothing but a barometer in my hand, called up the
Tibetans. ‘The Dingpun came instantly, and driving the
Sikkim people forward, escorted us to the frontier, where
he took an inscribed board from the chait, and showing us
the great vermilion seal of the Emperor of China (or
more probably of the Lhassan authorities) on one side,
and two small brown ones of the Sikkim Rajah on the
other; and giving us to understand that here his jurisdic-
tion ceased, he again saluted and left us.

On descending, | was surprised to meet the Singtam
Soubah, whom I had not seen since leaving 'Tungu ; he was
seated on a rock, and I remarked that he looked ashy pale
and haggard, and that he salaamed to me only, and not to
Campbell; and that Tchebu Lama, who was with him,
seemed very uncomfortable. ‘The Soubah wanted Campbell
to stop for a conference, which at such a time, and in such
a wind, was impossible, so he followed us to Chumanako,
where we proposed to pass the night.

A great party of Sikkim Bhoteeas had assembled here,
all strangers to me: I certainly thought the concourse
unusually large, and the previous conduct to Campbell,

202 CHOLA PASS. Cap. XXV.

strange, rude, and quite unintelligible, especially before the
Tibetans. But the Bhoteeas were always a queer, and often
insolent people,* whom I was long ago tired of trying to
understand, and they might have wanted to show off
before their neighbours; and such was the confidence
with which my long travels amongst them had inspired
me, that the possibility of danger or violence never entered
my head.

We went into the.hut, and were resting ourselves on a
log at one end of it, when, the evening being very cold, the
people crowded in; on which Campbell went out, saying,
that we had better leave the hut to them, and that he
would see the tents pitched. He had scarcely left, when I
heard him calling loudly to me, “ Hooker! Hooker! the
savages are murdermg me!” I rushed to the door, and
caught sight of him striking out with his fists, and strug-
gling violently ; being tall and powerful, he had already
prostrated a few, but, a host of men bore him down, and
appeared to be trampling on him; at the same moment I
was myself seized by eight men, who forced me back into
the hut, and down on the log, where they held me in a
sitting posture, pressmg me against the wall; here I spent
a few moments of agony, as I heard my friend’s stifled
cries grow fainter and fainter. I struggled but little, and
that only at first, for at least five-and-twenty men crowded
round and laid their hands upon me, rendering any effort
to move useless ; they were, however, neither angry nor

* Captain Pemberton during his mission to Bhotan was repeatedly treated
with the utmost insolence by the officials in that country (see Griffith’s Journal).
My Sirdar, Nimbo, himself a native of Bhotan, saw a good deal of the embassy
when there, and told me many particulars as to the treatment to which it
had been subjected, and the consequent low estimation in which both the

ambassadors themselves and the Government whom they represented were held
in Bhotan.

— es SS ae

Nov. 1849. SEIZURE OF Dr. CAMPBELL. 203

violent, and signed to me to keep quiet. I retained my
presence of mind, and felt comfort in remembering that I
saw no knives used by the party who fell on Campbell, and
that if their imtentions had been murderous, an arrow
would have been the more sure and less troublesome
weapon. It was evident that the whole animus was
directed against Campbell, and though at first alarmed
on my own account, all the inferences which, with the
rapidity of lightning my mind involuntarily drew, were
favourable.

After a few minutes, three persons came into the hut,
and seated themselves opposite to me: I only recognised
two of them; namely, the Singtam Soubah, pale, trem-
bling hke a leaf, and with great drops of sweat trickling
.from his greasy brow; and the Tchebu Lama, stolid,
but evidently under restraint, and frightened. The
former ordered the men to leave hold of me, and to stand
guard on either side, and, in a violently agitated manner,
he endeavoured to explain that Campbell was a prisoner
by the orders of the Rajah, who was dissatisfied with
his conduct as a government officer, during the past
twelve years; and that he was to be taken to the
Durbar and confined till the supreme government at
Calcutta should confirm such articles as he should be com-
pelled to subscribe to; he also wanted to know from me
how Campbell would be likely to behave. I refused to
answer any questions till I should be imformed why I was
myself made prisoner ; on which he went away, leaving me
still guarded. My own Sirdar then explained that Campbell
had been knocked down, tied hand and foot, and taken
to his tent, and that all his coolies were also bound,
our captors claiming them as Sikkimites, and subjects
of the Rajah.

204 CHUMANAKO. Cuap. XXV.

Shortly afterwards the three returned, the Soubah—
looking more spectral than ever, and still more violently —

agitated, and I thought I perceived that whatever were
his plans, he had failed in them. He asked me what
view the Governor-General would take of this proceeding ?
and receiving no answer, he went off with the Tchebu
Lama, and left me with the third mdividual. The latter
looked steadily at me for some time, and then asked if
| did not know him. I said I did not, when he gave
his name as Dingpun Tinh, and I recognised in him one
of the men whom the Dewan had sent to conduct us to
the top of Mainom the previous year (see vol. i. p. 305).
This opened my eyes a good deal, for he was known to be
a right-hand man of the Dewan’s, and had within a
few months been convicted of kidnapping two Brahmin
girls from Nepal,* and had vowed vengeance against
Campbell for the duty he performed in bringing him
to punishment.

I was soon asked to go to my tent, which I found pitched
close by ; they refused me permission to see my fellow-
prisoner, or to be near him, but allowed me to hang up my
instruments, and arrange iy collections. My guards were
frequently changed during the night, Lepchas often taking
a turn; they repeatedly assured me that there was no
complaint or ill-feeling against me, that the better classes
mm Sikkim would be greatly ashamed of the whole affair,
that T'chebu Lama was equally a prisoner, and that the
grievances against Campbell were of a political nature, but
what they were they did not know.

* This act as I have mentioned at v. i. p. 341, was not only a violation of the
British treaty, but an outrage on the religion of Nepal. Jung Bahadoor
demanded instant restitution, which Campbell effected; thus incurring the
Dingpun’s wrath, who lost, besides his prize, a good deal of money which the
escapade cost him.

———- = — >

Nov. 1849. MOTIVES FOR THE OUTRAGE. 205

The night was very cold (thermometer 26°), and two
inches of snow fell. I took as many of my party as I could
into my tent, they having no shelter fit for such an
elevation (12,590 fect) at this season. ‘Through the con-
nivance of some of the people, I managed to correspond
with Campbell, who afterwards gave me the following
account of the treatment he had received. He stated that
on leaving the hut, he had been met by Meepo, who told
him the Soubah had ordered his being turned out. <A
crowd of sepoys then fell on him and brought him to the
eround, knocked him on the head, trampled on him, and
pressed his neck down to his chest as he lay, as if
endeavouring to break it. His feet were tied, and his arms
pinioned behind, the wrist of the right hand being bound
to the left arm above the elbow; the cords were then
doubled, and he was violently shaken. The Singtam
Soubah directed all this, which was performed chiefly by
the Dingpun Tinli and Jongpun Sangabadoo.* After
this the Soubah came to me, as [ have related; and
returning, had Campbell brought bound before him, and
asked him, through T’chebu Lama, if he would write from
dictation. The Soubah was violent, excited, and nervous :
Tchebu Lama scared. Campbell answered, that if they
continued torturing him (which was done by twisting the
cords round his wrists by a bamboo-wrench), he might say
or do anything, but that his government would not
confirm any acts thus extorted. ‘The Soubah became still
more violent, shook his bow m Campbell’s face, and
drawing his hand significantly across his throat, repeated his
questions, adding others, enquiring why he had refused
to receive the Lassoo Kajee as Vakeel, Wc. (see p. 2).

* This was the other man sent with us to Mainom, by the Dewan, in the
previous December.

206 CHUMANAKO. Cap. XXV. |

The Soubah’s people, meanwhile, gradually slunk
away, seeing which he left Campbell, who was taken to
his tent.

Karly next morning Meepo was sent by the Soubah, to —
ask whether I would go to Yakla pass, or return to
Dorjilmg, and to say that the Rajah’s orders had been
very strict that I was not to be molested, and that I
might proceed to whatever passes I wished to visit, whilst
Campbell was to be taken back to the Durbar, to transact
busmess. I was obliged to call wpon the Soubah and —
Dingpun to explain their conduct’ of the previous day, —
which they declared arose from no ill-feeling, but simply —
from their fear of my interfering in Campbell’s behalf ;
they could not see what reason I had to complain, so long
as I was neither hurt nor bound. I tried in vain to
explain to them that they could not so play fast and loose —
with a British subject, and insisted that if they really —
considered me free, they should place me with Campbell, —
under whose protection I considered myself, he being still
the Governor-General’s agent.

Much discussion followed this: Meepo urged me to 20
on to Yakla, and leave these bad people ; and. the Soubah
and Dingpun, who had exceeded their orders in laying
hands on me, both wished me away. My course was,
however, clear as to the propriety of keeping as close to
Campbell as I was allowed, so they reluctantly agreed to
take me with him to the Durbar.

Tchebu Lama came to me soon afterwards, looking as
stolid as ever, but with a gulping in his throat ; he alone
was glad I was going with them, and implored me to
counsel Campbell not to irritate the Amlah by a refusal to
accede to their dictates, in which case his life might be the
forfeit. As to himself, the opposite faction had now got

Nov. 1849. MEEPO’S ADIEU. VISIT OF TCHEBU LAMA. 207

the mastery, there was nothing for it but to succumb, and
his throat would surely be cut. I endeavoured to comfort
him with the assurance that they dared not hurt Campbell,
and that this conduct of a party of ruffians, influenced
by the Dewan and their own private pique, did not
represent his Rajah’s feelings and. wishes, as he himself
knew; but the poor fellow was utterly unnerved, and
shaking hands warmly, with his eyes full of tears, he took
his leave.

We were summoned by the Dingpun to march at 10 a.m.:
I demanded an interview with Campbell first, which was
refused ; but I felt myself pretty safe, and insisting upon
it, he was brought to me. He was sadly bruised about the
head, arms, and wrists, walked very lame, and had a black
eye to boot, but was looking stout and confident.

I may here mention that seizing the representative of
a neighbouring power and confining him till he shall have
become amenable to terms, is a common practice along the
Tibet, Sikkim, and Bhotan frontiers. It had been resorted
to in 1847, by the Bhotanese, under the instructions of
the Paro Pilo, who waylaid the Sikkim Rajah when still in
Tibet, on his return from Jigatzi, and beleagured him for
two months, endeavouring to bring him to their terms
about some border dispute; on this occasion the Rajah
applied to the British government for assistance, which
was refused ; and he was ultimately rescued by a Tibetan
force.

In the present case the Dewan issued orders that
Campbell was to be confined at Tumloong till he himself
should arrive there ; and the Rajah was kept in ignorance
of the affair. The Sepoys who met us on our approach to
Tumloong on the 3rd of November, were, I suspect, origi-
nally sent for the purpose ; and I think that the Amlah

208 CHUMANAKO. Cuap. XXV,

also had followed us to Rungpo with the same object.
Their own extreme timidity, and the general good-feeling
in the country towards Campbell prevented its execution —
before, and, as a last resource, they selected the Singtam —
Soubah and Dingpun Tinli for the office, as bemg per-—
sonally hostile to him. The Dewan meanwhile bemg in
Tibet, and knowing that we were about to visit the frontier,
for which I had full permission and escort, sent up the
Tibetan guard, hoping to embroil them in the affair; in —
this he failed, and it drew upon him the anger of the
Lhassan authorities.* The Soubah, in endeavouring to
extort the new treaty by force, and the Dingpun, who
had his own revenge to gratify, exceeded their mstruc-
tions in using violence towards Campbell, whom the
Dewan ordered should be simply taken and confined ;
they were consequently disgraced, long before we were
released, and the failure of the stratagem thrown upon
their shoulders.

During the march down to Laghep, Campbell was
treated by the Dingpun’s men with great. rudeness: I kept

* In the following summer (1850), when the Rajah, Dewan, and Soubah, repaired
to Choombi, the Lhassan authorities sent a Commissioner to inquire into the affair,
understanding that the Dewan had attempted to embroil the Tibetans in it. The
commissioner asked the Rajah why he had committed such an outrage on the
representative of the British government, under whose protection he was; thus
losing his territory, and bringing English troops so near the Tibet frontier. The
Rajah answered that he never did anything of the kind; that he was old and
infirm, and unable to transact all his affairs ; that the mischief had arisen out of the
acts and ignorance of others, and finally heseed the Commissioner to investigate
the whole affair, and satisfy himself about it. During the inquiry that followed,
the Dewan threw all the blame on the Tibetans, who, he said, were alone
implicated: this assertion was easily disproved, and on the conclusion of the
inquiry the Commissioner railed vehemently at the Dewan, saying :—“ You
tried to put this business on the people of my country; it is an abominable lie.
You did it yourselves, and no one else. The Company is a great monarchy ; you
insulted it, and it has taken its revenge. If you, or any other Tibetan, ever
again cause a rupture with the English, you shall be taken with ropes round your
necks to Pekin, there to undergo the just punishment of your offence under the
sentence of the mighty Emperor,’

Nov. 1849. TREATMENT OF DR. CAMPBELL. 209

as near as I was allowed, quietly gathermg rhododendron-
seeds by the way. At the camping-ground we were
again separated, at which I remonstrated with the
Dingpun, also complainng of his people’s insolent
behaviour towards their prisoner, which he promised
should be discontinued.

~ The next day we reached Rungpo, where we halted
for further instructions: our tents were placed apart, but
we managed to correspond by stealth. On the 10th of
November we were conducted to 'Tumloong: a pony was
brought for me, but I refused it, on seeing that Campbell
was treated with great indignity, and obliged to follow at
the tail of the mule ridden by the Dingpun, who thus
marched him in triumph up to the village.

I was taken to a house at Phadong, and my fellow tra-
veller was confined in another at some distance to the east-
ward, a stone’s throw below the Rajah’s; and thrust into
a little cage-like room. I was soon visited by an old
Lama, who assured me that we were both perfectly safe,
but that there were many grievances against Campbell.
The Soubah arrived shortly after, bringing me compli-
ments, nominally in the Rajah’s name, and a substantial
present, consisting of a large cow, sheep, fowls, a brick of
tea, bags of rice, flour, butter, eggs, and a profusion of
vegetables. I refused to take them on the friendly terms
on which they were brought, and only accepted them as
provisions during my detention. I remonstrated again
about our separation, and warned the Soubah of the
inevitable consequence of this outrage upon the repre-
sentative of a friendly power, travelling under the authority
of his own government, unarmed and without escort: he
was greatly perplexed, and assured me that Campbell’s

detention was only temporary, because he had not given

VOL. II. le

210 TUMLOONG. CHap. XXV.

satisfaction to the Rajah, and as the latter could not get
answers to his demands from Calcutta in less than a month,
it was determined to keep him till then; but to send
me to Dorjiling. He returned in the evening to tell me
that Campbell’s men (with the exception only of the
Ghorkas *) had been seized, because they were runaway
slaves from Sikkim; but that I need not alarm myself,
for mine should be untouched.

The hut being small, and intolerably dirty, I pitched my
tent close by, and lived in it for seven days: I was not
guarded, but so closely watched, that I could not go out
for the most trifling purpose, except under surveillance.
‘They were evidently afraid of my escaping ; I was however
treated with civility, but forbidden to communicate either
with Campbell or with Dorjiling.

The Soubah frequently visited me, always protesting I
was no prisoner, that Campbell’s seizure was a very
trifling affair, and the violence employed all a mistake.
He always brought presents, and tried to sound me about
the government at Calcutta. On the 12th he paid his
last visit, looking wofully dejected, being out of favour at
court, and dismissed to his home: he referred me to
Meepo for all future communications to the Rajah, and
bade me a most cordial farewell, which I regretted bemg
unable to return with any show of kind feeling. Poor
fellow! he had staked his last, and lost it, when he under-
took to seize the agent of the most powerful government
in the east, and to reduce him to the condition of a tool of
the Dewan. Despite the many obstructions he had placed
in iy way, we had not fallen out since July; we had been

* These people stood in far greater fear of the Nepalese than of the English,
and the reason is obvious: the former allow no infraction of their rights
to pass unnoticed, whereas we had permitted every article of our treaty to be
contravened,

eee eS ee ee ee ee ee eae pe oe ee, ae, Sere

Nov. 1849. SINGTAM SOUBAH’S FAREWELL VISIT. 211

constant companions, and though at issue, never at enmity.
I had impeached him, and my grievances had been for-
warded to the Rajah with a demand for his punishment,
but he never seemed to owe me a grudge for that,
knowing the Rajah’s impotence as compared with the
power of the Dewan whom he served; and, in common
with all his party, presuming on the unwillingness of the
British government to punish.

On the 13th of November I was hurriedly summoned
by Meepo to the Phadong temple, where I was interrogated
by the Amlah, as the Rajah’s councillors (in this instance
the Dewan’s adherents) are called. I found four China
mats placed on a stone bench, on one of which I was
requested to seat myself, the others bemg occupied by
the Dewan’s elder brother, a younger brother of the
Gangtok Kajee (a man of some wealth), and an old Lama:
the conference took place in the open air and amongst an
immense crowd of Lamas, men, women, and children.

I took the initiative (as I made a point of doing on all
such occasions) and demanded proper interpreters, which
were refused; and the Amlah began a rambling inter-
rogatory in Tibetan, through my Lepcha Sirdar Pakshok,
who spoke very little Tibetan or Hindostanee, and my
half-caste servant, who spoke as little Enghsh. The
Dewan’s brother was very nervously counting his beads,
and never raised his eyes while I kept mine steadily
upon him.

He suggested most of the queries, every one of which
took several minutes, as he was constantly interrupted by the
Kajee, who was very fat and stupid: the Lama scarcely
spoke, and the bystanders never. My connection with the
Indian government was first enquired into; next they came

to political matters, upon which I declined entering; but I
P 2

912 PHADONG. CHap, -X XV.

gathered that their object was to oblige Campbell to accept
the Lassoo Kajee as Vakeel, to alter the slavery laws, to
draw a new boundary line with Nepal, to institute direct
communication between themselves and the Governor-
General,* and to engage that there should be no trade or
communication between Sikkim and India, except through
the Dewan: all of these subjects related to the terms of
the original treaty between the Rajah and the Indian
government. They told me they had sent these proposals
to the government through Dorjiling,t but had received no
acknowledgment from the latter place, and they wanted to
know the probable result at Calcutta. As the only answer
I could give might irritate them, I again declined giving ©
any. Lastly, they assured me that no blame was imputed
to myself, that on the contrary I had been travelling under
the Rajah’s protection, who rejoiced in my success, that I
might have visited Yakla pass as I had mtended doing, but
that preferrmg to accompany my friend, they had allowed
me to do so, and that I might now either join him, or con-
tinue to live in my tent: of course I joyfully accepted the
former proposal. After being refused permission to send
a letter to Dorjiling, except I would write in a character
which they could read, I asked if they had anything more
to say, and being answered in the negative, I was taken by

* They were prompted to demand this by an unfortunate oversight that
occurred at Calcutta some years before. Vakeels from the Sikkim Durbar repaired
to that capital, and though unaceredited by the Governor-General’s agent at Dor-
jiling, were (in the absence of the Governor-General) received by the president of
the council in open Durbar. The effect was of course to reduce the Governor-
General’s agent at Dorjiling to a cipher.

t These letters, which concluded with a line stating that Campbell was detained
at Tumloong till favourable answers should be received, had arrived at Dorjiling ;
but being written in Tibetan, and containing matters into which no one but
Campbell could enter, they were laid on one side till his return. The interpreter
did not read the last line, which stated that Dr. Campbell was detained till
answers were received, and the fact of our capture and imprisonment therefore
remained unknown for several weeks.

Nov. 1849. CONFINED WITH DR. CAMPBELL. 213

Meepo to Campbell, heartily glad to end a parley which
had lasted for an hour and a half.

I found my friend in good health and spirits, strictly
euarded in a small thatched hut, of bamboo wattle and
clay: the situation was pretty, and commanded a view of
the Ryott valley and the snowy mountains; there were
some picturesque chaits hard by, and a blacksmith’s forge.
Our walks were confined to a few steps in front of the hut,
and mceluded a puddle and a spring of water. We had
one black room with a small window, and a fire in the
middle on a stone; we slept in the narrow apartment
behind it, which was the cage in which Campbell had
been at first confined, and which exactly admitted us
both, lymg on the floor, Two or three Sepoys occupied
an adjoinmg room, and had a peep-hole through the
partition-wall.

My gratification at our being placed together was
damped by the seizure of all my faithful attendants except
my own servant, and one who was a Nepalese: the
rest were bound, and placed in the stocks and _ close
confinement, charged with being Sikkim people who had
no authority to take service in Dorjiling. On the contrary
they were all registered as British subjects, and had during
my travels been recognised as such by the Rajah and all
his authorities. Three tumes the Soubah and others had
voluntarily assured me that my person and people were
inviolate; nor was there any cause for this outrage but
the fear of their escapmg with news to Dorjiling, and
possibly a feeling of irritation amongst the authorities at
the failure of their schemes. Meanwhile we were not
allowed to write, and we heard that the bag of letters
which we had sent before our capture had been seized and
burnt. Campbell greatly feared that they would threaten

214 TUMLOONG. CHap. XXV,

Dorjiling with a night attack,* as we heard that the
Lassoo Kajee was stationed at Namtchi with a party
for that purpose, and all communication cut off, except
through him.

* Threats of sacking Dorjiling had on several previous occasions been made by
the Dewan, to the too great alarm of the inhabitants, who were ignorant of the
timid and pacific disposition of the Lepchas, and of the fact that there are not
fifty muskets in the country, nor twenty men able to use them. On this occasion
the threats were coupled with the report that we were murdered, and that the
Rajah had asked for 50,000 Tibetan soldiers, who were being marched twenty-five
days’ journey over passes 15,000 feet high, and deep in snow, and were coming to
drive the English out of Sikkim! I need hardly observe that the Tibetans
(who have repeatedly refused to interfere on this side the snows) had no hand
in the matter, or that, supposing they could collect that number of men in
all Tibet, it would be impossible to feed them for a week, there or in Sikkim.
Such reports unfortunately spread a panic in Dorjiling: the guards were called
in from all the outposts, and the ladies huddled into one house, whilst the
males stood on the defensive ; to the great amusement of the Amlah at Tumloong,
whose insolence to us increased proportionally. ;

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HORNS OF THE SHOWA STAG (Cervus Wallichii), A NATIVE OF CHOOMBI IN TIBFT.
Length of antler, 4 feet 6 in.

CHAPTER XXVI.

Dr. Campbell is ordered to appear at Durbar—Lamas called to council—Threats—
Scarcity of food—Arrival of Dewan—Our jailer, Thoba-sing—Temperature,
&c., at Tumloong—Services of Goompas—Lepeha girl—Jew’s-harp—Terror
of servants —Ilam-sing’s family— Interview with Dewan —Remonstrances
—Dewan feigns sickness—Lord Dalhousie’s letter to Rajah—Treatment of
Indo-Chinese—Concourse of Lamas—Visit of Tchebu Lama— Close confine-
ment—Dr. Campbell’s illness — Conference with Amlah — Relaxation of
confinement—Pemiongchi Lama’s intercession —Escape of Nimbo—Presents
from Rajah, Ranee and people—Protestations of friendship—Mr. Lushington
sent to Dorjiling—Leave Tumloong—Cordial farewell—Dewan’s merchandise
—Gangtok Kajee — Dewan’s pomp—Governor-General’s letter—Dikkeeling
—Suspicion of poison—Dinner and pills—Tobacco—Bhotanese colony—
Katong-ghat on Teesta—Wild lemons—Sepoys’ insolence—Dewan alarmed—
View of Dorjiling—Threats of a rescue—Fears of our escape—Tibet flutes—
Negociate our release — Arrival at Dorjiling — Dr. Thomson joins me —
Movement of troops at Dorjiling—Seizure of Rajah’s Terai property.

Sixce his confinement, Dr. Campbell had been desired to
attend the Durbar for the purpose of transacting busmess,
but had refused to go, except by compulsion, considering
that in the excited state of the authorities, amongst whom
there was not one person of responsibility or judgment,
his presence would not only be useless, but he might be
exposed to further insult or possibly violence.

On the 15th of November we were informed that the
Dewan was on his way from Tibet: of this we were glad,
for knave as he was, we had hitherto considered him to
possess sense and understanding. His agents were
beginning to find out their mistake, and summoned to

216 TUMLOONG. Cuap. XXVI.

council the principal Lamas and Kajees of the country,
who, to a man, repudiated the proceedings, and refused to
attend. Our captors were extremely anxious to induce us
to write letters to Dorjiling, and sent spies of all kinds to
offer us facilities for secret correspondence. The simplicity
and clumsiness with which these artifices were attempted
would have been ludicrous under other circumstances ;
while the threat of murdermg Campbell only alarmed us,
inasmuch as it came from people too stupid to be trusted.
We made out that all Sikkim people were excluded from
Dorjiling, and the Amlah consequently could not conceal
their anxiety to know what had befallen their letters to
government.

Meanwhile we were but scantily fed, and our imprisoned
coolies got nothing at all. Our guards were supplied with
a handful of rice or meal as the day’s allowance; they were
consequently grumbling,* and were daily reduced in
number. ‘The supplies of rice from the Terai, beyond
Dorjiling, were cut off by the interruption of communica-
tion, and the authorities evidently could not hold us long
at this rate: we sent up complaints, but of course received
no answer.

‘The Dewan arrived in the afternoon im great state,
carried in an English chair given him by Campbell some
years before, habited in a blue silk cloak lined with lamb-
skin, and wearing an enormous straw hat with a red tassel,

* The Rajah has no standing army; not even a body-guard, and these men
were summoned to Tumloong before our arrival: they had no arms and received
no pay, but were fed when called out on duty. There is no store for grain,
no bazaar or market, in any part of the country, each family growing little
enough for its own wants and no more; consequently Sikkim could not stand
on the defensive for a week. The Rajah receives his supply of grain in annual
contributions from the peasantry, who thus pay a rent in kind, which varies
from little to nothing, according to the year, &c. He had also property of

his own in the Terai, but the slender proceeds only enabled him to ~trade
with Tibet for tea, &e.

+
4

;

;

Noy, 1849. © ARRIVAL OF DEWAN. % 919

and black velvet butterflies on the flapping brim. He was
accompanied by a household of women, who were laden
with ornaments, and wore boots, and sat astride on
ponies; many Lamas were also with him, one of whom
wore a broad Chinese-like hat covered with polished
copper foil. Half a dozen Sepoys with matchlocks preceded
him, and on approaching Tumloong, bawled out his titles,
dignities, &c., as was formerly the custom in England.

RAJAH’S RESIDENCE, AND THE HUT ASSIGNED TO US. ARRIVAL OF THE DEWAN.

At Dorjilmg our seizure was still unknown: our letters
were brought to us, but we were not allowed to answer
them. Now that the Dewan had arrived, we hoped to
come to a speedy explanation with him, but he shammed
sickness, and sent no answer to our messages, if indeed he

218 TUMLOONG. CuHap. XXVI,

received them. Our guards were reduced to one Sepoy
with a knife, who was friendly ; and a dirty, cross-eyed
fellow named Thoba-sing, who, with the exception of
Tchebu Lama, was the only Bhoteea about the Durbar
who could speak Hindostanee, and who did it very imper-
fectly: he was our attendant and spy, the most bare-
faced lar I ever met with, even in the east; and as
cringing and obsequious when alone with us, as he was to
his masters on other occasions, when he never failed to
show off his authority over us in an offensive manner.
Though he was the most disagreeable fellow we were ever
thrown in contact with, I do not think that he was there-
fore selected, but solely from his possessing a few words of
Hindostanee, and his presumed capability of playing the spy.

The weather was generally drizzling or rainy, and we
were getting very tired of our captivity; but I beguiled
the time by carefully keeping my meteorological register,*
and by reducing many of my previous observations.
Hach mornmg we were awakened at daybreak by the
prolonged echos of the conchs, trumpets, and cymbals,
beaten by the priests before the many temples in the
valley: wild and pleasing sounds, often followed by

* During the thirty days spent at Tumloong, the temperature was mild and
equable, with much cloud and drizzle, but little hard rain ; and we experienced
violent thunder-storms, followed by transient sunshine. Unlike 1848, the rains
did not cease this year before the middle of December ; nor had there been one
fine month since April. The mean temperature, computed from 150 observations,
was 50° 2, and from the maximum and minimum thermometer 49° 6, which is a
fair approximation to the theoretical temperature calculated for the elevation
and month, and allows a fall of 1° for 320 feet of ascent. The temperature during
the spring (from 50 observations) varied during the day from 2° 4 to 5° 8 higher
than that of the air, the greatest differences occurring morning and evening. The
barometric tide amounted to 0:091 between 9°50 a.m., and 4 P.m., which is less than
at the level of the plains of India, and more than at any greater elevation than
Tumloong. The air was always damp, nearly saturated at night, and the mean
amount of humidity for ninety-eight observations taken during the day was only
0°850, corresponding to a dew-point of 49° 6, or 5° 2 below that of the air.

Nov. 1849. TERROR OF OUR SERVANTS. 219

their choral chants. After dark we sat over the fire,
generally in company with a little Lepcha girl, who was
appointed to keep us in fire-wood, and who sat watching
our movements with childish curiosity. Dolly, as we
christened her, was a quick child and a kind one,
intolerably dirty, but very entertaining from her powers
of mimicry. She was fond of hearmg me whistle airs, and
procured me a Tibetan Jews’-harp,* with which, and coarse
tobacco, which I smoked out of a Tibetan brass pipe,
I wiled away the dark evenings, whilst my cheerful com-
panion amused himself with an old harmonicon, to the
enchantment of Dolly and our guards and neighbours.

TIBET PIPE, AND TINDER-POUCH WITH STEEL ATTACHED.

i

The messengers from Doxyjilimg were kept in utter
ignorance of our confinement till their arrival at Tumloong,
when they were cross-questioned, and finally sent to us.
They gradually became too numerous, there being only
one apartment for ourselves, and such of our servants as

* This instrument (which is common in Tibet) is identical with the European,
except that the tongue is produced behind the bow, in a strong stcel spike, by
which the instrument is held firmer to the mouth.

220 TUMLOONG. Cap. XXVI.

were not imprisoned elsewhere. Some of them were
frightened out of their senses, and the state of abject fear
and trembling in which one Limboo arrived, and continued
for nearly a week, was quite distressmg * to every one
except Dolly, who mimicked him im a manner that was
irresistibly ludicrous. Whether he had been beaten or
threatened we could not make out, nor whether he had heard
of some dark fate impending over ourselves—a suspicion

which would force itself on our minds ; especially as Thoba-—

sing had coolly suggested to the Amlah the dispatching of
Campbell, as the shortest way of getting out of the scrape!
We were also ignorant whether any steps were being taken
at Dorjling for our release, which we felt satisfied must
follow any active measures against these bullying cowards,
though they themselves frequently warned us that we

should be thrown into the Teesta if any such were pursued. —

So long as our money lasted, we bought food, for the
Durbar had none to give; and latterly my ever charitable
companion fed our guards, including Dolly and Thoba-sing,
in pity to their pinched condition. Several families sent
us small presents, especially that of the late estimable
Dewan, Ham-sing, whose widow and daughters lived
close by, and never failed to express in secret their
sympathy and good feeling. |

‘T'chebu Lama’s and Meepo’s families were equally
forward in their desire to serve us ; but they were marked
men, and could only communicate by stealth,

* It amounted to a complete prostration of bodily and mental powers; the
man trembled and started when spoken to, or at any noise, a cold sweat constantly
bedewed his forehead, and he continued in this state for eight days. No kindness
on Campbell’s part could rouse him to give any intelligible account of his fears or
their cause. His companions said he had lost his goroo, 2.e., his charm, which
the priest gives him while yet a child, and which he renews or gets re-sanctified
as occasion requires. To us the circumstance was extremely painful.

a ee ee ee a

Nov. 1849. CONFERENCE WITH DEWAN. 221

Our coolies were released on the 18th, more than half
starved, but the Sirdars were still kept in chains or the
stocks: some were sent back to Dorjiling, and the British
subjects billetted off amongst the villagers, and variously
employed by the Dewan: my lad, Cheytoong, was set
to collect the long leaves of a Zupistra, called “ Purphiok,”
which yield a sweet juice, and were chopped up and mixed
with tobacco for the Dewan’s hookah.

November 20th—The Dewan, we heard this day,
ignored all the late proceedings, professing to be enraged
with his brother and the Amlah, and refusing to meddle
m the matter. This was no doubt a pretence: we had
sent repeatedly for an explanation with himself or the
Rajah, from which he excused himself on the plea of ill-
health, till this day, when he apprized us that he would meet
Campbell, and a cotton tent was pitched for the purpose.

We went about noon, and were received with great
politeness and shaking of hands by the Dewan, the young
Gangtok Kajee, and the old monk who had been present
at my examination at Phadong. Tchebu Lama’s brother
was also there, as a member of the Amlah, lately taken
into favour; while Tchebu himself acted as interpreter,
the Dewan speaking only Tibetan. ‘They all sat cross-
legged on a bamboo bench on one side, and we on
chairs opposite them: walnuts and sweetmeats were
brought us, and a small present in the Rajah’s name,
consisting of rice, flour, and. butter.

The Dewan opened the conversation both in this and
another conference, which took place on the 22nd, by
requesting Campbell to state his reasons for having
desired these interviews. Neither he nor the Amlah seemed
to have the smallest idea of the nature and consequences of
the acts they had committed, and they therefore anxiously

222 TUMLOONG. Cuap. XXVIL

sought information as to the view that would be taken
of them by the British Government. ‘They could not see
why Campbell should not transact business with them —
in his present condition, and wanted him to be the medium ~
of communication between themselves and Calcutta. The
latter confined himself to poimting out his own views of
the following subjects :—1. The seizing and imprisoning
of the agent of a friendly power, travelling unarmed and
without escort, under the formal protection of the Rajah, and
with the authority of his own government. 2. The agegra-
vation of this act of the Amlah, by our present detention
under the Dewan’s authority. 3. The chance of collision, ©
and the disastrous consequences of a war, for which they
had no preparation of any kind. 4. The impossibility of
the supreme government paying any attention to their
letters so long as we were illegally detained.

All this sank deep into the Dewan’s heart : he answered,
“You have spoken truth, and I will submit it all to the
Rajah ;” but at the same time he urged that there was
nothing dishonourable m the imprisonment, and that the
original violence being all a mistake, it should be over-
looked by both parties. We parted on good terms, and
heard shortly after the second conference that our release
was promised and arranged: when a communication *
from Dorjiling changed their plans, the Dewan conveniently
fell sick on the spot, and we were thrown back again.

In the meantime, however, we were allowed to write
to our friends, and to receive money and food, of which

* T need scarcely say that every step was taken at Dorjiling for our release, that
the most anxious solicitude for our safety could suggest. But the first communi-
cation to the Rajah, though it pointed out the heinous nature of his offence, was,
through a natural fear of exasperating our captors, couched in very moderate
language. The particulars of our seizure, and the reasons for it, and for our
further detention, were unknown at Dorjiling, or a very different line of policy
would have been pursued.

Nov. 1849. THE LAMAS ASSEMBLE AT TUMLOONG. 223

we stood in great need. I transmitted a private account
of the whole affair to the Governor-General, who was
unfortunately at Bombay, but to whose prompt and vigorous
measures we were finally indebted for our release. His
lordship expedited a despatch to the Rajah, such as the
latter was accustomed to receive from Nepal, Bhotan, or
Lhassa, and such as alone commands attention from these
half-civilized Indo-Chinese, who measure power by the
firmness of the tone adopted towards them; and who,
whether in Sikkim, Birmah, Siam, Bhotan, or China, have
too long been accustomed to see every article of our
treaties contravened, with no worse consequences than a
protest or a threat, which is never carried into execution
till some fatal step calls forth the dormant power of the
British Government.”

The end of the month arrived without bringing any
prospect of our release, whilst we were harassed by false
reports of all kinds. The Dewan went on the 25th to
a hot bath, a few hundred feet down the hill; he was led
past our hut, his burly frame tottering as if in great
weakness, but a more transparent fraud could not have
been practised : he was, in fact, lying on his oars, pending
further negociations. ‘The Amlah proposed that Campbell
should sign a bond, granting immunity for all past offences
on their part, whilst they were to withdraw the letter of
grievances against him. ‘lhe Lamas cast horoscopes for the

* We forget that all our concessions to these people are interpreted into weak-
ness; that they who cannot live on an amicable equality with one another, cannot
be expected to do so with us; that all our talk of power and resources are mere
boasts to habitual bullies, so long as we do not exert ourselves in the correction of
premeditated insults. No Government can be more tolerant, more sincerely desirous
of peace, and more anxious to confine its sway within its own limits than that of
India, but it can only continue at peace by demanding respect, and the punctilious
enforcement of even the most trifling terms in the treaties it makes with Indo-
Chinese.

294 TUMLOONG. Cuar. XXVI.

future, little presents continually arrived for us, and the —

Ranee sent me some tobacco, and to Campbell brown sugar
and Murwa beer. The blacksmiths, who had been osten-
tatiously making long knives at the forge hard by, were
dismissed ; troops were said to be arriving at Dorjiling, and
a letter sternly demanding our release had been received.

The Lamas of Pemiongchi, Changachelling, Tassiding,
&c., and the Dewan’s enemies, and I'chebu Lama’s friends,
began to flock from all quarters to Tumloong, demanding
audience of the Rajah, and our instant liberation. The
Dewan’s game was evidently up; but the timidity of his
opponents, his own craft, and the habitual dilatormess of
all, contributed to cause endless delays. The young
Gangtok Kajee tried to curry favour with us, sendimg word
that he was urging our release, and adding that he had
some capital ponies for us to see on our way to Doryiling !
Many similar trifles showed that these people had not a
conception of the nature of their position, or of that of an
officer of the British Government.

The Tchebu Lama visited us only once, and then under
surveillance ; he renewed his professions of good faith,
and we had every reason to know that he had suffered
severely for his adherence to us, and consistent repudiation
of the Amlah’s conduct; he was in great favour with his
brother Lamas, but was not allowed to see the Rajah, who
was said to trust to him alone of all his counsellors. He
told us that peremptory orders had arrived from Calcutta
for our release, but that the Amlah had rephed that
they would not acknowledge the despatch, from its not
bearing the Governor-General’s great seal! The country-
people refusing to be saddled with the keep of our
coolies, they were sent to Dorjiling in small parties, charged
to say that we were free, and following them.

Dec. 1849. INTERCESSION OF PEMIONGCHI LAMA. 225

The weather continued rainy and bad, with occasionally
a few hours of sunshine, which, however, always rendered
the ditch before our door offensive: we were still pre-
vented leaving the hut, but as a great annual festival was
going on, we were less disagreeably watched. Campbell
was very unwell, and we had no medicine; and as the
Dewan, accustomed to such duplicity himself, naturally
took this for a rwse, and refused to allow us to send to
Dorjiling for any, we were more than ever convinced that
his own sickness was simulated.

On the 2nd and 3rd December we had further con-
ferences with the Dewan, who said that we were to be
taken to Dorjilmeg in six days, with two Vakeels from the
Rajah. ‘The Pemiongchi Lama, as the oldest and most
venerated in Sikkim, attended, and addressed Campbell
in a speech of great feeling and truth. Having heard, he
said, of these unfortunate circumstances a few days ago,
he had come on feeble limbs, and though upwards of
seventy winters old, as the representative of his holy
brotherhood, to tender advice to his Rajah, which he
hoped would be followed. Since Sikkim had been connected
with the British rule, it had experienced continued peace
and protection; whereas before they were in constant
dread of their lives and properties, which, as well as their
most sacred temples, were violated by the Nepalese and
Bhotanese. He then dwelt upon Campbell’s invariable
kindness and good feeling, and his exertions for the benefit
of their country, and for the cementing of friendship, and
hoped he would not let these untoward events imduce
an opposite course in future; but that he would continue
to exert his influence with the Governor-General in their
favour.

The Dewan listened attentively; he was anxious and
VOL. ILI. Q

226 TUMLOONG. Cuar. XXVI.

perplexed, and evidently losmg his presence of mind: he
talked to us of Lhassa and its gaieties, dromedaries, Lamas,
and everything Tibetan; offered to sell us ponies cheap,
and altogether behaved in a most undignified manner ;
ever and anon calling attention to his pretended sick leg,
which he nursed on his knee. He gave us the acceptable
news that the government at Calcutta had sent up an
officer to carry on Campbell’s duties, which had alarmed him
exceedingly. The Rajah, we were told, was very angry at
our seizure and detention ;-he had no fault to find with
the Governor-General’s agent, and hoped he would be con-
tmued as such. In fact, all the blame was thrown on the
brothers of the Dewan, and of the Gangtok Kajee, and
more irresponsible stupid boors could not have been. found
on whom to lay it, or who would have felt less inclined
to commit such folly if it had not been put on them by
the Dewan. On leaving, white silk scarfs were thrown
over our shoulders, and we went away, still doubtful, after
so many disappomtments, whether we should really be
set at liberty at the stated period.

Although there was so much talk about our leaving, our
confinement continued as rigorous as ever. The Dewan
curried favour in every other way, sending us Tibetan
wares for purchase, with absurd prices attached, he being
an arrant pedlar. All the principal families waited on us,
desiring peace and friendship. he coolies who had not
been dismissed were allowed to run away, except my
Bhotan Sirdar, Nimbo, against whom the Dewan was
inveterate: * he, however, managed soon afterwards to
break a great chain with which his legs were shackled, and

* The Sikkim people are always at issue with the Bhotanese. Nimbo wasa
runaway slave of the latter country, who had been received into Sikkim, and
retained there until he took up his quarters at Dorjiling.

Dec. 1849. REMOVAL FROM TUMLOONG. 227

marching at night, eluded a hot pursuit, and proceeded to
the Teesta, swam the river, and reached Dorjiling in eight
days ; arriving with a large iron rig on each leg, and a
link of several pounds weight attached to one.

Parting presents arrived from the Rajah on the 7th,
consisting of ponies, cloths, silks, woollens, immense
squares of butter, tea, and the usual et ceteras, to the utter
impoverishment of his stores: these he offered to the two
Sahibs, “in token of his amity with the British government,
his desire for peace, and deprecation of angry discussions.”
The Ranee sent silk purses, fans, and such Tibetan para-
phernalia, with an equally amicable message, that “she
was most anxious to avert the consequences of whatever
complaints had gone forth against Dr. Campbell, who
might depend on her strenuous exertions to persuade the
Rajah to do whatever he wished!” These friendly mes-
sages were probably evoked by the information that an
English regiment, with three guns, was on its way to
Sikkim, and that 300 of the Bhaugulpore Rangers had
already arrived there. The government of Bengal sending
another agent * to Dorjilmg, was also a contingency they
had not anticipated, having fully expected to get rid of
any such obstacle to direct communication with the
Governor-General.

A present from the whole population followed that of
the Ranee, coupled with earnest entreaties that Campbell
would resume his position at Dorjiling; and on the fol-
lowing day forty coolies mustered to arrange the baggage.
Before we left, the Ranee sent three rupees to buy a

* Mr. Lushington, the gentleman sent to conduct Sikkim affairs during Dr.
Campbell's detention: to whom I shall ever feel grateful for his activity in
our cause, and his unremitting attention to every little arrangement that could
alleviate the discomforts and anxieties of our position,

qQ 2

228 RUNGMI VALLEY. Cuar. XXVI.

yard of chalé and some gloves, accompanying them with
a present of white silk, &c., for Mrs. Campbell, to whom
the commission was intrusted: a singular instance of the
insouciant simplicity of these odd people.

The 9th of December was a splendid and hot day, one

of the very few we had had during our captivity. We
left at noon, descending the Inll through an enormous
crowd of people, who brought farewell presents, all wishing
us well. We were still under escort as prisoners of the
Dewan, who was coolly marching a troop of forty unloaded
mules and ponies, and double that number of men’s loads
of merchandize, purchased during the summer in Tibet, to
trade with at Dorjilmg and the Titalya fair! His impu-
dence or stupidity was thus quite mexplicable; treating
us as prisoners, ignoring every demand of the authorities
at Dorjiling, of the Supreme Council of Calcutta, and of
the Governor-General himself; and at the same time acting
as if he were to enter the British territories on the most
friendly and advantageous footing for himself and_ his
property, and incurring so great an expense in all this as
to prove that he was in earnest in thinking so.

Tchebu Lama accompanied us, but we were not allowed
to converse with him. We halted at the bottom of the
valley, where the Dewan invited us to partake of tea ; from
this place he gave us mules * or ponies to ride, and we
ascended to Yankoong, a village 3,867 feet above the sea.
On the followmg day we crossed a high ridge from the
Ryott valley to that of the Rungmi; where we camped at
Tikbotang (alt. 3,763 feet), and on the 11th at Gangtok
Sampoo, a few miles lower down the same valley.

We were now in the Soubahship of the Gangtok Kajee, a

* The Tibet mules are often as fine as the Spanish : I rode one which had per-
formed a journey from Choombi to Lhassa in fifteen days, with a man and load.

Dec. 1849. CONFERENCE WITH GANGTOK KAJEE, 229

member of the oldest and most wealthy family in Sikkim ;
he had from the first repudiated the late acts of the Amlah,
in which his brother had taken part, and had always
been hostile to the Dewan. Tho latter conducted himself
with disagreeable famiharity towards us, and /haufeur
towards the people ; he was preceded by immense kettle-
drums, carried on men’s backs, and great hand-bells, which
were beaten and rung on approaching villages ; on which
occasions he changed his dress of sky-blue for yellow silk
robes worked with Chinese dragons, to the indignation of
Tchebu Lama, an amber robe in polite Tibetan society
being sacred to royalty and the Lamas. We everywhere
perceived unequivocal symptoms of the dislike with
which he was regarded. Cattle were driven away, villages
deserted, and no one came to pay respects, or bring
presents, except the Kajees, who were ordered to attend,
and his elder brother, for whom he had usurped an
estate near Gangtok.

On the 13th, he marched us a few miles, and then
halted for a day at Serriomsa (alt. 2,820 feet), at the
bottom of a hot valley full of irrigated rice-crops and
plantain and orange-groves. Here the Gangtok Kajee
waited on us with a handsome present, and informed us
privately of his cordial hatred of the “upstart Dewan,” and
hopes for his overthrow ; a demonstration of which. we took
no notice.* The Dewan’s brother (one of the Amlah) also
sent a large present, but was ashamed to appear. Another
letter reached the Dewan here, directed to the Rajah; it
was from the Governor-General at Bombay, and had
been sent across the country by special messengers :

* Nothing would have been easier than for the Gangtok Kajee, or any other
respectable man in Sikkim, to have overthrown the Dewan and his party ; but

these people are intolerably apathetic, and prefer being tyrannized over to the
trouble of shaking off the yoke.

230 DIKKEELING. Cuap. XXVIL.

it demanded our instant release, or his Raj would be
forfeited ; and declared that if a hair of our heads were
touched, his life should be the penalty.

The Rajah was also meessantly urging the Dewan to
hasten us onwards as free men to Dorjiling, but the latter
took all remonstrances with assumed coolness, exercised his
ponies, played at bow and arrow, intruded on us at meal-
times to be invited to partake, and loitered on the road,
changing garments and hats, which he pestered us to buy.
Nevertheless, he was evidently becommg daily more nervous
and agitated.

Brom the Rungmi valley we crossed on the 14th south-
ward to that of Runniok, and descended to Dikkeeling, a
Jarge village of Dhurma Bhoteeas. (Bhotanese), which is
much the most populous, industrious, and at the same time
turbulent, in Sikkim. It is 4,950 feet above the sea, and
occupies many broad cultivated spurs facmg the south.
This district once belonged to Bhotan, and was ceded to the
Sikkim Rajah by the Paro Pilo,* in consideration of some
military services, rendered by the former in driving off the
‘Tibetans, who had usurped it for the authorities of Lhassa.
Since then the Sikkim and Bhotan people have repeatedly
fallen out, and Dikkeeling has become a refuge for runaway
Bhotanese, and kidnapping is constantly practised on this
frontier.

The Dewan halted us here for three days, for no assigned
cause. On the 16th, letters arrived, includmg a most kind
and encouraging one from My. Lushington, who had taken
charge of Campbell’s office at Dorjilmg. Immediately after
arriving, the messenger was seized with violent vomitings
and gripings: we could not help suspecting poison, espe-

“The temporal sovereign, in contra-distinction to the Dhurma Rajah, or
spiritual sovereign of Bhotan.

Dec. 1849. DINNER WITH THE DEWAN. 231

cially as we were now amongst adherents of the Dewan,
and the Bhotanese are notorious for this crime. Only one
means suggested itself for proving this, and with Campbell's
permission I sent my compliments to the Dewan, with a
request for one of his hunting dogs to eat the vomit. It was
sent at once, and performed its duty without any ill effects.
I must confess to having felt a malicious pleasure in the
opportunity thus afforded of showing our jailor how little we
trusted him ; feeling indignant at the idea that he should
suppose he was making any way in our good opinion by his
familiarities, which we were not in circumstances to resist.

The crafty fellow, however, outwitted me by mviting us to
dine with him the same day, and putting our stomachs and
noses to a severe test. Our dinner was served in Chinese
fashion, but most of the luxuries, such as déche-de-mer, were
very old and bad. We ate, sometimes with chop-sticks,
and at others with Tibetan spoons, knives, and two-pronged
forks. After the usual amount of messes served in oil and
salt water, sweets were brought, and a strong spirit.
Thoba-sing, our filthy, cross-eyed spy, was waiter, and
brought in every little dish with both hands, and raised
it to his greasy forehead, making a sort of half bow previous
to depositing it before us. Sometimes he undertook to praise
its contents, always adding, that in Tibet none but very
great men indeed partook of such sumptuous fare. Thus
he tried to please both us and the Dewan, who conducted
himself with pompous hospitality, showing off what he con-
sidered his elegant manners and graces. Our blood boiled
within us at being so patronised by the squinting ruthan,
whose insolence and ill-will had sorely aggravated the
discomforts of our imprisonment.

Not content with giving us what he considered a mag-
nificent dinner (and it had cost him some trouble), the

232 TEESTA RIVER. Cuap. XXVI.

Dewan produced a little bag froma Joublestewend escritoire,
and took out three dinner coil which he had received as a
ereat favour from the Rimbochay Lama, and which were |
a sovereign remedy for indigestion and all other ailments ;
he ere one to each of us, reserving the third for himself.
Campbell refused his; but there appeared no help for me,
after my groundless suspicion of poison, and so I swallowed |
the pill with the best grace I could. But in truth, it was
not poison I dreaded in its contents, so much as being
compounded of some very questionable materials, such as
the Rimbochay Lama blesses and dispenses far and wide.
To swallow such is a sanctifying work, according to Bood-
hist superstition, and I believe there was nothing im the
world, save his ponies, to which the Dewan attached a
greater value.

‘To wind up the feast, we had pipes of excellent mild yellbi
Chinese tobacco called “Tseang,” made from Nicotiana
rustica, Which is cultivated in East Tibet, and in West
China according to MM. Huc and Gabet. It resembles
in flavour the finest Syrian tobacco, and is most agreeable
when the smoke is passed through the nose. The common
tobacco of India (Weotiana Tibiasu) is much imported
into Tibet, where it is called “'l'amma,” (probably a corrup-
tion of the Persian ‘“‘Toombac,’) and is said to fetch
the enormous price of 30s. per lb. at Lhassa, which is
sixty times its value m India. Rice at Lhassa, when
cheap, sells at 2s. for 5 lbs.; it 1s, as I have elsewhere said,
all bought up for rations for the Chinese soldiery.

The Bhotanese are more industrious than the Lepchas,
and better husbandmen ; besides having superior crops of
all ordinary grains, they grow cotton, hemp, and flax. The
cotton is cleansed here as elsewhere, with a simple gin.
The Lepchas use no spinning wheel, but a spmdle and

Dec. 1849. TENDONG. DEWAN’S ALARM. 233

distaff ; their loom, which is Tibetan, is a very complicated
one framed of bamboo; it is worked by hand, without
beam, treddle, or shuttle.

On the 18th we were marched, three miles only, to
Singdong (alt. 2,116 feet), and on the following day
five miles farther, to Katong Ghat (alt. 750 feet), on
the Teesta river, which we crossed with rafts, and camped
on the opposite bank, a few miles above the junction of
this river with the Great Rungeet. The water, which is
sea-green in colour, had a temperature of 53° 5 at 4 p.m.,
and 51° 7 the followmg morning ; its current was very
powerful. The rocks, since leaving Tumloong, had been
generally micaceous, striking north-west, and dipping north-
east. The climate was hot, and the vegetation on the
banks tropical; on the hills around, lemon-bushes
(“ Kucheala,” Jepcha) were abundant, growing apparently
wild.

The Dewan was now getting into a very nervous and
depressed state; he was determined to keep up appear-
ances before his followers, but was himself almost servile
to us; he caused his men to make a parade of their arms,
as if to intimidate us, and in descending narrow gullies
we had several times the disagreeable surprise of finding
some of his men at a sudden turn, with drawn bows and
arrows poimted towards us. Others gesticulated with
their long knives, and made fell swoops at soft plantain-
stems ; but these artifices were all as shallow as they were
contemptible, and a smile at such demonstrations was
generally answered with another from the actors.

From Katong we ascended the steep east flank of
Tendong or Mount Ararat, through forests of Sal and long
leaved pine, to Namten (alt. 4,483 feet), where we again
halted two days. The Dingpun Tnli lived near, and

234 GREAT RUNGEET VALLEY. Cuap. XX VI.

waited on us with a present, which, with all. others
that had been brought, Campbell received —— and
transferred to the authorities at Dorjiling.

The Dewan was thoroughly alarmed at the news here
brought in, that the Rajah’s present of yaks, ponies, &c.,
which had been sent forward, had been refused at Dorjiling;
and equally so at the clamorous messages which reached
him from all quarters, demanding our liberation; and at
the desertion of some of his followers, on hearmg that large
bodies of troops were assembling at Dorjiling. Repudiated
by his Rajah and countrymen, and paralysed between his
dignity and his ponies, which he now perceived would not
be welcomed at the station, and which were daily losing
flesh, looks, and value in these hot valleys, where there is no
grass pasture, be knew not what olive-branch to hold out
to our government, except ourselves, whom he therefore
clung to as hostages.

On the 22nd of December he marched us eight rile
further, to Cheadam, on a bold spur 4,653 feet high,
overlooking the Great Rungeet, and facmg Dorjiling, from
which it was only twenty miles distant. The white
bungalows of our friends gladdened our eyes, while the
new barracks erecting for the daily arriving troops struck
terror into the Dewan’s heart. The six Sepoys* who had
marched valiantly beside us for twenty days, carrying the
muskets given to the Rajah the year before by the
Governor-General, now lowered their arms, and vowed
that if a red coat crossed the Great Rungeet, they would

throw down their guns and run away. News arrived

“ These Sepoys, besides the loose red jacket and striped Lepcha kirtle, wore a
very curious national black hat of felt, with broad flaps turned up all round: this
is represented in the right-hand figure. A somewhat similar hat is worn by some
classes of Nepal soldiery.

|

Dre. 1849. ALARM OF THE DEWAN. 235

that the Bhotan inhabitants of Dorjilmg headed by my
bold Sirdar Nimbo, had arranged a night attack for our
release ; an enterprise to which they were quite equal, and
in which they have had plenty of practice in their own
misgoverned country. Watch-fires gleamed amongst the
bushes, we were thrust into a doubly-guarded house, and

LEPCHA SEPOYS. TIBETAN SEPOYS IN THE BACK-GROUND.

(See p. 160.)

bows and arrows were ostentatiously levelled so as to rake
the doorway, should we attempt to escape. Some of the
ponies were sent back to Dikkeeling, though the Dewan
still clung to his merchandise and the feeble hope of traffic.
The confusion increased daily, but though Tchebu Lama
looked brisk and confident, we were extremely anxious ;

236 GREAT RUNGEET VALLEY. Cuap. XXVI.

scouts were hourly arriving from the road to the Great

Rungeet, and if our troops had advanced, the Dewan might ~

have made away with us from pure fear.

In the forenoon he paid us a long visit, and brought —

some flutes, of which he gave me two very common ones
of apricot wood from Lhassa, producing at the same time a
beautiful one, which I believe he imtended for Campbell,
but his avarice got the better, and he commuted his gift
into the offer of a tune, and pitching it in a high key, he
went through a Tibetan air that almost deafened us by its
screech. He tried bravely to maintam his equanimity,
but as we preserved a frigid civility and only spoke when
addressed, the tears would start from his eyes in the
pauses of conversation. In the evening he came again ; he
was excessively agitated and covered with perspiration,
and thrust himself unceremoniously between us on the
bench we occupied. As his familarity increased, he
put his arm round my neck, and as he was armed with
a small dagger, I felt rather uneasy about his imtentions,
but he ended by forcing on my acceptance a coin,
value threepence, for he was in fact beside himself with
terror. |

Next morning Campbell received a hint that this was
a good opportunity for a vigorous remonstrance. The
Dewan came with Tchebu Lama, his own younger brother
(who was his pony driver), and the Lassoo Kajee. The latter
had for two months placed himself in an attitude of hostility
opposite Dorjiling, with a ragged company of followers,
but he now sought peace and friendship as much as the
Dewan ; the latter told us he was waiting for a reply to a
letter addressed to Mr. Lushington, after which he would
set us free. Campbell said: “As you appear to have
made up your mind, why not. dismiss us at once?” He

Dec. 1849. RELEASE AND ARRIVAL AT DORJILING. 237

answered that we should go the next day at all events.
Here I came in, and on hearing from Campbell what had
passed, I added, that he had better for his own sake let us
eo at once; that the next day was our great and only
annual Poojah (religious festival) of Christmas, when we all
met; whereas he and his countrymen had dozens in the
year. As for me, he knew I had no wife, nor children, nor
any relation, within thousands of miles, and it mattered
little where I was, he was only bringing ruim on himself by
his conduct to me as the Governor-General’s friend ; but
as regarded Campbell, the case was different; his home was
at Dorjiling, which was swarming with English soldiers,
all in a state of exasperation, and if he did not let us
depart before Christmas, he would find Dorjiling too hot to
hold him, let him offer what reparation he might for the
injuries he had done us. I added: “ We are all ready to
eo—dismiss us.” ‘The Dewan again tured to Campbell,
who said, “I am quite ready; order us ponies at once,
and send our luggage after us.” He then ordered the
ponies, and three men, including Meepo, to attend us;
whereupon we walked out, mounted, and made off with
all speed.

We arrived at the cane bridge over the Great Rungeet
at 4 p.m., and to our chagrin found it in the possession of
a posse of ragged Bhoteeas, though there were thirty
armed Sepoys of our own at the guard-house above. At
Meepo’s order they cut the network of fine canes by which
they had rendered the bridge impassable, and we crossed.
The Sepoys at the guard-house turned out with their
clashing arms and bright accoutrements, and saluted to the
sound of bugles; scarmg our three companions, who ran
back as fast as they could go. We rode up that night to
Dorjiling, and I arrived at 8 p.m. at Hodgson’s house,

238 DORJILING. Cuap. XXVI.

where I was taken for a ghost, and received with shouts of
welcome by my kind friend and his guest Dr. Thomson, —
who had been awaiting my arrival for upwards of a
month.

Thus terminated our Sikkim captivity, and my last
Himalayan exploring journey, which m a botanical and
geographical pomt of view had answered my purposes
beyond my most sanguine expectations, though my collec-
tions had been in a great measure destroyed by so many
untoward events. It enabled me to survey the whole
country, and to execute a map of it, and Campbell had
further gained that knowledge of its resources which the
British government should all along have possessed, as the
protector of the Rajah and his territories.

It remains to say afew words of the events that suc-
ceeded our release, in so far as they relate to my connection
with them. The Dewan moved from Cheadam to Namtchi,
immediately opposite Dorjilmg, where he remained
throughout the winter. ‘The supreme government of
Bengal demanded of the Rajah that he should deliver up
the most notorious offenders, and come himself to Dor-
jiling, on pain of an army marching to Tumloong to
enforce the demand; a step which would have been easy,
as there were neither troops, arms, ammunition, nor other
means of resistance, even had there been the inclination
to stop us, which was not the case. The Rajah would in
all probability have delivered himself up at ‘Tumloong,
throwmg himself on our mercy, and the army would
have sought the culprits in vain, both the spirit and the
power to capture them being wanting on the part of the
people and their ruler.

‘The Rajah expressed his willingness, but pleaded his
inability to fulfil the demand, whereupon the threat was

Jan. 1850. MILITARY OPERATIONS AT DORJILING. 239

repeated, and additional reinforcements were moved on to
Dorjiling. The general officer im command at Dinapore
was ordered to Dorjiling to conduct operations: his skill
and bravery had been proved durmg the progress of the
Nepal war so long ago as 1815. From the appearance of
the country about Dorjiling, he was led to consider Sikkim
to be impracticable for a British army. ‘This was_ partly
owing to the forest-clad mountains, and partly to the fear
of Tibetan troops coming to the Rajah’s aid, and the
Nepalese * taking the opportunity to attack us. With
the latter we were in profound peace, and we had a resi-
dent at their court; and I have elsewhere shown the
impossibility of a Tibet invasion, even if the Chinese or
Lhassan authorities were inclined to interfere in the affairs
of Sikkim, which they long ago formally declined doing in
the case of aggressions of the Nepalese and Bhotanese, the
Sikkim Rajah bemg under British protection.tT

* Jung Bahadoor was at this time planning his visit to England, and to his
honour I must say, that on hearing of our imprisonment he offered to the govern-
ment at Calcutta to release us with a handful of men. This he would no doubt
have easily effected, but his offer was wisely declined, for the Nepalese (as I
have elsewhere stated) want Sikkim and Bhotan too, and we had undertaken the
protection of the former country, mainly to keep the Nepalese out of it.

+ The general officer considered that our troops would have been cut to pieces
if they entered the country ; and the late General Sir Charles Napier has since
given evidence to the same effect. Having been officially asked at the time
whether I would guide a party into the country, and having drawn up (at the
request of the general officer) plans for the purpose, and having given it as my
opinion that it would not only have been feasible but easy to have marched a force
in peace and safety to Tumloong, I feel it incumbent on me here to remark, that
I think General Napier, who never was in Sikkim, and wrote from many
hundred miles’ distance, must have misapprehended the state of the case.
Whether an invasion of Sikkim was either advisable or called for, was a matter
in which I had no concern; nor do I offer an opinion as to the impregnability
of the country if it were defended by natives otherwise a match for a British
force, and having the advantage of position. I was not consulted with reference
to any difference of opinion between the civil and military powers, such as seems
to have called for the expression of Sir Charles Napier’s opinion on this matter,
and which appears to be considerably overrated in his evidence,

The general officer honoured me with his friendship at Dorjiling, and to

240 DORJILING. . Cuar. XXVI.

There were not wanting offers of leading a company of
soldiers to Tumloong, rather than that the threat should —
have twice been made, and then withdrawn; but they
were not accepted. A large body of troops was however
marched from Dorjiling, and encamped on the north bank
of the Great Rungeet for some weeks: but after that
period they were recalled, without any further demon-—
stration; the Dewan remaining encamped the while on
the Namtchi hill, not three hours’ march above them.
The simple Lepchas daily brought our soldiers milk, fowls,
and eggs, and would have continued to do so had they
proceeded to Tumloong, for I believe both Rajah and
people would have rejoiced at our occupation of the
country.

After the withdrawal of the troops, the threat was
modified into a seizure of the ‘'erai lands, which the
Rajah had originally received as a_free gift from the
British, and which were the only lucrative or fertile estates
he possessed. This was effected by four policemen taking
possession of the treasury (which contamed exactly twelve
shillings, I believe), and announcing to the villagers the
confiscation of the territory to the British government, in
which they gladly acquiesced. At the same time there
was annexed to it the whole southern part of Sikkim,
between the Great Rungeet and the plains of India, and
from Nepal on the west to the Bhotan frontier and the
‘l'eesta river on the east ; thus confining the Rajah to his

Mr. Lushington, I am, as I have elsewhere state1, under great obligations for his
personal consideration and kindness, and vigorous measures during my detention.
On my release and return to Dorjiling, any interference on my part would have
been meddling with what was not my concern. I never saw, nor wished to see, a
public document connected with the affair, and have only given as many of the
leading features of the case as I can vouch for, and as were accessible to any

other bystander.

JAN. 1850. DEWAN DISGRACED, 241

mountains, and cutting off all access to the plains, except
through the British territories. ‘To the inhabitants (about
5000 souls) this was a matter of congratulation, for it
only involved the payment of a small fixed tax in money to
the treasury at Dorjiling, instead of a fluctuating one in
kind, with service to the Rajah, besides exempting them
from further annoyance by the Dewan. At the present
time the revenues of the tract thus acquired have doubled,
and will very soon be quadrupled: every expense of our
detention and of the moving of troops, &c., has been
already repaid by it, and for the future all will be clear
profit ; and I am given to understand that this last year it
has realized upwards of 30,000 rupecs (£3000).

Dr. Campbell resumed his duties immediately afterwards,
and the newly-acquired districts were placed under his
jurisdiction. The Rajah still begs hard for the renewal of
old friendship, and the restoration of his Terai land, or the
annual grant of £300 a year which he formerly received.
He has forbidden the culprits his court, but can do no
more. The Dewan, disgraced and turned out of office, is
reduced to poverty, and is deterred from entering Tibet by
the threat of bemg dragged to Lhassa with a rope round
his neck. Considering, however, his energy, a rare’ quality
im these countries, I should not be surprised at* his yet
cutting a figure in Bhotan, if not m Sikkim itself: especi-
ally if, at the Rajah’s death, the British government should
refuse to take the country under its protection. The
Singtam Soubah and the other culprits live disgraced at
their homes. ‘Tchebu Lama has received a handsome
reward, and a grant of land at Dorjilmg, where he resides,
and whence he sends me his salaams by every opportunity.

VOL, II. R

CHAPTER XXVII.

Leave Dorjiling for Caleutta—Jung Bahadoor—Dr. Falconer—Improvements in
Botanic Gardens—Palmetum—Victoria—A mherstia—Orchids spread by seed
—Banyan— Cycas—Importation of American plants in ice—Return to Dorji-
ling—Leave with Dr. Thomson for the Khasia mountains—Mahanuddy river
—Vegetation of banks — Maldah — Alligators—Rampore-Bauleah—Climate
of Ganges—Pubna—Jummul river—Altered course of Burrampooter and
Megna—Dacca—Conch shells—Saws—Cotton muslins—Fruit — Vegetation
—Elevation—Rose of Bengal—Burrampooter—Delta of Soormah river—Jheels
— Soil — Vegetation — Navigation — Mosquitos — Atmospheric pressure—
Effects of geological changes — Imbedding of plants — Teelas or islets —
Chattuc—Salubrious climate—Rains—Canoes—Pundua—Mr. Harry Inglis—
Terrya Ghat—Ascent to Churra—Scenery and vegetation at foot of mountains
—Cascades.

I was chiefly occupied during January and February of
1850, in arranging and transmitting my collections to
Calcutta, and completing my manuscripts, maps, and sur-
veys. My friend Dr. Thomson having joimed me here, for
the purpose of our spending a year in travelling and bota-
nising together, it became necessary to decide on the best
field for our pursuits. Bhotan offered the most novelty,
but it was maccessible to Kuropeans; and we therefore
turned our thoughts to Nepal, and failing that, to the
Khasia mountains. |
The better to expedite our arrangements, I made a trip
to Calcutta in March, where I expected to meet both Lord
Dalhousie, on his return from the Straits of Malacca, and
Jung Bahadoor (the Nepalese minister), who was then ez
route as envoy to England. I staid at Government House,

Marcu, 1850. CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDENS. 943

where every assistance was afforded me towards obtaining
the Nepal Rajah’s permission to proceed through the
Himalaya from Dorjilng to Katmandu. Jung Bahadoor
received me with much courtesy, and expressed his great
desire to serve me; but begged me to wait until his return
from England, as he could not be answerable for my per-
sonal safety when travellmg durmg his absence; and he

DR. FALCONER’S RESIDENCE, CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDENS, FROM SIR L. PERL’S GROUNDS,

referred to the permission he had formerly given me (and
such was never before accorded to any European) in earnest
of his disposition, which was unaltered. We therefore
determined upon spending the season of 1850 in the
Khasia mountains in eastern Bengal, at the head of the

great delta of the Ganges and Burrampooter.
R 2

244 CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDENS. Cuap. XXVII.

I devoted a few days to the Calcutta Botanic Gardens,
where I found my kind friend Dr. Falconer established,
and very busy. ‘The destruction of most of the palms, and
of all the noble tropical features of the gardens, during
Dr. Griffith’s incumbency, had necessitated the replanting
of the greater part of the grounds, the obliteration of

old walks, and the construction of new: it was also —

necessary to fill up tanks whose waters, by injudicious
cuttings, were destroying some of the most valuable parts of
the land, to drain many acres, and to raise embankments
to prevent the encroachments of the Hoogly: the latter
being a work attended with great expense, now cripples
the resources of the garden library, and other valuable
adjuncts ; for the trees which were planted for the purpose
having been felled and sold, it became necessary to buy
timber at an exorbitant price.

The avenue of Cycas trees (Cycas circinalis), once the
admiration of all visitors, and: which for beauty and
singularity was unmatched in any tropical garden, had
been swept away by the same unsparing hand which
had destroyed the teak, mahogany, clove, nutmeg, and
cimamon groves. In 1847, when I first visited , the
establishment, nothing was to be seen of its former beauty
and grandeur, but a few noble trees or graceful palms
rearing their heads over a low ragged jungle, or spreading
their broad leaves or naked limbs over the forlorn hope
of a botanical garden, that consisted of open clay beds,

clisposed in concentric circles, and baking into brick under

the fervid heat of a Bengal sun.

