A HISTORY OF liiii: Agriculture fiSucMi ;-; <:; ; :-; >^^SS 1M::^HE UNITED STATESl 1785-1925 ALFRED CHARLES TRUE m Class boO.I Book No. Z0o45 NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 1^^ t^mmmmmimmmmmtmimmmm LIBRARY RULES This book may be kept 1u..W.O. weeks. A fine of two cents will be charged for each day books or magazines are kept overtime. Two books may be borrowed from the Library at one time. Any book injured or lost shall be paid for by the person to whom it is charged. No member shall transfer his right to use the Library to any other person. ALFRED CHARLES TRUE 1853-1929 After more than 40 years of distinguished service in the United States Departnnent of Agri- culture, Doctor True died in Washington, D. C, on April 23. As director of the Office of Experiment Stations, in the period 1893-1915, and as director of the States Relations Serv- ice, In the period 1915-1923, Doctor True made notable contributions to the development of agricultural education and research in the United States. During the period from 1923 to the time of his death Doctor True devoted much of his time to the preparation of histories of agricultural education, agricultural extension work, and agricultural research. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION No. 36 WASHINGTON, D. C. ISSUED JULY, 1929 A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 1785-1925 BV ALFRED CHARLES TRUE Specialist in States Relations Work, United States Department of Agriculture UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1929 unov S ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT $1.00 PER COPY M PREFACE To understand the movement which has resulted in the broad de- velopment of agricultural education in this country it is necessary that its relation be shoAvn to the general development and progress of science and education and to the background of economic condi- tions and of organizations of various kinds for the promotion of agriculture and country life. Considerable attention has therefore been given to these matters, particularly as related to the earlier stages of agricultural education. Such a brief outline of collateral material as is included in this work may appear trite and super- ficial to the experts in these subjects, but it is hoped that it will be useful to students in colleges and schools and to the general readers who may consult this publication. It has not been practicable to give accounts of the development of agricultural education in all the several States and Territories. It has rather been the effort to use details regarding individuals, organizations, and institutions to bring out the various phases of the movement. Our agricultural colleges have often been unfairly criticized because there has not been a good understanding of the actual organi- zation of agricultural instruction as only a part of the much broader Avork of the institutions with which it is connected. Failure to recog- nize the widespread influence which these institutions have had on agricultural progress through their experiment stations and extension work, as well as the promotion of agricultural instruction in second- ary and elementary schools, has also led many people to minimize their educational importance. The breadth of the American system of agricultural education therefore has been emphasized. To give ample space to the history of agricultural research and extension work, however, would have expanded the discussion beyond reasonable limits. It is proposed therefore to prepare separate monographs on these very important features of agricultural education. Credit for the inception of this publication should be given to the Association of Land-Grant Colleges, through its executive com- mittee, which urged the preparation of such a work, and likewise to Henry C. Wallace, former Secretary of Agriculture, whose approval and encouragement were of the highest value. The materials for this history have been drawn from a great variety of sources, and often these have been freely used. In many cases it has not been feasible to indicate the source of particular statements, but care has been taken to make the bibliography of works used fairly complete. Special acknowledgment is made of the assist- ance of F. A. Merrill, specialist in agricultural education, and Miss J. L. Weston, of the Department of Agriculture, in the preparation of this publication, and of Miss C. R. Barnett and Miss E. B. Hawks, IV PREFACE of the department library, in the collection of material for this work. Miss C. L. Feldkamp, of the library of the Office of Experiment Sta- tions, put the bibliography in proper form. D. J. Crosby, late of the faculty of the New York College of Agriculture at Cornell Uni- versity, but also associated for many years with the author in the educational work of the Office of Experiment Stations and States Relations Service, carefully read the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions for its improvement. CONTENTS Page Illustrations ix Part 1. The foundations of the American system of agricultural education, _ 1 Introduction 1 Development of education in Europe 2 Early agricultural schools 3 Development of natural sciences related to agricuJture 4 Early scientists in North America 5 Early agricultural publications in Europe 6 Agricultural societies in Europe 6 British Board of Agriculture 7 Early agricultural societies in North America 7 The Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture 7 South Carolina agricultural societies 8 The Kennebec (Me.) Agricultural Society 8 Early societies in New Jersey 9 Columbia College and the New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures 9 The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture 10 Elkanah Watson and the cattle show 12 Berkshire Agricultural Society 12 Agricultural societies in Connecticut 14 Early societies in New Hampshire 14 Virginia's great agricultural leaders and early agricultural societies 14 Early agricultural societies in the District of Columbia 16 Early agricultural fairs in North America 17 Governmental relations to education in the American Colonies and early States 18 Beginnings of the American public-school system 18 Public support of early American colleges 19 Summary of methods of State aid to education 20 Beginning of Federal aid to education 20 Washington's proposal for a national university 21 Part 2. Development of a definite movement for agricultural education in the United States, and some of the agencies contributing to this movement, 1820-1860 23 Growth of agricultural societies 23 Earlv State boards of agriculture 24 New York 24 New Hampshire 24 Ohio 25 Massachusetts 26 American agricultural periodicals 28 Agricultural books 29 Agricultural textbooks 30 General educational progress 31 The lyceums 31 Horace Mann and the educational revival 32 The broadening of the college curriculum 33 Manual-labor schools 34 Agricultural schools and academies 35 Gardiner Lyceum (Me.) 35 Agricultural Seminary at Derby, Conn 37 Boston Asylum and Farm School 37 Cream Hill Agricultural School (Conn.) 38 Agricultural instruction in private colleges 39 Rensselaer Institute 39 Washington (now Trinity) College 43 Bussey Institution 43 Amherst College 43 Farmers' College in Ohio 44 V VI CONTENTS Part 2. Development of a definite movement for agricultural education in the United States, etc. — Continued. Page The Movement toward public support of agricultural colleges 45 New York 46 Virginia 57 Michigan 57 Connecticut 62 Maryland 65 Pennsylvania 67 Georgia 71 Ohio 72 Wisconsin : 73 Massachusetts 76 Vermont 82 Illinois 83 The national movement for education relating to agriculture and other industries 88 The United States Agricultural Society 90 Illinois memorial to Congress for land grant for industrial uni- ■ versities 91 Part 3. The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 and the early work of the land-grant colleges, 1860-1887 95 The origin of the Morrill land grant bill 97 Morrill's account of the congressional proceedings relating to his land grant bill 98 The first college land grant bill 99 The second college land grant bill 104 The intent of the college land grant act 106 Acceptance of the college land grant by the States 111 Use of the college land scrip by the States 111 The first decade of the land-grant colleges, 1862-1872 112 Conditions affecting the progress of these colleges 112 Organization and early work of the land-grant colleges 116 The experiment station and extension movements in the land-grant colleges, 1873-1887 119 General economic conditions in this period 119 The first mass movement of farmers 122 General educational progress 125 Agricultural education and research in this period 126 Development of the United States Department of Agriculture. .- 127 Early State experiment stations 128 Typical land-grant institutions and their relations to agricultural education 129 Michigan Agricultural College 130 Kansas State Agricultural College 137 Massachusetts Agricultural College 143 Iowa State Agricultural College 152 Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College (Polytechnic Institute) _.___. 158 University of Mississippi and the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi 160 Agricultural College of Pennsylvania (State College) 165 Cornell University in New York 173 Illinois Industrial University (University of Illinois) 181 Part 4. Preparation for large undertakings in agricultural education, 1871-1900 192 The Chicago meeting of 1871 192 The Washington convention of 1872 194 The movement for Federal aid to common schools 195 The Morrill educational bills, 1872-1888 196 The Morrill land-grant college bills of 1890 199 The early agricultural experiment stations and meetings of agricul- tural teachers 200 The Washington conventions of 1882 and 1883 201 The Carpenter and Holmes experiment station bills 203 The Washington convention of 1885 206 The Hatch Experiment Station Act 208 CONTENTS VII Part 4. Preparation for large undertakings in agricultural education, 1871-1900— Continued. Page The organization of the Association of American Agricultural Col- leges and Experiment Stations 210 Early work of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations relating to agricultural education 211 Report of the committee on entrance requirements 214 Organization and work of the committee on instruction in agri- culture 216 Part 5. Expansion and development of agricultural colleges, 1900-1914- _ 220 General conditions favoring growth of agricultural colleges 220 Development of college organization 220 College buildings for agriculture 225 Special buildings 227 Equipment for instruction in agriculture 228 College farms 230 Increased Federal funds for agricultural research 231 The Adams Act 233 Promotion of graduate study 233 The summer graduate school 233 Development of courses in agi iculture 240 Specialization of branches of agriculture 240 Agronomy 242 Horticulture and botany 246 Forestry 248 Animal husbandry 249 Agrotechny 250 Dairying 250 Rural engineering 252 Rural economics 253 Rural sociology 255 Agricultural chemistry 257 Entomology 260 Veterinary medicine 263 Home economics 267 Teacher training 272 Secondary education in the agricultural colleges 273 Promotion of instruction in agriculture in the elementary schools- 275 Extension work 275 Exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition 282 Agriculture in private colleges 283 Agricultural education for negroes 283 Part 6. Enlarged scope of work of agricultural colleges, 1915-1925 288 The Smith-Lever Extension Act 288 Relations of agricultural colleges with State departments of agri- culture 290 Teacher-training under the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act- 291 The crisis in higher education in 1917 293 The status of the agricultural colleges in 1917 294 War work of the land-grant colleges 296 Postwar work of the agricultural colleges 300 Change in name and organization of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations 301 Efforts of the agricultural colleges to improve their curricula 303 The improvement of college teaching 308 Progress in teaching rural economics and sociology 314 Recent research work of agricultural colleges 316 Short courses 317 General status of the agricultural colleges 319 Part 7. Secondary education in agriculture, 1862-1925 322 Disappearance of agriculture from secondary schools, 1862-1880 322 Beginning of a new movement for agriculture in secondary schools, 1881-1900 323 The Storrs Agricultural School in Connecticut 323 The Rhode Island Agricultural School 324 The Agricultural School at the University of Minnesota . 324 The Alabama agricultural schools 327 VIII CONTENTS Party. Secondary education in agriculture, 1862-1925 — Continued. Page Early work of the Office of Experiment Stations relating to secondary education in agriculture 329 Development of secondary education in agriculture without Federal endowment, 1900-1916 -- 330 National agencies for the promotion of secondary education in agriculture 330 Secondary instruction in agricultural colleges 335 Instruction in agriculture in normal schools 336 State agricultural schools 339 County agricultural schools 346 State-aided local high schools teaching agriculture 347 Agriculture in public high schools without State aid 350 Agriculture in private secondary schools 354 General status of secondary education in agriculture in 1916.- _- 355 Development of secondary education in agriculture with Federal aid, 1917-1925 - 356 Rise of the movement for industrial education 356 The Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Edu- cation 357 The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 358 The bills in Congress for Federal aid to vocational education priorto 1914 362 The commission on national aid to vocational education 365 The Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act 370 Secondary agricultural education under the Smith-Hughes Act, 1917-1925 -- 371 Federal Board for Vocational Education 371 Agricultural work of the Federal Board 373 Relation of vocational education in agricultural to ex- tension work 374 Work in the States under the Smith-Hughes Act 377 Part 8. Agriculture in the elementary schools 383 Object teaching 383 Nature study 384 The school-garden movement 385 Elementary instruction in agriculture 389 Report of committee on instruction in agriculture of the agri- cultural college association 390 Office of Experiment Stations syllabus on nature study and elementary agriculture 391 Textbooks of elementary agriculture 392 Boys' and girls' clubs 393 State courses in elementary agriculture 394 Present status of elementary agriculture in rural schools 395 Bibliography 397 Index .-- 421 ILLUSTRATI ONS Page Alfred Charles True Frontispiece. Figure 1. Samuel Latham Mitchill 11 2. Elkanah Watson 13 3. Edmund Ruffin '_ 16 4. Stephen Van Rensselaer 25 5. Marshall P. Wilder 27 6. Amos Eaton 41 7. John Pitkin Norton 64 8. Justin S. Morrill 96 9. Oliver H. Kelley 123 10. Seaman A. Knapp 203 11. Nonnan J. Colman 206 12. Meeting in Washington of representatives of agricultural col- leges and experiment stations, July 8 and 9, 1885 207 13. Wiliam H. Hatch 209 14. Townshend Hall, Ohio State University 225 15. New York State College of Agriculture, central group 227 16. Henry C. Adams 232 17. Class in farm crops studying grain sorghums, Kansas Agricul- tural College 242 18. Original Babcock milk tester 251 19. Asbury F. Lever 280 20. Hoke Smith 281 21. Class in dairying, Hampton Institute, Va 2S4 22. Agricultural Hall, Tuskegee Institute, Ala 285 23. Fred S. Purnell 318 24. Minnesota School of Agriculture, home building for boys, 18S8_.- 325 25. D. M. Hughes 369 IX Part 1. THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION INTRODUCTION With the close of the Revolutionary War and the assured inde- pendence of the United States of America the leaders of enterprise and public opinion in this country began more definitely to make plans for the j)romotion of the agricultural, industrial, commercial, political, and social interests of the new Nation. This was chiefly a country of agricultural and rural communities. Farming included not only the production and sale of crops and livestock, but also cut- ting of wood for fuel and lumber, weaving and making of clothes, tanning of leather, and the manufacture of household furniture and farm implements. Such artisans as were needed to construct and repair buildings and vehicles, shoe horses, and grind grain were often partly engaged in farming. This was also true of the store- keepers who distributed the few articles brought in from the cities and the men who had small mills and factories, many of which depended on the water power from the small streams adjacent to the farms. Even the commercial and professional people of the com- paratively few cities of that period invested their surplus funds largely in land speculation and agricultural enterprises. Many of the soldiers of the Revolution, when relieved of their military duties, together with other adventurous spirits, took ad- vantage of the grants of land or even without this incentive pushed out into the unoccupied regions of the original Colonies and even beyond the Alleghenies to clear the land and make homes on virgin soils. Thus was begun a vast expansion of American agriculture and the building up of rural communities largely unhampered by tradi- tions and willing to undertake experiments in agriculture, education, and social organization. Meanwhile the older settlements along the Atlantic coast had followed a crude and exhausting practice of agri- culture and were seeking means of increasing the fertility of their lands. The movement of population called strongly for improved methods of communication, and there was great activity in building roads, bridges, and canals, as well as ships and boats for inland and coastwise navigation. The dispersion of farm laborers and the in- creasing size of farm operations made the necessity for improved farm implements more and more apparent. Under such circumstances it was natural for political and social leaders to take a deep interest in the promotion of agriculture and to connect this closely with the promotion of commerce, manufactures, and the arts. To understand the movement in the United States which has re- sulted in our nation-wide system of agricultural research and educa- tion it is necessary to know how its beginnings were related to the 1 2 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE history and progress of science and education in both Europe and North America. While the States had withdrawn from their colonial and political relations with Great Britain, their people renewed in large measure after the war the varied intercourse with individuals and institutions in the mother country and were very largely influenced by the move- ments in thought and action there with reference to agricultural, industrial, and social affairs. They also took great interest in simi- lar movements on the Continent of Europe, particularly those in France, whose timely and effective assistance had done so much to make their political independence possible, and to a less extent in those of Germany and Switzerland. These private foreign relations were stimulated and enlarged by increased correspondence, inter- change of publications, travel, and residence abroad for education, business, health, or pleasure. The public embassies and consular offices established after the Kevolution, as well as the visits of naval officers on official business, resulted in increase of information regard- ing European affairs, and this was disseminated widely in this coun- try through the press and otherwise. All this happened at a time when there were already in western Europe a considerable literature on agriculture and quite a number of organizations and institutions devoted to the promotion of agri- culture. The natural sciences were also taking more definite shape, their relations to agriculture were becoming more apparent, and there was a growing hope that their future developments would greatly promote agricultural advancement. The peoples and their governments were beginning to realize that the diversification and strengthening of agriculture to meet the needs of increasing populations and a more complex civilization were very important objects to be promoted. There was therefore a search for new crops, better livestock, and improved farm implements and cul- tural methods. The eighteenth century in Europe had been marked by the estab- lishment of a number of agricultural societies and schools, in connec- tion with which agriculture was taught and practiced. Books and pamphlets on agricultural subjects were quite numerous. Knowledge of these things was available in North America and greatly influ- enced the origin and progress of the movement for agricultural ad- vancement in the United States. To understand this movement it is necessary to keep in mind the similar movement in the old world. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN EUROPE From the time of the Renaissance there was a tendency to relate education to the actual needs of human life and to give attention to nature and its relation to practical affairs. With the beginnings of modern science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a desire to use the new knoAvledge in education soon appeared. Among those who influenced this movement was Rabelais (1483-1553), who would have pupils study nature as well as books and use their knowl- edge in their daily occupations. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) aspired to have "the complete reorganization of human knowledge along Baconian lines." His A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION S teaching and textbooks were based on " presenting the object or idea directly to the child" and making whatever was taught "of prac- tical application in everyday life" (48). Samuel Hartlib (c. 1600-c. 1670) introduced the writings of Co- menius to England and in 1651 published a little book entitled "An Essay for Advancement of Husbandry-Learning ; or Propositions for the Erecting Coliedge of Husbandry; and, in order thereunto, for the taking in of Pupills or Apprentices. And also Friends or Fel- lowes of the Same Coliedge or Society" (70). This contains a de- tailed statement of the subject to be taught and the means to be used in securing financial support for the institution. In the Tractate of Education, published in 1644 and addressed to Hartlib, Milton followed very largely the plan of education sug- gested by Rabelais, which involved a very broad study of classical literature, including agriculture, as described by Cato, Columella, and Varro. Here is found also the definition of " a complete and gener- ous education " as " that which fits a man to perform justly, skill- fully, and magnanimously all the ofiices both private and public of peace and war." Out of this came the academies in England, which often included in their curriculum studies having a practical bearing. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1770) held "that the educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature " and dwelt much on the impor- tance of manual and industrial activities in education. Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1826), being influenced by Rousseau, en- tered on an agricultural life, and from his experience with his own children developed a more positive and practical scheme of educa- tion. From 1775 for several years he conducted a school for poor children in which part of their time was spent in raising farm prod- ucts, spinning and weaving of cotton, etc. Philip Emanuel von Fellenberg (1771-1844) conducted very suc- cessfully from 1806 to 1844, at Hofwyl, Switzerland, two manual- labor schools, which had considerable influence in the United States. (See p. 34.) These schools were for the upper classes and peasants, respectively. They were located on an estate of 600 acres, and the boys in both schools had gardens and were expected to do farm work. There was also instruction in science related to agriculture, a print- ing press, and workshops for making clothing and agricultural and scientific instruments. Subsequently there was a school for girls and a normal school. EARLY AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS Ferdinand Kindermann (1740-1801), a Bohemian, sometimes called " father of industrial education," under the patronage of Maria Theresa, founded an elementary school in which agriculture, music, and religion were taught along with the three R's. This plan was also followed in other schools. In Bohemia an agricultural school was opened at Tirnova in 1791. In Hungary agricultural schools were established at Zarvas in 1779 ; at Nagy-Micklos in 1786 ; the Georgicon Academy at Kezthely, founded in 1797, was for 50 years " the model agricultural college of Europe" (3). 4 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE Near the end of the eighteenth century Frederick the Great under- took the development of agi-iciiltural schools as a part of a broad plan for improving the agricultural condition of Prussia, and his example was followed by his successors. Albrecht Thaer (1752-1828) successfully engaged in practical and scientific farming, and when visitors to his farm at Celle, in Hanover, became numerous he began in 1802 to give them instruction, and this led to the establishment of the agricultural institute in that town. "In 1806 he founded the agricultural school at Moeglin, near Berlin, which became famous, and which was raised to the Royal Academy of Agriculture, 1824." Through his school and his writings Thaer has had a broad influence on the progress of agriculture and agricul- tural education. In 1811 the academy at Tharandt, in Saxony, was founded and a little later the agricultural college of the University of Leipzig. In Wurtemburg, the agricultural college of Hohenheim was founded in 1818, which had a large model farm. This institution was very successful and attracted much attention in other countries. About 1820 Matthieu de Dombasle founded at Roville, near Nancy, the first school of agriculture worthy of that name in France and almost entirely with private njeans maintained it for some time. In 1829 the school at Grignon and the following year the school at Grand-Jouan were founded by pupils of Dombasle and later became State schools. DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES RELATED TO AGRICULTURE The movement for agricultural schools and colleges in the United States was intimately associated with the growth of the natural sciences and their applications in Europe. Lavoisier (1743-1794), who laid the foundations of modern chem- istry, made experiments on one of his farms. Taking advantage of Lavoisier's work Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1839) began researches in agriculture in 1803 and 10 years "later published his Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, a book well known in America. Fredrick Accum (1769-1833) established in London a school of chemistry with a laboratory, to which some students from the United States went, including Prof. Benjamin Silliman, sr., of Yale, and Prof. William Peck, of Harvard {15). Boussingault (1802-1887), professor of agriculture in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris from 1839, made and published many experimental investigations in gen- eral and agricultural chemistry, which had much influence in the United States. Students who became leaders in agricultural science in America were trained in Liebig's (1803-1873) laboratory in Ger- many. His Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and Physiology (1840) and Animal Chemistry (1842) became well known here. The works of Buffon (1707-1788) and Cuvier (1769-1832) in natural history, and of Linnaeus (1707-1778), the Jussieu family, Saussure (1767-1845), and Duhamel (1700-1781) in botany early found their way to this country. Among the early geologists was William Smith (1766-1839), who published the first geological maps of England and wrote on irrigation, and William Maclure, a Scotch- man and merchant, who lived many years in the United States and made the first geological map of this country. The relation of A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 5 mineralogy and geology to the study of soils and to agi'icultural chemistry was early recognized by those who were interested in agri- cultural education and research, and these subjects were generally included in the programs proposed for the higher agricultural schools. EARLY SCIENTISTS IN NORTH AMERICA North America was a very attractive field for students of science, particularly natural history, and during the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth a considerable number of men, either residents or travelers in this country, devoted themselves to scientific work. In many cases they attracted the attention of the leaders in efforts for the improvement of education and agriculture and in per- son or through their writings had contacts with these leaders. Among these early scientists, who were more or less associated with the agricultural movements, were the following: Benjamin Smith Barton (1766-1815), professor of natural history, botany, and materia medica at the Philadelphia College, who wrote much on scientific subjects and published Elements of Botany (1803) ; John Bartram (1699-1777) and his son William Bartram (1732-1823), who, by extensive travels and collections from New York to Florida, made important contributions to knowledge of native American plants, established a botanic garden near Philadelphia, imported many varieties of cultivated plants and disseminated many species to scientists and growers at home and abroad; Mark Catesby (c. 1679- 1749), an English naturalist who visited America (1712-1719) and published a Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands; John Clayton (1686-1773), who came to Virginia from Eng- land in 1705, was clerk of Gloucester County for 51 years, made extensive botanical studies and collections and published papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the London Eoyal Society; Cad- wallader Colden (1688-1776), a Scotch physician, who came to Phila- delphia in 1708, afterwards was surveyor-general and lieutenant governor of New York State, studied the sciences, particularly botany, and introduced the classification of Linnaeus in this country ; David Hosack (1769-1835), professor of Botany at Columbia Col- lege from 1795, who established a botanic garden in New York City; Peter Kalm (1716-1779), a Swedish botanist and author of Travels into North America (1770-1772) ; Humphrey Marshall (1732-1801), who established a botanic garden at Marshalltown, Pa., and published a catalogue of native trees and shrubs; Andre Michaux (1746-1802), a French botanist, who established large nurseries near Charleston, S. C., and in Bergen County, N. J., and his son, Frangois Andre Michaux (1770-1855), who studied and wrote on trees east of the Rocky Mountains; John Mitchill (died 1768), who came from Eng- land in 1700 and lived at Urbana, Va., studied botany, medicine, and other sciences, wrote much on the conditions in the British colonies and was the reputed author of a book on American husbandry (1775) ; Gerard Troost (1776-1850), a Dutch physician, chemist, and geologist, who came to America in 1810, was founder and first presi- dent of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and con- tributed papers to the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agri- culture, being much interested in the relations of chemistry and geology to soils. 6 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE EARLY AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN EUROPE During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a considerable lit- erature on agricultural subjects was developed in a number of Euro- pean countries. The writings of certain ancient authors on such subjects were also available during this period, particularly those of Virgil, Columella, and Varro. In France the publication of works on agriculture was much stimulated by the great series of volumes commonly called the Encyclopedia (1751-1780), which contained articles on this subject. In Great Britain there were agricultural works by about 200 authors before 1800. Among English publica- tions which had an important influence in the United States was Jethro Tull's Horse Hoing Husbandry, or a Treatise on the Princi- ples of Tillage and Vegetation, three editions of which were pub- lished between 1733 and 1751. The Annals of Agriculture and Other Useful Arts, a periodical begun in London in 1784 by Arthur Young (1741-1820), widely promoted the advancement of agriculture in Europe and America. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN EUROPE The first agricultural society in Germany was established in 1764. In France there was an early Society of Agriculturists. This was succeeded by the Academy of Agriculture of France, which began the publication of proceedings as early as 1761. In Russia the Free Economical Society was established by the Empress Catherine in 1765, with a large experiment farm near St. Petersburg. The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, organized in London in 1754, included agriculture in its program. This was followed by an organization formed at Bath, September 8, 1777, which Avas first called the Society of Bath for the Encouragement of Agriculture, Art, Manufactures, and Commerce. In 1790 its name was changed to the Bath and West of England Society for the purposes above stated. Its first volume of Letters and Papers on Agriculture, etc., was published in 1780. In Scotland the first organization was the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland, begun in 1723, and continued for more than 20 years. Its published record is contained in a volume of Select Transactions issued in 1743. The Highland Society of Scotland, organized at Edinburgh in January, 1785, became a society for all Scotland. A royal charter for this society was obtained in 1787, together with its first parlia- mentary grant of £3,000, the interest on which was to be spent for essays, inventions, and improvements in agricultural crops, etc. Its first volume of " prize essays and transactions " was published in 1799. The Transactions issued in 1824 record the institution by the society of itinerant lectures on veterinary medicine, illustrated with demonstrations, and of experiments with salt as a fertilizer and in feeding. In Ireland the Dublin Society for Improving Husbandry, Manu- factures, and other Useful Arts was founded in 1731 and began in 1737 to publish Weekly Observations. In 1746 it received a grant of £500 a year from the Government, and was incorporated in 1750 as the Royal Dublin Society. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION / In their organization and work the early American agricultural societies were greatly influenced by the examples set by the societies in Great Britain. BRITISH BOARD OF AGRICULTURE The British Board of Agriculture was established under an act of Parliament in 1793. Its first president was Sir John Sinclair (1754^1835), who held this office for 13 years. He was a Scotch publicist and lawyer, educated at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Oxford, and a member of Parliament most of the time from 1780 to 1811. He was very active in the promotion of the agricultural interests of Great Britain, and under his guidance the board of agriculture did much useful work. The functions of the board, as stated by its president in a formal address to it in 1797, were as follows : 1. Collecting, printing:, and circulating information on agricul- tural and other important subjects connected with the internal improvement of the country. 2. INIaking, under the inspection of the board itself or a com- mittee of its members, useful experiments in agriculture. 3. Submitting to the consideration of Parliament such regula- tions as may tend to promote the general improvement of the country and recommending to its attention such useful discoveries of an agricultural nature as may be entitled to public reward (63). As one of the first pieces of work the board undertook the prepa- ration of a somewhat elaborate report on " the present agricultural state of the country and the means of its improvement," which involved in part what would now be called an agricultural survey of the different counties of the kingdom. "Within four years the reports for some counties were completed and printed. Much interesting material in the form of communications to the board from a variety of sources had been collected and a first volume of these had been printed. EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN NORTH AMERICA THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1744 under the leadership of Franklin, in its earlier years published many articles on agricultural subjects but Vv'as developed chiefly as a scientific society. This led to the organization of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, in March, 1785, on the initiative of Judge J. B. Bordley, a Maryland planter, by 23 distinguished citizens of that city {356). Its object was to promote "a greater increase of the products of land within the American States," and for this pur- pose the society would print memoirs, offer prizes for experiments, improvements, and agricultural essays, and encourage the establish- ment of other societies throughout the country. Its first president was Samuel Powel, a graduate of the College of Philadelphia, and twice mayor of that city. He was succeeded in 1805 by Judge iRich- ard Peters, who had been a member of the Continental Congress and whose estate of 200 acres was in what is now Fairmount iPark. By 1789 the society had honorary members in 13 States (including George Washington, Robert L. Livingston, of New York, and Noah 12931—29 2 8 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Webster, of Connecticut). Among its resident members were Ben- jamin Franklin and Timothy Pickering. In 1794 the society endeavored without success to have the Penn- sylvania Legislature incorporate " a State society for the promotion of agriculture; connecting with it the education of youth in the knowledge of that most important art, while they are acquiring other useful knowledge suitable for the agricultural citizens of the State " {365). This might be done by endowing professorships in "semi- naries of learning, for the purpose of teaching the chymical, philo- sophical, and elementary parts of the theory of agriculture." The formation of county societies was recommended, with county schoolmasters as secretaries, who might have agricultural textbooks and combine teaching of agriculture with other subjects. As soon as funds became available the State society should establish " pat- tern farms " in different localities, where foreign and domestic plants and seeds should be grown and, when found useful, disseminated through the State. SOUTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES A group of planters interested in the cultivation of indigo began about 1740 to hold meetings which were largely convivial but at which they talked about the indigo industry and means for improv- ing it. In 1755 this club, known as the Winyaw Indigo Society {373) , founded a charity school and was incorporated to maintain it. The school flourished for more than a hundred years, was revived after the Civil War, and finally was merged with the Georgetown High School. The South Carolina Society for Promoting and Improving Agri- culture and Other Rural Concerns was organized in Charleston Au- gust 24, 1785, and 10 j^ears later Avas incorporated under its present name as the Agricultural Society of South Carolina {37^). Among its 12 first officers were a Chief Justice of the United States, a Sena- tor and 4 Members of Congress, 4 governors of South Carolina, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The society prospered and had many members scattered throughout the State. In 1796 Dr. John de le Howe, of the Abbeville district, devised the bulk of his property to the society for an agricultural school on his estate for poor boys and girls, at which manual labor was to be combined with instruction in science related to agriculture. The society re- signed this trust to the State, which appointed a board of trustees under whom the school has since been maintained. The Pendleton Farmers' Society was organized in 1815, chartered in 1817, and has its headquarters in Pendleton, Anderson County, S. C, about 3 miles from the Calhoun estate, on which Clemson Col- lege is now located {369). John C. Calhoun Avas a member of the society and when at home attended its meetings. Many other men prominent in the affairs of this region have also been members. The society flourished and about 1828 constructed the brick building in which its meetings have been held ever since. THE KENNEBEC (ME.) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY An agricultural society was formed at Hallowell, Me. (then Massa- chusetts), in 1787, probably through the efforts of Charles Vaughan {147). Whether the original agricultural society continued for any A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 9 considerable time is not known, but in 1807 there was an association called the Kennebec Agricultural Society. This was largely main- tained for many years through the influence of Charles Vaughan and his brother, Benjamin Vaughan, who inherited and managed a large estate at Hallowell, carrying on agriculture and other enter- prises on a large scale {183). They had gardens, nurseries, orchards, and farms, distributed stock, seeds, and plants, and conducted corre- spondence with farmers. The Kennebec Agricultural Society was " a social organization which held no exhibitions for many years after its establishment, but had frequent meetings for the reading of papers contributed by its members and for consultation and discussion" (147). In 1818, through the efforts of the Vaughans and others, the Maine Agricul- tural Society was formed, and held one or two exhibitions at Hallo- well, but, not being able to get sufficient funds for premiums, it ceased operations. Winthrop Agricultural Society was chartered by the Massachu- setts Legislature February 21, 1818, and held meetings and exhibi- tions until 1825, when it became inactive. In 1829 an organization under this name was incorporated by the Maine Legislature, and this in turn was merged into the Kennebec Agricultural Society in 1832. EARLY SOCIETIES IN NEW JERSEY An organization entitled " the New Jersey Society for Promoting Agriculture, Commerce, and Arts" was established as early as 1781, but nothing is known about its work (230). The Burlington Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and Domestic Manufactures was l^ermanently organized February 6, 1790, and was active for at least 10 years. It gave prizes in contests in agricultural production and published numerous essays on agricultural subjects in newspapers. The Morris County Society for Promoting Agriculture and Domestic Manufactures w^as formed in 1792, but its principal activity was the establishment of a library. The second attempt to establish a State society was made in 1818, but this was not permanently organized until 1855. COLUMBIA COLLEGE AND THE NEW YORK SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, ARTS, AND MANUFACTURES The original prospectus of King's College (afterwards Columbia College), issued May 31, 1754, included husbandry and commerce among the subjects to be taught there {246). Laws and orders adopted by the governors of the college June 3, 1755, include " agri- culture and merchandise " in the course of study. It is not known that any further action was taken at this time. About this time the New York Society for Promoting Arts was organized and in 1766 offered premiums for reports on matters which the society deemed of interest to farmers. The New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures was organized February 26, 1791, with Kobert L. Livingston as president, and was incorporated March 12, 1792 {321). When the New York Legislature on April 12, 1792, granted funds to the trustees of Columbia College for additional professorships, a 10 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE professorship of natural history, chemistry, and agriculture was established, and Samuel Latham Mitchill (1764-1831), a distin- guished physician and from 1807 professor in the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons, was appointed to fill this position {268). (Fig. 1.) That year he published an Outline of the Doctrines in Natural History, Chemistry, and Economics included in the courses he was giving. The following topics related to agriculture {270) : Under mineralogy : Lime and gypsum as manure. Under botany : 1. Life of plants and vegetation. Farinaceous matter of plants — Wheat, rye, maize, oats, peas, pota- toes, etc. Fibrous parts of plants — Hemp, flax, cotton, hops. Saccharine substance of plants — Sugar cane, apples, beets, maple, etc. Manufacture of sugar — Honey. Products of vegetables by fermentation — Wines, vinegars. Astringent parts of plants — Art of tanning. Under agriculture or cultivation of plants : I. Soils — Sand, clay, loam, mixtures, calcarious, mould, etc. II. Manures — Lime, gypsum, dung, straw, sand, mud, fish, etc. III. Food — Water, earth, phlogiston, hydrogen, salt, oil, etc. IV. Diseases — Vermin, blast, smut, mildew, rust, coalgrain, drought, win- ter kill — Ginnani dtlle nialattie del grano in Erba. Under zoology : I. Functions of animals. II. Vis motrix in the vital solid. III. Arrangement and classification of animals. IV. Chemical history of different animal substances. 1. Blood. 2. Milk — (o) Whey, {h) cream, (c) cheese, {d) butter. 3. Fat — (a) Hog's lard, (h) beef tallow, (c) mutton tallow, etc. Under economics chemistry was taught, including its relation to medicine, agriculture, and other useful arts. In the Transactions of the Society for 1794 the secretary stated that "lectures had been given upon the different parts of the course," which was chiefly attended by students of medicine. Doctor Mitchill was active in promoting the agricultural interests of New York for many years. He contributed articles on grasses, cankerworms, and other subjects to the publications of the State agricultural society and delivered addresses on agricultural subjects in different parts of the State. As Representative and Senator in Congress at different times between 1800 and 1813 he acquired a wide acquaintance with leaders in agricultural affairs and became a member of many agricultural societies. In 1804 the name of the society was changed to the Society for the Promotion of Us-eful Arts {320). Besides issuing publications, it encouraged the formation of county societies and greatly influenced the establishment of a State board of agriculture in 1819. In 1824 it united with the Albany Lycaeum of Natural History and formed the Albany Institute, which continued for many years as a scientific society. It was not until 1832 that the New York State Agricultural Society was organized by the combined effort of the county societies, THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture was organ- ized May 31, 1792, under a State charter resulting from a petition to A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 11 the legislature signed by 28 men prominent in the agricultural, busi- ness, and political life of the State {186). Its object was to promote " useful improvements in agriculture," and it immediately began to raise money for premiums to stimulate such work. During the first Fig. 1. — Samuel Latham Mitchill eight years many articles were published in newspapers and pam- phlets. In 1801 the publication of a series of papers was begun and from 1813 these were incorporated in the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal, which for a considerable period was issued semiannually. 12 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE In 1814 the legislature appropriated to the society $1,000 annually for printing and circulating the jDublications on agriculture, the rais- ing of seeds and plants, and agricultural experiments, and in 181G gave an additional $500 for premiums at cattle shows. In 1801 the society undertook the establishment of a professorship of natural history and a botanic garden at Harvard College. This was done in 1804-5. The plan for this garden " provided for scien- tific observation of the growth of vegetation and of the habits of noxious insects, that methods might be devised for their destruction, and a cultivation, for sale and distribution, of the seeds and roots of useful plants." The cooperation of the society and college continued for 25 years, when the annual grant which had been made by the State, in aid of this part of the society's work, ceased {186). The following estimate of the success of this society during its first quarter of a century is made in its centennial volume, page 41 : Beginning with conditions of general apathy, of more or less prevalent distrust as to its intentions, and of incredulity that anything important could be gained to the farming interest, it had created a feeling of contidence as to the future of the agricultural industry and excited a spirit of inquiry. It had widely distributed thousands of pages of printed matter, supplying the best informa- tion then obtainable relating to the art ; given impetus to the formation of numerous coworking societies, and printed the essays and contributed to the premiums of some of the more important among them ; it had introduced new seeds and plants and choice breeds of farm animals from foreign lands ; brought new modes of farming into acceptance among leading farmers in differeiat parts of the State, thereby exerting an exemplary influence upon others who gave to books and pamphlets no welcome ; it had set fairly at work the inventive faculty of the land in devising better farming apparatus ; enlisted science to search and experiment in the behest of agriculture ; and, by its successful cattle show, had reached the popular heart (which is always responsive in beholding -the novel and the extraordinai'y), thereby entering upon a radically dilfereut but most effective method of diffusing agricultural knowledge, the method of " object teaching" {183). ELKANAH WATSON AND THE CATTLE SHOW The idea of the " cattle show " as a distinctively American insti- tution with an educational purpose was suggested to Elkanah Watson (1758-1842) (fig. 2) in 1807 after he had exhibited two Merino sheep " under the great elm tree in the public square in Pittsfield," Mass. {325). He had been a prominent citizen of Albany, N. Y., where he was greatly interested in the promotion of the development of our country to the west by the building of canals, the establish- ment of stage routes, and the advancement of agriculture {326). In 1807 he had settled on a farm near Pittsfield. He became con- vinced that agricultural societies should be organized in the several counties on a more democratic basis to include " all the respectable farmers," and that means should be taken to popularize such a move- ment through cattle shows. On August 1, 1810, he issued " an appeal to the public," signed by himself and 28 other farmers, announcing the Berkshire cattle show, which was successfully held at Pittsfield, October 1, 1810. BERKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY The following winter the Berkshire Agi'icultural Society was formed under the presidency of Watson, "with ample powers — but no funds," and on September 24, 1811, a more elaborate cattle show A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 13 was held, which was attended by three or four thousand people, and included a picturesque procession of members of the society {326). It then occurred to Watson that women ought to be included in this movement, and he therefore arranged for an exhibit of their handi- work, with premiums, on January 12, 1813. This was successful and the meeting was terminated with a ball at which "many farmers' daughters graced the floor." Returning to live at Albany in 1816, Fig. 2.— Elkanah Watson Watson immediately promoted cattle shows in Otsego and Jefferson Counties, N. Y., which excited so much public attention that Governor Clinton recommended the establishment of a State board of agricul- ture to promote the organization of county agricultural societies. An act for this purpose was passed in 1819 and by the end of that year societies had been formed in all but six of the counties, with the aid of a pamphlet by Watson on the history of the Berkshire Agricultural 14 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Society. He also carried on an extensive correspondence with societies which were being formed in other States, inchiding New England, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, and Virginia. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN CONNECTICUT The Society for Promoting Agriculture in the State of Connecticut was organized August 12, 1794, at Wallingford by "a number of citizens from different towns in the State" {103).^ Its constitution stated that " the object of investigations for the society shall be agri- culture, with such subjects of inquiry as may tend to explain its prin- ciples." Provision was made for reports from members on the state of agriculture in their localities, including experiments and discov- eries ; and for publications. A considerable list of queries on a variety of agricultural subjects was compiled and disseminated. Brief re- ports of exi3eriments and observations on a number of these subjects were printed in the transactions. ••' Many experiments have been made by the members themselves, and their observation has extended to the improvements of their neighbors." The records of the New Haven County Agricultural Society " show that in 1803, 'A Society for promoting Agriculture ' was formed at New Haven, of which Gen. James AVadsworth was president until 1813." Later, President Dwight, of Yale College, David Humphreys, and Eli AVhitney held this office. In 1817 the Hartford County Agricultural Society was formed with Henry L. Ellsworth, afterwards United States Commissioner of Patents, as secretary. Societies in the other counties were organ- ized later and in 1852 the Connecticut State Agricultural Society was formed under an act of the legislature passed that year. EARLY SOCIETIES IN NEV/ HAMPSHIRE The legislature of New Hampshire in 1814 granted a charter to an agricultural society in Rockingham County, with headquarters at Chester or Exeter. In 1817 there were county agricultural societies in Rockingham and Cheshire Counties, each of which received a State appropriation of $100. Similar societies were organized and chartered that year in Hillsborough {'B'-Bl) and Strafford Counties and soon thereafter in Grafton and Coos Counties. In 1819 and 1820 al] the counties had societies which held fairs and received State aid. Up to 1820 the annual appropriation to each society ranged from $100 to $300 and in all $3,000 had been expended by the State. VIRGINIA'S GREAT AGRICULTURAL LEADERS AND EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES George Washington (1732-1799) as a farmer was not content to follow the ordinary farm routine which his neighbors practiced {SSIf.). He early determined to study and experiment with a view to improving agricultural conditions for himself and farmers generally. AVhile he began with tobacco as his money crop, he changed to wheat and flour with special reference to trade with the AVest Indies and afterwards became largely engaged in growing forage crops and livestock. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 15 He became a '" book farmer," not only reading carefully such agri- cultural books as he could get, principally from abroad, but making detailed notes of some of them. This was particularly true of Tull's Horse Hoing Husbandry; Duhamel's A Practical Treatise of Hus- bandry; the Farmer's Compleat Guide; Home's The Gentleman Farmer; and Young's Annals of Agriculture (after 1784). He carried on an extensive correspondence with men in England acquainted with improved farm practices and particularly with Arthur Young and Sir John Sinclair, Beginning as early as 1760, he made many experiments on his Mount Vernon estate before and after the Revolutionary War, Among these were experiments in growing alfalfa, wheat, clover, timothy, and various other grasses and vegetables, and in the use of marl, gypsum, and salt as fertilizers. He was much interested in trying improved implements and himself devised a " barrel plough " or drill. He grew many kinds of fruits, trees, and ornamental j)lants collected from various countries, maintained a conservatory and a small botanic garden, and had many experimental plats on various plantations. His experience as a farmer and experimenter convinced him that improvement of agriculture w^as of such fundamental importance to the growth and prosperity of the United States that the public ought to share in the maintenance of agencies for this purpose. He there- fore gladly associated Avith the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture as a beginning of effort in this direction. The Society of Virginia for Promoting Agriculture. — As early as 1811 an organization called The Society of Virginia for Promoting Agriculture was formed at Richmond and in 1818 published a volume of memoirs {389). Its membership included many of the most emi- nent men of the State, Among its presidents were John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, and John Taylor, author of the collec- tion of agricultural essays entitled "Arator," The Alhemarle Society. — The Albemarle Agricultural Society was organized May 5, 1817, under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, by 30 men from five counties {397). Ultimately Fairfax County and the Great Valley were also included in its membership. Its rules and regulations were based on a plan for agricultural societies drafted by Jefferson in 1811 {396). James Madison was its president from 1817 to 1824. The society prospered, published many papers in the Richmond Enquirer, its official organ, conducted fairs and exhibitions with prizes for agricultural implements, livestock, and domestic manu- factures, interested itself in the development of the University of Virginia, and endeavored to obtain funds for a professorship of agriculture in that institution. Its existence covered a period of over_ 30 years and until its place was taken by other organizations. Virffinia State Agric-ultural Society. — In the decade beginning with 1826 a number of agricultural societies were formed in Vir- ginia, and between 1836 and 1850 efforts Avere made to establish a State agricultural society {J^OO). Though this was authorized by the legislature in 1845, its creation was not effected until 1852, and then only through the strenuous activity of Edmund Ruffin (1794- 1864) (fig, 3), widely known for his Essay on Calcareous Manures 16 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE and his editorship of the Farmers' Register (1833-1842) (390). This organization promptly got into active operation and held its first fair in 1853. At that time Ruffin wrote an essay on agricultural education for which the society gave him a prize {388). Fig. 3. — Edmund RufEn EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA The Society for Promoting Public Economy. — A temporary or- ganization known as the Society for Promoting Public Economy was described by Ben : Perley Poore in the Report of the Department of Agriculture for 1866, as follows : About 1806 an institution liad been organized by " Members of Congress, officers of tlie Federal Government, and others, devoted to objects connected with public economy." Meetings were held at Mr. Harvey's, on Pennsylvania Avenue, every Saturday evening from 5 until 8 o'clock, and among the subjects considered were : Our mechanical economy, or the means of abridging labor by useful inventions, implements, and apparatus. A HISTOKY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 17 Our agricultural economy, or the means of producing the most abundant and most reciprocal crops, under any given circumstances, without doing things by guess. The economy of our forests, or the best management of our latent resources there (438). The Columhian Agricultural Society. — The Columbian Agri- cultural Society was organized in 1809 by men interested in agri- culture in the District of Columbia and vicinity {107). Its first exhibition was held in Georgetown May 10, 1809, and was attended by President Madison and members of his Cabinet, as well as many members of the society and other people. It consisted of breeds of sheep, horses, and domestic fabrics of cotton and wool. Five other semiannual exhibitions were held, but when the War of 1812 came on it " overshadowed everything else, and as the time had expired for which the society had been organized it was dissolved." The Columbian society also undertook the publication of a periodical entitled " The Agricultural Museum " (107), the first num- ber of which was published at Georgetown, July 4, 1810. Among other things this publication contains the constitution and proceed- ings of the society. The Golutnbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences. — On June 15, 1816, an association called the Metropolitan Society was formed by 89 residents of Washington, D. C, under the leadership of Edward Cutbush and John Law. When a constitution for this society was adopted August 8, 1816, its name was changed to Colum- bian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences. Among its objects was the collection, cultivation, and distribution of plants and the securing of papers on agricultural subjects, including the man- agement of livestock and their diseases. In 1838 distribution of seeds, including wheat and barley, was begun and continued for several years. (See United States National Museum Bulletin 101.) Congress gave the society a charter April 20, 1818, the use of 5 acres of land for a botanic garden in 1820, and four years later a room in the Capitol for its meetings and collections. Its first president was Doctor Cutbush, and later that office was held by John Quincy Adams and John C. Calhoun. The society was quite active for about 10 years and hoped to secure public or private funds to establish a museum and library, but it did not acquire any substantial means and went out of existence on the expiration of its charter in 1838. A botanic garden was begun on land located at the east end of the Mall near the Capitol and its area was extended in 1824 to include the pres- ent site of the United States Botanic Garden. EARLY AGRICULTURAL FAIRS IN NORTH AMERICA Fairs for the sale of agricultural products, especially livestock, were early held in the American Colonies, following an English custom. Examples of such fairs were those in New Haven, Conn., in 1644; Burlington, N. J., in 1681; Rye, N. H., about 1726; and Baltimore, Md., in 1747. In South Carolina, at Strawberry in St. Johns Parish, in Berkeley County, a fair was established by an act of 1723, to be held " at least twice in every year for exposing for sale horses, cattle, and merchandise." Semiannual fairs were 18 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE authorized by statute at Alexandria, Va., in 1742 and in Georgetown, Md., when that town was laid out in 1751. Horse racing and other competitions and the giving of prizes for superior animals were some- times features of these fairs. The first fair at Washington, D. C, was held in 1801 at the sug- gestion of William Thornton, the first Commissioner of Patents, and Avas so successful that the city government contributed $50 toward premiums at the fair held the next year {Jf38). Following the importation of Merino sheej) into this country a kind of rural festival called " sheep shearing " was created and be- came quite popular. These affairs were in imitation of meetings of farmers held in Norfolk, England, beginning in 1778. The interest of George Washington Parke Custis in such festivals is described as follows : Prominent among these " sheep shearings " were those established [in 1802], and continued for a dozen years, by George Washington Parlie Custis, at "Arlington," his estate opposite Washington, on the Virginia side of the Poto- mac. * * * Large collections of prominent men used to accept his hospitable invitation to be present at these gatherings, where he entertained his guests beneath the marquee used throughout the revolution by liis illustrious guardian, George Washington (-^/3S). GOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS TO EDUCATION IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES AND EARLY STATES The granting of Federal and State lands and funds for agricultural education was the result of public policies relating to education which passed through a long period of evolution. It has, therefore, seemed desirable to trace this in outline in connection with the discussion of the foundations of our present system of agricultural education. BEGINNINGS OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM The use of public lands and funds for the encouragement and sup- \iOvi of educational institutions began early in the American Colonies. At times and in certain places it encountered much opposition. The doctrine that the parent was responsible for the education of the child and therefore should pay for his schooling was long used to hinder the public support of education, especially as applied to pri- mary and secondary schools. For many centuries in the Old World the church, rather than the state, was looked upon as the proper authority under which public education should be conducted as far ,as this was at all desirable, and the support of education was classed among works of charity. Higher education, in particular, was pri- marily for the training of ecclesiastical leaders, and hence colleges and universities came naturally under the control of the church. This idea of the union of church and state, so generally prevalent in European countries, was adopted by the American Colonies. As a result, it was comparatively easy at first to use public lands and funds in this country for the support of the higher educational institutions. As the separation of the state from the church developed, and particu- larly after the revolution when this separation was defined in State and National constitutions, a strong sentiment was created against public control of higher education. On the other hand, it became more difficult to use public funds for the maintenance, even in part, A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 19 of institutions controlled by particular denominations. There was considerable ebb and flow "in this sentiment, and in the different States it was modified from time to time by the racial and denomina- tional make-up of the population. In general, the English system of schools w^^s adopted in this coun- try by the early colonists from Great Britain. This included the ele- mentary or " dame school," the grammar or secondary school, and the college. The elementary schools were at first privately maintained by tuition or in part by voluntary contributions, but in New England soon began to receive public money tlirough the action of the town meetings. The first school in North America to receive public funds by vote of the town was established in Dorchester, Mass., in 1639. In this case the money was obtained from rental charges imposed on j)eople occupying land belonging to the town. On January 1, 1645, the town meeting at Dedham, Mass., voted unanimously to raise £20 for the maintenance of a free school. In his textbook of the History of Education, Monroe says: Many of the New England schools received their support from a variety of sources, such as the sale or rental of public lands, rental from fish weirs, from ferries, from bequest and private gift, from subscription, from local rates, and in nearly all cases from tuition of students (-'/S). In 1647 the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a general law requir- ing that an elementary school should be established in every town of 50 families, and a Latin school in every town of 100 families. A simi- lar law w^as passed by the Connecticut Colony in 1650. On this basis many schools were established in the New England Colonies during the next 100 years. About 1700, when community centers of population had become established in many towns, while means of transportation remained very inadequate, a demand arose for the equalization of school privi- leges. To satisfy this demand the elementary school was sometimes moved about and held for a short period in from two to six places in the town during the year. This " moving school " led to the creation of permanent school districts. Outside of New England support of education with public funds was chiefly confined to the higher institutions and the establishment of general systems of public schools was long delayed. PUBLIC SUPPORT OF EARLY AMERICAN COLLEGES The colleges in the American Colonies and some of the States formed early in the history of the United States in many cases re- ceived public aid through grants of land or money. A number of these institutions became land-grant colleges after the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862. In Franklin's proposals for an academy in Philadelphia in 1749, he recommended a liberal course of study and even suggested that " a little gardening, planting, grafting, and inoculating be taught and practiced, and now and then excursions made to the neighboring plantations of the best farmers." Out of the academy grew the col- lege which later became the University of Pennsylvania. The cur- riculum framed by the first provost of the college, William Smith, in 1754, included the chemistry of agriculture. 20 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE State funds were loaned to the University of Pennsylvania and $3,000 was granted in 1807 for a botanical garden and experiments to ascertain the best and cheapest food for plants and their medicinal properties and virtues. In Massachusetts when Harvard College was founded in 1636 the colonial legislature agreed to give £400, which was the first time " the people by their representatives ever gave their own money to found a place of learning." For some reason this money was not paid to the college but later it received the income of a ferry and direct grants of money. A bank tax, created in 1814, was divided for 10 years among Harvard, Bowdoin, and Williams Colleges, all of which also received grants of land. Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, King's College in New York, and William and Mary College in Virginia, received grants of land before the Revolution, and the University of Georgia soon after that war. St. John's College and Washington College in Maryland, the University of Virginia, and South Carolina College regularly received State appropriations from the time of their establishment. SUMMARY OF METHODS OF STATE AID TO EDUCATION In his History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education, Doc- tor Blackmar thus summarized the methods of State aid : The principal ways in wliich the several Slates have aided higher education may be enumerated as follows: (1) By granting charters with privileges; (2) by freeing officers and students of colleges and universities from military duty ; (3) by exempting the persons and property of the officers and students from tax- ation; (4) by granting land endowments; (5) by granting permanent money and endowments by statute law; (6) by making special appropriations from funds raised by taxation; (7) by granting the benefits of lotteries; and (8) by special gifts of buildings and sites. Nearly all of these methods originated among the colonies and were adopted by the States. An historical retrospect of the relation of the State to education may be pre- sented in a few propositions, as follows: (1) In colonial times State, private, and church benevolence worked together; (2) subsequently private and church schools were prominent, still being aided by State appropriations; (3) the gradual cessation of State aid to private and church schools, and the growtli of State universities (9). BEGINNING OF FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION The disposition of the vast areas of land west of the Allegheny Mountains engaged the attention of Washington and other statesmen even before the close of the Revolutionary War. On October 10, 1780, Congress passed a resolution that the western territory ceded by the States should be disposed of for the common benefit of all the States and that the manner and conditions of the sale of these lands should be exclusively regulated by Congress. This was followed by the ordinance of 1785, which contained a clause reserving from sale " lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within the said township." The importance of this provision was not recognized at the time of its passage, but it established a precedent of far-reaching influence in later years and marks the beginning of a policy of using public lands for public education. The ordinance of 1787 for the government of the NorthAvest Territory contained the declaration that " religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 21 to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." Without doubt the great significance of the educational provision in the ordinance of July 13, 1787, was not appreciated by Congress or the public. The Constitutional Convention was in session in Philadel- phia at that time, and the proceedings of the old Confederation Con- gress in New York received scant attention in the press. This ordi- nance made no grants of land for education, but laid the foundation for a general development of free public education throughout the United States. It was immediately followed by the ordinance of July 23, 1787, for the sale of public lands in Ohio, under which section 16 in each town- ship was to be reserved for the maintenance of public schools and " not more than two complete townships to be given perpetually for the purpose of a university." Congress granted lands for schools to Ohio when it became a State in -1802 and for a university in 1803. Similar grants of land for educational purposes were made by Congress from time to time to the Territories and States formed in the Northwest Territory and begin- ning with 1803 in Tennessee to the new States in the South and West. About 1820 was begun the practice of granting to each State on admission two townships of saline lands and from 3 to 5 per cent of the net proceeds of the sale of all public lands within its borders. These grants of land and money were in many cases used at least in part for education. By the internal improvement act of 1841, 500,000 acres of public lands were given to each State admitted after 1800 and these grants were devoted to education after 1845. In 1850 the swamp land grant act was passed under which 15 States received over 60,000,000 acres. In 12 States a part or all of the proceeds from the sale of these lands was giAcn to education. WASHINGTON'S PROPOSALS FOR A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, over which Washington presided, Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina, offered a plan for a Federal Constitution which contained a clause authorizing Congress " to establish and provide for a national university at the seat of government of the United States," and in the discussion of the Randolph constitution Pinclniey and Madison moved to give Congress power '" to establish an university," but this was not adopted. In that year and the next somewhat detailed plans for a national university were published by Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia. Among the subjects of instruction were to be " agriculture in all the numerous and extensive branches," and "those parts of natural philosophy and chemistry which admit of an application to agriculture." In his first message to Congress in 1790 Washington suggested that science and literature might be promoted by " the institution of a national university," and in 1796 he definitely recommended the establishment of such an institution. The Commissioners of the Dis- trict of Columbia thereupon asked Congress to provide for the accept- ance of donations for this purpose, and on December 21, 1796, Mr. 22 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Madison, from the committee to which this matter had been referred, reported in favor of such action. The project for a national university was revived in 1806 when Jefferson was President. Madison was in his Cabinet, and Samuel Latham Mitchill was " one of his strongest supporters in Congress." Interest in this subject was brought about by Joel Barlow, a grad- uate of Yale in 1778, who had considered this matter during a long residence in Paris. On his return to the United States in 1805 he prepared a prospectus of a national institution, which was first pub- lished January 24, 1806, in an anonymous pamphlet and later in that year in the National Intelligencer at Washington {106). This institution, supported by public and private funds, was to have for its objects " the advancement of knowledge by associations of scien- tific men, and the dissemination of its rudiments by the instruction of youth." It might well be the " depository of the results of scien- tific research ; of experiments in arts, manufactures, and husbandry, and of discoveries by voyages anci travels." " No rudiment of knowledge should be below its attention." The chancellor and trustees of the institution " shall establish a central university, at or near the seat of government, and such other universities, colleges, and schools of education as the funds of the institution will enable them to do, Avhether in the city of Washington or in other parts of the United States." Included in the equipment of the institution were to be " gardens for botany and agricultural experiments." Barlow's prospectus was widely circulated and attracted so much favorable attention that he drafted a bill for the incorporation of the institution. This was introduced in the Senate by Mr. Logan, of Philadelphia, but was buried in the committee to which it was referred. Part 2. DEVELOPMENT OF A DEFINITE MOVEMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, AND SOME OF THE AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO THIS MOVEMENT, 1820 TO 1860 In the period from about 1820 to 1860 great changes occurred in the political, social, and economic life of the people of the United States. There was a wide movement of population to the fertile lands beyond the eastern mountains and 20 new States were created. In this great region of virgin soil there was little difficulty in obtain- ing bountiful crops with the ordinary methods of agriculture. The settlers were therefore chiefly engrossed in solving the other prob- lems of pioneer life and developing means of transportation. The building of roads, bridges, and canals, and then of railroads and telegraph lines, involving the work of great numbers of adminis- trators, engineers, mechanics, and laborers, was done on a large scale during this period. In both the old and new communities of the South agriculture, carried on largely with slave labor, was the predominant industry. After the invention of the cotton gin, cotton growing developed rap- idly and became much more extensive as the use of cotton fabrics at home and abroad was vastly increased through the development of water and steam power, invention of improved machinery, and organization of the factory system. Writing of the change of sentiment regarding agriculture at the beginning of this period Professor Babson, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, says: Just as the country was well started toward helpful discussions and improve- ments along agricultural Hues the second war with England placed many hindrances in the way of further progress in this direction, and those hindrances were subsequently strengthened by the varied growth of manufacturing facili- ties and wealth-seeking industries. The tendencies of the times were cityward, and the era of good feeling naturally became an era unfavorable to great agri- cultural advancement. Nevertheless, the farmers and their friends, clearly imderstanding the unsatisfactory state of affairs, did what they could in spite of the indifference of the general public regarding their efforts. GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES Local and county agricultural societies continued to be organized and spread over the country with the progress of settlement west- ward. In 1852 it was estimated that there were about 300 active organizations in the 31 States and 5 Territories, and in 1860 there were 941 agricultural organizations recorded in the books of the TTnited States Agricultural Society. The movement to establish State societies proceeded slowly, but such societies were established during this period in Connecticut, Kentucky, Michigan, New Hamp- shire, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. 12931— 2D 3 23 24 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, IT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE The first State horticultural society was formed in New York in 1818. Pennsylvania followed in 1828, Massachusetts in 1829, Ken- tucky in 1840, and Delaware in 1847. Indiana undertook the organi- zation of such a society in 1842, but it Avas short-lived. The Ohio Pomological Society began in 1847 and the Northwestern Fruit Growers' Association was organized in Illinois in 1851. In 1852, at a convention called by 12 State agricultural associa- tions, the United States Agricultural Society was organized {71). The agricultural societies became more democratic and brought a considerable and growing body of the most intelligent and pro- gressive farmers into active relations with a nation-wide movement for the advancement of agriculture. Through meetings, fairs, corre- spondence, publications, and articles in the agricultural and other papers they sought to make the public feel that the interests of agri- culture and farming population were entitled to more consideration by Congress and the State legislatures. They were increasingly active and influential in the efforts to establish State boards of agri- culture, a national Department of Agriculture, the teaching of agri- culture in schools and colleges, the carrying on of experiments and scientific investigations for the improvement of agriculture, and the building up of agricultural journals and books. EARLY STATE BOARDS OF AGRICULTURE NEW YORK The first State board of agriculture was established in New York under a law passed April 7, 1819, but was not actually organized until January 10, 1820 {306). This Jaw was largely due to the efforts of men connected with the New York Society for the Promotion of Use- ful Arts, whose active leader was Governor De Witt Clinton (1769- 1828). He advocated the establishment of such a board in his mes- sages in January, 1818, and 1819. The measure finally passed was " an act to improve the agriculture of this State " and appropriated $10,000 per year for two years, " to be distributed among tlie several counties " as offset for money raised by the county agricultural so- cieties to be used for premiums and reports. At the organization of the board 26 counties were represented and Stephen Van Rensselaer was elected president. (Fig. 4.) The board ceased to exist by expir- ation of the law in April, 1825. The functions of a board of agriculture were performed to a considerable extent for many year.s by the New York State Agri- cultural Society organized in 1832, as the result of an agricultural State convention, and reorganized in 1841, with State funds for the premiums of the county societies and for an " annual cattle show and fair" {306). In 1893 a State department of agriculture was organized out of a former dairy commission and took over the distribution of the county fair money. The State society published reports and held fairs up to 1900 when a State fair commission was established. NEW HAMPSHIRE The example of New York was very soon followed in New Hamp- shire by the passage of an act December 19, 1820, largely through the A HISTORY OF ACxrilCULTUEAL EDUCATION 25 persistent efforts of Humphrey Moore, of Milforcl. This provided that the presidents and one delegate from each agricultural society should form the board of agriculture, which was to receive and ex- amine reports from the county societie,s and publish these and other essays " relative to improvements in agriculture " at the expense of the State in a pamphlet with an edition not exceeding 1,000 copies, to be distributed through the societies. It should also examine the work of the societies and recommend alterations and improvements. An amendatory act of June 27, 1821, limited the board to one delegate from each county society. The legislature appropriated $800 for the board and the societies. The money for the board was principally for the preparation and printing of the annual report. The board was organized June 19, 1821, and held but few meetings before going Fig. 4. — Stephen Van Rensselaer out of existence. Its only report was is,sued in 1822, as the New Hampshire Agricultural Kepository No. 1 {223). OHIO In Ohio an act was passed March 12, 1839, to encourage the estab- lishment of agricultural societies by permitting the county auditors to grant them funds derived from the license fees paid for holding pub- lic .shows under an act of February 28, 1831. On February 27, 1846, a broader " act for the encouragement of agriculture " was passed. This repealed the act of 1839 but provided for a board of agriculture, as well as for aid to agricultural societies. Fifty-three persons from 26 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE the several counties were named in the act to constitute a body cor- porate, with perpetual succession, to be known as the Ohio State Board of Agriculture (336). An amendatory act passed February 8, 1847, reduced the board of agriculture to 10 members and appropriated $200 for its use. On the same day an "Act to create a permanent agricultural fund for the State of Ohio " was passed, under which half of the proceeds from permits for shows in the counties and the proceeds of sales of escheated lands were to be devoted to this purpose. The board was organized April 1, 1846, at Columbus, and Allen Trimble was elected president. At one of its early meetings it urged the formation of township and neighborhood farmers' clubs with libraries and discussions and lectures on agriculture. It was planned to hold the first State fair in 1849, but owing to an epidemic of cholera it Avas not held until 1850. MASSACHUSETTS In Massachusetts an act of 1819 appropriated $200 annually to each agricultural society raising $1,000 and in like proportion up to $3,000. Between 1803 and 1844, 10 societies were formed. Through their influence in 1837 an agricultural survey act was passed under which a person was to be appointed " to collect accurate information of the State and condition of its agriculture and every subject con- nected with it, point out means of improvement, and make a detailed report thereof," and $2,500 was appropriated for this purpose. Henry Cohnan Avas appointed commissioner and made four reports containing a large amount of information {160). These reports were widely circulated. The act was repealed in 1841, but the fol- lowing year an act was passed which required the agricultural societies to make returns to the secretary of the CommonAvealth in order to receive their State allowance, and this Avas amended in 1845 to make their returns include " all reports of committees and all statements of experiments and cultivation " deemed Avorthy of publi- cation, marking those passages most Avorthy of public notice. Under this laAV the secretary of state annually published abstracts of these returns {181). In 1851 the societies Avere exempted from taxation and in 1852 their funds invested in real estate Avere to be counted in determining their Stat© alloAvance {18£). MeauAvhile an actiA^e propaganda in favor of an agricultural college Avas carried on. Largely to promote this movement, in Avhich he Avas deeply inter- ested, Marshall P. Wilder (fig. 5) at a meeting of the trustees of the Norfolk Agricultural Society, of Avhich he Avas president, held Janu- ary 28, 1851, brought about the passage of a resolution that the president and secretaries of this society be a committee "to mature and adopt a plan for a convention of delegates from the various agri- cultural societies of the CommouAvealth * * * ^q concert meas- ures for their mutual advantage, and for the promotion of the cause of agricultural education." This convention Avas held at Boston March 20, 1851, Avith Wilder as president. The convention voted for a central board consisting of three dele- gates from each incorporated agricultural society {182). This body met September 3, 1851, and Wilder was elected president. At a A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 27 second meeting, January 14, 1852, it adopted a constitution and by- laws. Its objects Avere stated to be "the encouragement of agricul- tural education and the improvement of agriculture in all its depart- ments " in this State. As the result of the activities of this voluntary board an act was passed April 21, 1852, to establish a State board of agriculture, to consist of the governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary of state, ex officio; one member from each agricultural society receiving State Fig. 5.— Marshall T. Wilder funds and three members appointed by the governor and council for a term of three years. The duties of this board, as described by the act, were '''to investigate all such subjects relating to improvement of agriculture in this Commonwealth as they may think proper, and they are hereby empowered to take, hold in trust, and exercise con- trol over any donations or bequests that may be made to them for promoting agricultural education or the general interests of hus- bandry " {182). The board held its first meeting July 22, 1852. The members appointed by the governor were Edward Hitchcock, president of 28 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGPJCULTURE Amherst College ; Marshall P. Wilder, of Dorchester ; and Nathaniel Wood, of Fitchburg. At the third meeting, September 7, 1852, a committee was ap- pointed to consider the expediency of preparing a manual on agri- culture for the use of common schools, and another on the best means of promoting the interests of agriculture by public lectures. At the next meeting the second committee reported in favor of calling public attention to the importance of having lectures on agriculture m courses by lyceums and similar associations in rural districts. At the fifth meeting, January 12, 1853, the first committee reported with reference to agricultural education "that studies of this de- scription might be attended to with much benefit under competent teachers" and commended the manual entitled "The Progressive Farmer," by J. A. Nash, of Amherst College. At this meeting Presi- dent Hitchcock read a paper in which he advocated the organization of " farmers' institutes " after the manner of teachers' institutes. AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL PERIODICALS Before the beginning of the nineteenth century agricultural sub- jects were often treated in ncAvspapers or other journals of a general character. The first issue of the New Jersey Gazette, established in 1776, stated that "Proposals for improvements in agriculture, and l^articularly in the culture of hemp and flax, will be inserted with pleasure and alacrity," This resulted in the publication of agricul- tural articles from time to time. The Rural Magazine, published weekly in Newark in 1796, was devoted to the publication of "a judicious selection of essays on religion, morality, agriculture, and miscellaneous subjects." The Newton Farmers' Journal, begun in 1797 at Newton, N. J., was probably a newspaper giving special attention to agricultural matters. The Agricultural Museum, first published July 4, 1810, at George- town, D. C, was issued in the interest of the Columbian Agricultural Society but was essentially an agricultural journal since it was " de- signed to be a repository of valuable information to the farmer and manufacturer and the means of a free communication of sentiment, and general interchange of ideas on the important subjects of their occupations" {107). Each number was to contain 16 pages and the price of the 24 numbers to be issued annually was $2.50. The first volume is complete but only 11 numbers of the second volume were issued and publication ceased in May, 1812. The American Farmer, established at Baltimore, Md., by John S. Skinner, April 2, 1819, was a much more substantial and successful journal. It was a weekly of eight quarto pages. This paper con- tinued until about 1862. Another journal by the same name was begun in 1866. The original American Farmer largely served as a model for the agricultural papers whicli succeeded it in different parts of the country. It covered a wide range of subjects through original articles and others compiled from a variety of sources, in- cluding agricultural papers in this country and abroad, proceedings of agricultural societies, etc. It was interested in agricultural exper- imentation and the education of the farming people through better common schools, manual labor schools, and the teaching of the nat- ural sciences and agriculture in seminaries and colleges. