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BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

" Antequam progrediar, non ab re fortasse fuerit objectioni alicui quas in me
moved potest occurrere. Non deerit scilicet qui me vaiise curiositatis argiiat,
quod res adeo viles et abjectas, ludlius in vita usus, indagaverim, iisque descri-

bendis tantum temporis et operae impenderim Cui respondeo, Quod Dei

opera sunt in quibus contemplandis memet exerceo : quod Divinae Artis et Po-
tentiffi effecta, quibus exquirendis subsecivas horas addico : quod Ili.e me in
hunc mundum introduxerit, tam inexplicabili rerum varietate instructum et or-
natum ; quodoculis, quosmihi contiilit, ea videnda, animo consideranda objecerit.
In Dei ergo contumeliam redundat, quod haec, quae eum creasse negare non

audes, supeiTacanea et inutilia esse affirmes Dices, Majora et magis neces-

saria studia sunt, quae totum hominem requirunt. Respondeo, Majoribus istis
me majorem euram impendere, interim tamen minora haec et lenora non opus
est ut prorsus negligam ; Utrique penso sufficio ; utrique temporis abunde sup-
petit, modo id prudenter dispensem, modo eaveam ne qua ejus pars omnino va-
cua prseterlabatur. Vitam (ut recte Seneca) non accepimus brevem sedfecimus,
nee inopes ejus, sed prodiyi sxtmus. Deinde Medici etiam severiores aliquam tem-
poris portionem recreationibus deputant. Hisce ego studiis et inquisitionibus
memet recreo et oblecto. Quod alii venationibus, aucupiis, confabulationibus,
lusibus insumunt, illud ego " Zoophytis" indagandis, colendis, contemplandis im-
pendo. Recreat et refocillat animum, quamvis laborios.ani sit, ilium quocmique
oblectatur." Raius.

llUNTEn BY JOHN STABK, EDlNBUKC.Ii.

HISTORY

OF THE

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES

BY

GEORGE JOHNSTON, M. D. Edin.

I'KI.l.OW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, AND EXTRAORDINARY MEMBER
OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

AKMS OF THE TOWN OF BERVVrCK-UPO.V-TWEED.

W. H. LIZARS, EDINBURGH :

S. HIGHLEY, 32, FLEET STREET, LONDON; AND

W. CURRY, JUN. & CO., DUBLIN.

MDCCCXXXVIII.

\S38

O'/

i^y

^/f^^//^yy.////rM/'////y , ■

paribmis studiis et amore devinctisr

^^ / // Q^^^ yy^' '*'^y

PREFACE.

A Hum nee spiro, ncc si)ei"().

Since the publication of Ellis's Essay on Corallines in the
year 1755, no separate work has appeared in illustration of our
native Zoophytes. In the meantime, and more especially within
these few last years, a much more accurate knowledge of their
structure has been attained, and many species have been added
to the list ; and it has been my object to give here an account
of these discoveries, to connect them with what had been previous-
ly made known, and to combine the whole under a system
more in harmony with the anatomy of the objects than has
hitherto been done. If I have succeeded in bringing within a
convenient volume, the materials that at present lie scattered
through many expensive and miscellaneous ones, some of them
too of difficult acquisition, I may, perhaps, claim the merit of
having conferred no inconsiderable benefit on the student, even
should his future studies convince him that I have not forwarded
or enriched this particular branch of natural history by any no-
velties. Originality indeed has been less my aim than fulness
and accuracy of compilation ; but I have endeavoured to quali-
fy myself for this apparently humble task by many personal re-
searches and observations on the species that are found in my own
neighbourhood, under the conviction that a compiler will rarely
succeed in giving a correct idea or representation of the objects

vi PREFACE.

under investigation without a direct acquaintance with them.
It is indeed desirable that the author of" a work of this kind
shoidd have examined all the species, and in various distant lo-
calities, that he may justly characterize them, and estimate the
extent of their variations ; nor was the circumstance of the com-
parative unmoveableness to which a medical practitioner is
doomed unconsidered as a bar to my own competency, but the
love of the subject prevailed, especially when friends were readi-
ly found to contribute to the removal of the difficulty. To
them I have in this place to render my grateful acknowledge-
ments. To Mr Bean of Scarborough, Dr Coldstream of Leith,
J. V. Thompson, Esq. Inspector of Hospitals, for some time
resident in Cork, and the Rev. David Landsborough of Ste-
venston in Ayrshire, I stand indebted for numerous specimens ;
and similar communications of less extent have been sent me
in a friendly manner by John Edward Gray, Esq. of the British
Museum ; Mr Robert Embleton, surgeon in Embleton ; Messrs
Alder and Bowman of Newcastle ; Mr Teale of Leeds : J. Hosfo-
Esq. of Norton ; and Messrs Macgillivray and P. W. Mac-
lagan of Edinburgh. One other name must not be forgotten,
for, besides a friendly interest in the book, and his revision of it
during its progress through the press, I have had the kind as-
sistance of the Rev. Thomas Riddell, of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, whenever the assistance of a classical scholar was re-
quired.

I am not certain that any apology will be deemed necessary
for the notes and quotations which have been introduced with
considerable liberality, for the tastes of the naturalist have
ever seemed to me akin to those of the antiquary ; and this has
always been a favourite mode of illustration with the latter. It
is one that chimes in with my own humour, and the indulgence
of it seemed at least harmless on the present occasion. Many
of these notes are devoted to notices of the individuals who,
so far as I could learn, were the first to notice the species of

PREFACE. vii

zoophyte to which their names are respectively affixed, — foUow-
\ng immediately the specific character. This has been a
pleasing- inquiry. Smit with the beauty — real or fancied — of
the objects of his study, a curiosity is naturally awakened to
discover the name and degree of the person who had first deem-
ed it worthy of his examination and participated in our pleasure,
for we conclude assuredly that he who had taken the trouble to
record the name and treasure up the object, was one of like mind,
and imbued with much of the same affections and dispositions
as ourselves. Some of them were found to be men of renown,—
others in whom I felt a deeper sympathy, are now forgotten,
their name and their labours swallowed up in the higher and
more enduring reputation of those whom they were honoured
to assist and delighted to serve. The genuine naturalist will
not censure this " fond attempt" to restore the faint traces of
men who had sought the best occupation of a leisure hour in
congenial pursuits and studies ; but rather will with me lament
the obscurity and shortness of their " simple annals."

" Paullum sepultse distat inertiae
" Celata virtus. Non ego te meis
" Chartis inornatum silebo,
" Totve tuos patiar labores

" Impune carpere lividas

" Obliviones. * Hor. Carm. iv. 9.

It v/as gratifying to remark that most of my predecessors in
this field of inquiry were members of the medical profession.
How largely natural science, in all its branches, has been in-
debted for its progress to this body is too notorious to be insisted

* The first stanza in Shenstone's " School -mistress" may serve as a translation
of this passage -.

' ' Ah me ! full sorely is my heart forlorn,

To think how modest worth neglected lies ;

* * « * * *

let me try
To sound the praise of merit, ere it dies,
Such as I oft have chanced to espy,
Lost in the dreary shades of dull obscurity."

viii PREFACE.

on ; but it has been less noticed that the men who thus occu-
pied themselves in acquiring and forwarding a knowledge which
many may deem purely ornamental, were the same individuals
who were most engaged in the active discharge of the duties of
their profession, and the most instrumental, to its advance. Boer-
haave, Cullen, Hunter, Darwin and Jennerare very memorable
instances of this fact, which is illustrated with lesser brilliancy
in Lister, Sloane, Mead, Fothergill, Lettsom, Sims, Maton, in
Withering of Birmingham, in Percival and Hull of Manches-
ter, in Pulteney of Dorset, Stokes of Chesterfield, and nume-
rous others whose names will occur to every one conversant with
the history of medicine. This is only what on reflection might
have been anticipated, for that very activity of mind and per-
spicacity which originated and upheld their sagacity and suc-
cess as practitioners, was sure to carry them far in whatever
side-path the natural bent of their taste led them for the oc-
cupation and entertainment of the leisure hours which the busi-
est must have or may create. Idleness has no leisure. Were
it necessary I might safely shelter myself under the cover of
these exemplars, in the contemplation of whose lives I have of-
ten nurtured my love to my profession, — and hence, perhaps,
an ambition to follow them even at a far distance ; — but there
never was a time when it was necessary to vindicate to any but
the ignorant the erratic excursions of medical men into the fields
of science and literature, for assuredly the rank which the pro-
fession as a body has taken and holds in public estimation de-
pends for its patent, in part at least, on the scientific and lite-
ary character of its professors ; and by continuing to support
that character they will best secure it from the vulgarity of a
connnon mercature, or the selfishness of a venal quackery.

Zoophytes present to the physiologist the simplest indepen-
dent structures compatible with the existence of animal life,
cnabliufr him to examine some of its phenomena in isolation
and free frtnn the obscurity which greater complexity of aiiato-

PREFACE. ix

my entails : the means of their propagation and increase are the
first of a series of facts on which a theory of generation must
rise ; the existence of vibratile cilia on the surfaces of membranes,
which has since been shewn to be so general and influential
among animals, was first discovered in their study ; and in them
is first detected the traces of a circulation carried on indepen-
dently of a heart and vessels. The close adhesion of life to a
low organization, — its marvellous capacity of redintegration ; the
organic junction of hundreds and thousands of individuals in one
body, the possibility of which fiction had scarcely ventured to
paint in its vagaries, have all in this class their most remark-
able illustrations. On the geologist zoophytology has pe-
culiar claims. Its subjects are apparently the first of animals
which were called into existence, and from that high date to
this time, they have played a part in the earth's mutations, from
chaos to the present well ordered scene, greater perhaps than
any other class of beings. Separating from the waters of the
ocean the calcareous matter held in solution, they reduce it to
a solid state ; constructing therewith their varied j)olypidoms or
corals which, by their continual growth, their coalescences, their
enormous numbers and extent, first roughen the smooth basin
of the sea, raise up reefs and ridges that obstruct the hitherto
open course of navigation, and become ultimately the founda-
tion of islets and islands that remain the " monumental relics"
of the puny race. As now the process and change goes on in
tropical seas, — so operated it, in the preadamic times, over the
waters of the globe, for it is principally from the debris of poly-
pous excretions that the extensive beds and quarries of chalk and
limestone which are found in every region of the globe take

their original.* But it is to the zoologist that I exclusively

address myself in this work, and however considerations like
the above may enhance the importance of the subject in the es-
timation of others, they sway him little, and lie apart from his

* See Lamarck's Anim. s. Vert. ii. 10-
b

X PREFACE.

more immediate objects. He finds his pleasure in the con-
templation of their novel forms, in the examination of those cha-
racters which distinguish them as species, in the quest of their
mutual affinities, their relations and analogies with other beings,
the order in which Creative Wisdom may seem to have called
them into existence, their habits, economy and uses ; — and in
all these things he is ever watchful to find a " moral compli-
ment" that the pursuit to which his taste and constitution of mind
has led him may be neither uninfluential nor virtueless on his
heart.

The plates and wood-cuts which illustrate the volume are,
with few exceptions, original, — engraved from drawings made
for it by Mrs Johnston, who is herself the engraver of fourteen
of them. The naturalist who may have attempted similar il-
lustrations will appreciate the labour, perseverance and skill
which has been bestowed upon them, and will not harshly
censure any errors of detail which a minute criticism may dis-
cover. As I could not have undertaken this history without
her assistance, I may crave, from any one who shall find a merit
in it, the ascription of that merit to my colleague.

Behwick-upon- Tweed,
August 15, 18.38.

CONTENTS.

History of Zoophytology,

Page 3—29

Opinions of the Ancients,

3—4

Imperato,

4

Peyssonel and Reaumur,

5—7

Jussieu,

8

Peyssonel and Parsons,

10—11

Baker,

11—13

Ellis,

13—17

Linnaeus,

17—20

Baster,

20—23

Pallas and Ellis,

24—27

Nature of Sponges,

28—29 and 325

Zoophytes, definition of

30—31

Polypes, what? - -

32

Their distinction into two classes,

33

The structure of Ascidian polypes.

33—36

Hydraform polypes.

36 38

Asteroid polypes,

38 41

Helianthoid polypes.

41

Circulation of the Sertulariadae,

41—43

Ascidian polypes.

43—45

Food of Polypes,

45—46

Generation of polypes, and their ova,

46—48

Evolution of the ova,

48—49

The ova of the Flustrae,

50—51

Polypidoms, Chemical composition of.

52—33 and 76 77

Their forms,

53—54

Their formation,

55

Zoophytes, classification of, by Ellis,

55

Linnaeus,

56

Pallas,

57

MuUer,

58

Blumenbach,

39

Cuvier,

59—6 1

Lamouroux,

62—64

Lamarck,

65—66

xii CONTENTS.

Zoophytes, classification of, by Fleming, - - Page 68 — 71

Latreille, - - - - 71

Rapp, - _ - 72

Blainville, - 73—75

Zoophytes, their division into four orders, - 75 76

Zoophyta Hydroida, definition of, - - 81

general observations on - 81 — 91

their Families and Genera, - 91 — 92

Family Hydraidae, - 93—108

Tubulariadae, - 109—118

Sertulariadae, - 119—159

Asteroida, definition of, - - 1^3

general observations on - 163 — 174

their Families and Genera, - I '*

Family Pennatulidae, - 175 — 181

Gorgoniadae, - 182 — 186

Alcyonida?, - 187—192

Helianthoida, definition of, - - 195

general observations on - 195 — 204

their Families and Genera, - 205

Family Madrephylliasa, - 206—209

Actiniidae, - 210—234

Ascidioida, definition of, - " 237

general observations on - 237 — 246

their Families and Genera, - 247 — 248

Family Vesiculariadse, - 249—259

Crisiadae, - 260—266

Tubuliporidae, - 267—272

Celleporidae, - 273—282

Escharidce, - - 283—299

Alcyonidulae, - - 300—307

Limniades, - - 308 — 324

Note on the sexes of Zoophytes, - - 325

the anatomy of the Hydra, - - 326

the cells of the Escharidoe, - - 327

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

PART I.

The History of Zoophytology ; and on the Structure,
Physiology, and Classification of Zoophytes.

TUBULARIA RAMEA.

" In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
" Corpora." — Ovid. Metamorph. i.

" Ipse maniis haustu victrices ahluit unda -.
Anguiferumque caput dura ne laedat arena,
Mollit humiim foliis, natasqiie sub tequore virgas
Steniit, et imponit Phorcynidos ora Medusse.
Virga recens, bibulaque etiamnum viva medulla
Vim rapuit monstri, tactuque induruit hujus,
Percepitque novum rarais et fronde rigorem.
At pelagi nj'mpha; factum mirabile tentant
Pluribus in virgis, et idem contingerc gaudent :
Seminaque ex illis iterant jactata per undas.
Nunc quoque curaliis eadem natura remansit,
Duritiem tacto capiant ut ab aere, quodque
Vimen in Eequore erat, fiat super sequora saxum."

Ovid. Metam. iv.

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

CHAPTER I.
History of Zoophytology.

The natural productions about to occupy our attention, have
been denominated Zoophytes because, according to some phy-
siologists, they partake of the nature both of vegetables and
animals, and connect the two kingdoms of organized matter ;
or because, as others define the term, having the outward sem-
blance of sea-plants, they are yet in reality the formations of little
animals or polypes that nestle in the cells or tubes of the zoo-
phyte, to which they are organically and indissolubly connected.

Little more than a century has elapsed since the first dis-
coveries were made, on which these opinions are founded. Pre-
viously to that time zoophytes were considered the undoubted
subjects of the vegetable kingdom, naturalists being obviously
led to this allocation of them by their arborescent appearances,
in which it were vain to trace any likeness to any common ani-
mal forms,— and by their permanent fixedness to the objects
from which they grow, for zoophytes are attached by means of
a disk or tubular fibres much in the same way that marine plants
are, while the capabiHty of moving at will from place to place
was deemed to be the principal character of distinction between
the two classes of animated beings. The zoologist claimed
none of them, if we except the Actinise or animal-flowers, for
his province and study, but left them without dispute to botani-
cal writers ; and if any of these, in reference to a very few zoo-
phytes of the least arborescent character, hazarded a whispered
conjecture that they were wrongly classed, it died away in the ut-

4 HISTORY OF ZOOPIIYTOLOGY.

terance, and raised no echo to awaken further inquiry. The only
opposition to the botanical theory came from the mineralogists,
who some of them questioned the vegetability of such of these
productions as were of a hard and stony nature, contending
they were rather rocks or stones formed by the sediment and
agglutination of a submarine general compost of calcareous and
argillaceous materials, moulded into the figures of trees and
mosses by ,the motion of the waves, by crystallization, by the
incrustation of real fuci, or by some imagined vegetative power
in brute matter. But although not more — perhaps less repug-
nant to the outward sense than the opposite hypothesis, yet
the mineral theory seems at no time to have obtained very ge-
neral favour or credit ; and accordingly we find that, in the works
of Tournefort and Ray,* the leading naturalists of the age imme-
diately antecedent to the discoveries which led to the modern
doctrines, the zoophytes, whether calcareous and hard, or horny
and flexible, were arranged and described among sea-weeds and
mosses without any misgivings concerning the propriety of doing
so.

Ferrante Imperato, an apothecary in Naples, was the first
naturalist, according to M. De Blainville, distinctly to publish,
as the result of his proper observations, the animality of corals
and madrepores,-|- and he is said to have accompanied the de-

* III his " Wisdom of God in the Creation," Ray has, however, reckoned the
Lithnphijta among " inanimate mixed bodies." Of these, he says, " some have
a kind of vegetation and resemblance of plants, as corals, pori, and fungites,
Avhich grow upon the rocks like shrubs." — p. 83, duod. Lond. 182G. His opi-
nions on this point were probably unsettled ; and certainly many naturalists be-
lieved that Ovid only exj)ressed the simple fact when he wrote —
" Sic et curalium, quo primum contigit auras
" Tempore durescit ; mollis fuit herba sub undis."

Metam. lib. xv.

f Man. d'Actinol. p. \A Lamouroux on the contrary places Imperato on the

same level with Gesner, Boccone, and Shaw — none of whom had any distinct
notion of the animality of any zoophytes, and had no doubt of the vegetable
nature of almost all of them. " Les observations de ces hommes celebres, au
lieu d'eclairer les naturalistes sur cette branche interessante de la science, em-
brouillaient encore plus son etude." — Lam. Cor. Flex. Introd. p. xiv. My
copy of Imperato's work is of the edition printed at Venice in 167'2, folio. It
is written entirely in Italian, and, being ignorant of that language, I can give no
opinion of the value of its letter-press. The only copper-jjlate is a very curious
one representing the interior of Imperato's museum, which appears to have been
a very elegant and copious collection of curiosities, a servant pointing with a

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 5

scriptions of the species which fell under his notice with illus-
trative figures of considerable accuracy. His " Historia Natu-
vale," of which De Blahiville assuredly speaks in very exag-
ireratinof terms when he represents it as one of the most im-
portant works in the history of zoophytology, was prmted at
Naples in 1599 ; but although reprinted some years after-
wards (1672), the book, and the knowledge it contained, had
sunk into such complete oblivion, that when Peysso^nel, in the
year 17*27, communicated the same discovery to the Academy
of Sciences in Paris, it was received by the members of that
learned body in a manner which is sufficient to convince us that
it was entirely new to them, and exposed the author to the ob-
loquy and censure which are the usual portions of an original
discoverer.

Some time previously to the publication of Peyssonnel's dis-
covery, those who maintained that the stony zoophytes were
plants had received a strong corroboration of their opinion from
the researches of Count Marsigli, who, having detected the ex-
istence of polypes in coral and madrepore, had, under the influ-
ence of the fashionable theory, described them as being literal-
ly their blossoms or flowers.* Peyssonnel, therefore, had to
contend not only against the prejudices of the vulgar based on
appearances which spoke direct to the outward sense, but against
the actual observations of a naturalist of acknowledged merit ;
and the observations of Peyssonnel, although numerous and
unequivocal, were yet mixed up with so much that was fanciful
or erroneous, that it is not wonderful his opinion was received
with coldness and suspicion. Reaumur, to whom Peyssonnel's
communication was intrusted, even concealed the name of the

rod and directing the attention of two wondering visitors to the more remarkable
of them, while a third leans against a cabinet, and surveys,

" not without much content

" Its many singularities."
The book contains besides many wood-cuts of a miscellaneous kind, very tolera-
bly engraved for the age. The Zoophytes figured belong chiefly to the Litlio-
phyta, with some Sponges and Alcyonia. The opinions of Rumphius seem to
have been as explicitly stated as those of Impcrato, but they effected nothing —
Pall. Elench. 14, and 275.

* " Ce fut une decouverte qui fit grand bruit dans le monde naturaliste, que
celle des fleurs du corail." Reaumur — Marsigli's work was published in 1711.
His name is sometimes written MarsillL — For an account of his works see Hal-
ler, Bib. Hot. i. G30.

0 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

aitllior when he laid it before the Academy, with the benevo-
lent intention doubtless of shielding him from the scorn and ri-
dicule that might possibly be the lot of one who had ventured
to contradict the observations of an Italian Count, and to oppose
the established belief;* and he mimediately afterwards read,
before the same academicians, an essay of his own, in which he
opposed the theory of Peyssonnel with numerous objections,
and attempted to explain the growth of coral in accordance to
the admitted principles of vegetable physiology.f

The memoir in which Peyssonnel originally proposed his doc-
trine does not appear to have been published : the only account

1 have seen of it is contained in the essay of Reaumur just al-
luded to. He maintained that what Marsiofli had described as
the blossoms of coral, were true animals or insects analogous to
the Actiniae or sea-anemonies ; that the coral was secreted in a
fluid form by the inhabitant Actinise, and became afterwards
fixed, hard, and changed into stone ; and that all other stony
sea-plants, and even sponges, are the work of different insects,
particular to each species of these marine bodies, which la-
bour uniformly according to their nature, and as the Supreme
Being has ordered and determined. Reaumur remarks, that
these opinions were not entirely the offspring of fancy : it would
have been more candid and just had he said they were simply
the convictions of a practical naturalist, who had long and pa-
tiently studied the productions in question, in their native sites
on the coasts of France and of Barbary. Peyssonnel had seen
the polypes of coral and of the madrepores ; he recognized their
resemblance to the naked animal flowers; he had witnessed
their motions, — the extension of their tentacula, and the con-
traction and opening of the oral aperture ; he ascertained, that,
unlike flowers, they were to be found the same at all seasons ;

* " L'cstime que j'ai pour M. Peyssonnel me fit meme eviter de la nommer
pour I'auteur d'un sentiment qui ne pouvoit manquer de paroitre trop hasarde."
— Reaumur.

f Observations sur la formation du corail, et des autres productions appellees

Plantes pierreuses. Par M. de Reaumur " II prend pour une Plants I'ecorce

grossiere et sensible du corail, tres-distincte de ce que nous appellons corail, et
de plus une autre ecorce bcaucoup plus fine, et que les yeuxne distinguent point
do la vraye substance coralline qu'elle revet ; et tout le reste du corail, presque
toute la substance coralline n'est qu'imc pierre sans organisation." — Hist, de
I'Acad. Roy. des Sc. 17"27. p. 51. and more particularly his own memoir in the
same vol. p. 380.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 7

that their corruption exhaled the odour ; their chemical ana-
lysis discovered the constituent principles of animal matters ; and
that' the stony part of them exhibited no trace of vegetable or-
ganization : and opinions deduced from such data, abstracting
his analogical reasoning of no value and little applicability, might
have been sufficient to have attracted at least some attention
had his opponent been less influential, or his own reputation
and rank somewhat greater. *

The name and doctrine of Peyssonel lay in this manner un-
known and neglected, until the remarkable experiments of
Abraham Trembley, in 1741, on the reproductive powers of the
fresh-water polypes, "f- and more especially his discovery of the
Plumatella, itself a plant-like animal production, while they ex-
torted the wonder and admiration of every one engaged in the
study of natural science, were the means of recalling to the re-
collection of Reaumur the views of Peyssonnel ; and he now
became forward in promoting such inquiries as seemed likely to
confirm and extend them. He himself appears to have repeat-
ed the experiments of Trembley, and had an opportunity of ob-
serving the habits of the Plumatella ; and, as he remarks, since
the number of species of animals which are covered by the wa-
ters of the sea is much greater than that of the fresh waters, so
it seemed natural to presume that not only would polypes be
found in the ocean, but in greater numbers and variety than in
ponds, rivers or rivulets. To ascertain the validity of this con-
jecture, and to settle if possible the discrepancy between the
observations of Marsigli and Peyssonnel, his friends Bernard

* Peyssonnel is remembered solely by this discovery. " M. Peyssonnel, dis-
posed from his youth to the study of natural history, after having qualified him-
self for the practice of medicine, applied himself mth great diligence to that sci-
ence, to which his inclination so strongly prompted him, and being a native of,
and residing at Marseilles, he had the opportunity of examining the curiosities of
the sea, which the fishermen, more especially those who search for coral, fur-
nished him with." — Phil. Trans. He was subsequently appointed Physician- Bo-
tanist to " His Most Christian Majesty" in the island of Guadalupe, and had an
opportunity of prosecuting his researches on the coast of Barbary. He is the
author of two or three communications in the Phil. Trans., of which the most
interesting is " An account of a \'isitation of the Leprous persons, in the isle of
Guadalupe" in the volume for the year 1757.

+ In the Phil. Trans, for 1742, the reader will find a full account of this dis-
covery.

8 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

de Jussieu and Guettard * proceeded, in the autumns of 1741
and 1742, to different parts of the coasts of France with the
view of examining their zoophytical productions ; and both were
soon satisfied of the truth of the animal theory. Bernard de
Jussieu in particular shewed that it was equally applicable to
many zoophytes which Peyssonnel had not examined, and whose
animalityhad not yet been suspected, viz. the flexible and delic'ate
iSertulariai, the Flustra, and the Alcyonium or Lobularia, the
latter of which seems to have excited much astonishment by the
protrusion of its thousands of polypes of a size large enough to
be seen and examined at ease with the naked eye. f

The memoir which Jussieu presented to the Academy of
Sciences in Paris is short, but characterized by great distinct-
ness and precision in the detail of his observations, and illus-
trated with excellent figures ; — his aim being evidently not to
entrap our blind assent by a declamatory display of the new
wonders opened up in science, but to prove his conclusion to
be the true one in the eye of reason and sobriety. He limits
his descriptions and remarks to four species, viz. Alcyonium di-
gitatum, Tubularia indivisa, Flustra foliacea, and Cellepora
pumicosa, which seem to have been selected as examples of the
more remarkable tribes, for it is evident that he had examined
manymore, buthisobservationson them were reserved for another
memoir which, I believe, was never written. X — Reaumur's ad-

Lamouroux speaks highly of the labours of this naturalist, whose attention

seems to have been chiefly directed to fossil polypidoms and to sponges Corall.

Flex. Introd. p. xvii. See also Hall. Bib. Bot. ii. 341.

f E.vimen de quelques productions marines qui ont ete mises au nombre des
Plantes, et qui sont I'ouvrage d'une sorte d'Insectes de mer. Par. M. Bernard
de Jussieu. J 4th Nov. 1742. Published in 1745 See Hall. Bib. Bot. ii. 281.

I That Jussieu had ascertained the animality of the Sertulariadte is, I think,
indisputable from the following passage. " II s'en presentoit ensuite quantite
de celles qu'on appelle Corallines, les unes pierreuses dans lesquelles je ne se-
marquai rien, et les auti'es dont les tiges et les branches, et ce qiu passoit pour
feuilles, etoient d'une apparence membraneuse, dans lesquelles je decouvris que
ce qu'on y prenoit pour feuilles disposees alternativement, ou dans un sens op-
pose, n'etoit autre chose que de petits tuyaux contenant chacun un petit insecte."
— Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des Be. an. 1742. p. 292 Reaumur is still more ex-
plicit. : " Apres avoir observe dans I'eau meme de la mer plusieurs especes deces
productions si Men conformees a la maniere des plantes, il vit sortir des bouts de
toutes leurs bi'anches et de tous leurs noeuds, ou de toutes leurs articulations,
dc petits animaux qui, commeles polypes a panache d'eau douce, se donnoient
tantot pins, tantot moins de mouvemcnt, qui coinme ceux-ci s't'panouissoient en

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 9

vocacy of the new doctrine was in a more popular style, but not
the less excellent. He gave a short exposition of the ascertained
facts, — reviewed with the clearness of an eye-witness the dis-
coveries of Trembley, — pointed out their relations to the ex-
periments of Jussieu and Guettard, and how they mutually lent
and borrowed strength, — palliated and explained away his for-
mer opposition to Peyssonnel, — and declared his complete faith
in the animality of Zoophytes, and his conviction that a nume-
rous list of productions hitherto unexamined would be found to
be of the same nature. " All that we have said," he thus con-
cludes, " of the polypes of the sea, is merely a sort of adver-
tisement which, however, cannot fail to produce the effect which
we promise ourselves from it : it will direct undoubtedly the
curiosity of naturalists who reside by the sea to insects so worthy
of being better known. They will seek out the different species ;
they will delight to describe to us the varieties presented in
their forms never but remarkable ; they will study the figure
and disposition of the cells of the various species, their manner
of growth and reproduction and wherewithal they are nourished ;
they will in short, place in a clear light every thing that has
reference to the different polypidoms and their formation, so
that a department of natural history, so interesting, so new, and
as yet only sketched in outline, may be rendered as perfect as
it merits to be." *

The appeal, eloquent as it was and from one having great
influence, was however made in vain ; for whether from the in-
veteracy of habit and our fondness of opinions long cherished,
or from the fewness of the published observations whence the
general conclusion was drawn, it seems certain that the new doc-

ccrtains temps, et qiii dans d'autres rentroient en entier dans leur petite cellide,
hors de laquelle leur partie posterieure ne se tiouvoit jamais. Enfin, il (B. de
Jussieu) reconnut que plusieurs espeees de ces corps, dont chacun avoit I'ex-
terieur d'une tres-belle plante, n'etoient que des assemblages d'un nombre pro-
digieiLx de cellules de polypes ; en un mot, que plusieurs de ces productions de
la mer, que tous les botanistes que les ont decrites ont prises"pour des plantes
et ont fait representer comme telles avec complaisance, n'etoient que des poly-
piers.'" — Preface, Vol. vi. p. 71, 72. See also Amoenitates Aradeinicse, Vol. i.
p. 185, for an enumeration of the species of Sertularia, &c., which Jussieu had
examined, and considered to be animal productions. His account, however, of
the animal of the Sertularia? is altogether erroneous.

" Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des Insectes, Tome sixieme, Paris, 1742.
Quarto. Preface, from p. 68 to p. 80.

10 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

trines were everywhere received with doubts and suspicion, and
beyond the immediate sphere of the Parisian academy, excited
apparently so Httle interest, that no one was induced to enter
into a practical examination of them. Donati indeed shortly
after gave a minute and accurate description of the coral and its
polypes, and a somewhat less detailed one of the madrepores,
but his phraseology being botanical and his opinions unformed,*
his researches were of little immediate service to the cause of
the zoologists, and perhaps rather tended to support the errone-
ous hypothesis which they were combating.f

Peyssonnel was still living, and it was impossible that this dis-
cussion should not interest him. Accordingly we find that in 1751,
he transmitted to the Royal Society of London a manuscript
treatise on coral and other marine productions, J of which Dr
Watson has given a review in the 47th volume of its Transac-
tions, pubhshed in 1753. The treatise was sent to the English
society, because " that in France some lovers of natural history
do attribute and even appropriate to themselves his labours and
his discoveries, of which they have had the communication ;" —
a charge probably directed against Reaumur, but which the con-
duct of that illustrious man, so far as appears, did not warrant.
The treatise contains upwards of 400 quarto pages, and is the

Shortly after this, however, he made other observations which convinced
him of the animality of coral. He says—" I am now of opinion, that coral is
nothing else than a real animal, which has a very great number of heads. I consider
the polypes of coral as the heads of the animal. This animal has a bone rami-
fied in the shape of a shrub. This bone is covered with a kind of flesh, which
is the flesh of the animal. My observations have discovered to me several ana-
logies between the animals of kinds approaching to this. There are, for in-
stance, Keratophyta, which do not diff-er from coral, except in the bone, or part
that forms the prop of the animal. In the coral it is testaceous, and in the
Keratophyta it is horny. "—Phil. Trans. (1757) abridg. xi. p. 83.

t New Discoveries relating to the History of Coral, by Dr Vitaliano Donati.
Translated from the French, by Tho. Stack, M. D. F. R. S. (Feb. 7, 1750.)—
Phil. Trans. Vol. xlvii. p. 95. Haller characterizes the original as " nobile opus,
ex proprio labcre natum."— Bib. Bot. ii. 400.

f Traite du corail, contcnant les nouvellcs decouvertes, qu'on a fait sur le
corail, les pores, madrepores, scharras, litophitons, eponges, et autres corps et
productions, que la mer fom-nit, pour servir a I'histoire naturelle de la mer.
By the Sieur de Peyssonnel, M. D. Correspondent of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Paris, of that of Montpelier, and of that of Belles Lettres at Mar-
seilles. This treatise was never published.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 11

result of the observations of above thirty years, but we find in it
no facts in support of his theory additional to those already men-
tioned, for the greater portion of it is occupied with many de-
tails on the medical uses and other applications of coral which
have no relation to the question at issue. It seems at first to
have excited considerable attention amongf the members of the
Royal Society, but Peyssonnel's endeavours were doomed ever
to be unfortunate, for whatever favour his theory was likely to
receive here was nipt in the bud by the opposition of Dr Par-
sons, a naturalist of considei'able eminence, and an active mem-
ber of the society. The analysis of Peyssonnel's treatise was
read in May 1752, and in June of the same year, Dr Parsons
read his answer,* which savours much of the supercilious dog-
matism of a sceptical philosophy. He does not pretend that he
had tested the doctrine of Peyssonnel by any experiments or
observations, nor does he question his veracity, but he chose to
consider the animals observed by Peyssonnel in the coral and
madrepores as merely accidental settlers which had nothing to do
with their growth, — occupants of mansions prepared for them by
more active entities, — there being no " seeming power, propor-
tion, and stability" in the polypes to render them capable of per-
forming such works as they were thought to have done. " And
indeed it would seem to me," says the learned doctor, " much
more difficult to conceive, that so fine an arrangement of parts,
such masses as these bodies consist of, and such reo'ular ramifi-
cations in some, and such well-contrived organs to serve for ve-
getation in others, should be the operations of little, poor, help-
less, jelly-like animals, rather than the work of more sure vege-
tation, which carries on the growth of the tallest and largest
trees with the same natural ease and influence, as the minutest
plant."

The mineral theory also found at this period its latest advo-
cate. Henry Baker, during his numerous microscopical enqui-
ries, had become familiar with the beautiful and regular " ve-
getations" which many salts and earths assume in their crystal-

* A Letter from James Parsons, M. D. F. R. S. to the Rev. Mr Birch, Seer.
R. S. concerning the Formation of Corals, Corallines, &c. For an account of
Dr Parson's writings see Hall. Bib. Bot. ii. 340 ; and there is a short biogra-
phical notice of him in Phil. Trans, abridg. viii. 692.