‘The rapidity of te is so great in this chmate, that
within eight months from the commencement of the
improvements, a great change had already taken place.
The grounds bore a park-like appearance ; broad shady

:

Marcu, 1850. AMHERSTIA. DR. FALCONER’S IMPROVEMENTS. 245

walks had replaced the narrow winding paths that ran in
distorted lines over the ground, and a large Palmetum, or
collection of tall and graceful palms of various kinds, occu-
pied several acres at one side of the garden; whilst a still
larger portion of ground was being appropriated to a pic-
turesque assemblage of certain closely allied families of
plants, whose association promised to form a novel and
attractive object of study to the botanist, painter, and land-
scape gardener. ‘This, which the learned Director called
in scientific language a Thamno-Endogenarium, consists
of groups of all kinds of bamboos, tufted growing palms,
rattan canes (Calami), Dracene, plantains, screw-pines,
‘(Pandani), and such genera of tropical monocotyledonous
plants. All are evergreens of most vivid hue, some of
which, having slender trailing stems, form magnificent
masses; others twme round one another, and present
impenetrable hillocks of green foliage; whilst still others
shoot out broad long wavy leaves from tufted roots; and
a fourth class is supported by aerial roots, diverging on
all sides and from all heights on the stems, every branch
of which is crowned with an enormous plume of grass-like
leaves.*

The great Amherstia tree had been nearly killed by
injudicious treatment, and the baking of thé soil
above its roots. ‘This defect was remedied by sinking
bamboo pipes four feet and a half in the earth, and
watering through them—a plan first recommended by
Major M‘Farlane of Tavoy. Some fine Orchidee were
in flower in the gardens, but few of them fruit ;

* Since I left India, these improvements have been still further carried out,
and now (in the spring of 1853) I read of five splendid Victoria plants flowering
at ouce, with Huryale ferox, white, blue, and red water-lilies, and white, yellow
and scarlet lotus, rendering the tanks gorgeous, sunk as their waters are in frames
of green grass, ornamented with clumps of NMipa fruticans and Phenix paludosa,

246 CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDENS. Cuap. XXVII.

and those Dendrobiums which bear axillary viviparous
buds never do. Some of the orchids appear to be
spread by birds amongst the trees; but the different species
of Vanda are increasing so fast, that there seems no doubt —
that this tribe of air-plants grows freely from seed —
in a wild state, though we generally fail to rear them in
Eneland.

The great Banyan tree (Ficus Indica) is still the pride
and ornament of the garden. Dr. Falconer has ascertained
satisfactorily that it is only seventy-five years old: annual
rings, size, &c., afford no evidence in such a case, but
people were alive a few years ago who remembered well
its site being occupied in 1782 by a Kujoor (Date-palm),
out of whose crown the Banyan sprouted, and beneath
which a Fakir sat. It is a remarkable fact that the
banyan hardly ever vegetates on the ground; but its
figs are eaten by birds, and the seeds deposited in the
crowns of palms, where they grow, sending down roots that_
embrace and eventually kill the palm, which decays away.
This tree is now eighty feet high, and throws an area 300
feet * im diameter into a dark, cool shade. The gigantic
limbs spread out about ten feet above the ground, and
from neglect durmg Dr. Wallich’s absence, there were on
Dr. Falconer’s arrival no more than eighty-nine descending
roots or props; there are now several hundreds, and the
growth of this grand mass of vegetation is proportionably
stimulated and increased. ‘The props are induced to sprout
by wet clay and moss tied to the branches, beneath which

* Had this tree been growing in 1849 over the great palm-stove at Kew, only
thirty feet of each end of that vast structure would have been uncovered : its
increase was proceeding so rapidly, that by this time it could probably cover the
whole. Larger banyans are common in Bengal; but few are so symmetrical in
Shape and height. As the tree gets old, it breaks up into separate masses, the
original trunk decaying, and the props becoming separate trunks of the different
portions. [

Marca, 1850. BANYAN. CYCAS. PLANTS IMPORTED IN ICE. 247

a little pot of water is hung, and after they have made
some progress, they are inclosed in bamboo tubes, and
so coaxed down to the ground. ‘They are mere slender
whip-cords before reaching the earth, where they root,
remaining very lax for several months; but gradually, as
they grow and swell to the size of cables, they tighten, and
eventually become very tense. ‘This is a curious pheno-
menon, and so rapid, that it appears to be due to the rooting
part mechanically dragging down the aerial. The branch
meanwhile continues to grow outwards, and being supplied
by its new support, thickens beyond it, whence the props
always slant outwards from the ground towards the
circumference of the tree.

Cycas trees abound in the gardens, and, though generally
having only one, or rarely two crowns, they have sometimes
sixteen, and their stems are everywhere covered with leafy
buds, which are developed on any check being given to
the growth of the plant, as by the operation of trans-
plantation, which will cause as many as 300 buds to appear
in the course of a few years, on a trunk eight feet high.

During my stay at the gardens, Dr. Falconer received
a box of living plants packed in moss, and transported in
a frozen state by one of the ice ships from North
America: * they left i November, and arriving in March,
I was present at the opening of the boxes, and saw 391
plants (the whole contents) taken out in the most perfect
state. They were chiefly fruit-trees, apples, pears, peaches,
currants, and gooseberries, with beautiful plants of the
Venus’ fly-trap (Dionea muscipula). More perfect success
never attended an experiment: the plants were in vigorous

* The ice from these ships is sold in the Calcutta market for a penny a pound,
to great profit; it has already proved an invaluable remedy in cases of inflammation
and fever, and has diminished mortality to a very appreciable extent.

248 DORJILING. CHAP. XXVIL.

bud, and the day after being released from their icy bonds,
the leaves sprouted and unfolded, and they were packed in
Ward’s cases for immediate transport to the Himalaya
mountains.

_ My visit to Calcutta enabled me to compare my instru-
ments with the standards at the Observatory, in which
I was assisted by my friend, Capt. Thuillier, to whose
kind offices on this and many other occasions I am greatly
indebted.

I returned to Dorjilimg on the 17th of April, and
Dr. Thomson and I commenced our arrangements for
proceeding to the Khasia mountains. We started on the
Ist of May, and I bade adieu to Dorjiling with no hght
heart ; for I was leaving the kindest and most disinterested
friends I had ever made in a foreign land, and a country
whose mountains, forests, productions, and people had all
become endeared to me by many ties and associations.
The prospects of Dorjiling itself are neither doubtful nor
insignificant. Whether or not Sikkim will fall again under
the protection of Britain, the station must prosper, and
that very speedily. I had seen both its native population
and its European houses doubled in two years; its salu-
brious climate, its scenery, and accessibility, ensure it so
rapid a further increase that it will become the most
populous hill-station in India. Strong prejudices against
a damp climate, and the complaints of loungers and idlers
who only seek pleasure, together with a groundless fear
of the natives, have hitherto retarded its progress ; but
its natural advantages will outweigh these and all other
obstacles. ?

I am aware that my opinion of the ultimate success
of Dorjiling is not shared by the general public of India,
and must be pardoned for considering their views in this

May, 1850. PROSPECTS OF DORJILING. 249

matter short-sighted. With regard to the disagreeables of —
its climate, I can sufficiently appreciate them, and shall be
considered by the residents to have over-estimated the
amount and constancy of mist, rain, and humidity, from
the two seasons I spent there being exceptional in these
respects. Whilst on the one hand I am willing to admit
the probability of this,* I may be allowed on the other
to say that I have never visited any spot under the sun,
where I was not told that the season was exceptional, and
generally for the worse ; added to which there is no better
and equally salubrious climate east of Nepal, accessible
from Calcutta.

All climates are comparative, and fixed residents
naturally praise the own. I have visited many latitudes,
and can truly say that I have found no two climates
resembling each other, and that all alike are complained of.
That of Dorjilmg is above the average in point of comfort,
and for perfect salubrity rivals any; while in variety,
interest, and grandeur, the scenery is, unequalled.

From Sikkim to the Khasia mountains our course was
by boat down the Mahanuddy to the upper Gangetic delta,
whose many branches we followed eastwards to the Megna ;
whence we ascended the Soormah to the Silhet district.
We arrived at Kishengunj, on the Mahanuddy, on the 3rd
of May, and were delayed two days for our boat, which
should have been waiting here to take us to Berhampore on
the Ganges: we were, however, hospitably received by
Mr. Perry's family.

The approach of the rains was indicated by violent easterly
storms of thunder, hghtning, and rain; the thermometer

ranging from 70° to 85°. The country around Kishengunj

* T am informed that hardly a shower of rain has fallen this season, between
November 1852, and April 1853; and a very little snow in February only.

250 MAHANUDDY RIVER. Cuap. XXVIII

is flat and very barren ; it is composed of a deep sandy soil,
covered with a short turf, now swarming with cockchafers.
Water is found ten or twelve feet below the surface, and
may be supplied by underground streams from the
Himalaya, distant forty-five miles. The river, which at this
season is low, may be navigated up to Titalya during the
rains ; its bed averages 60 yards in width, and is extremely
tortuous ; the current is slight, and, though shallow, the
water is opaque. We slowly descended to Maldah, where
we arrived on the 11th: the temperature both of the water
and of the air increased rapidly to upwards of 90°; the
former was always a few degrees cooler than the air by day,
and warmer by night. The atmosphere became drier as
we receded from the mountains.

The boatmen always brought up by the shore at might ;
and our progress was so slow, that we could keep up

with the boat when walking along the bank. So long as |
the soil and river-bed continued sandy, few bushes or
herbs were to be found, and it was difficult to collect a—
hundred kinds of plants in a day: gradually, however, —

clumps of trees appeared, with jujube bushes, Zvophis,
Acacia, and Buddleia, a tew fan-palms, bamboos, and Jack-
trees. A shell (4nodon) was the only one seen in the river,
which harboured few water-plants or birds, and neither
alligators nor porpoises ascend so high.

— sy

On the 7th of May, about eighty miles in a straight line —

from the foot of the Himalaya, we found the stratified sandy
banks, which had gradually risen to a height of thirteen feet,
replaced by the hard alluvial clay of the Gangetic valley,
which underlies the sand: the stream contracted, and the
features of its banks were materially improved by a jungle

of tamarisk, wormwood (4rtemisia), and white rose-bushes ~

(Losa involucrata), whilst mango trees became common,

May, 1850. MALDAH. RAMPORE-BAULEAH. 251

with tamarinds, banyan, and figs. Date and Caryota
palms, and rattan canes, grew in the woods, and _ parasitic
Orchids on the trees, which were covered with a climbing
fern (Acrosticum scandens), so that we easily doubled our
flora of the river banks before arriving at Maldah.

This once populous town is, like Berhampore, now quite
decayed, since the decline of its silk and indigo trades :
the staple product, called ‘ Maldy,” a mixture of silk and
cotton, very durable, and which washes well, now forms its
only trade, and is exported through Sikkim to the north-
west provinces and ‘Tibet. It is still famous for the size
and excellence of its mangos, which ripen late in May;
but this year the crop had been destroyed by the damp
heats of sprig, the usual north-west dry winds not having
prevailed.

The ruins of the once famous city of Gour, a few miles
distant, are now covered with jungle, and the buildings are
fast disappearing, owing to the bricks being carried away
to be used elsewhere. |

Below Maldah the river gets broader, and willow becomes
common. We found specimens of a Planorbis in the mud
of the stream, and saw apparently a boring shell m the
alluvium, but could not land to examime it. Chalky
masses of alligators’ droppings, like coprolites, .are very
common, buried in the banks, which become twenty feet
high at the junction with the Ganges, where we arrived on
the 14th. ‘The waters of this great river were nearly two
degrees cooler than those of the Mahanuddy.

Rampore-Bauleah is a large station on the north
bank of the Ganges, whose stream ‘is at this season fully a
mile wide, with a very slow current ; its banks are thirty
feet above the water. We were most kindly received by
Mr. Bell, the collector of the district, to whom we were

252 RAMPORE-BAULEAH. Cuap, XXVIII.

greatly indebted for furthermg us on our voyage: boats —
being very difficult to procure, we were, however, detained —
here from the 16th to the 19th. I was fortunate in being
able to compare my barometers with a first-rate standard
instrument, and in finding no appreciable alteration since
leaving Calcutta in the previous April. The elevation of
the station is 130 feet above the sea, that of Kishengunj
I made 131; so that the Gangetic valley is nearly a dead
level for fully a hundred miles north, beyond which it rises ;
Titalya, 150 miles to the north, being 360 feet, and
Siligoree, at the margin of the Terai, rather higher. The
river again falls more considerably than the land; the
Mahanuddy, at Kishengunj, bemg about twenty feet
below the level of the plains, or 110 above the sea ; whereas
the Ganges, at Rampore, is probably not more than eighty
feet, even when the water is highest.

The climate of Rampore is marked by greater extremes
than that of Calcutta: during our stay the temperature rose
above 106°, and fell to 78° at night: the mean was
24° higher than at Calcutta, which is 126 miles further
south. Being at the head of the Gangetic delta, which
points from the Sunderbunds obliquely to the north-west,
it is much damper than any locality further west, as is
evidenced by two kinds of Calamus palm abounding, which
do not ascend the Ganges beyond Monghyr. Advancing
eastwards, the dry north-west wind of the Gangetic valley,
which blows here in occasional gusts, 1s hardly felt; and-
easterly winds, rising after the sun (or, in other words,
following the heating of the open dry country), blow down
the great valley of the Burrampooter, or south-easterly ones
come up from the Bay of Bengal. The western head of
the Gangetic delta is thus placed in what are called “ the
variables’’ in naval phraseology; but only so far as its

May, 1850. ALTERED COURSE OF BURRAMPOOTER. 253

superficial winds are concerned, for its great atmospheric
current always blows from the Bay of Bengal, and flows
over all northern India, to the lofty regions of Central Asia.

At Rampore I found the temperature of the ground, at
three feet depth, varied from 87° 8 to 89° 8, beimg con-
siderably lower than that of the air (94° 2), whilst that of a
fine ripening shaddock, mto which I plunged a_thermo-
meter bulb, varied little from 81°, whether the sun shone
on it ornot. From this place we made very slow progress
south-eastwards, with a gentle current, but against constant
easterly winds, and often violent gales and thunder-storms,
which obliged us to brmg up under shelter of banks
and islands of sand. Sometimes we sailed along the broad
river, whose opposite shores were rarely both visible at
once, and at others tracked the boat through narrow creeks
that unite the many Himalayan streams, and form a net-
work soon after leaving their mountain valleys.

A few miles beyond Pubna we passed from a narrow
canal at once into the main stream of the Burrampooter at
Jattergunj: our maps had led us to expect that it flowed
fully seventy miles to the eastward in this latitude ; and we
were surprised to hear that within the last twenty years the
main body of that river had shifted its course thus far to
the westward. ‘This alteration was not effected by the
gradual working westwards of the main stream, but by
the old eastern channel so rapidly silting up as to be
now unnavigable; while the Jummul, which receives the
Teesta, and which is laterally connected by branches with
the Burrampooter, became consequently wider and deeper,
and eventually the principal stream.

- Nothing can be more dreary and uninteresting than the
scenery of this part of the delta. The water is clay-
coloured and turbid, always cooler than the air, which

254 DACCA. CuHap. XXVIII.

again was 4° or 5° below that of Calcutta, with a-
damper atmosphere. The banks are of stratified sand —
and mud, hardly raised above the mean level of the country,
and consequently unlike those bordering most annually
flooded rivers; for here the material. is so unstable,
that the current yearly changes its course. A wiry grass
sometimes feebly binds the loose soil, on which there are
neither houses nor cultivation.

Ascending the Jummul (now the main channel of
the Burrampooter) for a few miles, we turned off
into a narrower channel, sixty miles long, which passes
by Dacca, where we arrived on the 28th, and where
we were again detained for boats, the demand for which
is rapidly creasing with the extended cultivation of the
Sunderbunds and Delta. We stayed with Mr. Atherton,
and botanised in the neighbourhood of the town, which
was once very extensive, and is still large, though
not flourishing. The population is mostly Mahometan ;
the site, though beautiful and varied, is unhealthy for
Kuropeans. Ruins of great Moorish brick: buildings
still remain, and a Greek style of ornamenting the houses
prevails to a remarkable degree.

The manufacture of rings for the arms and ancles, from
conch-shells imported from the Malayan Archipelago, 1s
still almost confined to Dacca: the shells are sawn across
for this purpose by semicircular saws, the hands and toes
being both actively employed m the operation. The in-
troduction of circular saws has been attempted by some
European gentlemen, but steadily resisted by the natives,
despite their obvious advantages. ‘The Dacca muslin
manufacture, which once employed thousands of hands, is
quite at an end, so that it was with great difficulty that the
specimens of these fabrics sent to the Great Exhibition

May, 1850. FRUIT. EURYALE. GANGETIC ROSE. 255

of 1851, were procured. ‘The kind of cotton (which is
very short in the staple) employed, is now hardly grown,
and scarcely a loom exists which is fit for the finest fabrics,
The jewellers still excel in gold and silver filagree.

Pine-apples, plantains, mangos, and oranges, abound in
the Dacca market, betokening a better climate for tropical
fruits than that of Western Bengal; and we also saw the
fruit of Huryale ferox,* which is round, soft, pulpy, and
the size of a small orange ; it contains from eight to fifteen
round black seeds as large as peas, which are full of flour,
and are eaten roasted in India and China, in which latter
country the plant is said to have been im cultivation for
upwards of 3000 years. ;

The native vegetation is very similar to that of the
Hoogly, except that the white rose is frequent here. The
fact of a plant of this genus being as common on the plains
of Bengal as a dog-rose is in England, and associated with
cocoa-nuts, palms, mangos, plantains, and banyans, has
never yet attracted the attention of botanists, though the
species was described by Roxburgh. As a geographical
fact it is of great importance, for the rose is usually con-
sidered a northern genus, and no kind but this habits a
damp hot tropical climate. Even in mountainous countries
situated near the equator, as in the Himalaya and Andes,
wild roses are very rare, and only found at great eleva-
tions, whilst they are unknown in the southern hemisphere.
It is curious that this rose, which is also a native of Birma
and the Indian Peninsula, does not in this latitude grow

* An Indian water-lily with a small red flower, covered everywhere with
prickles, and so closely allied to Victoria regia as to be scarcely generically distin-
guishable from it. It grows in the eastern Sunderbunds, and also in Kashmir.
The discoverer of Victoria called the latter “ Euryale Amazonica.” These inter-
esting plants are growing side by side in the new Victoria house at Kew. The
Chinese species has been erroneously considered different from the Indian one.

256 JHEELS OF BENGAL. CuHap. XXVIII.

west of the meridian of 87°; it is confined to the upper —
Gangetic delta, and inhabits a climate in which it would —
least of all be looked for.

I made the elevation of Dacca by barometer only
seventy-two feet above the sea; and the banks of
the Dallisary being high, the level of its waters at this
season is scarcely above that of the Bay of Bengal.
The mean temperature of the air was 86? during our
stay, or half a degree lower than Calcutta at the same
period.

We pursued our voyage on the 30th of May, to the old
bed of the Burrampooter, an immense shallow sheet of
water, of which the eastern bank is for eighty miles occupied
by the delta of the Soormah. ‘This river rises on the
Munnipore frontier, and flows through Cachar, Silhet, and
the Jheels of east Bengal, receiving the waters of the
Cachar, Jyntea, Khasia, and Garrow mountains (which
bound the Assam valley to the south), and of the Tipperah
hills, which stretch parallel to them, and divide the Soormah
valley from the Bay of Bengal. ‘The immense area thus
drained by the Soormah is hardly raised above the level of -
the sea, and covers about 10,000 square miles. The anasto-
mosing rivers that traverse it, flow very gently, and do not
inaterially alter their course ; hence their banks gradually
rise above the mean level of the surrounding country, and
on them the small villages are built, surrounded by exten-
sive rice-fields that need no artificial irrigation. At this
season the general surface of the Jheels is marshy; but
during the rains, which are excessive on the neighbouring
mountains, they resemble an inland sea, the water rismg —
eradually to within a few inches of the floor of the huts ;
as, however, it subsides as slowly in autumn, it commits
no devastation. The communication is at all seasons by

May, 1850. JHEELS. BURRAMPOOTER RIVER.

iw)
Or
ray

boats, in the management of which the natives (chiefly
Mahometans) are expert.

The want of trees and shrubs is the most remarkable
feature of the Jheels ; in which respect they differ from the
Sunderbunds, though the other physical features of each
are similar, the level being exactly the same: for this
difference there is no apparent cause, beyond the influence
of the tide and sea atmosphere. Long grasses of tropical
genera (Saccharum, Donax, Andropogon, and Rottbellia)
ten feet high, form the bulk of the vegetation, with
occasional low bushes along the firmer banks of the natural
canals that everywhere intersect the country; amongst
these the rattan cane (Calamus), rose, a laurel, Strava-
dium, and fig, are the most common; while beautiful
convolvuli throw their flowermg shoots across the water.

The soil, which is sandy along the Burrampooter, is
more muddy and clayey in the centre of the Jheels, with
immense spongy accumulations of vegetable matter in the
marshes, through which we poked the boat-staves without
finding bottom: they were for the most part formed of
decomposed grass roots, with occasionally leaves, but no
quantity of moss or woody plants. Along the courses
of the greater streams drift timber and various organic
fragments are no doubt imbedded, but as there is no current
over the greater part of the flooded surface, there can be
little or no accumulation, except perhaps of old canoes, or of
such vegetables as grow on the spot. The waters are dark-
coloured, but clear and lucid, even at their height.

We proceeded up the Burrampooter, crossing — it
obliquely ; its banks were on the average five miles apart,
and formed of sand, without clay, and very little silt or
mud: the water was clear and brown, like that of the
Jheels, and very different from that of the Jummul. We

WOE. LI; S

258 JHEELS OF BENGAL. CHap. XXVIII.

thence turned eastwards into the delta of the Soormah,
which we traversed in a north-easterly direction to the
stream itself. We often passed through very narrow
channels, where the grasses towered over the boats: the
boatmen steered in and out of them as they pleased, and we
were utterly at a loss to know how they guided themselves,
as they had neither compass nor map, and there were few
villages or landmarks; and on climbing the mast we
saw multitudes of other masts and sails peering over the
grassy marshes, doing just the same as we did. All that
go up have the south-west wind in their favour, and this
helps them to their course, but beyond this they have
no other guide but that imstinct which habit begets.
Often we had to retreat from channels that promised
to prove short cuts, but which turned out to be blind
alleys. Sometimes we sailed up broader streams of ches-
nut-brown water, accompanied by fleets of boats repairing
to the populous districts at the foot of the Khasia, for rice,
timber, lime, coal, bamboos, and long reeds for thatching,
all of which employ an inland navy throughout the year
in their transport to Calcutta.

Leeches and mosquitos were very troublesome, the latter
appearing in clouds at might; during the day they were
rarer, but the species was the same. A large cray-fish was
common, but there were few birds and no animals to be
seen.

Fifty-four barometric observations, taken at the level of
the water on the voyage between Dacca and the Soormah,
and compared with Calcutta, showed a gradual rise of
the mercury in proceeding eastwards; for though the
pressure at Calcutta was ‘055 of an inch higher than at
Dacca, it was ‘034 lower than on the Soormah: the mean
difference between all these observations and the cotem-

May, 1850. ELEVATION OF THE WATERS. 259

poraneous ones at Calcutta was + ‘003 in favour of |
Calcutta, and the temperature half a degree lower; the
dew-point and humidity were nearly the same at both
places. ‘This being the driest season of the year, it is very
probable that the mean level of the water at this part of
the delta is not higher than that of the Bay of Bengal ;
but as we advanced northwards towards the Khasia, and
entered the Soormah itself, the atmospheric pressure
increased further, thus appearing to give the bed of that
stream a depression of thirty-five feet below the Bay of
Bengal, into which it flows! This was no doubt the result
of unequal atmospheric pressure at the two localities,
caused by the disturbance of the column of atmosphere by
the Khasia mountains ; for in December of the same year,
thirty-eight observations on the surface of the Soormah
made its bed forty-six feet above the Bay of Bengal, whilst
from twenty-three observations on the Megna, the pressure
only differed +0:020 of an inch from that of the barometer
at Calcutta, which is eighteen feet above the sea-level.

These barometric levellings, though far from satisfactory
as compared with trigonometric, are extremely interesting
in the absence of the latter. In a scientific pomt of view
nothing has been done towards determining the levels of
the land and waters of the great Gangetic delta, since
Rennell’s time, yet no geodetical operation promises more
valuable results in geography and physical geology than
running three lines of level across its area; from Chit-
tagong to Calcutta, from Silhet to Rampore, and from
Calcutta to Silhet. The foot of the Sikkim Himalaya has,
I believe, been connected with Calcutta by the great
trigonometrical survey, but I am given to understand that
the results are not published.

My own barometric levellings would make the bed of the
s 2

260 JHEELS OF BENGAL. Cuap. XXVIII.

Mahanuddy and Ganges at the western extremity of the
delta, considerably higher than I should have expected,
considering how gentle the current is, and that the season
was that of low water. If my observations are correct,
they probably indicate a diminished pressure, which is not
easily accounted for, the lower portion of the atmospheric
column at Rampore being considerably drier and therefore
heavier than at Calcutta. At the eastern extremity again,
towards Silhet, the atmosphere is much damper than at
Calcutta, and the barometer should therefore have stood
lower, indicating a higher level of the waters than is the
case.

To the geologist the Jhecls and Sunderbunds are a
most instructive region, as whatever may be the mean
elevation of their waters, a permanent depression of
ten to fifteen feet would submerge an immense tract,
which the Ganges, Burrampooter, and Soormah would
soon cover with beds of silt and sand. There would be
extremely few shells in the beds thus formed, the southern
and northern divisions of which would present two very
different floras and faunas, and would in all probability be
referred by future geologists to widely different epochs. To
the north, beds of peat would be formed by grasses, and
in other parts, temperate and tropical forms of plants and
animals would be preserved in such equally balanced pro-
portions as to confound the paleontologist ; with the bones
of the long-snouted alligator, Gangetic porpoise, Indian cow,
buffalo, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, deer, boar, and a_ host
of other animals, he would meet with acorns of several spe-
cies of oak, pine-cones and magnolia fruits, rose seeds, and
Cycas nuts, with palm nuts, screw-pmes, and other tropical
productions. On the other hand, the Sunderbunds portion,
though containing also the bones of the tiger, deer, and

Jung, 1850. GEOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS. SOORMAH RIVER. 261

buffalo, would have none of the Indian cow, rhinoceros, or
elephant; there would be different species of porpoise,
alligator, and deer, and none of the above mentioned plants
(Cycas, oak, pine, magnolia and rose), which would be
replaced by numerous others, all distinct from those of the

\
;

= : —

I
i] ' ie
i i -

a
\

p

VIEW IN THE JHEELS.

Jheels, and many of them indicative of the influence of salt
water, whose proximity (from the rarity of sea-shells) might
not otherwise be suspected.

On the Ist of June we entered the Soormah, a full and
muddy stream flowing west, a quarter of a mile broad,
with banks of mud and clay twelve or fifteen feet high,
separating it from marshes, and covered with betel-nut
and cocoa-nut palms, figs, and banyans. Many small

262 JHEELS OF BENGAL. Cuap. XXVIIL.

villages were scattered along the banks, each with a swarm
of boats, and rude kilns for burning the lime brought from
the Khasia mountains, which is done with grass and bushes.
We ascended to Chattuc, against a gentle current, arriving
on the 9th.

From this place the Khasia mountains are seen as a long
table-topped range running east and west, about 4000 to
5000 feet high, with steep faces towards the Jheels, out of
which they appear to rise abruptly. Though twelve miles
distant, large waterfalls are very clearly seen precipitating
themselves over the cliffs mto a bright green mass of
foliage, that seems to creep half way up their flanks. The
nearly horizontal arrangement of the strata 1s as con-
spicuous here, as in the sandstone of the Kymore hills in
the Soane valley, which these mountains a good deal
resemble ; but they are much higher, and the climate is
widely different. Large valleys enter the hills, and are
divided by hog-backed spurs, and it is far within these
valleys that the waterfalls and precipices occur; but the
nearer and further cliffs being thrown by perspective
into one range, they seem to rise out of the Jheels so
abruptly as to remind one of some precipitous island in
the ocean.

Chattuc is mainly indebted for its existence to the late
Mr. Inglis, who resided there for upwards of sixty years,
and opened a most important trade between the Khasia
and Calcutta in oranges, potatos, coal, lime, and timber.
We were kindly received by his son, whose bungalow
occupies a knoll, of which there are several, which
attracted our attention as being the only elevations fifty
feet high which we had ascended since leaving the foot of
the Sikkim Himalaya. They rise as islets (commonly
called 'Teela, Beng.) out of the Jheels, within twelve to

Jung, 1850. CHATTUC. BROWN AND TRANSPARENT RIVERS. 263

twenty miles of the Khasia ; they are chiefly formed of
stratified gravel and sand, and are always occupied by
villages and large trees. They seldom exceed sixty feet in
height, and increase in number and size as the hills are
approached ; they are probably the remains of a deposit
that was once spread uniformly along the foot of the
mountains, and they in all respects resemble those I have
described as rising abruptly from the plains near Titalya
(see vol. 1. p. 382).

The climate of Chattuc is excessively damp and_ hot
throughout the year, but though sunk amid interminable
swamps, the place is perfectly healthy! Such indeed 1s
the character of the climate throughout the Jheels, where
fevers and agues are rare; and though no situations can
appear more malarious to the common observer than
Silhet and Cachar, they are in fact eminently salubrious.
These facts admit of no explanation in the present state of
our knowledge of endemic diseases. Much may be attri-
buted to the great amount and purity of the water, the
equability of the climate, the absence of forests and of
sudden changes from wet to dry; but such facts afford
no satisfactory explanation. The water, as I have above
said, is of a rich chesnut-brown in the narrow crecks
of the Jheels, and is golden yellow by transmitted light,
owing no doubt, as in bog water and that of dunghills, to
a vegetable extractive and probably the presence of car-
buretted hydrogen. Humboldt mentions this dark-coloured
water as prevailing in some of the swamps of the Cassi-
quares, at the junction of the Orinoco and Amazon, and
gives much curious information on its accompanying
features of animal and vegetable life.

The rains generally commence in May: they were
unusually late this year, though the almost daily gales and

264 JHEELS OF BENGAL. Cuap. XXVIII.

thunder-storms we experienced, foretold their speedy arrival.
From May till October they are unremittmg, and the
country is under water, the Soormah rismg about fifty feet:
North-easterly winds prevail, but they are a local current
reflected from the Khasia, against which the southerly
perennial trade-wind impimges. | Westerly winds are very
rare, but the dry north-west blasts of India have been
known to traverse the delta and reach this meridian, in one
or two short hot dry puffs durmg March and April. Hoar-
frost is unknown.” |

China roses and tropical plants (Biguonie, Asclepia-
dee, and Convolvuli) rendered Mr. Inglis’ bungalow gay,
but little else will grow in the gardens. Pine-apples are
the best fruit, and oranges from the foot of the Khasia:
plantains ripen imperfectly, and the mango is always acid,
attacked by grubs, and having a flavour of turpentine.
The violent hailstorms of the vernal equinox cut both
spring and cold season flowers and vegetables, and the
rains destroy all summer products. The soil is a wet clay,
im which some European vegetables thrive well if planted
in October or November. We were shown marrowfat peas
that had been grown for thirty years without degenerating
in size, but their flavour was poor.

Small long canoes, paddled rapidly by two men, were
procured here, whereby to ascend the narrow rivers that
lead up to the foot of the mountams: they each carry one
passenger, who lies along the bottom, protected by a bam-
boo platted arched roof. We started at night, and early
the next morning arrived at Pundua,t where there is a

* It however forms further south, at the very mouth of the Megna, and is the
eftect of intense radiation when the thermometer in the shade falls to 45°.

+ Pundua, though an insignificant village, surrounded by swamps, has enjoyed
an undue share cf popularity as a botanical region. Before the geographical
features of the country north of Silhet were known, the plants brought from

‘

JUNE, 1850. BASE OF KHASIA MOUNTAINS. PUNDUA. 265

dilapidated bungalow: the inhabitants are employed in the
debarkation of lime, coal, and potatos. Large fleets of
boats crowded the narrow creeks, some of the vessels ben
of several tons burden. _

Elephants were kindly sent here for us by Mr. H. Inglis,
to take us to the foot of the mountains, about three miles
distant, and relays of mules and pomies to ascend to
Churra, where we were received with the greatest hospita-
lity by that gentleman, who entertained us till the end of
June, and procured us servants and collectors. ‘lo his kind
offices we were also indebted throughout our travels in
the Khasia, for much information, and for facilities and
necessaries of all kinds: things in which the traveller is
more dependent on his fellow countrymen in India, than
in any other part of the world.

We spent two days at Pundua, waiting for our great
boats (which drew several feet of water), and collecting in
the vicinity. The old bungalow, without windows and
with the roof fallmg in, was a most miserable shelter; and
whichever way we turned from the door, a river or a
swamp lay before us. Birds, mosquitos, leeches, and large
wasps swarmed, also rats and sandflies. A more pestilen-
tial hole cannot be conceived ; and yet people traverse this
district, and sleep here at all seasons of* the year with
impunity. We did so ourselves in the month of June,

oy
12

when the Sikkim and all other 'erais are deadly: we
returned in September, traversing the Jheels and nullahs
at the very foot of the hills durmg a short break of
fine weather in the middle of the rains; and we again

those hills by native collectors were sent to the Calcutta garden (and thence to
Europe) as from Pundua. Hence Silhet mountains and Pundua mountains,
both very erroneous terms, are constantly met with in botanical works, and
generally refer to plants growing in the Khasia mountains.

266 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cap. XXVIII.

slept here in November, * always exposed in the heat of ‘
the day to wet and fatigue, and never having even a
soupcon of fever, ague, or rheumatism. ‘This immunity
does not, however, extend to the very foot of the hills, as
it is considered imprudent to sleep at this season in the
bungalow of ‘Terrya, only three miles off.

The elevation of Pundua bungalow is about forty feet
above the sea, and that of the waters surrounding it, from
ten to thirty, according to the season. In June the mean
of the barometer readings at the bungalow was absolutely
identical with that of the Calcutta barometer. In Septem-
ber it was 0°016 inch lower, and im November 0:066
lower. The mean annual temperature throughout the
Jheels is less than 2° below that of Calcutta.

Terrya bungalow hes at the very foot of the first rise of
the mountains ; on the way we crossed many small streams
upon the elephants, and one large one by canoes: the water
in all was cool} and sparkling, running rapidly over boulders
and pebbles. Their banks of sandy clay were beautifully
fringed with a willow-lke laurel, A/retia bushes, bamboos,
palms, Bauhinia, Bombax, and Hrythrina, over which
Calamus palm (rattan) and various flowering plants
climbed. The rock at Terrya is a nummulitic limestone,
worn into extensive caverns. This formation is said to
extend along the southern flank of the Khasia, Garrow,
and Jyntea mountains, and to be associated with sandstone
and coal: it is extensively quarried im many places, several

* At the north foot of the Khasia, in the heavily timbered dry Terai stretching
for sixty miles to the Burrampooter, it is almost inevitable death for a European
to sleep, any time between the end of Apriland of November. Many have crossed
that tract, but not one without taking fever: Mr. H. Inglis was the only survivor
of a party of five, and he was ill from the effects for upwards of two years, after
having been brought to death’s door by the first attack, which came on within
three weeks of his arrival at Churra, and by several relapses.

+ Temperature in September 77° to 80°; and in November 75:7”.

JUNE, 1850. FOREST-TREES, PALMS, &c. 267

thousand tons bemg annually shipped for Calcutta and
Dacca. It is succeeded by a horizontally stratified sand-
stone, which is continued up to 4000 feet, where it is over-
lain by coal-beds and then by limestone again.

The sub-tropical scenery of the lower and outer Sikkim
Himalaya, though on a much more gigantic scale, is
not comparable in beauty and luxuriance with the really
tropical vegetation induced by the hot, damp, and insular
climate of these perennially humid mountains. At the
Himalaya forests of gigantic trees, many of them deciduous,
appear from a distance as masses of dark gray foliage,
clothing mountains 10,000 feet high: here the mdividual
trees are smaller, more varied in kind, of a brilliant green,
and contrast with gray limestone and red sandstone rocks
and silvery cataracts. Palms are more numerous here ; *
the cultivated 4reca (betel-nut) especially, raising its graceful
stem and feathery crown, “like an arrow shot down from
heaven,’ in luxuriance and beauty above the verdant slopes.
This difference is at once expressed to the Indian botanist
by definmg the Khasia flora as of Malayan character ;
by which is meant the prevalence of brilliant glossy-leaved
evergreen tribes of trees (as Huphorbiacee and Urticee),
especially figs, which abound in the hot gulleys, where the
property of their roots, which mosculate and form natural
erafts, is taken advantage of m bridgmg streams, and in
constructing what are called living bridges, of the most
picturesque forms. Comdbretacee, oaks, oranges, Garcinia
(gamboge), Diospyros, figs, Jacks, plantains, and Pandanus,
are more frequent here, together with pinnated leaved
Leguminose, Meliacee, vines and peppers, and above all

* There are upwards of twenty kinds of Palm in this district, including
Chameerops, three species of Areca, two of Wallichia, Avenga, Caryota, three of
Phenix, Plectocomia, Licuala, and many species of Calamus. Besides these there
are several kinds of Pandanus, and the Cycas pectinata,

268 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuar. XXVIII.

palms, both climbing ones with pinnated shining leaves (as
Calamus and Plectocomia), and erect ones with similar leaves
(as cultivated cocoa-nut, dreca and Arenga), and the broader-
leaved wild betel-nut, and beautiful Caryota or wine-palm,
whose immense decompound leaves are twelve feet long.
Laurels and wild nutmegs, with //enslowia, Itea, &c., were
frequent in the forest, with the usual prevalence of para-
sites, mistleto, epiphytical Orchidee, Mschynanthus, ferns,
mosses, and Lycopodia ; and on the ground were Rubiaceae;
Scitaminee, ferns, Acanthacee, beautiful balsams, and her-
baceous and shrubby nettles. Bamboos* of many kinds are
very abundant, and these hills further differ remarkably from
those of Sikkim in the great number of species of grasses.
‘he ascent was at first gradual, along the sides of a sand-
stone spur. At 2000 feet the slope suddenly became steep
and rocky, at 3000 feet tree vegetation disappeared, and
we opened a magnificent prospect of the upper scarped
flank of the valley of Moosmai, which we were ascending,
with four or five beautiful cascades rolling over the table
top of the hills, broken into silvery foam as they leapt from
ledge to ledge of the horizontally stratified precipice, and
throwing a veil of silver gauze over the gulf of emerald green
vegetation, 2000 feet below. The views of the many

* The natives enumerate about fourteen different kinds of bamboo, of which
we found five in flower, belonging to three very distinct genera. Uspdr, Uspét,
Uspit, Uskén, Uskoéng, Uktang, Ust6, Silee, Namlang, Tirra, and Battooba are
some of the names of Bamboos vouched for by Mr. Inglis as correctly spelt. Of
other Khasia names of plants, Wild Plantains are called Kairem, and the culti-
vated Kakesh ; the latter are considered so nourishing that they are given to new-
born infants. Senteo is a flower in Khas, So a fruit, Ading a tree, and Te a leaf.
Pandanus is Kashelan. Plectocomia, Usmole. Licuala, Kuslow. Caryota, Kalai-
katang. Wallichia, Kalai-nili. Areca, Waisola. Various Calami are Rhimét,
Uriphin, Ureek hilla, Tindrio, &e. This list will serve asa specimen: I might
increase it materially, but as I have elsewhere observed, the value attached to the
supposed definite application of native names to natural objects is greatly over-
rated, and too much reliance on them has introduced a prodigious amount of
confusion into scientific works and philological inquiries.

sp eSon.®,

Vp

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‘“‘TIVING BRIDGE” FORMED OF THE AERIAL ROOTS OF THE INDIA-RUBBER AND OTHER KINDS OF FIGS.

ae

June, 1850. WATERFALLS AND SCENERY OF MOUNTAINS. Pia

cataracts of the first class that are thus precipitated over
the bare table-land on which Churra stands, into the
valleys on either side, surpass anything of the kind that |
have elsewhere scen, though in many respects vividly
recalling the scenery around Rio de Janeiro: nor do |
know any spot in the world more calculated to fascinate
the naturalist who, while appreciating the elements of
which a landscape is composed, is also keenly alive to the
beauty and grandeur of tropical scenery.

At the point where this view opens, a bleak stony region
commences, bearing numberless plants of a temperate flora
and of European genera, at a comparatively low elevation ;
features which continue to the top of the flat on which the
station is built, 4000 feet above the sea.

DEWAN’S EAR-RING.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Churra, English station of—Khasia people—Garrow people—Houses—Habits—
Dress — Arms — Dialects—Marriages—Food—Funerals—Superstitions—Flat
of Churra—Scenery—Lime and coal—Mamloo—Cliffs—Cascades— Chameerops
palm—Jasper-rocks—Flora of Churra— Orchids — Rhododendrons —Pine—
Climate—Extraordinary rain-fall—Its effects—Gardens of Lieuts. Raban and
Cave—Leave Churra to cross the mountain range—Coal, shale, and under-
clay—Kala-panee river— Lailangkot— Luculia Pinceana — Conglomerate —
Surureem wood—Boga-panee river—View of Himalaya—Green-stone—Age of
Pine-cones—Moflong plants—Coix—Chillong mountain—-Extensive view—
Road to Syong—Broad valleys—Geology—Plants—Myrung—Granite blocks
—Kollong rock—Pine-woods—Features of country—Orchids—Iron forges.

Crurra Poonst is said to be so called from the number
of streams in the neighbourhood, and poonji, “a village ”’
(Xhas.) : it was selected for a European station, partly from
the elevation and consequent healthiness of the spot, and
partly from its bemg on the high road from Silhet to
Gowahatty, on the Burrampooter, the capital of Assam,
which is otherwise only accessible by ascending that river,
against both its current and the perennial east wind.
A rapid postal communication is hereby secured: but the
extreme unhealthmess of the northern foot of the
mountams effectually precludes all other intercourse for
nine months in the year.

On the first opening up of the country, the Kuropeans
were brought into sanguinary collision with the Khasias,
who fought bravely with bows and arrows, displaying a
most blood-thirsty and cruel disposition. "This is indeed

ad

Junz, 1850. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE KHASIAS. 273

natural to them ; and murders continued very frequent as

preludes to the most trifling robberies, until the extreme

penalty of our law was put in force. Even now, some of
the tributary Rajahs are far from quiet under our rule, and
various parts of the country are not safe to travel in. The
Garrows, who occupy the western extremity of this range,
at the bend of the Burrampooter, are still in a savage
state. Human sacrifices and polyandry are said to be
frequent amongst them, and their orgies are detestable.
Happily we are hardly ever brought into collision with them,
except by their occasional depredations on the Assam and
Khasia frontier: their country is very unhealthy, and is said
to contain abundance of coal, iron, and lime.

We seldom employed fewer than twelve or fourteen of
the natives as collectors, and when travelling, from thirty
to forty as coolies, &c. ‘They are averse to rising early,
and are intolerably filthy im their persons, though not so
in their cottages, which are very poor, with broad grass
roofs reaching nearly to the ground, and usually encircled
by bamboo fences; the latter custom is not common in
savage communities, and perhaps indicates a dread of
treachery. ‘The beams are of hewn wood (they do not use
saws), often neatly carved, and the doors turn on good
wooden pivots. ‘They have no windows, and the fire is
made on the floor: the utensils, &c. are placed on hanging
shelves and in baskets.

The Khasia people are of the Indo-Chinese race ; they
are short, very stout, and muscular, with enormous calves
and knees, rather narrow eyes and little beard, broad, high
cheekbones, flat noses, and open nostrils. I believe that a
few are tattooed. The hair is gathered into a top-knot,
and sometimes shaved off the forehead and temples. A
loose cotton shirt, often striped blue and red, without

VOL. II. x

274 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. X XIX,

sleeves and bordered with long thread fringes, is their
principal garment; it is gathered into a girdle of silver
chains by people of rank. A cotton robe is sometimes
added, with a large cotton turban or small skull-cap. The
women wear a long cloth tied in a knot across the breast.
During festivals both men and women load themselves
with silk robes, fans, peacock’s feathers, and gold and
silver ornaments of great value, procured from Assam,
many of which are said to be extremely curious, but I
regret to say that I never saw any of them. On these
occasions spirits are drunk, and dancing kept up all night:
the dance is described as a slow ungraceful motion, the
women being tightly swathed in cloths.

All the materials are brought from Assam; the only
articles in constant use, of their own manufacture, bemg a
rude sword or knife with a wooden handle and a long,
narrow, straight blade of iron, and the baskets with head-
straps, like those used by the Lepchas, but much neater ;
also a netted bag of pime-apple fibre (said to come from
Silhet) which holds a clasp-knife, comb, flint, steel, and
betel-nut box. They are much addicted to chewing pawn
(betel-nut, pepper leaves, and lime) all day long, and their
red saliva looks hke blood on the paths. Besides the
sword I have described, they carry bows and arrows, and
rarely a lance, and a bamboo wicker-work shield.

We found the Khasias to be sulky intractable fellows,
contrasting unpleasantly with the Lepchas; wanting in quick-
ness, frankness, and desire to please, and obtrusively
independent in manner; nevertheless we had a head man
who was very much the reverse of this, and whom we had
never any cause to blame. ‘Their language is, I believe,
Indo-Chinese and monosyllabic : it is disagreeably nasal
and guttural, and there are several dialects and accents in

JUNE, 1850. CUSTOMS OF THE KHASIAS. 275

contiguous villages. All inflections are made by pretixing
syllables, and when using the Hindoo language, the future
is invariably substituted for the past tense. They count
up to a hundred, and estimate distances by the number
of mouthfuls of pawn they eat on the road.

Education has been attempted by missionaries with par-
tial success, and the natives are said to have shown them-
selves apt scholars. Marriage is a very loose tie amongst
them, and hardly any ceremony attends it. We were
informed that the husband does not take his wife home,
but enters her father’s household, and is entertained there.
Divorce and an exchange of wives is common, and attended
with no disgrace: thus the son often forgets his father’s
name and person before he grows up, but becomes strongly
attached to his mother. The sister’s son inherits both
property and rank, and the proprietors’ or Rajahs’ offspring
are consequently often reared in poverty and neglect. The
usual toy of the children is the bow and arrow, with which
they are seldom expert; they are said also to spin
pegtops like the English, climb a greased pole, and run
round with a beam turning horizontally on an upright, to
which it is attached by a pivot.

The Khasias eat fowls, and all meat, especially pork,
potatos and vegetables, dried and half putrid fish in
abundance, but they have an aversion to milk, which 1s
very remarkable, as a great proportion of their country
is admirably adapted for pasturage. In this respect, how-
ever, they assimilate to the Chinese, and many Indo-Chinese
nations who are indifferent to milk, as are the Sikkim
people. The Bengalees, Hindoos, and Tibetans, on the
other hand, consume immense quantities of milk. They
have no sheep, and few goats or cattle, the latter of

which are kept for slaughter ; they have, however, plenty
T 2

276 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

of pigs and fowls. Eggs are most abundant, but used —
for omens only, and it is a common, but disgusting
occurrence, to see large groups employed for hours in
breaking them upon stones, shouting and quarreling,
surrounded by the mixture of yellow yolks and their red
pawn saliva.

The funeral ceremonies are the only ones of any impor-
tance, and are often conducted with barbaric pomp and
expense ; and rude stones of gigantic proportions are erected
as monuments, singly or in rows, circles, or supporting one
another, like those of Stonehenge, which they rival in
dimensions and appearance. ‘The body is burned, though
seldom during the rains, from the difficulty of obtaining
a fire; it is therefore preserved in honey (which is abun-
dant and good) till the dry season: a practice I have read of
as prevailing among some tribes in the Malay peninsula.
Spirits are drunk on these occasions ; but the hill Khasia is
not addicted to drunkenness, though some of the natives of
the low valleys are very much so. These ascend the rocky
faces of the mountains by ladders, to the Churra markets,
and return loaded at night, apparently all but too drunk
to stand; yet they never miss their footing in places
which are most dangerous to persons unaccustomed to
such situations.

‘The Khasias are superstitious, but have no religion; like
the Lepchas, they believe in a supreme being, and in deities
of the grove, cave, and stream. Altercations are often
decided by holding the disputants’ heads under water,
when the longest winded carries his pot. Fining is a
common punishment, and death for grave offences. The
changes of the moon are accounted for by the theory
that this orb, who is a man, monthly falls in love
with his wife’s mother, who throws ashes in his face.

a ee

TAL OY

ACT: MA “WGRl O21) 9 e[seUTA ca Ai BITC AL Try c O ‘Fr’ ‘al if

* Ui n i cp ae eee

X1d

JUNE, 1850. SCENERY. CHURRA TABLE-LAND. 277

The sun is female ; and Mr. Yule * (who is my authority)
says that the Pleiades are called “ the Hen-man ”’ (as in
Italy ‘the chickens”); also that they have names for
the twelve months; they do not divide their time by
weeks, but hold a market every four days. ‘These peopie
are industrious, and good cultivators of rice, millet,
and legumes of many kinds. Potatoes were introduced
amongst them about twenty years ago by Mr. Inglis, and
they have increased so rapidly that the Calcutta market is
now supplied by their produce. They keep bees in rude
hives of logs of wood.

The flat table-land on which Churra Poonji is placed,
is three miles long and two broad, dipping abruptly in
front and on both sides, and rismge behind towards the
main range, of which it is a spur. ‘The surface of this
area is everywhere intersected by shallow, rocky water-
courses, which are the natural drains for the deluge that
annually visits it. The western part is undulated and
hilly, the southern rises im rocky ridges of limestone and
coal, and the eastern is very flat and stony, broken only
by low isolated conical mounds.

The scenery varies extremely at different parts of the
surface. ‘Towards the flat portion, where the English
reside, the aspect is as bleak and mhospitable as can be
imagined: a thin stratum of marshy or sandy soil covers a
tabular mass of cold red sandstone; and there is not a tree,
and scarcely a shrub to be seen, except occasional clumps
of Pandanus. 'The low white bungalows are few in number,
and very scattered, some of them being a mile asunder,
enclosed with stone walls and shrubs; and a small white

* IT am indebted to Mr. Inglis for most of this information relating to the
Khasias, which I have since found, with much more that is curious and interesting,
in a paper by Lieut. Yule in Bengal Asiat. Soc. Journal.

278 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

church, disused on account of the damp, stands lonely in
the centre of all.

The views from the margins of this plateau are magnifi-
cent: 4000 feet below are bay-like valleys, carpetted as
with green velvet, from which rise tall palms, .tree-ferns
with spreading crowns, and rattans shooting their pointed
heads, surrounded with feathery foliage, as with ostrich
plumes, far above the great trees. Beyond are the Jheels,
looking like a broad shallow sea with the tide half out,
bounded in the blue distance by the low hills of Tipperah.
To the right and left are the scarped red rocks and roaring
waterfalls, shooting far over the cliffs, and then arching
their necks as they expand in feathery foam, over which
rainbows float, forming and dissolving as the wind sways
the curtains of spray from side to side.

‘l'o the south of Churra the lime and coal measures rise
abruptly in flat-topped craggy hills, covered with brush-
wood and small trees. Similar hills are seen far westward
across the imtervening valleys in the Garrow country,
rising in a series of steep isolated ranges, 300 to 400 feet
above the general level of the country, and always skirting
the south face of the mountams. Considerable caverns
penetrate the limestone, the broken surface of which rock
presents many picturesque and beautiful spots, like the
same rocks in England.

Westward the plateau becomes very hilly, bare, and
grassy, with the streams. broad and full, but superficial
and rocky, precipitating themselves in low cascades over
tabular masses of sand-stone. At Mamloo their beds are
deeper, and full of brushwood, and a splendid valley and
amphitheatre of red chffs and cascades, rivalling those of
Moosmai (p. 261), bursts suddenly into’view. Mamloo is
a large village, on the top of a spur, to the westward: it

JUNE, 1850. MAMLOO WATERFALLS. FAN-PALM. 279

is buried m a small forest, particularly rich in plants, and
is defended by a stone wall behind: the only road is tun-
nelled through the sandstone rock, under the wall; and
the spur on either side dips precipitously, so that the place
is almost impregnable if properly defended. A sanguinary

MAMLOO CASCADES.

conflict took place here between the British and_ the
Khasias, which terminated in the latter bemg driven over
the precipices, beneath which many of them were shot.
The fan-palm, Chamerops Khasiana (‘ Pakha,’” Khas.),
grows on the cliffs near Mamloo: it may be seen on
looking over the edge of the plateau, its long curved trunk
rismg out of the naked rocks, but its site is generally

280 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

inaccessible ;* while near it grows the Saaifragis ciliaris
of our English gardens, a common plant in the north-
west Himalaya, but extremely scarce in Sikkim and the
Khasia mountains.

The descent of the Mamloo spur is by steps, alternating
with pebbly flats, for 1500 feet, to a saddle which connects
the Churra hills with those of Lisouplang to the westward.
‘The rise is along a very steep narrow ridge to a broad long
grassy hill, 3,500 feet high, whence an extremely steep
descent leads to the valley of the Boga-panee, and the great
mart of Chela, which is at the embouchure of that river.
The transverse valley thus formed by the Mamloo spur, is
full of orange groves, whose brillant green is particularly
conspicuous from above. At the saddle below Mamloo
are some jasper rocks, which are the sandstone altered by
basalt. Fossil shells are recorded to have been found by
Dr. M‘Lellandt on some of the flats, which he considers to
be raised beaches: but we sought m vain for any evidence
of this theory beyond the pebbles, whose rounding we
attributed to the action of superficial streams.

It is extremely difficult to give within the limits of this
narrative any idea of the Khasia flora, which is, in extent
and number of fine plants, the richest i India, and pro-
bably im all Asia. We collected upwards of 2000 flowering
plants within ten miles of the station of Churra, besides 150
ferns, and a profusion of mosses, lichens, and fungi. This
extraordinary exuberance of species is not so much attri-
butable to the elevation, for the whole Sikkim Himalaya

* This species is very closely allied to, if not identical with P. Martiana of Nepal,
which ascends to 8000 feet in the western Himalaya, where it is annually covered
with snow: it is not found in Sikkim, but an allied species occurs in Affghanistan,
called P. Ritcheana: the dwarf palm of southern Europe is a fourth species.

+ See a paper on the geology of the Khasia mountains by Dr. M‘Lelland in
the “ Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journal.”

‘June, 1850. ' VEGETATION OF CHURRA. 281

(three times more elevated) does not contain 500 more
flowering plants, and far fewer ferns, &c. ; but to the variety
of exposures ; namely, 1. the Jheels , 2. the tropical jungles,
both in deep, hot, and wet valleys, and on drier slopes ;
3. the rocks; 4. the bleak table-lands and stony soils ;
5. the moor-like uplands, naked and exposed, where many
species and genera appear at 5000 to 6000 feet, which are
not found on the outer ranges of Sikkim under 10,000.*
In fact, strange as it may appear, owing to this last cause,
the temperate flora descends fully 4000 feet lower in the
latitude of Khasia (25° N.) than in that of Sikkim (27° N.),
though the former is two degrees nearer the equator.

The Pandanus alone forms a conspicuous feature in the
immediate vicinity of Churra; while the small woods about
Mamiloo, Moosmai, and the coal-pits, are composed of Sym-
plocos, laurels, brambles, and jasmines, mixed with small
oaks and Photinia, and many tropical genera of trees and
shrubs. |

Orchidee are, perhaps, the largest natural order in the
Khasia, where fully 250 kinds grow, chiefly on trees
and rocks, but many are terrestrial, imhabiting damp
woods and grassy slopes. I doubt whether m any other
part of the globe the species of orchids outnumber those of
any other natural order, or form so large a proportion of
the flora. Balsams are next in relative abundance (about
twenty-five), both tropical and temperate kinds, of great
beauty and variety in colour, form, and size of blossom.
Palms amount to fourteen, of which the Chamerops and
Arenga are the only genera not found in Sikkim. Of
bamboos there are also fifteen, and of other grasses 150,
which is an immense proportion, considering that the

* As Thalictrum, Anemone, primrose, cowslip, Tofieldia, Yew, Pine, Saxifrage,
Delphinium, Pedicularis.

282 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

Indian flora (including those of Ceylon, Kashmir, and all
the Himalaya), hardly contains 400. Sectaminee also are
abundant, and extremely beautiful; we collected thirty-
seven kinds.

No rhododendron grows at.Churra, but several species
occur a little further north: there is but one pme (2.
Khasiana) besides the yew, (and two Podocarpi), and that
is only found in the drier interior regions. Singular to
say, 1t 1s a species not seen in the Himalaya or elsewhere,
but very nearly allied to Pinus longifolia,* though more
closely resembling the Scotch fir than that tree does.

‘The natural orders whose rarity is most noticeable, are
Crucifere, represented by only three kinds, and Caryo-
phyllee. Of Ranunculaceae, there are six or seven species of
Clematis, two of Anemone, one Delphinium, three of Thalic-
frum, and two Ranunculi. Composite and Leguminose
are far more numerous than in Sikkim.

‘lhe climate of Khasia is remarkable for the excessive
rain-fall. Attention was first drawn to this by Mr. Yule,
who stated, that m the month of August, 1841, 264
inches fell, or twenty-two feet ; and that during five suc-
cessive days, thirty inches fell in every twenty-four hours !
Dr. Thomson and I also recorded thirty inches m one
day and night, and during the seven months of our stay,
upwards of 500 inches fell, so that the total annual fall
perhaps greatly exceeded 600 inches, or fifty feet, which

* Cone-bearing pines with long leaves, like the common Scotch fir, are found in
Asia, and as far south as the Equator (in Borneo) and also inhabit Arracan,
the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and South China. It is a very remarkable fact
that no Gymnospermous tree inhabits the Peninsula of India; not even the
genus Podocarpus, which includes most of the tropical Gymnosperms, and is
technically coniferous, and has glandular woody fibre; though like the yew it
bears berries. Two species of this genus are found in the Khasia, and one
advances as far west as Nepal. The absence of oaks and of the above genera

(Podocarpus and Pinus) is one of the most characteristic differences between
the-botany of the east and west shores of the Bay of Bengal.

June, 1850. RAIN-FALL OF CHURRA, AND ITS EFFECTS. 28

we)

has been registered in succeeding years! From April,
1849, to April, 1850, 502 inches (forty-two feet) fell. This
unparalleled amount is attributable to the abruptness
of the mountains which face the Bay of Bengal, from
which they are separated by 200 miles of Jheels and
Sunderbunds.

This fall is very local: at Silhet, not thirty miles further
south, it is under 100 inches; at Gowahatty, north of
the Khasia in Assam, it is about 80; and even on the
hills, twenty miles inland from Churra itself, the fall is
reduced to 200. At the Churra station, the distribution
of the rain is very local; my gauges, though registering
the samme amount when placed beside a good one in the
station; when removed half a mule, received a widely
different quantity, though the different gauges gave nearly
the same mean amount at the end of each whole month.

The direct effect of this deluge is to raise the little
streams about Churra fourteen feet in as many hours,
and to inundate the whole flat; from which, however,
the natural drainage is so complete, as to render a
tract, which in such a climate and latitude should be
clothed with exuberant forest, so sterile, that no tree
finds support, and there is no soil for cultivation of any
kind whatsoever, not even of rice. Owing, however, to
the hardness of the horizontally stratified sandstone, the
streams have not cut deep channels, nor have the cata-
racts worked far back into the cliffs. The limestone alone
seems to suffer, and the turbid streams from it prove how
rapidly it is becoming denuded. The great mounds of
angular gravel on the Churra flat, are perhaps the remains
of an extensive deposit, fifty feet thick, elsewhere washed
away by these rains; and I have remarked traces of the
same over many slopes of the hills around.

284 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap, XXIX,

The mean temperature of Churra (elev. 4000 feet) is -
about 66°, or 16° below that of Calcutta; which, allowing
for 24° of northing, gives 1° of temperature to every 290
to 300 feet of ascent. In summer the thermometer often
rises to 88° and 90°; and in the winter, owing to the
intense radiation, hoar-frost is frequent. Such a climate
is no less inimical to the cultivation of plants, than 1s the
wretched soil: of this we saw marked instances m the
gardens of two of the resident officers, Lieutenants Raban
and Cave, to whom we were indebted for the greatest
kindness and hospitality. These gentlemen are idefa-
tigable horticulturists, and took a zealous interest in our
pursuits, accompanying us In our excursions, enriching our
collections in many ways, and keeping an eye to them and
to our plant-driers durmg our absence from the station. In
their gardens the soil had to be brought from a considerable
distance, and dressed copiously with vegetable matter.
Bamboo clumps were planted for shelter within walls, and
native shrubs, rhododendrons, &c., introduced. Many Or-
chidee throve well on the branches of the stunted trees which
they had planted, and some superb kinds of /edychium in
the ground; but a very few English garden plants throve in
the flower-beds. Even in pots and frames, geraniums, &c.,
would rot, from the rarity of sunshine, which is as preju-
dicial as the damp and exposure. Still many wild shrubs
of great interest and beauty flourished, and some European
ones succeeded with skill and management; as geraniums,
Salvia, Petunia, nasturtruam, chrysanthemum, Kennedya
rubicunda, Maurandya, and Fuchsia. 'The daisy seed sent
from England as double, came up very poor and single.
Dahlas do not thrive, nor double balsams. Now they
have erected small but airy green-houses, and sunlight is
the only desideratum.

JUNE, 1850. LEAVE CHURRA. KALA-PANEE. 28

or

At the end of June, we started for the northern or Assam
face of the mountains. ‘I'he road runs between the exten-
sive and populous native village, or poonji, on the left, and
a deep valley on the right, and commands a beautiful view
of more waterfalls. Beyond this it ascends steeply, and
the sandstone on the road itself is curiously divided into
parallelograms, like hollow bricks,* enclosing irregularly
shaped nodules, while in other places it looks as if it had
been run or fused: spherical concretions of sand, coloured
concentrically by infiltration, are common in it, which have
been regarded as seeds, shells, &c.; it also contained
spheres of iron pyrites. The general appearance of much
of this rock is as if it had been bored by Zeredines (ship
worms), but I never detected any trace of fossils. It is
often beautifully ripple-marked, and in some places much
honeycombed, and full of shales and narrow seams of coal,
resting on a white under-clay full of root-fibres, like those
of Strgmaria.

At about 5000 feet the country is very open and bare,
the ridges being so uniform and flat-topped, that the broad
valleys they divide are hidden till their precipitous edges
are reached ; and the eye wanders far east and west over a
desolate level grassy country, unbroken, save by the curious
flat-topped hills I have described as belonging to the
limestone formation, which lie to the south-west. These
features continue for eight miles, when a sudden descent of
600 or 700 feet, leads into the valley of the Kala-panee
(Black water) river, where there is a very dark and
damp bungalow, which proved a very great accommodation
to us.T

* IT have seen similar bricks in the sandstones of the coal-districts of Yorkshire ;
they are very puzzling, and are probably due to some very obscure crystalline
. action analogous to jointing and cleavage.

+ It may be of use to the future botanist in this country to mention a small

286 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. ; CHap. XXIX.

Lailang-kot is another village full of iron forges, from a ~
height near which a splendid view is obtained over the
Churra flat. A few old and very stunted shrubs of laurel
and Symplocos grow on its bleak surface, and these are
often sunk from one to three feet in a well in the
horizontally stratified sandstone. I could only account for
this by supposing it to arise from the drip from the trees,
and if so, it is a wonderful instance of the wearing effects
of water, and of the great age which small bushes
sometimes attain.

The vegetation is more alpine at Kala-panee (elevation,
5,300 feet); Benthamia, Kadsura, Stauntonia, Lllicium,
Actinidia, Helwingia, Corylopsis, and berberry—all Japan
and Chinese, and most of them Dorjiling genera—appear
here, with the English yew, two rhododendrons, and
Bucklandia. "There are no large trees, but a bight green
jungle of small ones and bushes, many of which are very
rare and curious. Lwculia Pinceana makes a gorgeous
show here in October.

The sandstone to the east of Kala-panee is capped by
some beds, forty feet thick, of conglomerate worn ito
cliffs ; these are the remains of a very extensive horizontally
stratified formation, now all but entirely denuded. In the
valley itself, the sandstone alternates with alum shales,
which rest on a bed of quartz conglomerate, and the latter
on black greenstone. In the bed of the river, whose
waters are beautifully clear, are hornstone rocks, dipping
north-east, and striking north-west. Beyond the Kala-
panee the road ascends about 600 feet, and is well quarried
in hard greenstone; and passing through a narrow gap of

wood on the right of this road, near the village of Surureem)) as an excellent
botanical station : the trees are chiefly Rhododendron arboreum, figs, oaks, laurels,
magnolias, and chestnuts, on whose limbs are a profusion of Orchidew, and
amongst which a Rattan palm occurs.

JUNE, 1850. PICTURESQUE SCENERY. VIEW OF HIMALAYA. 287

conglomerate rock,* enters a shallow, wild, and beautiful
valley, through which it runs for several miles. The hills
on either side are of greenstone capped by tabular sand-
stone, immense masses of which have been precipitated on
the floor of the valley, producing a singularly wild and
picturesque scene. In the gloom of the evening it is not
difficult for a fertile imagination to fancy castles and cities
cresting the heights above.t

There is some cultivation here of potatoes, and of Rhys:-
cosia vestita a beautiful purple-flowered leguminous plant,
with small tuberous roots. Beyond this, a high ridge is
gained above the valley of the Boga-panee, the largest river
in the Khasia; from this the Bhotan Himalaya may
be seen in clear weather, at the astonishing distance of
from 160 to 200 miles! The vegetation here suddenly
assumes a different aspect, from the quantity of stunted
fir-trees clothing the north side of the valley, which rises
very steeply 1000 feet above the river: quite unaccount-
ably, however, not one grows on the south face. A new
oak also appears abundantly; it has leaves like the English,
whose gnarled habit it also assumes.

The descent is very steep, and carried down a slope of
greenstone; { the road then follows a clear affluent of the
Boga-panee, and afterwards winds along the margin of that
river, which is a rapid turbulent stream, very muddy, and

* Formed of rolled masses of greenstone and sandstone, united by a white and
yellow cement.

+ Hydrangea grows here, with ivy, Mussenda, Pyrus, willow, Viburnum, Par-
nassia, Anemone, Leycesteria formosa, Neillia, Rubus, Astilbe, rose, Panax, apple,
Bucklandia, Daphne, pepper, Scindapsus, Pieris, holly, Lilium giganteum (* Kalang
tatti,” Khas.), Camellia, Eleocarpus, Buddleia, &c. Large bees’ nests hang from
the rocks.

+ This greenstone decomposes into a thick bed of red clay; it is much inter-
sected by fissures or cleavage planes at all angles, whose surfaces are covered with
a shining polished superficial layer; like the fissures in the cleavage planes of
the gneiss granite of Kinchinjhow, whose adjacent surfaces are coated with a

288 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Guar. XXIX.

hence contrasting remarkably with the Kala-panee. It
derives its mud from the decomposition of granite, which
is washed by the natives for iron, and in which rock it rises
to the eastward. ‘Thick beds of slate crop out by the
roadside (strike north-east and dip-north-west), and are
contmued along the bed of the river, passmg into con-
olomerates, chert, purple slates, and crystalline sandstones,
with pebbles, and angular masses of schist. Many of
these rocks are much crumpled, others quite flat, and they
are overlaid by soft, variegated gneiss, which is continued
alternately with the slates to the top of the hills on the
opposite side.

Small trees of hornbeam grow near the river, with Rhus,
Xanthoxylon, Vaccinium, Gualtheria, and Spirea, while many
beautiful ferns, mosses, and orchids cover the rocks. An
elegant iron suspension-bridge is thrown across the stream,
from a rock matted with tufts of little parasitic Orchidee.
Crossing it, we came on many pine-trees ; these had _five-
years old cones on them, as well as those of all succeeding
years ; they bear male flowers in autumn, which impreg-
nate the cones formed the previous year. ‘Thus, the cones
formed in the spring of 1850 are fertilised in the following
autumn, and do not ripen their seeds till the second
following autumn, that of 1852.

A very steep ascent leads to the bungalow of Moflong,
on a broad, bleak hill-top, near the axis of the range (alt.
6,062 feet). Here there is a village, and some cultivation, .
surrounded by hedges of Lrythrina, Pieris, Viburnum,

glassy waved layer of hornblende. This polishing of the surfaces is generally
attributed to their having been in contact and rubbed together, an explanation
which is wholly unsatisfactory to me; no such motion could take place in
cleavage planes which often intersect, and were it to occur, it would not produce
two polished surfaces of an interposed layer of a softer mineral. It is more
probably due to metamorphic action.

JUNE, 1850. COIX CULTIVATION. MOFLONG. 289

Pyrus, Colquhounia, and Corylopsis, amongst which grew
an autumn-flowering lark-spur, with most foetid flowers.”
The rocks are much contorted slates and gneiss (strike
north-east and dip south-east). In a deep gulley to the
northward, greenstone appears, with black basalt and
jasper, the latter apparently altered gneiss: beyond
this the rocks strike the opposite way, but are much
disturbed.

We passed the end of June here, and experienced the same
violent weather, thunder, lightning, gales, and rain, which
prevailed during every midsummer I spent in India. A
ereat deal of Coiz (Job’s tears) is cultivated about Moflong :
it is of a dull greenish purple, and though planted in drills,
and carefully hoed and weeded, is a very ragged crop. The
shell of the cultivated sort is soft, and the kernel 1s sweet ;
whereas the wild Cozz is so hard that it cannot be broken
by the teeth. Each plant branches two or three times
from the base, and from seven to nine plants grow in each
square yard of soil: the produce is small, not above thirty
or forty fold.

From a hill behind Moflong bungalow, on which are
some stone altars, a most superb view is obtained of the
Bhotan Himalaya to the northward, their snowy peaks
stretching in a broken series from north 17° east to north
35° west ; all are below the horizon of the spectator, though
from 17,000 to 20,000 feet above his level. The finest
view in the Khasia mountains, and perhaps a more exten-
sive one than has ever before been described, is that from

* There is a wooda mile to the west of the bungalow, worth visiting by the
botanist: besides yew, oak, Subia and Camellia, it contains Olea, Euonymus, and
Spherocarya, a small tree that bears a green pear-shaped sweet fruit, with a large
stone: it is pleasant, but leaves a disagreeable taste in the mouth. On the
grassy flats an Astragalus occurs, and Roscoca purpurea, Tofieldia, and various
other fine plants are common.

VOL. IL. U

290 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

Chillong hill, the culminant point of the range, about six
miles north-east from Moflong bungalow. ‘This hill, 6,660
feet above the sea, rises from an undulating grassy country,
covered with scattered trees and occasional clumps of
wood; the whole scenery about being park-like, and as
little like that of India at so low an elevation as it is pos-
sible to be.

I visited Chillong in October with Lieutenant Cave ;
starting from Churra, and reaching the bungalow, two
miles from its top, the same night, with two relays of
ponies, which he had kindly provided. We were unfor-
tunate in not obtaming a brilliant view of the snowy
mountains, their tops being partially clouded; but the
coup dil was superb. Northward, beyond the rolling
Khasia hills, lay the whole Assam valley, seventy miles
broad, with the Burrampooter winding through it, fifty
miles distant, reduced to athread. Beyond this, banks of
hazy vapour obscured all but the dark range of the Lower
Himalaya, crested by peaks of frosted silver, at the
immense distance of from 100 to 220 miles from Chillong.
Allare below the horizon of the observer ; yet so false is
perspective, that they seem high in the air. The moun-
tains occupy sixty degrees of the horizon, and stretch
over upwards of 250 miles, comprising the greatest extent
of snow visible from any point with which I am
acquainted.