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 29 On June 15, 1819, the first issue of The Plough Boy appeared at Albany, N. Y. The first New England Farmer began at Boston, Mass., in 1822 ; the first New York Farmer at New York City about 1827; and the Southern Agriculturist at Charleston, S. C, in 1828. The Genesee Farmer was established at Kochester, N. Y., January 1, 1831, and was united in 1839 with the Cultivator begun at Albany, N. Y",, in 1834. This in turn was merged in 1866 with the Country Gentleman, which had begun as an independent paper in 1853. In an address delivered by him in 1838 Jesse Buel, editor of the Culti- vator, stated that there were then nearly 20 agricultural papers, read probably by 100,000 farmers. The partial list compiled by Gilbert M. Tucker in 1909 shows 36 papers established up to the end of 1850. These papers had headquarters in 16 States, but 11 of them were published in the State of New York. In January, 1837, the edition of the Cultivator had reached 18,000 and a list of the number of sub- scribers in the several States published by this paper that year showed that it was distributed in 27 States and the District of Columbia. The first horticultural journal was the Horticultural Register, begun January 1, 1835, at Boston, Mass. This continued for four years and was succeeded by Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture. In 1846 the Horticulturist was established at Albany, N. Y. These cov- ered the whole field of horticulture, including pomology, floriculture, and landscape gardening. Further specialization is seen in the Orchardist's Companion begun at Philadelphia in 1841. By 1850 the agricultural press had already become quite important and made its influence felt throughout the United States. The agri- cultural papers of that day were not only diffusing a large amount of practical and useful information on a great variety of agricul- tural subjects but they were also setting before the farming people the advantages of the application of science to agriculture and the desirability of establishing institutions in which these sciences should be taught, along with the theory and practice of agriculture. AGRICULTURAL BOOKS The first distinctively American book on agriculture is commonly said to have been Essays Upon Field Husbandry, by Jared Eliot (1685-1763), of Connecticut, which contained six essays originally printed separately and first brought together in an enlarged edition issued in Boston in 1760. Samuel Deane, of Massachusetts, in 1790 published an enc3^clopedic work entitled " New England Farmer," or Georgical Dictionary. John Beale Bordley, of Maryland, published Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs in 1799 and with additions in 1801. A Treatise on Practical Farming by John A. Binns, of Virginia, published at Frederick Town, Md., in 1803, contained accounts of his experiments with gypsum. The Pennsylvania Farmer, by Job Roberts, published in Philadel- phia in 1804, was " a selection from the most approved treatises on husbandry interspersed with observations and experiments." It con- tained reference to The Practical Farmer, by John Spurries, of Brandywine Hundred, New Castle County, Del., published in 1793, 30 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE and Gleanings on Husbandry, by James Humphreys, published in Philadelphia in 1803. The earliest literature on horticulture Avas in the form of calendars which were inserted in almanacs and then sometimes published sepa- rately. An example was the Gardener's Kalender first published in an almanac at Charleston, S. C, in 1752. An American edition of Marshall's Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening was published at Boston in 1799. The American Gardener, by John Gardiner and Daniel Hepburn, appeared at Washington, D. C, in 1804. A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees and the Manage- ment of Orchards and Cider, by William Coxe, published at Philadel- phia in 1817, was the first comprehensive American book on pomology Arator, by John Taylor, was a collection of agricultural essays, originally published separately, but brought together first in 1813 and published anonymously " by a citizen of Virginia." A revised and enlarged edition with the author's name appeared in 1814, and Avas followed by several more editions, the sixth in 1818. The Farmer's Assistant, by John Nicholson, was published at Albany, N. Y., in 1814, " embracing every article relating to agi-icul- ture, arranged in alphabetical order." Nugae Georgicae (Agricultural Trifles), by William Johnson, senior vice president of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Charleston, S. C, published in 1815, is an " endeavor to sketch the outlines of a picture of the cares and amusements, the duties and employments, of the Carolina farmer." In 1835 in an article on agricultural books in the New' England Farmer (v. 13, p. 402), it is stated that American books on this sub- ject are few. Those listed are Deane's Ncav England Farmer, Bord- iey's Husbandry, Taylor's Arator, Armstrong's Treatise on Agricul- ture, Nicholson's Farmer's Assistant, Lorrain's Husbandry, RufRn's Essay on Calcareous Manures, and Fessenden's The Complete Farmer. Andrew Jackson Downing, of New York, in 1841 published a Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening and Cottage Residences, and in 1845 Fruits and Fruit Trees in America. In 1846 the first edition of a translation of Albrecht D. Thaer's Principles of Agriculture, by William Shaw and Cuthbert W. Johnson, was published in New York. A limited number of other agricultural boolis were published in this country during this period, and foreign agricultural books, particularly those issued in England, were increasingly available in the United States. AGRICULTURAL TEXTBOOKS As soon as agriculture began to be taught in schools in the United States, it was apparent that books adapted to school use in this country were required and efforts were made to supply this need. What was accomplished in this direction during the period now under consideration is very well brought out in Bailey's article. De- velopment of the Textbook of Agriculture in North America, pub- lished in the Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDU CATION 31 of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1903 and in i-evised form in the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture (3). The following textbooks were issued between 1824 and 1860: The Agricultural Reader, by Daniel Adams, Boston, Mass., 1824; The Farm- er's School Book, by J. Orville Taylor, Albany, N. Y., 1837 ; A Treatise on Agri- culture, by John Amistrong, New York, 1839; Elements of Scientific and Practical Agriculture, by Alonzo Gray, Andover, Mass., 1842 ; A Textbook on Agriculture, by N. S. Davis, illustrated. New York, 1848; Scientific Agriculture, by M. M. liodgers. illustrated, Rochester, N. Y., 1848 ; Elements of Agriculture, for the use of Primary and Secondary Schools, by L. Bentz (translated and adapted to the use of primary schools in the United States by F. G. Skinner), New York, 1848 ; Elements of Scientific Agi-iculture, by John P. Norton, pro- fessor of scientific agriculture in Yale College, New York, 1850 ; Lessons in Modem Farming, by John L. Blake, New York, 1851 ; The Progressive Farmer, by J. A. Nash, instnietor of agriculture in Amherst College, New York, 1854 ; The Elements of Agriculture, by George E. Waring, jr.. New York, 1854; The American Textbook of Practical and Scientific Agriculture, by Charles Fox, lec- turer on agriculture in the University of Michigan, Detroit, Mich., 1854 ; A Manual of Scientific and Practical Agriculture for the School and the Farm, by ■J. L. Campbell, professor of physical science, Washington College, Va., illus- trated, Philadelphia, 1859. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS "With the growth of population in the United States and its rapid spread westward during this jDeriod the number of elementary and secondary schools and colleges greatly increased. There were, how- ever, no fixed standards for these institutions, and consequently there was great variety in the work which they actually undertook. Above the common schools were two types of secondary schools, (1) those confined to preparing students for colleges, often called grammar or Latin schools, and (2) the academies or seminaries. The high schools as a part of a city system of public education began in Boston in 1821 with the establishment of the English Classi- cal School, which from 1824 was called the English High School. They existed in 80 cities by 1851, and in 1852 there were 64 in Massa- chusetts alone. The academies gave particular, though often superficial, attention to the rapidly developing natural sciences. In English and mathe- matics some of the academies gave more liberal courses than most of the colleges. They often had classes for teacher training and paved the way for the normal schools. Some of them were coeducational or they led to the establishment of separate schools for girls. In general, they were the popular schools of their time, and the colleges themselves began to feel their liberalizing infiuence. THE LYCEUMS Among the factors which broadened the educational outlook of the peojile and laid the foundation for vocational education was the lyceum movement. This was originated in 1826 by Josiah Holbrook (1788-1854), brought up on a farm at Derby, Conn., graduated at Yale in 1810, and later on an attendant at lectures there by Professor Silliman. In 1819 he began an industrial school on Fellenberg's plan and in 1824 undertook an agricultural school at Derby. When this failed through lack of sufficient financial support he began a 32 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, XT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE propaganda for the more general diffusion of education among adults and children. This was to be done through the organization of asso- ciations of adults (1) " to procure for youths an economical and prac- tical education and to diffuse rational and useful information through the community generally, and (2) to apply the sciences and the vari- ous branches of education to the domestic and useful arts and to all the common purjDoses of life" (93). The societies were to have meetings, institute regular courses by lectures or otherwise, procure books, apparatus, and collections, and aid in establishing institutions for a thorough education and " in application of the sciences to agriculture and the other useful arts and for qualifying teachers." In November, 1826, he organized the Millbury (Mass.) Lyceum as No. 1 Branch of the American Lyceum. Other branches were soon formed and combined into the Worcester County Lyceum. The same thing was next done in Windham County, Conn. A State association was formed in 1830 in Massachusetts, and the American Lyceum Association was organized in 1831 at a meeting in New York City at which Stephen Van Rensselaer presided and seven States were represented. In 1831 about 900 towns had lyceums, and for the next 20 years most public lectures were delivered before such organizations. These covered a wide range of subjects, and the lecturers were often very distinguished men in literature, science, and political affairs. For example. Professor Silliman, Wendell Phillips, and Henry Ward Beecher often appeared on lyceum platforms. The movement also led to the establishment of many local libraries. HORACE MANN AND THE EDUCATIONAL REVIVAL In 1837 Horace Mann (1796-1859) in Massachusetts began what has often been called the gi'eat educational revival. Alarmed by the generally weak condition of the district schools, owing largely to the ignorance and prejudices of the local boards controlling them, he undertook to arouse public sentiment for a more efficient system of public education, with special reference to the common schools. As a member of the legislature he secured the passage of an act creating a State board of education and became its first secretary. He enlisted the aid of popular speakers, and through the lyceums held hundreds of public meetings throughout the State. This led to further im- portant legislation for the betterment of the school system. He organized teachers' institutes, using the best available instructors and beginning in 1838 brought about the establishment of three normal schools for which the State soon assumed full responsibility. For 12 years he published elaborate reports on the educational situation at home and abroad and measures for the improvement of the schools. In 1838 he established the Conuuon School Journal, and later used Barnard's American Journal of Education as a medium for his discussion of educational subjects. In these and other ways he aroused great interest in popular edu- cation far beyond the borders of Massachusetts. His efforts and those of his followers produced considerable improvement in the public schools, though he was not able to break down local control of the A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 33 schools in small districts or to secure trained superintendence, par- ticularly for the rural schools. THE BROADENING OF THE COLLEGE CURRICULUM During the eighteenth century and the early years of the nineteenth century instruction in the natural sciences had been gradually intro- duced in a number of North American colleges. Reference has al- ready been made to the beginnings of such instruction at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania and Columbia College. A department of mathematics and natural philosophy was established at Harvard College in 1T27 and a professorship of natural history in 1804. A chair of chemistry was provided at Princeton in 1795. Instruction in physics and chemistry wa,s given at Dartmouth College and in physics at Union College before 1800. At Yale College Benjamin Silliman was elected professor of chemistry, geology, and mineralogy in 1801. Williams, Bowdoin, William and Mary, Dickinson, and Hobart Colleges, and the universities of Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina were among the institutions giving instruction in ,some branches of natural science prior to 1820. The early instruc- tion was mainly by lectures, supplemented to a limited extent by the exhibition of specimens or by demonstrations conducted by the teach- ers. Princeton had a chemical laboratory about 1800, Williams Col- lege fitted one up in 1812, and Harvard provided one a little later. The Rensselaer Institute established at Troy, N. Y., in 1824, had wide influence on the teaching of natural sciences by observational and experimental methods. On account of its early relations to agricul- tural education further reference to this school is made in a subse- quent discussion. (See p. 39.) The constant growth of the natural sciences, the development of the literature in the various modern languages, and the accumulation of knowledge in other branches, as well as the contact of American stu- dents in larger numbers with foreign institutions of higher learning, particularly in Germany, led to the widening of the curriculum in leading American colleges, introduction of a number of elective studies, and an increase in the number of professorships in the newer subjects. Amherst College in 1826 announced a science course in which French and Spanish were substituted for Latin and Greek. There was also to be a department devoted to the science and art of teach- ing and a department of theoretical and practical " mechanism." Yale College under the presidency of Timothy Dwight began in 1802 the development of instruction in the natural sciences, which led to the establishment of the scientific school as a separate branch of the university. (See p. 62.) In 1842 Francis Wayland, president of Brown University, criticized the American system of collegiate education and proposed material changes in his book entitled " Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States " {361,,) . At Brown University he intro- duced an elective system, established a 3-year course for the'^bachelor's degree, encouraged graduate study and research, and made the sciences prominent in the curriculum. 34 MISC. PUBLICATlOlsr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE As the teacliing of the natural sciences in colleges and schools de- veloped, the need of textbooks, apparatus, and illustrative material became apparent. Teaching by lectures was common but as text- books became more numerous they were more largely used in both colleges and secondary schools. Science instruction then became more and more a mere matter of memorizing and recitation. A few teach- ers, however, introduced so-called experiments; that is, demonstra- tions performed in the presence of the students. Botanical studies, including examination of plants and student collection of small herbaria, was greatly stimulated by the teaching and publications of Asa Gray, whose Manual of Botany appeared in 1848. The Sillimans, father and son, at Yale College, w^ere very influ- ential in extending and improving the teaching of chemistry and geology and, as will be seen later, laid the foundation for the teaching of agricultural chemistry and agriculture at that institution. An event of very great importance in the history of science teach- ing in this country was the coming of Louis Agassiz to Boston in 1846 to deliver a course of popular lectures at the Lowell Institute. This led to the establishment of the Lawrence Scientific School in 1847, in which Agassiz became professor of zoology and geology. He traveled and lectured extensively in this country. In this way and through his writings, including textbooks on physiology and natural history and on methods of teaching natural history, he gave a great impetus to the movement for incorporating science more broadly in the curricula of colleges and secondary schools. He also helped greatly to infuse life into science teaching by his insistence on actual participation of the students in the examination and handling of the objects of scientific study. Agassiz was for several years a member of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture and had a direct connection with the move- ment for agricultural education, particularly in his relation to the establishment of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. MANUAL-LABOR SCHOOLS A movement which had a more direct relation to the early efforts to establish agricultural schools in this country grew out of the influence of the teachings and work of Fellenberg in his schools at Hofwyl, Switzerland (25). Information regarding the considerable success of his enterprises was brought to our people by American visitors to Hofwyl, in publications issued at home and abroad, and in other ways. Certain features of Fellenberg's theories and activities fitted into educational and financial conditions here in the first half of the nineteenth century and excited so much interest that wide- spread efforts were made to conduct schools based at least in part on his ideas. It was hoped that the labor of both teachers and students on school farms and in Avorkshops would make the institutions and the students partly or wholly self-supporting. Students of that day were very often dyspeptic from lack of physical exercise, which the Fellenberg system would supply. It was also believed that manual labor asso- ciated with intellectual pursuits had a definite educational value. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 35 BetAveen 1819 and 1830 manual-labor schools were in operation in Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina. In 1831 a department of manual labor was established at the college at AVater- ville. Me., with a shop and superintendent. The students put up buildings and made doors, bedsteads, tables, etc. There were similar departments at Oberlin College in Ohio ancl some other colleges. The Manual Labor School Society, organized in 1831 with Theodore F. Weld as field agent, attempted to promote this move- ment on a broader scale. Its only permanent impress on educational progress was in promoting gymnastics in schools. The school at Whitesboro, N. Y., which was in operation between 1827 and 1831, may serve as a good example of the manual-labor school of this period. The students worked three hours a day at farming, horticulture, and mechanic arts, and the rest of the day was given to classroom Avork in the English branches. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES Along with the manual-labor schools in which agricultural opera- tions were conducted simply as a means of physical exercise and a source of income to the school or the students, there were developed institutions in which instruction in the application of the natural sciences to agriculture or in the theory ancl practice of agriculture itself was combined with practical work in fields and shops and instruction in various academic branches usually taught in secondary schools. These institutions, which are conveniently classed as agri- cultural schools, varied greatly in the quantity ancl character of the instruction relating to agriculture, farm equipment, the ages and previous training of their students, and general educational grade. In general their agricultural instruction Avas superficial and tempo- rary. They are, therefore, chiefly interesting as showing a more or less earnest purpose to give agriculture a pedagogical status by unit- ing theory Avith practice in the school curriculum and to satisfy the demand of a considerable number of the more intelligent farming people of that day that in some Avay agi'iculture should reap the bene- fit of advancing knoAvledge regarding the phenomena and laAvs of nature. They Avere premature developments, because there Avas not yet a body of knoAvledge relating to agriculture which could be suc- cessfully used in secondary schools. As experimental ventures in education they served, hoAvcA^er, to stimulate the movement Avhich Avas to result in the establishment of agricultural colleges and experiment stations. GARDINER LYCEUM (MAINE) The Gardiner Lyceum Avas established at Gardiner, Me., in 1821 and incorporated the folloAving year (S). Its founder was Robert Hallowell Gardiner (1782-1864), a graduate of Harvard College in 1801, who inherited a tract of land " six miles on the Kennebec RiA^er and running 11 miles back." He resided on this estate more than 60 3'ears and was prominent in the business, political, educational, and religious life of the State. " Though not himself a practical farmer, he took a deep interest in promoting agriculture, fostering agricul- 36 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE tural societies and seeking to make the farm which he reserved for his home a model, by introducing superior breeds of animals, im- proved machinery, and valuable fruits and grains." Under his leadership the school was organized and a petition for its incorpora- tion was addressed to the Maine Legislature, stating " that a donation had been offered of land lying on the Kennebec River, in the town of Gardiner, estimated at $4,000, for the purpose of establishing within said town a school for teaching mathematics, mechanics, navigation, and those branches of natural philosophy and chemistry which are calculated to make scientific farmers and skillful mechanics." To give the institution more than a local status the board of visitors appointed under an act of February, 1823, were the governor, the president of the senate, the speaker of the house of representatives, the presidents of Bowcloin and Waterville Colleges, and nine other men from different parts of the State, including Benjamin Vaughan, of Hallowell (148). A substantial stone building was erected and the school was opened January 1, 1823. The first principal was Benja- min Hale, afterAvards a professor in Dartmouth College and then president of Avhat is now Hobart College. His immediate successor was John H. Lathrop, later a professor in Hamilton College and sub- sequently president of the State universities of Missouri, Maryland, and Wisconsin, respectively, who was followed by E. L. Cushing, afterwards supreme judge in New Hampshire, and Ezekiel Holmes. Doctor Holmes (1801-1865), a native of Massachusetts and graduate of Brown University and the medical department of Bowdoin Col- lege, was widely versed in the natural sciences of his time and their application to agriculture {3). "He gave lectures on agriculture before what was called a special class in agriculture, had charge of the farm which was operated by him, and on which the records show he agreed to employ 12 students during one summer; he was also steward." In 1826 he became professor of agriculture and natural history. After leaving this school in 1832 he was editor of the Maine Farmer from 1833 to 1865, and secretary of the State board of agri- culture and of the State Agricultural Society. Just before his death he persuaded the legislature to establish the State College of Agricul- ture and Mechanic Arts under the land grant act of 1862, as a separate institution and one of the principal buildings of that institution, now the University of Maine, bears his name. It will thus be seen that the men who shaped the policies and work of the Gardiner Lyceum were strong and well-trained men. In 1823 the legislature gave the school $2,000 and from 1825 for six years $1,000 annually. The school began with 20 students. In 1824 it had 53 and in 1825 there were 120, but in 1826 the number fell to 55, of whom only 2 were natives of Gardiner. It continued thereafter with varying success until 1832, when it was closed, owing to the financial embarrassment of Mr. Gardiner and to other causes. When the professorship of agriculture was established in 1824 its objects, as stated by the trustees, were (1) "to give the future agri- culturist the knowledge of those principles of science upon which his future success depends and to let him see them reduced to practice " and (2) " to furnish a beneficial employment as recreation and to try a series of agricultural experiments adapted to the soil of Maine." A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 37 AGRICULTURAL SEMINARY AT DERBY, CONN. The Agricultural Seminary at Derby, Conn., founded by Josiah Holbrook on his own farm Avith the assistance of Trueman Coe, a teacher, in the spring of 1 824, continued only about a year. Mr. Coe says that they did what they could to train the students in the analy- sis of soils, in the application of the mechanical powers to all farm- ing operations, and took out the young men often into the field and country for practical surveying, geological excursions, road making, and the labors of the farm (3). Eight hours a day Avere given to school exercises, including recita- tions and " experimental lectures," and two hours to work in the garden or field. About 50 boys and girls attended this school. One prominent object of the school is to qualify teachers. The most approved methods of instruction will be introduced, and lectures will be g^iven on most of the physical sciences, attended with demonstrations and illustrations suffi- ciently plain and familiar to admit of tlieir being introduced into common education. Courses on natural philosophy, chemistry, mineralogy, and botany will commence at the opening of the seminary. Ladies will be admitted to the lectures, and there will be a department connected with the institution where females can pursue any branch of education they may desire (3). BOSTON ASYLUM AND FARM SCHOOL A successful school in which elementary instruction in agriculture is given and which illustrates the charity feature of this movement is the Boston Asylum and Farm School on Thompson's Island, in Boston Harbor {163). This school resulted from a meeting in Bos- ton, January 27, 1832, to consider what might be done to aid children needing special attention because of poverty and other disadvantages. The conclusion was " that the establishment of a farm school in the country, where idle and morally exposed children of the city may be rescued from vice and danger, and may enjoy the advantages of a good physical and moral education, would be not only a great benefit to such children, but would greatly conduce to the peace and good order of this community." To carry out this purpose a " Boston Farm School Society " was formed and chartered. This society pur- chased a farm of about 140 acres on Thompson's Island, on which it erected buildings. Becoming cramped by lack of funds it united in 1835 with the more opulent Boston Asylum for Indigent Boys, founded in 1814, which had a school in Boston. A report of the farm school in 1833 states that — A school is kept both morning and evening for about six hours daily in which are taught the elements of useful knowledge, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- raphy, and grammar. During the evening, especially in the winter months, instruction is also given in the first principles of agriculture, horticulture, and botany ; the different kinds of soils, the most important processes of cultivation, and the names, uses, and distinctive qualities of seeds, plants, and trees are explained and illustrated. * * * And they are required to perform as much of the manual labor done on the farm as their various ages and capacities will permit {16S) . The New England Farmer (vol. 16) contains an account of a visit to this school August 25, 1837, at wdiich time 104 boys were in attend- ance. In 1901 a more definite course in agriculture was introduced for the elementary grades. In 1907 the name of the school was 38 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE changed to The Farm and Trades School. Boys may enter from 10 to 14 years of age if they have reached the sixth grade, and remain until ready for the high school. CREAM HILL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL (CONN.) The Cream Hill Agricultural School (later called Cream Hill Academic School, with an agricultural department), at West Corn- wall, Conn., Avas established in 1845 and continued with considerable success until 1869 {90). The prospectus is as follows: The plan of this institution is to receive a select and limited number of pupils, under the superintendence of well-qualified teachers, to be fitted for college, or any of the useful pursuits of life. This school embraces two important departments of instruction. First, thorough attention to the various elementary and scientific branches taught at the best academic institutions. Second, both scientific and practical instructions in agriculture and horticulture, embracing the most approved method of tillage, rearing of stocli, cultivation of trees, the laying out of grounds, ornamental gardening, chemical analysis of soils, composts, etc. A portion of each day will be allotted to these subjects, so that the pupil may become a scientific and practical farmer. The farm, containing 200 acres, with convenient buildings, situated on Cream Hill, surrounded by a picturesque country scenery, furnishes a location un- rivaled for healthfulness and freedom from immoral tendencies, and peculiarly fitted for such an institution. The Housatonic Railroad furnishes daily access to New York. The students will become members of the family of the instructors. A parental supervision will at all times be exercised over each individual. All will be treated with kindness, and every attention rendered, with affectionate regard to health, deportment, and morals. The institution will be conducted by Samuel W. Gold, Theodore S. Gold, and Thomas R. Button [who, however, did not actually take part in the school]. There will be two terms in each year ; the first commencing the first Wednes- day in May, and terminating the first Wednesday in November ; the second from the first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in April. Terms : The pupils will be furnished with tuition, board, fuel, lights, wash- ing, privileges of the library, and riding, at $200 a year, one-half to be paid at the beginning of each term. West Cornwall, Conn., March 31, 1845 {90). In the catalogue of 1849 it is stated that — Each pupil cultivates a garden of about 130 square yards ; is instructed in laying out, planting, and application of manures. Small premiiuns are awarded for the best gardens. Ample opportunity is afforded each to acquire a knowl- edge of general farming, tending and rearing the various kinds of stock, etc. In a letter to the director of the Office of Experiment Stations November 8, 1894, T. S. Gold states that he " taught botany, mineral- ogy, agriculture, etc., in the classroom and in the garden and field. Some pupils were taught all the operations of the farm." Samuel W. Gold had been for years the principal physician in Goshen, Conn., but had removed to his farm in West Cornwall shortly before the opening of the school. His son, Theodore Sedg- wick Gold (1818-1906) had graduated at Yale College in 1838 and iiad been principal of Goshen Academy for three years {92). For many years he was very influential in agricultural aifairs in Con- necticut. He was active in organizing the Connecticut Agricultural Society in 1853 and for years was one of its directors. He also helped to organize the Connecticut Board of Agriculture in 1866 and was its secretary for 34 years. He strongly supported the movement which resulted in the establishment of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station in 1875 and was a member of its board of control A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 39 until his death. He was also active in connection with the founding in 1881 of the agricultural school at Storrs, which is now the Con- necticut Agricultural College, and was for 20 years a trustee of this institution. " He was always a student, an extensive reader on sub- jects relating to natural science, a man having wide acquaintance with men of learning and prominence and withal an excellent, practical farmer." At one time an editor, he was for more than 60 years a frequent contributor to the agricultural press. Other schools in which agriculture was taught during this period were the Teachers' Seminary at Andover, Mass. ; Eden Hill Farm Institute near Philadelphia ; Franklin College near Nashville, Tenn. ; the school founded by Daniel Lee, editor of the second Genesee Farmer, in cooperation with Rawson Harmon, at Wheatland, N. Y. ; Mount Airy Agricultural Institute near Philadelphia; Ncav York Central College at McGrawville, N. Y. ; Oakwood Agricultural In- stitute at Lancaster, N. Y. ; LTnion Academy at Shiloh, N. J.; and the Mapes School, near Newark, N. J. The widespread interest in the introduction of instruction relating to agriculture into schools privately maintained during this period, as well as the difficulty of actually accomplishing this in a way which would be attractive or useful to students, is shown in the frequent discussion of this matter in the agricultural and other press, and the number and variety of institutions which made the attempt with little or no success. In many cases apparently the effort got no fur- ther than an announcement in the catalogue or an advertisement in some paper. In other cases it resulted only in a few lectures on agri- cultural subjects in connection with instruction in natural sciences, or references to the applications of such sciences to agriculture. The widespread development of secondary education through pub- lic high schools and private preparatory schools led to considerable standardization of courses of study in such schools and the require- ment of college training for their teachers. The influence of the col- leges very generally permeated the secondary schools and brought about the restriction of their field to general education. Sentiment in favor of vocational education in any line in the secondary schools was little in evidence. Tliere were practically no trained teachers of agriculture to be had and the limited literature of this subject was ill adapted for use in schools. Public attention was more and more directed toward efforts to establish agricultural colleges. It seemed to be dimly understood that these higher institutions would be needed before agriculture could be successfully taught in the lower schools and many people thought that such colleges could supply all the agricultural instruction which it was worth Avhile to give. The movement for the teaching of agriculture in secondary schools therefore waned, and by the time of the outbreak of the Civil War such instruction had almost entirely disappeared in this country. AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIVATE COLLEGES RENSSELAER INSTITUTE The Rensselaer Institute at Troy, N. Y. {242, 314), occupied a unique position in the early movement for scientific education related to agriculture and the mechanic arts. This school was founded in 12931—29 4 40 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE 1824 by Stephen Van Kensselaer (1764-1839). (Fig. 4.) He had become by inheritance patroon of a district originally 24 by 48 miles in extent, comprising what are now Albany, Columbia, and Rensse- laer Counties. This great tract, as developed up to his death in 1839, contained over 3,000 farms, which were leased on moderate terms. Van Eensselaer was greatly interested in the improvement of agri- culture, became a leading member and officer of the State Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, and in 1820 was president of the newly created State board of agriculture. He graduated at Harvard College in 1782 and, through his interest in education, was made a regent of the University of the State of New York and became its chancellor in 1835. He Avas also active in politics, being a member of both houses of the State legislature, lieutenant governor for six years, and a Member of Congress, where he served as chairman of the Committee on Agriculture. He was on the first State commission to explore a route for a canal between the Hudson River and the Lakes and later on the Erie Canal Commission. About 1820 Van Rensselaer came in contact with Amos Eaton, who had already attracted considerable attention as an itinerant lecturer on natural science. Eaton (1776-1842) (fig. 6) was the son of a farmer at Chatham, N. Y., graduated at Williams College in 1799, studied law^ and practiced this profession at Catskill, N. Y., but became enamored of the field study of botany and mineralogy. In 1810 he began to give popular lectures on botany and compiled an elementary treatise on this subject. Then he w^ent to Yale College and studied chemistry, geology, and mineralogy under Silliman and botany under Ives. Going back to Willi amstown, Mass., in 1817 he lectured outside the college on botany, mineralogy, and geology, and so interested the students that they published his Manual of Botany, which was gradually enlarged and in its eighth edition in 1840 con- tained descriptions of 5.267 species. He also gave lectures in a num- ber of the large towns in New England and New York and in 1818 on invitation of Governor Clinton spoke to the New York Legisla- ture on geology and its application to agriculture through surveys. Two years later he was called to the professorship of natural his- tory in the somewhat famous Medical College at Castleton, Vt. What attracted the greatest attention in connection with Eaton's lectures was that he not only illustrated them with specimens and demonstrations but led his students to make collections in the field and to construct simple apparatus for various purposes. This had come about from his experience as a boy on the farm. Impressed by the unusual ability of Eaton, Van Rensselaer then employed him — in the summer of 1824, to traverse the state on or near the line of the Erie Canal, provided with .sufiieient apparatus and specimens to deliver, in all the principal towns where an audience of business men or others could be collected, a series of lectures, accompanied with experiments and illustrations, on " chemis- tr.v, natural philosoph.v. and some or all of the branches of natural history." This undertaking was entirely successful. To perpetuate and broaden such Avoi-k Van Rensselaer established in the fall of 1824 a school to instruct persons " in the application of science to the common purposes of life." (In the language of this purpose is seen the influence of Count Rumford, who in 1799 used the same Avords to describe the aim of the Royal Institution of London, which he Avas founding.) A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 41 Referring to the success of Eaton's summer lectures in western New York Van Rensselaer declares that his principal object in establishing a school is — to qualify teachers for instructing the sons and daughters of farmers and mechanics in the application of experimental chemistry, philosophy, and natural history to agriculture, domestic economy, the arts and manufactures. * * * Apparatus for the necessary experiments has been so much simplified, and speci- '. / y///// i^/A / /uch courses of lectures to be de- livered there at such seasons of the year and under such regulations as they may think best adapted to promote the ends designed ; and also to furnish gratuitous aid, if they shall think it exi^edient, to such meritorious persons as may resort there for instruction ; the institution so established shall be called the " Bussey Institution" (163). Though the will w^as probated in 1842, it was not deemed advisable to begin the establishment of the Bussey Institution until 1870. It has since been conducted mainly as a research institution. (See p. 127.) AMHERST COLLEGE In 1843 Amherst College in Massachusetts listed in its catalogue a '"'' lecturer on agricultural chemistry and mineralogy," and in 1852, under the presidency of Edward Hitchcock, a scientific department "entirely independent of the regiUar course " was established {163). In this department J. A. Nash, as instructor in agriculture, and later author of the textbook entitled " The Progressive Farmer," was to " take charge of any who may wish to study the elements of agricul- ture, theoreticaly and practically," and William S. Clark, afterwards 44 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, was to give '' practical instruction in analytical and applied chemistry, with spe- cial reference to agriculture, pharmacy, and metallurgy." This department was discontinued in 1857. The Country Gentleman contains an announcement, dated Decem- ber 23, 1853, by Mr. Nash, of his course in practical and scientific agriculture for " young men not pursuing a full collegiate course. Instruction will be given, through textbooks, lectures, and free con- versations * * * Qji ^\^Q applications of science to the cultivation and improvement of soils, the preservation and use of manures, the growing and disposal of crops, the care of animals, and generally to whatever relates to the management of a farm." Students may take the whole or a part of this course and may have access to other lec- tures by the president and professors of Amherst College. " The teacher of agriculture will accompany his class to the lectures on geology, chemistry, philosophy, and natural history, and then at the earliest opportunity will review with them the subject of each lec- ture in a way to show its practical bearings and to fix it in the memory." FARMERS' COLLEGE IN OHIO In 1846 an institution named Farmers' College was organized at College Hill, Ohio, 6 miles from Cincinnati (334). This was an out- growth of a literary school known as Pleasant Hill Academy, begun in 1833 by Freeman Grant Cary (1810-1888), a cousin of Alice and Phoebe Cary, and a graduate of Miami University, Oxford Ohio, in 1832. In 1845 a plan was made to enlarge the school by issuing stock for " a building for an institution of learning especially suited to the wants of the agricultural and business community." The building was to be called Farmers' Collegiate Hall of Hamilton County. Over 400 persons, mostly farmers and mechanics, contributed. A charter, granted by the legislature February 23, 1840, created a cor- poration known as Farmers' College of Hamilton County. " The objects of this association shall be to direct and cultivate the minds of the students in a thorough and scientific course of studies, particu- larly adapted to agricultural pursuits." About 71/2 acres of land adjoining the site of the academy were obtained and on this tract a three-story brick building, 120 by 48 feet, with 27 rooms was erected, costing with its furniture about $13,000. In 1855 the legislature gave the college authority to grant the degrees of A. B. and A. M. John H. Scott, a native of Pennsyl- vania and graduate of Washington College, who had also studied science under Silliman at Yale College, was professor of chemistry and its application to agriculture and the arts until 1849. Benjamin Harrison, afterwards President of the United States, was a student in this institution in 1848-1850. Increasing public interest in agricultural education led the board of trustees in 1853 to resolve to raise $100,000 " to secure a farm and establish an agricultural professorship and department of practical agriculture and horticulture and constitute a building fund." The committee to prepare a plan for subscription reported that " it Avas A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIUl^ 45 the original design to connect with this institution a farm for scien- tific and practical experiments in agriculture and horticulture, in- cluding the analysis of soils and their adaptation to the various prod- ucts of the earth. * * * ^ college furnished with ample facilities for applying the principles of science to husbandry and the mechanic arts is indispensable in developing the resources of the country " {33J^). President Gary resigned to take charge of the farm department and to raise funds for its support. William Gary gave $10,000 for this department and a Gary professorship of practical agriculture was established in his honor. The course as outlined in the catalogue included field lectures, the study of textbooks and essays on agriculture and horticulture during four years, general and agricultural chemistry, entomology, min- eralogy, geology, natural philosophy, physiology, English, mathe- matics, history, political economy, mental and moral philosophy, drawing, etc. A monthly journal, called The Gincinnatus, was published at the college, beginning January 1, 1856 {332). It contained articles on a great variety of agricultural subjects, including agricultural educa- tion, accounts of experiments, agricultural production and econom- ics, meteorology, etc. It continued through five volumes. In the first volume it is stated that 100 acres of land were purchased " for a model and experimental farm," a botanic garden of 20 acres w^as being laid out, with vegetables, fruits, shrubs, and forest trees of many varieties — the whole farm to constitute " a grand laboratory." Small lots for variety tests were to be made on the farm. The build- mg, called Polytechnic Hall, w^as completed in the fall of 1856 and dedicated with appropriate ceremonies, including an address by Mr. Gary on industrial university education — its mission. This building contained rooms for professors of chemistry, botany, and vegetable physiolog}^, and theoretical and practical agriculture, a chemical laboratory, a shop with forge, and other mechanical apparatus, etc. " Every student is to be an operator." The college as a whole grew in popularity and in 1856 had 330 students. But its funds were not sufficient to maintain it on the scale on which it was being operated, and as the shadow of the Givil War approached it was difficult to secure adequate financial support. Two memorials were sent to Gongress asking for grants of land for the college, but without avail. An effort to have this college made the beneficiary of the land grant act of 1862 also failed. The pro- fessorship of agriculture was nominally maintained until 1880, but long before that the farm department had disappeared and the farm itself had been sold. In 1884 the institution became Belmont Gollege and this was merged into the Ohio Military Institute in 1890. THE MOVEMENT TOWARD PUBLIC SUPPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES While the teaching of agriculture in purely private institutions was being attempted w^itli small success, friends of agricultural edu- cation began to look forward to State aid for such instruction, and 46 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE in a few States movements were begun which were to lead up to the establishment of State agricultural colleges and their endowment under the national land grant act of 1862. NEW YORK There is little doubt that after the attempt of Doctor Mitchill to teach science in its relations to agriculture at Columbia College in 1792 the group of influential men who were prominent in the early agricultural societies in New York discussed from time to time the possibility of doing something for agriculture in colleges or through jH'ofessorships connected with the societies or other institutions. This came to the surface as already stated in Governor Clinton's message of 1818 favoring a State board of agriculture, wherein he also suggested that a professorship of agriculture might well be " connected with the board or attached to the university." DE WITT'S PLAN FOR AN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE The following year his cousin, Simeon De Witt, published anony- mously at Albany a pamphlet of 42 pages, entitled " Considerations on the Necessity of Establishing an Agricultural College and Hav- ing More of the Children of Wealthy Citizens Educated for the Profession of Farming" {'258). He had in 1T99 publicly advocated " a school of practical instruction in the business of husbandry," with which there should be experiments and instruction in the science of agriculture {'2J0). He now attempted to show that farming is not only honorable, but may be and often is profitable, and that even its difficulties and hard- ships are much better for men to contend with than a life of idleness; that in foreign countries gentlemen are in many cases owners of large estates, in the management of which they often endeavor to improve agriculture by experiments, the results of which they dissemi- nate to their tenants and through societies or boards of agriculture. The absence of such a class in this country has led the small, but independent, farmers to follow traditional methods and thus to pre- vent improvements in agricidture. The agricultural societies are doing something to remedy this .situation. " The institution now pro- posed will not be their rival but rather a cooperator. * * * It is intended not so much to give instruction to farmers as to make farmers from other classes of society." It may be called an agricultural school, academy, or college, no matter which ; but if any importance is to be attached to names, I would give it the most respectable, and call it the Agricultural College of the State of New York. Its primary object should be to teach the theory and practice of agriculture, with such branches of other sciences as may be serviceable to them, its second- ary, to make improvements (258). On the faculty should be a " professor of practical agriculture acquainted witli both theory and practice and capable of making ex- periments. He will have direction of the labor of the students in the field." Instead of giving formal lectures, this professor, who must constantly attend his classes while thus engaged, will, during the progress of their work, explain to them the best manner in which everything is to be done, the reason of it, A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 47 and the errors that are or may be committed in It ; on all which the students will be required to make notes and comments at their hours of relaxation and undergo examinations at stated times (258). There should be a farm of considerable extent and variety of soil and it should " be made not only instructive, but, if possible, profit- able." A workshop for the repair of implements by the students and for a collection of " models of all the best implements of husbandry " should be provided. Account book,s should be kept in detail of all the farm transactions and the professors should lecture on this subject. De Witt's plan for an agricultural college was given considerable publicity in various ways in New York and other States and undoubt- edly laid a somcAvhat definite basis for consideration of this subject in legislatures and elsewhere. It had, however, one unfortunate re- sult in giving credence to the idea, often urged by opponents of public aid to agricultural colleges, that they were to be institutions for the rich and therefore not worth}^ of support from public funds. BXKANAH Watson's plan for a pattekn farm In 1819 Elkanah Watson (see p. 12) issued a plan for a pattern farm of from 100 to 200 acres under the board of agriculture with a professor of agriculture to carry on experiments on crops, trees, implements, architectural plans, animals, manures. " and all that relates to chemistry, horticulture, botany, and mineralogy." Pro- vision was to be made for the education there annually of 20 young men at the expense of the agricultural fund. These students were to be selected by the presidents of the agricultural societies. There were to be classes on the theory and practice of agriculture and student labor at least three hours a day. The next year these students should teach in academies or schools under direction of the county societies and be provided with cheap books on the first elements of agriculture and chemistry. Watson, however, states that he did not expect this plan to be adopted for some time to come. JESSE BUEU-'S plan FOR AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL In 1823 there appeared in the New York Assembly an agricultural leader who was to keep up for about 15 years a persistent campaign for the establishment of an agricultural college. This was Jesse Buel (1778-1839), a native of Coventry, Conn., who had learned the printer's trade at Rutland, Vt., and thereafter published papers in Troy, Poughkeepsie, and Kingston, N. Y. {244)- In 1813 he estab- lished the Argus at Albany, which for many years Avas an influential journal, and was its editor until 1821. During this period he w^as also State printer. While a resident of Kingston he was judge of the court of common pleas. After retiring from the Argus he settled on a small farm near Albany, which he greatly improved through experiments in agriculture and horticulture. As a member of the committee on agriculture of the New York Assembly in 1823 Buel brought in a report favoring an agricultural school {30i). The curriculum should cover every branch of science relating to agriculture and every department of practical husbandry. Tuition should be low. Appro- priations should be loans rather than donations. It is stated that Hon. Stephen 48 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGEICULTUEE Van Rensselaer has offered land. The school will supersede the board of agriculture and might have the $10,000 now annually given to the county agri- cultural societies. For its support a tax on bank stock is suggested. On the State appropriations to colleges and schools an agricultural school should be included. A bill to establish the school accompanies the report. In a letter to W. M. Barton, vice president of the Agricultural Society of the Valley of Virginia, December 6, 1823, Buel referred to this report and stated that he considered the plan of the Albemarle Society for a professorship of agriculture at the University of Vir- ginia defective because "it makes agriculture an auxiliary study," whereas " it ought to be the principal, and botany, chemistry, litera- ture, etc., should be subservient to this great study." "The pupil should go to it with the express view of learning to be a farmer." In 1825 the New York Committee on Agriculture reported that "it is in some measure indispensable to establish an experimental farm in connection with an agricultural seminary" but "while the committee indulge a belief that such a system will eventually be establislied to its full extent, yet they apprehend that public senti- ment is not yet sufficiently mature to embrace the plan." In 1826 James Tallmadge, then lieutenant governor of New York, in the rejjort of a committee to inquire into the condition of the Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City, " urged that it was not sufficient that the sciences connected with agriculture and the mechanic arts should be diligently studied and correctly understood by a few votaries in our literary institutions." He therefore advo- cated lectures on these subjects in public schools and colleges. NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL In 1832 at the first meeting of the new State agricultural society a committee was appointed to report on a plan for an agricultural school. Pending this report the Albany Argus began a series of articles, undoubtedly by Jesse Buel, to call public attention to this matter. On February 14, 1833, the committee reported a plan for a school, with an estimate of expense on the basis of an attendance of 200 students (3). A farm of 400 acres, with buildings and equipment, would cost $57,550 and the annual expense for instruction and board would be $23,400, of which only $5,100 was for salaries of officers and teachers. With board and tuition at $150 and proceeds of sale of farm produce the annual receipts would be $34,000. Tlie committee proposed a bill to be introduced in the legislature asking for authorization to issue stock certificates to the amount of $100,000, with interest at 5 per cent, to be sold at auction. Three commissioners were to purchase the farm and erect buildings to accommodate 200 students, who at entrance must be at least 14 years old. The society presented this plan and bill to both houses of the legis- lature, through a committee of which Buel was a member. Favorable reports on the project were made, but the legislature took no action. Then in March, 1834, Buel established the monthly journal called The Cultivator, very largely as a medium of propaganda for the school. For a considerable period this paper was issued in the name A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 49 of the State agricultural society. It circulated widely throughout the country, and undoubtedly had much influence in molding public opinion on agricultural education. In general it advocated schools '• in which the theory and practice of agriculture shall constitute the paramount study," as distinguished from manual-labor schools. It was also favorable to the teaching of agriculture as far as possible in the common schools and hoped that the agricultural schools would be able to prepare teachers for the lower schools. It favored but did not insist on the use of public funds for the maintenance of agricultural schools. In 1835 the legislature was again asked to charter an agricultural school Avithout State aid. The bill passed the house with only three opposing votes, but the senate committee held it until near the end of the session and then reported it with amendments, which changed its character and prevented its passage. The friends of the measure renewed their efforts and a State agricultural convention was held at Albany February 8, 1836, at which Buel presided. This convention sent a memorial to the legislature asking for the establishment of a " school of scientific and practical agriculture." There Avas now evi- dently more favorable public opinion behind this movement, with the result that on May 6, 1836, an act to incorporate the New York State Agricultural School was passed. This provided a corporation with capital stock of $100,000 which might be increased to $200,000, to be used for the equipment and maintenance of a school " for the purposes of instruction in literature and science and improvement in scientific and practical agriculture and the mechanic arts." Seven commissioners, named in the act, were to receive subscrip- tions for the stock, interest on Avhich was limited to 5 per cent. No subscription was to be for more than $1,000. The corporation was to be managed by 32 trustees of whom the governor and lieutenant governor were to be members ex officio, the remaining members to be stockholders and citizens of the State, elected annually by the stock- holders. The trustees were to purchase a farm of about 500 acres of land near the Hudson River and the city of Albany, and erect build- ings thereon, and appoint the faculty and other employees of the school. "An indispensable requirement " for the faculty and students was that they should occupy half their time during school sessions between March and December, "either in the practical agricultural business of the farm, or in the laboratories or mechanic shops " con- nected with the school. The governor was required "to appoint annually a committee of three persons " to visit the school and report on its condition to the legislature. The commissioners named in this act, of whom Buel was the chair- man, made an active effort to secure subscriptions to the stock of the school, but with disheartening results. How^ever, the State agricultural society continued its efforts to promote agricultural education. In the NeAv York Assembly in 1839 a committee had before it 80 petitions for aid to agriculture, with nearly 6,000 signatures. The committee in its report expressed sur- prise " that there is no school, no seminary, no subdivision of any school, in which the science of agi-iculture is taught," though this is " a business Avhich occupies eight-tenths of our population," and recommended that an agricultural school be established. 50 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE In 1840 the assembly committee on agriculture urged that the legislature should promote the science of agriculture with as much liberality as it does with reference to literary institutions. The act of May 5, 1841, under which the State agricultural society was reorganized, greatly strengthened it and througli its series of publications enabled it to give more prominence to its efforts for agricultural education (SOS). In 1842 the society published an article on agricultural education by A. S. Wynkoop and that year the legislature considered a proposition to establish agricultural schools in each county. In 1843 many petitions to the legislature were again prepared, and at its ensuing session the assembly com- mittee reported that if the State was to give further funds to benefit agriculture " it should be to endow a college for the purpose of dis- seminating scientific knowledge of agriculture throughout the State." There was also in 1844 another report which recommended an appro- priation for public lectures on ]3ractical and scientific agriculture in different parts of the State. The chairman of this committee was Daniel Lee, editor of the Genesee Farmer, Avho for years went about the State delivering lectures on agricultural chemistry and advo- cating an agricultural college. In the sessions of the legislature in 1844 and 1845 he secured the passage in the assembly of a bill to establish an agricultural college and in 1845 this bill came within one vote of passing the Senate. In 1846 the American Institute of New York City asked the legis- lature to establish under their auspices an agricultural college near NcAv York City {272). The institute had been organized in 1828 to promote the interests of agriculture, commerce, manufactures, and arts through fairs and exhibitions. It had a farmers' club which was quite active. In their petition to the legislature they stated that they had professors in various departments and wanted State aid to organize an agricultural department. The institute's proposition was before the legislature for several years but did not secure favorable action. Meanwhile the State agricultural society was discussing what it should do further for agricultural education, and there was some difference of opinion as to whether a separate institution or depart- ments of agriculture in existing colleges was the better plan. By 1849 the society had decided to ask the legislature to establish an agricultural college and this was advocated by Gov. Hamilton Fish in his message that year. By concurrent resolution adopted April G, 1849, a commission Avas appointed to consider the propositions for agricultural education. The commission made a detailed report and submitted a bill for the establishment of the Agricultural College of the State of New York. The legislature that year also had before it memorials for an agricultural department at the Genesee Seminary and for agricultural schools in each of several districts in the State {278). In 1851 the assembly committee on agriculture again reported in favor of an agricultural college (280). It also agreed that a me- chanical school or college Avould be a good thing but did not favor its attachment to an agricultural college. The mechanical college should be in a large city or village. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 51 The committee stated its belief that since this matter had been so long under consideration and the petitions relating to it were so numerous, "the great mass of the agricultural community through- out the State demands the establishment " of an agricultural college, and therefore it should be " endowed by the State and be considered a State institution." The recommendation was for a — college and farm of 60 acres cultivated by students working four hours a day, and instructed in the raising of plants and animals; the proper time to sell produce and how to put it in market ; the manner of keeping farm accounts and farm management ; chemistry, natural philosophy, geography, mineralogy, botany, horticulture, veterinary medicine, land measurement, drainage, irriga- tion, farm implements and buildings, and rural laws, together with higher departments of English education. For admission : English, grammar, geography, arithmetic. Age of entrants : 16 years. Faculty : President, six professors, farm superintendent, gardener, carpenter, mason, blacksmith. It was thought an annual appropriation of $10,000 would provide for the current expenses of the school, when taken together with money obtained from students and sales of farm products. A minority report {'281) stated that both farmers and laboring men are opposed to such institutions which would involve large expendi- tures without corresponding benefit and]ead to favoritism and corrup- tion. The bill that year failed by a narrow margin. The matter came up again in the legislature in 1852 with the same result. Meanwhile the State agricultural society had been actively sup- porting this measure and had given publicity to addresses and other material favoring an agricultural college. A new leader had arisen in the j^erson of John Delafield (1780-1853), who Avas made president of the society in 1851 and in his annual address in January, 1852, discussed "the need of an agricultural college" (3). With the backing of the State agricultural society and other friends of agricultural education Delafield secured an act of incorporation for the New York State Agricultural College April 15, 1853. Three days earlier the friends of a college which should include mechanic arts together with agriculture and other subjects, had secured a char- ter for the People's College for the purpose of promoting litera- ture, science, arts, and agriculture. From this time until the estab- lishment of Cornell University the streams of influence relating to higher education in agriculture and other industries under State patronage were distinctly divided, as will be noted by following the history of the New York State Agricultural College and the People's College. THE NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE The act of April 15, 1853, incorporating the Ncav York State Agri- cultural College, reads as follows : The people of the State of New York, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as follows : 1. John Delafield, Henry "Wager, B. P. John.son, William Kelly, John A King, N. B. Kidder, Joel W. Bacon, William Buel, Tallmadge Delafield, Robert J. Swan, and such other persons as sliall or may be associated with them for that pur- pose, are hereby constituted and created a body politic and corporate by the name, style, and description of the " New York State Agricultural College," and the said corporation shall have and enjoy all the corporate rights and privileges enjoyed by an incorporated college in the State of New York, and sliall 52 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE be subject to the provisions and exercise tlie powers and duties contained and set forth in the second article of the fifteenth chapter, title 1, of the revised statutes. 2. The farm and grounds belonging and attached to the said college shall con- sist of not less than 300 acres. 3. The plan of instruction shall embrace the following branches of knowledge : Practical and scientific agriculture, chemistry and its manipulations so far as it may be usefully connected with agriculture, mathematics and mechanics, surveying and engineering, geology and botany, the practical management of the farm, of the dairy, and of the various kinds of livestock; also such other branches of knowledge as may be deemed useful and proper. 4. The i>ersons named in the first section of this act shall be and form the first board of trustees. 5. This act shall take effect immediately. The trustees named in the act incorporating the New York State Agricultural College very soon organized the college, elected John Delafield president, and appointed a committee on its location. This committee reported in favor of Mr. Delafield's farm known as Oak- lands. Arrangements were made to obtain subscriptions to the cap- ital stock of the institution. Little had been accomplished when the sudden death of Mr,, Delafield, October 22, 1853, put an end to this enterprise. The next move was made by the academy at Ovid under the leader- ship of Amos Brown (1804-1874). He was born at Kensington, N. H., and spent his early boyhood on a farm. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1832 and then studied at the Andover (Mass.) Theological Seminary. As j^rincipal of academies at Fryeburg and Gorham, Me., he showed marked success as a teacher and organizer. Afterwards he was for a time pastor in a Congregational church at Machias, Me. In 1852 he went to Ovid, N. Y., and became principal of the academy there. This school had been chartered in 1826 and when Brown came to it had very few students. He persuaded the trustees to provide by subscription the salary of one teacher, who was to give instruc- tion in the school in chemistry, agricultural chemistry, and liotany, and was to deliver lectures on these and kindred subjects, to which the subscribers with their families were to be admitted free of further charge. William H. Brewer, who had spent two years in the Yale Scientific School, studying chemi.stry, agriculture, and other sciences under Professors Silliman and Norton, was appointed under this agree- ment. Six teachers were employed and the school prospered greatly. Within the next six years a considerable number of students were prepared for college. Among these students who afterwards achieved notable .success as educators were Professors Morris, of Cornell Uni- versity; Doolittle, of Rutgers College; and Lounsbury, of Yale College; and President Folwell, of the University of Minnesota. Mr. Brewer gave the winter lectures, which were open to the pub- lic. Regarding these he says in a letter to W. T. Hewett, of Cornell University, March 11, 1894 (copy in Office of Experiment Stations) : Until we had suitable rooms in the academy itself they were given in the courthouse, and that large hall was generally filled and often crowded. These lectures were an important factor in bringing the matter of scientific instruc- tion for practical ends prominently before the people roundabout and was a sowing of seed for the growth of the future agricultural college. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 53 The old academy building was soon too small to accommodate the students and Mr, Brown raised money for a larger additional build- ing, dedicated August 1, 1855, with elaborate exercises, including an address on the agricultural college, which for some time Mr. Brown had desired to connect with the academy. Immediately after this Mr. Brewer went to Europe, where he studied chemistry, geology, and botany at several universities, under such men as Bunsen, Liebig, and Wagner, with the understanding that on his return he would be professor of agricultural chemistry at the agricultural college if it came to Ovid. This plan was not carried out. Brown and his friends secured from the legislature March 31, 1856, a loan of $40,000 of State funds for 21 years, on condition that an equal amount be raised by subscription. It was stipulated that the college should be located in Seneca County and should include a farm of 300 acres. Largely through Brown's efforts $47,000 was sub- scribed and the trustees purchased 686 acres at Ovid. Brown's op- ponents prevented his election to the presidency of the new college and he became president of the People's College. For a short time Samuel Cheever served as president of the agricultural college and was succeeded September 23, 1859, by M. R. Patrick, a graduate of West Point Academy. Provision w^as made for professors of chemistry, mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy. A course was planned covering three years, divided into two terms from April 15 to November 1 and from December 1 to March 1. It included intellectual and moral philoso- phy, English language and literature. Constitution of the United States and New York, laws relating to contracts, highwaj^s, fences, etc. ; natural sciences, mathematics, surveying, drawing, bookkeeping, and construction of roads, bridges, and fences, besides the application of these subjects to agriculture, instruction in veterinary medicine, farm implements, machinery and buildings, and practical exercises in agronomy, horticulture, animal husbandry, and farm engineering. A college building had been partially erected Avhen the college opened December 5, 1860. Twenty-seven men were in attendance during the Avinter. The Civil War broke out before the end of the school year and Major Patrick went into the Army. The school was closed and efforts to reopen it in later years did not succeed. Ulti- mately the State Avas forced to take over the farm and buildings and they were used as an asylum for the insane, THE people's college The plan which ultimately resulted in the organization of the People's College was originated by Harrison HoAvard, a mechanic residing at Lockport, N. Y. He Avas a member of the organization commonly called the Mechanics' Mutual Protection. In his account of this organization (266) HoAvard says that after the panic of 1837 there Avas much discussion regarding measures for solving the labor problem. One result of this condition AA'as the holding of a conven- tion of mechanics at Buffalo, N. Y., July 13, 1843, at which Avas organized the Right Worthy Mechanics' Grand Mutual Protection, having as its object " to raise the mechanics of America to their true position iix society." This Avas to be attained by (1) "a more gen- 54 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE eral diffusion of the principles and sciences governing mechanics and the arts, to elevate our brethren in their varied capacities and thereby give them the greatest proficiency in their several callings"; (2) by extending to apprentices a good education; (3) by mutual help in sickness and to families and by furnishing employment; and (4) by cultivating a proper understanding between employees and em- ployed. This organization soon established numerous branches in different parts of New York and in several other States. Previous to this Howard had become interested in education for mechanics and had studied the manual-labor schools through such works as Weld's Report as agent of the Manual Labor School Society in 1832, the Manual Labor Journal, Henry Colman's reports on agriculture and technical schoofs in Europe, and Woodbridge's Annals of Education. He became convinced that the manual-labor schools were failing because they made labor drudgery. Gradually he formed a plan to " establish mechanical schools for the promulga- tion of the economic arts similar to those of other professions, with the exception of supporting the institution with the labor of its stu- dents " {265). To accomplish this it w^as suggested that there should be a " meclianical society " with branches in each county, with one or more traveling agents to form societies, get subscriptions, etc. A.s soon as possible a charter should be obtained for a school in which " there should be taught natural philosophy, chemistry, geometry, architecture, drawing, etc., not neglecting any other branches taught in our best colleges and universities." A fund of $100,000 was to be raised by dollar subscriptions from mechanics, of whom there w^ere thought to be about 125,000 in New York. This plan was submitted first to the local organization of the Mechanics Mutual Protection at Lockport, and afterwards to the State organization in December, 1849. The plan proposed to combine labor with study and improvement in manual skill with intellectual culture — to have in time a mechanics' institute or semi- nary in every county or senate district, but in the first eiTort to establish one central or State college of practical science, wherein our youth, aspiring to efficiency and eminence in life as architects, engineers, or artisans of any sort, might receive a thorough physical and mental training, laboring a part of the day and thus paying at first a part and afterward for a whole of subsistence and teaching {26r)), This plan attracted the attention of Horace Greeley, who in an edi- torial in the New York Tribune of May 9, 1850, approved it but said that— this university should embrace agricultural as well as mechanical instniction and the farmers should be invited to cooperate in founding it. It should have a square mile of land — a part of it very good, or capable of being made so — and this should be made in time the model farm of the State and its nursery and seeds should hold the first rank in the public estimation. HoAvard and his followers gladly assented to this proposition, Avhereupon Greeley actively supported the movement, became a mem- ber of the association formed to promote it, and later a trustee of the college Avhich grew out of the movement. Before his election in 1850 Gov. Washington Hunt was led to in- dorse this project and in his first message to the legislature he said, " the beneficial effects of an agricultural and mechanical school will A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 55 not be limited to the individuals who may participate in its privi- leges." The graduates will become teachers " imparting to those around them the light of their own intelligence." An organization called the People's College Association was formed at Lockport, August 12, 1851, and after several meetings adoj)ted a j)rospectus of People's College. This institution was " to minister to the educational wants of the youth of the whole people " by '' the dis- semination of practical science, including chemistry, geology, min- eralogy, and those sciences most immediately and vitally essential to agriculture and the useful arts, though instruction in the classics shall be amply provided." "" Every pupil and CA^ery teacher shall be required to devote some hours in each of five days in each week to bona fide useful labor in some branch of productive industry." "Agri- culture with the various branches of manufactures and the mechanic arts shall be systematically presented, and no student allowed to graduate without examination in agriculture or mechanic arts" {307). Women were to be admitted and instruction provided for them in housekeeping, dressmaking, fine needlework, etc. This prospectus had been drawn up by Greeley and sent to Howard and T. C. Peters for revision. Peters, an influential member of the State agricultural society (its president in 1865) and editor of the AVool Grower, had previously approved the project and later as a member of the legislature did much to secure a cliarter for the col- lege. A meeting of the association to discuss the prospectus was called at Buffalo, January 15, 1852, when a severe snowstorm pre- vented the attendance of the members, except Howard. He ap- pointed Greeley and Peters to memorialize the legislature for a charter. At a meeting at Rochester resolutions reported by Greeley and adopted set forth that " it is eminently desirable that a People's College be established in this State subject to the control of no sect or party, wherein productive labor shall be practically honored and inflexibly required of all " {'26'3) and that an agent be appointed to get members of the association and subscriptions for the endowment of the college. A promotion committee consisting of persons from every county was appointed. Ladies, including Lucy Stone, attended at least one meeting of the association in order to make sure that women were to have equal privileges with men in the college. The admission of negroes was also favored. In the charter obtained there is no reference to either of these matters. Howard was appointed field agent of the association and many meetings were held in different parts of the State. These were at- tended by many prominent persons, including Henry Ward Beecher and Professor Youmans, at a meeting in Brooklyn. Influential poli- ticians, including W. H. Seward and Martin Van Buren, became members of the association. A meeting of the association was held at Albany January 12, 1853, and on February 18 of that year the bill for a charter for the col- lege was reported favorably in the assembly by the committee on agriculture of which Mr. Peters was a member {285). The bill as passed April 12, 1853, incorporated " the People's Col- lege for the purpose of promoting literature, science, arts, and 12931—29 5 56 MISC. PUBLICATIOISr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE agriculture." The capital stock was to be $250,000, which might be increased to $500,000. When $50,000 was subscribed and paid the trustees were to locate the college. The faculty was to be chosen as soon as accommodations for at least 100 students were provided. The courses of instruction Avere to include the sciences " vitally- essential to agriculture and the useful arts," but there was also to be " ample provision for instruction in the classics." " Every student shall be allowed (with the advice and consent of his parents and guardians, and the faculty) to pursue such branches of learning as he may seject " (3) . On April 20, 1853, trustees of the college were selected and a com- mittee of which Greeley was chairman was appointed to outline a plan of studies and labor, which was discussed at great length. At a later meeting Greeley was appointed to draft an address to the public for circulation throughout the State. Propaganda in the interest of the college became extremely active. Howard, as field agent, reported November 24, 1853, that during that year he had visited 20 counties, addresses had been delivered by different men in more than 200 places, 25,000 copies of a pamphlet describing the project had been distributed, and the press had been aroused to a lively interest. Subscriptions to the stock, however, Avent on slowly and it was not until 1856 that Charles Cook, of Havana (noAv Montour Falls), Schuyler County, made a proposition to make up the remainder of the $50,000 required for the location of the college. He offered a farm and indicated that he would also make a liberal contribution of money. As a result the college was located at Havana. In August, 1857, Amos BroAvn was elected president of the college and Mr. Cook was made chairman of the executive committee and of the building committee. " The financial crisis of 1857 destroyed all hope of raising the necessary funds by popular subscription." For a time the hope of the passage of the land-grant bill introduced in Congress by Mr. Morrill in 1857 and strenuously worked for by Mr. Brown, who went to Washington for that purpose, encouraged the friends of the college, but in this they were disappointed by Presi- dent Buchanan's veto of this measure. Meanwhile the erection of the college building went on and on September 22, 1858, the corner stone was laid in the presence of an audience variously estimated as includ- ing 8,000 to 15,000 people (300). Mr. Cook presided and President Brown made " a brief exposition of the plans and purposes of the college." There Avere also addresses by President Mark Hopkins, of Williams College, and Horace Greeley. President Brown began making arrangements for a faculty, and building proceeded until about $70,000 had been spent, of Avhich Mr. Cook gave about $56,000. Mr. Cook became a member of the State senate and in April, 1862, the legislature appropriated to the college $10,000 a year for two years, "but on technical grounds the controller refused to jmy this sum." Largely through the efforts of Mr. Cook and President Brown an act giving the Federal land grant to this college Avas passed by the legislature May 14, 1863. It contained conditions, however, Avhich the college could not meet and this enterprise came to an end. (See p. 173.) A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL, EDUCATION" 57 The buildings were used for a time for a masonic school and orphan asylum. In 1872, Elbert W. Cook, a younger brother of Charles Cook, turned over to the Baptist State Convention the main building and 40 acres of land of People's College, together with over $40,000 en- dowment to establish Cook Academy. The school was chartered with a board of trustees and opened for students September 17, 1873. It has prospered and in 1925 was maintained as a standard secondary school, serving also as a high school for the village of Montour Falls. VIRGINIA PLAN FOR PROFESSOESHIP OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA As early as 1800 Jefferson had included agriculture in the list of sciences to be taught in the university which he hoped would soon be established in Virginia, and in 1814 his plan for a university included a school of rural economy. When the act for a university was passed in 1818 it was for an institution " wherein all branches of useful science were to be taught." Then Jefferson, as president of the board established under this act to locate the university and provide for its operation, in a report to the legislature, stated that among the objects of higher education is the function "to harmonize and promote the interests of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce." At a meeting of the Albemarle Agricultural Society, October 7, 1822, on motion of John H. Cocke, resolutions were adopted favoring the establishment of a fund, the income of which would be used to support a professorship of agriculture in the University of Virginia {397). The society pledged $1,000 for this purpose and invited the cooperation of the other agricultural societies in the State. Madison, as president of the Albemarle Society, was requested to prepare an address to them, and a committee to solicit donations from individ- uals was appointed {386) . This appeal met with very Jittle response, and the professorship of agriculture was not provided for when the university opened in 1825. MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Article 10 of a constitution framed to create the State of Michigan and ratified by the people November 2, 1835, provided for the appoint- ment of a superintendent of public instruction, directed the legisla- ture to ''encourage by all suitable means, the promotion of intellec- tual, scientifical, and agricultural improvements," including a system of common schools and township libraries, and created a perpetual fund for the support of schools and a university from the proceeds of land grants from the United States. John Davis Pierce was appointed by Governor Mason as the first State superintendent of public instruction and directed to prepare a plan for a system of common schools and a State university. Under his guidance the legislature passed the act of March 18, 1837, estab- lishing the University of Michigan as an integral part of the public- school system of the State. The university was to be divided into 58 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE three departments: (1) Literature, science, and arts, including in- struction in "practical farming and agriculture"; (2) law; and (3) medicine. The board of regents was to establish branch schools in different parts of the State whenever the legislature authorized their creation. In these branches, in addition to other studies in prepara- tion for the university, there was to be " a department of agriculture with competent instructors in the theory of the subject, including vegetable physiology and agricultural chemistry and experimental farming and agriculture." Eight branches were established betw^een 1838 and 1849, but for lack of funds Avere short lived. " None of these attempted to teach agriculture" {103). The university was opened in 1841 with 2 teachers and 6 students. The number of students speedily increased, and the first graduat- ing class, in 1845, contained 11 members. But it was only after considerable agitation that the teaching of agriculture Avas attempted in the university. THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION "As early as 1844 Jonathan Shearer ably advocated the more thor- ough education of farmers in the Michigan Farmer" {193). In 1849 the State agricultural society w^as organized {198), and that year State and county agricultural societies listened with interest to addresses on the need of provision for education directly relating to the theory and practice of agriculture and began to appeal to the legislature for funds for this purpose. The memorial to the legislature explains that " a labor school " was contemplated, Avhich "" should be attached to, or form a branch of, the State university." The studies should include agriculture, mathe- matics, accounts, mechanics, natural philosophy, natural sciences (with applications to agriculture), anatomy and diseases of animals, entomology, and to some extent engineering, architecture, landscape gardening, literature, and fine arts. As a result of this memorial the legislature passed a resolution April 2, 1850, asking Congress to give Michigan 350,000 acres of land for agricultural schools. The con- stitutional convention of 1850 put in the revised State constitution a provision (art. 13, sec. 11) that "The legislature shall encourage the promotion of intellectual, scientific, and agricultural improve- ment, and shall as soon as practicable provide for the establishment of an agricultural school." The legislature may appropriate tlie twenty-two sections of Salt Spring lands now unappropriated, or the money arising from the sale of the same, where such lands have already been sold, and any land which may hereafter be granted or appropriated for such purpose for the support and maintenance of such school, and may make the same a branch of the University, for instruction in agriculture and tlie natural sciences connected therewith, and place the same under the supervision of the regents of the University. In 1852 the State agricultural society again appealed to the legis- lature to establish " a State agricultural college." At the same time Francis W. Shearman, as State superintendent of public instruction, declared in favor of an agricultural college which should be " a labor ^;chool " and connected wnth the State imiversity for the sake of eco- nomical management. It should have a botanic garden and " the A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 59 studies taught at this college should be of an eminently practical kind." In the act of March 25, 1850, relative to the normal school at Ypsi- lanti it was provided that this institution should " give instruction in the mechanic arts and in the arts of husbandry and agricultural chemistry." When this school was established in 1852 it made an effort to give instruction in agriculture. The question as to how higher education in agriculture should be organized was actively discussed from various angles by the State agricultural society and particularly by its executive committee. John Clough Holmes, a native of Salem, Mass., was secretary of the society and a very influential member. For many years he was active in the agricultural affairs of the State, giving special attention to horticulture. In 1852 he established the Horticultural Gazette, after- ward united with the Michigan Farmer. Ira H. Butterfield. grand- father of Kenyon L. Butterfield, president of the Michigan Agri- cultural College, 1924 to 1928, was a member of the executive com- mittee of the State agricultural society. The State superintendent of public instruction urged the society to approve the teaching of agriculture at the normal school on the ground that " a concentration of the means afforded by the State for the advancement of agriculture must be considered an object of importance, at all events, for years to come " {198). Henry iP. Tap- pan, chancellor of the State university, informed the society that an agricultural school had been organized in the university. On March 14, 1853, a circular was issued by the regents of the University of Michigan, announcing that a free course of lectures on agricultural science would be given at the University from April 27 to June 28 of that year. The Rev. Charles Fox was announced as the lecturer on " Theoretical and Practical Agri- culture." Mr. Fox was an Englishman, educated at Rugby, and rector of the Episcopal church at Grosse Isle, near Detroit. Other lectures were given by Professor Douglass, of the geological department, and by Professor Sager. Mr. Fox published his lectures in 1854 in the form of a text-book. Fox soon there- after removed to Ann Arbor ; he lectured during the winter, and was soon there- after appointed " Professor of Theoretical and Practical Agriculture." He died after filling the university position less than two years. He worked in harmony with the State Agricultural Society, and was its delegate to a meeting in Wash- ington of the United States Agricultural Society (198). In December, 1852, a resolution was adopted by the State agricul- tural society favoring an agricultural school as a branch of the uni- versity, w'ith a model and experimental farm of not less than 640 acres, but the school and farm "should not be established in im- mediate proximity to any existing educational institution." This, however, was not wholly satisfactory to Mr. Holmes and other mem- bers of the society and the debate went on. January 25, 1854, the executive committee of the society visited the university and called on President Tappan (198). He informed them that a course of lectures by Professor Fox (p. 92) was then in progress, "embracing all subjects connected with practical and scientific agriculture," and also that Doctor Douglass in chemistry " dwelt fully upon the appli- cation of this science to the mechanic arts and to practical and scien- tific agriculture." In company wath Professor iFox and others the committee visited the museum and listened to a lecture by Professor Douglass on " burning gasses." Then they attended a lecture by 60 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Professor Fox on rotation of crops, drainage, etc. " He also gave a synopsis of his preceding lectures, with all of which we were highly pleased." The committee reported in favor of continuation of these lectures " until our legislature shall provide more liberal and extended facilities for agricultural education." The next day the committee was at the Ypsilanti Normal School, where they listened to a lecture by Professor Fiske on the " organic and inorganic nature of soils and the production of vegetable matter by the mechanical operations of agriculture, including manuring, draining, plowing, and the proper pulverization of the soil. * * * 'pj^g lecture w^as delivered in a happy stjde and comprehensive manner." On the work at this school the committee reported that " the teach- ing of agricultural science at this institution will be felt to a greater or less degree in almost every school district throughout our State, but we do not think the information to be derived from these sources is sufficient to constitute the education of a professional and practical farmer." At a meeting of the committee December 12, 1854, the mat- ter of an agricultural school was brought up by Mr. Holmes, as sec- retary. After full discussion, on motion of S. M. Bartlett, of Mon- roe, it was resolved "that an agricultural college should be separate from any other institution." This was followed by a memorial to the legislature praying for an appropriation sufficient to purchase a body of land suitable for an experimental farm and for the erection of suitable buildings for an agricul- tural school, placing- it upon a basis of its own, separate from any other insti- tution of learning, and for the endowment of the same in such manner as shall place it upon an equality with the best colleges of the State (198). A petition to the legislature to take action without delay was widely circulated. MICHIGAN AGRICULTT'RAL ( OLLEGE Mr. Bartlett was appointed to draft a bill establishing the college and secured the assistance of Isaac P. Christiancy, of Monroe, after- wards chief justice of the State supreme court and United States Senator. The message of Governor Bingham to the legislature Janu- ary 4, 1855, recommended the establishment of an agricultural school. The bill was passed substantially as drawn by Mr. Christiancy and was approved by the governor February 12, 1855 {193). This act established the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan as a separate institution under the supervision of the State board of edu- cation, on a large farm near Lansing, and directed that " the chief purpose and design " of the college '•'" shall be to improve and teach the science and practice of agriculture." The course of instruction in said college shall include the following branches of education, viz : An English and scientific course, natural philosophy, chem- istry, botany, animal and vegetable anatomy and physiology, geology, miner- alogy, meteorology, entomology, veterinary art, mensuration, leveling and polit- ical economy, with bookkeeping and the mechanic arts, which are directly connected with agriculture, and such others as the board of education may from time to time see fit to prescribe. There shall be two scholastic terms in each year, the first term commencing on the first Wednesday in April and ending on the last Wednesday in October, the second term commencing the first Wednesday in December and ending on the last Wednesday in February. A HISTORY or AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 61 All students must perform manual labor, which in the period be- tween April and October must occupy at least three hours daily. Even after the passage of the law establishing and locating the agricultural college the opponents of a separate institution, and particularly the friends and authorities of the State university, did not cease their efforts to prevent the carrying out of this plan. The most comprehensive and ablest statement of the case for the uni- versity was made in a paper presented to the executive committee of the State agricultural society, March 10, 1855, by Alexander Winchell (1824-1891), jirofessor of geology, zoology, and botany in the university, and later author of important works on geology {193). He stated first his understanding of the reasons for estab- lishing a separate agricultural college, including (1) jealousy of centralization — a bugbear and unwise desire to distribute public institutions to different towns; (2) "fear that a sufficiently technical education would not be furnished by the university"; (3) fear that the State agricultural society would not sufficiently control an agricultural college in the university. His reasons for advocating the connection of the agricultural college with the university may be briefly summarized as follows: The effecting of a great saving in the first outlay and subsequent support for site, buildings, library, museums, and apparatus ; a separate college will " necessarily afford instruction somewhat inferior to that offered by the university," because of difficulty in getting equally good professors and equip- ment; "the jDarticular principles of scientific agriculture constitute properly an inseparable part of university instruction." as is illus- trated in the case of medicine and civil engineering; union "would tend to the centralization and reproduction, instead of the dispersion and dissipation, of our educational resources"; time may be saved by attaching the college to the university; and this union "is even now a feasible project." Mr. Holmes was the leader in presenting the argument in favor of a separate agricultural college. He called attention to what was being done in other States, particularly New York, Massachusetts, Penn- sylvania, and Ohio, and laid great stress on the experience of Euro- pean schools giving instruction in agriculture. He quoted largely from the report of the Massachusetts commission {175) appointed in 1850 to consider what was best to do regarding the establishment of agencies for agricultural education in that State. (See p. 78.) Summing up his argument, Mr. Holmes said : So far, then, as we are able to judge from the past experience of others, I think we may safely say that if we expect to meet with success in establish- ment, continuance, and practical utility of an agricultural school it must stand separate and apart from all other institutions of learning and upon a basis of its own. To teach thoroughly the science and practice of agriculture must be the main object of the institution, for our agricultural interest is paramount to all other interests in this State ; therefore these teachings must not be made secondary or subserTient to any other object {193). The president and executive committee of the State agricultural society, who under the act establishing the college constituted a com- mittee to select and purchase a farm for the college, secured the farm on which the college is now located. The board of education then undertook the construction of a college hall, boarding hall, and small 62 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE brick stable, and with the exception of the barn these buildings were completed by May, 1857. Joseph R. Williams was appointed presi- dent and director of the farm, together Avith professors of mathe- matics, chemistry, English literature, farm economy, horticulture, and an assistant in chemistry. In an announcement of the college issued December 10, 1856, it was stated that " the course of study has been arranged with direct reference to the wants and interests of the agricultural class in our State. * * * Special attention will be given to the theory and practice of agriculture in all its departments and minutiae." May 11 to 13, 1857. entrance examinations Avere held and 73 students were admitted. The exercises of dedication took place May 13, 1857, and were recorded in a pamphlet entitled "The Agricultural College of the State of Michigan," Lansing, 1857. They took place " in the presence of the governor, several officers of the State government, and a large concourse of citizens from various parts of the State." Addresses were delivered by H. L. Miller, president of the board of education ; Gov. K. S. Bingham, and President AVilliams. In discussing the course of instruction proposed for this college Presi- dent Williams said that the farmer should be taught the science.! and their applications to agriculture, including chemistry, veterinary art, entomology, and natural philosophy. On the college farm the student should " test various modes of cultivation, the effect of rotation of crops, the economy of labor-saving implements, the relative qualities of manures, the results of judicious draining, the relative productive- ness of seeds, vegetables, and fruits, and the characteristics, uses, and value of various breeds of livestock." An ode composed for this occasion by I. M. Cravath contains these lines : Tiller of the earth ! Thy day of triumph's come! Science now owns thy worth And builds with thee her home. Progress up to this point had been made amid much opposition. And even after the college was opened efforts were made from time to time to change its status. In 1859, and finally in 1869, bills were introduced in the legislature to connect this college with the univer- sity and transfer it to Ann Arbor. In 1859 the board of education recommended the creation of a State board of agriculture, among whose duties would be the general control of the agricultural college. Under the act of 1861 establishing this board it was given power " to confer, for similar or equal attainments, similar degrees or testimo- nials to those conferred by the University of Michigan." (For additional statement regarding Michigan Agricultural Col- lege see p. 130.) CONNECTICUT YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL In Connecticut the movement for college education relating to agri- culture came from the interest of certain scientists at Yale College in the applications of the sciences, particularly chemistry, to the use- ful arts. Yale College, under the presidency of Timothy Dwight from 1795 to 1817, became active in the teaching of the natural sciences. Dwight, as we have seen, was a member and for some time A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 63 president of the New Haven County Agricultural Society and doubt- less was interested in the application of the sciences to agriculture. It was under his influence that Benjamin Silliman (1TT9-1864), a native of Connecticut and a graduate of Yale in 1796, gave up the profession of law and was made professor of chemistry and natural history in 1802. His son, Benjamin Silliman, jr. (1816-1885), graduated at Yale ir 1837 and took much interest in the applications of science to the arts. As early as 1842 he had private pupils in the sciences, including John P. Norton. In 1845, when the philosophical department of Yale College was established, he was made professor of chemistry and kindred sciences as applied to the arts. A benefactor proposed to give $5,000 for the endowment of a professorship of agricultural chemistry and of vegetable and animal physiology, provided that $20,000 be raised for that purpose. Three professorships were at once estab- lished, and in 1847 the name of the new department was changed to the depart- ment of philosophy and the arts. That year sufficient interest in agrictdtural education was aroused in the Connecticut Legislature to induce the joint standing committee on education to urge " the importance of scientific instruction in its relation to agriculture and the useful arts " and to recommend the establishment of a professorship of agriculture and the arts at Yale College. Before this, according to Professor Brewer — almost as soon as chemistry was taught in the college its applications to agri- culture formed a part of the general course of lectures upon chemistry, and after a time specific lectures on agricultural chemistry are said to have been delivered. They certainly were delivered by professors outside of the college course. Prof. B. Silliman, jr., delivered, by invitation, a course of lectures on agricultural chemistry in the winter of 1S4.")