12 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

lizations from a fluid state, and, seeing nothing more uniform or
beautiful in the stony corals and corallines, he was naturally led
to give an easy assent to that doctrine which taught that these
were all the result of similar depositions. The new opinions
might be true or not when restricted to the pliant horny coral-
lines, (though he inclined to believe in their vegetable origin,)
but it was unnecessary to call in the agency of animalcules to
explain the formation of the hard stony kinds, which indeed
seemed beyond the power of an almost gelatinous animalcule to
excrete and laborate. Nor would he believe these to be sea-
plants, but rather of a mineral nature and origin. " The rocks
in the sea on which these corals are produced," he says, " are
undoubtedly replete with mineral salts, some whereof near their
surface, being dissolved by the sea-water, must consequently sa-
turate with their saline particles the water round them to a small
distance, where blending with the stony matter with which sea-
water always abounds, little masses will be constituted here and
there and affixed to the rocks. Such adhering masses may be
termed roots .- which roots attracting the saline and stony par-
ticles, according to certain laws in nature, may produce branch-
ed or other figures, and increase gradually by an apposition of
particles ; becoming thicker near the bottom where the saline
matter is more abounding, but tapering or diminishing toward
the extremities, where the mineral salts must be fewer, in pro-
portion to their distance from the rock whence they originally
proceed. And the different proportions of mineral saline par-
ticles, of the stony or other matter wherewith they are blended,
and of marine salt, which must have a considerable share in
such formations, may occasion all the variety we see. Nor does
it seem more difficult to imagine that the radiated, starry, or
cellular figures along the sides of these corals, or at the extre-
mities of their branches, may derive their production from salts
incorporated with stony matter, than that the curious delinea-
tions and appearances of minute shrubs and mosses on slates,
stones, &c. are owing to the shootings of salts intermixt with
mineral particles : and yet these are generally allowed to be the
work of mineral steams or exhalations; by which must, I think,
be meant the finest particles of some metal or mineral incorpo-
rated with and brought into action by a volatile penetrating

HISTORY OF ZOOPIIYTOLOGY. 13

acid, which carrvino; them alono- witli it into the fissures at least,
if not into the sohd substance of such stones or slates, there de-
termines them to shoot into these elegant branchings ; after the
same manner, and frequently in the same figures, as the par-
ticles of merq^u'y, copper, &c. are disposed and brought together
by the salts in aqua fortis."*

But the progress of truth, although it may be delayed by op-
position, cannot be permanently arrested. The converts to the
new doctrines were indeed few, but much had been done to fa-
cilitate their future reception, for the slumber of prejudice had
been broken, the hold of the ancient opinions on the affections
had been loosened, and men no longer startled into scepticism
when they heard of animals that in their productions mimicked
the most beautiful and delicate vegetable forms, f The mind
of naturalists was thus in some measure prepared for the change
on the very eve of being effected by the labours and assiduity
of a member of that very society which had lately listened, with
apparent approbation, to the reveries of Dr Parsons.

John Ellis — the name of the individual alluded to — was a
merchant in London, who devoted his leisure to the study of
natural history, in which he attained so considerable knowledge
as to gain easy access to the Royal Society, and the acquain-
tance and correspondence of the most celebrated naturalists of
his time. He seems to have attached himself more particular-
ly to the economical department of botany, and seized every
opportunity to introduce foreign plants to our gardens, especial-
ly such as were remarkable from furnishing any material em-
ployed in the arts and manufactures ; and he was equally solici-
tous to acquire and diffuse accurate information relative to any
natural productions which might be rendered subservient to
the necessities or comforts of mankind. He was fond also of
amusing himself in making imitations of landscapes by the cu-
rious and skilful disposition of delicate sea-weed and corallines

* Employment for the Microscope, p. 218-20. Lond. 1753.

f " For it is not because an'opinion is true, that others mil therefore adopt it.
It must at the same time be congruous with our other impressions, and admit
of being dovetailed into them, or it wUl be rejected, for it is judged of by its
conformity to the previous acquisitions, and is disliked and coudemned if incom-
patible with them." — Turner, Sac. Hist, of the World, Vol. ii. p. 19.

14 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

on paper : and it was this amusement that directed his enquiries
into the nature of the latter, for, attracted by their beauty and
neatness, he was induced to examine them minutely with the
microscope, by the aid of which he immediately perceived " that
they differed not less from each other, in respect to their form,
than they did in regard to their texture ; and that, in many of
them, this texture was such, as seemed to indicate their being
more of an animal, than vegetable nature." These " suspi-
cions," as he modestly terms them, were communicated to the
Royal Society in June 1752; and, encouraged by some of the
members, he prosecuted this enquiry with such ardour, and care,
and sagacity, that in August of the same year, he had fully
convinced himself " that these apparent plants were ramified
animals, in their proper skins or cases, not locomotive, but fixed
to shells of oysters, mussels, &c. and to Fucus's."*

Ellis, however, was not forward to pubhsh his discovery : he
waited further opportunities to confirm the accuracy of his first
observations, and to institute other experiments to remove what-
ever appeared hostile to the doctrine, which at length he fully
explained to the members of the Royal Society in a paper read
before them in June 1754: and it was made more generally
known in the following year by the publication of his " Essay
towards a natural history of the Corallines, and other marine
productions of the like kind, commonly found on the coasts of
Great Britain and Ireland ;"— a work so complete and accurate
that it remains an unscarred monument of his well-earned re-
See the Introduction to his Essay on the Corallines of Great Britain. It
is from this work, and from the valuable " Selection of the Correspondence of
Liimffius, and other naturalists, from the original manuscripts, by Sir James Ed-
ward Smith/' 2 vols, 8vo. Lond. 1821, that I derive my account of Ellis's opi-

nions. Sir J. E. Smith commences his memoir by saying " John Ellis, F. R. S.,

iUustrious for his discover?/ and complete demonstration of the animal na-
ture of Corals and Corallines, was a native of Ireland." We have seen that he
has no claim to this discovery, though he himself seems to have thought so, and
never makes mention of his predecessors in the same field. A Professor Butt-
ner at Gottingen, who had been in England, and become acquainted with Ellis,
who calls him an " excellent botanist," unhesitatingly claimed Ellis's discoveries
for his own, but a more bare-faced literary theft has not been recorded, and its
detection has rendered the name of the German Professor infamous— Lin. Cor-
resp. Vol. i. p. 170 and 179,— For a list of Ellis's writings the reader may con-
sult Hall. Bib. Bot ii. 433, and the Introd. to Soland. Zooph. p. viii.

HISTORY OF ZOOPIIYTOLOGY. 15

putation as a philosophical inquirer, and is even to this day the
principal source of our knowledge in this department of natural
history. In several essays presented subsequently to the Royal
Society, and published in their Transactions, he continued to
illustrate and extend his opinions, and defended them so suc-
cessfully against his opponents, that they soon came to be very
generally adopted.

There was nothing unformed nor mystical in Ellis's opinion.
Certain marine productions which, under the names of Litho-
phyta and Keratophyta, had been arranged among vegetables,
and were still very generally believed to be so, he maintained
and proved with a most satisfactory fulness of evidence, to be
entirely of an animal nature — the tenements and products of
animals similar in many respects to the naked fresh-water polype.
By examining them, in a living state, through an ordinary mi-
croscope, he saw these polypes in the denticles or cells of the
zoophyte ; he witnessed them display their tentacula for the cap-
ture of their prey, — their varied actions and sensibility to ex-
ternal impressions,^ — and their mode of propagation ; he saw
further that the little creatures were organically connected with
the cells and could not remove from them, and that although
each cell was appropriated to a single individual, yet was this
united " by a tender thready line to the fleshy part that occu-
pies the middle of the whole coralline,"" and in this manner con-
nected with all the individuals of that coralline. The conclu-
sion was irresistible — the presumed plant was the skin or cover-
ing of a sort of miniature hydra, — a conclusion which Ellis
strengthened by an examination of the covering separately,
which, he said, was as much an animal structure as the nails or
horns of beasts, or the shell of the tortoise, for it differs from
" sea-plants in texture, as well as hardness, and likewise in their
chemical productions. For sea-plants, properly so called, such
as the Algae, Fuci, &c. afford in distillation little or no traces
of a volatile salt : whereas all the corallines afford a considerable
quantity ; and in burning yield a smell somewhat resembling that
of burnt horn, and other animal substances ; which of itself is a
proof that this class of bodies, though it has the vegetable form,
yet is not entirely of a vegetable nature." *

• Dr Good is in error when he states that the ammoniacal smell from burnt

16 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

Ellis 'taught no novel doctrine, but he gave it fixidity and
currency ; and he moreover applied it to those very zoophytes
which possessed the vegetable appearance in the most perfec-
tion, many of which he was the first to notice, and which he il-
lustrated with a series of figures of unequalled accuracy. * He
rarely went beyond the mere statement of the facts witnessed,
or what seemed an unavoidable inference from them ; but, per-
haps, he deserted his usual caution when, from analogy princi-
pally, he asserted that the articulated calcareous corallines (Co-
rallina, Lin.) and sponges, of a very different structure from
coral, madrepore, or the horny corallines, were also like them,
manifestly the places of abode of diflferent species of polypes.
In the former ( Corallina) he had indeed detected some slender
fibres which, it was presumed, might be parts of polypes, but
this observation he was never able to confirm, and it was rather
because of the porous structure of the corallines, than from any
thing else, that he inferred the existence of polypes in them, —
a structure which he had examined with minute accuracy, and
shown to be essentially different from any known vegetable tis-
sue,— and, secondly, because of their chemical constituents, of
which he procured an accurate analysis to be made. — With re-
gard to the Sponges, Ellis, as Peyssonnel had previously done,
supposed at first that the regular holes observable in dry speci-
mens, strongly indicated their being once filled with animals;
but when after repeated examinations of recent sponge, he could
detect none, this conjecture was abandoned, and so thoroughly

zoophytes was the principal fact for placing them in the animal kingdom. — Book
of Nature, i. 175 and 210.

* As mentioned above, Bernard de Jussieu knew that the Sertulariadse — the
zoophytes here alluded to — were animal productions, but no detailed account of
his observations seems ever to have been published. Trembley had made the
same discovery. Dr Watson, in his account of Peyssonnel's treatise in 1752,
tells us that Mr Trembley shewed him, " at the late excellent Duke of Rich-
mond's" the small white polypes of the Corallina minus ramosa alterna vice den-
ticulata of Ray, " exactly in form resembling the fresh-water polype, but infinite-
ly less." " When the water was still, these animals came forth, and moved their
claws in search of their prey in various directions ; but, upon the least motion
of the glass, they instantly disappeared." P. 463 — Linnseus, however, in refer-
ence to the observations made previous to Ellis, says they are " inchoate, non
ad pleimm confectae, et desiderentur adhuc quam plurima, quae dies forte reve-
labit."— Amoen. Acad. Vol. i. p. 186.

I

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 17

was he afterwards satisfied of the non-existence of animalcules,
that he combated the opinion of those who maintained the con-
trary, pointing out where the error lay in mistaking small in-
sects which had crept into the sponge in search of food or shel-
ter for the real inhabitants and fabricators of the zoophyte. Yet
not the less was Ellis convinced of its animality ; — its chemical
constituents and its structure were to him conclusive proofs of
this fact, particularly when added to the signs of irritability he
saw them exhibit when in a fresh state. " I am persuaded,"
he writes to Linnaeus, " thejihroi intertextce of sponges are only
the tendons that enclose a gelatinous substance, which is the
flesh of the sponge. Mr Solander and I have seen the holes
or sphincters in some of our sponges taken out of the sea, open
and shut while they were kept in sea- water ; but discovered no
animal like a polype, as in the Alcyonium manus mortui." And
again — " I attended last summer in pursuit of the animals in
sponges, but believe me there are none : but the whole is an ani-
mal, and the water passes in a stream through the holes, to and
fro, in each papilla."*

When Ellis published these discoveries, which form in fact
an epoch in the history of natural science,-}- Linnaeus was in the

• Lin. Corresp. Vol. i. p. 161 and p. 163. in a subsequent letter Ellis explains
himself more fully. " I am now looking into the nature of sponges, and think by
dissecting and comparing them with what I have seen recent, and with the Alcy-
onium manus mortua, that I can plainly see how they grow ; without trusting to
Peyssonell's account of them, which is printed in our Philosophical Transac-
tions, wherein he pretends to tell you, that he takes the anirn;d out of them, that
forms them ; and that he put it into them, and it crept about through the mean-
ders of the sponge. This kind of insect, which harbours in sponges, I have
seen ; but sponges have no such animals to give them life, and to form them.
Their mouths are open tubes all over their surfaces, not furnished, like the tubes
of the Alcyonium manus mortua, with polype-like mouths or suckers. With
their mouths they draw in and send out the water ; they can contract and dilate
them at will, and the Count Marsigli has (though he thought them plants) con-
firmed me in my opinion, that this is their manner of feeding. If you observe
what he has wrote on sponges in his Histoire de la Mer, and the observations he
has made on the Systole and Diastole of these holes in Sponges, during the time
they are full of water, you will be of my opinion. Take a lobe of the officinal
sponge, and cut it through perpendicularly and horizontally, and you will observe
how near the disposition of the tubes are to the figure I have given of the sec-
tions of the Alcyonium manus mortua in my plate of the Sea-Pens."-^Lin.
Corresp. Vol. i. p. 79-80.
f The Royal Society adjudged to Ellis the Copley medal, " as the most

B

18 HISTORY or ZOOPIIYTOLOGY.

zenith of his reputation,— the "prince of naturahsts," as his
followers loved to style him, — from whose decision on all disput-
ed points in natural history, there was scarcely an admissible
appeal. And Linnaeus almost merited this distinction, for he
was a man not only of superior capacity and acquirements, of
great sagacity, ready apprehension, and fruitful fancy, but he
was also of a candid and liberal disposition ; and the ingenious
labours of Ellis received from him great and merited commen-
dation. He had previously, in the belief that lime was never
formed but by animals, placed the Lithophyta in the animal
kingdom ; and he now adopted the opinions of Ellis so far as
to include in it the horny and flexible polypidoms also, but at
the same time he broached the conjecture, for it deserves no
higher praise, that these were really intermediate between the
animal and vegetable kingdoms, so that it could not be said
they properly belong to either. The animalcules of the Litho-
phyta, like the testaceous tribes, he said, fabricated their own
calcareous polypidom, forming the whole mass into tubes, each
ending on the surface in pores or cells, where alone the animal
seems to dwell ;* but the polypes of the proper Zoophyta, so
far from constructing their plant-like polypidoms, were, on the
contrary, the productions or efflorescences of it, f just as the
flowers do not make the herb or tree but are the results of the
vegetative life proceeding to perfection. Polypes, according to
this fancy, bore the same relation to their polypidom that flowers
do to the trunk and branches of the tree ; both grew by vege-

public mark that the Council can give of their high sense of the great accession
which natural knowledge has received from your most ingenious and accurate
investigations." The medal was delivered to him, Nov. 30, 1768, by Sir John
Pringle, the President — Soland. Zooph. Introd. p. xi. See also Swainson's
" Discourse on the Study of Nat. History," p. 38-9.

* Lithophyta — " animalia moUusca, composita. Corallium calcareum, fixum,
quod inffidificarunt animalia aflSxa." — Syst. 1270.

f Zoophyta — " animalia composita, efflorescentia. Stirps vegetans, meta-
morphosi transiens in florens Animal."— Syst. 1287. " Zoophyta non sunt, uti
Lithophyta, auctores suae testte ; sed Testa ipsorum ; sunt enim corpora (uti
flores) imprimis generationis organa, adjectis nonnullis oris motusque instru-

mentis, ut motum, quern extrinsecus non habent, a se ipsis obtineant." Syst.

Nat. edit. 10. 799. When Berkenhout translates the first of these delinitions

" stems vegetating and changing into animals j" Synop. i. 15, he certainly de-
parts, if not from the letter, yet from the meaning of Linnaeus.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. J 9

tation, but while the one evolved from the extremities blossoms
which shrunk not under external irritations and were therefore
properly flowers, — the other put forth flowers which, because
they exhibited every sign of animality, were therefore with reason
considered animals. " Zoophyta," he writes to Ellis, " are con-
structed very differently, living by a mere vegetable life, and
are increased every year under their bark, like trees, as appears
from the annual rings in a section of the trunk of a Gorgonia.
They are therefore vegetables, with flowers like small animals,
which you have most beautifully delineated. All submarine
plants are nourished by pores, not by roots, as we learn from
Fuci. As zoophytes are, many of them, covered with a stony
coat, the Creator has been pleased that they should receive
nourishment by their naked flowers. He has therefore furnish-
ed each with a pore, which we call a mouth. All living beings
enjoy some motion. The zoophytes mostly live in the perfectly
undisturbed abyss of the ocean. They cannot therefore par-
take of that motion, which trees and herbs receive from the agi-
tation of the air. Hence the Creator has granted them a ner-
vous system, that they may spontaneously move at pleasure.
Their lower part becomes hardened and dead, like the solid
wood of a tree. The surface, under the bark, is every year fur-
nished with a new living layer, as in the vegetable kingdom.
Thus they grow and increase ; and may even be truly called ve-
getables, as having flowers, producing capsules, &c. Yet as they
are endowed with sensation, and voluntary motion, they must be
called, as they are, animals ; for animals differ from plants mere-
ly in having a sentient nervous system, with voluntary motion;
nor are there any other limits between the two. Those there-
fore who esteem these animalcules to be distinct from their stalk,
in my opinion, founded on observation, deceive and are de-
ceived."*

There was something in this hypothesis peculiarly captivating
to an imaginative mind, and few poets have possessed a richer
fancy than Linnaeus. He seems to have ever fondly cherished
the opinion, for in his curious Diary, in which he has enumerat-
ed with much complacency all his works and merits, it is men-
tioned as one of his principal recommendations to the respect

* Lin. Corresp. Vol. i. p. 151-2.

20 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

of posterity. " Linne," he says, " decided that they (zoophytes)
were between vegetables and animals : vegetables with re-
spect to their stems, and animals with respect to their flores-
cence. This idea is still entertained."* Before we notice the
manner of its reception by Ellis, we may take a short review of
the writings of some other of the opponents of the latter natu-
ralist.

Ellis had indeed effected a revolution in the opinions of scien-
tific men, but there were some even of considerable reputation
who either wavered between the old and new, or continued to
hold the notions of their fathers,f which, however, very few
ventured to maintain publicly. Of these the only one who
merits our particular notice is Dr Job Baster of Zurichsee in
Zealand, who seems to have been very imperfectly qualified for
the task he had undertaken. At first he boldly asserted the vege-
tability of all zoophytes, attempted to prove that the Sertulari^
were really articulated Confervse, and that the little animals ob-
served on them were merely parasites, which had as little to do
with the formation of the object they rested on, as the maggots
in a mushroom had to do with its moonlioht growth. These
the results of his actual observation were set forth in a tone of
arrogance calculated to wound the feelings and good fame of
Ellis, nor is this conduct to be wondered at, for ignorance is
usually as unfeeling as she is proverbially confident in her as-
sertions, and the Dutch naturalist was truly very ignorant of all
relating to the subject he attempted to elucidate. Unskilled in
marine botany he actually mistook the objects of the enquiry,
and instead of Sertulariae set himself to examine true Confervae,
— a fact which the drawings illustrative of his paper demonstrate.
His further experiments made him fully aware of this ridiculous
error ; and having become better acquainted with his subject,

Pulteney's General view of the Writings of Linnaeus, by Dr Maton, p. 560.
Lond. 1805.

t Count Ginanni was one of these, and had the hardihood to question the
accuracy of the observations of even Jussieu — How far he was competent to
observe himself will be made apparent to the zoophytologist by the following
extract : — " Loco polyiiorum Bernardi de Jussieu, papillas septem glandulis con-
sitas repcrit, et mucum pulat esse, quern vocant cornua : ex papillis vero pres-
sisaqua, demde lac pull ulat, eiedemque ad corticem inseparabili nexu adherent."
—Hall. Bib. Bot. ii, 444.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 21

he appears to have been puzzled what to make of zoophytes ;
they were certainly not sea-weeds, — and it were too humihating
to adopt a once rejected theory, — when happily the Systema
Naturae came to his aid, and he instantly adopted with zeal the
vegeto-animal fancy, because, he says, it illustrated in a wonder-
ful manner other things which were previously obscure and in-
comprehensible, and because it was in perfect keeping with the
doctrine which taught that animated beings were a series of links
constituting one long chain that could not be broken without
violation to the continuity of organization, — the different species
being so closely connected on this side and that, that neither
sense nor imagination can detect the line which separates one
from the other. It must be allowed that in Baster the doctrine
of Linnseus has found its best advocate. He tells us that in
zoophytes there are too many signs of a perfect vegetation to
permit us to believe that they can owe their origin to animal-
cules so minute as to require a microscope to see them, and the
great simplicity of whose organization altogether unfits them for
perfecting such works : and as from the law of continuity indi-
cated above it was reasonable to presume the existence of beings
in which the distinctions between animals and plants should meet
and amalgamate, so by a comparison of their definitions it may
be made obvious that these distinctions disappear in zoophytes.
A plant is an organized body without sense or spontaneous mo-
tion, adhering by means of a root to some foreign substance
whence it derives the material of its life and increase : an ani-
mal, on the contrary, is an organized body endowed with sen-
sation and perception, which can, of its own free will, make cer-
tain movements peculiar to itself. Like the plant, zoophytes
grow fixed by a root ; and yet at the same time they are ani-
mals, for they show when touched that they feel by some mo-
tion, and when they perceive food proper for them they seize
and devour it by the action of certain members.

Having in this manner commended the theory to our favour,
and shown its reasonableness and consonance to nature, Baster
goes on to explain the manner in which he conceives his ex-
periments prove that the Sertulariadse or flexible corallines grow.
The ova or seeds of these zoophytes, he asserts, pullulate from
the body of the mother in the likeness of tender articulations

22 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

or new branches, which fall off on maturity, and adhere to any
stone, shell, or other hard body, by which they are protected
until the young are excluded. Now the outer coat of this egg
or seed is of a vegetable nature, and it throws out from the sides
in the manner of other seeds, certain little roots by means of
which it remains permanently attached ; but the internal part
of the egg or seed is anhnal, and growing simultaneously with
its vegetable covering, it is dispersed through all the ramifica-
tions and occupies their hollow interior, being developed into
polypes in the lateral denticles and extreme cells. Such was
the deduction he came to from observations made on the growth
more especially of the Sertularia abietina, which he had kept
alive for nearlv four months in a vessel of sea water. When
a new part was formed, there first emerged from the stem a mi-
nute tubular joint, which rose to four, five, or even eight lines
in height: after some days some lesser buds, regularly dispos-
ed in an alternate manner, were seen on the sides of this branch,
which in the course of four or six days grew into cells contain-
ing perfect polypes. Hence it is obvious to Baster that the
stem of this and similar zoophytes grows in thickness and length
as plants do, and that the medullary pith is animal, which it is
not wonderful should assume a dendroidal form, when we see
zinc and quicksilver do the same by the mere force of affinity.
Trembley had already pronounced the cells of the fresh-water
zoophytes (Plumatella) to be not the work of the polypes, but
rather compartments in which they concealed a part of their
body ; and this fact, added to those already given, makes it cer-
tain that the animalcules of the Sertulariadse are entirely pas-
sive, and have no more to do with their polypidoms than the
flower has with the increase and growth of the herb.*

There is some ambiguity in Easterns statement of his opinions,
for it is not very obvious whether he believed the new formed
branchlets to be themselves the eggs or seeds, or whether they
only contained the eggs ; but be this as it may, it appears scarce-
ly doubtful that he knew nothing of the true ova and their cu-
rious ovaries. The phenomena observed in the production of
new parts are correctly stated, but nothing but wilful prejudice

* Phil. Tniiis. Vol. Hi. p. lOe-118 For Baster's woiks see Hall. Bib. Bot.

i. 4G8.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 23

could blind him to the fallacy of the consequent reasoning.
The analogy attempted to be drawn between the eggs of zoo-
phytes and the seeds of plants has no existence, for every tyro
knows well that the coat or skin of a seed in no instance ever
pushes forth radical fibres, or ever exhibits any sign of vegeta-
tion ; — it is a dead part which is cast off or corrupts, and exerts
no further influence on vegetation tlian as a protection to the
cotyledons and embryo which it invests, so that if it is true that
the coat of the ova of zoophytes is the source of their vegetative
part, as Baster says, that coat must be of a very different na-
ture from the skin of seeds. It would have been better to have
compared the oviform bodies of the zoophyte with the buds of
the tree, and he might have disported with this fancy to some
effect, for there are many analogical resemblances, and the in-
applicability of the illustration is not so very plain. Still it is
inapplicable, for buds grow from the absorption of water and in-
organic matter which is diffused and assimilated by means of a
certain determinate organization, while the covering of zoophy-
tes receives no increase except through the medium of its poly-
pes;— it has no sap-vessels, no spiral tubes, no cellular paren-
chyma^ no absorbent roots, no pores and spiracles on the sur-
face, so that all its material must be derived from an internal
source ; and to say that a body vegetates when the nutriment is
received and assimilated in a different manner, and by a differ-
ent structure from what it is in plants, and is productive in its
assimilation of opposite principles, is to use terms in so vague a
sense as would be intolerable in any science.

Neither the authority of Linnaeus, nor the imperfect experi-
ments of Baster, had any effect on Ellis, who steadily opposed
this vegeto-animal doctrine, and whose superior knowledge made
it easy for him to detect and point out the erroneousness of the
observations on which it principally rested. In reference to the
opinion itself he wrote to Linnaeus, — " artful people may puzzle
the vulgar, and tell us that the more hairy a man is, and the
longer his nails grow, he is more of a vegetable than a man who
shaves his hair or cuts his nails ;* that frogs bud like trees,

* Boliadsfh in answer to those who believed that the Pennatulae were plants
uses the same argument — De Anim. Mar. p. 123. This author, who wrote in
] 761, was a strenuous advocate for the unmixed animality of zoophytes.

24 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

when they are tadpoles ; and caterpillars blossom into butter-
flies. These are pretty rhapsodies for a Bonnet. Though
there are different manners of growth in the different parts of
the same animal, which the world has long been acquainted
with, why should we endeavour to confound the ideas of vege-
table and animal substances, in the minds of the people that we
would willingly instruct in these matters ?"* And in a subse-
quent letter he repeats, " I cannot reconcile myself to vegeta-
ting animals : the introduction of the doctrine of this mixed
kind of life will only confuse our ideas of nature. We have not
proof sufficient to determine it ; and I am averse to hypo-
theses."-f-

Pallas, who published at this period an admirable history of
zoophytes, :{: was also the advocate of the Linnaean doctrine,
but he adduced no other facts than those furnished by Baster
in its aid, — setting, however, in bolder relief, the argument de-
rived from its accordance with the hypothesis of a continuous
series in the structure of organized beings, which, it was for
long a point of orthodoxy to believe, formed a chain " in linked
sweetness long drawn out," graduating insensibly from man to
the monad, — as Bonnet maintained ; or branching off into les-
ser series after the manner of a tree, — a simile suggested by
Pallas himself as more correctly representing the " System
of Nature." § He also adopted the opinion of Baster, who
in this respect continued in opposition to Linnseus, that the true
corallines ( Corallina) were entirely of a vegetable nature, and
his arguments on this head may be summed up as follows : In
external appearance and structure a few corallines resemble
some fuci, and many of them are like confervse ; they differ
from other zoophytes in chemical composition, for, on being
burned, they emit the smell of vegetable matter, neither do they
contain a volatile salt or animal oil ; the pores observable in
their calcareous portion are too small to be the habitations of po-

* Lin. Conesp. Vol. i. p. 226. f Ilji'l- P- 260.

^ " Printeps in hac classe opus." — Hall. Bib. Bot. ii, 566
§ " Didicimus in Zoophytis, sic jure vocandis, vcgetabilem natunun cum ani-
mali ita misceri, iit veie anceps et dubia pa&sim sit." &c. Elenc. ^ooph. Prajf.
viii. The Introduction to tlie work is beaded. " Dc zoopliytoruin inttrmedia
iiatura et inventione." His ideas of the Natural System are given in an inte-
resting passage at p. 23-4, which is too long for quotation in this place.

HrSTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 25

lypes, and similar pores can bo detected on fuci ; no polypes
nor any visible token of life could be discovered by Jussieu in
any coralline, a species of which, moreover, a Mr Meese had
found growing upon a heath in Friesland ; and lastly, the
fructification of corallines is very similar to that of fuci and
confervas.

Were these the deductions of correct observation and expe-
riment they would unquestionably have been conclusive, but
some of them were already known to be contrary to the fact,
and the others were weakened with doubts and uncertainties.
Ellis, conscious of his superior knowledge both of marine botany
and zoophytology, put forth an answer to this attack which is
remarkable for clear arrangement, and for candid and honour-
able bearing to his opponent, who had scarcely deserved this at
his hand. * Having shewn that the presumed coralline which
Pallas had compared to a fucus or sea-weed, was in fact a fucus,
Ellis proceeded to prove how widely different every coralline
was in structure and texture from any confervae ; and that the
former, contrary to Pallas's assertion, not only gave out when
burned " an offensive smell like that of burnt bones or hair,"
but afforded also on careful analysis both volatile alkali and em-
pyreumatic oil. -|- " Dr Pallas," Ellis continues, " proceeds to
prove that corallines cannot be animals, as the pores of their
calcareous substances are too minute for any polypes to harbour
in. These words of the Doctor's seem to imply, as if the coral-
line substances were only habitations for detached polypes, and
not part of the animals themselves. How this affair stands, I
hope to have clearly demonstrated long before this, for I have
plainly seen, and endeavoured to shew mankind, that the softer
and harder parts of zoophytes are so closely connected with one

" It appears from the Lin. Corresp. Vol. i. p. 18G, that Pallas had written
disrespectfully of Ellis. In his Elen. Zoophytorum the latter, however, is pro-
fusely complimented : — " Ellisium subtilitate atque acumine observationum om-
nes super eminentem," — Pnef. p. x. — is praise enough surely, but its sincerity
might be questionable.

"I- This character, as Lamouroux remarks, is insufficient, seeing that the major
part of marine plants give out, in burning, odours and products analogous to those
of animals — Cor. Flex. p. 12. It is now well known that chemistry affords us,

in its minute analyses, no test between animal and vegetable matter See Prout's

Bridgewater Treat, p. 415, and more particularly Ticdemann's Comp. Physiolo-
gy, p. 48, &c.

26 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

another, that they cannot separately exist, and therefore have
not hesitated to call them constituent parts of the same body,
and that the polvpe-like suckers are so manv mouths belon^infir
thereto.

" Now, forthesmallnessofthe pores, which the Doctor has men-
tioned here (among the Corallines) to be a contradiction to ani-
mal life ; he certainly has forgot one circumstance, when he in-
troduces the CoralHum pumiluni album, (Essay Cor. t. 27. f. c.)
or his Millepora calcarea (Pall. Elench. p. 265,) as an animal,
which is, that he there says, it has absolutely no pores at all.

" As there can be no doubt, but every part of what is called
Coralline is necessary to make out such an animal, or beinof, it
will be very difficult, if not almost impossible, to determine the
proportion there ought to be between softer and harder parts ;
and therefore it cannot be thought unreasonable to say, that in
some of this tribe the stony parts are by much the greater part
of the whole, especially as Doctor Pallas's objection can be only
against the crust, or lapidescent part, as the inside of many of
them is far from being hard, being exactly like a Sertularia, so
that I do not know if it would not be a good definition to one
well acquainted with that tribe to say, a Coralline is a Sertula-
ria, covered with a stony or calcareous crust ; if the mouths
should happen to be very small, their number may make up that
deficiency. We see in the greatest number of corallines their
surface full of holes ; we saw the same in Escharas and Mille-
poras thirty years ago ; since that time magnifying glasses have
been improved, so as to shew us, that they are all orifices for
polype-like suckers ; why should not we now admit that glasses
may be still more improved, so as even to make us able to see
what may be the intention and use of these minute orifices, which
according to all rules of reasoning, we must suppose to approach
in nature to them they are most alike. From this extreme mi-
nuteness then of the pores of these Milleporse, confessed to be
zoophytes, as well as those of Corallina officinalis as before men-
tioned, it is no great matter of surprise, that Doctor Jussieu
could not perceive any animal life in the corallines, nor Doctor
Schlosser in the JMillepora calcarea. As these experiments
ought to be attended with manv convenient coincidinof circum-
stances that do not often happen to persons who only go to the

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 27

sea side, perhaps for a few dajs or hours, so that it is unreason-
able to conclude, because they have been unsuccessful, that
more accurate observers may not be more fortunate at another
time." — Having thus disposed of an argument which he could
not distinctly answer, Ellis goes on to notice the fact of the co-
ralline which had been found on Beroummer heath in Fries-
land, and which the vagueness of the manner in which the dis-
covery was announced permitted or warranted him to ascribe to
accident ; and he then concludes his admirable essay with a
faithful and minute account of the fructification of the confervse,
and proves to a demonstration that when Baster and Pallas at-
tributed a similar fructification to corallines, they had very er-
roneous ideas of the subject,*

The discussion rested here, and zoophytes, including the
sponges and corallines, have been ever since enumerated among
the subjects of the animal kingdom, although some, among whom
Spallanzani may be particularized, continued in the belief that
the corallines and the sponges were vegetables. But naturalists
continue to be divided in opinion relative to the nature of acknow-
ledged zoophytes, for many, of whom Bory de St Vincent may be
considered the chief, -f- still speak of them as intermediate beings
partaking of a twofold nature; while others, under the leading of
Lamarck, defend their claims to pure animality. No new doctrine
has been promulgated ; neither indeed have the old been defended
or attacked by any other facts or arguments than those already
referred to, and with these before me I cannot hesitate to give
my assent to the opinion of Ellis. No one denies that the
polypes considered abstractedly from their polypidoms are really
animals ; — their quick and varied movements, — their great irri-

■ Phil. Trans. Vol. Ivii. p. 404, &c Pallas appears to have been con-
vinced by this essay that the Corallines were animal ; and he acknowledged that
in reference to the land species he had been imposed on. — Lin. Corresp. i. 227,
and 568. Yet it should be remembered that Captains Vancouver and Flinders
observed on the shores of New Holland, at considerable heights above the level
of the sea, arborescent calcareous productions which they considered to be corals.
Peron says they are either corals or vegetables incrusted with calcareous mat-
ter; and Dr Clarke Abel has proved that they are the latter — Edin. Phil.Joum.
u. 198.

f Encyclop. Method, ii, 647 — Cuvier in an early work gave countenance to
this opinion, but in his Regne Animal, iii, 220, Paris, 1830, it is repudiated.

28 HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOOY.

lability, — the existence of a mouth and stomach, — the nature of
their food, its digestion, and the evomition of the indigestible
remains are incontestible proofs of this ; — and it seems impro-
bable, to say no more, that this animal should be fitted round
with a case that grew independent of it and from a different
cause. And the case itself has no analogy, as Ellis shewed very
clearly, either to bark or to wood : it possesses the structure of
neither of them, nor is it formed in the same manner by the
addition of concentric layers, nor does it contribute to the
formation of new parts, but, like the shell of testaceous mol-
lusca, it is extravascular, and when once formed suffers no
other change than what external injuries or time may operate.
If possible its coincidences with the skin of cellular plants are
even fewer : the one is a living part which has very important
functions to perform in relation to the plant itself and to the at-
mosphere or circumfluent medium in which it lives ; the other
exhibits no action characteristic of life, and is nothing more
than a condensed albuminous or calcareous sheath, appropriat-
ed solely to support or protection.*

But although I aorree with the advocates of the animalitv of
zoophytes in general, I cannot go the length of Ellis in consi-
dering it proved that sponges and corallines belong to the same
class. Ellis, we have seen, knew that no polypes were to be
found in sponge, and their existence in the pores of corallines
was inferred merely from the structure of these and their chemical
composition. They have been examined by subsequent natu-
ralists fully competent to the task, and under the most favour-
able circumstances, — in particular by Cavolini and Schweigger,
— and the result has been a conviction that these productions-
are truly apolypous. Now this fact, in my opinion, determines
the point, for if they are not the productions of polypes, the zoolo-
gist who retains them in his province must contend that they are
individually animals, an opinion to which I cannot assent, see-

* I do not enter into the question whether the Confervae are real animals or
not, because, whatever conclusion we might adopt, they would not come within
our definition of a zoophyte or polype, since they assuredly have neither mouth,
tentacula, nor stomach. Nor need I discuss the propriety of instituting, with
Treviranus, a fourth kingdom of animated nature, composed of the zoophytes
and aquatic cryptogamia, as my object and plan is only to dcscrihe what have
been almost universally considered zoophytes.

HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 29

iiig that they have no animal structure or individual organs, and
exhibit no one function usually supposed to be characteristic of
that kingdom. Like vegetables they are permanently fixed, —
like vegetables they are non-irritable, — their movements, like
those of vegetables, are extrinsical and involuntary, — their nu-
Iriment is elaborated in no appropriated digestive sac — and like
cryptogamous vegetables or algae they usually grow and ramify
in forms determined by local circumstances, and if they present
some peculiarities in the mode of the imbibition of their food
and in their secretions, yet even in these they evince a nearer
affinity to plants than to any animal whatever.

30 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER II.

On the Structure and Functions of the Polypes
abstractedly considered.

On the continent the term Zoophyte has of late been used in
a very extensive sense, so as to include every animal which ex-
hibits a circular disposition of parts radiating from a common
centre, and many also in which this character is little or not at
all obvious. In this country the word has never been so em-
ployed excepting in translations from a foreign language : no
English writer ever thinks of calling an intestinal worm, or a
sea-jelly, or a star- fish, or even the infusory animalcules, a zoo-
phyte ; but he applies the name to no other creatures than those
which in their form, or most remarkable characters, recall the
appearance of a vegetable or its leading properties. In this
restricted sense I also use it in this work, or rather with a still
narrower circumscription, having assigned what appear to be
sufficient reasons for removing the corallines and sponges from
the category, and restoring them to the vegetable kingdom, to
which the earlier naturalists believed they had a rightful claim.
The definition of a zoophyte is thus considerably simplified, but
there remains sufficient variety and discrepancy in the consti-
tuents of the order to render that definition in some degree vague
and incongruous. The fact is — the classification of molluscous,
and radiated, and acritous animals requires to be recast : the
limits between them have not been determined with undisputed
precision, and it seems probable that there are in each class some
tribes which will pass from one to the other as discovery pro-
ceeds. It has been recently proposed* to remove a large pro-

* Thompson's Zoological Researches and Illustrations, p. 92.

OF POLYPES. 31

portion of zoophytes hitherto considered legitimate subjects of
their order to the molhisca, which, about the year 1815,* had
received a considerable accession to its numbers from the same
source; but so far from acknowledging the propriety of the pro-
posed translation, I incline to agree with Lamarckf, that it would
be better to separate again the colonized zoophytes from the
mollusca, and form with them, and with such zoophytes as have
an analogous organization, a distinct class, to occupy the wide
interval between the molluscan and radiated types, allied to the
former by the non-symmetrical figure of the body, and to the
latter by the circularity of the oral members. It is, however,
unnecessary to enter here upon this discussion, for my intention
is to describe what are usually reckoned zoophytes, without
having regard to the naturalness of the group considered as a
whole, and with this view I adopt the class as it was long ago
established by Solander and Ellis, excepting only the corallines
and sponges, which will form the subject of separate monographs.
The following definition may serve to characterize the class :

Animals avertebrate^ inarticulate, soft, irritable and contrac-
tile, loithout a vascular or separate respiratory or nervous sys-
tem : mouth superior, central, circular, edentulous, surrounded by
tubular or more commonly by Jilifurm tentacula ; alimentary ca-
nal variable, — where there is an intestine the anus opens near
the mouth: asexual; gemmiparous : aquatic. — The individuals
(Polypes) of a few families are separate andperfect in themselves,
hut the greater number of zoophijtes are compound beings, viz.
each zoophyte consists of an indefinite number of individuals or
polypes organically connected and placed iv a calcareous, horny
or membranous case or cells, forming, by their aggregation,
corals or plant-like Polvpidoms.

In this definition there are two parts which require our par-
ticular attention — the Polype whose presence is essential, and
the Polypidom,X which is the house or support of the polype,

* Savigny's Memoires sur les Animaux sans Vertebres. Seconde Partie. Pa-
ris, 1816, 8vo.

f Hist. Nat. des Anim. s. Vert. iii. 82 — 87.

\ I borrow this term from the translator of Lamouroux's work on Corallines.
The Rev. Mr Kirby, in his Bridgewater Treatise, uses the word Pohjpary to ex-
press the same thing. Both of them are translations of Puhjpier, a word in-
vented by Reaumur, and now in general use among the French naturalists.

32 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

and which, though commonly present, is yet not necessary to
the existence of a zoophyte. To the structure and functions
of the former I hmit myself in this chapter ; and should the
reader find the outhne given in relation to some of the families
too slight and sketchy, I may advertise him that he will find
it filled up with greater detail in the observations which it is in-
tended to prefix to each separate order.

The description usually given of the structure and functions
of polypes in general has been derived principally from an ex-
amination of the Hydra— a naked species which inhabits ponds
and ditches. A polype is thus represented as being a somewhat
globular or cylindrical body of small size, of a homogeneous gela-
tinous consistence, and very contractile, in the centre of which
there is excavated a cavity ^for the reception and digestion of its
food. The aperture to this cavity is placed on the upper disk
of the body, and is encircled by one or two series of filaments
or tentacula which are used to capture the necessary prey, and
bring it within reach of the lips ; while the opposite end serves
the purpose of a sucker to fix the creature to its site, or being-
prolonged like a thread down the hollow sheath, to connect it
with its fellow-polypes of the same polypidom, which by this
means become compound animals, " the whole of whose parts
are animated by one common principle of life and growth."
There are no organs of sense, no limbs appropriate to locomo-
tion, no circulating vessels, no nerves, nor lungs, nor gills, no
chylopoetick viscera, nor intestine, for there is " but one con-
duit both for purgation of their excrements, and reception of
their sustenance ;" and when to these negations there is to be
added the want of generative organs, a being of simpler organi-
zation than the polype can scarcely be conceived ; and, perhaps,
it is actually the simplest, for the infusory animalcules which
had been placed underneath them in the scale of organization,
are now known to possess a much more complex structure.

Such is the idea of a polype we obtain from the writings of
Ellis, and the description of its general structure given by La-
marck,* after an interval of seventy years, is identically the

* Anim. s. Vert. ii. 10. Bosc, Vers, ii. 216— Lamouroux in 1810 and 1812
bad indeed asserted that the polypes with polypidoms coidd not, hi relation to
their structure, be compared mth the fresh-water hydra, but that they approxi-

OF POLYPn:S. 33

same. Some few species, classed by the predecessors of the
latter among zoophytes, had in the meantime been ascertained
to be differently constructed, and furnished with less simplicity,
but being in consequence removed into a different category, they
were not allowed to disturb the received opinions on polype ana-
tomy. Still more recent discoveries have shewn, however, that
these are very erroneous, and that the animals of even our na-
tive polypidoms form at least two classes distinguished by a very
remarkable dissimilarity of organization. By the one they are
allied to the tunicated and acephalous mollusca, more especially
to the compound families of the former, and hence may be de-
nominated Ascidian polypes ; by the other they form a link of
the chain or circle which associates the radiated animals, and,
assuming the hydra for their representative, we shall call them
Hydraform polypes.

The ascidian polypes never occur in a separate and naked
form, but are always placed within the cells of a polypidom of a
calcareous, membranous, or fibro-gelatinous consistence. The
form of the cells in many genera, as Eschara, Flustra and Cel-
lepora, suggests a belief that their tenants, although arranged
in a close and determinate manner, are each separate from their
neighbours and complete in themselves, — an opinion that is
held by some of our best naturalists ; but the observations of
Dujardin on some allied fossil polypidoms, render it very pro-
bable that there are pores of communication between the cells;*
while those made by Professor Grant seem to have proved that
the polypes of the Flustra are connected together by a living
axis, and are hence truly compound beings. Since the Vesiculi-
fera also, which are admitted to be composites, belong unques-
tionably to this remarkable form of animated entities, it is safer,

mated nearer than was believed to the mollusca, of which they might at some
future time be considered a family. The opinion certainly rested on few and
hasty observations, and no anatomical details were given in its support. See his
Edit, of Soland. Zoophyt. pref. p. vii. For example, he not only recognizes a
relationship between Lobularia and Actinia, but he tells us that the polypes of
the FlustriB, Cellariie and Sertularioe are similar to those of Lobularia ! Coral.
Flex. p. 332. Such loose observations as these are, have no influence on the
progress of discovery. The observations of Savigny were evidently more spe-
cific and correct ; but I am not aware that the details have been yet published.
— See his Mem. sur les Anim. s. Vert. ii. p. G5.
* Blainville's Actinologie, p. 675.

C

54

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

for the present, to consider all the ascidian as compound poly-
pes.* T'here is nevertheless a remarkable difterence between
them and the hydraform tribes in their mode of composition.
In the latter the polypes are simply developements of the com-
mon central fleshy mass, identical with it in structure and tex-
ture ; in the former each individual is a distinct organism, and
the medium which binds them together, whether vascular or li-
gamentous, has its own peculiar character. The one we may
compare to a chain of which all the hnks are welded,~the other
to a necklace where the beads are strung together by a percur-
rent thread. To express this distinction we shall call the hydra-
form compound polypes, and the ascidian aggregated polypes.

The body of the ascidian polypes is lengthened, somewhat
cylindrical or at times bulged at the base, and when at rest lies,
in the form of a syphon, doubled up upon it- rig- ^'

self in the cell, (Fig. 2, \) to which it is con-
nected by a tendon at the bottom, and by the
duplicature of a thin membrane round the
aperture, so that it is impossible it should ever
voluntarily leave the cell to swim at large, as
Baster and others have maintained. The
head or upper end is surrounded by a single
row of tentacula, (Fig. 3, «,) which are solid,
filiform and non-contractile, for the animal
can only shorten them, excepting to a
slight extent, by rolling them up in a spiral
manner: they are apparently smooth, but with a high mag-
nifier it is ascertained that they are clothed with numerous
fine cilia, % which are in ceaseless motion, and are supposed

* " The polypi are most intimately and inseparably connected with the axis
by three parts of their body, and are only digestive sacs or mouths develoj.ed by
the axis, as in all other zoophytes, for the nourishment of the general mass. By
the axis of a zoophyte, I understand every part of the body excepting the polypi,
whether of a calcareous, horny, or fleshy nature. The exact mathemaUcal ar-
rangement and forms of the cells of Flustrs is incompatible with their existence
as separate and independent beings, but is quite analogous to what we are ac-
customed to observe in C'ellaria., Sertulan^e, Pluniularia^ and many other well-
known compound animals."_Grant in Edin. New Phil. Journ. m. lib. ^ee
also Blainville, Man. d'Actiiiologie, p. 99.

t The figure, for which I am indebted to my friend Mr William Scott, repre-
sents the polypes of Flustra membraiiacea in a state of retraction.

\ For a history of this discovery, written with great learning and impartiality.

OF POLYPKS.

35

to perform the office of breathing organs by keeping up a constant
current of water along their surfaces, which sets in towards
the mouth in an invariable direction ; i'ig- 3.

and from tlie incessant revolution of
particles within the mouth and the gul-
let, observed by Professor Grant, this
oro-an seems to be also ciliated internal-
ly. The more especial use of the ten-
taculais to arrest the prey which chance
floats within their reach and conduct it
to the mouth, — a simple aperture pla-
ced in the centre of the tentacular cir-
cle, and which is armless, having in no
instance either jaws or teeth. It is the
entrance into a long membranous gul-
let (5,) of ))erfect transparency, and
which can be traced through its equally transparent envelope,
to its termination in a somewhat globular and comparatively
large organ placed near the curvature of the body, and render-
ed opaque partly by the greater thickness and fleshiness of its
structure, but perhaps more so by the nature of its contents.
This is the stomach (c,) and from the side of it there proceeds
a narrow intestine {d,) which follows a straight upward course
along the side of the gullet, and opens at the aperture of the
cell by a separate orifice, from which the undigested remains of
the food are ejected. There is another organ of a roundish
figure appended to the bend of the intestine, which is supposed
by some to be an ovarium (e,) but it seems not unnecessary to
remark, that this appropriation of it to the generative function
has perhaps no better proof than what is derived from a similari-
ty of position between it and the supposed ovarium of the com-
pound mollusca. It is, I presume, the organ which Blainville
says he is vvilling to believe performs the functions of the liver,*
an opinion in which I am disposed to concur.

see Dr Sbarpey's article " Cilia" in the Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and Physiology,

Vol. i. p. 609.

" Manuel d'Actinologie, p. 72. — In the Actiniae, Blainville adds, it is almost
certain that there is no Liver ; nor in the Hydraform polypes ; but in the Pen-
natulae " disseques vivans ou tres-frais, on remarque, dans les parois memes

du corps do I'estomac, des rangces d'organes en forme de petites taches jaunatres,

36 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

No trace of a nervous or vascular system of any kind has been
detected, nor is there any organ of sense, but the polypes are
notwithstanding very sensible of external impressions. * When
left undisturbed in a glass of fresh sea water, they push their
tentacula beyond the mouth of the cell by straightening the bo-
dy ; and then expanding them in the form of a funnel or bell,
they will often remain quiet and apparently immoveable for a
long time, presenting a very pretty and most interesting object
to an observer of " the minims of nature." If, however, the
water is agitated they withdraw on the instant, probably by the
aid of the posterior ligament or muscle ; — the hinder part of the
body is pushed aside up the cell, the whole is sunk deeper, and
by this means the tentacida, gathered into a close column, are
brought within the cell, the aperture of which is shut by the same
series of actions. The polypes of the same polypidom often pro-
trude their thousand heads at the same time, or in quick but ir-
regular succession, and retire simultaneously or nearly so, but
at other times I have often witnessed a few only to venture on
the display of their glories, the rest remaining concealed ; and
if, when many are expanded, one is singled out and touched with
a sharp instrument, it alone feels the injury and retires, with-
out any others being conscious of the danger, or of the hurt in-
flicted on their mate.

Of the anatomy of the hydraform polypes a sketch has al-
ready been given in the beginning of this chapter. They differ
from the ascidian in their figure, which is somewhat globular or
cylindrical and straight ; in the position of the body, which is
vertical ; in the homogeneity of their composition, which is a
semitransparent glairy gelatine, full of microscopic coloured
granules ; -f- and very remarkably, in being contractile at every

que je regarde comme analogues au foie." — Fig. 2 represents the polype of
Vesicularia imbricata highly magnified. It is copied from Thompson's Zool.
HI. Memoir v. pi. i. fig. 4.

' " But as we perceive, in these animals, phenomena which take place by
the medium of nerves in animals of a more elevated order, that is to say, sensi-
bility and voluntary motion, it is not inijjrobable that in them the nervous sub-
stance is mixed with their gelatinous or mucous mass, without being demonstra-
ble as a particular tissue." — Tiedemann's Comp. Phys. p. 64.

t Trembley having ascertained that the coh)ur of the polype resides in these
granules, and that it varies with the quality of their food, of which the nutritive
part or chyme passes first into the granules of the stomachal cavity and then

OF POLYPES.

37

point, so that they can change the figure of their bodies from a
globe to a cyhnder, or distort it with strictures, and can shorten
and extend the tentacula at will, sometimes to an extent which
is astonishing, although nothing like muscular tissue can be de-
tected in their structure. * When therefore they have occasion
to conceal themselves within their cells, they are not necessitat-
ed, like the ascidian, to bend the body in order to obtain suffi-
cient space for the tentacula, but they shorten the body and the
tentacula at the same time, causing the one to assume a more
globular form, and the other to dwindle down to mere knobs or

Fig. 4.

^ /tp I

papillae (Fig. 4.) -f- The tentacula, even when fully extended,

gradually into those placed more towards the surface, infers that they are a kind
of glands or rather vesicles, which have the power of sucking in and again tran-
spiring the nutritive fluid — Hist, des Polypes, p. 132. Lamarck adopts this
opinion, Anim. s. Vert. ii. 9, which is probably correct, but it ought to be remem-
bered that it is somewhat hypothetical. Consult in relation to this subject Ro-
get's Bridgewater Treatise, Vol. ii. p. 77-8, Carus's Comp. Anat. Eng. Trans.
Vol. i. p. 2.5, §. 23; and the reader will find Edwards' and Dutrochet's opinions
on the nature of the elementary corpuscles in Bostock's Elementaiy System of
Physiology, Vol. iii. p. 348 et seq. Tiedemann sums up our actual knowledge
in the following sentence. — " In animals of a simple structure, polypi, entozoa,
and some others, in which no vascular system for the movement of the humours
has hitherto been discovered, the nutritious assimilated liquid passes directly into
the parenchyma of the body, with which it enters into combination." — Comp.
Physiology, p. 35.

* Trembley, Mem. pour I'hist. des Polypes, p. 25. Carus' Comp. Anat. i. p. 43.
— Mr Lister, however, says that " in the substance of the necks of the polypi
(of Sertularia pumila,) transverse lines were visible, bearing a resemblance to
those characteristic of voluntary muscles in the higher animals ;" but we may
doubt whether they are truly muscular, for this accurate observer shortly after
acknowledges, that " nothing like muscular contraction was seen in the pulp
of this (Plumularia setacea,) or any other species." — Phil. Trans. 1-334, pp.
371-372.

f The figures represent Hydra viridis in various attitudes and states.

38 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

have not the same appearance, — they taper a little, and are
roughened with minute wart*=; generally arranged in an imper-
fectly verticiliate fashion ; and in their evolution they are less re-
gularly campanulate, one or more being usually in action and
movincr from the outline of the circle. The stomach is not a
distinct sac, but a simple cavity towards the centre of the body,
" neither figured nor limited by particular membranes," and
from which the indigestible remains of the food are ejected at
the same aperture by which it had entered, for the aperture in
the base of the stomach or intestine seems to be appropriated
to other offices. And in reference to its relation with the poly-
pidom there is this difference, — the hydraform polype is not
connected with the cell by any membrane or ligament, hut ra-
ther sits free within its miniature cup, retained there only by
the gelatinous living pedicle which is prolonged from its base
down the sheath, and binds all the polypes of the polypidom
in one sympathizing family.

But this description is applicable only to the Hydra itself,
and to those compound species which tenant the cups of the
plant-like polypidoms embraced in the order Zoophyta hydroida.
The polypes of the Asteroid zoophytes, although evidently mo-
delled on the same type, have made considerable advances to-
wards complexity of organization, and their relation to the poly-
pidom is entirely altered. Hitherto the polypidom has been,
what its name imports, a cell for retreat in danger, and in ordi-
nary an extravascular insensible sheath to protect the contained
animal from the rude contact of the circumfluent element; but
now we find it occupying an internal position, and instead of a
covering it has become a sort of prop or skeleton to a fleshy
crust in which the polypes are immersed. In the Alcyonium
this interior support is scarcely to be recognized in some cal-
careous snicula scattered throuoh the central mass, but in Pen-
natula it forms a bone stretched like a vertebral column from
one extremity to the other, and in Gorgonia it is ramified into
branches after the manner of a tree. It is this axis, under what-
ever shape it appears, which is the true analogue of the polypi-
dom of the ascidian and hydraform polypes, although the name
certainly has no suitableness here, for the polypes not only cannot
nestle in that which is uncellular, but they have no immediate

OF POLYPES.

39

connection with it. They, as ah-eady mentioned, are found
Iodised in a sort of Fig. 5.

cell (Fig. 5. a.) exca-
vated in a sarcoid crust,
which constitutes the
main bulk of the po-
Ivpiferous mass, and
which, in fact, is no-
thinof more than a mo-
dification of the bases
and outer skin of the
polvpes hardened by a
deposition of calcareous
granules and spicula,
and made more coria-
ceous in texture, to
bear with impunity^the
contact and ruffling of
the water.* This crust is accordingly a living irritable struc-
ture, permeated by tubes prolonged from the polypes and by
capillary canals, for the conveyance of water and nutriment to

every part.

The connection between the crust and the polypes is there-
fore of the most intimate kind, and if for conveniency the latter
are separately described, the reader should ever remember, that
this separation is a forced and artificial one. An asteroid po-
lype mass is known by the orifices of the cells forming on the sur-
face a mark more or less resembling a star, as commonly repre-
sented in maps— hence the name of the order: when the polype is

* " Lorsqu'on observe les Alcyons dans leiir etat naturel, la ligne de demarca-
tion entre ces deux parties parait bien tranchie, et on pouvrait au premier abord,
croire ces petits animaux loges dans des cellules au pourtour de rouverture des-
qnelles ils adhereraient ; mais quand on eleve a I'aide d'un acide etendu d'eau,
le depit calcaiie dont la base du polype est environee, on voit qu'il y a entre
ces parties continuite organique, et que la ceUule polypifere n'est autre chose
que la portion inferieure du corps du polype qui, en se contractant, rentre e,,
luimeme, comme nous I'avons deja vu pour les Alcyonides. Le polypier com-
mun n'est en effet autre chose que la rcsultat de I'aggregation intime de la por-
tion basilaire des polypes." Milne- Edwards in Ann. des Sc. Nat. iv. 336. an
1835. The student may compare this with Lamouroux's description of the Gor-
gonia. Corallina, j). VJH.

40 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

protruded from this cell the body has a cylindrical figure, its
upper disk surrounded by eight short pectinated hollow tenta-
cula, in the centre of which the mouth is situated, leading into
a distinct stomach, which is as it were suspended in the centre,
and sustained there by eight thin membranous septa, which,
stretched between the outer surface of the stomach and the in-
ner surface of the external tunic, divide the intervening space
into eight equal compartments. The base of the stomach is
perforated like the mouth, and from the margin of the aperture
depend eight white tortuous filaments, which hang, either loose
or connected to a continuation of the membranous septa, in a
wide abdominal cavity, immediately underneath the stomach.
This cavity is again continuous with a tube which penetrates
the common mass, communicating freely bv anastomoses with
the tubes of other polypes, and with a fine net-work of capilla-
ry vessels, formed in the spaces between them, by means of
small apertures in their walls. ( Fig. 5. *) In this manner there
is effected a very free communication between the individuals
of each common mass, so much so, that the water swallowed by
iiny one polype of it rapidly permeates the whole, -f- By tra-
cing the course of the fluid we may obtain a clearer view of the
organization. The water then enters the mouth, and passes
through the cylindrical gullet and stomach into the abdominal
cavity ; thence part of it, flowing through the canals formed
by the septa stretched between the stomach and outer tunic,
passes into the tentacula with whose cavity the canals are con-
tinuous, and by means of small apertures in the sides of the
hollow tentacula, the water penetrates and unfolds the cilia,
with which these tentacula are fringed. By the distension from
the water thus introduced, the body of the polype and its ten-
tacula are forced beyond the surface, and every organ fully dis-
played. Another portion of the water in the abdominal cavity
passes into the tube continuous with it, fills it and the others
in connection with it, and by means of holes in their parietes
finds access into the intermediate capillary net-work, so that
the whole mass is permeated with the fluid, and all and every

* A longitudinal section of Aleyoiiium tligitatum.

-f- Milne- Edwards has proved this by a decisive experiment — Ann. dcs Sc.
Nat. iv. 3:28, and 338, an. 18.3.5.

OF POLYPES. 41

portion distended to a bulk which may be more than double of
that which it had previous to the introduction of the fluid, and
which it resumes when, from the application of irritants, the
polypes contract themselves, and by their contractions force out
all the imbibed water.— The tortuous filaments suspended from
the base of the stomach have been generally taken for ovaries,
but the observations of Dr Grant and M. Edwards seem to
have disproved this opinion. The latter of these eminent na-
turalists believes them to be analogous to the biliary canals of

insects. *

The affinity in structure between the asteroid zoophytes and
those which we name helianthoid, from their resemblance to some
compound flowers, is evident, although in the latter there is a
still further recession from the simplicity of polype anatomy .
We find in them a mucous coat covering the surface, — beneath
it a layer of transverse submuscular fibres, while the body is sup-
ported by numerous strong cartilaginous lamellse arranged in
longitudinal parallelism. Each of the lamellae is attached in-
feriorly to the circular layer which constitutes the base of the
animal, and divides into three fascicles,— one which goes to the
stomach and to the rim of the oral aperture, — another to the
roots of the tentacula,— and the third is prolonged to the outer
labial border, where it is bent back to form its free margin, f
The stomach has its distinct and proper parietes ; there are
special organs for the developement of the reproductive gemmae ;
and even some traces, as is asserted, of a nervous system ; while
the numerous tentacula are perforated like canals, in order that
the water of respiration may be introduced into the interior, and
the nutritive fluids more thoroughly influenced by its oxygen.

It has been mentioned already that there is no proper circu-
lation— no movement of a fluid analogous to blood in appropri-
ate vessels — in any zoophyte, but in many of the hydroida it
has been discovered that there is a continuous and uniform cur-
rent of a fluid, containing granular bodies which have them-
selves a rotatory motion, within the tubular portions of the horny
polypidom. Cavolini first detected this sort of circulation, which

* Ann. des Sc. Nat. iv. 331 ; an. 1835.
f Blaitiville, Man. d'Aftinologie, p. 68.

42 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

is very similar to what has been observed in the Chara and other
plants, in the Sertularia; and recently Mr Lister has confirm-
ed this discovery, and ascertained the existence of the same
phenomenon in almost all the genera of the order. 'J he result
of his curious observations is thus summed up by Dr Roget.
" In a specimen of the Tubularia indivisa, when magnified one
hundred times, a current of particles was seen within the tubular
stem of the polype, strikingly resembling, in the steadiness and
continuity of its stream, the vegetable circulation in the Chara.
Its general course was parallel to the slightly spiral lines of ir-
regular spots on the surface of the tube, ascending on the one
side, and descending on the other ; each of the opposite cur-
rents occupjing one-half of the circumference of the cylindric
cavity. At the knots, or contracted parts of the tube, slight
eddies were noticed in the currents ; and at each end of the
tube the particles were seen to turn round, and pass over to the
other side. In various species of Sertularise, the stream does
not flow in the same constant direction ; but, after a time, its
velocity is retarded, and it then either stops, or exhibits irregu-
lar eddies, previous to its return in an opposite course ; and so
on alternately, like the ebb and flow of the tide. If the cur-
rents be designedly obstructed in any part of the stem, those
in the branches go on without interruption, and independently
of the rest. The most remarkable circumstance attending
these streams of fluid is, that they appear to traverse the cavity
of the stomach itself, flowing from the axis of the stem into that
organ, and returning into the stem, without any visible cause de-
termining these movements." *

The power which sets in motion and maintains this current
is yet undiscovered. Professor Grant asserts that it depends
on the action of minute vibratile cilia, — " the common agents
of all analogous movements in the lowest tribe of animals, ""f* —
but no direct observation has confirmed this explanation, which,
it will be observed, is founded on analogy only, and it has this
in opposition — that the non-existence of cilia in the external or-
gans of the zoophytes in question has been distinctly proved.

* Bridgew. Treat. Vol. ii. p. 233. See also Tiedemann's Comp. Pliysiol.
p. 150, Ent. Mag. Vol. iii. p. 174: and Grant's Outlines of Comp. Anat. p.
429-30.

t Oiitliiu's ()(' Coinj). Aunt. p. 430.

OF POLYPES. 43

As to the purpose of the circulation in the animal's economy, it
appears, from the experiments of Mr Lister, " to be the great
ao-ent in absorption, and to perform a prominent part in the ob-
scure processes of growth; and its flow into the stomach of the
polypi seems to indicate that in the very simple structure of this
family it acts also as a solvent of the food.— The particles car-
ried by it," continues Mr Lister, " present an analogy to those
of the blood in the higher animals on one side, and of the sap
of vegetables on the other. Some of them appear to be deriv-
ed from the digested food, and others from the melting down
of parts absorbed ; but it would be highly interesting to ascer-
tain distinctly how they are produced, and what is the office they
perform, as well as the true character of their remarkable acti-
vity and seemingly spontaneous motions ; for the hypothesis of
their individual vitality is too startling to be adopted without good

evidence."*

'Ihis sort of circulation is not to be confounded with those
aqueous currents which flow over the surfaces of the external
organs of the ascidian polypes.f It has been already stated

* Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 377.

f Dr Grant repeatedly asserts that the tentacula of the hydraform polypes are
also ciliated, and I would not have dared to controvert this statement, although
my ov.-n observations had long ago satisfied me of its incorrectness, had it not
been at variance with the observations of others who have especially directed
their attention to the subject Raspail states that he was not able to discover
anything analogous to cilia on the tentacula of the Hydra, ( Org. Chem- p. 293 ;)
and Dr Sharpey says, that in the form of polype " which exists iu most true
species of Scrtularia, Carapanularia, and Plumularia, and in aUied genera, the
tentacula or arms are destitute of cilia, and incapable of giving an impulsion to
the M>«<e»-."— Cyclopedia of Anat. and Physiology, Vol. i. p. 611. The observa-
tions of Mr Lister are equally decisive. Phil. Trans. 18-34, p. 377.

Raspail maintains that there are really no cilia, but that the appearance
of them is occasioned by currents of fluid aspired or drawn to and within the
body, and expired or driven from it, and these currents are said to be produced
by the difference of temperature between the fluid in the body and exterior to
it. " A happy conjecture led me to consider these vibratory cilia as being mere-
ly streams of a substance either inspired or expired, but at any rate of a diflfe-
rent density, and consequently of a different refractive power from the surround-
ing medium." P. 293 " The cilia of a respiratory organ are, then, the effect

of a diflTerence of density between the water expired, and that in which the ani -
mal swims. Now there is no difficulty in admitting that, since caloric is disen-
gaged in the respiration of animals of a supeiior order, it may also be disengag-
ed, although, if we may so speak, in a microscopic proportion, during the act of

44 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

that innumerable cilia or miniature lamellae clothe the surfaces
of their tentacula, and by their rapid vibrations drive a constant
equable stream of water along one side, which returns along the
other in an opposite direction : and by this means the purposes of
respiration are effected, and the nutrient fluid fitted for assimila-
tion with the body. The cilia, to adopt the language of Pro-
fessor Grant, " are disposed and moved in such a manner as
that the streams which they produce in the surrounding water
are driven along the one side of the tentaculum from the mouth
of the polypus, and on the other side of the tentaculum always
towards the mouth of the polypus. And we never find that di-
rection of their motion reversed, or that direction of the cur-
rents changed, by which their respiration is effected and their food
obtained. They are vibratile on the arms of most of the lower
zoophytes, as sertularise, plumularise, serialarise, cellarise, flustrse,
alcyonia, which keep their arms stiffly out in a regular cam-
panulate form, while the currents flow to their mouth. When
we watch the sides of the tentacula of these animals with atten-
tion, and by the aid of powerful glasses, we see the extreme ra-
pidity of the movements, and the remarkable regularity of the
form, disposition, and motions, of those singular vibratile bodies.
From the number of them, exceeding sometimes 400,000,000
in a single animal, it is not probable that their extraordinary
movements are the result of any spontaneous efforts of the ani-
mal, or are accompanied with any kind of perception or con-
sciousness in these animals, which have never been found to
present a single nerve in their bodies. The independent na-
ture of the motion of those minute respiratory organs is observ-
ed when we cut off the tentacula altogether ; and observe, that

expiration in the Infusoria and the Molluscce. The difference, then, between the
density of the water expired and that of the surrounding water, proceeds from
a difference of temperature." P- '297 — Raspail has defended this explanation
of the phenomena at great length in the Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. de

Paris, Tome iv. p. 131 — 142 Dr Mayer also denies the existence of cilia,

and concludes that the motion is produced by a peculiar substance named
by him " vibratory matter," which adheres to the surfaces on which the pheno-
menon shows itself. Brit, and Foreign Med. Rev. Vol. iii. p. 467. The expla-
nation of Raspail, and the foolish hypothesis of Mayer, are completely disproved
by the observations of Professor Grant on the Bcroe ; (Trans. Zool. Soc. i.
p. 11.) and of Dr Sharpey on numerous animals — Edin. New Phil. Journ.
July 1835.

OF POLYPES. 45

they still continue the rapid vibration of their cilia ; and though
severed from the polypus, the tentacula continue to move for-
ward through the water; the severed tentaculum of a flustra is
Seen to swim through the water like a worm. The number of
those organs varies much ; they are eight in Serialaria lendigera,
and in Plumularia falcata, fourteen in Cellaria avicularia, twenty-
two in Flustra carbasea. The effect of those motions of the
ciha again is obviously to change the stratum of water constant-
ly in contact with the most delicate fleshy parts of those zoo-
phytes, with the highly organized soft irritable fleshy polypi. Thus
they aerate the cellular texture of their body, at the same time
that they bring the animalcules — their ordinary food — within the
grasp of the tentacula."*

All polypes — ascidian and hydraform — subsist on animal mat-
ter, feeding upon it either in a living state, or dissolved and sus-
pended in the circumfluent medium. The Hydrse and smaller
species seize on worm.s and animalcules brought accidentally with-
in reach, or carried into the vortex formed by the play of the
tentacular cilia :-|- the larger kinds (Helianthoida) sw^allow small
crabs and shelled mollusca, rejecting the shells after having
sucked out the soft contents. The food, in the Hydroida, is
dissolved and necessarily made chylous in the stomach, and di-
rectly absorbed from it ; but in the ascidian it is probable that
the process of chylification is not completed until the food has
passed into the intestine. In the higher animals the chyle is
mixed with the blood and exposed to the influence of atmosphe-
rical air before it is fitted for assimilation and growth ; and though
bloodless, this air is no less necessary to the growth and exist-
ence of polypes, which soon languish and die in vessels of un-

* Lect. C'omp. Anat. in the Lancet, 1834, Vol. ii. p. 959 " All the cilia ap-
pear to commence and to cease their motions at the same moment. The con-
stancy with which they continue would seem to exclude the possibility of their
being the result of volition ; and they are, therefore, more probably determined
by some unknown physical cause, dependent, however, on the life of the animal.'
Roget, Bridgew. Treat, i. 173.

f " II seroit cependant possible de croire que ces animaux pourroient aussi
bien se nourrir d'animalcules que les Hydres ; mais Cavolini dit positivemeut
que, quoiqu'il ait souvent observe des polypes de gorgones, de millepores dans
des eaux remplies d'animalcules, il ne les a jamais vus essayer a en saisir avec
leur tentacules." Blainville, Man. d'Actinol. p. 97. Raspail nevertheless proves
that they feed on them Mem. Soc. Hist- Nat. iv. p. 88.

4() STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

renewed water. Hence the current within the tubes of some
polypidonis which has been noticed : it is the movement of the
nutrient thiid which has found its way from the ahmentary sac
to tile surface of the body, where it is subjected to that agent
which alone can fit it for the purposes of Hfe.