Westward from Chillong the most distant Garrow hills
visible are about forty miles off; and eastward those of
Cachar, which are loftier, are about seventy miles. To the
south the view is limited by the Tipperah hills, which,
where nearest, are 100 miles distant ; while to the south-
west lies the sea-like Gangetic delta, whose horizon, lifted
by refraction, must be fully 120. The extent of this view is

JULY, 1850. VIEW FROM CHILLONG. SYONG. 291

therefore upwards of 340 miles im one direction, and the
visible horizon of the observer encircles an area of fully thirty
thousand square miles, which is greater than that of Ireland!

Scarlet-flowered rhododendron bushes cover the north
side of Chillong,* whilst the south is grassy and quite bare;
and except some good Orchidee on the trees, there is little
to reward the botanist. ‘The rocks appeared to be sand-
stone at the summit, but micaceous gneiss all around.

Continuing northward from Moflong, the road, after five
miles, dips into a very broad and shallow flat-floored valley,
fully a mile across, which resembles a lake-bed: it is
bounded by low hills, and is called “ Lanten-tannia,” and
is bare of aught but long grass and herbs ; amongst these
are the large groundsel (Senecio), Dipsacus, Ophelia, and
Campanula. On its south flank the micaceous slates strike
north-east, and dip north-west, and on the top repose beds,
a foot in thickness, of angular water-worn gravel, indi-
cating an ancient water-level, 400 feet above the floor of
the valley. Other smaller lake-beds, in the lateral valleys,
are equally evident. |

A beautiful blue-flowered Ciitoria creeps over the path,
with the ground-raspberry of Dorjling. From the top a
sudden descent of 400 feet leads to another broad flat
valley, called “Syong” (elevation, 5,725 feet), in which is
a good bungalow, surrounded by hedges of Prinsepia
utilis, a common north-west Himalayan plant, only found
at 8000 feet in Sikkim. ‘The valley is grassy, but other-
wise bare. Beyond this the road passes over low rocky hills,
wooded on their north or sheltered flanks only, dividing
flat-floored valleys: a red sandy gneiss is the prevalent
rock, but boulders of syenite are scattered about. Extensive

** These skirt a wood of prickly bamboo, in which occur fig, laurel, Aralia,
Behmeria, Smilax, Toddalia, wild cinnamon, and three kinds of oak.
u 2

292 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

moors (elevation, 6000 feet) succeed, covered with stunted
pines, brake, and tufts of harsh grasses.*

Near the Dengship-oong (river), which flows in a narrow
valley, is a low dome of gneiss altered by syemite. The pre-
valent dip is uniformly south-east, and the strike north-east ;
and detached boulders of syenite become more frequent,
resting on a red gneiss, full of black garnets, till the descent
to the valley of Myrung, one of the most beautiful spots in
the Khasia, and a favourite resort, having an excellent
bungalow which commands a superb view of the Himalaya :
it is 5,650 feet above the sea, and is placed on the north
flank of a very shallow marshy valley, two miles broad,
and full of rice cultivation, as are the flat heads of all
the little valleys that lead imto it. There is a guard
here of lght infantry, and a little garden, . boasting a
gardener and some tea-plants, so that we had vegetables
during our four visits to the place, on two of which occa-
sions we stayed some days.

From Kala-panee to Myrung, a distance of thirty-two
miles, the road does not vary 500 feet above or below
the mean level of 5,700 feet, and the physical features
are the same throughout, of broad flat-floored, steep-sided
valleys, divided by bleak, grassy, tolerably level-topped
hills. Beyond Myrung the Khasia mountains slope to
the southward in rolling loosely-wooded hills, but the
spurs do not dip suddenly till beyond Nunklow, eight miles
further north.

On the south side of the Myrung valley is Nungbree
wood, a dense jungle, occupying, like all the other woods,

* These are principally Andropogon and Brachypodium, amongst which grow
yellow Corydalis, Thalictrum, Anemone, Parnassia, Prunella, strawberry, Hupato-
rium, Hypericum, willow, a Polygonum like Bistorta, Osmunda regalis and another
species, Lycopodium alpinum, a Senecio like Jacobea, thistles, Gnaphalium, Gen-
tians, Jris, Paris, Sanguisorba and Agrimonia.

JULY, 1850. GRANITE BLOCKS. KOLLONG ROCK. 293

the steep north exposure of the hill; many good plants
grow in it, including some gigantic Balanophore, Pyrola,
and Monotropa. The bungalow stands on soft, contorted,
decomposing gneiss, which is still the prevalent rock,
striking north-east. On the hills to the east of it, enormous
hard blocks hie fully exposed, and are piled on one another,
as if so disposed by glacial action; and it is difficult to
account for them by denudation, though their surface
scales, and similar blocks are scattered around Myrung
exactly similar to the syenite blocks of Nunklow, and the
granite ones of Nonkreem, to be described hereafter, and
which are undoubtedly due to the process of weathering.
A great mass of flesh-coloured crystalline granite rises in
the centre of the valley, to the east of the road: it is
fissured in various directions, and the surface — scales
concentrically ; it is obscurely stratified in some parts,
and appears to be half granite and half gneiss in mineralo-
gical character.

We twice visited a very remarkable hill, called Kollong,
which rises as a dome of granite 5,400 feet high, ten or
twelve miles south-west of Myrung, and conspicuous from
all directions. The path to it turns off from that to Nunklow,
and strikes westerly along the shallow valley of Monai, in
which is a village, and much rice and other cultivation.
Near this there is a large square stockade, formed of tall
bamboos placed close together, very like a New Zealand
“Pa; indeed, the whole country hereabouts much recals
the grassy clay hills, marshy valleys, and bushy ridges of
the Bay of Islands.

The hills on either side are sometimes dotted with pine-
woods, sometimes conical and bare, with small clumps of
pines on the summit only; while in other places are broad
tracts containing nothing but young trees, resembling

294 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXIX.

plantations, but which, Iam assured, are not planted; on
the other hand, however, Mr. Yule states, that the natives do
plant fir-trees, especially near the iron forges, which give
employment to all the people of Monai.

All the streams rise in flat marshy depressions amongst
the hills with which the whole country is covered; and
both these features, together with the flat clay marshes
into which the rivers expand, are very suggestive of tidal
action. Rock is hardly anywhere seen, except in the
immediate vicinity of Kollong, where are many scattered
boulders of fine-grained gneiss, of which are made the
broad stone slabs, placed as seats, and the other erections
of this singular people. We repeatedly remarked cones of
earth, clay, and pebbles, about twelve feet high, upon the
hills, which appeared to be artificial, but of which the
natives could give no explanation. Wild apple and birch are
common trees, but there is little jungle, except in the
hollows, and on the north slopes of the higher hills. Coarse
long grass, with bushes of Labiate and Composite plants,
are the prevalent features.

Kollong rock is a steep dome of red granite,* accessible
from the north and east, but almost perpendicular to the
southward, where the slope is 80° for 600 feet. The
elevation is 400 feet above the mean level of the surrounding
ridges, and 700 above the bottom of the valleys. The south
or steepest side is encumbered with enormous detached
blocks, while the north is clothed with a dense forest, con-
taining red tree-rhododendrons and oaks; on its skirts
grew a white bushy rhododendron, which we found
nowhere else. ‘The hard granite of the top was covered
with matted mosses, lichens, Lycopodiums, and_ ferns,

* This granite is highly crystalline, and does not scale or flake, nor is its
surface polished.

Juxy, 1850. KOLLONG ROCK. MUSICAL SOUNDS. 295

-—

amongst which were many curious and beautiful air-
plants.*

The view from the top is very extensive to the north-
ward, but not elsewhere: it commands the Assam valley

KOLLONG ROCK.

and the Himalaya, and the billowy range of undulating
grassy Khasia mountains. Few houses were visible, but the
curling smoke from the valleys betrayed their lurking-places,
whilst the tinklmg sound of the hammers from the distant

* Eria, Celogyne (Wallichii, maculata, and elata), Cymbidium, Dendrobium,
Sunipia, some of them flowering profusely ; and though freely exposed to the
sun and wind, dews and frosts, rain and droughts, they were all fresh, bright, green
and strong, under very different treatment from that to which they are exposed
in the damp, unhealthy, steamy orchid-houses of our English gardens. A wild
onion was most abundant all over the top of the hill, with MHymenopogon,
Vaccinium, Ophiopogon, Anisadenia, Commelyna, Didymocarpus, Remusatia, Hedy-
chium, grass and small bamboos, and a good many other plants. Many of the
lichens were of European kinds; but the mosses (except Bryum argenteum) and
ferns were different. A small Staphylinus, which swarmed under the sods, was
the only insect I remarked.

296 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cap. XXIX.

forges on all sides was singularly musical and pleasing ; they
fell on the ear like “bells upon the wind,” each ring bemg
exquisitely melodious, and chiming harmoniously with the
others. ‘I'he solitude and beauty of the scenery, and the
emotions excited by the music of chimes, tended to tran-
quillise our minds, wearied by the fatigues of travel, and
the excitement of pursuits that required unremitting atten-
tion; and we rested for some time, our imaginations
wandering to far-distant scenes, brought vividly to our
minds by these familiar sounds.

CHAPTER XXX.

View of Himalaya from the Khasia—Great masses of snow—Chumulari— Donkia—
Grasses —Nunklow—Assam valley and Burrampooter—Tropical forest—Bor-
panee— Rhododendrons— Wild elephants—Blocks of Syenite—Return to
Churra—Coal—August temperature—Leave for Chela—Jasper hill—Birds
— Arundina—Habits of leaf-insects—Curious village—Houses —Canoes —
Boga-panee river—Jheels —Chattuc — Churra—Leave for Jyntea hills—
Trading parties—Dried fish—Cherries — Cinnamon — Fraud — Pea-violet —
Nonkreem —Sandstone—Pines — Granite boulders— Iron washing — Forges
— Tanks—Siberian Nymphea—Barren country — Pomrang — Podostemon—
Patchouli plant—Mooshye—Enormous stone slabs—Pitcher-plant—Joowye
cultivation and vegetation—Hydropeltis —Sulky hostess—Nurtiung — Ham-
amelis chinensis — Bor-panee river — Sacred grove and gigantic stone
structures— Altars — Pyramids, &c.—Origin of names— Vanda coerulea -—
Collections—November vegetation—Geology of Khasia— Sandstone — Coal
-——Lime — Gneiss— Greenstone—Tidal action—Strike of rocks—-Comparison
with Rajmahal hills and the Himalaya.

‘Tur snowy Himalaya was not visible during our first stay
at Myrung, from the 5th to the 10th of July ; but on three
subsequent occasions, viz., 27th and 28th of July, 13th to
17th October, and 22nd to 25th October, we saw these
magnificent mountains, and repeatedly took angular heights
and bearings of the principal peaks. ‘The range, as seen from
the Khasia, does not form a continuous line of snowy moun-
tains, but the loftiest eminences are conspicuously grouped
into masses, whose position is probably between the great
rivers which rise far beyond them and flow through Bhotan.
This arrangement indicates that relation of the rivers to the
masses of snow, which | have dwelt upon in the Appendix ;

298 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. CuHap. XXX.

and further tends to prove that the snowy mountains,
seen from the southward, are not on the axis of a moun-
tain chain, and do not even indicate its position; but
that they are lofty meridional spurs which, projecting
southward, catch the moist vapours, become more deeply
snowed, and protect the dry loftier regions behind.

The most conspicuous group of snows seen from the
Khasia bears N.N.E. from Myrung, and consists of three
beautiful mountains with wide-spreading snowy shoulders.
These are distant (reckoning from west to east) respectively
164, 170, and 172 miles from Myrung, and subtend angles
of. + 0°. 4" 0", — 0°: 14.80", and — 0° 2° 26 3 aan
Nunklow (940 feet lower than Myrung) they appear
higher, the western peak rising 14°35” above the horizon ;
whilst from Moflong (82 miles further south, and eleva-
tion 6,062 feet) the same is sunk 2’ below the horizon.
My computations make this western mountain upwards of
24,000 feet high; but according to Col. Wilcox’s angles,
taken from the Assam valley, it is only 21,600, the others
being respectively 20,720 and 21,475, Captain Thuillier
(the Deputy Surveyor General) agrees with me in consi-
dermg that Colonel Wilcox’s altitudes are probably much

* These angles were taken both at sunrise and sunset, and with an excellent
theodolite, and were repeated after two considerable intervals. The telescopes
were reversed after each observation, and every precaution used to insure
accuracy ; nevertheless the mean of one set of observations of angular height
often varied 1’ from that of another set. This is probably much due to atmo-
spheric refraction, whose effect and amount it is impossible to estimate accurately
in such cases. Here the objects are not only viewed through 160 miles of
atmosphere, but through belts from between 6,000 to 20,000 feet of vertical
height, varying in humidity and transparency at different parts of the interval. If
we divide this column of atmosphere into sections parallel to those of latitude,
we have first a belt fifteen miles broad, hanging over the Khasia, 2,000 to 4,000
feet above the sea; beyond it, asecond belt, seventy miles broad, hangs over the
Assam valley, which is hardly 300 feet above the level of the sea; and thirdly,
the northern part of the column, which reposes on 60 to 100 miles of the Bhotan
lower Himalaya: each of these belts has probably a different refractive

power.

Juny, 1850. VIEW OF HIMALAYA. 299

under-estimated, as those of other Himalayan peaks to
the westward were by the old surveyors. It is further
evident that these mountains have (as far as can be
estimated by angles) fully 6-8,000 feet of snow on them,
which would: not be the case were the loftiest only 21,600
feet high. |

It is singular, that to the eastward of this group, no
snowy mountains are seen, and the lower Himalaya also
dip suddenly. ‘This depression is no doubt partly due to
perspective ; but as there is no such sudden disappearance
of the chain to the westward, where peaks are seen 35°
to the west of north, it is far more probable that the
valley of the Soobansiri river, which rises in Tibet far
behind these peaks, is broad and open; as is that of the
Dihong, still farther east, which we have every reason to
believe is the Tibetan Yaru or Burrampooter.

Supposing then the eastern group to indicate the moun-
tain mass separating the Soobansiri from the Monass
river, no other mountains conspicuous for altitude or
dimension rise between N.N.E. and north, where there
is another immense group. ‘This, though within 120
miles of Myrung, is below its horizon, and scarcely above
that of Nunklow (which is still nearer to it), and cannot
therefore attain any great elevation.

Far to the westward again, is a very lofty peaked moun-
tan bearmg N.N.W., which subtends an angle of
— 3’ 30” from Myrung, and + 6° 0” from Nunklow. The
angles of this seem to indicate its bemg either Chumulari,
or that great peak which I saw due east from Bhomtso top,
and which I then estimated at ninety miles off and 23,500
feet high. From the Khasia angles, its latitude and longi-
tude are 28° 6’ and 89° 30’, its elevation 27,000 feet, and
its distance from Myrung 200 miles. I need hardly add

300 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. CaP. XXX.

that neither the position nor the elevation computed from
such data is worthy of confidence.

Further still, to the extreme west, is an immense low
hog-backed mass of snow, with a small peak on it;
this bears north-west, both from Myrung and Nunklow,
subtending an angle of — 25’ from the former, and — 17’
from the latter station. It is im all probability Chumulari,
210 miles distant from Nunklow. Donkia, if seen, would
be distant 230 miles from the same spot in the Khasia,
and Kinchinjunga 260; possibly they are visible (by
refraction) from Chillong, though even further from it.

The distance from Myrung to Nunklow is ten miles,
along an excellent road. The descent is at first sudden,
beyond which the country is undulating, interspersed
with jungle (of low trees, chiefly oaks) and marshes,
with much rice cultivation. Grasses are exceedingly
numerous; we gathered fifty kinds, besides twenty
Cyperacee : four were cultivated, namely sugar-cane,
rice, Cov, and maize. Most of the others were not
so well suited to pasturage as those of higher localities.
Dwarf Phoenix palm occurs by the roadside at 5000 feet
elevation.

Gneiss (with garnets) highly inclined, was the preva-
lent rock (striking north-east), and scattered boulders of
syenite became: very frequent. In one place the latter
rock is seen bursting through the gneiss, which is slaty
and very crystalline at the junction.

Nunklow is placed at the northern extremity of a
broad spur that over-hangs the valley of the Burram-
pooter river, thirty miles distant. The descent from it is very
rapid, and beyond it none of the many spurs thrown
out by the Khasia attain more than 1,000 feet elevation ;
hence, though the range does not present so abrupt a

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JULY, 1850. NUNKLOW. PINES. BOR-PANEE. 301

face to the Burrampooter as it does to the Jheels,
Nunklow is considered as on the brink of its north slope.
The elevation of the bungalow is 4,688 feet, and the climate
being hot, it swarms with mosquitos, fleas, and rats. It
commands a superb view to the north, of the Himalayan
snows, of the Burrampooter, and intervening malarious
Terai forest ; and to the south, of the undulating Khasia,
with Kollong rock bearmg south-west. All the hills
between this and Myrung look from Nunklow better
wooded than they do from Myrung, in consequence of
the slopes exposed to the south being bare of forest.

A thousand feet below the bungalow, a tropical forest
begins, of figs, birch, horse-chestnut, oak, nutmeg, Cedreda,
Kugelhardtia, Artocarpee,and Hleocarpus, in the gullies, and
tall pines on the dry slopes, which are continued down to
the very bottom of the valley in which flows the Bor-panee,
a broad and rapid river that descends from Chillong, and
winds round the base of the Nunklow spur. Many of the
pines are eighty feet high, and three or four in diameter,
but none form gigantic trees. . The quantity of balsams in.
the wet ravines is very great, and tree-ferns of several
kinds are common.

The Bor-panee is about forty yards wide, and is spanned
by an elegant iron suspension-bridge, that is clamped to
the gneiss rock (strike north-east, dip north-west) on either -
bank ; beneath is a series of cascades, none high, but all of
great beauty from the broken masses of rocks and _pic-
turesque scenery on cither side. We frequently botanised ~
up and down the river with great success: many curious
plants grow on its stony and rocky banks, and amongst
them Rhododendron formosum at the low elevation of 2000
feet. A most splendid fern, Dipteris Wallichii, is abun-
dant, with the dwarf Phoenix palm and Cycas pectinata.

302 : KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXX.

Wild animals are very abundant here, though extremely —
rare on the higher part of the Khasia range; tigers,
however, and bears, ascend to Nunklow. We saw troops
of wild dogs (“ Kuleam,” Khas.), deer, and immense quan-
tities of the droppings of the wild elephant; an animal
considered in Assam dangerous to meet, whereas in other
parts of India it is not dreaded till provoked. ‘There is,
however, no quadruped that varies more in its native state
than this: the Ceylon kind differs from the Indian in the
larger size and short tusks, and an experienced judge at
Calcutta will tell at once whether the newly caught elephant
is from Assam, Silhet, Cuttack, Nepal, or Chittagong.
Some of the differences, in size, roundness of shoulders and
back, quantity of hair, length of limb, and shape of head,
are very marked; and their dispositions are equally
various. |

‘The lowest rocks seen are at a considerable distance
down the Bor-panee; they are friable sandstones that
strike uniformly with the gneiss. From the bridge
upwards the rocks are all gneiss, alternating with chert
and quartz. ‘The Nunklow spur is covered with enormous
rounded blocks of syenite, reposig on clay or on one
another. These do not descend the hill, and are the
remains of an extensive formation which we could only find
in situ at one spot on the road to Myrung (see p. 300),
but which must have been of immense thickness.* One
block within ten yards of the bungalow door was fifteen
feet long, six high, and eight broad; it appeared half buried,
and was rapidly decomposing from the action of the rain.
Close by, to the westward, in walking amongst the masses we

* The tendency of many volcanic rocks to decompose in spheres is very well
known : it is conspicuous in the black basalts north of Edinburgh, but I do not
know any instance equal to this of Nunklow, for the extent of decomposition and
dimensions of the resulting spheres.

Ava. 1850. SYENITE BLOCKS. GEOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS. 2038

were reminded of a moraine of most gigantic sized blocks ;
one which I measured was forty feet long and eleven above
the ground ; its edges were rounded, and its surface flaked
off in pieces a foot broad and a quarter of an inch thick.
‘Trees and brushwood often conceal the spaces between
these fragments, and afford dens for bears and leopards,
into which man cannot follow them.

Sitting in the cool evenings on one of these great blocks,
and watching the Himalayan glaciers glowmg with the
rays of sunset, appearing to change in form and dimen-
sions with the falling shadows, it was impossible to refrain
from speculating on the possibility of these great boulders
heaped on the Himalayan-ward face of the Khasia range,
having been transported hither by ice at some former
period; especially as the Mont Blanc granite, in crossing
the lake of Geneva to the Jura, must have performed a
hardly less wonderful ice journey: but this hypothesis 1s
clearly untenable ; and unparalleled im our experience as
the results appear, if attributed to denudation and wea-
thermg alone, we are yet compelled to refer them to these
causes. ‘The further we travel, and the longer we study,
the more positive becomes the conviction that the part
played by these great agents in sculpturing the surface of
our planet, is as yet but half recognised.

We returned on the 7th of August to Churra, where we
employed ourselves during the rest of the month in
collecting and studying the plants of the neighbourhood.
We hired a large and good bungalow, in which three
immense coal fires * were kept up for drymg plants and

* This coal is excellent for many purposes. We found it generally used by the
Assam steamers, and were informed on board that in which we traversed
the Sunderbunds, some months afterwards, that her furnaces consumed 729 lbs.
per hour; whereas the consumption of English coal was 800 lbs., of Burdwan
coal 840 lbs., and of Assam 900 lbs.

304 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. CuHap. XXX.

papers, and fifteen men were always employed, some in _
changing, and some in collecting, from morning till night. —
The coal was procured within a mile of our door, and cost
about six shillings a month; it was of the finest quality,
and gave great heat and few ashes. ‘Torrents of rain
descended almost daily, twelve inches in as many hours
being frequently registered ; and we remarked that it was
impossible to judge of the quantity by estimation, an appa-
rent deluge sometimes proving much less m amount than
much lighter but steadier falls; hence the greatest fall is
probably that in which the drops are moderately large,
very close together, and which pass through a saturated
atmosphere. ‘he temperature of the rain here and else-
where in India was always a degree or two below that of
the air.

Though the temperature in August rose to 75°, we never
felt a fire oppressive, owing to the constant damp, and
absence of sun. ‘The latter, when it broke through the clouds,
shone powerfully, raising the thermometer 20° and 30° m
as many minutes. On such occasions, hot blasts of damp
wind ascend the valleys, and impinge suddenly against
different houses on the flat, giving rise to extraordinary
differences between the mean daily temperatures of places
not half a mile apart.

On the 4th of September we started for the village of
Chela, which lies west from Churra, at the embouchure of
the Boga-panee on the Jheels. ‘The path runs by Mamloo,
and down the spur to the Jasper hill (see p. 280): the vegeta-
tion all along is very tropical, and pepper, ginger, maize,
and Betel palm, are cultivated around small cottages, which |
are only distinguishable in the forest by their yellow thatch
of dry Calamus (Rattan) leaves. From Jasper hill a very
steep ridge leads to another, called Lisouplang, which is

Sepr. 1850. BIRDS. SNAKES. LEAF-INSECT. 305

hardly so high as Mamloo ; the rocks are the same sand-
stone, with fragments of coal, and remains of the limestone
formation capping it.

Hot gusts of wind blow up the valleys, alternating
with clouds and mists, and it 1s curious to watch the
effects of the latter im stilling the voices of insects (Cicadas)
and birds. Common crows and vultures haunt the villages,
but these, and all other large birds, are very rare in the
Khasia. A very few hawks are occasionally seen, also
sparrows and kinefishers, and I once heard a cuckoo ;
pheasants are sometimes shot, but we never saw any.
Kites become numerous after the rains, and are regarded
as a sien of their cessation. More remarkable than the
rarity of birds is the absence of all animals except
domestic rats, as a more suitable country for hares and
rabbits could not be found. Reptiles, and especially
Colubride, are very common in the Khasia mountains,
and I procured sixteen species and many specimens.
The natives repeatedly assured us that these were all
harmless, and Dr. Gray, who has kindly examined all my
snakes, informs me of the remarkable fact (alluded to in a
note to p. 25), that whereas none of these are poisonous,
four out of the eleven species which I found in Sikkim
are so. One of the Khasia blind-worms (a new species)
belongs to a truly American genus (Op/isaurus), a fact as
important as is that of the Sikkim skink and dyama being
also American forms.

Arundina, a beautiful purple grassy-leaved orchid, was
abundantly in flower on the hill-top, and the great white
swallow-tailed moth (Saturnia Atlas) was extremely com-
mon, with tropical butterflies and other imsects. The
curious leaf-insect (J/antis) was very abundant on the

orange trees, on the leaves of which the natives believe
VOL. II. x

306 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXX.

it to feed; nor indeed could we persuade some of our
friends that its thin sharp jaws are unsuited for masti-
cating leaves, and that these and its prehensile feet
indicate its predacious nature: added to which, its smgular
resemblance to a leaf is no less a provision against its
being discovered by its enemies, than an aid in deceiving
its prey. |

We descended rapidly for many miles through beautiful
rocky woods, with villages nestling amongst groves of
banana and trellised climbers; and from the brow of a
hill looked down upon a slope covered with vegetation and
huts, which formed the mart of Chela, and below which the
Boga-panee flowed in a deep gorge. ‘The view was a very
striking one: owing to the steepness of the valley below
our feet, the roofs alone of the cottages were visible, from
which ascended the sounds and smells of a dense native
population, and to which there appeared to be no way of
descending. The opposite side rose precipitously m_ lofty
table-topped mountains, and the river was studded with
canoes.

‘The descent was fully 800 feet, on a slope averaging 25°
to 35°. The cottages were placed close together, each
within a little bamboo enclosure, eight to ten yards deep ;
and no two were on the same level. Each was built against
a perpendicular wall which supported a cutting m the bank
behind ; and a similar wall descended in front of it, forming
the back of the compartment in which the cottage next
below it was erected. The houses were often raised on
platforms, and some had balconies in front, which overhung
the cottage below. All were mere hovels of wattle or mud,
with very high-pitched roofs: stone tanks resembling fonts,
urns, coffins, and sarcophagi, were placed near the better
houses, and blocks of stone were scattered everywhere.

Serr. 1859. CHELA. BOGA-PANEE. 307

We descended from hovel to hovel, alternately along the
eravelled flat of each enclosure, and perpendicularly down
steps cut in the sandstone or let into the walls. 1
counted 800 houses from the river, and there must be many

CHELA VILLAGE.

more: the inhabitants are Bengalees and Khasias, and
perhaps amount to 3000 or 4000; but this is a very
vague estimate.

We lodged in a curious house, consistmg of one
apartment, twenty feet long, and five high, raised thirty
feet upon bamboos: the walls were of platted bamboo
matting, fastened to strong wooden beams, and one side
opened on a balcony that overhung the. river, ‘The
entrance was an oval aperture reached by a ladder, and

closed by folding-doors that turned on wooden pivots.
x 2

308 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXX.

The roof was supported by tressels of great thickness, and
like the rest of the woodwork, was morticed, no nails
being used throughout the buildmg. The floor was of
split bamboos laid side by side.

We ascended the Boga-panee in canoes, each formed of
a hollowed trunk fifty feet long and four broad; we could
not, however, proceed far, on account of the rapids. The
rocks in its bed are limestone, but a great bluff cliff of
sandy conglomerate (strike east-south-east and dip south-
south-west 70°), several hundred feet high, rises on the east
bank close above the village, above which occurs amyg-
daloidal basalt. The pebbles in the river (which was
seventy yards broad, and turbid) were of slate, basalt,
sandstone, and syenite: on the opposite bank were sand-
stones over-lain by limestone, both dipping to the south-
ward.

Beautiful palms, especially Caryota urens (by far the
handsomest in India), and groves of betel-nut bordered
the river, with oranges, lemons, and citrons; intermixed
with feathery bamboos, horizontally-branched acacias, oaks,
with pale red young leaves, and deep green foliaged figs.
Prickly rattans and Plectocomia climbed amongst these,
their enormous plumes of foliage upborne by the matted
branches of the trees, and their arrowy tops shooting high
above the forest.

After staying three days at Chela, we descended the
stream in canoes, shooting over pebbly rapids, and amongst
rocks of limestone, water-worn into fantastic shapes, till we
at last found ourselves gliding gently along the still canals
of the Jheels. Many of these rapids are so far artificial,
that they are enclosed by gravel banks, six feet high,
which, by confining the waters, give them depth; but,
Chela being hardly above the level of the sea, their fall is

' Sepr. 1850. DRIED FISH. CINNAMON. 309

very trifling. We proceeded across the Jhecls* to Chattuc,
and then north again to Pundua, and so to Churra.

Having pretty well exhausted the botany of Churra,
Dr. Thomson and I started on the 13th of September for
the eastern part of the Khasia and J yntea mountains. On
the Kala-panee road,t which we followed, we passed crowds
of market people, laden with dried fish in a half-putrid
state, which scented the air for many yards: they were
chiefly carp, caught and dried at the foot of the hills.
Large parties were bringing down baskets of bird-cherries,
cinnamon-bark, iron, pine planks, fire-wood, and potatoes.
Of these, the bird-cherries (like damsons) are made into an
excellent preserve by the English residents, who also make
capital cherry-brandy of them: the trade in cinnamon Is
of recent introduction, and is much encouraged by the
Inglis family, to whose exertions these people are so greatly
indebted; the cimmamon is the peeled bark of a small
species of Cinmnamomum allied to that of Ceylon, and
though inferior in flavour and mucilaginous (like cassia),
finds a ready market at Calcutta. It has been used
to adulterate the Ceylon cinnamon; and an extensive
fraud was attempted by some Europeans at Calcutta,
who sent boxes of this, with a top layer of the genuine,
to England. The smell of the cinnamon loads was as
fragrant as that of the fish was offensive.

The road from Kala-panee bungalow strikes off north-
easterly, and rounds the head of the deep valley to the
east of Churra; it then crosses the head-waters of the

* The common water-plants of the Jheels are Vallisneria serrata, Damasonium,
2 Myriophylla, 2 Villarsiw, Trapa, blue, white, purple and scarlet water-lilies,
Hydrilla, Utricularia, Limnophila, Azolla, Salvinia, Ceratopteris, and floating grasses.

+ The Pea-violet (Crotalaria occulta) was very common by the road-side, and
smelt deliciously of violets: the English name suggests the appearance of the
flower, for which and for its fragrance it is well worth cultivation.

310 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. | CHap. XXX,

Kala-panee river, still a clear stream, the bed of which is
comparatively superficial : the rocks consist of a little basalt
and much sandstone, striking east by north, and dipping
north by west. The Boga-panee is next reached, flowing in
a shallow valley, about 200 feet below the general level
of the hills, which are grassy and treeless. ‘The river *
is thirty yards across, shallow and turbid; its bed is
eranite, and beyond it scattered stunted pines are met
with; a tree which seems to avoid the sandstone. In the
evening we arrived at Nonkreem, a large village in a broad
marshy valley, where we procured accommodation with
some difficulty, the people bemg by no means civil, and
the Rajah, Sing Manuk, holding himself independent of
the British Government.

Atmospheric denudation and weathering have produced
remarkable effects on the lower part of the Nonkreem
valley, which is blocked up by a pine-crested hill, 200
feet high, entirely formed.of round blocks of granite,
heaped up so as to resemble an old moraine; but like
the Nunklow boulders, these are not arranged as if by
glacial action. The. granite is micaceous, and usually very
soft, decomposing into a coarse reddish sand, that colours
the Boga-panee. ‘To procure the iron-sand, which is
disseminated through it, the natives conduct. water over
the beds of granite sand, and as the lighter particles are
washed away, the remainder is removed to troughs, where
the separation of the ore is completed. The smelting is
very rudely carried on in charcoal fires, blown by enormous
double-action bellows, worked by two persons, who stand
on the machine, raising the flaps with their hands, and ex-
panding them with their feet, as shown in the cut at p. 312.

“ The fall of this river, between this elevation (which may be considered that
of its source) and Chela, is about 5,500 feet.

Sept. 1850. IRON SMELTING. 311

There is neither furnace nor flux used in the reduction.
The fire is kindled on one side of an upright stone (like
the head-stone of a grave), with a small arched hole close
to the ground: near this hole the bellows are suspended ;
anda bamboo tube from each of its compartments, meets
in alarger one, by which the draught is directed under the

©
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o* =a ii

ey oes

NONKREEM VILLAGE.

hole in the stone to the fire. The ore is run into lumps
as large as two fists, with a rugged surface : these lumps
are afterwards cleft nearly in two, to show their purity.
The scenery about Nonkreem village is extremely pic-
turesque, and we procured many good plants on the rocks,
which were covered with the purple-flowered Orchid, Ce/o-
gyne Wallichi. "The country is everywhere intersected

a
312 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXX.

with trenches for iron-washing, and some large marshes
were dammed up for the same purpose: in these we
found some beautiful balsams, Hypericum and Parnas-
sia; also a diminutive water-liy, the flower of which is
no larger than a half-crown; it proves to be the Wymphea
pygmea of China and Siberia—a remarkable fact in the
geographical distribution of plants.

—=-

SE
We

ves

a

Se

——

BELLOWS.

From Nonkreem we proceeded easterly to Pomrang,
leaving Chillong hill on the north, and again crossing the
Boga-panee, beyond which the sandstone appeared (strike

Sept, 1850. POMRANG. BOWRINGIA. 313

north-east and dip north-west 60°); the soil was poor in
the extreme; not an inhabitant or tree was to be seen
throughout the grassy landscape, and hardly a bush, save
an occasional rhododendron, dwarf oak, or Pveris, barely
a few inches high.

_ At Pomrang we took up our quarters in an excellent
empty bungalow, built by Mr. Stainforth (Judge of Silhet),
who kindly allowed us the use of it. Its elevation was
5,143 feet, and it occupied the eastern extremity of a
lofty spur that overhangs the deep fir-clad valley of the
Oongkot, dividing Khasia from Jyntea. The climate of
Pomrang is so much cooler and less rainy than at
Churra, that this place is more eligible for a station ;
but the soil is quite impracticable, there 1s an occasional
scarcity of water, the pasture is wholly unsuited for cattle
or sheep, and the distance from the plains 1s too great.

A beautiful view extends eastwards to the low Jyntea
hills, backed by the blue mountains of Cachar, over the
deep valley in front ; to the northward, a few peaks of the
Himalaya are seen, and westward is Chillong. We staid
here till the 23rd September, and then proceeded south-
eastward to Mooshye. The path descends into the
valley of the Oongkot, passing the village of Pomrang, and
then through woods of pine, Gordonia, and oak, the latter
closely resembling the English, and infested with galls.
The slopes are extensively cultivated with black awnless
unirrigated rice, and poor crops of Covx, protected from the
birds by scarecrows of lines stretched across the fields,
bearing tassels and tufts of fern, shaken by boys. This
fern proved to be avery curious and interesting genus,
which is only known to occur elsewhere at Hong-Kong in
China, and has been called Bowringia, after the eminent
Dr. Bowring.

314 JYNTEA HILLS. CuHap. XXX.

We crossed the river* twice, proceeding south-west to
Mooshye, a village placed on an isolated, flat-topped, and
very steep-sided hill, 4,863 feet above the sea, and perhaps
3,500 above the Oongkot, which winds round its base. A
very steep path led up slate rocks to the top Qvhich was of
sandstone), where there is a stockaded guard-house, once
occupied by British troops, of which we took possession.
A Labiate plant (JZesona Wallichiana) grew on the ascent,
whose bruised leaves smelt as strongly of patchouli, as
do those of the plant producing that perfume, to which it
is closely allied. The Pogostemon Patchouli has been said
to occur in these parts of India, but we never met with it,
and doubt the accuracy of the statement. It is a native of
the Malay peninsula, whence the leaves are imported into
Bengal, and so to Europe.

‘The summit commands a fine view northward of some
Himalayan peaks, and southwards of the broad valley of the
Oongkot, which is level, and bounded by steep and pre-
cipitous hills, with flat tops. On the 25th we left Mooshye
for Amwee in Jyntea, which lies to the south-east. We
descended by steps cut in the sandstone, and fording the
Oongkot, climbed the hills on its east side, along the
grassy tops of which we contmued, at an elevation of 4,000
feet. Marshy flats intersect the hills, to which wild ele-
phants sometimes-ascend, domg much damage to the rice

* Podostemon grew on the stones at the bottom: it is a remarkable water-
plant, resembling a liver-wort in its mode of growth. Several species occur at
different elevations in the Khasia, and appear only in autumn, when they often
carpet the bottom of the streams with green. In spring and summer no traces
of them are seen; and it is difficult to conceive what becomes of the seeds in
the interval, and how these, which are well known, and have no apparent
provision for the purpose, attach themselves to the smooth rocks at. the
bottom of the torrents. All the kinds flower and ripen their seeds
under water; the stamens and pistil being protected by the closed flower
from the wet. This genus does not inhabit the Sikkim rivers, probably owing
to the great changes of temperature to which these are subject.

Sept. 1850. AMWEE BRIDGE. PITCHER-PLANT. 315

crops. We crossed a stream by a bridge formed of one
gigantic block of sandstone, 20 feet long, close to the village,
which is a wretched one, and is considered unhealthy : it
stands on the high road from Jynteapore (at the foot of the
hills to the southward) to Assam: the only road that crosses
the mountains east of that from Churra to Nunklow.
Though so much lower, this country, from the barren-
ness of the soil, is more thinly inhabited than the Khasia.

OLD BRIDGE AT AMWEER,

‘The pitcher-plant (Vepenthes) grows on stony -and
grassy Inlls about Amwee, and crawls along the ground ;
its pitchers seldom contain insects in the wild state, nor
can we suggest any special function for the wonderful
organ it possesses.

About eight miles south of the village is a stream,
crossed by a bridge, half of which is formed of slabs of
stone (of which one is twenty-one feet long, seven broad,
and two feet three and a half inches thick), supported on
piers, and the rest 1s a well turned arch, such as I have not

316 JYNTEA HILLS. Cuap. XXX.

seen elsewhere among the hill tribes of India. It is fast
crumbling away, and is covered with tropical plants, and a
beautiful white-flowered orchis * grew in the mossy crevices
of its stones. :
From Amwee our route lay north-east across the Jyntea
hills to Joowye, the hill-capital of the district. The path
eradually ascended, dipping into valleys scooped out in the
horizontal sandstone down to the basalt; and boulders of -
the same rock were scattered about. Fields of rice
occupy the bottoms of these valleys, m which were placed
gigantic images of men, dressed in rags, and armed with
bows and arrows, to scare away the wild elephants! Slate
rocks succeed the sandstone (strike north-east, dip north-
west), and with them pines and birch appear, clothing
the deep flanks of the Mintadoong valley, which we
crossed. |
The situation of Joowye is extremely beautiful: it occu-
pies the broken wooded slope of a large open flat valley,
dotted with pmes; and consists of an immense number of
low thatched cottages, scattered amongst groves of bamboo,
and fields of plantain, tobacco, yams, sugar-cane, maize,
and rice, surrounded by hedges of bamboo, Colquhounza, and
rythrina. Narrow steep lanes lead amongst these, shaded
with oak, birch, Podocarpus, Camellia, and Aralacee ;
the larger trees being covered with orchids, climbing palms,
Pothos, Scindapsus, pepper, and Guetum ; while masses of
beautiful red and violet balsams grew under every hedge
and rock. ‘The latter was of sandstone, overlying highly
inchned schists, and afforded magnificent blocks for the
natives to rear on end, or make seats of. Some erect stones

* Diplomeris ; Apostasia also grew in this gulley, with a small Arundina, some
beautiful species of Sonerila, and Argostemma. The neighbourhood was very rich
in plants,

Sepr. 1850. JOOWYE. 317

on a hill at the entrance are immensely large, and surround
a clump of fine fig and banyan trees.”

We procured a good house after many delays, for the
people were far from obliging; it was a clean, very long
cottage, with low thatched eaves almost touching the
ground, and was surrounded by a high bamboo paling that
enclosed out-houses built on a well-swept floor of beaten
earth. Within, the woodwork was carved in curious
patterns, and was particularly well fitted. The old lady to
whom it belonged got tired of us before two days were
over, and first tried to smoke us out by a large fire
of green wood at that end of the cottage which she
retained ; and afterwards by inviting guests to a supper,
with whom she kept up a racket all night. Her son,
a tall, sulky fellow, came to receive the usual gratuity
on our departure, which we made large to show we
bore no ill-will: he, however, behaved so scornfully, pre-
tending to despise it, that I had no choice but to
pocket it again; a proceeding which was received with
shouts of laughter, at his expense, from a large crowd of
bystanders.

On the 30th of September we proceeded north-east
from Joowye to Nurtiung, crossing the watershed of
the Jyntea range, which is granitic, and scarcely raised
above the mean level of the hills; it is about 4,500
feet elevation. To the north the descent is at first
rather abrupt for 500 feet, to a considerable stream,
beyond which is the village of Nurtiung. The country
gradually declines hence to the north-east, in grassy hills,

* In some tanks we found Hydropeltis, an American and Australian plant allied
to Nymphea. Mr, Griffith first detected it here, and afterwards in Bhotan, these
being the only known habitats for it in the Old World. It grows with Typha,
Acorus Calamus (sweet flag), Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Sparganiwm, and other
European water-plants.

318 JYNTEA HILLS. CHap. XXX?

which to the east become higher and more wooded: to
the west the Khasia are seen, and several Himalayan
peaks to the north.

‘The ascent to the village from the river is by steps cut im
a narrow cleft of the schist rocks, to a flat, elevated 4,178
feet above the sea: we here procured a cottage, and found
the people remarkably civil. The general appearance is the
same as at Joowye, but there are here extensive and very
unhealthy marshes, whose evil effects we experienced, in
having the misfortune to lose one of our servants by fever.
Kxcept pines, there are few large trees ; but the quantity of
species of perennial woody plants contributing to form the
jungles is quite extraordinary : I enumerated 140, of which
60 were trees or large shrubs above twenty feet high.
One of these was the /amamelis chinensis, a plant
hitherto only known as a native of Chma. This, the
Bowringia, and the little Nymphea, are three out of
many remarkable imstances of our approach to the eastern
Asiatic flora.

From Nurtiung we walked to the Bor-panee river, six-
teen or twenty miles to the north-east (not the river of that
name below Nunklow), returning the same mght ; a most
fatiguing journey in so hot and damp a climate. The path
lay for the greatest part of the way over grassy hills of
mica-schist, with boulders of granite, and afterwards of
syenite, like those of Nunklow. The descent to the river
is through noble woods of spreading oaks,* chesnuts, mag-
nolias, and tall pines: the vegetation is very tropical, and
with the exception of there being no sal, it resembles that
of the dry hills of the Sikkim Terai. The Bor-panee is

* We collected upwards of fifteen kinds of oak and chesnut in these and the
Khasia mountains ; many are magnificent trees, with excellent wood, while others
are inferior as timber.

Ocr, 1850. NURTIUNG MONUMENTS. 319

forty yards broad, and turbid ; its bed, which is of basalt,
is 2,454 feet above the sea: it 1s crossed by a raft pulled
to and fro by canes.

Nurtiung contains a most remarkable collection of those
sepulchral and other monuments, which form so curious a
feature in the scenery of these mountains and in the habits
of their savage population. ‘They are all placed in a fine
grove of trees, occupying a hollow ; where several acres are
covered with gigantic, generally circular, slabs of stone,
from ten to twenty-five feet broad, supported five feet above
the ground upon other blocks. Tor the most part they are
buried in brushwood of nettles and shrubs, but in one
place there is an open area of fifty yards encircled by
them, each with a gigantic headstone behind it. Of the
latter the tallest was nearly thirty feet high, six broad, and
two feet eight inches in thickness, and must have been
sunk at least five feet, and perhaps much more, in the
ground. ‘The flat slabs were generally of slate or horn-
stone; but many of them, and all the larger ones, were of
syenitic granite, split by heat and cold water with great
art. They are erected by dint of sheer brute strength, the
lever being the only aid. Large blocks of syenite were
scattered amongst these wonderful erections.

Splendid trees of Bombaz, fig and banyan, overshadowed
them: the largest banyan had a trunk five feet in dia-
meter, clear of the buttresses, and numerous small trees of
Celtis grew out of it, and an immense flowering tuft of
Vanda cerulea (the rarest and most beautiful of Indian
orchids) flourished on one of its limbs. A small plantain
with austere woolly scarlet fruit, bearmg ripe seeds, was
planted in this sacred grove, where trees of the most
tropical genera grew mixed with the pine, birch, J/yrica,
and Viburnum.

320 JYNTEA HILLS. Cuap, XXX.

The Nurtiung Stonehenge is no doubt in part religious,
as the grove suggests, and also designed for cremation,
the bodies being burnt on the altars. In the Khasia these
upright stones are generally raised simply as memorials of
great events, or of men whose ashes are not necessarily,
though frequently, buried or deposited in hollow stone
sarcophagi near them, and sometimes in an urn placed
inside a sarcophagus, or under horizontal slabs.

The usual arrangement is a row of five, seven, or more

STONES AT NURTIUNG.

erect oblong blocks with round heads (the highest being
placed in the middle), on which are often wooden discs and
cones: more rarely pyramids are built. Broad slabs for
seats are also common by the wayside. Mr. Yule, who
first drew attention to these monuments, mentions one

Oct. 1850.° MONUMENTAL STONES. VANDA CCERULEA. 321

thirty-two feet by fifteen, and two in thickness ; and states
that the sarcophagi (which, however, are rare) formed of
four slabs, resemble a drawing in Bell’s Circassia, and
descriptions in Irby and Mangles’ Travels in Syria. He
adds that many villages derive their names from these
stones, “mau” signifying “‘stone:” thus “ Mausmai’’ is
‘the stone of oath,” because, as his native informant said,
“there was war between Churra and Mausmai, and when
they made peace, they swore to it, and placed a stone
as a witness;’’ forcibly recalling the stone Jacob set up
for a pillar, and other passages in the old Testament.
“Miamioos is “the stone of isalt; eating’ salt. from ia
sword’s point being the Khasia form of oath : “Mauflong ”
s “ the grassy stone,” &c.* Returning from this grove, we
crossed a stream by a single squared block, twenty-eight
feet long, five broad, and two thick, of gray syenitic granite
with large crystals of felspar.

We left Nurtiung on the 4th of October, and walked to
Pomrang, a very long and fatiguing day’s work. The route
descends north-west of the villates and turns due east along
bare grassy hills of mica-schist and slate (strike east and
west, and dip north). Near the village of Lernai oak woods
are passed, m which Vanda coerulea grows in profusion,
waving its panicles of azure flowers in the wind. As this
beautiful orchid is at present attracting great attention,
from its high price, beauty, and difficulty of culture, I shall
point out how totally at variance with its native habits, is
the cultivation thought necessary for itin England.t The

* Noteson the Khasia mountains and people; by Lieutenant H. Yule, Bengal
Engineers. Analogous combinations occur in the south of England and in Brit:
tany, &c., where similar structures are found. Thus maen, man, or men is the
so-called Druidical name for a stone, whence Pen-maen-mawr, for “the hill of the
big stone,” Maen-hayr, for the standing stones of EA cure and Dol-men, “the
table-stone,” for a cromlech.

+ We collected sere men’s loads of this superb plant for the Royal Gardens

VOL. II. Y

322 JYNTEA HILLS. Cuap. XXX.

dry grassy hills which it mbhabits are elevated 3000
to 4000 feet: the trees are small, gnarled, and very
sparingly leafy, so that the Vanda which grows on their
limbs is fully exposed to sun, rain, and wind. There is no
moss or lichen on the branches with the Vanda, whose
roots sprawl over the dry rough bark. The atmosphere is
on the whole humid, and extremely so during the rains ;
but there is no damp heat, or stagnation of the air, and at
the flowermg season the temperature ranges between 60°
and 80°, there is much sunshine, and both air and bark
are dry during the day: in July and August, during the
rains, the temperature is a little higher than above, but
in winter it falls much lower, and hoar-frost forms on the
eround. Now this winter’s cold, summer’s heat, and
autumn’s drought, and above all, this constant free exposure
to fresh air and the winds of heaven, are what of all things
we avoid exposing our orchids to in England. It is
under these conditions, however, that all the finer Indian
Orchidee grow, of which we found Dendrobium Farmeri,
Dathousianum, Devonianum, &c., with Vanda cerulea; whilst
the most beautiful species of Cwlogyne, Cymbidium,
Bolbophyllum, and Cypripedium, mhabit cool climates at
elevations above 4000 feet in Khasia, and as 6 as
6000 to 7000 in Sikkim.

On the following day we turned out our Vanda to dress
the specimens for travelling, and preserve the flowers for
botanical purposes. Of the latter we had 360 panicles,
each composed of from six to twenty-one broad pale-blue

at Kew; but owing to unavoidable accidents and difficulties, few specimens reached
England alive. A gentleman who sent his gardener with us to be shown the
locality, was more successful : he sent one man’s load to England on commission,
and though it arrived in a very poor state, it sold for 300/., the individual plants
fetching prices varying from 3/. to 10/7. Had all arrived alive, they would have
cleared 10007. An active collector, with the facilities I possessed, might easily
clear from 20002. to 30002., in one season, by the sale of Khasia orchids.
*

Oct. 1850. RETURN TO CHURRA. GEOLOGY. 323

tesselated flowers, three and a half to four inches across :
and they formed three piles on the floor of the verandah,
each a yard high :—what would we not have given to have
been able to transport a single panicle to a Chiswick fete !

On the 10th of October we sent twenty-four strong
mountaineers to Churra, laden with the collections of the
previous month; whilst we returned to Nonkreem, and
crossing the shoulder of Chillong, passed through the village
of Moleem in a north-west direction to the Syong bungalow.
From this we again crossed the range to Nunklow and the
Bor-panee, and returned by Moflong and the Kala-panee
to Churra during the latter part of the month.

In November the vegetation above 4000 feet turns
wintry and brown, the weather becomes chilly, and though
the cold is never great, hoar-frost forms at Churra, and
water freezes at Moflong. We prepared to leave as these
signs of winter advanced: we had collected upwards of
2,500 species, and for the last few weeks all our diligence,
and that of our collectors, had failed to be rewarded by a
single novelty. We however procured many species in
fruit, and made a collection of upwards of 300 kinds of
woods, many of very curious structure. As, however, we
projected a trip to Cachar before quitting the neighbourhood,
we retained our collectors, giving orders for them to meet
us at Chattuc, on our way down the Soormah in December,
with their collections, which amounted to 200 men’s loads,
and for the conveyance of which to Calcutta, Mr. Inglis
procured us boats.

Before dismissing the subject of the Khasia mountains,
it will be well to give a shght sketch of their promment
geographical features, in connection with their geology.
The general geological characters of the chain may be
summed up ina few words. ‘The nucleus or axis is of

ye

324 KHASIA MOUNTAINS. Cuap. XXX.

highly inclined stratified metamorphic rocks, through which
the granite has been protruded, and the basalt and syenite
afterwards injected. After extensive denudations of these,
the sandstone, coal, and limestone were successively depo-
sited. These are altered and displaced along the southern
edge of the range, by black amygdaloidal trap, and have in
their turn been extensively denuded ; and it is this last
operation that has sculptured the range, and given the
mountains their present aspect; for the same gneisses,
slates, and basalts in other countries, present rugged peaks,
domes, or cones, and there is nothing in their composition
or arrangement here that explains the tabular or rounded
outline they assume, or the uniform level of the spurs into
which they rise, or the curious steep sides and flat floors of
the valleys which drain them.

All these peculiarities of outline are the result of denu-
dation, of the specific action of which agent we are very igno-
rant. The remarkable difference between the steep cliffs on
the south face of the range, and the rounded outline of
the hills on the northern slopes, may be explaimed on the
supposition that when the Khasia was partially submerged,
the Assam valley was a broad bay or gulf; and that
while the Churra cliffs were exposed to the full sweep of
the ocean, the Nunklow shore was washed by a more
tranquil sea.

The broad flat marshy heads of all the streams in the
central and northern parts of the chain, and the rounded
hills that separate them, mdicate the levelling action of a
tidal sea, acting on a low flat shore ; * whilst the steep flat-

* Since our return to England, we have been much struck with the similarity
in contour of the Essex and Suffolk coasts, and with the fact that the tidal coast
sculpturing of this surface is preserved in the very centre of High Suffolk, twenty

to thirty miles distant from the sea, in rounded outlines and broad flat marshy
valleys.

—— a. Pe

Nov. 1850. GEOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS. 325

floored valleys of the southern watershed may be attributed
to the scouring action of higher tides on a boisterous rocky
coast. These views are confirmed by an examination of
the east shores of the Bay of Bengal, and particularly by a
comparison of the features of the country about Silhet, now
nearly 200 miles distant from the sea, with those of the
Chittagong coast, with which they are identical.

The geological features of the Khasia are in many
respects so similar to those of the Vindhya, Kymore, Behar,
and Rajmahal mountains, that they have been considered
by some observers as an eastern prolongation of that great
chain, from which they are geographically separated by the
delta of the Ganges and Burrampooter. 'The general contour
of the mountains, and of their sandstone cliffs, is the same,
and the association of this rock with coal and lime is a
marked point of similarity; there is, however, this differ-
ence between them, that the coal-shales of Khasia and
limestone of Behar are non-fossiliferous, while the hme of
Khasia and the coal-shales of Behar contain fossils.

The prevalent north-east strike of the gneiss is the same
im both, differmg from the Himalaya, where the stratified
rocks generally strike north-west. The nummulites of the
limestone are the only known means we have of forming
an approximate estimate of the age of the Khasia coal,
which is the most interesting feature in the geology of the
range: these fossils have been examined by MM. Archiac
and Jules Haines,* who have pronounced the species
collected by Dr. Thomson and myself to be the same as
those found in the nummulite rocks of north-west India,

Scinde, and Arabia.

* “Description des Animaux Fossiles des Indes Orientales,” p. 178. These
species are Nummulites scabra, Lamarck, N. obtusa, Sowerby, N. Lucasana,
Deshayes, and N. Beaumonti, Vd Arch. and Haines.

CHAPTER XXXI.

Boat voyage to Silhet—River—Palms—Teelas—Botany—Fish weirs-—Forests of
Cachar—Sandal-wood, &c.—Porpoises—A lligators— Silchar — Tigers — Rice-
crops — Cookies — Munniporees — Hockey — Varnish — Dance — Nagas—
Excursion to Munnipore frontier—Elephant bogged—Bamboos—Cardiopteris
— Climate, &c., of Cachar — Mosquitos — Fall of banks — Silhet — Oaks—
Stylidium—Tree-ferns—Chattuc—M egna—Meteorology—Palms——N oacolly—
Salt-smuggling—Delta of Ganges and Megna—Westward progress of Megna—
Peat—Tide—Waves—Earthquakes—Dangerous navigation—Moonlight scenes
—Mud_ island — Chittagong —Mug tribes—Views—Trees—Churs—Flagstaff
hill— Coffee—Pepper—Tea, &c.—Excursions from Chittagong—Dipterocarpi
or Gurjun oil trees—Earthquake—Birds—Papaw—Bleeding of stems—Poppy
and Sun fields—Seetakoond—Bungalow and hill—Perpetual flame—Falconeria
—Cycas —Climate—Leave for Calcutta— Hattiah island— Plants—Sunder-
bunds — Steamer — Tides —Nipa fruticans—Fishing—Otters—Crocodiles—
Phenix paludosa—Departure from India.

We left Churra on the 17th of November, and taking boats
at Pundua, crossed the Jheels to the Soormah, which we
ascended to Silhet. Thence we contmued our voyage 120
miles up the river in canoes, to Silchar, the capital of the
district of Cachar: the boats were such as I described
at Chattuc, and though it was impossible to sit upright in
them, they were paddled with great swiftness. The river
at Silhet is 200 yards broad; itis muddy, and flows with a
gentle current of two to three miles an hour, between banks
six to twelve feet high. As we glided up its stream, villages
became rarer, and eminences more frequent in the Jheels.
‘he people are a tall, bold, athletic Mahometan race, who
live much on the water, and cultivate rice, sesamum, and

Nov. 1850. SCENERY ON SOORMAH RIVER. 327

radishes, with betel-pepper in thatched enclosures as in
Sikkim: maize and sugar are rarer, bamboos abound, and
four palms (Borassus, Areca, cocoa-nut, and Caryota) are
planted, but there are no date-palms.

The 'l'eelas (or hillocks) are the haunts of wild boars,
tigers, and elephants, but not of the rhinoceros; they are
80 to 200 feet high, of horizontally stratified gravel and
sand, slates, and clay conglomerates, with a_ slag-like
honey-combed sandstone ; they are covered with oaks, figs,
Heretiera, and bamboos, and besides a multitude of common
Bengal plants, there are some which, though generally
considered mountain or cold country genera, here descend
to the level of the sea; such are Kadsura, Rubus,
Camellia, and Sabia; Aerides and Saccolabia are the
common orchids, and rattan-canes and Pandani render the
jungles impenetrable.

A very long sedge (Scleria) grows by the water, and 1s
used for thatching: boatloads of it are collected for the
Calcutta market, for which also were destined many
immense rafts of bamboo, 100 feet long. ‘The people fish
much, using square and triangular drop-nets stretched upon
bamboos, and rude _ basket-work weirs, that retain the
fish as the river falls. Near the villages we saw fragments
of pottery three feet below the surface of the ground,
shewing that the bank, which is higher than the surrounding
country, increases from the annual overflow.

About seventy miles up the river, the mountains on the
north, which are east of Jyntea, rise 4000 feet high in forest-
clad ranges like those of Sikkim. Swamps extend from
the river to their base, and penetrate their valleys, which are
extremely malarious : these forests are frequented by timber-
cutters, who fell jarool (Lagerstremia Regine), a magnificent
tree with red wood, which, though soft, is durable under

328 CACHAR. Cuap. XXXI.

water, and therefore in universal use for boat-building.
The toon is also cut, with red sandal-wood (dAdenan-
thera pavonina) ; also Nageesa,* Mesua ferrea, which
is highly valued for its weight, strength, and dura-
bility: Aguilaria agallocha, the eagle-wood, a tree yielding
uggur oil, is also much sought for its fragrant wood,
which is carried to Silhet and Azmerigunj, where it
is broken up and distilled. Neither teak, sissoo, sal, nor
other Dipterocarpi, are found in these forests.

Porpoises, and both the long and the short-nosed alligator,
ascend the Soormah for 120 miles, being found beyond
Silchar, which place we reached on the 22nd, and were
most hospitably received by Colonel. Lister, the political
agent commanding the Silhet Light Infantry, who was
inspecting the Cookie levy, a corps of hill-natives which had
lately been enrolled. :

The station is a small one, and stands about forty feet
above the river, which however rises half that height in the
rains. Long low spurs of tertiary rocks stretch from the
Tipperah hills for many miles north, through the swampy
Jheels to the river; and there are also hills on the opposite
or north side, but detached from the Cookie hills, as the
lofty blue range twelve miles north of the Soormah is
called. All these mountains swarm with tigers, wild buf-
falos, and boars, which also infest the long grass of the
Jheels. |

The elevation of the house we occupied at Silchar was

* There is much dispute amongst oriental scholars about the word Nageesa;
the Bombay philologists refer it to a species of Garcinia, whilst the pundits on the
Calcutta side of India consider it to be Mesua ferrea. Throughout our travels
in India, we were struck with the undue reliance placed on native names of plants,
and information of all kinds; and the pertinacity with which each linguist
adhered to his own crotchet as to the application of terms to natural objects, and
their pronunciation. It is a very prevalent, but erroneous, impression, that
savage and half-civilised people have an accurate knowledge of objects of natural
history, and a uniform nomenclature for them.

Nov. 1850. SILCHAR. TIGERS. CULTIVATION. 329

116 feet above the sea. The bank it stood on was of clay,
with soft rocks of conglomerate, which often assume the
appearance of a brown sandy slag.

During the first Birmese war, Colonel Lister was sent
with a force up to this remote corner of Bengal, when the
country was an uninhabited jungle, so full of tigers that nota
day passed without one or more of his grass or wood-cutters
being carried off. Now, thousands of acres are cultivated
with rice, and during our stay we did not see a tiger.
The quantity of land brought into cultivation im this
part of Bengal, and indeed throughout the Gangetic
delta, has probably been doubled during the last twenty
years, and speaks volumes for the state of the peasant
under the Indian Company’s sway, as compared with
his former condition. The Silchar rice is of admirable
quality, and much is imported to Silhet, the Jheels
not producing grain enough for the consumption of
the people. Though Silchar grows enough for ten
times its population, there was actually a famine six
weeks before our arrival, the demand from Silhet being
so great.

The villages of Cachar are peopled by Mahometans,
Munniporees, Nagas, and Cookies; the Cacharies themselves
being a poor and peaceful jungle tribe, confined to the
mountains north of the Soormah. The Munniporees* are
emigrants from the kingdom of that name, which lies
beyond the British possessions, and borders on Assam and

* The Munnipore valley has never been explored by any naturalist, its moun-
tains are said to be pine-clad, and to rise 8000 feet above the level of the sea.
The Rajah is much harassed by the Birmese, and isa dependant of the British,
who are in the very frequent dilemma of supporting on the throne a sovereign
opposed by a strong faction of his countrymen, and who has very dubious claims
to his position, During our stay at Silchar, the supposed rightful Rajah was
prevailing over the usurper; a battle had been fought on the hills on the frontier,
and two bodies floated past our bungalow, pierced with arrows.

330 CACHAR. CHap. XXXI.

Birmah. Low ranges of forest-clad mountains at the head
of the Soormah, separate it from Silchar, with which it is
coterminous; the two chief towns being seven marches
apart. ‘To the south-east of Silchar are interminable jungles,
peopled by the Cookies, a wild Indo-Chinese tribe, who live
in a state of constant warfare, and possess the whole hill-
country from this, southward to beyond Chittagong. ‘Two
years ago they invaded and ravaged Cachar, carrying many
of the imhabitants into slavery, and so frightening the
people, that land previously worth six rupees a biggah, is
now reduced to one and a half. Colonel Lister was
sent with a strong party to rescue the captives, and
marched for many days through their country without
disturbmg man or beast; penetrating deep forests of
gigantic trees and tall bamboos, never seemg the sun
above, or aught to the right and left, save an occasional
clearance and a deserted village. ‘The incursion, how-
ever, had its effects, and the better mclined near the
frontier have since come forward, and been enrolled as the
Cookie levy.

The Munnipore emigrants are industrious settlers for a
time, but never remain long in one place: their religion is
Hindoo, and they keep up a considerable trade. with their
own country, whence they import a large breed of buffalos,
ponies, silks, and cotton cloths. dyed with arnotto (Bzza),
and universally used for turbans. ‘They use bamboo
blowing-tubes and arrows for shooting birds, make excel-
lent shields of rhimoceros hide (imported from Assam), and
play at hockey on horseback like the Western Tibetans.
A fine black varnish from the fruit of Holigarna longifolia,
is imported from Munnipore, as is another made from
Sesuvium Anacardium (marking-nut), and a remarkable black
pigment resembling that from J/elanorhea usitatissima,

Nov. 1850. MUNNIPORE DANCES. 331

which is white when fresh, and requires to be kept under
water.*

One fine moonlight night we went to see a Munnipore
dance. A large circular area was thatched with plantain
leaves, growing on their trunks, which were stuck in the
ground ; and round the enclosure was a border neatly
cut from the white leaf-sheaths of the same tree. A
double enclosure of bamboo, similarly ornamented, left an
inner circle for the performers, and an outer for the specta-
tors: the whole was lighted with oil lamps and Chinese
paper lanterns. ‘I'he musicians sat on one side, with cym-
bals, tomtoms, and flutes, and sang choruses.

The performances began by a copper-coloured Cupid
entering and calling the virgins with a flute; these appeared
from a green-room, to the number of thirty or forty, of all
ages and sizes. Hach had her hair dressed in a topknot,
and her head covered with a veil; a scarlet petticoat loaded
with tinsel concealed her naked feet, and over this was a
short red kirtle, and an enormous white shawl was swathed
round the body from the armpits to the waist. A broad
belt passed over the right shoulder and under the left
arm, to which hung gold and silver chains, corals, &c.,
with tinsel and small mirrors sewed on everywhere: the
arms and hands were bare, and decorated with bangles
and rings.

Many of the women were extremely tall, great stature
bemg common amongst the Munniporees. They com-
menced with a prostration to Cupid, around whom they
danced very slowly, with the arms stretched out, and the

* This turns of a beautiful black colour when applied to a surface, owing,
according to Sir D. Brewster, to the fresh varnish consisting of a congeries of
minute organised particles, which disperse the rays of light in all directions; the
organic structure is destroyed when the varnish dries, and the rays of light are
consequently transmitted.

332 CACHAR. Cuap. XXXI.

hands in motion; at each step the free foot was swung
backwards and forwards. Cupid then chose a partner,
and standing in the middle went through the same motions,
a compliment the women acknowledged by curtseying and
whirling round, making a sort of cheese with their petti-
coats, which, however, were too heavy to inflate properly.

The Nagas are another people found on this frontier,
chiefly on the hills to the north: they are a wild, copper-
coloured, uncouth jungle tribe, who have proved troublesome
on the Assam frontier. Their features are more Tartar
than those of the Munniporees, especially amongst the
old men. They bury their dead under the threshold of
their cottages. The men are all but naked, and stick
plumes of hornbills’ feathers im their hair, which is bound
with strips of bamboo: tufts of small feathers are passed
through their ears, and worn as shoulder lappets. A
short blue cotton cloth, with a fringe of tinsel and tufts
of goat’s hair dyed red, is passed over the loins in
front only: they also wear brass armlets, and necklaces
of cowries, coral, amber, ivory, and boar’s teeth. The
women draw a fringed blue cloth tightly across the
breast, and wear a checked or striped petticoat. They
are less ornamented than the men, and are pleasing
looking ; their hair is straight, and cut short over the
eyebrows. |

The Naga dances are very different from those of the
Munniporees ;. being quick, and performed in excellent
time to harmonious music. The figures are regular, like
quadrilles and country-dances : the men hold their knives
erect during the performance, the women extend their arms
only when turning partners, and then their hands are not
given, but the palms are held opposite. The step is a sort of
polka and balancez, very graceful and lively. A bar of music

Nov. 1850. ELEPHANT BOGGED. MUNNIPORE FRONTIER. 333

is always played first, and at the end the spectators applaud
with two short shouts. ‘Their ear for music, and the
nature of their dance, are as Tibetan as their countenances,
and different from those of the Indo-Chinese tribes of the
frontier.

We had the pleasure of meeting Lieutenant Raban at
Silchar, and of making several excursions in the neigh-
bourhood with him; for which Colonel Lister here, as at
Churra, afforded us every facility of elephants and men.
Had we had time, it was our intention to have visited
Munnipore, but we were anxious to proceed to Chittagong.
I however made a three days’ excursion to the frontier,
about thirty miles distant, proceeding along the north
bank of the Soormah. On the way my elephant got
bogged in crossing a deep muddy stream: this is some-
times an alarming position, as should the animal become
terrified, he will seize his rider, or pad, or any other object
(except his driver), to place under his knees to prevent his
sinking. In this instance the driver in great alarm ordered
me off, and I had to flounder out through the black mud.
The elephant remained fast all might, and was released
next morning by men with ropes.

The country continued a grassy level, with marshes and
rice cultivation, to the first range of hills, beyond which
the river is unnavigable; there also a forest commences,
of oaks, figs, and the common trees of east Bengal. ‘The
road hence was a good one, cut by Sepoys across the
dividing ranges, the first of which is not 500 feet high.
On the ascent bamboos abound, of the kind called
Tuldah or Dulloah, which has long very thin-walled
joints ; it attains no great size, but is remarkably grega-
rious. “On the east; side of the range, the road runs
through soft shales and beds of clay, and conglomerates,

334 CACHAR. Cuap. XXXI.

descending to a broad valley covered with gigantic scattered
timber-trees of jarool, acacia, Dzospyros, Urticee, and
Bauhinie, rearmg their enormous trunks above the bamboo
jungle: immense rattan-canes wound through the forest,
and in the gullies were groves of two kinds of tree-fern,
two of Areca, Wallichia palm, screw-pine, and Dracena.
Wild rice grew abundantly in the marshes, with tall
grasses ; and Cardiopteris * covered the trees for upwards
of sixty feet, like hops, with a mass of pale-green foliage,
and dry white glistening seed-vessels. This forest differed
from those of the Silhet and Khasia mountains, especially m
the abundance of bamboo jungle, which is, I believe, the
prevalent feature of the low hills in Birmah, Ava, and
Munnipore ; also in the gigantic size of the rattans, larger
palms, and different forest trees, and in the scanty
undergrowth of herbs and bushes. I only saw, however,
the skirts of the forest; the mountains further east, which
I am told rise several thousand feet in limestone cliffs, are
doubtless richer in herbaceens plants.

The climate of Cachar partakes of that of the Jheels
in its damp equable character: during our stay the weather
was fine, and dense fogs formed in the morning: the
mean maximum was 80°, minimum 58° 4.T

‘The annual rain-fall in 1850 was 211°60 inches, according
to a register kindly given me by Captain Verner. There
are few mosquitos, which is one of the most curious facts
in the geographical distribution of these capricious blood-
suckers ; for the locality is surrounded by swamps, and

* A remarkable plant of unknown affinity; see Brown and Bennett, “ Flora
Javee:” it is found in the Assam valley and Chittagong.

+ The temperature does not rise above 90° in summer, nor sink below 45° or
50° in January: forty-seven comparative observations with Calcutta showed the
mean temperature to be 1° 8 lower at Silchar, and the air damper, the saturation-
point being, at Caleutta 0°3791, at Silchar 0°4379.

Nov. 1850. BOAT SWAMPED. SILHET. 335

they swarm at Silhet, and on the river lower down. Both
on the passage up and down, we were tormented in our
canoes by them for eighty or ninety miles above Silhet,
and thence onwards to Cachar we were free.

On the 30th of November, we were preparing for our
return to Silhet, and our canoes were loading, when we
were surprised by a loud rushing noise, and saw a high
wave coming down the river, swamping every boat that
remained on its banks, whilst most of those that pushed
out mto the stream, escaped with a violent rocking.
It was caused by a shp of the bank three quarters
of a mile up the stream, of no great size, but which
propagated a high wave. ‘This appeared to move on
at about the rate of a mile in three or four minutes,
giving plenty of time for our boatmen to push out from
the land on hearmg the shouts of those first overtaken
by the calamity; but they were too timid, and conse-
quently one of our canoes, full of papers, instruments,
and clothes, was swamped. Happily our dried collections
were not embarked, and the hot sun repaired much of the
damage. |

We left im the evening of the 2nd of December, and
proceeded to Silhet, where we were kindly received by
Mr. Stainforth, the district judge. Silhet, the capital of
the district of the same name, is a large Mahometan town,
occupying a slightly raised part of the Jheels, where
many of the 'T'eelas seem joined together by beds of gravel
and sand. In the rains it is surrounded by water, and
all communication with other parts is by boats: in winter,
Jynteapore and Pundua may be reached by land, crossing
creeks innumerable on the way. Mr. Stainforth’s house,
like those of most of the other Europeans, occupies the
top of one of the Teelas, 150 feet high, and is surrounded

336 SILHET. Cuap. XXXT.

by fine spreading oaks,* Garcinia, and Diospyros trees.
The rock of which the hill is composed, is a slag-like
ochreous sandstone, covered in most places with a shrub-
bery of rose-flowered AZelastoma, and some peculiar
plants.