— iO in the city of New Orleans Students came for private instruction in chemistry, for its agricultural appli- cations, before the scientific school was founded, even in its rudimentary form. In 1846 John Pitkin Norton (1822-1852) (fig. 7) Avas appointed professor of agricultural chemistry and vegetable and animal phys- iology. He Avas born at Albany, N. Y., but moved to Farmington, Conn., in 1835. As a boy he was not interested in the studies usually taught in schools, but fortimately one of his teachers took advantage of his interest in making a collection of minerals to direct his studies to mineralogy and chemistry. He determined to become a farmer and his father assented to this on condition that he would be educated for that business. From 1838 to 1843 he worked at farming, principally on his father's farm, finally taking entire charge of a part of this farm. His winters were spent in studying the sciences and other subjects at Albany, NeW' York City, Boston, and Yale College. Then he Avent abroad to fit hinrself to give instruction in agricultural chemistry and studied at Edinburgh in the laboratory of the Agricultural Chemical Association under James F. W, Johnston, and again in 1846 at Utrecht, Holland, under Mulder. MeanAvhile he Avas a contributor to agricultural journals in this country, prepared tAvo papers for the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and AA^on a prize offered by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for the best analysis of the oat plant. With Doctor Johnston he made many excursions to the best farming districts of England and Scotland. 64 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE Norton preferred to confine his professional work to agricultural chemistry and took up his duties under that title in the fall of 1847. At that time the catalogxie of Yale College announced that " Pro- fessor Norton will instruct in the applications of science to agricul- ture and in analytical chemistry." Under the subheading " School of Applied Chemistry " it continued : Professors Silliman and Norton have opened a laboratory on the college grounds, in connection with their departments, for the purpose of practical instruction in the application of science to the arts and agriculture. Every Fig. -Johu Pitkin Is'ortou facility will be afforded to those who desire to obtain special instruction in general and analytical chemistry and in mineralogy. A course of lectures on the connections of science with agriculture by Professor Norton will commence in January and continue about two months, at the rate of about four lectures in each week. Professor Silliman, jr., will deliver during the summer a course of lectures upon some other department of applied chemistry (90). Regarding Norton's lectures the memorial to him published in 1853 states : The deep interest he felt in his subject led him to communicate all the knowl- edge possible in the lecture hour and by perspicuity of style and skill of arrange- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 65 ment to make it most available to the student. We have the testimony of the best scholars that they attended no lectures where they got more information. The number of scholars the first year was small but it each year increased, till at last the experiment of the school was decided, a new department of profes- sional study in the university was created, and a liberal and scientific pursuit opened to the young men of our country (97). Norton delivered many addresses before agricultural societies and elsewhere and contributed to scientific and ag-ricultural journals. In 1850 he published the Elements of Scientific Agriculture, originally written as an essay for a prize offered by the New York State Agri- cultural Society. He also edited Stephen's Farmers' Guide, tx) which he added notes and an appendix. His friends at Albany, N. Y., secured his interest in the movement to establish a university there, which it was hoped the State would patronize, especially as an agency for the promotion of agriculture and the sciences related thereto. In the winter of 1851-52 he repeated there the course of lectures given that year at Yale, and this addi- tional work is thought to have contributed to his early death, which occurred the following October. Norton was succeeded by John Addison Porter, who came from Brown University. In 1856 Professor Porter was transferred to the professorship of organic chemistry in Yale College and his place in the scientific school was taken by Samuel William Johnson, who had studied under Norton and had been assistant in the analytical labo- ratory, giving special attention to analyses of fertilizers. Johnson's primary interest was in agricultural research, but through his dealings with his students and through his outside lec- tures and writings he exerted a broad influence on the movement for agricultural education in this country. His textbooks entitled " How Crops Grow" (1868) and "How Crops Feed" (1870) were very important in the early days of the land-grant colleges and have a considerable permanent value. The Yale Scientihc School was in a difficult financial condition until 1860, when Joseph E. Sheffield, one of whose daughters was the wife of Professor Porter, bought the old medical school building, remod- eled and enlarged it for the use of the scientific school, and gave funds which put the school on a permanent foundation. MARYLAND THE STATE AGRICXJLTURAL CHEMIST As early as 1830 a joint resolution was passed by the Maryland Legislature, proposing an agricultural school for the State. A State geologist made his first report December 29, 1834, and at the session of the legislature in 1847-48 "An act to provide for the appointment of an agi'icultural chemist for the State " was passed {161 ) . It was made his duty to examine the soils in each county, as well as marl or other vegetable or mineral deposits. He was also to deliver one pub- lic lecture in each elective district in each county and a course of lectures at each county town and at some central place in Baltimore County, and to give a copy of his lectures to the clerk of the levy court or tax commissioners for publication if they thought this expedient. This act w^as amended in 1852 to provide for an assistant chemist and to reduce the number of lectures required in each county 66 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S, DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE to three. James Higgins was the first State agricultural chemist and made reports for several years which contained considerable informa- tion on agricultural subjects. It did not prove practicable to fully carry out the law regarding lectures, and there was considerable disappointment because this educational requirement was not ade- quately fulfilled. MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLBXiE In 1848 the organization commonly known as the Maryland State Agricultural Society, which had developed out of the Maryland Agricultural Society formed in 1818 " for the Eastern Shore," ap- pointed a committee " to inquire into the propriety of establishing an agricultural school." In 1852 a committee on agricultural educa- tion of the society reported in favor of the establishment of a profes- sorship of agricultural chemistry at St. John's College at Annapolis. The next year this recommendation was modified to include profes- sorships of natural history and chemistry and a practical farmer at some existing college. The society needed to own land on which to hold its exhibitions, and it was proposed to secure a farm for this purpose and as the site of an agricultural school and model farm and to do this by getting subscriptions of private funds. In October, 1854, the society issued an address relative to the proposed college and farm to the citizens of Maryland and contigu- ous States, in wdiich it was stated that it was proposed to locate the institution within 10 miles of Baltimore. In December, 1855, Governor Ligon commended the project in his message to the legislature, and January 14, 1856, a committee of the society conferred with the agricultural committees of both houses and asked for an appropriation of $6,000 annually on condition that $50,000 be raised for the college. March 6, 1856, the legislature passed "An act to establish and endow an agricultural college in the State of Maryland." Funds for the college were to be raised by stock subscriptions and the stock- holders were to constitute the corporation, which would elect 22 trustees representing the several counties and the city of Baltimore. If within two years 2,000 shares were subscribed for, trustees elected, a farm of not less than 50 acres purchased, and the necessary buildings erected thereon, the State was to make an annual grant of $6,000 to the college. This act was amended in 1858 by reducing the par value of shares of stock to $5 and providing for the election of a trustee from the District of Columbia, and the Eastern and Western Shores of Mary- land, and honorary trustees without a vote from other States. Nearly 500 persons made subscriptions within a short time and the institu- tion was organized. A farm of 428 acres in Prince Georges County, within 10 miles of Washington, D. C, the present site of the Univer- sity of Maryland at College Park, was purchased and the corner stone of the main building was laid August 24, 1858. To carry out the provision of the act of 1856 with reference to the college farm, experiments were begun in 1858 to test the relative value of the different manures offered for sale in Baltimore and Washington as applied to corn, oats, and potatoes. The college building was 120 A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 67 feet Ion*!:, 55 feet Avide, and 5 stories high, and provided accommoda- tions for 200 students. The college was opened for students in September, 1859, and within a year 105 students matriculated. Boys were admitted to a preparatory course at 12 years of age and the regular course occupied lour years. The subjects in this course in 1861 were Latin, Greek, French, German, English, history, geography, mental and moral philosophy, political economy, mathematics, botany, entomology, and pomology. Daily work in the farm and garden was a part of the course. The first professor of the science of agriculture, including chemistry and its application to the arts, geology, and mineralogy, was George C. Schaffer. He was soon succeeded by Montgomery Johns. In 1861 Townend Glover, who was professor of natural his- tory, botany, and pomology, used his models of fruits and his insect collection in connection with his instruction. The Civil AVar prevented the development of the college as had been expected but it continued in operation. The first class of two stu- dents, receiving the degree of B. S. and A. B., respectively, was graduated in 1862. In 1865 there were 75 students. The regular course continued to be chiefly classical, but tliere was a partial or agricultural course, which included English, mathematics, and agri- cultural science, modern languages being optional. In 1865 the college Avas given the income from the Federal land grant, and in 1866 the legislature granted it $45,000, in three annual install- ments, for the payment of its debts and the purchase of furniture and apparatus but on condition that the State of Maryland be made equal joint owner of all the property of the college. The board of trustees was reduced to 11 members, of whom 4 must be members of the State board of education, 6 residents of Maryland, and 1 of the District of Columbia. The annual State appropriation from 1859 to [1881 Avas usually $6,000, but it Avas then Avithdrawn and that year the college had only 36 students. Thereafter the institution had a slow groAvth and it Avas difficult to get the State to take any large interest in it as long as it remained partly on a private foundation. The annual appropriation of $6,000 was resumed in 1891 and increased to $9,000 in 1895. Moderate ap- propriations for buildings Avere occasionally made. In 1914 the legislature passed an act to foreclose the mortgage on the college property held by the State. By this action the State, Avhich already OAA'ned a half interest, took OA^er the balance, Avith the consent of the private stockholders, and thus the college became wholly a public institution. In 1916 its title Avas changed to Maryland State College of Agriculture, and in 1920 it Avas combined Avith other schools in the UniA^ersity of Maryland. Since then it has had a large development and its agricultural Avork has been greatly strengthened. PENNSYLVANIA FARMB3RS' HIGH SCHOOL (NOW THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE) As early as 1837 a committee of the Pennsylvania Legislature reported that agriculture "must in some Avay be interAvoven with our system of education " and suggested the establishment of an agricul- 68 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE tiiral school and a pattern farm {360). Under the leadership of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture a convention held at Harrisburg, January 21, 1851, organized the State agricultural society. During that year a letter from W. D. Brinckle drew the attention of the society to the desirability of establishing an agri- cultural school, and on January 18, 1853, the society indorsed the proposition of Gov. William Bigler for the establishment of such an institution. A committee appointed to consider the expediency of creating a school to be called " The Farmers' High School of the State of Pennsylvania " reported in favor of holding a convention of delegates from agricultural societies and other friends of agricul- tural education. This convention met at Harrisburg, March 8, 1853, unanimously favored the establishment of a school for the education of farmers, and appointed a committee to appeal to the legislature. A plan for the school was presented to the State society January 20, 1854, by Frederick Watts, and the matter was put before the legislature Avith the result that an act was passed April 13, 1854, incorporating an institution with that name. This was to be " an institution for the education of youth in various branches of science, learning, and practical agriculture as they are connected with each other." The act provided that the presiclent and vice president of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society and the presidents of the several county agi'icultural societies were to be ex-officio members of and constitute the board of trustees. The principal shall be a good practical farmer witli whatever scientific attainments the board shall deem necessary. The school was to have a farm of at least 200 acres, but the income from its property was not to exceed $25,000. The State Agricultural Society might make an initial appropriation of $10,000 to the school and other sums annually. This act Avas found defective in some respects, particularly because the board of trustees Avas too large and unwieldy to function properly. A few of the trustees met June 13, 1854, and through a committee decided that the charter should be amended and an appropriation asked for from the legislature. An address to the people to support the school and suggest places where it might be located was issued July 21, 1854. A substitute act of February 23, 1855, was therefore passed at the request of the State society, in which the number of trustees was limited to 13, including the governor, secretary of state, the presi- dent of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society and the principal of the school, ex officio, and nine other persons named in the act, among whom was Frederick Watts. He was chosen to be the first president of the board. He was a graduate of Dickinson College, had been the first president of the State agricultural society, and in later years was United States Commissioner of Agriculture. (See p. 194.) In 1855 the legislature gave the school $10,000 and the State agri- cultural .society undertook to raise an equal amount. The trustees considered various propositions for the location of the school and accepted General Irvin's donation of 200 acres of land in Centre County at the present site of the Pennsylvania State College, to- gether with $10,000 from the people of that county. They also leased A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 69 an adjoining 200 acres with privilege of purcliase at $60 an acre, which was afterwards done. The farm was laid out and orchards planted by William G. Waring. A considerable number of field experiments were also begun. A barn and farmhouse were erected and a school building to cost $55,000 was begun. This building was to be 230 feet long and five stories high, with a wing at each end. On May 20, 1857, the legislature gave the school $25,000 to be offset by an equal amount already secured by subscription, and an addi- tional $25,000 which might be paid in installments of $1,000 when- ever a like sum had been subscribed. This act also provided that an office should be established at the school for the analysis of soils and manures sent in by citizens and that reports of experiments with plants, soils, and livestock should be sent to at least one paper in each county monthly, or as soon as results were available. Mr. Waring was appointed general superintendent of the school and professor of horticulture, and professors of mathematics, English literature, and natural science were selected. On February 16, 1859, the .school was opened. Doctor Pugh thus describes that event : Over 100 pupils bad engaged places, and 69 were present on the first day of opening ; during tlie session 119 students were entered, though there were never more than about 100 at any one time, owing to the dismission and expulsion of some and the withdrawal of others. The school was opened under innumerable difficulties and disadvantages. The buildings were only partially finished, and in the absence of the intended dining-room and kitchen a board shantee, which could neither be kept warm in cold nor dry in wet and stormy weather, was used to cook and eat in. Proper apartments for museums, laboratories, and recitation rooms were wanting. The farm was yet rough, and the lumber and materials for mason and brick work for the completion of the building, were piled around in shapeless masses on all sides of the latter, rendering it almost impossible to get about it, and presenting a most forlorn aspect to the students, who first entered the college, through the well-tramped mud of the breaking up of the winter frosts (3). On December 7, 1859, the trustees formally elected Evan Pugh (1828-1864) president of the school (358). He was born at Jordan Bank, Chester County, Pa. At the age of 19 when he was a black- smith's apprentice, " he bought the residue of his time, supported him- self, and studied for a year at a manual labor school at Whites- town [in which was the village of Whitesboro, see p. 35], N. Y., then having fallen heir to a small estate in Oxford, Pa., which included the rather unusual adjunct of an academy, he taught this school for two years. In 1853 he sold his school which had prospered under his management and went abroad for study.^' At Leipzig, Germany, he met S. W. Johnson, of Connecticut, who became his lifelong friend and correspondent. In 1855 they considered returning to America to jointly establish an agricultural school in Pennsylvania, and when Johnson returned to this country that year he suggested to the trus- tees of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society that Pugh was the best man to place at the head of the school they were fostering. He studied at the universities of Leipzig, Gottingen, and Heidelberg, and in Paris, and received his doctor's degree at Gottingen in 1856. In 1857 he proposed to J. B. Lawes that he should make at Rotham- stecl an investigation on the accumulation of free nitrogen by plants. 70 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE This proposition was accepted after he had gone to Rothamsted and convinced Lawes of his ability to conduct such an investigation. He worked there for two years and reported his findings, which seemed at that time to settle the question in the negative by confirming the work of Boussingault. Returning home in the fall of 1859 he as- sumed the duties of the presidency of the Pennsylvania Farmers' High School, and continued to Avork Avith great zeal in that office until his untimely death in the midst of a struggle Avith reference to the re- tention by this institution of the land-grant fund, a share in Avhich was claimed by a number of other colleges in the State. In the first catalogue {31^3)^ issued in 1859, it is stated that — the object of the Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania is to afford d system of instruction as extensive and thorougli as tliat of the usual course in our best colleges, but to differ from the latter in devoting no time to the study of the ancient languages, and in devoting a correspondingly longer time to scientific instruction; most particularly is it desirable to develop and adopt a system of instruction which shall embrace to the fullest extent possible those departments of all sciences which have a practical or theoretical bearing upon agriculture and agricultural interests. Labor to the extent of three hours a day was to be combined Avith study during the college course. The curriculum included in the first year general chemistry, botany, anatomy and physiolog3% prac- tical agricidture, and the details of management on the college farm ; in the second year agricultural chemistry, A'egetable anatomy and physiology, zoology and A^eterinary, geology and practical agricul- ture, and horticulture; in the third year surA^eying, veterinary surg- ery, entomology, agricultural botany, and practical agriculture and pomology; in the fourth year A^eterinary pharmacy, gardening, agri- cidtural accounts, and farm management. Along Avitli these studies Avere English language and literature, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, analytical geometry, calculus, and qualitatiA^e and quantitative chem- ical analysis. In a separate document that year a nursery catalogue Avas pub- lished by the school, containing a list of A'arieties of orchard and small fruits, decorative plants, shrubs, and floAvering plants Avhich the school Avas prepared to sell {SJ^Ii,). "One of the objects of the institution is that of dis,seminating Avell-tried and valuable subjects of farm and garden cidture." Financial trouble groAving out of the advent of the Civil War made it very difficult to secure the means necessary to the continu- ance of the school, but on April 18, 1861, an act Avas passed by the legislature granting $49,900 to complete the buildings. That year the first class of 11 persons Avas graduated Avith the degree of bachelor of scientific agriculture. The terms of the chartei of the school made it possible under State laAV to change its name by court order, and May 1, 1862, it became the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania. It continued to have this name until January 26, 1874, when by a similar process it became the Pennsylvania State College. The changes of the name of this institution represent the groAvth of the ideas of its managers and the public regarding Avhat its status in the educational system of the State ought to be. EA^en during Doctor Pugh's life the breadth of its opportunities grcAV in his mind and he came to see that it should become much more than an A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 71 agricultural institution. One step in thi,s development is shown in the pamphlet which he prepared for a committee of tlie board of trustees in 1862, wherein it is set forth that the coUefje should be not only an educational institution in which a Avide ranj^e of natural sciences and their applications to agriculture, together with agricul- tural practice, should be taught, but also "an experimental institu- tion " in which the principles of agricultural science should be developed, as w^ell as a " means of protecting the industrial interests of the State, particularly by defending the farmers ajjainst frauds in the sale of manures, &eeds, plants, and implements" (387). The undergraduate course is made more elaborate, particularly as regards the sciences and mathematics, provision is made for graduate courses, while at the same time a " partial scientific and practical course " is arranged for those students " who are incapable of making progress in mathematical studies" and a short "practical course" for those students of limited education who desired to get some benefit from the study of agriculture at the college. (For further account of this college see p. 165.) GEORGIA PBOFESSOESHIP OF AGRICULTURE IN UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA Agricultural instruction at Franklin College of the University of Georgia was provided for in 1854 by the gift of $20,000 from William Terrell, of Hancock County. In a letter to the board of trustees, of July 27, 1854, he praises the form of government of the United States and declares that every patriot should do what he can " to give perpetuity to the compact of these confederated States. Education is doing much for this great object in every department of knowl- edge except in agriculture," in wliich " the United States are far behind most of the States of Europe." The best form of government for a country where a system of agriculture prevails that is constantly tending to impoverish the soil can not long sustain a thrifty popiilation or be able to defend itself. To avoid such a calamity, which there is reason to fear will be our condition at no very distant day, the people of the Southern States must find the means of preserving their lands from destruction by bad tillage, which is so strikingly observable in every part of the country. To aid in this great enterprise, if you will allow me to call it such. I pro- pose to your honorable body to give to Franklin College bonds of the State to the amount of $20,000, the annual interest of which shall be applied perma- nently as comi)ensation for a professor whose duty it shall be to deliver in the college a course of lectures during its term on "Agriculture as a science; the practice and improvement of different people ; on chemistry and geology, so far as they may be useful in agriculture; on manures, analysis of soils, and on domestic economy, particularly referring to the Southern States " ; the lectures to be free. If this proposition is acceptable to you, I shall ask the priv lege of recommend- ing to your consideration for the appointment of the first professor, Dr. Daniel Lee, who has spent 20 years of his life in the study and practice of agricul- ture, and who will bring to its duties all his skill and a zeal that ought to ensure success {113). The board of trustees gladly accepted Doctor Terrell's gift, estab- lished the Terrell professorship of agriculture, and at his sugges- tion appointed Dr. Daniel Lee, of the State of New York, to fill the first professorship in agriculture, beginning January 15, 1855. It was made his duty " to deliver every year within the college grounds 12931—29 6 72 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE to the students of the college and such other persons as may choose to attend a course of lectures upon the subjects enumerated by the donor." A committee of the trustees issued an address to the people of Georgia setting forth the need and value of education in the sciences related to agriculture and expressing the hope that Doctor Terrell's example would " induce the State to add to the endowment, until on the foundation of the Terrell professorship a great school of agricul- ture shall have been erected in which everything that can conduce to its prosperity or elevation, shall be taught both by principle and practice," Doctor Lee accepted this appointment and held this professorship for about eight years (1854—1862). He was not unknown to the agri- cultural people of the State {111)^ since he had been editor of the Southern Cultivator since August, 1847, and continued in that posi- tion until April, 1859. His home was in western New York and he had received a degree of doctor of medicine. For a time he was asso- ciate editor of the Commercial Advertiser at Buffalo and from 1844 was on the staff of the New Genesee Farmer, at Rochester, becoming editor of that journal in February, 1845. He was for many years an active member and for a time corresponding secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society. He was much interested in the sciences related to agriculture, particularly chemistry and geology, and delivered lectures on these subjects in different parts of New York. In 1845 he was a member of the legislature and in 1846 he cooperated with General Harmon in the attempt to establish an agricultural school at Wheatland, Monroe County, N. Y. That sum- mer, in company with 12 students, he made a geological excursion in western New York, and in October gave at the school lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology to which teachers were especially invited. From 1851 to 1853 he was in Washington as collector of agricultural statistics for the agricultural section of the Patent Office, and in 1852 was among the delegates who organized the United States Agricultural Society. He also prepared for publication the first volume of its proceedings. OHIO NORTON S. TOWNSHEND AND OHIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE In Ohio the agricultural leader who finally brought about the establishment of a permanent agricultural college was Norton S. Townshend (1815-1895) {3). He was born in England but came with his parents to a farm in Avon, Lorain County, Ohio, in 1830. Seven years later he began the study of medicine with R. L. Howard, at Elyria, Ohio, and in 1839 attended the college of Physicians and Surgeons of the University of New York where he received the de- gree of M. D. in 1840. For a time he was a voluntary assistant in the chemical laboratory of John Torrey of that institution. He then went to Europe to visit hospitals, and returning home in 1841 prac- ticed medicine first at Avon and afterward at Elyria. In 1848 he was a member of the Ohio Legislature and in 1850 of the Ohio Con- stitutional Convention and then a Member of Congress for one term. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL, EDUCATION" 73 In 1853 he was a senator in the Ohio Legislature where he secured the passage of the act establishing the Ohio Institution for the Educa- tion of Feeble Minded Youth, of which he was a trustee for 21 years. He became deeply impressed with the importance of providing scientific training for young farmers, and in 1854 united with Professors Fairchild and Dascomb of Oberlin College, and John S. Newberry of Cleveland, Ohio, in attempting to establish courses of lectures on agricultural science. For this purpose the Ohio Agri- cultural College was organized and was in operation one year at Oberlin and two years at Cleveland. The original announcement of this enterprise stated that its object was " to place within the reach of farmers, both old and young, the means of acquiring a thorough and practical acquaintance with all those branches of science which have direct relations to agriculture " Courses of lectures on the several branches of agricultural science and their applications to soils, manures, field crops, vegetables, fruits, domestic animals, farm implements, rural engineering and architec- ture, and landscape gardening were to be given during the winter months. This institution attracted few students, the largest attendance being about 40. When it became evident that it could not be maintained with private funds Doctor Townshend made an unsuccessful appeal to the State board of agriculture to ask the legislature to grant an appropriation of $3,000. The school was therefore abandoned. For six years from 1858, and again in 1868 and 1869, Doctor Town- shend was a member of the State board of agriculture, meantime serving as a medical inspector in the Union Army. He took an active interest in the passage of the land grant act of 1862 and in securing the acceptance of that act by Ohio in 1864. He was elected professor of agriculture in the Iowa Agricultural College in I860. The next year the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College was established at Columbus as the land-grant institution of that State, but was not opened for students until September 17, 1873. Doctor Townshend was a member of the board of trustees of the college at that time, but at the request of the other members he resigned to become pro- fessor of agi^culture. In this capacity he served until January, 1892, when he was retired as professor emeritus. He continued, however, to lecture on agriculture to students as long as he lived. The insti- tution became Ohio State University in 1878 {333). One of the important buildings of its college of agriculture is called Townshend Hall. WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN The University of Wisconsin was foreshadowed when Gov. Henry Dodge of that Territory on October 26, 1836, in his message to the legislature recommended application to Congress for a township of land as a basis of support for one academy. The legislature took no action on this matter, but during this session passed an act to estab- lish at Belmont an institution under the name of Wisconsin Univer- sity. Nothing was done under this act. In 1837 another act pro- 74 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE vided for the University of the Territory of Wisconsin, with a board of 21 visitors, including the governor, secretary of the Territory, the judges of the supreme court, and the president of the university as ex officio members. Congress was asked for $20,000 for buildings and two townships of land. An act of Congress of June 12, 1838, gave the land, which might be located in 72 parcels. But the powers of the board of visitors were merely nominal and they did practically nothing. Part of this Territory became the State of Wisconsin in 1848, under the enabling act of Congress of August 6, 1846. The State constitution of 1848 contained the following provision : Provision shall be made by law for the establishment of a State university, at or near the seat of State government, and for connecting with the same from time to time such colleges in different parts of the State as the interests of education may require. The proceeds of all lands that have been or may hereafter be granted by the United States to the State for the support of a university shall be and remain a perpetual fund, to be called the " university fund," the interest of which shall be appropriated {o the support of the State university, and no sectarian instruction shall be allowed in such university. The constitution also made the secretary of state, the treasurer, and the attorney general a board of commissioners for the sale of the school and university lands of the State and for the invest- ment of the proceeds, and they were authorized to accept mortgages, vfiih 7 per cent interest, in lieu of the purchase money. The system of investments pursued was unsatisfactory, and in the end the university obtained from this source a fund of only $150,000. To meet its necessities money was loaned to it by the State, but the interest on the loans reduced the income available for educational purposes, so that by 1866 the university had less than $6,000 for its maintenance. The State act of incorporation of the University of Wisconsin was passed in 1848. This act put the control of the university in a board of regents, consisting of a president and 12 members. The members were to be chosen by the legislature. They were to elect a chancellor, who should be ex-officio president of the board. The first meeting of the board was held October 7, 1848, but nothing was done toward the organization of the university until January 16, 1849. Madison was selected as the site of the university and 50 acres of land were purchased there. John H. Lathrop, then president of the University of Missouri, was elected chancellor, and he was installed January 16, 1850. There were then few academies in the State where students could be prepared for college, and the regents therefore first estab- lished a preparatory school, which Avas opened in February, 1850. The first college class was formed August 4, 1850, and was instructed by the chancellor and one professor. The act of incorporation provided for departments or schools of (1) science, literature, and the arts; (2) law^; (3) medicine; and (4) " theory and practice of elementary instruction." In November, 1849, steps were taken to establish the first and fourth departments, the former with six professorships and the latter with a normal professorsliip. But insufficient funds prevented the carrying out of this plan until 1855-56, and even then the normal instruction consisted of only short courses for two years, after which they were susj)ended for several years. The first college class of two students was graduated in 1854. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 75 On March 8, 1851, the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society was organized at Madison " to promote and improve the condition of agriculture, horticulture, and the mechanical, manufacturing, and household arts," and held its first fair at Janesville October 1 and 2, 1851 {Ji05). At this fair the chancellor of the university made an address in which he urged farmers to learn the theory as well as the practice of agriculture, and stated that the regents intended to estab- blish a department of the " applications of science to agriculture and the useful arts." In a conference of the executive committee of the society with a committee of the regents of the university " it was mutually deter- mined that an attempt be made at once to procure the establishment and organization of an agricultural department in our university." In 1854 a professor of chemistry and natural science was added to the university faculty, and in 1855 Ezra Carr (see p. 42) gave a course of lectures on agricultural chemistry and the application of science to the useful arts. In 1855 the executive committee of the State agricultural society suggested that preliminary steps be taken to establish and endow an agricultural school and in 1857 asked the governor to recommend to the legislature " to make suitable provi- sion for the founding of an agricultural college in connection with an ample experimental farm " and " endow the college with State lands or ask Congress for a special grant of land," such as had been made to railroads. One argument used was that if Wisconsin does not act in this matter agricultural students will go from this State to the Michigan college. A bill to reorganize the university was introduced in the legislature in 1858, but failed to pass. This proposed eight departments, in- cluding agriculture. Financial difficulties and the Civil War crip- pled the university. After the passage of the Federal land grant act of 1862 there was a struggle in Wisconsin over the disposal of the grant. Finally an act for the reorganization of the university was passed in 1866 and the land grant w^as given to this institution. This act provided for as broad development of the university as cir- cumstances permitted. Colleges of arts and letters w^ere named in the act and a college of law was soon established by the regents. Sec. 2. The college of arts shall embrace courses of instruction in the mathe- matical, physical, and natural sciences, with their applications to the industrial arts, such as agriculture, mechanics, and engineering, mining, and metallurgy, manufactures, architecture, and commerce ; in such branches included in the college of letters as shall be necessary to a proper- fitness of the pupils for their chosen pursuits, and in military tactics ; and as soon as the income of the university will allow, in such order as the wants of the public shall seem to require, the said courses in the sciences and their application to the practical arts shall be expanded into distinct colleges of the university, each with its own faculty and appropriate title. A professor of agriculture was added to the faculty in 1868, but little was done in this department until after 1881 when W. A. Henry came as professor of botany and agriculture. H. P. Armsby was made professor of agricultural chemistry in 1884, S. M. Babcock succeeding him in 1887. Then Professor Henry organized tlie short course in agriculture and the dairy school. (See p. 212.) The college of agriculture in the university was not established until 1893. 76 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE MASSACHUSETTS PROPOSAL FOR AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE IN 1825 On September 9, 1825, there appeared in the New England Farmer (vol. 4, p. 54) an article entitled "Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege." This contained an argument and plan for such an institu- tion with a 4-year course for boys over 14 years of age, who had had a common-school education. Professors of agriculture, me- chanics, domestic economy, moral philosophy, and books "seem in- dispensable requisites," this article asserted. Connected with the college will be a farm, with soil " best adapted to agricultural experiments." The buildings will include "mechanic workshops." The students will have " exercise at agricultural ex- periments, or at the mechanic arts in workshops two hours each day," together with military tactics and gymnastics. "A regular journal of the results of agricultural experiments * * * will be kept by the students and published semiannually." An article in the same journal on October 21, 1825, favored " an agricultural professorship with each of the existing colleges," sup- ported by State funds, which should also provide " a farm with suitable buildings and stock." The students would thus not only receive instruction in agriculture but in other branches taught at these colleges, and would form acquaintances among literary men which would promote harmony among people of different occupa- tions. All the students and visitors at the colleges would learn about improvements in agriculture and widely disseminate information about them. Farmers thus educated would in after life " intermingle literary pursuits with manual labor " and be " able to exert a con- trolling influence in legislative assemblies and other public meetings." This paper also records a meeting, held in Boston November 8, 1825, "of the friends of the proposed Massachusetts Agricultural College," at which a committee was appointed to solicit funds for the college. This meeting favored a location near Boston, but it became necessary to combat the views of those who, like the writer in the Franklin Post of Greenfield, argued for its location further west, perhaps in connection with an established institution, such as the Deerfield Academy. No practical result came from this effort to establish an agricultural college, but the record of it shows that it aroused some of the important questions which in later times were much debated in connection with the establishment of an agricultural college in Massachusetts. That year the town of Stockbridge asked the legislature to endow "an institution best calculated to afford instruction to laborious classes in practical arts and sciences." On this matter two com- mittee reports were made in 1826 and a third report in 1827, and a bill was drawn up " to establish the Massachusetts Seminary of Arts and Sciences."^ The later movement, which resulted in the establishment of the State agricultural college, centers in two men, Marshall Pinckney 1 See Massachusetts Resolves VI,, pp. 379, 381 ; also House Doc. 5 and Senate Doc. 23 of second session, 1826-27. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 77 Wilder and Edward Hitchcock, under whose leadership the move- ment took shape and made definite progress. MARSHALL P. WILDER Mr. Wilder (1798-1886) was born at Kindge, N, H., but soon moved to Sterling, Mass. He was brought up on the farm and at the age of 16 was offered by his father a choice of a college course, a business career, or a f armin,g career. He chose farming, but soon his father's store needed him and he entered on a business career. In 1825 he became a West Indies merchant in Boston and from 1837 was partner in a commission house. For many years he was director in an insurance company and in a bank. In 1839 he was a member of the lower house in the State legislature and in 1850 was president of the State senate. He also served as a member of the governor's council. In 1830 he became a member of the Massachusetts Horti- cultural Society, which had been organized the year before, and was its president from 1840 for eight years. His activity in horticulture was greatly increased after the purchase of an estate at Dorchester in 1832. At one time he had there 2,500 pear trees of 800 varieties. He made many experiments with fruits and flowers, in connection with which he imported many varieties. He was also a member of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society and for eight years its president. In 1848 he was one of the signers of a call for a national convention of fruit growers which resulted in the organization of the American Pomological Society, of which he was the first president. He was largely instrumental in the creation of the Massachusetts State board of agriculture and as president of the board issued the call for a con- vention which formed the United States Agricultural Society, of which he was president from 1852 to 1858. In 1845 he was one of the incorporators named in the act authoriz- ing the establishment of the Massachusetts Academy of Agriculture to be located in Westborough, Worcester County, but this institution did not come mto existence. In October, 1847, the HamjDshire, Franklin, and Hampden Agri- cultural Society at Northampton voted to "make application to the next legislature for the endowment of an institution in the Connec- ticut Valley for instruction in the various departments of agricul- tural science." At the fairs of the agricultural societies in these counties that year Charles Upham Shepard, Massachusetts professor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst College, had made an address which contained a plea for an agricultural school in that region {187). In 1848 Mr. Hubbard, of Sunderland, raised in the legislature the question of the establishment of a State agricultural school or of an agricultural department in one or more existing colleges. That year the legislature also received petitions for an agricultural school in the interior of the State. This resulted in the incorporation of the Massachusetts Agricultural Institute, authorized to hold $50,000 of real and personal estate, for establishing in some town on the banks of the Connecticut River, or in a town immediately adjoining such VS MISC. PUBLICATIOISr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE towns, an agricultural school and experimental farm, the object of which shall be instruction in agricultural science and improvements in all the arts connected with the practice of farming. EDWARD HITCHCOCK Edward Hitchcock (1793-1864) was named first in the list of incorporators. He was born in Dserfield, spent his boyhood on a farm, and afterwards worked at carpentry and surveying. He early became a student of nature and theology and a writer. Ill health prevented him from taking a regular college course, though he pur- sued studies in chemistry and geology under Silliman and in theology at Yale College. He was principal of Deerfield Academy (1815- 1818), professor of chemistry ancl natural history in Amherst Col- lege (1821-1844), president and professor of natural theology and geology in that college (1845-1854), and thereafter lecturer in his department until his death. He was State geologist in Massachusetts beginning with 1830, and from 1857 to 1861 in Vermont. He was pastor of a church at Conway (1821-1825), and at that time made a scientific survey of the western counties of the State. He was an original and forceful preacher, and while president of Amherst once preached on the text " Selah," which he interpreted to mean " stop and think." Miss Mary Lyon was for a time a member of his family, and he assisted her in the foundation of Mount Holyoke Seminary (now College) at South Hadley. His breadth of interest in science is shown by the fact that at some time he taught chemistry, botany, mineralogy, geology, zoology, anatomy, physiology, astronomy, nat- ural philosophy, and natural theology. His interest in agriculture was shown in his institution of instruction in that subject at Amherst College and in his connection with the agricultural societies. State board of agriculture, and the movement for agricultural education. COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION In 1849 Mr. Wilder, in an important address on agricultural edu- cation before the Norfolk County Agricultural Society, called atten- tion to the need of an agricultural college in Massachusetts. This address aroused much interest in this subject throughout the State, and on January 8, 1850, Governor Briggs asked the legislature to give favorable consideration to this matter. This portion of the governor's address was referred to the joint committee on agriculture, together with petitions from the Massa- chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture and the Norfolk, Hamp- den, Middlesex, Worcester, and Essex agricultural societies. This committee reported five resolutions regarding agricultural education which were adopted by the legislature and approved by the governor, May 3, 1850. These resolutions provided for a board of five com- missioners to consider broadly the subject of agricultural education in its relation to the State {175). HITCHCOCK'S REPORT ON EUROPEAN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS Wilder and Hitchcock were among the commissioners appointed under this act. The latter went to Europe, where he made a A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 79 thorough study of agricultural institutions and prepared an elabo- rate report on them, Avith his conclusions regarding their usefulness and suggestions for a system of agricultural education in Massa- chusetts. This report was widely circulated and had considerable influence on the movement for agricultural education throughout the country. It is, therefore, worth while to consider at least its more important features. It contains brief accounts of 352 schools in different European countries. The lessons Doctor Hitchcock derived from the European schools were that (1) they usually failed unless they received sufficient aid from the government; (2) agricultural societies are not sufficient agencies for agricultural education; (3) theory must be tested by practice; (4) these schools are doing very much to promote the progress of agriculture; (5) to teach agriculture in primary schools and academies does some good, but is not sufficient; (6) agricultural professorships in colleges and universities are not sufficient because (a) only a few students are attracted by lectures, (h) professional and agricultural students have little sympathy with each other, (c) without such sympathy students would have no pride in the institu- tion and therefore it would not prosper, (d) such professorships, unless numerous, would be insufficient to accomplish the objects desired; (7) agricultural institutions succeed best when started and sustained by joint efforts and contributions of individuals or socie- ties and the government; (8) independent agricultural institutions are essential because (a) scientific and practical agriculture requires broad education in science and knowledge of literature (b) extensive collections, (c) a large number of instructors, and (d) the interests of agriculture are large enough to demand an institution devoted to their promotion; (9) agricultural schools constitute "the most ready and effectual mode of making farmers understand the principles on which good husbandry is founded, and will furnish the most effectual means of introducing among farmers improvements in husbandry " ; (10) "agriculture, more than any other art, needs special help"; (11) agriculture in this country is crude compared with that of Europe. iHitchcock advocated an agricultural school or college of superior class with a 2-year course to give education in the principles and practice of agriculture, including instruction in chemistry, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology, anatomy and physiology, and veteri- nary medicine and surgery, with a variety of collections and a " model and experimental farm " of from 100 to 200 acres. Optional courses in ancient and modern languages and higher mathematics should also be given. The lower schools should prepare for the college. A State board of agriculture, with a secretary, should be estab- lished to look after agricultural interests, including agricultural schools. On the basis of Doctor iHitchcock's report the commissioners made the following recommendations {175) : (1) An appropriation of $20,000, if offset by an equal amount of private funds, to establish a central agricultural college; (2) an incorporated academy having $2,000 for an agricultural department, Avith lands suitable for experiments, and at least 10 students in agriculture may annually draw $200 from the 80 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE State treasury; (3) the establishment of a State department of agri- culture, with a board of commissioners and a secretary; (4) increased State aid to agricultural societies; (5) a premium for the best ele- mentary treatise on agriculture suitable for common schools; (6) the formation of a fund for agricultural schools, for charitable purposes, and for education. In the legislature in 1851 his report was referred to the committee on agriculture, which reported a bill to establish a State board of agriculture, among whose functions might be " to receive, hold in trust, and exercise control over any donations or bequests from pri- vate sources made to advance agricultural education." This bill did not pass. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUBH Meanwhile Mr. Wilder had brought about the convention of dele- gates from the agricultural societies in the State, which resulted in the organization of the voluntary board of agriculture. (See p. 26.) Among the resolutions adopted by that convention March 20, 1851, were those favoring agricultural schools and the use of the proceeds from State public lands for education and charity, with a view to extending aid and encouragement to agricultural education {163). When the board met September 3, 1851, a committee on agricul- tural education was appointed, of which Mr. Wilder was chairman, and at the meeting held January 14, 1852, the board in defining its objects in its constitution put first " the encouragement of agricul- tural education." The committee on agricultural education reported that Massachusetts should add to her educational system " institu- tions for the scientific education of the farmer." The executive com- mittee was then instructed to take this matter to the legislature. The State board of agriculture was established April 21, 1852, and from time to time considered propositions relating to agricultural education, but did nothing definite with reference to a school until January 16, 1856, when a committee reported in favor of an experi- mental farm with an agricultural school. A special committee of which Wilder was a member was appointed to apply to the legislature then in session " for an act authorizing the formation of a board of trustees, capable of holding funds to be applied in establishing an experimental farm and agricultural school connected with it, designed to furnish instruction in every branch of rural economy, theoretical and practical." MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOL OF AGRICXILTUEB As a result the legislature that year passed an act under which Wilder and six other men were made a corporation known as the " Trustees of the Massachusetts School of Agriculture," for the pur- pose of " holding, maintaining, and conducting an experimental farm and school thereupon, with all needful buildings, library, apparatus, and appurtenances, for the promotion of agricultural and horticul- tural art within this Commonwealth." In 1860 the charter of this school was transferred to citizens of Springfield, who undertook to raise $75,000 as a fund for its opening, but the coming of the Civil War prevented consummation of this A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 81 project. In 1861, however, as the result of petitions in favor of agricultural schools at Springfield, Northampton, and Bernardston the legislature authorized the appointment of three commissioners " to prepare a plan for the establishment of an agricultural school or college " and this commission was continued in 1862, but took no action pending the passage of the Federal land grant act. The State board of agriculture on April 7, 1858, expressed its ap- proval of Mr. Morrill's Federal land grant bill and in January, 1861, passed resolutions favoring the immediate establishment of " an agri- cultural school of high grade " and made Mr. Wilder chairman of a committee to cooperate " with any men or body of men who may have any plan for an agricultural school," and bring in a report to the board at its next meeting. MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Meanwhile, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology had been incorporated as the result of a meeting in Boston, February 18, 1859, at which were present about 40 persons " representing associations of agriculture, horticulture, art, science, and various industrial, educa- tional, and moral interests of the State." Mr. Wilder presided and Louis Agassiz was among the speakers. A committee appointed at this meeting memorialized the legislature on March 1, 1859, with the result that an act was passed in 1861 by which certain persons were made a — body corporate by the name of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for the purpose of instituting and maintaining a society of arts, a museum of arts, and a school of industrial science, and aiding generally, by suitable means, the advancement, development, and practical application of science in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce {163). MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAI. COLLEGE On February 27, 1863, as the result of a statement by Mr. Wilder regarding the work of the committee appointed in 1861 the board of agriculture decided to appeal to the legislature to devote the land- grant fund principally " to the establishment of an educational insti- tution for the practice and scientific study of agriculture, and for the instruction of youths who intend to follow industrial pursuits, and that the institution should not be immediately connected with any institutions established for other purposes." The legislature accepted the land grant April 18, 1863, and after much discussion passed the act of April 29, 1863, to establish the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which was to receive the pro- ceeds of the sale of one-tenth of the land scrip for the purchase of a farm and two-thirds of the income of the fund obtained from the sale of the remaining nine-tenths. The other third of the income was granted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, There was much discussion regarding the location of the college and persistent efforts to connect it with Amherst, Williams, or Harvard College. Harvard had the strongest argument for this connection in the fact that it already had the Bussey estate, on which it was obligated to establish an agricultural institution. Governor Andrew and Pro- fessor Agassiz were much in favor of the union with Harvard. But 52 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE the legislature held out against such influence and the college was established as a separate and strictly agricultural college. It was located at Amherst but wa,s not opened to students until 1867. (See p. 143.) VERMONT ALDEN PARTRIDGE AND NORWICH UNIVERSITY Alden Partridge (1785-1854) was born at Norwich, Vt., brought up on a farm, studied at Dartmouth College, and graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1806, where he served as pro- fessor of mathematics and engineering for 10 years, and then was superintendent (1815-1817). In 1810 he was commissioned captain of engineers and resigned from the Army in 1818. In the early part of 1819 he was the engineer in charge of surveying the north- eastern boundary of the United States under the treaty of Ghent, and in 1822 became surveyor general of Vermont. Meanwhile he had become interested in general educational problems and under- took writing and lecturing on these subjects. A volume of his lec- tures was published in 1825. To carry out his ideas in a practical way he founded in his native town in 1819 the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy, which was opened for students September 4, 1820. This institution was intended to show how certain defects in the ordinary system of education might be remedied by making it more practical, providing physical training, keeping the students busy, restricting their spending money, providing op- tional courses, and not prescribing the length of time for completing the course (375). Much stress was laid on mathematics and the sciences relating to engineering, and there was also practical field work in engineering. Chemistry, botany, geology, and mineralogy were taught in the academy, and very likely some of their applications to agriculture were pointed out. Captain Partridge also gave some lectures on agriculture, but probably these were mainly with regard to the relations of this art to commerce and manufactures in a course under the general head of political economy. In 1825 the academy was transferred to Middletown, Conn., but was brought back to Norwich two years later, and in 1834 was char- tered as Norwich University, with Captain Partridge as president. He resigned in 1843 and in 1866 the university was moved to Northfield, Vt. The history of Captain Partridge and the Norwich University is chiefly interesting to the student of agricultural education because of the views which he held so early regarding a broader and more prac- tical education and the connecting links between him and Senator Morrill. Mr. Morrill's home was at Strafford, about 12 miles from Norwich. His partner in mercantile business from 1831 to 1855, when he went to Congress, was Jedekiah Hyde Harris (1784r-1855), who was one of the incorporators of Norwich University in 1834 and a trustee until his death. This makes it quite probable that Mr. Morrill was intimately acquainted with the affairs of Norwich University and Captain Partridge's views on education. It may be that impor- tance should be attached to the statement of Charles A. Plumley, president of the university, that "Alden Partridge used to visit Justin A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 83 Morrill when on his tramps and hiking expeditions and discussed with him his educational theories. There are many people now living who believe that the land-grant colleges have Alden Partridge to thank for having inspired Justin S. Morrill." partridge's memorial to congress for funds for educational institutions Captain Partridge brought his views on education to the attention of Congress in a memorial " praying Congress to adopt measures with a view to the establishment of a general system of education for the benefit of the youth of this Nation." This memorial was read in the House of Representatives January 21, 1841, and laid on the table, but was published as a public document. (H. R. Doc. 69, 26th Cong, 2d sess.) The essential features of his plan are shown in the following summary from this memorial : Your memorialist will next proceed to propose a plan, which, if carried intO' practical effect, would establish a national system of education in the United States which would be in perfect accordance with the principles of our repub- lican institutions, and which would supersede the present anti republw and monastic system. It is as follows: Let Congi-ess pass a general law, appropri- ating $40,000,000, to be paid by annual installments, out of the proceeds of the sales of the public lands, for the purposes of education ; this money to be dis- tributed among the States, in proportion to their representation on the floor of Congress, in such manner that the smallest Stntes shall have at least one institution, and the largest five. The tenns on which the States shall be en- titled to receive money to be as follows, viz : That the legislature of each State shall establish (either by establishing new or remodeling old institutions) such number of seminaries as it shall bo entitled to, on the following course of instruction. These institutions should be strictly nonpartisan and nonsectarian. The course of study should include mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, science of government, history, moral and mental philosophy, ancient and modem languages and literature, logic, civil engineering, military science and practice, architecture, and political economy, including agriculture, manu- factures, and commerce. There should be physical education, with regular military exercises, including fencing, etc., as a substitute for idleness or use- less amusements. Each student should be allowed to progress as rapidly as possible in his studies, consistent with the thorough understanding of the same, and not be retarded, to be kept in college with such as might have less capacity, or be less studious than himself. It is believed that this Avas the first definite proposition made to Congress for the use of the proceeds of the sale of public lands on a large scale for distribution to the States in proportion to their representation in Congress for the endowment of new or old insti- lutions in which there should be a broad curriculum, including the natural and economic sciences with their applications to agriculture, engineering, manufactures, and commerce, as well as military science and practice, in order that American youths might have an edu- cation which would make them more efficient farmers, engineers, mechanics, or business men. ILLINOIS JONATHAN BALDWIN TURNER'S PLAN FOR INDUSTRIAL UNIVERSITY In Illinois the movement which ultimately led to the establishment of the University of Illinois, with its college of agriculture, centers in Jonathan Baldwin Turner (1805-1898). He was born at Temple- 84 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT, OP AGRICULTURE ton, Mass., brought up on a farm, studied at Salem Academy, and graduated at Yale College in 1833. He was a professor in Illinois College at Jacksonville from 1833 to 1848, when on account of fail- ing health he returned to the farm, where he gave special attention to horticulture. Eugene Davenport has made the following interesting statements regarding him {116) : As early as 1833 he became interested in the education of the masses. He literally campaigned the State in the interest of the common schools, traversing on horseback hundreds of miles of the then unbroken prairie, to awaken inter- est in education. It was he who sought industriously for some material to fence the prairies, in order that the people would be able to restrain their animals, live more in communities, and establish schools. [For this purpose he brought to Illinois the Osage orange tree from the Ozark Mountains.] Professor Turner found time in these days to write upon such subjects as microscopic insects, rotation of crops, and analysis of soils. He was the first man to plant corn by machinery. Almost a giant in stature, as he was in intel- lect, he toiled tirelessly with his hands by day and used his brain at night to write upon both philosophical and industrial subjects. He was at home with both, but his great interest lay with the masses of people and their activities. He was in touch with the greatest men of his day, both educators and states- men, a fact well attested by his voluminous correspondence in which, as well as in his public addresses, high ground was taken regarding public questions. He endeavored to awaken the popular mind to the need of proper books and magazines devoted to the conditions of the working classes. In this connection, he remarked, " It is said that farmers and mechanics do not, and will not, read ; but I say give them the literature and the education suited to their wants and see if it does not reform and improve them as it has reformed and improved their professional brethren. The agricultural classes have no practical con- genial literature." He was a personal friend of Lincoln. They were boys together, and he told me personally, a few years before his death, that he and Lincoln, as young men, had discussed these very matters at intervals between lessons, when he was teaching our great President the elements of mathematics {115). Agricultural societies had been formed in 19 counties in Illinois when, in 1841, the Union Agricultural Society, covering nine counties in the northeastern part of the State, was organized. This society established the Union Agriculturist and Western Prairie Farmer, which in 1843 became the Prairie Farmer. The discussion of plans for agricultural education and information about what was being done in this direction in other States had a place in this journal from its beginning. In 1848 Turner, in a letter to President Blanchard, of Knox Col- lege, proposed that agricultural instruction should be connected with a classical school by adding professors of chemistry and botany and "a professor of what — the green earth," Avho should purchase and conduct an experimental farm at his own expense. After two years' further consideration of this matter he was ready to propose a much broader and radically different plan. This was apparently first promoted by him at a Pike County teachers' institute and probably also at a public meeting at Griggsville some time in 1850. But its most important and complete promulgation was at a farmers' con- vention at Granville, November 18, 1851, This convention had resulted from the action of a group of Illinois farmers, who for some time had been interested in agricultural edu- cation. On February 23, 1846, these farmers, who had already been associated in an educational way for two years, met at Lowell, A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 85 La Salle County, and formed the Buel Institute and Agricultural So- ciety. A principal feature of this organization was the holding of an annual fair. At the fair in 1851 it was decided to hold a farmers' convention at Granville, Putnam County, in November of that year, " to take into consideration such measures as might be deemed expe- dient to further the interests of the agricultural community, and particularly to take steps toward the establishment of an agricultural university." The immediate cause for this meeting was the agitation in the State regarding the disposal of the college and seminary fund of about $150,000 and 72 sections of land, which had accumulated from the sale of the State's public lands and the Federal land grant in accordance with the enabling act of 1818. A considerable number of private colleges thought they ought to share in this fund, but there was strong opposition to its use for this purjDose. This meeting was attended by farmers, mechanics, professional men, and members of both houses of the legislature from various parts of the State. Professor Turner was one of the vice presidents and chairman of the committee on business. This committee brought in resolutions which commended existing institutions "for the education of our brethren engaged in professional, scientific, and literary pursuits," but held that such institutions can not meet the needs of " the industrial classes, including all cultivators of the soil, artisans, mechanics, and merchants," and therefore we should — take immediate measures for tlie establisliment of a university, in tlie State of Illinois, expressly to meet those felt wants of each and all the industrial classes of our State; that we recommend the foundation of high schools, lyceums, institutes, etc., in each of our counties, on similar principles, so soon as they may find it practicable so to do {122). After reading these resolutions Professor Turner gave his plan for an industrial university. The next day the convention ajjproved this plan, and voted to seek its publication in the Prairie Farmer and other j)apers and to distribute 1,000 copies in pamphlet form to State officers, members of the legislature, and others, to secure speakers on this subject in each county, and to have a committee of which Turner was chairman call a convention at Springfield to lay this matter before the legislature at its next session and solicit the governor to bring the matter to the attention of the legislature. An appeal to the people of the State was also provided for. Turner's plan for an industrial university was based on the presumption that society is made up of two classes, professional and industrial. All civilized society is, necessarily, divided into tvpo distinct cooperative, not antagonistic, classes: a small class, whose proper business it is to teach the true principles of religion, law, medicine, science, art, and literature; and a much larger class, who are engaged in some form of labor in agriculture, commerce, and the arts (122). The professional class have ample educational institutions and facilities while the industrial class have practically none. The latter, he contended, want and ought to have like facilities "for understanding the true philosophy, the science and the art of their several pursuits (their life business), and of efficiently applying existing knowledge thereto and widening its domain." This want 86 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE can not be supplied by any of the existing institutions for the pro- fessional classes, nor by any incidental appendage attached to them as a mere secondary department. The industrial class "need a similar system of liberal education for their own class, and adapted to their own pursuits ; to create for them an Industrial Literature, adapted to their professional wants, to raise up for them teachers and lecturers, for subordinate institutes, and to elevate them, their pursuits, and their postei'ity to that relative position in human society for which God designed them {122). Since the history of education shows, Turner maintained, that it is necessary to begin with the higher institutions as foundations of knowledge from which supplies of teachers, etc., can be drawn, there- fore the first thing needed is a " National institute of science " which it is hoped will be supplied by the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C. To cooperate with this noble institute, and enable the industrial classes to realize its benefits in practical life, we need a university for the industrial classes in each of the States, with their consequent subordinate institutes, lyceums, and high schools, in each of the counties and towns. Plan for the State University There should be connected with such an institution, in this State, a suffi- cient quantity of land of variable soil and aspect, for all its needful annual experiments and processes in the great intei'ests of agriculture and horticulture. Buildings of appropriate size and construction for all ordinary and special uses ; a complete philosophical, chemical, anatomical, and industrial apparatus ; a general cabinet, embracing everything that relates to, illustrates, or facilitates any one of the industrial arts ; especially all sorts of animals, birds, reptiles, insects, trees, shrubs, and plants found in this State and adjacent States. Instruction should be constantly g'ven * * * jj^ aj^ those studies and sciences, of whatever sort, which tend to throw light upon any art or employ- ment, which any student may desire to master, or upon any duty he may be called upon to perform ; or which may tend to secure his moral, civil, social, and industrial perfection, as a man {122). Whether a distinct classical department should be added or not woidd depend on expediency. To facilitate the increase and practical application and diffusion of knowledge, the professors should conduct, each in his own department, a continued series of annual experiments {122). Connected with this institution should be " a botanical and com- mon garden, orchards, and fruit gardens," grounds illustrating land- scape gardening, and an experimental farm, with all varieties of domestic animals and useful plants appropriate to the State; suit- able buildings, including a repository in wdiich useful implements and machines would be kept and tested ; and an industrial library to which the professors should contribute works of their own creation. The professors should be " men of the most eminent practical abil- ity in their several departments " and should have a fixed tenure of office. Instruction, by lectures and otherwise, should be given mostly in the colder months of the year, leaving the professors to prosecute their investigations, and the students their necessary labor, either at home or on the premises, during the warmer months. The institution should be open to all classes of students above a fixed age, and for any length of time, whether three months or seven years, and each A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 87 taught in those particular branches of art whicli he wishes to pursue, and to any extent, more or less. And all should pay their tuition and board bills, in whole or in part, either in money or necessary work on the premises — regard l)eing had to the ability of each. At some convenient season of the year, the commencement, or annual fair of the university, should be holden through a succession of days. On this occasion the doors of the institution, with all its treasures of art and resources of knowledge, should be thrown open to all classes, and as many other objects of agricultural or mechanical skill, gathered from the whole State, as possible, and presented by the people for inspection and premium on the best of each kind; judgment being rendered, in all cases, by a committee wholly discon- nected with the institution. On this occasion, all the professors, and as many of the pupils as are sufficiently advanced, should be constantly engaged in lecturing and explaining the divers objects and interests of their departments. In short, this occasion should be made the great annual gala day of the institu- tion, and of all the industrial classes, and all other classes in the State, for the exhibition of their products and their skill and for the vigorous and power- ful diffusion of practical knowledge in their ranks, and a more intense enthusiasm in the extension and pursuit (122). The financial support of this university should come from " the fund given to this State by the General Government " and this fund should be under the control of agents representing the people of the State. A board of trustees of five persons from different parts of the State should be nominated by the governor and confirmed by the senate. They should have authority to add 12 members, and the board thus constituted should have perpetual power to fill vacancies by a two-thirds vote. Members should be subject to impeachment by court proceedings. This j)lan for an industrial university was reprinted in whole or in part in the Prairie Farmer for January, 1852, and in many other papers in different parts of the country (including the New York Tribune and Philadelphia North American), as well as in the Report of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture and the United States Patent Office Report for 1851. Gov, Augustus C. French in his message to the legislature in 1852 referred to this matter as worthy of its consideration. In the Prairie Farmer for March, 1852, Turner proposed a grant of public lands by Congress to each State for the establishment of industrial universities in the following words : And I am satisfied that if the farmers and their friends will now but exert themselves they can speedily secure for this State and for each State in the Union, an appropriation of public lands adequate to create and endow in the most iiberal manner, a general system of industrial education, more glorious in its design and more beneficent in its results than the world has ever seen before. During the next two years three other conventions were held to promote the adoption of Turner's plan for a university. The Indus- trial League of the State of Illinois, with Turner as director, was formed to raise funds for disseminating information on this subject. Memorials were presented to the Illinois Legislature asking that the seminary fund be devoted to a single institution maintained by the State and suggesting an aj^peal to Congress " for an appropriation of public lands for each State in the Union for the appropriate endowment of universities for the liberal education of the industrial classes in their several pursuits." In 1853 a memorial of this character was also addressed directly to Congress. 