Amongst zoophytes there is no distinction of sexes, but every
individual appears to be capable of producing reproductive buds
or gemmules, or even eggs.* For the production of these, there is,
in the opinion of some good observers, a peculiar organ or ovarium
in all the ascidian tribes, and it is certain that their eggs are aU
ways generated within the polype cell. There are appropriate
productive organs also in the Helianthoida and Asteroida, in the
former situated between the ligamentous dissepiments which ra-
diate from the mouth to the base, between the stomach and the
skin ; and in some of the latter attached to the membranous
dissepiments in the abdominal cavity, while in others the gem-
mules appear to sprout from every part of the abdominal cavity,
and of the tube continuous with it. On the contrary, there is
no local generative organ in any Hydroida — all are " full of re-
productive life :" in the Hydra germs, similar in all respects to
the substance of the body, sprout indiscriminately from every
part of the surface ; in the Tubulariadae they pullulate from
underneath the tentacula where they may frequently be observ-
ed in clusters, and, in both of these families, the germs are
naked or uncovered. But in the extensive family which em-
braces the Sertularia and all its subgenera, the gemmules, at-
tached in general to a central placenta, (which is but a continu-

* " These corpuscles differ from true ova and seeds, which are ripened by fe-
cundation, inasmuch as the substance of which the new being is formed is r.ot,
as ova and seeds are, enclosed in a special envelope, which is separated from
them at the moment of the developement of the germ, and inasmuch as the
formation of the new individual is owing to the entire substance of the repro-
ductive corpuscle." — Ticdemann's Comp. Phy. 42 — " In the present slate of
our knowledge, however," as Dr Allen Thomson well remarks, " the distinction
between an ovum and a sporule (orgemmule) must be admitted to be somewhat
arbitrary." — Cyclop, of Anat. and Phys. ii. 4-34.

In reference to the asexual character of Zoophytes it seems proper to mention
in this note, that S\n\ and M. Delle Chiaje consider the Actiniae to be bisexous
or herma])hroditical, (Blainv. Actinol. p. 79) ; and Raspail has hinted that a si-
milar doublencss may be the property of the Alcyonella — Mem- sup. cit. p. 112.
Nothing has yet been advanced to give these opinions a probable aspect.

OF POLYPES. 47

Htion of the fleshy central part of "the stem,) are enclosed in ve-
sicles of the same texture as the polypidom itself, and neither
proceed from, nor have any immediate connection with, the
proper body of the polype, being evolutions from the pith or
fleshy axis which connects the polypes together, and binds the
various heads into one whole. — Such is a brief summary of the
facts ascertained on this head, but it behoves me to mention
that it is, to a certain extent, at variance with the opinions of
Professor Grant. He maintains from his numerous observa-
tions on a great variety of zoophytes, that the gemmules by
which these animals propagate are highly organized portions of
the gelatinous substance of the parent, formed " in almost every
known zoophyte," and not merely in the Hydrazoa, as we have
limited it, " by the common connecting substance of the ani-
mal, and not by the polypi, which appear to be only the mouths
or organs of digestion. In Plumularia?, Sertulariae, Campanu-
lariae, horny Cellarite, Antennulariae, the ova are formed in ve-
sicles which originate from the centre of the stem. In Flustra?,
calcareous Celiarise, and some others, the ova are formed in the
cells, but exterior to the bodies of the poh/pi, which disappear
before the ova arrive at maturity. In the Lobidarise, Gorgonise,
Spongiae, Clione, &c. the ova are formed and matured in the
common Jleshy substance of the body before they advance to be
discharged through the polypi, or the fecal orifices."*

I'he oemmules exhibit considerable variety in colour, — they
are milk-white, yellow, red, pink or green, but sometimes the
colour is not fully developed until near maturity. In all the as-
cidian polypes they are globular or have a tendency to that form,
and appear to preserve it until after their discharge from the
body ; but in the Hydroida this is not the case, for although
spherical in their earlier stages, " their shape alters on approach-
ing maturity ; it elongates, becomes elliptical, next prismatic,
and at length each corpusculum issues as a perfect animal from
the orifice of the vesicle," and exhibits in figure and in motion
much resemblance to the little leech-like Planaria?. (Fig. 6.-}-)

' Edin. Journ. of Science, No. 14.

t The figures represent the gemmules of Plumularia pluma. For the draw-
ing I am indebted to my friend Dr Coldstream of Leith.

48 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

The gemmules are all clothed uiili vibratile Fig. 6.

cilia similar to those of the tentacula of the

parents. Sometime previous to their dis- / <^j M \ r^

charge from the polypidom 'they are observ- I / I f) \J J

ed to be in a constant rotatory motion, by
which their birth seems to be facilitated ; and now at liberty in
the water they move and swim about as if they were guided by
volition and sense, whirling at the same time on their own axis.*
This freedom to move whither they hst may continue for several
hours, or even for two or three days, before a proper site for
their permanent stay and future growth is found, when they
begin to shoot up rapidly into those beautiful forms particular
to each species, as the Supreme Being has ordered and deter-
mined. The transformation of the ova, says Di' Grant, " from
their moving, irritable, and free condition of animalcules, to that
of fixed and almost inert zoophytes, exhibits a new metamor-
phosis in the animal kingdom, not less remarkable than that of
many reptiles from their first aquatic condition, or that of insects
from their larva state." One purpose of this mobility in the
ova is obvious ; — it is a means ordained for their diffusion, for
the parents being fixed immoveably to one spot, the reproduc-
tive germs would have dropt and sprung up at their roots, had
thev not, bv some such mechanism as we have described, been
carried to a distance, and spread over the bosom of the deep.

The evolution of the gemmules, subsequent to their fixation, has
been minutely traced by Professor Grant and Sir J. G. Dalyell.
When the bud falls from the crested head of Tubularia indivi-
sa, slight prominences, enlarged at the tips, pullulate from the
under surface, and the " nascent animal" elevating itself on
these rudiments of the tentacula, as on so many feet, enjoys the
faculty of locomotion. " Apparently selecting a site, it reverses

♦ In reference to those of Flustra carbasea — and tlie observation appears to
be very generally applicable — Dr Grant says — " they are very irritable, and are
frequently observed to contract the circular margin of their broad extremity, and
to stop suddenly in their course when swimming ; they swim with a gentle glid
ing motion, often appear stationary, revolving rapidly round their long axis, with
their broad end uppermost, and they bound straight forward, or in circles, with-
out any other apparent object, than to keep themselves atloat till they tlnd them-
selves in a favourable situation for fixing and assuming the perfect state." — Edin.
New Phil. Journ. iii. 117.

3

OF POLYPES, 49

itself to the natural position with the tentacula upwards, and is
then rooted permanently by a prominence, which is the mcipi-
ent stalk, originating from the under part of the head. Gra-
dual elongation of the stalk, afterwards continues to raise the
head, and the formation of the zoophyte is perfected."*— So
the worm-like embryo of the vesiculiferous Hydroida, a few days
after its exclusion from the vesicle, becomes stationary and con-
tracts into a circular or spherical spot which always retains its
original colour. It is transparent and soft, but in a short time
some opaque fleshy spots are visible within it, and are separated
by a thin homogeneous transparent substance, which is to form
the future polypidoni. " As yet it is exceedingly minute, soft,
and gelatinous ; but in the progress of its growth, the soft, thin,
homogeneous substance of the exterior becomes more dense,
embracing the first formed parts of the fleshy substance, indeed
all parts, and the whole jelly, with its thin covering, and con-
tinues to advance and to radiate. Then we observe a stem be-
ginning to rise from the centre of these radii of roots, which are,
in fact, the first formed parts that the little round gemmule
shoots out. So that the gemmule is become, not a polypus but
a root. It begins then to rise from the centre of the roots, and
at length to divide ; so it will at length form on its branches a
cell, at the bottom of which cell will gradually be developed a
polypus." -f In the Flustra and other ascidian zoophytes the pro-
cess is very similar, but in these, instead of the rootlets and little
embryo stalk, a cell is the part first formed, in which a polype
quickly and almost coetaneously developes itself; and this ori-
ginal cell and polypus is as large, as perfect, as fit for every pur-
pose to which it is destined as any of those which are in rapid
succession evolved from its sides and apex, for age adds only to
the number of individuals in the polypidom, and nothing to
their perfection.

* Dalyell in Edin. New Phil. Joiirn. xvii. 412.
f Grant, in the Lancet, 1834, Vol. i. p. 229.

Additional Notes.

1. BaspaiVs Description of the Structure of Polypes.

" I have pointed out tliat the polypus is nothing but the continuation of its

case, which becomes bony or cartilaginous in the lower part, in proportion as

the upper part is developed. Consequently its tube, or rather its involucrum,

D

50 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

instead of being a shapeless transudation from its body, is formed by successive
additions of epidermoid membranes applied over each other in proportion as
they are successively ossified. 1 have pointed out also that these polypi are
merely microscopic fixed Cephalopodes, having, hke the large species of this
genus, a bag which is contained within the tube, an excrementitial funnel, ovaries,
an intestinal canal with similar curvatures, and a head with all its aecessories
equally corresponding ; so that, if the Sepia, for example, instead of having the
dorsal part of its large bag ossified, had undergone the same change over the
whole external circumference of this organ, and if its base had been fastened by
an adhesive substance to a rock, it would have been exactly a gigantic polypus."
— New System of Org. Chem. p. 281-2. — Obs. The species on which Raspail
made these curious observations are not mentioned in the work from which the
extract is taken : they are applicable only to the ascidian polypes, and were
indeed derived from the Alcyonella stagnorum, as we learn from his Memoir on
this species in the fourth vol. of " Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat. de Paris."

2. Dr Grant's Account nf the Ova of the Fhistra.
" Although the ova of Flustrae have been often observed, no one appears to
have hitherto examined either their mode of formation within the cells, or their
mode of developement after expulsion, so as to determine the real nature of these
globular bodies, and the erroneous conjectures of naturalists respecting them have
greatly perplexed the history of this genus. The ova of the F. carbasea make
their first appearance as a small yellow point, a little below the aperture of the
cell, and behind the body of the polypus ; they are unconnected with the poly-
pus, and appear to be produced by the posterior wall of the cell, in the same man-
ner as the axis, or common connecting substance of the polypi, produces them in
other zoophytes. In this rudimentary state, they are found in the same cells
with the healthy polypi, but, before they arrive at maturity, the polypi of such
cells perish, and disappear, leaving the entire cavity for the developement of the
ovum. There is never more than one ovum in a cell, and it occupies about a
third of the cavity, when full grown and ready to escape. When first visible,
it has a round or slightly oblong and regular form ; when mature, it is ovate with
the small end next the aperture of the cell. The ova do not appear in all the
cells at one time, nor is there any discernible order as to the particular cells
which produce ova, or the part of the branch which contains them. Cells con-
taining ova are found alike on every part of the branches, from the base to with-
in two or three rows from the apex, occupied only by young polypi. Some-
times we find half a dozen or a dozen of contiguous cells all containing ova,
sometimes two or three only ; and often such cells occur singly, at short and
irregular distances from each other. We find the ova in all stages of maturity
on the same branch at the same time ; and we seldom observe a specimen of
the F. carhasea, during the months of February, March, and April, which does
not contain numerous ova. The ova have a lively yellow colour ; and when
they occur abundantly on a specimen or a part of a branch, they cause it to ex-
hibit the same lively hue, which is very dilferent from the dull spotted brown
appearance which the branches present at other seasons. Cells are often ob-
served on different parts of the branches, containing neither polypi nor ova ; but
the fewness of these, and the great lumiber of cells still containing only polypi
at the season of generation, render it probable that polypi are regenerated in the

3

OF POLYPES.

51

empty cells after the escape of tlie ova. In the empty cells from wLich the
ova have escaped, we frequently observe a few remains of the former polypus,
lying at the place where the body of the polypus bifurcated, and where the prin-
cipal connection seems to exist between the polypus and the axis ; we likewise
perceive numerous nionades and other animalcules busily employed in consum-
ing the remains of the dead polypus. The ovum, even before arriving at ma-
turity, exhibits very obvious signs of irritability, frequently contracting different
parts of its surface, and shrinking backward in its cell ; the cilia on its surface
are likewise observed in rapid motion within the cell, as in the ciliated ova of
other zoophytes. The matuie ova are often found with their small end pro-
jecting from the opening of the cells, and their final escape is aided by the in-
cessant vibrations of the cilia covering their surface, by the ova contracting them-
selves in their lateral direction, by the waves agitating the branches of the flus-
tra, and by the same incomprehensible laws which regulate the formation and
growth of the ova, and the whole economy of this zoophyte." — Edin. New. Phil.
Journ. iii. II 6-7.

Egg of Alcyoxidium hirsuti'm.

52 FORMS OF THE POLYPIDOMS.

CHAPTER III.

The Classifications of Zoophytes.

The existence of a polypidom is not, as has been already
mentioned, essential to a polype ; nor does it exercise, when
present, that great influence over the organization of its archi-
tects and tenants which might have been anticipated. Thus
the animal of the madreporous Caryophylisea does not essential-
ly differ from the naked Actinia; and the gelatinous Hydra is
a true representative of the tenant of the sheathed Sertulariadse
and Tubularia. No ascidian polype, however, is ever found
detached, and without a polypidom ; and it is the same with all
our native Astroida, but, perhaps, the clustered animal-flower
(Actinia sociata, Ellis, Zoanthus, Cuv.) of the Caribbsean sea,
might take its place in this tribe with greater propriety than in
any other.

In reference to their composition, Polypidoms may be divid-
ed into 1. the stony or calcareous, 2. the membrano-calcareous,
and 3. the horny and flexible ; but the line which separates these
divisions is often as uncertain and debateable as that which is
traced between the sister kingdoms. All are composed of the
same materials, viz. lime, and a gelatinous or membranaceous
substance ; and their peculiar characters depend on the differ-
ent proportions in which the materials are mixed. The calca-
reous, which are hard and inflexible, and, when dry, assume a
white colour, consist principally of carbonate of lime, with a small
quantity of the phosphate of the same earth, and the gelati-
nous matter which cements them into one coherent mass, is in
sparing proportion : that proportion is so greatly increased in
the polypidoms of the second section, that when the earthy in-
gredients have been removed by the action of diluted acids, the
structure retains its original form, and is, in fact, reduced to the

FORMS OF THE POLYPIDOMS. 53

condition of the polypidoms of the third section, which contain
no Hme, or very little of it, but are formed of a condensed gela-
tinous membrane, which resembles horn in every essential pro-
perty.*

These diversities in their chemical composition appear to be
of little value, either in a physiological or systematical point of"
view, for in every order of polypiferous zoophytes, we find calca-
reous and horny polypidoms. A curious species of Actinia se-
cretes a horny basis, the first rudiment of a madrepore ;-\- but all
other madrepores are calcareous : the axis of the Astroida is
sometimes of lime, sometimes of horn, and sometimes of mem-
brane : the polypidoms of the Hydroida are flexible and horny
without perhaps any exception; but there is no hesitation in as-
serting, that the ascidian tribes fabricate productions, some of
which are referable to every class that the chemist could devise.

The reader who is not already familiar with the outward forms
of our native polypidoms, will most easily obtain a correct idea
of them, by examining the figures which illustrate this work.
The very few and insignificant madrepores, or helianthoid poly-
pidoms, which inhabit the British shores, form either short cy-
linders or reversed cones, having the apex cupped and starred
with lamellae, which radiate from the depressed centre to the cir-
cumference. In the major part of the Astroida, or corticiferous
polypidoms, there is a central calcareous or horny axis, which
may be compared to the wood of a tree, and which is formed
by the successive deposition of layer over layer : this is coat-
ed or barked round with a living irritable flesh or jelly, thicken-
ed with calcareous matter, which has usually crystallized in the
form of spicula. The cells of the polypes are excavated in this
soft bark, on the surface of which they open by an aperture,
which is always cut into eight rays disposed in a starred fashion,
and corresponding to the number of the polype's tentacula; and this
aperture can be opened and shut at the pleasure of the inmates.
In Alcyonium, although an asteroid, there is no solid axis, but

" See Additional Note.

•f It has been doubted whether this horny base is formed by the Actinia, but
I quite agree with Dr Coldstream, that " it is secreted by its base, and that it
is as much part of the animal, in fact its skeleton, as are the calcareous axes of
Caryophyllaea, Fungia, &c. , between which and the true Actinia, it seems to form
a well-marked link." — See the Edin. New Phil. Journ. ix. p. 238.

54 FORMS OF THE POLYPIDOMS.

there is an evident tendency to its formation ; the materials lie
scattered in the form of spicula in the soft gelatinous centre;
and in the Cydonium these spicula have become so numerous,
that they impart considerable rigidity to the whole mass.

The polypidoms of the Hvdraform and Ascidian zoophytes
are more diversified in their fiijures and more decidedlv arbores-
cent. The latter are formed by an aggregation of distinct cells,
united in general after the fashion of the quincunx and spread
out into leaves or layers or compressed branches ; or the cells
being placed upon each other in pairs, or even in a single line,
they form neat confervoid tufts ; or lying immersed without any
very traceable pattern, the masses resulting from their union are
amorphous, or at least inconstant and irregular. The horny
material of the Hvdra tribe isalwavs formed into tubular sheaths
encasing the living flesh, jointed at intervals, sometimes of the
same calibre throuohout, but more commonlv dilated at intervals
into vases or cups, or cells, in which the proper body of the
polype is placed. The manner in which the sheath or tube is
divided and branched, is limited in diversity only by the num-
ber of the species, which are among the most delicate and in-
terestincr of all polypidoms, and pre-eminently imitative of vege-
table forms. These forms are of course altogether independent
of their aniniated tenants, — these " have been specifically ap-
pointed by Him to do what they have done, and are still effec-
tuating. They are meie instrumentalities at His conmiand.
They know nothing of the results they cause, nor mean to per-
form any of them, nor could of themselves co-operate with each
other, nor produce any systematical arrangement, or regulated
or orderly effects. It is their Master and Maker who organizes,
governs, and guides them to those movements and operations
which they perform, and from all others ; so that by His direct-
ing will they are made to do what we see them effect, and that
only because He restrains and averts them from all else."*

The formation of polypidoms has been the subject of con-
siderable discussion. The opinion of Ellis, as we have already
seen, was, that they are the result solely of a transudation, or
excretion of the constituent matters from the body of the poly-
pes, and this opinion has been maintained recently by Lamarck,

" Turner's Sac Hist, of the World, Vol. ii. p. 71.

FORMS OF THE POLYPIDOMS. 53

and some other naturalists. It rests on the assumption that the
polypidom is extravascuhir and inorganic, so that after its first
sohdification, it suffers no aUeration in form and quahty, beyond
what is evidently effected by the operation of chemical and me-
chanical causes : the changes resulting from its increase in size,
are not from the activity and pulsion of any inherent principle,
but from the super-imposition of additional layers, or from the
additions of new cells, or from the prolongation of the tubes,
which additions are all coetaneous with the growth and multi-
plication of the polypes, and the results of new secretions. Lin-
nceus, Pallas and Baster opposed Ellis, and believed in a vege-
tative principle, inherent in the polypidom itself, so that its growth
was in some measure independent of the living tenant ; and va-
rious arguments have been brought forward by Bory de St Vin-
cent,* which appear to him to demonstrate the truth of this
doctrine. We may act, however, not unreasonably in withhold-
ing our assent, for with such a feeble and errant point was the
argument handled that few felt its force, and the discussion has
continued even to this day in an unsettled state. It seems pro-
bable in fact that neither theory will explain the growth of all
polypidoms ; and as the peculiarities which distinguish these are
considerable and would render a general description involved and
obscure, I shall reserve the explanation of their mode of increase
for a section in the preface to each separate order. Enough
has in the meantime been said to show how unimportant the
polypidom must be as a primarij character in a natural classifi-
cation of zoophytes, and yet, until very recently, no other basis
was looked for or deemed available, and hence the artiiicialness
of the proposed " Systems" which, as a matter of history, we
now venture to review.

The Classifications of Zoophytes.
The main object of Ellis being to prove the animality of zoo-
phytes, he deemed a new classification of them unnecessary, and,
as it was sufficient for his purpose, he followed very closely that
which had been proposed by Ray in his Synopsisof British Plants, f
In successive chapters he treats of the vesiculated corallines
{ Sertulariadse), the tubular corallines (Tubularise), of the cel-

• Encyclop. Method, art. Zoophyte.

t Syii. Meth. Stirpium Brit. Edit. 3. Load. M'lA.

•)6 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

liferous (Cellariadae), and of the articulated corallines (Coral-
lina), of Keratophyta, of the Eschara, of the English corals, of
sponges, .of the Alcyonium, and of tubular corals, under which
head he describes several of the more common tubicolous
worms, which are found on our coast, and which have no rela-
tionship whatever to the other subjects of his treatise. Look-
ing back on this arrangement from our present vantage ground,
it appears disorderly and very defective, but when we reflect how
fmperfect the knowledge of species was at that period, and how
crude the notions were on the nature and use of systems, we
may find much to commend in it. Some of the chapters indeed
contain a mixture of very dissimilar things, but others may be
justly considered as so many natural genera or families, which
subsequent naturalists had merely to subdivide and name.

Linnffius — in every sense the first of systematists — published
the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758. In it the
avertebrate animals are arranged in two classes, Insecta and
Vermes, — and of the latter zoophytes, with the exception of Ac-
tinia which is placed amongst the mollusca, form the last two
orders which he named Lithophyta and Zoophyta. That we
may appreciate the nature and value of the changes proposed
subsequently to his time, it will be necessary to give the defini-
tions of his orders and genera.

I. " LITHOPHYTA Mollusca coraposita, basin solidam sedifi-

cantia.
TuBiPORA CoraUimn tubis cylindricis.
MiLT.EPORA CoraUium tubis obconicis teretibus.
Madrepora CoraUium tubis stellatis."

II. " ZOOPHYTA PlantaB vegetantes floribus aniraatis.

Isis Stirps radicata, lapidea, nuda, geniculis corneis.
GoRGONiA Stirps radicata, cornea, crustata, contlnua.
Alcyonium Stirps stuposa, corticata, contlnua.
TuBULARiA Stirps fistulosa, tunicata, subgeniculata.
Eschara Stirps papyracea, nuda, porosa.
CoRALLiNA Stirps fibrosa, crustata, artlculata : artlculls multi-

florls.
Sertularia /.V^tVjo* fibrosa, nuda, artlculata: artlculls unifloris.
Hydra Stirps subradlcata, gelatlnosa, apice florifera.
Pennatula Stirpjs libera, pennata, basl ore instructa.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 57

Tjenia Stirps libera, moniliformis, articiilata.
VoLVox Stir-ps libera, globosa, sobole nidulante." *

The precision of the definitions in this arrangement, and the
manner in which they are contrasted, is highly characteristic of
its author, but into many of the genera species are introduced,
which are not conformable to the definitions ; and some of these,
Pennatula and Hydra, for example, are grossly erroneous. The
theoretical character of the second order, and of some of its ge-
nera, might also be objected to in a matter-of-fact work ; but it
is an easy task for the student of the present sera to point out
defects in the method of the master who had to plan the way,
and who succeeded in making it level and easy to his followers.

Pallas, in 1766, embraced the Lithophyta and Zoophyta in
one order, for which he adopted the latter denomination, for he
very properly believed that the Linnsean distinctions served on-
ly to " divide the things that are in nature join'd." He sepa-
rated some spurious species of Hydra and formed them into the
genus BrachioriKS, which, though a good genus, is a duubtful
member of the order of zoophytes. His genus Antipathes, se-
vered from Gorgonia, is well defined ; and m\h equal propriety
he restored the celliferous corallines of Ellis, which Linnaeus
had mixed with the Sertularia, to a separate generic rank — Cel-
lularia. The claims of Taenia, Volvox, and Corallina to a place
amongst zoophytes were disallowed, although he has described
the species in an appendix, for he knew that Taenia properly
belonged to the intestinal worms, and Volvox to the infusorial
animalcules ; and he believed that Corallina was altogether of a
vegetable nature.

In the twelfth edition of the " Systema," published in 1767,
Linnaeus made no material improvements on his first system, but
the errors relative to the Hydra and Pennatula are corrected,
and the definitions in general are abridged and rendered less
theoretical. To the Lithophyta he added the genus Cellepora —
" corallium cellulis cavis ;" — and he followed Ellis and Pallas in
now introducing the Sponges into his second order. In this we
also find, for the first time, the genus Vorticella, which is near-
ly synonymous with the Brachionus of Pallas ; the Flustra, which

* Syst. Nat. p. 646. Halte Magdeburg. 1760,

58 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

is the same as Eschara of his preceding edition ; the Furia,
which is an apocryphal animal ; and the Chaos, which is an in-
fusory animalcule. Were we to analyze the genera we should
find, in almost every one of them, species which properly belong-
to a different class of animals, or whose characters are at vari-
ance with those assig-ned to the genus : but many of these mis-
placements were the almost necessary consequences of the then
state of knowledge relative to the beings in question.

Solander, in arranging the materials of Ellis, followed the
system of Pallas, but he introduced and placed the Actiniae at
the head of the order ; he entirely rejected all the intestinal
worms and infusory animalcules; and he amended the defini-
tions of the genera by carefully avoiding all theoretical phra-
seology. He used the term " Zoophyta" exactly in the same
sense, and with the same latitude, that it is used in the present
work.*

The method of Miiller cannot be considered as any improve-
ment on those of his predecessors, but there is an attempt after
novelty in it. He places the Actinia and the Hydra among the
MoUusca, an order full of heterogeneous things, embracing the
cuttle-fish, snails and star-fish ; and in the same order we find
the beautiful Lucernaria, one of the discoveries of this indus-
trious and excellent naturalist. The proper zoophytes he de-
nominates Cellularia, which are defined to be compound ani-
mals, enclosed in cells, and propagating by means of buds.
The genera are classed and defined as follows :

* Calcarea.

Articulata, tenera, . . Corallina.

Articulata, lapirlea, . . Isis.

Tubulosa, aggregata vel solitaria, . Tubipoka.

Foraminulosa, . . • Ckllepora.

Lamelloso-stellata, . . . Madrepora.

Pertusa poris, . . . Millepora.

** Subcornea.
Tubulosa, tenlaculis simplicibus, . Fistula bia.

Tubulosa, lentaculis cristatis, . Tubularia.

• The Natural History of .many rurious and uncommon Zoophytes, by the
late John Ellis, systematically arranged and desfribed by the late Daniel Soland-
er. I. find. 17H6. -tto.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 59

Ramosa, niida, ^ewtoCM^t* manifestis, . Sertularia.

Hamosu, incrustata, tent, inconspicuis, . Gorgonia.

*** Fungosa.

()ssiculum polypiferiim, . . Pennatula.

Suberosa, polypis stellatis, . . Alcyonium.

Stuposa, oscnlis hiantibus, . . Spongia.

Osculis atomiferis, . . . Clavaria.*

The last genus is a sort of mushroom \\hich Muller was led
to arrange among zoophytes from having witnessed the appa-
rent spontaneous movements of its sporules ; but no one has fol-
lowed him in this, ahhough, it may be remarked, that some re-
cent authors have no better reasons for their proposal to re-
move a large proportion of the aquatic algse to the animal king-
dom.

Blumenbach adopted the Linnsean class Vermes, and he also
retained the Actiniae in the order MoUusca, but the proper zoo-
phytes were differently arranged, and the alteration was unques-
tionably for the worse. The " polypes and other zoophytes
inhabitinof coral branches and similar structures" formed the or-
der Coralliu ; and his Zoophijta included only the " naked
plant-like animals without any habitations ; also the animalculse
of infusions!" The genera were the same, or nearly the same,
as the Linnoean, and followed one another apparently as their
names had risen in random series to his memory.^

About the beginning of the present century Cuvier first of all
pointed out the advantages of having our systematical arrange-
ments in harmony with anatomical structure, — of making the
one an index to the other, — of classifying animals not according
to one or two external characters which might really have little
or no influence upon their anatomy and habits, but according to
their agreement in those great systems by which the life, growth,
and propagation of creatures are upheld and carried on. When,
however, he began to arrange the animal kingdom according-
ly, the knowledge of the organization of Zoophytes was too im-
perfect to permit him to follow out his principles in this depart-

* Zoologise Danicse Prodromus, p. xxxi. Havn. 1776.

t Elements of Natural History, p. 269 and 274. Loud. 1825.

60 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

ment, and even his latest systematical attempt exhibits many de-
relictions of them. Having, at the suggestion of Pallas, establish-
ed a section of avertebrated animals for the reception of such as
exhibited in the disposition of their organs a radiated appearance,
to the whole of which he applied the term Zoophytes, he sub-
divided it into five classes, of which the last but one embraced
the subjects of the present treatise. They were named Polypes
because, from the tentacula encircling their mouth, they some-
what resembled the cuttle-fish called Polypus by the ancients ;
and they were defined to be little gelatinous animals the mouth
of which, encircled with the tentacula, lead into a stomach some-
times simple and sometimes furnished with intestines in the form
of vessels. It is in this class that we find those innumerable com-
pound animals, with a fixed and solid stem, which were so long re-
garded as marine plants. The following is a synopsis of Cuvier's
method, as it appears in the last edition of the " Regne Animal."*

Les Polypes.

Ord. I. P. CHARNUS.

Les Actinies. (Actinia, Lin.)

Actinia.

Zoanthus. Ctiv. (nov. gen.)
Les Lucernaires.

Lucernaria.

Orel. II. P. GELATINEUX.

Hydra.

Corine.

Cristatella. Cuv. (nov. gen.)

Vorticella.

Pedicellaria.

Ord. III. P. A POLYPIERS.

Fam. i. Les Polypes a tuyaux.
Tul)ipora.
Tubularia.
Sertularia.

Fam. ii. Polypes a cellules.
Cellularia.

* Paris, 18.30, Vol. iii. p. 289 el seq.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 61

Flustra.
Cellepora.
Tubiilipora.
Corallina.

Fam. iii. Les Polypes corticaux.
Tribe 1. Des Ceratophytes.

Antipatbes. ■

Govgonia.
Tribe 2. Les Lithophytes.

Isis.

JNIadrepora.

Millepora.
Tribe 3. Polypes Nageurs.

Pennatula. Subgenera — Pennatula, Cuv. Virgiilaria,
Lam. Scirpearia, Cuv. Pavonaria, Cuiu Renilla,
Lam. Veretillum, Cuv. Ombellularia, Cuv.
Tribe 4. Alcyons.

Alcyonium.

Spong-ia.

In the definitions there is throughout a certain degree of
vaofueness, or at least the absence of that finicalness, which
is so pleasing to the practical systematist ; and in the value
of the characters chosen to separate the orders and families
there is great inequality. Hydra and Corine, for example,
are more nearly allied to Tubularia and Sertularia, than
the latter are to the Ceratophytes, yet these are placed in one
and the same, and the Hydra in a separate order. Had the
Ceratophytes been elevated to the rank of an order, and the Ma-
drepora been removed to the Polypes chamus, the system would
have been improved, and no very obvious alliances broken. In
the subordinate parts of the system there are many misplace-
ments of the subgenera, as the genera of his contemporaries were
named, of which we may instance the Campanularia which is
placed under Tubularia of Linnaeus, to which, however, it has
certainly much less affinity than to the Sertularia, where it had
always hitherto been assigned.

In 1810, Lamouroux of Caen presented to the Academy of
Sciences of Paris a new classification of the flexible polypidoms;
and it would appear that Lamarck was engaged at the same time

Cy2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

in similar labours; but, proceeding on different principles, they
arrived at very different results. The anatomy of the workers
or polypes was, according to Lamouroux, so imperfectly ascer-
tained, and from their situation as well as from their minute-
ness, so little within attainment, that it seemed hopeless to pro-
cure materials for a classification from that source, and he con-
fined his attention solely to the polypidoms, on whose composi-
tion he founded his primary divisions. Lamarck, although he
also confined his examination to the polypidoms, took higher
ground : he maintained that as these were secreted by the poly-
pes and formed on and by them, a sameness in the structure of
the one necessarily implied a sameness in the structure of the
other; that in fact we might as safely infer a sameness of struc-
ture or dissimilarity from the various configurations of the poly-
pe-cells and coral, as we could from an actual inspection of the
animated tenants themselves. The experience of a few years
has shown either that Lamarck's examination of the coral was
hasty, or that his principle was erroneous, for his arrangement
is far from being in harmony with a physiological one, and,
although greatly superior to Lamouroux's, yet is not the less ar-
tificial ; there being even in some of his genera, species whose
polypes are widely at variance with each other. I do not mean
to trace the systems of either of these authors through their va-
rious changes, from their first promulgation to their perfection ;*
an outline of them in their latest state is sufficient for our purpose.

System of LAMOURoux.f (182L)

Division I.
POLYPIDOMS FLEXIBLE, OR NOT ENTIRELY STONY.

Section 1.
PoLYPiERS CELLULIFERES. — Polypes in non-irritable cellules.
Ord. I. Celleporees. — Tubulipore. Cellepore.
Ord. II. Flustrees. — Berenice. Pheruse. Elzerine. Flustre.
Electre.

* Blainville has given a history of all the proposed classificatiors in chrono-
logical series in his Manuel d'Actinologie, which the reader may consult with
advantage.

t The primary sections of this systematist may have been borrowed from J.
E. Roques de Maumont Sec Blainr. Man. d'Actinol. p. 2-3.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 6;i

Ord. III. Cellariees — Cellarie. Caberee. Canda. Acamarchis

Crisie. Menipcc. Loricaire. Eucratee. Alocto. Lafaee.

Hippothoe. Aetee.
Ord. IV. Sertulariees. — Pasythee. Amathie. Nemertesie. Aglao-

phenie. Dynamene. Sertulaire. Idie. Entalophore. Clytie.

Laomcdee. Thoee. Salacie. Cymodocee. Aniphitoite.
Ord. V. Tubulariees. — Tibiane. Nais. Tubulaire. Cornulaire. Te-

lesto. Liagore. Neoraeris.

Section II.
PoLYPiERS CAtciFERES — A calcareous substance mixed with the
animal matter or covering it, apparent in all its states.
Ord. VI. Acetabulariees — Acetabulaire. Polyphyse.
Ord. VII. Corallinees. — Galaxaure. Nesee. Janie. Coralline. Cy-
raopolie. Amphiroe. Haliraede. Udotee.

Section III.
PoLYPiERS CoRTiciFERES. — Composed of two substances, an exte-
rior and enveloping, named the bark or crust ; the other, called
the axis, placed in the centre and sustaining the tirst.
Ord. VIII. Spongiees — Ephydatie. Eponge.

Ord. IX. Gorgoniees .4nadyomene. Antipathe. Gorgone.

Plexaure. Eunicee. Municee- Primnoe. Corail.
Ord. X. Isidees. — Melitee. Mopsee. Isis.

Division II.
POLYFIDOMS ENTIPtELY STONY AND INFLEXIBLE.

Section I.
PoLVPiERs FORAMiNES. — Cells small, perforated, almost tubular,
without internal plates.
Ord. XI. Escharees. — Adeone. Eschare. Retepore. Discopore.

Diastopore. Obalie. Celleporaire.
Ord. XII. IVIilleporees. — Ovulite. Reteporite. Lunulite. Orbulite.
Ocellaire. IVIelobesie. Eudee. Alveolite. Distichopore.
Hornere. Krusensterne. Tilesie. Theonee. Chrysaore. Mil-
lepore. Terebellaire. Spiropore. Idmouee.

Section II.
PoLYPiERs LAMELLiFERES. — Stony, the cells in the form of lamel-
lated stars, or waved furrows garnished with lamellae.

64 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

Ord. XIII. Caryophyllaires.— Caryophyllie. Turbinolopse. Tur-
binolie. Cyclolite. Fongie.

Ord. XIV. Meandriiiees —Pavone. Apsendesie. Agarice. Mean-
di-ine. Monticulaire.

Ord. XV. Astrees.— Echinopore. Explanaire. Astree.

Ord! XVI. Madreporees— Porite. Seriatopore. Pocillopore. Ma-
drepore. Ociiline. Styline. Sarcinule.