Broad flat valleys divide the hills, and are beautifully
clothed with a bright green jungle of small palms, and many
kinds of ferns. In sandy places, blue-flowered Burmanmnza,
Hypoxis, and other pretty tropical annuals, expand their
blossoms, with an inconspicuous Stylidium, a _ plant
belonging to a small natural family, whose limits are
so confined to New Holland, that this is almost the
only kind that does not grow in that continent. Where
the ground is swampy, dwarf Pandanus abounds, with the
gigantic nettle, Urtica crenulata (“Mealum-ma” of Sikkim,
seo-189); _

The most interesting botanical ramble about Silhet is
to the tree-fern groves on the path to Jynteapore, following
the bottoms of shallow valleys between the Teelas, and along
clear streams, up whose beds we waded for some miles,
under an arching canopy of tropical shrubs, trees, and
climbers, tall grasses, screw-pines, and Aroidee. In the
narrower parts of the valleys the tree-ferns are numerous
on the slopes, rearing their slender brown trunks forty feet

* Tt is not generally known that oaks are often very tropical plants; not only
abounding at low elevations in the mountains, but descending in abundance to the
level of the sea. Though unknown in Ceylon, the Peninsula of India, tropical
Africa, or South America, they abound in the hot valleys of the Eastern Himalaya,
Kast Bengal, Malay Peninsula, and Indian islands; where perhaps more species
grow than in any other part of the world. Such facts as this disturb our precon-
ceived notions of the geographical distribution of the most familiar tribes of plants,
and throw great doubt on the conclusions which fossil plants are supposed to
indicate,

+ Gelonium, Adelia, Moacurra, Linostoma, Justicia, Trophis, Connarus, Izora,
Congea, Dathousiea, Grewia, Myrsine, Bittneria ; and on the shady exposures
a Calamus, Briedelia, and various ferns.

Dec. 1850. SILHET, ESTABLISHMENT OF. . 337

high, with feathery crowns of foliage, through which the
sun-beams trembled on the broad me foliage of the
tropical herbage below.

Silhet, though hot and damp, is remarkably healthy, and
does not differ materiallyin temperature from Silchar, though
it is more equable and humid.* It derives some interest
from having been first brought mto notice by the en-
terprise of one of the Lindsays of Balcarres, at a time
when the pioneers of commerce in India encountered great
hardships and much personal danger. Mr. Lindsay,
writer in the service of the East India Company, established
a factory at Silhet, and commenced the lime trade with
Calcutta, reaping an enormous fortune himself, and laying
the foundation of that prosperity amongst the people which
has been much advanced by the exertions of the Inglis
family, and has steadily progressed under the protecting
rule of the Indian government.

From Silhet we took large boats to navigate the Bur-
rampooter and Megna, to their embouchure in the Bay of
Bengal at Noacolly, a distance of 250 miles, whence we
were to proceed across the head of the bay to Chittagong,
about 100 miles further. We left on the 7th of December,
and arrived at Chattuc on the 9th, where we met our
Khasia collectors with large loads of plants, and paid
them off. The river was now low, and presented a busy
scene, from the numerous trading boats being confined to
its fewer and deeper channels. Long grasses and sedges

* During our stay of five days the mean maximum temperature was 74°,
minimum 64° 8: that of thirty-two observations compared with Calcutta show
that Silhet is only 1°°7 cooler, though Mr. Stainforth’s house is upwards of 2°
further north, and 150 feet more elevated. A thermometer sunk two feet seven
inches, stood at 73°5. The relative saturation-points were, Calcutta ‘633, Silhet
"821.

+ For an account of the early settlement of Silhet, see “ Lives of the Lindsays,”
by Lord Lindsay.

VOL. Il. y,

338 JHEELS OF EAST BENGAL. Cuap. XXXI.

(Arundo, Saccharum and Scleria), were cut, and stacked
along the water’s edge, in huge brown piles, for export and
thatching. 1

On the 13th December, we entered the broad stream
of the Megna. Rice is cultivated along the mud flats
left by the annual floods, and the banks are lower and
less defined than in the Soormah, and support no long
grasses or bushes. Enormous islets of living water-grasses
(Oplismenus stagninus) and other plants, floated past, and
birds became more numerous, especially martins and egrets.
The sun was hot, but the weather otherwise cool and plea-
sant: the mean temperature was nearly that of Calcutta,
69°°7, but the atmosphere was more humid.*

On the 14th we passed the Dacca river ; below which the
Megna is several miles wide, and there is an appearance of
tide, from masses of purple Salvinia (a floating plant, allied
to ferns), being thrown up on the beach like sea-weed.
Still lower down, the vegetation of the Sunderbunds com-
mences; there is a narrow beach, and behind it a mud
bank several feet high, supporting a luxuriant green
jungle of palms (Borassus and Phenix), mmmense fig-trees,
covered with Calamz, and tall betel-palms, clothed with the
most elegant drapery of Acrostichum scandens, a climbing
fern with pendulous fronds.

‘Towards the embouchure, the banks rise ten feet high,
the river expands into a muddy sea, and a long swell rolls

* The river-water was greenish, and a little cooler (73°°8) than that of the
Soormah (74°°3), which was brown and muddy. The barometer on the Soormah
stood 0028 inch higher than that of Calcutta (on the mean of thirty-eight
observations), whereas on the Megna the pressure was 0:010 higher. As Caleutta
is eighteen feet above the level of the Bay of Bengal, this shows that the Megna
(which has no perceptible current) is at the level of the sea, and that either the
Soormah is upwards of thirty feet above that level, or that the atmospheric
pressure there, and at this season, is less than at Calcutta, which, as Ihave hinted
at p. 259, is probably the case.

Dec. 1850. NOACOLLY. SALT REVENUE. 339

in, to the disquiet of our fresh-water boatmen. Low islands
of sand and mud stretch along the horizon: which,
together with the ships, distorted by extraordinary refrac-
tion, flicker as if seen through smoke. Mud is the all-
prevalent feature ; and though the water is not salt, we do
not observe in these broad deltas that amount of animal
life (birds, fish, alligators, and porpoises), that teems in the
narrow creeks of the western Sunderbunds.

We landed in a canal-like creek at Tuktacolly,* on the
17th, and walked to Noacolly, over a flat of hard mud or
dried silt, covered with turf of Cynodon Dactylon. We
were hospitably received by Dr. Baker, a gentleman who
has resided here for twenty-three years; and who commu-
nicated to us much interesting information respecting the
features of the Gangetic delta.

Noacolly is a station for collecting the revenue and
preventing the manufacture of salt, which, with opium, are
the only monopolies now in the hands of the East India
Company. The salt itself is imported from Arracan, Ceylon,
and even Hurope, and is stored in great wooden buildings
here and elsewhere. The ground being impregnated with
salt, the ilicit manufacture by evaporation is not easily
checked ; but whereas the average number of cases brought
to justice used to be twenty and thirty in a week, they are
now reduced to two or three. It is remarkable, that
though the soil yields such an abundance of this mineral,
the water of the Megna at Noacolly is only brackish, and it
is therefore to repeated inundations and surface evapora-
tions that the salt is due. Fresh water 1s found at a very
few feet depth everywhere, but it is not good.

When it is considered how comparatively narrow. the
sea-board of the delta is, the amount of difference in the

* “Colly ” signifies a muddy creek, such as intersect the delta.
i, De

a

340 GANGETIC DELTA. Cuap. XXXI.

physical features of the several parts, will appear most
extraordinary. I have stated that the difference between
the northern and southern halves of the delta is so great,
that, were all depressed and their contents fossilised, the
geologist who examined each by itself, would hardly recog-
nise the two parts as belonging to one epoch ; and the diffe-
rence between the east and west halves of the lower delta
is equally remarkable.

The total breadth of the delta is 260 miles, from Chitta-
gong to the mouth of the Hoogly, divided longitudinally
by the Megna: all to the west of that river presents a
luxuriant vegetation, while to the east is a bare muddy
expanse, with no trees or shrubs but what are planted.
On the west coast the tides rise twelve or thirteen feet, on
the east, from forty to eighty. On the west, the water is
salt enough for mangroves to grow for fifty miles up the
Hoogly; on the east, the sea coast is too fresh for that
plant for ten miles south of Chittagong. On the west,
fifty inches is the Cuttack fall of ram; on the east, 90
to 120 at Noacolly and Chittagong, and 200 at Arracan.
The east coast is annually visited by earthquakes, which
are rare on the west ; and lastly, the majority of the great ©
trees and shrubs carried down from the Cuttack and
Orissa forests, and deposited on the west coast of the
delta, are not only different in species, but in natural
order, from those that the Fenny and Chittagong rivers
bring down from the jungles.*

We were glad to find at Noacolly that our observations

* The Cuttack forests are composed’ of teak, Sal, Sissoo, ebony, Pentaptera,
Buchanania, and other trees of a dry soil, and that require a dry season alternating
with a wet one. These are unknown in the Chittagong forests, which have Jarool
(Lagerstramia) Mesua, Dipterocarpt, nutmegs, oaks of several kinds, and many

other trees not known in the Cuttack forests, and all typical of a perennially
humid atmosphere.

Dec. 1850. SHIFTING OF COURSE OF MEGNA RIVER. PEAT. 341

on the progression westwards of the Burrampooter (see
p-. 253) were confirmed by the fact that the Megna also is
gradually moving in that direction, leaving much dry
land on the Noacolly side, and forming islands opposite
that coast; whilst it encroaches on the Sunderbunds,
and is cutting away the islands in that direction. This
advance of the fresh waters amongst the Sunderbunds is
destructive to the vegetation of the latter, which requires
salt; and if the Megna continues its slow course west-
wards, the obliteration of thousands of square miles of a
very peculiar flora, and the extinction of many species of
plants and animals that exist nowhere else, may ensue.
In ordinary cases these plants, &c., would take up their
abode on the east coast, as they were driven from the west ;
but such might not be the case in this delta; for the
sweeping tides of the east coast prevent any such vegeta-
tion establishing itself there, and the mud which the eastern
rivers carry down, becomes a caking dry soil, unsuited to
the germination of seeds.

On our arrival at Calcutta in the following rs
Dr. Falconer showed us specimens of very modern peat,
dug out of the banks of the Hoogly a few feet below
the surface of the soil, m which were seeds of the
Luryale ferox :* this plant is not now known to be found
nearer than Dacca (sixty miles north-east, see p. 255), and
indicates a very different state of the surface at Calcutta at
the date of its deposition than that which exists now, and
also shows that the estuary was then much fresher.

The main land of Noacolly is gradually extending
seawards, and has advanced four miles within twenty-

* This peat Dr. Falconer aiic found to contain bones of birds and fish,
seeds of Cucumis Madraspatana and another Cucurbitaceous plant, leaves of

Saccharum Sara and Ficus cordifolia. Specks of some glistening substance were
scattered through the mass, apparently incipient carbonisation of the peat.

-

342 GANGETIC DELTA. Cuap. XXXII.

three years: this seems sufficiently accounted for by the
recession of the Megna. ‘The elevation of the surface of
the land is caused by the overwhelming tides and south-
west hurricanes in May and October: these extend thirty
miles north and south of Chittagong, and carry the waters
of the Megna and Fenny back over the land, m a series
of tremendous waves, that cover islands of many hundred
acres, and roll three miles on to the main land. On
_these occasions, the average earthy deposit of silt, separated
by micaceous sand, is an eighth of an inch for every tide ;
but in October, 1848, these tides covered Sundeep island,
deposited six inches on its level surface, and filled ditches
several feet deep. ‘These deposits become baked by a
tropical sun, and resist to a considerable degree denudation
by rain. Whether any further rise is caused by elevation
from below is doubtful ; there is no direct evidence of it,
though slight earthquakes annually occur; and even when
they have not been-felt, the water of tanks has been seen to
oscillate for three-quarters of an hour without intermission,
from no discernible cause.*

Noacolly is considered a healthy spot, which is not the
case with the Sunderbund stations west of the Megna.
‘The climate is uniformly hot, but the thermometer never
rises above 90°, nor sinks below 45°; at this temperature
hoar-frost will form on straw, and ice on water placed in
porous pans, indicating a powerful radiation.

* The natives are familiar with this phenomenon, of which Dr. Baker remem-
bers two instances, one in the cold season of 1834-5, the other in that of 1830-1.
The earthquakes do not affect any particular month, nor are they accompanied
by any meteorological phenomena. .

+ The winds are north-west and north in the cold season (from November to
March), drawing round to west in the afternoons. North-west winds and heavy
hailstorms are frequent from March to May, when violent gales set in from the
southward, The rains commence in June, with easterly and southerly winds, and
the temperature from 82° to 84°; May and October are the hottest months. The

Dec. 1850. NAVIGATION. TIDAL BORE. 343

We left Noacolly on the 19th for Chittagong ; the state
of the tide obliging us to go on board in the night. The
distance is only 100 miles, but the passage is considered
dangerous at this time (during the spring- tides) and we were
therefore provided with a large vessel and an experienced
crew. ‘The great object in this navigation is to keep afloat
and to make progress towards the top of the tide and during
its flood, and to ground during the ebb in creeks where the
bore (tidal wave) is not violent ; for where the channels are
broad and open, the height and force of this wave rolls
the largest coasting craft over and swamps them.

Our boatmen pushed out at 3 in the morning, and
brought up at 5, in a narrow muddy creek on the island of
Sidhee. The waters retired along channels scooped several
fathoms deep in black mud, leaving our vessel aground six
or seven feet below the top of the bank, and soon after-
wards there was no water to be seen; as far as the eye
could reach, all was a glistening oozy mud, except the
bleak level surfaces of the islands, on which neither
shrub nor tree grew. Soon after 2 p.m. a white line
was seen on the low black horizon, which was the tide-
wave, advancing at the rate of five miles an hour, with
a hollow roar; it bore back the mud that was gradually
slippmg along the gentle slope, and we were afloat an
hour after: at night we grounded again, opposite the
mouth of the Fenny.

By moonlight the scene was oppressively solemn: on all
sides the gurgling waters kept up a peculiar sound that
filled the air with sullen murmurs; the moonbeams slept

rains cease in the end of October (on the 8th of November in 1849, and 12th of
November in 1850, the latest epoch ever remembered) : there is no land or sea
breeze along any part of the coast. During our stay we found the mean tempe-
rature for twelve observations to be precisely that of Calcutta, but the humidity
was more, and the pressure 0°040 lower.

344 GANGETIC DELTA. Cuap. XXXL

upon the slimy surface of the mud, and made the dismal
landscape more ghastly still. Silence followed the ebb,
broken occasionally by the wild whistle of a bird like the
curlew, of which a few wheeled through the air: till the
harsh roar of the bore was heard, to which the sailors
seemed to waken by instinct. ‘The waters then closed in
on every side, and the far end of the reflected moonbeam
was broken into flashing light, that approached and soon
danced beside the boat. |

We much regretted not being able to obtain any more
accurate data than I have given, as to the height of the
tide at the mouth of the Fenny ; but where the ebb some-
times retires twenty miles from high-water mark, it is
obviously impossible to plant any tide-gauge.

On the 21st we were ashore at daylight on the Chitta-
gong coast far north of the station, and were greeted by
the sight of hills on the horizon: we were lying fully
twenty feet below high-water mark, and the tide was out
for several miles to the westward. The bank was covered
with flocks of white geese feeding on short grass, upon ;
what appeared to be detached islets on the surface of the
mud. ‘These islets, which are often an acre in extent, are
composed of stratified mud; they have perpendicular sides
several feet high, and convex surfaces, owing to the tide
washing away the earth from under their sides; and they
were further slipping seawards, along the gently sloping
mud-beach. Few or no shells or seaweed were to be seen,
nor is it possible to imagine a more lifeless sea than these
muddy coasts present.

We were three days and nights on this short voyage,
without losing sight of mud or land. I observed the baro-
meter whenever the boat was on the shore, and found the
inean of six readings (all reduced to the same level) to be

Dec. 1850. CHITTAGONG. SCENERY AROUND. 345

identical with that at Calcutta. These being all taken at
elevations lower than that of the Calcutta observatory, show
either a diminished atmospheric pressure, or that the mean
level of high-water is not the same on the east and west
coasts of the Bay of Bengal: this is quite possible, consi-
dering the widely different direction of the tides and
currents on each, and that the waters may be banked up,
as it were, in the narrow channels of the western Sunder-
bunds. The temperature of the air was the same as at
Calcutta, but the atmosphere was damper. The water was
always a degree warmer than the air.

We arrived at Chittagong on the 23rd of December,
and became the guests of Mr. Sconce, Judge of the district,
and of Mr. Lautour; to both of whom we were greatly
indebted for their hospitality and generous assistance in
every way.

Chittagong is a large town of Mahometans and Mugs, a
Birmese tribe who inhabit many parts of the Malay penin-

sula, and the coast to the northward of it. The town stands
on the north shore of an extensive delta, formed by rivers

from the lofty mountains separating this district from

?

Birma. These mountains are fine objects on the horizon,
rising 4,000 to 8,000 feet; they are forest-clad, and
inhabited by turbulent races, who are coterminous with
the Cookies of the Cachar and Tipperah forests ; if indeed
they be not the same people. The mountains abound with
the splendid timber-trees of the Cachar forests, but like
these are said to want teak, Sal, and Sissoo; they have,
besides many others, magnificent Gurjun trees (Diplero-
carpv), the monarchs of the forests of these coasts.

The natives of Chittagong are excellent shipbuilders and
active traders, and export much rice and timber to Madras
and Calcutta. The town is large and beautifully situated,

346 CHITTAGONG. Cuap, XXXI.

interspersed with trees and tanks; the hills resemble those
of Silhet, and are covered with a similar vegetation: on
these the European houses are built. The climateis very
healthy, which is not remarkable, considering how closely it
approximates in character to that of Silhet and other places
in Eastern Bengal, but very extraordinary, if it be com-
pared with Arracan, only 200 miles further south, which 1s
extremely unhealthy. The prominent difference between
the physical features of Chittagong and Arracan, is the
presence of mangrove swamps at the latter place, for which
the water is too Yel at the former.

The hills about the station are not more than 150 or
200 feet high, and are formed of stratified gravel, sand,
and clay, that often becomes nodular, and is imterstratified
with slag-like iron clay. Fossil wood is found ; and some
of the old buildings about Chittagong contain nummulitic
limestone, probably imported from Silhet or the peninsula
of India, with which countries there is no such trade now.
The views are beautiful, of the blue mountains forty to fifty
miles distant, and the many-armed river, covered with
sails, winding amongst groves of cocoa-nuts, Areca palm,
and yellow rice fields. Good European houses surmount
all the eminences, surrounded by trees of Acacia and
Cesalpinia. In the hollows are native huts amidst vegeta-
tion of every hue, glossy green Garcinie and figs, broad
plantains, feathery Cassia and Acacias, dark Meswa, red-
purple Zerminalia, leafless scarlet-flowered Bombaw, and
grey Casuarina.* Seaward the tide leaves immense flats,
called churs, which stretch for many miles on either side

the offing.

* This, which is almost exclusively an Australian genus, is not indigenous at
Chittagong : to it belongs an extra-Australian species common in the Malay
islands, and found wild as far north as Arracan.

Deo. 1850. FLAG-STAFF HILL. COFFEE. TEA. PEPPER. 347

We accompanied Mr. Sconce to a bungalow which he
has built at the telegraph station at the south head of
the harbour: its situation, on a hill 100 feet above the
sea, is exposed, and at this season the sea-breeze was
invigorating, and even cold, as it blew through the mat-
walls of the bungalow.* ‘To the south, undulating
dunes stretch along the coast, covered with low bushes,
of which a red-flowered d/elastoma is the most pre-
valent,t and is considered a species of /¢ododendron by
by many of the residents! The flats along the beach are
several miles broad, intersected with tidal creeks, and
covered with short grass, while below high-water mark all
is mud, coated with green Conferva. There are no leafy
seaweeds or mangroves, nor any seaside shrub but Dili-
varia ilicifolia. Animal life is extremely rare; and a
Cardium-like shell and small crab are found sparingly.

Coffee has been cultivated at Chittagong with great
success ; it is said to have been introduced by Sir W.
Jones, and Mr. Sconce has a small plantation, from which
his table is well supplied. Both Assam and Chinese teas
flourish, but Chinamen are wanted to cure the leaves.
Black pepper succeeds admirably, as do cinnamon, arrow-
root, and ginger.

Early in January we accompanied Mr. Lautour on an
excursion to the north, following a valley, separated from
the coast by a range of wooded hills, 1,000 feet high. For
several marches the bottom of this valley was broad, flat,
and full of villages. At Sidhee, about twenty-five miles

* The mean temperature of the two days (29th and 30th) we spent at this
bungalow was 66°5, that of Calcutta being 67°°6; the air was damp, and the
barometer 0°144 lower at the flagstaff hill, but it fell and rose with the Calcutta
instrument.

+ Melastoma, jasmine, Calamus, d4igle Marmelos, Adelia, Memecylon, [xora, Linos-

toma, Congea, climbing Cesalpinia, and many other plants; and along their bases
large trees of Amoora, Gaurea, figs, Mesua, and Micromelon.

348 CHITTAGONG. Cuap. XXXI.

from Chittagong, it contracts, and spurs from the hills on
either flank project into the middle: they are 200 to
300 feet high, formed of red clay, and covered with
brushwood. At Kajee-ke-hath, the most northern point
we reached, we were quite amongst these hills, and in an
extremely picturesque country, intersected by long winding
flat valleys, that joi one another: some are full of copse-
wood, while others present the most beautiful park-like
scenery, and a-third class expand into grassy marshes or
lake-beds, with wooded islets rising out of them. The hill-
sides are clothed with low jungle, above which tower
magnificent Gurjun trees (wood-oil). The whole contour of
this country is that of a low bay, whose coast is raised above
the sea, and over which a high tide once swept for ages.
The elevation of Hazari-ke-hath is not 100 feet above the
level of the sea. It is about ten miles west of the mouth
of the Fenny, from which it is separated by hills 1,000 feet
high; its river falls into that at Chittagong, thirty miles
south. Large myrtaceous trees (/7wgenia) are common, and
show a tendency to the Malayan flora, which is further
demonstrated by the abundance of Gurjun (Dipferocarpus
turbinatus). ‘This is the most superb tree we met with in
the Indian forests : we saw several species, but this is the
only common one here; it is conspicuous for its gigantic
size, and for the straightness and graceful form of its tall
unbranched pale grey trunk, and small symmetrical crown:
many individuals were upwards of 200 feet high, and
fifteen in girth. Its leaves are broad, glossy, and beautiful;
the flowers (then falling) are not conspicuous ; the wood is
hard, close-grained, and durable, and a fragrant oil exudes
from the trunk, which is extremely valuable as pitch and
varnish, &c., besides being a good medicme. The natives
procure it by cuttimg transverse holes in the trunk, pomting

Jan. 1851. GURJUN, OR WOOD.OIL TREE, 349

downwards, and lighting fires in them, which causes the
oil to flow.*

On the 8th of January we experienced a sharp earth-
quake, preceded by a dull thumping sound; it lasted about

SW
1 PV =

GURJUN TREE.

twenty seconds, and seemed to come up from the south-
ward ; the water of a tank by which we were seated was

* The other trees of these dry forests are many oaks, Henslowia, Gordonia,
Engelhardtia, Duabanya, Adelia, Byttneria, Bradleia, and large trees of Pongamia,
whose seeds yield a useful oil.

350 CHITTAGONG. CHap. XXXI.

smartly agitated. ° The same shock was felt at Mymen-
sing and at Dacca, 110 miles north-west of this.*

We crossed the dividing ridge of the littoral range on
the 9th, and descended to Seetakoond bungalow, on the
high road from Chittagong to Comilla. The forests at the
foot of the range were very extensive, and swarmed with
large red ants that proved very uritatmg: they build
immense pendulous nests of dead and living leaves at the
ends of the branches of trees, and mat them with a white
web. ‘Tigers, leopards, wild dogs, and boars, are numerous ;
as are snipes, pheasants, peacocks, and jungle-fowl, the
latter waking the morn with their shrill crows; and in
strange association with them, common English woodcock,
is occasionally found.

The trees are of little value, except the Gurjun, and
“Kistooma,’ a species of Bradleia, which was stacked
extensively, being used for building purposes. The papaw +
is abundantly cultivated, and its great gourd-like fruit is
eaten (called ‘‘ Papita’”’ or ‘‘ Chinaman ”’); the flavour is
that ofa bad melon, and a white juice exudes from the
rmd. The fHodgsonia heteroclita (Lrichosanthes of Rox-
burgh), a magnificent Cucurbitaceous climber, grows in
these forests ; it is the same species as the Sikkim one (see
p- 7). The long stem bleeds copiously when cut, and like
almost all woody climbers, is full of large vessels; the
Juice does not, however, exude from these great tubes,
which hold air, but from the close woody fibres. A
climbing Apocyneous plant grows in these forests, the

* Earthquakes are extremely common, and sometimes violent, at Chittagong,
and doubtless belong to the volcanic forces of the Malayan peninsula.

+ The Papaw tree is said to have the curious property of rendering tough meat
tender, when hung under its leaves, or touched with the juice; this hastening the
process of decay. With this fact, well-known in the West Indies, I never found
a person in the East acquainted.

JAN. 1851. BLEEDING STEMS OF CLIMBING PLANTS. 351

milk of which flows in a continuous stream, resembling
caoutchoue (it is probably the Urceola elastica, which
yields Indian-rubber).

The subject of bleeding is involved in great obscurity,
and the systematic examination of the motions im the
juices of tropical climbers by resident observers, offers a
fertile field to the naturalist. I have often remarked
that if a climbing stem, in which the circulation 1s
vigorous, be cut across, it bleeds freely from both ends,
and most copiously from the lower, if it be turned down-
wards; but that if a truncheon be severed, there will be
no flow from either of its extremities. This is the case
with all the Indian watery-juiced climbers, at whatever
season they may be cut. When, however, the circulation
in the plant is feeble, neither end of a simple cut will
bleed much, but if a truncheon be taken from it, both the
extremities will.

The ascent of the hills, which are densely wooded,
was along spurs, and over knolls of clay ; the rocks were
sandy and slaty (dip north-east 60°). The road was good,
but always through bamboo jungle, and it wound amongst
the low spurs, so that there was no defined crest or
top of the pass, which is about 800 feet high. There
were no tall palms, tree-ferns, or plantams, no //ymeno-
phylla or Lycopodia, and altogether the forest was smaller
and poorer in plants than we had expected. The only
palms (except a few rattans) were two kinds of Wallichia.

From the summit we obtained a very extensive and
singular view. At our feet was a broad, low, orassy,
alluvial plain, intersected by creeks, bounding a_ black
expanse of mud which (the tide being out) appeared to
stretch almost continuously to Sundeep Island, thirty miles
distant ; while beyond, the blue hills of Tipperah rose on

352 CHITTAGONG. Cuap. XXXI.

the north-west horizon. The rocks yielded a dry poor soil,
on which grew dwarf Phen and cycas-palm (Cycas
circinalis or pectinata).

Descending, we rode several wales along an excellent
road, that runs to Tipperah, and stopped at the bungalow
of Seetakoond, twenty-five miles north of Chittagong. The
west flank of the range which we had crossed is much
steeper than the east, often precipitous, and presents the
appearance of a sea-worn cliff towards the Bay of Bengal.
Near Seetakoond (which is on the plain) a hill on the range,
bearing the same name, rises 1,136 feet high, and being
damper and more luxuriantly wooded, we were anxious to
explore it, and therefore spent some days at the bungalow.
Fields of poppy and sun (Crotalaria juncea), formed most
beautiful crops; the latter grows from four to six feet
high, and bears masses of laburnum-lke flowers, while the
poppy fields resembled a carpet of dark-green velvet,
sprinkled with white stars; or, as I have elsewhere
remarked, a green lake studded with water-lilies.

The road to the top of Seetakoond leads along a most
beautiful valley, and then winds up a cliff that is im many
places almost precipitous, the ascent being partly by steps
cut in the rock, of which there are 560. The mountain is
very sacred, and there is a large Brahmin temple on its
flank ; and near the base a perpetual flame bursts out of
the rock. This we were anxious to examine, and were
extremely disappointed to find it a small vertical hole in a
slaty rock, with a lateral one below for a draught, and that
it is daily supplied by pious pilgrims and Brahmins with
such enormous quantities of ghee (liquid butter), that it
is to all intents and purposes an artificial lamp ; no trace
of natural phenomena being discoverable.

On the dry but wooded west face of the mountain,

TX1Td

TH puo OPEV S

HEOL 1294 opreuregy her yy UO ip

w
>
SN)

JAN. 1851. SETAKOOND HILL. LEAVE CHITTAGONG.

grows Lalconeria, a curious Euphorbiaceous tree, with an
acrid milky juice that affects the eyes when the wood is
cut. Beautiful Cycas palms are also common, with 7ermz-
nalia, Bignonia, Sterculia, dwarf Phenix palm, and Gurjun
trees. The east slope of the mountain is damper, and
much more densely wooded; we there found two wild
species of nutmeg trees, whose wood is full of a brown
acrid oil, seven palms, tree-ferns, and many other kinds of
ferns, several kinds of oak, Dracena, and figs. The top
is 1,136 feet above the sea, and commands an extensive
view to all points of the compass ; but the forests, in which
the ashy bark of the Gurjun trees is conspicuous, and the
beautiful valley on the west, are the only attractive
features.

The weather on the east side of the range differs at this
season remarkably from that on the west, where the vicinity
of the sea keeps the atmosphere more humid and warm,
and at the same time prevents the formation of the dense
fogs that hang over the valleys to the eastward every
morning at sunrise. We found the mean temperature at
the bungalow, from January 9th till the 13th, to be 70° 2.

We embarked again at Chittagong on the 16th of
January, at 10 p.m., for Calcutta, im a very large vessel,
rowed by twelve men: we made wretchedly slow progress,
for the reasons mentioned above (p. 343), being for four
days within sight of Chittagong! On the 20th we only
reached Sidhee, and thence made a stretch to Hattiah, an
island which may be said to be moving bodily to the
westward, the Megna annually cuttmg many acres from
the east side, and the tide-wave depositing mud on the
west. The surface is flat, and raised four feet above mean
high-water level ; the tide rises about 14 feet up the bank,
and then retires for miles; the total rise and fall is,

VON, IT, AA

354 GANGETIC DELTA. Cuap, XXXI.

however, much less here than in the Fenny, higher up the
culf. The turf is composed of Cynodon and a Fimbristylis ;
and the earth being impregnated with salt, supports
different kinds of Chenopodium. Two kinds of tamarisk,
and a thorny Cassia and Lvecaria, are the only shrubs on
the eastern islands; on the central ones a few dwarf
mangroves appear, with the holly-leaved Dilivaria, dwart
screw-pine (Pandanus), a shrub of Composite, and a
curious fern, a variety of Acrostichum aureum. ‘Towards
the northern end of Hattiah, Talipot, cocoa-nut and date-
palms appear.

On the 22nd we entered the Sunderbunds, rowing
amongst narrow channels, where the tide rises but a few
feet. The banks were covered with a luxuriant vegetation,
chiefly of small trees, above which rose stately palms.
On the 25th, we were overtaken by a steamer from Assam,
a novel sight to us, and avery strange one in these creeks,
which in some places seemed hardly broad enough for it to
pass through. We jumped on board in haste, leaving our
boat and luggage to follow us. She had left Dacca two
days before, and this being the dry season, the route to
Calcutta, which is but sixty miles in a straight line,
involved a détour of three hundred.

From the masts of the steamer we obtained an excellent
coup-d cil of the Sunderbunds; its swamps clothed with
verdure, and intersected by innumerable mosculating chan-
nels, with banks a foot or so high. The amount of tide,
which never exceeds ten feet, diminishes in proceeding
westwards into the heart of these swamps, and the epoch,
direction, and duration of the ebb and flow vary so much
in every canal, that at times, after stemming a powerful
current, we found ourselves, without materially changing
our course, suddenly swept along with a favouring stream.

JAN. 1851. SUNDERBUNDS. NIPA. PHCNIX. 355

This 1s owing to the complex ramifications of the creeks,
the flow of whose waters is materially influenced by the
most trifling accidents of direction.

Receding from the Megna, the water became salter, and
Nipa fruticans appeared, throwing up pale yellow-green
tufts of feathery leaves, from a short thick creeping stem,
and bearing at the base of the leaves its great head of nuts,
of which millions were floating on the waters, and vegetat-
ing in the mud. Marks of tigers were very frequent, and
the footprints of deer, wild boars, and enormous croco-
diles: these reptiles were extremely common, and glided
down the mud banks on the approach of the steamer,
leaving between the footmarks a deep groove im the mud
made by their tail. The Phenix paludosa, a dwarf slender-
stemmed date-palm, from six to eight feet high, is the all-
prevalent feature, covermg the whole landscape with a
carpet of feathery fronds of the liveliest green. The
Species is eminently gregarious, more so than any other
Indian palm, and presents so dense a mass of foliage,
that when seen from above, the stems are wholly hidden.*

The water is very turbid, and only ten to twenty feet
deep, which, we were assured by the captam, was not
increased during the rains: it is loaded with vegetable
matter, but the banks are always muddy, and we never
saw any peat. Dense fogs prevented our progress in the
morning, and we always anchored at dusk. We did
not see a village or house in the heart of the Sun-
derbunds (though such do occur), but we saw canoes, with
fishermen, who use the tame otter in fishing; and the
banks were covered with piles of firewood, stacked for the

* Sonneratia, Heritiera littoralis, and Careya, form small gnarled trees on the
banks, with deep shining green-leaved species of Carallia, Rhizophora, and other
Mangroves. Occasionally the gigantic reed-mace (Typha elephantina) is seen, and
tufts of tall reeds (Arundo),

AAZ

356 ARRIVAL IN ENGLAND. Cuap. XXXI.

Calcutta market. As we approached the Hoogly, the
water became very salt and clear; the Nipa fruits were
still most abundant, floating out to sea, but no more of
the plant itself was seen. As the channels became broader,
sand-flats appeared, with old salt factories, and clumps of
planted Casuarina.

On the 28th of January we passed Saugor island, and
entered the Hoogly, steamed past Diamond Harbour, and
landed at the Botanic Garden Ghat, where we received a
hearty welcome from Dr. Falconer. Ten days later we
bade farewell to India, reaching England on the 25th of
March, 1851.

meee ND:

—_——__ ~—--

A.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN BEHAR, AND IN THE VALLEYS
OF THE SOANE AND GANGES.

Most of the instruments which I employed were constructed by
Mr. Newman, and with considerable care: they were in general
accurate, and always extremely well guarded, and put up in the most
portable form, and that least lkely to mcur damage; they were
further frequently carefully compared by myself. These are points
to which too little attention is paid by makers and by travellers in
selecting instruments and their cases. This remark applies particu-
larly to portable barometers, of which I had five at various times.
Although there are obvious defects in the system of adjustment, and
in the method of obtaiming the temperature of the mercury, I found
that these instruments invariably worked well, and were less liable
to derangement and fracture than any I ever used; the best proof
I can give of this is that I preserved three uninjured during nearly
all my excursions, left two in India, and brought a third home myself
that had accompanied me almost throughout my journey.

In very dry climates these and all other barometers are apt to leak,
from the contraction of the box-wood plug through which the tube
passes into the cistern. This must, in portable barometers, in very
dry weather, be kept moist with a sponge. <A small iron bottle of
pure mercury to supply leakage should be supplied with every baro-
meter, as also a turnscrew. The vernier plate and scale should be
screwed, not soldered on the metal sheath, as if an escape occurs in
the barometer-case the solder is acted upon at once. A table of

358 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. APPENDIX A.

corrections for capacity and capillarity should accompany every
instrument, and simple directions, &c., in cases of triflmg derange-
ment, and alteration of neutral point.

The observations for temperature were taken with every precaution
to avoid radiation, and the thermometers were constantly compared
with a standard, and the errors allowed for. The maximum ther-
mometer with a steel index, I found to be extremely lable to
derangement and very difficult to re-adjust. Negretti’s maximum
thermometer was not known to me during my journey. The spirit
minimum thermometers again, are easily set to rights when out of
order, but in every one (of six or seven) which I took to India,
by several makers, the zero point receded, the error in some
increasing annually, even to—6° in two years. This seems due toa
vaporisation of the spirit within the tube. I have seen a thermo-
meter of this description in India, of which the spirit seemed to
have retired wholly into the bulb, and which I was assured had
never been injured. In wet-bulb observations, distilled water or
rain, or snow water was used, but I never found the result to differ
from that obtained by any running fresh water, except such as was
polluted to the taste and eye.

The hours of observation selected were at first sunrise, 9 A. M.,
3 P.M., sunset, and 9 Pp. M., according to the instructions issued to
the Antarctic expedition by the Royal Society. In Sikkim, however,
I generally adopted the hours appointed at the Surveyor General’s
office, Calcutta; viz., sunrise, 9h. 50m. a.M., noon, 2h. 40m. P.M.,
4. p.M., and sunset, to which I added a 10 P.M. observation, besides
many at termediate hours as often as possible. Of these the 9h.
50m. A.M. and 4 p.m. have been experimentally proved to be those of
the maximum and minimum of atmospheric pressure at the level of the
sea in India, and I did not find any great or marked deviation from
this at any height to which I attained, though at 15,000 or 16,000
feet the morning maximum may occur rather earlier.

The observations for nocturnal (terrestrial) radiation were made
by freely suspending thermometers with naked bulbs, or by laying
them on white cotton, wool, or flannel; also by means of a ther-
mometer placed in the focus of a silvered parabolic reflector. I
did not find that the reflector possessed any decided advantage over

APPENDIX A. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 359

the white cotton: the means of a number of observations taken by
each approximated closely, but the difference between individual
observations often amounted to 2°.

Observations again indicative of the radiation from grass, whether
dewed or dry, are not strictly comparable; not only does the power
of radiation vary with the species, but much more with the luxu-
riance and length of the blades, with the situation, whether on a
plane surface or raised, and with the subjacent soil. Of the great
effect of the soil I had frequent instances ; similar tufts of the same
species of grass radiating more powerfully on the dry sandy bed of
the Soane, than on the alluvium on its banks; the exposure being
equal in both instances. Experiments for the surface-temperature of
the soil itself, are least satisfactory of any :—adjoining localities being
no less affected by the nature, than by the state of disintegration
of the surface, and by the amount of vegetation in proximity to the
instrument.

The power of the sun’s rays in India is so considerable, and
protracted through so long a period of the day, that I did not find
the temperature of springs, or of running water, even of large deep
rivers, so constant as was to be expected.

The temperature of the earth was taken by sinking a brass tube a
yard long in the soil.

A thermometer with the bulb blackened affords the only means
the traveller can generally compass, of measuring the power of the
sun’s rays. It should be screened or put in a blackened box, or laid
on black wool. |

A good Photometer beimg still a desideratum, I had recourse to
the old wedge of coloured glass, of an uniform neutral tint, the
distance between whose extremes, or between transparency and
total opacity, was one foot. A moveable arm carrying a brass plate
with a slit and a vernier, enables the observer to read off at the
vanishing point of the sun’s limb, to one five-hundredth of an inch.
I generally took the mean of five readings as one, and the mean of
five of these again I regarded as one observation; but I place little
dependence upon the results. The causes of error are quite obvious.
As far as the effects of the sun’s light on vegetation are concerned,
1 am inclined to think that it is of more importance to register

360 METEOROLOGY OF BEHAR HILLS, &ce. APPENDIX A,

the number of hours or rather of parts of each hour, that the sun
shines, and its clearness during the time. To secure valuable results
this should be done repeatedly, and the strength of the rays by the
black-bulb thermometer registered at each hour. The few actino-
meter observations will be found in another part of the Appendix.

The dew-point has been calculated from the wet-bulb, by
Dr. Apjohn’s formula, or, where the depression of the barometer
is considerable, by that as modified by Colonel Boileau.* The
saturation-point was obtained by dividing the tension at the
dew-point by that at the ordinary temperature, and the weight of
vapour, by Daniell’s formula.

The following summary of meteorological observations is alluded

to at vol. 1., p. 15.

1.— Table-land of Birbhoom and Behar, from Taldanga to Dunwah.
Average elevation 1,135 feet.

It is evident from these observations, that compared with Calcutta,
the dryness of the atmosphere is the most remarkable feature of this
table-land, the temperature not being high; and to this, combined with
the sterility of the soil over a great part of the surface, must be
attributed the want of a vigorous vegetation. Though so favourably
exposed to the influence of nocturnal radiation, the amount of the
latter is small. The maximum depression of a thermometer laid on
grass never exceeded 10°, and averaged 7°; whereas the average
depression of the dew-point at the same hour amounted to 25° in
the morning. Of course no dew was deposited even in the clearest

star-light night.

* Journal of Asiatic Society, No. 147 (1844), p. 135.

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362 METEOROLOGY OF BEHAR HILLS, &e. APPENDIX A.

SoLAR RADIATION.

MORNING. AFTERNOON.
Hour. | te | Baek | pit. | phot. || Hour.| Th. | Black] pie: | Phot
- | Bulb. ait - | Bulb.
94 A.M. 77-0 130 | 53°0 Soe 34P.M.| 81°7 | 109 | 2738 id
10 + .) 69°5:| 124 |) 54:5 7p LO S209 hare ay peer 120 | 39:5 | 10°320
NO xara ate 37 | “600 ae Fen | Soke 127 | 45:5 | 10°330
Qe | PMO OTD 94) 30°57] 10230 eh. | 727 105 | 32:3 | 10°230
Oy ne O12 106 | 44:8 ae 3. nail Dl aee 110 | 375 | 10390
0 es Sorell) 114 | 47:0 | 10°350 os a 7" mas
Mean . | 69:2 |117°5 | 48-1 | 10°300 one 778 |114:2 | 364 | 10°318

NocTuRNAL RaDIATION.

| SUNRISE. NINE P.M.
ae were J qo ies
gle -\ 2 | eg le) 2
S : oo ee 2 eer ee
3 oe =i eae 3 SSiee| HH See
f | ad | Aa | 53 || 8 | 4 | as | Bs
Qy rs a 2 i= [on q A 2 w
a. | 8 4 fs || g | 8 . Be
= = = 7, a = = Z
Exposed Th ...... 511} 40 | 90 | 6 |l-564| 53 | 7b | 7
On Bartle. sn 48:3. | 25 | 3:7 3 || 538] 49 | 55 6
On Grass’ ....%..-.. 466 6°2 9-0 5 54°4 TOI HOw %

On one occasion, and that at night, the dew-pomt was as low
as 11° 5, with a temperature of 66°, a depression rarely equalled at
so low a temperature: this phenomenon was transient, and caused
by the passage of a current of air loaded with dust, whose particles
possibly absorbed the atmospheric humidity. rom a comparison of
the night and morning observations of thermometers laid on grass,
the earth, and freely exposed, it appears that the grass parts with
its heat much more rapidly than the earth, but that still the effect of
radiation is slight, lowering its temperature but 2° below that of the
freely exposed thermometer.

As compared with the climate of Calcutta, these hills present
a remarkable contrast, considering their proximity im position and
moderate elevation.

The difference of temperature between Calcutta and Birbhoom,

APPENDIX A. METEOROLOGY OF SOANE VALLEY. 363

deduced from the sunrise, morning and afternoon observations,
amounts to 4°, which, if the mean height of the hills where crossed
by the road, be called 1135 feet, will be equal to a fall of one
degree for every 288 feet.

In the dampness of its atmosphere, Calcutta contrasts very
remarkably with these hills; the dew-point on the Hoogly
averaging 51°°3, and on these hills 38°, the corresponding saturation-
points being 0°559 and 0°380.

The difference between sunrise, forenoon and afternoon dew-points
at Calcutta and on the hills, is 13°°6 at each observation; but the
atmosphere at Calcutta is relatively drier in the afternoon than
that of the hills; the difference between the Calcutta sunrise
and afternoon saturation-point being 0-449, and that between
the hill sunrise and afternoon, 0:190. The march of the dew-
pomt is thus the same in both instances, but owing to the
much higher temperature of Calcutta, and the greatly increased
tension of the vapour there, the relative humidity varies greatly
during the day.

In other words, the atmosphere of Calcutta is loaded with moisture
in the early morning of this season, and is relatively dry in the
afternoon: in the hills again, it is scarcely more humid at sunrise
than at 3 p.m. That this dryness of the hills is partly due to
elevation, appears from the disproportionately moister state of the
atmosphere below the Dunwah pass.

I1.— Abstract of the Meteorological observations taken in the Soane
Valley (mean elevation 422 feet).

The difference in mean temperature (partly owing to the sun’s
more northerly declination) amounts to 2°5 of increase in the Soane
valley, above that of the hills. The range of the thermometer from
day to day was considerably greater on the hills (though fewer obser-
vations were there recorded) : it amounted to 17°2 on the hills, and
only 12°8 in the valley. The range from the maximum to the mini-
mum of each day amounts to the same in both, above 20°. The
extreme variations in temperature too coincide within 1°4.

The hygrometric state of the atmosphere of the valley differs most

a

364 METEOROLOGY OF SOANE VALLEY. APPENDIX A,

decidedly from that of the hills. In the valley dew is constantly
formed, which is owing to the amount of moisture in the air, for
nocturnal radiation is more powerful on the hills. The sunrise and
9 p.m. observations in the valley, give a mean depression of the dew-
point below the air of 12°°3, and those at the upper level of 21°-2,
with no dew on the hills and a copious deposit in the valley. The
corresponding state of the atmosphere as to saturation is 0°480 on
the hills and 0°626 in the valley.

The vegetation of the Soane valley is exposed to a less extreme
temperature than that of the hills; the difference between solar
and nocturnal radiation amounting here only to 80°5, and on the
hills to 96°°5. There is no material difference in the power of the
sun’s rays at the upper and lower levels, as expressed by the black-
bulb thermometer, the average rise of which above one placed in the
shade, amounted to 48° in both cases, and the maximum occurred
about 11 a.m. The decrease of the power of the sun’s rays in the
afternoon is much the most rapid in the valley, comciding with a
greater reduction of the elasticity of vapour and of humidity in the
atmosphere.

The photometer observations show a greater degree of sun’s light
on the hills than below, but there is not at either station a decided
relation between the indications of this instrument and the black-
bulb thermometer. From observations taken elsewhere, I am inclined
to attribute the excess of solar light on the hills to their elevation ;
for at a far greater elevation I have met with much stronger solar
light, in a very damp atmosphere, than I ever experienced in the
drier plains of India. In a damp climate the greatest intensity may
be expected in the forenoon, when the vapour is diffused near the
earth’s surface; in the afternoon the lower strata of atmosphere are
drier, but the vapour is condensed into clouds aloft which more
effectually obstruct the sun’s rays. On the Birbhoom and Behar
hills, where the amount of vapour is so small that the afternoon
is but little drier than the forenoon, there is little difference
between the solar light at each time. In the Soane valley again,
where a great deal of humidity is removed from the earth’s
surface and suspended aloft, the obstruction of the sun’s lght is

very marked.

SOANE VALLEY,

METEOROLOGY.

APPENDIX A.

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METEOROLOGY. SOANE VALLEY.

APPENDIX A.

NocturNnAL RADIATION. 3
SUNRISE, NINE P.M.
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| On Earth ......... 54:0 37 9°0 9 60°77 | ae 10°5 10
On Grass: gocsence: 515 6:2 (es 8 564 8:1 13°5 10 |
Sonar RADIATION.
MORNING. AFTERNOON.
Time. | Temp. | P22 | pi | Phot.
9PM 70:0 125.) 5:0 | 10:300
1 Pa 81:0 129.) 88:04) 20-280) |liS" Bees
AOL ee (aes 126) 54:5 DLOsS00 RS oan.
oO eae eee 72:0 LG 40220 Sika
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nt? Seer 78:0 128 | 50:0
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SUNRISE. NINE P.M.
Air Calo- - Arge- : - i a
Memin! tropie: Diff. one: Diff. Temp. ee Diff. mae Diff.
59 ag Ai eee 57°0 25 67°5 53°0 | 14:0 |
55 49°5 | 55 47:0 8-0 67:0 Ore te 56°0) |, eG
| | 643 | 58:5] 58 | 570) 73 |
i |

367

METEOROLOGY. SOANE VALLEY.

APPENDIX A.

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368 METEOROLOGY. SOANE VALLEY. APPENDIX Ac

NoctuRNAL RADIATION.

SUNRISE. NINE P.M.

o 8 E 5 Ba ) 5 5 2 a

5 = ie % § 3 be ; “a
| 3 4 4 _ 3 eH ax ae
| 3 Ad | Ad | Be S| Be
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SotaR RapIATION.

MORNING, AFTERNOON. |
Time. | Temp. | Blac | pitt | Phot. Time. | Temp. | B&C* pit, | Phot.
[yam 8551 129] 445| 2. | 3pm. | 855 | 116] 305
roe) 8020-1 132) | 43-0 WW ee 92°5 | 128 | 35:5
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NoctuRNAL RADIATION FROM PLANTS.
SUNRISE, | NINE P.M.
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| |

APPENDIX A. METEOROLOGY OF SOANE. 369

The upper course of the Soane being in some places confined,
and exposed to furious gusts from the gullies of the Kymore hills,
and at others expanding into a broad and flat valley, presents
many fluctuations of temperature. The mean temperature is much
above that of the lower parts of the same valley (below Tura), the
excess amounting to 5°4. The nights and mornings are cooler,
by 1°2, the days hotter by 10°. There were also 10° increase of
range during the thirteen days spent there; and the mean range
from day to day was nearly as great as it was on the hills of
Bengal.

There being much exposed rock, and the valley being swept by
violent dust-storms, the atmosphere is drier, the mean saturation-
point being 454, whereas in the lower part of the Soane’s course it
was ‘516.

A remarkable uniformity prevails in the depression of thermo-
meters exposed to nocturnal radiation, whether laid on the earth,
grass, or freely exposed; both the mean and maximum indication
coincide’ very nearly with those of the lower Soane valley and of the
hills. The temperature of tufts of green barley laid on the ground
is one degree higher than that of short grass; Argemone and
Calotropis leaves maintain a still warmer temperature; from the
previous experiments the Argemone appeared to be considerably the
cooler, which I was inclined to attribute to the smoother and
more shining surface of its leaf, but from these there would seem
to be no sensible difference between the radiating powers of the

two plants.

VOL, II. BB

APPENDIX A,

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APPENDIX A. METEOROLOGY OF KYMORE HILLS. 371

NoctuRNAL RADIATION,

SUN-RISE. NINE P.M.

we g 9 F ¢
pecrenlee = Oat yt go) BU oo Ba Sig
igo ios | fe 3 AZ | Ad] SE
qf | x as i| g | § i Bs

B S| S| 7, s s! S Z,
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On Earth ......... 560 | 15 | 1:5 1 6251 55 | 5S 1
On Grass ......... 54-7 | 82 | 85 2 GlOn) S22 10 110 2

| ° | | : a

The rapid drying of the lower strata of the atmosphere during
the day, as indicated by the great decrease in the tension of the
vapour from 9 a.m. to 3 P.M.,is the effect of the great violence of the
north-west winds.

From the few days’ observations taken on the Kymore hills, the
temperature of their flat tops appeared 5° higher than that of the
Soane valley, which is 500 feet below their mean level. I can
account for this anomaly only on the supposition that the thick bed
of alluvium, freely exposed to the sun (not clothed with jungle),
absorbs the sun’s rays and parts with its heat slowly. This is
indicated by the increase of temperature being due to the night and
morning observations, which are 3°.1 and 8°.5 higher here than
below, whilst the 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. temperatures are half a degree
lower.

The variations of temperature too are all much less in amount, as
are those of the state of the atmosphere as to moisture, though the
climate is rather damper.

On the subject of terrestrial radiation the paucity of the observa-
tions precludes my dwelling. Between 9 p.m. and sunrise the
following morning I found the earth to have lost but 6°.5 of heat,
whereas a mean of nine observations at the same hours in the valley
below indicated a loss of 12°.

Though the mean temperature deduced from the few days I spent
on this part of the Kymore is so much above that of the upper Soane

valley, which it bounds, I do not suppose that the whole hilly range
BB 2

372 METEOROLOGY. MIRZAPORE. APPENDIX A.

partakes of this increase. When the alluvium does not cover the
rock, as at Rotas and many other places, especially along the
southern and eastern ridges of the ghats, the nights are considerably
cooler than on the banks of the Soane; and at Rotas itself, which
rises almost perpendicularly from the river, and is exposed to no such
radiation of heat from a heated soil as Shahgunj is, 1 found the
temperature considerably below that of Akbarpore on the Soane,
which however is much sheltered by an amphitheatre of rocks.

V.—Muirzapore on the Ganges.

During the few days spent at Mirzapore, I was surprised to find
the temperature of the day cooler by nearly 4° than that of the hills
above, or of the upper part of the Soane valley, while the nights on the
other hand were decidedly warmer. The dew-point was even lower
in proportion, 7°.6, and the climate consequently drier. The following
is an abstract of the observations taken at Mr. Hamilton’s house on
the banks of the Ganges (page 378).

It is remarkable that nocturnal radiation as registered at sunrise
is much more powerful at Mirzapore than on the more exposed
Kymore plateau; the depression of the thermometer freely
exposed being 3° greater, that laid on bare earth 6°, and that on
the grass 1°.4 greater, on the banks of the Ganges.

During my passage down the Ganges the rise of the dew-point
was very steady, the maximum occurring at the lowest point on the
river, Bhaugulpore, which, as compared with Mirzapore, showed an
increase of 8° in temperature, and of 30°.6 in the rise of the dew-
point. The saturation-point at Mirzapore was ‘331, and at the corre-
sponding hours at Bhaugulpore °742.

373

METEOROLOGY OF MIRZAPORE.
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374 DR. R. D. THOMSON ON MINERAL WATERS. Appenprx B,

B.

ON THE MINERAL CONSTITUENTS AND ALGH® OF THE HOT-SPRINGS
OF BEHAR, THE HIMALAYA, AND OTHER PARTS OF INDIA, ETC.,
INCLUDING NOTES ON THE FUNGI OF THE HIMALAYA.

(By Dr. R. D. THomson and the Rev. M. J. BerKewey, M.A., F.L.S.)

Tue following remarks, for which I am indebted to the kindness
of the able chemist and naturalist mentioned above, will be highly
valued, both by those who are interested in the many curious
physiological questions involved in the association of the most
obscure forms of vegetable life with the remarkable phenomena of
mineral springs ; or in the exquisitely beautiful microscopic structure
of the lower Alge, which has thrown so much light upon a branch
of natural history, whose domain, like that of astronomy, lies to a
ereat extent beyond the reach of the unassisted eye-—J. D. H.

1. Mineral water, Soorujkoond, Behar (vol. i., p. 27), contains
chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda.

2. Mineral water, hot springs, Yeumtong, altitude 11,730 feet
(see vol. i1., p. 117). Disengages sulphuretted hydrogen when fresh.—
This water was odorous when the bottle was opened. The saline
matter in solution was considerably less than in the Soorujkoond
water, but like that consisted of chloride of sodium and sulphate of
soda. Its alkaline character suggests the probability of its con-
taining carbonate of soda, but none was detected.

The rocks decomposed by the waters of the spring consist of
granite impregnated with sulphate of alumina. It appears that in
this case the sulphurous waters of Yeumtong became impregnated
in the air with sulphuric acid, which decomposed the felspar,*
and united with its alumina. I found traces only of potash in
the salt.

Sulphuretted hydrogen waters appear to give origin to sulphuric
acid, when the water impregnated with the gas reaches the surface;

“ I have, in my journal, particularly alluded to the garnets (an aluminous
mineral) being thus entirely decomposed.—J. D. H.

Appenpix B. DR. R.D., THOMSON ON MINERAL WATERS. 375

and I have fine fibrous specimens of sulphate of lime accompanied
with sulphur, from the hot springs of Pugha in west Tibet, brought
by Dr. T. Thomson.

3. Mineral water, Momay hot springs, (vol. i1., p. 1383).— When
the bottle was uncorked, a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen
was perceived. The water contains about twenty-five grains per
imp. gallon, of chloride of sodium, sulphate and carbonate of
soda; the reaction being strongly alkaline when the solution was
concentrated.

4. Effloresced earth from Behar (vol. i., p. 13), consists of granite
sand, mixed with sesquicarbonate of soda.

On the Indian Alge which occur principally in different parts of the
Himalayan Range, in the hot-springs of Soorujkoond in Bengal,
Pugha in Tibet, and Momay in Sikkim; and on the Fungi of the
Himalayas. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A.

It is not my intention in the present appendix to give specific
characters or even accurately determined specific names to the
different objects within its scope, which have come under investiga-
tion, as collected by Dr. Hooker and Dr. Thomson. To do so
would require far more time than I have at present been able to
devote to the subject, for though every species has been examined
microscopically, either by myself or Mr. Broome, and working
sketches secured at the same time, the specific determination of
fresh water Algz from Herbarium specimens is a matter which
requires a very long and accurate comparison of samples from every
available locality, and in the case of such genera as Zygnema,
Tyndaridea, and Conferva, is, after all, not a very satisfactory
process.

The object in view is merely to give some general notion of the
forms which presented themselves in the vast districts visited by the
above-mentioned botanists, comprising localities of the greatest
possible difference as regards both temperature and elevation; but
more especially in the hot-springs which occur in two distant parts
of the Himalayas and in Behar, and these again under very different
degrees of elevation and of extrinsic temperature.

376 MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN ALG. Appennvix B.

The Alge from lower localities are but few in number, and
some of these of very common forms. We have for instance from
the Ganges, opposite Bijnour, a Batrachospermum and Conferva
crispata, the former purple below, with specimens of Chantransia,
exactly as they might occur in the Thames. The Conferva, or more
properly Cladophora, which occurs also under various forms, at higher
elevations, as in the neighbourhood of Simla and Iskardo, swarms with
little parasites, but of common or uninteresting species. In the
Bijnour specimens, these consist of common forms of Synedra, Meri-
dion circulare, and a Cymbella, on others from Dacca, there are about
three species of Synedra,* a minute Navicula and Gomphonema cur-
vatum. Nothing, in fact, can well be more European. One splendid
Alga, however, occurs at Fitcoree, in Behar, on the banks of nullahs,
which are dry in hot weather, forming a purple fleece of coarse woolly
hairs, which are singularly compressed, and of extreme beauty under
the microscope, from the crystalline green of the articulated string
which threads the bright red investing sheath. This curious Alga calls
to mind in its colouring Cenocoleus Smithi, figured in English Botany,
t. 2940, but it has not the common sheath of that Alga, and is on a
far larger scale. One or two other allied forms, or species, occur in
East Nepal, to which I purpose giving, together with the Behar
plant, the generic name of EHrythronema. From the Soane River,
also, 1s an interesting Alga, belonging to the curious genus
Thwaitesta, in which the division of the endochrome in the fertile
cells into four distinct masses, sometimes entirely free, is beautifully
marked. In some cases, indeed, instead of the ordinary spores, the
whole mass is broken up into numerous bodies, as in the fertile
joints of Ulothrix, and probably, as in that case, the resultant cor-
puscles are endowed with active motion. In Silhet, again, is a mag-
nificent Zygnema, allied to Z. nitidwm, with large oval spores,
about 345 part of an inch long, and a dark golden brown colour, and
containing a spiral green endochrome.

Leaving, however, the lower parts of India, I shall first take the
species which occur in Khasia, Sikkim, Eastern N epal, and the ad-
joing parts of Tibet.

%* ’ > . . .
Two of these appear to be S. Vaucherie and S. incequalis.

APPENDIX B. MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN ALG. 377

In the hot valleys of the Great Rungeet, at an elevation of about
2000 feet, we have the Hrythronema, but under a slightly different
form ; at Nunklow, at about the same height ; in Khasia, again, at
twice that elevation ; in Eastern Nepal, at 12,000; and, finally, at
Momay, reaching up to 16,000 feet. In water, highly impregnated
with oxide of iron, at 4,000 feet in Sikkim, a Leptothrix occurred in
great abundance, coloured with the oxide, exactly as is the case with
Algze which grow in iron springs in Europe. At elevations between
5000 and 7000 feet, several European forms occur, consisting of
Ulothrix, Zygnema, Oscillatoria, Lyngbya, Spherozyga, Scytonema,
Conferva, and Cladophora. The species may indeed not be identical
with European species, but they are all more or less closely allied to
well-known Hydrophytes. One very interesting form, however,
either belonging to the genus Zygnema, or possibly constituting a
distinct genus, occurs in streams at 5000 feet in Sikkim, consisting
of highly gelatinous threads of the normal structure of the Zygnema,
but forming a reticulated mass. The threads adhere to each other
laterally, containing only a single spiral endochrome, and the articu-
lations are very long. Amongst the threads are mixed those of some
species of Tyndaridea. There is also a curious Hormosiphon, at a
height of 7000 feet, forming anastomosing gelatinous masses. A
fine new species of Lyngbya extends up as high’as 11,000 feet. At
13,000 feet occurs either some simple Conferva or Zygnema, it 1s
doubtful which from the condition of the specimens ; and at the same
elevation, in the nearly dry bed of the stream which flows from the
larger lake at Momay, amongst flat cakes, consisting of felspathic
silt from the glaciers above, and the debris of Algewe, and abounding
in Diatomacere, some threads of a Zygnema. At 17,000 feet, an
Oscillatoria, attached or adherent to Zannichellia ; and, finally, on the
bare ground, at 18,000 feet, on the Donkia mountains, an obscure
species of Cenocoleus. On the surface of the glaciers at Kinchinjhow,
on silt, there is a curious Palmella, apparently quite distinct from any
European form.

Amongst the greater part of the Alge, from 4000 feet to 18,000
feet, various Diatomacez occur, which will be best noticed in a tabular
form, as follows ; the specific name, within brackets, merely indicating
the species to which they bear most resemblance :—

378 MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN ALG. Appznpix B.

Himantidium (Solezolit) : . 4000 to 7000 feet. Sikkim.
Odontidium (hiemale, forma minor) 5000 to 7000 _,,
Epithemia, 7. sp. : : - « sOOY m .
Cymbella ’ ; : : ; — E Bs
Navicula, 7. sp. ; : an. — ~ ‘
Tabillaria (flocculosa) . : . 6000 to 7000 ,, Pe
Odontidium (hiemale) : ~ « L000 Py of
Himantidium : : . 16,000 y Momay.
Odontidium (eaten . « 17,008 wf ane
Epithemia (ocellata) : ie ag — - Tibet.
Fragillaria : - «we, 000 A Momay.
Odontidium (tug ee : : ms "
Dictyocha (gracilis) . : a aa -

Odontidium (hiemale) . : : ~~ » Kinchinjhow.

We now turn to those portions of Tibet or the neighbouring
regions, explored by Dr. Thomson and Captain Strachey. The
principal feature in the Algology is the great prevalence of species
of Zygnema and Tyndaridea, which occur under a variety of forms,
sometimes with very thick gelatinous coats. In not a single instance,
however, is there the slightest tendency to produce fructification.
Conferva crispata again, as mentioned above, occurs in several locali-
ties; and in one locality a beautiful unbranched Conferva, with torulose
articulations. At Iskardo, Dr. Thomson gathered a very gelatinous
species of Draparnaldia, or more properly, a Stygeocloniwm, if we
may judge from a little conglomeration of cells which appeared
amongst the threads. <A Zetraspora in Piti, an obscure Tolypothria,
and one or two Oscillatorie, remarkable for their interrupted mode
of growth, complete the list of Algz, with the exception of one, to be
mentioned presently ; as also of Diatomacee, and of the species of
Nostoe and Hormosiphon, which occurred in great profusion, and
under several forms, sometimes attaining a very large size (several
inches across), especially in the districts of Le and Piti, and where
the soil or waters were impregnated with saline matters. It is well
known that some species of ostoc form an article of food in China,
and one was used for that purpose in a late Arctic expedition, as
reported by Dr. Sutherland; but it does not seem that any use is
made of them in Tibet, though probably all the large species would
form tolerable articles of food, and certainly, from their chemical
composition, prove very nutritious. One species is mentioned by
Dr. Thomson as floating, without any attachment, in the shallow

APPENDIX B. MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN ALGAE. 379

water of the pools scattered over the plains, on the Parang River,
separated only by aridge of mountains from Piti, broad and foliaceous,
and scarcely different from the common LVostoc, which occurs in all
parts of the globe. I must not, however, neglect to record a very
singular new genus, in which the young threads have the characters
of Tyndaridea, but, after a time, little swellings occur on their sides,
in which a distinct endochrome is formed, extending backwards into
the parent endochrome, separated from it by a well defined mem-
brane, and producing, either by repeated pullulation, a compound
mass like that of Calothrix, or simply. giving rise to a forked
thread. In the latter case, however, there is no external swell-
ing, but a lateral endochrome is formed, which, as it grows,
makes its way through an aperture, whose sides are regularly
inflected. I have given to this curious production the name of
Cladozygia Thomsont.

The whole of the above Algz occurred at heights varying from
10,000 to 15,500 feet. As in the Southern Himalayan Alge, the
specimens were infested with many Diatomace, amongst which the
most conspicuous were various Cymbelle and Epithemie. The
following is a list of the species observed.

Cymbella (gastroides),
— (gracilis).
— (Ehrenbergii)
and three others.
Odontidium (Azemale).

Epithemia n. sp,

Synedra (arcus),
— (tenuis).
— (aequalis).

Denticula (obtusa).

(mesodon).
= N. Sp.
Epithemia n. sp.

Gomphonema (abbreviatum).
Meridion circulare.

There is very little identity between this list and that before given
from the Southern Himalayas, as is the case also with the other Algee.
Till the species, however, have been more completely studied, a very
accurate comparison cannot be made.

In both instances the species which grow in hot springs have
been reserved in order to make their comparison more easy. I
shall begin in an inverse order, with those of the springs of Pugha in
Tibet, which attain a temperature of 174°. Two Conferve only occur
in the specimens which have been preserved, viz., an Oscillatoria allied
to that which I have called O. interrupta, and a true Conferva

380 MR. BERKELEY ON ALG OF HOT-SPRINGS. Appenprx B.

extremely delicate with very long articulations, singularly swollen at
the commissures. The Diatomacee are :—

Odontidium (hiemale). Denticula (obtusa).
— (mesodon). Navicula.
— m. sp., same as at Piti on Cymbella, three species.
Conferva. Kpithemia.

Searcely any one of these except the Waviculais peculiar to the loca-
lity. A fragment apparently of some Closteriwm, the only one which
I have met with in the collection, accompanies one of the specimens.

The hot springs of Momay, (temp. 110°) at 16,000 feet, produce a
golden brown Cenocoleus representing a small form of C. cirrhosus,
and avery delicate Spherozyga, an Anabaina, and Tolypothri« ; and at
17,000 feet, a delicate green Conferva with long even articulations.
With the latter is an Odontidiwm allied to, or identical with O. turgi-
dulum, and with the former a fine species of Hpithemia resembling in
form, but not in marking, HL. Paba, EL. (Zebra) a fine Navicula, perhaps
the same with WV. major and Fragilaria (virescens).* Inmud from one
of the Momay springs (a), I detected Hpithemia (Broomew n. s.), and
two small Navicule, and in the spring (c) two species of Hpithemia
somewhat like #. Faba, but different from that mentioned above.

The hot springs of Soorujkoond, of the vegetation of which very
numerous specimens have been preserved, are extremely poor in
species. In the springs themselves and on their banks, at tempe-
ratures varying from 80° to 158°, at which pomt vegetation
entirely ceases, a minute Leptothrix abounds everywhere, varying
a little m the regularity of the threads in different specimens,
but scarcely presenting two species. Between 84° and 112° there is
an imperfect Zygnema with very long articulations, and where the
green scum passes into brown, there is sometimes an Oscvllatoria, or
a very minute stellate Scytonema, probably in an imperfect state.
Epithemia ocellata also contributes often to produce the tint. An
Anabaina occurs at a temperature of 125°, but the same species was
found also in the stream from the springs where the water had
become cold, as was also the case with the Zygnema.

* Mr. Thomas Brightwell finds in a portion of the same specimen Epithemia
alpestris, Surirella splendida, S. linearis, Smith, Pinnularia viridis, Smith, Navicula
(lanceolata) and Himantidiwm (arcus).

Apprnpix B. MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN FUNGI. 381

The Diatomacese consisted of :—

Epithemia Broomeii, x. s. Epithemia ineequalis, 2. sp.
_ thermalis, 7. sp. Navicula Beharensis, 7. sp.

The vegetation in the three sets of springs was very different. As
regards the Conferve, taking the word in its older sense, the species
in the three are quite different, and even in respect of genera there
is little identity, but amongst the Diatomacee there is no striking
difference, except in those of the Behar springs where three out
of the four did not occur elsewhere. In the Pugha and Momay
springs, the species were either identical with, or nearly allied
to those found in neighbouring localities, where the water did
not exceed the ordinary temperature. A longer examination will
doubtless detect more numerous forms, but those which appear
on a first examination are sure to give a pretty correct general
notion of the vegetation. The species are certainly less numerous
than I had expected, or than might be supposed from the
vegetation of those European hot springs which have been most -
investigated.

In conclusion, I shall beg to add a few words on the Fungi of the
Himalayas, so far as they have at present been investigated. As
regards these there is a marked difference, as might be anticipated
from the nature of the climates between those parts of Tibet inves-
tigated by Dr. Thomson, and the more southern regions. The fungi
found by Dr. Thomson were but few in number, and for the most
part of very ordinary forms, differing but little from the produce of
an European wood. Some, however, grow to a very large size, as for
instance, Polyporus fomentarius on poplars near Iskardo, exceeding in
dimensions anything which this species exhibits in Europe. A very
fine Afcidium also infests the fir trees (Abies Smithiana), a figure of
which has been given in the “ Gardeners’ Chronicle,”’ 1852, p. 627,
under the name of dicidium Thomsoni. This is allied to the Hexen-
besen of the German forests, but is a finer species and quite distinct.
Polyporus oblectans, Geaster limbatus, Geaster mammosus, Erysiphe
taurica, a Boletus infested with Sepedoniwm mycophilum, Scleroderma
verrucosum, an Aicidium, and a Uromyces, both on Mulgedium Tata-
ricwm, about half-a-dozen Agaries, one at an altitude of 16,000 feet
above the Nubra river, a Lycoperdon, and Morchella semilibera, which

382 MR. BERKELEY ON HIMALAYAN FUNGI. Appenpix B.

is eaten in Kashmir, and exported when dry to the plains of India,
make up the list of fungi.