12931—29 7 88 MISC. PUBLIC ATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE At the session of the legislature in 1853 a bill to incorporate the Industrial University of the State of Illinois was tabled, but a bill for the Northern Illinois Agricultural College became a law February 12, 1853. The Illinois State Teachers' Association, organized in December, 1853, was much interested in getting State funds for a normal school. Turner and his associates in the Industrial League endeavored to make this a part of the plan for a university. In 1855 a bill was favorably considered in the legislature, which was to grant funds to Illinois University with the understanding that it would begin with a teachers' seminary and agricultural and mechan- ical departments. When this bill failed to pass Turner agreed not to oppose the separate organization of a normal school, hoping that later it would become a part of a State university. An act of February 18, 1857, established the Illinois State Normal University. The continuance of the movement which culminated in the establish- ment of the Illinois Industrial University is described later. (See p. 181.) THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT FOR EDUCATION RELATING TO AGRICULTURE AND OTHER INDUSTRIES Attention has already been called to the policy of the National Government with reference to grants of public lands for educational purposes as inaugurated in the ordinance of 1787 relating to the Northwest Territory, and in subsequent legislation relating to vari- ous new States. Washington's efforts to get Congress to establish a national university and a board of agriculture have also been men- tioned, as well as Elkanah Watson's plan for such a board presented to Congress and discussed there in 1816. On January 11, 1797, a committee of the House of Representatives, to which Washington's proposal for a board of agriculture had been submitted, reported in favor of establishing at the seat of govern- ment a society under Government patronage whose membership would include Congress, judges, the Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War, the Attorney General, and such other persons as might choose to become members under regulations prescribed by the society. This organization was to elect officers and choose a board of agriculture of not more than 30 members. Congress took no action on this proposition. The Columbian Agricultural Society, formed in the District of Columbia, functioned in some respects as a national society from 1809 to 1812. (See p. 17.) In 1838, Charles L. Fleischman, a naturalized citizen from Bavaria, and a graduate of the Royal Agricultural School of that country, presented a memorial to Congress in which he described the progress of agricultural education in Europe and urged the establishment in the United States of schools in which instruction would be given in mathematics, surveying, mechanics, natural philosophy, chemistry, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology, drawing, "the veterinary art and agriculture in all its branches." This memorial was again pre- sented in 1839 with the suggestion that the Smithson fund be used for agricultural schools, Avhich should have experiment farms and work- shops. Soon after this Joseph L. Smith and others presented two A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 89 memorials and a petition, which included a recommendation that the teaching of agriculture and horticulture should be introduced into the elementary and other schools. Congress made the first appropriation for the promotion of agri- culture in 1839 on the recommendation of Henry L. Ellsworth, Com- missioner of Patents, who was an active member of the agricultural society in Hartford County, Conn. The Patent Office soon began the publication of articles relating to agricultural education, as well as the diffusion of practical and scientific information on agricul- tural subjects and the distribution of seeds. Captain Partridge's memorial to Congress in 1841 for the endow- ment of institutions for military, scientific, and vocational education in all the States with the proceeds of sales of public lands, has al- ready been mentioned (p. 83). In 1840 Solon Robinson, agricultural editor of the New York Tri- bune, and others called a convention which met in Washington in 1841 and organized the Agricultural Society of the United States, which held only one other meeting, May 4-5, 1842. A concrete object of this organization was to secure Smithson's fund "with which to establish a great school and library of agricultural science and ex- periment, with a garden, that should bear and be worthy of the name of Smithson." H. L. Ellsworth, as chairman of a committee, pre- sented a petition for this purpose to Congress, which was laid on the table. The establishment of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846 turned that fund in other directions. The Patent Office report for 1845 contains the address to the people of the United States prepared by a committee, of which Mr. Robinson was chairman, at the third national " convention of farmers and silk culturists" held under the auspices of the American Insti- tute of New York. The interest of the convention in agricultural education is shown in the following paragraph from this address : It is one of the objects of this convention to seek out a way by which the condition and character of the cultivators of the American soil can be elevated and improved. For tliis purpose we recommend the extensive formations of farmers' clubs, and largely increased reading of agricultural papers and other valuable publications, which have, of late years, been so extensively multiplied for the farmer's use. We also recommend most earnestly to all our common as well as higher schools to adopt, as an unvarying branch of education, subjects calculated to impress upon the minds of the young the necessity of applying science to the cultivation of the earth, and that is the original and most honor- able, as well as the most happy and healthy of all employments. We also recommend that an earnest appeal be made to Congress to adopt at once the recommendation of our father, Washington, and establish a "home department" for the encouragement and support of the agricultural interests of our country. In aid of these views we offer the following resolutions: Resolved, That the American Institute, by whose cooperation this conven- tion was called, be requested to continue their noble efforts in the cause of agri- cultural movement, by adopting measures to have this matter brought before the next meeting of Congress. In 1848 a memorial was presented to the United States Senate by John S. Skinner, asking for — an appropriation, to be applied, under the direction of the State governments * * * to the establishment of institutions for instruction in geology, miner- alogy, and vegetable and animal physiology ; in civil engineering, as applied to road making, bridge building, and other rural architecture ; and also to instruc- 90 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE tion in tlie meclianical principles on Avhicli depend the labor-saving propertie? and efficiency of agricultural implements and machinery. Daniel Lee in the Patent Office report for 1850 advocated that Congress establish an institution of the scientific grade of West Point Academy and procure such gentlemen as Liebig and Boussingault to serve as teachers until a reasonable number of talented Americans could be prepared to fill profes- sorships in State agricultural colleges. The report for 1851 contained an article by Harvey Dodge recom- mending the establishment by Congress of a large agricultural in- stitution, Avith smaller schools in each State. THE UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY On January 14, 1851, the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture under the influence of Marshall P. Wilder, its president, asked him to correspond Avith State and other agricultural associations on the expediency of calling a national agricultural convention. In responding to this call the Pennsylvania and Maryland societies declared in favor of making the convention a means for the estab- lishment of a national agricultural society. A call for the conven- tion was issued May 20, 1852, by Wilder, representing the Massa- chusetts society, and the presidents of associations in Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Indiana, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island. One hundred and fifty-two delegates from 23 States and Territories met at the Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington, D. C, June 24, 1852. Daniel Webster, " The Marshfield farmer," attracted much attention as a delegate. Mr. Wilder pre- sided, and on motion of Daniel Lee, editor of the Genesee Farmer in New York, but then connected Avith the Patent Office in Washington, it was voted to form a national agricultural society. A constitution Avas adopted in Avhich the organization Avas named the United States Agricultural Society. Going back to the suggestion of the congressional committee in 1797, the society incorporated in its con- stitution a proposal to form Avithin itself a board of agriculture of three members from each State, Territory, and the District of Columbia. It shall be the duty of this board to Avatch the interests of agriculture as they are or may be affected by the legislation of the country ; to make f:uch reports, memorials, and recommendations as may advance the cause of agriculture, promote and diffuse agricultural knowledge ; to examine, and when necessary, report upon the practicability of establishing agricultural schools, colleges, and model farms ; to set for the advantages of agricultural and geological surveys, and to show the importance of the application of science to agriculture ; to i-epresent through their reports the relation of American agriculture to that of foreign countries, and endeavor to obtain information from Fuch countries ; to point out the adA'antage of introducing any new staples, seeds, and plants, and obtain, so far as practicable, annual statistical returns of the conditions of agriculture throughout the different States; all which information shall be published by the society, and form part of its transactions (71). This board never actually came into existence but the .society itself acted to a considerable extent in that capacity. Wilder Avas elected president of the society. He continued in this office six years and actively promoted the work of the society. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 91 The influence of the society was widely extended by the publi- cation of a journal and by the exhibitions held in succeeding years in different States. At the meeting in 1852 there was a long discussion on a proposal to ask Congress to establish an agricultural department in the Fed- eral Government. Among other objections to this plan was the thought that this new society through its board of agriculture could function sufficiently for the national promotion of agriculture, and this Avas further brought out in 1853 when the society asked Con- gress to give it part of the money before appropriated to the Patent Office. A compromise resolution was finally adopted in which Con- gress was simply asked "to take action upon the subject of agricul- ture and afford such efficient aid" as they deemed best. This, how- ever, was not altogether satisfactory and after a few months' reflec- tion the society at its meeting February 2, 1853, adopted a resolution favoring a department of agriculture with a cabinet officer at its head and this action was reaffirmed at later meetings. ILLINOIS MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS FOR LAND GRANT FOR INDUSTRIAL UNIVERSITIES Turner's plan for industrial universities was brought to the atten- tion of the society by Richard Yates, then a Congressman from Illi- nois, who had been one of his students. Yates was also interested in the establishment of a Federal department of agriculture and wanted to make Turner its head. In 1851 and 1852 Turner's plan for an industrial university in each State attracted wide attention throughout the country and this in- terest was intensified by the adoption of the second Illinois farmers' convention in 1852 of a resolution that Congress be asked to use the proceeds of the sale of public lands to endow educatianal institutions. On February 8, 1853, the Governor of Illinois approved resolutions unanimously passed by both houses of the State legislature, asking the support of Congress in the public land educational fund project. Resolved, by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring herein, That our Senators in Congress be instructed, and our Representatives be re- quested, to use their best exertions to procure the passage of a law of Con- gress donating to each State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than five hundred thousand dollars, for the liberal endowment of a system of industrial universities, one in each State in the Union, to coop- erate with each other, and with the Smithsonian Institution at AVashington, for the more libex-al and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers ; a liberal and varied education adapted to the manifold want of a practical and enterprising i>eople, and a provision for such educational facili- ties being in manifest concurrence with the intimations of the popular will, it urgently demands the united efforts of our national strength. Resolved; That the governor is hereby authorized to forward a copy of the foregoing resolutions to our Senators and Representatives in Congress, and to the executive and legislature of each of our sister States, inviting them to cooperate with us in this meritorious enterprise. Horace Greeley, who as already stated (p. 54) was vitally inter- ested in the People's College in New York, conmientecl editorially on these resolutions in the New York Tribune of February 26, 1853 : Here is the principle contended for by the friends of practical education abundantly confinned, with a plan for its immediate realization. And it is worthy of note that one of the most extensive of the public land (or new) 92 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE States proposes a magnificent donation of public lands to each of the States, old as well as new, in furtherance of this idea. Whether that precise form of aid to the project is most judicious and likely to be effective, we will not here consider. Suffice it that the Legislature of Illinois has taken a noble step forward in a most liberal and patriotic spirit, for which its members will be heartily thanked by thousands throughout the Union. We feel that tliis step has materially hastened the coming of scientific and practical education for all who desire and are willing to work for it. It can not come too soon. The memorial to Congress from the Illinois Legislature was pre- sented in the House of Representatives at Washington, March 20, 1854, by E^ihu B. Washburne and in the Senate by James Shields, where it was referred to the Committee on Public Lands. The breadth of interest in this matter is indicated by a letter from San Francisco, May 11, 1854, to Mr. Washburne, which was written " at the instance of a large assembly of farmers, machinists, and arti- ficers now operating on the Pacific coast " and which commended him for his " vigilant attention " to the Illinois resolutions. Congress, however, took no action on these resolutions. On April 14, 1854, Richard Yates asked Turner to prepare a bill embodying his plan, which he did, but it was not deemed wise to introduce it at that session. Yates was not reelected and nothing further was done in Congress with this matter during the Presidency of Mr. Pierce. He had shown his opposition to land grants by vetoing in 1854 a bill carrying such a grant for the support of the indigent insane, and it was not probabje that he would be favorable to grants for education. The United States Agricultural Society took no immediate action with reference to the proposal of the Illinois farmers regarding indus- trial universities. At its meeting in February, 1854, a committee of the Maryland State Agricultural Society called attention to their plan for a national jigricultural department, with instructors, library, cabinet, and apparatus, to be attached to the Smithsonian Institu- tion for the study of the science of agriculture. This also involved .'I proposal for the purchase of the Mount Vernon estate for a national experimental farm. This latter proposal was favored by the United States Society, which appointed a committee to present it to Congress. This project is probably referred to in the Congressional Globe where it is stated that on December 7, 1853, Mr. Lyon, of New York, gave notice that "he would ask leave to introduce a bill for the establishment of a national agricultural college and experiment farm." No practical result came from this movement. At the meeting in 1854 the society's interest in agricultural educa- tion was further stimulated through an address by Professor Fox, who was then teaching agriculture in the University of Michigan. In 1856 Turner's Illinois organization, which was still seeking a land grant act from Congress, asked the aid of the society for this measure. A difficult situation was thus created in the society, illus- trating how such a j)roposition excited sectional animosities growing out of the existing political situation, whch was finally to result in the Civil War. This was one of the things with which Mr. Morrill had to contend in connection with his first land grant bill and which probably led to the course he pursued in avoiding extended dis- cussion of his bill on the floor of Congress. The South was so A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 93 predominantly agricultural that on many accounts it would have seemed easy and natural for public sentiment and political leaders there to favor a measure likely to result in Federal grants for agri- cultural education. But at that time the South felt very strongly that anything was inimical to its interests which even to a slight extent imperiled the doctrine of State rights, considered as a thing absolutely necessary to the maintenance of its social and industrial life. The committee appointed by the United States Agricultural Society to consider the Illinois proposition brought in majority and minority reports. Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, and Mr. Byington, of Connecticut, who signed the majority report, favored the proposition, but Mr. DeBow, of Louisiana, in the minor- ity report strongly opposed it. When it became evident that har- mony could not be brought about on this proposition the matter was laid over to the next annual meeting, when a favorable resolution was passed with a majority of only three members. Meanwhile Turner and his associates were active in disseminating information and arousing interest regarding the proposal for Fed- eral endowment of industrial universities. President Gary, of the Farmers College, near Cincinnati, Ohio, brought about the North- west industrial convention September 13 to 15, 1854, at which a number of States were represented. Turner was unable to go, but the Illinois league was represented by Bronson Murray. A paper by Turner was furnished for the proceedings, an account of which was published in the Prairie Farmer for October, 1854. President Tappan, of the University of Michigan, approved Federal aid for education and on his invitation Turner addressed an educational meeting at Detroit in August, 1856. Turner, Kennicott, and Murray also had correspondence with influ- ential individuals and societies in Iowa, Minnesota, Oregon, and other States between 1854 and 1857. When the Presidency of the United States passed to Buchanan in 1857, the friends of Federal land grants for industrial universities decided to bring this matter again to the attention of Congress. On October 7, 1857, Turner wrote Senator Lyman Trumbull, of Illinois, that " in conversation with Senator Douglas on the cars the other day he expressed his opinion that such a grant could be obtained at the next session." Turner followed this up by sending Douglas a copy of the pamphlet on industrial universities, the receipt of which was favorably acknowledged October 12, 1857. Senator Trumbull wrote Turner October 19, 1857, as follows: Since the receipt of your letter I have reread the pamphlet in regard to indus- trial universities. The idea is a grand one, if it could be carried out and made practical, I thought I saw in the last Congress an opposition springing up against any further grants of land in the States, but perhaps it was confined to those made to new States, and your project contemplating a grant to all the States might meet with more favor. Several large grants were made last year, but it was done grudgingly. For my own part I have been favorable to an early disposition of the public lands by the General Government, and if they could only be secured to actual settlers, I would be glad to see it divested at once of this great source of patronage and corruption. If some of the old States would take hold of the matter, I think it not unlikely that a grant of lands might be obtained from Congress ; but coming from the new States, which have already obtained such large grants for schools and other purposes it would be likely to meet with less favor {114)' 94 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Justin S. Morrill, of Vermont, entered the Federal House of Rep- resentatives December 4, 1855, and was a delegate to the meeting of the United States Agricultural Society in February, 1856, at which the Illinois plan for a Federal land grant for universities was dis- cussed. On February 28, 1856, Mr. Morrill showed his interest in agricultural education by an unsuccessful attempt to introduce in Congress a resolution that the " Committee on Agriculture be re- quested to inquire into the expediency of establishing one or more national agricultural schools." Just what happened between this ac- tion on his part and the introduction of his land grant bill December 14, 1857, is not positively laiown, Mrs. Mary Carriel, Turner's daughter, in her biography of her fa- ther, has stated that after his receipt of the letter of October 19, 1857, from Senator Trumbull, " it was decided to send all documents, palmers, and pamphlets to Mr. Morrill with the request that he intro- duce a bill. This at first he was reluctant to do, but after much jDersuasion he consented." This is substantially confirmed in a statement which Burt E. Powell, in his Semicentennial History of the University of Illinois, claims was made to him by J, R. Reasoner, of Urbana, 111., " that at one time he had a long conversation on the subject of the land grant act with Jonathan Turner, who told him that he had taken the mat- ter of having the bill introduced in Congress to Mr. Morrill" (l^Jf.). No evidence has yet been produced to show whether Turner himself corresponded with Mr. Morrill or sent the papers in this case to some Illinois representative for transmission to Morrill. On the other hand, Mr. Morrill never admitted that he had re- ceived such papers, but on the contrary several times publicly stated regarding his college land grant bill that he did not know where he received "the first hint of such a measure." This matter is more fully discussed in a later section dealing with the history of the land grant act of 1862. (See p. 97.) Part 3. THE MORRILL LAND GRANT ACT OF 1862 AND THE EARLY WORK OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES, 1860-1887 The author and snccossfiil ]3romoter of the hind o:rant act of July 2, 1862, was Juttin Smith Morrill (fig. 8), then Representative in Congress from Vermont. He was born at Strafford, Vt., April 14, 1810, the eldest son of Nathaniel and Mary (Hunt) Morrill. His father was a blacksmith. His shop was equipped with a trip ham- mer, grindstone, and blower, and he made axes, hoes, and scythes. Like many mechanics in his time he owned and operated a farm. There Justin, among other things, helped his mother by churning and afterwards acknowledged that he thus learned that perseverance which enabled him to secure the passage of his land grant bill. For when the butter did not come easily his mother made him stick to his task until the desired result was accomplished. Strafford was a village of about 20 houses and it had only a small red schoolhouse. When he had completed the elementary course there Justin went one term to Thetford Academy and another term to Randolph Academy. At the age of 15 years, after considering further preparation for college, he took the advice of the leading citizen of Strafford, Jedekiah H. Harris, and entered on the career of a merchant because he was told that thus he might be "more sure of an independence." He worked first for six weeks in the store of Royal Hatch at Strafford and then in that of Judge Harris, who paid him $45 for the first year and $75 for the second. When 18 years old he went with a cousin to Portland, Me., where his uncle, Jacob Hunt, resided. After two years in business there he returned to Strafford where he was engaged to sell out the stock of a mer- cantile firm. In 1834 he accepted a proposition made by Judge Harris and became his partner. Their business expanded until they had four stores, one of them 80 miles away at Derby Line, near Can- ada. Six years later the firm of Morrill, Young & Co. was formed and by 1848 this and other business undertakings of Morrill had proved so successful that he retired and settled down to manage a small farm. Meanwhile he was beginning to take another cue from his friend Harris, who was much interested in politics and whose store was long a forum for political discussions. As early as 1844 Morrill w^as chairman of the Orange County Whig committee ; then he became a member of the State committee of that party in 1848 and delegate to its national convention at Baltimore in 1852. Two years later he was elected a Congressman from Vermont by a plurality of only 59 votes, the closeness of the contest being due to a split in the Whig Party caused by the free-soil movement. This led in 1855 to the formation of the Republican Party, which in Vermont was aided by Morrill. It is not within the purpose of this work to follow in 95 96 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE detail Mr. Morrill's legislative career, but a brief statement regard- ing some of his most important services in Congress may serve to show its character. In the House of Representatives he Avas first a member of the Committee on Territories and then on agriculture. In 1858 he was Fig. 8. — Justin S. Morrill honored with appointment to the great Committee on Ways and Means. In that capacity he became the author of the tariff bill of March 2, 1861, and though he had previously declined the chair- manship of the committee in favor of Thaddeus Stevens, he was raised to that position in 1865. The next year he was elected Sen- ator and served in that body until his death on December 28, 1898. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 97 As chairman of the Committee on Finance he was the author of the tariff bill of 1883. As a member and, afterwards chairman of the Committee on Buildings and Grounds he was greatly interested in securing the erection at Washington of suitable public buildings. His greatest achievement in this matter was the passage of his bill for the magnificent building in which the Library of Congress is housed. On this measure Morrill worked for 14 years. He was distinguished for his great industry as a Member of Con- gress. He made over 100 formal speeches and through these and by resolutions, petitions, motions, or suggestions he appears in the Con- gressional Kecord 2,477 times. His spirit of friendliness and his conciliatory attitude toward his opponents contributed much to his success in both private and public life. When as a youth he gave up an engagement to teach a district school at $11 a month to enter on a mercantile career he did not lose his interest in education. In 1827 he started a subscription for a town library and thereafter read Blackstone's Commentaries, Milton, Addison, Sam Johnson, Goldsmith, and other standard literature. On his return from Maine to Strafford he formed a debating society. He also wrote anonymously for the papers. He was asked to be a trustee of Norwich University in 1848, but declined because he did not like certain policies of the institution. His marriage in 1851 to Ruth Barrell Swan, daughter of Dr. Caleb Swan, of Easton, Mass., undoubtedly promoted his interest in education since she had been a teacher and was familiar with the educational movements of that time. Through his life in his early home where mechanic arts was com- bined with agriculture, through his efforts to increase his own edu- cation, through his association with Judge Harris who was vitally interested in Norwich University, and through the intelligent inter- est of his wife in educational matters Mr. Morrill was prepared to undertake the great educational tasks involved in the formulation and passage of the land grant act of 1862 and the supplementary act of 1890. THE ORIGIN OF THE MORRILL LAND GRANT BILL During the first session of the thirty-fourth Congress, on February 28, 1856, Mr. Morrill introduced the following resolution : That the Committee on Agriculture be requested to inquire into the expedi- ency of establishing one or more national agricultural schools upon the basis of the naval and military schools, in order that one scholar from each con- gressional district and two from each State at large may receive a scientific and practical education at the public expense. This resolution was objected to by Mr. Keitt, of South Carolina, and was not received. Meanwhile Turner's plan for industrial universities was being kept alive. Attention has already been called (p. 92) to the meetings in Washington in 1856 and 1857 when the United States Agricultural Society had this plan under consideration and finally indorsed it by a small majority. Mr. Morrill was a delegate from Vermont to both of these meetings. The published transactions of the society do not show that he took any part in the discussion of Turner's plan. 98 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Marshall P. Wilder i^resided at both of these meetings. Horace Greeley, trustee of the People's College in New York, was a delegate to the 1856 meeting. It seems probable that Mr. Morrill knew about Turner's proposition even if he took no part in discussing it. Something must have happened which led Mr. Morrill to bring forward a bill differing materially in its purpose from that indicated in his resolution above cited. MORRILL'S ACCOUNT OF THE CONGRESSIONAL PROCEEDINGS RELATING TO HIS LAND GRANT BILL In the biography entitled '' The Life and Services of Justin Smith Morrill," by William Belmont Parker {379), published in 1924, is a copy of a paper prepared by Mr. Morrill, " apparently in 1874," which contains the following statement of his purpose in preparing and introducing the land grant bill : The idea of obtaining a land grant for tlie foundation of colleges I think I had formed as early as 1850. I remember to have broached the subject to Hon. William Hebard, the former Member of Congress from the second district, and he observed that such a measure would be all very well, but that of course I could not expect it to pass. Where I obtained the first hint of such a measure, I am wholly unable to say. Such institutions had already been established in other countries and were supi)orted by their gov- ernments, but they were confined exclusively to agriculture, and this for our people, with all their industrial aptitudes and ingenious inventions, appeared to me unnecessarily limited. If the purpose was not suggested by the well-known fact of the existence of agricultural schools in Europe it was supported by this fact and especially by constant reflections upon the following points, viz : First, that the public lands of most value were being rapidly dissipated by donations to merely local and private objects, where one State alone might be benefited at the expense of the property of the Union. Second, that the very cheapness of our public lands, and the facility of purchase and transfer, tended to a system of bad-farming or strip and waste of the soil, by encouraging short occupancy and a speedy search for new homes, entailing upon the first and older settlements a rapid deterioration of the soil, which would not be likely to be arrested except by more thorough and scientific knowledge of agriculture and by a higher education of those who were devoted to its pursuit. Third, being myself the son of a hard-handed blacksmith, the most truly honest man I ever knew, who felt his own deprivation of schools (never having spent but six weeks inside of a schoolhouse), I could not overlook mechanics in any measure intended to aid the industrial classes in the pro- curement of an education that might exalt their usefulness. Fourth, that most of the existing collegiate institutions and their feeders were based upon the classic plan of teaching those only destined to pursue the so-called learned professions, leaving farmers and mechanics and all those who must win their bread by labor, to the haphazard of being self-taught or not scientifically taught at all, and restricting the number of those who might be supposed to be qualified to fill places of higher consideration in private or put)lic employmentix to the limited number of the graduates of the literary institutions. The thoroughly educated, being most sure to educate their sons, appeared to be perpetuating a monopoly of education inconsistent with the welfare and complete prosperity of American institutions. Fifth, that it was apparent, while some localities were possessed of abundant instrumentalities for education, both common and higher, many of the States were deficient and likely so to remain unless aided by the common fund of the proceeds of the public lands, which were held for this purpose more tlian any other. Upon these points and some others I had meditated long and had delved in more or less statistical information, convincing to myself but not the most attractive for a public speech, as I have often found such data, indispensable A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 99 as it is to the basis of most of our legislative measures, less welcome than even very cheap rhetoric interesting to few and entertaining to none. Discreet legislators can not get on without reliable facts. Certainly I was not clear that I could succeed in carrying through Congress the college land bill, but I had nearly determined to attempt it, and, like a young lover after the engagement, I sought the advice of some of the old members of the House and Senate, who almost uniformly said : " You can try, but of course it is of no use." This would have killed the project if they had not in many instances immediately added, " It would be a grand measure, however, and so far as my vote is concerned you shall have it." Mr. Morrill also claimed complete authorship of this bill in various statements made in later years. It is hard to believe that Mr. Morrill knew nothing about what -was going on in this country with reference to agricultural and technical colleges. Leaving out of account Turner's special efforts to get before Congress his plan for industrial universities, the plans for the People's College and the State Agri- cultural College in New York, the Michigan Agricultural College, the Farmer's High School in Pennsylvania, Mr, Wilder's efforts to get an agricultural college in Massachusetts, etc., were being pub- lished in the agricultural press and in other ways. Petitions were constantly coming to Congress for land grants for agricultural col- leges in different States. Mr. Morrill must have known about Captain Partridge's memorial to Congress in 1841, and he knew about Norwich University. The mere fact that his father was a blacksmith would hardly have been sufficient to have led him to formulate a plan which so closely resembled the People's College and Turner's Industrial University. Why he did not refer to American sources of information about agricultural and technical schools as having had anything to do with the formulation of his bill is not known. But it w^ould not be creditable to Morrill to suppose that he did not know about them. His statement of his reasons for making the bill is peculiarly per- sonal. It may be true that he personally did draft his bill and he deserves very great credit for its form and for the masterly way in Avhich he brought about its passage. That Morrill's bill was not a copy of a bill given to him by Turner or his friends is indicated by the statement of Turner after the Morrill bill was introduced that it needed amendment (124) • Morrill's measure was in fact the culmi- nation of the long movement for agricultural and technical schools, as shown in a previous chapter of this history, and it is altogether likely that Morrill derived the ideas incorporated in the bill from various sources connected with that movement. THE FIRST COLLEGE LAND GRANT BILL The first land grant bill was introduced in the House of Represent- atives by Mr. Morrill, December 14, 1857. H. R.2 A bill donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United State of America in Congress assembled, That there be granted to the several States and Territories, for the purpose hereinafter mentioned 6,-340,000 acres of land, to be apportioned to each State a quantity equal to 20,000 acres for 100 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE each Senator and Representative in Congress to wtiich the States are now re- spectively entitled, and to each Territory 60,000 acres. Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, that the land aforesaid, after being sur- veyed, shall be apportioned to the several States and Territories in sections or subdivisions of sections, not less than one-quarter of a section ; and whenever there are public lands in a State of Territoi-y worth $1.25 per acre (the value of said lands to be determined by the Governor of said State or Territory), the quan- tity to which the State or Territory shall be entitled shall be selected from such lands, and the Secretary of the Interior is hereby directed to issue to those States in which there are no public lands of the value of $1.25 per acre, land scrip to the amount of their distributive shares in acres under the provisions of this act, said scrip to be sold by said States and the proceeds thereof applied to the uses and purposes prescribed in this act, and for no other uses or pur- poses whatsoever: Provided, That in no case shall any State or Territory to which land scrip may thus be issued be allowed to locate the same within the limits of any other State, or of any organized Territoi'y of the United States, but their assignees may thus locate said land scrip upon any of the unappro- priated lands of the United States subject to private entry. Sec. 3. And be it further enacted, that all the expenses of management and superintendence of said lands, previous to their sales, and all exjienses in- curred in the management and disbursement of the moneys which may be re- ceived therefrom, shall be paid by the States to which they may belong out of the treasury of said States, so that the entire proceeds of the sale of said lands shall be applied without any diminution whatever to the purposes hereinafter mentioned. Sec. 4. And be it further enacted, that all the moneys derived from the sale of the lands aforesaid by the States or Territories to which the lands were ap- portioned, and from the sale of land scrip hereinbefore provided for, shall be invested in stocks of the United States, or of the States, or some other safe stocks, yielding not less than 5 per cent upon the par value of said stocks ; and that the moneys so invested shall constitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished (except so far as may be provided in section 5 of this act) and the interest of which shall be inviolably appropriated by each State or Territory which may take and claim the benefits of this act, to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific or classical studies, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the me- chanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States and Territories may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life. Sec. 5. And be it further enacted that the grant of land and land scrip hereby authorized shall be made on the following conditions, to which, as well as to the provisions hereinbefore contained, the previous assent of the several States and Territories shall be signified by legislative acts : First. If any portion of the fund invested, as provided by the foregoing sec- tion, or any portion of the interest thereon, shall, by any action or contingency, be diminished or lost, it shall be replaced by the State or Territory to which it belongs, so that the capital of the fund shall remain forever undiminished ; and the annual interest shall be regularly applied without diminution to the purposes mentioned in the fourth section of this act, except that a sum, not exceeding 10 per cent upon the amount received by any State or Territory under the provisions of this act, may be expended for the purchase of lands for sites or experimental farms, whenever authorized by the respective legislatures of said States or Territories. Second. No portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall be applied, directly or indirectly, under any pretense whatever, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or buildings. Third. Any State or Territory which may take and claim the benefit of the provisions of this act, shall provide, within five years, at least not less than one college, as described in the fourth section of this act, or the grant to such State or Territory shall cease; and said State or Territory shall be bound to pay the United States the amount received of any lands previously sold, and that the title to purchasers under the State or Territory shall be valid. Fourth. An annual report shall be made regarding the progress of each college, recording any improvements and experiments made, with their cost and results, and such other matters as may be supposed useful — one copy A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 101 of which shall be transmitted by mail free, by each, to all the other colleges which may be endowed under the provisions of this act, and to the Smithsonian Institution, and the agricultural department of the Patent Office, at Washington. Under the rules of the House this bi]l would go to the Committee on Public Lands, but Mr. Morrill made an unsuccessful effort to have it referred to the Committee on Agriculture, of which he was a member. The bill was received by the Committee on Public Lands December 15 and was printed December 16. It remained in the custody of the committee four months and was then adversely reported April 15, 1858, by Mr. Cobb, of Alabama, the chairman. Mr. Walbridge, of Michigan, presented a minority report of those in favor of the bill. On April 20, a pending motion to postpone consideration of the bill permitted Mr. Morrill to deliver a speech submitting a substitute bill to be recommitted to the Committee on Public Lands. He recognized that the chief argument against the bill would be that it was unconstitutional. To offset this he pointed out that under the Constitution a v/ay had been found to protect and promote com- merce, to educate officers for the Army and Navy, to open up fields for internal trade by immense grants to railroads, to protect literary labor by copyright, and to encourage inventors by patents. But direct encouragement to agriculture had been withheld. This had prevented the improvement of agriculture, with the result that our soils had been widely exhausted through lack of proper treat- ment and fertilizers, and livestock had suffered greatly from dis- eases which might have been prevented or cured if trained veter- inarians had been available. Farmers had in recent years been aroused to their need of more knowledge relating to their art. The fairs of the agricultural societies are thronged and farm papers have great influence. There is a great demand for field and laboratory experiments. " Let us have such colleges as may rightfully claim the authority of teachers to announce facts and fix laws, and to scatter broadcast that knowledge which will prove useful in build- ing up a great nation." Miners and mechanics should also have the means to acquire culture, skill, and efficiency. Our present literary colleges need not fear the competition of agricultural colleges, which will move in a different sphere, for the farmers and the mechanics need special schools and appropriate literature as much as those in the so-called learned professions. There should be " a careful, exact, and systematized registration of experiments — such as can only be made at thoroughly scientific insti- tutions." In Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain, and Russia, agricultural schools, colleges, and experiment stations have been established, very largely with Government aid. Already in our own country some agricultural schools and colleges have been established. In Michigan, for example, such a college is supported by the State. But in general neither the States nor private individuals have been able to maintain such institutions. This bill is needed to give them life and success. Four-fifths of our population are in agricultural and mechanical employments and it is believed that if they could be consulted they would overwhelmingly favor this measure. The original States have given up their claims to the ownership of the public lands with the understanding that the Federal Govern- 102 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE ment would use them as " a common fund for the use and benefit of all." Many millions of acres have been granted to soldiers, to rail- roads, and to new States and Territories for schools and universities. These grants, as well as those made in the bill, increase the value of the public lands which the Government has for sale. Washington and Jefferson favored Government support for a na- tional university and Jackson was liberal in his attitude toward grants of public lands. The act of January 29, 1827, donating lands in Kentucky for an asylum for the deaf and dumb, passed both Senate and House by large majorities, and had the affirmative vote of James Buchanan and James K. Polk, then Members of the House. Other acts show that " the power of Congress to dispose of the public lands at its discretion is plain, absolute, and unlimited." The persuasive arguments of precedents ; the example of our worthiest rivals in Europe ; tlie rejuvenation of wornout lands ; the petitions of farmers every- Avhere yearning for " a more excellent way '' ; philinthropy supported by our own highest interests — all these considerations impel us for once to do some- thing for agriculture worthy of its national importance. The substitute bill offered by Mr. Morrill differed from the original bill by the omission of all reference to the Territories and by the addition of a provision that — When lands shall be selected from those which have been raised to double the minimum price, in consequence of railroad grants, they shall be computed to the State so selecting at double the quantity. On April 22, Mr. Morrill's demand for the previous question was granted in the House and this insured a definite vote on the bill. Mr. Cobb was allowed to be heard in opposition to the bill. He cited the adverse report on this bill which he had made as chairman of the Committee on Public Lands. If lands or money can properly be granted for the purpose designated in this bill a principle will be established which may lead to grants for a great variety of purposes. The committee sees no difference between an appropriation in lands or in money. " If the revenue from public lands is destroyed, the deficiency must be met by tax on the people." Congress may prop- erly make grants of land for improvements which will enhance the value of adjacent public lands. It is on this theory that grants for township schools in the new States or Territories have been made. In a few instances Congress has acted contrary to this principle but such precedents should not be followed. To support local institu- tions does not come Avithin the province of the Federal Government. If this bill passed, the lands thus granted would be put on the market so rax^idly that their value would be destroyed. Mr. Morrill's substitute bill was agreed to as an amendment to the original bill and was passed in the House by a vote of 105 yeas and 100 na3^s. In the Senate the bill was referred to the Committee on Public Lands and reported back without recommendation. It then went over to the following session, when under the leadership of Senator Benjamin AVade, of Ohio, it was discussed at great length on Febru- ary 7, 1859, and finally passed by a vote of 25 to 22. Among the active opponents of the measure were Senators Clay, of Alabama; Green, of Missouri; Mason, of Virginia; and Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi. Their chief arguments were based on its alleged uncon.stitutionality. Senator Clay summed these up when A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUKAL EDUCATION 103 he called attention to the fact that only a few Democrats favored the bill, and reproached them because they were going contrary to their professions — to be advocates of State rights ; .of a strict construction of tlie Federal Consti- tution ; opposed to enlarging Federal powers by construction ; in favor of the largest liberty of the States consistent with the prohibitions of the Consti- tution ; opposed to the distribution of the proceeds of the public lands ; in favor of the principles and sentiments enunciated by General Jackson in his veto of the land-distribution bill; opposed to any intervention by Congress with the domestic affairs of the States ; and in suffering them to manage their own internal and local affairs in their own way, subject only to the Constitution. President Williams, of the Michigan Agricultural College; Gary, of Ohio; Kennicott, of Illinois; Amos Brown, of New York; M. P. Wilder, of Massachusetts ; L. C. Byington, of Iowa ; D. P. Holloway, of Indiana; W. F. M. Arny, of Kansas; representatives of the Penn- sylvania College; and others were in Washington and did much to aid Morrill in securing the passage of the bill by furnishing material for its defense and by soliciting the support of Members of Congress. Evidently the personal canvass was efficient and there were a suf- ficient number of definitely pledged Congressmen to insure the pas- sage of the bill by a small majority. Turner and his associates in Illinois and elscAvhere were active by correspondence. Influence was also brought to bear on President Buchanan in the hope of prevent- ing a veto. Kesolutions and petitions from State legislatures, agri- cultural societies, and other sources came in great numbers from all parts of the United States. It has not been practicable to get a com- plete list of these but at least 45 have been noted. Mr. Morrill stated m February, 1859, that such papers had come from at least 13 State legislatures. The greatest hope that President Buchanan would sign the bill lay in his vote in Congress in 1827 in favor of a bill to grant public lands for a deaf and dumb asylum in Kentucky. Such a vote was also an embarrassment to other opponents of Morrill's bill and one of them ,said frankly that this vote was an error which ought not to be repeated. The President evidently accepted this view of that matter. On February 26, 1859, he returnecl the Morrill land-grant bill to the House of Representatives with a veto message. His reasons for refusing to sign the bill have been w^ell summarized by Doctor Powell, of the University of Illinois, as follows : It was extravagant as its effect would be to deprive the almost depleted Treasury of the $5,000,000 which the sale of public lands was expected to pro- duce during the next fiscal j'ear; it was impolitic because it would encourage the States to rely upon the Federal Government for aid to which they were not entitled ; it was injurious to the new States since it would force down the value of land scrip and make it possible for speculators to obtain large tracts within their borders ; it was insufficient to assure the promotion of industrial education because, although the State legislatures were required to stipulate that they would apply the land to the purpose for which it had been granted, there was no power in the Federal Government to compel them to execute their trust ; it was unjust since it would interfere with and probably injure colleges already established and sustained by their own effort ; it was unconstitutional since there was no grant of power to the Federal Government to expend public money or public lands for the benefit of the people in the various States {12^}. After the President's message had been delivered, Mr. Morrill in a brief but forceful speech asked the reconsideration of the bill. 12931—29 8 104 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE When the final vote was taken, 105 Representatives voted for and 94 against this measure, and thus the veto was not overruled. The bill received, however, the same number of favorable votes as in its first test in the House. THE SECOND COLLEGE LAND GRANT BILL Though greatly disappointed at the unsuccessful outcome of the great and widespread efforts in behalf of the first college land grant bill, the friendsi of this measure did not lose all hope of the final passage of a similar measure. A presidential election was approaching and its result might turn the scale in favor of such a Federal grant for education. The United States Agricultural Society discussed the matter at its meet- ing in Washington in January, 1860, but an attack by one of its members on President Buchanan prevented favorable action. In Illinois the State agricultural and horticultural societies joined in calling a meeting at Bloomington, June 27, 1860, to which represent- atives of all agricultural, horticultural, and mechanical associa- tions in the State and all individuals interested in agricultural edu- cation were invited. The following resolution prepared by a com- mittee of which Turner was chairman was adopted : Resolved, That this convention hereby request the executive committees of our State agricultural and horticultural societies to appoint a committee, whose duty it shall be, First, to memorialize Congress to grant to each of the States of the Union such aid as was contemplated in the bill called the " Morrill bill," which passed the House and Senate at a recent session ; Second, to memorialize and urge upon our State legislature, to renew their petition to Congress, for the same substantial aid ; Third, to urge the estab- lishment by the State legislature of a school or department of agriculture, under the general direction of a board appointed conjointly by the same State agricultural and horticultural societies for this purpose ; Fourth, to provide courses of lectures on agriculture and horticulture, similar to the course at the last session in Yale College, to be delivered at such times and places as they shall deem most fit, and to take measures needful to secure these results (12^). Believing that Abraham Lincoln would be nominated for Presi- dent of the United States, Turner asked him to support the college land grant bill. Lincoln is said to have replied: "If I am elected I will sign your bill for State universities." Stephen A. Douglas also assured him : " If I am elected, I will sign your bill." He followed this up after his defeat by writing Turner in June, 1861, for his plan for an industrial university and its history in order that he might introduce a land grant bill at the next session of Congress. His death prevented even a reply to this friendly message. When Congress met in December, 1861, Mr. Morrill gave notice that he would again introduce a college land grant bill and this was done December 16. The bill was referred to the Committee on Public Lands, of which Mr. Potter, of Wisconsin, was chairman. This was a very different committee from the one which had con- sidered the previous bill. Two elections had changed its complexion completely and its personnel had been materially reduced by the withdrawal of one of the national parties from Congress. A new party had also come into power. This committee nevertheless was adverse to Federal grants for vocational education, especially since A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 105 this proposition had not been received favorably by most of the State legislatures. Mr. Potter was instructed to report the bill adversely, but in so doing on May 29, 1862, gave no reasons for this action. Mr. Morrill did not attempt to have the bill considered in the House at this time because a similar bill introduced in the Senate had been favorably reported there. He asked leave on June 5 to print a substitute bill, but this was refused on objection by Mr. Holman, of Indiana. Meanwhile Senator Wade, of Ohio, probably by arrangement with Mr. Morrill, had introduced a similar bill in the Senate on May 2, 1862. This was referred to the Committee on Public Lands of which Senator Harlan, of Iowa, a friend of this measure, was chairman. It was favorably reported May 16, with two amend- ments. Opposition then centered in Senators Lane, of Kansas, and Wilkinson, of Minnesota. Senator Lane on May 21 offered an amendment which would have prevented purchasers of the land scrip granted to the States under this bill from locating any lands within the States, though they could locate it in the Territories. He supported this amendment in a long speech in which he claimed that the language used in the original bill would throw into the hands of nonresidents every foot of valuable public lands in Kansas before the State could select her school lands or get her share of railroad lands. Mr. Pomeroy, of Kansas, also favored this amendment because Kansas had not received the usual amount of public lands. The effect of the land grants in this bill on the new Western States was further discussed on May 22, 24, 28, and 30, and on June 10. In a statement made May 24, Mr. Harlan showed that Congress had been very liberal in making large grants of lands for various public purposes to the " land States." Nevertheless the feeling among Senators from the new States that too much land granted under this bill might be located in single States led to the introduction by Senator Lane of an amendment that not more than 1,000,000 acres should be located in any one of the States; that no such locations should be made before one year from the passage of this act. This amendment was supported by Mr. Wilkinson, who expressed his belief that without it the bill would interfere with the operation of the homestead act which had just passed Congress, and that specu- lators would get the scrip and locate the best lands, against the interests of soldiers serving at this time in the Union Army. So much sentiment in favor of this amendment was aroused in the Senate that Mr. Wacle, who was in charge of the bill, said on May 30 that he would not oppose it. There was also considerable reluctance to bring this measure to a vote, and it was not until June 10 that Senator Wade was able to secure its final consideration. The amendment above cited was adopted, together with another offered by Senator Collamer, of Vermont, that — No state shall be entitled to the benefits of this act unless it shall express its acceptance thereof by its legislature within two years from the date of its approval by the President. An amendment offered by Senator Pomeroy, of Kansas, that all scrip issued should bear upon its face a statement that it was issued 106 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE under this law, that no assignment of the scrip should be valid unless it was annexed to the face of the scrip, and furthermore that no one person should receive an assignment of more than 640 acres, was adopted by a vote of 20 to 19 and then reconsidered. Discussion having died down Senator Wade forced a vote, which was 32 to 7 in favor of the amended bill. Mr. Morrill, now one of the leaders in the House, called up the Senate bill June IT, when Messrs. Potter and Holman tried to have it referred to the Committee on Public Lands or to postpone the vote. But Morrill would not consent and finally secured a vote. It was passed by a vote of 90 to 25 and the long struggle to obtain this land grant for colleges was over. President Lincoln signed the bill July 2, 1862, having already on May 15 approved the bill creat- ing the United States Department of Agriculture. This was also the day when the Army of the Potomac began its retreat after the disastrous battle of MaWern Hill, and the fortune of Avar seemed to be against the preservation of the Union. The act of 1862 Avas prac- tically the same measure as the bill of 1857. The important differ- ences Avere the omission of the Territories, the increase of the land grant for each member of Congress from 20.000 to 30,000 acres, the exclusion of the benefits to States AA-hile in the act of rebellion, and the requirement to teach military tactics. Amendments to the act of July 2, 1862, were made by Congress in the act of March 3, 1883, which permitted States having no State stocks to invest the proceeds of the sale of the land scrip " in any other manner after the legislatures of such States shall have assented thereto," and engaged that this land-grant fund shall yield not less than 5 per cent and that the principal shall forever remain unim- paired, and in the act of July 23, 1866, extending the limit of the time of acceptance of land grant to three years from the passage of this act, and the establishment of the colleges to five years after the filing of the acceptance in the General Land Office, and pro- viding that A\dien any Territory shall become a State, it shall be entitled to the benefits of this act by expressing acceptance Avithin three years after its admission to the Union, and providing a college or colleges Avithin five years after such acceptance, and providing further that any State Avhich has heretofore accepted the act shall haA^e fiA^e years to provide at least one college after the time for doing this named in the act of July 2, 1862, shall have expired. THE INTENT OF THE COLLEGE LAND GRANT ACT Questions as to the real intent of the Morrill Land Grant Act arose as soon as it AA'as passed and these questions continued to arise from time to time. William H. BreAver, Avho in 1864 became professor of agriculture in the Sheffield Scientific School, made the folloAving statement regarding these problems (12) : In Connecticut many qnsstions arose immediatoly as to the details of the intent of the act. The same (or similar) questions arose in other States, both those Avith colleges already formed, and in those States building new (olleges and universities, according to the conditions existing in the several States. Many plans were proposed both as to the disposal of the funds and the methods of instruction to be given. Suggestions, theories, and schemes Avere proposed by educators, enthusiasts, cranks, associations, legislators, etc.. A HISTORY OP AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIOiT 107 as to how the grant might be used, how it could be used, how it ought to be used, what was the intent of the law, what was the spirit of tlie law iu which it should be interpreted, and what the letter of the law which must be obeyed. In nearly every State there were many propositions as to how this gift could be used to the best advantage. Some advisers would have a purely agricultural school and separate purely technical school. Others advocated that the two should be combined. Some advocates would have manual labor schools and trade schools united, or separate. Some would use the income from the grant in one large college of high grade ; others, divide the fund and make several lesser institutions of lower scholastic grade. Some would divide it still more widely and appoint special professors in several schools of the State. Some would apply it largely to lectures before mechanic associations and agricultural societies, and others would devote a considerable portion of it to itinerant lecturers. One eminent writer on agricultural matters w(.u d have it used for the wider dissemination of the regular agricultural newspapers, and so on through schemes too numerous to enumerate. For an interpretation of the law it is natural to turn first to its author. In the elaborate speech which Mr. Morrill made when his bill was before the House of Representatives in 1858 he frequently uses the term "colleo:es" to denote the institutions to receive the benefits of the bill. The grade of these institutions is indicated in the following statement from him: Let us have such colleges as may rightfully claim the authority of teachers to announce facts and fix laws, and to scatter broadcast that knowledge which will be useful in building up a great nation. He mentions the Michigan Agricultural College and evidently con- siders it in the class of institutions to be benefited by his bill. That he expects such institutions to provide distinctive instruction is clear from his statement that agricultural colleges and " literary " colleges "move in separate spheres." He clearly expects the land-grant colleges to advance knowledge by experimental inquiries, for — We need a careful, exact, and systematized registration of experiments, such as can be made at thoroughly scientific institutions and such as will not be made elsewhere. This is followed by a considerable list of the agricultural experi- ments needed. These institutions may not be able to discover means for controlling cotton or wheat insects but " some resulting improvements may safely be predicted upon the labors of 32 or more institutions actually engaged in scientific agriculture." As regards the education of mechanics " let us furnish the means for that arm to acquire culture, skill, and efficiency." In 1867 Mr. Morrill was invited to visit the Sheffield Scientific School in order that the faculty there might " talk with him regard- ing his intent in planning the bill, and his interpretation of the law." The following summary of the conference there is taken from notes made at that time by Professor Brewer (-?^')- Professors Brush, Lyman, and Brewer met Mr. Morrill at the residence of Professor Oilman (afterwards president of Johns Hopkins University) and " talked over the whole matter," and the next day Professor Brewer had further conversation with him. Mr. Morrill wished the bill to be broad enough so that the several States might use it to the best advantage. For this a wide latitude of use was neces- sary. The general wants and local conditions were very different in the differ- ent States and for the best use of this fund there must be much variety allowed in the details, although all the colleges should be the same in spirit and essen- 108 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, TJ. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE tially of the same grade, that is — colleges, in which science and not classics should be the leading idea. He did not intend them to be agricultural schools. The title of tlie bill was not his, and was not a happy one. A clerk was responsible for the title. He expected the schools to be schools of science rather than classical col- leges ; that the schools be, in fact, colleges and not institutions of lower grade, not mere academies or high schools. We asked upon this matter in consid- erable detail because there was much talk in some of the States about divid- ing the sum for lower grade schools. He said that the bill was purposely and carefully planned so that the old colleges might use tliis as an aid in expanding in the direction to give them more science teaching or that new colleges might be organized as the condi- tions and needs in the several States might demand. There were classical colleges enough. More science was needed in every State. But in all he wished as a prominent feature the " useful sciences " be taught and that where the natural influences of the studies might have less tendency to draw the students into purely literary and professional pursuits and away from the business pursuits. He " thought that at least one college in every State should teach military science." As to farms, they might or might not be attached. He did not consider them essential or he would have made it a condition as he had the condition of the teaching of the sciences. But he assumed that many, perhaps most, of the institutions would find a farm desirable. He himself thought it was a desir- able aid in agricultural instruction but he would not make it imperative. He had in his mind to aid science instruction, scientific schools, education for busi- ness pursuits. He praised our plan highly (the Shefiield Scientific School), and said over and over again it was working on a line he greatly commended, a line which complied with the letter, and the spirit, and the intent of the law. I inquired again specifically about the manual labor question then so much discussed. He thought it might be well for physical exercise, thought many schools would adopt it, but he was not sure enough of its real value as an educational factor to make it compulsory, etc., etc., etc. {12). At the Massachusetts Agricultural College June 21, 1887, in con- nection with the celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the passage of the land-grant act, Mr. Morrill spoke as follows {170) : The land-grant colleges were founded on the idea that a higher and broader education should be placed in every State within the reach of those whose destiny assigned them to, or may have the courage to choose industrial voca- tions where the wealth of nations is produced ; where advanced civilization unfolds its comforts and where a much larger number of its people need wider educational advantages and impatiently await their possession. The design was to open the door to a liberal education for this large class at a cheaper cost from being close at hand and to tempt them by offering not only sound literary instruction but something more applicable to the productive employments of life. It would be a mistake to suppose it was intended that every student should become either a farmer or a mechanic, when the design comprehended not only instruction for those who hold the plow or follow a trade, but such instruction as any i>erson might need — with " the world all before them where to choose " — and without the exclusion of those who might prefer to adhere to the classics. Milton in his famous dis- course on education gives a definition of what an education ought to be, which would seem to very completely cover all that was proposed by the land-grant colleges; and Milton lacked nothing of ancient learning, nor did he suffer his culture to hide his statement of republicanism. * * * It is a gratification to find that the largest endowment in any State has been husbanded most successfully, having fallen into very astute and worthy hands, and has served, with other large bounties, to build up the most complete and prosperous of these institutions. Speaking in behalf of the University of Vermont and State Agri- cultural College before the Vermont Legislature at Montpelier in 1888, Mr. Morrill said {377) : Only the interest from the land-grant fund can be expended, and that must be expended, first, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 109 for teaching such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts— the latter as absolutely as the former. Obviously not manual, but intellectual instruction was the paramount object. It was not provided that agricultural labor in the field should be practically taught, any more than that the mechanical trade of a carpenter or blacksmith should be taught. Secondly, it was a liberal education that was proposed. Classical studies were not to be excluded, and, therefore, must be included. The act of 1862 proposed a system of broad education by colleges, not limited to a superficial and dwarfed training, such as might be had at an industrial school, nor a mere manual training, such as might be supplied by a foreman of a workshop, or by a fore- man of an experimental farm. If any would have only a school with equal scraps of labor and of instruction, or something other than a college, they would not obey the national law. ****** :(t Whatever else might be done under the national law of 1862, scientific and classical studies, as already stated, were not to be excluded, were, therefore, to be preserved, and this is set forth at the very starting point, but the national bounty act brought to the front "branches of learning related to agriculture and the mechanic arts " — learning in the broad fields of the practical sciences, and none are broader than those related to agriculture. The useful was to have greater prominence in the eyes of students, as it will have in all their after- life, and not stand unequal and shamefaced even in the presence of ancient literature. Military tactics were also to be included, not merely as a healthful physical exercise, but as a valuable, incidental acquirement for all young men, with patriotic blood in their veins, and upon whom our country must rely as ever ready to stand among its future guardians and defenders. The fundamental idea was to offer an opportunity in every State for a liberal and larger education to larger numbers, not merely to those destined to seden- tary professions, but to those much needing higher instruction for the world's business, for the industrial pursuits and professions of life. There has been much discussion even down to recent times as to whether " mechanic arts," as used in this act, meant engineering, trade education, or mechanic arts as applied to agriculture only. R. A. Pearson, president of the Iowa State College, summed up this matter very well in a paper read at the annual meeting of the Asso- ciation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in 1915 (67). He points out that in the dictionaries in use when the land-grant bill was being considered " mechanic arts " is a broader term than engineering or trades : The Encyclopedia Britannica of 1857 states that mechanics, applicate or applied, is a term which, strictly speaking, includes all applications of the principles of abstract mechanics to human art. The article continues "thus have theory and practice in all ages promoted each other's advance; and the greatest obstacle to the advancement of both has always been a popular and scholastic fallacy that they are inconsistent." Happily that fallacy is now disappearing and its occurrence in the writings of any author may be consid- ered as a mark either of ignorance or of the inconsiderate use of words. In the Federal acts of 1883, 1890, and 1907 Congress had not indicated any objection to the high-grade work in mechanic arts or engineering being done by the land-grant colleges. Immediately after the passage of the land grant act of 1862 plans were made for giving the highest grade of instruction in mechanic arts at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cornell University, and other land-grant institutions. The Bureau of Education reported that — The first want felt in the establishment of this class of schools was the education of men of science to man them, but the first purpose for which they were established was the instruction of able, educated, trustworthy technologists, such as well-informed engineers, architects, mechanicians, manu- facturers, miners, agriculturists, and the like, for which the country was at that time loudly calling (57). 110 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGEICULTUEE It has sometimes been contended that "mechanic arts" in the land grant act was a wholly incidental matter and that only mechanic arts in their relation to agriculture was intended. This view is evidently refuted by Mr. Morrill's statement about the act. More- over the movement which culminated in the plans for the People's College in New York and industrial universities in Illinois had included instruction in mechanic arts as well as agriculture. The agricultural societies and other friends of agricultural education had often included instruction in mechanic arts in their programs. Mr. Morrill was therefore in line with the progressive educational thought of the times when he put mechanic arts on the same plane as agriculture in his land grant bill. Many of the States immedi- ately undertook the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges or introduced both branches in their universities. It was inevitable that a measure so broadly formulated and so indefinitely discussed before its passage should be interpreted in dif- ferent ways and according to the educational conditions in the sev- eral States. In Michigan it was natural to give the land grant to an agricultural college ; in Massachusetts to divide the grant between institutions for agriculture and mechanic arts; in Connecticut and some other States to give it to a scientific institution in which along with other sciences the science of agriculture would be taught to a few students; in Southern and some Western States to provide for literary and scientific education, with a little agricultural instruc- tion; and in New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and other States to create departments of agriculture and mechanic arts in universities. In many of the States there were few secondary schools and these were not generally accessible to the farming people. The land- grant colleges were therefore compelled to establish preparatory classes and to make their entrance requirements quite liberal. Trained teachers of the natural sciences were comparatively few and in the colleges generally it was expected that they would teach more than one science. There were practically no trained teachers of agriculture. This subject must be taught by the science teachers or by farmers with sufficient general education to prepare lectures and with enough farm experience to give direction to the farm labor of the students. Most agricultural books were of foreign origin or filled with material from foreign sources. There was no body of tested knowledge derived from American experience. Agricultural instruction was largely given through lectures, which were more often very theoretical or confined to the personal experience of the author. In a large part of the country pioneer conditions prevailed in farming, land was abundant and cheap, and production outran demand. In these regions there was little incentive to study agri- culture in a college. State control of higher education was a new thing. Politicians were naturally inclined to take a hand in the management of the land-grant colleges and in the absence of a civil- sei-vice system appointments of college presidents and faculties were not always based on merit. Frequent changes in boards of control and faculties made these colleges unstable in administrative policies and curricula. Under such conditions it is not surprising that after the first enthusiasm aroused by the land grant and the novel organ- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION HI ization of these colleges had subsided they grew slowly or even declined in the number of their students. The statistics of the first decade are very imperfect, but it appears that in 1872-73 12 of these colleges had less than 200 students in all their branches, 6 had less than 300, 4 less than 400, and 4 over 400. In their agricultural and mechanical departments 12 had less than 50 students, 6 less than 100, 6 less than 150, and only 3 over 150. ACCEPTANCE OF THE COLLEGE LAND GRANT BY THE STATES Under the act of July 2, 1862, the States were required to express acceptance of this provision within two years, but by the acts of April 14, 1864, and July 23, 1866, this time was extended to July 23, 1871, and as each Territory was admitted to statehood provision was made in its enabling act for a grant of land for agricultural and mechanical colleges in lieu of the original grant of 1862. Iowa accepted the provisions of the Morrill Land Grant Act on SejDtember 11, 1862, and was followed by Vermont on October 29 and Connecticut on December 24 of that year. Fourteen States accepted it in 1863, 2 in 1864, 1 in 1865, 6 in 1866, 4 in 1867, 3 in 1868, 1 in 1869, and 2 in 1870, making 36 in 9 years. During that period 35 institutions received its benefits by action of the State legislatures; 15 were colleges and 20 were universities at that time or later developed into universities. In Connecticut, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Rhode Island the use of the land-grant funds was finally taken away from the university and given to a separate college. In Delaware, Florida, Maine, Maryland, New Hampshire, and Ohio colleges were first given the land grant and afterwards became universities. In 9 States the land grant was given to 2 colleges and 7 universities wholly or partly on a private foundation and in 10 States to publicly supported colleges, which had more than an agricultural curriculum and were often designated agricultural and mechanical colleges. Massachusetts divided the fund between the Massachusetts Agricultural College and the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. Colleges for negroes in Virginia, Mississippi, and South Carolina received a portion of the land-grant fund. USE OF THE COLLEGE LAND SCRIP BY THE STATES Many of the States, particularly in the East and South, put the land scrip on the market so rapidly that they received much less for their land than the standard Government price of $1.25 an acre. They thus established such small fund.s that the annual interest was not sufficient for the maintenance of a college. The Central and Western States were more careful in locating- and manasinsr their land. As regards the investment and use of the funds derived from these land grants it proved impracticable to carry out the exact letter of the law. In 1918 the Bureau of Education stated that there was scarcely one State which had not, in some way, at some time, been in default. On this subject the bureau stated further that — The principal lines of default have been a delay in investing the capital, or investment at less than 5 per cent, causing loss of income to the college ; use 112 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE of capital for other purposes than for the college ; and finally the use of income for purposes not authorized by law, such as for the administration of lands or expenses of investments. In general these defaults have been made good as soon as proper attention was directed to them. Although defaults have been corrected, in the main immediately on being recognized, yet seldom have deficits been refunded or made up. Especially in the matter of loss of interest from lack of investment or from deficient interest return, it has been usual to replace the investment so as to obtain the required 5 per cent but to allow past losses to remain unsatisfied. There are, however, several exceptions to this practice (i). In the States which received scrip or land under the original act several plans for obtaining the required 5 per cent have been adopted as follows: (1) In a large number of the States, when it became evident that a continuous 5 per cent investment would be diflicult to find, the fund was turned over to the State treasury and the State itself assumed the load of interest, the capital being considered as part of the irreducible State debt. This was done in Con- necticut, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachu- setts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, and Peunsylvania. (2) In other States the receipts from the sale of lands were turned in to the State treasury as fast as received and added either to the State sinking fund or to general State funds, no attempt at outside investment being made. In such cases the State issues certificates of indebtedness at a good rate of interest. Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio handled their funds in this way. (3) Other States have invested the funds at the best rate obtainable in the open market, and make up the difference between the rate obtained and the required 5 per cent by direct legislative appropriation. Maryland and Rhode Island handle the funds in this way. (4) In Florida, Minnesota, and Wisconsin the legislature has authorized the governing board of the college to transfer funds from other general college funds in order to make up the deficit in interest. (5) In Illinois, North Carolina, and South Carolina the fund has been lost by defalcation or dishonesty and has been restored by the legislature. A State bond for tlie amount has been issued in each of these States. The newer States received invariably, in their State enabling acts, grants of public lands for many different purposes and running into the millions of acres. The care of these lands has become one of the principal administrative duties of the State. In every case a State land board has been created which locates the lands under the different grants and arranges for their use either by sale to individuals who will develop them, or by rental of the lands or of the privileges, such as grazing, mining, lumbering, water power, etc. Sales of lands are usually made on a part cash basis, the State collecting a liberal rate of interest on the deferred payments. The amount received from actual sales of lands of the agricultural college grants is turned over to the State treasurer and invested either by him or by some other authorized agency, at the best rate obtainable (i). In 1923 the Bureau of Education reported that the total number of acres actually received by the States was 10,928,295, of which 939,- 800.58 acres with an estimated value of $13,592,749.21 were not yet sold. The fund accumulated from the sale of lands aggregated $17,416,096.03. The largest fund in a State was $1,569,406.50 in North Dakota; Michigan had $1,003,495.12. Twelve other States had from $500,000 to over $700,000. Rhode Island had $50,000. Arizona had sold only a small portion of her grant for $3,855.91. THE FIRST DECADE OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES, 1862-1872 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE PROGRESS OF THESE COLLEGES In 1862 the United States was in the midst of civil war over secession and negro slavery. It was vitally important to control and develop the great empire west of the Mississippi River. Con- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 113 gress therefore passed the homestead act of May 20, 1862, under which 65,000,000 acres were settled up to 1880. Railroads received 159,000,000 acres between 1850 and 1871, in addition to 55,000,000 acres given them by the States, The war and the westward move- ment of population to engage in farming, the building of railroads, and the development of villages and cities caused a greatly increased demand for manufactures. From 1860 the United States increas- ingly became the chief source of food products and raw materials for Europe. The war greatly stimulated agricultural production. Scarcity of labor on the farms induced the use of more machinery, horses, and mules. Even before the war reapers, mowers, horse- rakes, cultivators, horse hoes, seed drills, and other improved ma- chines had come into common use. Thereafter the variety and number of farm machines in actual use constantly increased. It has been estimated that in 1865 there were 250,000 reapers, each of which cut 10 acres per day of 12 hours. Within the half century ended in 1880 the average amount of grain harvested, threshed, and pre- pared for market per man per day increased from 4 to 50 bushels. As soon as the war was over many of the 1,000,000 men who were in the Union Army, together with large numbers of Confederate soldiers, went to swell the huge hosts of natives and immigrants who were settling on western lands. The population of the grain States in- creased over 42 per cent between 1860 and 1870 and with the rapid building of railroads during the next decade over 297,000 square miles, an area equal to Great Britain and France, were added to the cultivated land of the United States. From about 1870 the manu- facture of new-process flour made possible a great expansion of the area devoted to spring wheat. Improvements in transporting and handling grain, general reduction of freight rates, as compared with those prior to the coming of the railroads, and the use of elevators also characterized this period. To the South the war brought disaster and impoverishment. A blockade largely prevented the exportation of cotton and tobacco. The abolition of slavery wiped out the vast values represented by human chattels. Farm equipment was largely ruined. Great num- bers of the white men who would have been owners or managers of farms lost their lives in the war. At first an attempt was made to continue the old plantation system and this was helped by the high price of cotton. But overproduction materially reduced the price, the negroes were unaccustomed to a wage system and would not work continuously or efficiently, debts incurred in reestablishing the plantations could not be paid, and excessive taxation by the carpet- bag governments made the planters' condition more hopeless. Many planters were forced to go out of business and great tracts of land became idle. It is estimated that the money value of southern farms declined 48 per cent between 1860 and 1870. Much land was then purchased in small tracts by white men and some by negroes. The latter, however, were generally content to become tenants and work little farms for a share of the crop. By 1876 about 40 per cent of the men working on southern farms were whites as compared with 11 per cent before the war. More fertilizers and somewhat better machinery were used and the yield of cotton per acre increased from 172 pounds in 1860 to 222 pounds in 1870. 