Section III.
PoLYPiERs TUBULES.— Stony, formed of distinct and parallel tubes.
Ord. XVII. Tubiporees.— Catenipore. Favosite. Eunomie. Tubi-

pore.

Division HI-

POLYPIDOMS CARNOSE, MORE OR LESS IRRITABLE
AND WITHOUT A CENTRAL AXIS.

Ord. XVni. Alcyonees.— Alcyon. Lobulaire. Ammothee. Xenia.

Anthelie. Alcyonidee. Alcyonelle. Hallirhoe.
Ord. XIX. Polyclinees — Distome. SigiUine. Synoique. Aplide.

Polycline. Diderane. Eucelie. Botrylle.
Ord. XX. Actinaires.-Chenendopore. Hypalime. Lymnoree.

Pelagie. Montlivaltie. Isaure. leree.

Remark on this system seems almost unnecessary. The
student will deem it too complex with all its sections and sub-
sections ; and the experienced naturalist will at once eschew it
as only tending to embroil, and confuse and nulhfy all the know-
ledae which has been acquired on the structure and physiology
of the remarkable creatures which are here so elaborately mis-
arranged. Animals which the admirable anatomical researches
of Savignv had proved, by the consent of all, to belong to a dif-
ferent category, are here forcibly degraded to their Linnaean
rank, and stand in juxtaposition with true zoophytes on the
one hand, and doubtful ones on the .other ; and, perhaps to
make room for these pretenders, some rightful claimants, as
Hydra and Pennatula, are altogether excluded : some genera
so nearly aUied that their distinction may be questioned, for ex-
ample, Flustra and Eschara, stand in different divisions at wide
distances ; while others, which have not one character of im-
portance to connect, and every thing to dissever them, are placed

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 65

almost in juxtaposition, as the Sponges and the Gorgoniae. The
merits of Lamouroux have always appeared to me to have been
much overrated : it is a very easy matter, by arbitrarily fixing
on this or that character, to set in order any given number of
objects in any pattern we may choose, and Lamouroux had no
higher notion of the character of a systematist than this, and
acted accordingly. It is very true that he named and distinguish-
ed many genera, but who, on critically examining these genera,
will deny that he proceeded without caution and without judg-
ment,—determined apparently to make as many as could be
made that his successors might be spared the unprofitable task
of coining and inventing names ! *

System of Lamarck. (1816.)

Class POLYPI.
Order I. P. ciliati.
Polypes without tentacula, but having near the mouth, or at its ori-
fice, vibratile cilise or ciliated and rotatory organs which agitate

or whirl the water.

I. ^gc«Jo».— ViBRATiLES.— Rattulus, Tiichocerca, Vaginicola.

II. Section. Rotiferes. — FoUiculina, Brachionus, Furcularia,

Urceolaria, Vorticella, Tubicolaria.

Order II. P. denudati.
Polypes with tentacula, without an envelope or polypidom, and fixed
either permanently or spontaneously.

Hydra Coryne — Pedicellaria — Zoantha.

Order III. P. vaginati.
Polypes with tentacula, invariably fixed in an inorganic polypidom
which envelopes them ; and forming, in general, compound animals.

* Polypidoms of homogeneous composition.
I. Section. Polypiers fluviatiles.— Difflugia, Cristatella,
Spongilla, Alcyonella.

* BlainviUe in criticising Lamouroux's latest work, says—" Nous nous bor-
nerons a dire que Lamouroux a encore considerablement augraente le nombre
des genres, surtout parniiles polypiers pierreux, pour y placer un grand nombre
de corps organises fossiles, trouves dans le calcaire a polypiers de Caen, et que
malheureusement la plupart de ces genres sent mal caracterises, ce dent je me
suis assure directement sur les objets memes qui out servi a ses observations.
Man. d'Actinol. p. 54.

06 CLASSIFICATIOXS OF ZOOPHYTES.

II. Section. Polypiers vaginiformes. * Polypidoms naked, not

varnished nor encrusted on the exterior. (J) Cells terminal

Plumatella, Tubularia, Cornularia, Campanularia. (2)

Cells lateral — Sertularia, Antennularia, Plumularia, Seria-

laria. ** Polypidoms varnished or slightly crusted on the

exterior. Liriozoa, Cellaria, Anguinaria, Dichotoraaria,
Tibiana, Acetabulum, Polyphysa.

III. Section. PoLYPiERS A RESEAU. — Flustra, Tubulipora, Dis-

copora, Cellepora, Eschara, Adeona, Retepora, Alveolites,
Ocellaria, Dactylopora.

IV. Section. Polypiers foramines. — Ovuhtes, Lunulites, Or-

bulites, Distichopora, Millepora, Favosites, Catenipora, Tu-
bipora.

V. Section. Polypiers lamelliferes. — * Stars terminal — Sty-

lina, Sarcinula, Caryophyllia, Turbinolia, Cyclolites, Fungia.
** Stars lateral or spread over the surface — Pavonia, Aga-
ricia, Meandrina, Monticularia, Echinopora, Explanaria,
Astrea, Porites, Pocillopora, Madrepora, Seriatopora, Ocu-

lina.

VI. Section. Polypiers corticiferes — Corallium, Melitaea,

Isis, Antipathes, Gorgonia, Corallina.

VII. Section. Polypiers empates Penicillus, Flabellaria,

Spongia, Tethia, Geodia, Alcyonium.

Order IV. P. tubiferi.
Polypes united on a common fleshy living body, either simple or lob-
ed or branched, and attached by its base : no external polypidom ;
no solid internal axis ; the surface loaded with numerous tubiform
little cylinders, rarely entirely retractile. Mouth terminal ; ten-
tacula 8, pectinated ; no anus ; 8 longitudinal semi-partitions un-
derneath the stomach ; 8 intestines of two kinds ; 6 groups of gem-
mfB resembling as many ovaries.

Anthelia, Xenia, Ammothea, Lobularia.

Order V. P. natantes.
Polypes united on a common fi-ee elongated fleshy and organic body,
enveloping a cartilaginous almost bony and sometimes stony inor-
ganic axis. Tentacula set in a radiating manner round the mouth
of each polype.
Veretillum, Funiculina, Pennatula, Renilla, Virgularia, Encrinus,

Umbellularia.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 67

In the outline this system is not very materially different from
that of Cuvier, the deviations being sometimes for the better
and sometimes for the worse. If the Polypi ciliati are to be
numbered amongst proper zoophytes it is for the better to have
them placed in a separate order ; but Zoantha is badly associat-
ed with the Hydra, Coryne and the spurious Pedicellaria. The
Polypi vayinati, considered as an order, is a most heterogene-
ous collection ; and the manner in which it is subdivided into
sections, although in general excellent and worthy of commen-
dation, is yet far from unexceptionable ; and these exceptions
are very obvious in the first, sixth and seventh sections, in which
apolvpous, or it may be vegetable productions, are mingled with
real zoophytes. The characters which divide the Polypi tuhiferi
from the natantes are not of sufficient importance to be consider-
ed ordinal, (it would have been preferable to have made them fa-
milies in one order) ; and the location of the Encrinus in the latter
is the result of a most unlucky conjecture.* As a systematist, how-
ever, Lamarck has few equals, and probably, with the exception
of Linnaeus, not a superior : there is no vagueness nor ambiguity
about him, — all is clear, well arranged and ordered, and his
characters, which are usually well chosen, are defined in expres-
sive words and in a felicitous manner. These advantages have
given his System great currency, and though the favour shewn to
it has somewhat abated, it still holds its place, and is in frequent
use, with those who are engaged in arranging local catalogues and
museums.

Dr Fleming is the only British naturalist who has attempted

* According to Lamarck Nature could not have done othei-wise than she has
done, and we are repeatedly assured that his System is a naked exposition of her
necessitated steps in calling organized beings into existence ! After announcing
with an almost ludicrous degree of confidence and complacency, that this ficti-
tious Power can only complicate animal organizations in successive gradation, he
adds, — " La connaissance de cette v^rite me suffit ; je reconnais le veritable rang
des polypes, comme celui des infusoires ; j'aper9ois les rapports quiles lient les
uns aux autres, ainsi que ceux qui lient les families entr'elles ; enfin, je con9ois
les limites que la nature n'a pu franchir dans la composition de I'organization de
ces animaux, d'apres celles que je decouvre dans ceux des classes superieures.
Je puis done dire positivement, a I'egard des polypes, comme a celui de bien
d'autres, ce que la nature n'a pas pu faire." Anim. s. Vert. ii. 8 — What a hu-
miliating commentary and lesson have the discoveries of a few short years af-
forded on this passage !

68 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

an original classification of Zoophytes, and although no one,
from his previous studies and important discoveries relative to
their structure and functions, ever came better prepared for the
task, yet the system he framed is assuredly not superior to those
of his predecessors. The Actinise and Lucernaria were collocated
with the Radiata acalejjha or sea-jellies, and the Zoophyta divid-
ed into four orders as follow:*

I. Carnosa.
Polypi connected with a fleshy substance.
Keeping this definition in view, who would have expected to find
Sponges and Corallines and Madrepores under this order ? and yet
they are there in defiance of the definition. The following is a sy-
nopsis of this order —

I. Free ; marine ; moving by the contraction or expansion of the
Jleshy part ; form symmet7'ical ; axis of the body supported by a

bone contained in a sac.

Pennatula.
Virgularia.

II. Fixed or stationary,

A. Polypiferous matter covering a solid axis.

a. Axis with stellular discs LAMELLiFERiE.

b- Stellular discs terminal.
Sarcinula.
Lithostrotion.
Caryophyllea.
Turbinolia.
Cyclotites.
b b. Stellular discs aggregated.
Explanaria.
Astrea.
Porites.
Pocillopora.
a a. Axis destitute of cellular discs.

b. Axis corneous and flexible ; polypiferous basis cre-
taceous ; the axis with spines,
c. Polypi developed. — GorgoniadjE.
Gorgonia.
Primnoa.
c c. Polypi not developed. — Corallinad^.
Jania.

" History of British Animals, Edin. 1828. 8vo.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 69

Corallina.
Halimeda.
b b. Axis stony.
Isis.
B. Polypiferous basis destitute of a continuous solid axis.
a. Polypi developed.

b. Polypi with 8 tentacula ; the base fibrous.
Lobularia.
Cydoniura.
Cliona.
b b. Polypi with tentacula exceeding- 8 in number ;
basis nearly uniform.
Alcyonium.
Cristatella.
a a. Polypi not developed. — Sposgiad^.
Tethya,
Halichondria.
Spongia.
Grantia.

II. Cellulifera.
Polypi lodged in calcareous cells imperforate at the

BASE.

A. Substance rigid, stony.

I. Cells in the form of minute pores, imbedded — Mille-

PORADiE.

Millepora.

II. Cells tubular, and produced beyond the surface. — Tu-

BIPORAD^.

Tubipora.
Favosites.
Tubulipora.
Discopora.
Filipora.
Terebellmna.
III. Cells uti'icular, adjacent, or superimposed. — Escha-

RADJE.

Eschara.
Retepora.
Cellepora.
Berenicea.

70 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

Hippothoa.
Alecto.
A A. Substance flexible. — Flustrad^.
Farcimia.
Flustra.

III. Thecata.
Polypi surrounded by a membranaceous tube, covering

THE subdivisions OF THEIR COMPOUND BODY.

A. Sheath slightly calcareous ; cells single, or in rows.

I. Sheath slightly calcareous, cells enlarged, in rows, united or
single. — Cellariad^.
a. Cells united.

b. Cells with the orifices opening on the upper surface.
Cellularia.
Tricellaria.
Crisia.
b b. Cells in pairs, attached by the back, the orifices
with opposite aspects.
Notamia.
a a. Cells single.

Eucratia.
Anguinaria.
A A. Sheath membranaceous, cells enlarged externally and lateral,

SERTULARIADiE.

I. Base of the cells broad, coalescing with the stem.
a. Cells on opposite sides of the stem.
Sertularia.
Dynamena.
Thuiaria.
a a. Cells unilateral.

Antennularia.
Plumularia.
Serialaria.
II. Base of the cells narrow, or pedunculated.
Campanulai'ia.
Valkeria.
Cymodocia.
AAA. Sheath membranaceous ; the cells are the simple extremities
of the branches. — Tubulariad^e.
Tubularia.
Plumatella.

4

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 71

IV. NUDA.

Polypi naked, the mouth with marginal tentacula.
Coryna.
Hydra.

Latreille's method may next be noticed. He, following La-
marck, divides the animal kingdom into three primary sections,
the last of which is denominated Acephala, which, with various
other classes, includes all the Zoophyta. The Actinia and Lu-
cernaria constitute a distinct class — Helianthoida — which is
placed between the sea-stars (Echinodermata), and sea-jellies,
(Acalepha), being superior to the latter and to zoophytes by
their organization, in which Spix had detected a nervous system.
The Polypes follow the sea-jelhes, and are subdivided thus :

Order I. Brachiostoma.
Month encircled with tentacula, often relractile.
Family I. Calamides. Pennatula, Virgularia, &c.

• II. Alcvonea. Lobularia, Alcyonium, S:c.

III. Alveolaria. This family is portioned into tribes.

1. LamelUfera — the P. lamelliferes of Lamarck.

2. Foraminosa — the P. foramines of Lamarck.

3. Corticifera — the P. corticiferes of Lamarck, with

the genera Penicillus and Flabellaria.

4. Reticularia — the P. a resean of Lamarck.

5. Vaginiformia — the P. vaginiformes of Lamarck.

6. Spongites — the sea and fluviatile sponges.
IV. Limnopolypi. 1. Tentacula i-etractile ; a sheath —

Plumatella, Cristatella, Difflugia. 2. Tenta-
cula non-retractile ; no sheath — Pedicellaria,
Coryne, Hydra.

Order II. Trichostoma.
No tentacula at the mouth, which are replaced by rotatory organs or

cilice.
Family I. Cancriformia — Brachionus, Follicularia, Tul)icolaria.

II. Campanulata — Vorticella, Urceolaria, Furcnlaria.

HI. Caudata — Vaginicola, Tricocercus, Ratulus.

Not having access to the original works, I pass over in silence
the methods of Oken, Schweigger, and Van der Hoven, the

72 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

more willingly that they are but modifications, to no material
extent, of one or other of those which preceded them, are in
no respect preferable, and evolve no new principle, for surely
the assumption on Oken's part that the orders, families, and ge-
nera in this class, as in the animal kingdom generally, are re-
gulated by a law which throws them into quaternary sections
— the number 4 exercising throughout a paramount influence
— scarcely deserves this praise. It is different with the attempt
of Rapp, Professor of Anatomy at Tubingen, who in 1829
published a small work in German on the natural history of the
Actiniae. He proposed to divide the zoophytes, understanding
the term in the same restricted sense that I do, into two great or-
ders, the ExoARiA and Endoaria, — the former producing their
ova or reproductive gemmules from the exterior, while in the latter
" the ova are produced in the interior of the body, and are
either conveyed outwards by means of oviducts which open by
separate orifices, or they are discharged by the mouth." The
distinction here first pointed out is a very important one, but
in common with all single characters is of itself insufficient, and
if rigorously adhered to leads to artificial and unnatural com-
binations. The Exoaria for example has all its members
well and distinctly affined, embracing only three families, 1. the
Hydra ; *2. Curynea, consisting of the genera Sertularia, Tubu-
laria and Coryne ; and 3. Millepora^ limiting probably this de-
nomination to M. triivcata. The Endoaria embraces a wider
range — the Alcyonea equivalent to the Polypes tubiferes of
Lamarck ; the Tupipora ; the Corallia including the genera
Corallium, Gorgonia, Isis and Antipathes ; the Pennatulce ;
Zoanthes ; and Madrejjores with the subdivisions which have
been introduced by Lamarck. * So far the order labours under
little error, or is perhaps unexceptionable, but its definition
would entitle us to place in it also the Escharidae, the Celle-
pores, and Lymnopolypi, which are all very alien to the families
which Rapp seems to have had too exclusively under his view.
The only other classification I shall notice is Blainville's, —
the most elaborate of any ; and this author, as it appears to me,
is the first who allowed the anatomy of the Polypes, abstractedly

* See Edin. Joiirii. of Geogr. and Nat. Science, ii. p. 406, and Blainv. Man.

d'Aetinol. p. 59.

3

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 73

considered, to have its due influence on our systems. Notwith-
standing, however, Bhiinville's unquestionable merits, his very
defective acquaintance with species will ever prevent him be-
coming a first-rate systematist : he may sketch the outline, the
details he cannot supply, and his attempt has exposed him to
numerous errors : he is too fond of generalizations where his
facts are few and specifical ; he wants the necessary neatness
and brevity of definition, and he evinces everywhere such a to-
tal disregard to the old nomenclature that his system is not like-
ly to become popular, or to be generally adopted. Many of his
alterations are excellent, and must meet the approval of all, for
surely no one will henceforth reinstate the apolypous sponges
and vegetating corallines, which he has so properly separated,
to a rank amongst proper polypes ; and his removal of the Ma-
drepores from the compound hydracolous polypidoms to a level
with the Actiniae seems to be equally judicious, and beyond fu-
ture cavil.

System of H. M. D. De Blainville. (1834.)

Class— ZOANTHA.

Body regular, resembling- a flower, more or less elongated, free or
fixed, very contractile, furnished with an intestinal canal without
distinct parietes, and with a single large terminal aperture encircled
with multiform tentacula, always hollow, and in communication
with the musculo-cavernous parenchyma of the skin.

The class is divided into three families :

The Soft — Actiniadse. Lucernaria, Actinia, &c.
The Coriaceous — Zoanthus.

The Calcareous— divided into 1. the MadrephylUcea, in which are
the genera Turbinolia and Caryophyllaea : and 2. the Ma-
drepores.

Class— POLYPIARIA.

Animals like the Hydra, viz. in general slender, furnished with a
single series of filiform and not numerous tentacula, naked or con-
tained in multiform cells (but never lamelliferous), clustered so as
to form a polypidom very variable in shape and structure.
Sub-Class I. P. SoLiDA — Containing {he hxmWes Millepores, of
which there is no British genus amongst recent zoophytes ;
and TuhuUporea which contains Tubulipora only.

74

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

Sub-Class II. P. Membranacea — in which are the three families
— 1. P. opercuUfera, of which the British genera are Es-
chara, Retepora, Cellepora, Berenicea, Discopora,and Mem-
branipora ; 2. P. cellaricea contains Flustra, Cellaria, Tri-
cellaria, Acamai-chis, Bicellaria, Crisia, Gemicellaria, Uni-
cellaria, Catenicella ; 3. Ser'tulariccea — arranged~thus : —

( Anguinaria.

'tubular, with a rounded aperture } Tibiana.

(^ Tubularia.
f Coryne.

campanulate < Campanularia.

Cells, -^ (^Laomedea.

, J Serialaria.

I Plumiilaria.

not tubulous,

i Sertularia.

paired -| Biseriaria.

(^ Dynamena.

7 X- 1 i. 1 1 J fCymodocia.

denticulate, whorled -\ \ ^ ^ ■

[ Antennularia.

denticulate, scattered Thoa.

Sub-Class III.
Sub-Class IV.

P. DUBiA — Cristatella, Pluraatella, Alcyonella.
P. NUDA — Hydra.

Class— ZOOPHYTARIA.

Body rather large and somewhat variable in shape, furnished with a

single circle of pinnated tentacula of determinate number ; the

ovaries internal.

Family 1. Tuhijiorcea — divided into two sections, (1.) envelope
fleshy — with the genera Cuscutaria, which is the
same as Valkeria of Fleming, Telesto, Cornularia,
and Claviilaria, of which last three we have no na-
tive species : (2.) envelope calcareous — Tubipora.

Family 2. Corallia — Coi'allium, Isis, Gorgonia, Eunicea, Prim-
noa, Antipathes, &c.

Family 3. Pennahdaria — represented by Pennatula of Lin. with
the various genera into which it has been por-
tioned.

Family 4. Alcyonaria — Lobnlaria, Alcyonium, Cydoniura, Pulmo-
nellum, Cliona.

Type II.

AMORPHOZOA.

Bodies organized, animal, shapeless or without a determinate form,

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 75

pierced with oscula and numerous pores, but without mouths or
distinct individual animals, always adherent, and composed of a fi-
bro-gelatinous substance, intermixed or not with calcareous or si-
liceous spicula, with internal buds or gemmules not localized.
This embraces the sponges only, divided into the following- genera —
Alcyonellum, Spongia, Calcispongia, Halispongia, Spongilla, Geo-
dia, Cseloptychium, Siphonia, Myrmeciura, Scyphia, Eudea, Hallir-
hoa, Hippelimus, Cnenimidium, Lymnorea, Chenendopora, Tragos,
Manon, Jerea, Tethium.

PSEUDOZOA.

Organized bodies not animal but vegetable.

Class I. Calciphytje.
Family 1 . Corallince — Corallina, Jania, and Flabellaria are British

genera.
Family 2. Fucoidece — of which there are no native examples.

When some years since I planned this history of our native
zoophytes these were all the classifications that the books ac-
cessible to me furnished for my purpose, but their imperfections
and incongruities had been made so apparent in the progress of
discovery, that I was induced to devise that one for my guid-
ance which is here adopted. This method, drawn up with-
out any foreknowledge of it, is in its main features similar to that
proposed by Audouin and Milne-Edwards ;* and from this co-
incidence I feel the more assured that it will be found in closer
harmony with the structure of the animals than any of its pre-
decessors, and not less difficult in its practical applications. It
is then proposed to divide the British zoophytes in the first
place into the following sub-classes and orders, whose families
and genera will be found characterized under their respective
heads.

Sub-Class I. RADIATED ZOOPHYTES.

Body contractile in every part, symmetrical ; mouth and anus one ;
gemmiparous and oviparous.
Order I. Hydroida. Polypes compound, rarely single and naked,

* Recherches pour servir a I'Histoire Nat. du Littoral de la France, Vol. i.
p. 73—6,— Ann. des Sciences Nat. Part. Zool. vi. 1.5, 16 ; and Lam. Anira. s.
Vert. ii. 104. 2de edit. Paris, 1836.

76 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES.

the mouth encircled with roug-hish filiform tentacula ; stomach with-
out proper parietes ; intestine 0 ; anus 0 ; rei^roductive gemmules
pullulating- from the body and naked, or contained in external vesi-
cles. Poli/pidcms horny, fistular, more or less phytoidal, fixed, ex-
ternal. Marine, excepting Hydra., which is lacustrine.

Order II. Asteroida. Polypes compound, the mouth encircled
with 8 fringed tentacula; stomach membranous, with dependant
vasculiform appendag-es ; intestine 0 ; anus 0 ; reproductive gem-
mules produced interiorly. Polype-mass variable in form, free or
permanently attached, carnose, generally strengthened with a horny
or calcareous axis enveloped with the gelatinous or creto-gelatinous
crust in which the polype-cells are immersed, and which open on the
surface in a starred fashion with eight rays. Marine.

Order III. Helianthoida. Polypes single, free or permanently
attached, fleshy, naked or encrusted with a calcareous Polypidom,
the upper surface of which is crossed with radiating lamellae ; mouth
encircled with tubulous tentacula ; stomach membranous, plaited ;
intestine 0 ; anus 0 ; oviparous, the ovaries internal. Marine.

Sub-Class II. MOLLUSCAN ZOOPHYTES.

Pody non-contractile, and nan- symmetrical ; mouth and anus
separate ; gemmiparous and oviparous.

Order IV. Ascidioida. Polypes aggregate, the mouth encircled
with filiform ciliated retractile tentacula ; a distinct stomach, with
a curved intestine terminating in an anus near the mouth ; ova in-
ternal. Polypidoms very variable, — either horny, fistular and con-
fervoid, or calcareous, membranous, or fibro-gelatinous, formed of
cells connected and arranged in a determinate and usually quin-
cuncial manner. Marine and lacustrine.

Additional Note.
The only extensive series of experiments we have on the composition of
Polypidoms are those of Mr Hatchett, published in the Philosophical Transac-
tions for 1800, and the subsequent progress of zoological and chemical science
requires a new investigation of the subject. The general results of Mr Hatch-
ett's experiments are, " that the Madrepores and Millepores are formed of a ge-
latinous or membranaceous substance, hardened by carbonate of lime, the differ-
ence consisting only in the mode in which these materials are combined : that
in the Tubipora, Flustra and Corallina, some phosphate of lime is mixed with
the carbonate of lime : that in the Isis the basis is a regularly organized mem-
branaceous, cartilaginous and horny substance, hardened by carbonate of lime,
one species only (the Isis ochracea) yielding also a small proportion of phos-
phate of lime. That the hardening substance of the Gorgonia nobUis is like-
wise the carbonate of lime, with a small portion of phosphate ; but that the
matter forming the membranaceous basis consists of two parts, the interior being

o

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ZOOPHYTES. 77

gelatinous, and the external a complete membrane, so formed as to cover the stem
in the manner of a sheath or tube. That the other Gorgonife consist of a horny
stem coated by a membrane, which is hardened by carbonate of lime. That the
sponges are of a natme similar to the horny stems of the Gorgoniee, and only
differ from these and from each other by the quality of texture. And lastly,
that the Alcyonia are likewise composed of a soft flexible membranaceous sub-
stance, very similar to the cortical part of some of the GorgonicC ; and in like
manner slightly hardened by carbonate, mixed with a small portion of phosphate
of lime.

" From this mass of evidence we collect, in general, that the varieties of bone,
shell, coral, and the numerous tribe of Zoophytes with which the last are con-
nected, only differ in composition by the nature and quantity of the hardening
or ossifying principle, and by the state of the substance with which this princi-
ple is mixed or connected ; the gluten, or jelly, which cements the particles of
carbonate or phosphate of lime, and the membrane, cartilage, or horny substance
which serves as a basis, appearing to be only modifications of the same sub-
stance, which progressively graduates from a viscid liquid, or gluten, into a ge-
latinous substance, which again, by increased inspissation, and by the more or
less perfect degrees of organic arrangement, forms the varieties of membrane,
cartilage, and horn, which, it seems, form the peculiar differences of the several
species." Abst. Phil. Trans, i. 25-26. There is a very full analysis of Hatch-
ett's paper in Thomson's Syst. of Chem. v. p. 539, et seq. The paper itself
will be found in Phil. Trans, abridg. xviii. p. 706.

Raspail has ascertained that a large proportion of iron enters into the com-
position of the Alcyonella, which he thinks may be derived from the habitat, the
zoophyte developing itself upon ferruginous rocks. The iron holds the same po-
sition in the polypidom, that the carbonate of lime does in the Oculinae, or the
crystals of silex in the sponges. Its great proportional quantity may be esti-
mated from the following experiment " Un fragment sec du Polypier faisait

devier de trois degres la nouvelle aiguille aimantee, construite par notre collegue,
M. Saigey, quoique ce fragment ne presentat a raiguille qu'une surface d'un cen-
timetre environ. Cette deviation paraitra enorme si Ton veut se rappeler que
I'Alcyonelle est une substance spongieuse extraordinairement legere ; ajoutes a
I'importance de ce resultat que le fer parait y exister a I'etat de trioxide, puisqu'
avant comme apres I'incineration, la substance est egalement rougeatre, et qu'en
consequence son influence sur I'aiguille aimantee serait infiniment faible, si le fer
existait en faible quantite dans son tissu lache et spongieux." — Mem. de la Soc.
d'Hist. Nat. iv. p. 119.

" Non tamen, post tot ac tantos scriptores, pigebit meam quibusdam locis
posuisse sententiam. Neque enim me cujusquam sectae, velut quadam super-

stitione imbutus, addixi : sicut ipse pliurium in unum confero inventa,

ubicumque ingenio non erit locus, curse testimonium meruisse contentus." —
QuintiUan. iii. i.

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

PART II.

ZOOPHYTA HyDROIDA.

Fig. 8.

Plumularia Catharina.

" Involved in sea-wrack, here you find a race,

" Which science doubting, knows not where to place ;

" On shell or stone is dropp'd the embryo seed,

" And quickly vegetates a vital breed."— Cra66e.

" Interpone tiiis interdum gaudia curis,
" Ut possis animo quemvis Sufferre laborem."'

Catullus.

" Early habits have made me prefer the entertainment resulting from the ex-
position of the beauties of Nature, and the delight to be derived from examining
the works of the Creator, in which infinite wisdom and intelligence are dis-
played, to all other amusements." — Sir Everard Home.

" The works of the Lord are great, and sought out of all them that have
pleasure therein." — Psalmist.

" And many disappointments could not cure
" This born obliquity, or break the lure
" Which this strong passion spread."

H. Taylor.

" Whate'er you study, in whate'er you sweat,

" Indulge your taste

" He chooses best, whose labour entertains
" His vacant fancy most."

Armstrong.

ZOOPHYTA BRITANNICA.

ORDER I.
Z. HYDROIDA.

Character.
Polypes compound, rarely single and naked, the mouth encir-
cled ivith roughishjiliform tentacida ; stomach without proper pa-
rietes ; intestine 0 ; anus 0 ; reproductive gemmules pullulating

from the body and naked, or contained in external vesicles.

Polypidoms horny, Jistular, more or less phytoidal, fixed, external.

Observations.

" As for your pretty little seed-cups or vases, they are a
sweet confirmation of the pleasure Nature seems to take in su-
peradding an elegance of form to most of her works, wherever
you find them. How poor and bungling are all the imitations
of art ! When I have the pleasure of seeing you next, we will
sit down, nay kneel down if you will, and admire these things."*"
Thus did Hogarth — our great moral painter — write to Ellis in
evident reference to the zoophytes of the present order ; and he
must indeed be more than ordinarily dull and insensate who can
examine them without catching some of the enthusiasm of the
artist. They excel all other zoophytical productions in delica-
cv and the graceful arrangement of their forms, some borrowing
the character of the prettiest marine plants, others assuming the
semblance of the ostrich-plume, while the variety and elegance
exhibited in the figures and sculpture of their miniature cups
and chalices is only limited by the number of their species.

The Hydroida vary from a few lines to upwards of a foot in

* Lin. Corresp. Vol. ii. p. 44.
F

82 ZOOPHYTA HYDKOIDA.

height. They are all, with the exception of the hydra or fresh-
water polype, marine productions, and are found attached to
rocks, shells, sea-weed, other corallines, and to various shell-fish.
Many of them appear to be indiscriminate in their choice of the
object, but others again make a decided preference. Thus
Thuiaria thuja prefers the valves of old shells, Thoa helicina is
more partial to the larger univalves, Antennularia antennina
grows on rocks, Campanularia genieulata delights to cover the
broad frond of the tangle with a fairy forest peopled with its
myriads of busy polypes, while the Sertularia pumila rather loves
the more common and coarser wracks. The choice may in part
be dependent on their habits, for such as are destined to live in
shallow water, or on a shore exposed by the reflux of every tide,
are in general vegetable parasites ; while the species which
spring up in the deep seas must select between rocks, corallines
or shells, the depths at which they are found being too great for
the veofetation of sea-weed.*

The polypidoms are confervoid and more or less divided, the
ramifications being disposed in a variety of elegant plant-like
forms. The stem and branches are alike in texture, slender,
horny, fistular, and almost always jointed at short and regular
intervals, the joint being a mere break in the continuity of the
sheath without any character of a proper hinge, and evidently
formed by regular periodical interruptions in the growth of the
polypidoms. Along their sides, or at the extremities, we find
the denticles or cup-like cells of the polypes arranged in a de-
terminate order, either sessile or elevated on a stalk, (Fig. 9, a.)
Though of the same substance, the cell is something more than
a simple expansion of the stem or branch, for near its base there
is a distinct partition or diaphragm on which the body of the
polype rests, with a plain or tubulous perforation in the centre,
through which the connection between the individual polype and

* Lamouroux says, — " We find some polypidoms placed always on the south-
ern slopes of rocks and never on that towards the east, west, or north. Others,
on the contrary, grow only on these exposures, and never on the south. Some-
times their position is varied according to latitude, and the shores inclined to-
wards the south, in temperate or cold countries, produce the same species as the
northern exposures in equatorial regions ; in general their branches appear di-
rected towards the main sea."— Corall. Flex. Introd. p. L.

ZOOPHYTA HYUROIDA.

83

the common medullary pulp is retained, (Fig. 9, h.) * Besides
the cells there are found, at certain seasons, a larger sort of ve-
sicles, readily distinguished from the others by their size and
the irregularity of their distribution.— The more robust tribes
grow erect, and, beuig flexible and elastic, yield readily to the
waves and currents ; but some of the very delicate species avoid
a shock for which they are unequal by creeping along the surface.

Fiff. 9.

The polypidoms, when dried, are for the most part of a yel-
lowish or horn colour. " When they are immersed in water,
they recover the same form they appeared in when fresh in the
sea ; and soon become filled with the liquid. This gives them
a semitransparent amber colour, and makes them very elastic.""!*
Their material appears to be analogous to horn or condensed

• Lister, in Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 371.
t Ellis, English Corallines, p. 3.

84 ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA.

albumen, which is moulded into a homogeneous investing sheath,
for the protection of the semifluid pulpousbody. It seems to be in
fact a sort of hardened epidermis, at first in contact and partial ad-
hesion with the living interior pulp, from which it is subsequent-
ly detached, in the natural progress of its consolidation, by a
process of shrivelling in the soft matter, and by the motions and
efforts of the polypes themselves.* Link says that the experi-
ments he has made on the Plumularia falcata and the Sertularia
cupressina have led him to adopt the opinion of Cavolini and
Schweigger, that this sheath is vascular and organized, for, un-
der a very powerful magnifier, he has seen coloured vessels ra-
mified in the stem and branches of these polypidoms. He is
also certain that their stems are often increased with age by con-
centric layers, and that the calcareous matter is deposited in
true cells.-|- These observations are intended to support the
theory of the independent growth of the polypidom from innate
living motions or a vegetative principle, but notwithstanding Link's
high authority, I would caution the student against a too hasty
reception of the facts. They are at variance with the experi-
ments of Ellis, Grant and Blainville ; nor does Dr Fleming nor
Mr Lister appear ever to have noticed traces of vascularity in
these objects during their microscopical inquiries ; and I have
in vain sought for the existence of vessels^ in some transparent
species, as Sertularia rosacea and Campanularia gelatinosa,
where it seemed likely they would most easily be detected. Dr
Fleming, from observations of a different kind, as e. g. the con-
version of cells into vesicles and of these into branches, or even of
the polypes themselves into branches, in the Plumularia bullata
and Campanularia gelatinosa, has come to the conclusion that
the polypidom is, in its mode of growth, analogous to hone^
" a circumstance on which its apparent vegetating power de~
pends"j ; but since I suspect the accuracy of the alleged ob-
servations, and cannot, on reflection, perceive where the analo-
gy between these horny sheaths and bone lies, I am necessitated

* See Lister's Observations in Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 374; and Lam. Anim.
s. Vert. ii. 119. 2de edit. Milne- Edwards also tells us that there is a canal
down the centre of the soft pulp in which the circulation is carried on. Is not
this a transcendental piece of anatomy ?

f Ann. des Sciences Nat. Part. Bot. Vol. ii. p. 321.,

X Memoirs of the Wernerian See. Vol. v. p. 303 — G.

ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA. 85

to believe tlio polypidoni to be extravascular and inorganic — the
result of an exudation from the interior pulp, and dependent, on
this for its form and growth, however varied this may be. In the
reproductive gemmule there are two substances, viz. the pulp
and the thin cuticle or membrane, the latter of which is the germ
of the future arborescent or cellular polypidom : by the growth
of the pulp the membrane is distended and moulded into a cell,
or pushed upwards in the form of a shoot, in which, after a time,
the pidp is arrested in its growth longitudinally, swells out,
and is developed into an animated polype, furnished with ten-
tacula, a mouth, and digestive organs. Bursting the cell
at the point which becomes the future aperture, it there dis-
plays its organs, and begins the capture of its prey, for, unlike
higher organisms, the polype is at this the period of its birth as
large and as perfect as it ever is at any subsequent period, the
walls of the cell having become indurated and unyielding, and
setting a limit to any further increase in bulk. The growth
being thus hindered in that direction, the pulp, incessantly in-
creased by new supplies of nutriment from the polype, is con-
strained and forced into its original direction, so that the extre-
mities of the tube, which have remained soft and pliant, are
pushed onwards, the downward shoot becoming a root-like fibre,
and the upper continuing the polypidom, and swelling out as
before, at stated intervals, into cells for the new developement
of other polypes. The polypidom then, however like unto cer-
tain vegetables in appearance, has, as Ellis said, nothing vege-
table about it, but is entirely an animal production, and excret-
ed by the animated pulp which fills its whole interior. Ellis
and his followers are only so far wrong, that they have attributed
to the polypes themselves what is actually due to the pulp. The
latter is that from which the polypidom is exuded ; for, indeed,
the cell always precedes the existence of the polypus which is
developed within it ; while the polypidom begins to be develop-
ed from the gelatinous substance of the reproductive gemmules
before any polypes are formed, and it continues to be develop-
ed and extended by the fleshy mass of the zoophyte, whether
polypes are developed in the cells or not. " There is but one
life, and one plan of developement, in the whole mass ; and this
depends not on the polypi, which are but secondary and often

86 ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA.

deciduous parts, but on the general fleshy substance of the

body."*

The polypes are placed in the cells within which, with the

exception of the Tubularise, they can hide themselves entirely

when danger threatens. When at rest and in their native sites,

they expand their tentacula and push them far beyond the rim

of their cups, in readiness to arrest any small worm or crusta-

ceous insect which may float within their circle.

" Utque sub sequoribus deprensum polypus hostem
" Contiiiet, ex omni dimissis parte ilagellis."

Ovid. Met. vi. 366.

These tentacula are always simple but roughish, (Fig. 9 c,) and
in the centre of the disk round which they are arranged we perceive
the oral aperture (d,) leading to a stomachical cavity without
intestine or other chylopoetick viscus. The body is somewhat
globular, soft and irritable ; and it is prolonged posteriorly down
the stalk or tube to be united with the central pulp which fills
the branches and stem, (e,) so that in this manner all the po-
lypes of the same polypidom are connected together by a living
thread, and constitute a family whose objects and interests are
identical, and whose workings are all regulated by one harmo-
nious instinct.

" Unconscious, not unworthy, instruments,

By which a hand invisible was rearing

A new creation in the secret deep."
Or if, with Linnaeus and Cuvier, we suppose that the " whole
composure makes one animal," this may be described as a sort
of hydra divided, after the manner of a tree, into many or in-
numerable branches, from each of which pullulate one or more
armed heads to capture and digest the prey that is to serve for
the nutriment of their common trunk.

The reproductive gemmules of Tubularia and Coryne are
generated in the interior and extruded near the base of the ten-
tacula ; but in all the other genera they are produced in exter-
nal vesicles, which were therefore appropriately named by Ellis
the matrices or ovaries, and which we have already mentioned
as being larger than the cells and irregular in their distribution.
They are produced at certain seasons only, most commonly in
spring, and fall off" after the maturity and discharge of their con-

* Grant's Outlines of Comp. Anatomy, p. 14.

ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA. 87

tents. * The number of the gemmules in each vesicle, and
their shape, varies in every species. In the vesicle they are
connected to a central placentular column, though there are some
exceptions to this, and when mature they escape outwards by a
disruption or fall of the lid which closes the top, being extruded
in succession and, in some cases at least, after intervals of some
hours. It appears to be deducible from some figures of Ellis, f
rather than from his expressions, X which are equivocal, that the
ovules are sometimes developed into perfect polypi before their
expulsion from the matrix, but the fact, though not incredible,
needs confirmation, and it is certain that their birth in the ovi^
form condition is the general rule. At this period they are
clothed with cilia, as Ellis has figured them, § and as Professor
Grant first distinctly brought into view ; and by means of the
rapid vibrations of these minute organs they are carried to
and fro through the water for some time, varying from a
few hours to two or three days, until, having at length in due
course settled on a proper site, they throw out, in the man-
ner of a vegetable seed, a root-like fibre to fix themselves,
and then push up a shoot as a commencement to the fu-
ture polypidom. || Polype-cells and polypes are rapidly evolv-
ed on the sides of this shoot, and nourishment being now re-

* So that Hedwig's axiom, adopted by M. Virey, " that the reproductive
organs of animals are contijiuous with the life of the individual, while the repro-
ductive organs of perennial plants, when their functions have been performed,
are thrown off, and replaced hi the succeeding season by others,"— must be re-
ceived with some limitations — See Tiedemann's Comp. Physiology, p. 7G.

t Corall. pi. V. lig. A. t Corall. Introd. p. x.

§ Corall. pi. xxxviii. fig. B.

II Mr Lister has minutely described the ova of Campanularia gelatinosa.
" The ova were roundish, and consisted of two portions ; the outer and more
transparent, that might be called the white, inclosing an inner bag filled with
particles in fluid like those in the currents of the stem, and connected with
them by the cord. The current and agitation were seen in the inner bags only,
and the flow into and from them alternately along the cord was strongly marked."
As they approach maturity " the ova became more opaque, which hid the
changes that might be taking place within them. The number in a full ovai-y
was about seven." When mature they emerged from the cell " in succession
at an average interval of six hours. The protrusion took about a quarter of an
hour, and was connnonly preceded by a transparent projection, like torn mem-
brane, before the end of the ovary, and a few active particles in tlie water."
—Phil. Trans. 1834, n. o75.

88 ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA.

ceived from an external source, and circulating throuoh the
whole animal, there is not merely an upward growth, but creep-
ing tubes, " full of the same living medullary substance with
the rest of the body," are projected from the base along the
surface of the object of fixture. " These tubes not only secure
it from the motion of the waves, but likewise from these rise
other young animals or corallines, which growing up like the
former, with their proper heads or organs to procure food, send
out other adhering tubes from below, with a further increase of
these many-headed branched animals ; so that in a short time
a whole grove of vesicular corallines is formed, as we find them
on oysters, and other shell-fish, when we drag for them in deep
water." *

There are many facts which prove that the growth of these
polypidoms is very rapid, but not more so than might be anti-
cipated when it is remembered how vast is the number of polype
architects ; and no sooner is a new branch extended than it be-
comes almost simultaneously a support of new workers which,
with " toil unwearyable," add incessantly to the materials of in-
crease. Their duration is various : some have only a summer's
existence, as Campanularia geniculata ; many are probably an-
nual, and the epiphyllous kinds cannot at most prolong their
term beyond that of the weed on which they grow : but such
as attach themselves to rocks are probably less perishable, for
their size and consistency seem to indicate a greater age : it is
thus with the Tubularise and some of the compound Sertu-
lariadse.

But the life of the polypes considered abstractedly is proba-
bly in no instance coetaneous with the duration of the polypi-
dom, for the lower parts of this become, after a time, empty of
pulp and lifeless, and lose the cells inhabited by the polypes,

" Ellis and Solander's Zoophytes, p. 33.

'* New buds and bulbs the living fibre shoots

" On lengthening branches, and protruding roots ;

" Or on the father's side from bursting glands

" The adhering young its nascent form expands ;

" In branching lines the parent-trunk adorns,

" And parts ere long like plumage, hairs, or horns."

Darwin's Temple of Nature, Canto Li.
4

ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA. 89

which, in an old specimen, are to be found in a state of activity
only near the summit, or on the new shoots. The Thuiaria
thuja affords a remarkable example of this fact ; the branches
which carry the polypes dropping off in regular succession as
younger ones are successively formed, so that the polypidom re-
tains, throughout its whole growth, the appearance of a bottle-
brush, the naked stem and the branched top being kept in every
stage in a due proportion to each other. Sertularia argentea,
Plumularia falcata, &c. are subjected to the same law, — the pri-
mary polypiferous shoots being deciduous, so that in them also
the stalk becomes bare, while the upper parts are graced with
a luxuriant ramification loaded with tiny architects. But in our
eagerness to generalize, let us not forget that there are some
species, as Sertularia pumila, abietina, &c., in which this pro-
cess of successive denudation is not observable, — perhaps, how-
ever, because of their form, which is not of a kind to be altered
by it, and hence unnoticeable, or because the duration of the
whole is too fugitive to permit the law to produce a visible ef-
fect.

There are facts which appear to prove that the life of the in-
dividual polypes is even more transitory than their own cells ;
that like a blossom they bud and blow and fall off or are absorb-
ed, when another sprouts up from the medullary pulp to occupy
the very cell of its predecessor, and in its turn to give way and
be replaced by another. When speaking of flexible corallines
Ijamouroux says, " Some there are that are entirely covered
with polypi through the summer and autumn, but they perish
with the cold of winter : no sooner, however, has the sun resum-
ed his revivifying influence than new animals are developed, and
fresh branches are produced upon the old ones."* Of the Tu-
bularia indivisa. Sir John G. Dalyell tells us that " the head is
deciduous, falling in general soon after recovery from the sea.
It is regenerated at intervals of from ten days to several weeks,
but with the number of external organs successively diminishing,
though the stem is always elongated. It seems to rise within
this tubular stem from below, and to be dependent on the pre-
sence of the internal tenacious matter with which the tube is oc-

* Corall. Flex- p. xvi.

90 ZOOPHYTA HYDROIUA.

cupied. A head springs from the remaining stem, cut over very
near the root ; and a redundance of heads may be obtained from
artificial sections, apparently beyond the ordinary provisions of
nature. Thus twenty-two heads were produced through the
course of 550 days, from three sections of a single stem."* The
observations of Mr Harvey on the same, or a very nearly allied,
species of zoophyte confirm the experiments of Sir J. G. Dal-
yell, so far as these have i-eference to the deciduousness of the
polypes and their regeneration ; -f- and it seems to me not alto-
gether unwarrantable to infer a like temporary existence and re-
vival in those of the Sertulariadse from a reflection on the ex-
periments of Mr Lister, — incomplete certainly, but which prove
that under certain circamstances their polypes disappear by a pro-
cess of internal absorption,;]: and under convenient circumstances
would probably have been renovated, as I have witnessed this re-
sult in similar experiments. On Saturday, May 28th 1837, a spe-
cimen of Campanularia gelatinosa was procured from the shore,
and after having ascertained that the polypes were active and entire,
it was placed in a saucer of sea-water. Here it remained undis-
turbed until Monday afternoon, when all the polypes had disap-
peared. Some cells were empty or nearly so, others were half-fil-
led with the wasted body of the polype, which had lost, however,
every vestige of the tentacula. The water had become putrid, and
the specimen was therefore removed to another vessel with pure
water, and again set aside. On examining it on the Thursday,

* Edin. New Phil. Joum. xvii. p. 415.

t " The most singular circumstance attending the growth of this animal, and
which I discovered entirely by accident, remains to be mentioned. After I had
kept the clusters in a large bowl for two days, I observed the animals to droop
and look unhealthy. On the third day the heads were all thrown off, and lying
on the bottom of the vessel ; all the pink colouring matter was deposited in the
form of a cloud, and when it had stood quietly for two days, it became a very
line powder. Thinking that the tubes were dead I was going to throw them
iiway, but I happened to be under the necessity of quitting home for two days,
and on my return 1 found a thin transparent film being protruded from the top
of every tube : I then changed the water every day, and in three days time every
tube had a small body reproduced upon it. The only difference that I can dis-
cover in the structure of the young from the old heads, consists in the new ones
wanting the small red papillce, and in the absence of all colour in the animal."
— Proceed. Zool. Soc. No. 41, p. 55.

I Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 374, 376.

3

ZOOPHYTA HYDKOIDA. 91

(June 1st) the cells were evidently filling again, although no
tentacula were visibly protruded, but on the afternoon of Friday
(June 2d) every cell had its polype complete, and displayed in
the greatest perfection. Had these singular facts been known
to Linnteus, how eagerly and effectively would he have impres-
sed them into the support of his favourite theory ! Like the
flowers of the field the heads or " flores" of these polypidoms
expand their petaloid arms, which after a time fall like blighted
blossoms off a tree ; — they do become " old in their youth,"
and rendered hebetous and unfit for duty or ornament by age or
accident, the common trunk throws them off, and supplies its
wants by ever-young and vigorous growths. The phenomena
are of those which justly challenge admiration and excuse a so-
ber scepticism, so alien are they to all we are accustomed to ob-
serve in more familiar organisms ; but besides that faithful ob-
servation renders the facts undeniable, a reflection on the history
of the Hydra might almost have led us to anticipate such events
in the life of these zoophytes. " Verily for mine owne part,
the more I looke into Nature's workes, the sooner am I induced
to beleeve of her even those things that seem incredible."

I arrange the British species of this order under the follow-
ing families and genera :

Family I. HYDRAID.F:.
Polypes gemmiparous, the young pullulating from the body of the

parent.

1. Hydra. Polypes naked, single, locomotive.

Family II. TUBULARIAD/E.
Polypes gemmiparous, the gemmules naked, pullulating from the

bases of the tentacula.
* No Poly2)idom.

2. CoRYNE. Polypes naked, the tentacula filiform.

3. Hermia. Polypes tunicated, the tentacula with glandular tips.

** A distinct polypidom.

4. TuBULARiA. Polypes not retractile within cells : Polypidoms
listular, simple or branched.

92 ZOOPHYTA HYDKOIDA.

Family HI- SERTULARIADiE.

Polypes gemmiparous, the gemmules enclosed in external ovarian
persistent vesicles scattered on the polypidom.
* Polype-cells sessile.
5. Thoa. Cells indistinct, tubular or campanulate, alternate.
G. Sertularia. Cells biserial, vasiform, short, erect, the aper-
tures everted.

7. Thuiaria. Cells biserial, tubular-conical, imbedded, the aper-
tures looking- forward.

8. Plumularia, Cells uniserial ; the branchlets plumose or pec-
tinate.

9. Antennularia. Cells uniserial ; the branchlets whorled.

** Polype-cells on ringed stalks.

10. Laomedea. Cells from a thickened joint of the stem, alter-
nate, campanulate.

11. Campanularia. Cells continuous with the stem, irregular

or whorled, campanulate.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

I. ZOOPHYTA HYDROIDA.

FAMILY I. HYDRAIDiE.

1. Hydra,* Linnaeus.

Character. — Polypes locomotive, single, naked, gelatinous,
sub-cylindrical, hut very contractile and mutable inform, the mouth
encircled with a single series of granulous filiform tentacula.

1. H. viRiDis, grass-green ; body cylindrical or insensibly

narroived downwards ; tentacula 6 — 10, shorter than the body.

Woodcut, No. 4, page 37.

Polyi)es verds, Trembley, Mem. 22, pi. 1, fig. 1 ; pi. 3, fig. 1 — 10

Fresh-water Polypus, Trembley, in Phil. Trans. Abridg. viii. 623. Folhes,

in ibid. 676. pi. 17, and pi. 18, fig. 1 — 3 Hydra viridis. Lin.

Faun. Suee. 367, No. 1283. Lin. Syst. 1320. Mull. Verm. I. ii. 13.
Zool. Dan. prod. 230, No. 2783. Berk. Syn. i. 221. Ure's Rutberg. 232.
Turt. Gmel. iv. 691. Turt. Br. Faun. 218. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 60.
Steio. Elem. ii. 452. pi. 12, fig. 4, 5. Blumenhach's Man. 275. pi. 1 .
fig. 10. Base, Vers ii. 274. Stark, Elem. ii. 443. Woodward in Mag.
Nat. Hist. iii. 349, fig. 89. Roget, Bridgew. Treat, i. 162, fig. 59, and
176—8, fig. 73—76. Adams on the Microscope, 399, pi. 21, fig. 5.

* "TtTga — properly " a water serpent," but the name has been appropriated to
the monster of Lake Lerna, fabled to have 50 or 100 heads, of which no sooner
was one of them cut off, than two sprouted out in its place. From this property
Linnaeus was obviously led to apply the name to the animalcules in question.

94 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydra.

Carus, Comp. Aiiat. tab. 1. fig. 1 H. viridissima, Pall. Eleiich. 31.

Third sort of Polype, Baker, Polyp. 19 c. fig Le Polype vert,

Cuv. Reg. Aiiim. iii. 293. L'Hydre verte, Blainv. Actinol. 494. pi.

85, fig. 1.
Hab. Ponds and still waters, common throughout England, and
the south of Scotland. In almost all the parishes in the vicinity of
Glasgow, Ure.

The polypes of this species differ from the following, " not only
in colour, but likewise in their arms, which were much shorter in pro-
portion to their bodies, capable of but little extension, and narrower
at the root than the extremity, which is contrary to the other spe-
cies. Their arms were so short, they could not clasp round a very
small and slender worm, but seemed only to pinch it fast, till they
could master and devour it, which they did with as much greediness
as any. I imagined these polypes owed their green colour to some
particular food, such as weeds, &c. and that they would lose it upon
being kept to worms ; but I find myself mistaken, for they retain
their greenness after some months as well as ever, and are now grown
of a moderate size, extending sometimes three quartei'S of an inch ;
their arms are also lengthened very much to what they were, and
are of a lighter green than the body, their number eight, nine, or ten.
The tail is very little slenderer than the body, but more spread at
the end than the tails of other kinds." — Baker.

Pallas says that the offspring are produced from every part of the
body, while Blainville thinks he has remarked that they shoot always
from the same place, " au point de jonction de la partie creuse et de
celle qui ne Test pas." Blainville is candid enough, however, to in-
form us that Professor Van der Hoven had made some observations
adverse to his opinion ;* and our own are certainly in accordance
with those of Pallas and of the Professor of Leyden.

Trembley is careful to tell us that he discovered this species in
June 1740, nor can we smile at the particularity of the record when
we remember that the discovery is the foundation of his immortal
fame.f It was first observed in England in the spring of 1743 by a Mr
Du Gane of Essex. It appears to be a hardy animal. I have kept it for
more than twelvemonths in a small vial of water unchanged during
the whole of that time, and it remained lively, and bred freely, feed-
ing on the minute Entomostraca confined with it, and which propa-

• Bulletin des Sc. Nat. xvi. 337.

f " Trembley (Abraham), de Geneve, ne en 1710, mort en 1784; immortel
par le decouverte de la reproduction du polype." — Cuvier, Reg. Animal, iii. 422.
— Blumenbach also informs us that his observations on this polype first led him
to his ingenious investigations on the Nisus formativus.

Hydra. Z. HYDROIDA. 95

gating- much more abundantly, furnished a good supply of what was
evidently a favourite food.

2. H. VULGARIS, orange-broicn or sometimes oil-green ; body
cylindrical ; tentacula 7-12, as long or longer than the body,

Plate I.

Polypes de la seconde espece, Tremb. Mem. pi. 1, fig. 2, 5 ; pi. 2. fig. 2 ;
pi. 6. fig. 2 and 8; pi. 8. fig. 1—7; pL iO. fig. 1—7 ; pi. 11, 12, 13.

figs. omn. partly copied in Adams, Micros, 399, pi. 21. fig. 6 Hydra

vulgaris, Pall. Elench. 30. Ellis in Phil. Trans. Ivii. 430. Ellis and

Soland. Zooph. 9 H. grisea, Lin. Syst. 1320. Mull. Zool. Dan.

Prod. 2.30, No. 2784. Verm. i. ii. 14. Ure's Rutherg. 233. Berk.
Syn. i. 222. Turt. Gmel. iv. 692. Turt. Brit. Faun. 218. Blumenb.
Man. 295. Stew. Elem. ii. 452. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 60. Bosc,
Vers ii. 275. Stark, Elem. ii. 443. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.

418 — H. brunnea, Templeton, loc. cit. 417. fig. 56 First sort of

Polype, Baker, Polyp. 17. c. fig L'Hydre commune, Blainv. Acti-

nol. 495.
Hab. Weedy ponds and slowly running waters Probably common
in all parts of the kingdom.

On comparing the descriptions of the authors quoted above, I am
led to conclude that this species is either subject to much variety, or
that two species have been confounded together, and given rise to a
discrepancy which seems otherwise irreconcileable. My own expe-
rience inclines me to the latter supposition, but since I have had no
opportunities of making observations on specimens from different and
distant localities, I deem it more prudent to indicate what appear to
be two species as only varieties of the vulgaris, until the point can
be settled by more leisured naturalists.

Var. a. aurantia, light reddish-brown or orange-coloured ; tenta-
cula not longer than the body. Fig. 2.

Var. b. grisea, light olive-green ; tentacula paler and longer than
the body. Fig. 1.

The first is by much the commoner, and does not exceed the H.
yiridis in size, which it resembles also in its habits and form. It is
always of an orange, brown, or red colour, the intensity ofWie tint
depending on the nature of the food, on the state of the creature's
repletion, becoming even blood-red when fed upon the small crim-
son worms and larvse which usually abound in its haunts.* The ten-

* " I have found a bright red Hydra rather abundant on Putney Heath, near
London. It does not much differ, except in colour, from the green one." J.
E.Gray in lit. May 6, 1833 — See Trembley's Mem. p. 47, and 128.

96 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydka.

taenia in all my specimens have never exceeded the length of the
body, are usually seven or eight in number, and taper to the point
insensibly. Every part of the body is generative of young, which
may frequently be seen hanging from the parent at the same time in
different stages of their growth. Baker's figui'e represents this va-
riety very well.

The second is a larger animal and comparatively rare, less sensible
to external impressions, and of a more gracile form. Its colour is a
dilute olive-green with paler tentacula, which are considerably long-
er than the body, and hang like silken threads in the water, waving
to and fro without assuming that regular circular disposition which
they commonly do in the H. viridis. I have not observed more
than one young at a time, pullulating from near the middle of the
body, and after this has attained a certain growth, the polype has the
appearance of being dichotomously divided.

Dr Fleming's Hydra vulgaris, Brit. Anim. 553, embraces this
and the preceding, as well as the following species, which are consi-
dered the mere variations of one protean original ; —

" Facies non omnibus una,
Nee di versa tamen :" —

but the conviction of their permanent distinctness has been forced
upon me by a long continuous observation of individuals in a state of
confinement. Had, however, personal observation been wanting, the
same conclusion would have been willingly adopted on the paramount
authorities of Trembley and Baker, who had very carefully studied
these creatures ; and Pallas speaks very decidedly to the same pur-
port. " Species Hydrae a Linnaeo* pro varietatibus habitas, a Raese-
lio primum bene determinatas adoptavi, cum de trium priorum con-
stantia, propi'ia me experientia certissimum reddiderit." — Elench. 29.

3. H. FUSCA, hrown or griseous ; inferior half of the body sud-
denly attenuated ; tentacida several times longer titan the body.
Vignette, No. 11, page 93.
Polypes a long bras, Tremh. Mem. pi. 1. fig. 3, 4, 6 ; pi. 2. fig. 1, 3, 4 ; pi.
3, fig. 11 ; pi. 5, fig. 1-4; pi. 6, fig. 3-7, 9, 10 ; pi. 8. fig. 8, 11 ; pi. 9.
copied in Adams, Micros. 399, pi. 21, fig. 7, 8 ; pi. 2-3, A. B ; pi. 24, A,

B. fig. omnes. Cuv. Reg. Anim. ill. 295 Long armed fresh-water

Polype, Ellis, Corall. xvi. pi. 28. fig. C. (the tentacula shortened for the

conveniency of introducing them within the size of the plate.) Second

sort of Polype, Baker, Polyp. 18. c. fig Hydra oligactis, Pall. Elench.

29 H. fusca, Lin. Syst. 1320. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 9. Berk.

In the lOtli edit, of Syst. Nat. p. 810, under the name oi Hydra Polypus,

Hydra. Z. IIYDHOIDA. 97

Syn. i, •2-21. Turt. Gmel. iv. 991. Blumcnb. Man. 275. Turt. Brit.
Faun. 218. Stew. Elem. ii. 452. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 60. Bosc,

Vers, ii. 275. L'H. brune, Blainv. Actinol. 495.

Hab. Still waters in England, rare. In a pond at Hackney, Mr
John Ellicot.*

" The tails of these are long-, slender, and transparent, and when
placed before the microscope, a long- straight gut may plainly be dis-
tinguished passing from the body-part or stomach to an opening at
the end thereof. These are rather lighter coloured than the former,
(H. vulgaris,) and have seldom more than six or eight arms, but
those capable of great extension." — Baker.

Baker reckoned that his English exemplars were of a soi*t diffe-
rent from those he had received from M. Trembley, but the only ap-
parent difference lies in the greater shortness of the tentacula of the
former, and this is a character liable to considerable variation, and in-
sufficient of itself for specific distinction. The species has been
beautifully illustrated in Trembley's " Memoires," by the pencil and
graver of the celebrated Lyonet, for it is an interesting fact that all
the figures, and most of the plates, which adorn the admirable book
just mentioned, were drawn and etched by the author of the " Traite
anatomique de la chenille du saule,"f and are indeed among the very
earliest specimens of his extraordinary attainments in these arts.

It may be worth while to call attention to the remarkable resem-
blance of the Hydra fusca to the Cucullanus cirratus of MuUer,
Zool. Dan. tab. 38, fig. 1-7, which is an intestinal worm !

4. H. VERRUCOSA, pale cinereous ; body pedunculate, cam-
paniform ; tentacula longer than the hody.

Hydra verrucosa, Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 418, fig. 57.

Hab. Still waters, " In the pond at Cranmore (near Belfast,)
Sept. 1812," J. Templeton, Esq.

" Of a pale cinereous hue, with six verrucated tentacula, of mode-
rate length, and nearly equal thickness." " This species, when at

rest, assumes more of a campanulate form than any other species of
the genus, except lutea and the following. The warts are not uni-
formly diffused, as in pallens ; nor do the tentacula diminish much in
size towards the tips." — Templeton.

* Elected F. R. S. Oct. 26, 1738; and the author of several papers on sub-
jects in Natural Philosophy, published in the Phil. Trans, between the years
1745 and 1750. He was a watchmaker, and died in 1772.

t " Ouvrage qui est a la fois le chef-d'oeuvre de 1 'anatomic et celui de la gra-
vure." — Cuvier.

G

98 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydiia,

** Marine species.
5. H. ? LiTTORALis, " white; head large ; about 10 extreme-
ly short tentacula encircling the base." — Robert Jameson. *

Hydra lutea? Jameson, in Wem. Mem. i. 565— H. lutea, Flem. Brit.

Anim. 554 — H. corynaria, Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 419, fig. 58.

Hah. Sea shore, adhering- to Fuci. Frith of Forth, Professor

.Jameson. " Found adhering- to Fucus vesiculosus, at White House

Point, Belfast Lough, Oct. 1810," J. Templeton, Esq.

The figure represents a branched animal with enlarged clavate
heads encircled round the truncate apex, with tentacula rather short-
er than the diameter. — To justify the change I have made in the
name, it is only necessary to mention that nothing can be more cer-
tain than that this species is not identical either with the Hydra lu-
tea or corynaria of Bosc.

Observations.

Leeuwenhoek-|- discovered the Hydra in 1703, and the uncomrnon
way its young are produced, and an anonymous correspondent of the
Royal Society made the same discovery in England about the same
time, but it excited no particular notice until Trembley made known
its wonderful properties, about the year 1744. These were so con-
trary to all former experience, and so repugnant to every established
notion of animal life, that the scientific world were amazed ; and while
the more cautious among natiu'alists set themselves to verify what it
was difficult to believe, there were many who looked upon the al-
leged facts as impossible fancies. The discoveries of Trembley were,
however, speedily confirmed ; and we are now so familiar with the
outlines of the history of the fresh- water polype, and its marvellous
reproductive powers, that we can scarcely appreciate the vividness of
the sensation felt when it was all novel and strange ; when the lead-
ing men of our learned societies were daily experimenting on these
poor worms, and transmitting them to one another from distant coun-
ti'ies, by careful posts, and as most precious gifts ; and when even
ambassadors interested themselves in sending early intelligence of the
engrossing theme to their respective courts.

' The name affixed to tlie specific character is that of the person who, so
far as I have been able to ascertain the point, added the species to the British
Fauna. — Mr Jameson is the present Regius Professor of Natural History in the
University of Edinburgh.

+ " Antonius v. Leeuwenhoek, civis Delphensis, peritus vitrorum politor,
curiosus, et ad paradoxas opiniones pronus." Haller, Bib. Bot. i. 583. He
was born 1632 ; elected F. R. S. .January 1680 ; and died in 1723.

4

Hydra. Z. HYDROIDA. 99

The Hydrae are found in fresh and, perhaps, also in salt waters, but
the former species only have been examined with care, and are the
objects of the following remarks. They prefer slowly running- or al-
most still water, and fasten to the leaves and stalks of submerged
plants by their base, which seems to act as a sucker. The body is
exceedingly contractile, and hence liable to many changes of form :
when contracted it is like a tubercle, a minute top or button, and
when extended it becomes a narrow cylinder, being ten or twelve times
longer at one time than at another, the tentacula suifering changes in
their length and diameter equal to those of the body. " It can lengthen
out or shorten its arms, without extending or contracting its body ;
and can do the same by the body, without altering the length of its
arms : both, however, are usually moved together, at the same time
and in the same direction." — The whole creature is apparently homo-
geneous, composed of minute pellucid grains cohering by means of a
transparent jelly, for even with a high magnifier no defined organiza-
tion of vessels and fibres can be detected. On the point opposite the
base, and in the centre of the tentacula, we observe an aperture or
mouth which leads into a wider cavity excavated as it were in the
midst of the jelly,* and from which a narrow canal is continued down
to the sucker. When contracted, and also when fully extended, the
body appears smooth and even, but " in its middle degree of exten-
sion," the sides seem to be minutely crenulated, an efi'ect probably of
a wrinkling of the surface, although from this appearance Baker has
concluded that the Hydra is annulose, or made up of a numl)er of
rings capable of being folded together or evolved, and hence, in some
measure, its extraordinary ability of extending and contracting its
parts.-j- That this view of the Hydra's structure is erroneous, Trem-
bley has proved ;J and the explanation it afforded of the animal's con-
tractility was obviously unsatisfactory, for it was never pretended that

Pallas denies this. " Ab alimento recepto cavata, inquam, baud enim Hy-
dra corpus naturaliter intestini instar cavum crediderim. Totum solidum et
medullare, pro admoto alimento, cerae instar, digitum admittentis, cavari concipio
parenchyma et alimentis insinuatis sese circumfundere. Qui alias per longi-
tiidinem dissecta Hydra, illico qualibet portione deglutire, et cavo clauso alimen-
ta condere posset ? quod tamen observai'e rarum non est." Elench. Zooph. 27,
28. — For a view of the Hydra's stomach see Tremb. Mem. pi. 4, fig. 7, copied
by Roget in his Bridgew. Treat, ii. 74, fig. 241.

-|- " The outward coat is white like the arms, and made up of minute annuli
or ringlets, that double in the midst, and can, occasionally, be folded close to-
gether, in the manner of a paper lanthorn." — Hist, of the Polype, 25.

\ Mem. 27.

100 Z. HYDKOIDA Hydra.

such an anatomy could be detected in the tentacula, which, however,
are equally or more contractile. These organs encircle the mouth
and radiate in a star-like fashion, but they seem to originate a little
under the lip, for the mouth is often protruded Hke a kind of small
snout : they are cylindrical, linear or very slightly tapered, hollow
and roughened, at short and regular intervals, with whorls of tuber-
cles which, under the microscope, foi'ra a very beautiful and interest-
ing object ; and I have thought, when viewing them, that every lit-
tle tubercle might be a cup or sucker similar to those which garnish
the arms of the cuttle-iish.* Trerabley has shewn us that this is a
deception, and that there is really no exactness in the comparison. t
The tentacula are amazingly extensible, from a line or less to one or,
as in H. fusca, to more than eight inches ; and " another extraordi-
nary circumstance is, that a polype can extend an arm in any part of
its whole length, without doing so throughout, and can swell or les-
sen its diameter, either at the root, at the extremity, in the middle,
or where it pleases : which occasions a great variety of appearances,
making it sometimes terminate with a sharp point, and at other
times blnnt, knobbed, and thickest at the end, in the figure of a bob-
bin." We naturally enquire how this wonderful extension is made, —
by what power a part without muscularity is drawn out until it ex-
ceeds by twenty or even by forty times the original length ? The
dissections of Trembley have proved beyond any doubt that the body
is a hollow cyhnder or bowel, and that the tentacula are tubular and
have a free communication with its cavity ;J and in this structure,
combined with the loose granular composition of the animal, we find
an answer to the question. Water flows, let us say by suction, into
the stomach through the oral aperture, whence it is forced by the
vis a tergo, or drawn by capillary attraction, into the canals of the
tentacula, and its current outvvards is sufficient to push before it the
soft yielding material of which they are composed, until at last the
resistance of the living parts suffices to arrest the tiny flood, or the

* Pallas has the same suggestion Elench. 26. See also Roget's Bridgew.
Treat, i. 182. — Baker says that " two or three pretty long hairs" issue from each
of the papilke or tubercles, p. 36 ; and Trembley has figured a short hair issu-
ing from some of them, Mem. 62, pi. 5, fig. 3. This appearance of hairs is, I
presume, produced by the glutinous secretion from them being drawn out into
fine lines and drying on the glass. The tentacula probably adhere to foreign
bodies principally by means of a mucous excretion, and being as it were en-
grained into the microscopic interstices of the body to which they are applied —
Tremb. Mem. 46.

t Mem. 108.

t Ibid. 123—5; and 26-3.

Hybra. Z. HYDROIDA. 101

tube has become too fine in its bore for the admission of water attenu-
ated to its smallest possible stream, — how inconceivably slender may
indeed be imagined, but there is no thread fine enough to equal it,
seeing- that the tentacula of Hydra fusca in tension can be compared
to nothing- gi-osser than the scarce visible filament of the gossamer's
web.

The Hydra, thoug-h usually found attached, can nevertheless move
from place to place, which it does either by gliding- with impercep-
tible slowness on the base, or by stretching- out the body and tenta-
cula to the utmost, fixing- the latter, and then contracting- the body
towards the point of fixture, loosening at the same time its hold with
the base ; and by reversing these actions it can retrograde. Its or-
dinary position seems to be pendant or nearly horizontal, hanging
from some floating weed or leaf, or stretching from its sides. lu a
glass of water the creature will crawl up the sides of the vessel to
the surface, and hang from it, sometimes with the base, and some-
times with the tentacula downwards ; and again it will lay itself along
horizontally.* Its locomotion is always very slow, and the disposi-
tion of the zoophyte is evidently sedentary ; but the contractions and
mutations of the body itself are sufficiently vivacious, while in seiz-
ing and mastering its prey it is surprisingly nimble ; seizing a worm,
to use the comparison of Baker, " with as much eagerness as a cat
catches a mouse." It is dull and does not expand freely in the dark,
but enjoys light, and hence undoubtedly the reason why we generally
find the Hydra near the surface and in shallow water.