The region of Sikkim is perhaps the most productive in fleshy
fungi of any in the world, both as regards numbers and species, and
Eastern Nepal and Khasia yield also an abundant harvest. The
forms are for the most part European, though the species are scarcely
ever quite identical. The dimensions of many are truly gigantic,
and many species afford abundant food to the natives. Mixed with
European forms a few more decidedly tropical occur, and amongst
those of Hast Nepal is a Lentinus which has the curious property of
staining every thing which touches it of a deep rhubarb yellow, and
is not exceeded in magnificence by any tropical species. The
Polypori are often identical with those of Java, Ceylon, and the
Philippine Isles, and the curious Zrichocoma paradoxwn which was
first found by Junghuhn in Java, and very recently by Dr. Harvey
in Ceylon, occurs abundantly on the decayed trunks of laurels, as it
does in South Carolina. The curious genus Jitremyces also is
scattered here and there, though not under the American form, but
that which occurs in Java. Though Hymenomycetes are so abundant,
the Discomycetes and Ascomycetes are comparatively rare, and very
few species indeed of Spheria were gathered. One curious matter
is, that amongst the very extensive collections which have been
made there is scarcely a single new genus. The species moreover in
Sikkim are quite different, except in the case of some more or less
cosmopolite species from those of Eastern Nepal and Khasia:
scarcely a single Lactarius or Cortinarius for instance occurs in
Sikkim, though there are several in Khasia. The genus Boletus
through the whole district assumes the most magnificent forms, which
are generally very different from anything in Europe.

APPENDIX C, ON THE SOILS OF SIKKIM. 383

C*

ON THE SOILS OF SIKKIM.

Ture is little variety in the soil throughout Sikkim, and, as
far as vegetation is concerned, it may be divided into vegetable
mould and stiff clay—each, as they usually occur, remarkably
characteristic in composition of such soils. Bog-earth is very rare,
nor did I find peat at any elevation.

The clay is uniformly of great tenacity, and is, I believe, wholly
due to the effect of the atmosphere on crumbling gneiss and other
rocks. It makes excellent bricks, is tenacious, seldom friable, and
sometimes accumulated in beds fourteen feet thick, although more
generally only about two feet. In certain localities, beds or narrow
seams of pure felspathic clay and layers of vegetable matter occur in
it, probably wholly due to local causes. An analysis of that near
Dorjiling gives about 80 per cent. of alumina, the rest being silica,
and a fraction of oxide of iron. Lime is wholly unknown as a
constituent of the soil, and only occasionally seen as a stalactitic
deposit from a few springs.

A layer of vegetable earth almost invariably covers the clay to the
depth of from three to twelve or fourteen inches. It is a very rich
black mould, held in its position on the slopes of the hills by the
dense vegetation, and accumulated on the banks of small streams to a
depth at times of three and four feet. The following is an analysis
of an average specimen of the surface-soil of Dorjiling, made for me
by my friend C. J. Muller, Esq., of that place :—

a@.—DRY EARTH.

Anhydrous . : ; : : ; : : 83°84
Water . ; : ; ; : , ; bd 16°16
100°00

* The tables referred to, at v. i. p. 31, as under Appendix C., will be found
under Appendix A.

384 AURORAL APPEARANCES. APPENDIX D.

b.— ANHYDROUS EARTH.

Humic acid. |. : ; , ; : ‘ ‘ 3°89
Humine. , : 4 , : : : ie 4°61
Undecomposed vegetable matter. 3 ; : : 20°98
Peroxide of iron and manganese. : ; adie 7:05
Alumina . : : ‘ : ‘ , ¢ : 8°95
Siliceous matter, insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. 54°52

Traces of soda and muriatic acid.

100°00

c.—Soluble in water, gr. 1:26 per cent., consisting of soda, muriatic acid,
organic matter, and silica.

The soil from which this example was taken was twelve inches
deep ; it abounded to the eye in vegetable matter, and was siliceous
to the touch. There were no traces of phosphates or of animal
matter, and doubtful traces of lime and potash. The subsoil of clay
gave only 57 per cent. of water, and 5.55 of organic matter. The
above analysis was conducted during the rainy month of September,
and the sample is an average one of the surface-soil at 6000 to 10,000
feet. There is, I think, little difference anywhere in the soils at this
elevation, except where the rock is remarkably micaceous, or where
veins of felspathic granite, by their decomposition, give rise to small
beds of kaolin.

_D.

(Voli, p. 34.)

AN AURORA SEEN FROM BAROON ON THE EAST BANK OF THE
SOANE RIVER.

Lat. 24° 52’ N.; Long. 84° 22’ E.; Alt. 345 feet.

Tue following appearances are as noted in my journal at the
time. They so entirely resembled auroral beams, that I had no
hesitation in pronouncing them at the time to be such. This
opinion has, however, been dissented from by some meteorologists,
who consider that certain facts connected with the geographical
distribution of auroras Gf I may use the term), are opposed to it. I
am well aware of the force of these arguments, which I shall not
attempt to controvert ; but for the information of those who may be
interested in the matter, I may remark, that I am very familiar with

APPENDIX D. AURORAL APPEARANCES. 385

the Aurora borealis in the northern temperate zone, and during the
Antarctic expedition was in the habit of recording in the log-
book the appearance presented by the Aurora australis. The late
Mr. Williams, Mr. Haddon, and Mr. Theobald, who were also
witnesses of the appearances on this occasion, considered it .a brilliant
display of the aurora.

Feb. 14th, 9 p.m.—Bar. Corr. 29°751; temp. 62°; D. P. 41:0°;
calm, sky clear ; moon three-quarters full, and bright.

Observed about thirty lancet beams rising in the north-west from
a low luminous arch, whose extremes bore W. 20° S.,and N.50° E.;
altitude of upper limb of arch 20°, of the lower 8°. The beams
crossed the zenith, and converged towards S. 15° E. The extre-
mity of the largest was forked, and extended to 25° above the
horizon in the 8.E. by S. quarter. The extremity of the centre one
bore 8. 50° E., and was 45° above the horizon. The western beams
approached nearest the southern horizon. All the beams moved and
flashed slowly, occasionally splitting and forking, fading and bright-
ening; they.were brightly defined, though the milky way and
zodiacal light could not be discerned, and the stars and planets,
though clearly discernible, were very pale.

At 10 p.m., the luminous appearance was more diffused; upper
limb of the arch less defined; no beams crossed the zenith; but
occasionally beams appeared there and faded away.

Between 10 and 11, the beams continued to move and replace
one another, as usual in auroras, but disappeared from the south-east
quarter, and became broader in the northern hemisphere ; the longest
beams were near the north and north-east horizon.

At half-past 10, a dark belt, 4° broad, appeared in the luminous
arch, bearing from N. 55° W. to N. 10° W.; its upper limb was 10°
above the horizon: it then gradually dilated, and thus appeared to
break up the arch. This appeared to be the commencement of the
dispersion of the phenomenon.

At 10.50, p.m. the dark band had increased so much in breadth that
the arch was broken up in the north-west, and no beams appeared
there. Eighteen linear beams rose from the eastern part of the arch,
and bore from north to N. 20° E.

Towards 11 p.m., the dark band appeared to have replaced the
VOL. IL. co

386 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E,

luminous arch; the beams were all but gone, a few fragments .
appearing in the N.E. A southerly wind sprang up, and a diffused —

light extended along the horizon.
At midnight, I saw two faint beams to the north-east, and two
well defined parallel ones in the south-west.

K.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA, EAST NEPAL,
AND ADJACENT PROVINCES OF TIBET.

SIKKIM 1s included in a section of the Himalaya, about sixty miles
broad from east to west, where it is bounded respectively by the
mountain states of Bhotan and Nepal. Its southern limits are easily
defined, for the mountains rise abruptly from the plains of Bengal,
as spurs of 6000 to 10,000 feet high, densely clothed with forest
to their summits. The northern and north-eastern frontier of
Sikkim is beyond the region of much rain, and is not a natural, but
a political line, drawn between that country and Tibet. Sikkim lies
nearly due north of Calcutta, and only four hundred miles from the
Bay of Bengal; its latitude being 26° 40' to 28° N., and longitude
88° to 89° EK.

The main features of Sikkim are Kinchinjunga, the loftiest
hitherto measured mountain, which lies to its north-west, and rises
28,178 feet above the level of the sea; and the Teesta river, which
flows throughout the length of the country, and has a course of
upwards of ninety miles in a straight line. Almost all the sources
of the Teesta are included in Sikkim ; and except some comparatively
insignificant streams draining the outermost ranges, there are no
rivers in this country but itself and its feeders, which occupy the
largest of the Himalayan valleys between the Tambur in East Nepal,
and the Machoo in Western Bhotan.

An immense spur, sixty miles long, stretches south from Kinchin
to the plains of India; it is called Singalelah, and separates Sikkim
from East Nepal; the waters from its west flank flow into the
Tambur, and those from the east into the Great Rungeet, a feeder

—— ooo

—————

APPENDIX E. BOUNDARIES OF SIKKIM. 387

of the Teesta. Between these two latter rivers is a second spur
from Kinchinjunga, terminating in Tendong.

The eastern boundary of Sikkim, separating it from Bhotan, is
formed for the greater part by the Chola range, which stretches
south from the immense mountain of Donkia, 23,176 feet high, situated
fifty miles E.N.E. of Kinchinjunga: where the frontier approaches
the plains of India, the boundary line follows the course of the
Teesta, and of the Rinkpo, one of its feeders, flowing from the
Chola range. This range is much more lofty than that of Singa-
lelah, and the drainage from its eastern flank is into the Machoo river,
the upper part of whose course is in Tibet, and the lower in
Bhotan.

The Donkia mountain, though 4000 feet lower than Kinchin,
is the culminant point of a much more extensive and elevated
mountain mass. It throws off an immense spur from its north-
west face, which runs west, and then south-west, to Kinchin,
forming the watershed of all the remote sources of the Teesta. This
spur has a mean elevation of 18,000 to 19,000 feet, and several of
its peaks (of which Chomiomo is one) rise much higher. The northern
boundary of Sikkim is not drawn along this, but runs due west from
Donkia, following a shorter, but stupendous spur, called Kinchinjhow;
whence it crosses the Teesta to Chomiomo, and is continued onwards
to Kinchinjunga.

Though the great spur connecting Donkia with Kinchin is in
Tibet, and bounds the waters that flow directly south into the
Teesta, it is far from the true Himalayan axis, for the rivers that
rise on its northern slope do not run into the valley of the Tsampu,
or Tibetan Burrampooter, but into the Arun of Nepal, which rises
to the north of Donkia, and flows south-west for many miles in
Tibet, before entering Nepal and flowing south to the Ganges.

Sikkim, thus circumscribed, consists of a mass of mountainous
spurs, forest-clad up to 12,000 feet; there are no flat valleys or
plains in the whole country, no lakes or precipices of any consequence
below that elevation, and few or no bare slopes, though the latter
are uniformly steep. The aspect of Sikkim can only be understood
by a reference to its climate and vegetation, and I shall therefore
take these together, and endeavour, by connecting these phenomena,

Ore

388 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E.

to give an intelligible view of the main features of the whole ©
country.* *
The greater part of the country between Sikkim and the sea is a
dead level, occupied by the delta of the Ganges and Burrampooter,
above which the slope is so gradual to the base of the mountains,
that the surface of the plain from which the Himalayas immediately
rise is only 800 feet above the sea. The most obvious effect of this —
position is, that the prevailing southerly wind reaches the first
range of hills, loaded with vapour. The same current, when deflected
easterly to Bhotan, or westerly to Nepal and the north-west Hima-
laya, is intercepted and drained of much moisture, by the Khasia
and Garrow mountains (south of Assam and the Burrampooter) in
the former case, and the Rajmahal hills (south of the Ganges) im the
latter. Sikkim is hence the dampest region of the whole Himalaya.
Viewed from a distance on the plains of India, Sikkim presents
the appearance—common to all mountainous countries—of consecutive
parallel ridges, running east and west: these are all wooded, and backed
by a beautiful range of snowy peaks, with occasional breaks in the
foremost ranges, through which the rivers debouch. Any view of the
Himalaya, especially at a sufficient distance for the remote snowy
peaks to be seen overtopping the outer ridges, is, however, rare, from
the constant deposition of vapours over the forest-clad ranges during the
greater part of the year, and the haziness of the dry atmosphere of the
plains in the winter months. At the end of the rains, when the south-
east monsoon has ceased to blow with constancy, views are obtained,
sometimes from a distance of nearly two hundred miles. From the
plains, the highest peaks subtend so small an angle, that they appear
like white specks very low on the horizon, tipping the black lower
and outer wooded ranges, which always rise out of a belt of haze,
and from the density, probably, of the lower strata of atmosphere,
are never seen to rest on the visible horizon. The remarkable
lowness on the horizon of the whole stupendous mass is always a
disappointing feature to the new comer, who expects to see dazzling
peaks towering in the air. Approaching nearer, the snowy mountains

* This I did with reference especially to the cultivation of Rhododendrons,
in a paper which the Horticultural Society of London did me the honour of
printing. Quarterly Journ. of Hort. Soc., vol. vii., p. 82.

AppenpDIx E. DECEPTIVE APPEARANCES OF MOUNTAIN RANGES. 389

sink behind the wooded ones, long before the latter have assumed
gigantic proportions ; and when they do so, they appear a sombre,
lurid grey-green mass of vegetation, with no brightness or variation
of colour. There is no break in this forest caused by rock, precipices,
or cultivation ; some spurs project nearer, and some valleys appear to
retire further into the heart of the foremost great chain that shuts out
all the country beyond. .

From Dorjiling the appearance of parallel ridges is found to be
deceptive, and due to the inosculating spurs of long tortuous ranges
that run north and south throughout.the whole length of Sikkim,
dividing deep wooded valleys, which form the beds of large rivers.
The snowy peaks here look like a long east and west range of moun-
tains, at an average distance of thirty or forty miles. Advancing
into the country, this appearance proves equally deceptive, and the
snowy range is resolved into isolated peaks, situated on the meridional
ridges; their snow-clad spurs, projecting east and west, cross one
another, and being uniformly white, appear to connect the peaks
into one grand unbroken range. The rivers, instead of having their
origin in the snowy moutitains, rise far beyond them; many of
their sources are upwards of one hundred miles in a straight line from
the plains, in a very curious country, loftier by far in mean elevation
than the meridional ridges which run south from it, yet compara-
tively bare of snow. This rearward part of the mountain region is
Tibet, where all the Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhotan rivers rise as small
streams, increasing 1m size as they receive the drainage from the
snowed parts of the ridges that bound them in their courses.
Their banks, between 8000 and 14,000 feet, are generally clothed
with rhododendrons, sometimes to the almost total exclusion of
other woody vegetation, especially near the snowy mountains—a
cool temperature and great humidity being the most favourable con-
ditions for the luxuriant growth of this genus.

The source of this humidity is the southerly or sea wind which
blows steadily from May till October in Sikkim, and prevails
throughout the rest of the year, if not as the monsoon properly so
called, as a current from the moist atmosphere above the Gangetic
delta, This rushes north to the rarefied regions of Sikkim, up the
great valleys, and does not appear materially disturbed by the north-

390 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E.

west wind, which blows during the afternoons of the winter months
over the plains, and along the flanks of the outer range, and is a
dry surface current, due to the diurnal heating of the soil. When
it is considered that this wind, after passing lofty mountains on the
outer range, has to traverse eighty or one hundred miles of alps
before it has watered all the forest region, it will be evident that
its moisture,must be expended before it reaches Tibet.

Let the figures in the accompanying woodcut, the one on the
true scale, the other with the heights exaggerated, represent two
of these long meridional ridges, from the watershed to the plains of
India, following in this instance the course of the Teesta river, from
its source at 19,000 feet to where it debouches from the Himalaya at
300. The lower rugged outline represents one meridional ridge,
with all its most prominent peaks (whether exactly or not on the
line of section); the upper represents the parallel ridge of Singa-
lelah (D.E.P.), of greater mean elevation, further west, introduced
to show the maximum elevation of the Sikkim mountains, Kinchin-
junga (28,178 feet), being represented on it. A deep valley is
interposed between these two ridges, with a feeder of the Teesta in
it (the Great Rungeet), which runs south from Kinchin, and turning
west enters the Teesta at R. The position of the bed of the Teesta
river is indicated by a dotted line from its source at T to the plains
at S; of Dorjiling, on the north flank of the outer range, by d; of
the first pomt where perpetual snow is met with, by P; and of the
first indications of a Tibetan climate, by C.

A warm current of air, loaded with vapour, will deposit the
bulk of its moisture on the ridge of Sinchul, which rises above
Dorjiling (d), and is 8,500 feet high. Passing on, little will be
precipitated on e, whose elevation is the same as that of Sinchul;
but much at f (11,000 feet), where the current, being further
cooled, has less capacity for holding vapour, and is further exhausted.
When it ascends to P (15,000 feet) it is sufficiently cooled to deposit
snow in the winter and spring months, more of which falling than can
be melted during the summer, it becomes perennial. At the top of
Kinchin very little falls, and it is doubtful if the southerly cur-
rent ever reaches that prodigiously elevated isolated summit. The
amount of surface above 20,000 feet is, however, too limited and

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392 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E.

broken into isolated peaks to drain the already nearly exhausted
current, whose condensed vapours roll along in fog beyond the
parallel of Kinchin, are dissipated during the day over the arid
mountains of Tibet, and deposited at night on the cooled surface of
the earth. »

Other phenomena of no less importance than the distribution of
vapour, and more or less depending on it, are the duration and
amount of solar and terrestrial radiation. Towards D the sun is
rarely seen during the rainy season, as well from the constant
presence of nimbi aloft, as from fog on the surface of the ground.
An absence of both light and heat is the result south of the parallel of
Kinchin ; and at C low fogs prevail at the same season, but do not
intercept either the same amount of light or heat; whilst at T there
is much sunshine and bright light. During the night, again, there
is no terrestrial radiation between S and P ; the rain either continues
to pour—in some months with increased violence—or the saturated
atmosphere is condensed into a thick white mist, which hangs over
the redundant vegetation. A. bright starlight night is almost
unknown in the summer months at 6000 to 10,000 feet, but is
frequent in December and January, and at intervals between
October and May, when, however, vegetation is little affected by
the cold of nocturnal radiation. In the regions north of Kinchin,
starlight nights are more frequent, and the cold produced by radia-
tion, at 14,000 feet, is often severe towards the end of the rains in
September. Still the amount of clear weather during the night is
small; the fog clears off for an hour or two at sunset as the wind
falls, but the returning cold north current again chills the air soon
afterwards, and rollmg masses of vapour are hence flying overhead,
or sweeping the surface of the earth, throughout the summer nights.
In the Tibetan regions, on the other hand, bright nights and even
sharp frosts prevail throughout the warmest months.

Referring again to the cut, it must be borne in mind that neither
of the two meridional ridges runs in a straight line, but that they
wind or zigzag as all mountain ranges do; that spurs from each
ridge are given off from either flank alternately, and that the origin
of a spur on one side answers to the source of a river (i.e., the head
of a valley) on the other. These rivers are feeders of the main

APPENDIX E, SITES OF VILLAGES. LOCAL WINDS. 393

stream, the Teesta, and run at more or less of an angle to the latter.
The spurs from the east flank of one ridge cross, at their ends, those
from the west flank of another; and thus transverse valleys are
formed, presenting many modifications of climate with regard to
exposure, temperature, and humidity.

The roads from the plains of India to the watershed in Tibet
always cross these lateral spurs. The main ridge is too winding and
rugged, and too lofty for habitation throughout the greater part of
its length, while the river-channel is always very winding, unhealthy
for the greater part of the year below 4000 feet, and often narrow,
gorge-like, and rocky. The villages are always placed above the
unhealthy regions, on the lateral spurs, which the traveller repeatedly
crosses throughout every day’s march; for these spurs give off
lesser ones, and these again others of a third degree, whence the
country is cut up into as many spurs, ridges, and ranges, as there
are rills, streams, and rivers amongst the mountains.

Though the direction of the main atmospheric current is to the
north, it is in reality seldom felt to be so, except the observer be on
the very exposed mountain tops, or watch the motions of the upper
strata of atmosphere. Lower currents of air rush up both the main
and lateral valleys, throughout the day; and from the sinuosities in
the beds of the rivers, and the generally transverse directions of their
feeders, the current often becomes an east or west one. In the
branch valleys draining to the north the wind still ascends; it is, in
short, an ascending warm, moist current, whatever course be pursued
by the valleys it follows.

The sides of each valley are hence equally supplied with moisture,
though local circumstances render the soil on one or the other flank
more or less humid and favourable to a luxuriant vegetation : such
differences are a drier soil on the north side, with a too free exposure
to the sun at low elevations, where its rays, however transient, rapidly
dry the ground, and where the rains, though very heavy, are of shorter
duration, and where, owing to the capacity of the heated air for re-
taining moisture, day fogs are comparatively rare. In the northern
parts of Sikkim, again, some of the lateral valleys are so placed that
the moist wind strikes the side facing the south, and keeps it very
humid, whilst the returning cold current from the neighbouring

394 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E.

Tibetan mountains impinges against the side facing the north, which
is hence more bare of vegetation. An infinite number of local
peculiarities will suggest themselves to any one conversant with
physical geography, as causing unequal local distribution of light,
heat, and moisture in the different valleys of so irregular a country ;
namely, the amount of slope, and its power of retaiming moisture
and soil; the composition and hardness of the rocks ; their dip and
strike; the protection of some valleys by lofty snowed ridges; and
the free southern exposures of others at great elevations.

The position and elevation of the perpetual snow * vary with
those of the individual ranges, and their exposure to the south wind.
The expression that the perpetual snow lies lower and deeper on the
southern slopes of the Himalayan mountains than on the northern,

* It appears to me, as I have asserted in the pages of my Journal, that the
limit of perpetual snow is laid down too low in all mountain regions, and that
accumulations in hollows, and the descent of glacial ice, mask the phenomenon
more effectually than is generally allowed. In this work I define the limit, as is
customary, in general terms only, as being that where the accumulations are very
great, and whence they are continuous upwards, on gentle slopes. All perpetual
snow, however, becomes ice, and, as such, obeys the laws of glacial motion,
moving as a viscous fluid; whence it follows that the lower edge of a snow-bed
placed on a slope is, in one sense, the termination of a glacier, and indicates a
position below that where all the snow that falls melts. I am well aware that it
is impossible to define the limit required with any approach to accuracy. Steep
and broken surfaces, with favourable exposures to the sun or moist winds, are
bare much above places where snow lies throughout the year; but the occurrence
of a gentle slope, free of snow, and covered with plants, cannot but indicate a
point below that of perpetual snow. Such is the case with the “Jardin” on the
Mer de Glace, whose elevation is 9,500 feet, whereas that of perpetual snow is
considered by Professor J. Forbes, our best authority, to be 8,500 feet. Though
limited in area, girdled by glaciers, presenting a very gentle slope to the east,
and screened by surrounding mountains from a considerable proportion of the
sun’s rays, the Jardin is clear, for fully three months of the year, of all but
sporadic falls of snow, that never lie long; and so are similar spots placed higher
on the neighbouring slopes; which facts are quite at variance with the supposition
that the perpetual snow-line is below that point in the Mont Blanc Alps. On
the Monte Rosa Alps, again, Dr. Thomson and I gathered plants in flower, above
12,000 feet, on the steep face of the Weiss-thor Pass, and at 10,938 feet on
the top of St. Théodule; but in the former case the rocks are too steep for any
snow to lie, they are exposed to the south-east, and overhang a gorge 8000 feet
deep, up which no doubt warm currents ascend ; while at St. Théodule the plants
were growing ona slope which, though gentle, is black and stony, and exposed to
warm ascending currents, as on the Weiss-thor ; and I do not consider either of
these as evidences of the limit of perpetual snow being higher than their position.

APPENDIX E. DISTRIBUTION OF PERPETUAL SNOW. #395

conyeys a false impression. It is better to say that the snow lies
deeper and lower on the southern faces of the individual moun-
tains and spurs that form the snowy Himalaya. The axis itself of the
chain is generally far north of the position of the spurs that catch all
the snow, and has comparatively very little snow on it, most of what
there is lying upon north exposures.

A reference to the woodcut will show that the same circumstances
which affect the distribution of moisture and vegetation, determine
the position, amount, and duration of the snow. ‘The principal fall
will occur, as before shown, where the meridional range first attains
a sufficiently great elevation, and the air becomes consequently cooled
below 32°; this is at a little above 14,000 feet, sporadic falls occurring
even in summer at that elevation: these, however, melt immediately,
and the copious winter falls also are dissipated before June. As the
depth of rain-fall diminishes in advancing north to the higher parts
of the meridional ranges, so does that of the snow-fall. The perma-
nence of the snow, again, depends on—1. The depth of the accumula-
tion ; 2. The mean temperature of the spot; 38. The melting power of
the sun’s rays; 4. The prevalence and strength of evaporating winds.
Now at 14,000 feet, though the accumulation is immense, the amount
melted by the sun’s rays is trifling, and there are no evaporating
winds; but the mean temperature is so high, and the corroding
powers of the rain (which falls abundantly throughout summer) and
of the warm and humid ascending currents are so great, that the
snow is not perennial. At 15,500 feet, again, it becomes perennial,
and its permanence at this low elevation (at P) is much favoured by
the accumulation and detention of fogs over the rank vegetation
which prevails from S nearly to P; and by the lofty mountains
beyond it, which shield it from the returning dry currents from the
north. In proceeding north all the circumstances that tend to the
dispersion of the snow increase, whilst the fall diminishes. At P the
deposition is enormous and the snow-line low—16,000 feet ; whilst
at T little falls, and the limit of perpetual snow is 19,000 and 20,000
feet. Hence the anomaly, that the snow-line ascends in advancing
north to the coldest Himalayan regions. The position of the greatest
peaks and of the greatest mass of perpetual snow being generally
assumed as indicating a ridge and watershed, travellers, arguing from

396% PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E,

single mountains alone, on the meridional ridges, have at one time _
supported and at another denied the assertion, that the snow les ©

longer and deeper on the north than on the south slope of the
Himalayan ridge. |

The great accumulation of snow at 15,000 feet, in the parallel
of P, exercises a decided influence on the vegetation. The alpine
rhododendrons hardly reach 14,000 feet in the broad valleys and
round-headed spurs of the mountains of the Tunkra and Chola
passes ; whilst the same species ascend to 16,000, and one to 17,000
feet, at T. Beyond the latter point, again, the great aridity of the
climate prevents their growth, and im Tibet there are generally none
even as low as 12,000 and 14,000 feet. Glaciers, again, descend to
15,000 feet in the tortuous gorges which immediately debouch from
the snows of Kinchinjunga, but no plants grow on the débris they
earry down, nor is there any sward of grass or herbage at their base,
the atmosphere immediately around being chilled by enormous
accumulations of snow, and the summer sun rarely warming the soil.
At T, again, the glaciers do not descend below 16,000 feet, but a
ereensward of vegetation creeps up to their bases, dwarf rhododen-
drons cover the moraines, and herbs grow on the patches of earth
carried down by the latter, which are thawed by the more frequent
sunshine, and by the radiation of heat from the unsnowed flanks of
the valleys down which these ice-streams pour.

Looking eastward or westward on the map of India, we perceive
that the phenomenon of perpetual snow is regulated by the same
laws. From the longitude of Upper Assam in 95° E to that of
Kashmir in 75° E, the lowest limit of perpetual snow is 15,500 to
16,000 feet, and a shrubby vegetation affects the most humid localities
near it, at 12,000 to 14,000 feet. Receding from the plains of India
and penetrating the mountains, the climate becomes drier, the snow-
line rises, and vegetation diminishes, whether the elevation of the land
increases or decreases; plants reaching 17,000 and 18,000 feet, and
the snow-line, 20,000 feet. Tio mention extreme cases; the snow-
level of Sikkim in 27° 30 is at 16,000 feet, whereas in latitude 35° 30
Dr. Thomson found the snow line 20,000 feet on the mountains near
the Karakoram Pass, and vegetation up to 18,500 feet—features
I found to be common also to Sikkim in latitude 28°.

|
|
|
|

t
i

Appenpix E. POSITION OF WATERSHED AND AXIS OF HIMALAYA. 897

The Himalaya, north of Nepal, and thence eastward to the bend
of the Yaru-Tsampu (or Tibetan Burrampooter) has for its
geographical limits the plains of India to the south, and the bed of
the Yaru to the north. All between these limits is a mountain
mass, to which Tibet (though so often erroneously called a
plain)* forms no exception. The waters from the north side of this
chain flow into the Tsampu, and those from the south side into the
Burrampooter of Assam, and the Ganges. The line, however
tortuous, dividing the heads of these waters, is the watershed, and
the only guide we have to the axis of the Himalaya. This has never
been crossed by Europeans, except by Captam Turner’s embassy
in 1798, and Captain Bogle’s in 1779, both of which reached the
Yaru river. In the account published by Captain Turner, the
summit of the watershed is not rigorously defined, and the boundary
of Tibet and Bhotan is sometimes erroneously taken for it; the
boundary being at that point a southern spur of Chumulari.+
Eastwards from the sources of the Tsampu, the watershed of the
Himalaya seems to follow a very winding course, arid to be every-
where to the north of the snowy peaks seen from the plains of India.
It is by a line through these snowy peaks that the axis of the Hima-
laya is represented in all our maps; because they seem from the plains
to be situated on an east and west ridge, instead of being placed on
subsidiary meridional ridges, as explained above. It is also across or
along the subsidiary ridges that the boundary line between the
Tibetan provinces and those of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotan, is usually
drawn; because the enormous accumulations of snow form a more

* The only true account of the general features of eastern Tibet is to be found
in MM. Huc and Gabet’s travels. Their description agrees with Dr. Thomson’s
account of western Tibet, and with my expérience of the parts to the north of
Sikkim, and the information I everywhere obtained. The so-called plains are the
flat floors of the valleys, and the terraces on the margins of the rivers, which all
flow between stupendous mountains. The term “maidan,” so often applied to
Tibet by the natives, implies, not a plain like that of India, but simply an open,
dry, treeless country, in contrast to the densely wooded wet regions of the
snowy Himalaya, south of Tibet.

+ Between Donkia and Chumulari lies a portion of Tibet (including the
upper part of the course of the Machoo river) bounded on the east by Bhotan,
and on the west by Sikkim (see p. 110). Turner, when crossing the Simonang
Pass, descended westwards into the valley of the Machoo, and was still on the
Indian watershed.

398 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E,

efficient natural barrier than the greater height of the less snowed
central part of the chain beyond them.

Though, however, our maps draw the axis through the snowy ae
they also make the rivers to rise beyond the latter, on the northern
slopes as it were, and to flow southwards through gaps in the axis.
Such a feature is only reconcilable with the hypothesis of the chain
being double, as the Cordillera of Peru and Chili is said to be, geo-
graphically, and which in a geological sense it no doubt is: but to
the Cordillera the Himalaya offers no parallel. The results of
Dr. Thomson’s study of the north-west Himalaya and Tibet, and-
my own of the north-east extreme of Sikkim and Tibet, first gave
me an insight into the true structure of this cham. Donkia mountain
is the culminant point of an immensely elevated mass of mountains, of
greater mean height than a similarly extensive area around Kinchin-
junga. It comprises Chumulari, and many other mountains much
above 20,000 feet, though none equalling Kinchinjunga, Junnoo, and
Kubra. The great lakes of Ramchoo and Cholamoo are placed on it,
and the rivers’ rising on it flow in various directions; the Painom-
choo north-west into the Yaru; the Arun west to Nepal; the
Teesta south-west through Sikkim ; the Machoo south, and the Pachoo
south-east, through Bhotan. All these rivers have their sources far
beyond the great snowed mountains, the Arun most conspicuously
of all, flowing completely at the back or north of Kinchinjunga.
Those that flow southwards, break through no chain, nor do they
meet any contraction as they pass the snowy parts of the mountains
which bound the valleys in which they flow, but are bound by
uniform ranges of lofty mountains, which become more snowy
as they approach the plaims of India. These valleys, however,
gradually contract as they descend, being less open in Sikkim and
Nepal than in Tibet, though there bounded by rugged mountains,
which from being so bare of snow and of vegetation, do not give the
same impression of height as the isolated sharper peaks which rise
out of a dense forest, and on which the snow limit is 4,000 or 5,000
feet lower.

The fact of the bottom of the river valleys being flatter towards the
watershed, is connected with that of their fall being less rapid at that
part of their course; this is the consequence of the great extent in

AprrnpIx E. SLOPE OF RIVER BEDS. COMPARISON WITH NORWAY. 399

breadth of the most. elevated portion of the chain. If we select the
Teesta as an example, and measure its fall at three points of its course,
we shall find the results very different. From its principal source at
Lake Cholamoo, it descends from 17,000 to 15,000 feet, with a fall of
60 feet to the mile ; from 15,000 to 12,000 feet, the fall is 140 feet to
the mile ; in the third part of its course it descends from 12,000 to
5,000 feet, with a fall of 160 feet to the mile; and in the lower part
the descent is from 5,000 feet to the plains of India at 300 feet,
giving a fall of 50 feet to the mile. There is, however, no marked
limit to these divisions ; its valley eradually contracts, and its course
gradually becomes more rapid. It is worthy of notice that the fall
is at its maximum through that part of its valley of which the flanks
are the most loaded with snow; where the old moraines are very
conspicuous, and where the present accumulations from landslips,
&e., are the most extensive.*

With reference to Kinchinjunga, these facts are of importance, as
showing that mere elevation is in physical geography of secondary
importance. That lofty mountain rises from a spur of the great
range of Donkia, and is quite removed from the watershed or axis of
the Himalaya, the rivers which drain its northern and southern flanks
alike flowing to the Ganges. Were the Himalaya to be depressed
18,000 feet, Kubra, Junnoo, Pundim, &e., would form a small cluster
of rocky islands 1,000 to 7,000 feet high, grouped near Kinchinjunga,
itself a cape 10,000 feet high, which would be connected by a low,
narrow neck, with an extensive and mountainous tract of land to its
north-east ; the latter bemg represented by Donkia. To the north
of Kinchin a deep bay or inlet would occupy the present valley of
the Arun, and would be bounded on the north by the axis of the
Himalaya, which would form a continuous tract of land beyond it.
Since writing the above, I have seen Professor J. Forbes’s beautiful
work on the glaciers of Norway: it fully justifies a comparison of
the Himalaya to Norway, which has long been a familiar subject of

* It is not my intention to discuss here the geological bearings of this curious
question; but I may state that as the humidity of the climate of the middle
region of the river-course tends to increase the fall in a given space, so I
believe the dryness of the climate of the loftier country has the opposite effect,
by preserving those accumulations which have raised the floors of the valleys
and rendered them level.

400 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX E.

theoretical enquiry with Dr. Thomson and myself. The deep narrow
valleys of Sikkim admirably represent the Norwegian fiords ; the lofty,
rugged, snowy mountains, those more or less submerged islands of
the Norwegian coast ; the broad rearward watershed, or axis of the
chain, with its lakes, is the same in both, and the Yaru-tsampu
occupies the relative position of the Baltic.

Along the whole chain of the Himalaya east of Kumaon there
are, I have no doubt, a succession of such lofty masses as Donkia,
giving off stupendous spurs such as that on which Kinchin forms so
conspicuous a feature. In support of this view we find ‘every river
rising far beyond the snowy peaks, which are separated by con-
tinuously unsnowed ranges placed between the great white masses
that these spurs present to the observer from the south.* From
the Khasia mountains (south-east of Sikkim) many of these groups
or spurs were seen by Dr. Thomson and myself, at various distances
(80 to 210 miles) ; and these groups were between the courses of the
great rivers the Soobansiri, Monass, and Pachoo, all east of Sikkim.
Other masses seen from the Gangetic valley probably thus mark the
relative positions of the Arun, Cosi, Gunduk, and Gogra rivers.

Another mass like that of Chumulari and Donkia, is that around
the Mansarowar lakes, so ably surveyed by the brothers Captains R.
and H. Strachey, which is evidently the centre of the Himalaya.
From it the Gogra, Sutlej, Indus, and Yaru rivers all flow to the Indian
side of Asia ; and from it spring four chains, two of which are better
known than the others. These are:—1. The eastern Himalaya, whose
axis runs north of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotan, to the bend of the
Yaru, the valley of which it divides from the plains of India.
2. The north-west Himalaya, which separates the valley of the Indus
from the plains of India. Behind these, and probably parallel to
them, lie two other chains. 3. The Kouenlun or Karakoram chain,
dividing the Indus from the Yarkand river. 4. The chain north of
the Yaru, of which nothing is known. All the waters from the two
first of these chains, flow into the Indian Ocean, as do those from

* At vol. i. p. 185, I have particularly called attention to the fact, that west of
Kinchinjunga there is no continuation of a snowy Himalaya, as it is commonly
called. So between Donkia and Chumulari there is no perpetual snow, and the
valley of the Machoo is very broad, open, and comparatively flat.

APPENDIX F. CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. 401

_ the south faces of the third and fourth ; those from the north side

of the Kouenlun, and of the chain north of the Yaru, flow into the
ereat valley of Lake Lhop, which may once have been continuous
with the Amoor river.*

For this view of the physical geography of the western Himalaya
and central Asia, I am indebted to Dr. Thomson. It is more
consonant with nature, and with what we know of the geography
of the country and of the nature of mountain chains, than that of
the illustrious Humboldt, who divides central Asia by four parallel
chains, united by two meridional ones; one at each extremity of
the mountain district. It follows in continuation and conclusion of
our view that the mountain mass of Pamir or Bolor, between the
sources of the Oxus and those of the Yarkand river, may be regarded
as acentre from which spring the three greatest mountain systems of
Asia. These are:—1. A great chain, which runs in a north-easterly
direction as far as Behring’s Straits, separating all the rivers of
Siberia from those which flow into the Pacific Ocean. 2. The
Hindoo Koosh, continued through Persia and Armenia into Taurus.
And, 3. The Muztagh or Karakorum, which probably extends due
east into China, south of the Hoang-ho, but which is broken up
north of Mansarowar into the chains which have been already
enumerated.

pe

ON THE CLIMATE OF SIKKIM.

THE meteorology of Sikkim, as of every part of the Himalayan
range, 1s a subject of growing interest and importance ; as it becomes
yearly more necessary for the Government to afford increased
facilities for a residence in the mountains to Europeans in search of
health, or of a salubrious climate for their families, or for themselves on
retirement from the exhausting service of the plains. I was therefore
surprised to find no further register of the weather at Dorjiling, than

* The Chinese assert that Lake Lhop once drained into the Hoang-ho; the
statement is curious, and capable of confirmation when central Asia shall have

been explored.
VOL. II. DD

402 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

6

an insufficient one of the rain-fall, kept by the medical officer in
charge of the station; who, in this, as in all similar cases,* has
neither the time nor the opportunity to give even the minimum of
required attention to the subject of meteorology. This defect has
been in a measure remedied by Dr. Chapman, who kept a twelve-
months’ register in 1837 , with instruments carefully compared
with Caleutta standards by the late James Prinsep, Esq., one of
the most accomplished men in literature and science that India
ever saw. |

The annual means ‘of temperature, rain-fall, &c., vary greatly in
the Himalaya; and apparently slight local causes produce such great
differences of temperature and humidity, that one year’s observations
taken at one spot, however full and accurate they may be, are
insufficient : this is remarkably the case in Sikkim, where the rain-
fall is great, and where the difference between those of two consecu-
tive years is often greater than the whole annual London fall. My
own meteorological observations necessarily form but a broken series,
but they were made with the best instruments, and with a view to
obtaining results that should be comparable inter se, and with those
of Calcutta; when away from Dorjiling too, in the interior of Sikkim, ~
I had the advantage of Mr. Muller’s services in taking observations
at hours agreed upon previous to my leaving, and these were of the
greatest importance, both for calculating elevations, and for ascer-
taining the differences of temperature, humidity, diurnal atmospheric
tide, and rain-fall; all of which vary with the elevation, and the
distance from the plains of India.

Mr. Hodgson’s house proved a most favourable spot for an observa-
tory, being placed on the top of the Dorjiling spur, with its broad
verandah facing the north, in which I protected the instruments from

* The government of India has gone to an immense expense, and entailed
a heavy duty upon its stationary medical officers, in supplying them with some-
times admirable, but more often very inaccurate, meteorological instruments,
and requiring that daily registers be made, and transmitted to Calcutta. In
no case have I found it to be in the officer’s power to carry out this object; he
has never time, seldom the necessary knowledge and experience, and far too often
no inclination. The majority of the observations are in most cases left to personal
native or other servants, and the laborious results I have examined are too
frequently worthless.

APPENDIX F. WINDS. TEMPERATURE. 403

radiation * and wind. Broad grass-plots and a gravel walk surrounded
the house, and large trees were scattered about; on three sides the
ground sloped away, while to the north the spur gently rose behind.

Throughout the greater part of the year the prevailing wind is
from the south-east, and comes laden with moisture fro. the Bay of
Bengal: it rises at sunrise, and its vapours are early condensed on
the forests of Sinchul; billowy clouds rapidly succeed small patches
of vapour, which rolling over to the north side of the mountain,
are carried north-west, over a broad intervening valley, to Dorjiling.
There they bank on the east side of the spur, and this being partially
clear of wood, the accumulation is slow, and always first upon the
clumps of trees. Very generally by 9 a.., the whole eastern sky, from
the top of Dorjiling ridge, is enveloped in a dense fog, while the whole
western exposure enjoys sunshine for an hour or two later. At 7 or
8 s.M., very small patches are seen to collect on Tonglo, which
eradually dilate and coalesce, but do not shroud the mountain for
some hours, generally not before 11 a.m. or noon. Before that time,
however, masses of mist have been rolling over Dorjiling ridge to the
westward, and gradually filling up the valleys, so that by noon, or
1 P.M., every object is in cloud. Towards sunset it falls calm, when
the mist rises, first from Sinchul, or if a south-east wind sets in, from
Tonglo first.

The temperature is more uniform at Mr. Hodgson’s bungalow,
which is on the top of the Dorjiling ridge, than on either of its flanks;
this is very much because a good deal of wood is left upon it,
whose cool foliage attracts and condenses the mists. Its mean
temperature is lower by nearly 23° than that of Mr. Muller’s and
Dr. Campbell’s houses, both situated on the slopes, 400 feet below.
This I ascertained by numerous comparative observations of the
temperature of the air, and by burying thermometers in the earth:

* This is a most important point, generally wholly neglected in India, where I
have usually seen the thermometer hung in good shade, but exposed to reflected
heat from walls, gravel walks, or dry earth. I am accustomed from experience to
view all extreme temperatures with great suspicion, on this and other accounts.
It is very seldom that the temperature of the free shaded air rises much above
100°, except during hot winds, when the lower stratum only of atmosphere (often
loaded with hot particles of sand), sweeps over the surface of a soil scorched by
the direct rays of the sun.

DD2

404 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

it is chiefly to be accounted for by the more frequent sunshine at the _
lower stations, the power of the sun often raising the thermometer |

in shade to 80°, at Mr. Muller’s ; whereas during the summer I spent
at Mr. Hodgson’s it never rose much above 70°, attaining that
height very ,seldom and for a very short period only. The nights,
again, are uniformly and equally cloudy at both stations, so that
there is no corresponding cold of nocturnal radiation to reduce
the temperature. Was

The mean decrease of temperature due to elevation, I have
stated (Appendix I.) to be about 1° for every 300 feet of ascent ;
according to which law Mr. Hodgson’s should not be more than
13° colder than Mr. Muller’s. These facts prove how difficult it is
to choose unexceptionable sites for meteorological observatories in
mountainous countries ; discrepancies of so great an amount being
due to local causes, which, as in this case, are perhaps transient ;
for should the top of the spur be wholly cleared of timber, its
temperature would be materially raised; at the expense, probably,
of a deficiency of water at certain seasons. Great inequalities of
temperature are also produced by ascending currents of heated air
from the Great Rungeet yalley, which affect certain parts of the
station only; and these raise the thermometer 10° (even when the
sun is clouded) above what it indicates at other places of equal
elevation. ;

The mean temperature of Dorjiling (elev. 7,430 feet) is very
nearly 50°, or 2° higher than that of London, and 26° below that
of Calcutta (78°,* or 78° 5 in the latest published tables +) ; which,
allowing 1° of diminution of temperature for every degree of latitude
leaves 1° due to every 800 feet of ascent above Calcutta to the
height of Dorjiling, agreeably to my own observations. This diminu-
tion is not the same for greater heights, as I shall have occasion
to show in a separate chapter of this Appendix, on the decrement
of heat with elevation.

A remarkable uniformity of temperature prevails throughout the
year at Dorjiling, there being only 22° difference between the mean
temperatures of the hottest and coldest months ; whilst in London,

* Prinsep, in As, Soc. Journ., Jan. 1882, p. 30.
+ Daniell’s Met. Essays, vol. ii. p. 341.

AppenpDix F. TEMPERATURE AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. 405

with a lower mean temperature, the equivalent difference is 27°. At
11,000 feet this difference is equal to that of London. In more
elevated regions, it is still greater, the climate becoming excessive
at 15,000 feet, where the difference amounts to 30° at least.* The
accompanying table is the result of an attempt to approximate
to the mean temperatures and ranges of the thermometer at various

elevations.
‘ ; Mean
Mean Mean Daily a
Altitude. a on _| Warmest | Coldest | Range of Ba cae
nace | Month. | Month. | Tempera- ee
ture.

11,000 feet... 40°9 500 24-0 20:0 40°0 1 == 820-feet:
15,000 feet...| 29°8 40:0 11-0 27°0 20:0 1° = 350-feet.
19,000 feet...) 19:8 32°0 0:0 35°0 10°0 1°= 400 feet.

Supposing the same formula to apply (which I exceedingly doubt)
to heights above 19,000 feet, 2° would be the mean annual tempera-~
ture of the summit of Kinchinjunga, altitude 28,178 feet, the
loftiest known spot on the globe: this is a degree or two higher than
the temperature of the poles of greatest cold on the earth’s surface,
and about the temperature of Spitzbergen and Melville island.

The upper limit of phenogamic vegetation coincides with a mean
temperature of 30° on the south flank of Kinchinjunga, and of 22°
in Tibet; in both cases annuals and perennial-rooted herbaceous
plants are to be found at elevations corresponding to these mean
temperatures, and often at higher elevations in sheltered localities.
I have assumed the decrease of temperature for a corresponding

* This is contrary to the conclusions of all meteorologists who have studied
the climate of the Alps, and is entirely due to the local disturbances which I have
so often dwelt upon, and principally to the unequal distribution of moisture in the
loftier rearward regions, and the aridity of Tibet. Professor James Forbes states
(Ed. Phil. Trans., v. xiv. p. 489) :—1. That the decrement of temperature with
altitude is most rapid in summer: this (as I shall hereafter show) is not the case
in the Himalaya, chiefly because the warm south moist wind then prevails.
2. That the annual range of temperature diminishes with the elevation : this, too,
is not the case in Sikkim, because of the barer surface and more cloudless skies
of the rearward loftier regions. 3. That the diurnal range of temperature
diminishes with the height: that this is not the case follows from the same
cause. 4. That radiation is least in winter: this is negatived by the influence of
the summer rains. i

J

406 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

amount of elevation to be gradually less in ascending (1°= 820 feet |
at 6000 to 10,000 feet, 1° = 400 feet at 14,000 to 18,000 feet). My —
observations appear to prove this, but I do not regard them as
conclusive ; supposing them to be so, I attribute it to a combination
of various causes, especially to the mmecreased elevation and yet
unsnowed condition of the mass of land elevated above 16,000
feet, and consequent radiation of heat; also to the greater amount
of sunshine there, and to the less dense mists which obstruct the
sun’s rays at all elevations. In corroboration of this I may
mention that the decrease of temperature with elevation is much
less in summer than in winter, 1° of Fahr. being equivalent to
only 250 feet in January between 7000 and 13,000 feet, and to
upwards of 400 feet in July. Again, at Dorjiling (7,430 feet) the
temperature hardly ever rises above 70° in the summer months, yet
it often rises even higher in Tibet at 12,000 to 14,000 feet. On
the other hand, the winters, and the winter nights especially, are
disproportionately cold at great heights, the thermometer falling
upwards of 40° below the Dorjiling temperature at an elevation only
6000 feet higher.

The diurnal distribution of temperature is equally and similarly
affected by the presence of vapour at different altitudes. The lower and
outer ranges of 6000 to 10,000 feet, first receive the diurnal charge
of vapour-loaded southerly winds ; those beyond them get more of the
sun’s rays, and the rearward ones more still. Though the summer
days of the northern localities are warmer than their elevation would
indicate, the nights are not proportionally cold; for the hght mist of
14,000 feet, which replaces the dense fog of 7000 feet, effectually
obstructs nocturnal radiation, though it is less an obstacle to solar
radiation. Clear nights, be it observed, are as rare at Momay
(15,300 feet) as at Dorjiling, the nights if windy being rainy; or,
if calm, cold currents descend from the mountains, condensing
the moist vapours of the valleys, whose narrow floors are at sunrise
bathed in mist at all elevations in Sikkim. The rise and dispersion
of these dense mists, and their collection and recondensation on
the mountains in the morning, is one of the most magnificent
phenomena of the Himalaya, when viewed from a proper elevation ;
it commences as soon as the sun appears on the horizon.

a

APPENDIX F. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE. 407

The mean daily range of the thermometer at 7000 feet is 13° in
cleared spots, but considerably less in wooded, and certainly one-third
less in the forest itself. At Calcutta, which has almost an insular
climate, it amounts to 17°; at Delhi, which has a continental one,
to 24° 6; and in London to 17° 5. At 11,000 feet 1t amounts to
about 20°, and at 15,000 feet to 27°. These values vary widely in
the different months, being much less in the summer or rainy months,
The following is probably a fair approximation :—

At 7,000 feet it amounts to 8°-9° in Aug. and Sept., and 17° in Dec.

115000 ~ ,, 5, 12° 5 ” 30° ”
BS, 000 ” ” ys ” 7 40° 9)
London c 20° , 3 TOF 9

The distribution of temperature throughout the day and year
varies less at Dorjiling than in most mountainous countries, owing
to the prevailing moisture, the effect of which is analogous to that
of a cireumambient ocean to an island: the difference being, that
in the case of the island the bulk of water maintains an uniform
temperature ; in that of Dorjiling the quantity of vapour acts directly
by interfering with terrestrial and solar radiation, and indirectly by
nurturing a luxuriant vegetation. The result in the latter case is a
clhmate remarkable for its equability, and similar in many features
to that of New Zealand, South-west Chili, Fuegia, and the damp west
coasts of Scotland and Ireland, and other countries exposed to moist
sea winds. i

The mean ceri fire of the year at Dorjiling, as taken by
maxima and minima thermometers * by Dr. Chapman, is nearly the
same as that of March and October: January, the coldest month,
is more than 13° 4 colder than the mean of the year; but the
hottest month is only 8° 3’ warmer than the same mean: at Cal-
cutta the months vary less from the mean; at Delhi more; and in
London the distribution is wholly different ; there bemg no rains to
modify the summer heat, July is 18° hotter, and January 14° colder
than the mean of the year.

* The mean of several of the months, thins deduced, often varies a good deal
from the truth, owing to the unequal diurnal distribution of heat; a very few
minutes’ sunshine raises the temperature 10° or 15° above the mean of the day ;

which excessive heat (usually transient) the maximum thermometer registers,
and consequently gives too high a mean.

408 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

This distribution of the seasons has a most important effect upon ,
vegetation, to which sufficient attention has not been paid by culti- |
vators of alpine Indian plants ; in the first place, though English
winters are cold enough for such, the summers are too hot and dry ;
and, in the second place, the great accession of temperature, causing
the buds to burst in spring, occurs in the Himalaya in March, when
the temperature at 7000 feet rises 8° above that of February, raising
the radiating thermometer always above the freezing point, whence
the young leaves are never injured by night frost: in England the
corresponding rise is only 3°, and there is no such accession of
temperature till May, which is 8° warmer than April; hence, the
young foliage of many Himalayan plants is cut off by night frosts in
English gardens early in the season, of which Abies Webbiana is a
conspicuous example.

The greatest heat of the day occurs at Dorjiling about noon, owing
to the prevalent cloud, especially during the rainy months, when the
sun shines only in the mornings, if at all, and the clouds accumulate
as the day advances. According to hourly observations of my own,
it occured in July at noon, in August at 1 P.M., and in September
(the most rainy month) there was only four-tenths ofa degree differ-
ence between the means of noon, 1 P.M., and 2 P.m., but I must
refer to the abstracts at the end of this chapter for evidence of this,
and of the wonderful uniformity of temperature during the rainy
months. In the drier season again, after September, the greatest heat
occurs between 2 and 3p.mM.; in Calcutta the hottest hour is about
2°45 p.M., throughout the year ; and in England also about 3 P.M.

The hour whose temperature coincides with the mean of the day
necessarily varies with the distribution of cloud and sunshine; it
is usually about 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.; whereas in Calcutta the same
coicidence occurs at a little before 10 a.m., and in England at
about 8 A.M.

Next to the temperature of the air, observations on that of the
earth are perhaps of the greatest value ; both from their application
to horticulture, and from the approximation they afford to the mean
temperature of the week or month in which they are taken. These
form the subject of a separate chapter.

Nocturnal and solar radiation, the one causing the formation of

!

ApprEnpix F. SOLAR RADIATION. 409

dew and hoar-frost when the air in the shade is above freezing, and
killing plants by the rapid abstraction of heat from all their surfaces
which are exposed to the clear sky, and the other scorching the skin
and tender plants during the day, are now familiar phenomena, and
particularly engaged my attention during my whole Indian journey.
Two phenomena particularly obstruct radiation in Sikkim—the
clouds and fog from the end of May till October, and the haze from
February till May. Two months alone are usually clear; one before
and one after the rains, when the air, though still humid, is trans-
parent. The haze has never been fully explained, though a well-
known phenomenon. On the plains of India, at the foot of the hills,
it begins generally in the forenoon of the cold season, with the rise of
the west wind; and, in February especially, obscures the sun’s dise
by noon ; frequently it lasts throughout the twenty-four hours, and
is usually accompanied by great dryness of the atmosphere. It
eradually diminishes in ascending, and I have never experienced it at
10,000 feet ; at 7000, however, it very often, in April, obscures the
snowy ranges 30 miles off, which are bright and defined at sunrise,
and either pale away, or become of a lurid yellow-red, according to
the density of this haze, till they disappear at 10 Am. I believe it
always accompanies a south-west wind (which is a deflected current
of the north-west) and dry atmosphere in Sikkim.

The observations for solar radiation were taken with a black-bulb
thermometer, and also with actinometers, but the value of the data
afforded by the latter not being fixed or comparative, I shall give the
results ina separate section. (See Appendix K.) From a multitude
of desultory observations, I conclude that at 7,400 feet, 125° 7,
or + 67° above the temperature of the air, is the average maximum
effect of the sun’s rays on a black-bulb thermometer * throughout the
year, amounting rarely to + 70° and + 80° in the summer months,
but more frequently in the winter or spring. These results, though
greatly above what are obtained at Calcutta, are not much, if at all,
above what may be observed on the plains of India. This effect is

* From the mean of very many observations, I find that 10° is the average
difference at the level of the sea, in India, between two similar thermometers,
with spherical bulbs (3-inch diam.), the one of black, and the other of plain glass,
and both being equally exposed to the sun’s rays.

410 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

much increased with the elevation. At 10,000 feet in December,

at 9 a.M., I saw the mercury mount to 182° with a diff. of rs 94°, ;

whilst aie temperature of shaded snow hard by was 22° ; at 18, 100
feet, in January, at 9 a.m., it has stood at 98°, diff. 4+ 68° 2; and
at 10 a.m., at 114°, diff. + 81° 4, whilst the radiating thermom
on the snow had fallen at sunrise to 0° 7, In December, at 13,500

feet, I have seen it 110°, diff. + 84°; at 11 a.m., 11,500 feet, 122°, .

>

diff. + 82°. This is but a small oe fori many instances of |

the extraordinary power of solar radiation in the coldest months, at
great elevations.

Nocturnal and terrestrial radiation are even more difficult pheno-
mena for the traveller to estimate than solar radiation, the danger
of exposing instruments at night being always great in wild
countries. I most frequently used a thermometer graduated on the
glass, and placed in the focus of a parabolic reflector, and a similar
one laid upon white cotton,* and found no material difference in
the mean of many observations of each, though often 1° to 2° in
individual ones. Avoiding radiation from surrounding objects is
very difficult, especially in wooded countries. I have also tried the
radiating power of grass and the earth ; the temperature of the latter
is generally less, and that of the (iaes greater, than the thermo-
meter exposed on cotton or in the reflector, but much yesbanes on
the surface of the herbage and soil. Ps cee

The power of terrestrial, like that of solar ‘atihtfon, increases
with the elevation, but not in an equal proportion. At 7,400
feet, the mean of all my observations shows a temperature of
35° 4. During the rains, 3° to 4° is the mean maximum, but the
nights being almost invariably cloudy, it 1s scarcely on one night out
of six that there is any radiation. From October to December the
amount is greater = 10° to 12°, and from January till May greater

* Snow radiates the most powerfully of any substance I have tried; in one
instance, at 13,000 feet, in January, the thermometer on snow fell to 0°2°, which
was 10°8° below the temperature at the time, the grass showing 6°7°; and on
another occasion to 1:2°, when the air at the time (before sunrise) was 21°2°; the
difference therefore being 20°. I have frequently made this observation, and
always with a similar result ; it may account for the great injury plants sustain
from a thin covering of ice on their foliage, even when the temperature is but
little below the freezing-point.

*

APPENDIX F. RADIATION DURING THE NIGHT. 411

still, being as much as 15°. During the winter months the effect
of radiation is often felt throughout the clear days, dew forming
abundantly at 4,000 to 8,000 feet in the shaded bottoms of narrow
vale into which the sun does not penetrate till 10 a.m., and
from which it disappears at 3 p.m. I have seen the thermometer
in the reflector fall 12° at 10 a.m. in a shaded valley. This often
produces an anomalous effect, causing the temperature in the shade
to fall after sunrise; for the mists which condense in the bottom
of the valleys after midnight disperse after sunrise, but long before
reached by the sun, and powerful radiation ensues, lowering the
surrounding temperature: a fall of 1° to 2° after sunrise of air
in the shade is hence common in valleys in November and De-
cember.* The excessive radiation of the winter months often gives
rise to a curious phenomenon ; it causes the formation of copious dew
on the blanket of the traveller’s bed, which radiates heat to the tent
roof, and this inside either an open or a closed tent. I have experi-
enced this at various elevations, from 6,000 to 16,000 feet. Whether
the minimum temperature be as high as 50°, or but little above
zero, the effect is the same, except that hoar-frost or ice forms in
the latter case. Another remarkable effect of nolerieel radiation 1s
the curl of the alpine rhododendron leaves in November, which is pro-
bably due to the freezing and consequent expansion of the water in
the upper ‘strata of cells exposed to the sky. The first curl is
generally repaired by the ¢ ensuing day’s sun, but after two or three
nights the leaves become ‘permanently curled, and remain so till they
fall in the following spring.

I have said that the nocturnal radiation in the English spring
months is the great obstacle to the cultivation of many Himalayan
plants; but it is not therefore to be inferred that there is no similar
amount of radiation in the Himalaya; for, on the contrary, in April
its amount is much greater than in England, frequently equalling
13° of difference; and I have seen 16° at 7,500 feet ; but the minimum

* Such is the explanation which I have offered of this phenomenon in the
Hort. Soc. Journal. On thinking over the matter since, I have speculated upon
the probability of this fall of temperature being due to the absorption of heat
that must become latent on the dispersion of the dense masses of white fog that
choke the valleys at sunrise.

412 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

temperature at the time is 51°, and the absolute amount of —
cold therefore immaterial.. The mean minimum of London is 38°, ©

and, when lowered 5°5° by radiation, the consequent cold is very
considerable. Mr. Daniell, in his admirable essay on the climate
of London, mentions 17° as the maximum effect of nocturnal
radiation ever observed by him. JI have registered 16° in April
at Dorjiling; nearly as much at 6,000 feet in February; twice
13°, and once 14° 2 in September at 15,500 feet; and 10° in
October at 16,800 feet; nearly 138° in January at 7,000 feet;
14° 5 in February at that elevation, and, on several occasions,
14° 7 at 10,000 feet in November.

The annual rain-fall at Dorjiling averages,120 inches (or 10 feet),
but varies from 100 to 180 in different years; this is fully three
times the amount of the average English fall*, and yet not one-fourth
of what is experienced on the Khasia hills in Eastern Bengal, where
fifty feet of rain falls. The greater proportion descends between June
and September, as much as thirty inches sometimes falling in one
month. From November to February inclusive, the months are
comparatively dry; March and October are characterised by violent
storms at the equinoxes, with thunder, destructive lightning, and
hail.

The rain-gauge takes no account of the enormous deposition from
mists and fogs: these keep the atmosphere in a state of moisture,
the amount of which I have estimated at 0°88 as the saturation-point
at Dorjiling, 0°83 being that of London. In July, the dampest
month, the saturation-point is 0°97 ; and in December, owing to the
dryness of the air on the neighbouring plains of India, whence
dry blasts pass over Sikkim, the mean saturation-point of the month
sometimes falls as low as 0°69.

The dew-point is on the average of the year 49° 3, or 3° below the
mean temperature of the air. In the dampest month (July) the
mean dew-point is only eight-tenths of a degree below the tempera-
ture, whilst in December it sinks 10° below it. In London the

* The general ideas on the subject of the English rain-fall are so very vague,
that I may be pardoned for reminding my readers that in 1852, the year of extra-
ordinary rain, the amounts varied from 28°5 inches in Essex, to 50 inches at
Cirencester, and 67-5 (average of five years) at Plympton St. Mary’s, and 102°5 at
Holme, on the Dart.

Apvprnpix F. EFFECTS OF DIMINISHED PRESSURE OF AIR. 413

dew-point is on the average 5° 6 below the temperature ; none of the
English months are so wet as those of Sikkim, but none are so dry
as the Sikkim December sometimes is.

On the weight of the atmosphere in Sikkim; and tts effects on the
human frame.

Of all the phenomena of climate, the weight of the atmosphere is
the most remarkable for its elusion of direct observation, when
unaided by instruments. At the level of the sea, a man of ordinary
bulk and stature is pressed upon by a superincumbent weight of 30,000
pounds or 13}tons, An inch fall or rise in the barometer shows that this
load is lightened or increased, sometimes in a few hours, by nearly 1,000
pounds ; and no notice is taken of it, except by the meteorologist, or
by the speculative physician, seeking the subtle causes of epidemic
and endemic complaints. At Dorjiling (7,400 feet), this load is reduced
to less than 22,500 pounds, with no appreciable result whatever on
the frame, however suddenly it be transported to that elevation. And
the observation of my own habits convinced me that I took the
same amount of meat, drink, sleep, exercise and work, not only
without inconvenience, but without the slightest perception of my
altered circumstances. On ascending to 14,000 feet, owing to the
diminished supply of oxygen, exercise brings on vertigo and headache;
ascending higher still, lassitude and tension across the forehead ensue,
with retching, and a sense of weight dragging down the stomach,
probably due to dilatation of the air contained in that organ. Such
are the all but invariable effects of high elevations; varying with most
persons according to the suddenness and steepness of the ascent, the
amount and duration of exertion, and the length of time previously
passed at great heights. After having lived for some weeks at 15,300
feet, I have thence ascended several times to 18,500, and once above
19,000 feet, without any sensations but lassitude and quickness of
pulse ;* but in these instances it required great caution to avoid
painful symptoms. Residing at 15,300 feet, however, my functions
were wholly undisturbed ; nor could I detect any quickness of pulse

* T have in a note to vol. ii. p. 160, stated that I never experienced in my own
person, nor saw in others, bleeding at the ears, nose, lips, or eyelids.

414 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

or of respiration when the body was at rest, below 17,000 feet. At
that elevation, after resting a party of eight men for an hour, the:
average of their and my pulses was above 100°, both before and after
eating ; in one case it was 120°, in none below 80°.

Not only is the frame of a transient visitor unaffected (when at rest)
by the pressure being reduced from 30,000 to 13,000 pounds, but
the Tibetan, born and constantly residing at upwards of 14,000 feet,
differs in no respect that can be attributed to diminished pressure,
from the native of the level of the sea. The average duration of life,
and the amount of food and exercise is the same; eighty years are
rarely reached by either. The Tibetan too, however inured to cold
and great elevations, still suffers when he crosses passes 18,000 or
19,000 feet high, and apparently neither more nor less than I did.

Liebig remarks (in his “ Animal Chemistry’) that in an equal
number of respirations,* we consume a larger amount of oxygen at
the level of the sea than on a mountain ; and it can be shown that
under ordinary circumstances at Dorjiling, 20°14 per cent. less
is inhaled than on the plains of India. Yet the chest cannot ex-
pand so as to inspire more at once, nor is the respiration appreciably

* For the following note I am indebted to my friend, C. Muller, Esq., of
Patna :—

According to Sir H. Davy, a man consumes 45,504 cubic inches of oxygen in
twenty-four hours, necessitating the inspiration of 147,520 cubic inches of
atmospheric air.—At pressure 23 inches, and temp. 60°, this volume of atmos-
pheric air (dry) would weigh 35,138°75 grains.—At pressure 30 in., temp. 80°, it
would weigh 43,997°63 gr.

The amount of oxygen in atmospheric air is 23°32 per cent. by weight. The
oxygen, then, in 147,520 cubic inches of dry air, at pressure 23 in., temp. 60°,
weighs 8,194°35 gr.; and at pressure 30 in., temp. 80°, it weighs 10,260°25 gr.

Hence the absolute quantity of oxygen in a given volume of atmospheric air,
when the pressure is 23 in., and the temp. 60°, is 20°14 per cent. less than when
the pressure is 30 in. and the temp. 80°.

When the air at pressure 23 in., temp. 60°, is saturated with moisture, the
proportion of dry air and aqueous vapour in 100 cubic inches is as follows :—

Dry air . ; DELS
Vapour . : a: y D2T
At pressure 30 in., temp. 80°, the proportions are :—
Dry airs : ~ 96°1388
Vapour . ‘ - .8°867

The effect of aqueous vapour in the air on the amount of oxygen available for
consumption, is very trifling; and it must not be forgotten that aqueous vapour
supples oxygen to the system as well as atmospheric air.

APPENDIX F, MEAN HEIGHT OF BAROMETER. 415

quickened ; by either of which means nature would be enabled to
make up the deficiency. It is true that it is difficult to count one’s
own respirations, but the average is considered in a healthy man to
be eighteen in a minute ; in my own case it 1s sixteen, an acceleration
of which by three or four could not have been overlooked, in the
repeated trials I made at Dorjiling, and still less the eight additional
inhalations required at 15,000 feet to make up for the deficiency of
oxygen in the air of that elevation.

It has long been surmised that an alpine vegetation may owe some
“of its peculiarities to the diminished atmospheric pressure ; and that
the latter being a condition which the gardener cannot supply, he can
never successfully cultivate such plants in general. I know of no
foundation for this hypothesis ; many plants, natives of the level of
the sea in other parts of the world, and some even of the hot plains
of Bengal, ascend to 12,000 and even 15,000 feet on the Himalaya,
unaffected by the diminished pressure. Any number of species from
low countries may be cultivated, and some have been for ages, at
10,000 to 14,000 feet without change. It is the same with the lower
animals ; innumerable instances may with ease be adduced of pressure
alone inducing no appreciable change, whilst there is absence of
proof to the contrary. The phenomena that accompany diminished
pressure are the real obstacles to the cultivation of alpine plants, of
which cold and the excessive climate are perhaps the most formidable.
Plants that grow in localities marked by sudden extremes of heat
and cold, are always very variable in stature, habit, and foliage. In
a state of nature we say the plants “accommodate themselves’ to
these changes, and so they do within certain limits; but for one that
survives of all the seeds that germinate in these inhospitable locali-
ties, thousands die. In our gardens we can neither imitate the
conditions of an alpine climate, nor offer others suited to the plants
of such climates. 3

The mean height of the barometer at Mr. Hodgson’s was 23-010,
but varied 0°161 between July, when it was lowest, and October,
when it was highest ; following the monthly rise and fall of Calcutta
as to period, but not as to amount (or amplitude) ; for the mercury
at Calcutta stands in July upwards of half an inch (0:555 Prinsep)
lower than it does in December.

416 CLIMATE OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F,

The diurnal tide of atmosphere is as constant as to the time of its

ebb and flow at Dorjiling as at Calcutta; and a number of very a

careful observations (made with special reference to this object)
between the level of the plains of India, and 17,000 feet, would
indicate that there is no very material deviation from this at any
elevation in Sikkim. These times are very nearly 9°50 a.m. and about
10 p.m. for the maxima, the 9°50 a.m. very constantly, and the 10 P.m.
with more uncertainty; and 4 a.m. and 4 p.m. for the minima, the after-
noon ebb being most true to its time, except during the rains.

At 9° 50 a.m. the barometer is at its highest, and falls till 4 P.ar.,
when it stands on the average of the year 0°074 of an inch lower;
during the same period the Calcutta fall is upwards of one-tenth of
an inch (0'121 Prinsep).

It has been proved that at considerable elevations in Europe, the
hours of periodic ebb and flow differ materially from those which
prevail at the level of the sea; but this is certainly not the case in
the Sikkim Himalaya.

The amplitude decreases in amount from 0°100 at the foot of the
hills, to 0:074 at 7,000 feet; and the mean of 132 selected unex-
ceptionable observations, taken at nine stations between 8,000 and
15,500 feet, at 9° 50 a.m. and 4 P.M., gives an average fall of 0°056
of an inch; a result which is confirmed by interpolation from nume-
rous horary observations at these and many other pit where
I could observe at the critical hours.

That the Calcutta amplitude is not exceptionally arti is shewn
by the register kept at different places in the Gangetic valley and
plains of India, between Saharunpore and the Bay of Bengal. I have
seen apparently trustworthy records of seven* such, and find that
in all it amounts to between 0:084 and 0:120 inch, the"mean of the
whole being 0°101 of an inch.

The amplitude is greatest (0°088) in the spring months (March,
April, and May), both at Dorjiling and Calcutta: it is least at
both in June and July, (0:027 at Dorjiling), and rises again in
autumn (to ‘082 in September).

The horary oscillations also are as remarkably uniform at all

* Calcutta, Berampore, Benares, Nagpore, Moozufferpore, Delhi, and Saha-
runpore.

APPENDIX F. ATMOSPHERIC TIDES. 417

elevations, as the period of ebb and flow: the mercury falls slowly
from 9° 50 a.m. (when it is at its highest) till noon, then rapidly
till 83 p.., and slowly again till 4 p.m. ; after which there is little
change until sunset; it rises rapidly between 7 and 9 pP.M., and a
little more till 10 p.m. ; thence till 4 a.m. the fall is inconsiderable,
and the great rise occurs between 7 and 9 A.M.