114 MISC. PUBLICATIOK 3 6, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE There was also some diversification, but food supplies largely came once more from northern farms. A credit system was established which has ever since kept multitudes of the small farmers, especially the negroes, in financial bondage. In the Northeast dairy farming, poultry raising, fruit growing, and market gardening were largely developed. During the war the farmers in that region who remained on their farms were generally prosperous, but many went into the army or into other industries and many joined the hosts of emigrants to the western lands. There was a general reduction in the value of farm lands in that region and much of the poorer land went into pastures or woodlands. The growing of great numbers of cattle and sheep on the vast free ranges of the West largely restricted animal husbandry on the farms to the raising of hogs, which were used as a means of disposing of a large share of the corn crop. In general American farming after the Civil War became chiefly a matter of raising a limited number of staple crops. West of the Alleghenies these were principally raised on soils which required no fertilizers. With the rapid spread of population during the decade succeeding the passage of the land-grant college act production of crops outran demand, particularly where the means of transportation were limited. The railroads contributed very greatly to the rapid spread of population and together with other economic and social conditions kept both the old and new communities in a constant state of flux. Great numbers of the more vigorous and adventurous native people of the East went into the new communities and their place was more than taken by the hordes of emigrants from northern Europe. Many of the more enterprising and financially able of the Eastern people settled where comparatively well-organized communities already existed and built up villages and cities with the complicated financial, industrial, and social elements of modern civilization. This caused an exodus of the poorer but active people who had occupied this terri- tory and they renewed their efforts to establish agriculture and rural communities farther west. There they found the pioneer settlers who had already demonstrated the agricultural value of the land but had not the means to develop it fully, and being of a restless nature were willing to sell out and resume their pioneering still farther west. Thus there was constant agitation and movement from East to West, and men and women were principally engrossed in seeking new avenues for their activities and making a livelihood or fortunes by comparatively superficial means. In agriculture, in particular, there was little incentive to thorough and painstaking work. If the farm one OAvned was not satisfactory the family could easily get another where with comparatively rough- and-ready methods abundant crop,s could be produced and where perchance there was a better opportunity for enlarged farming opera- tions and better provision for the family's future. Or if one were a farm laborer he might at least become a homesteader and in a few years owner of 160 good acres as a result of quite simple farming. As regards education, outside of New England the question of complete support of even elementary schools with public funds had been .settled in the Northern States only a few years before the Civil War. In New York while a system of free schools was pro- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 115 vided by law in 1849 this was much opposed and actually abolished for a time. In Pennsylvania the maintenance of free schools was optional until 1854. In Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa the schools were made wholly free between 1853 and 1858. In Kansas nearly all schools were private prior to 1859, and in Michigan free schools were not generally established until 1869. AVhen the college land grant act was passed and in many places in the North long thereafter the term of free public schools in rural communities very often covered only a few weeks. The three R's, with perhaps a little geography and United States history, were imperfectly taught in the great majority of these rural schools. In the South anything like a general State public school ^ystem did not exist before 1870. That year there were only about 160 public high schools in the United States. When the Michigan Agricultural College was opened in 1857 there were about 200 colleges in the United States. In most of them the classical course leading to the degree of bachelor of arts was the only regular collegiate course. Chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, geology, and astronomy were often included in this cour^e, but usually taught with lectures and textbooks, without laboratory practice by the student. Latin and Greek were the principal entrance requirements, to which were usually added English grammar, geog- raphy, arithmetic, algebra (through simple equations), and some- times history. Yale was the first college to require geometry, and this was done in 1856. According to the catalogue for 1857 the faculty of Harvard Uni- versity consisted of 51 persons. In the regular undergraduate course in Harvard College chemistry and botany were required in the sophomore year, and physics in junior and senior years. Botany was an elective in junior year and geology, anatomy, and zoology in senior year. There were 398 undergraduates and 4 graduate students; in the divinity, law, and medical schools there were 231 students. In the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard LTniversity there were only 67 students. Candidates for admission must have attained the a,2;e of 18 years, have received a good English education and be qualified to pursue to advantage the courses of study to which they propose to give their attention. "The degree of bachelor of science may be conferred on any student, who. having attended the instruction of the school for at least one year, and completed the prescribed course of study in one or more departments, shall have passed a satisfactory public examination." There were 17 students in chemistry, G in geology and zoology, S in comparative anatomy and physiology, 1 in botany, and 1 in mineralogy and geology. Professor Horsford gave a course in " experimental chemistry and research," including among other things analyses of soils and ashes, and manufacture of manures. In zoology and geology, besides the lectures. Professor Agassiz "will afford students access to his laboratory during certain hours, in order to show them how to observe different formations and how to conduct a regular geological survey." Excursions in term-time and vacation are also offered. In botany Professor Gray will give " special practical instruction " " in classes of not more than 3 each." from April 1 to the close of the term. The botanic garden is accessible to students (5-//7). In Yale College in 1857 the faculty numbered 41 persons. In the regular undergraduate course there were 447 students and in theology, law, and medicine 82 students. In the bachelor of arts 116 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE course there were onjy six electives, of which mineralogy was one (for a single term — one-third year). Among the required subjects were natural philosophy and astronomy in junior and senior years, one term of chemistry, and short courses of lectures in mineralogy, geology, meteorology, and anatomy. The Yale (Sheffield) Scientific School had only 36 students, of whom 13 were in chemistry. The course occupied two years. Pre- vious study of chemistry was not required for admission to the school. The analytical laboratory was fully equipped for practical instruction in all branches of analytical and experimental chemistry. The atmosphere of even Harvard, Yale, and the University of Michigan, where the study of the sciences was much more encour- aged than at the other colleges, was so charged with the traditional influences of the classical learning that few students could be per- suaded to take the scientific courses which had practical applica- tions. The land-grant colleges were therefore entering on what was practically an uncultivated field of education in this country. Their subject matter, curricula, and methods of instruction had to be developed to suit new traditions. On the one hand they felt obliged to keep close to their agricultural and mechanical constit- uency, particularly the farmers, and therefore to make the require- ments for admission comparatively low. On the other hand they felt the influence of the college standards then in vogue, particularly since their administrative officers and faculties were necessarily drawn from the ranks of men trained in the classical courses or in the pure sciences. In agriculture there was very little knowledge which had been tested scientifically. The instruction therefore necessarily dealt almost entirely with practical details of farm operations or with theories resting on shallow and often unsound basis. To satisfy the demand for practical instruction these new colleges fell back on the manual-labor theory and practice, which fortunately for them still had some standing among educators. It is almost safe to say that it was the manuaj-labor feature of many of the early agricultural colleges which made it possible for them to exist and to draw considerable numbers of students from the farming people. Where this was omitted or minimized the agricultural students were very few. This manual-labor system was bound to fail because it had little educational value. It served, however, to give the agricultural colleges under the land grant act time to get organized and fairly we.ll settled in their general educational pro- gram and to begin through experimental inquiries to collect the tested Imowledge necessary to the construction of worth-while agricultural courses. ORGANIZATION AND EARLY WORK OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES When the land grant act passed there were in operation agricul- tural colleges in Maryland, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, and agri- culture was taught at the Yale Scientific School in Connecticut. Within the next 10 years agricultural instruction was given in agri- cultural and mechanical colleges in Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Texas, Virginia, and in universities in California, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Min- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 117 nesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. In Massachusetts a college devoted to agriculture only and a separate institution for the mechanic arts had been established. The influence of the Yale Scientific School was strongly felt in the organization of the land-grant institutions in a number of States. In New Hampshire the land-grant college was attached to Dartmouth College, where the Chandler Scientific School had been organized on the basis of an endowment by Abiel Chandler for mechanic arts and civil engineering. This was supplemented by a gift from Sylvanus Thayer for architecture and civil engineering. A course in applied science was offered. Work under the land grant act was begun in September, 1868. With the aid of the land- grant fund professors of agricultural chemistry and animal and vegetable physiology were employed. In Rhode Island the land-grant fund was given to Brown Uni- versity, which organized a scientific curriculum of three years, including a brief course of lectures on agi'iculture. At the University of Vermont in 1867 instruction in analytical and agricultural chemistry was offered in the scientific department, which had a three-year curriculum, including a course of lectures on agriculture in February and March. In New Jersey a scientific school was opened at Rutgers College in 1866, which had a farm of 100 acres for experimental purposes. In 1867 agricultural and mechanical colleges were opened at Orono, Me., with 13 students; at Morgantown, W. Va., with preparatory and scientific and agricultural departments. That year the University of Wisconsin announced that a student might give three years to agriculture or join the college of letters or arts and devote as much time as he pleased to agriculture and in 1868 it appeared that the student well up in science could complete the agricultural course in one year. The Maryland Agricultural College had a scientific course in 1867 with perhaps some instruction relating to agriculture. The Kansas Agricultural College which had opened in 1863 five years later had an academic or classical curriculum and an agricultural and scien- tific curriculum of three years. Many of the students were in pre- paratory classes. Special efforts were made to train teachers. The student body contained 97 men and 71 women. In New York Cornell University was opened in 1868, with a college of agriculture, and professors of agricultural chemistry and veterinary medicine. Prior to 1873 it had great difficulty in securing a satisfactory teacher of agriculture, and the number of students in the strictly agricultural classes was small. The Massachusetts Agricultural College, the only land-grant insti- tution intended to be exclusively for students interested in agricul- ture and agricultural science, was opened in 1867 and the following year had 96 students. Five years later, at the end of the first decade after the passage of the land grant act, there were reported to be in agricultural and mechanical courses in Michigan, 143 students; in Pennsylvania, 130; in Maryland, 130; in Maine, 103; in New Hampshire, 22; in Ver- mont, 21; in New Jersey, 67; in New York, 151; and in Rhode 118 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Island, 25. In agriculture alone West Virginia had 29; Massa- chusetts, 139; Kansas, 50. In Wisconsin, 30 students in the College of Arts attended lectures on agriculture. In the land-grant institutions opened after 1867 there were students in agriculture and mechanic arts as follows: In Alabama, 53; Georgia, 151; Kentucky, 181; Mississippi, 5; Oregon, 50; Ten- nessee, 37; Virginia, 122. In agricultural courses there were in Arkansas, 50; Delaware, 14; North Georgia, 25; Illinois, 87; Iowa. 243; Missouri, 138; and Ohio, 176. In Pennsylvania the death of Doctor Pugh in 1864 was a very severe blow to the college. It had many internal difficulties and in 1868 there was an entire change of faculty. The college tended to become an institution for scientific and literary education and its name was changed in 1874 to the Pennsylvania State College. In Connecticut the agricultural work was only a small part of the curriculum of a scientific school. There w^as instruction of a com- paratively high order in analytical and agricultural chemistry, with laboratory practice. Beyond that there were brief courses of lectures on agricultural subjects. The institution had no farm and the course w^as too severely scientific to attract many students. In 1868 the school stated its aims regarding agriculture as follows : We can not expect to equal the special scbools of agriculture in the very desirable work of training practical farmers, though we hope by the prosecu- tion of the science of agriculture, and by the training of scientific professors and agriculturists to contribute to the progress of agi'iculture. In 1871 a meeting of representatives of the agricultural colleges was held at Chicago. In a letter to Dean Davenport, of Illinois, E. W. Hilgard, who was present at that meeting, writes about one of the principal subjects discussed there as follows : It followed the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, from where a number of men, includ.ng myself, went to Chicago as the result of a call issued some time before by a committee of agricultural college men, to discuss the question of agricultural education, which at that time already had begun to be sharply contested between the advocates of the " Michigan plan," also followed by Pennsylvania, and those who, with the Sheffield School, Harvard, and a few others, favored the university grade of agricultural education I, after- a few years' trial of the Michigan plan at the University of Mississippi (which I then represented), contended strongly for the second, with the corollary that in order to interest the farmers, experi- mental work bearing directly upon each State's practical problems, is the prime need. We had quite a lively time, Michigan battling strongly for the student-labor plan, as the only " practical " one, and which would not " educate the students away from the farm." Gilman, then librarian of Yale, and I were the chief fighters on the university side, seconded in a measure by Gregory (president of Illinois University) and the delegates from Wisconsin and Minnesota. During the first decade after the passage of the college land grant act the States had accepted the provisions of the act and had sold their land scrip so rapidy that the price of the land had been de- IDressecl W'ith the result that in most States relatively small land- grant funds had been acquired and it was necessary for the States to supplement these materially if State colleges of the character contemplated in the land grant; act were to be maintained; and the colleges to receive the benefits of this act had been selected and put or continued in operation, but financial, economic, and educational conditions had been such that only a limited number of students A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATIOIST 119 had been attracted to these institutions. The Civil War, in which many men of college age were engaged as soldiers, also hindered the early development of the land-grant colleges. It had proved par- ticularly difficult to construct good agricultural courses. The teach- ing of chemistry, botany, and zoology and their relations to agri- culture, and of practical systems of agriculture, principally by means of lectures, had been combined with manual labor on the college farms, which for the most part had had comparatively little educa- tional value. The development of laboratory work in the natural sciences in which the students participated and the direction of the study of the sciences tow^ard their applications to agriculture and other useful arts had thus far been the chief educational contribution of the land-grant colleges. The need of experimental inquiries to develop a body of scientifically tested knowledge which might be used as a basis for more thorough and satisfactory instruction in agriculture was beginning to be apparent. Neither the managere and teachers in the land-grant colleges nor the farmers were satisfied with their agricultural work. Economic conditions were developing which would turn the efforts of the land-grant colleges largely in the direction of the mechanic arts and keep the muuber of agricultural students at a relatively Ioav level for a number of years pending the carrying on of agricultural experimentation on a broad scale and with large practical results. These colleges were also about to show that wdiile their systematic courses in agriculture were weak they could broadly aid agricultural progress by their contacts with large numbers of adult farmers in their societies and farmers' institutes and through the agricultural press. Farmers' institutes were first held at the Kansas Agricultural Col- lege in 1868, by the Illinois Industrial University in 1870, the Iowa Agricultural College in 1871-72, and the University of Nebraska in 1873-74. THE EXPERIMENT STATION AND EXTENSION MOVEMENTS IN THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES, 1873-1887 GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THIS PERIOD The great panic of 1873 w^as the culmination of a period of rapid expansion of agriculture, manufacturing, and railroad building. The capital of the country had too largely been locked up in specu- lative and legitimate enterprises which were giving little or no return. The efforts of the Federal Government to put money on a sound basis by contraction of the paper currency and the limitation of the coinage of silver brought about the difficulties which usually accompany deflation. The great fires in Boston and Chicago helped to make the financial situation unusually bad. The general result of the situation brought about by this panic was a great lowering of the prices of merchandise and agricultural products and of wages and salaries. There was an extensive redistribution of the wealth of the country and the reorganization of its business activities. A great contest arose regarding the use of silver and paper money as related to gold. It was decided to continue the coining of the silver dollar, giving it a weight of 4121^ grains, but the amount of such coinage 12931—29 9 120 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE was definitely limited. The p^reenbacks were retained but not in- creased and on January 1, 1879, specie ]:)a3^ment was resumed. Protection of manufacturers through a tariff became a settled policy, under which the home market was verj^ largely reserved for domestic goods. The growth in urban counnunities with greatly varied industries, the continuing expansion of agriculture, and the reconstruction of the South provided a constantly enlarging home market. Mechanic arts grew in variety and extent; the applications of science to such arts became more and more numerous. By 1880 the annual value of manufactures in the United States had risen to over $5,000,000,000. There was also a great increase in the mining of coal, iron, silver, gold, petroleum, etc. Activity in railroad build- ing Avas soon resumed after the panic of 1873. Between 1870 and 1880 the railroad mileage doubled and in the next 10 years grew from 93,296 to 103,597 miles. The largest part of this development was in the Central and Western States. Communication through the postal routes and telegraph lines was greatly extended, and in 1876 the telephone came. To meet the needs of reviving industry, immigration was strongly encouraged. In 1879 the number of innnigrants rose to 789,000 as compared with 400,000 in 1873. Combinations of capital in railroad- ing and manufacturing increased greatly in number and extent and produced profound results in tlie industrial world. These combina- tions at first took the form of agreements betAveen competitors to fix prices, limit output, or divide territory or profit. Then came the more substantial and permanent combinations known as "" trusts," beginning with the Standard Oil Co. in 1882. When these were made illegal, " holding companies " were devised. The growth of large trusts was promoted by alliances with natural monopolies, especially railroads. The giving of rebates on freight charges to large shippers became very prevalent. The railroads themselves broke down competition wdth each other to a considerable extent through " pooling." The transfer of the mechanical industries to large factories or organizations like the railroads and the increase of their management through corporations vitally al!'ected the relations of industrial work- ers with their employers. Labor came to be looked upon more gen- erally merely as a commodity, and its human relationships were too often ignored. After the Civil War wages did not increase as rap- idly as prices. This led to the formation of unions by the locomo- tive engineers, bricklayers, iron and steel workers, and other labor- ers. In 1860 the National Labor Union was formed, but this Avas soon wrecked through its political activities. Then came the Knights of Labor. Begun in 1809. it Avas for 10 years a secret society and open on that account to much misrepresentation and attack. Its aims were " to bring Avithin the folds of organization every depart- ment of productive industry, making knoAvledge a standpoint for action, and industrial and moral Avorth, not Avealth, the true stand- ard of national greatness." It Avished " to secure to the Avorkers the full enjoyment of the wealth they create, sufficient leisure in AA'hich to dcA^elop their intellectual, moral, and social faculties, all of the benefits, recreation, and pleasures of association" {U). The accom- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL, EDUCATION" 121 plishnient of many of its demands could be brought about only by legislative action, and it ultimately became entangled in politics. It was also unfavorably affected by disastrous strikes in 1877 and 1886. Its government was highly centralized and autocratic and this brought it into conflict Avith other labor organizations. Its greatest influence was exerted between 1880 and 1890. At one time it claimed a membership of over 700,000. AVhen it declined its place was taken by the American Federation of Labor, distinctly a " confederation," in which each trade was organized separately and represented in the national body by its union. The federation aimed to deal only Avith matters of general interest to the unions. Agriculture went on expanding after 1873 in spite of economic difficulty. Free public land and cheap private land in the West lured great nudtitudes of men to seek their fortunes by farming on virgin soils and under the freedom of pioneer conditions. The area of cultivated land spread beyond the region of adequate rainfall. The successful example of farming under irrigation which the Mormons had demonstrated prior to the Civil War stimulated attempts at irrigation elsewhere. Railroads and speculators widely advertised the advantages of irrigation. Between 1870 and 1880 a million acres were brought under irrigation ditches and then under the influ- ence of the speculative boom the irrigated area was increased to 3,631,381 acres by 1889. The desert land act of 1877, under which 640 acres was offered at $1.25 an acre to the settler practicing irriga- tion, proved of chief benefit to the irrigation companies and to sheep and cattle ranchers, whose business was growing enormously during this period. The rapid expansion of agriculture, while it gave employment to multitudes of men and made comparatively easy the passage from the status of farm laborer to that of farm oAvner, constantly tended toward overproduction of crops and livestock. The railroad build- ing which accompanied the agricultural expansion outran the limits of safe business and led to charges for transportation which often seemed unfair to the agricultural people. The necessary sale of farm products through commission merchants, Avho were often far away and had fcAv personal contacts with the farmers, created suspicions of unfair dealing which were in many cases justified. Federal tax- ation, which produced more revenue than the Government needed for ordinary expenses, and State and local taxation to provide for roads, schools, and other things required by new communities or in old communities by the rapidly expanding requirements of the new age, bore heavily on the agricultural people. If to these things was added a heavy burden of mortgages Avith high interest rates the farmer naturally felt that he did not have a fair deal in a country where Avealth Avas tending to accumulate more and more in com- paratively fcAv hands. Though for a brief time after 1880 the farm- ers were somewhat more prosperous, the locking up of vast sums of money in farm lands and railroads again caused financial difficulties, culminating in the panic of 1884. At that time the price of wheat fell to 64 cents a bushel. Agriculture then remained in a depressed condition for a number of years. 122 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE THE FIRST MASS MOVEMENT OF FARMERS American farmers had from colonial times lived comparatively isolated lives on separate farms, rather than in villages, and had prided themselves on their independence. Such societies as had arisen among them had had a small membership composed largely of the more wealthy and better educated men, many of whom united farming with other pursuits and were more or less influential in public affairs. It is an interesting fact that when the time was ripe for the first mass movement of American farmers to better their condition it yvas brought about through the activity of a very small number of this same type of men. And it is also noteworthy that it paralleled the attempt of the laboring men of that time to form a broad organization through a secret society, such as the Knights of Labor. In 1866 when agricultural and other conditions in the South were giving the country much anxiety President Johnson consulted the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, Isaac Newton. The lesults was that Oliver Hudson Kelley (fig. 9), a native of Boston, Mass., who in 1849 had taken up farming at Ithaca, Minn., and was at this time a clerk in the Department of Agriculture, was sent South to study conditions there. He found that his membership in the masonic order made him an acceptable visitor to many southern people. This suggested to him that a secret farm organization with a ritual and diiferent orders would be a good thing and when later he visited his niece. Miss Carrie A. Hall, in Boston, she persuaded him to include the membership of women in the plan for this organi- zation. Returning to Washington as an employee in the Post Office Department, he formed the acquaintance of W. M. Ireland, John Trimble, and William Saunders, for many years in charge of the gardens and grounds of the Department of Agriculture. These men favored Kelley 's project and he therefore elaborated his plan of organization aiid ritual. J. R. Thompson, A. B. Grosh, and F. M. McDowell were also " founders of the order." On December 4, 1867, the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry was organized, with Saunders as master and Kelley as secretary. The original ob- jects of the grange were wholly educational and social. In his first printed circular, November 1, 1867, Kelley stated that its main object is " to encourage and advance education in all branches of agriculture," and in the circular of February 3, 1868, " with regard to the modes of education, mention may be made of mental instruction through the reading of essays, and discussions, lectures, formation of select libraries, circulation of magazines, and other publications touching directly upon the main subject desired, namely, those inculcating the principles governing our operation in the field, orchard, and garden" {08). Mr. Saunders, in 1870, said that — to increase the products of the earth by increasing? the knowledge of the pro- ducer is the basis of our structure ; to learn and apply the revehitions of science as far as it rehites to the farmer's products of the vegetable world, and to diffuse the truths and general principles of the science and art of agri- culture, are the ultimate objects of our organization. When Kelley went out in February, 1868, to organize granges and traveled across the count rv from Pennsylvania and New York A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION- 123 to his home in Minnesota he had very little success. The farther west he went the more he was reminded by the farmers that what they wanted was an organization to protect them against the injus- tices of railroads and middlemen in the transportation and selling of agricultural products and the buying of farm supplies and ma- FiG. 9.— Oliver H. Kelley chinery. He yielded to this demand and in a circular of September, 1868. broadened the objects of the grange, which now are "to advance education, to elevate and dignify the occupation of the farmer, and to protect its members against the numerous combinations by which their interests are injuriously affected." This made the organization of granges in Minnesota easier and by 1869 there was a State grange 124 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U, S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE in that State which wanted the order to collect and disseminate in- formation about crops, prices, and transportation ; establish depots in cities for sale of products, purchase and exchan<»:e of seeds; a labor office; and testing of farm supplies and implements. They appointed that year a State agent to buy supplies and implements and issued the first grange paper. By 1870 there were 40 granges in Minnesota. In 1871, 130 new local granges and 2 State granges were formed. Grange agencies were established in several cities and the movement for grange stores began. That year the somewhat mythical character of the National Grange was disclosed, when, for the first time, the masters of the State granges were invited to attend its annual meeting at Wash- ington. One thousand one hundred and five local granges were or- ganized in 1872, of which G52 Avere in Iowa. All sections of the coun- try including 25 States now had granges and there were 10 State granges. The celebrations and picnics of this order brought thou- sands of farming people together. The first delegate session of the National Grange was held in January, 187H, at which 24 men and 4 women represented 11 States. The order grew very rapidly and 32 State granges were represented the next year in the National Grange. A famous " declaration of purposes " was issued at this time. We propose meeting" together, talking tojretlier, worlving togetlier. buying togetlier, selling together, and, in general, acting together for our mutual pro- tection and advancement as occasion may require. * * * For our business interests we desire to bring producers and consumers, farmers and manufac- turers into the most direct and friendly relations possible. Hence we must dispense with a suri)lus of middlemen. Transportation companies of every kind are necessary and every State should increase facilities for transporting cheaply. We shall advance the cause of education among ourselves and for our children by all just means within our power. We especially advocate for our agricultural and industrial colleges that practical agricultiu'e, domestic science, and all the arts which adorn the home be taught in these courses of study (2). Conditions arising out of the panic of 1873 greatly intensified and broadened the discontent of the farmers. As a result the membership of the granges grew with marvelous rapidity and reached its maxi- mum of about 1,000,000 men and women in 1875. Meanwhile the order had embarked on an extensive program of cooperative buying and selling, including numerous agencies and stores. Even the man- ufacture of implements and other articles and the management of banks and life and fire insurance companies were undertaken. The time was not ripe for such a movement in this country and most of these cooperative enterprises failed. However, through them the farmers discovered the real value of the services of middlemen, mer- chants, and numufacturers and the advantage of direct and large purchases. They were to a certain extent able to modify the exist- ing credit systems. Many farmers got a training in business meth- ods. They learned the poAver of organization and service and from that time have used it for business purposes in increasing measure. The grange was also very ])rominent and influential in a broad agrarian movement which sought to improve the contlitions of agri- culture and rui'al life thi'ough legislation. Numerous farmers' clubs participated in this movement as well as larger organizations, such as the Farmers Alliance, which became competitors of the grange. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 125 It is, however, fjenerally known as the granger movement. This was most influential in tlie Nortli Central States, California, and Oregon. Its greatest effort was to secure public control of railroads by the States. It secured the passage of laws for the establishment of maxi- mum rates for transportation, the creation of State railroad commis- sions, prevention of pooling, prohibition of free passes to public officials, etc. There was also much agitation for Federal control, but attempts to secure legislation on this subject b}^ Congi'ess failed. In his work entitled " The Granger Movement," S. J. Buck, of the University of Illinois, sums up the results of this effort as follows : On the wliole it seems that the ininiediate economic results of the granger agitation for railroad regulation were small. * * * rpjj^, indirect and IKilitical results of the movement, however, were more important; it led to decisions by the United States Sui)reme Court which established the right of States to control railroads; and it Inid the foundation for later legisla- tion (lH). This movement also brought about State reforms in taxation, pub- lic education, the establishment of boards of agriculture, the collec- tion of agricultural statistics, etc., and in the local communities favor- ably affected many interests. In educational matters the grange stood for the improvement of the rural schools, and from 1878 favored the teaching of agriculture in these schools. While it often criticized the land-grant colleges and m some States attempted strongly to change the character of their agricultural instruction it favored liberal State and Federal support of these institutions and at times helped materially to promote their growth. It also worked efficiently toward the strengthening of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State and Federal legislation for the estab- lisliment and maintenance of the agricultural experiment stations. The failure of its cooperative enterprises and dissatisfaction and differences of opinion regarding its legislative efforts led to a very large decline in the membership of the grange after 1875 and in 1889 it had only about 100,000 paid members. In many localities it disappeared, particularly in the South and West. In the North- eastern and a few North Central States it reverted very largely to its original status as an educational and social organization. On this basis it has done much useful work and in recent years has spread out more widely and again has become one of our largest and most influential farm organizations. As a social organization through its local. State, and national meetings, and even its business enterprises, it has brought large numbers of the farming people together for instructional, recreational, and charitable purposes. In its recognition of the activities of women and young people as essen- tial and important elements in the social life of the farm home and rural community it has done much to better the conditions of coun- try life. It has supported scholarships at some of the agricultural colleges. Many members of the grange have taken part in the farmers' institutes and other extension activities or have sent mem- bers of their families to the agricultural schools and colleges. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS As population sjDread westward between 1870 and 1890 the free public schools of elementary grade greatly increased in number. In 126 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGPJCULTUEE the South public school systems were established and had consid- erable growth during thisperiod. The States generally took more interest in education, organized or strengthened departments of education, and materially increased school appropriations. The public high schools greatly increased in number and attendance. By 1890 there were in the North Atlantic States 786 high schools; in the South Atlantic States, 115; in the South Central States, 158; in the North Central States, 1,376; and in the Western States, 91; making a total of 2,526. The principle of public support of higher educa- tion had been generally adopted. There were State universities in 33 States, of which 16 had been opened for students after 1865. The courses of instruction in the high schools and colleges were greatly broadened. The free elective system which had been begun by Harvard University in 1867 under the leadership of President Eliot spread rapidly throughout the country during this period. The teaching of the natural sciences was much broadened and specialized and the laboratory method was widely used. The applications of science to the mechanic arts greatly increased in variety and there was enormous development of manufacturing, railroading, mining, irrigation, and road and bridge building. Persons versed in science or engineering were therefore in great demand as experts or teachers. The land-grant institutions especially felt the influence of this demand and enlarged their departments of science, mechanic arts, and engineering to meet it. Students flocked into these departments because the prospect of profitable employment for those who pur- sued such courses was so bright. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN THIS PERIOD Overproduction of agricultural products by comparatively crude methods and the depression of agricultural values during this period deterred J^oung men from entering the agricultural courses of the colleges. Even the members of farm organizations which advocated agricultural education often advised students to keep out of the agricultural courses. Much of the agricultural instruction given in the colleges was either too theoretical or did not rise above the level of informational accounts of the farm products and operations. There was in this period little systematic effort to improve agricultural instruction pedagogically or systematically. Each teacher of agri- culture very largely went his own Avay. Courses were often arranged to catch students or to meet the needs of young, ill-organized, and poorly equipped institutions. In many of the land-grant institu- tions the agricultural departments Avere completely overshadowed by the popular courses in engineering, general sciences, and liberal arts. Nevertheless, agricultural instruction was broadened in scope and the way was opened for the great and rapid development which was soon to follow. A beginning was made in the preparation of suitable textbooks and manuals of agricultural subjects, though less than 100 books on agriculture and related sciences were issued by agricultural college men up to 1895, as compared with nearly 300 in the next decade. It was in this period that Professor Henry of the University of Wisconsin, seeing the small demand for advanced agricultural instruction, organized the first successful short courses A HISTORY OF AGRlCULTtlRAL EDIJCATIOlsr 127 in 188G, and four years later the special dairy school for the prac- tical instruction of men to manage creameries and cheese factories. It has been shown that from the beginning men who in the early societies advocated the establishment of agricultural schools and colleges expected to make experiments and scientific investiga- tions a part of the work of these institutions. This was included in the consideration of the land grant act of 1862. As soon as col- leges were established under this act they undertook such work. Little was accomplished during the first decade, but before the end of that period it became apparent to a number of men engaged in the work of the agricultural colleges that progress in agricultural instruction depended very largely on the accumulation of agricul- tural knowledge through systematic investigation and experimenta- tion. Professor Hilgard dates the beginning of the experiment sta- tion movement in this country from the time of the meeting of the representatives of the land-grant colleges at Chicago in 1871 (p. 192), but before this Professor Johnson and his associates in the Yale Scientific School in Connecticut had inaugurated work looking toAvard the establishment of such stations. The experiments of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted, England, the investigations of Boussingault in France, and the organized work of experiment stations in Germany, had already attracted attention in this country. From 1855 the United States Patent Office had employed men to conduct investigations in entomology, chemistry, and botany, and this Avork was enlarged after the Department of Agriculture w^as established in 1862. In 1870 the Bussey Institution (p. 18) was established as a branch of Harvard College to give instruction in agriculture and related sciences. In the same year the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture granted to the corporation of Harvard College a considerable sum "for the support of a laboratory and for experiments in agricultural chemistry, to be conducted on the Bussey estate." As soon as the laboratory was completed in 1871, F. H. Storer, professor of agricultural chemistry, and his as- sistants began field tests and chemical analyses of fertilizers. Reports of this work and of investigations on hybridizing plants, the composition of feeding stuff's, injurious fungi, etc., were soon published. The great fire in Boston in 1872 and the commercial crisis of 1873 crippled this institution financially and it did little more original work for a number of years. DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE The United States Department of Agriculture established by the act of Congress of May 15. 1862, as an outgrowth of the agricultural division of the Patent Office, became increasingly an important factor in the promotion of agricultural education and research. It pub- lished the accounts of the progress of the land-grant institutions and in other ways aided their agricultural work. It distributed seeds and plants collected from domestic and foreign sources. For a number of years the grounds where department buildings now stand were used for field experiments. It published agricultural statis- tics and developed a system of crop reporting. Investigations in 128 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE agricultural chemistry, economic entomology, agricultural botany, forestry, economic zoology, and animal diseases were undertaken and results of large importance in some of these lines were obtained within the first 25 years of the department's operation. EARLY STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS The dearth of agricultural students in the land-grant colleges gave the teachers in the agricultural departments of these colleges time for experimental work and they turned their attention to such work with increased zeal during this period. In 1872, at a convention of representatives of agricultural colleges held in Washington in re- sponse to a call issued by the United States Conunissioner of Agri- culture, the question of the establishment of experiment stations was discussed and the report of a committee in favor of such institutions was ado])ted by the convention. (See p. 194.) The University of California decided in 1873 to organize an ex- periment station and this was done by Professor Hilgard almost as soon as he went to the university in 1875. That year he equipped a laboratory for research in agricultural chemistry and began field experiments on deep and shallow ]>Iowing for cereals. Meanwhile Professor Johnson was attempting to secure the definite organization of an experiment station in Connecticut. Peculiar cii'cumstances enabled Prof. AV. O. At water, who had studied agricultural chemistry in Johnson's laboratory and then in Germany, actually to establish the first State agricultural experiment station in the United States, in 1875, at Wesle^^an Univei-sity, Middletown, Conn., but this was remove'd to New Haven in 1877 and i)ut under Professor Johnson's direction. For several years its work was carried on in the labora- tory of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1877 the North Carolina Experiment Station was established by the State legislature and located at the State University, which was then a land-grant insti- tution. In New York the Cornell University Experiment Station was organized in 1879 by the voluntary action of the faculty of agriculture of the university, and the following year the New Jersey State Experiment Station was created in connection with the Scien- tific School of Rutgers College. Prior to the passage of the Hatch Act in 1887, stations were also established in connection with the land-grant institutions in Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ohio, Tennessee, Vermont, and Wisconsin. Experimental work in agri- culture was also carried on in increasing measure at other land- grant colleges during this period. The results of the experimental work of the colleges and stations, while limited in extent and im- portance, were widely disseminated through their publications and the press. As early as 1872 the need of increased funds for the land-grant colleges had been so im])ressed on Mr. Morrill that he introduced in Congress a bill for their further endowment by the Federal (jovern- ment and repeated this effort many times within the next 18 years. When this for the time being was unavailing, the colleges took ad- vantage of the widespread po})ularity of the experiment stations and began to plead for national funds for their support. In 1882 A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 129 Seaman A. Knap]), then president of the Iowa. State College, drafted a bill for this purpose and secured its introduction in the House of Representatives. A convention of delegates of the land-grant col- leges which met in Washington in 1883 discussed and indorsed this project and through their united action, together with the active support of the United States Department of Agriculture, the grange and other friends of agricultural advancement, the experiment sta- tion act was passed four years later. The history of the movements for increased national support of agricultural education and research will be more fully treated in .succeeding chapters. During this period there was a great increase in tlie avenues of approach by the colleges to the farmers. The wide development of the granges, farmers' clubs, and other organizations gave the agricultural college workers very many opportunities for disseminating informa- tion through lectures, public or otherwise. The farmers' institutes greAv materially in number and attendance. In a considerable number of States they w ere directly connected with the land-grant colleges and when otherwise organized college officers were often regularly on their staffs. Legislatures were beginning to make special appropria- tions for the support of the institutes. County and State fairs became more numerous and the college workers made exhibits or addresses at many of these fairs. The agricultural papers increased in number and circulation and published a great many articles by agricultural college workers. While the farmers were very often discouraged by their difficult situations in this period and tlierefore were not inclined to have their sons study in the agricultural courses of these colleges, they never- theless wanted all the helpful infornuition these institutions could give them. The genei-al influence of the land-grant colleges among the farming people was therefore much strengthened and widened. The attitude of the farmers, especially as they w^ere represented by their organizations, in many States, was for a long time strongly in favor of land-grant institutions separate from the universities, and this was intensified by the failure of the universities in most cases in the early years to attract any considerable number of agricultural students. This led to the separation of the agricultural college from the university in Mississippi in 1880, in Rhode Island in 1888, in North Carolina in 1889, in South Carolina in 1889, in Connecticut in 1893, and from Dartmouth College in New Ham])shire in 1891. Between 1877 and 1893 separate colleges Avere establislied in eight of the new Western States but in Idaho, Nevada, and Wyoming, the agri- cultural work was connected with the State imiversity. In Ohio an agricultural and mechanical college was broadened into a State university and in 1897 this was also done in Maine and more recently in Florida, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey and New Hampshire. TYPICAL LAND-GRANT INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION The conditions in the land-grant colleges, with special reference to agricultural education during the first quarter of a century after the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862, can best be shown by examples of the history of tvpical institutions during that period. Such examples are given in the following pages of this work. 130 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Michigan was the seventh State to accept the hind grant under the act of Congress of July 2, 1862. The State act of acceptance was passed February 25, 1863, and the State received scrip for 240,000 acres of land. An agricultural land-grant board of six State officers, including the governor, was created to have charge of the selection, care, and disposal of the lands, and was directed to invest the pro- ceeds of the sales of these lands in such manner as would establish a perpetual fund, the annual interest on which should be regularly ap- plied under direction of the State board of agriculture to the mainte- nance of the State agricultural college. The lands actually located aggregated 235,663 acres and Avere strictly agricultural lands, timber lands being omitted. As the lands were sold, the amounts received were turned over to the State treasurer and loaned on a book account to the State at 7 per cent interest and this interest was paid to the college, beginning with 1870. In 1862 the State appropriation for current expenses was $10,000; it rose to $20,000 in 1867 and remained at about this amount until 1874 when it dropped to $13,000; for the next 10 years it ranged from about $5,000 to $8,385 and then disappeared altogether for 15 years. The total income of the college in 1862 was $10,218, and thereafter until 1888 ranged from about that amount to about $40,000, leaving out of account the appropriations for special purposes. When the land grant act passed the college had been in operation five years, and to comply fully with that act needed only to have authority to give military instruction, which was provided for by a State act in 1863. However, a separate mechanical and engineering division was not established until 1885, but civil engineering and subjects included in rural engineering were taught in this college even prior to the passage of the land grant act. For 33 years the requirements for admission to the freshman class were "to pass a satisfactory examination in arithmetic, geography, grammar, reading, spelling, and penmanship. A knoAvledge of ele- mentary algebra is desirable " {193). Beginning with 1861 the college had authority to grant the degree of bachelor of science to students who had completed a 4-year course. Even with these low requirements for admission it was necessary to have preparatory classes for many of the students. Conditions arising out of the Civil War, combined with other cir- cumstances, made it very difficult to secure a student body for this new type of education, or funds for the proper maintenance of the college. In 1863 the State appropriation was not made until three weeks after the beginning of the spring term and the papers gave the public the impression that the college would be closed. The total number of students that year was 60 and at one time only 48 were in attendance. Theophilus Capen Abbot, who had been jirofessor of history and English literature at this college, was elected president in December, 1862, and served in that capacity for 22 years. He also retained his professorship. In 1863 the other members of the faculty were: Manly Miles, M, D., professor of zoology and animal physiology ; C. A. Kenaston, A. B., instructor of the preparatory class and secre- tary; R. C. Kedzie, A. M., M. D., professor of chemistry; Albert N. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 131 Prentiss, B. S., instructor in botany and horticulture and superin- tendent of gardens; and Oscar Clute, B. S., instructor in pure and applied mathematics. President Abbob Avas a graduate of Waterville College, now Colby College, at AVaterville, Me., and had studied at the Bangor Theo- logical School; Professor Miles was a graduate of the Rush Medical School at Chicago, 111., had studied chemistry, zoology, comparative physiology, and anatomy, and had been assistant State geologist and engaged in a survey of the State with special reference to its fauna. He was also familiar with practical agriculture and deeply interested in the applications of science to this art. Professor Kedzie was a graduate of Oberhn College and of the Medical College of the Uni- versity of Michigan and had been a practicing physician in Michigan for li years. Instructor Prentiss had been an advanced student at the college from 1857 to 1861, and taught there from 1863 to 1869, when he became professor of botany and horticulture in Cornell University. Instructor, afterwards professor, Clute w^as a graduate of the college in 1862, and its president from 1889 to 1893, when he became president of the Florida Agricultural College. In 1865 George Thompson Fairchild, a graduate of Oberlin Col- lege, joined the faculty of the Michigan Agricultural College as instructor in English literature and was promoted to the professor- ship of this subject the following year. In 1879 he was called to the presidency of the Kansas State Agricultural College. The personal character, fine scholarship, and strong teaching of the members of the early faculty enabled the Michigan Agricultural College to develop successfully and strongly in its new field, to exert a broad influence on the development of the land-grant colleges, and to gain the respect of educators in other types of institutions for higher learning. Daniel Strange, of the class of 1867, thus describes the equipment of the college in 1864: When I entered in '64, aside from the one dormitory, there was but the one College Hall devoted to instruction. This, of course, housed the library, museum, chemical laboratory and all biological laboratories, if indeed any could be said to exist. The farm buildings were but the one large cattle barn, a very small brick horse barn and a pig sty. The teams were two worn-out horse teams and two good ox teams. There were three shorthorn cows, two Devon cows, and a bull of each of these breeds. There were a few grade cattle and Suffolk and Essex swine, but I think no sheep until the following year. There were four small brick cottages for the president and professors. The above with the farm constituted the College's material equipment (193). There was no regular professor of agriculture until 1865, when Doctor Miles was made professor of practical agriculture and super- intendent of the farm. The following is a partial outline of the course in agriculture announced in the catalogue of that year {193) : PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE First j/cor.^Laying out of farms ; farm fences ; arrangement and planning of farm buildings ; general principles of tillage ; principles of drainage ; laying out and construction of drains ; implements for preparing the soil for crops ; mechanical preparation of the soil ; methods of seeding ; implements for seed- ing— their construction and management ; harvesting crops ; implements and machines used in securing crops ; principles of stock breeding ; and breeds of domestic animals— their characteristics and adaptation to particular purposes. 132 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE Fourth year. — General piinciplos of farm economy ; manures — their manage- ment and mode of application; succession of crops; preparation of the soil for particular crops; cultivation of grain crops; cultivation of root crops; manage- ment of grasslands ; stock husbandry ; care of animals and principles of feed- ing; fattening of animals; and management of sheep. The provision in the State act of February 12, 1855, requirino; the students at this college to engage in manual labor was faithfully carried out and unti] about 1889 all students were compelled to work from 12 to 15 hours a week and received wages which helped toward paying their college expenses. After that time until 1894 students who showed proficiency in farm operations were given educational labor and later educational field work or laboratory work was substituted for all compulsory labor. The college year began |ate in February and continued until about the middle of November. By this arrangement students were em- ployed on the farm during the growing season and such pay as they received aided them to meet their college expenses. It also enabled a considerable number of them to earn money as school teachers during the winter. Many colleges at that time had a long vacation in the winter for this purpose or made special arrangements for students engaged to teach school at that season. The Michigan Agricultural College continued to liave the long winter vacation until 1896. The methods of teaching employed at this college in early days have been described by C. E. Bessey, a student there from 1863 to 1869 and afterwards professor of botany and dean of the Agricultural College of the University of Nebraska, as folloAvs: It was emphatically the period of tlae textbook. Some of the professors gave lectures, but in every subject the student always had his textbook as the basis of his stndy, and daily recitations were the rule. We learned things from books, and were asked to repeat them orally at greater or less length to our teaciiers. * * * Chemistry, even at that early day, was taught by practical work in the laboratory. We had one lecture or recitation a day, and in additiou two hours daily of lal)oratory work. In the lecture the professor acceriment of flying a literary kite with an agricultural tail, so often made in various quarters. It is a pleasant regental and professional amusement, and quite attractive to an immediate locality; but there is nothing in it for the industrial student, whose estate pays for the kite {1^1). The board of regents, adopting his views, discontinued the divi- sion of literature and organized those of agriculture and the me- chanic arts. Edward M. Shelton, a graduate of the Michigan Agri- cultural College, was made professor of practical agricidture and superintendent of the farm in 1874. The farmers' course and the women's course covered six years and the mechanics' course five years. Workshops in iron and wood, a printing office, a telegraph office, a kitchen laboratory, and a sewing room were equipped. Fifty min- utes of educational manual labor were added to the daily work of every student. In 1876 the course of study was reduced to four years. The pre- paratory course was abolished and Butler's Analogy, Latin, German, and French were discontinued. Admission requirements were low- ered to reach the better grades of the public schools. Throughout President Anderson's administration the great majority of the students were in tlie first year's course and only 25 graduated during his term of office. The regular teaching of agricul- ture was for a term in both the second and fourth years. There was also instruction in horticulture and agricultural chemistry. The agricultural operations of the college were greatly enlarged. A con- siderable number of students participated in the farm operations, experiments with crops and livestock were conducted, and farmers' meetings were addressed. To defend his educational policies, as well as to afford practice for the students in printing. President Anderson, in 1875, established a weekly college paper called the Industrialist, This also furnished a medium for dissemination of information regarding the work of the college. Under Anderson's vigorous editorship this paper became widely known. It has been continued ever since, but in 1897 was changed to a monthly magazine. The number of students increased during the first years of An- derson's presidency but declined after 1876. There was much con- flict both within and without the institution regarding his educa- tional policies, which were radical and if fully carried out would have reduced the college largely to the status of a trade school. In 1878 he was elected to Congress and this led to his resignation in 1879. His successor w^as George T. Fairchild, a native of Ohio and a graduate of Oberlin College, who had been professor of English literature at the Michigan Agricultural College and its acting presi- dent in 1873. He was a man of mature judgment, progressive ideas in education, and fine spirit. His ideal of education related to 142 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE a <;ri culture Avas set forth in an article written while he was at the Michigan college for the Chicago Farmers' Review, and afterwards published by the Michigan State Board of Agriculture. True scientific principles are to J)e taught and enforced by a thorough drill in observation. The eyes must see and the hands handle the very elements of nature, in order to gain proper ideas of nature's use. There must be a definite training to think accurately and connectedly, and intensely if need be. * * * Added to this must be the formation of habits of ready action to a purpose. * * * The college must gather and impart the best of in- struction in the art of tilling the soil. * * * [Tlie course of study must be thorough and] in this there must be systematic instruction by the most ap- proved methods in the sciences, training to logical investigation of facts and principles, history and general knowledge of civilization enough to kindle inquiry and technical training enough to give a general ability. This involves a drill in manual labor that shall make the hands ready and the eyes quick. By careful work and avoidance of antagonisms President Fair- child greatly strengthened the Kansas college. He established weekly faculty meetings, encouraged discussion of educational prob- lems, and created a loyal and united faculty. A single course of study with limited electives, especially to meet the requirements of men and women, was adopted. The requirements for admission were gradually raised and the industrial work of the students was ex- tended, strengthened, and systematized. The number of students increased from 276 in 1879-80 to 481 in 1886-87. During this period there was still great difficulty in holding students beyond the fresh- man year. In 1886-87 there were 303 freshmen (including about 75 pursuing preparatory studies), 100 sophomore, 44 junior, 24 senior, and 10 post graduate students. The number of graduates increased from 7 in 1880 to 21 in 1886 and 1887. Agriculture continued to be taught in one term of sophomore and senior years. The number of students who gave special attention to agriculture continued to be relatively small. In 1882-83 the classes in agriculture included 7 seniors and 39 sophomores. There was also practical work in agri- culture by 22 juniors and 12 sophomores. Dairying was taught to 7 women in the sophomore class. In 1886-87 there were 22 seniors and 49 sophomores in agricultural classes and 38 juniors and 38 sophomores in farm work. Horticidture was taught to 48 men and 31 women and practical work in horticulture was taken by 27 juniors and 29 sophomores. In other industrial work there were in 1885-86, 54 students in telegraphy, 70 in printing, and 240 in the mechanical department, mostly doing work in carpentering. Experimental work was begun early in the history of the college. In 1867, 500 forest trees, 200 apple trees, and small numbers of other fruit trees were planted on the college farm. By 1873 the experi- mental forest contained 36,370 trees and there were many varieties of fruits being tested. Trials were being made of fertilizers, soil preparation, methods of planting, special crops, etc. In 1874 Profes- sor Shelton introduced alfalfa and experiments were also begun with wheat, cowpeas, grasses, and other forage plants. In 1883, 1884, and 1885 special publications were issued which showed a considerable range of experiments, including those in the seeding, cultivation, and manuring of corn, feeding of pigs, steers, and milk cows, with special reference to the use in the rations of corn in different forms, alfalfa, and grasses. An annex to the college barn was built in 1884 for use in experiments with livestock. A HISTOKY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 143 The first farmers' institute was held at Manhattan November 14, 18G8, and January 2 to 10, 1872, there was a "well-organized and widely advertised farmers' institute under the auspices of the faculty. It was well attended by representative farmers from all parts of the State." Some other more or less informal meetings of farmers were held at the college in its early days. Under President Fairchilcl's leadership a regularly organized system of institutes was inaugu- rated in 1881. At least six institutes were held each winter in as many different counties. Members of the faculty also attended meetings of granges and other farm organizations. During the first 25 years over 2,500 students attended the Kansas Agricultural College, of wdiom about one-third were women. Most of these students remained at the college for only a part of the course and it has been estimated that three-fourths of these came from and returned to the farm. Up to 1890 there were 232 gradu- ates, of whom 73 were women. Previous to 1877, with two ex- ceptions, the 27 graduates received the bachelor of arts degree. After that the bachelor of science degree was given. Only about 30 of these graduates became farmers or horticulturists, but a num- ber of them have occupied important positions as administrators, teachers, or investigators in Federal or State agricultura,! institu- tions. Through its instruction in the natural sciences and their applications to various useful arts, its development of systematic courses in home economics, its teaching of the theory and practice of agriculture, and its insistence on the importance of vocational train- ing, in connection with a more liberal culture, it laid a strong founda- tion for its future extensive growth and exerted a wide influence on the development of our system of higher education relating to agriculture and other industries. MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE When the problem of the acceptance and disposition of the land grant of 1862 w-as presented to the Massachusetts Legislature by Governor Andrew in 1863 decided differences of opinion developed. This is shown in the report of the joint committee on the governor's message {178). The committee argued that Massachusetts should provide institutions for mechanic arts, as well as agriculture. The resolutions adopted at a meeting in Boston February 16, 1863, in favor of having the Massachusetts Institute of Technology represent mechanic arts, were cited. The committee believed that agriculture should not be neglected, though some thought " that agricultural schools are not beneficial." Others believed that the agricultural school should be elementary, but the committee w^as opposed to this plan. This college of agriculture and the mechanic arts ought not to rival the primary schools, or grammar schools, or high schools, or district schools of the State. The true theory of education is that all the children and youth of the State should be educated together in the public schools of the Common- wealth, without any reference to the occupation of their parents, or to the occupation that they themselves intend to pursue, until they arrive at an age when it is proper for them to choose their own occupation. The people would not tolerate a blacksmith's high school, clergyman's high school, or sailor's high school. Why, then, a farmers' high school for the sons of farmers? 144 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE An agricultural school should he a professional school, or a college for young men * * * who desire to obtain a good education in the science and art of agriculture. AVhatever pertains to agriculture should there be taught and whatever has no immediate connection with agriculture should not be taught. * * * instruction should ])e given principally by lectures and by exhibitions of drawings, models and experments to illustrate and confirm the truths presented. The instruction should be so systematized as to furnish aid alike to those who could afford to enjoy the advantages of the school but a short time, and to those who could complete its full course of instruction. * * * There can be but one serious impediment in the way of making a true professional agricultural school in this State prosper, and that is u want of interest in it among tlie agricultural population (i78). The governor and other leading men favored an arrangement with Harvard College, the Institute of Technology, and Zoological Museum, which in effect woidd create " a grand university." This woidd include use of the Bussey fund and farm for instruction and experiments. Objectors to these plans urged that agricultural experi- ments and instruction could be carried on better with less expense in a rural region. A committee of the board of agriculture, includ- ing Marshall P. Wilder and George B. Loring, afterwards United States Commissioner of Agriculture, were among the opponents. Others wanted the land-grant fund divided among the colleges of the State and there were petitions from Amherst and Williams Colleges on this basis. The joint committee, however, favored one or at most two institutions. A subcommittee had visited and re])orted on the agricultural college of Pennsylvania. Their report evidently made a deep impres- sion on the joint committee, who concluded that " a school like that can only succeed as a large school * * * wholly discon- nected with all existing institutions and separate from all large cities and towns." Otherwise manual labor, which the committee believed was a very important factor in an agricultural college, would be treated with contempt by the students. The necessary funds " should be contributed equally by the State and individuals." The committee's report was accompanied with a bill granting one-tenth of the land-grant fund for the purchase of land for an agricultural college; and of the remainder, one-third for the Institute of Technology and two-thirds for an agricultural college under a separate board of trustees. Three acts were passed, one accepting the land grant April 18, 1863; one incorporating the agricultural college April 29, 1863; and one dividing the land-grant fund as proposed by the committee, April 21, 1864. A board of trustees was created consisting of 13 members elected by the legislature for life, and the governor, lieutenant governor, secretaries of the boards of education and agriculture, and the president of the college as members ex officio. In practice one mem- ber was elected from each county. The location, plan of organi- zation, and course of study were originally made subject to the approval of the legislature but later of the governor and council. By an act of May 26, 1866, the board of agriculture was made a board of overseers, with advisory and visitorial powers. The board of trustees was organized November 8, 1863, and set about securing funds for the college. The act relating to the land grant provided that not less than $75,000 must be raised by sub- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 145 scription or otherwise for buildings before one-tenth of the proceeds of the sale of the lands would be paid to the board. Funds had to be provided for livestock and other equipment, maintenance of the farm, and faculty. Under the terms of the land grant act of 18G2 the State was pledged to establish an agricultural college within five years after the passage of that act. The trustees therefore petitioned the legislature in 1864: to make the land-grant funds immediately available in order that they might locate the college. They also asked for further financial aid from the State. Henry F. French, a lawyer and judge, who had been prominent in the agricultural affairs of the State, had written a book on drain- age, antl had recently visited agricultural institutions in Europe, was elected the first president of the college November 29, 1864, and served two years. His successor was Paul A. Chadbourne, instructor in natural sciences at Williams College. Ill health comi)elled his resignation after a few months. Then came the long-time presi- dency of William S. Clark. He had been trained at Amherst College, including studies in geology and mineralogy under Doctor Hitch- cock, had studied chemistry and botany at Gottingen, Germany, and had made special botanical observations at the Kew Gardens at London. He had then been professor of chemistry, botany, and zoology in Amherst College and a colonel in the Civil War. As rep- resentative from Amherst in the legislature between 1864 and 1867 he had an important part in determining the location of the college. The board of trustees considered the offers made by Northampton, Springfield, Lexington, and Amherst, and decided to locate the col- lege at Amherst, that town having agreed to raise $50,000 by taxa- tion and $25,000 by subscription. The State of Massachusetts received 360,000 acres in scrip. On May 11, 1864, scrip for 36,000 acres was transferred to the Massa- chusetts Agricultural College to be used in purchasing a site for the college. The proceeds from the sale of this scrip amounted to $29,778 and were used in part payment for the farm of 310 acres at Amherst, costing $34,999. The remainder of the scrip was sold by the State from time to time. In 1868 the land-grant fund amounted to $205,- 509 and the income to $12,445, two-thirds of which was paid to the agricultural college. In 1871 by fortunate reinvestments and State grants the endowment fund for technical education became $350,000 and this was increased to $360,000 in 1876. In 1882 the legislature divided this fund into a United States grant roughly set at $219,- 000, and a Commonwealth grant aggregating $141,575. The former was invested in bonds at 5 per cent, making the annual allotment of the Federal land-grant fund to the agricultural coUeofe $7,300. The college also received the income of the Commonwealth grant. The need of State aid for the maintenance of the college was early apparent. In 1864 the legislature granted the college $10,000, provided that repayment would be made from the income of the land-scrip fund (but this was illegal) and by an act of May 11, 1865, $10,000 out- right. In 1868 the legislature appropriated $50,000 for buildings and the following year the same amount for buildings and other purposes. 146 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE In 1877 the legislature gave $5,000 for current expenses, one-half to be used for paying student labor. In 1879, $32,000 was appropriated to meet debts incurred during several years. In 1882, $9,000 was granted for a drill hall and the next year a permanent appropriation of $10,000 annually for current expenses was made. In 1884, $36,000 was given for a chapel and library building and the next year $45,000 for buildings and apparatus. At the beginning all students were required to pay tuition, fixed at $12 per term. This was soon increased to $18, and in 1874 to $25. Afterwards it was reduced to $12, but in 1885 was raised to $80 for the year. However, in the early years most of the agricultural so- cieties paid the bills of one or more students. Free scholarships were from time to time provided by State appropriations and these increased in number until practically tuition was free to students from within the State. The buildings erected when the college opened were a hall for classrooms, library, museum and dormitory ; a chemical laboratory ; a botanic museum, and a boarding house. The same year a fine group of glass plant houses was given to the college bv Nathan Dur- fee and a fund of $10,000 was provided by L. M. and H. F. Hills, the income of which was to be expended for seeds, plants, etc. In 1868 another dormitory was built, and the following year a barn costing $9,000 was constructed and the chemical laboratory was extensively enlarged to provide a chapel, classrooms, and drill hall. In 1883 a separate drill hall was erected and two years later a chapel and library. In their report for 1866 the trustees set forth their view of the purj^ose and organization of the college. " Our first duty we appre- hend to be, to make the college distinctively an agricultural institu- tion, to establish a course of study, which if faithfully pursued shall make every graduate a scientific and practical farmer." There must be also — the best discipline of the mind, pliysical training, estlietic and moral culture, and military tactics. The college should have departments of agriculture and horticulture, physics, mathematics and engineering, natural history, chemistry, political economy, intellectual philosophy and Christian morals, comparative anatomy and animal physiology (including veterinary surgery and medicine), modern languages and literature, and physical education, including military tactics. The applications of .science to farm labor, roads, bridges, irrigation, drainage, and surveying should be taught, as well as architecture. Special attention should be given to the training of teachers and to experiments and investigations to advance knowledge. Manual labor was to be required pri- marily for the education of the student and not for profit. The student should practice such labor as he does not understand. In addition to the regular long course there should be short courses and popular lectures. To lay out the farm and conduct its operations Levi Stockbridge, a farmer in the near-by town of Haclley, was elected farm superintendent. The board of agriculture continued to show great interest in the college, and in 1866 was made its board of overseers, whose duty it was to visit the college and advise on its affairs. It immediately decided to locate its cabinet and library at the college. In 1867 it urged the agricultural societies in the State to maintain scholar- ships at the College, and in 1869 eighteen societies were doing this. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 147 It also provided for lectures at the college by its secretary and Charles L. Flint lectured four years on dairy farming. As a member of this board Louis Agassiz for several years visited the college and in 1871 spoke at its first commencement. Lecturers from outside, including Doctor Hitchcock and other members of the faculty of Amherst College, on different phases of literature, science, be felt in the agri- cultural affairs of the State and was extended to the other States similarly situated. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA (STATE COLLEGE) The Pennsylvania Legislature accepted the provisions of the Mor- rill Land Grant Act of 1862 on April 1, 1863. Judge Watts, Mr. McAllister, Doctor Pugh, and others connected with the Farmers' High School (p. 67) had been active in promoting the passage of this act and its change of name to the Agricultural College of Pennsyl- vania in 1862 had undoubtedly been largely brought about to enforce the presumption that it would receive the benefits of the Federal grant. The college was at first given the income from the land-grant fund tentatively because other institutions were claiming at least a share of it. This matter w-as not finally settled until the act of February 19, 1867, gave the college one-tenth of this fund for experiment farms and the income of the remainder annually, provided three experi- ment farms were maintained, one at the college and the others in the eastern* and western parts of the State. In the act accepting the grant of 780,000 acres in scrip, the surveyor general of the State was instructed to obtain the scrip, to seil it,- and to invest the proceeds. The governor, auditor general, and the surveyor general were appointed a committee to prescribe rules and regulations for its management. The surveyor general realized $439,186.80 from its sale. About 10 per cent, $43,886.50, was used to purchase experimental farms for the college and the balance was invested in United States and Pennsylvania State bonds bought at a premium and giving $381,500 face value of investment. The assembly on April 3, 1872, ordered these bonds sold and a 50-year State bond for $500,000 at 6 per cent interest issued to the college to represent the land-grant endow- ment fund. Pennsylvania State College receives $30,000 a year income from this source (1). By the act of April 11, 1866, the legislature directed that payment of expenses of disposing of the land scrip be paid from the State treasury and authorized the trustees to borrow $80,000 to complete the college building and "consolidate" the college debts. This mort- gage was a serious incubus on the college until 1878 when the legis- lature made an appropriation for its payment. The college also incurred floating debts which caused it much embarrassment for many years. No further aid was given the college by the State until 1887. Originally the entire charge to students for board, room rent, tuition, etc., Was fixed at $100 per year, but in 1864 it became neces- sary to double this and two years later it was raised to $260. 166 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE The college was housed in a substantial stone building, which as completed some years after the opening of the institution was 240 feet in length, 80 feet in average width, and five stories in height, exclusive of attic and basement. In this building were the adminis- trative offices, chapel, library, cabinets, laboratories, classrooms, and a large number of dormitories. Its internal arrangements were changed from time to time to meet the necessities of the developing institution. In 1885 two frame buildings were erected for work in mechanic arts. The other buildings on the college land were profes- sors' houses, barns, and smaller farm buildings. Not until 1887 did the State provide funds for other college buildings. About 1875 students began to rent rooms in the little village which was growing outside the college campus. During the progress of the struggle to retain the land-grant fund for the agricultural college Doctor Pugh came to realize that in Pennsylvania a beneficiary of the land grant act would be expected to maintain a broad " industrial college." Therefore in 1864 he made an elaborate report to the trustees regarding the financial and educational requirements of such an institution {359). To this was added an argument against giving the land-grant fund to more than one institution in the State. The professors and assistants required for complete organization of an industrial college are as follows : (1) A professor of pure mathematics and the higher mechanics and astron- omy. (2) A professor of civil engineering and applied mathematics. (3) A professor of natural philosophy and astronomy, mechanics and physics; an assistant, to prepare experiments for lectures, and to teach classes in the physical laboratory, where students would learn the art of experimentation with philosophical apparatus. (4) A professor of pure chemistry; an assist- ant to help prepare lectures and look after classes in the laboratory ; a sub- assistant to take charge of the chemicals, and to help in the laboratory, with no other salary than free tuition. A chemical department, embracing labora- tory instruction, can not be efficient with less aid than one professor and two assistants. (5) A professor of agricultural chemistry and geology; an assistant to help with field experimentation and work in the laboratory. (6) A professor of metallurgy, mining and mineralogy and chemical technology ; an assistant, to prepare lectures and help in the laboratories. (7) A professor of anatomy, physiology and veterinary. (8) A professor of natural history, more particularly of zoology, comparative anatomy and entomology. (9) A professor of botany, horticulture and entomology ; one assistant, to take charge of the greenhouse, and give field instruction in horticulture, and a gardener, to take charge of the garden. (10) A professor of practical agriculture; as assistant, he should have a practical farmer of the highest attainments in his art, and the latter should be assisted by two good farm hands, and by all the students in the college. (11) A professor of the English language and litera- ture. (12) A suitable professor to take charge of a commercial department. (13) A professor of modern languages. To these thirteen professorships or departments, he would advise the adding of (14) a professor of the Latin and Greek languages and literature; (15) a professor of military art and science and teacher of military tactics; (16) a treasurer, bookkeeper and librarian. Omitting the organization of the culinary department, the summary of the staff of such an institution would be as follows: President and professors 16 Librarian and treasurer 1 Assistants 10 Superintendents 2 Total "29 A HISTORY OF AGRICUIiTURAL EDUCATION 167 Thero should be suitable buildings and laboratories as well as large collec- tions of apparatus, natural history objects, etc. Means for scientific investi- gations should be provided and scholarships for needy and deserving students. Owing to lack of proper secondary schools this college must give preparatory courses. The college courses proposed are (1) agricultural science and prac- tice; (2) engineering and architecture; (3) industrial courses for instruction in such subjects as metallurgy, technological chemistry or pharmacy; (4) prac- tical short course; (5) commercial course; and (6) a literary department. The financial requirements (evidently for the time being) of such an institu- tion are set forth as follows : Expenditures : Sixteen professors at $1,500 $24,000.00 Ten assistants 4,000.00 A farm superintendent , 700. 00 Janitor and helps 1,000.00 $29, 700. 00 For addition to museums, to scientific apparatus and to library 5, 000. 00 For scientific investigation , 5, 000. 00 For indigent students, orphans of soldiers, free scholarships, etc 7, 000. 00 For repair of buildings 1,000.00 Total expenditures 47, 700.00 Income : Four hundred students, at $50 per annum 20, 000. 00 Income required from endowment 27, 000. 00 47, 000. 00 Very soon after this report was prepared Doctor Piigh died. The college retained the land-grant fund but had many difficulties in es- tablishing itself firmly and getting adequate financial support. A period of instability in the administration of the college ensued. Late in 1864 the presidency was filled by the election of William H. Allen, who had been long associated with Girard College in Phil- adelphia. Then John Eraser, who had been professor of mathe- matics at the Pennsylvania College, served as president for part of the year 1867. He was succeeded by Thomas H. Burrowes, for- mer State superintendent of public instruction, who died in 1871. There was a great lack of secondary schools in the State and the rural schools in many localities were so weak that children from the farms had great difficulty in getting sufficient education to enable them to enter the college, though its requirements for admission were low. The location of the college, which in its early years was over 20 miles from a railway station, was long a hindrance to getting any considerable number of students. In fact their number declined, and when President Burrowes was elected the college was nearly empty. A circular of the college issued in 1870 gives a list of 59 stu- dents, of whom 40 were in the first year, but in 1871 when President Burrowes died the actual attendance was reduced to 37. After the reorganization of tlie college by his successor, the number of students rose to 148 in 1872, including 7 seniors, 10 juniors, 21 sophomores, 42 freshmen, and 68 preparatory students. There were 125 men and 23 women. These numbers had only minor variations for the next decade. Up to 1867 onl}^ one course of study had been in effect and each student had been required to perform three hours of manual labor per day on the farm or about the college building. After the 12931—29 13 168 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE acceptance of the land-grant fund military drill was required and at first took the place of one day's manual labor per week. There was much dissatisfaction regarding the labor requirement and in Sep- tember, 1866, the trustees ordered "that the rule requiring evei-y student to work three hours daily on the farm, having proved uni- formly injurious to the financial and educational interests of the col- lege, shall cease to be enforced at the end of the present term." Vol- untary labor of students with pay was provided. For students in the college departments daily military drill was required and preparatory students were to have one hour's exercise daily in a gymnasium. According to a circular issued by the United States Bureau of Education in 1902 {oJ^o) the college announced that— Agriculture will be taught as an experimental science, and will be placed under the care of a professor of agi-iculture, who will give instruction by means of books and lectures in the class room, numerous exi^eriments on the farm, and agricultural excursions. livery student in this department will be required to assist in the work connected with the experiments and to record them in a memorandum book, which will be examined from time to time by his instructor. The college year, which had been practically one session begin- ning about the middle of February and ending early in December, was divided into two terms of 20 weeks each. Three 4-year courses, general science, agriculture, and literature, were established. A graded system of military instruction for all students was adopted. This program was too elaborate to meet the financial condition of the college and President Burrowes was obliged to curtail it. Practically but one course of study was maintained, and the former arrangement of sessions and vacations and the manual labor system were restored. The first two years included work in arithmetic, algebra and geometry, chemistry, botany, physiology, geography, history, Eng- lish, Latin, and Greek, with practice in agriculture and horticul- ture. The third year as arranged for an agricultural class included trigonometry, analytical geometry, surveying, civil engineering, bot- any, chemistry, civil government, history, English literature, and ancient languages, with lectures and practice in agriculture. At the end of three years the student might graduate Avith the degree of B, S. A. or go on in a scientific or literary course for another year to obtain the degree of B. S. or a fifth year for B. A. An elective system was practiced to a certain extent, particularly with reference to the ancient and modern languages. For admission to college courses the student must be 15 years of age and have a connnon- school education. President Burrowes gave the instruction in prac- tical agriculture. James Calder became president early in June, 1871, and served in that capacity until 1880. During his' administration changes were made which broadened the work of the college and brought it more into line with other educational institutions in the State. This was emphasized by the change of name in 1874 to the Pennsylvania State College. Two women w^ere admitted in 1871 and their number increased to 23 the following year and to 47 in 1881. Three college courses of study were again organized — scientific, classical, and agricultural. Preparatory and music courses were con- A HTSTOEY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION- 169 tinned. Instruction in military tactics was added to the curriculum in 1875 and two years later an Army officer was detailed by the War Department to take charge of the military department. Manual labor was required, but for seniors and juniors this consisted of laboratory work. No class Avas graduated in 1872 and from that time the college year began in August and ended in July. In 1876 the long vacation was transferred from winter to summer. In 1870 John Hamilton, a farmer living near the college, who had been a soldier in the Civil War, was made military instructor and the next year when he graduated from the college he became professor of agriculture. The course in agriculture as revised at that time began with general agriculture in freshman year. The sophomores had plant culture, soils, and horticulture; the juniors had fertilizers, animal husbandry, farm machinery, rural laws, and agricultural chemistry; the seniors had veterinary science, rural architecture, rural economy, landscape gardening, and essays and discussions on agricultural subjects. Botany, zoology, and general and agricultural chemistry were included in this course. Ancient languages and French were elective. All the students in the college were expected to take the work in general agriculture in freshman year. Professor Hamilton soon relinquished his military work, but was largely employed as business manager and treasurer of the col- lege ancl general superintendent of the three experimental farms. Few students were attracted to the upper classes in agriculture, where the instruction had little scientific basis. The inadequacy of such instruction was recognized by Professor Hamilton in his final report as professor of agriculture in 1880 and he advised that his successor be a man trained in agricultural chemistry. At this time the State grange also expressed dissatisfaction with the agricultural work of the college. From it,s beginning to 1880 the number of graduates was 122, of whom 43 had taken the degree of bachelor of agriculture but only 14 after leaving college had become farmers. Among them was also a professor of agriculture, a professor of horticulture, and an officer of the United States Department of Agriculture. About July 1, 1880, Joseph Shortlidge became president of the college but continued in that position only a short time. He was succeeded by James Y. McKee as acting president. The faculty now undertook a revision of the educational program of the col- lege. Meanwhile Whitman H. Jordan, who had studied agricultural chemistry under S. W. J,ohn,son in the Yale Sheffield Scientific School and had taught at the Maine Agricultural College, had become professor of agriculture and agricultural chemistry. Hia influence is seen in the reorganized curriculum. The work in the preparatory department was to be made more like that of a high school. The first two years of the college course were to be largely devoted to instruction in mathematics, fundamental sciences, and other basal subjects. Technical instruction wa^ to be given in the junior and senior years. A new chair in civil engineering was created. Systematic instruction in mechanic arts was l3egun. New special courses in natural history, chemistry and physics, and civil engineer- ing were scheduled. 170 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE The course in agriculture included, for junior^, mechanics, civil government, mineralogy,' agricultural chemistry, cryptogamic botany, zoology, entomology, fertilizers, crops, and agricultural engineering ; for seniors, mental philosophy, political economy, ethics, history of English literature, geology, horticulture, anatomy and breeding, feeding, dairy and sheep husbandry, veterinary medicine, and farm economy. Laboratory and field practicums were included through- out the course. In 1881 the board of trustees asked the legislature to appoint a committee to investigate the college. A joint committee of the two houses was appointed and made a report which on the whole was favorable. On the practical features of the instruction given at the college the committee comments as follows : In connection with the usual studies of the class-room, we find that there is carried on a very extensive and progressive system of practical training in the applications of knowledge, which, for extent and thoroughness, is equaled by few, if any institutions, of which we have information. The student in agriculture, for example, goes into the laboratory until he becomes a well-trained analyst, and into the field and barn to observe processes or to conduct investigations. TJie student in horticulture works in the gardens and vineyards. The student in mechanic arts goes into the shop, and is trained in the use of tools, as well as the principles of mechanics. The student in civil engineering acquires a knowledge of the instruments and the methods of his profession by actual work in the field ; and similarly, in every depart- ment that admits of it, subjects are taught with constant reference to their practical application in the various industries of life. When the institution was first opened to students, a considerable amount of manual labor was required of all. This system was abandoned after a trial of several years, and the practical work now required is regarded as educational, rather than a matter of manual labor, though it evidently serves the two important ends of giving physical exercise and skill in manipulation (.?'