The Hydrae are very voracious, feeding only on living- animals, f but

* " The position in which they appear to take most delight, is that of re-
maining suspended from the surface of the v/ater by means of the foot alone :
and this they effect in the following manner. When the flat surface of the foot
is exposed for a short time to the air, above the surface of the water, it becomes
dry, and in this state exerts a repulsive action on the liquid, so that when drag
ged below the level of the surface, by the weight of the body, it still remains
uncovered, and occupies the bottom of a cup-shaped hollow in the fluid, thereby
receiving a degree of buoyancy, sufficient to suspend it at the surface. The
principle is the same as that by which a dry needle is supported on water, in the
boat-like hollow which is formed by the cohesive force of the liquid, if care be
taken to lay the needle down very gently on the surface. If, while the Hydra is
floating in this manner, suspended by the extremity of the foot, a drop of water
be made to fall upon that part, so as to wet it, this hydrostatic power will be
destroyed, and the animal will immediately sink to the bottom." — Roget. Bridgw.
Tr. i. 179. This passage is nearly a literal translation fron Trembley's Hist,
des Polypes, p. 37-8.

f In confinement however, Trembley found that they might be fed on min-
ced fish, beef, mutton, or veal — Mem. 104.

102 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydra.

when necessary they can sustain a fast of many weeks without other
loss than what a paler colour may indicate. Small larvae, worms,
and entomostracous insects seem to be the favourite food, and to en-
trap these they expand the tentacula to the utmost and spread them
in every direction, moving them gently in the water to increase their
chances, and when a worm, &c. touches any pait of them it is im-
mediately seized, cari'ied to the mouth by these flexible and contrac-
tile organs, and forced into the stomach. " 'Tis a fine entertainment,''
says Baker, " to behold the dexterity of a polype in the mastering
its prey, and observe with what art it evades and overcomes the su-
perior strength or agility thereof. Many times by way of experi-
ment, I have put a large worm to the very extremity of a single arm,
which has instantly fastened on it with its little invisible claspers.
Then it has afforded me inexpressible pleasure to see the polype
poising and balancing the worm with no less seeming caution and
judgment than a skilful angler shows when he perceives a heavy
fish at the end of a single hair-line, and fears it should break away.
Contracting the arm that holds it, by very slow degrees, he brings
it within the reach of his other arms, which eagerly clasping round
it, and the danger of losing it being over, all the former caution and
gentleness is laid aside, and it is pulled to the polype's mouth with a
surprising violence."* Sometimes it happens that two polypes wiU
seize upon the same worm, when a struggle for the prey ensues, in
which the strongest gains of course the victory ; or each polype begins
quietly to swallow his portion, and continues to gulp down his half
until the mouths of the pair near and come at length into actual con-
tact. The rest which now ensues appears to prove that they are
sensible of their untoward position, from which they are frequently
liberated by the opportune break of the worm, when each obtains his
share, but should the prey prove too tough, woe ! to the unready !
The more resolute dilates the mouth to the requisite extent; and de-
liberately swallows his opponent, sometimes partially, so as, however,
to compel the discharge of the bait, while at other times the entire
polype is engulped ! But a polype is no fitting food to a polype, and
his capacity of endurance saves him from this living tomb, for after a
time, when the worm is sucked out of him, the sufferer is disgorged
with no other loss than his dinner.f This fact is the more remark-
able when it is contrasted with the fate which awaits the worms on
which they feed. No sooner are these laid hold upon than they evince
every symptom of painful suffering, but their violent contortions ore

* Hist, of the Polype, G5. Also Roget's Biidgw. Treat ii. 76
t Trembley, Mem. 112.

Hydka. Z. HYDROIDA. 103

momentary and a certain death suddenly folloivs their capture. How
this effect is produced is mere matter of conjecture. Worms, in or-
dinary circumstances, are most tenacious of life even \inder severe
wounds, and hence one is inclined to suppose that there must l)e
something- eminently poisonous in the Hydra's grasp, as it is impos-
sible to believe, with Baker, that this soft toothless creature can bite
and inject a venom into the wound it gives. " I have sometimes,"
says Baker, " forced a worm from a polype the instant it has been
bitten, (at the expence of breaking off the polype's arms,) and have
always observed it to die very soon afterwards, without one single
instance of recovery."* To the Entomostraca, however, its touch is
not equally fatal, for I have repeatedly seen Cyprides and Daphnise
entangled in the tentacula and arrested for some considerable time,
escape even from the very lips of the mouth, and swim about after-
wards unharmed ; perhaps their shell may protect them from the
poisonous excretion — The grosser parts of the food, after some hours'
digestion, are again ejected by the mouth ; but, as already mention-
ed, the stomach is furnished with what, in one sense, may be called
an intestine to which, according to Trembley and Baker, there is an
outlet in the centre of the base, and the latter asserts that he has,
" several times, seen the dung of the polype in little round pellets
discharged at this outlet or anus."f

* Hist, of the Polype, 33 — comp. with 67-8 " That insigiiilicant and inac-
tive insect called the fresh water polypus, of all poisonous animals, seems to
possess the most powerful and active venom. Small water-worms, which the
polypus is only able to attack, are so tenacious of life, that they may be cut to
pieces without their seeming to receive any material injury, or to suffer much
pain from the incisions. But the poison of the polypus instantly extinguishes
every principle of life and motion. What is singular, the mouth or lips of the
polypus have no sooner touched this worm than it expires. No wound, how-
ever, is to be perceived in the dead animal. By experiments made \\\t\\ the
best microscopes, it has been found, that the polypus is neither provided with
teeth, nor any other instrument that could pierce the skin." Smellie's Phil, of
Nat. History, ii. 462 — The fact that fishes cannot be made to swallow Hydraj,
seems to prove the presence of some irritating quality in the latter See Trem-
bley, Mem. 137.

f Lib. s. cit. 27. — He adds, — " Much the greater and grosser part of what
the polype eats, is most certaiidy thrown out again by the mouth, after lying a
proper time to become digested in the stomach -. and, for a good while, I ima-
gined there was no other evacuation ; but am now convinced, that the finer part,
in small quantity, is carried downwards through the tail, and passed off that way.
I believe however there is also another purpose to which this passage serves,
and that is, to convey a mucus or slimy matter to the end of the tail, for its
more ready adhesion to sticks, stalks, or other bodies."

104 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydra.

But the Hydra is principally celebrated on account of its manner
of propagation. It is of course like zoophytes in general, asexual;
and every individual possesses the faculty of continuing and multiply-
ing its race, principally, however, by the process of subdivision.
During the summer season, a small tubercle rises on the surface,
which lengthening and enlarging every hour, in a day or two de-
velopes in irregular succession, or in successive pairs,* a series of
tentacula, and becomes in all respects, excepting size, similar to its
parent. It remains attached for some time, and grows and feeds, and
contracts and expands after the fashion of this parent, until it is at
length thrown off by a sort of sloughing or exfoliation. These buds
sprout, in the common species, from every part of the surface of the
body, but not from the tentacula; and very often two, three or four
young may be seen depending at one time from the sides of the fruit-
ful mother, in different stages of gi'owth, every one playing its part
independent of the others :

" where some are in the bud,

" some green, and rip'ning some, while others fall."

They are evolved with rapidity in warm weather especially, one
no sooner dropping off than another begins to germinate ; " and
what is most extraordinary, the young ones themselves often breed
others, and those others sometimes push out a third or fourth genera-
tion before the first fall off from the original parent." — Trembley
found in one experiment that an individual of H. grisea produced
forty-five young in two months ; the average number per month in
summer was twenty, but as each of these began to produce four or
five days after its separation, the whole produce of a month was pro-
digious, f

" No sooner is a young one furnished with arms, than it seizes and
devours worms with all possible eagerness ; nor is it an unusual thing
to behold the young one and the old one struggling for, and gorging
different ends of the same worm together. Before the arms come out,
and even sometime afterwards, a communication continues between
the bodies of the old and young, as appears beyond dispute by the
swelling of either when the other is fed. J But a little before the
young one separates, when its tail-end begins to look white, trans-
parent, and slender, the passage between them, I believe, is closed.
And when the young one comes away, there remains not the least

Baker's Hist. 35.
f Mem. pour I'Hist- des Polypes, 174 — 5. Also Baker, lib. s. cit. 53 — 4.
^ By some clever dissections, Trembley demonstrated the reality of this com-
munication. Mem. 161-2.

Hydra. Z. HYDKOIDA. 105

mark where it had been protruded." — " After a young polype once
gets all its arms, it alters indeed in size, but neither appears to shift
its skin, or undergo any of the changes most other insects do." *

Instead of buds or little protuberances, the body sometimes push-
es forth single tentacula scattered irregularly over it, and these ten-
tacula can be metamorphosed into perfect polypes, the base swelling
out to become the body, which, again soon shoots out additional ten-
tacula to the requisite number ! f

This is a mode of generation which the term viviparous does not
correctly embrace, unless we give to that word a signification so ex-
tensive as to include all generations which are not oviparous : It is
an example of equivocal, or what some foreign physiologists deno-
minate, the generation by the individualisation of a tissue previously
or already organised, jj — and seems to be the usual way of propaga-
tion among the Hydrae during the summer months. But in autumn
the Hydra generates internal oviform gemmules which, extruded from
the body, lie during the winter in a quiescent state, and are stimulat-
ed to evolution not until the return of spring and its genial weather.
Few observations have been made on these apparent ova, so that their
structure, their source, their manner of escape from the body, and
their condition during winter are scarcely known. Trembley de-
sci'ibes them as little spherical excrescences, of a white or yellow co-
lour, attached to the body by a very short pedicle. He never saw
more than three on the same polype. After some time they became
separate, and fell to the bottom of the glass of water in which the
creatures were kept, where they came to nothing, excepting one only
which was presumed to have evolved into a polype, for although
his experiment renders this conclusion probable, it was still x'ather an
inference than an actual observation, so much so, that Trembley con-
tinued to entertain doubts of their nature. Jussieu, it seems, con-
ceived that each little excrescence was a vesicle filled with ova of

" Baker, lib. s. cit. 50. t Baker ut cit. 110—11 ■. 121—3.

\ La generation n'est pas pour cela spontanee ; una generation spontanee doit
etre la production d'un etre organise de toutes pieces, lorsque des elemens in-
organiques se reuniront pour produire un animal, une plante. Cette generation
est impossible, et n'a jamais lieu. Une generation equiuoque est celle ou des tis-
sus organises prealablement par un etre deja pourvu de vie, sHndividualisent,
c'est-a-dire se separent de la masse commune et participent encore, apres cette
separation, de I'etat dynamique de la masse, c'est-a-dire de sa vie, mais, a son
propre profit. C'est ainsi qu'un tissu produit un Entozoaire. C'est de la vie
continuee." — Ch. Morren in Ann. des Sc. Nat. an. 1836, Vol. vi. j). 90. Part.
Zool.

106 Z. HYDROIDA. Hvlua.

microscopic minuteness, but there is no foutulation for any such hy-
pothesis. *

These are the modes in which the Hydra naturally multiplies its
kind, but it can be increased, as already hinted, by artificial sections
of the body, in the same manner that a perennial plant can be by
slips and shoots. If the body is halved in any direction, each half
in a short time grows up a perfect Hydra ; if it is cut into four or
eight, or even minced into forty pieces, f each continues alive, and de-
velopes a new animal, which is itself capable of being multiplied in
the same extraordinary manner. If the section is made lengthways,
so as to divide the body into two or more slips "connected merely by
the tail, they are speedily resoldered, like some heroes of fairy tale,
into one perfect whole ; or if the pieces are kept asunder, each will
become a polype, and thus we may have two or several polypes with
only one tail between them ; but if the sections be made in the contrary
direction — from the tail towards the tentacula — you produce a mon-
ster with two or more bodies and one head. If the tentacula, — the
organs by which they take their prey, and on which their existence
might seem to depend, — are cut away, they are reproduced, and the
lopt off parts remain not long without a new body : if only two or
three tentacula are embraced in the section, the result is the same ;
and a single tentaculum will serve for the evolution of a complete
creature. :{: When a piece is cut out of the body the wound speedily
heals, and, as if excited by the stimulus of the knife, young polypes
sprout from the wound more abundantly, and in preference to un-
scarred parts ; when a polype is introduced by the tail into another's
body, the two unite and form one individual ; and when a head is lopt

* Trenibley, Mem. 196—7.

f " J'ai ouvert sur ma main iin Polype, je I'ai etendu, et j'ai coupe en tout
sens la peau simple qu'il formoit, je I'ai reduit en petits morceaux, je Tai en
quelque maniere hache. Ces petits morceaux de peau, tant ceux qui avoient
desbras, que ceux qui n'en avoient point, sout devenus des Polypes parfaits." —
Tiembley, Mem. 248. Rome de Lisle attempted to lessen the remarkableness
and singularity of this fact by supposing that the Hydra was a colony of minute
aninialcides held together in a moveable polypidoni, represented by the thin outer
cuticle, and of course that this cutting and division only set free a number of in-
dependent entire beings. The hypothesis is a bold one, but has nothing in the
way of observation to support it. See Blainv, Actinol. p. 56.3.

I From the experiments of Trembley, (Mem. 235,) of a correspondent of
Baker's and of Baker himself, it would seem that a tentaculum cannot produce
a new body unless a part of the head or body is removed with it (Hist. 19.3-4,) ;
but other experimentalists are said to have succeeded when this was not done.
I'or the particulars stated in the text, and others equally incredible, the reader
may consult the works of Trembley and Baker, passim.

Hydra. Z. HYDROIDA. 107

off it may safely be ingrafted on the body of any other which may

chance to want one. You may slit the animal up, and lay it out flat

like a membrane, with impunity ; nay it may be turned inside out,

so that the stomachal surface shall become the epidermous, and yet

continue to live and enjoy itself. * And the creature even suffers

very little by these apparently cruel operations,

— " scarce seems to feel, or know
His wound, — "

for before the lapse of many minutes, the upper half of a cross sec-
tion will expand its tentacula and catch prey as usual ; and the two
portions of a long-itudinal division will, after an hour or two, take
food and retain it. " A polype cut transversely, in three parts, re-
quires four or five days in summer, and longer in cold weather, for
the middle piece to produce a head and tail, and the tail part to get a
body and head, which they both do in pretty much the same time.
The head part always appears a perfect polype sooner than the rest."
" And what is still more extraordinary, polypes produced in this man-
ner grow much lai'ger, and are far more prolific, in the way of their
natural increase, than those that were never cut. It is very common
when a polype is divided transversely, to see a young- one push out
from one or other of the parts, and sometimes from both of them, in
a very few hours after the operation has been performed : and par-
ticularly from the tail part, two or three are frequently protruded in
different places, and at different times, long before that part acquires
a new head, and consequently whilst it can take in no fresh nourish-
ment to supply them with : and yet the young ones proceeding from
it, under these disadvantages, thrive as fast, and seem as vigorous as
those produced by perfect and uncut polypes." t

When such things were first announced — when to a little worm the
attributes of angelic beings were assigned J — it is not wonderful that

* Trembley had several by him " that have remained turned in this manner ;
their inside is become their outside, and theif outside their inside : they eat,
they grow, and they multiply, as if they had never been turned." — i'hil. Trans.
Abridg. \-iii. 627 ; and his Mem. 253, &c.
f Baker, lib. s. cit. 92, 93.

X " Vital in every part, not as frail Man
In entrails, heart or head, liver or veins,
Cannot but by annihilating die ;
Nor in their liquid texture mortal wound
Receive, no more than can tlie fluid air,
All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear,
— — — — and, as they please,
They limb themselves, and colour shajie or size
Assume, as likes them best." Millon.

108 Z. HYDROIDA. Hydra.

the vulg-ar disbelieved, albeit credulity may be their besetting sin,
when even naturalists, familiar with all the miracles of the insect
world, were amazed and wist not what to do. " II faut" — exclaimed
Reaumur — " il faut porter la foi humaine plus loin qu'il n'est permis
a des hommes eclaires, pour le croire sur le premier temoignage de
celui qui le raconte, et assure I'avoir vu. Peut-on se resoudre a
croire qu'il y ait dans la nature des aniraaux qu'on multiplie en les
hachant, pour ainsi dire, par raorceaux ?" * But this illustrious na-
turalist was himself the first to promulgate, and experimentally to
verify, the discoveries of Abraham Trembley, which have been fully
confirmed by many subsequent inquirers, and are now made so familiar
to us by their admission into elementary works and treatises on na-
tural theology, that we read of them with little surprise and without
incredulousness.

* Hist, des Insectes, vi. pref. 49.

Fig. VI.

FAMILY 11. TUBULARIAD^.

2. CoRYNE,* Gsertner.
Character. — Polypes Jixed, single^ naked, cylindrical, 07'
claviform hut contractile, the head with scattered Jilifoi'm smooth
tentncula •■ mouth 0 ?

1. C. SQUAMATA, body more or less clavate ; the tentacula
shorter than the body. Gaertner.-f-

Plate II.

Hydra squamata, Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 230, no. 2786. Zool. Dan. tab.

iv. fig. 1-3. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 347 Polyporum species margine

conchee insidentes, Bast. Opusc. Subsec. i. 44, tab. 5, fig. 2, c Tubu-

* Coryne = clava = a club.

■)■ Goertner, Joseph, M. D. a native of Wurtemburg, born in 1 732 ; elected
F. R. S. in 1761 ; died in 1791. Having visited England, he made several
zoological discoveries on the southern coast, published in the Phil. Trans., and
the Spicilegia Zoologica of Pallas. He is celebrated for his work " De Fruc-
tibus et Seminibus Plantarum." There is an interesting biographical sketch of
him in Thomson's Histonj of the Royal Societt/, p. 46-7.

110 Z. IIYDROIDA. CoRYNE.

laria affinis, Turt. Gmel. iv. 6G8. Turt. Brit. Faun. 210. Stew. Elem. ii.

438. Bosc, Vers. iii. 92. Coryne squamata, Jameson in Wem. Mem. i.

565. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 62, 2de edit. ii. 73. Bosc, Vers. ii. 279.

Fleming in Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 87- Flem. Pbil. Zool. ii. 616, tab. 5.

fig. 1. Flem. Brit. Anim. 553. Coldstreamin Edin. New Pbil. Journ. ix.

234. Stark, Elem. ii. 443 La Coryne ecailleuse, Blainv. Actinolog.

471 C. multieornis, Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 419 Hy-
dra capitata, Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 230.
Hab. Parasitical on sea weeds, corallines, stones and dead shells,
at and within low-water mark. " On the shore of the island of Bur-
ra, and on the Holm of Cruster, in Bressay Sound, in Shetland,"
Jameson. At Abercoru ; and at the Isle of May, i?ei;. /)r i^/em««^.
Island of Bute, Dr Coldstream. Maybole, Ayrshire, Rev. George
Gray. " Found in great plenty on Fucus vesiculosus at the White
House Point, Belfast Lough ; Aug. 1807," J. Templeton, Esq. In
Berwick Bay, not uncommon.

Polypes in general gregarious, fixed by a narrow disk, from two to
six or eight lines in height ; clavate or cylindrical with a knobbed
head, rose-coloured or wliite, smooth, fleshy ; the head or upper part
furnished with from 5 to 25 scattered filiform tentacula, which are
usually much shorter than the body, and not always of equal lengths.
In gravid individuals the oviform gemmules hang from the bases of
the tentacula in one or several clusters ; they are of a round or el-
liptical figure, rose-coloured with a darker centre, and large in pro-
portion to the animal.

Towards the roots of the tentacula we can frequently observe a
reddish spot which probably indicates the position of the stomach ;
and a dusky line prolonged down the centre of the body appears to
show that the latter is hollow, the canal being doubtless intestinal.
The tentacula are also tubular, as I infer from their being marked
with a similar line : unlike those of the Hydra they are smooth, or
merely crenulate, but like them they are capable of being shortened
and elongated at will, though to a less extent. The form of the body
is also varied at pleasure, but all its motions are slow, and indicate a
very inferior degree of irritability. I have never been able to disco-
ver a mouth or aperture on the top on the body, but Dr Coldstream
says, " after having been kept in small vessels of sea-water for some
hours, without renewal of the water, some of the animals protrude
the inner surface of the mouth, so as to present a convex disc, with
the tentacula ranged round it." — The young are of a fine pink or rose
colour : at first they resemble little smooth rounded tubercles, which
gradually elongate, and soon acquire one, then two, three or four
tentacula, and so on imtil the number of maturity is completed, for
these organs are developed in succession.

Hermia. Z HYDROIDA. Ill

The clavate rose-ivd specimens I have generally found between
tide marks, and the white ones with a long filiform stalk on dead
shells dredged from deeper water. On the latter is undoubtedly
founded the " Hydra capitata aiha, pedunculo riigoso longo, cir-
ris capitis longitiidine" of MuUer ; while the former answer better
to his H. squamata, but although at one time disposed to consider
them distinct, I am now satisfied of their identity as species, for they
graduate so insensibly into one another as to lose even the character
of fixed varieties. I am also led to suspect that the H. brevicornis
and viinuticornis of Muller, Zool. Dan. prod. p. 230, will be found
to be modifications of this species.

The Hydra Tuba of Sir J. G. Dalyell probably belongs to this
genus, and may be distinguished by its tentacula being much longer
than the body. It inhabits the Frith of Forth near Edinburghj where
its natural abode seems the internal concavity of the upper oyster-
shell. It extends " about two inches in whole, with its long white
tentacula waving like a beautiful silken pencil in the water. It pro-
pagates by an external shapeless bud issuing fi'om the side of the pa-
rent, and withdrawing, though very long connected by a ligament,
on approaching maturity. In thirteen months a single specimen had
eighty-three descendants. Singular and distorted forms appear from
the successive and irregular evolution of the buds, during subsistence
of the connecting ligament." Edin. New Phil. Journ. xvii. 411 ;
xxi. 92. and Rep. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, p. 599.

3. Hermia,* Johnston.
Character. — Polype fixed., slieatUeJ. in a thin horny mem-
brane, clavate or branched and suhpliytoidal, the apices of the
branches clubbed and furnished laith scattered glandular tentacu-
la : mouth 0.

1. H. Glandulosa, irregularly or dichotomously branched ;

* I found the name in Shakspeare ;

" What wicked and dissembling glasse of mine,

" Made me compare with Hermia's sphery eyne."
When I defined this genus in the Mag. Zool. and Bot. V. ii. p. 326, I was not
aware that the same had been instituted by Sars under the name of Stipula, and
by Ehrenberg who called it Syncoryne. The latter designation is in direct oppo-
sition to the Linntean axiom — " generic names, derived from others by the ad-
dition of a syllable, are disapproved ;" — and Sars' name seems to me even more
inadmissible, since it is a descriptive term in Botany. The fancy that the glands
which surround the heads were the guardians of the animal, — its " sphery eyne"
— suggested the name here adopted.

112 Z. HYDIIOIDA. Hermia.

the tentacula shorter than the enlarged heads of the branches.

Gaertner.

Vignette, No. 12, and Plate IV. Fig 1, 2.
Tubularia Corjaia, Turt. Gmel. iv. 668. Turt. Brit. Faun. 210. Stew.

Elem. ii. 438. Bosc. Vers. iii. 91. Hydra ramosa, Fabric. Faun.

Groenl. 348 Coryne Glandulosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 62. 2de

edit. ii. 74. Fleming in Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 87, and viii. 295. Flem.

Phil. Zool. ii. 616, tab. v. fig. 2. Flem. Brit. Anim. 533. Encyclop.

Method, tab. 69. fig. 15, 16. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 253 ;

and in Mag. Nat. Hist. v. 631. fig. 110. C. glanduleuse. Blainv. Ac-

tinol. 471. pi. 85, fig. 3, 3 a Coryne, Lister in Phil. Trans, an.

1834, p. 376. pi. 10. fig. 3.
Hah. On the under surface of stones between tide-marks ; on old
shells, and often parasitical on Tubularia indivisa. Isle of May ; and
on the Bell Rock on the coast of Angus, Rev. Dr Fleming. May-
bole, Ayrshire, 7?^?'. Geo. Gray. Brighton, J/r Z«>^e>-. Scarborough,
Mr Bean. Berwick Bay.

Polypes adherent by a tubular fibre which creeps along the surface
of the object on which they grow, seldom an inch in height, irregu-
larly branched, the stem filiform, tubular, horny, subpellucid, wrink-
led and sometimes ringed at intervals, especially at the origin of the
branches, each of which is terminated with an oval or clubshaped
head of a reddish colour, and armed v.'ith short scattered tentacula
tipt with a globular apex. The ends of the branches are not perfo-
rated, but completely covered with a continuation of the horny sheath
of the stem. The animal can bend its armed heads at will, or give
to any separate tentaculura a distinct motion and direction, but all its
movements are very slow and leisured.

When parasitical on Tubularia this zoophyte surrounds the stalks,
for the space of an inch or more, with a thick beard-like mossiness
composed of entangled corneous fibres, not coarser than a sewing
thread, and more irregularly branched than when the polypes have
greater freedom to spread. This variety is figured on Plate IV. Fig.
1, 2. The stem is filled with a pulpous medulla, enlarged in the
heads and continued up the tentacula, the round tips of which ap-
peared to be smooth and areolar under a magnifier, but Mr Lister
says they are covered with " short projections like blunt hairs,"
" and it seems to be by their means that the polypi attach with a
touch, or release at will, substances that drift within their reach."
Mixed with the tentacula, on some heads, there are a few round and
larger bodies of a deep red colour in the centre with a transparent al-
buminous envelope : these are supported on a very short stalk, and

are evidently the gemmules by which this .s])ecies is propagated.

3

TuBULARiA. Z. HYDROIDA. 113

On examining a few tubes under the microscope I perceived in one of
them, and only in one, a crowd of minute elliptical bodies which were
in active motion, running up the tube on one side, and down on the
other, but frequently crossing, nor was it uncommon to see one ac-
celerate its pace and beat the others in the race. The tube had lost
its head, and the moving bodies were evidently, as I think, infusory
animalcules which had got admission into it ; — the currents they
created are therefore to be distinguished from those observed by Mr
Lister, analogous to the circulation in the Tubularia and Sertula-
riadae.

4. Tubularia,* Linnaeus.
Character. — Polypidom rooted, more or less plant-like, hor-
7iy,Jistular, simple or branched ; no cells — Polypes protruding at
the ends of the tubes or branchlets, non-retractile, the head crested
with one or two circles oftentacida.

* Tubes undivided.
L T. iNDiviSA, tid)es clustered, simple, cylindrical, narrowed
and interwoven at the base : head of the polype crested with tivo
rows of tentacula. E. Lhwyd. f

Plate IIL Fig. 1, 2.
Remarkable Sea-plant, Lhwyd m Phil. Trans, abridg. vi. 7.3, pi. .0, fig. 1.

(pessima.) Adianti aurei minimi facie planta marina, Rail, Syu. 31,

no. 4. Jussieu in Mem. Acad. Roy. des So. 1742, p. 296, tab. 10, fig.

2. Tubular coralline like oaten pipes, Ellis in Phil. Trans, xlviii.

tab. 17, fig. D. Ibid, abridg. x. 453, pi. 10, fig. D. Corall. 31, no.

2. tab. 16, fig. C. Tubularia indivisa, Lin. Syst. 1301. Soland.

Zooph. 31. Berk. Syn. i. 214. Turt. Gmel. iv. 666. Blumenb. Man.
272. Turt. Brit. Faun. 210. Steiu. Elem. ii. 437. Wern. Mem. i.
563. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 110. 2de edit. ii. 125. Lamour. Cor.

* Formed from tuhulus — a little hollow pipe.

t Edward Lhwyd or Lloyd (as Dillenius spells the name) was born in 1670
and died in July 1709. He was keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and
was distinguished among his contemporaries for knowledge in antiquities and
natural history. " He is indeed," writes Archdeacon Nicolson, afterwards
Bishop of Carlisle, and a very competent judge, " if I may judge of him, the
greatest man (at antiquities and natural philosophy together) that I have had
the happiness to converse with." Letters to R. Thoreshy, F. R. S. v. i. p. 206.
Ray gratefully records his assistance in the Synopsis and Hist. Plantarum ; and
Petiver frequently mentions him as his " worthy," " curious," and " generous
friend." Of his life and writings the reader wall find an account in Pulteney's
Sketches of Botany in England, v. ii. p. 110-116 : and some additional particu-
lars in the " Analecta Scotica," especially in the Seco7id Series published at
Edinburgh during the present year.

H

114 Z. HYDROIDA. Tubularia.

Flex. 230. Corall. 100. Cuv. Reg. Anim. iii. 299. Bosc, Vers, iii. 89,
pi. 28, fig. 3. Fkm. Brit. Anim. 552. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc.
ii. 252. Dalyell in Edin. New Pbil. Journ. xvii. 411 ; and xxi, 93;
and in RejJ. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, 600. Lister in Pliil. Trans, an. 1834,

366, pi. 8, fig. I Tub. calamaris. Pall. Elench. 81 Tub. gigan-

tea, Lamour. Soland. 17, tab. 68, fig. 5 Tub. gracilis? Harvey in

Proc. Zool. Soc. no. 41, p. 54 La Tubulaire ehalumeau, Blainv.

Actinolog. 470.

Hub. On shells and stones from deep water. Leith shore ; Ork-
ney and Shetland Islands, Professor Jameson. Scarborough, Mr
Bean. Coast off Dunstanborough Castle, 31r R. Emhleton. Cul-
lercoats, Northumberland, 3Ir J. Alder. Berwick Bay.

The tubes are simple or sometimes divided once at the base, where
they are twisted and flexuous, fistular, even, continuous or sometimes
wrinkled at distant intervals with a few annulations, horn-coloured,
from 6 to 12 inches in height, and about a line in diameter. Ellis's
comparison of them to " part of an oat-straw, with the joints cut oiF,"
is very apt. They are filled with a soft almost fluid reddish-pink pulp
in organic connection with the Polypes, which project from the open
ends of the tubes, and are not retractile within them. The body, or
naked portion, of the polype forms a globular knob of a scarlet colour,
produced above into a sort of proboscis encircled with a series of nu-
merous short tentacula of the same colour. Around the base of this
body there is another circle of much long-er tentacula from 30 to 40
in number ; and between their insertion and the body clusters of ovi-
form g-emmules are produced at certain seasons. The neck of the
polype is greatly constricted ; and we find that the recent tube is
marked with several longitudinal pale lines, placed at equal distances,
and which are evidently caused by some structure of the interior pulp,
for when empty the tubes exhibit no such appearance. What is their
relation to the currents observed by Mr Lister? — As the animal be-
comes weak when kept in a basin of sea-water, the head drops off,
like a flower from its stalk ; and if it is immersed, even when most
vivacious, in fresh-water, the pulp is expelled from the tubes until
these are almost emptied. If this is efl"ected by a contraction of the
tube (and the phenomenon is not otherwise easily explained), does
not this imply a degree of irritability in the polypidom inconsistent
with the theory of its extravascular character ?

I can find no characters either in the description or fig-ure of Tub.
gigantea which warrant its separation as a distinct species. The
character of Lamouroux is : " T. tubulis rectis, simplicissimis, ad
basim attenuatis, gradatim dilatatis, deinde tequali crassitie, laevibus
nitidisque." — Neither do I find in Mr Harvey's description of his

TuBULARiA. Z. HYDROIDA. 115

Tub. gracilis any essential specific character : the differences he points
out between it and T. indivisa seem to depend on the pecuHar locali-
ty of the former, viz. on chains or wood exposed to a rapid current.

2. T. Larynx, tubes clustered, slender, cylindrical, ringed at
regular intervals : polypes tvith a double series of tentacula.
Plate III. Fig-. 3, and Plate IV. Fig. 3-5.

Var. a. The tubes simple or undivided. Plate III. Fig. 3. Fucus Dealensis
fistulosus, laryngae similis, Raii, Syn. i. 39, no. 8. Petiv. Oper. iii. 39,
no. 406. Ellis in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 453, pi. 10, fig. c, and xi. pi.
5, fig. 3, young Tubulous Coralline wrinkled like the windpipe, El-
lis, Corall. 30, no. 1. tab. 16, fig. h. Corallina tubularia laryngi similis,
Bast. Opusc. Subs. 41, tab- 2, fig. 3-4 ; and tab. 3, fig. 2-4 Tubu-
laria muscoides. Pall. Elench. 82. Berk. Syn. i. 214. Turt. Gmel. iv. 667.
Turt. Brit. Faun. 210. Stetv. Elem. ii. 438. Bosc, Vers, iii. 90. Flem. Brit.

Anim. 552. Tub. Larynx, Soland. Zooph. 31. Lavi. Anim. s. Vert.

ii- 110. Hogg's Stock. 34. — La Tub. muscoide, Blainv. Actinolog. 470.

Var. b. The tubes sparingly and irregidarhj branched. Plate IV. Fig. 3,

4, 5, and Plate V. fig. 3, 4. Tubularia muscoides ? Lin. Syst. 1302.

Corall. 101. Fistularia muscoides ? Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 254, no.

3068 Fistulana muscoides ? Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 442.

Hab. On shells, corallines, Sec. beyond low-water mark, (a.)
" Found about Deal by the Reverend Mr Hugh Jones* and Mr
James Cuninghame f " Petiver. " Found in great plenty in the
sea, near the opening- of the Thames, adhering to other marine bodies,
and often to the bottoms of ships," Ellis. Stockton-on-Tees, J. Hogg,
Esq. Scarborough, Mr Bean. — (b.) Berwick Bay, parasitical on Tu-
bularia indivisa and ramea.

Polype-tubes, in var. a, clustered, about 2 inches in height, un-
divided and fiHform, more or less entwined at the base, of a thin pel-
lucid pale corneous texture, wrinkled and annulatedat intervals, whence

* " A very curious person in all parts of Natural History, particularly in Fos-
sils, some of whicli he hath sent me from Maryland, \\Tth several volumes of
Plants very finely preserved ; with divers Insects and Shells. From this oblig-
ing gentleman, I am promised frequent remittances of whatever those parts af-
ford, as well Animals and Fossils as Vegetables." — Petiver.

f Cuninghame was a Surgeon, probably in the East India Company's service,
and had visited those places which lie in the course of its trade, whence he
brought numerous plants, &c. to enrich the museum of Petiver. The latter styles
him " that industrious promoter of Natural Philosophy, and my very ingenious
friend ;" — " my very worthy friend ;" — " my hearty friend ;" and the 20th plate
of Petiver's English Plants is gratefidly dedicated to the memorij of this " his
curious friend," to whom he says he was " beyond expression obliged."
Cuninghame is the author of a paper on the plants of the island of Ascension
in Phil. Trans, no. 255 ; and seems to have deserved the praises which his con-
temporaries bestowed.

110 Z. HYDROIDA. Tubularia.

each tube assumes somewhat the appearance of the wind-pipe of a
small bird. In var. b, the tubes are distinguished by being- slightly
branched, the branches coming- off irregularly and at vai'ious angles.
They rise to about 3 inches in height, and are smooth in a fresh state,
but when dried exhibit the annulations distinctly, especially at the
origin of the branches. The naked body of the polypes is rose-red,
more or less deeply tinted, while the tentacula are milk-white, or
sometimes faintly tinged with red. Of these there are two series :
one round the oral aperture composed of short threads usually held in
an erect position ; the other forms a circle round the most bulging
part of the body, and consists of more than 20 long filaments which
spread like rays from a centre, or droop elegantly, being usually held
still, or allowed listlessly to follow the undulations of the water.
When the polypes are all displayed, they afford a very interesting
and pretty spectacle, equalled by no other species I have seen, the
crimson heads contrasting finely with their white polypidoms, es-
pecially when loaded with the gemmules which pullulate from the
inner side of the bases of the inferior tentacula. When few in num-
ber and immature these gemmules are sessile and separate, but in
their progress to evolution they form grape-like clusters : each sepa-
rate gemmule is of a roundish or oval shape, consisting of a white al-
buminous coat with a dark red cylindrical centre. — Plate IV. Fig. 5.
According to Agardh and Lamouroux the Tubularia muscoides of
Linnaeus is distinct from the T. Larynx of Ellis and Solander, but
his specific character — " T. cuhnis subdicJiotomis, totis annuloso-ru-
gosis," — answers sufficiently to our b in a dried state to induce me to
quote it as a synonyme, the more so as Linnaeus refers to Ellis's fi-
gure for a representation of what he intended. The Tubularia po-
lyceps of Sir J. G. Dalyell in Rep. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, p 601, and
Edin. New. Phil. Journ. xxi. 93, appears to be referable to the same
variety. From the observations of this ingenious naturalist we must
infer that the mimher o\ tentacula is an uncertain character : he says,
" a specimen had originally 21 tentacula, but only 16 were renovated
with the second head ; and with the seventh they had diminished to
six.