Jt is well known that these fluctuations of the barometer are
due to the expansion and contraction by heat and moisture of
the column of atmosphere that presses on the mercury in the
cistern of the instrument: were the air dry, the effect would be
a single rise and fall;* the barometer would stand highest at the
hottest of the twenty-four hours, and lowest at the coldest ; and
‘such is the case in arid continental regions which are perennially
dry. That such would also be the case at Calcutta and throughout
the Himalaya of Sikkim, is theoretically self-evident, and proved
by my horary observations taken during the rainy months of 1848.
An inspection of these at the end of this section (where a column
contains the pressure of dry air) shows but one maximum of
pressure, which occurs at the coldest time of the twenty-four hours
(early m the morning), and one minimum in the afternoon. In the
table of mean temperatures of the months, also appended to this
section, will also be found a column showing the pressure of dry
air, whence it will be seen that there is but one maximum of the
pressure of dry air, occurring at the coldest season in December,
and one minimum, in July. The effect of the vapour is the same on
the annual as upon the diurnal march of the pressure, producing a
double maximum and minimum in the year in one case, and in the
twenty-four hours in the other.

I append a meteorological register of the separate months, but at
the same time must remind the reader that it does not pretend to
strict accuracy. It is founded upon observations made at Dorjiling
by Dr. Chapman in the year 1837, for pressure temperature and wet-
bulb only; the other data and some modifications of the above are
supplied from observations of my own. Those for terrestrial and

* This law, for which we are indebted to Professor Dove, has been clearly
explained by Colonel Sabine in the appendix to his translation of Humboldt’s
“Cosmos,” vol. i. p. 457.

VOL. IT. HE

418 METEOROLOGY OF SIKKIM. APPENDIX F.

nocturnal radiation are accurate as far as they go, that is to say,
they are absolute temperatures taken by myself, which may, I believe,
be recorded in any year, but much higher are no doubt often to be
obtained. The dew-points and saturations are generally calculated
from the mean of two day observations (10 a.m. and 4 p.m.) of the
wet-bulb thermometer, together with the minimum, or are taken
from observations of Daniell’s hygrometer ; and as I find the mean
of the temperature of 10 A.m., 4 P.m., and the minimum, to coincide
within a few tenths with the mean temperature of the whole day,
T assume that the mean of the wet-bulb observations of the same
hours will give a near approach to that of the twenty-four hours,
The climate of Dorjiling station has been in some degree altered by
extensive clearances of forest, which render it more variable, more
exposed to night frosts and strong sun-heat, and to drought, the
drying up of small streams being one direct consequence. My own
observations were taken at Mr. Hodgson’s house, elevated 7,430 feet,
the position of which I have indicated at the commencement of this
section, where the differences of climate due to local causes are
sufficiently indicated to show that in no two spots could similar
meteorological results be obtained. At Mr. Hodgson’s, for instance,
the uniformity of temperature and humidity is infinitely more
remarkable than at Dr. Chapman’s, possibly from my guarding more
effectually against radiation, and from the greater forests about
Mr. Hodgson’s house. I have not, however, ventured to interfere
with the temperature columns on this account.

419

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER.

APPENDIX F.

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420 METEOROLOGY OF SIKKIM. _ APPENDIX F.

Horary Observations at Jillapahar, Dorjiling, Alt. 7,430 feet.

JULY, 1848.
Cee | soar, | Batom. | Temp.’ pp. | pie | cat | are eae ae a
vations corrected. | Air. Vapour. | Vapour. “| Dry Air.
7 1a.M:| 22°377,| 59°6.| 58°9 | 0°72) “504. | ‘S°GoRiae 22°373
23 8 8824) 36221 G06 |) a5. | 54 603 a3 348
27 9 884 | 62°6 | 61°3°| 4:3) “5467 | GTO 338
22 10 + 899 | 63°5>| 64°7 | S80) 5540) (ote 345
20-4241 *899-| 64°] | -62°3 |. 1-8 |=:565. | 26 27eee 334
26 Noon. 884 ) 65:0 | 63:1 | 2:9 |-“580 | 64a 304
12 1 P.M. 876. | 64:14) 61-7 (“2:44 *566>))) Ossie 310
11 2 "866 | 644 1 6170 | 34°) “541 |) 600m 325
25 3 *852° |. 64°8 || -62°6 | (2'2-| *b7 1) "632 oem 281
23 4 846 | 641 | 617: |: 2°44) 554.) 6438 292
13 5 — “840 | 64:7-| 64:0 | -O0°7 | “597 :) “G:620 ier 243
10 6 845 | 63°71) 615") 2°27] 8549 96a 296
6 i 853-1) 62°7.4 61:1) 2:6 542-) 6703) ) = 311
6 8 867 3) 61°0) |) 59°D. |. V5) 2515 aa "B52
22 9 "STS | OO %ai) O's. | el Bah 126 ere , 366
6 10 "885 | 60:5 | 59°5">| 1:0.| "514 |) -o (ome "371
6 11 + “887 | 60°2| 59:2 | 1:0.) “508, | 570m 379
19 | Midnt. 887. “b9°8.| (59°). | 0°7 |) 07. | Sess 382
AUGUST.
Ae ee Banos Weight Hume Pressure

re) ; oO
vations. comrected: Vapour. | Vapour. dity: Dry Air.

15 1a.M.)| 22°909 5°70 | °992 | +22°395

0:3 :
26 "904 0°6 6°13 | °980 355
28 O15 1:2 6-20 | °962 357
28 Oy ae) 6°35 | °950 345
24 BS: 1G 6:42 | °948 3835
23 . 905 1:3 6°50 | °958 319
21 .M. 898 2°0 6°48 | :940 314
21 2 884 1°6 6°50 | *950 298
21 873 Lf 6-43 | +943 294
19 "855 1°5 6°30 | °952 | — °287
19 °853 1°5 615 | °952 "299
19 | ==863 1°5 6:00 | *952 325
19 865 it 5:92 | +962 "3384
19 ‘878 09 5°88 | -°970 351
19 0-7 5°85 | °976 367
19 0°6 5:78 | “8807 375
19 0-4 5:79 | °988 375
19 0°6 573 | 980 376

APPENDIX F.

No. of
Obser- | Hour
vations.
28 8 A.M
29 9
28 10
24 11
23 Noon
23 1PM
23 2
23 3
23 4
19 5
19 6
20 7
21 8
22. 9
24 10
24 11
23 | Midnt.
No. of
Obser- | Hour.
vations.
TE Vne—68
19 7 AM
20 8
20 9
19 10
13 alg
ah Noon
13 1 P.M.
13 2
14 3
16 4
tS 5
6 6
7 7
3 8
7 9
14 10
18 11
14 Midn.

METEOROLOGY OF SIKKIM.

SEPTEMBER.

Barom. | Temp. D.P Diff

corrected. | Air. Vapour
23:000 - | 59-2 | 58:1- |: 1k .| +492
7013 60°1 58°5 16 ‘497
+°018 | 60°38 | 595] 13 | °514
7009 | 61°6 | 60:0 1°6 523
22995 | 62°4 | 60°5 ue) 533
980 62°7 60°5 2°2 532
962 | 62°8 60°4 2°4 rOpil
"947 | 62°3 60:0 | 2°3 522
—944 | 618 | 59°9 | 19 | °521
“944 60°3 58°6 wey "498
948 | 59°4 | 584 | 1:0 | °496
WDS-ieoec |, oC4 |, Ico | 2479
975 58-2 Bd Oo ee ed "473
864578 | 2 56°6r (= 1-2.) 1467
+ *991 57°4 56:4 1:0 463
OOF COn-OF boo fr tel | 456
994 |. 56°77 | 55-4 |..1:3 | 449
OCTOBER (22 days).
Barom. | Temp. : Tens.
corrected.} Air. DE Dist Vv neat
23066, .| 54:4 | 52:7 | 1:7 | -409
"072 54°3 | 52°3 | 2:0 | -403
‘086 55°2 53°7 15 423
099 56°3 | 54:4 19 434
+100 57-1 Hard 1e6 450
‘079 SiG) 50:6. - |, 2:0" | £51
07 Mee Olea ks8 || “459
7055. | 58:0 | 56-4 | 16 | -463
033 577 D6°62 | Sie 466
027 O19 1 56°2"°\ 17 >| 460
"024 DiI OG WA Nee... \|..4 58
— "022 566 | 54°38 | 1:8 | -4389
033 55:9. | 54:4 | 1:5 | -483
045 55°4 | 53°8.-| 1:6 |. -424
38 day fede | Oe | 417
‘061 ool - | 54-1 | 10 -| -429
+ °072 | 54°6 53°0 16 413
FOG 21° 94°5 53:0 (es rds
“0687. | 94°1>-) 5238. |, d-Sesl 411

421
Weight} pymi-| Pressure
Stal bs Mh eae
.| Vapour. ry Air.
5°50 | *968°| 22°508
557 | °945 516
SET. | “998 DO4
5°83 | ‘950 506
5°93 | 942 462
5°92 | *942 448
590 |_ °925 431
5°83 | °924 425
5°82 | 940 | —423
5°58 | 940 “446
5°58 | °968 "452
5°60 | ‘960 479
5°33 | +962 502
5:25 | :960 519
5:23 | -968 528
D5 | 962 533
5°00 | 927 | +°545
|
Weight | tyumi- | Pressure
“heed ie Tioga nema
pour. ry Air.
4°65 | 943 |.22°657
4:58 | 925 |+ 669
4:78 | 950 663
4:90 |.°935. 665
507 | 942 650
5°08 | °935 628
515 | -940 613
517. | °950 592
5-25 | -962 567
516 | -940 567
515 | 940 | —°566
4°98 | :948 583
4:90 | -950 600
4°80 | °950 °621
4°75 | -990 | 621
4°83, | °965 632
4°82 | 949 659
4°82 | -950 654
4°65 | 962 657

422 HUMIDITY OF DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX G.

PAGE:

ON THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY, AND ABSOLUTE AMOUNT OF VAPOUR
CONTAINED IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS
IN THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA.

My observations for temperature and wet-bulb being for the most
part desultory, taken at different dates, and under very different
conditions of exposure, &c., it is obvious that those at one station are
hardly, if at all, comparative with those of another, and I have there-
fore selected only such as were taken at the same date and hour
with others taken at the Calcutta Observatory, or as can easily be
reduced ; which thus afford a standard (however defective in many
respects) for a comparison. I need hardly remind my reader that
the vapour-charged wind of Sikkim is the southerly one, which blows
over Calcutta; that in its passage northwards to Sikkim in the
summer months, it traverses the heated plains at the foot of the
Himalaya, and ascending that range, it discharges the greater part
of its moisture (120 to 140 inches annually) over the outer Hima-
layan ranges, at elevations of 4000 to 8000 feet. The cooling effect
of the uniform covering of forest on the Sikkim ranges is particularly
favourable to this deposition; but the slope of the mountains being
gradual, the ascending currents are not arrested and cooled so sud-
denly as in the Khasia mountains, where the discharge is conse-
quently much greater, The heating of the atmosphere, too, over the
dry plains at the foot of the outer range, increases farther its capa-
city for the retention of vapour, and also tends to render the rain-fall
less sudden and violent than on the Khasia, where the south wind
blows over the cool expanse of the Jheels. It will be seen from the
following observations, that in Sikkim the relative humidity of the
atmosphere remains pretty constantly very high in the summer
months, and at all elevations, except in the rearward valleys; and
even there a humid atmosphere prevails up to 14,000 feet, every-
where within the influence of the snowy mountains. The uniformly
high temperature which prevails throughout the summer, even at
elevations of 17,000 and 18,000 feet, is no doubt proximately due to

APPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. 423

the evolution of heat during the condensation of these vapours. It
will be seen by the pages of my journal, that continued sunshine,
and the consequent heating of the soil, is almost unknown during
the summer, at any elevation on the outer or southward ranges of
Dorjiling: but the sunk thermometer proves that in advancing
northward into the heart of the mountains and ascending, the sun’s
effect is increased, the temperature of the earth becoming in summer
considerably higher than that of the air. With regard to the
observations themselves, they may be depended upon as comparable
with those of Calcutta, the instruments having been carefully com-
pared, and the cases of interpolation bemg few. The number of
observations taken at each station is recorded in a separate column ;
where only one is thus recorded, it is not to be regarded as a single
reading, but the mean. of several taken during an hour or longer
period. I have rejected all solitary observations, even when accom-
panied by others at Calcutta; and sundry that were, for obvious
reasons, likely to mislead. Where many observations were taken at
one place, I have divided them into sets, corresponding to the hours
at which alone the Calcutta temperature and wet-bulb thermometer
are recorded,* in order that meteorologists may apply them to the
solution of other questions relating to the distribution of heat and
moisture. The Dorjiling observations, and those in the immediate
neighbourhood of that station, appeared to me sufficiently numerous
to render it worth while classing them in months, and keeping them
in a series by themselves. The tensions of vapour are worked from
the wet-bulb readings by Apjohn’s formula and tables, corrected
for the height of the barometer at the time. The observations,
except where otherwise noted, are taken by myself.

* Sunrise; 9°50 a.M.; noon; 2°40 p.M.; 4 P.M., and sunset.

424 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING.

Series Ll. Observations made at or near

JANUARY, 1849.

DORJILING.

Place. D. P.| Diff. |Tens.

Hour. ps

—) ee | ee __ | ee | | |

of
Obs
15 | The Dale,* | 6956 ft. |9°50 a.m.} 42°9| 32°4] 10:5} -202
Is
10
8
9

Mr. Muller’s. 45:8 | 30:0) LaOie2ne
A 2:40 p.m.| 48°3! 37°4| 10°9| :241

4 p.m.| 48°6| 37°8| 10°8] 244
46°5| 37°11 9:4] -238

Dorjiling.

CALCUTTA.

Tp. Ke P.| Diff. | Tens.

= SC

72°9| 55°7| 17°2| 455
76:1} 55-1} 21-0| -444
75°1| 54°8| 20-3] -440
71:8) 54:9) 16°9| -441

—_—_——- | | ce |

57 ee | ue Mean) 46-4) 35°7| 10-7| -227|| 72°7| 55:2) 17.5] 445
Dorjiling—Humidity. . . . . 0700 Calcutta. . 0°562
we Vapour in cubic foot of
atmosphere . 2°68 gr. ~ 4°86 gr.
JANUARY, 1850.

DORJILING, CALCUTTA.
No.
of Place. Elev. Hour. Tp.°| D.P. | Diff. |Tens. || Tp. | Dies) ite wens:
Obs. ‘

ea Pees aed Me Mee bie Pek eet Boe gf (stax BE.

3 | Jillapahar, | 7430 ft.| Sunrise | 32-8/30-1 | a '186|| 51:5] 48°5) 3-0) -354

6 Mr. --- | 9°50 a.M. | 89°534°7| 4°8 | 219|) 66°9) 55-1) 11°8) -444

3 Hodes Noon | 42°4/38°0| 4:4 | -246)| 74:1] 51°7| 22°4| -395

5 ea 240 p.m. | 41°9/37°8 | 4:1 | -244|| 78°3| 51:4| 26-9) -391

5 re wal 4pm. | 41°1/38°5) 2°6 | -250|| 77-4) 59°5| 17-9|- 514

5 bbs Sunset | 38°7|35°6 | 3°1 | °226/| 72:4| 54°7| 17-7) -438

13 = te Miscel. | 41°9/39°9 | 2:0 | -263)| 77-9] 60-1] 17°8| °525
4 | Saddle of | 7412 ft.) Do. | 41°1/386°4| 4:7 | -233)| 67°7| 57-2| 10-5) -476
road at
Sinchul.

1 | Pacheem. | 7258 ft.) Do. | 39°8| 38-7) 1-1 | -252)| 71-6) 50-5] 21-1) -379
(II ee | SS ey ——— —-——— ss 7 O6SS O- SS — - — ————
| 45 ee a Mean, 39°9| 36°6| 3:3 | -235)| 70-9] 54°3| 16°6| °435

| |
Dorjiling.—Humidity. . 0°890 Calcutta. . 0°580
Weight of vapour . 2°70 gr. Bi 4°86 gr.

“ Observations to which the asterisk is affixed were taken by Mr. Muller.

APPENDIX G.

67°5| 55°3| 12:2) -446 |.

APPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING. 425

FEBRUARY.

DORJILING. CALCUTTA. |

Elev. Hour. ps Ds Ps) Ditt) | Tenss |) Dp: || Dise: | itt | hens:

—_ | ————]| | — ——___ | —_ -____ —

|

7430 ft.| Sunrise. | 36-9] 34°7| 2:2 | -219 || 60°0| 54:2) 5-8) -431
ry 9°50 | 42°9) 38-6] 4:3} -251 || 72:8) 58-8|-14-0) -503
Noon. | 44:8] 41:3] 3°5| -276 || 79:8] 58-7| 21-1) -501

2:40 | 44:81 37-4) 7-4 | -241 || 82°4| 57-9] 24°5) +487

4pm. | 44-0] 35-6]. 8-4 | -226 |) 81-1] 58-1! 23°0| -492

_.. | Sunset. | 42°4| 35:8] 6-6 | -228 ||'76-3| 60°7| 15-6) -536
6956 Mise. | 40:8] 35°1| 5°7 | +222 || 69-9] 59-8} 10°1| -518
Mean! 42°4| 36°9| 5:4 | -238 || 74:6] 58°3/ 16°3| -495

Dorjiling—Humidity. . . . . . 0°828 Calcutta. . 0°590

‘s Weight of vapour. . . 2°75 gr. Fe 5°40 gr.
MARCH.
| DORJILING. CALCUTTA.
au G
peek
ae Place. Elev. Hour. ps, D> Bs) Witt. ey Eps (D> be -Dithy| Mens:
S. . .
10 | Jillapahar, | 7430 ft: | 9°50 a.m.| 44°2/ 42°7| 1°5| -290|| 81-6] 64:1] 17:5
8 1850 aoe Noon. | 45°5| 43:0) 2°5 | °293 || 88-2) 57:0) 31:2
5 at 2°40 p.m.| 46°4| 44:0} 2°4 | °303 || 91°3) 53-2) 38:1
8 4pm. | 45:5) 43:4) 2°1| -297 || 90:1] 52:0) 38-1
6 Bein ee Sunset. | 43°1| 41°5) 1°6 | -278 || 82:9] 63°7| 19-2] °
3 | Pacheem. | 7258 Mise. | 44°8) 44-6) 0:2 | °310 || 85-0} 74-8) 10:2
40 a a Mean| 44-9) 43:2, 1-7 | -295 || 86:5] 60-8) 25-7) -555
re |
Dorjiling.—Humidity. . . . . . 0°940 Calcutta. . 0:438

es Weight of vapour. . . 3°42 gr. 33 DS VANS ip

426 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING. APPENDIX G.

APRIL.
DORJILING. CALCUTTA,
No.
of Place. Elev. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff.| Tens. |; Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
Obs.

ee | |

3 | Jillapahar, | 7430 ft. | 9°50 a.m. | 57°0| 40-2) 16-8] -266 || 90:3) 71-3] 19-0
3 1849, Soe Noon. | 59°8) 44-1) 15-7} -305 || 97-0| 64:5) 32°5
1 Bet oa 2°40 P.M. | 60°2| 44°4| 15°8} -308 || 97°7| 73°4| 24:3
7 | Dr. Camp- | 6932 ft.| 9°50 a.m. | 61°8/ 53°3) 8-5) -417 || 86°7| 66°3| 20-4
2 ... | Noon. | 65:4] 52-8] 12-6] -411 || 91-3] 68-8| 22-5] -
4 4pm. | 57:5) 53°7| 3-8} °423 || 88°6| 72°1| 16°5
3 Sunset. | 56°9| 51:4) 5:5) °892 || 82-8) 73:0) 9-8

— | | ee | NN

23 oe ... | Mean | 59-8] 48-6! 11:3] -360 || 90:6) 69-9! 20-7

Dorjiling.—Humidity. . . . . . 0°684 Calcutta. . 0°523
# Weight of vapour. . . 3°98 gr. - 7°65 gr.

MAY.

DORJILING. CALCUTTA,

No.
of Place. Elev. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens. || Wp. Ds Pa ite tens:

— + | - — | —__ _

Sms al. ol xmal ovo | tae || ocean
3 Hotel, 1848. 6868ft.| Miscell. | 57-2) 55:0) 2-2 443 || 88:6] 78:4! 10°2| -951

Colinton,* |7179ft.

45 1849 Miscell. | 60°4| 57:9) 2°5 | -466 || 90-0! 77:2] 12°8] -917
48 Mean] 58°8| 56°5| 2°4 455
|
Dorjiling—Humidity . . 0°926 Calcutta. . 0°698
' Weight of Vapour 5°22 gr. 5 + 2 290 Se
JUNE.
fe Ee EEE
DORJILING. CALCUTTA,
No.
a Place. Eley. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens. || Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
S.

40 | Colinton.* |7179 ft.) Miscell. | 60°9| 57-6}. 3-3) -483 || 85°5| 78-4] 7-1] -959

Dorjiling :—Humidity . - 0°895 Calcutta. 0°800
a Weight of Vapour 5:39 gr. -s » -« LOT ee

APPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING. 427

JULY.
DORJILING, | CALCUTTA,
No, | | | |
of Place. Elev. Hour. | Tp. |D.P.| Diff |Tens.|| Tp. |D.P. | Diff. | Tens. |
Obs.
18 | Jillapahar, 7430 ft.| 9°50a.m.| 63-2| 61-4] 1-8 |-548 || 87-0 79°4! 7-6 | -983
25 SES Oo... Noon, | 65:0| 62°6} 2:4 |-570 || 89-0; 80:0} 9-0 |1:001
24 ae a3 2°40 P.M.| 64°7| 62°3| 2°4 |°565 || 88°1|79°4| 8:7 | -988
16 aoe ds 4 63°8| 61°5| 2°3 |°550 || 87°2| 79°5| 7-7 | -985
31 | The Dale,* | 6952 ft.) 6 a.m. 60°2| 58°7) 1°5 |-5387 || 81°3| 79-0) 2°3 | -969
31 1848. de 2P.M. | 66°3} 63°3] 3°0 |°621 || 88°0|79°6| 8:4] -989
31 r 6 21 79°2| 5°6'| -977
176 ah Sei Mean |79°4| 7:0| -984
Doyjiling.—Humidity : . 0929 Calcutta . . 0°800
4 Weight of Vapour . 6:06 gr. i 10°45 gr.
AUGUST.
DORJILING. | CALCUTTA.
No. |
sas Place. Elev. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|| Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
Ss
23 | Jillapahar, |7430 ft. | 9°50 a.m. | 64°2| 62°4| 1°8 |-567 |/85-8 | 79°1| 6°7 | -973
21 1848. Ns Noon. | 64°7| 63°3) 1:4 |-584 ||87°2 | 79-2) 8-0 | ‘976
Le es the 2°40 p.m. | 64°7| 62°8| 1°9 |-574 ||87°4 | 79-3] 8-1 | 979
13 Bas ban 4 63°9| 62°5| 1-4 |-568 ||86°5 | 79°5| 7:0 | 984
SL | The Dale,* |6952 ft.| 6 a.m. | 60°5/ 59-5; 1:0 |-551 ||80°8 | 78-8] 2:0 | 962
31 1848. ve 2P.M. | 65:3] 63°6| 1°7 |°628 |/87°2 | 79:2) 8-0 | 976
31 ae we 6 62°8) 61°8} 1:0 |°591 ||83-7 | 78°7| 5:0 | -959
167 Mean | 63°7| 62°3| 1:5 |°580 || 85°5) 79°1| 6-4 | -973
Dorjiling.— Humidity : . 0955 Calcutta . 0°818
bs Weight of Vapour . 6°25 gr. 3 10°35 gr.
SEPTEMBER, -
DORJILING. CALCUTTA.
No.
ae Place. Elev. Hour. lo D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|| Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens,
Ss.
28 | Jillapahar, |7430 ft. | 9°50 a.m.| 60°8/59°3 | 1°5 | -511|| 87-0] 78-4! 8-6 | 952
23 1848. oe Noon. | 62°4/60°3 | 2°1 | °528]| 88-5| 78°1)10°4 | 943
23 oe ... | 240 P.M. |62°4/59°6| 2°8 | -516)| 88°1! 77-4/10°7 | 922
21 ae ae 4 62°0/59°6 | 2:4 | -516]| 86°9| 77-1) 9°8 | 914
30 | The Dale,* |6952 ft.) 6 am. |57°4/56-2 | 1:2 | -495]| 80°9| 78°3| 2°6 | 948
30 1848. fe 2P.M. | 64°9/60°8| 4:1 | °573]| 88-8] 77-4|11°4 | °923
30 ae oe Go: 60°8|59°0 | 1:8 | -543]| 84°7| 76°6| 8-1] °899
185 Mean | 61°5| 59-3| 2°3 | -526)| 86:4] 77-6] 8-8 | 929
Dorjiling—Humidity . . 0-932 Calcutta. 6°760
= Weight of Vapour . 5°72 gr. ; “19°33 or

428 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING. APPENDIX G. —

OCTOBER.
DORJILING. CALCUTTA.
No.
of Place. Elev. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|| Tp. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
Obs.
6 | Jillapahar, | 7430 ft.) Noon. | 55-9 55:3} 0°6 | -446}| 84°4| 75:3} 9:1] -863
6 1848. ae 2°40 p.m. | 55°7) 54:9} 0°8 | -440}| 86-0] 73-3] 12°7| -808
6 Bie ae 4pm. | 55°6) 54:9} 0°7 | -441]| 85:2) 74:4] 10°8|) -837
4 Goong. 7436 ft.| Mise. | 48:3) 48:3} 0:0 | °352}| 81:2] 73°7| 7-5) 819
8 ditto. 7441 ft.| ditto. | 51°2) 50-2) 1-0) :376||.80°7| 66°9) 13°8| °657
8 | The Dale.* | 6952 ft.| 6 a.m. | 55:2) 52°7| 2:5 | -439]| 76-1) 74:2) 1°9| -834
ne as ee 2p.M. | 61:4! 56:3) 5:1 | -497|| 87-0) 71:2] 15°8] -756
19 oh otis 6p.mM. | 56°9| 54:2| 2°7 | -463)| 82°8| 73°9| 8-9) -824
74 ae waz Mean | 55:0| 53°4| 1°7 | -482!| 82°9| 72°9) 10-1 300
Dorjiling—Humidity. “9... = -/0:950 Calcutta. . 0°658
Weight of vapour. . . 4°74 gr. 3 . 8°55 gr.
NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER.
DORJILING. | CALCUTTA.
ae ae are |
Elev. Hour. Tp. |D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|| Tp. |D. P.| Diff | Tens.
6952 ft.| 6 a.m. | 45°6| 41°4 27 7||-67°9|- 64:71 3:2 a
: 2 P.M 60:0} 48°3} 11°7| °355]| 83°3} 65:2) 18°1| -621

280 || 79°3| 59-0] 20°3) -505
-269|| '75°8| 62°6| 13°2| -569

4-2
te
6 50°6| 44°7| 5:9) °311]| 77-3] 63°1| 14-2) -579
8°0
3'5

Mean | 49°9| 43°3) 6°7) -298|| 76°7| 62:9] 13°8| °577

Dorjiling—Humidity. . . . . . 0°798 Calcutta. . 0°640
5s Weight of vapour. . . 3°40er . 6°27 gr.

Se ”

PPENDIX G, HUMIDITY OF AIR AT DORJILING, 429

Comparison of Dorjiling and Calcutta.

erate WEIGHT ory oon a CUBIC
ao A Month. Dorjiling. | Calcutta.| 5) ae Dorjiling. | Calcutta. | eae
102.) January, . . | —°795 ‘D71 | + °224 || —2°68 —4°80 |} + 2°12
97 | February. . "828 590 | + 238 2°75 5°40 | + 2°65
ANeeWaren. i... °940 —'438 | + °502 3°42 5°72 | + 2°30
eT 6 ss 684 °523 | +161 3°98 7°65 | + 3°67
BoeMay = 4-4. « "926 698 | + °228 5°22 9:90 | + 4°62
21) | 8 iva "895 800 | + :095 5°39 10°17 | + 4:7
Tpaceduly <5... *929 "800 | + :129 6°06 10:05 | + 3°99
167 | August . . {+955 |/+ °818 | +1386 ||/+ 6°25. |+10°35.)/4 4°10
185 | September . "932 ‘760 | + °172 5°72 9°88 |} + 4°16
72) October '. ©. "950 7658 | + °292 4°74 8°55.) + 3°81
46 | Nov. and Dec. "798 ‘640 | + 7158 3°40 6:27 | + 2:87
998 Mean| 0°876 0°663 | + °212 4°51 8°07 |+ 3°55

It is hence evident, from nearly 1,000 comparative observations,
that the atmosphere is relatively more humid at Dorjiling than at
Calcutta, throughout the year. As the southerly current, to which
alone is due all the moisture of Sikkim, traverses 200 miles of land,
and discharges from sixty to eighty inches of rain before arriving at
Dorjiling, it follows that the whole atmospheric column is relatively .
drier over the Himalaya than over Calcutta; that the absolute
amount of vapour, in short, is less than it would otherwise be at the
elevation of Dorjiling, though the relative humidity is so great. A
glance at the table at the end of this section appears to confirm this;
for it is there shown that, at the base of the Himalaya, at an
elevation of only 250 feet higher than Calcutta, the absolute
amount of vapour is less, and of relative humidity greater, than at
Calcutta.

4
:

APPENDIX |

430 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS.

Spries 11.—Observations at various Stations and Elevations in the Anal
of Kast Nepal and Sikkim.

ELEVATION 735 TO 2000 FEET.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA,
He. Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|/Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Ten;
Obs.
3 | Katong Ghat. Teestariver.| 735 | Dec. | 60:2) 55:3) 4-9) -447|| 73-2) 56°7| 16°5|-468
2 | Great Rungeet, at bridge 818 | April | 82°8) 63°5] 19-3] -588}| 95-8} 61:9] 33°9|-557.
1 Ditto. » | May | 77-8} 60:3) 17-5} -528]| 91°7| 78°3] 13°4|-947
3 | Tambur river, E. Nepal 1388 | Nov. | 60°6) 57-0| 3°6| -473|| 73°3| 62°7| 10°6]-571
1 | Ditto . : 1457 | Nov. | 64:2} 59:1) 5:1] °507|| 77:3) 63°4| 13°9]-582
6 | Bhomsong, Teesta river 1596 | Dec. | 58°6| 52:0) 6°6| °399|| 71-6) 57-0) 14°6|-474
1 | Ditto. ; : ; .| 5, | May | 68°2| 66:4} 1:8] -647|| 82°6| 77-4) 5°2/-92¢
5 | Little Rungeet 1672 |.Jan, | 51:0} 50:2] 0°8] :377|| 58°5| 58-0) 0°5]-488
5 | Pemiongchi, Great Rungeet 1840 | Dec. | 54°6| 53°7| 0:9) -424|| 73°5| 66°2| 73/644!
11 | Punkabaree .| 1850 | March] 70°1| 55-6) 14°5} -472/| 79°2| 62-6] 16°6]-570¢
Ditto . » | May | 73°5| 68:3] 5-2] -687|| 83°7| 77-9] 5-8)-938
10 | Guard house (Gt. Rungeet) 1864 |} April | 73°7| 63°8| 9°9} °592|| 92°4| 67-0) 25°4|-66¢
48 Mean | 66°3| 58°8| 7:5) °512|| 79-4| 65°8] 13°6|-652
Humidity ; : eq lle Calcutta 663
Weight of Vapour 5°57 gr. i. 6°88 gry
ELEVATION 2000 TO 3000 FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM, | CALCUTTA.
No. | a
ae Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem. |D. P.| Diff. |Tens. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Ten:
Ss.
2 | Singdong 2116| Dec. | 60°5| 53:4) 7-1) -419 | 72-1 52°9| 19°2)-41)
8 Mywa Guola, E. Nepal . | 21382} Nov. | 66°2| 57°5| 8°7| -481 | 75°7| 68-°7| 7-0)-69")
3 | Pemmi river, ditto 2256| Nov. | 55°6) 53°9| 1:7| -426 | 62:9] 62°3) 0°6\-561;
3 | Tambur river, ditto 2545| Nov. | 57°3|} 51°6| 5-7| °394|| 75:0] 63°7| 11°3|-59:
2 | Blingbong (Teesta) 2684| May | 72°6| 64:0| 8:6] -597|| 81-7| 73-6) 8-1)-81’
8 | Lingo ditto 2782| May | 75:8| 67°3| 8-5] -666 | 90°7| 77-7) 13°0|-93%
12 | Serriomsa ditto 2820! Dec. | 64°1| 56°8| 7:3} -469|| 70°S8| 62°4| 8:4/-56')
8 | Lingmo ditto 2849] May | 68°6) 64:6; 4°0)-610 | 87-9) 74-9] 13-0|-85.
3 | Ditto ditto . 2952| Dec. | 56°4| 53°5| 2°9|-420)| 69-5] 66°5| 3-0|-64'
eae, ae aA ee ae |
49 Mean | 64°1| 58°1| 6:1) 498 | 76°3] 67°0| 9°3)-67.
Humidity ; "820 Caleutta ‘740
Weight of Vapour 5:45 gr. - : 7-13 ge

\PPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS, 431
ELEVATION 38000 TO 4000 FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. ere
No.
aot Locality. Elev. | Month.|Tem.|D,. P.| Diff.|Tens.|/Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.
Obs. Pe et oe
5 | Kulhait river. 3159| Jan. | 49-8) 47-0] 2°8| -337|| 65°8| 57:3} 8°5|-477
_ 9 | Ratong river . 3171 | Jan. | 44-2) 43-0} 1:2) -294]| 69-9) 56-6) 13°3}-466
3 | Tambur river 3201 | Nov. | 53°0| 50°0| 3°0/ -373]| 72°9| 63°2) 9°7|-582
2 | Chingtam. . 3404 | Nov. | 54°8/ 49-0} 5-8} -360/| 74:9] 73:0} 1°9)'802
2 | Tikbotang . 3763 | Dec. | 56°5| 53°4| 3:1} -419]| 68-0] 61:8] 6°2)°555
7 | Myong Valley. 3782 | Oct. | 61-4) 58-4) 3-0) -496|/ 80-7) 71:2} 9°5)°755
7 | Iwariver . : 3783 | Dec. | 47°5) 45°6| 1-9) -321|| 73:3] 64°7) 8°6)°611
1 | Ratong river . 3790| Jan. | 56°2| 41:1) 15:1) -275)| 75-8] 53-0) 22°8)-414
3 | Tukcham 3849 | Nov. | 68°8) 65°4| 3:4) °625)| 83°7| 76°8) 6°9|-904
1 | Pacheem village 3855| Jan, | 54°5| 46-3} 8-2) °329)) 73°6| 59°4| 14°2)°513
1 | Yankoong , 8867 | Dec. | 50°0| 43°6| 6:4] -299)| 69-1) 63-8) 5°3/-593
2 | Mikk ; 3912| May | 66°1| 63°9| 2:2) -595)) 84:3] 75-1) 9-2/-856
5 | Sunnook 3986 | Dec, | 47°9| 45°5| 2:4) -320)| 69:4) 61°1| 8°3/-542
48 Mean| 54°7) 50°2| 4:5 388 740 64-4 4} 9°6)'621
Humidity : 858 Calcutta 732
Weight of Vapour 4°23 gr ae . 6°60 gr.
ELEVATION 4000 TO 5000. FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
No.
ms Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem. | D. P.|. Diff. |Tens.}|Tem. D. P.. Diff. |\Tens
3 | Yangyading »|4111 | Dec. | 52°0) 43°6| 8°4|-300 || 71:1) 67:2) 3°9|-663
fe iiGorh > .|4128 | May | 66-4) 59°0| 7°4|-506 || 85-5) 74:2) 11°3]-834
2| Namgah . : | 4229 | Oct. | 57:2) 54:1) 3:°1)-429 || 80°8) 73°7| 7-1|-819
3 Taptiatok (Tambur) .| 4283 | Nov. | 51°3/ 45:8} 5°5|-323 || 73:3) 64:8} 8-5)-614
7 | Myong Valley .| 4345 | Oct. | 59°1) 57°38) 1°3)-487 || 81°7| 72°9| 8°8|-797
3 | Jummanoo .| 4862 | Nov. | 60°4| 50:0) 10°4/°374 || 77-4) 70°2| 7-2|-'731
6 | Nampok .|4377 | Dec. | 49°6| 49°1| 0°5)°362 || 64:1) 56°3) 7-8)-462
7 | Chakoong. .| 4407 | May | 57°8| 57-6) 0°2)-483 || 83-9 76°2| 7-7|-889
10 | Singtam | 4426| May | 62-4 61-7| 0°7/'553 || 88-6 79-0 9-6/-969
5 | Namten | .| 4483 | Dec. | 44°7| 44°38) 0°4|°307 || 64°8 58°3) 6°5|:495
5 | Purmiokshong .| 4521 | Nov. | 60°5| 56°5| 4:0)°466 || 79:2| 69:5! 9°7|-715
2 | Rungniok .| 4565 | Jan. | 54°7) 44:3) 10°4/°307 || 66°5, 59°7| 6-8|-517
16 | Singtam . : = .| 4575 | O.&N.| 63°8) 60°71). 3°7)°525 || 82°5 76°7| 58-901
6 | Cheadam .| 4653} Dec. | 51:4) 46°6| 4°8)-332 || 70-2 55°0| 15°2)-442
4 | Sablakoo .| 4676 | Dec, | 50°1) 44°9| 5°2)-314 || 72°9 65-7} 7-2|-632
4 | Bheti .| 4683 | Nov. | 59:0] 52°3} 6°7|-405 || 78-3, 66-1] 12°2|-639
2) Temi. | 4771 | May | 59:8) 50°1| 9°7|374 || 81-2 74:1] 7:1|-834
4 | Lingtam. .|4805 | May | 60°4| 56°6! 3°8)-467 || 80-0 73°8) 6-2)-820
7 | Khersiong . | 4813} Jan. | 51°0) 45°2) 5:8)-316 || 67-0. 49:8] 17-2|-370
BI Ditto ‘| 4, | March] 53-6| 45-5) 8-1/-320 || 77-1 70°5| 66-738
3 | Tassiding _| 4840 | Dee. | 52°0| 46°6) 54/333 || 79°7, 60°8] 18-9|-538
6 | Lingcham | 48%0 | Dec. | 48°5) 46:1) 2°4|-327 || 78°5 71-8) 6°7|-771
11 | Dikkeeling . | 4952 | Dec, | 62°0| 55°38; 6°7)-447 || 80°8 62:0) 18°8|-559
9 | Tchonpong | 4978 | Jan. | 49°4| 34°7| 14°7)-219 || 71-0 54-7) 16°3)-439
137 Mean| 55°7| 50°4) 54,387 || 76-5 66°8| 9-7! 675 |
|
Humidity - 837 Calcutta 730
Weight of Vapour 4°33 pr. as a her

poet him + bass

432 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. | APPENDIX G.

ELEVATION 5000 TO 6000 FEET. q

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
of Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem. |D. P.| Diff. |Tens.||Tem. |D. P.|Diff. | Tens. | —
Obs.
4 | Nampok . : : -|5075| May | 65:8} 60:8) - 5°0|-537 || 83°1 74°7| 8:4) °845
4| Tengling, ©... *|5257| Jan. | 44-7] 39-1] 5°6|-257 || 65-4] 88-1] 27-3) “247
2 | Choongtam, sunrise . -| 5368 | May | 54:9) 54°7|- 0°2)438 || 78°2| 73°9| 4°3) °826
7 i. 9-50 am. . ‘| » | May | 71-5| 58°9| 12°6|-504 || 89-8] 80-0] 9-8/1-000
5 i noon . |. | May | 71:0) 59°4| 11°6|-513 |} 92°7) 79°9| 12°8) -999
3 - Ose eM. . +| » | May | 66-4] 59-4) 7-0|-518 || 95-4) 78-7) 16°7| -959
4 i 4pm. . «| .. | May | 63-5| 59:2]. 4°3]-510 || 98-6] '79°0| 14-6] -971
6 | a sunset. -| ,, | May | 61-4| 60-5] 0-9|-582 || 89-1] '77-1| 12°0| -915
8 re 9°50 A.M. .| 4, | Aug. | 76°3] 66°1| 10°2/-640 85°3} 78°9| 6°4| :967.
8 re noon. . +f ,, | Aug. | 788) 67°8| 11°0|-677 || 86°6| 78°8| 7-8) -965
i - 2°40 P.M. idee Aug. | 72°9| 66°5| 6°4|'649 || 86°4| 78°8) 7-6| “963
6 na 4 P.M. . «| 4, | Aug. | 69°5| 66°8) 2°7|-655 || 85°3) 79°83) 6-0) “980
8 i sunsct . -| ,, | Aug. | 66-9| 65:4| 1°5|-627 || 83-6] 78-5| 5:1] -956
5 | Sulloobong . : _ .| 5277| Nov. |57°6| 51°2| 6°4|390 || 79°4| 65°8| 13°6| -634
6 | Lingdam . 5 ; .| 5875 | Dec, | 44°3| 43°0| 1°3):293 || 68-8] 59°9) 8-9) 521
3 | Makaroumbi . : . | 5485] Nov. | 52°1/ 48:1) 4:0|°350 || 72°) 60°5) 12°0) -532
8 | Khabang . ‘ ; .|5505| Dec. | 55:1) 47°3| 7°8|°340 || 75:0) 64°7| 10°3) -611
6 | Lingdam. , : . .15554| Dee. | 45:0) 43°7| 1°3)°301 || 71-0] 56-5} 14°5| -466
3 | Yankutang. : : .| 5564 | Dec. | 48°6| 41°7| 1°9)-280 || 69°5| 63°1| 6:4) 579)
4 | Namtchi. : , . .|5608| May | 67:1) 61:2) 5°9|-544 || 87°7| 74-9] 12°8) 8507
6 | Yoksun : ' ‘ .| 5619) Jan. | 42°7| 34:0) 8°7|°214 || 68°2| 58°1) 10-1) -492
16 | Ditto. . : é . «f 4, | Jam. | 43°0| 83-9) 9°1|-218 || 66°2| 51-9) 14°38) °399
2 | Loongtoong ‘ ; .|5677| Nov. | 45°3| 42°8| 2°5|°292 || 7271) 63°8} 8°3) -595)
4 | Sakkiazong . ; . .|5625| Nov. | 5471) 50°9| 3°2)°358 || 78°3) 66°1|12°2| -639
3 | Phadong 8 A.M. : | 5946 | Nov. | 51°9| 50-8} 1°1|°383 || 75:0) 67°5| 7-5) -670
3 * 9°50 A.M. . .| gy | Nov. | 55:9) 58-0} 2°9)°413 |) 80°9 67°9| 13:0] -678}
3 a3 noon. ‘ | ,, | Nov. | 60°7| 56°5) 4:2/-465 || 85°6| 64:8) 20°8} 613
3 5 2°40 P.M. . al gy | Nov. | 57°4| 54°7) 2°7/-438 || 86°6| 62°2| 24-4) -562)
2 “3 4 P.M. ; here Nov. | 55°5| 52°8) 2°7)°410 || 85°5| 61-9] 23°6} -557
3 45 sunset . . al ap | Nov. | 58°7] 52°6) 1°1|-408 |) 80°6) 67°4| 13°2) 667%
3 | Tumloong : : .| 5868! Nov. | 64:2) 62°6| 1°6|:570 || 83°8| 77-5) 6°38) 9247
22 * 9°50 A.M. . .| 5976 54°1| 50°0|. 4°1)°375 || 75:1| 61°9| 13-2) -5579
21 ks noon . . af) | Nov. |57°3] 51°7| 5:6|'896 || 79°7| 60-1) 19°6) “5240
20 ” odopM. . .| 5 9 & 4 57:3] 51-4]. 5-9]-391 || 81:3] 58-0] 23°3| 489F,
21 Z Apu... |. | Dee. | 54°7| 50°5| 4-2|-380 |] 80-2| 58:6) 21°6] -499
21 i. sunset. she 518) 48°5| 3°3)°355 | 76°7| 61:2) 15°5) 545)
260 Mean | 57°7| 53°3| 4°5|-488 76 67-8, 98) “700
Humidity E : . °865 Calcutta . °730

Weight of Vapour . . 4°70gr. FS . ¢°34 gr.

APPENDIX G.

_
RTH ROH DRE DE

rs]

VOL. II.

HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. 433
ELEVATION 6000 TO 7000 FEET.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA,
Locality. Elev. | Month. | Tem.| D. P.| Diff. |Tens.||Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.
Runkpo 6008 | Nov. | 57°5| 54:8) 2°7/ -440)| '79-5| 73-4] 6-1| -810
Leebong 6021 | Feb. | 47°8) 43°7) 4:1) 300)| 74-9| 59°7| 15-2) °517
Ditto » |dan. | 47°8) 43:4) 4:4) +297)! 66-9] 56:2) 10°7| -460)
Dholep 6133 | May | 60°5| 59-9} 0°6 -520)| 89-4) 81-4) 8-0} 046
Iwa River 6159 | Dec. | 41:2) 40°5| 0°7) -269]|| 69-6! 60-2) 9-4] -527
Dengha 6368 | Aug. | 66°7| 64:0} 2°7, °597|| 86°1| 78°8| 7:3] -962
Kulhait River . 6390 | Dec. | 41°9} 41°9) 0°0, °283)| 71:2) 60°9| 10°4| 539
Latong 6391 | Oct. | 54:0) 53-2) 0-8 -416)| 55:5] 44-1] 11-4] -305
Doobdi 6472 | Jan. | 46°6| 36°2) 10:4 *231)| 78°7| 58-0) 20°7| -490
Pemiongchi . 6584 | Jan. | 40°7/ 35°8 4:9) *228)|| 66°3| 54°4; 11°9] -434
Keadom 6609 | Aug. | 63°5] 60°0) 38°5) °523)) 79°7| 77-5) 2-2) -925)
Hee-hill 6677 | Jan. | 40°8) 34°1|} 6°7| °215)| 64-0] 58-0} 6-0/ -489
Dumpook . : 6678 | Jan. | 40°2| 31°8) 8:4 *198 | 68°) 53°8) 14-7) “426
Changachelling . 6828 | Jan. | 50°6} 31°8) 18°8 *198)| 68°3] 53:6) 14°8) 423)
Mean| 50-0/ 45-1) 4:9 337 | 72'S| 62-1) 10°6| -597

pase eo
Humidity : 845 Calcutta . ‘701
Weight of Vapour 3°60 gr. © 6°11 gr.
ELEVATION 7000 TO 8000 FEET.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA,
Locality. Elev. | Month.|Tem./D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|| Tem. D. P.| Diff. |Tens.
Pemiongchi 7083 | Jan. | 46°2) 33°5} 12°7| -210]| 76°8) 51-8) 25-0} 396
Goong . 72161 Nov. | 49°0/ 48°5| 0°5) °855}| 79-7) 69°1| 10-6} °705
Kampo-Samdong 7329 {40 } 59°1| 58-2) 0-9| -493]| 83-6 77-4] 6-2} -929
Hee-hill 7289 | Jan. | 51°3) 26-4) 24-9} -163]| 72°8) 56°6| 16:2) -466
Ratong river 7143 | Jan 36°5| 25°3} 11:2] -157/| 60°0| 52°9| 7-1) 412)
Source of Balasun 7436 | Oct. | 48°3] 48°3! 0-0} -352]| 81:2) 73°7| 7:5) 819)
Goong ridge 7441 | Do 51:2} 50°2} 1:0} :376}| 80°7| 66°9| 13°8| -657
Dorjiling. Mean| 48°8) 41:5) _ 7°3| -301||. 76°4| 64:1} 12°3} -625)

From mean of above and f Humidity ‘ 6 826 Calcutta 668

Dorjiling . | Weight of Vapour . 3°85 er. e . 7°28 gr.

434 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX G. |

ELEVATION 8,000 TO 9,000 FEET,

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
|
ca Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.||Tem.|D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
Obs. |
4 | Sinchul . . ; ‘| 8607 | Jan. |41°7| 34°3| 7:4 |-216 || 66:3) 56°9| 9-4) 472
2| Ditto . : . *| 4 | April | 66-8} 44-6)22-2 |-310 || 96-9) 75-4| 21-5} -866
1 | Ascent of Tonglo -| 8148 | May | 56-2) 54°4| 1°8 |-434 || 86-8) 78-9) 7-9) -967
2.) Vambur river... : . «| 8081 | Nov. | 38:0) 33°9| 4:1 |:213 || 71°7| 64:1) 7-6) -599
3 | Sakkiazong ; , .| 8353 | Nov. | 49°7| 37-4|12°3 |-241 || 74:0) 62:4) 11°6} -566
4 | Chateng : ; . «| 8418] Oct. | 43-8} 43°2] 0°6 |:299 || 79-2) 77-5) 1°7| 926
6.) Buckim:, ~.. : : .| 8659 | Jan. | 30-2) 22°8; 7:4 |-143 || 68-6) 49-4] 19°2) -366
9. || Ditto, .: : ; . «| 4, | dan, | 383-9) 3371) 0°8 |-207 || 69°8| 52-2) 17-6) “403
1 | Chateng . 2 ‘ .| 8752 | May | 67-2] 60°7| 6°5 |-536 || 89-7] 76°8| 12°9| -904
11. | Lachoong. . 7 A.M. = cs ES dnd 53°3| 51-1] 2-2 |-388 || 83°0| 78:9) 4:1) O67
12 ms . 9°50 AM Fs 60°2| 55°3| 4:9 |-447 || 87-1) 79-9] 7-2) 999
7 Py . noon. 5 Aug. | 61:6) 57°1| 4°5 |:475 || 90°1| 79 -4| 10°7) -983
4 a; . 2:40 P.M. 5 . & | 58-1! 56:4) 1°7 |-464 || 88-0] 80-0} 8:0/1-007
7 :, . 4 P.M. baal easy Oct. | 58°6| 53°8) 4°8 |-424 || 87°5| 79-4) 8-1] -981
10 Z . sunset i 55°5| 54°3| 1°2 |-432 || 84:5] 78°7| 5:8) 959
| 12 ‘ Mceel neous A 55°9| 49°6| 6°3 |-368 || 85°9| 75:2| 10°7| -858
TO. |, Twamiteng© (5 GeAcMe te .| 8884 Ma 53°9) 52:0} 1:9 |-400 || 59-5] 56°4| 3:1) 464
10 y 29:50 aad Vales ieee 62:8] 56°2| 6°6 |-461 | 88-3] 78°7| 9-6] -959]
4 - . noon sly eas Scie 62°8| 56°2| 6°6 |461 || 92-0) 78-0) 14:0) -939
5 mr bd OP UN eek al aa i 58°3| 54°4| 3°9 |-435 || 92°2| 78-4) 13°8) -950
6 re . 4PM. i hea 56°2| 54°7| 1°5 |-438 || 92°3) 77-1) 15-2) -914
8 . sunset nee 8: | 533] 52:5] 0°8 |-407 || 88-1) 77°4| 10-7] -922
11 | Zemu Samdong . 74a.M._ .| 8976 55°7| 55°3| 0°4 |-448 || 80°4| 79°8) 0°6| 997
11 ‘ 950 am 4, |[y,,6 | 59°7| 52'8| 6-9 |-412 || 86-3] 79-0] 7-3] 969)
7 Ae = MOON. y alee & 63°1| 5771) 6°0 |-473 || 88-0) 79°8| 8-2} -994]
6 r . 240 PM..| ,, Tie 61°0| 58°6) 2°4 |:500 || 89-6) 78:2) 11-4) -944)
8 4 . sunset Y | 57-9) 56-1] 1-8 |-459 || 89-3) 79-0| 103) -970
10 » SP ele 53°8| 52:6} 1:2 |:407 || 82-7| 77-3) 5:4) -920
i Goong : : . .|8999| Nov. | 49-0} 48°5) 0°5 |-355 || 79°7| 69-1) 10°6| “705
1 | Tendong (top) : : .| 8663 | May | 55:5} 50:0) 5°5 |-3738 || 88°6| 78-1) 10°5| -943)7
193 Mean| 54°5| 500] 4-5 | 388 || 83°7| 73°7| 9:8) -847))
Humidity . : Be patel 5s) Calcutta . -730 @
Weight of Vapour eo eater a . 8-75 gam
ELEVATION 9,000 TO 10,000 FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
No. e
Waoe Localities. Elev. | Month. | Tem. |/D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|/Tem.|D. P.| Diff. Tens. | |
ys i |
4 | Yangma Guola . : .| 9279 | Nov. | 37:8) 33:1] 4:7|-207 || 72°7| 61-4] 11°3| +5499)
8 | Nanki. . ; : . «| 9820} Nov. | 42°3) 38°3) 4:0|-249 || 52:2) 48°3) 3-9 852]
4 | Singalelah . , ; .| 9295 | Dec. | 36°2| 35:7]. 0°5|-227 || 70°9| 62:1) 8-8) “560%
| 1 | Sakkiazong . : . .| 9322] Nov. | 53-5] 33-3] 20-2|-209 |] 80-0] 57-3] 22°7| -478%
1 | Zemu river. ; : .| 9828 | June | 60°0| 47:6] 12°4| 348 || 93°3] 81:9) 11°4)1-0627
| 18 Mean | 46:0] 37°6| 8°4| -247|| 73-8] 62°2| 11-6; -600) |
Humidity — : ~ ar Caleutta .:- . °724
Weight of V: apour. 2°80 er. 5 . 6:28 7

APPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. 43

Or

ELEVATION 10,000 TO 11,000 FERT.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA,

Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.}| Diff. |Tens.|}Tem./D. P.| Diff. | Tens.

13 | Tonglo . . . .| 10,008) May | 51-5] 50-2) 1-3 |-376 || 88-8] 80:8] 8-0/1-030
3 | Nanki. ; , - «| 10,024) Nov. | 42:8] 35:5] 7:3 |-225 || 79-5] 65-8] 13°7| °633

4 | Yalloong river ‘ .| 10,058) Dec. | 37°7| 29°6| 8-1 |:183 || 77-7] 62-1] 15°6] *560

2 | Tonglo top. : . .| 10,079] May | 49:9) 47-9] 2:0 |-348 || 89-4] 80-5} 8-9/1:018

2| Yeunga . ; ; .| 10,196] Oct. | 45°9) 44°7) 1-2 |-311 || 79°51 77-1] 2:4) °915

4 | Zemu river. . .| 10,247) June | 45:4] 44-2) 1:2 |-306 || 84°6] 75:1] 9:5) °856

10 | Wallanchoon . : .| 10,384) Nov. | 37:9} 30:2) 7°7 |:187 || 76°5| 61-9] 14°6| °558
4.| Laghep. . : . .| 10,423) Nov. | 46:0] 42:4] 3°6 |:287 || 80-9] 68-0] 12°9) °681

mt Ditto... Al eat Nov. | 37°6| 37:0} 0°6 |:238 || 75:3] 69:4] 5°9| °712

16 | Thlonok river 7 ALM. . .| 10,846) June | 48°5| 47:2) 1:3 |:339 || 79:0) 75-1) 3°9) °856
2 Wy ‘ S50 7A. M. |) 4, June | 57°6| 51:4] 62 |-392 || 87-4] 78:8) 8:6) -965
9 Fs POON a. cil es June | 56°1| 50°6| 5:5 |°382 || 90-0] 79-3] 10°7| -979

8 Fe 74A0PM. .| 5, June | 54°8| 50°6) 4:2 |°381 || 88°5! 79°7] 8:8) -991

9 POEM we cl gs June | 53-4] 50°6| 2°8 |:381 || 88°7| 78°7| 10°0| -962

15 sunset . June | 49-8) 48-9} 0°9 |°359 || 85°5| 78:0] 7:5} -938
4 Yangma Valley . ae 10, 999| Dee. | 31-6| 24-3) 7-3 |-149 || 74-4] 619] 123] -558

123 Mean | 46°7| 42°8) 3°8 | °303}| 82:8] 73°3| 9°5 +826

Humidity . : OLS Calcutta . ‘740
Weight of Vapour 6 a Soo gr 6 2 8: (ret

ELEVATION 11,000 TO 12,000 FEET,

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. | CALCUTTA.

Locality. Elev. |Month.|Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|/Tem.|D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
3 | Barfonchen . ; .11,233 | Nov. | 86°8| 31°9} 4-9 |°198 || 76°3| 69°6) 6°7 | °719
3 | Punying . . ./11,299| Aug. | 50:2] 49°5) 0°7 |-367 || 84°5| 78°8| 5:7 | °963
1 | Kambachen village ‘ ./11,378 | Dec. | 43°3] 82°5/10-8 |-208 || 80°0| 61:2/18°8 | °544
12 | Tallum 7am. . . ./11,482| July | 50-4) 47-8) 2°6 |°347 || 85-0) 80-3} 4-7 |1:010
6 3 9:50 a.M. . -| y | duly | 58:1) 50°5| 7-6 |-380 || 88-1) 79°7| 8-4} -993
8 a noon . » el 4, | duly | 57-9).50°8) 7-1 |-384 || 89°7| 81:3} 8-4 |1:043
5 ss 240 PM. . “| 4, | duly | 55°7| 50°2| 5°5 |-377 || 89:3) 80°6| 8-7 11020
6 » 4pm. . .| 4, | duly | 54:3] 50-1] 4-2 |-375 || 90:3) 79-4/10-9 | -981
6 sunset. aly July | 48°8) 47-3) 1°5 |:340 || 86°6) 80-0] 6°6 {1-001
2 | Kambachen Valley . .|11,484| Dec. | 30°4/ 26:0) 4°4 |-161 || 69°9| 59°5/10°4 | -515
. |10 | Yeumtong7 a.m. . ./11,887 44°4| 43°8) 0°6 |°302 || 83-0! 78:9) 4:1 | °967
9 i GED07A.M. a5 el Aug. | 53°6| 48°9) 4:7 |°360 || 87:5) 78°7| 8:8 | 959
| 5 - noon?" . ata Sep. | 54:5} 48°3) 6:2 |:353 || 89°7| 77°2/12°5 |. -917
7 ‘i DA OREM <5. «oxi +95 & 48:8) 47-4] 1:4 |-342 ||-87-2) 77-2)10-0 | -915
4 ee Ay PS Mee bo A eee Oct. | 48°4) 47-1} 1:3 |°338 || 85:2) 77-8) 7:4 | -934
10 » sunset ae | Aber 42:0] 35°9| 6°1 |-229 || 60°6| 58°5} 2-1 | -497
a - Miscellaneous.| _,, Oct. -48°5| 37°71] 6°4 |:239 || 83°7| 69°7/14:0 | °720
104 | | Mean | 48:3) 43° 4-5 |-311 | 83-3] 74:6] 8-7 | -865
Humidity . : ~~ 860 Calcutta . -°760
Weight of Vapour - . 24697 5s = 9:00 ar:

436 HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX G.

ELEVATION 12,000 TO 13,000 FEET.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
No.
of Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.
Obs.
9 | Zemu river 7 A.M. . .|12,070 46°6) 45°6) 1:0 |:
9 oS OHO Ma a. ol ag ae bE TA 9:O) 2th:
ay 6 =f noon . ail te agg & 51:1) 50°2| 0°9 |°
Vi ZALO Ee Me ra Peal Sh se an 51°2| 50°3| 0:9 |-
" if Ap Mey ete Y | 49-7] 48-9] 0°8 |:
8 annset o. GR ay, 48:1) 47°6| 0°5 |:
2 Yangma Valley. -|12,129°] Nov. | 34°8} 22°7/12-1 |-
1 | Zemu river. : . .{12,422 | June | 49:0) 46°6| 2:4 |-
8 | Chumanako . , (12,590 | Nov. | 37:3} 28°3| 9:0 |:
a) Pompe) aM, 1 (2 + 12,7514 duly | 450) 4etiel-0F-
5 Fe oie AGEs mene Ally hee July | 53:1} 48°6) 4:5 |°
il 337 Hoon : oi al deer July | 62°3| 52°7| 9°6 |:
1 yi (220 PM, al gs July | 60:0) 53°8) 6:2 |-
6 5». . Sunset .. aaa ¥ July | 46:4) 45°3) 11)
3 » sunrise : ull Senseen Oct... "S823 50) es22 i"
4 $50 SOR ee har pa SAN Oct. | 46-5] 42°8] 3°7 |-
4 wf (WOOH, : Al eee Oct. | 46°1] 42:0} 4:1 |-
4 i och PIM Sams amr Oct. | 48°8) 42:1) 1:7 |
4 Diet PMa G : Be Oct. | 42°3| 40°8) 1:5 |-
6 >; Sunset —. Siqacss Oct. « | 41-0] 38°7|- 2:3 |:
23 o Miscellaneous. * Oct. | 43°2| 40°8} 2-4 |-
13 Ditto. . ane July | 51:3) 47-7) 3°6 |:
6 Tuquoroma . : a2, 944| Nov. | 26-0] 23-4] 2°6,-
140 Mean | 46°3] 42°9| 3°4 |-
Humidity . , : : 5 6-890
Weight of Vapour . : Se), MeO EE . O'75 ox
ELEVATION 13,000 TO 14,000 FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
No.
a Locality. Elev. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|/Tem. |D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
)bs.
7 | Mon Lepcha : . . {18,090} Jan. .|27°1 |18°5 | 8°6 | 12217070 15058 | 192i5*b27
4 | Ditto ‘ . {13,073 | Jan. |25°6 |16°4 | 9-2 | -113)]/71°7 |49°9 | 21°8} °373)
2 | Tunkra valley, ; . . {18,111 | Aug. |45°0 |43°5 | 1°5 | -2981/81-2 |78°7% | 25), “962
ab | longriy. 4 ; . {18,194 | Jan. |22°7 |10°5 |12°2 | -091//70°6 |53°2 | 17-4). 417
1 | Zemu river. P . . {13,281 | June, |46°7 |46°7 | 0:0 | °334/|/92°9 |86°6| 6°2)1°230
4 | Choonjerma . ; . {18.288 | Dec. |39°0 |11°1 |27-9 | -093)|69°8 |61°8.| 8°0) °555
10 | Yangma village . 2. « [edyo02 {dex +838 18°6 |15°2 | °123)|78°9 |62-1 | 16°8} °561
1 | Wallanchoon road . . {13,505 | Nov. /28-0| 9°5 |18°5 | -088//66°4 |61°8| 4:6) °555
3 | Kambachen, below pass . |13,600| Dee. |40-0 |18°6 |21:4 | 123/729 |62°2|10-7| 563
53 Mean /34°2 |21°5 |12°6 | -154)/74-9 |63°0 | 11-9]. “636
Humidity. ; : 5 . 634 Calcutta . ‘678
Weight of Vapour . oe) 16 or » - + 6:28 gr.

APPENDIX G. HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. 437

ELEVATION 15,000 TO 16,000 FEET.

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
i A = x
No.
cf Locality. Elev. |Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff. |Tens.|/Tem.|D. P.| Diff. | Tens
Obs.
1 | Yangma valley : . | 15,186) Dec. |42°2 |20°7 |21°5 |°138 || 80°8} 62°0/18°8 | +559
1 | Choonjerma pass . . | 15,259) Dec. |34°3 |10°5 123-8 |°091.|| 77-9) 60:6)17°3 | °534
8 | Lachee-pia . : . | 15,262) Aug. |42°0 |41°6 | 0-4 |:279 || 85-5] 79-4] 6-1] -982
12 | Momay, 7a4.mM. . ark % Sept. |39°4 |34°7 | 4-7. |-219 || 80°5| 78°8} 1:7] 966
6 x5 950 AM. . ; re Sept. |50°9 |41°7 | 9-2 |-280 || 87°6| 78-8}: 8-8 |. 968
4 » noon . ..|. ,, | Sept. [51-7 43°61! 8-1 |-299 | 89°5| 79-7| 9-8 -990
8 » 240pm.. .| 4, | Sept. [49-7 /41-9| 7-8 |-283 | 90-0] 78-3/11-7 | -949
10 Pe 4PM. . ‘hae - Sept. |44°4 |41°3 | 3-1 |-276 || 88°7| 77-6|11-1 | -928
16 — sunset : t Je Sept. /41°5 |38°6 | 2°9 |-252 || 84-2) 78:4) 5:8 | -952
daze: . Miscellaneous . 5 Sept. |47°6 |41°4 | 6-2 |:277 || 87:4] 78°6] 8°8 | -956
6 , t ce We a Oct. |40°9 |36°5 | 4:4 |-234 || 83°9| 69°3/14°6 | -710
3 | Sittong : : . | 15,372} Oct. |88°6 |29°8 | 8-8 |-184 || 84:0] 77°5| 6:5 | -926
2 | Palung ; : . . | 15,676) Oct. |44°6 |39°8 | 4°8 |-262 || 86°8] 78°5| 8:3} 954
1 | Kambachen pass. . | 15,770} Dee. |26°5 |15-9 10-6 |-111 || 78°0| 58°5)/19°5 | -498
1 | Yeumtong . : . . | 15,985} Sept. |44°6 |43°7 | 0:9 |°300 || 88°8] 80:5) 8-3 |1 016
87 Mean |42°6 |34°8 | 7°8 |:232 || 84:9) 74:4/10°5 |0°859
Humidity . F : sis Calcutta » “G19
Weight of Vapour. ee ae s . ee: go Br.
ELEVATION 16,000 TO 17,000 FEET.
EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM. CALCUTTA.
No.
a Locality. Elev. |Month. |Tem. D. P.| Diff. |Tens.||Tem./D. P.| Diff. | Tens.
Ss.
Lee eee Aikeey yi ilre= =, SS eae
1 | Kanglachem pass . . | 16,038} Dec. |32°8 | 16°3/16°5 |-110 |/80°7 |61°1 |19°6 | 543
ei bunkra pass. . . | 16,083) Aug. |39°8 | 38-7) 1:1 |-252 ||86°0 178-7 | 7-3 | 959
1 | Wallanchoon pass . . | 16,756] Nov. {18-0 |—6-0|24°0 |-046 ||79°9 |57°6 |22°3 | -483
5 |-Yeumtso . ; . « | 16,808) Oct. (82-4 | 25:1) 7:3 |156 |/85:0 |75°7 | 9°3 | 872
6 | Cholamoo lake ; . | 16,900} Oct. |31-4 | 20°2)11-2 |-180 ||79°8 |68°4 |11°4 | 690
1 | ‘Donkia mountain . . | 16,978) Sept. |40°2 | 25-9/14-3-|-160 ||87-°6 |78°8 | 8°8 | 963
17 Mean 32-4 200/194 |-142 |/83-2/70-1 |13°3 | *752
Humidity. : : . 640 Calcutta » 658

Weight of Vapour. =» oo gr. ” . « 780 gr.

HUMIDITY OF AIR AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX G.

438
ELEVATION 17,000 TO 18,500 FEET.
| EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM, CALCUTTA.
| a ] | | |
xe Locality. Eley. | Month. |Tem.|D. P.| Diff \Tens. | .| Diff. | Tens.
Obs.
1 | Kinchinjhow . 17,624] Sept. |47°5 |380°9 |16°6 |"191 |\85-7 |79°7
1 | Sebolah pass 17,585| Sept. |46°5 |84°6 |11°9 |°218 | 88°8 |80°0
1 | Donkia mountain 18,307| Sept. |38°8 |35°3 | 3°5 |°224 : C
3 Bhomtso 18,450 Oct. 54:0 4°4 49°6 072) 5
2 | Donkia pass 18,466} Sept. |41°8 /30°3 |11°5 |°188 | 84:1 78°4
2 | Ditto 18,466} Oct. |40°1 |25°0 |15°1 |°155 é
Sho. Mean|44°8 |26-8 |18°0 |-175
Humidity . ‘ . 532 Calcutta 648
Weight of Vapour Hee Ore re 8°78 gr.
SUMMARY.
HUMIDITY. | WEIGHT OF VAPOUR.
No. of Elevations i Stas la ae Cal- Diff. Be. Cal- Diff.
Obs. “Fect. tions.(SUkim.| outta. | Sikkim. ||/Stsim-| outta, | Sileeen.
48 735to 2000 9 ley 663 + °054 5°57 6°88 | — 131
49 2000 ,, 38000 9 *820 ‘740 080 5:45 Tile 1:68
48 3000 ,, 4000 13 *858 Mon 116 4:23 6°60 2-37
Ie 4000 ,, 5000 23 *837 ‘730 107 4:33 712 2°79
260 5000 ,, 6000 15 °865 730 *135 4:70 7°34 2°64
76 6000 ,, 7000 iS *845 ‘TO1 144 3°60 6°71 BP ILL
1023 7000 ,, 8000 14 *826 668 158 38°85 7°28 3°43
193 8000 ,, 9000 1183 "858 ‘730 *128 4°93 8°75 4°52
18 9000 ,, 10,000 5 TAT oA 023 2°80 6°28 3°48
123 | 10,000 ,, 11,000 10 878 “740 ‘138 3°35 8:70 4°35
104 | 11,000 ,, 12,000 6 *860 -760 100 3°46 9°00 5°54
140 | 12,000 ,, 13,000 6 °890 °815 075 ROM 9°75 6°38
53 | 18,000 ,, 14,000 9 634 678 | —°*044 1:61 6°28 4:67
Sif 4<15,000.,, 16,000 8 ‘763 ‘719 + 044 2°55 8:95 6°40
Lif L6,000F 17000 6 “640 658 “018 1°53 7°80 C20)
TO: 1} -£7,000.,, 18,500 5 "532 yy | = AG 1:90 8°78 6°88 |
2386 154

Considering how desultory the observations in Sikkim are, and
how much affected by local circumstances, the above results must
be considered highly satisfactory: they prove that the relative
humidity of the atmospheric column remains pretty constant
throughout all elevations, except when these are in a Tibetan
climate; and when above 18,000 feet, elevations which I attained
in fine weather only. Up to 12,000 feet this constant humidity
is very marked; the observations made at greater elevations were

ApprnpIx G. RECIPROCAL EFFECTS OF VEGETATION, ETC. 439

almost invariably to the north, or leeward of the great snowy
peaks, and consequently in a drier climate; and there it will be
seen that these proportions are occasionally inverted ; and in Tibet
itself a degree of relative dryness is encountered, such as is
never equalled on the plains of Eastern Bengal or the Gangetic
delta. Whether an isolated peak rising near Calcutta, to the eleva-
tion of 19,000 feet, would present similar results to the above, is
not proven by these observations, but as the relative humidity is
the same at all elevations on the outermost ranges of Sikkim,
which attain 10,000 feet, and as these rise from the plains lke steep
islands out of the ocean, it may be presumed that the effects of
elevation would be the same in both cases.