/S). George W. Atherton became president of the college in 1882. He was a native of Massachusetts and a graduate of Yale College after service in the Army in the Civil War. He taught at St. John's College, Annapolis, Md., and at the Illinois Industrial University and had been professor of political economy in Rutgers College in New Jersey for 14 years. He had a broad understanding of the economic and industrial situation in the United States and believed that the land- grant colleges had great opportunities in training men in science and the arts, who would be useful in the future development of the country. In Pennsylvania existing conditions favored the immedi- ate development of instruction in the State college along the lines of the natural sciences and mechanic arts. In agriculture economic conditions and the lack of scientific knowledge relating to this art made the outlook for securing any considerable number of students in agricultural courses of college grade quite unfavorable. The experiment-station movement had, however, proceeded far enough to show that research on agricultural subjects was likely to produce important scientific and practical results. An increasing body of intelligent farmers was becoming interested in such investigations and was calling on the college for information concerning their results. President Atherton laid emphasis on strengthening instruc- tion at the college in science and mechanic arts and improving the equipment for such work. He also encouraged the enlargement of the work of the college in agricultural research and the prompt pub- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 171 lication and dissemination of its results. He joined with the repre- sentatives of the other land-grant colleges in seeking further Federal aid and actively promoted the movement which resulted in the Hatch Experiment Station Act. He urged upon the State its responsibility for the maintenance and development of the college and aroused sufficient public sentiment in its favor to bring about substantial appropriations by the legislature for buildings and other equipment. The educational program of the college was conservatively modi- fied from time to time in an effort to meet existing conditions. In the annual report of the college for 1882 the president stated that the program of the preparatory department had been too elaborate, with the result that comparatively few students had been encour- aged to enter the regular college classes. He therefore advised that the program of this department be narrowed so as to be strictly preparatory. The catalogue for 1883-84 gives the following four- year courses: General science, Latin-scientific, classical, a general course in agriculture and special courses in agriculture, chemistry, and physics, civil engineering, and natural history. There were also two-year courses in agriculture and in mechanic arts. Students were admitted to the college courses at the age of 15 years and the entrance requirements for the agricultural courses included only arithmetic. English grammar, geography, and spelling. In the general course in agriculture the first two years were devoted to mathematics, surveying, the general principles of the natural sciences, modern languages and rhetoric, with Latin as an elective. The applications of the sciences to agriculture and the technical agricultural subjects were included in the program for the last two years. The courses in agriculture offered at this time were evidently too scientific and technical to meet the economic and educational con- ditions existing in the State. In 1882 there were 20 students in agri- culture, in 1884 three, and in 1887-88 five. Meanwhile the work of the college in the natural sciences and mechanic arts was being strengthened. In 1884 teaching of Greek was dropped and the course in mechanic arts was reorganized. Two years later a course in mechanical engineering was established. The efforts of President Atherton to secure more substantial equipment for the college came to fruition in a State act of June 3, 1887, in which there were appropriations of $100,000 for buildings and equipment, including $35,000 for a chemistry and physics building, $20,000 for a drill hall and assembly room, and $5,000 for a green- house and botanical laboratory. The number of students as recorded in the catalogue in 1883-84 was 128 (graduates 5, postgraduates 2, seniors 5, juniors 9, sopho- mores 9, freshmen 27, in special courses in agriculture 1 and in chem- istry 1, preparatory classes 69) ; in 1886-87 140 (preparatory 63) and in 1887-88, 176 (preparatory 77). Before the Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania was opened to students it was planned to have the institution carry on analj^tical and experimental work relating to agriculture. In the State act of May 20, 1857, provision was made for the analysis at the college, without charge, of all soils and manures which shall be sent by citizens of this Commonwealth for that purpose and a correct report of the result of said analysis, accompanied by such information as may be useful in the case 172 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE and the college was directed to " furnish reports of the results of all experiments with trees, shrubs, plants, seeds, soils, and breeding and rearing of stock, to at least one newspaper in each county m the Commonwealth for publication." Between 1857 and 18G7 the experimental work was to a large extent horticultural, but included some observations on the cultivation, fertilization, and gro\yth of varieties of agricultural plants and on various kinds of farm imple- ments. Some meteorological observations were also made. Most of the experiments were simple but some involved researcli in the cliem- ical laboratory. By the State act of February 19, 18G7, the college was obliged to maintain three farms, one near the college, and the othei-s east and west, respectively. Under this act 100 acres ecial schools, should not be narrowly vocational, but should aim to fit the pupils for life as progressive, broad-minded, and intelligent men and women, citizens and home makers, as well as farmers and horticulturists (JiSD). Some disapproval of separate agricultural schools was expressed in the discussion of this paper, but the importance of such schools as finishing or vocational schools and as a means of training teachers of agriculture for the elementary schools was also brought out. The general views expressed in the paper were indorsed by formal vote of the convention, and its separate publication was requested. (See Office of Experiment Stations Circular 91.) Later in this meeting a paper was read by E. A. Burnett, dean of the Nebraska College of Agriculture, on " The Function of the Land-Grant College in Promot- ing Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools," in which he favored the establishment of a limited number of agricultural schools in connection with existing high schools favorably situated for serv- ing a large country constituency. Dean Davenport, of Illinois, stated his belief that vocational agriculture should be put " within walking or riding distance " of every farm boy by creating agricultural de- partments in the high schools. In 1910 the association discussed the correlation of .secondary and short courses with the 4-year college course in agriculture. This dis- cussion was introduced by a paper by D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experiment Stations, in which he urged that in connection with sec- ondary courses opportunities should be afforded to capable students to enter the regular college courses. He also advocated supervised home projects during the long vacation for students in schools having a 6-months term. W. M. Hays advocated secondary schools at all the I agricultural colleges to aid in preparing teachers for the lower ^ schools. In 1911 the new^ committee on college organization and policy in its first report advocated the inclusion of secondary instruction by the colleges in a department of agricultural extension, but this was strongly opposed. After a long discussion of measures for Federal A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUKAL EDUCATION 333 aid for education pending in ConfiTess the association declared in favor of such aid for public schools of secondary grade providing education in agriculture, home economics, trades and industries, and manual training. This action was reaffirmed the following year. In 1912 the committee on instruction in agriculture reported on the work of the agricultural colleges in training teachers of agriculture for secondary .schools. An account was given of this work in the several States, and the existing situation was summed up as follows (499) : From the best available sources of Information it appears that 40 of the agri- cultural colleges for white students are offering courses designed to train high school teachers of agriculture. In some cases little more than an elective or two in psychology and pedagogy is offered ; in others there are summer schools ; in others definitely outlined teacher-training courses, and for the most approved instruction in education, supplemented by practice teaching under expert supervision. The committee recommended that students preparing to teach agri- culture should be well gi'ounded in the general principles of agricul- ture and should have not less than 20 semester hours of professional training, including special methods of teaching agriculture and prac- tice teaching. Special provision should be made for teachers in serv- ice in secondary schools to acquire a knowledge of the science and practice of agriculture. In 1916 this committee made a study of the relations of the agri- cultural colleges to the high schools in which agriculture was taught, with special reference to the problem of entrance or college credit for secondary agricultural courses. A report was made on the basis of information received from 2,200 high schools {535). It appeared that 97 per cent of these schools were teaching agricul- ture and that 92 per cent of the agricultural colleges Avere offering entrance credit of from one-half to 4 units in this subject. But only one college was allowing credits for graduation for high-school agri- culture and no colleges were making class sections for students who had studied agriculture in high school. The committee recommended that the colleges should train teachers of agriculture for the high schools, assist in developing suitable courses, textbooks, manuals, and equipment for high-school agriculture, and cooperate with the State departments of education in supervising high-school agriculture. THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION The Bureau of Education has promoted the teaching of agriculture in the secondary schools by the collection and publication of statistics and other information regarding such work in this coimtry and abroad. For a number of years it has had specialists in rural or agricultural education who have given special attention to this matter and have aided the movement through participation in educational meetings in different parts of the country, as well as by the prepara- tion of publications. Among the bureau's publications relating to agriculture in the secondary schools are the following: Bulletin No. 1, 1908, The Training of Persons to Teach Agriculture, by L. H. Bailey; No. 6, 1912, Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools; No. 2, 1913, Training courses for Rural Teachers, by A. C. Monahan and R. H. Wright; No. 6, 1913, Agricultural Instruction in High 334 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE Schools, by C. H. Robison and F. B. Jenks; No. 14, 1913, Agricul- tural Instruction in Secondary Schools; No. 27, 1914, Agricultural Teaching; No. 34, 1917, Institutions in the United States giving Instruction in Agriculture, 1915-16, by A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye; No. 38, 1917, Vocational Teachers for Secondary Schools, by Chester D. Jarvis; No. 85, 1919, Development of Agricultural Instruction in Secondary Schools, by H. P. Barrows. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION At the meeting of the National Education Association in Boston, Mass., in 1903 a committee was appointed to investigate and report as to what should be undertaken in the field of industrial education in schools in rural communities. This committee included L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; L. H. Bailey, of New York; Alfred Bayliss, of Illi- nois; W. T. Carrington, of Missouri; and W. M. Hays, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. This committee made an extended report to the association at Asbury Park, N. J., July 3, 1905. (See Experi- ment Station Record, vol. 17, p. 196.) Their general conclusions were as follows: In existing 1-room district schools little result can be expected from attempts to teach nature study, elementary agricul- ture, and handwork, and it would be unwise to make instruction in these subjects mandatory. Much more in these lines might come from such instruction in consolidated schools and high schools. The agricultural colleges should actively engage in putting available knowledge in the field of industrial education into available form for use in elementary and secondary schools. The people in rural com- munities should be shown the value of industrial education and the courses of study in rural schools should be framed with reference to meeting the needs of rural children. Boys' and girls' clubs, reading courses, and farmers' institutes should be promoted. Special oppor- tunities and inducements should be offered to teachers to prepare themselves for giving instruction in industrial subjects. An articu- lated series of schools from the elementary school through the college should be organized for rural people. A similar committee presented a report in 1907. From this time the association took a more active interest in agri- cultural education, and at Los Angeles in July, 1907, the formation of a department of rural and agricultural education was authorized. This was organized in February, 1908, at the Washington meeting of the department of superintendence, with E. C. Bishop, of Lincoln, Nebr., as president, and D. B. Johnson, of Rockhill, S. C, as vice president. At this meeting, which was attended by nearly 1,600 per- sons from every State and Territory, except Arizona, Nevada, and Porto Rico, a resolution was adopted indorsing "the great value of the study of agricultural subjects in the schools of the rural districts." W. M. Hays, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, gave the principal address at the first evening session, his subject being Agricultural Industries and Home Economics in the Public Schools. At a round table on agricultural education the educational work of the United States Department of Agriculture was outlined broadly by the writer, and the training of teachers of agriculture was discussed by E. E. Brown, United States Commissioner of Education ; J. R. Kirk, presi- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 335 dent of the State Normal School at Kirksville, Mo. ; and K. L. Butter- field, president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experiment Stations, read a paper on Cooper- ation between the United States Department of Agriculture and State School Authorities to Promote Agricultural Education. The convention of the association at Cleveland, Ohio, June 29 to July 3, 1908, gave unusual attention to vocational education, and at the meeting in Denver in July, 1909, much attention was given to agricultural education. Great interest centered in the discussion re- garding special agricultural schools. Dean Davenport, of Illinois, opposed their establishment on the ground that their courses must of necessity be narrow and that the tendency of such schools would be to " peasantize " the farmers. He strongly urged the teaching of agri- culture in the local high schools. D. J. Crosby presented the view of the Office of Experiment Stations that agriculture should be taught in both the high schools and a limited number of special schools. The latter would be especially for mature youths who had decided to fol- low agricultural pursuits and w^ould have the advantage of greater breadth and thoroughness of agricultural instruction, aided by equip- ment of laboratories, animals, machinery, etc., superior to that of the ordinary high schools. By this time the association had come to consider agricultural edu- cation as forming a permanent part of our public-school system, and regular provision w^as made for the discussion of its various phases at succeeding meetings. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIO STUDY OF EDUCATION The National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, com- posed of professors of education and others interested in the study of education, holds annual meetings in connection with the convention of the department of superintendence of the National Education As- sociation. Since 1902 it has published yearbooks. One part of the yearbook for 1912 was devoted to papers on agricultural education in secondary schools, prepared under direction, of D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experiment Stations. THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION The national committee on agricultural education, organized in 1904 by persons interested in the teaching of agriculture in the public schools, held meetings for several years in connection with the Na- tional Education Association, at which matters relating to secondary education were discussed. It was greatly interested in the effort to create a department of rural and agricultural education in the Na- tional Education Association. When that department was organized in 1908 this committee went out of existence. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES The general history of the development of secondary instruction in agriculture in the agricultural colleges has already been described. (See particularly pp. 273 and 324.) This instruction has been organ- ized in two general forms, (1) as a distinct school of agriculture within 336 MISC. PUBLICATIOlsr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE the college, or (2) as short courses of various lengths and for differ- ent purposes. The short courses, covering a year or more, are to a considerable extent of the same general character as the regular courses in the schools, but the schools as well as college departments also offer special courses covering shorter periods. In 1915-16 the Bureau of Education listed 24 land-grant institutions as maintaining schools or secondary courses of agriculture covering from one to four years. Schools were maintained in 11 States, as follows: California Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska North Dakota, South Dakota, and Washington. One-year, 2-year industrial or vocational courses were maintained in 13 States : Iowa Michigan, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah and Virginia. The schools were — taught in large part by members of the regular agricultural college faculty and the college recitation rooms, lecture rooms, laboratories, and equipment are all used. There is little difference in the organization of these so-called " schools of agriculture " and in the " 1-year," " 2-year," " industrial," and "vocational" courses in agriculture in other colleges (^7i). In three States additional schools were maintained away from the college, though under its direction. The Colorado college had one at Fort Lewis, the Nebraska College one at Curtis, and the Minne- sota college two, at Crookston and Morris. The school at Davis, under the University of California, served the double purpose of a secondary school and an institution giving college education in some agricultural subjects to members of classes who did most of their work at the College of Agriculture at Berkeley. The status of the short courses in 1924 has been described in a previous chapter. (See p. 317.) As the number of secondary courses in agriculture in special schools and the high schools increased and it became evident that such in- struction would become a permanent part of our public-school system, the problem of college credit for such courses arose. In 1905 the council of the University of Missouri initiated the movement for giving credit for high-school agriculture on the entrance requirements for college. One unit was allowed for a year's work in agricidture in the high school. About the same time the regents of the University of the State of New York, who provided uniform examinations for all the high schools of the State, decided to allow credits for nature study and agriculture provided the courses in these subjects showed educational values comparable with those of the other subjects recognized in their examinations. To meet this situation the College of Agriculture at Cornell University, at the request of the New York State Depart- ment of Education, prepared a typical syllabus for a high-school course in agriculture. INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS Early in the twentieth century normal schools in a number of States began to teach agriculture. This was closely connected with the movement for the introduction of nature study and elementary agriculture into the rural schools, which will be described in a later A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 337 chapter. In Wisconsin the county training schools for teachers in Dunn and Marathon Counties were combined with the schools estab- lished in 1902 in which agriculture was taught. Soon thereafter county teacher-training schools in Michigan began the teaching of agriculture. About the same time the State Normal and Industrial College for Women, at Rockhill, S. C, began instruction in agri- culture in connection with school-garden work. In Missouri the State Normal School at Kirksville in 1900-1901 began to give a 1-year course in agriculture under the active leader- ship of the principal of the school, John R. Kirk, who was greatly interested in promoting agricultural education. It was the first attempt to give a systematic course in agriculture at a normal school in the United States. This resulted in 1905 in the publication of a manual and textbook of elementary agriculture entitled "Agriculture Through the Laboratory and School Garden," by Miss C. R. Jackson and Mrs. L. S. Dougherty, instructors in that school. This book shows that the course in agriculture there treated of soils, leguminous plants, propagation and improvement of plants, pruning, enemies of plants, rotation of crops, principles of feeding, milk and its care, and ornamentation of school and home grounds. Suggestions for laboratory exercises and field work and numerous references to the literature of the subject were prominent features of this book. About the same time the normal school at Cape Girardeau began a 1-year course, which included one term each of soils and soil man- agement, plant culture and horticultural practice, and home dairy- ing and landscape gardening. A little later the normal school at Warrensburg undertook similar Avork. The courses in agriculture in these Missouri schoools were afterwards further developed and covered a longer period. In Georgia the State normal schools at Athens and Milledgeville early began to develop courses in agriculture. In 1906-7 at Athens this subject was taught throughout the diploma course of three years and was one of the subjects in the short review course. In the senior year students recited one double period a week on ele- mentary agriculture, which included a review of previous work and a study of methods. The school had a 20-acre farm which furnished food for the students and was also utilized as a laboratory for the classes in agriculture. Students did practical work with different varieties of plants and fertilizers, budding, grafting, spraying, grow- ing of plants in pots, etc. They studied rural-life problems, made detailed studies of a few staple crops in the South, and had some instruction regarding livestock and truck farming. At Milledge- ville agriculture was a required subject in the freshman year and was followed in the junior and senior years by special courses on plants, animals, climate, weather, soils, etc. In the Alabama State Normal School at Jacksonville agriculture was taught in 1906-7 in the first and second years and horticulture in the fourth year, with practical exercises in pruning, grafting, etc. The Colorado State Normal School at Greeley about this time required agriculture four hours a week throughout the eleventh grade of the high-school course and the ninth grade of the normal- school course and offered it as an elective in the twelfth irrade of the 338 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE high-school course. It was taught by an associate professor of nature study, school gardening, and elementary agriculture. In 1907 the Office of Experiment Stations reported that 64 of the 182 State normal schools in the United States were teaching agriculture {4^9). Of these, 4 are in Alabama, 3 in California, 1 in Colorado, 2 in Connecticut, 2 in Georgia, 3 in Illinois, 1 in Iowa, 1 in Kansas, 1 in Louisiana, 3 in Maine, 3 in Michigan, 5 in Missouri, 1 in Montana, 3 in Nebraska, 1 in North Carolina, 2 in North Dakota, 1 in Ohio, 3 in Oklahoma, 1 in Oregon, 1 in South Carolina, 1 in South Dakota, 1 in Texas, 2 in Utah, 2 in Virginia, 3 in Washington, 6 in West Virginia, and 7 in Wisconsin. The instruction in agriculture in 13 of these institutions is confined to the textbook, in 35 the textbook work is supplemented by laboratory exercises, school garden work, or other practicums, while in the remaining 16 schools the nature of the instruction is uncertain, though it is likely that fully half of these provide practice work. Fully 70 per cent of the teachers of agriculture in normal schools were trained for other lines of work, and of the remaining 30 per cent nearly one-half are burdened with other science work. In some of the normal schools agriculture was taught by teachers of agriculture, in others by teachers of science, and in the remaining schools by other teachers — j)rincipals, teachers of pedagogy, econom- ics, and other subjects. Oklahoma in the general law of May 20, 1908, for a system of agricultural education, provided $2,500 annually for a department of agricultural and industrial education in each of the State normal schools. The same year Texas appropriated $2,000 a year for two years to each of its three State normal schools for departments of agriculture, manual training, and domestic science, and also made l^rovision for teachers' courses in elementary agriculture in the summer sessions at these schools. In 1910 the Massachusetts State Normal School at North Adams, with the cooperation of the agricultural college, undertook special work with reference to rural schools, which was extended to cover three years of instruction on problems relating to farm crops, horti- culture, poultry, and dairying. In New York, after the passage of a law giving State aid to schools organizing departments of agriculture, home economics, and manual training, the State Normal and Training School at Cortland in 1911 offered 2-year and 1-year courses for men with instruction in agricul- ture and allied sciences, psychology, and education. The normal schools, as well as the agricultural colleges, in a num- ber of States offered short summer or winter courses in agricultural subjects, with special reference to the needs of teachers in service. A unique summer school of this kind, apart from the normal schools, was held at Cape May, N. J., August 6-31, 1908, under direction of H. O. Sampson, of the Office of Experiment Stations. The instruc- tion was carried on by lectures, laboratory demonstrations, and field trips. Special effort was made to show how elementary instruction in agriculture could be effectively given without exj)ensive apparatus and with the use of a school garden and of livestock on neighboring farms. The number of normal schools in which agriculture was taught in- creased rapidly. In 1910 some instruction in agriculture was given in 156 State and county normal schools. This movement was there- after affected by the increasing attention to teacher training in the A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 339 agricultural colleges, the introduction of agriculture in numerous high schools, and the difficulties attending efforts to introduce this subject in the rural elementary schools. It became more difficult for normal schools to offer acceptable courses in agriculture, as distin- guished from nature study, unless they had teachers well trained in agriculture. Some normal schools therefore dropped agriculture, while in others the courses in that subject were made more systematic and stronger. For the year 1915-16 the Bureau of Education reported that 124 public normal schools were teaching agriculture, not including 27 county training schools in Wisconsin. These schools were located in 37 States and offered instruction in agriculture ranging from 20 to 1,512 recitation hours. In 49 schools from 20 to 190 hours of agri- culture were required of all students. In 1922-23 teacher-training courses were given in high schools in about half the States. Kural sociology was a required study in 12 States and rural economics in 1; industrial art, including agriculture, in 13 States ; and nature study in 13 States. STATE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS Under an act of March 8, 1901, the California Polytechnic School at San Luis Obispo was opened in 1903, with agriculture, domestic science, and mechanic arts as its main lines of instruction. Two sub- stantial buildings were erected on a farm of 280 acres, and Leroy Anderson, who had been an instructor in the college of agriculture of the University of California, was made its director. A joint meeting of the California State Teachers' Association and the State Farmers' Institute held at Berkeley December 25-29, 1905, was attended by over 7,000 persons. (Experiment Station Record, vol. 17, p. 521.)' The claims of agricultural education to a place in the public school system in secondary and elementary schools, as well as in the colleges, were elaborately and earnestly presented and discussed by a considerable number of speakers. More significant even was the general atmosphere of sympathy with the idea that the industrial element must in one form or another become a permanent and pervasive constituent of our public school system. Governor Pardee in an earnest and thoughtful address showed that there was so little in the school curricula to aid children in their life work that great numbers of them, and especially the boys, were leaving school at so early an age that the schools were making little impression on their minds or characters. The problems of agricul- tural education were discussed by a number of speakers, including Governor Pardee, representatives of the University of California, and the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations. The need of supplementing the work of the college of agriculture of the uni- versity by the teaching of agriculture in the high schools and in a small number of special secondary schools was clearly pointed out. The press of the State gave much space to this meeting and particu- larly to its agricultural features. It was an important factor in bringing about increased attention to agriculture in high schools and in securing the establishment of the agricultural school at Davis in connection with the college of agriculture of the University of California. 340 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE In 1907 the legislature appropriated $132,000 for the equipment of a farm there and the erection of buildings. A dairy building, live- stock pavilion, barn, workshops, and two cottages were soon erected, and a short course was begun in January, 1908. Leroy Anderson was transferred from the Polytechnic School at San Luis Obispo to be professor of practical agriculture in the University of California and director of the farm school at Davis. The school was developed partly as a secondary vocational school to meet the needs of mature farm boys who were not prepared to enter the college of agriculture and partly to provide practical instruction for the members of the college classes in agriculture who could not get such instruction at Berkeley because the college of agriculture then had no farm. In Minnesota an act was passed in 1905 creating a school of agri- culture at Crookston and putting it under the direction of the board of regents of the State university. An appropriation of $15,000 Avas made for the construction and equipment of a school building to be located on the farm of 476 acres belonging to the branch experi- ment station which has been maintained there since 1895. The State also gave this school an initial appropriation of $4,000 annually for niaintenance. In 1908 a dormitory costing about $43,000 and a building containing a creamery and blacksmith and carpenter shops, costing about $15,000, were erected. In 1911 a science hall costing $40,000, and later other substantial buildings were added. This school prospered, and in recent years has had 500 students. In 1910 a similar school was located at Morris, which in 1924 had 10 brick and stone educational buildings and 10 farm buildings. These two schools are coeducational, are conducted on the same gen- eral plan as the school at the agricultural college, and are in effect branches of that institution. Their school year covers six months, from October to April. Georgia in 1906 under the leadership of Gov. Joseph M. Terrell undertook the establishment of industrial and agricultural schools in each of the 11 congressional districts of that State. The legislature passed an act under which the governor was authorized to establish such schools and cause them to be maintained. They were to be branches of the State college of agriculture and under the general supervision of the board of trustees of the University of Georgia, but each school was to have a local board of trustees appointed by the governor for a term of six years and consisting of one member from each county in its district. These boards were to cooperate with the governor and the faculty of the State college of agricul- ture in deciding upon courses of study and lines of farm work to be carried on. Each school was to receive for maintenance an equal share approximately of the inspection fees from fertilizers, oils, etc., collected by the State department of agriculture, not otherwise ap- propriated, amounting as then estimated to about $6,000 a year. The different localities in which the schools were located must fur- nish not less than 200 acres of land and the necessary equipment of buildings, livestock, machinery, farm implements, etc. The course of study in said schools shall be confined to the elementary branches of an English education, and practical treatises or lectures on agri- culture in all its branches, and the mechanic arts and such other studies as will enable students completing the course to enter the freshman class of the State College of Agriculture on certificate of the principal (100). A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 341 The faculty was to consist of a principal, " who shall be an intel- ligent farmer," a superintendent and instructor in farm work, an intelligent mechanic, a " practical instructor in care of stock and dairying," an instructor in English, and such other instructors and assistants as funds would permit. " It shall be the duty of said in- structors in said schools to cooperate in conducting farmers' institutes and farm and stock demonstrations." After the first temporary buildings were erected " all work on, in, and about said schools, or on or in the barns and shops connected with said schools, whether it be farming, building, care of stock, or Avork of whatever kind, shall be performed exclusively by the stu- dents of said schools." One-half of the receipts from the sale of the products of the farm or shop must be used to pay the students, not to exceed $100 for each student in a school year. Tuition was to be free. The trustees of the university decided that the schools should be coeducational, the minimum age for entrance to be 14 years for boys and 13 for girls, and that the course should cover four years of 40 weeks each. Manual or laboratory work was to occupy three hours daily. The girls were to have instruction and work in home eco- nomics. About one-fourth of the students were to be required to stay on the school farm during the summer vacation and work for pay. So popular was the movement to establish these schools that gifts from private sources in the several districts aggregated in value over $800,000. They included from 240 to 350 acres of land for each school, valued at from $5,000 to $22,000, cash donations of from $25,000 to $60,000, 10 years of free telephone and water service in more than half the districts, and installation of sewerage sj'^stems in several districts. At the request of the governor the Secretary of Agriculture de- tailed W. G. Smith, of the Bureau of Soils, to aid in the selection of the school farms, and D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experiment Sta- tions, to assist in formulating the course of study. The latter and Joseph S. Stewart, professor of secondary education in the Uni- versity of Georgia, prepared a tentative course, which Avas examined by a committee of the board of trustees, submitted to professors of agriculture in a number of States, and with some changes, especially the elimination of optional foreign languages, was adopted June 15, 1907. This course included class and practice work in agriculture and English during four years, together with arithmetic. United States history, penmanship, spelling, and geography in first year; algebra, ancient history, horticulture and botany, penmanship, and spelling, or an optional study in second year; algebra, rural law, and farm accounts, elementary and agricultural physics, English his- tory, commercial geography, or a science in third year; geometry, civics, farm economics, elementary and agricultural chemistry, mod- ern history, or a science in fourth year; 791^2 hours were given to classroom and practice work in agriculture and 501/2 hours (or 76 periods of 40 minutes) to the other subjects. The schools were located at Statesboro, Tift on, Americus, Carroll- ton, Monroe, Barnesville, Powder Springs, Madison, Clarkesville, Granite Hill, and Douglas. All of them were in operation in 1908 and during that school year enrolled 1,001 students. The academic buildings had six rooms, chemical, agricultural, and biological labora- 342 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE tories, and an auditorium with 600 seats. Barns, stables, dairies, laundries, etc., were erected by student labor at several of the schools. In 1911 the funds derived from the fertilizer tax were withdrawn from these schools, and they were given an annual appropriation from the State treasury. In 1915-16 this amounted to $10,000 for each school. That year they each had 4 or 5 men teachers and from 2 to 6 women teachers. The students numbered from 45 to 145 boys and from 12 to 75 girls. For a number of years these schools en- countered many difficulties, owing to the experimental stage of voca- tional education and the opposition or indifference of school authori- ties and people generally to such education. But their courses of study were gradually improved and standardized, and they became high schools whose graduates were accredited for college entrance, particularly to the college of agriculture of the University of Georgia. After the passage of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Edu- cation Act in 1917 these schools secured an allotment of funds pro- vided under that act. New York established its first State school of agriculture in 1906 and located it at St. Lawrence University at Canton {Jf.39). This university was established in 1856 as a denominational institution and had developed a college of arts and sciences and schools of theology and law. The school of agriculture was intended to meet the needs of young people who had not taken the regular high-school courses and thus prepared themselves to enter a college of agriculture. It was ex- pected that this new school would be strictly vocational. Agricul- ture, mechanic arts, and home economics would be taught, together with the elements of underlying sciences and a few academic sub- jects. An appropriation of $80,000 for buildings and equipment and $12,000 for maintenance was made at first. A main school building and a dairy building were erected, and the school was opened in 1907. A farm of 63 acres was immediately used, and this was changed for a farm of 100 acres in 1910. The early faculty consisted of a dean and teacher of animal husbandry and dairying and teachers of farm engineering and manual training, domestic science, chemistry and physics, and academic subjects, with assistants in cheese and butter making, poultry, veterinary science, and some other subjects. There was also a farm superintendent. The agricultural course of two years included agronomy, animal husbandry, dairying, poultry, vet- erinary science, farm engineering, surveying, agricultural chemistry, physics, manual training (mechanical drawing, woodworking, and forge work), agricultural arithmetic, farm accounts, English, civics, political economy, commercial and parliamentary law. Students must be at least 16 years old, and there were no entrance require- ments. A class of six members was graduated in 1909. Attendance at this school grew, and it was found necessary to make a distinction between those students who had had only common-school education and those who had taken at least a part of a high-school course. For the former a regular course of three years was offered, while the latter might so arrange their studies as to graduate in tAvo years. During the second and third years agricultural students might specialize to a certain extent in animal husbandry, poultry, dairying, or horticulture. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION" 343 In 1908 two other New York State schools of agriculture were established. One of these was located at Alfred University, Alfred, and the other by itself at Morrisville {430). Alfred University had grown out of a small school organized in 1836, which in 1843 received a charter as Alfred Academy and Teach- ers' Seminary. In 1857 it was made a university and added an under- graduate college to the academy. The New York State School of Clay Working and Ceramics was established on land adjacent to the university and is managed by its trustees. The school of agriculture was given a board of managers appointed by the university trustees. R. A. Pearson, State commissioner of agriculture; L. H. Bailey, director of the State College of Agricul- ture ; and F. N. Godfrey, master of the State Grange, were members of the first board of managers. The initial appropriation provided $75,000 for buildings, farm, and equipment and $5,000 for mainte- nance, to which were added in 1909, $40,000 for a dairy building, greenhouse, and other equipment, and $10,000 annually for main- tenance. The main building was a 4-story structure of brick and stone containing 10 laboratories, a classroom, an assembly room, and a library. The farm consisted of 230 acres, a large barn, and 50 cattle, and there was a dormitory for 20 boys. The faculty included the president of the university, who was also teacher of rural sociolog}^ and ethics; O. S. Morgan, director and teacher of horticulture and agronomy; and teachers of animal hus- bandry, domestic science and arts, drafting and shopwork. chemistry and physics, botany and zoology, and farm mathematics ; and a farm superintendent. The regular course occupied three years, but there were also special courses and a farmers' week. Students in the university were permitted to take some studies in this school. A novel feature of its 3-year course was its arrangement under three heads, viz. for boys, for boys and girls, and for girls. The work under the first and third headings was almost evenly balanced in time units, and among the technical studies common to boys and girls were general agriculture, general and agricultural botany, farm law and accounts, rural sociology, butter, cheese, poultry, plant dis- eases, general and landscape gardening, and insect pests. Besides English, arithmetic, history, and hygiene, instruction was given in physical culture, music, parliamentary practice, and social life. The school opened October 18, 1909, and had two terms of 12 weeks each. Thirty-six boys and 10 girls attended the first year. In 1912-13 there were 173 boys and girls in the school, and, in addition, 46 students came from the college and academy. The school at Morrisville opened October 26, 1910. The super- visors of Madison County were authorized to transfer county-seat buildings at Morrisville for use of tlie school, which was given $20,000 for repairs and the purchase of a farm of about 200 acres. In 1910 the State gave $59,275 for buildings, equipment, teachers' salaries, and maintenance. The school thus acquired three sub- stantial buildings, one of which was used for shops and drafting. It was managed by a board of six trustees appointed by the governor, together with the commissioner of agriculture and the director of the State College of Agriculture, as members ex officio. The first course 12931—29 23 344 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE covered two years, and in 1911-12 was attended by 26 boys and 6 girls. A State act of 1910 authorized the three agricultural schools then established to give courses for the training of teachers of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home making. If they gave such courses they were to receive the same State aid as was given to high schools under this law. Additional State schools of agriculture were afterwards estab- lished at Cobleskill (1916), Delhi (1914), and Farmingdale (1916). The latter is on Long Island, about 30 miles from New York City. It has been given larger funds and has a more elaborate plant. Special efforts have been made to draw students from the city, and a considerable number of these have been children of foreign-born parents who in their native countries lived on the land. The first constitution of Oklahoma required the teaching of the "elements of agriculture, horticulture, stock feeding, and domestic science in the common schools." An act of May 20, 1908, passed by the first State legislature, provided for an articulated system of in- struction in the subjects mentioned and in forestry, roadmaking, and economics, extending from the agricultural college to the common schools {4'^9). The Agricultural and Mechanical College was re- quired to assist in promoting the teaching of agricultural and in- dustrial subjects in the lower schools; departments of agricultural and industrial education were to be established in the State normal schools, and agricultural schools of secondary grade were to be organized in each judicial district. The courses in these schools were to include not only agricultural and industrial subjects, but also " the common-school branches, languages, manual training, manufactures, the sciences, and other necessary studies." At least two of these schools were to be established in 1908-9 and two each year thereafter. Each school must provide not less than 80 acres of land for experimental purposes, without expense to the State. The State superintendent of education, president of the State board of agriculture, and the president of the Agricultural and Mechanical College were constituted a commission of agricultural and industrial education to prepare detailed courses of study for these schools and to articulate these courses so that their graduates could enter the Agricultural and Mechanical College without further examination. There was also to be established at the agricultural college a chair of agriculture for schools, whose occupant was to visit the schools in Avhich agriculture Avas taught and give advice in this way and through correspondence and publications on all matters relating to the teaching of agriculture and allied subjects. Under this law, schools were located at Warner, Tishomingo, Broken Arrow, Lawton, and Helena. The first year each had a State appropriation of $20,000 for buildings and $12,000 for maintenance. A sixth school, known as the Panhandle Agricultural Institute, was established at Goodwell to serve part of a district and had $12,000 for buildings and $5,000 for maintenance. One-fourth of the maintenance for each school was to be spent for experiments. In Arkansas the movement for agricultural schools began in 1906, when the Washington County Farmers' Union passed a resolution indorsing the establishment of special agricultural schools {83). A A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 345 bill for one school was passed by the legislature in 1907, but was vetoed by the governor. On April 1, 1909, a law was approved for four State agricultural schools in districts of from 17 to 20 counties. The management of each school was assigned to a district board of five persons, "intelligent farmers," appointed by the governor for a term of 10 years after the initial appointments which were from 2 to 10 years, so that there would be one vacancy to be filled every two years. The minimum age of admission of students was fixed at 15 years. This act carried an appropriation of $40,000 for each school. The communities in which the schools were located contributed generously toward lands, buildings, and maintenance. Agriculture and horti- culture, home economics, natural sciences, and academic subjects such as are usually taught in high schools, were included in their courses. The regular courses covered four years of secondary work, but pro- vision was also made for preparatory and short courses. The schools were opened for students during 1910 and 1911. Each school had in 1912 from 200 to 500 acres of land and from three to six substantial brick buildings, including a main building (with classrooms and laboratories), dormitories for boys and for girls, a dining hall, etc. The faculties consisted of a principal and from 5 to 10 teachers. The teachers of different branches of agriculture were from the land-grant colleges in Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, South Carolina, and Texas. Various field crops, fruits, and vegetables were grown on the farms, where the students did much of the labor and were paid from 10 to 15 cents per hour. In some cases they also assisted in the construc- tion of buildings. These schools developed strongly as vocational institutions. Their agricultural equipment of livestock, farm machinery, etc., increased, and their agricultural courses w^ere strengthened. In 1915-16 the number of boys in the secondary agricultural classes in the several schools was as follows: Jonesboro, 67; Russellville, 98; Magnolia, 42; Monticello, 78. The Nebraska Legislature in 1910 appropriated $100,000 for an agricultural school to be located at Curtis on a 20-acre campus within the city limits. It also had for demonstration and other purposes a 413-acre farm. It w^as developed under the direction of the Uni- versity of Nebraska and was considered a branch of its College of Agriculture. In 1910 the Vermont Legislature passed a bill discontinuing the State Normal School at Randolph and transferring its buildings and other property to a new State school of agriculture, which was also given $20,000 for buildings, repairs, and equipment and $10,000 an- nually for maintenance. The course covered two years. In 1915-16 this school had 6 teachers and 78 boy students. Colorado in 1911 provided for a school of agriculture and me- chanic arts at the Fort Lewis School, formerly a United States Indian school. This school was to be in charge of the State board of agriculture and thus was brought into connection with the State agri- cultural college at Fort Collins, which was also managed by this board. It was to receive a State fund of $75,000 during the biennium, 346 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE not less than half of which was to be expended for equipment. In 1915-16 this school had a plant valued at $200,000, received $30,000 from the State, spent for maintenance $17,644, had 3 men and 2 women as teachers and 27 boys and 10 girls as students. COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS In Wisconsin under the leadership of L. D. Harvey, State superin- tendent of education, who had prepared a report on instruction in manual training and agriculture in other countries and States, a State act for county schools of agriculture and domestic science was passed in 1901 ^39). This act authorized county boards to establish schools of agricul- ture and domestic economy in which were to be taught the elements of agriculture, farm accounts, manual training, domestic economy, and other subjects. Each such school was to have at least 3 acres of land suitable for experiments and demonstrations. Completion of the course of study in the common schools was required for entrance to the county schools, but winter classes for " students of advanced age " were to be organized whenever there was sufficient demand for them. The State superintendent of education, with the advice of the dean of the State College of Agriculture, was to prescribe the course of study and determine the qualifications of teachers for these schools, which were to be managed by county boards. Not more than half the amount expended for instruction was to be paid by the State, which practically fixed a maximum allowance of $2,500 for each of the two schools first established. Two counties might unite in the establishment and conduct of a single school. Marathon and Dunn Counties, which had been first to have county teacher-training schools under an act of 1899, were also first in organizing schools of agriculture and domestic economy in 1902. Such schools were combined with the county normal schools at Wausau and Menomonie. A similar school was opened at Winne- conne, November 4, 1907, with K. L. Hatch, who had been superin- tendent of schools at Waterloo, as principal and teacher. The agri- cultural school interchanged classes with the teacher-training school when located in the same building. In Minnesota a State act of 1905 gave the counties local option regarding the establishment of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy if the people took interest enough in the matter to vote upon it. Each school was to have not less than 10 acres of land for experiments and demonstrations. Such schools were put under the control of the State superintendent of education. Kansas had had for several years a general law permitting the establishment of county high schools. One of these schools was established in Norton County and in 1905 substituted an agricultural course for its general science course and employed a graduate of the Kansas Agricultural College to teach agriculture and the natural sciences. The Michigan Legislature in 1907 passed an act authorizing the establishment of county agricultural schools under the control of county boards of five members, including the county commissioner of schools and four members appointed by the board of supervisors. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 347 These schools were to have a 2-year course, including agriculture, farm accounts, manual training, home economics, and other related subjects, and yvere to have at least 10 acres of land. General super- vision of these schools was committed to the State superintendent of education, with the advice of the president of the State agricultural college. Their principals were to be graduates of State agricultural colleges. The first school under this law was opened at Menominee November 18, 1907, with J. F. Wojta, formerly connected with the Minnesota School of Agriculture, as principal. Recently this has been discontinued as a county school. A Mississippi law, passed in 1908, permitted counties to establish agricultural high schools for which a tax not to exceed 2 mills might be levied. When a school is located and has school and dormitory buildings to accommodate at least 40 pupils in its high-school depart- ment, the State will give it $1,000, on the approval of the State superintendent of education. Within a year 15 counties had estab- lished schools under this law, the first being at Mashulaville, in Noxubee County, supported by a tax of 1 mill. In North Carolina a law of March 3, 1911, provided for county farm-life schools. These schools were to be outside of any city or town of more than 1,000 inhabitants and not within 2 miles of any city or town of more than 5,000 inhabitants. The county, township, or school district, or all these combined, were to provide at least $2,500 a year for maintenance, a school building, dormitories for not less than 25 boys and girls, a barn, a dairy building with equipment, and a farm of not less than 25 acres of good land. The teachers had to have high-school teachers' certificates on all required subjects except Latin, Greek, and modern languages. Men teachers were to have certificates from the State board of examiners and the president of the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts attest- ing to satisfactory qualifications for their special work. The women teachers were to have similar certificates from the State board and the president of the State Normal and Industrial College. Provision was to be made for regular scondar^^ courses in agriculture and home economics and also for extension work and short courses for adult students, both men and women. One school in each county meeting these requirements might receive a State fund of $2,500 annually for maintenance but not more than 10 schools could be established in any one year. In 1915-16 the Bureau of Education reported 18 such schools, with an attendance of from 6 to 25 boys. In general, the county has proved to be too small a unit for the adequate maintenance of a special agricultural school. STATE-AIDED LOCAL HIGH SCHOOLS TEACHING AGRICULTURE In addition to appropriations for State, district, or county agricul- tural schools, certain States undertook to provide funds for local high schools in which agriculture was taught. Virginia in 1906 undertook the encouragement of the establishment of high schools in rural communities with a State appropriation of $50,000 annually. This was doubled in 1908, and in addition $15,000 was appropriated for county teacher-training courses in certain high schools. The same legislature also gave $20,000 to be divided equally 348 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U, S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE among 10 high schools, one in each congressional district, for the teaching of agriculture and home economics. Manassas offered $25,000 and 15 acres of land and was the first town to receive the State appropriation. Appomattox came second with $5,000 by private subscription and a promise to erect a $10,000 building and provide all the land desired for the school. Schools at Burke ville, Chester. Courtland, Elk Creek, Hampton, Lebanon, and Middletown also re- ceived a share of this appropriation. In 1910 the State appropriation for this work was increased to $25,000. To promote the development of the agricultural work of these schools The Virginia Association of Agricultural Schools was formed November 24, 1909, with the direc- tor of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station as secretary- treasurer. In 1908 Texas appropriated $32,000 to provide a fund from which the State board of education was to duplicate amounts, not less than $500 nor more than $2,000, that might be appropriated by the trustees of any common-school district or independent-school district to the establishing, equipping, and maintaining of departments of instruc- tion in agriculture, including courses in manual training and domestic economy, " subsidiary to agriculture." The school boards were to pro- vide laboratories for instruction in botany, zoology, and other sciences related to agriculture and land for the production of farm and garden plants and employ a teacher trained in agriculture and allied branches. This measure was intended primarily to stimulate the establishment of agricultural courses in the public schools, and it was therefore j^rovidecl that State aid should not be given more than twice to the same school. About this time the Legislature of Louisiana passed a law for the encouragement of agricultural teaching in high schools and voted $500 to each school maintaining a course approved by the State board of education. This was afterwards modified so that such schools were divided into two types. Schools of type 1 had to have from 5 to 10 acres of land for practical agi'icultural instruction and were granted annually $1,200 of State money; those of type 2 must pro- vide practical instruction through home projects and were granted $400. In 1915-16 there were 42 schools of type 1 and 28 of type 2. In Minnesota the Putnam Act in 1909 provided not to exceed $2,500 for each of 10 high or consolidated rural schools which maintained agricultural and industrial departments, with teachers trained in agriculture, manual training, and domestic science and not less than 5 acres of land. Not to exceed 10 schools might be added to the list during each biennium. This act Avas amended in 1911 to permit 30 schools to receive this State fund. There was also passed the Benson- Lee Act giving $1,000 annually to each of 50 high schools or graded schools maintaining a course in agriculture and a course in home economics or manual training. The State high-school board, which was charged with the administration of this act, required that a trained agricultural teacher should be employed and given not less than a continuous half day for agricultural work, with a room exclusively for his use. Two satisfactory dail}?^ periods in an agri- cultural subject would count as a credit. The agricultural instruc- tion must include textbook and laboratory work, special Avork of local interest, a winter short course, and cooperation in farmers' A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 349 institutes. Under these acts 129 schools had agricultural courses in 1915-16. In Maine a law enacted in 1909 provided that any incorporated academy maintaining- a course in manual training, domestic science, or agriculture approved by the State superintendent of schools might receive annually from the State a sum equal to that expended for such instruction, up to $250 for each course. This act was amended in 1911 to make it apply to high schools as well as academies and to allow reimbursement for two-thirds of the expenditures for such instruction up to $500 annually. Maryland in 1910 provided State aid for agriculture, home eco- nomics, manual training, and business courses in tw^o classes of high schools. Schools with at least 80 high-school pupils and a 4-year course would receive $400 toward the salary of each of two special teachers, and schools with at least 35 high-school pupils and a 3-year course would receive $400 toward the salary of one special teacher. Nine high schools giving instruction in agriculture received State aid in 1911. The New York education law of 1909 as amended in 1910 provided that schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home making might be established in cities or in union free school districts {318). These schools were for " pupils who have completed the elementary school course, or have attained the age of 14, or who have met such other requirements as the local school authorities may have prescribed." The commissioner of education was authorized to grant $500 annually to such schools maintained for 38 weeks, employing one full-time teacher, having an enrollment of at least 25 pupils, and maintaining a course approved by him, and $200 for each additional teacher simi- larly employed, or pro rata amounts to schools having a shorter term. This act was afterwards amended to allow two-thirds of the salary of the special teachers to be paid by the State. The State education department committed the administration of this law to its division of trades schools, and it was ruled that departments or courses as well as separate schools might be given State aid under this law. F, W. Howe, formerly connected with the Office of Experiment Stations, was appointed supervisor of agricultural education. In 1913 the law was amended to permit the organization of part- time, continuation, or evening vocational schools, to reduce the neces- sary school year to 36 weeks and the enrollment to 15 pupils, to permit the employment of vocational teachers for 12 months, and to increase the maximum State allowance to each teacher to $1,000 a year. That year the State supervision w^as committed to a division of vocational schools, in which L. S. Hawkins was the specialist in agricultural education {318). Suggested 4-year courses in agricul- ture for intermediate and high schools were outlined, and " there must be provision for two weekly laboratory exercises of 90 minutes each in each class taught by the agriculture teacher." A definite plan for home-project work was published, and it was announced that "no credit is to be given for any subject in agriculture until a satis- factory project for that year has been carried out by the pupil seeking such credit." Additional regents' credit might be given for a project of sufficient importance when this is " summed up in a carefully writ- ten thesis which presents a complete discussion of the problem or experiment undertaken, the scientific facts and principles involved. 350 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE and the practical results accomplished." When the teacher was em- ployed during the summer, part of his work was to be the supervision of home projects of pupils or of boys or young men not in school. In 1915-16 there were 68 State-aided vocational agricultural depart- ments in public high schools in New York. Massachusetts in 1911 made it possible for a vocational agricultural school to be established in any existing high school by a town or group of toW'US. Such school approved by the State board of education would receive two-thirds of the salary of the teacher of agriculture. In 1915-16 there were 14 schools receiving State aid for instruction in agriculture. In North Dakota in 1911 a law was passed providing that any high, graded, or consolidated school having an agricultural department might receive State aid to the extent of $2,500, provided, however, that the number of schools the first year be limited to five and that not more than five were to be added each two years. To receive State aid the school must employ trained instructors in agriculture, manual training, and domestic science and have within 1 mile of the school building not less than 10 acres of land for a school garden and field demonstrations. In Pennsylvania the new school code of 1911 provided that agri- culture shall be taught in township hi^h schools and that a portion of the State school fund may be used to promote education in con- servation, forestry, and agricultural and industrial pursuits." L. H. Dennis w^as appointed expert assistant in agricultural education in the State department of education to supervise the introduction of agriculture into the towmship high schools. Under a State act of May 1, 1913, two-thirds of the amount paid for instruction in agri- culture might be received by a high school from State funds. In 1915-16 there were 18 schools receiving State aid for teaching agriculture. In Utah in 1911 the State board of education provided that every accredited high school must teach agriculture in order to participate in the maintenance fund provided for such schools. In 1915-16 there were 14 high schools in Utah in wdiich agriculture was taught. In Wisconsin a State law of 1911 provided for State aid of $250 for each department of manual training, domestic science, or agricul- ture established in connection wdth any free high school. In 1915-16 agriculture was taught in 79 high schools in Wisconsin. The Michigan Agricultural College, which established a depart- ment of agricultural education in 1908, with W. H. French, formerly deputy superintendent of joublic instruction, in charge, actively pro- moted the teaching of agriculture in the high schools in the State. As a result such instruction was soon offered in a number of schools which were able to obtain qualified teachers. In 1912 a State com- mission on industrial and agricultural education recommended the introduction of agriculture into the high schools, with State super- vision and financial aid. This Avas not done, but in 1915-16 there were 55 high schools teaching agriculture under the supervision of the State agricultural college. AGRICULTURE IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS WITHOUT STATE AID About the beginning of the tAventieth century local high schools began to introduce instruction in agriculture, and by 1915 the number A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 351 of such schools was large. Brief accounts of a few of these schools are given here to illustrate early types of agricultural work in the high schools which did not receive State aid. In 1902 the city of Elyria, Ohio, appointed Lyman Carrier, a graduate of the Michigan Agricultural College, as teacher of sciences in the public high school and arranged an elective course with agri- culture in the third and fourth years. The high school at Waterford, Pa., which was established in 1800 and had a stone building erected in 1822, organized an agricultural course in 1905 in addition to those in language and science (439). The school was fortunate in getting as teacher of agriculture H. O. Sampson, a graduate of the Iowa Agricultural College, who was able to arouse much interest among the students and the neighboring farmers. The course was planned to cover five hours a week for four years. The first year was devoted to a study of the life and uses of plants, the second year to field, orchard, and garden crops, the third year to animal husbandry, dairying, and soil physics, and the fourth year to the chemistry of soils, plants, and animals. Instruction was given through textbooks and lectures (some of which were before the whole school), with agricultural books, bulletins, and papers for reference. Much was made of laboratory work and outdoor practi- cums. The pupils made much of their own apparatus. The school had no land or livestock but used neighboring farms for observation and stock judging. Farmers often brought animals to the vicinity of the schoolhouse to be studied by the agricultural pupils. Mr. Sampson soon left this school to take up work in the Bureau of Soils at Washington, but his successor continued the course with marked success, and was able to report in 1907 that 95 per cent of the boys at the school were in that course. A Babcock tester had been added to the laboratory equipment and was used by the stu- dents for testing milk sent in by their parents and others. Through the good relations of the teacher with the students and their parents the school was " sharing with church and grange in providing a meeting place for town and country on a ground of common interest." About this time the school board of Cecil County, Md., at the request of people in the northern part of that county decided to establish a high school at Calvert and to give the course of study an agricultural trend {4<^9) . The board applied to the Maryland Agri- cultural College and the United States Department of Agriculture for aid in organizing the school. (Mr. Sampson was furloughed to be its principal and teacher of agriculture.) The school was opened November 5, 1906, in a rented 2-room building, with about 9 acres of land adjacent to it. A 4-year course was prepared with the coop- eration of the county board and the Office of Experiment Stations. It included English, Latin, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, drawing, farm bookkeeping, and farm surveying, together with four years of agriculture combined with physical geography and the elements of physics, chemistry, and botany. There were also labora- tory and field exercises. The principal was very active in bringing the school to the attention of the community. The pupils partici- pated in educational meetings, contributed articles to the county papers, took part in a farmers' institute and corn- judging contest, helped to renovate and spray an old orchard, and made observation trips to farms. The principal visited the elementary schools within 352 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, IT. S. DEPT. OP AGEICULTURE a radius of 5 miles from Calvert and interested the teachers and pupils in nature study and elementary agriculture. In the spring months he conducted a night school for the boys who had to leave the day school to assist in farm work. The Farragut School at Concord, Tenn., was reorganized about 1907 to make it serve the community more fully. It had then a new brick building and 12 acres of land about li/^ miles from a small village. This housed both elementary and high-school departments, with a laboratory and home economics and manual training rooms. Six acres were used for demonstrations and for growing food for livestock. Three courses, Latin, English, and agriculture, manual training, and home economics, were offered. In the latter, besides the sciences and academic subjects common in high-school courses, instruc- tion was given in agriculture, manual training, or home economics during the first two years, and in the third and fourth years the student might continue the study of agriculture or take more physics and chemistry. Evening meetings for social and educational pur- poses held at the school brought it into closer touch with the people of the community. The high school at Fairfield, Nebr., in 1911 made visits to farms adjacent to the town a prominent feature of its agricultural instruc- tion. The farmer visited, if he w^ere in the livestock business, talked to the class on the history and merits of his favorite breed. Before going to the farm the students got all available information on this subject from textbooks and teachers. The practical talk and demon- stration closed the instruction on this matter. A local expert judge of cattle was employed to accompany the class to the farm. The high school at Coin, Iowa, offered four years of agriculture as an elective in 1910 (439). Agriculture was taught by the school superintendent, Avho had arranged the nature study in the grades so as to make a good preparation for agriculture in the high school. The instruction covered soils, crops, and silos in the first year; plant propagation, fruit growing, drainage, fertilizers, and maintenance of soil fertility in the second year; animal husbandry and dairying in the third year; farm buildings, sanitation, water supply, orna- mentation of home surroundings, farm mechanics and machinery, roads, bee keeping, farm forestry, and the elements of farm account- ing, marketing, and farm economics in the fourth year. The consolidated school in Magnolia Township, Putnam County, 111., had a high-school department, in which agriculture, manual training, and home economics occupied a prominent place in 1908. This school wa,s located out in the country, 2 miles from the small village of McNabb and was housed in a $12,000 brick building on a tract of 24 acres of timber pasture donated by John Swaney, a farmer in moderate circumstances. An abandoned schoolhouse nearby was fitted up for a teachers' home. In the seventh and eighth grades three 20-minute periods a week were given to elementary agriculture, and in the eighth grade there was al,so bench work. The high-school course contained agriculture during the four years as an elective in- stead of Latin or home economics, together with physiology, zoology (including entomology), botany, chemistry, physics, and the academic subjects usually found in a standard course. In agriculture, agronomy and horticulture were taught in the first year, ,swine husbandry in the second year, soil physics and feeding and judging livestock in the A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 853 third year, and soil fertility as related to systems of farming in the fourth year. Besides the classroom instruction there were labora- tory, ,shop, and field exercises and observation trips to a near-by branch experiment station and to farms. The principal taught agri- culture, manual training, science, and some mathematics. The Agricultural High School of Baltimore County at Sparks Station, Md., was opened in 1909, with B. H. Crocheron, a graduate of Cornell Universit}^, as principal and teacher of agriculture {439). This school w-as formed by the consolidation of four schools and was supported by county funds and local contributions. The pupils came by train, by private conveyance, or in school wagons. The first year there were 50 pupils in the high school and considerably more in the grades. The high-school course included the usual academic subjects, except foreign languages, which were replaced by agriculture, home economics, and manual training. The school had 7 acres of land and a new granite building containing five classrooms, three laboratories, and a farm-machinery room. During the summer the high-school boys w^ere required to conduct wdiat are now called home projects, under direction of the principal. The school tested seeds and milk for farmers. The initial success of the school was very largely due to the interest aroused in the county by the preliminary activities of Mr. Crocheron. Before the opening of the school he moved about in the county get- ting acquainted with the people, attending their agricultural meet- ings, teachers' institutes, etc. The men's agricultural club and the women's home-interest club were made responsible for the public meeting when the school building w^as dedicated. After school opened a series of monthly meetings for rural teachers were held there, at which le,ssons in school methods, administration, and agri- culture were given. The principal also contributed lessons in ele- mentary agriculture to a local publication, which was sent free by the school authorities to every teacher in the county. For adult farmers a course of 10 weekly lectures was given, wnth an average attendance of 125 men and women. At the end of the series of lectures a 2-day corn congre,ss was held, with exhibits, demonstrations, and addresses on corn growing and cooking. Twenty rural schools held preliminary corn shows and sent their best exhibits to the congress. For the farmers' wives monthly meetings w^ere held on Saturday afternoons, the school wagons being used to transport them. There was an average attendance of 85 women, divided into four groups which studied home economics, carpentry, home crafts, or modern literature. A literary society wa,s organized for young people not in school, with spelling bees, debates, etc. The number of high schools in which some agriculture w^as taught increased very rapidly after about 1905. Instruction in agriculture or in its relations to botany, chemistry, or zoology w^as given in about 400 high schools in 1900 and in about 2,000 schools in 1912. This latter number had doubled by 1915. This work was usually done by a single teacher in each school. ComjDaratively few of these teachers were well trained in agriculture. Most of them had been employed primarily to teach science or some other subject. A number of textbooks on agricultural subjects, pre- 354 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE pared with special reference to their use in secondary and elementary schools, were available prior to 1915. There were also Federal and State bulletins giving outlines of courses in agriculture for secondary schools and instructions for teaching this subject. Textbooks and manuals prepared for college students and informational bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State experi- ment stations were abundant. Short courses at the agricultural col- leges were open to teachers, especially during the summer. Some high-school teachers, especially those trained in the sciences, who were thoroughly interested in teaching agriculture and made the best of their opportunities for acquiring knowledge of this subject, taught it with great success. But in very many cases the instruction in agri- culture in the ordinary high schools during this period was textbook work, and often it was merely a small supplement to the instruction in one or two natural sciences. AGRICULTURE IN PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS Secondary schools on a private foundation early began to introduce the teaching of agriculture. Among these was the National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., established in 1896, with special reference to the training of city boys. This school was so successful that in 1901 the State gave it an appropriation of $2,500 annually for two years, which was afterwards increased. Its equipment included a farm of 122 acres, a main building, barn, greenhouses, and livestock. The course covered four years. The science and practice of agricul- ture were taught, together with English, mathematics, and natural science, and the boys did much of the labor on the farm. The Agricultural and Technical Institute at Winona Lake, Ind., founded in 1902, introduced agriculture, a graduate of Purdue Uni- versity teaching that subject. In 1906 this institution was reorgan- ized as an agricultural school, with a 2-year course, given in three de- partments, (1) agriculture and chemistry, (2) dairying and animal husbandry, and (3) horticulture and forestry. The Mount Hermon School, near Northfield, Mass., founded by D. L. Moody, established in 1903 an agricultural department and put at its head Harry Hayward, assistant chief of the Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture and a graduate of that school. Smith's Agricultural School and Northampton School of Tech- nology, at Northampton, Mass., resulted from provisions in the will of Oliver Smith in 1844. Those relating to an agricultural school did not make the fund for this purpose available before December 22, 1905, at which time it amounted to $310,000. This school has two large brick buildings, a farm house, a barn, and a farm of 93 acres, but no dormitories. It is open to boys and girls. For admission preference is given to those students who have completed elementary courses, but others may be admitted on trial. The academic subjects taught are English, general mathematics, gen- eral history of industry. United States history, citizenship, economics of production, exchange and distribution, first aid, personal hygiene and social problems. Approximately half of each pupil's time is spent in shops, laboratories, workrooms, and outside productive A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 355 work ; the other half is spent in class room study. Agricultural sub- jects are taught by the director, the head of the agricultural depart- ment, and the farm superintendent. The agricultural course occupies four years of 32 weeks. The school opened with departments of ag- riculture, household arts, and trades. The latter has since been di- vided into departments of carpentry, sheet metal, silk textiles, and automobiles. The Illinois College at Jacksonville, 111., began secondary work in agriculture in 1908 as the result of a bequest of $20,000 for this purpose by Mrs. Phoebe G. Strawn. Courses were offered in soil fer- tility and fertilizers, soil physics, agricultural botany, and agricul- tural zoology. This work was supplemented with occasional lectures by agricultural experts. The first lecture was given by Dean Daven- port, of the University of Illinois. In Vermont in 1910 a secondary school of agriculture was opened at Lyndonville. This resulted from donations by Theodore N. Vail, president of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co., who provided a small farm with its buildings and funds for the agricultural in- struction. He also permitted the students of this school to utilize his large estate on the hills near Lyndonville for observation and judging of his dairy herd, studies in farm forestry, etc. A 2-year course in scientific and practical agriculture was offered, with special reference to Vermont conditions. This course extended over nine months in each year and was open to residents of the State eligible for admission to an approved high school. Students might pay their expenses in cash or by working on the school farm throughout the year. From 1908, when the Office of Experiment Stations reported that there were 16 private colleges and schools teaching agriculture, the introduction of this subject into private schools proceeded rapidly. In 1915-16 the Bureau of Education reported that some instruction in agriculture was given in 12 private agricultural secondary schools and 149 private secondary schools in 37 States. GENERAL STATUS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE IN 1916 During the 25 years beginning about 1890 there was a new and rapidly growing movement for the establishment of schools and courses in agriculture of secondary grade in a great variety of in- stitutions. When the United States Bureau of Education made a survey of the status of this movement for the school year 1915-16 it found that secondary instruction in agriculture was given in the following classes of institutions : 1. Secondary schools of agi'iculture at State agricultural colleges 28 2. Public normal schools (not including 27 county teacher-training schools in Wisconsin) 124 3. Special agricultural schools receiving State aid 74 4. Vocational agricultural departments in public high schools under State supervision 421 5. Public high schools not State aided 2,760 6. Private agricultural secondary schools 12 7. Private secondary schools (not special) 149 8. Secondary and higher schools for negroes 107 Total 3,675 356 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE The statistics for number of students pursuing agricultural courses were incomplete. At the secondary schools in the agricultural col- leges there were 3,958 students; in the State-aided special schools. 6,643 ; in the public high schools, 60,925 ; and in the private schools (not special), 2,001. It thus appears that more than 73,000 student? in secondary schools in the United States received more or less in- struction in agriculture during that year. The movement had, how- ever, far outrun the ability of the colleges and normal schools to supply an adequate number of teachers trained in agriculture. Under such conditions the inevitable result was that agricultural instruction in many schools became merely cultural or informational and involved mainly textbook work. On the other hand in a limited number of schools the agricultural instruction became more vocational, better- trained teachers Avere employed, and laboratory and practice work at the schools or on home farms was required. During this period manual training and home economics had been introduced into many of the schools where agriculture was taught and also into many other secondary schools throughout the United States. But the instruction in these subjects had also not had the distinct vocational results which had been anticipated. Hence a demand arose for a more definite type of industrial education for students coming out of the elementary schools. Propaganda to secure State and Federal aid for vocational education increased in intensity and extent. The movement for secondary agricultural education became involved in the broader movement for education relating to all the industries. DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE WITH FEDERAL AID, 1917-1925 The Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act was approved by President Wilson February 23, 1917. It is permanent legislation and carries annually large amounts of Federal funds for instruction in agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries to persons ever 14 years of age. This act and the Smith-Lever Agricultural Extension Act passed in 1914 were the outcome of an active move- ment for vocational education below college grade carried on for more than a decade by agricultural and industrial forces, especially as represented by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and the National Society for Industrial Education. The activities of the forces seeking Federal aid for voca- tional education were more or less interrelated. Therefore to under- stand the full significance of the movement it is necessary to consider its industrial as well as its agricultural features. RISE OF THE MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION During the nineteenth century there were in a few places in the United States efforts to provide distinctly vocational training of elementary or secondary grade. Such, for example, were the Girard College in Philadelphia (1848), the mechanics institutes in New York City (1820), Cincinnati (1828), Richmond, Va. (1854), and Rochester, N. Y. (1856) ; the Miller School in Albemarle County, Va. (1878), the institutes for negroes at Hampton, Va. (1868), and A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 357 Tiiskefjee, Ala. (1880) ; the evening classes of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia (1824), the Cooper Union in New York City (1859), the industrial school in Boston (1848), and the trade school in Lowell, Mass. (1872). Manual training in city high schools after 1880 had some voca- tional features but was mainly of general educational value. Mean- while the apprenticeship system as a preparation for industrial work was passing away. Increasing numbers of boys and girls were leav- ing the high schools without preparation for any industry. Many of these youths Avere drifting into the " blind alley " occupations or into criminality. The great corporations which employed many workers in mechanic arts were seeking substitutes for the apprentice- ship system. From 1904 the National Association of Manufacturers had a committee on industrial education, which repeatedly urged the establishment of trade schools. The National Metal Trades Asso- ciation discussed this subject in 1910 and contributed $1,000 to the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. A con- vention of persons interested in trade schools was held at Indian- apolis in 1907. The labor unions, which at first had opposed indus- trial schools for fear they would turn out too many trained workers for different trades, were beginning to realize the importance and desirability of a carefully guarded public system of vocational edu- cation of secondary grade. In 1907 the American Federation of Labor adopted a resolution favoring industrial and technical educa- tion and the following year created a committee, which reported in favor of such education under public control and Avith Federal aid. Educators, publicists, and industrial leaders were awakening to the importance of training American youth for industrial pursuits and Avere Avatching with increasing interest the efforts of European countries, especially Germany, to maintain an adequate supply of skilled workers in industries Avith the aid of A'ocational schools. The National Education Association began the discussion of industrial education in 1900, which was continued at succeeding meetings, espe- cially through the Avork and reports of committees. In 1908 this association approAed trade schools, industrial schools and CA^ening continuation schools and in 1912 created a committee of educators, employers, employees, and social Avorkers to study the needs of ado- lescents for A^ocational guidance and education. THE MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION The Massachusetts Legislature by an act of May 24, 1905, provided for a commission on industrial and technical education {179). con- sisting of nine persons " representing the manufacturing, agricul- tural, educational, and labor interests " to " investigate the needs for education in the different grades of skill and responsibility in the various industries in the CommonAvealth. They shall investigate how far the needs are met by existing institutions and shall consider what ncAV forms of educational effort may be advisable," taking into account " similar educational work done by other States, by the United States Government, and by foreign governments." This com- mission of eight men and one Avoman, Avith Carroll D. Wright as 358 MISC. PUBLICATION- 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE chairman, made its report in April, 1906. They had studied the problems of industrial education as related to both the children and the industries. They found a general and theoretical interest among educators and students o:^ social phenomena and " a practical and specific interest among manufacturers and wage earners because of a personal need." Children going into industrial pursuits from the elementary schools wasted three or four years before attaining productive effi- ciency, and even if they completed a high-school course they lacked manual skill and " industrial intelligence." The commission recommended that instruction and practice in the elements of productive industry, including agriculture and the me- chanic and domestic arts, should be given in the elementary schools for both cultural and industrial purposes, that in the high schools " instruction in mathematics, the sciences, and drawing shall show the application and use of these subjects in industrial life " and elective industrial courses in the principles of agriculture and the domestic and mechanic arts should be provided, and that evening and part-time industrial courses should also be established. To carry out this plan a State commission on industrial education was proposed, and to aid in the establishment of industrial schools and classes the State w^as asked to pay annually from one-fifth to one-half of their cost proportionate to the amount expended from local taxes for these purposes. An act embodying these proposals was passed in 1906, but in 1909 charge of industrial education was given to the reorganized State board of education, under which were a commissioner of education and two deputy commissioners, one of whom must be especially qualified to deal with industrial education. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The first report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education created widespread interest in this subject. Soon afte^ its publication James P. Haney, director of manual training in the public schools of New York City, and Charles R. Richards, director of the department of manual training in Teachers College of Colum- bia University, "came to the conclusion that the time had come to secure united action concerning industrial education." They brought together 11 other men in New York June 9, 1906, and this company appointed a committee on organization. As a result of their efforts about 250 persons met at Cooper Union November 16, 1906, and formed the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion (52). New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Raleigh, and other cities were represented at this meeting. Henry S. Pritchett, then president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was elected president of the society, and Professor Rich- ards was made secretary. Among the members of its first board of managers were Doctor Haney, Frank A. Vanderlip, Jane Addams, James P. Munroe, S. B. Donnelly (secretary of the general arbitra- tion board of the New York building trades), Mrs. M. M. Kehew (a member of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Educa- tion), and Frederick P. Fish (president of the American Telephone A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 359 & Telegraph Co.). Educators, manufacturers, mechanics, business men, and persons of other occupations were members of the society. The constitution stated that — the objects of this society shall be to bring to public attention the importance of industrial education as a factor in the industrial development of the United States ; to provide opportunities for the study and discussion of the various phases of the problem ; to make available the results of experience in the field of industrial education, both in this country and abroad, and to promote the establishment of institutions for industrial training. The society immediately began to issue bulletins containing infor- mation regarding its organization and work and matters relating to the progress of industrial education. It soon gained the favorable attention of President Roosevelt, who sent to Doctor Pritchett on May 24, 1907, an extract from an address he was about to make at the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Michigan Agricultural College {1'94). In this address the President said: For at least a generation we have been waking to the knowledge that there must be additional education beyond that provided in the public school as it is managed to-day. Our school system has hitherto been well-nigh wholly lacking on the side of industrial training, of the training tJiat fits a man for the shop and the farm. This is a most serious lack, for no one can look at the peoples of mankind as they stand at present without realizing that industrial training is one of the most potent factors in national development. We of the United States must develop a system under which each individual citizen shall be trained so as to be effective individually as an economic unit, and fit to be organized with his fellows so that he and they can work in eflBcient fashion together. This question is vital to our future progress and public attention should be focused upon it. Surely it is eminently in accord with the principles of our democratic life that we should furnish the highest average industrial training for the ordinary skilled workman. * * * Surely this means that there must be some systematic method provided for training young men in the trades, and that this must be coordinated with our public school system. The first annual meeting of the society was held at Chicago in January, 1908, at which time Henry Wallace, of Iowa, editor of Wallaces' Farmer, spoke on the training of farm boys. But the society made its first real contact with the movement for secondary education in agriculture when it held its second annual meeting at Atlanta, Ga., in November, 1908. There Hoke Smith, then Governor of Georgia, called attention to the 11 district agricultural schools being established in that State, and Charles R. Davis, Member of Congress from Minnesota, spoke on his bill for Federal aid to agri- cultural and industrial education in secondary schools. This bill had been introduced first in the second session of the Fifty-ninth Congress and in modified form in the first session of the Sixtieth Congress (1907). It practically was intended to extend Federal aid to agri- cultural high schools of the Minnesota type, with branch experiment stations, and to normal schools giving instruction in agriculture, home economics, and mechanic arts. W. M. Hays, who had been active in the movement for agricul- tural schools in Minnesota, and had been in close touch with Mr. Davis in the formulation of his bill for Federal aid to secondary schools, attended the meeting of the society at Milwaukee in De- cember, 1909, in his capacity as Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, and spoke on vocational education and legislation. While he did not 12931—29 24 360 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE mention the Davis bill, it was understood that he was an active advocate of that measure. The society at this time was giving much attention to the pro- motion of State legislation for industrial education. It cooperated in 1910 with the American Association for Labor Legislation in the preparation of a bulletin giving a summary of legislation in the United States relative to industrial education in public elementary and secondary schools, prepared by Edward C. Elliott, professor of education in the University of Wisconsin, and a critical and com- parative comment on this legislation, by C. A. Prosser, deputy com- missioner of education in Massachusetts. This showed that 29 States had legislated for practical education in agriculture, home eco- nomics, trades and industries, or manual training in secondary schools supported and controlled by the public, wherein tuition was free and open to all able to meet their entrance requirements. Current discussion and legislation regarding vocational education showed such a confusion of terminology that Doctor Prosser, with the aid of David Snedden, undertook in this bulletin to give defini- tions of some of the terms commonly used in describing its various forms. Vocational education was defined as that whose controlling purpose is to fit for a calling or vocation. It may be divided into live forms, professional, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and household. The Society for Industrial Education was at this time in close touch with the American Federation of Labor, and John Mitchell, then second vice president of the federation, was on the board of managers of the society. At its meeting in Boston, in 1910 Charles H. Winslow, as a representative of the federation, in a paper on " Labor's Demands on Industrial Education," maintained that " all indus- trial education should be a public function and provided for by public funds," and that " emphasis must be placed on education rather than on product," for " we must not develop a one-sided edu- cation with the single aim of turning out a mechanic at the possible sacrifice of the citizen of to-morrow." Meanwhile the Association of Agricultural Colleges had moved in support of Federal aid for agricultural extension work under direction of these colleges. In 1909 its committee on extension work outlined a j)lan for a Federal appropriation for this purpose, and on December 15, 1909, a bill embodying this plan was introduced in the House of Representatives by Mr. McLaughlin, of Michigan. Early in 1910 Senator Dolliver, of Iowa, introduced two bills, one for extension work and the other for vocational education in sec- ondary schools. These were combined by the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, of which Mr. Dolliver Avas chairman, and on June 2, 1910, he reported a bill (S. 8809, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) "to cooperate with the States in encouraging instruction in agriculture, the trades and industries, and home economics in sec- ondary schools; in maintaining extension departments in State colleges, and in preparing teachers for these vocational subjects in State normal schools and to appropriate money and regulate itsj expenditure." Senator Dolliver died October 15, 1910, and Senator Carroll S. Page, of Vermont, on March 3, 1911, introduced a similar bill. This A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 361 was amended at different times by Senator Page and as Senate bill 3 was debated in 1912 and 1913. (See p. 364.) The Society for Industrial Education at its annual meeting at Cincinnati, Ohio, November 2-4, 1911, received a report from its com- mittee on national legislation, by Doctor Snedden, which dealt at some length with the Page bill. This report stated that the society "hitherto has not given very serious consideration to this measure," but the committee thought that the objects contemplated by the Page bill were on the whole worthy of the encouragement of the society, though in details the bill needed amendment. A substitute bill was therefore presented for the consideration of the society. This was a simpler measure leaving out appropriations for extension work and branch experiment stations and specific reference to normal schools in the provisions for training teachers, and providing for a single administrative agency in Washington and in each State and a system of reimbursement in the expenditure of the Federal funds, which were to be allotted to the States on the single basis of population. Details of the organization of the schools for vocational education were to be left to the local school authorities. The society was by this time w^illing to take a more active part in support of Federal appropriations for secondary vocational education. In the published proceedings of the Cincinnati meeting the secretary comments on the broader and more constructive aims of the society and includes among them " to aid in bringing about national legislation in favor of industrial education, of such a character as to insure wise and efficient administration of funds for the purpose intended." The so- ciety had grown to be a strong organization with over 1,300 members, many of whom had great influence in the industrial world; it had financial assistance outside of the dues paid by its members, and main- tained a salaried secretary wdio spread its influence widely by corre- spondence, addresses before various organizations, the distribution of publications, etc. At the meeting of the society at Philadelphia, December 5-7, 1912, Senator Page made a statement regarding the history of his bill and gave special credit to Doctor Snedden and Doctor Prosser for their assistance in perfecting the bill. Speaking on this subject from the standpoint of the manufacturer, James P. Munroe, of Boston, strongly favored the Page- Wilson bill and offered resolutions asking the Senate " to give immediate and favorable consideration " to this bill. These resolutions were passed unanimously by a rising vote. On April 1, 1912, Doctor Prosser became secretary of the society and began a very active propaganda in its interests, including es- pecially the advocacy of Federal aid for vocational education. This is shown in his first report in Bulletin 16 of the society. When it appeared that Congress would not pass the Page bill the National Society for Industrial Education undertook to secure the appointment of a commission on national aid for vocational educa- tion. On April 7, 1913, Senator Hoke Smith introduced a joint resolution creating such a commission. After this resolution had passed the Senate and was pending in the house the society voted to push its enactment and " to aid this commission in recommending and securing legislation providing national grants for the work which 362 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE shall be based on sound principles of government and of adminis- tration." This resolution passed both Houses and was approved by President Wilson January 20, 1914. It provided for a commission of nine persons to be appointed by the President. The appointments made included the secretary and four other members of the society. In this way the society was very influential in determining the char- acter and form of the Federal legislation to aid vocational education. The commission framed a bill which included Federal aid to secondary education in agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries. The society at its meeting in Richmond, Va., in December, 1914, re- solved that as an organization, and through the action of its in- dividual members, it — should press forward as rapidly as possible, having due regard to the soundness and permanency of the several steps, toward the securing of Federal aid. under wise restrictions, for the promotion of industrial, as well as agricultural and household arts education in the several States. Two years more were required before the legislation sought was obtained through the passage of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Edu- cation Act. The influence of the society was then further shown by the appointment of James P. Munroe as the member of the Federal Board for Vocational Education to represent trades and industries and of Doctor Prosser as director of the administrative organization created by the board. Since that time the society has been active in promoting the general interests of vocational education, especially in its industrial phases, through its annual meetings and publications. The broader aspects of its work were indicated in 1918 by the change of its name to Society for Vocational Education. THE BILLS IN CONGRESS FOR FEDERAL AID TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PRIOR TO 1914 In Congress the movement which resulted in the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act may be said to have begun on February 21, 1906, when Ernest M. Pollard, of Nebraska, introduced in the House of Representatives a bill to grant Federal aid to normal schools. A similar bill was introduced in the Senate the next day by Elmer J. Burkett, of Nebraska. This bill had been drafted by the president of the State normal school, the State superintendent oi public instruc- tion, and the attorney general of Nebraska because that State had no institution for training teachers of agriculture, though a law passed in 1901 required examinations in this subject for certain grades of teachers' certificates. Under this bill Federal funds were to be given to the States for training teachers of agriculture, manual train- ing, domestic science, and related subjects. The initial appropriation was to be $500,000, and this was to be increased annually by $100,000 until it reached a maximum of $1,000,000. One half of the appropria- tion was to be equally divided among the States and the other half was to be allotted to the normal schools in proportion to the length of their term and the number of their students. The Secretary of the Interior was to administer the act. This bill was before the Fifty- ninth, Sixtieth, and Sixty-first Congresses. It had considerable sup- port throughout the country, including the indorsement of the depart- ment of superintendence of the National Education Association. A somewhat similar bill was introduced in the Sixtieth Congress by A A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 363 Senator McCreary, of Kentucky. The Biirkett-Pollard bill is sup- posed to have had some influence on the insertion in the Nelson amendment to the agricultural appropriation act of 1907 of the pro- viso that the Federal funds granted to the land-grant colleges under that act might be spent for the training of teachers of " the elements of agriculture and the mechanic arts." At the time that Georgia was greatly interested in the establish- ment of agricultural schools, Leonidas Livingston, of that State, at the suggestion of Governor Terrell, on December 18, 1906, introduced in the House of Representatives a bill to grant annually $10,000 of Federal funds to such schools in each congressional district through- out the United States. The same bill was introduced in the Senate by Alexander Clay, of Georgia, January 21, 1907. This was followed a few weeks later by a bill introduced by Representative William Adamson, of Georgia, to appropriate $2,500 annually to each branch agricultural experiment station established in congressional districts in any State or Territory. On January 22, 1907, Representative Charles R. Davis, of Minne- sota, a member of the Committee on Agriculture, introduced his first bill for Federal aid for vocational education. This proposed to give annually 10 cents per capita of population for the teaching of agri- culture and home economics in secondary agricultural schools in dis- tricts of not less than 10 counties, and for the teaching of mechanic arts and home economics in urban schools, and $2,500 to each branch experiment station connected with an agricultural school. The Sec- retary of Agriculture was to administer the act. In the Sixtieth Congress Mr. Davis, though no longer on the Committee on Agriculture, actively supported his bill. The friends of the normal schools secured the favorable influence of President Roosevelt and as a result the Davis bill was amended to include an appropriation of 1 cent per capita of population for the teaching of agriculture, home economics, and mechanic arts in public normal schools. The bill gained a large and increasing measure of support. It was indorsed by the National Grange, the Farmers' National Congress, the National League for Industrial Education, and the Southern Education Association. W. M. Hays was closely associ- ated with Mr. Davis in framing and supporting this bill. It was, however, strongly opposed by educators and others who feared that it would create a system of vocational education apart from the general public-school system. This opposition was voiced, for example, by Elmer E. Brown, then commissioner of education, and Eugene Davenport, dean of the Illinois College of Agriculture. In an effort to allay opposition, the bill was amended so as to give the administration of the act to the Secretary of the Interior, in cooperation with the Secretaries of Agriculture and Commerce and Labor. But this was not very satisfactory. The American Federation of Labor now began to take more active interest in this matter and through its committee on industrial educa- tion somewhat revised the Davis bill and gave it to Senator Dolliver, of Iowa, who introduced it in the Senate January 5, 1910. Soon afterwards Mr. Davis introduced it in the House. In the Dolliver- Davis bill lump sums to be distributed to the States were appro- priated. 364 MISC. PUBLICATIOISr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE With this bill Senator Dolliver also introduced the agricultural extension bill which Mr. McLaughlin had introduced in the House. Both bills went to the Senate Committee on Agriculture and For- estry, of whicVi Mr. Dolliver was chairman. That committee de- cided to combine these bills and on June 22, 1910, reported the com- bined bill favorably. In this new bill the administration was given to the Secretaiy of the Interior. It was now hoped that all the forces which had been interested in the previous bills would unite in support of this combined bill. But this did not occur, and new forms of opposition arose. The Association of American Agricul- tural Colleges and Experiment Stations decided to give its active support to the McLaughlin extension bill. The National Society for Industrial Education (Bulletin 15) declined to indorse the Dolliver bill, but instead gave out a statement calling for clearer definition of the purposes of such legislation, limitation of Federal funds, State offset, use of funds for vocational education. State supervision, etc. The friends of the Dolliver bill therefore decided not to press that measure in the Sixty-first Congress but to prepare for an active cam- paign in the Sixty-second Congress. Senator Dolliver died in Octo- ber, 1910. Senator Carroll S. Page, of Vermont, a member of the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, on the closing day of the Sixty-first Congress introduced a somewhat modified form of the Dolliver bill. THE PAGE BILL The original bill by Senator Page was introduced March 3, 1911 (S. 10905, 61st Cong. 3d sess.), and was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. It proposed appropriations (1) of $5,000,000 annually for instruction in the trades and industries, home economics, and agriculture in public schools of secondary grade in the States, Territories, and District of Columbia; (2) $4,000,000 annually for instruction in agriculture and home economics in State district. agricultural schools of secondary grade; (3) $1,000,000 an- nually for branch agricultural experiment stations at the agricultural high schools; (4) $500,000 annually, with additional amounts increas- ing by $200,000 for five years, for extension departments of agri- culture, trades and industries, home economics, and rural affairs, at the land-grant colleges, or State departments of agriculture, provided the States appropriated sums equal to the additional amounts; and (5) $1,000,000 annually for instruction in agriculture, trades and industries, and home economics at State and Territorial normal schools. In States where separate schools and colleges are main- tained for negroes there must be a division of the funds for instruc- tion in proportion to the population of the two races. The districts for State agricultural schools and branch experiment stations must include from 5 to 15 counties. Short, continuation, and evening courses must be provided for persons not able to take the regular courses. The Secretary of the Interior, with the assistance of the Secretaries of Agriculture and of Commerce and Labor, was charged with the administration of this law. In a different form this bill was again introduced in the Senate April 6, 1911 (Senate 3), and in the House by William B. Wilson, of Pennsylvania, who had been for eight years secretary of the United A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 365 Mine Workers of America. In the Senate it was reported with amendments by the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry February 26, 1912. Senator Page made his principal speech on his bill in the Senate June 5, 1912 {411) • It had by this time grown from 12 to 36 sections. An appropriation of $480,000 annually to the State col- leges of agriculture and mechanic arts for the preparation of teachers had been added. The Secretary of Agriculture alone was to ad- minister the funds granted for extension departments and branch experiment stations. The States must provide a board for voca- tional education, which might be the board for education in general, to control the funds given for vocational instruction and teacher- training. The total annual Federal appropriations were to increase from $2,077,000 in 1913 to $14,752,000 in 1921. Senator Page stated that in connection with a meeting of the Southern Commercial Congress in Washington in December, 1911, a large number of educators from all parts of the country, includ- ing the executive committee of the Association of Agricultural Col- leges, had held a conference on this bill and that it had been revised by a subcommittee and then indorsed by the conference. The bill was then withdrawn by unanimous consent, and a sub- stitute bill was reported June 14, 1912, which carried lump sums to each State for vocational education and teacher training but no appropriation for branch experiment stations. This substitute bill, drafted by the secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, representatives of the American Feder- ation of Labor, and W. M. Hays, had been introduced in the House April 20, 1912, and discussed there in hearings before the Committee on Agriculture. Meanwhile Senator Hoke Smith, of Georgia, and Representative A. F. Lever, of South Carolina, had introduced an agricultural extension bill, which was passed by the House of Representatives August 23, 1912. The Senate substituted the Page bill with addi- tional amendments January 27, 1913. The conference committee of the two Houses could not agree, and the Sixty-second Congress ended without final action on these measures. The Page bill was introduced again in the Sixty-third Congress April 7, 1913, but it was increasingly apparent that Congress would not pass this bill, especially since there was strong opposition to the uniting of appropriations for agricultural extension work and vocational education in a single bill. The proposition to create a commission to study the situation with regard to vocational edu- cation and report recommendations which might aid in the solution of the problem of Federal aid for such education was therefore received with favor in Congress, and the resolution for this purpose (see p. 361) was practically substituted for the Page bill. THE COMMISSION ON NATIONAL AID TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION The law under which the commission on national aid to vocational education was created simply made it its duty " to consider the sub- ject of national aid for vocational education and report their find- ings and recommendations" (^i^). Its members, appointed by the President, were Hoke Smith, of Georgia, and Carroljl S. Page, of 366 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Vermont, from the Senate; D. M. Hughes, of Georgia, and S. D. Fess, of Ohio, from the House of Representatives; John A. Lapp, director of the Indiana Bureau of Legislative Information, who had been secretary of the Indiana Commission on Industrial and Agri- cultural Education; Florence Marshall, director of the Manhattan Trade School; Agnes Nestor, j) resident of the International Glove Workers Union and member of the committee on industrial educa- tion of the American Federation of Labor; Charles A. Prosser, -"jccretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education; and Charles H. Winslow, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, who had been a member of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education. It will be observed that the commission had no members from organizations specially interested in agricul- tural education. Senator Smith was elected chairman and Ernest A. Wreidt, director of the Public Education Association of New York City, was made its secretary. The commission was not called together until April 2, 1914, and under the law was required to make its report not later than June 1, 1914. The enactment of the Smith-Lever Extension Act on May 8, 1914, enabled the commission to confine its investigation to the field of secondary-school education. It studied the extent of the need of vocational education in the United States, the need of national grants for such education, what kinds or forms of vocational educa- tion should be stimulated by national grants, how far the Fed- eral Government could aid through expert knowledge and to what extent Federal grants should be made and under what conditions. It therefore dealt with national grants (1) to Federal agencies for information and advice, and (2) to the States. To gain infor- mation under the first head, hearings and conferences with depart- ment officials at Washington were held; under the second head, in addition to hearings, a questionnaire was sent to State, city, and county superintendents of public instruction and to national organ- izations of labor and to representative employees. The literature of the subject was also collated and studied as far as possible. At the hearings before the commission, the Secretary of Agricul- ture was represented by the writer. Director of the Office of Experi- ment Stations, who explained what the Department of Agriculture was doing for the promotion of agricultural education and exten- sion work. At another time the writer, in his capacity that year as president of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, explained the work of these institutions relating to secondary education and the declarations of the associa- tion in favor of a system of public secondary education in agri- culture, including special agricultural schools and the teaching of agriculture in the local high schools. The standard agricultural courses whether in the ordinary high schools or in special schools, should not be narrowly vocational but should aim to tit the pupils for life as progressive, broad-minded and intelligent men and women, as well as good farmers and horticulturists. The standard courses in agri- cultural secondary schools, should be so organized as to form a natural and proper preparation for entrance to agricultural colleges Uil2). The association had declared in 1911 (and reaffirmed this declara- tion in 1912) that it favored. A. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 367 Federal aid for public schools of secondary grade, providing secondary educa- tion in agriculture, home economics, the trades and industries, including manual training, and for the education and professional training of teachers for these schools in the several States, as may be determined by the legislature. This was confirmed by W. O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, chairman oi the executive committee of the association, in a written statement to the commission. Dean Davenport, of the College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois, also wrote to the commission his views regarding the use of the high schools, rather than special schools, for secondary vocational education, ancl in another statement emphasized the " great need for national grants for vocational education, leaving the States free to determine the character and extent of the use of such funds, but requiring them to devote at least an equal amount to the same general purpose." The Federal departments could be helpful by furnishing information and advice. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Educa- tion, presented a list of the publications of the Bureau of Education on education in agriculture, home economics and the industries, and emphasized his interest in the practical education of the rural people. As the result of their intensive investigation the commission con- cluded that the kind of vocational education most urgently de- manded was that which would prepare workers for the more common occupations in every part of the United States having for their purpose to conserve and develop our resources ; promote a more pro- ductive and prosperous agriculture; prevent waste of labor; sup- plement apprenticeship ; increase wage-earning power ; meet the demand for trained workmen; and offset the increased cost of liv- ing. National grants to the States were needed, especially for agri- cultural, trade, and industrial education, partly for the preparation of efficient teachers and partly for the payment of a portion of the salaries of teachers in service. Such grants were justified by the urgency of the demand for the training of workers, by the inter- state and national character of the problem, by precedents in Fed- eral legislation, and by the successful results of previous grants for education. National appropriations to Federal agencies should be " for studies, investigations, and reports furthering the efforts of the States to place the work of their vocational schools on a scien- tific and business-like basis." On this general basis the commission elaborated its report, and submitted tne draft of a bill to provide for the promotion of voca- tional education through the cooperation of the Federal Government with the States. The recommendations of the commission, as em- bodied in this bill, are summarized in their report as follows : 1. That national grants be given to the States for the purpose of stimulating vocational education in agriculture and in the trades and industries. 2. That grants be given in tvpo forms : (a) for the training of teachers of agricultural, trade and industrial and home economics subjects. (&) For the paying of part of the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects and of teachers of trade and industrial subjects. 3. That appropriations be made to a Federal board for making studies and investigations which shall be of use in vocational schools (412). The amounts of grants were to be stated separately for the several purposes as was finally done in the Smith-Hughes Act. 368 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE The schools to be aided were to be public schools in which the instruction would be of less than college grade, designed " to prepare boys and girls over 14 years of age for useful or profitable employ- ment in agriculture and in the trades and industries " ; part-time and evening schools should be provided. For administering this law the States were to provide State boards with which the National Government could deal and there should be a Federal board, consisting of the Postmaster General, Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, with the Com- missioner of Education as its executive officer. The Federal law would " set up conditions safeguarding the proper expenditure of the money," and the States were to provide for " the proper custody and disbursement of the Federal grants." The report of the commission was printed and widely circulated, but it was not thought best to attempt to secure the passage of the bill at the short session of the Sixty-third Congress, beginning in December, 1914. President Wilson, in his message to Congress December 7, 1915, strongly favored Federal aid to industrial and vocational education as a means of making " the industries and resources of the country available and ready for mobilization." The bill of the commission was introduced in the Senate by Hoke Smith December 7, and in the House of Representatives by D. M. Hughes, December 19, 1915. (Fig. 25.) It was reported favorably in the Senate January 31, 1916, and in the House February 10, 1916. Amendments adopted in the Senate required the Federal board to select a director, four specialists, and an advisory council of seven persons representing various interests, and to permit the board to have departments of the Government make studies and investigations for it. The bill passed the Senate unani- mously July 31, 1916. In the House Mr. Hughes as chairman of the Committee on Education explained the measure, but the minority leader, Mr. Mann, of Illinois, asked that the bill be held until the short session, and it went over. When Congress met in December, 1916, President Wilson in his message said : [This measure] is of vital importance to tlie country because it concerns a matter too long neglected, upon which the thorough industrial preparation of the country for the critical years of economic development immediately ahead of us in very large measure depend. It contains plans which affect all interests and all parts of the country, and I am sure there is no legislation now pending before the Congress whose passage the country awaits with more thoughtful approval or greater impatience to see a great and admirable thing set in the way of being done. The House bill differed from the Senate bill by the substitution for the Federal Board with five Cabinet officers of a board comprised of the Commissioner of Education and four associate members, no more than two of whom were to be of any one political party, to be ap- pointed by the President and each to have a salary of $5,000 a year. Meanwhile there had arisen much sentiment in favor of a board containing representatives of different vocational lines. This was urged by the National Society for Industrial Education, the United States Chamber of Commerce, the American Federation of Labor, and other organizations. There was also strong opposition to a board in which the Commissioner of Education would be the execu- k HISTORY OP AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 369 tive officer, for it was feared that this would result in defeating the distinct development of a system of real vocational education. On the other hand there were many people, including a large number of educators, who did not favor an organization of vocational education entirely separate from the general public-school system. For a long Fig. 25.— D. M. Hughes time the problem of unified or separate control of vocational educa- tion had been debated in the National Education Association, the National Society for Industrial Education, and elsewhere. When the bill was discussed in the House an amendment offered by Mr. Lenroot, of Wisconsin, was adopted, which made the four appointed members representatives of manufactures, commerce, labor 370 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE and agriculture, respectively, and provided that the board should annually elect one of its members chairman. When the bill went to conference it was understood that Presi- dent Wilson was opposed to a board entirely separate from the executive departments. The final result was a compromise by which the Federal board was made to consist of the secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, the Commissioner of Education, and representatives of manufactures and commerce, agriculture, and labor. This board, therefore, was put in control of representatives of the industries, including agriculture, but the public-school system was represented by the Commissioner of Education as a member of the board. In the States under this act the control of the funds for vocational education might be in a separate board of vocational education or in the general board or department of education as each State might determine. The friends of home economics education were not satisfied with the provisions for that subject in the commission's bill, which were confined to the preparation of teachers. They therefore secured the addition of home economics to those sections of the bill which deal with the payment of the salaries of teachers in service, though not more than 20 per cent of the annual appropriation can be spent for the teaching of this subject. Those who were opposed to the use of Federal funds by sectarian or private institutions obtained an amendment specifically stating that no portion of any moneys appropriated under this act shall be applied directly or indirectly " for the support of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or college." The bill passed the House January 9, 1917, and w^as sent to conference. The agree- ment reached by the conferees was adopted by both Houses, and the bill became a law through its approval by President Wilson February 23, 1917. THE SMITH-HUGHES VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ACT The passage of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act prac- tically created a system of vocational education of broad scope as a permanent part of the public-school organization throughout the United States. It provided funds for the immediate extension of the efforts of the States in this direction and by a gradual increase of the Federal aid helped to put this system on a sound and sub- stantial footing within a few years. It would then remain for the States and local communities, with or without additional Federal assistance, to increase the strength and scope of vocational education to meet the development of the various local vocations. The act also exemplified a new phase of Federal cooperation with the States in educational work. In the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 the Federal Government gave lands to the States for colleges without requiring them to account for the use of these lands. Later the Government gave money to the land-grant colleges for experiment stations and for instruction, with limited but increasing requirements for Federal supervision. In the Smith-Lever Extension Act the extreme limit of Federal union with the States in an educational A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 371 enterprise was reached. This act required cooperation between the Federal Department of Agriculture and the States as represented by the land-grant colleges, in providing funds and in planning and con- ducting extension work in agriculture and home economics. The plans adopted under this act have set up in the several States an organization representing both the State and the Federal Govern- ment. The work in each State is in charge of a director, who is a joint representative of the State agricultural college and the United States Department of Agriculture. He has the franking privilege, and his salary comes from Federal and State sources. In the coun- ties the agents generally receive part of their salary from direct individual schools receiving the benefits of this act. The Federal commissions and the franking privilege. Officers of the department participate in the extension work in the State, and all the extension work of the department in the States is subject to the administration of the extension directors. In the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act a more limited cooperation between the Federal Government and the States is pro- vided for. In each State there is a board of vocational education, and the Federal board deals only with this State board and not with individual schools receiving the benefits of this act. The Federal funds are expended in accordance with plans submitted by the State boards and approved by the Federal board. The Federal authori- ties inspect the work and the expenditures in each State so far as to determine whether they come within the provisions of the law and entitle the State to reimbursement from the Federal funds. Beyond this the Federal board has only advisory functions and aids the work in the States by furnishing information through publications or otherwise and by conferring with State officials in charge of different lines of work. SECONDARY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION UNDER THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT, 1917-1925 THE FE3)E31AL BOARD FOB VOCATIONAL EDUCATION On July 17, 1917, President Wilson, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, appointed the following members of the Fed- eral Board for Vocational Education : For one year, as representative of manufactures and commerce, James P. Munroe, of Massachusetts, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and secre- tary of its faculty for several years, and a prominent worker for many years in the movement for industrial education ; for two years, as representative of agriculture, Charles A. Greathouse, of Incliana, who had been State superintendent of public instruction; for three years, as representative of labor, Arthur E. Holder, a machinist, who had been deputy commissioner of the Iowa Bureau of Labor and had represented the American Federation of Labor in national legis- lative matters. The ex-officio members were D. F. Houston, Secre- tary of Agriculture ; W. C. Kedfield, Secretary of Commerce ; W. B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor; and P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education. The first meeting of the board was held in the office of the Secretary of Agriculture, July 21, 1917. Secretary Houston was elected chairman, Mr. Munroe vice chairman, and Commissioner 372 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE Claxton secretary. The board appointed Charles A. Prosser direc- tor of its administrative staff, with the following assistant directors : Agriculture, La3rton S. Hawkins, of the New York State Department of Education; industrial education, Lewis H. Carris, of the New Jersey State Department of Education ; home economics, Josephine L. Berry, head of the home economics division of the Department of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota; research, Charles H. Winslow, director of vocational research, Indianapolis. Cheesman A. Herrick, president of Girard College, Philadelphia, was appointed temporary agent for commercial education. For administration and inspection the country was divided into five sections: North Atlantic, Southern, North Central, West Cen- tral, and Pacific. Headquarters for agents of the board were established in New York City, Atlanta, Ga., Indianapolis, Ind., Kansas City, Mo., and San Francisco, Calif. From August 17 to 28, 1917, the board held conferences with representatives of the boards charged with the State administration of the Smith-Hughes Act at which " the purpose of the law was discussed with particular refer- ence to the general principles upon which it is based and the methods by which these principles should be taught into practice." The first bulletin of the board was issued in November, 1917, and was entitled " The Smith-Hughes Act : Policies of Federal Board for Vocational Education," (197). Among the policies announced at this time were the following: The Federal board believes that the following fundamental principles should govern the appropriations from the National Government to the States for vocational education. The money is designed : (1) To stimulate the States to undertake a new and needed form of service — that for vocational education — which the National Government believes necessary to the public welfare. (2) To equalize, in part at least, the inequalities of burden among the States in carrying on this service. (3) To purchase for the National Government a reasonable degree of par- ticipation in the carrying on of this work in which the National Government is so deeply concerned. (4) To establish standards of efficiency in vocational education and to set up minimums below which work in vocational education for which reimburse- ment from Federal moneys is desired can not be allowed to fall. The Smith-Hughes Act does not provide for the education of " backward, deficient, incorrigible or otherwise subnormal individ- uals, but only for thorough vocational instruction to healthy, normal individuals." The Federal board and its representatives will deal with the State boards for vocational education and not with individual schools. By January 1, 1918, each of the 48 States had through legislative enactment or the governor accepted the provisions of the Smith- Hughes Act, had submitted plans which met with the approval of the Federal board, and had been certified to the Secretary of the Treasury for the allotment for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1918. In 14 States a special board for vocational education was created or utilized; in 32 States the general State board of education was designated to administer the Smith-Hughes fund; in Minnesota the State high-school board was utilized; and in Colorado, which did not have a State board of education, the State board of agriculture A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 373 had the administration of vocational education added to its duties as a supervisory board for the State land-grant college. Meanwhile the United States had entered the World War, and the War Department and the Shipping Board had called on the Federal Board for Vocational Education to aid in training con- scripted men for the vocations required for military purposes or for shipbuilding. The problem of training disabled soldiers and sailors was also being considered in cooperation with other branches of the Government. This led to the vocational rehabilitation act of June 27, 1918, under which the administration of this work was committed to this board and formed a large, difficult, and rapidly increasing feature of its work until it was transferred to the Veterans' Bureau on August 9, 1921. The rehabilitation work was distributed among schools and col- leges in the several States. It included instruction in many occupa- tions, among which were many branches of agriculture. Conditions growing out of the war intensified the interest of the people of the United States in vocational education, but also brought about unusual difficulties which for a considerable period prevented its most orderly and satisfactory development. AGRICtTXTURAL WORK OF THE FE3)ERAL BOARD The assistant director for agriculture, L. S. Hawkins, came into this work after several years' experience as a specialist in agricultural education in the State department of education in New York, which had developed under State laws both special agricultural schools and departments of agriculture in a considerable number of high schools. He had also received part of his education in the State normal school at Cortland, N. Y., and had been head of the department of science and agriculture in that school. He was thus familiar with adminis- trative problems relating to State supervision of agricultural edu- cation and to the organization, equipment, and curriculum for sec- ondary instruction in agriculture. Charles H. Lane became a member of the agricultural staff of the Federal board by transfer from the Office of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture, where for several years he had had charge of its work relating to agricultural education. He was there- fore thoroughly familiar with the status of teacher training in agri- culture and agricultural instruction in secondary schools throughout the country. Another member of this first staff was William G. Hummel, a graduate in agriculture at the universities of Illinois and California, who had taught agriculture in high schools in Cali- fornia and had been for seven years teacher of agricultural education in the University of California. The board immediately undertook investigations on the organiza- tion of secondary schools in agriculture, including courses of study and supervision; materials and methods in secondary-school agri- culture ; and supervised practical work in agriculture, including the home-project method of instruction. The results of this work have been published in a series of bulletins. Cooperation was carried on with the Department of Agriculture, through its division of agricultural instruction, on the subject matter 374 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE of secondary instruction in agriculture. Outlined lessons on plant and animal production were prepared in this division by E. H. Shinn and unit courses in poultry and swine husbandry by C. H. Schopmeyer. These led to attempts to make job analyses of various agricultural enterprises. With the cooperation of specialists in the department and members of the staff of the Federal board, Mr. Schopmeyer prepared bulletins containing analyses of potato grow- ing, poultry husbandry, and the management of a farm business, and F. A. Merrill prepared job-lesson units for selected truck and fruit crops adapted to southern conditions. Much information regarding the development of agricultural edu- cation under the Smith-Hughes Act is contained in the annual reports of the Federal board (431), and its Yearbook of 1923 gave in con- siderable detail a description of outstanding developments and sum- mary of progress by States. Through its publications and participation in conferences with State supervisors and school officials and teachers the board has done much to determine and improve the standards for secondary educa- tion in agriculture in the United States. Its careful and impartial examination of the plans submitted by the State boards and its in- spection of the accounts and work in the several States have also contributed toward firmly establishing a good system of vocational education in agriculture. RELATION OF VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTtTRE TO EXTENSION WORK As the number of schools receiving the benefits of the Smith- Hughes Act increased, the teachers of agriculture in, these schools came frequently into contact with the extension agents operating under the Smith-Lever Act. On their own initiative or by request of the people in the vicinity of the school, Smith-Hughes teachers in a number of places undertook extension work among the farmers. In some cases the number of students taking agriculture in the school was small, while the salary of the teacher was relatively large. This made vocational education in agriculture expensive, and the com- munity therefore felt that it was entitled to services from this teacher outside of school. School officials and teachers sometimes raised the academic question whether extension work in agriculture, particularly boys' and girls' club work, did not really belong to the public schools, rather than to the agricultural colleges. This situa- tion was aggravated in some cases by the extravagant claims of ex- tension agents regarding the scope of their work, particularly with young people. While there was much friendly cooperation between teachers and extension agents, personal jealousies and antagonism made discord in various places. This matter was brought to the attention of the Federal board and the Department of Agriculture and seemed to them to be of sufficient importance to call for a declaration of their policy regarding it. Therefore on February 21, 1918, they agreed on a "memorandum on instruction in vocational schools and extension work in agri- culture" (see report of Federal board, 1919, p. 42), which after setting forth the general nature of the work called for under the A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 375 Smith-Hughes and Smith-Lever Acts dealt with the relationship of the two lines of work, as follows : In many counties of the various States there will he the cooperative agri- cultural extension system conducted hy the State agricultural college in coop- eration with the United States Department of Agriculture and the county under the provisions of the Smith-Lever Extension Act and under other Federal and State legislation. There will also he vocational agricultural instruction carried on by the State board for vocational education in cooperation with the Federal Board for Vocational Education and the county or the local school district under the pi'ovisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. Both the extension service and the vocational instruction will deal with both adults and children. In each State there is a State director of agricultural extension service and an executive oflScer of the State board for vocational education. It is sug- gested that these two officials determine upon a plan of cooperation for thu State based upon the following general policies or principles. (1) It is to be understood that all agricultural extension work should be administered by those in charge of extension activities in the State and that all vocational education in agriculture should be administered by those in charge of tlie vocational schools of the State. (2) That all extension work with adults done by teachers in vocational schools be in accordance with the plans of the extension system for the State, and in cooperation with the agent who is in charge of the administration of the extension work in the county. (3) That in counties having vocational schools of agriculture the extension service will conduct its extension work in agriculture with children chiefly through the organization of clubs for the carrying on of definite pieces of work for the improvement of agricultural practice. The practical agricultural work of the schools will chiefly consist of home project work by the students as a part of the systematic practical instruction provided for in the Smith- Hughes Act. It is advised that in such counties a cooperative agreement be made between the extension authorities and the school authorities whereby it will be arranged for the teachers of agriculture to take part in the extension activities with the children within the territory of the school and that such territory be set forth in the agreement. (4) That in every case care be taken to see that work which is supported by Federal funds imder any of the aforementioned acts will not in any way duplicate or overlap work being carried on in that same community when that work is supported in any part from another Federal fund (481). This statement helped to bring about more or less satisfactory agreements between the vocational education and extension forces in a number of States, and there was also a general tendency toward improved relationships as the work of the two agencies progressed. But there remained sufficient imrest regarding various phases of this problem to bring about other formal attempts at its solution. At their annual meetings in 1920, both the agricultural section of the National Society for Vocational Education and the department of rural education of the National Education Association independ- ently voted to create committees on this subject, but later the com- mittee appointed by the former society was asked to serve also as the committee of the latter organization. Its report in February, 1921, was accepted as a progress report, and the Association of Land-Grant Colleges was invited to join with the other two organiza- tions through a joint committee. Later a committee of the Associa- tion for the Advancement of Agricultural Teaching was invited to sit with this joint committee. There were 14 persons, representing the four organizations, who joined in the final report, adopted May 9 and 10, 1921. (Proceedings of Association of Land-Grant Col- leges, 1921, p. 232.) A. R. Mann, dean of the New York College of Agriculture, was chairman of the joint committee. Their report 32981—29 25 376 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U, S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE was based on the memorandum of the Department of Agriculture and Federal Board for Vocational Education cited above and " in the light of subsequent experience " offered " explanations and interpre- tations of the foregoing memorandum as tending to facilitate sound and harmonious adjustments with the States." After briefly describing extension work and public-school educa- tion in agriculture and home economics, the committee proposed a basis for agreements in related lines of work. It is recognized tliat the functions, obligations, and responsibilities of the parties to the agreement, as detined by law, may be similar, with the possi- bility of overlapping, as in the fields of (1) the junior project work of the schools and the junior extension (boys' and girls' club) work of the college both in agriculture and home economics, (2) the part-time and evening home- making courses of the State board for vocational education and the home economics extension work of the college, and (3) the short-unit courses in agri- culture and home economics, in the public schools, and the extension classes conducted by the land-grant colleges. In a spirit of fairness to both groups of interest, this report seeks to present a basis for clear differentiation of the functions of the respective agencies in these closely related tasks. It is pro- posed that the work in these related fields shall be made a matter of cooper- ative agreement in the several States. Such cooperative agreement should rec- ognize the following facts and principles : (1) It is the function, duty, and responsibility of the public school to pro- vide education for all children, and to provide such adult education as is au- thorized by law. (2) Under the law, it is the function and duty of the land-grant college of agriculture to maintain extension service. The theory underlying extension service is that it is, first to provide supplemental education for persons engaged in agriculture and home-making, and, second, to enable the college and the Fed- ei'al Department of Agriculture to bring their advances in knowledge to farm- ers and their families who can make the applications. Furthermore, by virtue of its staff of technical specialists and its responsibility for training vocational teachers, the land-grant college is in a position to furnish technical infonna- tion and advice in the fields of agriculture and home economics to vocational work in the schools. (3) It is clearly recognized and affirmed that the college of agriculture is the source and authority, in the State, in technical subject matter in agriculture and home economics. The principle should be clearly observed that neither the State nor any lesser administrative unit charged with the supervision of vocational education, should employ any itinerant subject-matter specialists for the purpose of giving technical instruction in any phase of agriculture or home economics. In so far as the vocational schools may have need for the assistance of technical specialists other than the regular vocational teacher or teachers in the local schools, they should look to the college of agriculture to supply such specialists. If, by reason of limitation of funds, the college is unable to meet all demands for aid on technical matters, the remedy is to be found in strengthening the resources of the college to fully meet the require- ments, and not in establishing subject-matter specialists as part of the State vocational system. (4) There are three types of situation to be considered: (a) Where agricul- tural and home economics education is fully developed by the local schools, (6) where such education has not yet been imdertaken by the local schools, (c) where such education is in process of development by the local schools. (a) Where the school provides a comprehensive program of agricultural and home economics education which meets the needs of children and adults, through systematic instruction and supervised practice, the extension forces of the land-grant colleges shall not duplicate such work of the schools, but shall rather cooperate with the schools ,by providing, on request, subject matter, special lectures, conferences, and other similar services. This shall not be interpreted to limit the freedom of the extension forces to prosecute their extension work through local organizations of farmers. (&) Where the school does not provide such a program of instruction in agriculture and home economics, the extension service of tlie college should A HISTORY OF AGEICULTUEAL EDUCATION 377 organize extension work. In such localities, the school should give its fullest support and cooperation to the extension workers. (c) It is recognized that, in some places, schools will be in the process of developing such educational programs. In these cases, the following principles should apply : Extension workers should confine their work with children to those whom the school does not enroll in systematic vocational or prevocational project work, including supervised home practice: unless requested or author- ized by school authorities to enroll them. The school should organize its work with adults to provide systematic vocational instructions defined herein. The school should offer its facilities to the junior extension worker wherever the school has not, in reasonable operation, vocational or prevocational project work accompanied by supervised home practice. (5) Before undertaking junior extension work in any county, the extension division should submit in writing to the county superintendent of schools, the plans proposed for junior extension in that county, and should endeavor to arrange for a basis of understanding and cooperation. Copies of plans, when agreed upon, should be filed with the State department of education lor consideration, before being put into operation. (6) The State department of education should look to the land-gi-ant college to furnish technical subject matter in agriculture and home economics in the form of outlines, leaflets, and bulletins for use in the public schools. It is understood, however, that no such material in agriculture and home economics should be used in the schools until approved by the State department of education. The committee also recognized that — The highest service in this great field will spring from a spirit of copart- nership, or mutual respect, and from intimate association on a clearly defined basis, with the single purpose of serving the complete vocational needs of the communities. When both of the agencies shall have been fully developed on a carefully adjusted basis, there will be large place for them both in every community (^95). At present both agencies are far from filling their respective fields. In its report for 1924 the Federal board made the following statement : Approximate nmnber eligible for training and number and per cent reached Total In classes of vocational agriculture Per cent reached Farm boys in school Farm boys out of school (14-20 years) Men on farms (over 20 years) 978, 371 1, 202, 135 8, 309, 538 66, 485 3,294 15, 560 6.79 0.27 0.18 That year about half a million boys and girls were enrolled in the extension clubs. WOBK IN THE STATES UNDB:B THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT During the first year after the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act 40 States began or further developed the training of teachers of agri- culture and organized vocational agricultural instruction in schools. Within the next five years all the States were engaged in both these lines of work. In general, the land-grant colleges for whites and negroes received Federal aid for teacher training, since they alone had sufficient 378 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE agricultural equipment and personnel to enable them to give satis- factory training for teachers of agriculture in secondary schools. The number of instructors of teacher-training courses in agricul- ture was 222 in 1919 and 241 in 1924. That year the number ranged from 1 in Arizona, Delaware, Louisiana, Maine, Nevada, and New Mexico to 10 in Colorado, 11 in New York, 15 in Massachusetts, 18 in Illinois, and 22 in California. In teacher-training courses there were 1,289 men and 45 women in 1919 and 4,692 men and 55 women in 1924, when the number in the several States ranged from 4 in Nevada to 869 in Iowa. There were from 1 to 5 women students in 7 States and 35 in California. In 1918, $121,140.44 (including $56,642.27 of Federal money, $53,023.21 of State money, and $11,578.32 of local money) wa"^s spent for teacher training in the 48 States, and $756,354.08 (including $342,307.91 of Federal money, $313,980.80 of State money, and $100,015.37 of local money) in 1924. Teacher frmning — The effect of the Smith-Hughes Act on the teacher-training work in agriculture of the institutions receiving the benefits of this act was immediately to enlarge and strengthen their work in this direction, especially with reference to the problems of secondary education. The training became more distinctly voca- tional in the sense that it had more definite relation to farm prac- tice. There has been a growing realization that farm boys and girls should not only be taught and led to practice the best modes of farm operation but should also be instructed in the scientific, economic, and social aspects of agriculture and country life. Teachers of agri- culture should, therefore, have a broad training in the principles and methods of education and their applications to agricultural teaching, and in science, economics, and sociology, as well as in the science and practice of agriculture. This really calls for more than an undergraduate course for the prospective teacher of agriculture, and yet under present conditions the great majority of students in the teacher-training courses are not able to go beyond the 4-year course for the bachelor's degree. One special difficulty relates to practice teaching as a part of the course. There is also a funda- mental difficulty in that the teaching of agriculture has not been well organized on the basis of the problem method, and yet the home- project work called for under the Smith-Hughes Act makes it essen- tial that agricultural instruction in the secondary schools should very largely be based on the practical projects of the students. It is there- fore not surprising that the different States have attempted to solve the practical problems involved in the organization and conduct of their teacher-training work in agriculture in various w^ays, and it can not yet be said that such training is standardized. Practically all the States require a 4-year course in agriculture and from 9 to 20 hours of professional work in education. In a few States there is definite encouragement of at least a year of graduate work. Super- vised practice teaching is generally required, either in the community where the college is located or in selected high schools outside. There has been a growing realization that the duty of the teacher- training institution is not finished when the student graduates, but that it extends to the giving of assistance to the teacher in service. This is partly accomplished by summer sessions at the college but also in other ways. A few in,stitutions have a regular system of what A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 379 is known as itinerant teacher training. This is described in the report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education for 1924 as follows : It ordinarily means individual instruction of tlie teacher at the school he serves by a competent person whose duty it is to carry on such work where needed. It implies going here, there, and everywhere in a State where a teacher is not doing the desired kind of work, and staying v^'ith him, or going back to him until he gains enough additional knowledge and skill to meet his problems more efficiently. The third effective means for the professional improvement of agricultural teachers in service is the State and sectional meetings of agricultural teachers for conference, demonstration, and practice. 8,tate supervision. — Before the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act only Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Wis- con,sin had provided adequate supervision of agricultural education conducted with the aid of State funds. The instruction in agriculture in the other 34 States granting aid for agri- culture in high schools was supervised by deputy commissioners of education, professors of secondary education, high-school inspectors, and professors of agricultural education connected with land-gi-ant colleges. At the beginning of the 5-year period of the administration of the Federal vocational education act some States made temporary arrangements in securing supervision and inspection of instructors through competent persons detailed from State institutions or through the use of persons already In the employ of the State board in some other capacity. (Federal Board Report 1922, p. 37.) In 1922 there were 42 full-time and 27 part-time supervisors. In general, sui>ervision has been conducted by personal conferences of the supervisor with the teachers, special preparation of material in the way of outlines for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, bulletins covering the main points in the administration of vocational agricultural education in the State, blanks for reports from the schools to the State board; through community surveys to determine how best to adapt the vocational agricultural instruction to the needs of the vocational pupils in the State, and through State- wide, regional, and sectional conferences. (Federal Board Report 1920, p. 79.) Attention was often given to promotional work, improvement of the content of the course of study, methods of instruction, supervised practice, part-time instruction, and improvement of the system of reports and records. Because there have been many inexperienced teachers and the force has been rapidly changing, much attention has had to be given to the solution of specific problems arising in connection with the work in different localities. Successful experience in teaching agriculture has therefore been of great advantage in the case of supervisors. Agricultural inMrucUon in the schools. — Even before the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act it was evident that most of the secondary instruction in agriculture w^ould be given in the local high schools. This plan for such instruction was greatly helped by the provision in that act for practical farm work during six months. While the special agricultural schools have much more extensive equipment of buildings, farms, animals, machinery, etc., and a larger agricultural faculty, they can not provide any large amount of practical work on the school farms in case they have many students. From the begin- ning of the operation of the Smith-Hughes Act the number of schools in which departments of vocational agriculture were established was very much greater than that of the special schools receiving Federal aid. There are only about 170 special agricultural schools in the United States, but in 1918 according to the records of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 609 schools received Suuth-Hughes 380 MISC. PUBLICATION 3G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE funds and this number steadily increased until in 1923 there were 2,673. These schools ranged from small institutions in the open country to large high schools in villages or cities. Most of the schools employ only one teacher of agriculture. The total number of these teachers in 1923 was 3,012. Their departments of agriculture — are in the nature of part-time scliools of the occupational extension type, the instruction being designed to supplement the employment of the pupil on the home farm. In order that these schools may really carry out this type of instruction it has been found necessary to limit the attendance upon vocational agricultural classes to pupils who are actually engaged in some form of farm work. In most cases these schools or departments offer two, three, or four year courses for 36 weeks in the year with half of the pupils' time given to non- vocational high-school subjects. The work in vocational agriculture is usually accepted as a part of the high-school course, thus enabling the pupils complet- ing the vocational agricultural work to secure not only the agricultural certifi- cate but also the diploma granted by the school. The group reached by this instruction is usually composed of pupils who would ordinarily be enrolled in other high-school courses. (Federal Board Report, 1919, p. 37.) Short winter courses and evening courses for persons out of school are increasing in number. The agricultural instruction increasingly deals with the agricultural needs of the local communities. The science work in the Smith-Hughes school is being more definitely related to agriculture and home economics. With few exceptions the State plans provide as the qualifications of teachers of vocational agriculture graduation from a 4-year college course planned for the training of teachers of vocational agriculture and at least two years of practical farm experience. (Federal Board Report, 1919, p. 39.) ^ In 1922 the Federal board reported that-^*^ The methods of adaptation of instruction to local conditions commonly used are : The survey of farm enterprises of tlie community, the oi'ganization of courses on the basis of farm enterprise, the formulation of courses of study by the local teacher, which courses are later approved or modified by the State supervisor. The results of this adaptation are : Increased interest on the part of pupils in the work studied ; vocational education in agriculture which actually functions in the community and which, as a result, elicits the support of farmers ; and, on the whole, more thoroughgoing and efficient work done by the teachers. The importance of the supervised farm practice as an essential feature of secondary instruction in agriculture with a vocational aim has been more fully recognized as the work under the Smith-Hughes Act has progressed. The home project is required equally in connec- tion with all-day, part-time, and evening instruction. But there is an increasing demand to go beyond the formal requirements of the Smith-Hughes Act as regards farm practice. Students are required or requested to undertake farm work outside the assigned home project in order to develop skill in particular directions. Group or class projects have increased in number. The financial returns of supervised farm practice have greatly increased. For the fiscal year 1921-22 the labor income of vocational pupils in the all-day Avliite schools amounted to $2,953,506. In 1922-23 the 57,099 students enrolled in project work used 134,904 acres of land, 72,741 animals, and 691,808 birds. The previous year 79 per cent of those enrolled completed their projects, with a total labor income of $3,573,321.50 or about $96 per student. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 381 Most of the instruction given under the Smith-Hughes Act has been through all-day courses given to children regularly attending school. But young people out of school and employed on farms as laborers or tejiants may come back for part-time or short courses and more mature men and women who are farm tenants or owners may come to evening classes. The part-time courses cover from two weeks to three months and from four to eight hours per day. The instruction outside of the regular courses is often given through short-unit courses dealing with particular farm enterprises, such as potato growling, milk production, poultry husbandry, etc. In 1924 there were 62,912 boys and 2,446 girls studying agricul- ture in all-day schools, 2,143 boys in part-time classes, 3,063 boys and 193 girls in short-unit courses, and 13,248 men and 1,979 women in evening classes. In al,l there were 85,984 persons receiv- ing instruction in agriculture under the Smith-Hughes Act, as com- pared with 15,453 in 1918. Special efforts have been made to develop instruction in voca- tional agriculture for negroes in the Southern States. It has been impracticable to get an adequate supply of well-trained teachers, but their number is increasing. Teacher training is done in the land-grant colleges for negroes and at Hampton and Tuskegee Institutes. Thirteen States have employed a negro teacher trainer, who visits the vocational agricultural departments of negro schools and assists in the improvement of teachers in service. The white supervisors also have actively promoted the negro work. In 1922-23 there were 202 departments of vocational agriculture in negro schools, with an enro,llment of 4,880. There were also nine part-time schools with 201 students and 18 evening classes with 813 students. In the project work 5,656 students were enrolled. In 1921-22, 78 per cent of the negro students completed their projects, the labor income being $332,457.21. Since very few negro farm boys enter high schools it has been necessary to carry the vocational agricultural instruction into the grades, and the schools for this purpose have been carefully selected. The most successful work of this kind has been done with pupils whose parents are landowners. It is very difficult to reach the renters on the large plantations. The influence of the Smith-Hughes work has gone beyond the schools receiving funds under that act. Incomplete statistics pub- lished by the Federal board in 1924 showed that in 13 States there were 227 schools with 197 teachers and 3,656 students in courses of vocational agriculture. Ninety of these schools were receiving State aid. The amount of Federal funds available for vocational education in agriculture in secondary schools increased from $547,027.79 in 1918 to $2,036,502.12 in 1924. There was a further increase to $2,526,826.66 in 1925 and the maximum of $3,021,887.39 was reached in 1926. In 1918, 50 per cent of the available amount was expended in the States and 94.9 per cent in 1923. That year the Federal funds were used as follows: For supervisors, $31,612.67; evening schools, $38,504.07 ; part-time classes, $22,753.08 ; short-unit courses, $21,909.35 ; all-day schools, $1,554,919.58. The total cost of 382 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE agricultural instruction in 1923 was $4,647,042.04, of which $1,669,- 698.75 was Federal money, $1,108,461.22 was State money, and $1,868,882.07 was local money. The results of five years' work of the schools receiving the benefits of the Smith-Hughes Act are summed up by Professor Myers in the report on his study of the effectiveness of vocational education in agriculture {JfiO). Keports from 722 schools in 35 States showed 8,340 persons out of school who had had one or more years of in- struction in vocational agriculture. On the average these persons had spent 2.7 years in high school, during which time they had been in agricultural classes 1.7 years. Fifteen and seven-tenths per cent of them had had 3 or 4 3'ears of agricultural instruction, and of these 80 per cent had graduated. Of the total number of students, 50.4 per cent had graduated and 22 per cent had been to college. Of those who went to college 36.5 per cent went to agricultural colleges. Four thousand four hundred and eighty-eight, or 54 per cent, of the total number were engaged in farming, though 13.6 per cent of the farmers had followed other pursuits for a time. Of the total number 5 per cent Avere in occupations related to agriculture, 8 per cent had gone to agricultural colleges, 14 per cent to nonagricultural colleges, 10 per cent were in nonagricultural occupations, and 9 per cent were not accounted for; 311 had become teachers in rural schools. Of the farmers, 10 per cent were owners, 6 per cent man- agers, 7 per cent renters, 48 per cent partners, and 29 per cent laborers. Part 8. AGRICULTURE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS During the past 25 years there has been a definite and widespread movement for the teaching of agriculture in the public elementary schools in the United States. The desire for this has been expressed at different times from the beginning of the movement for agricul- tural education in this country. After the establishment of the agricultural colleges the National Grange in 1878 passed a resolu- tion favoring such teaching. The public school system, especially in the rural districts, was not in condition to attempt this work at that time. Preparatory efforts to improve the curriculum of the elementary schools were, however, under way. Out of them came definite and feasible plans for elementary instruction in agriculture. These earlier movements may be grouped under the heads (1) object teaching, (2) nature study, and (3) school gardens. OBJECT TEACHING The basing of elementary instruction on objects rather than on books had been taught and exemplified by Pestalozzi and his fol- low^ers. Joseph Neef had used this method in his private schools in this country from 1809 to 1825. The first definite object teach- ing in connection with a public school in the United States was at the State Normal School at Westfield, Mass., about 1845, under the influence of Horace Mann. It was taken up very actively at the normal school in Oswego, N. Y., about 1860, by E. A. Sheldon and after 1875 was developed there in connection w^ith the teaching of elementary science. William T. Harris introduced it in the St. Louis schools during his superintendency there between 1867 and 1880. Great impetus was given to this movement through the wide pub- licity caused by the radical reorganization of the elementary instruc- tion in the schools of Quincy, Mass. Charles Francis Adams was a member of the school committee of that town. Becoming greatly dissatisfied with the results of elementary instruction according to the conventional plan, he succeeded in bringing in Francis W. Parker as school superintendent. From 1876 to 1880 Colonel Parker based the elementary curriculum in the Quincy schools on object teaching. His great energy and enthusiasm inspired the teachers under him. The pupils worked with a great variety of objects in and out of the school, did modeling in sand, and visited the fields and woods to gather plants and other things. The study of language, geography, etc., was correlated with the object study. After this Colonel Parker carried this method into the schools of Boston as a supervisor and in 1883 began a 16-year term as principal of the Cook County (Chi- cago) Normal School in Illinois, whence his influence was wide- spread. 383 384 MISC. PUBLICATIOJS- 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUBE Object teaching did much to arouse the interest of pupils in the elementary grades, but as pursued by the ordinary teacher, was too much a disconnected study of a variety of objects and had com- paratively little educational value. NATURE STUDY Meanwhile the teaching of science was getting into the public- school system, and under the influence of Agassiz particularly was taking on certain phases of object teaching. Such teaching was done at first in the normal schools and high schools, but before long efforts were made to adapt it to the simpler instruction required in the ele- mentary schools. H. H. Straight, who had studied under Agassiz, became a teacher in the Oswego Normal School in 1876, where he developed a plan for more systematic object teaching as elementary instruction in science and carried this over to the Cook County Normal School in 1883. W. S. Jackman brought an improved plan for such work from Pittsburgh, Pa., to this school in 1889. He had children go out into the fields and woods and study natural objects and phenomena ac- cording to what they found there season by season. Beginning with 1890 he published " outlines in elementary science " in bimonthly pamphlets and put them into book form in 1891. Meanwhile Artliur C. Boyden had been teaching similarly at the normal school at Bridge- water, Mass., and in 1889 as a member of a committee of the Plymouth County Teachers' Association made an outline for the study of trees, which was sent to every school in the county and after- wards was 23i"esented at teachers' institutes throughout the State. For several years exhibits of the results of such instruction were made in cities. From 1889 to 1901 he taught on this plan at a sum- mer school at Cottage City, Mass. Frank Owen Payne independently began such work at Corry, Pa., in 1884, and lectured on this subject in Minnesota and New Jersey. About 1889 he used the term nature study for such instruction, and this soon came into general use to designate this elementary teaching. For a time teachers of science in higher schools thought their work should be called nature study, but with the specialization of science teaching this designation of the high school and college teaching of sciences disappeared. Nature study has since been defined as " pri- marily the simple observational study of common natural objects and processes for the sake of personal acquaintance with the things which appeal to human interest directly and independently of rela- tions to organized science." Nature study soon came into contact with the movement for the improvement of agriculture. At a conference on agricultural con- ditions in the State of New York in 1893 George T. Powell made a plea for interesting children in nature study as a first step toward instructing them in agriculture. This resulted immediately in an experimental test of this plan in the schools of Westchester County. S. F. Nixon, chairman of the ways and means committee of the New York Assembly, met with the committee which had this matter in charge. In 1894 Mr. Nixon secured the passage of a bill for the promotion of horticulture in western New York as suggested by A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION" 385 John W. Spencer and L. H. Bailey, then professor of horticulture at Cornell University. (See p. 2T5.) The work under this extension act included promotion of nature study in the schools by Bailey and others. He and his associates went out to the teachers' institutes and a large number of schools throughout the State, explained their work and publications, and demonstrated to teachers how nature study might be taught. Mr. Spencer, as chief assistant in this work, called for nature- study leaflets in 1896 and afterwards originated the junior naturalists clubs. The first leaflet, by Professor Bailey, was entitled " How a Squash Plant Gets Out of the Soil," and was intended for use by teachers {251 ) . The second was on " How a Candle Burns " ; the third on " Four Apple Twigs " ; the fifth on " Some Tent-makers '' (i. e., the apple-tree tent caterpillar) ; and the seventh on "Hints on Making Collections of Insects." The clubs were for the most part informal groups of children enrolled in the schools and led by their teachers to make observa- tions of natural objects and phenomena in the region about them, read about these things and write letters to "Uncle John " (Spencer) about wdiat they had seen and handled. Through these letters they were brought into touch with the agricultural colleges and sometimes stimulated to continue their school life further than they would otherwise have done. When desired the clubs were given a charter and provided with badges or buttons. The publications connected with this work were attractively printed and illustrated. Those for the children were quite simple. The clubs grew rapidly, and within a few years as many as 25,000 children in New York, and to a limited extent in other States and a few foreign countries, were enrolled in them. Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller started the home nature-study course with leaflets for teachers, and Mrs. Anna Botsford Comstock suc- ceeded her in this work in 1903. Mrs. Comstock's book of 938 pages, entitled " Handbook of Nature-Study," was based on the leaflets issued up to 1911. Promotion of nature study with an agricultural trend was taken up by a number of the other land-grant colleges. As the result of influences emanating from the sources mentioned and many others nature study spread out widely witliin a few years, but mainly in the city and village schools, wdiere there were teachers who had had some training in science. A considerable literature of the subject appeared. Among the books was one by L. H. Bailey, entitled " The Nature-Study Idea," which was published in 1903. The Nature-Study Review was established in 1905 and the American Nature-Study Society in 1908. Nature study made a permanent impression on the elementary- school curriculum and in various forms has been continued to the present time. Somewhat independently at first, but later in close connection with nature study, the school-garden movement was developed in this country. THE SCHOOL-GARDEN MOVEMENT In the first half of the nineteenth century several German States in- troduced gardening into rural schools and somewhat later into city schools. Before the end of the century this movement had spread 386 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE to other European countries. In Germany the garden at the village ' school was intended primarily for the teacher as a source of vege- \ tables and fruits for his table. But teachers interested in nature I study made it also a means of promoting that work. It furnished a field and materials for observations by the pupils, and by their participation in the work of planting and caring for the garden they obtained useful practical knowledge and experience. Such a garden at Alfter, in the Rhine Province, was visited by C. B. Smith and described by him in Circular 42 of the Office of Experiment Stations in 1899. As early as 1856 General Armstrong, who afterwards founded Hampton Institute, introduced vegetable growing in some schools in Hawaii. This became a part of the school work in that Territory, and in 1898 a department of nature study and agriculture was organ- ized in the normal school at Honolulu, with garden and field work. In the report prepared by D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experi- ment Stations, for the American Park and Outdoor Art Association in 1903 (4:22), two phases of this movement are described, (1) a somewhat restricted attempt to improve school grounds by planting trees, shrubs, and flowers, and (2) the more general planting of school gardens. Beginning about 1900, improvement of school grounds was undertaken, sometimes with the aid of voluntary asso- ciations, in Rochester, N. Y., Cleveland, Ohio, Washington, D. C, Detroit, Mich., and other cities. In New York the junior naturalists clubs were used to promote such work. A garden confined to native wild flowers and ferns was begun in connection with the George Put- nam Grammar School in Boston, Mass., in 1891, and after 10 years was used for growing vegetables. The Vineyard Street Grammar School in Providence, R. I., began the planting of ferns and violets in 1892. By 1903 school gardens were in use in a considerable num- ber of places in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, District of Columbia, Virginia, Kentucky, Alabama, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Missouri, California, Colorado, and Utah. A few exam- ples will serve to show the general character of the work at that time. At the school of horticulture at Hartford, Conn., there were 166 gardens apportioned as follows: For teachers, 24 gardens, each 10 by 30 feet; for boys and girls, 125 gardens, each 10 by 25 feet, for first-year pupils; 16 gardens, each 10 by 30 feet, for second-year pupils; and 1 garden, 10 by 40 feet, for a third-year pupil. The pupils were drawn largely from the city schools and had one hour a week in the gardens. The second-year pupils also had root grafting and greenhouse work, including the preparation of soil, potting, repotting, and pricking out plants, and were later instructed in bud- ding, spading, etc. Each city school was given six free scholarships. First-year pupils not receiving scholarships were charged $5 tuition. The director of this school was H. D. Hemenway, a graduate of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and the author of " How to Make School Gardens " (1903). In New York City Mrs. Henry Parsons, a member of the school board, secured permission in 1902 to fence an area 114 by 84 feet in De Witt Clinton Park, at Fifty-second Street and Eleventh Avenue, to give some of the children in the vicinity useful and wholesome em- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 387 ployment. A tent was put up, which contained blackboards and seats, and later a flagpole was raised. The children came in squads of 25, each wearing a tag numbered to correspond with the number of his 3 by 6 foot garden. At first the children were given the choice of heing farmers or policemen, and quite a good many thought they would like to be policemen, but after the third day the police force had all deserted to the farm (422). School gardening made a permanent impress on the public-school system of New York City. In 1925 the School Garden Association of New York found 142 gardens in use by elementary schools in that city, 117 at the schools, 17 in city parks, and 8 in vacant lots. At the Hampton Institute in Virginia the Whittier School for negro children had 200 plats, varying in size from 4 by 6 to 11 by 15 feet. Each plat was worked by two pupils, and all of the work was done under the supervision of a man in general charge of the gardens. Every child in the school, from the kindergarten to the seventh grade, was required to work in the gardens two recitation periods a w^eek. The work was conducted on pedagogical principles, and so correlated with the other school exercises as to make it truly educa- tional. It was also arranged in such a way that pupils finishing at the Whittier School were fully prepared to take up the agricultural work in the institute. At Cleveland, Ohio, the Home Gardening Association promoted gardening by children and adults, and originated the method of encouraging the work by selling penny packages of seeds. Lessons were given at the schools on the planting and care of the gardens. Exhibits were held in the fall with prizes of money or bulbs. The money was devoted to improving school grounds. In 1905 a curator of school gardens was appointed to have charge of the planting and improvement of school gardens and grounds throughout the city. The work at Cleveland continued to grow, and in 1908 there were gardens for defective and delinquent children as well as for normal children. A kitchen garden was maintained in connection with a cooking school. While this work was supported with school funds it was not a part of the school curriculum, but entirely vol- untary, and done outside of school hours. The normal schools at Hyannis and Framingham, Mass., had in- corporated school-garden work in their practice schools. At Hyan- nis the garden work was the basis for numerous exercises in con- nection with the mathematics, bookkeeping, business training, draw- ing, and language work of the school. The children wrote letters to the seedsmen from wdiom they purchased seeds, sold their produce, deposited money in the bank, made purchases, and paid for them with checks drawn on their account. Normal schools at Johnson, Vt., Los Angeles, Calif., and Salt Lake City, Utah, had made garden work a feature of their practice school for several years. In Washington, D. C, only home gardening by the normal-school students was attempted at first, but afterwards the Department of Agriculture provided a small greenhouse and workroom, where these students met once a week for instruction and practice. Then the children in 12 practice schools were given seeds for home planting and were put under instruction in gardening by the normal students. A class of 30 boys and girls had a garden on the department grounds. 