The first effect of this humid wind is to clothe Sikkim with forests,
that make it moister still; and however difficult it is to separate cause
from effect in such cases as those of the reciprocal action of humidity
on vegetation, and vegetation on humidity, it is necessary for the
observer to consider the one as the effect of the other. There is
no doubt that but for the humidity of the region, the Sikkim
Himalaya would not present the uniform clothing of forest that it
does; and, on the other hand, that but for this vegetation, the
relative humidity would not be so great.*

The great amount of relative humidity registered at 6000 to 8000

* Balloon ascents and observations on small mountainous islands, therefore,
offer the best means of solving such questions: of these, the results of ballooning,
under Mr. Welsh’s intrepid and skilful pioneering (see Phil. Trans. for 1853), have
proved most satisfactory ; though, from the time for observation being short, and
from the interference of belts of vapour, some anomalies have not been eliminated.
Tslands again are still more exposed to local influences, which may be easily elimi-
nated in a long series of observations. I think that were two islands, as different
in their physical characters as St. Helena and Ascension, selected for comparative
observations, at various elevations, the laws thatregulate the distribution of humidity
in the upper regions might be deduced without difficulty. They are advantageous
sites, from differing remarkably in their humidity. Owing partly to the inde-
structible nature of its component rock (a glassy basalt), the lower parts of Ascension
have never yielded to the corroding effects of the moist sea air which surrounds it;
which has decomposed the upper part into a deep bed of clay. Hence Ascension
does not support a native tree, or even shrub, two feet high. St. Helena, on
the other hand, which can hardly be considered more favourably situated for
humidity, was clothed with a redundant vegetation when discovered, and trees
and tree-ferns (types of humidity) still spread over its loftiest summits. Here
the humidity, vegetation, and mineral and mechanical composition reciprocate
their influences.

440 HUMIDITY AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX G,

feet, arises from most of the observations having been made on the outer
range, where the atmosphere is surcharged. The majority of those at
10,000 to 12,000 feet, which also give a disproportionate amount of
humidity, were registered at the Zemu and Thlonok rivers, where the
narrowness of the valleys, the proximity of great snowy peaks, and
the rank luxuriance of the vegetation, all favour a humid atmosphere.

I would have added the relative rain-fall to the above, but this is so
very local a phenomenon, and my observations were so repeatedly
deranged by having to camp in forests, and by local obstacles of all
kinds, that I have suppressed them; their general results I have
given in Appendix F.

I here add a few observations, taken on the plains at the foot of the
Sikkim Himalaya during the spring months.

Comparison between Temperature and flumidity of the Sikkim Terai
and Calcutta, in March and April, 1849.
Po eee

oh " Locality wes TEMP, Dae: TENSION.
Obs. sea,
Feet.;| -C T. C. 4M
4; Rummai . . 293 | 82:2} 70°6/61-7| 60:5] -
4 | Belakoba ..| 3868 | 92:8} 85:5 | 62°6| 63-0
3 | Rangamally . Zi 0: | 84:2)" FOO 68°7| WiG2 a
3 | Bhojepore 404 | 90°71] 81:°2)54:1] 44-3
4 | Thakyagunj . | 284 | 84:9! 7711]|61:3} 60-8
3] Bhatgong . . | 225 | 87-4) 74:9/64-7| 54-6
2 | Sahibgunj . 231, | 80°2) .68°0 | 66:2) 53°1
8 | Titalya . .| 862 | 85:5] 80°0/55:-4| 56-1
| 31 Means. .| 305 | 85:9] 79:0| 61°8) 56-9]:
uae arate SID) 181 | 89-7|K 78-6 | 76-7|K 71-4
Kishengunj §
|
Vapour in a cubic foot—Kishengunj 8-20 Terai... ,. 608
Calcutta . 9°52 Calcutta. 5:90
Mean difference of temperature between Terai and Calcutta, from
31 observations in March, as above, excluding minima . : . Terai—6'9

Mean difference from 26 observations in March,, including minima » —9°7
Mean difference of temperature at Siligoree on May 1, 1850 —10-9
2 - Kishengunj an —1l11:1
From the above, it appears that during the spring months, and
betore the rains commence, the belt of sandy and grassy land along
the Himalaya, though only 33 degrees north of Calcutta, is at least
6° or 7° colder, and always more humid relatively, though there is
absolutely less moisture suspended in the air. After the rains com-
mence, I believe that this is in a great measure inverted, the plains

Appenpix H, ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 441

becoming excessively heated, and the temperature being higher than
at Calcutta. This indeed follows from the well known fact that the
summer heat increases greatly in advancing north-west from the Bay
of Bengal to the trans-Sutledge regions ; it is admirably expressed in
the maps of Dove’s great work “ On the Distribution of Heat on the
Surface of the Globe.”

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS.

THESE observations were taken by burying a brass tube two feet
six inches to three feet deep, in exposed soil, and sinking in it, by
a string or tied to a slip of wood, a thermometer whose bulb was
well padded with wool: this, after a few hours’ rest, indicates the
temperature of the soil. Such a tube and thermometer I usually
caused to be sunk wherever I halted, if even for one night, except
during the height of the rains, which are so heavy that they commu-
nicate to the earth a temperature considerably above that of the air.

The results proved that the temperature of the soil at Dorjiling
varies with that of the month, from 46° to 62:2°, but is hardly
affected by the diurnal variation, except in extreme cases. In summer,
throughout the rains, May to October, the temperature is that of the
month, which is imparted by the rain to the depth of eleven feet
during heavy continued falls (of six to twelve inches a day), on which
occasions I have seen the buried thermometer indicating a tempera-
ture above the mean of the month. Again, in the winter months,
December and January, it stands 5° above the monthly mean; in
November and February 4° to 5°; in March afew degrees below the
mean temperature of the month, and in October above it; April
and May being sunny, it stands above their mean; June to
September a little below the mean temperature of each respectively.

The temperature of the soil is affected by:—1. The exposure of
the surface; 2. The nature of the soil; 3. Its permeability by rain,
and the presence of underground springs; 4. The sun’s declination ;
5. The elevation above the sea, and consequently the heating power
of the sun’s rays: and, 6, The amount of cloud and sunshine.

The appended observations, though taken at sixty-seven places, are

442 ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. APPENDIX H.

far from being sufficient to supply data for the exact estimation of
the effects of the sun on the soil at any elevation or locality ; they,
however, indicate with tolerable certainty the main features of this
phenomenon, and these are in entire conformity with more ample
series obtained elsewhere. The result, which at first sight appears
the most anomalous, is, that the mean temperature of the soil, at two
or three feet depth, is almost throughout the year in India above
that of the surrounding atmosphere. This has been also ascertained
to be the case in England by several observers, and the carefully-
conducted observations of Mr. Robert Thompson at the Horticultural
Society’s Gardens at Chiswick, show that the temperature of the
soil at that place is, on the mean of six years, at the depth of one
foot, 1° above that of the air, and at two feet 14°. During the winter
months the soil is considerably (1° to 3°) warmer than the air, and
during summer the soil is a fraction of a degree cooler than the air.

Tn India, the sun’s declination being greater, these effects are much
exaggerated, the soil on the plains being in winter sometimes 9° hotter
than the air ; and at considerable elevations in the Himalaya very much
more than that; in summer also, the temperature of the soil seldom
falls below that of the air, except where copious rain-falls communicate
a low temperature, or where forests interfere with the sun’s rays.

At considerable elevations these effects are so greatly increased,
that it is extremely probable that at certain localities the mean tem-
perature of the soil may be even 10° warmer than that of the air;
thus, at Jongri, elevation 13,194 feet, the soil in J anuary was 34°5°,
or 19°2° above the mean temperature of the month, immediately
before the ground became covered with snow for the remainder of
the winter; during the three succeeding months, therefore, the tem-
perature of the soil probably does not fall below that of the snow,
whilst the mean temperature of the air in J anuary may be
estimated at about 20°, February 22°, March 30°, and April
35°. If, again, we assume the temperature of the soil of
Jongri to be that of other Sikkim localities between 10,000
and 14,000 feet, we may assume the soil to be warmer by 10° in
July (see Tungu observations), by 8° or 9° in September (see
Yeumtong) ; by 10° in October (see Tungu) ; and by 7° to 10° in
November (see Wallanchoon and Nanki). These temperatures,

APPENDIX H. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE OF SOIL, &e. 443

however, vary extremely according to exposure and amount of
sunshine ; and I should expect that the greatest differences would
be found in the sunny climate of Tibet, where the sun’s heat is most
powerful. Were nocturnal or terrestrial radiation as constant and
powerful as solar, the effects of the latter would be neutralised ; but
such is not the case at any elevation in Sikkim.

This accumulated heat in the upper strata of soil must have avery
powerful effect upon vegetation, preventing the delicate rootlets of

_ shrubs from becoming frozen, and preserving vitality in the- more
fleshy roots, such as those of the large rhubarbs and small orchids,
whose spongy cellular tissues would no doubt be ruptured by severe
frosts. To the burrowing rodents, the hares, marmots, and rats,
which abound at 15,000 to 17,000 feet in Tibet, this phenomenon is
even more conspicuously important ; for were the soil in winter to
acquire the mean temperature of the air, it would take very long to
heat after the melting of the snow, and indeed the latter phenomenon
would be greatly retarded. The rapid development of ‘vegetation
after the disappearance of the snow, is no doubt also proximately
due to the heat of the soil, quite as much as to the increased strength
of the sun’s direct rays in lofty regions.

IT have given in the column following that containing the tempera-
ture of the sunk thermometer, first the extreme temperatures of
the air recorded during the time the instrument was sunk; and in
the next following, the mean temperature of the air during the
same period, so far as I could ascertain it from my own obser-

vations.
Serres 1.—Soane Valley.
| qd oO 5 S $ 3.3 A 3
3. | Rees |£85) 38
E Temp. of B92 Sere) ee
Locality. Date. & | Depth Jounk Therm| Hee |kae| 38
ea |284| a
| 1 ee fa a
y "as eee Siar fine Ties Fah
Muddunpore . | Feb. 11to12) 440 34 71°5 (62:0 to 77°5|} 67°0 |4-4°5 .
Nourunga Bee eb. 22,3), 340 3 8 7 157-0 55 a0 67a es.
| Baroon : . | Feb, 13 ,, 14) 345 24 68°5 53°5 ,, 76°0) 67:6 | 1:9
Tilotho . . ./|Feb. 15,,16] 395 46| 76:5 {585 ;, 80:0] 67-8] 87
92 or 5
_Akbarpore . — . | Feb. 17,,19) 400 G oe 4 76°0 569 ,, 79°5| 68-0] 8-0

dit

TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL.

Series I1.— Himalaya of Hast Nepal and Sikkim.

3

Locality. Date. 5

<

i— ft.
Base of Tonglo May 19 3,000
Simsibong . ee A) 7,000
Tonglo saddle » 21 to 22 |10,008
5» summit. pee 10,079
Simonbong ge 24 5,000
Nanki Nov. 4to5 | 9,300
Sakkiazong oo F Oj, LO 148;a53
Mywa guola a LY LS ee
Banks of Tambur 57 18,99) O545
» bigherupriver. ay Os, ZOE S201
Wallanchoon . 9» 209 20 |10,886
Yangma village . Nov. 80 Dee. 3|13,502
- river. Dec. 2to3 {10,999
Bhomsong. 3) ae 5, 25 | 8596
Tchonpong Jan. 4 4,978
Jongri wx LOtoLIe he 194
Buckeem ay ee 8,665
Choongtam - » | May 19t025 | 5,268
Seo seins Ueee le le) eels
Tungu July 26 ,, 30 |12,751
bs : Oct. 10 ,, 15 12,751
Lamteng . Aug. 1,,3 | 8,884
Choongtam ay dy LOU D208
Lachoong . es 3 Worl bie gl
Yeumtong Sept. 2,, 8 {11,919
Momay yy LO>, 14 115,362
Yenumtso Oct. 16 ,, 18 |16,808
Lachoong . 9g oe OO le
Great Rungeet Feb. fh>) 13 818
Leebong LA Lu 65000
Kursiong Apr. 16 4,813
Leebong jo ea 6,000
Punkabaree . May 1 1,850
Aug.15to16} 7,430

a LOL SG ‘

» 20,,22)° ,,

3 De eee .

Sept. 9 ¥3

Jillapahar ( Mr. poo 7

Hodgson’s) 2 Oct. "6 a

sa « 20 ‘

Feb. 18 to 28 Pe

March1 ,, 13 -

April 18 ,, 20 3

” 30 ”
Superinten. house . » 21to030| 6,932

Depth.

ND DON NTTTATATOND ND NNN NY NDNPNNMNHNNNL bo re oro

fa
SSE SET NTT ST SS STS TT ST aster at TS Nooo SCO Se emo ao Se

Temper. of
sunk Therm.

78°
61:7
50°7*
49°7
69:7
51°5
53°2
73:0
71:0
64:5
43°5 to 45:0
37°3 ,, 38-0
41:4 ,, 42:0
64:5 ,, 65:0
55:0
34°5
43:9
62'5 to 62:7
512
59:0 to 56°5
50°8 ,, 52:5
1 62°2 ,, 62:5
721
66'3 5, 66:0
555 ,, 56°
525 ,, 51°5
43°5 ,, 43:0
60°2
650
508 ,, 52:0
64:5
61'8 ,, 62:0
80:0
62°0 ,, 62°8
615 ,, 62°3
616 oly
60°7
60:2
60°5
60:0
58°5
46°0 ,, 46°7
46°3 , 48-3
55°3 ,, 56:0
57-4
58°8 ,, 60-2

Extreme
Temperature
of Air observed.

67°5 to 67°0
59°

44°3
25'0 ,,
20°0
23°0 ,,
42°8 ,,
33°0
3 lags
40:0 ,,
48°0,,

38°2
38°0

* Sheltered by trees, ground spongy and wet.

APPENDIX H,

Approximate
Mean Temp. of
Air deduced.
Diff. between Air
and sunk Therm.

<
|
3 ey
oo

re et
SOHQwWmTITSTe%

fot fat pad
DEAD OTT R ADNYNHADAWASKRGMAT

32°4
63:2
49°8
50°0
411
57°0
72:0
57°0
47-2
416
30°6
52:0
63°5
46°0
63°0
60:0
76°0
61°5

p+teeteet¢eg+¢est

p=
WOWOSAST HO

eH eR

61-7
60-0
58:5
565
43-0
46:0
54-0
55:0
58:0

tte Fea age oe te | ie ae occ ae ee a gd te a

FED EEE ON HOCH OSC ORH EH OH o0
ORTOROMMNSHE KR GSSO HE Dd

Aprenprix H.

Locality.

Kishengunj
Dulalgunj .
Banks of Mahanuddy

river

+P ”

Maldah . :
Mahanuddy river
Ganges . :
Bauleah
Dacca

Locality.

Churra

9 re
Kala-panee

9?

”

Moflong

Syong
Myrung

J

Nunklow ‘

99
Pomrang

29

TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 445
Serres I11.—Plains of Bengal.
aa
sd o55| 48
d BE leasl as
< ff : eg |8e3| oe
Date. 5 Depts pinke Chern. a Sag ae
fa Bad | Bge| 2
Wy 44) &3
RO Sr en
May 3to4 | 181 | 2 7 |§82:8 to 83:0,70-0to 85°7| 82:0|+0°8
ae TSO ye 1 \SSlke 74:3, 90°3| 82:0 |—0-7
soy 6 LOO ay 1793) 55 75°0,, 91°5| 83:0 |—3°7
My eke 100 | ,, |+87-5.,, 778, 92°5} 83°0 |—4:5
in kO LOO. | 4. + rHBS*0" ,. 78:5,, 91°5| 82:3 |—5:7
em 100.) 96, 2888, 75°3,, 91°3|} 82:3 | —6°5
et 100) | 4. Ft, 71:0,, 91:7) 82°3 | —4:5
itd LO0;| “4, vi |F880" ,, 730, 87°8} 82:3 |—5°7
7 164618 |. 130 ., | 873%, 89°8/78°0-,, 106-5) 805 |+7°3
Ose 30 72| ,, | 84:0 ,, 84:3175°3,, 95°5| 83:3) +0°9
Serres 1V.—kKhasia Mountains.
: | oH
ag os, 22
F Ar Sa5| a2
2 BS |8es 8h
a ic mor Ban)" &
mS ae
Feet. | Ft. In. et ane
. |June 23t025| 4,226) 2 7 |*71'8 to 72:3/64°8 to 72°2| 69°9 | + 2°2
. |Oct.29 Nov.16 683 ,, 64:0,70°7 ,, 49°3| 617 | 44:5
. |June 28 to 29| 5,802} , | 69-2 164°2 ,, 71:2] 67-2|'+ 2°0
witcaet & i 7 70:0 ,, 704 722 ,, 61:8) 64:9 | +5°2
. |Sept. 13 ,, 14 #702 65°5 ,, 69°8| 66:0 | + 4:2
» Oct. 27 ;, 28 #66°3 64:0 ,, 56'0| 60:0 | +6°3
. |\June30July4| 6,062| , | 65°0 ,, 67:3.61°0 ,, 68°3| 64:0 +2-2
. \July 30 Aug. 4 67°3 }64°0 ,, 75°8| 68°5 |—1:2
Oct. 25 ,, 27 63'2 63°7 ,, 55°7| 64:1 |— 0-9
July 29 to 30| 5,725| ,, | 69:2 ,, 69°3/60-0 ,, 78°5] 69:2 | + 0-1
Galt +; 12 | 67:0 657 ,, 55°5| 628 | +4:2
July. 9 4, 10 5,647 | 4, .|\66'2 ,, 66'3,60-0. , 73'8).67°5.\—12
5 26 45 29 68°3 780 ,, 64:2) 71:1 |—2°8
Oct. 12 ,, 17 66'0 ,, 64:8 70°0 ,, 55°5| 63-0 + 2-4
Fle 25 64°38 ,, 64:0 660 ,, 530, 605 +39
July 11 ,,26 | 4,688] ,, | 70°5 ,, 71:3/65'5 ,, 81°5| 71°5|—0-5
Oct. 17 ,, 21 688 ,, 68°3,75°7 ,, 58°0| 661 | + 2°5
Sept. 15 ,,23| 5,143) ., 1|_70°3., 68:5173°0 5 57:0) 65:5|439
Oct. 6 ,, 10 68°3 73°7 ,, 582) 65:0) +33

* Hole full of rain-water.

+ Soil, a moist sand.

§ Dry sand.

446 ON THE DECREMENT OF HEAT IN ASCENDING. _Apprnpix I,

Serius V.—Jheels, Gangetic Delta, and Chittagong.

. ms os

as 86,5 qf

Locality. Date. 5 Depth. oR ae g° B é 3 E 4

R £4 Sees

aS Ss | a

ie ere Hest Resin. | ne
Silehar . 5 . |Nov. 27 to 30| 116 | 2 7 |77°7 to 75'8) 55:0 to 81-7} 69-1
Silhet . ‘ 2) et WEG ay: Adallos 73°5 ,, 13:7| 63°02 74b\e0e
Noacolly . : Pe lmerin kotare ale) i], 5 PAU) 73°3 58°5 ,, 76°5| 69°5
Chittagong . Fe . 2o",. olny On (2°5 4, 73°0| 53:2 5 (75:0| Gare
LS : : sidan. L426 (3°83 43 13°7| 613 em eaee
~ flagstaff hill. |Dec. 28 ,, 30| 151 72:0 ,, 71:8) 55:2) 74-2) Gas
Hat-hazaree . dane 4) eon 0 71:3 50°5 ,, 62°0| 65:0
Sidhee . ; situs 53 Ole CON 220) 71:0 52°7 ,, 70°2) 65-0
Hattiahs E Sl tegrpaed Ox oop 3/8 ls A240) *67°7 50°2 ,, 77°5| 64°5
Seetakoond . cae Sime pee | eX) 13°3 ,, 73°7| 55:2) oa
Caleutta** ‘ . |Jan. 16 Feb. 5) 18 76°0 ,, 77:0)§56°5 ,, 82°0| 69-3
* Shaded by trees. ** Observations at the Mint, &c., by Mr. Muller.

§ Observations for temperature of air, taken at the Observatory.

ON THE DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING THE SIKKIM
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND KHASIA MOUNTAINS.

I Ave selected as many of my observations for temperature of the
air as appeared to be trustworthy, and which, also, were taken con-
temporaneously with others at Calcutta, and I have compared them
with the Calcutta observations, in order to find the ratio of decrement
of heat to an increase of elevation. The results of several sets of
observations are grouped together, but show so great an amount of
discrepancy, that it is evident that a long series of months and the
selection of several stations are necessary in a mountain country to
arrive at any accurate results. Even at the stations where the most
numerous and the most trustworthy observations were recorded, the
results of different months differ extremely ; and with regard to the
other stations, where few observations were taken, each one is affected
differently from another at the same level with it, by the presence or
proximity of forest, by exposure to the east or west, to ascending or

APPENDIX I. DISTURBING INFLUENCES. 447

descending currents in the valleys, and to cloud or sunshine. Other
and still more important modifying influences are to be traced to the
monthly variations in the amount of humidity in the air and the
strength of its currents, to radiation, and to the evolution of heat
which accompanies condensation raising the temperature of elevated
regions during the rainy season. The proximity of large masses of
snow has not the influence I should have expected in lowering the
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, partly no doubt because
of the more rapid condensation of vapours which it effects, and
partly because of the free circulation of the currents around it.
The difference between the temperatures of adjacent grassy and
naked or rocky spots, on the other hand, is very great indeed, the
former soon becoming powerfully heated in lofty regions where
the sun’s rays pass through a rarefied atmosphere, and the rocks
especially radiating much of the heat thus accumulated, for long
after sunset. In various parts of my journals I have alluded to
other disturbing causes, which being all more or less familiar to
meteorologists, I need not recapitulate here. Their “combined
effects raise all the summer temperatures above what they should
theoretically be.

In taking Calcutta as a standard of comparison, I have been
euided by two circumstances ; first, the necessity of selecting a spot
where observations were regularly and accurately made ; and secondly,
the being able to satisfy myself by a comparison of my instruments
that the results should be so far strictly comparable.

I have allowed 1° Fahr. for every degree in latitude intervening
between Sikkim and Calcutta, as the probable ratio of diminution
of temperature. So far as my observations made in east Bengal and
in various parts of the Gangetic delta afford a means of solving this
question, this is a near approximation to the truth. The spring
observations however which I have made at the foot of the Sikkim
Himalaya would indicate a much more rapid decrement; the mean
temperature of Titalya and other parts of the plains south of the
forests, between March and May being certainly 6°—9° lower than
Calcutta: this period however is marked by north-west and north-
east winds, and by a strong haze which prevents the sun’s rays
from impinging on the soil with any effect. During the southerly

448 DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING. Appenpix I.

winds, the same region is probably hotter than Calcutta, there being
but scanty vegetation, and the rain-fall being moderate.
In the following observations solitary readings are always rejected.

I1.—Summer or Rainy Season observations at Dorjiling.

Observations taken during the rainy season of 1848, at Mr. Hodgson’s (Jillapahar,
Dorjiling) alt. 7,430 feet, exposure free to the north east and west, the slopes
all round covered with heavy timber; much mist hence hangs over the
station. The mean temperatures of the month at Jillapahar are deduced
from horary observations, and those of Calcutta from the mean of the daily
maximum and minimum.

No. of Obs. - Tore Tee
Month. at : :
1 Jillapahar.| | Caleutta. | 46 Fahy,
July ‘ : : : 284 61:7 86°6 | 364 feet
August. : ae 378 61-7 85°7 | 346) 35
September . ‘ : 407 58°9 84°7 | S45,
October. , ie 255 55:3 83°3 BW hen
1,324 me Mean| 344 feet

I1.— Winter or dry season observations at Dorjiling.

1. Observations taken at Mr. J. Muller’s, and chiefly by himself, at

“the Dale ;” elev. 6,956 feet; a sheltered spot, with no forest

near, and a free west exposure. 103 observations. Months:

November, December, January, and February . : , . 1° =3818 ft.
2. Observations at Dr. Campbell’s (Superintendent’s) house in April;

elev. 6,950 feet ; similar exposure to the last. 13 observations

in April ‘ 1° = 308 ft.
3. Observations by Mr. Muller at Golatons eee 6 17 9 fee fred

exposure to north-west ; much forest about the station, ma a

high ridge to east and south. 38 observations in winter months 1° = 290 ft.
4. Miscellaneous (11) observations at Leebong; elev. 6000 feet; in

February ; free exposure all round . 5 . 1° = 266 ft.
5. Miscellaneous observations at “‘Smith’s Hotel,” Doriling on a

cleared ridge; exposed all round ; elev. 6,863 feet. April and

May . : : : ; , : e . : » PS aoe
Mean of winter observations. ; > ae
Mean of summer oat ose i ieee

Mean 310

APPENDIX I. DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING, 449

III.— Miscellaneous observations taken at different places in Dorjiling,
elevations 6,900 to 7,400 feet, with the differences of temperature
between Calcutta and Dorjiling.

| atonthe Number Difference

of Observ. |of Temperature. | Equivalent. |
Waauaty =... oT 304 1°=287 ft. |
February : aoe 84 32°8 1 —260
March . : : : 37 41°9 P= 196
April . : a 7 36:0 1 236
March and April . 5 z9 37:3 1°=224
hin ee 83 23-6 1°=389
Aupost) «sti; 74 22-4 (as |
September. chee 95 25°7 : 1°=350
October i é : 18 29°5 13297

Sum 454 Mean 31:1 Mean 1°=295 ft.

if

These, it will be seen, give a result which approximates to that
of the sets I and II. Being deduced from observations at different
exposures, the effects of these may be supposed to be eliminated.
It is to be observed that the probable results of the addition of
November and December’s observations, would be balanced by those
of May and June, which are hot moist months.

IV.—WMiscellaneous cold weather observations made at various eleva-
tions between 1000 and 17,000 feet, during my journey mto east
Nepal and Sikkim, in November to January 1848 and 1849.
The equivalent to 1° Fahr. was deduced from the mean of all the
observations at each station, and these being arranged m sets
corresponding to their elevations, gave the following results.

oe of Stations. of Reeve oa BIO ek
1,000 to 4,000ft. 27 aL 121 Oris

4,000 to 8,000 52 197 1°15

8,000 to 12,000 20 84 oo

12,000 to 17,000 14 54 ibe s(/
Sum113 Sum 446 Mean 1°=308 ft.

VOL. II. GG

450 DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING. APPENDIX I.

The total number of comparative observations taken during that
journey, amounted to 563, and the mean equivalent was 1° = 303
feet, but I rejected many of the observations that were obviously
unworthy of confidence.

V.—WMiscellaneous observations (chiefly during the rainy season) taken
during my journey into Sikkim and the frontier of Tibet, between
May 2nd and December 25th, 1848. The observations were
reduced as in the previous instance. The rains on this occasion
were unusually protracted, and cannot be said to have ceased till
mid-winter, which partly accounts for the very high temperatures.

$$$

i No. No. 4

Elevations. of Seabees of Ghasevatone: Equivalent.

1,000 to 4,000 ft. 10 45 1° ==4 OF Ths
4,000 to 8,000 21 283 1°=336
8,000 to 12,000 18 343 1°=855
12,000 to 18,000 29 219 1°=417

ior ae | Sum 78 Sum 890 1°=3383 fe

The great elevation of the temperature in the lowest elevations is
accounted for by the heating of the valleys wherem these observa-
tions were taken, and especially of the rocks on their floors. The
increase with the elevation, of the three succeeding sets, arises from
the fact that the loftier regions are far within the mountain region,
and are less forest clad and more sunny than the outer Himalaya.

A. considerable number of observations were taken during this
journey at night, when none are recorded at Calcutta, but which are
comparable with contemporaneous observations taken by Mr. Muller
at Dorjiling. These being all taken during the three most rainy
months, when the temperature varies but very little during the whole
twenty-four hours, I expected satisfactory results, but they proved
very irregular and anomalous.

The means were—

At 21 stations of greater elevation than Dorjiling . . 1°=848 feet.
At 17 » lower in elevation - 3 . 5 Ae

VI.—Siaty-four contemporaneous observations at Jillapahar, 7,430 feet,
and the bed of the Great Rungeet river, 818 feet ; taken in
January and February, give. ; . 1° = 322 Jeer-

.

APPENDIX I. DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING. 451

VIl.— Observations taken by burying a thermometer two and a half
to three feet deep, in a brass tube, at Dorjiling and at various
elevations near that station.

Month. Upper Stations. Lower Stations.
February and March Jillapahar, 7,430 feet. Leebong, 6000 feet = 269 fh.
; Guard-house, Great oa |
February . 2 PSD foo dove; Rungeet, 1,864 feet ==200' >,
April. ; .|Leebong, 6000 ,, | Guard-house, do, ,, . |1°=297 ,,
April . , . .|Jillapahar, 7,430 ,, | Khersiong, 4,813 ,, .|1°=297 ,,
| March and April ./Khersiong 4,813 ,, | Punkabaree, 1850 ,, . | 1°=223 ,,
| March, April, May . Jillapahar, 7,430 _,, Do., dot) pat pall —2bon,
Mean, | 1°=273 ft.

The above results would seem to indicate that up to an elevation
of 7,500 feet, the temperature diminishes rather more than 1° Fahr.
for every 300 feet of ascent or thereabouts ; that this decrement is
much less in the summer than in the winter months ; and I may add
that it is less by day than by night. There is much discrepancy
between the results obtained at greater or less elevations than 7000
feet; but a careful study of these, which I have arranged in every
possible way, leads me to the conclusion that the proportion may
be roughly indicated thus :—

1° — 300 feet, for elevations from 1000 to 8000 feet.

ie 200),, ‘ 5 8000;,, 16,000: 5;
i? =~ 350, . ,, 10,000 ,, 14,000 ,,
1S ee P » 14,000 ,, 18,000 ,,

VIII.—Khasia mountain observations.

: _
ws a 2 Ba ww B Sar
3:8 538 od Ss 2

Date. 2 : E ; B 2 : : Ef |

Stas. ois = ea |

Churra Poonji, June 13—26 | 863] 63 |70-1| 67 | 1 =300 feet.| 4,069 ft. |

» Aug. 7 to Sept. 4.) 84-6 /196 |69-2 214 | 1=331 ,, | 4,225 ,, |

| » Oct, 29 to Nov. 16] 80-7| 85 |63-1 |133 | 1 =282 ,, | 4,225 ,, |

| 354 414 |Mean, 304 feet

GuGan

452 DECREMENT OF HEAT WITH ELEVATION. APPENDIX i.

cy ie aie 2
aa B d alo hs
Date. EE 3s cE 5S 3d
Sa 25/63 | 23 es
é |Aé| 6 |*é :
Kala-panee, June, Aug. Sept. | 855 | 35 |67-4| 35 | 1°=845 feet. | 5,802 ft.
Moflong, June, July, Aug. Oct. | 85:9 | 73 |68°8 74 | 1°=373 ae 6,062 ,,
Syong . : : ; -| 85:1) 4 165-0) 6 | 1°=3320 eo ee
Myrung, August : - « | O9-te| ae 1697 | 41° ToS 2oteeee Og yy
, October. . «| 829] 21 163-2] 58 | 1°=336 ,, | 5,632 ,,
Nunklow . P » «+ ) 8641139" 170°9:/139 || 1° ==3 7a 4,688 ,,
Mooshye, September 23 . - | 78:5) 9 1663) 12.) 1°==4000s 4,863 ,,
Pomrang, = c . « | 82:7) 51 |65:8)) 5 | Seae ae 5,143 ,,
Amwee i ae ~ | 799 15 |\67-1) 11 | S289 tees
Joowy ps , « eof 795 LL, 69:05: Ful leases 4.387 5
400 434 | 1°=385 feet.

The equivalent thus deduced is far greater than that brought out
by the Sikkim observations. It imdicates a considerably higher
temperature of the atmosphere, and is probably attributable to the
evolution of heat during extraordinary rain-fall, and to the formation
of the surface, which is a very undulating table-land, and everywhere
traversed by broad deep valleys, with very steep, often precipitous
flanks; these get heated by the powerful sun, and from them,
powerful currents ascend. The scanty covering of herbage too over
a great amount of the surface, and the consequent radiation of heat
from the earth, must have a sensible influence on the mean tempe-
rature of the summer months.

AppEnpvIx J. ON THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. 453

J.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDES BY THE BOILING-POINT
THERMOMETER.

Tue use of the boiling-point thermometer for the determination
of elevations in mountainous countries appearing to me to be much
underrated, I have collected the observations which I was enabled
to take, and compared their results with barometrical ones.

I had always three boiling-point thermometers in use, and for
several months five ; the instruments were constructed by Newman,
Dollond, Troughton, and Simms, and Jones, and though all in one
sense good instruments, differed much from one another, and from
the truth. Mr. Welsh has had the kindness to compare the three
best instruments with the standards at the Kew Observatory
at various temperatures between 180° and the boiling-point ; from
which comparison it appears, that an error of 13° may be found at
some parts of the scale of instruments most confidently vouched for
by admirable makers. Dollond’s thermometer, which Dr. Thomson
had used throughout his extensive west Tibetan journeys, deviated
but little from the truth at all ordinary temperatures. All were so far
good, that the errors, which were almost entirely attributable to care-
lessness in the adjustments, were constant, or increased at a constant
ratio throughout all parts of the scale ; so that the results of the diffe-
rent instruments have, after correction, proved strictly comparable.

The kettle used was a copper one, supplied by Newman, with free
escape for the steam; it answered perfectly for all but very high
elevations indeed, where, from the water boiling at very low tempe-
ratures, the metal of the kettle, and consequently of the thermo-
meter, often got heated above the temperature of the boiling water.

I found that no confidence could be placed in observations taken
at great elevations, by plunging the thermometer in open vessels of
boiling water, however large or deep, the abstraction of heat from the
surface being so rapid, that the water, though boiling below, and hence
bubbling above, is not uniformly of the same temperature throughout.

In the Himalaya I invariably used distilled, or snow or rain-water ;

454 ON THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. APPENDIX J. —

but often as I have tried common river-water for comparison, I never
found that it made any difference in the temperature of the boiling-
point. Even the mineral-spring water at Yeumtong, and the
detritus-charged glacial streams, gave no difference, and I am hence
satisfied that no objection can be urged against river waters of
ordinary purity. |

On several occasions I found anomalous rises and falls in the
column of mercury, for which I could not account, except theoreti-
cally, by assuming breaks m the column, which I failed to detect
on lifting the instrument out of the water; at other times, I
observed that the column remained for several minutes stationary,
below the true temperature of the boiling water, and then suddenly
rose to it. These are no doubt instrumental defects, which I only
mention as being sources of error against which the observer must
be on the watch: they can only be guarded against by the use of two
instruments.

With regard to the formula employed for deducing the altitude
from a boiling-point observation, the same corrections are to a great
extent necessary as with barometric observations: if no account is
taken of the probable state of atmospheric pressure at the level of
the sea at or near the place of observation, for the hour of the day
and month of the year, or for the latitude, it is obvious that errors
of 600 to 1000 feet may be accumulated. I have elsewhere stated
that the pressure at Calcutta varies nearly one inch (1000 feet),
between July and January; that the daily tide amounts to one-tenth
of an inch (= 100 feet); that the multiplier for temperature is too
great in the hot season and too small in the cold; and I have expe-
rimentally proved that more accuracy is to be obtained in measuring
heights in Sikkim, by assuming the observed Calcutta pressure and
temperature to accord with that of the level of the sea in the latitude
of Sikkim, than by employing a theoretical pressure and temperature
for the lower station.

In the following observations, the tables I used were those
printed by Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau for the East India Company’s
Magnetic Observatory at Simla, which are based upon Regnault’s
Table of the ‘Elastic Force of Vapour. The mean height of
the barometrical column is assumed (from Bessel’s formula) to

APPENDIX J. ON THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. 455

be 29°924 at temp. 32°, in lat. 45°, which, differing only -002 from
the barometric height corresponding to 212° Fahrenheit, as deter-
mined experimentally by Regnault, -gives 29°921 as the pressure
corresponding to 212° at the level of the sea.

The approximate height in feet corresponding to each degree of
the boiling-point, is derived from Oltmann’s tables. The multipliers
for the mean temperature of the strata of atmosphere passed through,
are computed for every degree Fahrenheit, by the formula for
expansion usually employed, and given in Baily’s Astronomical
Tables and Biot’s Astronomie Physique.

For practical purposes it may be assumed that the traveller, in
countries where boiling-point observations are most desired, has
never the advantage of a contemporaneous boiling-point observation
at a lower station. The approximate difference in height is hence,
in most cases, deduced from the assumption, that the boiling-point
temperature at the level of the sea, at the place of observation, is
212°, and that the corresponding temperature of the air at the
level of the sea is hotter by one degree for every 330 feet of difference
in elevation. As, however, the temperature of boiling water at the level
of the sea varies at Calcutta between July and January almost from
210°°7 to 212°°6, I always took the Calcutta barometer observation at
the day and hour of my boiling-pomnt observation, and corrected my
approximate height by as many feet as correspond to the difference
between the observed height of the barometer at Calcutta and
29'921; this correction was almost invariably (always normally)
subtractive in the summer, often amounting to upwards of 400 feet :
it was additive in winter, and towards the equinoxes it was very
trifling.

For practical purposes I found it sufficient to assume the Calcutta
temperature of the air at the day and hour of observation to be that
of the level of the sea at the place of observation, and to take out the
multiplier, from the mean of this and of the temperature at the upper
station. As, however, 330 feet is a near approach to what I have
shown (Appendix I.) to be the mean equivalent of 1° for all
elevations between 6000 and 18,000 feet; and as the majority of
my observations were taken between these elevations, it results that
the mean of all the multipliers employed in Sikkim for forty-four

456 ON THE-BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. APPENDIX J.

observations amounts to 65°1 Fahrenheit, using the Calcutta and
upper station observations, and 65°3 on the assumption of a fall of
1° for every 330 feet. To show, however, how great an error may
acerue in individual cases from using the formula of 1° to 330, I
may mention that on one occasion, being at an elevation of 12,000
feet, with a temperature of the air of 70°, the error amounted to
upwards of 220 feet; and as the same temperature may be recorded
at much greater elevations, it follows that in such cases the formula
should not be employed without modification.

A multitude of smaller errors, arising from anomalies in the distri-
bution of temperature, will be apparent on consulting my observa-
tions on the temperature at various elevations in Sikkim; practically —
these are unavoidable. I have also calculated all my observations
according to Professor J. Forbes’s formula of 1° difference of tem-
perature of boiling-water, bemg the equivalent of 550 feet at all
elevations. (See Ed. Phil. Trans., vol xv. p. 405.) The formula is
certainly not applicable to the Sikkim Himalaya; on the contrary,
my observations show that the formula employed for Boileau’s tables
gives at all ordinary elevations so very close an approach to accuracy
on the mean of many observations, that no material improvement in
its construction is to be anticipated.

At elevations below 4000 feet, elevations calculated from the
boiling-point are not to be depended on; and Dr. Thomson remarked
the same in north-west India: above 17,000 feet also the observations
are hazardous, except good shelter and a very steady fire is obtain-
able, owing to the heating of the metal above that of the water. At
all other elevations a mean error of 100 feet is on the average
what is to be expected in ordinary cases. or the elevation of
great mountain masses, and continuously elevated areas, 1 conceive
that the results are as good as barometrical ones; for the general
purposes ‘of botanical geography, the boiling-pomt thermometer
supersedes the barometer in point of practical utility, for under every
advantage, the transport of a glass tube full of mercury, nearly three
feet long, and cased in metal, is a great drawback to the unrestrained
motion of the traveller. |

In the Khasia mountains I found, from the mean of twelve stations
and twenty-three observations, the multiplier as derived from the

APPENDIX J. ON THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. 457

mean of the temperature at the upper station and at Calcutta, to be
75°°2, and as deduced from the formula to be 73°-1. Here, however,
the equivalent in feet for 1° temp. is in summer very high, being
1°= 385 feet. (See Appendix I.) The mean of all the elevations
worked by the boiling-point is upwards of 140 feet below those
worked by the barometer.

The following observations are selected as having at the time been
considered trustworthy, owing to the care with which they were
taken, their repetition in several cases, and the presumed accuracy
of the barometrical or trigonometrical elevation with which they are
compared. A small correction for the humidity of the air might
have been introduced with advantage, but as in most barometrical
observations, the calculatiqgns proceed on the assumption that the
column of air is in a mean state of saturation ; as the climate of the
upper station was always very moist, and as most of the observations
were taken during the rains, this correction would be always additive,
_and would never exceed sixty feet.

J¢ must be borne in mind that the comparative results given
below afford by no means a fair idea of the accuracy to be obtained
by the boiling-poimt. Some of the differences in elevation are
probably due to the barometer. In other cases I may have read
off the scale wrong, for however simple it seems to read off an instru-
ment, those practically acquainted with their use know well how
some errors almost become chronic, how with a certain familiar
instrument the chance of error is very great at one particular
part of the scale, and how confusing it is to read off through steam
alternately from several instruments whose scales are of different
dimensions, are differently divided, and differently lettered; such
causes of error are constitutional in individual observers. Again,
these observations are selected without any reference to other con-
siderations but what I have stated above; the worst have been put in
with the best. Had I been dependent on the boiling-point for
determining my elevations, I should have observed it oftener, or at
stated periods whenever in camp, worked the greater elevations from
the intermediate ones, as well as from Calcutta, and resorted to every
system of interpolation. Even the following observations would be
amended considerably were I to have deduced the elevation by

458 ON THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. APPENDIX J.

observations of the boiling-point at my camp, and added the height
of my camp, either from the boiling-point observations there, or by
barometer, but I thought it better to select the most independent
method of observation, and to make the level of the sea at Calcutta
the only datum for a lower station.

Series 1.—Sikkim Observations.

Elev. by Barom.| Tem. Aan Elevation.

Place. lost or Trigonom. | B. P. by B: P. eae

Great Rungeet river . - | Feb. B. 818ft.| 210°7 | 56:3 904 ft.) + s6ft.
Bhomsong . Dec. 1,544 2102) 580] 1,821 — 223
Guard House, Gt. Rungeet_ April 1,864 2081 | 72°7| 2,049 + 185
Choongtam : Oe eee 5,268: | 20276) 650) 5075 — 93
Dengha . 5 Aug. 6,368 =| 200°6| 68°0| 6,246 — 122
Mr. Muller’s (Dorjiling) «|. Keb. Tr. 6,925 | 1994] 41°3| 7,122 + 197
Dr. Campbell’s (do.) 2 ee April 6,932 200°1 | 59°5 | N674o — 187
Mr. Hodgson’s se : - | Feb. B. 7,429 | 199-4) 47-6] 7,318 — 111
Sinchul . ; ane are Uehara. Tr. 8,607 197:0| 41:7] 8,529 — 78
Lachoong . : ; .| Aug. B. 8,712' | 1964.) 58°60 ieee + 65
Lamteng “ee | Annee 8,884 | 196°3] 77-0} 8,937 + 53
Zemu Samdong . : : July 8,976 19671] 58:6] 8,916 — 60
Mainom Dec. Tr. 10,702 193°4 | 38:0] 10,516 —- 186
Junction of Zemu & Thlonok July B. 10,846 | 193°6| 52:0) 10,872 + 26
Palluny. $ : -| July 11,482 1918} 54°6| 11,451 — $1
Yeumtong . ee Sept. 11,919 191:3 | 52:2} 11,887 — 32
Zemu river : * - | June 12,070 | 190°4| 48-5} 12,139 + 69
Tame yi cee ae ue 12,751 | 189°7| 43-4| 12,696 | = 55
Jongri ; . leu ipelieuias 13,194 | 1888) 26:0| 13,151 — 43
Zemu river. Rs June 13,281 188°5 | 47-0} 13,360 + 79
Lachee-pia : ; 4H] so Ander, 15,262 | 186-0 | 42:8] 14,912 — 350
Momay . ; ‘ ea Sept. 15,362 186°1 | 48°6 | 14,960 — 402
Palumg7@21«: 4 : ; Oct. 15,620 185°4 | 45°8 | 15,437 — 183
Kongra Lama ; July 15,694 | 184:1| 41:5 | 16,041 + 347
Snow: bed above Youmtong Sept. 15,985 184°6 | 44°5| 15,816 — 169
Tunkra pass. : Aug. 16,083 164:1 | 39:0 | 16,137 + 54
Yeumtso : : i tea Oot. 16,808 |. 183-1 | 15:0) ieee — 529
Donkia : ; : : Sept. 16,978 | 182°4} 41:0} 17,049 + 71
Mountain above Momay .| Sept. 17,894 | 181:°9| 47°8| 17,470 + 76
Sebolah pass. ; . | Sept. 17,585 | 181°9 | 46:5) Deane — 68
Kinehinjhow . : se Sept. 17,624 181:0 | 47°5 | 18,026 + 402
Donkia Mountain P . | Sept. 18,510 | 180°6| 37:1} 18,1438 — 367
Ditto : 4 » eal Septe 18,307 | 179°9| 38°8 | 18,597 + 290
Bhomtso . : oH wet. 18,450 | 181:2| 52:0} 18,305 — 145
Donkia pass. ‘ - ou leasepe. 18,466 | 181:°2| 45°5| 17,866 — 600
Mean — 58

AppEnDIx K. ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS. 459

~ Series L]l.—Khasia Mountains.

Place. Month. | Elev. Bar.) B. P. |Tm.Air. by BP. Diff.
Churra . .| June 4,069ft.| 204-4| 70:3 | 4,086ft.|— 33 ft.
Amwee . Be September | 4,105 : 67-7 | ‘42041 1 64
Nurtiung . . | October 4,178 0} 70:0 | 4,071 |—107
Nunklow » wb July 4,688 : 69°8 | 4,333 |—355

Jun., Jul., . ;
Kala-panee . ‘ } Sep. Oct ‘ 5,302 65°8 | 5,202 j—100
Myrung . ere | July | 5,647 ; 69'4 | 5,559 |I— 88
Syong el ely 5,725 8| 70°83 | 5,632 |— 93
Jul., Aug., ; :
Moflong . es ) Ocnt je } 6,062 GABwlea dre s\-=189
Chillong . . | November | 6,662 '2| 62°8 | 6,308 |—354
| Mean | 5,160 ft. 5-O16ft.|—143
ee.

ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS.

THE few actinometer observations which I was enabled to record,
were made with two of these instruments constructed by Barrow,
and had the bulbs of their thermometers plunged into the fluid of
the chamber. - They were taken with the greatest care, in conformity
with all the rules laid down in the “ Admiralty Guide,” and may, I
think, be depended upon. In the Sikkim Himalaya, a cloudless day,
and one admitting of more than a few hours’ consecutive observations,
never occurs—a day fit for any observation at all is very rare indeed.
I may mention here that a small stock of ammonia-sulphate of copper
in crystals should be supplied with this instrument, also a wire and
brush for cleaning, and a bottle with liquid ammonia: all of which
might be packed in the box.

Actine 6568. Time always mean.

460

Jillapahar, Dorjiling, Blev. 7430 feet, Lat. 27° 3' N., Long. 88° 13! #. :

Watch slow 1’ 15" mean time.

A.—APRIL 19TH, 1850.

ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS.

Hour.

8-0 to 813
815 ,, 8:28
9-0 ,, 9°13
10-0 ,, 10°13
11:0 ,, 11:13
0-0 ,, 0:13
1O., 113
20 ,, 218

| A.M.

| Act.

Tem.
Act: |

65°5
69°5
71°5
72°5
75:0
75:0
73°3
74:0

Act.
Reduced.

9-9900
12:2645
14-5140
15:4710
14:9150
12-7600
138976
13°8330

Barom.

22°960
22°948
22°947
22-946
22°944
22°939
22°914

53°5

56:0
57:0
58°5
60°3
59°4
60°3

DF 5 | vite

33°8 |19°7

Air.

37'2 |18°8
39°7 |17°3
38°2 |20°3
44°8 |15°5
40°7 |18-7
44°] |16°2

Black
Sat. | Bulb.

505 | 88:0
111°5

513 |110°0

550 |121°0

500 {125°0

592 |120°0
546 |122°0
‘577 |108°0

B.—APRIL 20TH.

AM. 8:0 to 8:
9:0! 5, 19s
LOO, 10-38

Act.
Reduced.| Barom.
10°9150 |22:969
14:2750 |22:974
14:7580 |22:985

54:2
56°2
57:0

Air.

Black
Bulb.

Sat.

691
662
609

92:0
92:0

Day unexcep- | |
tionable, wind’
S.W., after 10
A.M, squally.

Dense haze over
snowy Mts.

ApPenpix K

74:0 | Dense haze, S.E. |

wind, cloud-
less sky.

Superintendent's House, Dorjiling. Elev. 6932 feet.

Hour.

A.M. 8°35 to 8°48
97 9°20

9

100 ,, 10:13
11:0 ,, 11:13

C.—Aprit 21st,

t. |Reduced.| Barom.

Act.

115-7084
16°8872 |23°447
18 3791
17-8864

| Diff.

Watch slow 1’ mean time.

Black
Sat. | Bulb.

‘741 | 97-0
628 |100°0
‘677 |109°0

107°5

Day very fine,

snowy Mts. in
dull red haze,
wind 8.E. faint

Rampore Bauleah (Ganges). Elev. 130 feet, Lat. 24° 24' N., Long. 88° 40' £.

May 171TH, 1850, Watch slow 15" mean time.

Hour.

A.M. 7°51 to 8°13
9:3. 5 (916
9:20 ,, 9:33
itd, 11-28
L324 Was

BM. 120, 1°33
1:40’ ,, 1°53

Act.

Tem.
Act.

88-0

96-0
107-0
105 0
108°7
108°5
113°7

Act.
Reduced.

Barom.

88790 |29°698
12°5190
12°7836
12°8499

9 8770.
129348
12°4976

29°615

29°620

JXoees DY 12%

87:5
92:0
92°3
98°5
98-3

Diff.

Sat.

91:0

"793
‘715 | 83°8
687 |132°0
‘478 | 98°5
475 |142°0
425 |144:0
355 |134°0

Black
Bulb.

8.E. wind, very
hazy to west,
sky pale blue.
Wind west,
rising.

Appenvix K. ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS. 461

Churra, Khasia Mountains. Elev. 4225 feet, Lat. 25°15' N., Long. 91° 47' F.

A.—NovemMBeER 47H, 1850. Watch slow 7’ mean time.

Tem. Act. F | Black

Hour. Act. Act. |Reduced. Barom.| Air. |D, P.| Diff | Sat. | Bulb.

A.M. 6-20 to 6°30 | 5-0 |63-7] 4:6400 |25-781 78 531 | 4:7 850 | 75-0 Sky faint blue,
6°32 ,, 6-42 | 7:-4|65°4 | 6°6896 (59-0 |54°8 4:2 -870 | 83:0] cloudless, wind
755 ,, 85 (|20:0/77-5 |15:2400 '63'5 |56'9 | 66 806 1080 | S.W., clouding.
8-8 ,, 8:18 |21:0 |82°0 15-2040 164-4 157-3 | 7-1 -790 |106-5

8:20 ,, 8°30 24:2 |85-8 |16°8432 64:8 59°5 | 5:3 °837 113°5
: | | | |

B.—NoveEMBER 5TH. Watch slow 7’ mean time.

| |
Tem. Act. : Black

Hour. Act. Act. Reduced. Air. DP) | Dit. \"Sat: Bulb.

A.M. 6° 39 to 6°49

11:2) 702) 93408 | 59-4 | 57-6 | 1°8 |'940 Wind S.W.,
Sole a. 154) 7278 | 10-8138, | 605 oréa))| 27 918 clouds rise and
foo ,, SG (18:4) 73°2 15-0161 | 617 | 577° 14:0 (875 disperse. Sky
88 ,, 821 |20:4) 77-7 | 15-4836 | 63°3 | 58-7 | 4:6''860 pale.
9:26 ,, 9°36 |23°8] 79°5| 17-8072
9:37 84-0 | 17-7959
89°5 | 19°5460 | 66°7 | 60°8 | 5:9 \8:28 |126:0

C.—NovEMBER 61TH. Watch slow 7’ mean time.

Hour. Act. ene Nae Barom.) Air. |D. P.| Diff. | Sat. oe
M.6°5 to 6:18 | 2°6 |62°0| 2°4986 |25°781 |56°5 [54:5 | 2°0 |-935 Sunrise, 6, pale
G22 5, 6°35 | 6°5 63:5 |-6:0710 57-0 |55°1 | 1°9 |:985 yellow red,
Gro 4, HOO | 9:6 16677 | 8:5152 61:0 |57 41 3°6 |-888 cloudless.
Bnew soot 121°7 148°8.116:2750 64°2 |59°3| 4:9 °855|100°0 | Cirrhus below.
8°39 ,, 8°52 |23-0 |81°7 |19°4750 645 59:4] 5:1 :847 |105°0

D.—NoVEMBER 14TH.

oe a bar, || Ate |B.) pitt | Bat, | SoCs

| Hour. Act.

|
|

A.M. 6°12 to 6°22) 2:9} 606] 3°5988 25-783 51°5| 49-4) 2-1 |-930
6°24 ,, 6:37| 6:1) 66°0| 54472 §2°7| 50°38) 2°4 |-925
713 ,, 7:23] 12-4) 70°8 | 10:2672 56'5| 52:3) 4:2 |-900| 98-0) Thick cumulus
724 ,, 7:34) 14°7| 76°0 | 11-4025 57°8| 53°1| 4°7 |-855 | 104°0| low on plains.
8°34 ,, 8:44) 19:9) 82°8 |.14°2653 59°8| 50:8} 9:0 |-742|117°0; Sunrise yel-
8°47 ,, 9:0 | 21-7) 88°8 | 14°7348 60°5| 51°6| 8-9 |-730 | 121°0| low red.
9°53 ,, 10°3 | 23°5| 86-6 | 16°2620| 25-832) 67-2) 61:6) 5:6 |-832 | 127°0| Cloudless.
10°4 ,, 10°17| 25:3) 89:5 | 17-0775 67:0) 58°8) 8:2 | 778 | 133°0
11°24 ,, 11°31) 33°3)111°5 | 20°7014| 25-819) 64°6| 59-0] 5-6 |-832 | 130-0) Clouds rise.

| u |

462

ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS.

E.—NOoOVEMBER 15TH.

Hour.

Tem.

Act. Act.

A.M. 9°53 to 10°6

10°50 ,, 11:3
11°31 ,, 11-44
P.M. 0°33 ,, 0°46
ee 87
247, 3:0
3:48 ,, 4:0
4°3 4-16

25°8
26°1
28°5
30°9
29-1
21°1
16°7
16°2

78:0
80°5
84:0
91°5
90°5
75:0
73:0
75:0

Act.
Reduced.

17°5306
19°1835
20°2065
20°4267
20°4388
16°5635
13°4435
12°7170

Bar: ||-Aur:
25°854 63:0
64:0
65°3
25°844| 65°8
67:0
25°808| 67:2
62°0
25:°803] 61°5

Di Ps | att.

55:3) 8°7
52°8| 11-2
51:9) 13-4
51-2) 14:6
49°6| 17:4
56°6| 10°6
50°8} 11°2

Sat.

‘690
638
620
560
‘708
‘690

50°5| 11:0

‘692:

‘772 | Sky cloudless. Wind
N.E.

Silchar (Cachar), Elev. 116 feet,
Nov. 26TH, 1850.

Hour.

9°34. ,,
9°50 4,
10°7
11°3

bh)

de)

la.M, 9°11 to 9-24

9°41
9:57
10°14
11°16

‘ Act.

m.
. |Reduced.

164706
16°5937
17°3558
175695
17°5251
17°8144
17°9676
15-0880
11°6688
11°0215

78360

Lat. 24° 30' N., Long. 93° EH. (approximate).

Watch slow 13’ 39" mean time.

66°3
29°999| 68-7
70°3
73°2
29°967| 74:5
76°8
29°892) 78:5
7955
29°881) 79-4
78°5

63°5|- 2°8

» | Air. |D. P.| Diff. | Sat.

SS ee ———
———n

‘860

Dense fog till 7°30
“aM. Wind north.
Clear. .
Wind N. BE. Light] ©
cirrhus low.

Streaks of cirrhus
aloft. :

Sun sets in hazy cirrhus.

ae

Chittagong, Elev. 200 feet, Lat. 22° 20' W., Long. 91° 55’ E.

A.—DECEMBER 31sT, 1850.

Hour
AM. 7°39 to 7:52
$40.,,° 8:53
94 ,, 98
9°52: ,, 9°56
LOZ) 1056
A 0a! Lg C42)
L527 PL56
P.M. SS 7 ia
ety oi
SO Sey
O18", 3:25

Tem.

Act. Act.

70°0
91°5
89°5
87°3
90°5
84°5
92°6
84:0
90°7
86:0
89°3

Watch slow 3’ 45" mean time.

Act. :
aaictsg | Bar. | Air
8:3700 57°0
141219] 29°874) 59°5)
15°6136 633
16°7341| 29-923) 64:5
16°7668 65°7|
72558 68°5
17°5028) 29°892! 69°5
17°5123 fener
16°8418
14°6645| 29°831)| 71:0
13:0468

=
ODOM DOH

DS. OF O1 TD HY Orv Or Or

00 DD > HA Od TDD +7

60°5|10°5 |°

0 CODD OD

Cioudless. Moun-

127°0| tainsclear. Wind
EN... Cor,

142:0| Wind N.W.

148°0

150:°0

Wind S8.W.

Clouds about in
patches.

*

APPENDIX K. ACTINOMETER OBSERVATIONS. 463

B.—January 1, 1851.

Watch slow 3/45" mean time.

Hour. Act. | (ol ped g | Barom.| Air. |D. P.| Diff, | Sat. | BIA0*
am. 7°34to 7°41 | 10:0) 69:4) 8:4200| 20:948] 55-4] 54:0] 1°4/-953 Mist rises and
8°38 ,, 845 | 16:0) 70:0} 13:3920 58:91 57-°7| 1°2)-970 | 104°5 drifts west-
9°44 ,, 9°51] 19:5] 74°7| 15:3660] 29-891] 63-2] 61-7] 1°5|-960|115-0/ ward _ till
10°46 ,, 10°53 | 21:0| 78°2| 15°8550 66°7| 62 4| 4:3|°870 | 120°0 7°30 A.M.
iepo),, L157 | 21°5| 8i°2) 15-6950 69°8| 58:3) 11°5|-688 | 117°0} Wind N.W.,
P.M. 06 ,, 0°13 24:1) 88°0| 16°4603| 29-850! 70°3| 56:0| 14°3|°625 | 122°5 clouds rise.
0°58 ,, 1:2. | 23-9) 87:2) 16°4432 71°0| 56°7| 14°3|°625
1°45 ,, 1°52 | 21:4) 84°5| 15°0870 71:3] 57°5| 13°8|°633 | 117°0
315 ,, 322) 18-1} 82:5) 13:0320) 29°798) 71:3) 57-1) 14°2)-625
4:27 ,, 4°34] 10:2) 82:0) 7°3746 70:0} 59-5} 10°5|:708
4°36 ,, 443) 9-8) 84:0} 6°9482 |
445 ,, 4:52) 8:5) 850) 5:9670 ;
ADO ,, d'9 5°6| 85:0} 3°9312 67°5| 62°7| 4:8/°855 Sunset cloud-
512 ,, 518] 3:8| 84-0} 2-6942| 29-778] 68-7) 62:2) 6°5|-810 less.
C.—JANUARY 2, 1851. Watch slow 3’ mean time.
| f
Hour. Act. | Ao peteaa,|Barom. | Air. |D. P.| Dist | Sat. | BAS
A.M. 10°2 to10°9 ae 71:0 15-8592 64°5| 60-6) 3-9 |-878 | 116°0) Low ,dense fog
10°20 ,, 10°24 | 22:6} 79:0] 16-9048) 29-861] 65-6} 61°4| 4:2 |°872 at sunrise,
PM. 03 ,, 010} 24:7] 89-2) 16°6972| 29°858) 69:0) 59°3] 9-7 |-728 | 119-0 clearat 9AM.
O22) 5,. O25 aa 95-5] 18 6796 70:7} 57-5) 3°2.4°650 Hills hazy &
24 ,, 2:8 | 23-3} 91-5] 15-4479 71-2), 61-0) L0+2 |-71:8) |, 112°0 horizon grey.
20 ge 214 | 23°8) 93°0)| 15°6128

464 TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX L.

L.

TABLE OF ELEVATIONS.

In the following tables I have.given the elevations of 300 places, 7

chiefly computed from barometric data. For the computations
such observations alone were selected as were comparable with
contemporaneous ones taken at the Calcutta Observatory, or as
could, by interpolation, be reduced to these, with considerable
accuracy: the Calcutta temperatures have been assumed as those
of the level of the sea, and eighteen feet have been added for the
height of the Calcutta Observatory above the sea. I have intro-
duced two standards of comparison where attamable; namely,
1. A few trigonometrical data, chiefly of positions around Dorjiling,
measured by Lieutenant-Colonel Waugh, the Surveyor-General,
also a few measured by Mr. Muller and myself, in which we can
put full confidence: and, 2. A number of elevations in Sikkim
and East Nepal, computed by simultaneous barometer observations,
taken by Mr. Muller at Dorjilmg. As the Dorjilmg barometer
was in bad repair, Ido not place so much confidence in these
comparisons as in those with Calcutta. The coincidence, however,
’ between the mean of all the elevations computed by each method
is very remarkable ; the difference amounting to only thirty feet in
ninety-three elevations; the excess beimg in favour of those worked
by Dorjilmg. As the Dorjiling observations were generally taken
at night, or early in the morning, when the temperature is below
the mean of the day, this excess in the resulting elevations would
appear to prove, that the temperature correction derived from
assuming the Calcutta observations to correspond with eighteen feet
above the level of the sea at Sikkim, has not practically given rise
to much error.

I have not added the boiling-point observations, which afford a
further means of testing the accuracy of the barometric compu-
tations ; and which will be found in section J of this Appendix.

The elevation of Jillapahar is given as computed by observations
taken in different months, and at different hours of the day; from
which there will be seen, that owing to the low temperature of

’.

o

4

APPENDIX L. TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. A465

sunrise in the one case, and of January and October in the others,
the result for these times is always lowest.

Most of the computations have been made by means of Oltmann’s
tables, as drawn up by Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau, and printed at
the Magnetic Observatory, Simla; very many were worked also by
Bessell’s tables in ,|Taylor’s “Scientific Memoirs,’ which, however,
I found to give rather too high a result on the averages; and I
have therefore rejected most of them, except in cases of great ele-
vation and of remarkable humidity or dryness, when the mean
saturation pomt is an element that should not be disregarded —
in the computation. To these the letter B is prefixed. By far
the majority of these elevations are not capable of verification
within a few feet; many of them being of villages, which
occupy several hundred feet of a hill slope: in such cases the
introduction of the refinement of the humidity correction was not
worth the while. |

Series |.— Hlevations on the Grand Trunk-road. February, 1848.

No.
oe Name of Locality. ieee
| i | Burdwan : 5 : : : : : : - 93
A iGyra- .. ; : ; : : ; : 7 630
3 | Fitcoree . : : : 5 : . 860
2 | Tofe Choney . : ; ats 912
4 | Maddaobund . : ‘ 5 . : ; - | 1230
1 | Paras-nath saddle 2 : : ; 4 : . » |B.4231
2 % east peak : : , : : : ; : 4215
1 flagstaff 5 : iyo a 4428
de 3 lower limit of Clematis ‘and Ber beris : : Z 3162
1 | Doomree : . ; ; ; sent 996
1 | Highest point on grand trunk- road . ; 5 : : : 1446
4 |:Belcuppee . . : ; : Str 1219
1 | Hill 236th mile- stone 5 : : ¢ ; ; : ‘ 1361
3 | Burree : , : ; ; , : ce 1169
1 | Hill 248rd mile- stone ; ; : . : , ; 1339
3 | Chorparun : 3 ; ; ; : : ; nae 1322
3 | Dunwah . 5 ae : : : ‘ ‘ : : 625
1 | Bahra . ; eS , : ; i : j oot al ota
1 | 284th mile-stone : ; : ; : i : oie pene |
| 2 | Sheergotty . : : ; é : : : of oil em
4 | Muddunpore . : : ‘ : : : : : a dN oO Die
1 | 312th mile-stone . : : , : ; : : “(ce a) aoc
3 | Naurungabad . paealies , : : : ; 5 vi] 4 ool 4
4 | Baroon (on Soane) 5 ; : : 5 ; : somes 344 |
#4) Dearee .,, ; ; ; ; : : 2 ; ; | 332 |

WOlL; IT: H

466 TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX L.

Sruntes I].—Elevations in the Soane Valley. March, 1848.

No. |
pes Name of Locality. = wipe es ,
el : ___ |
Sel etilotho. «% A : , : : : : E : , 395
6 | Akbarpore . : ‘ eo : : ioe 403
2 | Rotas palace. : ; : ; : ‘ ; : . | 1489
Aaara, |. : : A 5 5 . Sa ; Seah 453
3 | Soane-pore ; : ; : - ; : 462
6 | Kosdera : : , , : f 5 bd : acne 445
4 | Panchadurma ; ‘ : ; ; : 492
1 | Bed of Soane above Panchadurma : ; : d ny et 482
3. | Pepura. ©: ’ : ; : : : : : ; 587
1 Bed of Soane river : ree). ; : é est 400
9 | Chahnchee ; : d 5 ; ; : ’ , : 499
4 Hirrah F : ; 2 : é >. ‘ dive 531
4 | Kotah ee yo ‘a , ae ke” a ’ 4 541
a Kunch : ‘ o : : : 2 : : oe 561
1 | Sulkun ite ee é : a's Osea
— i - ——_—_——_
F ~~
we %s

Serius I1I.—Hlevations on the Kymore Hills. March, 1848.

No.

ace | Name of Locality. ee
2 | Roump . : : ‘ ist Ses : : : : : 1090
9 | Shahgunjy. 5 : : ’ : : : : Nene 1102
1} Amoee . : . : *. : , ; ; ; 3 818
1 | Goorawul . ; : : ; : : mont 905
9 | Mirzapore (on the Ganges) Re at : : : ; 362

* To summit of chimney, which

barometer was hung.

APPENDIX L. TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. 467
Suries 1V.—LHlevations near Dorjiling. 1848 to 1850.
| |
er Name of Locality. Blevation
J lapahar (Mr. Hodgson’s pss) |
9 . sunrise | = fo0
110 om 9°50 P.M. 7443
104 3 es noon dab en 7457
99 fs : 2°40 P.M. . TAT7
93 - “ 4 P.M. rire 7447
. 37 e ae, oz: sunset 7447
Sum 452 : Mean 7429
_ Ditto by Monthly observations. ——
January . ; ; JO aes Te08
February ; F , . | 7445
March : , ; : oh bagels
April ' EE : 7582
| July oe : pot OSs sige
| August , ‘ ; 7421
September _.. , . ae 4 Seta Na 7454
October : - : ; ; lly Teme
Mean 7448
The Dale (Mr. Muller's) | B. 6957
5 by trigonometry 6952
Superintendent’s house B. 6932
by tr igonometry. 6932
Colinton (Mr. Muller’s) Nt Begg
Leebong oS... B. 5993
by trigonometry 6021*
2 Summit of Jillapahar B. 7896
2 | Smith’s hotel 6872
7 | Monastery hill below the Dale . B. 2141
The Dale by barometer 6952
| 7166
Monastery hill by trigonometry 71653
1 | Ging (measured from Dale) B. 5156
12 | Guard-house at Great Rungeet B. 1864
2 | Bed of Great Rungeet at cane-bridge 818
5 | Guard-house at Little Rungeet 1672
8 | Sinchul top . 8655
by trigonometry 8607
| 4 | Saddle of road over shoulder of Simona : Pe lta (Sp
a) 4 | Senadah (Pacheem) bungalow 2 alee i208
1 | Pacheem village : ple) Sap
13 | Kursiong bungalow | B. 4813
13 | Punkabaree . 1815
2 | Rungniok village iB. 4565
| 2 | Tonglo, summit | B.10°078
s by trigonometry : 1 10-079°4
13 ny Saddle below summit : B.10°008
1 , Rocks on ascent of ; | Belts
4 | Source of Balasun : 7436
_ » by Dorjiling 7451
8 | Goong ridge. : 7441

may be assumed to be 30 feet above where the

HH 2

468

TABLE OF ELEVATIONS.

APPENDIX L.

Series V.— Elevations in Hast Nepal, October to December, 1848.

jt
Hepp TH OOH OOH Co RH RH be Oo RE 0 DOR HE OD DD WD OW WD OO WD WH HW WH WE PE OL OO CO bb OAT AT Ee

Name of Locality.

Source of Myong river
Myong valley, camp in
Myong valley
Purmiokzong
Shoulder of Nanki :
55 Shepherds huts on do.
Summit of Nanki
35 As Camp on Nanki
Jummanoo
Sulloobong
Bheti village
Sakkiazong village
Camp on ridge of mountain
Peak on Sakkiazong .
Makarumbi
Pemmi river
Tambur river at junction with Pemmi .
Camp on Tambur, Noy. 13
fs Nov. 14
Chintam village
Mywa Guola
Tambur river, Nov. 18
»’ Novels
Taptiatok village
Loontoong village
Tambur river, Nov. 23
Wallanchoon village
Tuquoroma ;
Wallanchoon pass
Foot of pass-road
Yangma Guola
Base of great moraine
Top of moraine above ditto .
Yangma village camp
Lake bed in valley
Upper ditto (Pabuk)
Yangma valley camp, Dec. 2
Kambachen pass :
Camp below ditto
Kambachen village
Camp in valley
Choonjerma pass
Camp below ditto
Yalloong river-terrace
Camp side of valley
Yankutang village.
Saddle on road south of Khabili .
Khabang village : .
Spur of ‘Sidingbah, crossed Nov. 10
Yangyading village : :
Sablakoo :
Iwa river, Dee. 12
45 Peni DYs(omet fs)
Singalelah, camp on

Islumbo pass

. |

. |B.16,038

B.16,764
13,501
9,236
12,098
B. 679
B.13,516
15,186

10,997

_ |B.15,770

11,643
11,378
11,454
B.15,259
13,289
10,449
10,080
5,530
5,746
5,495
6,057
4,082
4,635
3,747
6,134
9,263

10,388

APPENDIX L. TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. 469

Series V1I.—Elevations in Sikkim, December, 1848,
and January, 1849.

| By Calcutta | By Dorjiling

|
|
nae Name of locality. | Barometer. | Barometer. |
|
| Feet Feet
4 | Kulhait valley, camp in : ; : ta 6,406 6.374
6 | Lingcham village. ny ea 4,892 4,848
5 | Bed of Great Rungeet, December 20 i ; ae 1,805 1,874
6 | Lingdam village, December 21. ; Sea 5,552 5,556
6 | Nampok village . 4 : F : a 4,354 4,501
7 | Bhomsong : : i ae 1556 1,533
8 | Mainom top. : : ; : ; i LO p02 1B. 10;613
1 | Neon-gong Goompa. : : ; : co aa 5,225
1 | Pass from Teesta to Rungeet : : Pal 6,824
6 | Lingdam village. : meas 5,349 5,401
1 | Great Rungeet below Tassiding an 2,030
Tassiding temples ; : é by AD 4,840
5 | Sunnook, camp on : - 3,955 4,018 |
1 | Bed of Ratong. ; ; sub: 2,481
1 | Pemiongchitemple . ; : ; 7,083 |
10 | Camp at Pemiongchi village : ; : Bean 6,551 6,616
9 | Tchonpong village : ; : : : 4,952 5,008 |
1 | Bed of Rungbi river : ae 3,165
9 | Camp on Ratong river . ; ; f : 3,100 3,242
1 | Doobdi Goompa_ . ; ; , See 6,493 6,451
22 | Yoksun : : : , : : ; ; 5,600 5,635
7 | Dumpook. ; ; : : 5 : ett 6,646 6,710
15 | Buckim 4 : ; : ; s : ; 8,625 8.693
7 | Mon Lepchatop . ; ; , é quis 13,090 13,045
21 | Jongri . > Balsa k70 13.184
1 | Ratong below Mon Lepeha : ; : fen 7,069 G217
1 » below Yoksun . ; : : ; | 3,729 3,851
1 Catsuperri lake : A : ; ; Sane, 6,068 6,009 |
1 % temple : : 3 F : : 6,493 6,476 |
4 | Tengling village. ; : a 5,295 5,219
5 | Rungbee river bed ; ; : : : ; 3,230 3,300
5 | Changachellingtemple . : ; ee 6,805 6,850
5 | Kulhait river : : ; ; : : , 3,075 3,243
1 | Saddle of Hee hill . ‘ : : : rot, 7,289
6 | Camp on Hee hill. ; : : ; : 6,609 6,744
|

470 TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. APPENDIX L.

Sertes VII.—Hlevations in the Sikkim Terai and Plains of India,
Gangetic Delta and Sheels.

of Name of Locality. Elevation.
Obs. Feet.
| 3 | Siligoree Bungalow ; : : : : J ; nd 3802
| 12 Titalya 55 : i 326
| 8 | Sahibgun) (west of Titalya) : ‘ ; 231
| 4 | Bhatgong . , ; : A aah he 225
4 | Thakya-gunj . ‘ : : 5 : 284
4 | Bhojepore . : : : 2 Be 404

5 | Rummai . , : ; : : ; 293 |
5 | Rangamally BPs: 262
5 | Belakoba . ; ; ; : 368
1 | Mela-meli_ . ; ; asc 337
6 | Kishengunj ; ; ; : 131
43 | Mahanuddy river between. Righonstn and Maldah lee 153
| 24 55 Maldah and Rampore Bauleah : 98
12 Rampore (Mr. Bell’s) : ie 130
13 | Dacca (Mr. Atherton’s) . : : 72
54 | Jheels, Dacca to Pundua 3 s : , : .. + "008
33 | Megna river (June Ist-6th) : ‘ : ote 2006
13 | Soormah (June 9th) : , a 1) ee OS
4 | Pundua (Junel0thand 11th) . ; : ; 4 d . | #7018
3 » (Sept. 7th) : ' : . ta le COR

5 - (Nov. 16th and 17th) : : : } : . . | —0°66 |

Sertes VITI— Hlevations in Sikkim, May to December, 1849.

! i See za ae
N P | Name of Locality By Calcutta | By at)
Obs. | * Barometer. | Barometer.
Word Feet. Feet.
2 | Mik, on Tendong ; 3,912
4 | Namtchi, camp on spur . : ; ‘ a 5,608
1 | Tendong summit : , : . |, B.8:671 1 Urs Gpae
2 | Temi, Meets valley t : See | 4,771
4 | Nampok a ; 3 , : : 4 B..5, 438 5,033
8 | Lingmo : : a Me » 2,961 2,838
4 | Lingtam spur, ‘Teesta valley Ans 4,867
4 | Gorh $5 : : eae » 4,061 4,195
2 Bling- -bong ms , ; i : of BOOT AR a
8 | Lingo village es ; ak 552 Co 2,859
10 | Singtam, May 14 to 16 : »» 4,435 4,477
16 » (higher on hill) Oct. 30 to Nov.2. . ee :

* The observations marked thus * are the differences in inches between the
readings of my barometer at the station, and that at the Calcutta observatory,
which is 18 feet above the sea- -level.

APPENDIX L.

Cp

mt OD CD RY EL OO OO HE HE ATT -T DO

OWN DD Orb & Ee

Or

ae rae ae a

“-

Serres VITI.—( Continued.)

TABLE OF ELEVATIONS.

Name of Locality.

Niong.
Namgah .
Chakoong
Choongtam, May
August
Dholep, Lachen
Dengha _,,
Latong _e,,
Kampo Samdong
Chateng. : :
H lower on spur
Lamteng village
Zemu Samdong .
Snow bed across Zemu river .
Camp on banks of Zemu :
Junction of Thlonok and Zemu
Camp on banks of Zemu river
Zemu river, June 13 ‘
ms higher up, June es
- Yeunga (Lachen valley)
Tallum Samdong 5
Tungu, July .
» October .
Palung plains.
Sitong
Kongra Lama pass ;
Yeumtso (in Tibet)
Bhomtso do.
Cholamoo lakes do.
Donkia pass, October
" September
Momay Samdong

Donkia, September 13. :

Kinchinjhow, September 14

Sebolah pass :

South shoulder of Donkia, September 20
Mountain north of Momay, September 17 .
West shoulder of Donkia mountain, Sept. 26.

The following were measured trigonometrically.

Forked Donkia mountain

Kinchinjhow mountain . :
Tomo-chamo, east top of Kinchinjhow
Thlonok mount, Peak on :
Chango-khang mountain

Tukcham mountain, from Dorjiling
Chomiomo mountain . ;

By Calcutta
Barometer.

Feet.

4,229
4,371
5,245
5,247
6,120
6,337
6,471
7,315
8,819
8,493
8,900
9,026
9,828
10,223
10,864
12,064
12,422
13,281
10,196
11,540
12,779
12,799
15,697
15,372
15,745
16,808
18,590
16,900
18.589
18357
15,362

16,876
17,495
17,604
18,257

|
|

| ,, 22,700

Ur. 20,870

| 5, 20,000

By Dovjiling
Barometer.

Feet.
3,954

4,443
5,284
5,297
6,145
6,399
6,310
7,344
8,695
8,343
8,867
8,926

10,271
10,828
12,074

11,424
12,723
12,747

15,642

15,069

Measured

irom Momay.

17,079
17,656
17,567
18,357
B. 17,394
18.510

1» 22,750 |
» 21,000

» 20,600
» 19,472

Or
_t

poe
Oo AT Or 09 H CO DS © DO

=<

BDOownwpoeitnwpnwnorre own wre

“i -
2 TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. Avpenprx L.
Serres VIIL.—( Continued.)
By Caleutta | , Measured
Name of Locality. Be rorneree ae
; : Abe Feet. Feet.
The following were measured trigonometiically.
Summit? of Donkia (from Donkia pass and Tr. 22.650
Bhomtso) . : sPlents 18.250
| Tunkra Mountain, from Dorjiling — ; 2
By Dorjiling
Barometer.
Yeumtong . : ; fas 11,983 11,839
Fe October ; : : ; ; : 11,951
By
Yeumtong
Barometer.
Snow bed above Tee : ; : . >) Beem 16,000
Punying . ‘ : ; ‘ : «| sy le2oe
By Dor. Bar.
Lachoong village, August . , mr Se 8,474
¥ 3 October 5 - || Npgite SS en
Lacheepia i : , : : oon hy Leth Oe 15,281
Tunkra pass : : : ‘ 5 - |) 53 16308S
Rock on ascent to ditto f : : . + | 0 EB Os 13,144
Keadom . : j : 5 : . |. 6609
Tukcham village ‘ : ; : : 1 |e Baede
Rinkpo village : 3 ; ; | 5, 26.008
Laghep ; ) : 5 : ; © | Sel ag el OEA oes
Phieungoong. ; : : : 3 - |, L222
Barfonchen . : : : : : - ofl alee
Chola pass : : ; i : ~ | 5) 14,925
Chumanako . ; : , ; - ah) 57 oom
Phadong . : : . -|,, 5,946
Tumloong, Nov. 3rd and 4th. 5 3 oh i pees
Higher on hill, Nov. 16th to Dee. 9th. : . | 4 sone
Yankoong ; s / | Slat
Tikbotang > oO shOs
Camp, Dec. 11th A ; : oe gg uO
Serriomsa F P : . toy eee
Dikkeeling . : Sane PN 5
Singdong , . . . . . co a egy
Katong ghat, Teesta : : i ee
Namten . . . . . ; - | 4, 4,483
Cheadam : : : ; : ; 2 1, © 46oe

AppENDIX L. TABLE OF ELEVATIONS. 473

Serres 1X.—hasia Mountains, June to November, 1850.

ae Name of Locality. Elevation. |
| Obs. eet. |||
| 36 | Churra (Mr. Inglis’s) ‘ : : : ; 4,069
167 » bungalow opposite church, August ; . . | 4,198
102 ms mM Oct., Nov. . : 2 : z ; . | 4,258
25 Kala-panee bungalow ‘ ; : , ae 0002). |
63 | Moflong . , Y : : 3 . : - | 6,062
Memmeiiionnhil . 2. 3. lt et wll | 6662
9 | Syong bungalow. : Bile ef (755
| 1 | Hill south of ditto . ; ; ; : : 3 os 050
32 | Myrung aay July : i uu ly 3,040
| 6 as : : : : oe O09
9 Chela ; ; : ‘ : ; : z : 80
i 63} Nunklow . : : ; ; : : ; --» | 4,688
6 | Nonkreem . ; ; ‘ : : ‘ ; ‘ peep 60
| 10 Mooshye . : : : : : : > ie 1 458638
35 | Pomrang : ar : 4 : : : : . | 5,143
12 | Amwee : Se ae: 2 ! ; : ; Fal 4h
9 | Joowye : ; : : : : . | 4,387
3 | Nurtiung . : ; , : . : : aon | 4,178
Serres X.—Soormah, Silhet, Megna, Chittagong, Se.
No.
of Name of Locality. Elevation.
Obs.
27 | Silhet (Mr. St ‘iin oe th’ a ; : lar? 133 ft.
38 | Soormah river, between Silhet and Meena ' : : ‘ 46 ,,
36 | Silchar ; : . ‘ : ; ; ’ 2 ee AG;
24} Megnariver . ; : ; : : : . | +°020*
12 Noacolly (Dr, Baker’ Se ; , . . | —039
10 hs on voyage to Chittagong ; : : i 000+
72 | Chittagong (Mr. Sconce’s) . ; aoe 191 ft.
8 flagstaff-hill at south ‘head of harbour . : Sule
2 Spetacoond hill . ; .“ A yo cevll MEESO
16 ‘, bungalow. : : ‘ : : . | —:069*
3 | Hat-Hazaree. ; ; : . = 2 | S039
12 | Hattiah . ‘ : A ; : : : ; .| —'049
4 | Sidhee ; : tn!)
17 | Chittagong to Megna ; ; ; 5 . | —014+
10 | Eastern Sunderbunds : ; ; ; 5 : iis |} e002 |
|

* Difference between barometer at station and Calcutta barometer.
+ The observations were taken only when the boat was high and dry, and
abeve the mean level of the waters.

v7

pe JT
)

yy >
'

INDEX.

——$—

A

Abies, Brunoniana, i. 206, 209, 272, 274,
342; ii. 25, 32, 44,108; Smnithiana,
li. 25, 32, 45; Webbiana, i. 191, 272,
307, 342; ii. 44, 108.

Abrus precatorius (note), i. 16.

Acacia Arabica, i. 60, 80; Catechu, i.
31, 52, 393, 395 ; Serissa, i. 193.

Acarus, ti. 178.

Aconitum, Himalayan, ii. 108; palma-
tum, i. 168; Napellus, i. 168; variega-
tum (note), ii. 107.

Acorns, abundance of, i. 373.

Acorus Calamus, i. 286.

Actinolites, 1. 146.

Adamia cyanea, i. 112.

Adenanthera pavonina, ii. 328.

Aigle Marmelos, i. 25, 50, (note) i. 16.

Agates, i. 33, 91.

Ailurus ochraceus, ii. 108.

Akshobya, image of, i. 322.

Alligator, i. 51, 54; droppings of in
river banks, ii. 251.

Alluvium, Gangetic, i. 88, 379.

Alsophila gigantea, i. 110, 142; (note),
ii. 18. spinulosa (note), ii. 13.

Amber used in Sikkim, ii. 194.

Ameletia Indica, i. 386.

American plants in Himalaya, ii. 39.

Amherstia, ii. 245.

Amlah, Sikkim, ii. 192; examination by,
m. 20 1,

Amulet, Tibetan, i. 166.

Amwee, ii. 315.

Andromeda, ii. 22, 39 ; fastigiata, 1. 3438.

Andropogon acicularis, i. 385; muricatus,
i, 42.

Animals at Tungu, ii. 92.

Antelope, ii. 132.

Antilope Hodgsoni, ii. 157.

Ants’ hills, white, i. 20.

A ponogeton, i. 62.

Apoplexy, symptoms of at great eleva-
tions, ii. 178.

Apple, crab, ii. 82 ; wild, i. 205 ; ii. 148.

Aquilaria Agallocha, ii. 328.

_ Aralia used for fodder, i. 359; pith

yielding rice-paper, i. 359.

Ararat, Mount, ii. 3.

Areca gracilis, ii, 10, (note), i. 143.

Arenaria rupifraga, ii. 89.

Argemone Mexicana, i. 30.

Arisceema, i. 49.

Aristolochia saccata, li. 6.

Arrat, name of Lepchas, i. 127.

Arrow-root, i. 93.

Artemisia, headache produced by, ii. 20;
Indica (note), ii. 20.

Arums, food prepared from, ii.
poisoning by, i. 75.

Arun river, i. 224; ii. 124, 143; sources
of, i. 167.

Asarum, ii. 48.

Assam valley, view of, i. 290.
Ass, wild, ii. 172. (See Hquus Hemionus
and Kiang). :
Astragalus, used for making paper, il.
162; Tibetan (note), ii. 165.

Atmosphere, dry, i. 65; transparency
Of eA iG LOO:

Atmospheric vapours, strata of, i. 188,
310.

Attar of roses, i. 78.

Aucuba, i. 126; 11. 39.

Aurora Borealis, i. 37 ; Appendix, p. 384.

49;

B

BaGHODA, 1. 26.

Baikant-pore, 1. 393.

Bails, or Thuggee stations, i. 68.
Baisarbatti terrace, 1. 401.

476 INDEX.

Baker, Dr., 11. 339.

Balanites, 1. 25. ;

Balanophora, ii. 19, 47; cups made
from, i. 1382; knots caused by, 1. 133.

Balasun river, i. 110, 402.

Bamboo, dwarf, i. 126 ; eatable grain of,
i. 313; flowering of, i, 155, 158; kinds
of in Khasia, ii. 268; kinds and uses
of in Sikkim, i. 155, 158; planted,
i. 386.

Bambusa stricta, i. 30.

Bananas, wild, i. 20, 148 ;
i: OL9,

Ban, or Lepcha knife, i. 130.

Banyan tree, i. 18; of Calcutta gardens,
iil. 246.

Barnes, Mr., 1.95; Mr. Charles, i. 114.

Barometer, accident to, il. 189; obser-
vations on Jheels, 11. 258.

Baroon on Soane river, 1. 35.

Bassia butyracea, i. 151; latifolia, i. 16.

Bath, hot, at Bhomsong, i. 305; at
Momay, ii. 133 : at Yeumtong, ii. 117.

Beadle, Lieut., 1. 26.

Beaumontia, i. 401.

Bee, alpine, ii. 68; boring, i. 374;
cutting, 1. 46.

Beejaghur, 1. 56.

Bees-nests, i. 201; 1. 16.

Begonia, alpine, ii. 108.

Behar, hills of, i. 32.

Belcuppee, i. 28.

Bellows, Himalayan, ii. 82; of Khasia,
li. 310; of leaves, 1. 53.

Benares, i. 71 ; observatory at, i. 74.

Berberis Asiatica (note), i. 24; concinna,
i. 198; wsignis, 1. 364.

Betel-pepper, i. 99; il. 327.

Bhaugulpore, i. 90; gardens at, i. 91.

Bhel fruit, i. 50.

Bhomsong, i. 297 ; 11. 8; temperature of
soil at, i. 305.

Bhomtso, ii. 124, 164, 174; elevation,
temperature, &e., at, ii. 175.

scarlet-fruited,

leaf-

Bhotan, called Dhurma country (note), |

i. 136 ; 366 (note).

Bhotanese (note), i. 136; ii. 232.

Bhotan Himalaya, i. 153; ii. 165, 298.

Bhoteeas, i. 205, 215.

Bhote (note), i. 136.

Bignonia Indica, i. 16.

Bijooas, or Lepcha priests, i. 135.

sikh poison, i. 168 ; ii. 108.

Bind hills, i. 64.

Birds at Momay, ll. 181; of Khasia, ii.
305 ; of Terai, i. 399.

Black-rock of Colonel Waugh (note),
We S:

Blocks, granite, ii. 293,
201; syenite, ii. 303.

310; split, i.

Boat on Ganges, i. 70.
Boga-panee, ii. 287, 308.
Bombax, i. 26.
Boodhist banners, i. 144 ; monuments,
_1, 147 ; temple, i. 77; worship, i. 174,
324; worship introduced into Sikkim,
re 47g

Borassus, i. 39.

Bore, or tidal-wave, ii. 343.

Bor-panee, i. 301, 318.

Borrera, vi. 165, 173:

Borr (Pandanus), i. 300 ; ii. 9.

Boswellia thurifera, i. 29, 39.

Botrichium Virginicum, i. 293.

Boulders in river-beds, i. 288; of gneiss
on Jongri, i. 853; on Mon Lepcha,
i. 342,

Bowringia, ii. 313.

Bread, Tibetan, i. 297.

Breccia, modern formation of, i. 200.

Bridge, at Amwee, il. 315; living, ii.
268 ; of canes, 1. 149; ii. 21.

Buceros, i. 187.

Buchanania, i. 26.

Bucklandia, ii. 185.

Buckwheat, cultivated at Jigatzi, ii. 171;
wild, ii. 31,

Bufo scabra, il. 96.

Bugs, flying, i 1. Ole

Burdwan, i. 6; coal-fields, i. 8.

Burkutta river, i. 28.

Burrampooter, altered course of, ii, 253,
346; old bed of, ii. 256; Tibetan,
see Yaru-tsampu; view of from
Khasia, ii. 800, 301.

Butea frondosa, i. 9, 52, 381, 392.

Butter, churning, ii. 77, 87; ornaments
made of, 1. 88.

Butterflies, painted lady, ii. 33; at
various elevations, ii. 26, 65, 98, 132;
tropical, i. 152.

C

CACHAR, li. 826; rain-fall at, 11. 334.

Cesalpinia paniculata, i. 25.

Cajana, i. 13.

Calami, species of in Himalaya, i. 143. —

Calamus, ii. 10. ¢

Calcutta, journey to, ii. 242.

Callitriche verna ? (note), ii. 96.

Calotropis, i. 380, 86; C. arborea, i. 72;
temperature of, 1. 36.

Caltha palustris (note), ii. 77; scaposa
(note), ii. 77. =

Camels, i. 61; at Lhassa, li. 172. aan

Campbell, Dr. , Joims me in rai, is § 5 :
meet at Bhomsong, i i. 297; at ng! ak
tam, ii. 146 ; seizure of, ii. 202 ; Sent as

INDEX. 477

Superintendent of Dorjiling, i. 117;
treatment of as prisoner, li. 205.
Cane bridge at Choongtam, ii. 21; at
Lachoong, ii. 101 ; over Great Run-
geet, i, 149.
Canoes of Teesta, i. 392, 396; of Tam-
bur, i. 194 ; swamped, ii. 335.
Capparis acuminata, i. 38.
Cardamine hirsuta, i. 230.
Cardiopteris, ii. 334,
Carex Moorcroftii, ii. 155.
Carissa carandas, i. 14, 31.
Carroway, ii. 66.
Carthamus, i. 80.
Caryota urens, i. 148.
Cascades of Khasia, ii. 270; of Mamloo,
ii. 278.
Cassia fistula, i. 393.
Casuarina (note), li. 346.
Catechu, collecting, i. 52.
Cathcartia, ii. 198.
Catsuperri, i. 362; lake, i. 363 ;
ples, i. 365.
Cave, Lieut., garden at Churra, ii. 284.
Cedrela Toona, i. 144, 193; ii. 18.
Cedrus Libani (note), i. 257.
Central India, hills of, i. 32.
Cervus Wallichii, antlers of, ii. 214.
Chachoo river, il. 84.
Chahnchee, 1. 51.
Chait, description of, i. 324; (note),1.158.
Chakoong, ii. 18, 188.
Chamerops Khasiana, ii. 279.
Chameleon, i. 205.
Changachelling, i. 368.
Chango-khang, ii. 84, 133, 141.
Chattue, ii. 262, 309, 337.
Chaulmoogra (See Took), i. 151.
Cheadam, ii. 234.
Cheer-pine, i. 182.
Chela, ii. 306.
Chepangs, ii. 15.
Cherry, alpine wild, ii. 145.
Cheytoong, Lepcha boy, ii. 184.
Chillong hill, ti. 290.
Chinese plants in Khasia, ii. 318; in
’ Sikkim, i. 126 ; ii. 39.
Chingtam, i. 196.
Chirring (red rose), ii. 63.
Chiru. See Tchiru, ii. 157.
Chittagong, ii. 345; leave, ii, 353.
Chokli-bi (Smilacina), ii. 48.
Chola, i. 123; summit of pass, ii. 199 ;
view of from Donkia, ii. 127.
Cholamoo lake, ii. 124, 157, 176.
* Chomachoo river, i. 225; ii. 125.
Chomiomo, ii. 80, 94, 165.
~Choombi, ii. 110.
-Choongtam, ii. 21, 98, 145, 185; insects
at, ii. 98; vegetation of, ii. 24.

tem-

Choonjerma pass, 1. 264,

Chumulari, 1-125, 185; 1.410% dis-
cussion on, ll. 166; view of from
Khasia, ii. 300.

Chunar, i. 71.

Chung (Limboos), i. 187.

Churra-poonji, ii. 272; rain-fall at, ii.
282; table-land of, ii. 277; tempe-
rature of, i. 284.

Cicada, a WOT, Veairs a,
limit of, ii. 96.

Cicer arietinum, i. 80.

Cinnamomum, i. 162.

Cinnamon of Khasia, ti. 309.

Cirrhopetalum (note), ii. 10.

Clay of Sikkim, i, 155; Appendix, 383.

Clematis nutans (note), i. 24.

Clerodendron, i. 387.

Climbers, bleeding of, 11. 350 ; of Sikkim,
i. 163.

Coal, of Burdwan, i. 8; Churra, ii. 278,
285, 303; Terai, i. 403.

Cobra, mountain, ii. 20.

Cochlospermum, i. 53.

Cocks, Sikkim, i. 314.

Celogyne, i. 110; Wallichit, i. 166; ii.
311.

Coffee, cultivation of, at Chittagong, ii.
347 ; at Bhaugulpore, i. 938.

Coixz, cultivation of, ii. 289.

Coles, i. 55, 91.

Colgong, i. 94.

Colvile, Sir J., 1. 5.

Comb of Lepchas, 11.194; of Mechis, i.
408.

Conch shells, in Boodhist temples, i.
174, 312; cut at Dacca, ii. 254.

Conduits of bamboo, i. 144.

Conferve of hot springs, i. 28; Ap-—
pendix, 375.

Conglomerate, ii. 19, 165, 176, 177, 402,
403,

Coniferee, Himalayan, i. 256.

Conocarpus latifolius (note), i. 16.

Cooch-Behar, i. 384.

Cooches, 1. 384.

Cookies, ii. 330.

Corbett, Dr., i; 82.

Cornelians, i. 33.

Cornwallis, Lord, mausoleum of, i. 78.

Corpses, disposal of in Sikkim and
Tibet, i. 287.

Cosi river, i. 96.

Cowage plant, i. 12.

Cows, Sikkim, i. 314; ii. 150.

Crab, fresh-water, ii. 7.

Cranes, i. 392; (note) i. 161.

Crawfurdia, ii. 145.

Crows, red-legged, ii. 37.

Crucifere, rarity of in Himalaya, i. 113.

300 ; upper

478

Cryptogramma crispa, i. 262; ii. 68, 72.

Crystals in gneiss, ii. 138.

Cupressus funebris, i. 315, 317, 336.

Cups, Tibetan, i. 132.

Currants, wild, i. 148.

Currents, ascending, i. 374.

Curruckpore hills, 1. 87.

Cuttack forests, ii. 340.

Cycas pectinata, i. 151, 382; ii. 30;
(note), i. 143; trees in Calcutta Gar-
den, ii. 247.

Cyclops, figure resembling (note), ii
195.

Cynodon Dactylon, i. 385.
Cypress, funereal, i. 315, 317, 336.
Cypripedium, ii. 68, 322.

D

Dacca, i. 254.

Dacoits, i. 65.

Dalbergia Sissoo, i. 101.

Dallisary river, ii. 256.

Damooda valley, i. 7.

Dandelion, ii. 66.

~ Daphne, paper from, ii. 162. See Paper.

Date-palm, i. 34, 88 ; dwarf, ii. 300.

Datura seed, poisoning by, i. 65.

Davis, Mr. C, E., i. 4

Decaisnea, new edible fruit, 11. 198.

Deer, barking, i. 399.

Delphinium glaciale, i. 269; i. 95.

Demons, exorcisement of, ii. 114.

Dendrobium densiflorum, ii. 19; Farmert,
&c.,
i. 103.

Dentaria (a pot-herb), ii. 47.

Denudation of Himalaya, i.
Khasia, 11. 324.

Deodar (note), i. 256.

Dewan, Sikkim, i. 117; 11. 97; arrival
at Tumloong, ii. 217; conferences
with, ii, 221, 225; dinner with, ii.
231; disgrace of, ii. 241; hostility to
British, i. 117; house of, i. 304.

Dhals a: 13:

Dhamersala, i. 222.

Dhob grass, i. 385.

Dhurma country, name for Bhotan,
(note), i. 8366; people (note), i, 136;
rajah, i. 136; seal of, i. 372.

Digarchi, ii. 125. See Jigatzi.

Dijong (name of Sikkim), i. 127.

Dilivaria ilicifolia, ii. 347.

Dillenia, i. 393, 395.

Dinapore, i. 82.

Dingcham, ii. 87, 169.

Dingpun, at Chola, ii. 200, 201; Tibetan,
1. 260) Links, 111208:

308 ; of

ll. 323; nobile, iit. 19; Pierardi,

INDEX.

Diospyros embryopteris, i. 392; fruit, ii.
64.

Dupterocarpt, ii. 345;

D. turbinatus, ii,
348 ‘

| Miseaeea attributed in Tibet to ele-

ments, ii. 178.

Djigatzi, ii. 125. See Jigatzi.

Dog, loss of, ii, 100; Tibetan, i. 204;
wild, i. 43.

Do-mani stone, i. 294,

Donkia, i. 123 ; ii. 126; ascent of, ii. 178 ;
forked, ii, 120; pass, ii. 123, LEDs
temperature of, i ii. 129; topsof, i187.

Doobdi temples, i. 336,

Dookpa, Boodhist sect (note), i. 366.

Doomree, i 1. 25.

Dorje, i. 173.

Dorjiling, i. 113; ceded to British, i. 116 ;
climate, i. 119, 120; elevation of,i i, 115;
leave, ii. 248 ; origin of, i. 115 ; pros-
pects of, ii. 248; threat of sacking,
ii. 214 ; trade at, i. 118.

Duabanga grandifiora, i. 401.

| Dunkotah (East Nepal), i. 190.

Dunwah pass, i. 30.
Dust-storm, i. 51, 81.

| Dye, yellow, ii. 41.

Ki

EAGLE-WOOD, ii. 328.
Earthquake, Chittagong, ii. 349;
colly, ii. 342; Titalya, i. 376.
Edgeworthia Gardneri, i. 205, 333 ; ii. 10,
162.

Efflorescence of nitrate of lime, i. 43;
of soda, i. 13.

Eggs of water-fowl in Tibet, ii. 161.

Ek-powa Ghat, 1. 59.

Eleagnus, i. 205.

Eleocharis palustris (note), 1. 96.

Elephants, at Teshoo Loombo, ii. 172 ;
bogged, ii. 333 ; discomforts of riding,
i. 400 ; geologising with, i.10 ; path of,
1.108; purchase of, 1.381; wild, ii. 302.

Noa-

_ Eleusine coracana, 1. 133.

Enkianthus, i. 108.

Ephedra, ii. 84, 155.

Ephemera at 17,000 feet, ii. 141.
Epipactis, ii. 66.

Equinoctial gales, ii. 144.

| Equus Hemionus, ii. 172.
| Eranoboas (note) i. 36, 90.

Erigeron alpinus (note), ii. 164.

Ervum lens, 1. 13.

Erythrina, ii. 18.

Euphorbia ligulata, i. 46; pentagona, i.
82; neriifolia, i. 46, 82; tereticaulis,
i. 46.

INDEX.

European plants in Himalaya, ii. 38.
Euryale ferox, ii. 255; seeds of, in peat,
ii, 341.

F

Farr, i. 61; at Titalya, i. 118.

Falconer, Dr., house of, ii. 243.

Falconeria, ii. 353.

Falkland Islands, quartz blocks of,
(note), ii. 179.

Fan-Palm, ii. 279.

Fear, distressing symptoms of, ii, 220,

Felle, Mr., i. 55.

Felspar, concretions of, i. 406.

Fenny river, mouth of, ii. 343.

Ferns, eatable, i, 293; European, ii.
68, 72.

Feroniaelephantum, i. 25,50, (note), 1.16.

Festuca ovina, ii. 123, (note) ii. 164.

Fever, recurrence of at elevations, ii.
183.

Ficus elastica, i. 102; infectoria, i. 26.

Rigas i.157.

Fire, grasses destroyed by, 1. 385; in
forests, i. 146.

Fire-wood, Sikkim, ii. 151.

Fish, dried, 11. 309 ; Tibet (note), ii. 183.

Fishing basket of Mechis, i. 404.

Flame, perpetual, ii. 352.

Flood, tradition of, i. 127; ii. 3.

Florican, i. 55, 381.

Forests of Sikkim, i. 165.

Fossil plants of coal, i. 8; of Khasia,
ii. 325; of Terai, i. 403.

Frogs, Sikkim, i. 165.

Fruits of Sikkim, i. 159; ii. 182.

Funaria hygrometrica, ii. 19.

Fungi, European, ii. 73.

G

Ganass, fall of, i. 71; scenery of, i. 79.

Gangetic delta, ii. 340 ; head of, ii. 252. |

Gangtok Kajee, ii. 229.

Gardeners, native, i. 93.

Gardens, Bhaugulpore, i. 91; Burdwan,
1. 6; Calcutta Botanic, i. 3, ii. 244;
Lieutenants Raban and Cave’s, il.
284; Sir Lawrence Peel’s, i. 2.

Garnets, amorphous, (note) ii.
sand of, i. 80, 371.

Garrows, ii. 272.

Gaultheria, ii. 22, 182.

Gelookpa, Boodhist sect, (note) i. 366.

Geology of Choongtam, ii. 27; Khasia
mountains, ii. 323 ; outer Himalaya, i.
406, Paras-nath, i. 32.

Geraniwm, ii. 19.

123 ;

Ghassa mountains, (note) ii. 166.

Ghazeepore, i. 78.

Giantchi, li. 168, (note) 11. 131.

Glaciers of Chango-khang, i. 115;
Donkia, ii 136; Himalaya, ii. 57;
Kambachen, i. 260 ; Kinchinjhow, ii.
134, 180; Lachen Valley, ii. 78;
Yangma Valley, i. 246.

Glory, ornament resembling, ii. 86 ;
round deities’ heads, ii. 195.

Gnaphalium luteo-album, i. 80.

Gnarem Mountain, ii. 18.

Gneiss, characters of, (note) i. 128;
cleavage of, ii. 91; flexures of, i.
406.

Gnow, (wild sheep), ii. 132.

Goa, (antelope), ii. 157.

Goats, poisoned by Rhododendrons, ii.
150; shawl-wool, ii. 88.

Godowns, opium, i. 83.

Goitre, i. 134.

Goliath beetles, 11. 98.

Goomchen, (tail-less rat), ii. 156.

Goong ridge, i. 180.

Gordonia Wallichii, i. 102, 157.

| ‘Gorh, 11. 10:; Lama-of, 11. 21;

Goruck-nath, figure of, 11. 195, (note)
i, 323.

Gossamer spiders, i. 81.

Goughia, ii. 33.

Gram, i. 13.

Grand trunk-road,i. 10, 11.

Granite, blocks of, ii. 310; cleavage
planes of (note), i. 345; of Kinchin-
jhow (note), ii. 287, (note), ii. 128;
phenomena of, i. 308.

Grant, Dr., i. 90; Mr. J. W., report on
Dorjiling, i. 116.

Grapes, cultivation of, i. 92; wild in
Sikkim, ii. 187.

Grasses, absence of on outer Himalaya,

i. 113; gigantic, i. 385.

| Gravel terraces and beds in Terai, i.

378, 380, 382, 401.

Great Rungeet river, cross, i. 287; ex-
cursion to, 1. 142.

Greenstone of Khasia, ii. 287.

Griffith, Dr., i. 3; (note) ii. 40, 244.

Grislea tomentosa, (note) i. 16.

Grouse, Himalayan, ii. 113.

Grove, sacred in Khasia, li. 319.

Guatteria longifolia, i. 82.

Gubroo, i. 345.

Guitar, Tibetan, i. 304.

Gum arabic, i. 60; of Cochlospermum,
i. 53; of Olibanum, 1. 29.

Gunpowder, manufacture of, 1. 9.

Guobah of Wallanchoon, i. 217, 259.

| Gurjun trees, i. 345, 348.

|

Gyrophora, ii. 130.

480

H

HAILSToRM, 1. 405.

Halo, i. 69; seen from Donkia, ii. 129.

Hamamelis chinensis, ii. 318.

Hamilton, Mr. C., i. 65.

Hardwickia binata, i. 50, 54.

Hares, Terai, i. 399; Tibetan, ii. 157.

Harrum-mo, (wild tribe), ii. 14.

Hattiah island, removal of land from,
ii. 309.

Haze on plains, i. 374, 375.

Hee hill, i. 371.

Helicteres Asoca (note), i. 16.

Helwingia, i. 126.

Herbert, Major, report on Dorjiling, i.
116.

fTierochloe, i. 115

Himalaya, distant view of, i. 96; vege-
tation and scenery of outer, i. 108 ;
view of from Khasia, ii. 287, 289, 297,

Hippophae, ii. 43.

Hodgsonia, i. 395; ii. 7; heteroclita, ii. 350.

Hodgson, Mr., i.122; join in Terai, 1.
376; view ont Ronee! te Wey

Holigarna, varnish from, 11, 330.

Hollyhock, 11. 100.

Honey poisoned by Rhododendron
flowers, i. 201; preservation of
bodies in, il. 276 ; seekers, ii. 16.

Hooli festival, i. 73, 389.

Hopkins, Mr., on elevation of moun-
tains, 1. 326.

Hornbills, i. 187.

Hornets, i. 26.

Horse-chestnut, Indian, i. 394.

Horse, -wild, i. 172.

Hot-springs, boy passes night in, ii.

184; of Momay, ii. 138, 180; Seeta-
koond, i. 88; Soorujkoond, i. 27;
Yeumtong, i. 116.

House, Lama’s, i. 317; Tibetan, at
Yangma, i. 242; Wallanchoon,i, 211.

Houttynia, ii. 7.

Hydnocarpus, ii. 7.

Hydropeltis (note), ii. 318.

I

Ick, accumulation of, ii. 47; action of,
i. 353 (note), ii. 121; transport of plants
in, ii, 247.

Imperata cylindrica, 1.385.

India-rubber tree, 1. 102;

Indo-Chinese races, i. 140.

Infusoria at 17,000 feet, ii. 123.

Inglis, Mr. H., ii. 265.

Insects at 4000 feet, 11. 18; Choongtam
(5000 feet), 11. 26; Dorjiling (note),

ie Los

INDEX.

ii, 98; Lamteng (8000 feet) ii. 37;
Momay (15,300 feet), ii. 132; Tallum
(12,000 feet), ii. 68 ; Tungu (13,000
feet), ii. 93; Zemu river (12,000 feet)
il. Pee Zemu. sc (9000 feet),
ii.

Tron forges, chime of hammers, i li. 296 ;
sand, ii, 310; smelting of, in Khasia,
ii. 310; stone, i. 401. |

Irvine, Bins i 89, ee is
Islumbo pass, i, 280. * z ” be
Ivy, il. 32; eS Be
ocala,
I
Jarns, i. 18, 90. -

Japanese plants in Sikkim, i. 126 ; ii.
39.

Jarool (Lagerstraemia), ii. 327.

Jasper rocks, i i. 50.

Jatamansi, i. 217.

Jeelpigoree, i i. 384; rajah of, i. 389.

Jerked meat, i. 214 ; ii. 183._

Jews’ harp, Tibetan, di 338 ; ii, 219.

Jhansi-jeung, see Giantchi, ii. 168.

J heels, il, 256, 309; brown waters of,
li. 263.

Jigatzi (note), ii. 125, 171 ; temperature
Of i P71

Job’s tears, cultivation of, i. 289.

Jongri, i. 349.

Joowye, ii, 316.

Jos, image of, at Yangma, i. 236.

Jummul river, ii. 253.

Juncus bufonius, i. 80, 230.

Jung Bahadoor, il. 239, 2438.

Juniper, black, sketch of, ii. 55.

Juniperus recurva, ii. 28, 45.

Junnoo mountain, i. 123, 258, 264.

Jyntea hills, ii. 314.

K

Kadsura, ii. 6.

Kajee, i. 182.

Kala-panee, li. 285.

Kambachen, or Nango pass, i, 250; top
of, i. 253 ; village, 1. 257.

Kambajong, i ii. 125.

Kanglachem pass, 1. 246.

Kanglanamo pass, i. 271, 341, 350.

Katior-pot (Zodgsonia), ii. 7.

Katong-ghat, i. 233.

Kaysing Mendong (note), i. 286, 332.

Keadom, ii. 101.

Kenroop-bi (Dentaria), ii, 47.

Khabili valley, i. 278.

Khamba mountains, ii. 167.

Khasia, climate of, ii. 282; geology of,

%

INDEX. 481

ii. 323 ; leave, ii; 8323; people of, ii.
273.

Khawa river, i. 198.

Khutrow (Abies Smithiana), ii. 25.

Kiang, ii. 172.

Kiang-lah mountains, ii, 124, 167.

Kidnapping, 1. 341.

Kinchinjhow, ii. 41, 80,84, 140; glacier
of, ii. 134, 180.

Kinchinjunga, i. 344; circuit of, i. 381 ;
view of from Bhomtso, ii. 165; from
Choongtam, ii. 14, 188 ; from Donkia
pass, i. 126; from Dorjiling, i. 123 ;
from Sebolah, ii. 142; from Thlo-
nok, ii. 50.

Kishengunj, i. 98 ; ii. 249.

Kollong rock, ii. 293.

Kongra Lama, ii. 155; pass, ii. 80.

Kosturah (musk-deer), i. 269.

Kubra, i. 123, 272.

Kulhait river, i. 281,370; valley, i. 282.

_Kumpa Lepchas, i. 137 ; Rong,.i. 137.

Kunker, i. 12, 29, 50, 89, 94.

Kursiong, 1. 109, 110, 405.

Kurziuk, i. 284.

Kuskus, i. 42.

Kymore hills, geology of, i. 32 ;
stone of, i. 39.

sand-

GAG 39:

Lacheepia, ii. 112.

Lachen-Lachoong river, ii. 14, 186.

Lachen Phipun, ii. 22, 43, 149 ; conduct
of, ii. 61 ; tent of, i. 78.

Lachen river, i1. 30; length of, and in-
clination of bed, ii. 176.

Lachoong Phipun, ii. 105; valley, head-
streams of, i. 120; village, li. 103 ;
revisited, i. 183.

Lagerstrenia grandifiora, i.401. Regine,
ui. 327.

Laghep, ii. 197.

Lagomys badius, ii. 156.

Lagopus Tibetanus, i. 93.

Lailang-kot, ii. 286.

Lake-beds in Yangma valley, i. 282,
234, 238, 244.

Lakes caused by moraines, ii. 119.

Lamas, arrival of at Tumloong, ii. 224 ;
dance of, i. 228; music of, i. 313:
it 218. 5 Pemiongehi, u. 225 : of

* Sikkim, i. 290; of Simonbong, i
174; worship of, i. 365; ii. 178.

Lamteng, ii. 34, 96, 148.

Landslips, ii. 16, 20, 97, 115.

Larch, Himalayan, i. 255; sketch of,
ii. 55.

VOL. II.

Larix Griffithia, i. 255 ;
Lassoo Kajee, ii. 2.
Laurels, i. 162.
Lautour, Mr., ii. 345.
Leaf-insect, ii. 305.
Lebanon, Cedar of, i. 256.

Lecidea geographica, i, 221, 352 ; ii. 130;
oreina, li. 179.

Leebong, i. 143.

Leethes; 2107) 1673.0: (17:
limit of, ii. 54.

Leguminose, absence of in Himalaya,
igh BZ:

Lelyp, i. 205.

Lemna minor, i. 306.

Lemon-bushes, wild, ii. 233.

Lepchas, i. 127; diseases of, i. 134;
dress and ornaments of, i. 130; ii.
194 ; food of, i. 182; music of, i. 133;
peaceable character of, i. 128, 136.

Lepus hispidus, i. 399; otostolus, ii,
158.

Leucas, a weed in fields, i. 383.

Leuculia gratissima, i. 198, 276;
ceand, ii. 286.

Leycesteria, i. 206.

Lhassa (note), ii. 168 ; notices of, i. 299 ;
ie ely fp

Lichens, Arctic, i.
179.

Licuala peltata (note), i. 143.

Lignite, i. 403.

Liklo mountain, ii. 50.

Lilium giganteum (note), ii. 33.

Little Rungeet, cross, i. 157, 175
guardhouse at, i. 371; source of, i.
181.

Limboos, i. 137 ; language of, i. 138.

Lime, deposit of, ig 407; ii. 97: nitrate
Of 143;

Limestone, at Rotas, i. 40; nummulite,
li, 266, 346; of Churra, ii. 278;
spheres of, 1. 55; Tibetan, ii. 177.

Lime-tuff, impression of leaves on,
i, 44,

LTnmosella aquatica, i. 230.

Tinaria ramosissima, i. 42.

Lingcham, i. 281, 3138;
282, 284, 371.

Lingo cane-bridge, ii. 12.

Linum trigynum (note), i. 16.

Lister, Colonel, ii. 329.

Lizard, i. 37; ticks on, i. 37.

Lohar-ghur, i. 402.

Luminous wood, ii, 151.

Lushington, Mr., sent to Donrjiling,
ii. 227.

Lycopodium clavatum, ii. 19.

Lyellia crispa, ii. 19.

Lymnea Hooker, ii. 156.

li. 44,

upper

Pin-

352; ii. 130, 165,

Kajee of, i

482 INDEX.

M

Macuoo valley, ii. 109.

Maddaobund, i. 18.

Magnolia, Campbellii, i. 125, 166 ;
excelsa, i. 125; distribution of (note),
i. 166,

Magras, aborigines of Sikkim, i. 139.

Mahaldaram, i. 111.

Mahanuddy river, i. 98, 3755 ii. 250.

Mahaser, a kind of carp, i. 398.

Mahowa, 1. 16, 63.

Maidan (term as applied to Tibet),
in 170:

Mainom mountain, camp on, i.
summit of, i. 310.

Maitrya, the coming Boodh, i. 357.

Maize, hermaphrodite, i. 157; roasted,
i. 78.

Malayan plants in Himalaya, ii. 39.

Maldah, ii. 250.

Mamloo, village and waterfalls of, ii. 278.

Mango, blossoming, 1. 61.

Mani, or praying-cylinder, i. 135, 172,
211; turned by water, 1. 206.

Mantis of Khasia, ii. 305.

Marlea, ii. 33.

Marmot, i. 93; head and feet of, 1i. 106.

Martins’ nest, spiders in, 1. 46.

May-fly at 17,000 feet, ii. 141.

M‘Lelland, Dr., 1. 3.

Mealum-ma (nettle), 11. 189, 336.

Mechi fisherman,i. 404; river, i. 383;
tribe, i. 101, 140.

Meconopsis, 1. 81; ii. 281; Nepalensis,
i. 53.

Meepo, i. 198; house of, ii. 194; joined
by, ii. 11; wife of, ii. 193.

Megna, altered course of, ii. 341; navi-
gation of, 11. 338.

Melastoma, ii. 18.

Mendicant, Tibetan, ii. 189.

Mendong, i. 211, 332; Kaysing (note),
i, 286.

Menziesia, ii. 118.

Mesua ferred, ii. 328.

Midsummer, weather at, ii. 59.

Mirzapore, i. 64.

Moflong, ii. 288.

Momay Samdong, arrival at, ii. 118;
climate of, ii. 143; second visit to,
ii. 180.

Monastic establishments of Sikkim,i. 367.

Monghyy, i. 87.

Monkeys, i. 278; ii. 37.

Mon Lepcha, i. 342.

Monotropa, ii. 19.

Monuments of Khasia, ii. 319.

Moormis, i. 139.

Mooshye, ii. 314.

307 ;

Moosmai, ii. 268.

Moraines, ancient, at Lachoong, ii. 104;
at Tallum, ii. 67; at Yangma, i. 231,
246; extensive, li. 118; indicating
changes of climate, 1. 380.

Morung of Nepal, i. 378, 382.

Mountains, deceptive appearance of, ii.
127.

Moxa of puff-ball, 11. 13.

Mudar (Calotropis), i. 86.

Muddunpore, i. 35.

Mugs at Chittagong, ii. 345.

Mulberry, wild, i. 151.

Mules, Tibetan (note), ii. 228.

Mungeesa Peak, i. 55.

Munnipore dance, ii. 331; frontier, 1.
334; (note), 11. 329.

Murraya exotica, i. 44.

Murwa beer, i. 138, 175, 285, 291;
grain, 1. 133.

Mushroom, eatable, ii. 47.

Musk-deer, 1. 209; ii. 37.

Muslin, Dacca, ii. 254.

Mutton, dried saddles of, it. 183.

Myong valley (Kast Nepal), i. 181.

Myrung, ii. 292.

Mywa Guola,i. 137; sunk thermometer
at, 1. 198.

N

NAGAS, 11. 3a2,

Nageesa (Mesua ferrea), ii. 320.

Namten, ii. 223.

Nango mountain, i. 236; or Kamba-
chen pass, 1. 250.

Nanki mountain, i. 183.

Napleton, Major, i. 92.

Nardostachys Jatamansi, i. 217; (note),
ii. 164.

Naucleacordifolia,i.26; parvifolia, i. 25.

Neongong temple, i. 311.

Nepal, East, journey to, i. 178.

Nepalese Himalaya, i. 125.

Nepenthes, ii. 315.

Nettles, i. 157 ; gigantic, i. 182; 11.188.

Nightingales, i. 332.

Nimbus of the ancients (note), 1. 195.

Ningma, Boodhist sect (note), i. 366.

Nipa fruticans, i. 1; ii. 355. ;

Nishung, or Moormis, i. 139.

Noacolly, ii. 8339; extension of land at,
i. 341.

Nonkreem, ii. 310.

Nummulites of Khasia limestone, 11.
325.

Nunklow, ii. 300.

Nunnery at Tumloong, ii. 191.

Nursing, i. 124, 347.

INDEX.

Nurtiung, ii. 318.

Nut, Himalayan, i. 114.
Nutmegs, wild, ii. 353.
Nympheea pygmeea, ii. 312.

O

Oaks, i. 109; distribution of in India
(note), ii. 336 ; Sikkim, i. 157; upper
limit of, ii. 114.

Observatory at Benares, i. 74.

Oil of Bassia butyracea, i. 151; of
B. latifolia, i. 16; Kuskus, i. 42;
mustard, linseed, and rape, i. 18;
uggur, 11. 8328; wood, ii. 348.

Olax scandens, i. 31.

Olibanum, Indian, i. 29.

Olivine (note), ii. 123.

Omerkuntuk, 1. 32.

Onglau (mushroom), il. 47.

Opium, East Indian, cultivation and
manufacture of, 1. 83; quality of,
i. 85;

Opuntia, 1. 205.

Orchidee, growth of in Khasia, ii. 321;
of Khasia, ii. 281.

Orobanche, Himalayan, i. 262; Indica,

1, 16.

Ortolan, i. 98.

Otters, i. 198.

Ovis Ammon, i. 244;
i. 249

Oxalis sensitiva, i. 102.

Oxytropis Chiliophylla (note), ii. 164.

ii. 182; skulls of,

P

PacHEEM, i. 111; vegetation of, 112.
Painom river, ii. 167.
Palibothra, i. 90.

Palms, distribution of in Sikkim, i.
143; fan, 1. 29 of Khasia, ii. 267.
Palung plains, ii. 84, 152; view of from

Sebolah, ii. 142.
Pandanus, i. 300;
Papaw, ii. 350.
Paper, manufactory at Dunkotah, i. 190;

of Astragalus, ii. 162; of ees and

Edgeworthia, i. 205, 303 ; ie LOZsof

Tibet, ii. 162.

Papilio Machaon, ii. 65; (note,) 11. 68.
Paras-nath, i. 12, 32; geology of, i. 32;

summit of, i. 21.

~ Paris, ii. 18.

Parochetus communis, i. 50.
Patchouli plant, i. 314.
Patna, i. 82.

Pawn, i. 9.

i. 9.

483

Peaches, Sikkim, i. 158 ;
ii. 185.

Peacock, wild, i. 30.

Peat at Calcutta, ii. 341.

Pea-violet, ii. 309.

Peel, Sir L., garden of, i. 2.

Peepsa, i. 157.

Pelicans, mode of feeding, i. 80.
Pemberton, Capt., treatment of his
embassy in Bhotan (note), li. 202.

Pemiongchi temple, i. 327.

Pemmi river (East Nepal), i. 192.

Pepper, Betel, i. 99.

Perry, Miron o8:

Peuka-thlo, i Sty

Phadong Goompa, li. 192;
at, li. 209.

Pinan it. 1 LO}

Pheasant (Kalidge), i. 255 ; horned, ii. 37.

Phedangbos (Limboo priests), i. 138.

Phenzong Goompa, ii. 192.

Phieungoong, i. 332; 11. 198.

Phipun, Lachen, ii. 22, 149; of Lachoong,
ie 105:

Phenix acaulis, i. 145; (note), i. 148,
400; dwarf, i. 22, 382; paludosa,
1.15; 0. 355; sylvestris, 1.88.

Phosphorescent wood, i. 151.

Photinia, ii. 22.

Phud (Tibet mendicant), i. 186.

Phyllanthus emblica, i. 273 ; (note), i. 16.

Picrorhiza, i. 272.

Pigeons, i. 37.

Pines, gigantic, ii. 108; Himalayan, 1.
256; 11.44, 198; rarity of in Sikkim,
i. 169.

Pinguwicula, ii. 40.

Pinus excelsa, ii. 45,105; Khasiana, ii.
282, 288, 301 ; longifolia, i. 145, 182,
278, 280; ii. 3, 45.

Piptanthus Nepalensis, ii. 0.

Pitcher-plant, i. 315.

Plantago leaves, used to dregs wounds,
ii. 00:
Plantain,

i. 148.

Plants, English, on Soane river, 1. 45;
English, on Ganges, i. 80; tempera-
ture of, i. 36; of English genera in
Terai (note), i. 398.

Plectocomia, i. 148.

Plumbago, i. 407 ; ii. 46.

Poa annua, i. 118, 221; laxa, 1. 123

Poa (fibre of Baehmeria), i. 157.

Podocarpus neriifolia (note), i. 256.

Podostemon (note), ii. 314. .

Poisoners, i. 65.

Poisoning of goats by rhododendrons,
ii. 150; of Bhoteeas by arum-roots,
le fies

cultivation of,

confinement

scarlet-fruited, ii. 309; wild,

484 INDEX.

Polygonum cymosum, ii. 31.

Polypodium proliferum, i. 50.

Pomrang, ii. 313.

Pony, Tibetan, i. 118; ii. 75; (note),
i, dei,

Poppy, cultivation of, i. 31; ii. 352.

Porcupine, i. 205.

Potamogeton natans, i. 306.

Potatos, culture of in East Nepal, 1.
259 ; Khasia, ii, 277 ; Sikkim, 1. 158.

Pothos, ite 1S:

Praong (bamboo), i. 158, 313.

Primula petiolaris, i. 8306; Stkkimensis,
Fale

Prinsepia (note), i. 102, 291.

Procapra picticaudata, ii. 157.

Prunella, ii. 132; vulgaris, ii. 66.

Prunus, heal for fodder, i. 359.

Pteris aquilina, ii. 19; (note), ii. 53.

Pullop-bi (Polygonum), ii. 31.

Pulse accelerated at great elevations, il.
lente Crear te

Pundim mountain, i. 345; cliff of, 1. 346.

Pundua, ii. 264.

Punkabaree, i. 102, 374, 403.

Purnea, i. 97.

Pyrola, ii. 43.

Q

QuARTZ-BEDS, folded, i. 406; blocks in
Falkland Islands (note), ii. 179.

Quercus semecarpifolia, i. 187.

Quoits, 1. 338.

R

RaBan, Lieut., ii. 333; garden of. at
Churra, ii. 84.

Radiation, powerful in valleys, i. 209.

Rageu (deer), ii. 98.

Rain-fall at Churra, ii. 282 ; at Noacolly,
il, 840; diminution of at Rotas,i. 43;
in Sikkim (Appendix), 412; Silchar,
li. 334,

Rajah, Sikkim, audience of, i. 302; po-
verty of, i. 303; (note), ii, 216; pre-
sents from, ii. 64; punishment of, i.
246; residence of, 11.191, 217.

Raj-ghat, i. 44.

Rajmahal hills, i. 95.

Raklang pass, i. 292.

Ramchoo lake (of Turner), ii. 143, 167.

Rampore. Bauleah, ii. 251.

Ranee of Sikkim, presents from, ii. 227.

Rangamally, i 1. 393.

(note), u. 112; sceleratus, 1; 45, 80:
Ratong river, i. 358,

| Salix tetrasperma, i.
Ranunculus aquatilis, ii. 156 ; hyperboreus

Rat, tail-less, 11. 156.

Red snow, absence of in Himalaya, ii.
TG

Release from confinement, ii. 237.

Reptiles of Khasia, i. 305; of Sikkim,
ii. 25.

Rhododendrons, i. 166, 167; alpiie,
1, 220; ii. 58; anthopogon, i. 220, 349;
arborewm, i. 126, 200, 274, 275, 276;
li. 25; argenteum, i. 126, 358; ii. 6;
Aucklandit, ii. 25; barbatum, i. 166,
274; campylocarpum, i. 261 ; Dalhouw-
sie, i. 126, 162; 11. 25; distribution
of at Chola (note), ii. 197; Edge-
worthit, ii. 25; Falconeri, i. 272, 274,
307; flowering of at different ele-
vations, ii. 181; formoswm, ii. 301;
Hodgsoni, i. 250, 274; leaves curled
by cold, ii. 199; vale, ii. 89, 155 ; of
Churra, ii. 282 ; poisoning of goats by,
ii. 150 ; setoswm, 1. 220, 349 ; superb at
Choongtam, ii. 186.

Rhubarb, gigantic, ii. 58; used as to-
bacco, ii. 152.

Rice-paper plant (note), i. 359.

Rice, Sikkim, i. 155; upper limit of
cultivation, ii. 105.

Ringpo, i. 196.

Ripple-mark on sandstone, i. 48, 63.

Rivers, diurnal rise and fall of, ii. 69;
of West Bengal, i. 33; temperature

_ of, 1. 60; velocity of, ii. 99.

Rocks, absence of scratched in Sikkim,
ii. 120; falling, ii. 57; moutonnéed,
ii. 136 ; moved by frosts, &c., ii. 179;
retention of heat by, i. 222; strike
of mm) Tibet, 1 7re

Rong (name of Lepchas), i. 127.

Rosa wmvolucrata, ii. 250; macrophylla,
li. 48; sericea, i. 168.

Rose, Gangetic, (Rosa involucrata), ii.
255; gardens, i. 78; large-flowered,
ii. 43.

Rotas-ghur, i. 40; palace, i. 42.

Rottlera tinctoria, 1. 315.

Rummai, i. 394.

Ryott valley, ii. 190.

S

Saddle, Tibetan, i. 29.6.

Sakkya, invocation of, i. 229; Sing, i
321; Thoba, i. 381.

Sakkyazong, i. 186, ii. 66.

Sal, 1. 21.

400; Babylonica,

Liv 32,

| Salmonide, distribution of in Asia,

(note) ii. 183.

INDEX. 485

Salt, country in Tibet, ii. 124; mono-
poly of by Indian Government, ii. 339.

Salvinia, ii. 338.

Sandal-wood, red, ii. 328.

Sandstone of Kala-panee, ii. 286; of
Khasia, ii. 267; of Kymore hills, i.
39; of Terai, i. 8379, 402; slabs of,
ai 60.

Sara (crane) breeding in Tibet (note),
“161.

Sar-nath, i. 77.

Satpura range, i. 32.

Satyrium Nepalense (note), ii. 102.

Saussurea, bladder-headed, 11. 109 ; gos-
sypina, i. 225.

Saxifraga, arctic, ii. 81; ciliaris, ii, 280;
(note) ii. 100.

Scirpus triqueira (note), ii. 96.

Scitaminee, i. 18.

Sconce, Mr., ii. 345.

Scorpions, i. 53.

Scratched rocks, absence of in Sikkim,
ii. 120.

Seal of Bhotan Rajah, i. 372.

Seasons of vegetation in Sikkim, ii. 182.

Sebolah pass, 11, 141.

Seetakoond bungalow and hill, ii. 352;
hot springs of, i. 88; perpetual flame
at, 119352.

Sepoys, Lepcha and Tibetan, ii. 235.

Shahgunj, i. 60.

Shales, carbonaceous in Terai, i. 403.

Sheep, breeding of, ii. 150; feeding on
rhododendron leaves, i. 261; grazed
at 16,000 feet, ii. 89 ; at 18,000 feet,
ii, 170; Tibetan, i. 272 ; wild, i. 243,
ii. 132.

Sheergotty, 1. 31.

Shell-lac, i. 9.

Shells, ii. 7; alpine, ii. 156.

Shepherd’s purse, 1. 221.

Shigatzi (sce Jigatzi).

Shooting, prejudice against, ii. 40.

Showa (stag) antlers of, 11. 214.

Shrubs, northern limits of, ii. 118.

Siberian plants in Himalaya, ii, 38, 66,
68, 74.

Sidingbah (note), i. 274, 276.

Sikkim, climate of, 1.160; Rajah, i. 116,
298 ; vegetation, i. 168; Dewan, i.
298

Silchar, ii. 328.

Silhet, ii. 326, 335; leave, ii. 337.

Siligoree, i. 375, 399,

Silok-foke, Lama of, ii. 4.

Simonbong temple, i. 172.

Simulium, i. 157.

Sinchul, ascent of, i, 124, 195; plants
of, i. 125.

Singdong, i, 229.

| Singtam Soubah, ii. 15; at Chola,ii.201 -

dismissal of, ii. 210; illness of, ii.
72; joined by, ii. 64.

Singtam village, ii. 14.

Sissoo, i. 395.

Sitong, ii. 153.

Skimmia, i. 126 ; lawreola, i. 167.

Sleeman, Major, reports on Thuggee, i.
67

Slopes, inclination of in Sikkim, i. 327.
Smilacina (a pot-herb), ii. 48.
Snake-king, image of, i. 369, (note) i. 328.
Snakes, ii. 25, 305.

Snow, perpetual, ii.. 116, 128, 169;
phenomena of (note), is 252 ; ; shades,
i. 357 ; storms, i. 355.

Snowy Himalaya, views of from Tonglo,
i. 184; very deceptive appearance of,
i, 124.

Soane, i. 35; cross, i. 88, 45, 53; eleva-
tion of bed, i. 46; mouth of, i. 82;
pebbles, i. 33, 91; plants in bed of, i.
45.

Soda, sesqui-carbonate of, i. 13; efflo-
resced, li. 157.

Soil, temperature of, i. 35, 36, 45, 158,
170, 186, 219, 247; at Bhomsong, i.
305.

Songboom, i. 361.

Soormah river, ii. 261 ; basin of, 11. 256.

Soorujkoond, hot-springs of, i. 27.

Sound, produced by boulders in rivers,
il. 48; transmission of, i. 253.

Sparganium ramosum (note), ii. 96.

Spheerostema, ii. 33.

Sphynx atropos, 1. 46.

Spiders in martins’ nests, i. 46.

Spondias mangifera, i. 82.

Squirrels, i. 46.

Stainforth, Mr., house at Pomrang, 11.
313; at Silhet, ii. 335.

Sterculia fatida, i. 39.

Stick lac, i. 9.

Sticks, warming (note), il. 154.

Stipa, ii. 132.

Stauntonia, i. 112.

Strawberry of the plains, 1.395; alpine,
ii. 108.

Struthiopteris, ii. 68.

Strychnos potatorum, i. 50.

Stylidium, ii. 336.

Styloceras ratna, i. 399.

Sulkun, i. 56.

Sultangunj, rocks of, i. 90.

Sundeep island, deposit of silt on, ii.
342.

Sunderbunds, ii. 354; compared with
Jheels, ii. 260 ; vegetation of, ii. 340.

Sunipia (note), ii. 10.

Sunnook, i. 317.

486 é INDEX.

Sunrise, false, i, 63.

Sunset, false, i. 63; in Tibet, 11. 173.
Suspension bridge, iron, i. 199.
Syenite, blocks of, ii. 302.

Symplocos, dye from, ii. 41.

Syong, ii. 291.

T

TAKTOONG river, ii. 32.
Talauma Hodgson, i. 162.
Taldangah, i. 12.

Tallum Samdong, ii. 67, 96.

Tamarind tree, i. 17.

Tamarisk, 1. 392.

Tambur river, i. 194 ;
slope of bed, i, 200.

Tanks, plants in, i. 62; movements of
water in, il. 342,

Taptiatok (E. Nepal), i. 204.

Tassichooding temples, i. 257.

Tassiding, i. 289, 315; temples, i. 319 ;
foundation, 1, 325.

Tchebu Lama, i. 302; ii. 5, 193;
and chapel of, 11. 194.

Tchiru (antelope), ii. 157.

Tchuka (rhubarb), 1. 58.

Tea, buttered, ii. 78; brick, i. 297; made
of Photinia, &c., ii. 22; Tibetan, ii. 78.

Teal, English, ii. 158.

Tea-plants, 1.5; cultivation of in Sik-
kim, i. 144; cut by hail at Dorjiling,
i. 408; at Myrung, ii. 92; Chittagong,
i. 847.

Teelas, ii. 262, 327.

T'eesta river, at Bhomsong, i. 297; exit
from mountains, i. 396; in plains, i.
392; junction with Great Rungeet, i.
154; signification of, 1. 8398; tempe-
rature of, i. 397; ii. 60.

Teeta (febrifuge), i. 272.

Temples of Catsuperri, i. 865; Changa-
chelling, i. 868; Choongtam, ii. 21 ;
Doobdi, i. 866; Neongong, 1. 311;
Pemiongchi, i. 827; Phadong, ii. 192 ;
Simonbong, i. 172; Tassichooding, i
257; Tassiding, i. 319; Wallanchoon,
i. 228; Yangma, i. 235; various, i.
313; mode of building, i. 311; wor-
ship in, i. 312, 365; ii. 178.

Tendong, i. 127; ii. 3; summit of, i. 6.

Terai, i. 100, 104; definition of, i. 377 ;
excursion to, i. 373; meteorology of,
1. 384; of Khasia, ii. 266 ; seizure of,
ii. 240; vegetation of, i. 101.

Terraces, ‘at Baisarbatti, ; 1.401; junction
of Zemu and Thlonok, ii. 53: Momay,
i 110 Valloore. ae 20K "Yangma,
i, 234, 242.

elevation and

house

Terya, ii. 226.

| Teshoo Loombo (note), ii. 171.

Tetrao-perdri« nivicola, ii. 113.

Thalictrum, ii. 19; alpinum, ii, 115 ;
glyphocarpum (note), i 1. 24.

Thermometer, black bulb, i. 15; boil-
ing-point, i. 113, 153, Appendix,
453; lost, 11. 184; ‘minimum left on
Donkia pass, ii. 129; sunk, i. 198;
Appendix, 441, 451.

Thigh-bone, trumpet of, i. 173, 314.

Thiaspi wrvense, ii. 68.

Thlonok river, ii. 47.

Thomson, Dr., joined by, ii. 238.

Thugs, river, i. 67; suppression of, i.
65.

Tibet, animals of, ii. 93, 157, 173; enter,
ii, 155; inhospitality of climate, i
299; snow-line, elevation of in, il.
128, 175.

Tibetans, i. 262; blackening faces of
women, ii. 172; camp of, ii. 85;
charm-box, 1. 270 ; child’s coral, ii.
87; churns, ii. 77 ; cups, i. 212; diet,
i. 212; Dingpun, ii. 160; dogs, i. 204;
drunk, i. 230; guitar, i. 304; head-
dresses, ii. 86; hospitality, 11. 94;
household, i. 212; houses, ii. 67;
pipe, i. 212; salute, i. 203; sepoys,
il. 160, 200, 285; tea, L212 seme yey
Gents ie We

Ticks, i. 166, 279 ;

Tidal-wave, ii. 343.

Tide in Bay of Bengal, ii. 340; in Sun-
derbunds, ii. 354.

Tiger hunt, i. 56.

Tikbotang, ii. 228.

Tingri, ii. 169.

Titalya, i. 100, 376.

Toad, Javanese, i. 96.

Tobacco, Chinese, ii.
rhubarb, ii. 152.

Toddy-palm, i. 34, 39, 88.

Tofe Choney, i. 16.

Tomo-chamo mountain, ii. 122. _

Tong (arum-roots prepared for food),
ii. 49; collection and preparation
Of, Je .69;

Tonglo, i. 158; camp on, i. 183; eleva-
tion of, i. 171; excursion to, i. 155;
summit of, i. 167; temperature of, i.
170; vegetation of, i. 167.

Took (Hydnocarpus), ii. 7. (See Chaul-
moogra).

Toon (Cedrela), i. 193, 312.

Tourmalines, i. 224; ii. 27.

Toys, children’s in Sikkin, i. 338.

Travelling equipment, i. 179.

Tree-fern, i. 110; ii. 13; in. Silhet, ii.
336.

1. ioe

232; made from

INDEX.

Trees, burnt, i. 151; limits of in Sik-
kim, ii. 75.

Trichomanes, 1. 358.

Tripe de roche, ii. 130.

Tsang, province of Tibet, ii. 168.

Tukcham mountain, U1. 33.

. Tuk-vor, i. 371.

Tumloong, ii. 191; confinement at, 11.
213; dismissal from, ii. 228; meteo-
rology of, ii. 218.

Tungu, ii. 73, 148, 149; meteorology
of, i. 95.

Tunkola, i. 123.

Tunkra mountain, ii. 102; pass, 11.109 ;
plants of, ii. 112. —

Tuquoroma, i. 222.

Turner, Captain, route to Jigatzi (note),
i, LAD.

Turnips, alpine cultivation of, ii. 88.

U

Uceur oil (Aquilaria), ii. 328.

Unicorn of MM. Hue and Gabet, 11. 158.

Urceola elastica, ii. 351.

Urtica crenulata, ii. 188, 3363 hetero-
phylla, i. 182.

Urticec, i. 157.

Usnea, ii. 10.

Vv

Vaccime, rarity of in upper Himalaya
(note), 11. 145.

Vaccinium, ii. 22; serpens, i. 162.

Vakeel sent to Dorjiling, ii. 2.

Valeriana Jatamanst, i. 217.

Vanda cerulea, ii, 319, 321; Roxburghia,
i. 28.

Varnish, black of Munnipore, ii. 330.

Vateria robusta, i. 21.

Vegetation, of Chittagong, ii. 346; of
Himalaya, ii. 388; of Jheels, 1.257; of
Khasia, ii 281; of Terai, 1. 101; pro-
gress of at different elevations, 11. 145,
181; tropical at the base of Kinchin-
junga, i. 341; zones of at Dovjiling,
i. 142; zones of in Sikkim, i. 348.

Veronica Anagallis, i. 80.

Vespa magnifica, i. 29.

Villarsia cristata, i. 62 ; Indica, i. 62.

Vindhya hills, i. 32.

Vitex Agnus-castus, i. 374.

Vitis Indica, ii. 187.

W

WALLANCHOON, i. 227; climate of, i,
218; houses at, i. 211; pass, 1. 224;
plants on pass, i. 225; village, i. 209.

Wallichia palm, ii. 18.

Wallich, Dr., i. 4.

Walloong, i. 209, 215.

Walnuts, Sikkim, i. 334, 338.

Ward, Lieut. i. 65.

Water-plants, i. 62.

Well, old, i. 41.

Wightia, grasping roots of, i. 165.

Willow, ii. 82; of Terai, i. 400; weep-
ing, i. 365.

Winds, hot, i. 15; of Tibet, ii. 159,163;
of Sikkim, Appendix, 403.

Woodcock of Chittagong, 11. 350 : at Bar-
fonchen, ii. 199; at Neongong,i. 306.

| Wood-oil (Dipierocarpus), ii. 348.

Woodsia, ii. 130.
Worm of Sikkim, ii. 26.

4 Y

Yak, i. 212: breeding, ii. 150 ; flock of,
ii. 150; wild, i. 214.

Yalloong ridge, i. 273 ; valley, i. 267.

Yamroop, i. 277.

Yangma, cultivation at, i. 238 ; geology
of, i. 248; Guola, i. 229; houses at,
i. 241; temperature at, i. 247; tem-
ples, i. 235 ; village, i. 238.

Yangyading, i. 277.

Yankoong village, ii. 228.

Yankutang, i. 275.

Yaru-tsampu river, i. 299; ii.
(note), ii. 171.

Yelpote (Bassia), i. 151.

Yeumtong, ii. 115; second visit to, 181.

Yeumtso, ii, 159; elevation of, ii. 174;
lake, ii. 163; temperature of soil at,
Wea)

Yew, i. 168, 191, 274, 280; ii. 45; dis-
tribution of, ii. 25; in Khasia, ii. 282.

Yoksun, i. 335; lake, i. 360.

124;

Z

ZEMINDARS of Bengal, i. 388.

Zemu river, camp on, il. 56; Samdong,
ii. 43, 148.

Zannichellia, i. 45 ; palustris, ii. 156.

Zobo, ii. 213.

Zodiacal light, 1. 63.

THE END.

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