388 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE In 1905 the work in Washinoton and a number of other cities was described in Bulletin 160 of the Office of Experiment Stations, by B. T. Galloway and Susan B. Sipe, and a farmers' bulletin on the school garden, by L. C. Corbett, horticulturist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, was jDublished. In 1906 the Bureau of Plant Industry reported that it had dis- tributed 377,540 packets of vegetable and flower seeds to every State and Territory except Nevada and Wyoming. " It can safely be said that more than a thousand teachers of schools in various parts of the country are interested in this work." In 1908 the Office of Experiment Stations reported that school gardens had not been generally successful in connection with rural schools, except where combined with home gardens and boys' and girls' clubs. The school-garden movement continued to grow and to get a larger measure of public support. At the San Francisco meeting of the National Education Association in 1911 the School Garden Association of America was organized, with V. E. Kilpatrick, of New York, as president, and D. J. Crosby, of the Office of Experiment Stations, as secretary. A joint meeting of this new organization with the American Nature-Study Society and the department of rural and agricultural education of the parent society was held, thus em- phasizing the union of the forces in an effort to improve the curricu- lum of the elementary schools. This association continued to promote gardening in connection with the schools until after the World AVar, when its place was taken by the Council of Nature Study and School Gardening, which meets annually in connection with the winter meeting of the department of superintendence of the National Education Association. Experience showed that only the children in the first few grades Avere interested in the growing of plants in the little plats usually found in the school gardens. After that a community garden or home garden served to prolong the interest, but these were difficult for the schools to manage without special provisions for supervision of the outside work. The development of the boys' and girls' clubs as a part of the agricultural extension system under the Smith-Lever Act drew the attention of the rural schools away from the school gardens, in which they had never been largely interested. On the other hand, the smaller cities in large numbers took up this work. In 1915 the Bureau of Education considered the garden move- ment of sufficient importance to warrant the establishment of a di- vision of school and home gardening, and this was put in charge of J. L. Randall. Reports were received in 1916 from 1,220 city super- intendents who were encouraging some form of school-directed gar- dening. The public appropriations for this work in 20 cities ranged from $1,000 to $19,893, in 12 cities from $500 to $1,000, and in 108 cities were less than $500. Many other agencies were promoting the work, and 220 cities had funds from private sources. Home-garden work through the schools, particularly in the cities, was greatly stimulated during the World War when there was wide- spread and increasing interest in supplementing the ordinary pro- duction of food by resorting to unusual means. To aid this enter- prise the Bureau of Education secured from President Wilson's A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 389 national security and defense fund in 1918 $50,000, to which $200,000 was afterwards added. This money was used to organize the United States School Garden Army, with J. H. Francis as director. This army had officers with military titles, and the members received badges. The country was divided into five districts with Federal supervisors. Leaflets and other publications describing and stimu- lating the work were published and widely distributed. The bureau reported that on July 10, 1918, 1,500,000 boys and girls were enrolled in this army. This undoubtedly included many children who had already been organized for similar work by the extension agents of the Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural colleges and other agencies. The reaction which occurred after the abnormal pressure for war work ceased greatly diminished the strength of the school-garden movement throughout the country. It then became largely a matter of local interest as fostered by agencies outside the school or by individual superintendents or teachers. It was more closely identified with nature study as carried on in the lower grades, and there was a fuller realization that it had a cultural rather than even a prevocational value. The interest aroused among educators in nature study and school gardening and the results of experience and investigation with reference to the educational and practical problems involved in such work had important eifects on the movement for the more definite teaching of agriculture in the elementary schools. ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE The great awakening of public interest in the teaching of agri- culture in the colleges which occurred about 1900 led to an active demand that this subject be taught in the elementary as well as in the secondary schools. Teachers here and there, particularly in schools where the grades were combined with the higher depart- ments, undertook the teaching of agriculture to the younger children. In this effort there were many failures but some notable successes. The farming population, especially as represented by their organiza- tions, without realizing the great difficulties attending the general introduction of a subject like agriculture into the rural schools, moved the legislatures to pass laws permitting or requiring the teach- ing of agriculture in the rural or all elementary schools of the State. The spread of the nature-study and school-garden movements intensi- fied the desire of the farmers and the other friends of rural education to have instruction more definitely related to agriculture in the rural elementary schools which were the only educational institutions at- tended by the great mass of farm boys. About the same time the consolidation of rural schools became a matter of widespread discussion, and the laws permitting such con- solidation, which had been passed in the New England States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, began to have a decided effect. Suc- cessful consolidation of a number of schools in these States soon led to similar movements in New Jersey, Iowa, Minnesota, Michigan, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Obviously there was a better chance for the successful teaching of agriculture in such schools and examples of this soon began to appear. 390 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUEE REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE ASSOCIATION Some normal schools began to teach agriculture, and some agri- cultural colleges made special provisions for instructing teachers in short courses or summer schools. The movement for the teaching of agriculture in the elementary schools attracted the attention of the Association of Agricultural Colleges, and at its meeting at Washington in 1903 it was suggested that its committee on instruction in agriculture make a report on this matter. This was done in 1904, when a report was presented on " the teaching of agriculture in the rural common schools" {Jt99). The committee found that nature study having an agricultural trend was about all that had been attempted in the way of teaching agriculture in the rural schools until quite recently, when State superintendents of public instruction, the officers of some of the agri- cultural colleges, the National Education Association, the American Civic Association, as well as a number of other organizations and numerous individuals in various official positions had interested themselves in the introduction of elementary agriculture and garden- ing into the rural schools. Outline courses in agriculture had been prepared in a number of States. In Illinois the course, prepared by Dean Davenport of the college of agriculture, was arranged by montlis, with suggestions for practicums, observations, readings, and correlation of agriculture with other school work. In Missouri a course entitled " Elements of Agriculture for the Public Schools " was prepared by the State superintendent of schools and published by the State board of agriculture. In Indiana the State manual for the elementary schools in 1904-5 included courses in nature study and agriculture. The Department of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota prepared a bulletin on rural-school agriculture for the use of the teachers in that State. The agricul- tural colleges in a number of States were promoting this movement through summer schools and special publications for teachers. A great impetus was given to the movement by the improvement of textbooks and works of reference. Indirectly this brought about legislation requiring the teaching of agriculture in all the rural schools in a number of States. State adoption of textbooks in agri- culture had been made in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Caro- lina, and Tennessee. Every city and county in Virginia, a majority of the counties in Maryland, about 15 counties in California, and a number of counties in Florida had also adopted such textbooks. The obstacles to the general introduction of agriculture into the rural schools were pointed out by the committee. These included the conservatism or apathy of State, county, and local school officers and of members of agricultural college faculties in many States ; lack of trained and experienced teachers; and shortness of school terms. Consolidation of schools would help, but special effort must be made to provide competent teachers. Nature study would give the pupils an excellent preparation for the more formal study of agriculture in the sixth or seventh grade. On the average not less than one hour per week during two years would be required to make the course effective. "A well-arranged and up-to-date textbook, with illustra- A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 391 tions and suggestions for practical exercises, should be adopted as a basis for this study." Excursions to neighboring farms, visits to county fairs, exhibits by pupils of these fairs, farmers' institutes, and other meetings were ad- vocated. Classroom instruction should be supplemented by simple ex- periments with plants and animals at school and at home. Every effort should be made to connect the instruction with the pupil's home life. Illustrative material should be supplied consisting of charts, pictures, collections of specimens (largely made by the pupils), and boxes, cans, plates, and other inexpensive material which can be used in making apparatus for conducting experiments. There should also be a few standard reference books on the different divisions of agriculture and the publications of the State experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture. The committee then presented a syllabus of an elementary course in agriculture, which included the plant and its environment, farm crops, fruits, types and breeds of domestic animals and their care and management, the dairy cow, composition, handling and uses of milk, farm plans and structures, farm machinery, marketing, and farm accounts. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS SYLLABUS ON NATURE STUDY AND ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE This report Avas followed up through the office of Experiment Stations by the preparation by the writer and D. J. Crosby in 1905 of a suggestive course of nature study and elementary agriculture for the schools of California. (Office of Experiment Stations Report 1906, p. 281.) This was done at the request of a committee appointed at a meeting of the State Teachers' Association with the State farmers' institute. The following is a synopsis of this course, arranged for three groups of children : Nature study and agriculture, hy groups Group I. Nature study, chil- dren 6 to 8 years old. II. Nature study, chil- dren 9 to 11 years old. III. Agriculture, chil- dren 12 to 14 years old. Character of instruction Observation: Observe wild and culti- vated plants, trees, insects, and wild and domestic animals in environ- ment at home and near school. Observation and comparison: Observe weather, soils, wild and cultivated plants, trees, insects, and wild and domestic animals in environment of school district and vicinity; com- pare habits of plants and animals in order to become familiar with their different modes of living, their struggles fore.xistence, and their uses to man. Observation, comparison, and judg- ment: Study objects as above, with- in and beyond horizon of children's observation; introduce textbooks and reference books on elementary agri- culture as sources of information concerning objects beyond the limits of personal observation; illustrate processes by simple experiments; study different types of plants and animals; visit typical farms; teach sources and uses of agricultural lit- erature— books, bulletins, and farm journals. Garden School garden: Plant and grow some of the common hardy vegetables, such as radishes, lettuce, beets, and carrots; and one or two quick-growing flowers, such as dwarf nasturtiums. School and home gardens: Plant and grow typical economic plants of the region, giving some attention to different varieties, and to the relation of crops to different conditions of soil, weather, treatment, etc. School and home gardens: Plant and grow different varieties of crops— e. g., wheat, barley, sugar beets, potatoes; introduce exercises in prun- ing, grafting, making cuttings. Encourage pupils to grow crops, poultry, and farm animals at home, keeping account of labor, fertilizers, feed, gross and net returns, and have them experiment on different meth- ods of planting, cultivating, harvest- ing, and preparing for market. 12931—29- -26 392 MISC. PUBLICATION" 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE In 1905 the committee of five made a report to the National Edu- cation Association in which they recommended that agriculture be taught in the last three years of the common school but that the teachers of the 1-room rural school should not be positively required to do this because generally they are not prepared to teach this subject and the school term is often too short to permit an additional study. By this time laws permitting or encouraging the teaching of agri- culture in the rural schools had been passed in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, JNIissouri, North Carolina, and Wisconsin. Within the next five years 13 States had passed mandatory laws on this subject. It was encouraged by State and county school officers and taught in some of the rural schools of 31 other States and Territories. In 1915 the teaching of agriculture in public rural elementary schools was required in 22 States. TEXTBOOKS OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Soon after 1900 a new type of textbooks of elementary agriculture began to be published. These combined statements of facts about the plants, animals, implements, etc., used in farming and horticulture with simple explanations of principles underlying the practice of agriculture and the results of experiments relating to agriculture. An early book of this type, first issued in 1903, was entitled " Agri- culture for Beginners," by C. W. Burkett, F. L. Stevens, and D. H. Hill, professors of agriculture, biology, and English in the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The subject was treated in logical order, but teachers were asked to " feel free to teach each topic in the season best suited to its study." Many definite suggestions for observations and simple experiments were made. Lead the pupils out into the field, malie simple experiments before them, and have them also perform experiments. Let them learn directly from nature. * * * In many cases it will be best to perform the experimental or observa- tional work first, and turn to the text later to amplify the pupil's knowledge. The book was attractively printed and had over 200 illustrations. Without doubt the publication of such textbooks greatly promoted the definite teaching of agriculture in the rural schools. As a rule the teachers in these schools had neither the training nor the time to prepare lessons and practicums themselves but could often use the books and follow some of the practical suggestions made in them. There was, of course, the inevitable tendency for many teachers simply to hear recitations based on the text, and this has been largely the kind of instruction in agriculture given in rural schools up to the present time. Some of the States adopted a particular teij^tbook of agriculture for use in all the elementary schools attempting to teach this subject. While the movement for the teaching of agriculture in the rural elementary schools continued to grow and there was an increasing number of instances where this Avas done successfully, particularly in the consolidated schools, it was soon apparent that provision must be made for more informal instruction suited to the actual conditions in most rural schools. In 1909 the Office of Experiment Stations reported that such instruction through boys' and girls' clubs, judging contests, excursions, and boys' encampments was rapidly extending in all parts of the country. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 393 BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS The boys' agricultural clubs grew out of an attempt to arouse interest in farmers' institutes in Macoupin County, II). When the adult farmers did not respond to special efforts to get them to attend institutes, W. B. Otwell, as president of the county insti- tute, distributed carefully selected corn to 500 boys, who grew it and made an exhibit for prizes at the next institute in 1900. This was so successful that the next year 1.500 farmer boys entered the contest. There was then no difficulty in getting a large attendance of boys and adults at the county institute. When Mr. Otwell was put in charge of the Illinois agricultural exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 he got 8,000 boys in the State to grow corn for prizes and 1,250 exhibits of their work received awards there. This kind of work was taken up more or less directjy under the auspices of the State college of agriculture, the Illinois Farmers' Institute, and the county institute secretaries, and county superintendents of schools in a numl^er of counties in Illinois. In February, 1902, O. J. Kern, who was actively promoting the improvement of the rural schools in Winnebago County, organized a " farmer boys' experi- ment club," in cooperation with the agricultural college. Seeds of sugar beets were furnished by the cojilege and seeds of corn by the State Farmers' Institute. The club began with 37 members, and in November 1903 there were 405. Excursions were made to the colleges in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin by the boys and their parents. The boys tested the seed, made observations on the growth of the plants, determined the percentage of smut in fields of oats, etc. Meetings of the club were held at various farms, a half-day was given them at the county farmers' institute, and monthly lec- tures by college officers and others were provided at the county seat during the fall and winter. Similar cjubs were organized in a number of other counties in Illinois and in 1904 the State super- intendent of farmers' institutes estimated that not less than 2,000 boys were in the clubs in that State. Local clubs were formed, usually by townships, and united in. a county association. In Ohio A. B. Graham, as superintendent of schools at Spring- field, began to organize boys' clubs in 1902 and in 1905, when he was made superintendent of extension work at Ohio State Univer- sity, 3,000 pupils in the rural schools were members of these clubs. About this time clubs were organized in Texas in connection with the Texas Farmers' Congress. In Iowa the first club was organized in 1904 at Sigourney, Keokuk County, by the county superintendent of schools. As a special feature each of the 147 school districts in Keokuk County held a school fair in the fall of 1904, where the boys exhibited the fruits, vegetables, and farm crops which they had grown. The best and second-best articles of each class were then shown at the 16 township fairs, and the three prize articles of the several kinds from each township fair were exhibited at a county school fair. This county fair exhibit contained more than 3,000 articles. In connection with each fair there was a program of talks, papers, recitations, and music. At the county fair there were a corn- judging school, a debate, and a composition contest. A small admis- sion fee at the fairs paid all expenses. 394 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE In 1907 a boys' club was organized in Holmes County, Miss., by W. H. Smith, a school superintendent. The following year clubs began to be organized in connection with the farmers' cooperative demonstration work in the Southern States under Seaman A. Knapp The clubs Avere formed on the basis of each boy's growing an acre of corn or other crop. In 1909 there were more than 10,000 bo}s en- rolled in the competitive corn contests, and in 1910 over 46,000 boys were connected with the clubs. These clubs spread rapidly and ulti- mately became a prominent feature of the cooperative extension work under the Smith-Lever Act. School teachers and officers in many places cooperated from the beginning in the organization and work of these clubs. Clubs for girls paralleled those for boys under various auspices. The girls' clubs deajlt with gardening, canning, and household arts. In 1909 the Office of Experiment Stations reported that club work for boys and girls w^as organized in at least 395 counties in 29 States, the membership totaling more than 150,000. STATE COURSES IN ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE About 1905 the State superintendent of public schools in Wis- consin issued a manual for the common schools of that State which contained an outline course in elementary agriculture, and a similar course for the schools of South Dakota was published. The New York State education department issued a course of study and syllabus for elementary schools which contained an outline for nature study in the first six years of the elementary course and agri- culture in the remaining two years. This was further elaborated in 1909, when it was presented as the study of birds, animals, and plants. The nature study and agricultural features were combined throughout this course. Much of the course was based on the study of the hen, the cow, and the pea as interesting living things in nature and as having agricultural value. The report of the office of Experiment Stations for 1910 states that — In Massachusetts a committee of five appointed by the conference on asricul- tural science at the Massachusetts Agricultural College in 1908 prepared and the agricultural college published a course in elementary agriculture which consisted of a series of practical exercises, for each of which appropriate ma- terials and directions were suggested. In 1919 the State superintendent of public instruction in Missouri undertook to meet the difficulty arising from the great variety of work which the rural teacher has to do in the school by trying a rotation plan of teaching elementary agriculture. He selected 15 counties for this experiment. The work was for boys and girls and included not only subjects directly pertaining to farming but also those relating to the life and welfare of children and adults, such as health, sanitation, home conveniences, social conditions, and community interests. The course covered four years. Each year there was in each school only one agricultural class made up of children in grades 5 to 8. The teachers were aided by a preliminary week of intensive training and by weekly conferences for practice under direction of the county superintendent {465). A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 395 In an analytical survey of State courses of study for rural ele- mentary schools by C. M. Reinoehl, of the University of Arkansas, made in 1922 and published by the Bureau of Education (47^), it appeared that all the States except California, Florida, Arkansas, and Khode Island had issued such courses. The 35 State publica- tions containin<^ the most complete and detailed outlines were used in this survey. Agriculture has been given a prominent place in those State courses. The materials have to do with plant culture (47 per cent), animal husbandry (20 per cent), farm manasvment and imiirovement (27 per cent), and plans and methods of teaching (6 per cent). Facts about farm work are empha- sized. The most common method of teaching agriculture is the textbook method. Teachers have been encouraged in the use of th's method by the type of out- lines in some States. There are few method topics. The project and the problem methods are coming into use (474). The development of the home project in connection with the secondary schools and the extension clubs has had an increasing influence on the teaching of agriculture in the elementary grades, particularly in the consolidated schools. Many of the children from 12 to 15 years old have been in the clubs and thus have been encour- aged to study agriculture in the school as an aid to their club work. The development of the vocational instruction in agricidture under the Smith-Hughes Act has also stimulated more interest in the ele- mentary instruction on the part of school officers and teachers. The Federal and State officers in charge of the Smith-Hughes work are increasingly impressed with the desirability of encouraging the elementary instruction on a prevocational basis. The division of agricultural instruction, in the Office of Experi- ment Stations and later in the States Relations Service, aided in various ways the movement for the introduction of agriculture into the elementary schools. In cooperation with the State agricultural colleges and State departments of education it prepared outline courses of agriculture for elementary schools in Maryland, Ohio, North Carolina, and Arkansas. Lessons on corn, potatoes, dairying, and gardening were also issued. Leaflets were prepared showing how teachers could use the farmers' bulletins in their school work. Classified lists of department publications and suggestions for illus- trative material and sets of lantern slides on agricultural subjects have been distributed. Along with the movement for the teaching of agriculture in public elementary schools there was similar teaching in special or private schools. Among the early schools of this kind were the Thompson's Island Farm School, near Boston, the Baron de Hirsch Agricultural and Industrial School, at Woodbine, N. J., the School of Horticulture, at Hartford, Conn., the School of the Youths' Di- rectory of San Francisco, at Rutherford, Calif., and schools for negroes at Hampton, Va., Tuskegee, Ala., Atlanta, Ga., Manassas, Va., Enfield, N. C, and elsewhere. STATUS OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN RURAL SCHOOLS The recent status of elementary agriculture in the rural schools of the United States has been shown in the report of a committee, of which E. H. Shinn was chairman, presented to the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Agricultural Teaching on November 396 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 12, 1923 (62). This report was based on replies to a questionnaire from State superintendents of education, supervisors of rural schools, presidents of State normal schools, State supervisors of agricultural education, and heads of teacher-training divisions in the land-grant colleges. The findings of the committee are summarized as follows: (1) On the basis of the returns it appears that about 28 of the States re- quire by legislative acts that elementary agriculture be taught in the rural schools. A few other States have special rural aid laws, etc., looking to the betterment of rural schools. (2) Thirty-five of the 48 States report that the State departments of educa- tion are sympathetic and are encouraging better rural school education while a few replies say that nothing particular is being done in this direction. Ex- amples of well organized programs on the part of State departments of educa- tion for improving agriculture and nature-study in rural schools are rare. (3) In about two-thirds of the States the returns show that courses are offered in elementary agriculture for rural teachers. The other replies say that very little or no teacher-training work is offered. A number of returns say that there is no demand for training of this kind. As a rule the courses are offered in normal schools or teachers' colleges, high schools, and special agricultural schools. (4) Returns from only 20 States indicate that the teaching of agriculture and nature-study in rural schools has been effective. (5) The type of school in which the work has functioned best, according to the returns, is the consolidated rural school. A few returns say that the work has functioned best in no particular type of school, that it is the teacher rather than the school that counts most. (6) Returns from more than half of the States say that agriculture and nature-study when properly taught have vitalized other school subjects. (7) In reference to problems and difficulties, about five-sixths of the returns say that lack of competent teachers for the work is the great problem. (8) Returns from about half of the States regarding suggested solutions say that better trained teachers is the greatest need. Various other suggestions are offered, such as consolidation, supervision, better organized courses, higher standard for teachers, and establishment of departments of rural education, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliograph}^ herewith includes only such works as have con- tributed in some way to the preparation of this general history of agricultural education in the United States. For collateral infor- mation only a few standard works were used. To a very limited extent have State and local reports and other documents been cited. There is a vast bibliography of agricultural education in State and local reports and bulletins, and in magazines, agricultural and other papers, textbooks, etc., to which no reference is made here. GENERAL 1. Andrews, B. F. The land grant of 1SG2 and the land-grant colleges. 63 p. Washington, 1918. (U S. Bur. Educ. Bui. 13, 1918.) 2. Atkeson, T. C. Semicentennial history of the Patrons of Husbandry. 364 p. illus. New York, 1916. 3. Bailey. L. H. Cyclopedia of American agriculture, v. 4. 650 p. New York, 1909. 4. Bailey, L. H. The nature-study idea, being an interpretation of the new school movement to put the child in sympathy with nature. 159 p. New York, 1903. 2d ed. 1909. 3d ed. rev. 246 p. New York, 1909. 5. Beginnings of education in agriculture and home economics. Journal of home economics, v. 2 (1910), p. 29-31. 6. Bath and West of England Society. Journal, v. 1. 282 p. London, 1853. 7. Bevier, Isabel. Home economics in education. 226 p. Philadelphia [1924]. 8. Bishop, E. C. The present status of agricultural education in public schools. (In Proc. Nat. Educ. Assoc, v. 47 (1909), p. 976-982. 9. Blackmar, F. W. The history of Federal and State aid to higher educa- tion in the United States. 343 p. Washington, 1890. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Circ. Inform. (1890), no. 1 ) 10. Blauch, L. E. Federal cooperation in vocational education. The evolution of the Smith-Lever and the Smith-Hughes Acts. Ms. in Univ. of Chicago. 1923. 375 p. (Also copy in Bur. Educ.) Contains extensive bibliography. A thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy. 31. Bogart, E. L. Economic history of the United States. 2d ed. 597 p. illus., New York, 1914. 12. Brewer, W. H. Manuscript of statement on the intent of the land grant act of 1862. (Copy in Div. of Agr. Instr., U. S. Dept. Agric.) 13. Brown, E. E. The making of our middle schools ; an account of the develop- ment of secondary education in the United States. 547 p. New York, 1903. 14. Browne, C. A. A sketch of agricultural chemistry in America from 1663 to 1863. Manuscript in Bur. Chem. 16 p. (Abstract in Science, n. s. V. 60, p. 87. July 25, 1924.) 15. Browne, C. A. The life and chemical services of Fredrick Accuni. 58 p. Portrait. (From Jour, of Cliem. Education of Am. Chem. Soc. 1925.) 16. Buck, S. J. The Granger movement ; a study of agricultural organization and its political, economic, and social manifestations, 1870-1880. 384 p. Cambridge, Mass., 1913. (Harvard historical ser., v. 19.) 17. Butterfield, K. L. Chapters in rural progress. 251 p. Chicago. 1907. 18. Carrier, Lyman. Dr. John Mitchell, naturalist, cartographer, and historian. Washington, 1921. (In Agricultural History Society pai>ers, p. 199-219.) Also in Ann. Kept, of the Anier. Hist. Assoc, 1918. 19. Carrier, Lyman. The beginnings of agriculture in America. 323 p. illus. New York, 1923. 397 398 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 20. Citizens Trade School Convention. Proceedings and addresses. (In dianapolis, June 10-12, 1907.) 53 p. Indianapolis, 1907. 21. Coman, Katherine. The industrial history of the United States. New & rev. ed. 461 p. illus. New York, 1911. 22. Davenport, Eugene. Education for efficiency ; a discussion of certain phases of the problem of universal education with special reference to academic ideals and methods. 184 p. Boston, 1909. 23. Davis, N. M. Agricultural education in the public schools. 163 p. Chi- cago, 111., 1912. 24. Dexter, E. G. A history of education in the United States. 656 p. New York. 1904. 25. Fellenberg or manual labor movement (The). (In U. S. Bur. Educ. Ann. Kept. (1891-92), v. 1, p. 506-510. Washington, 1894.) 26. Fisher. M. L. Instruction in farm crops. In Proc. Amer. Soc. Agron. V. 3 (1911), p. 40-41. 1912. 27. Gillette, J. M. Constructive I'ural sociology. (New ed.) 408 p. New York. 1916. 28. Goode, G. B. The origin of the national scientific and educational institu tions of the United States. 112 p. New York, 1890. Reprinted from the Papers of the American Historical Society. 29. Greathouse. C. H. Historical sketch of the United States Department of Agriculture, its objects and present organization. 97 p. Washington, 1907. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Pub. Bui. 3, 2d revision.) 30. Grimes, W. E. Report of the committee on teaching for the vear 1920. (In Jour. Farm Econ. v. 3 (1920). p. 100-102.) 31. Handschin, W. F. Report of the committee on teaching for the year 1910. (In Jour. Farm Econ. v. 2 (1919), p. 172-174.) 32. Hanus, P. H. Beginnings in industrial education and other educational discussions. 199 p. Boston, 1908. 33. Highland Society of Scotland. Prize essays and transactions of the High- ^ land Society of Scotland, v. 1-6. Edinburgh, 1799-1824. 34. Hunt, C. L. The life of Ellen Richards. 328 p. illus. Boston. 1912. 35. Industrial Education. American Federation of Labor. 68 p. Washington, 1910. 36. Kandel. I. L. Federal aid for vocational education. 127 p. New York. 1917. (Carnegie Found. Advanc. Teaching Bui. 10.) 37. Keith, J. A. H., and Bagley, W. C. The Nation and the school — a study in the application of the principles of Federal aid to education in the United States. 364 p. New York, 1920 38. Kelley, O. H. Origin and progress of the Order of the Patrons of Hus- bandry in the United States ; a history from 1866 to 1873. 441 p. Philadelphia, 1875. 39. Kern. O. J. Among country schools. 366 p. illus. New York, 1906. 40. Kingsley, C. D. College entrance requirements. 110 p. Washington, 1913. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Bui. 7, 1913.) 41. Knapp, S. A. Experiment Stations. 7 p. [1883]. (Text of Holme? bill and statement indorsing it. Copy in U. S. Dept. Agr.) See also (201). 42. Lacy, Mary G. An early agricultural periodical. Agr. Hist. Soc. papers, V. 2, p. 443. Washington, 1923. Reprinted from annual report of Am. Hist. A.sso., 1919. v. 1, p. 443. 43. Lake Placid conference on home economics. Proceedings, Ist-lOth, 1899 - 1908. Lake Placid, N. Y., 1901-1908. 44. Learned, H. B. The president's cabinet, studies in the origin, formation, and structure of an American institution. 471 p. New Haven, 1912. 45. Liautard, A. History and progress of veterinary medicine. (In Amer. Vet. Rev., v. 1 (1877), p. 5-19.) 46. Lipman, C. B. A thorough training for specialists in agronomy. (In Proc. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 4 (1912), p. 53-58, 1913.) 47. Monroe, Paul, ed. Cyclopedia of education. 5 vol. New York, 1911-1919. 48. Monroe, Paul. Textbook of the hi.story of education. XXlII+772 p. New York, 1911. 49. Myers, C. E. Effectiveness of vocational education in agriculture ; a study of the value of vocational instruction in agriculture in secondary schools as indicated by the occupational distribution of former students. 63 p. Washington, 1923. (Fed. Bd. Vocat. Educ. Bui. 82. Agr. Ser. 13.) A HISTORY OP AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 399 50. National Education Association. Report of the committee on industrial education in scliools for rural communities. 1905. 97 p. 51. National Education Association. Report of the committee on the place of industries in public education. 1910. 123 p. 52. National society for the promotion of industrial education. Bui. 1-26. New York, 1907-1918. Name changed in 1918 to National Society for Vocational Education. 53. National society for the study of education. Yearbook 1911. Part 2, p. 9-90. Chicago, 1912. 54. Paine, A. E. The Granger movement in Illinois. 53 p. Urbaua, 111., 1904. (Univ. of 111., The Univ. studies, v. 1, no. 8.) On cover: University of Illinois Bui., v. 2, no. 2. 55. [Papers on development and teaching of agronomy.] (In Proc. Amer. Soc. Agron., V. 1, 1907, 1908, 1909. [Washington, D. C], 1910.) 56 Parsons, H. G. Children's gardens for special health and education. XII+226 p. illus. New York, 1910. 57. Pearson, R. A. The place of mechanic arts in land-grant institutions. Montpelier, Yt., 1915. (In Proc. Asso. Amer. Agr. Col. and Expt. Stas. 29th (1915), p. 135-140.) 58. Poore, B. P. The Federal and State constitutions, colonial charters, and other organic laws of the United States. 2d ed. 2 v. Washington, 1878. 59. Reber, L. E. University extension in the United States. 63 p. Washing- ton, 1914. (U. S. Bur. Edue. Bui. 19, 1914.) 60. Robison, C. H. Agricultural instruction in the public high schools of the United States. 2U2 p. 1 map. Thesis Columbia University, 1910. 61. School Garden Association of America. 2d annual reiKirt, 1913. 57 p. illus. 62. Shinn, E. H. Present status of elementary agriculture in the rural schools of the United States. Report presented at the meeting of American Asso. for the Advancement of Agr. Teaching, Nov. 12, 1923. (In Proc. Asso. Amer. Agr. Col. and Expt. Stas. 37th (1923), p. 136-147.) 63. Sinclair, Sir John. Origin of the Board of Agriculture, and its progress for three years after its establishment. (In Gt. Brit. Bd. of Agr. Communications to the Board of Agr. on subjects relative to the husbandry and internal improvement of the country, v. 1. 2d ed. p. I-XXXVII. London, 1804.) 64. Sneddon, D. S. Problems of educational readjustment. 262 p. Boston, 1913. 65. Swift, F. H. Federal aid to public schools. 47 p. Washington, 1922. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Bui. 47, 1922.) (Contains history of grants of land and money in 1785. 66. Taylor, H. C. The educational significance of the early Federal land ordi- nances. 138 p. New York, 1922. (Teachers' College, Columbia Univ. Contributions to education, 118. Published also as thesis (Ph. D.) Columbia University. 1920.) 67. True, R. H. The early development of agricultural societies in the United States. Agr. Hist. Soc. papers, v. 3, p. 293-306. Washington, 1925. Reprinted from annual report of Am. Hist. Asso., 1920, p. 293-306. 68. Tucker, G. M. American agricultural periodicals; and historical sketch. [101 p. Albany, 1909. 69. Tull, Jethro. The horse hoing husbandry ; or. An essay on the principles of tillage and vegetation. 200 p. London, 1733. 3d ed., very carefully corrected. 432 p. London, 1751. 70. Turnbull, G. H. Samuel Hartlib. A sketch of his life and his relations to J. A. Comenius. 79 p. London (New York, etc.), 1920. 71. United States Agi-icultural Society Journal, v. 1-5 (1852-1857). Wash- ington, 1852-[1857]. 72. Vocational education. United States Chamber of Commerce, Referendum No. 14. 12 p. Spec, bul., June 2, 1916. Washington, 1916. 73. Vocational secondary education. Prepared by the committee on vocational education of the National Education Association. Bur. Educ. Bul. 21, 1916. 163 p. 74. Withers, W. A. The teaching of chemistry in American agricultural col- leges. Washington, 1911. (In Proc. Asso. of Off. Agr. Chem. 27th (1916), p. 91-97.) (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. Bul. 137.) 400 MISC. PUBLICATIOISr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE 75. Youmans, W. J. Pioneers of science in America. 508 p. ports. New York, 1896. 76. Young, Arthur. Annals of agriculture and other useful arts. v. 1. 467 p. London, 1786. ALABAMA 77. Alabama Polytechnic Institute. Catalogue of the officers and alumni . . . 1872-1908, with a brief history of the college. 108 p. Opelika, Ala., 1906. (On cover: Bulletin, v. 1, no. 2.) 78. Alabama State Agricultural and Mechanical College. Report of the board of trustees. 1880/81-1887/88. Montgomery, Ala., 1882-1888. 79. Bruce, R. C. Training in agriculture at Tuskegee. (In Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. and Social Sci. v. 21 (1903), p. 513-514.) 80. Clark, W. G. History of education in Alabama, 1702-1889. 281 p. Wash- ington, 1889. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Circ. of Inform. (1889), no. 3.) 81. Owens, C. J. Secondary agricultural education in Alabama. 30 p. illus. Washington, 1909. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 220.) 82. Washington, B. T. Twenty-flve years of Tuskegee. (In World's Work, v. 11. p. 7433-50. illus. April, 1906.) ARKANSAS 83. Lane, C. H. Arkansas State agricultural schools. 20 p. illus. Washington, 1912. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Otf. Expt. Stas. Bui. 250.) 84. Reynolds, J. H., and Thomas, D. Y. History of the University of Arkan- sas. 555 p. illus. Fayetteville, 1910. CALIFORNIA 85. California, University of. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California from July 1, 1915, to June 30, 1916. 133 p. illus. Berkeley, 1916. 86. Wickson, E. J. Beginnings of agricultural education and research in Cali- fornia. Berkeley, 1918. (In Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept., 1917-1918, p. 35-101.) COLORADO 87. Steinel, A. T., and W^orking, D. W. History of Agriculture in Colorado. 1858 to 1926. 659 p. illus. Fort Collins, 1926. (Includes history of agricultural education in Colorado.) CONNECTICUT 88. Buel, Jesse. Address delivered before the agricultural and horticultural societies of New Haven County, Sept. 25, 1839. (In New England farmer and horticultural register, v. 18 (1839), p. 197-198. 205-207.) 89. Connecticut State Agricultural Society. Transactions, 1854. 319 p. Hart- ford, 1855. Connecticut State Agricultural Society. Transactions, 1856. 522 p. Vari- ous paging. Hartford, 1857. 90. Cream Hill Agricultural School, West Cornwall, Conn. In A History of Connecticut Agriculture by E. H. Jenkins, p. 361-364. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. [1927.] 91. Gold, T. S. In Memoriam. (In Conn. Bd. Agr. Ann. Rpt. 39th, (1905), p. 281-282. 1906. ) 92. Gold. T. S. Biographical data. (E. H. Jenkins in Ms.) 93. Holbrook, Josiah. (In American journal of education, v. 8 (1860), p. 229-247.) 94. Holbrooiv, Josiah. (In Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, v. 3, p. 301-302. New York, 1912.) 95. Humphreys, David. A discourse on the agriculture of the State of Con- necticut, and the means of making it more beneficial to the State ; delivered at New Haven, on Thursday, 12th September, 1816. 44 p. New Haven, 1816. 96. Johnson, S. W. Lectures in agricultural chemistry. In Smithsonian Insti- tution annual report of Board of Regents (1859). p. 119-194, illus. Washington, 1860. (U. S. 36 Cong., 1st sess., H. R. Misc. Doc. No. 90.) A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 401 97. Norton, J. P. Memorials of John Pitkin Norton, late iDrofessor of analytical and agricultural chemistry in Yale College, New Haven, Conn. 85 p. port. Albany, 1853. 98. Olcott, H. S. Outlines of the first course of Yale agricultural lectures. With an introduction by John A. Porter, professor of organic chem- istry at Yale College. 186 p. New York, 1860. 99. Osborne, Mrs. Elizabeth A. (Johnson). From the letter files of S. W. Johnson, professor of agricultural chemistry in Yale University, 1856- 1896, director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 1877-1900. 292 p. illus. New Haven, 1913. 100. Portei-, J. A. Plan of an agricultural school. (In Amer. jour, of educ. v. 1 (1856). p. 329-335; same in Connecticut State Agr. Soc. Trans. (1855), p. 157-165. Hartford, 1856.) 101. Silliman, Benjamin. (In National cyclopedia of American biography, v. 2, p. 385-386. New York, 1921.) 102. Silliman, Benjamin, jr. (In National cyclopedia of American biography, V. 2, p. 386-387. New York, 1921.) 103. Society for Promoting Agriculture in the State of Connecticut. Trans- actions. 22 p. New Haven, 1802. 101. Trustees of the Storrs Agricultural School at Mansfield, Conn. Annual reports 1883-1893. Hartford, Conn., 1884-1894. DELAWARE 105. Vallandigham, E. W. Fifty years of Delaware College. 1870-1920. 153 p. Newark, Del. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 106. Barlow, Joel. Prospectus of a national institution to be established in the United States. 44 p. Washington. 1806. Also in the National Intelligencer of Washington, Aug. 1 and Nov. 24, 1806. 107. Columbian Agricultural Society. Constitution. (In Agricultural museum, Georgetown, D. C, v. 1. No. 1 (1810), p. 8-11.) Columbian Agricultural Society. [Proceedings] 2d-5th ; Nov. 1810-June 1812. (In Agricultural museum, Georgetown, D. C, v. 1-2, 1811-1812.) FLORIDA 108. Bush, G. G. History of education in Florida. 54 p. illus. Washington, 1889. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Inform. (1888), No. 7.) GEORGIA 109. District agricultural schools of Georgia. 48 p. Athens, Ga., 1907. (Univ. of Ga. Bui., V. 7, no. 11, July, 1907, Sup.) Portrait of Gov. J. M. Terrell. 110. Jones, C. E. Education in Georgia. 154 p. Washington, 1889. (U. S. Bur. Educ. Circ. Inform. (1888), No. 4.) 111. Our editor. [Daniel Lee.] (In Southern cultivator, v. 5 (1847), p. 120.) 112. University of Georgia. Centennial catalogue of the trustees, officers, and alunmi of the University of Georgia from 1785-1885. 85 p. Athens, Ga., 1885. 113. University of Georgia. Endowment of the Terrell professorship of agri- culture in the University of Georgia. 16 p. Athens, 1854. ILLINOIS 114. Carriel, Mary (Turner). The life of Jonathan Baldwin Turner. 298 p. port. [Jacksonville, 111.] 1911. 115. Davenport, Eugene. History of collegiate education in agriculture. (In Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., Proc. 28th (1907), p. 43-53.) 116. Davenport, Eugene. The next step in agricultural education, or the place of agriculture in our American system of education. 22 p. Urbana, 1908. 117. Illinois Industrial University. Annual reports of the board of trustees, lst-13th, 1867-1886. Springfield, 1868-1887. lst-7th annual. 8th-13th biennial. In 1885 the name of the institution was changed to " University of Illinois." 402 MISC. PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE 118. Illinois Industrial University. 4tli annual report. 1870-1871. p. 215-235. Convention of friends of agricultural education at Chicago, Aug. 21-25, 1871. 119. Illinois Industrial University. Fifth annual report. 1871-1872. Account of first bill that Morrill introduced in Congress. Invitation to hold another meeting at Washington in 1873. 120. Illinois Industrial University. Sixth annual report. 1872-1873. Refer- ence to Washington meeting of 1872 and the Morrill bill. 121. Illinois University, College of Agr. culture. Addresses: dedication, agri- cultural building, University of Illinois, May 21, 1901. 64 p. [Urbana. 1901.] 122. James, E. J. The origin of the land grant act of 1862 (the so-called Morrill Act) and some account of its author, Jonathan B. Turner. 11 p. Urbana, 1910. (Univ. of Illinois, Univ. Studies, v. 4, No. 1.) 123. Kelley, J. H., ed. The alumni record of the University of Illinois includ- ing historical sketch and annals of the university, and biographical data regarding members of the faculties and the boards of trustees. 921 p. illus. Urbana-Champaign, 1913. 124. Powell, B. E. The movement for industrial education and the establish- ment of the university 1840^1870. 631 p. illus. Added t. p. Semi- centennial history of the University of Illinois, v. 1. Urbana, 1918. 125. Turner, J. B. Flan for an industrial university. Washington, 1852. (In U S. Patent Office Report, pt. II. Agriculture (1851). p. 37-44.) 126. Turner, J. B. Plan for the industrial university for the State of Illinois. (In Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., Proc. 28th (1907), p. 43-53.) 127. Winnebago County [Illinois] schools. Ann. Rept. 1912. 86 p. illus. INDIANA 128. Hepburn, W. M., and Sears. L. M. Purdue University, fifty years of progress. 203 p. front. Indianapol s, 1925. 129. Indiana Commission on Industrial and Agi-icultural Education. Report 1912. 133 p. Indianapolis. IOWA 130. Bishop, E. C, Farrar, R. K., and Hoffman, M. H. Teaching agriculture in rural and graded schools ; the correlation scheme and course of study in agriculture. 164 p. illus. Ames, Iowa, 1913. (Iowa State Col. Agr., Agr. Ext. Dept. Schools Circ. 2.) 131. Iowa State Agricultural College and Farm. Biennial reports of the board of trustees, 1866-1889. Des Moines, 1866-1889. 132. Iowa State Agricultural College and Farm. First annual report of the superintendent and secretary ... to the General Assembly of the State of Iowa, Feb. 1866. 66 p. Des Moines, 1866. 133. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Address delivered at the inaugui-ation of W. I. Chamberlain LL. D., to the presidency of the Iowa State Agricultural College, Nov. 9, 1886. 32 p. Ames, Iowa, 1886. 134. Iowa State College of Agriculture. The annual report of the Iowa Agi-i- cultural College. 1871. 125 p. front. Ames, Iowa, 1871. 135. Iowa State College of Agriculture and INIec-hanie Arts. Catalogue for the year 1886. 84 p. Ames, 1886. 136. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. An historical sketch . . . published for the semi-centennial celebration, June 6-9, 1920. 32 p. ports. Ames, Iowa. KANSAS 137. Historv and growth of the Kansas State Agricultural College. Kansas Industrial, v. 39, 1913, No. 33, fig. 17. 338. Kansas State Agricultural College. College symposium. 238 p. illus. Topeka, Kansas, 1891. 139. Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans. Handbook. 124 p. Manhattan, Kans., 1874. 340. Kansas State Agricultural College. Record of the alumni. 308 p. illus. Manhattan, 1914. Contains brief history of the college by J. T. Willard, with portraits of the college presidents. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIOl^ 403 141. Walters, J. D. History of the Kansas State Agricultural College. 226 p. illus. Manhattan, Kansas, 1909. LOUISIANA 142. Fay. E. W. The history of education in Louisiana. 264 p. Washington, 'lS98. (U. S Bur. Educ. Circ. Inform. (1898), No. 1.) MAINE 143. Boardnian, S. L. Agricultural bibliography of Maine, biographical sketches of Maine writers on agriculture, with a catalogue of their works ; and an index to the volume on the agriculture of Maine, from 1850 to 1892. 117 p. Augusta, 1893. 144. Department of manual labor at Waterville College (A). (In Maine Bd. Agri. Ann. Kept. 12 (1867), p. 189-192. Augusta, 1867.) 145. Feniald. M. C. History of the Maine State College and the University of Maine. 450 p. illus. Orono, Me., 1916. 146. French, E. R. Eulogy on the life and character of Dr. Ezekiel Holmes. (In Maine State Bd. Agr. Ann. Kpt. 116 (1866), p. 44-50. Augusta, 1866.) 147. Maine Board of Agriculture. Ann. Kept. 10th, 1865. 240 p. Augusta, 1865. Maine Board of Agriculture. Ann. Kept. 12th, 1867. 248 p. Augusta, 1867. 148. Sheppard, J. H. Reminiscences of the A\nughan family, and more par- ticularly of Benjamin Vaughan, LL. D. Read before the New England Historic-Genealogical Society, August 2, 1865. 40 p. Boston, 1865. 149. True, N. T. Biographical sketch of Ezekiel Holmes. (In Maine State Bd. Agr. Rept. 10 (1865). p. 207-226. Augusta, 1865.) Includes an account of the Gardiner Lyceum. MARYLAND 150. Agricultural college in Maryland. (In American farmer, v. 8 (1852- 1853), p. 193-194, 233; v. 9 (1854), p. 281, 288-289; v. 10 (1854), p. 81-82; V. 11 (1855), p. 19. 162, 165, 243, 372.) 151. [Higgins, James.] Report of James Higgins, M. D., State agricultural chemist to the house of delegates of Maryland, lst-6th, 1850, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1856, 1858. Annapolis, 1850-1853, and 1856-1858; Baltimore, 1854. 152. Maryland Agricultural College. Charter and acts of assembly, referring to the Maryland Agricultural College with the by-laws. 20 p. Balti- more, 1881. MASSACHUSETTS 153. Agassiz, E. C, ed. Louis Agassiz, his life and correspondence. 2 v. illus. London, 1885. 154. Agricultural project study. Board of Education of Massachusetts. BuL 4 (1912) 38 p. 155. Agricultural project study bibliography. Board of Education of Massa- chusetts. Bui. 6 (1912). 48 p. 156. Berkshire Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and the Useful Arts. By-laws and names of officers and committees . . . also a list of hon- orary and ordinary membei-s. 16 p. Pittsfield, Mass., 1816. 157. Boston Veterinary Institute. Prospectus and regulations for the associa- tion, 1855-56. Boston, 1855. 158. Bowker, W. H. The old guard; the famous "Faculty of Four"; the mis- sion and future; of the college ; its debt to Anvherst College, Harvard College, and other institutions. 10 p. Boston, 1908. 159. Caswell, L. B. Brief history of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege, semicentennial, 1917. 72 p. illus. Springfield, Mass., 1917. 100. Colman, . Henry. Reports on the agriculture of Massachusetts, lst-4th ; 1837-1840. Boston, 1838-1841. 161. Essex (Mass.) Agricultural society. Reports of committees and pre- miums awarded in 1830; and a list of premiums offered in 1831; with address of James H. Duncan, esq. Pamphlet No. 10, 1830. 88 p. Salem, 1831. 404 MISC, PUBLICATION 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 162. Essex (Mass.) Agricultural Society. Transactions. 1818-1831. Various paging. Salem, 1818-1831. 163 Fowler, F. H. Early agricultural education in Massachusetts. (In Mass. State Bd. Agr. Ann. Kept. 54 (1906), p. 831-392. Boston, 1907.) 164. Hoar, G. F. Autobiography of 70 years, v. I, pp. 265 and 266. Reference to his bills for Federal aid to common schools. 1903. 165. Loring, G. B. (In National Cyclopedia of American Biography, v. 4, p. 484. New York, 1897. 166. Mann, Horace. (In Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, v 4, p 118- 120. New York, 1913.) 167. Martin, G. H. The evolution of the Massachusetts public sclaool system — an historical sketch. 284 p. New York, 1894. J68. Massachusetts Agricultural College. 48 p. illus. Amherst, Mass., [1897]. An account of the college in 1897. 169. Massachuestts Agricultural College. [Proposed.] (In New England farmer, V. 4 (1825), p. 54.) 170. Massachusetts Agricultural College. Addresses delivered at the Massa- chusetts Agricultural College. June 21, 1887. on the twenty-fifth anni- versary of the passage of the Morrill Land Grant Act. 61 p. Amherst, Mass., 1887. 171. Massachusetts Agricultural College. Annual reports, 1871-1885. Boston, 1872-1886. 172. Massachusetts Agi-icultural College. Bibliography of the college, pt. 1. The institution. Semicentennial publication No. 2, 69 p. Amherst, 1917. 173. Massachusetts Agricultural College. Charles Anthony Goessmann. Pub- lished jointly by the corporation and the associate alumni of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 187 p. illus. Cambridge. 1917. 174. Massachusetts Agricultural College. General catalogue, 1882-18S6. 128 p. Amherst, 1886. 175. Massachusetts House Doc. 13. Jan., 1851. Report of commissioners con- cerning an agricultural school. 88 p. 176. Massachusetts House Doc. 126. 1851. An act to establish a State board of agriculture. Reported by the committee on agriculture. 3 p. 177. Massachuset s House Doc. 420. 1871. Report on agricultural college be- ing made an independent institution. 15 p. Reprinted in House Doc. 322, 1879, v. 2. 178. Massachusetts Senate Doc. 108. March, 1863. Report of the joint special committee on so much of the governor's address as relates to the grants of Congress for the establishment of colleges for education in agriculture. 179. Massachusetts Senate Doc. 349. April. 1906. Massachusetts commission on industrial and technical education. Report. 196 p. Boston, 1906. 180. Massachus-etts", secretary of the Commonwealth. Statistics of the condi- tion and products of certain l)ranches of industry in INIassachusetts, for the year ending April 1, 1845. Prepared from the returns of the assessors, by John G. Palfrey, secretary of the Commonwealth. 391 p. Boston, 1846. 181. Massachusetts, secretary of the Commonwealth. Transactions of the agri- cultural societies in the State of Massachusetts for 1851. 676 p. Bos- ton, 1852. 182. Massachusetts, secretary of the Commonwf>alth. Transactions of the agricultural societies in the State of Massachusetts for 1852. Also the proceedings of the State Board of Agriculture. 783 p. Boston, 1853. 183. 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Stewart, W. F. Rooms and equipment for the teaching of vocational agri- culture in secondary schools. 30 p. illus. Washington, 1923. (Fed. Bd. Voc. Educ. Bui. 81. Agr. Ser. 12.) ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS 499. Proceedings 2d-38th, 1889-1924. Burlington, VL 1889-1925. Note. — A preliminary convention was held in 1885, the proceed- ings of which were published as Miscellaneous Special Rept. 9 of the United States Department of Agriculture. Proceedings of the first convention, 1887, were never published. Manuscript summary by C. E. Thorne, on file in Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture. Proceedings of the 2d-23rd, 1889-1909, published at Washington, D. C, as Miscellaneous Bulletin 1-3, Bulletins 7, 16, 20, 24, 30, 41, 49, 65, 76, 99, 315, 123, 142, 153, 164, 184, 196, 212, and 228 of the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agi'icultvire. 24th-38th issued independently by the association. Title varies : 2-23d, Proceedings of the . . . annual convention of the Association of American AgricuLural Colleges and Experiment Stations. From 1920, Association of Land-Grant Colleges. 500. Partial index of subjects in the proceedings of the Land-Grant College Association. 1885-1924. Proc. 1924, p. 110-140. SELECTED LIST OF SUBJECTS 501. Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- tions, 1887. Report of the committee on s.ation work at the conven- tion at Washington, October, 18S7. 32 p. Published as a separate by the Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, 1888. 502. Atherton, G. W. The legislative career of Justin S. Morrill. Proc. 1900, p. 60-72. 503. Bevier, Isabel. Home economics in the college course. Proc. 1906, p. 91- 95. 504. Buckham, M. H. [Address and resolutions on the death of Senator Mor- rill.] Proc. 1899, p. 30-36. 505. Burnett, E. A. The function of the land-grant college in promoting agri- cultural education in secondary schools. Proc. 1909, p. 87-93. 506. Burnet',, E. A. Shall practical exiierience be required before granting the bachelor's degree in agriculture? Proc. 1912, p. 172-176. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 419 507. Butterfleld. K. L. The social phase of agricultural education. Proc. 1904, p. 5&-61. 508. Card. F. W. The educational status of horticulture. Proc. 1900, p. 134-137. 509. Craig. J. University extension in agriculture at Cornell University. Proc. 1900. p. 137-138. 510. Crosby, D. J. The correlation of secondary and short courses with the 4-year course. Proc. 1910. p. 137-140. 511. Davenport, Eugene. The American agricultural college. Proc. 1912, p. 156-166. 512. Davenport, Eugene, Stone, W. E., Hunt, T. F., Hays, W. M., and Claxton, P. P. Further legislation in the interest of agriculture. Proc. 1911, p. 76-94. 513. Eaton, T. H. Improvement of college teaching. Proc. 1921, p. 117-127. 514. Fairchild, G. T. Evolution of agricultural education. Proc. 1897, p. 32-38. 515. Fairchild, G. T., and "White. H. C. What should be taught in our colleges of agriculture? Proc. 1896, p. 69-80. 516. Galloway, B. T. Farm demonstration and farm management work of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agri- culture. Proc. 1911, p. 97-98. 517. Galloway. B. T.. and Davenport, Eugene. Relation of the United States Department of Agriculture to 'he agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations. Proc. 1913. p. 117-133. 518. Henry, W. A. The agricultural college and the State: a plea for a new division of college and station workers. Proc. 1906, p. 95-97. 519. Henry, W. A. Memorial to Henry Cullen Adams. Proc. 1906, p. 36-39. 520. Hibbard, D. H., and Tavlor, H. C. Economics in the agricultural course. Proc. 1923. p. 189-200. 521. Hunt, T. F.. Hays. W. M.. Cooke, W. W., and True, A. C. Methods of instruction in teaching agriculture. Proc. 1895, p. 35-42. 522. Improvement of college teaching in vocational subjects. Proc. 1920, p. 67-79 and Proc. 1921, p. 94-100. 523. Jenks. F. B. Agricultural courses in the land-grant colleges. Proc. 1912, p. 108-111. 524. Jesse, R. H., Hilgard, E. W., and Hays. W. M. Preparatory work in colleges of agriculture. Proc. 1897, p. 59-61. 525. Jordan, W. H. Exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition. Proc. 1903, p. 44-45. (8ec aUo Proc. 1904, p. 25-27.) 526. Lazenby, W. R. How shall we teach horticulture? Proc. 1895, p. 60-64. 527. Mann, A. R. The determination of the major aims of the college of agriculture. Proc. 1922, p. 101. 528. Miller, M. F. The proper correlation of scientific and practice work in agricultural college curricula. Proc. 1912, p. 112-118. 529. Mumford, F. B. Cooperation in extension service between the United States Department of Agriculture and the agricultural colleges. Proc. 1912, p. 135-138. 530. Pammel, L. H. Botany in the agricultural colleges. Proc. 1903, p. 162-170. 531. Pearson. R. A., Hunt, T. F., and True, A. C. The preparation required for the college teacher in agriculture. Proc. 1915, p. 156-165. 532. Proposed field of work of departments of agriculture. Report of the executive committee. Proc. 1917, p. 68-69. 533. Prosser, C. A. The Smith-Hughes Act as related to land-grant colleges. Proc. 1917, p. 79-90. 534. Rane, F. W. Courses in agriculture, horticulture and allied subjects. Proc. 1905. p. 77-89. 535. Relations of high-school agriculture to agriculture as taught in the land- grant colleges. Proc. 1916, p. 64-88. 536. Roberts, I. P. How may university exten.sion work be best conducted by the colleges of agriculture? Proc. 1897, p. 55-57. 537. Smith-Lever Act, administration of. Proc. 1914, p. 111-119. 538. Smith-Lever Act, legislative history. Proc. 1915, p. 32-44. 539. Spillman, W. J. The farm problem extension work of the United States Department of Agriculture. Proc. 1911. p. 95-97. 540. Stimson, R. W. Student labor. Proc. 1906, p. 84-88. 420 MISC. PUBLICATIOlSr 3 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 541. Stone, G. E. Vegetable physiology lu agricultural colleges. Proc. 1896, p. 99-103. 542. Taylor, W. A. The relation of the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry to agricultural extension. Proc. 1912, p. 140-149. 543. Thompson, W. O. Elementary instruction in land-grant colleges. Proc. 1904, p. 79-82. 544. Thompson, W. O. The influence of the Morrill Act upon American higher education. Proc. 1912, p. 87-94. 545. Thompson, W. O. Some problems in the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. Proc. 1904. p. 33-42. 546. True, A. C. Brief history of the Morrill Land Grant College Act of 1890. Proc. 1925, p. 90-98. 547. True, A. C. Notes on early scientific and agricultural instruction. Bib- liographer's report. Proc. 1907, p. 18-23. 548. True, A. C. Relation of Smith-Lever Act to organization and work of agricultural colleges. Proc. 1914, p. 86-96. 549. True, A. C. Secondary education in agriculture in the United States. Proc. 1909. p. 17-19. 550. True, A. C. Training of extension teachers. Proc. 1910, p. 202-204. 551. Vivian, Alfred. How shall we determine the curriculum best suited to meet the needs of agricultural students? Proc. 1923, p. 165-174. 552. Vivian, Alfred. The major aims of the agricultural college. Proc. 1923, p. 171. 553. Vivian, Alfred, and Wheeler, H. J. The preparation of men for teach- ing and for station work. Proc. 1911, p. 98-107. 554. Waters, H. J. Graduate instruction in agriculture. Proc. 1909, p. 80-84. 555. Wilcox, E. M. Plant phj^siology and pathology in college curricula. Proc. 1902, p. 108-112. 556. Woods, A. F. Introductory courses in botany. Proc. 1903, p. 172-179. 557. Woodward, C. R. Some basic principles underlying the curriculum o? the College of Agriculture. Proc. 1921, p. 127-135. INDEX Page Abbot, T. C 130,131,194,195,202,203 Accum, Fredrick 4 Adams, C. F 883 Adams, C. K 177, 180, 210 Adams, Dauiel 31 Adams, H. C 231 Adams, J. Q 17 Adamson, William 363 Addams, Jane 358 Agassiz, Louis 34, 81, 147, 151, 176 Agricultural Engineers, American Society of 253 Agricultural Museum 17, 28 Agricultural Seminary, Derby, Conn 37 Agricultural Society of the United States 89 Agricultural teachers, meetings 201 Agricultural teaching, American association for 330, 375, 395 Agriculture after the Eevolution 1 Agriculture, committee on instruction 216,240,249,252,253, 255. 260, 274, 298, 306, 309, 310, 311, 313. 317, 331, 332, 333, 390 Agriculture, conditions, 1860-1870 113 Agriculture, conditions, 1873-1887 121 Agriculture, conditions, 1900-1914 220 Agriculture, educational value 237 Agriculture, elementary, in private schools 395 Agriculture, elementary, in public schools 383,389,395 Agriculture, elementary, State courses 394 Agriculture, elementary, syllabus 391 Agriculture, elementary, textbooks 392 Agriculture in normal schools 336,387 Agriculture in private colleges 39, 283 Agriculture, jjob analysis 313,374 Agriculture, secondary 35, 273, 295, 322, 355 See also Colleges, agricultural. Agriculture, secondary, in county schools 346 Agriculture, secondary, in high schools with State aid 347 Agriculture, secondary, in high schools without State aid 350 Agriculture, secondary, in private schools ^ 354 Agriculture, secondary, Smith-Hughes Act 371 Agriculture, secondary, in Smith-Hughes schools 379 Agriculture, secondary, in State schools 339 Agriculture, secondary, with Federal aid 356 Agriculture, science of 235 Agriculture, State departments, relations with agricultural colleges 290 Agronomy, American Society of 245 Agronomy, in agricultural course 242 Agrotechny, in agricultural course 250 Alabama agricultural schools 327 Alabama Polytechnic Institute 158,243,267,274 Albemarle Agricultural Society 15,57 Aldrich. C. B 326 Allen, E. W 231 Allen, L. F 195 Allen, Lou C 267 Allen, W. H 167 Alvord, H. E 147,201,207,208,210,211 American Farmer 28 421 422 INDEX Page American Federation of Labor 121,357,360,363,365.368 American Institute, New York City 50,89 American Philosophical Society 7 American Pomological Society 77 Amherst College 33. 43. 144, 150 Anderson, J. A 138,140,141 Andrew, J. A 143 Animal husbandry in agricultural course 249 Animal Industry. Bureau of 264,265 Arkansas, agricultural schools 344 Arkansas. University of 272,274 Armsby, H. P 75,207,258 Armstrong, John 31 Armstrong. S. C 283,386 Arnv, W. F. M 103 Arthur, J. C 155 Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. (See Colleges, land-grant, association.) Atherton, G. W 170,171,186,202,207,208,210,214 Atwater, W. O 128, 136, 194, 195, 201, 258, 268, 271, 324 Babcock, S. M 75 Bailev, L. H 230,257,276,334,343,385 Baker, W. M 186 Barlow, Joel 22 Bartlett, Anson 122 Bartlett, S. M 60 Barton, B. S 5 Bartram, John 5 Bartram, AVilliam 5 Bayliss, Alfred 334 Beal, W. J 133,201 Beck. L. C 42 Beecher, H. W 32,55 Benton. G. P 297 Bentz, L 31 Berkshire Agricultural Society 12 Berry, Josephine L 372 Bessey, C. E 132,154,203 Bigler, William 68 Bingham, K. S 60,62 Binns, J. A 29 Bishop. E. C - 334 Blair, H. W 199,200 Blake, J. L 31 Bliss, W. F 186,188 Bluemout Central College 137 Board of Agriculture, British 7 Boards of agriculture, early State 24 Books, agricultural, early American 2S' Bordley, J. B 7,29 Boston Asylum and Farm School 37 Boston University 149 Botanic gardens, early 5, 12, 17, 20, 134 Botany in agricultural course 246 Boussingault. J. B 4 Bowdoin College 20. 33 Boyden. A. C 384 Brewer, W. H 52,63,106,107,202,325 Brewster, H. W 326 Briggs, G. N 78 Brigham, J. H 208 Brinckle, W. D 68 Brooks, Erastus 173 Brooks, W. P 150 Broun, W. L 159 Brown, Amos 52, 53, 56, 103 INDEX 423 Page Brown, B. E 334,363 Brown University 33, 117 Buchanan, jiimes 102, 103, 104 Buck, S. J 125 Budcl, J. L 156,201 Buel, Jesse 29, 47, 48 Buffon, G. L. L 4 Burkett, E. J 362 Burnett. E. A 332 Burnside, A. E 198 Burrill, T. J 186,189,190 Burrowes, T. H 167,168,172 Bussev, Benjamin 43 Bussey Institution 43, 127, 144 Butterfield, I. II 59 Butterfield, K. L 59,254,256,278,297,300,335 Byington, A. H 93 Byington, L. C 103 Calder, James 168 Caldwell, G. C 176,178,201,258 Calhoun, J. C 8,17 California agricultural schools - 339 California, University of 247,252,259, 264,272,274,300 Campbell, J. L 31 Capen, S. P 293 Carleton, M. A 245 Carpenter, C. C 202,204 Carr, E. S 42,75 Carriel, Mary 94 Carrier, Lyman 351 Carrington. W. T 334 Carris, L. H 372 Carver. G. W 284 Gary, F. G 44,93,103 Gary, William 45 Catesby, Mark 5 Cattle shows, beginning of 12 Chadbourne, P. A 145,150,203 Chamberlain. W. I 157 Chambers, W. H 159 Chautauqua movement 276 Cheever, Samuel 53 Chemistry, agricultural, development 4 Chemistry, in agricultural course 257 Christiancy, I. P 60 Cincinnatus, The 45 Clark, H. J 147 Clark, W. S 43,145,147,149,150,151,194 Claxton. P. P 303,367,371 Clay, Alexander 363 Clayton, John 5 Clenrson College of Agriculture 278 Cleveland, Grover 208 Clinton. De Witt 24. 40. 46 Clubs, boys' and girls' 278,279,299,376,393,395 Clubs, junior naturalists' 277 Clute, Oscar 1,31 Cocke, J. H 57 Coe, Trueman 37 Gulden, Cadwallader 5 College, agricultural, Buel's plan for 47 College, agricultural, De Witt's plan for 46 College, agricultural, in France, 1919 299 College curriculum, broadening 33, 115 Colleges, agricultural, bachelor's degree courses 212, 213, 216, 217, 218, 240 12931—29 28 424 INDEX Page Colleges, agricultural, basic courses 306 Colleges, agricultural, buiklings 225 Colleges, agricultural, convention, 1871 118, 192 Colleges, agricultural, convention, 1872 194 Colleges, agricultural, convention, 1882 201 Colleges, agricultural, convention, 1883 202 Colleges, agricultural, convention, 1885 206 Colleges, agricultural, development, 1900^1914 220 Colleges, agricultural, electives 307 Colleges, agricultural, enlarged work, 1915-1925 288 Colleges, agricultural, equipment 228 Colleges, a.gricultural, extension work 119,275 Colleges, agricultural, farms 230 Colleges, agi-icultural, foreign languages 306 Colleges, agricultural, graduate courses 219, 295, 300, 320 Colleges, agricultural, graduate school 233 Colleges, agricultural, improvement of curricula 303, 313 Colleges, agi-icultural, movement toward public support 45 Colleges, agricultural, organization 220, 295 Colleges, agricultural, postwar work 300 Colleges, agricultural, promotion of elementary instruction 275 Colleges, agricultural, rehabilitation of soldiers 300, 373 Colleges, agricultural, i-equirements for graduation 296 Colleges, agricultural, secondary courses 273, 295, 335 Colleges, agricultural, separate 129 Colleges, agricultural, short courses 126, 212, 274, 295, 317 Colleges, agricultural, status, 1917-1925 294, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 319 Colleges, American, early public support 19 Colleges, land-grant. (See also Colleges, agricultural, and Agriculture.) Colleges, land-grant, 1862-1872 112, 116 Colleges, land-grant, 1873-1900 119, 192, 202 Colleges, land-grant, act of 1890 199 Colleges, land-grant, association 210, 211, 237, 262, 269, 278, 282, 331, 360, 365, 366 Colleges, land-grant, association — change in name and organization 301 Colleges, land-grant, at St. Louis Exposition 282 Colleges, land-grant, entrance requirements 214, 295 Colleges, land-grant, improvement of teaching 308,313 Colleges, land-grant, intelligence tests 313 Colleges, land-grant, movement for additional Federal aid 195 Colleges, land-grant, short courses 317 Colleges, land-grant, teacher training 272, 273, 291, 320, 333, 377, 378 Colleges, land-grant, typical 129 Colleges, land-grant, war work 296 Collier, Peter 258, 259 Colman, Henry 26, 54 Colman. N. J 206 Colorado Agricultural College 252,262,267,272,274 Colorado, agricultural school 345 Columbia College 9 Columbian Agricultural Society 17, 28, 88 Columbian Institute 17 Comeuius, J. A 2 Comstock, Anna B 261,385 Comstock, J. H 180,261 Connecticut Agricultural College 39, 272, 274 Connecticut, agricultural societies, early 14 Connecticut Agricultural Society 38 Connecticut Board of Agriculture 38 Connell, J. H 216 Cook, Charles 56 Cook, E. W 57 Cook, G. H 43,194,201,207,208 Corbett, L. C 388 Cornell, Ezra 173, 174, 175, 178, 194, 226 Cornell University 117, 173, 258, 261, 262, 263, 275, 276, 300 INDEX 425 Corson, Juliet 325 Cotterman, H. F 305 Country Gentleman 29 Country Life Association, American 314 Coiuitry Life Commission 254,257 Coxe, William 30 Cravath, I. M 62 Cream Hill Agricultural School 38 Crocheron, B. H 353 Crosby, D. J 329,332,335,341,883,888,391 Cullen, William 205 Cultivator 29, 48 Curtis, G. W 208 Gushing. E. L 36 Custis, G. W. P 18 Cutbush, Edward 17 Cuvier, George 4 Dabney, C. AV 207,210 Dairying in agricultural course 250 Daniels, W. W 193 Dartmouth College 20, 33, 117 Dascomb, John 73 Davenport, Eugene 84, 118, 231, 305, 332, 335, 355, 367, 390 Davis, C. R 273,280,359,363 Davis. N. S 31 Davy, Humphry 4 Dawes, H. L 209 Deane. Samuel 29 De Bow. J. D. B 93 Delafield, John 51, 52 Delaware Agricultural College 274 Denison. Joseph 138, 140, 193, 194 Dennis, L. H 350 Detmers, H. J. J 189 De Witt, Simeon 41,46 Dickinson College 33 District of Columbia, agricultural societies 16 Dodge, Harvey 90 Dodge, Henry 73 DoUiver, J. P 281,360,363,364 Dombasle, Matthieu de 4 Donnelly, S. B 358 Douglas, S. A lOJ Downing, A. J 30 Dudley, T. H 202 Duhamel, H. L 4 Dunlap, M. L 184 Durfee. Nathan 146 Dutton, T. R 38 Dwight, Timothy___^ 14,33, 62 Eaton, Amos 40 Eaton, T. H 311 Economic conditions. 1873-1887 119 Eden Hill Farm Institute 39 Education, agricultural, American, foundations 1 Education, agricultural, Columbia College 9 Education, agricultural. King's College 9 Education, agricultural, for negi-oes 283,381 Education, agricultural, Franklin's proposal 19 Education, agricultural, national movement 88 Education, American, governmental relations 18 Education, Federal aid, beginning of 20 Education, Federal aid, Partridge's plan 83, 89 Educatioij, Federal aid proposed 87,88,89 Education, free school system 114 426 INDEX i:*age Education, genoral progress 31,32,114,125 Education, higher, cr.sis in 1917 293 Education in Europe 2 Education, industrial, Massachusetts commission 357 Education, industrial, movement for 356 Education, Industrial, National Society for 356,357,358,360,361,364,365 See also Education, Vocational, Society for. Education, methods of State aid 19. 20 Education, vocational, bills in Congress 280, 359, 360, 361, 362 Education, vocational, commission on 361,362,365 Education, vocational, Federal Board 300, 371, 373 Education, vocational, relation to extension work 374 Education, vocational, Smith-Hughes Act 291,356,370,377 Education, vocational, Smith-Hughes Act, work under 377, 395 Education, Vocational, Society for 362 See also Education, Industrial, National Society for. Eliot, Jared 29 Elliott, E. C 360 Ellis, Alston 216 Ellsworth. H. L 14,89 Emmons, Ebenezer 42,260 Engineering in land-grant colleges 212 Sec also Mechanic arts. England, agricultural societies 6 Entomologists, American Association of Economic 262 Entomology in agricultural course 260 Europe, agricultural societies, early 6 Experiment Station Record 211,330 Experiment stations 119, 127, 128, 151, 160, 181, 200, 202 Experiment stations, Adams Act 231, 233 Experiment stations. Carpenter bill 202 I]xperiment stations, Cullen bill 205,208 Experiment stations, George bill 208 Experiment stations. Hatch Act 208 J]xperiment stations, Hatch fund, inspection 213 Experiment stations. Holmes bill 203,205 Experiment Stations, Office of__ 210,211,213,216,231,233,234,254,256,282,285, 289, 329, 330, 332, 338, 391, 395 Experiment stations, organization 221 Experinieiit stations, Purnell Act 317 Experiment stations, recent work , 316 Experiments, agricultural, at colleges 135, 142, 151, 157, 160, 164, 171, 181, 190 Experiments, cooperative, committee on 201 Extension work, agricultural 119,151,191,222,275 p]xtension work, at St. Louis Exposition 282 Extension work, committee on 278 Extension work in States Relations Service 289 Extension work, "memorandum of understanding" 288 Extension work, movement for Federal aid 279 p]xtension work, relation to vocational education 374 Extension work, section in agricultural college association 279 Extension work, Smith-Lever Act 281,288,356,370 Extension work. States Relations committee 289 Extension work, university 276 Extension work, war-time' 299 Fairchild, G. T 131,138,141,142,143,201,207,212 Fairchild, J. H 73 Fairs, early American 17 Farm ])ureaus 299 Farm management in agricultural course 255 Farm Management, American Association 255 P^armers' College, Ohio 44 Farmers' cooperative demonstration work 278,279,289 Farm Economic Association, American 314 Farmers' High School (Pennsylvania) 67 See also Pennsylvania State College. ixDEx 427 Page Fanners' institutes 28, 119, 129, 136, 143, 151, 157, 165, 172, 181, 191, 276, 278, 279, 291, 325, 330. Farrington, A. M 180 Fellenberg:, P. E 3,34 Fernald, C. H 147,262 Fernald, M C 201,207,208 Fernow, B. E 248 Fess, S. D 366 Fish, F. P 358 Fish, Hamilton 50 Fisk, L. R 258 Fitch, Asa, jr 42,260 Flagg. W. C 193 Fleischiiran, C. L 88 Flint, C. L 147,150 Florida, agricultural college 274 Folger. C. J 174 Fohveli, W. W 193,194,195,325 Forbes, S. A L 261 Forestry Association, American 248 Forestry in agricultural course 248 Forestry schools 248, 249 Fox, Charles 31, 59 Francis, J. H 389 Franklin, Benjamin " 7, 8, 19 Franklin College, Athens, Ga 71 Franklin College, Nashville, Tenn 39 Fraser, John 167 Free Economical Society, Russian 6 Frear, William 172 French, A. C 87 French, H. F 145 French, H. T 216 French, W. H 350 Gale, Elbridgi' 139 Galloway, B. T 388 Galpin, C. J 310 Gardener's Kalender 30 Gardiner, John 30 Gardiner Lyceum 35 Gardiner, R. H 35 Genesee Farmer 29 Genepce S^-ni.nary 50, 174 Ge: rtre. J. Z 2U8 Georgeson, C C 201 Cc(;rgia. agricultural sehoo.s 340 Ce irgia, University of ^ 20, 33, 267, 272 Grirg.a, University < f . auricuUural professorship 71 Gilman. D. C 193,194,195 Glf ver, Townend 07, 261 Gcdirey. F. N 343 Goi\--.: niann, C. A 147,151,207,259 Gold, S. W 38 Gold. T. kS 38,201.207,323 Goi.-dell. H. H 147,150 Gould. J. S 178 Graham, A. B 393 Grand-Jiuan Agricultuial Scho. 1 4 Grange, National 122 Granges, early history 122 Granges, relation to education 125 Graves. H. S 248 Grav Alonzo 31 Gray, Asa 34 Greathouse, C. A 371 Greeley, Horace 54, 55, 56, 91, 98. 173. 174 428 INDEX Page Green, S. B 326,327 Greeuough, J. C 150 Gregg, O. C 325 Gregory, J. M 184, 185, 186, 187, 193, 194 Griggs, C. R 183 Grignon Agricultural School 4 Grimes, J. W 152 Grindley, H. S 190 Gully, F. A 164 Hagen, H. A 261 Hale, Benjamin 36 Hall, Carrie A 122 Hall, James 42 Hamilton, John 169, 193, 194, 195, 278 Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute 283, 387 Haney, J. P 358 Harmon, Rawson 39, 72 Harper, D. N 326 Harper, Lewis 161 Harris, A. W 214 Harris, J. H 82,95 Harris, Joseph 178 HaiTis, T. W 260 Harris, W. T 214,383 Harrison, Benjamin 44, 200 Hartlib, Samuel 3 Harvard College 20, 33, 115, 127, 144 Harvey, L. D 334,346 Harwood, P. M 213 Hatch, K. L 346 Hatch, W. H 208 Hawkins, L. S 349,372,373 Hays, W. M 213,273,327,332,334,359,363,365 Hemenway, H. D 386 Henry, Joseph 93 Henry, W. A 75,126,201,212,213,231 Hepburn, Daniel 30 Hibbard, B. H 305,315 Higgins, James 66 Hilgard, E. W 118, 127, 128, 161, 193, 194, 216, 230, 259 Hitchcock, Edward 27, 28, 43, 78, 147 Hoar, G. F 195,199 Hobart College 33, 36 Hohenheim Agricultural College 4 Holbrook, Frederick 178 Holbrook, Josiah ; 31, 37 Holder, A. E 371 HoUoway, D. P 103 Holmes, A. J 204 Holmes, Ezekiel 36 Holmes, J. C 59,60,61 Home Economics, American Association 269, 270 Home economics, courses 267 Home economics, graduate school 271 Home economics, in Smith-Lever Act 272, 290 Home economics, syllabus 270 Hopkins, Mark 56 Horticultural Register 29 Horticulture in agricultural course 246 Horticulturist 29 Hosack, David 5 Ilouck, U. G 265 Houston, D. F 371 Ilovcy's Magazine of Horticulture 29 Ilougliam, J. S 138,139 Howard, Hamson 53, 55, 56 INDEX 429 Page Howard, L. O 180 Howe, F. W 349 Howe, John de le 8 Hughes, D. M 366,368 Hummel, W. G 373 Humphreys, David 14 Humphreys, James 30 Hunt, L. S. J 157 Hunt, T. F 190,214,216,233,234 Hunt, Washington 54 Idaho, University of 274 Illinois College of Agriculture 188,189 See also Illinois, University of. Illinois Industrial League 87 Illinois, Industrial University 119, 181, 183, 263, 267 See also Illinois, University of. Illinois, Industrial University, Turner's plan 83 Illinois State Normal University 88 Illinois, University of 83, 181, 187, 226, 229, 237, 245, 247, 252, 262, 272, 278 See also Illinois Industrial University. Insect Life , 262 Iowa State Agricultural College 73, 119, 152, 226, 228, 238, 252, 253, 262, 264, 267, 272, 276, 278, 300 Ireland, Dublin Society 6 Ireland, W. M 122 Irrigation in agricultural course 252 Irvin, General 68 Jackman, W. S 384 Jarvis, C. D 224,294 Jefferson, Thomas 15,22, 57 Jemison, W. H 158 Jenkins, E. H 258 John, W. C i 293 Johns, Montgomery 67 Johnson, C. W 30 Johnson, D. B 334 Johnson, S. W 65,69,127,128,194,213,230,257,258,323 Johnson, William 30 Johnston, J. F. W 63 Jordan, W. H 169,172 Jussieu family 4 Kalm, Peter 5 Kansas Agricultural College 117, 119, 137, 252, 262, 264, 267, 272, 276, 278 Kedzie, Nellie S 267 Kedzie, R. C 130,131,258 Kedzie, R. F 164 Kehew, M. M 358 Kelley, O. H 122 Kelly, William 173 Kenaston, C. A 130 Kennebec Agricultural Society 8 Kennicott, J. A 93, 103 Kentucky, University of 272,274 Kern. O. J 393 Kiehle, D. L 326 Kilpatrick, V. E 388 Kilpatrick, W. H 310 Kindermanu, Ferdinand 3 King's College 9, 20 See also Columbia College. Kirk, J. R 334,337 Knapp, S. A 129, 156, 157, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207, 208, 394 Knights of Labor 120 Labor unions 120 430 INDEX Page Lake Placid conferences 26i) Land grants for education, early 19,20,21 Land grants for industrial universities S7, 91 Lane, C. H 373 Lapp, J. A 366 Lathrop, J. H 36,74 Lavoisier, A. L 4 Law, James 176, 178, 202, 263 Law, John 17 Lawrence Scientific School 34, 115 Lazenby, W. R 180 Lee, Daniel 39, 50, 71, 72, 90 Lee, S. D 163,164,203,207,208 Lever, A. F 281,365 Liebig, Justin 4 Ligon, T. W 66 Lincoln, Abraham 104, 106 Linnaeus, Carolus 4 Livingston, Leonidas 363 Livingston, R. L 7 Loring, G. B 144,194,201,206 Louisiana, University of 272,274 Lugger, Otto 326 Lyceums 31 Lyon, Mary 78 Lyon, T. L 245 Maclure, William 4 McAllister, H. N 165 McBryde, J. M 214 McCandless, H. H 179 McKee, J. Y 169 McLaughlin, J. C 280,360,364 Madison, James 15, 17. 21, 22, 57 Maine State College 36,117,272,274 Mann, A. R 304,375 Mann, C. R 297 Mann, Horace 32, 383 Manual Labor School Society 35,54 Manual-labor schools 3, 34 Mapes School 39 MarsliaU, Humphrey 5 Marshall, Florence ^— 366 Marshall. John 15 Maryland Agricultural College 06,117,264,274,278 Maryland agricultural school, proposed 65 Maryland State agricultural chemist 65 Maryland State Agricultural Society 66,92 Massachusetts Academy of Agriculture 77 Massachusetts Agricultural College 26, 81, 117, 143, 238, 247, 253, 257, 259, 262, 264, 272, 278, 304, 306, 315 Massachusetts Agricultural College, proposed 76 Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station 151 Massachusetts Agricultural Institute 77 Massachusetts agricultural societies 10,26,77,127 Massachusetts agricultural survey 26 Massachusetts Board of Agriculture 26, 27, 77, 80 Massachusetts Commission on Agricultural Education 61. 78 Massachusetts Horticultural Society . 77 Massachusetts Institute of Technology 81, 143 Massachusetts School of Agriculture 80 Mathews. James 154 Maynard, S. T 147 Mechanic arts in land-grant colleges 109,126,212 Mechanics' Mutual Protection 53 Merrill, F. A 374 Michaux, Andr6 5 INDEX 431 Page Michaux, F. A 5 Miciiiiiaii Agricultural College 58. 60, 130, 238, 243, 247, 254, 258, 263, 264, 267, 276, 278 Michigan State Agricultural Society 58 Michigan State Board of Agriculture 62 Michigan State Board of Education 60,62 Michigan, University of 57,59,61,62 Miles, Manly 130, 131, 132, 147, 188, 189, 193 Miller. F. E 139 Miller, H. L 62 Miller, Mary R 385 Millington. J. N 161 Milton, John 3 Minnesota agricultural schools 324, 340 Minnesota, University of 226,229,244,252,253,264,272,278,300 Minnesota, University of, agricultural school 324 Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College 163, 272, 278 Mississippi, University of 160 Missouri, University of 238,247,272 Mitchell, John 360 Mitchill, John 5 Mitchill, S. L 10,22,46 Monroe, James 198 Moore, Humphrey 25 Moore, V. A 180 Morgan, O. S 343 Morrill Act of 1890 195,211 Morrill Act of 1890. Nelson amendment 273 Morrill educational bills, 1872-1888 196 Morrill, J. S 82, 92, 94, 95, 98, 104, 107, 108, 149, 194, 195, 196, 199, 202 Morrill Land Grant Act, amendments 106 Morrill Land Grant Act, acceptance by States 111 Morrill land-grant fund 112 Morrill Land Grant Act, in Congress 98,99,104 Morrill Land Grant Act, intent 106 Morrill Land Grant Act, mechanic arts in 98, 109 Morrill Land Grant Act, origin 97 Morrill Land Grant Act, use of scrip 111 Morrill land-grant college bills, 1890 199 Morris, J. L 176 Morrow, G. E 156,189,190,191,201,214 Morton, J. S 194,213 Mount Airy Agricultural Institute 39 Mudge, B. F 138 Munroe, J. F 358,361,362,371 Murkland. C. S 214 Murray, Bronsou 93 Nash, J. A 28,31,43,44 National Agricultural Society, proposed 88 National committee on agricultural education 335 National Education Ass(Jciation 334, 357 National society for study of education 335 National university, proposals for 21 Nature study 275, 339, 384 Nebraska, agricultural school 345 Nebraska, University of 119,228,244,252,272 Needham. Daniel 195 Neef, Joseph 383 Nelson amendment to Morrill Act of 1890 273 Nelson, Knute 273 Nestor, Agnes 366 Nevada, University of 278 New England Farmer 29.30 New Hampshire Agricultural College 247,264,274 New Hampshire, agricultural societies, early 14 New Hampshire Board of Agriculture 24 432 INDEX Page New Jersey Agricultural societies, early 9 New Jersey Gazette 28 New Mexico Agricultural College 274 New York, agricultural schools 342 New York, agricultural societies, early 9 New York Board of Agriculture 24 New York Central College 39 New York College of Agi-ieulture 177, 226, 227, 238, 247, 252, 272, 278, 304, 316 See also Cornell University. New York Farmer 29 New York State Agricultural College ^ 50, 51, 173 New York State Agricultural School 48, 49 New York State Agi-icultural Society 24,50,51 New York State Forestry College 181 New York State Veterinary College 181,264 Newberry, J. S 159, 160' 20S Newman, J. S 159,160,208 Newton Farmers' Journal 28 Newton, Isaac 122 Nicholson, Hunter 195 Nicholson, John 30 Nixon, S. F 276,384 North Carolina Agricultural College 272,278 North Carolina, University of 33 North Dakota Agricultural College 252, 272, 274, 278 Northrop, Cyrus 325 Norton, J, P 31,63,257 Norwich Academy (Vermont) 82 Norwich University 82 Oakwood Agricultural Institute 39 Oberlin College 35 Object teaching 383 Ohio Agricultural College 73 Ohio Board of Agriculture 25 Ohio State University 73, 225, 229, 233, 244, 247, 253, 262, 263, 264, 272, 274, 278, 305 Oklahoma Agricultural College 272, 274 Oklahoma, agricultural schools 344 Orchardist's Companion 29 Oregon Agricultural College 274 Otwell, W. B 393 Ovid, N. Y., academy 52 Packard, A. S 261 Page, C. S 281,360,361,364,365 Parker, F. W 383 Parker, W. B 98 Parsons, Mrs. Henry 386 Partridge, Alden 82, 83, 89, 99 Patrick, M. R 53 Pattern farm, Elkanah Watson's plan for 47 Patterson, J. K 210 Payne, F. O 384 Peabody, S. H 147,187,193,201,202,208 Pearson, R. A 109,297,343 Pendergast, W. W 326 Pendleton Farmers' Society 8 Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society 68 Pennsylvania State College 67, GS, 70, 118, 165, 226, 247, 264, 274, 277, 278, 310 Pennsylvania, University of 19 People's College 51, 53, 55, 91, 173 Periam, Jonathan 186, 188 Periodicals, American, agricultural 28 Pestalozzi, Heinrich 3 Peters, Richard 7 Peters, T. C 55 Philadelphia Academy 19 INDEX 433 Page Pliiladelpliia agricultural society 7, 68 Phillips, Wendell 32 Pickering, Timothy 8 Pierce, Franklin 92 Pierce, J. D 57 Pinchot, Gifford 248 Pinckney, Charles 21 Plouah Boy, The 29 Plumley, C. A 82 Pollard, E. M 362 Porter, E. D 201,325 Porter, J. A 65 Powel, Samuel 7 Powell, B. E 94 Powell. G. T 384 Prentice, F. W 189,263 Prentiss, A. N 131,176,178,193,194 Price, H. C 253 Princeton College 33 Pritchett, H. S 358,359 Prosser, C. A 360,361,362,366,372 Public-school system, Am-erican, beginning of 18 Publications, agricultural, early American 28, 29 Publications, agricultural, early European 6 Pugh, Evan 69, 70, 118, 165, 166, 167 Purdue University 252, 278 Rabelais, Frangois 2 Randall, J. L 388 Reasoner, J. R 94 Redfield, W. C- 371 Reinoehl, C. M 395 Rensselaer Institute 33, 39 Rhode Island Agricultural College 254,256,274,278 Rhode Island Agricultural School 324 Richards, C. R 358 Richards, Ellen H 268,269 Riley, C. V 261 Roberts, I. P 154, 155, 156, 179, 180, 181, 193, 201, 207 Roberts, Job 29 Robinson, S. W 187 Robinson, Solon 89 Rodgers, M. M 31 Roosevelt, Theodore 254, 273, 359 Rousseau, J. J 3 Ruffin, Edmund 15 Rural economics in agricultural course 253, 305, 314, 339 Rural engineering in agricultural course 252 Rural Magazine 28 Rural sociology in agricultural course 255, 314, 339 Rutgers College 117, 262, 274 Sage, H. W 175,176 Saint John's College (Maryland) 20,66 Salmon, D. E ISO Sampson, H. O 338,351 Sapporo Agricultural College 149 Saundei*s, William 122 Saussure, N. T. de 4 Schaffer, G. C 67 Schneider, Edward 186 Schopmeyer, C. H 374 School gardens 275, 385 Schools, agi-icultural, 1820-1860 35 Schools, agricultural, European 3, 78 Schools, common, Federal aid proposed 195,197,198,199 Schwartzkopff, Olaf 326 Sciences, development 4 434 INDEX Page Sciences in college curriculum 33,115,126 Scientists, early North American 5 Scotland, agricultural societies 6 Scott, J. H 44 Scovell, M. A 190 Seashore, C. E 314 Seward. W. H 55 Shattuck. S. W 186 Sha\Y. William 30 Shearer, Jonathan 58 Shearman, F. W 58 Sheep shearings 18 Sheffield, J. E 65 Sheldon, E. A 383 Shelton, E. M 141,201 Shepard, C. U 77 Sherman, John 197, 209 Shields, James 92 Shinn, E. H 374,395 Shortlidge. Joseph 169 Silliman, Benjamin 31, 32, 33, 63 Sillimau. Benjamin, jr 63,64 Silver, C. W 189 Sinclair, John 7, 15 Sipe, Susan B 388 Skinner, F. G 31 Skinner, J. S 28,89 Smith, C. B 386 Smith, C. D 180 Smith, Goldwin 176 Smith, Hoke 281, 359, 361, 365, 366, 368 Smith, J. L 88 Smith. Oliver 354 Smith. W. G 341 Smith, W. H 394 Smith. William, educator 19 Smith, William, geologist 4 Snedden. David 360» 361 Snell, Ebenezer 147 Societies, agricultural, early American 7 Societies, agricultural, early European 6 Societies, agricultural, growth, 1820-1860 23 Societies, horticultural, early 24 Society for Advancement of Agricultural Science 201 South Carolina, agricultural societies 8 South Carolina College 20,33 South Dakota Agricultural College 272,274 Southern Agriculturist 29 Spaulding. Lewis 178, 179 Spencer, J. W 385 Sprague, D. W 32u Spurries, John 29 Stalker. Miliken 15J States Relations Service 289 Stewart, J. S 341 Stockbridge, Levi 1413. 147. 149, 150,151 Stone, Lucy 55 Stone, W. E 297.302 Storer, F. H 127,257 Storrs Agricultural School 323 Straight, H. H 384 Strawn, Phoebe G 355 Stuart, A. P. S 18J Stubbs, J. E 215 Stubbs, W. C 158.160 Student labor in colleges. 132, 139, 142, 146, 148, 154, 155, 164, 168, 170, 186, 202, 213 iN^DEx 435 Page Students' Armj' Training Corps -. 298 Swallow. G. C 193, 1&4 Tallmadge. James 48 Tappan, H. P 59,93 Taylor, H. C 254,305,315 Taylor, J. O 31 Taylor, John 15, 30 Teachers' Seminary, Andover, Mass 39 Tennessee, University of 272 Terrell, J. M 340,363 Terrell, William Tl Texas, Agricultural College 267,274 Textbooks, agricultural, early 30 Thaer, A. D 4,30 Tharandt Academy 4 Thomas, Cyrus 261 Thompson, J. R 122 Thompson, S. R 201 Thompson, W. O 233,297,367 Thorne, C. E 207,210 Thornton, William 18 Tichenor. L. T 158 Townshend. N. S 72,154,207,225 Tracy, S. M 201 Trimble, John 122 Trinity College 43 Troost, Gerard 5 Trumbull, Lyman 93, 94 Tucker, G. M 29 Tull, Jethro 6. 15 Tiirner. J. B 83,91,92,93,94,99,103,104,181,182,183,185 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute 284 Union Academy 39 Union Agricultural Society (Illinois) 84 Union College 33 United States Agricultural Society 23,24,77,90,92,104 United States Bureau of Education 293,303,333,339,347,355,388,395 United States Department of Agriculture, chemistry 259 United States Department of Agriculture, early work 127 United States Department of Agriculture, entomology 261 United States Department of Agriculture, promotion of elementary instruction 275 United States Department of Agriculture, proposed 91 United States Department of Agriculture, " scientific aids " 219 United States Department of Agriculture, veterinary work 264 Universities, industrial. Turner's plan 83,91,97,104 Utah Agricultural College 272,274 A^ail, T. N 355 Van Bureii, Martin 55 A'anderlip, F. A 358 Van Rensselaer, Stephen 24,32,40 Vaughan, Benjamin 36 Vaughan, Charles 8 Vermont, agricultural school 345 Vermont, University of 117,264 Veterinary colleges, courses 264,265,267 Veterinary medicine in agricultural course 263 Virginia, agricultural societies, early 14 Virginia, Polytechnic Institute 274 Virginia, University of 20.57 Vivian, Alfred 30.3, 305 Wade, Benjamin 102, 105 Wadsworth, James 14 Wallace, Henry 359 Walters, J. d1- - 138,140 Warder, J. A ^ __, 188 436 INDEX Page Waring, G. E., jr 31 Waring, W. G 69 Washburne, E. B 92 Wasliington, B. T 284 AVashington Agricultural College 264,267,272,274 Washington College (Connecticut) 43 See also Trinity College. Washington College (Maryland) 20 Washington, George 7, 14, 18, 20, 21 Watson, Elkanah 12, 47 Watts, Frederick 68, 165, 194 Wayland, Francis 33 Weber, H. A 190 Webster, Daniel 90 Webster, Noah 8 Welch, A S 154,156,157,193,194 Weld, T. F 35,54 West Virginia, University of 117,274,278 Wheatland, N. Y., agricultural school 39, 72 Wheeler. H. J 272 White, A. D 173,174,175,176,177 White, E. E 202,203 White, H. C 234 Whitesboro, N. Y. manual-labor school 35, 69 Whitney, Eli . 14 Wilder, B. G 176 Wilder, M. P 26, 28, 76, 78, 81, 90, 98, 103, 144, 149 Wiley, H. W 202,259 William and Mary College 20,33 Williams College 20, 33, 144 Williams, J. B 173 WilUam.s, J. R 62,103 Willits, Edwin 135, 207, 208, 210 Wilson, James 202, 234, 248 Wilson, W. B 364,371 Wilson, Woodrow 281, 297, 362, 368, 370, 371 Winchell, Alexander 61 Wing, H. H 180,216 Winslow, C. H 360,366,372 Winthrop Agricultural Society 9 Winyaw Indigo Society 8 Wisconsin State Agricultural Society 75 Wisconsin. University of 73, 74, 117, 126, 226, 252, 253, 254, 272, 274, 300, 304 Withers. W. A 260 Wojta, J. F 347 Wood, Nathaniel 28 Woodward, C. R 304 Woodward, H. E 257 Woodward, J. S 181 Wreidt, E. A 366 Wright, C. D 357 Wynkoop, A. S 50 Wyoming, University of 252, 274 Yale College 33, 115 Yale Scientific School 62, 116, 117, 118, 127, 257, 258 Yates. Richard 91, 92, 182 Young, Arthur 6, 15 Ypsilanti (Michigan) Normal School 59.60 Zootechny. See Animal husbandry. o THo* CIHED S533 T83 7 192 9x True, Alfred Charles, 1853-1&29. A history of agriculturai education in the United States 1785-1926. By Alfred Charles True. Washington, U.S. Govt, print, off., 1929. ix, 436 p. lllus., ports. 24 cm. (U.S. Dept. of agriculture. Miscellaneous publication no. 36. ) 20845 CIHED 202DG