* * Tubes ramous. (Eudendrium, Ehrenberg.)
t3. T. RAMOSA, tube single, irregularly branched, the branches
erecto-patent, ringed and rather narrower at their origins : poly-
pes with a single series oj" tentacula. J. Ellis.

Small ramified tubular coralline, Ellis, Corall. 31, No. 3, tab. 16, fig. a ; and
tab. 17, fig. a, A Tubularia trichoides, Pall. Elencb. 84. T.

TuBULARiA. Z. HYDROIDA. 117

ramosa, ZiK. Syst. 1302. Soland. Zooph. 32. Berk. Syn. i. 214. Turt.
Gmel. iv. 6G6. Turt. Brit. Faun. 210. Stew. Elem. ii. 437. Wern.
Mem. i. 56S. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 110. 2de edit. ii. 12G. Bosc,
Vers, iii. 89. Lamonr. Corall. Trans. 101. Flem. Brit. Anim. 552.
Hogg's Stock. 34. Stark, Elem. ii. 441, pi. 8, fig. 15. Templeton in

Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 466 Fistiilaria ramosa. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod.

254, no. 3067 Fistulaiui ramosa. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 441 — Tu-

bulaire rameuse et trichoide, Blainv. Actinolog. 470, pi. 30, fig. 3, 3 a,
copied from Ellis.
ffab. On oysters and other marine productions. " At Whitstable
on the Kentish shore ;" and " at Emsvvorth, on the borders of Sussex,"
£^/lis. " Leith shore, found by the late Mr Mackay," Jameson.
Very common on stones, muscle and oyster shells near Stockton-on-
Tees, J. Hogg, Esq. " Found on the shore of Dublin Bay," Tem-
pleton.

Though said to be common, I am but imperfectly acquainted with
this species, which it must be difficult to distinguish from the branch-
ed variety of the preceding- except in a living- state, when the polypes
afford a certain means of discrimination in the arrangement of their
tentacula. In size and texture the two species seem to be nearly
alike. Ellis says, " I have often met with specimens of this coral-
line that have been regularly branched in a doubly pinnated form ;
and when I was at Emsvvorth, on the borders of Sussex, I found a spe-
cimen of this Tubularia, with its ovaries placed in a circle round the
lower part of its heads." I have had small and imperfect specimens
of Thoa halecina sent me as T. ramosa ; nor is it impossible to mis-
take the variety of Hermia glandulosa which infests Tubularia indi-
visa for it. Lamouroux and Blainville make of Ellis' figure in Plate
XVI. their Tub. trichoides, and they restrict the name ramosa to that
figured in Plate XVII., but Ellis himself knew no difference, nor am I
aware on what grounds these authors place the distinctions between
them.

4. T. RAMEA, arborescent, the stem and branches formed of
agglutinated fUform tubes irregularly branched : polypes with a
single series of tentacula.

Plate V. Fig. 1, 2.

Tubularia ramea. Pall. Elench. 83. Bosc, Vers, iii. 90. T. ramosa,

Johnston in Trans. Newc Soc ii. 253, pi. 10 Fistulana ramosa?

Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 441 Thoa Savignii? Lamour. Corall. 93,

pi. 6, fig. 2, male.
Hub. On old shells and on stones from deep water. Shetland and
Leith shore, Dr Coldstream. Frequent on the coasts of Northum-
berland and Berwickshire.

118 Z. HYDROIDA. Tubularia.

This coralline so perfectly resembles a tree in miniature, deprived
of its leaves, that persons unacqiiainted with the nature of zoophytes
cannot be persuaded that it is not of a vegetable nature. It is from
3 to 6 inches high, rooted by a densely interwoven mass of tubular
fibres, which by their cohesion and intertwining form the stem, which
is sometimes as thick as the little finger. This is irregularly divided
into many compound branches, formed like the stalk itself, but the
ultimate branches consist of a single short tube, ringed at the base,
and terminated by the non-retractile polypes. The separate tubes
are filiform, not thicker than ordinary thread, of earthy brown colour,
horny, wrinkled at intervals. The polypes placed at the extremities
of the branches are of a reddish colour and appear indolent in dispo-
sition, contracting slowly under external irritations : they have about
twenty whitish tentacula arranged in one row round a broad oral
disk.

It is possible this may be a state of T. ramosa, but its arborescent
character and the complexness of its structure are so remarkable
that I have willingly followed the example of Pallas, who has given
a description of the species in his usual accurate and expressive style.
I find it noticed by no other author, unless perhaps by Otho Fabri-
cius, but his description is not sufficiently explicit to remove all
doubts of the correctness of his synonyme. The Sertolara racemosa
of Cavolini, Polip. Mar. p. J 60, tav. 6, fig. 1, is a nearly alhed
species.

The Tubularia flabelliformis of Adams in Lin. Trans, v.
12. {Turt. Gmel. iv. 669. Turt. Brit. Faun. 211. Stew. Elem ii.438.)
is a minute parasitical alga of the family Diatomacese.

Fig. 13.

FAMILY III. SERTULARIADiE.

5. Thoa,* Lamouroux.
Character. — Polypidoms rooted, arbuscidar : the stem com-
posed of aggregated suhparallel capillary tubes ; the branches al-
ternate, spreading bifariously : cells tubular, indistinct, alter-
nate : ovarian-vesicles irregularly scattered. — Polypes hydraform,
scarcely retractile loithin their cells.

1. T. HALECiNA, vesicles oval, the aperture shortly tubuloiis
subterminal. Mr. Newton. -f-

Plate VL

* From fleof, sharj) ; or more probably a mispelling of Thoe — one of the
Nereids.

f Mr James Newton, a good practical botanist, contemporary with Ray, to
whom he sent many contributions for the Synop. Stirp. Brit., and the Hist.
Plantarum. He died before the publication of the 3d edition of the Synopsis
in 1724, but Dillenius acknowledges his obligations, and introduced several
species into our Flora, for the first time, on Newton's authority. I am not aware

120 Z. HYDROIDA. Thoa.

Coralliiia scniposa pennata, cauliculis crassiusculis rigidis, Eaii, Sjii. i. 36,

no. 15 Herring-bone Coralline, Ellis in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 454.

pi. 10. fig. E, F, G. Coral. 17, no. 15, pi. 10. Phil. Trans, xlviii, 506,

pi. 17, fig. f, E Sertularia halecina, Lin. Syst. 1308. Pall, Elench.

113. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 255. Fabr. Faun. Groenl. 443. Ellis and
Soland. Zooph. 46. Berk. Syn. i. 217. Turt. Gmel. iv. 678. Turt. Brit.
Faun, 213. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Stew. Elem. ii. 442. Bosc, Vers,iii. 109.
Lam. Anim. s. vert. ii. 1 1 9. 2de edit. ii. 1 46. Hogg's Stockton, 32. Flem.
Brit. Anim. 542. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 259, pi. 12, fig. 2.

Thoa halecina, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 211. Corallina, 93. Templeton

in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 468 La Thoa halecine, Blainv. Actinol. 488,

pi. 84, fig. 4, 4 a.
Hah. On old shells and stones in deep water, common. Common
on oyster shells in the Frith of Forth, Prof. Jameson. Vicinity of
Stockton-on-Tees, J. Hogg, Esq. Found on the shore of Belfast
Lough, Mr Templeton. Cork Harbour, J. V. Thompson. Coasts
of N. Durham aud Berwickshire.

Polypidom from 4 to 6 inches high, fixed by numerous fibres " ir-
regularly matted together like apiece of sponge," of an earthy-brown
colour, stiff, brittle when dry, irregularly branched, the stem and prin-
cipal branches composite, tapered upwards, pinnate ; the pinnae alter-
nate, patent. Cells alternate, tubular, bi-articulate, the aperture
even. Vesicles unilateral, scattered, of an oval shape " with a tube
arising from the pedicle, and passing up on one side to a little above

the top of each," Ellis Young specimens are often partially

coloured a bright yellow, dependent apparently on the colour of the in-
terior pulp. When the specimen is recent and clean the cells are seen
to be divided by one or two wrinkles or joints, but in general they
are obscurely marked.

2. T. Beanii, vesicles calceoliform, the aperture suhcentral^

shortly tuhulous. Mr William Bean.*

Plate VII. Fig. 1, 2.
Hah. " Near Scarborough, in deep water, very rare," Mr Bean.
Polypidom 1 1 inch high, irregularly branched, the branches alternate,
spreading, the principal composed of many parallel tubes, the ulti-
mate of a single tube, with a joint between each cell, which is small,

that any genus of plants has been dedicated to his memory, — an honour of which
he seems not unworthy. He must not be confounded with another James New-
ton, author of a " Compleat Herbal," Lond. 1752.

"■ Mr B. of Scarborough, well known to naturalists generally by his numerous
discoveries in British Zoology, recent and fossil. To some of his new species
the trivial name fabalis has been applied, but the justice of such a conceit or
puzzle is questionable, since it veils the discoverer's name from those who are
not good guessers.

SfiRTULARiA. Z. HYDllOIDA. 121

articulated, cylindrical or somewhat dilated at the aperture. Vesicles
mimerous, scattered or imperfectly clustered, large and shaped some-
what like the flower of a Calceolaria, with a short tubulous aperture
in the middle of its concavity, which is on the superior and inner as-
pect.

I have named this curious and very interesting species after its
discoverer, to whose kindness I am indebted for the specimen that fur-
nished our figure and description. In habit and structure it closely
resembles Th. halecina, from which it is, however, at once distin-
guished by its remarkable ovaries.

3. T. MURiCATA, vesicles roundish or ovate, echinated. Dr
David Skene.

Plate VII. Fig. 3, 4.
Sertularia muricata, Ellis and Soland. Zoopb. 59, pi. 7, fig. 3, 4. Turt.
Gmel. iv. 681. Turt. Brit. Faun. 215. Stew. Elem. ii. 445. Jame-
son in Wem- Mem. i. 564. Flem. Brit. Anim. 543. Hogg's Stockton,

34. JBosc, Vers, iii. 115 Laomedea muricata, Lamoiir. Cor. Flex-

209. Corallina, 92 La Sertulaire muriquee, Blainv. Aotinol. 480.

La Campaniilaire muriquee, Ibid. 473.
Hah. On old shells in deep water. The sea at Aberdeen, Skene.
Frith of Forth, Jameson. Seaton, J. Hogg. Near Scarboi'ough,
TV. Bean.

Polypidom from 2 to 4 inches high, rooted by a fibrous entangled
mass, irregularly bi'anched, stout and rigid, yellowish-brown ; the
stem and branches composed of capillary tortuous tubes closely ag-
glutinated, but the extremities of some of them become free and ap-
pear hke simple fibres ; branches erecto-patent, slightly tapered at
the point. Cells visible only on the simple fibres, small, alternate,
separated by an oblique joint, sessile, campanulate, with an entire
even aperture. Vesicles very numerous and often crowded, shortly
stalked, roundish or ovate, somewhat compressed, and rough with
prickles arranged in lines on elevated striae : when filled with ova the
centre is of a deep chesnut-brown colour.

May not the obscure Sertularia echinata of Linnaeus be re-
ferable to this species ?

6. Sertularia,* Linnaeus.
Character. Polypidoms rooted, plant like, variously branch-
ed, the divisions or branches formed of a sinr/le tube divided at
regular intervals by imperfect septa : cells paired or arranged in

* From sertula, the diniiruitive of serta, a garland.

122 Z. HYDROIDA. Sektularia.

tuw opposite rotos, sessile, distinct and separated by a joint from
the stem, short icith everted apertures : vesicles scattered. — Po-
lypes hydraform.

* Cells distinctly alternate.
1. S. PoLYZONiAS, erect, subjlexuous ; cells ovate, with a
wide somewhat uneven aperture ; vesicles obovate, wririkled across^
the orifice contracted and plain. Mr Newton,
Plate VIII. Fig. 1, 2, 3.
Corallina minus ramosa, alterna vice denticiilata, Raii, Syn. 35, no. 13,

tab. 2, fig. 4, male Great Tooth Coralline, Ellis, Coral. 5, no. 3,

pi. 2, fig. a, A. and pi. 38, fig. 1, A. Sertularia polyzonias, Lin.

Syst. 1312. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 37. Berk. Syn. i. 219. Turt.
Gmel. iv. 683. Blumenb. Man. 273. Turt. Brit. Faun. 216. Wern.
Mem. i. 564. Stew. Elem. ii. 447. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 117. 2de
edit, ii 142. Lamour. Cor. Flex. 190. Corallina, 83. Risso, L'Europ.
merid. v. 130. Bosc, Vers, iii. 119. Hogg's Stockton, 31. Flejn.
Brit. Anim. 542. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 256. Templeton

in Mag. Nat. Hist ix. 468 S. ericoides, Pall. Elench. 127 Ser-

tolara polizonia, Cavol. Polip. Mar. 224, tav. 8, fig. 12-14 La Ser-

tulaire zonee, Blainv. Actinolog. 480.
Hah. On shells and other corallines, in deep water. Near Queen-
borough in the island of Sheppey, Ellis. Leith shore, Jameson.
Coast of Ayrshire, Mr P. W. Maclagan. On the shore of Belfast
Lough, Templeton. Cork Harbour, J. V. Thompson. Scarborough,
Mr Bean. Coasts of N. Durham and Berwickshire. — (/3.) Corn-
wall, Pallas. Isle of Wight, Ellis. Berwickshire.

Polypidoms affixed by a creeping tubular fibre, from 1 to 2 inches
high, of a yellowish horn-colour, filiform and slender, scarcely zig-
zag, simple or sparingly branched in general, but specimens occasion-
ally occur which are bifariously pinnated ; the pinnae alternate, erec-
to-patent. Cells rather distant with an oblique joint in the stem
above the origin of each of them, urceolate, smooth, the aperture wide
and obsoletely tridentate. Polypes white or sometimes bright-yel-
low, with numerous tentacula. Vesicles large, sessile, ovate with a
short tiibulous apex, smooth or transversely wrinkled on the upper
half.

Pallas describes a variety (/3) worthy of notice, not unfrequent
on the coast of Cornwall, 3 inches and upwards in height, with
a compound stem, and branched in a pinnate manner similar to Thoa
halecina, which this variety indeed very closely resembles. Ellis
mentions that he had received specimens of the same from the Isle of
Wight ; and I have found it on the coast of Berwickshire. In the col-
lection of my friend Dr Coldstream there are specimens also, from

Sertularia. Z. HYDROIUA. 123

the Cape of Good Hope, of a still greater size and more robust and
shrubby habit, with numerous and compound branches, — evidencing-
the genial intluence of climate on the growth and appearance of these
corallines.

2. S. Ellisii, climbiny^ Jlexuous ; the cells urceolate, bulged
at the hase^ with a ^-toothed rim : vesicles with the opening 4-
toothed. Ellis.

Ellis, Corall. (j, pi. 2, fig. h, B. Sertularia Ellisii, M. Edwards in Lam.
Anim. s. Vert. ii. 142, 2de edit.

Hah. Parasitical on other corallines.

Under the " Great-tooth Coralline" Ellis describes this shortly :
" The other species, which is the climbing one, is more branched,
the denticles are placed more asunder, and their mouths are wider :
The vesicles of both species are wrinkled." It has been always con-
sidered a variety of the preceding until separated from it by Milne-
Edwards on what appear to be sufficient characters of distinction.
I have seen no specimen.

3. S. Templetoni, ^^ stems simple ; cells short and narroio.*^
Mr Templeton.*

Sertularia Temijletoni, Fleming in Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 88. Flem. Brit.

Anim. 543 — La S. de Templeton, iJ/flin;;. Actinolog. 480. Lam. Anim.

s. Vert. ii. 152, 2d edit.

Hab. " Loch of Belfast, Mr Templeton," Fleming.

" Height about an inch ; slightly branched ; cells narrow, tubular,

produced ; the vesicles oval, lengthened, narrow at the base, covered

towards the summit with lanceolate spines. This species is of a

more delicate texture than the preceding, (Thoa muricata), the ve-
sicles are of a different shape, and the stem is simple. It was given
to me by an accomplished naturalist, the late Mr Templeton of Orange
Grove, Belfast. It adheres apparently to a gramineous leaf, proba-
bly of a zostera, and therefore may be considered an inhabitant of shal-
low water." Fleming.

4. S. KUGOSA, cells ovate, twinkled transversely, the mouth nar-
row with 3 or 4 small teeth on the rim. J. Ellis.

Pirate VIII. Fig. 4, 5, 6.

Snail-trefoil Coralline, EUis, Corall. 26, no. 23, tab, 15, fig. a, A

Sertularia rugosa, Lin. Syst. L308. Pall. Elench. 126. Ellis and Soland.

* John Templeton, Esq. bom in Belfast in 1 766, where he died, I believe, in
1827. For an interesting memok see the Mag. Nat. Hist. v. i. p. 403, and v.
ii. p. 305.

124 Z. HYDROIDA. Sektularia.

Zooph. 52. BeTk. Syn. i. 216. Fahr. Faun. Groenl. 443. Turt. Gmel.

iv. 678. Wem. Mem. i. 364. Tar^ Brit. Faun. 213. Stew.Eiem.n.

442. Lam. Anim. s. vert. ii. 121. 2d edit. ii. 149. Bosc, Vers, iii. 108.

Flem. Brit. Anim. 542. Hogg's Stockton, -32. Johnston in Trans. Newc

Soc ii. 257, pi. 11, fig. 3 Clytia rugosa, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 204.

Corallina, 89. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist, ix 466 La Campanu-

laire rugueux, Blainv. Actinol. 473.
Hab. Parasitical on Flustrae, Sponges and Fuci at low water-mark,
common. Brighthelrastone, Ellis- Near Hai'tlepool, common, Mr
Hogg. Leith shore, Jameson. Shores of N. Durham and Berwick-
shire.

A small species not exceeding an inch in height, and well distin-
guished by its strongly wrinkled cells which resemble a barrel in
miniature. Polypidoms gregarious, the shoots united by a radical
branching fibre, erect or creeping, obliquely twisted or ringed between
the cells, simple or sparingly branched, the branches irregular, pa-
tent. Cells crowded, alternate, subsessile, ovate, coarsely wrinkled,
especially when dried, contracted at the orifice which is obsoletely
tridentate. The ovarian vesicles are sparingly evolved, and differ
from the cells only in being a little larger, and in having three teeth
in the opening at the top of each. As a parasite it does not confine
itself to Flustra foliacea^ as Pallas would have us to believe, but in-
fests the roots and stems of many sea- weeds.

* * Cells in pairs, opposite or semialternate.
5. S. ROSACEA, cells opposite, tubulous, the upper half free and
divergent, the aperture entire, truncate ; vesicles croicned with
spines. Ellis.

Plate IX. Fig. 1, 2.
Lily or Pomegranate-flowering Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 8, no. 7, pi. 4, fig.

a, A. Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 492, pi. 12, fig. 5, s — H Sertularia

rosacea, Lin. Syst. 1300. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 39. Berk. Syn.
i. 215. Turt. Gmel. iv. 676. Turt. Brit. Faun. 212. Wern. Mem. i.
564. Stew. Elem. ii. 440. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 119. Bosc, Vers,
iii. 105. Hogg's Stockton, 32. Johnston in Trans Newc. Soc. ii. 258.

Templeton loc. cit. 468 Sert. nigellastrum. Pall Elench. 129..

Sert. abietina ? Fabric. Faun. Grcenl. 442. — Dynamena rosacea, La-

mour. Cor. Flex. 175. Corallina, 79. Flem. Brit. ;Anim. 544. La

Dynamene rosacee, Blainv. Actinol. 484.
Hah. Frequent on Corallines, and occasionally on old shells, from
deep water. At Brighthelmstone adhering to oyster-shells, Ellis.
Scarborough, Mr Bean. A rare species near Hartlepool, Hogg.
Coast at Dunstanborough Castle, Mr R, Embleton. Leith shore,
Jameson. Shore of Belfast Lough, Templeton. Coast of Berwick-
shire and N. Durham.

3

Sertularia.

Z. HYDllOIDA.

125

Polypidom from one to two inches in height, attached by a creep-
ing tortuous tubular fibre, very slender and delicate, of a white or
pale horn colour, pellucid, variously branched, the branches bifarious,
alternate, patent, similar to the stem. Cells opposite, with a joint
between each pair, rather long, tubular, the upper half suddenly di-
vergent with an oblique entire aperture. Ellis compares the vesicles
to a " Lily or Pomegranate flower just opening," but Pallas asserts
that the comparisons, as well as the figures of them in Ellis's work,
are inaccurate, — a criticism the truth of which Ellis denies in his sub-
sequent volume on zoophytes. They appear in fact to vary some-
what according to their age, and also from the manner in which they
have been dried. They are large and pear-shaped, subsessile, pucker-
ed at the top where they are crowned with several spines ;

Fig. 14.

and though scattered over the polypidom, they appear to be produced
from one side only, and are often arranged in close rows along the
branches. — Our figure is the exact portrait of a beautiful specimen
in the collection of Dr Coldstream ; and I have a similar one from Mr
Bean, but in general the species is very small and sparingly branched.

6. S. I^VMiLAy cells opposite, approximated, shortly tubular, the
top everted with an oblique somewhat mucronated aperture ; vesi-
cles ovate. Doody,*

Plate IX. Fig. 3, 4.

" Doody, Samuel, an apothecary in London, contemporary with Ray, Peti-
ver and Sloane, admitted F. R. S. in 1695. He was chosen superintendant and
demonstrator of the garden at Chelsea, an office which he held for some years
before his death, which took place in 1706- Petiver characterises him as an " in-
defatigable botanist," and "memorable naturalist." Jussieu speaks of him as
" inter Pharmacopoeos Londinenses sui temporis Coryphaeus." Pulteney styles
him, " the Dillenius of his time ;"and Brown has crowniedhis praise by bestow-
ing his name on a genus of New Holland plants. " In memoriam dixi Samuelis
Doody, Pharmacopoei Londinensis, qui primus fere in Auglia plantas cryptoga-

126 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

Coralliiia pumila repens, minus ramosa, Rail, Syn. i. 37, no- 19 C-

pumila erecta, lamosior, Ibid. 37, no- 20. pi. 2, fig. 1. Muscus ma-

rinus lendigenosus minimus arenacei coloris, Morris. Plant, hist, iii, 650,

tab. 9, fig. 2 Reaumur in Mem- de I'Acad. Roy. des Sc. an. 1711,

394, pi- 11, fig. 4, M Sea-oak Coralline, £Z/js, CoraU. 9, no. 8, pi.

5, fig a, A- Phil- Trans, xlviii- 632, pi. 23, no. 6. Phil. Trans. Ivii. 437,
pi. 19, fig. 11. Phil. Tians. abridg. x, 493, pi. 12, fig. 6, F Sertu-
laria pumila, Lin. Syst. 1306. Pall. Elench. 1-30. Ellis and Soland.
Zooph. 40- Berk. Syn. i. 213. Turt. Gmel. iv. 676. Wern. Mem. i.
564. Turt. Brit. Faun. 212. Stew. Elem. ii. 441, pi. 12, fig. 10, 11,
copied from Ellis. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 119. 2de edit, ii, 145.
Bosc, Vers, iii- 105. Hogg's Stockton, 32. Stark, Elem. ii. 440, pi. 8,
fig. 14. from Ellis. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 259. Lister in

Phil. Trans, an. 1834, 371, pi. 8, fig. 3. Templeton, lib. cit- 468

Sertolara pumila, Cavoh Pol- mar. 216, tav. 8, fig. 8-10 Dynamena

pumila, Lamoiir. Cor. Flex. 179. Corallina, 79. Flem. Brit. Anim. 544.

La D. naine, Blainv. Actinol. 484.

Hah. Near low-water mark common, parasitical on various Fuel,
particularly F, vesiculosus and serratus- Also on oyster shells.

The polypiferous shoots oi'iginate from a slender tubular thread which
creeps along- the surface of the fucus, and connects them all together.
The shoots are very numerous, often covering a considerable space
of the sea-weed, seldom more than half an inch in height, of a dusky
horn colour, and thickish texture, sparingly branched, filiform, flattish,
serrated with the cells, which are divided in paii's by a dissepiment or
joint. The polypes have 14 tentacula, and when the animal displays
them, it at the same time extrudes the body far beyond the rim of
the cell. The vesicles are copiously produced during the summer
months, and are irregularly distributed over the branches; they are sub-
sessile, ovate with a short tubulous rim, smooth, or sometimes wrink-
led circularly : in the centre a placentular column is at seasons obvi-
ous, and in June 1 have found them filled with innumerable pellucid
granules floating in an amniotic liquor.

" This species, and probably many others, in some particular states
of the atmosphere, gives out a phosphoric light in the dark. If a leaf
of the above Fucus (serratus,) with the Sertularia upon it, receive
a smart stroke with a stick in the dark, the whole coralline is
most beautifully illuminated, every denticle seeming to be on fire."
Steivart,

" While thus with pleasing wonder you inspect
Treasures the vulgar in their scorn reject,
See as they float along th' entangled weeds
Slowly approach, upborne on bladdery beads j

micas investigavit." Prod. Flor. Nov. HoU. p- 7 — See also Pulteney's Sketches,
V. ii. p. 107-9.

Sertularia. Z. HYDROIDA. 127

Wait till they land, and you shall then behold
The fiery sparks those tangled fronds infold,
Myriads of living points ; th' unaided eye
Can but the fire, and not the form descry." — Crabhe.

7. S. EvANSii, " has op])osite hranchesy and short denticles
placed opposite to each other ; the ovaries are lobated, and arise
from opposite branches, which proceed from the creeping adher^
ing tube." Mr John Evans.*

Sertularia Evansii, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 38. Turt. Gmel. iv, 681.
Bosc, Vers, iii, 115. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit, ii, 154. Turt. Brit.

Faun. 215. Stew. Elem. ii, 445 Dynaniena Evansii, Lamour. Cor.

Flex. 177. Corallina, 78. Flem. Brit Anim. 543 La D. d'Evan,

Blahiv. lib. cit. 484.
Hab. " Among- some sea productions brought from Yarmouth, in
Norfolk, in the year 1767/' Ellis.

" This coraUine is about tvi^o inches high, very slender, and of a
bright yellow colour. It creeps on fucus's. The ovaries differ from
all the rest of the genus : they are lobated, and the lobes are placed
opposite to one another : these appear to be full of spawn, of a deep
orange colour, which is sent forth from holes at the end of the lobes."
Ellis.

8. S. PiNNATA, cells opposite, tubular, the upper -part free and
divergent, toith an even patulous aperture ; vesicles obconical, tri-
tuberculate on the top. Pallas. f

PjvAte IX. Fig. 5, 6.

Sertularia pinnata. Pall. Elench. 136 S. fuscescens, Turt. Gmel- iv.

677. Turt. Brit. Faun. 213. Steiv. Elem. ii, 442. Lamour. Cor.

Flex. 195. Corallina, 85. Bosc, Vers, ili, 107 Dynamena pinnata,

Flem. Brit- Anim. 545. Dyn. tubiformis ? Lamour. Soland. Zooph. 12,

pi. 66, fig. 6, 7 La D. brunatre, Blainv. Aclinol. 483.

Hab. " Oceanus ad Prom. Lacertse, Cornubiae," Pallas. " On
oyster-beds, common," Fleming. Frith of Forth, plentifully, Dr
Coldstream.

Polypidom attached by tortuous tubular fibres, between two and
three inches in height, pinnated with alternate branches, of a blackish
or dusky horn colour, with a slight gloss on the surface, rather rigid

' Ellis calls him " a sea-officer in the East India Company's service." Pro-
bably the same Mr E., a surgeon, whom Petiver mentions amongst the contri-
butors to his museum.

f Peter Simon Pallas, M. D. born at Berlin, Sept. 22, 1741 : elected V. R. S.
in 1764 : died Sept. 8, 181 1. See Brewster's Edin. Encyclop. xvi, 278 ; Clarke's
Travels, i, 458, &c. Pennant's Literary Life, p. 7 ; but above all Cuvier's Me-
moir in Edin. New Phil. .Journ. iv. i). 211, &c.

128 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

when dry, straig-ht, flattish, jointed, with a pair of opposite cells on
each interspace ; branches patent, mostly undivided, jointed like the
stem. Cells tubular, the upper portion free, erecto-patent, with an
even aperture often girded with two or three faint circular wrinkles.
Pallas says that the cells incline to one side of the stem, a character
which Dr Fleming- failed to observe, and which is not perceptible in
any of the specimens sent me by Dr Coldstream. " Ab eodem la-
tere," says Pallas, " ovaria in pinnis plerisque mediis crebra, in se-
riem conferta, minuta, obverse conica, supra trituberculata, et inter
tubercula osculo instructa."

9. S. HiBERNiCA, " greater and lesser branches alternately pin-
nated ; denticles alternate, elliptical, ivith emarginate mouths ;
vesicles ovate, with a, denticulate mouth and transverse undidated

stricB."

Sertiilaria pinnata, Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist, ix, 468.

Hah. " Dredged up, with other marine productions, in the sound
of Donaghadee. Received from Mr J. Gilles, Aug. 1805," Tem-
pleton.

" The branching of this species is somewhat peculiar, each of the
primary and secondary branches springing out at an angle of 40° or
50°. That part of the stem which bears the denticles is waved so
as to bear each denticle on the projecting part ; the denticles are el-
liptic, and the mouth of each apparently a little hollowed inwards,
perhaps arising from the extremity being fractured ; the vesicles are
ovate, with 4 or 5 blunt teeth surrounding the mouth, and divided
into 6 or 8 portions by annulated undulating lines. It might be
classed among the large and strong sertularias, the principal shoot
being of the thickness of a sparrow's quill at its base, and 4 in. or
5 in. long. The branches shoot forth from opposite sides, the whole
coralline thus assuming a flat form, to the extent of 4 in. or 5 in."
Templeton^

10. S. NIGRA, cells nearly opposite, small, ovate, appressed, with

a scarcely everted aperture ; vesicles ovate or elliptical. — Pallas.

Vignette, No. 13, page 119.

Sertularianigra,Pa//. Elench.135. Turt. Gmel.iv.676. 5osc, Vers, iii. 106.

Turt. Brit. Faun. 212. Jameson in Warn. Mem. i. 365. Corallina, 86.

S. Lichenastrum, Lin. Syst. 1313. (exelus. syn.) Dynamcna

nigra, Flem. Brit. Anim. 545 La D. noire, Blainv. Actinolog. 484.

Hab. Lizard Point, Cornwall, Pallas. Coast of Aberdeenshire,
Robert Brovm. Scarborough from deep water, Mr Bean. Coast of
Northumberland at Dunstanborough Castle, Mr R. EmbJeton.

Sertularia.

Z. HYDROIDA.

129

Polypidom 3 or 4 inches high, rigid, pinnate, lanceolate, dusky or
blackish-brown, varnished. Stalk straight, compressed, jointed, with
a series of alternate cells on each side : pinnae alternate, close, bifa-
rious, several originating from each space between the joints of the
stalk, simple, narrow at their origins, filiform, often gangrened at
the apex. The cells are arranged in a close row along each margin,
and directed alternately to opposite sides (Fig. 13) ; they are small,
ovato-tu bular, short and adnate with a wide mouth having a small
tooth on the outer edge. Vesicles unilateral, superior, elliptical or
orate, sub-pedicellate, smooth.

Fie/. 15.

To this description, derived from specimens furnished by Messrs
Bean and Embleton, I append that of Pallas, for Milne-Edwards
denies the identity of his nigra with the British species (^Lcim. Anim.
s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 155) ; for which in my opinion there are no sufiS-
cient grounds, but a comparison of the descriptions will enable every
one to decide for himself. " Radices sunt tubi intestinuliformes, lu-
tescentes, implexi, usque ad pinnarum originem assurgentes. Stit'ps
ad summum quadripollicaris, simplex, pennata, sublanceolata, testaceo
nigra et tenuior molliorque quam tubuli radic antes. Rachis stirpis
est tubulus crassitie fere calami avenacei, compressus, e planiusculis
lateribus, et ipsis denticulatis, pinnas proferens. Pinnce s. ramuli

I

130 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

teretiuscuH, depress!, lineaves, saepe longissimi, tenuiter a scapo ori-
iintur, bifariam serrulati denticulis, uti ipse quoque scapus s. rhachis.
Denticuli (sic potius in hac specie vocandi) subtubulosi, exigui, sim-
plices. Ovaria ab altero stirpis latere in ramulis crebra, secunda,
parallela, versus rami extremitatem sensim minora, membranacea,
stirpi concoloria, obovato-subquadrangula, clan§a."

11. S. TAMARiscA, cells opposite^ tubular, the upper half di-
vergent ivith a wide aperture sinuaied on the margin ; vesicles
oval, truncate, loith ttvo small points at the corners and a tuhu-
lous mouth. Ellis.

Plate X. Fig. 2, 3, 4.

Sea Tamarisk, Ellis, Corall. 4, no. 1, pL 1, fig. a, A Sertularia tama-

risca, Lin. Syst. 1307- Pall. Elencli. 129- Ellis and Soland, Zooph.
36. Berk. Syn. i. 216- Tiirt Gmel. iv. 676. Turt. Brir. Faun. 212.
Stein. Elem. ii. 441. Bosc, Vers, iii. 106. Lamoiir. Cor. Flex. 188.

Corallina, 82. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 133 Dynamena ta- ^

marisca, Flem. Brit. Anim. 543 La D. tamarisque, Blainv. Acti-

nol. 483.
Hah. On old shells in deep water, not common. Near the island
of Dalkey, t the entrance of the harbour of Dublin, Ellis. Near
Aberdeen, Dr David Skene. Frith of Forth, Dr Coldstream. Very-
rare at Scarborough, Mr Bean.

Polypidom from four inches to " sometimes nearly a foot" in height,
rooted by a creeping vermicular fibre, stout and erect, denticulated
throughout, bifariously branched, the branches alternate, rather dis-
tant, either simple or semipennated with secondary shoots, for these
appear only to spring from the upper side of the branch, and are erect.
The cells ai'e of a thin transparent corneous texture, large, smooth,
exactly opposite, in approximated pairs, the upper half free and di-
vergent, and the margin of the aperture obsoletely tridentate. Ve-
sicles large, unilateral, scattered, obcordate or pyriform with a tubu-
lar aperture. It seems that the little spine on each side is dependant
on the age of the vesicle, and not perceptible when this is young.
When mature it is filled with orange-coloured ova — In the thin tex-
ture of the polypidom generally, and in the form of its cells, this spe-
cies resembles Sert. rosacea ; but its robust habit, and the manner
of its branching, give it at least equal claims to affinity with the fol-
lowing.

12. S. ABiETiNA, cells nearly opposite or suhaltemate, ovato-
tuhular, the mouth entire ; vesicles oval.

Plate X. Fig. 1, 1.
Abies marina, Ger. emac. 1374, fig. Sibbald. Scot. ill. lib. quart. 55

Sertulakia. Z. HYDROIDA. 131

Corallina marina abietis forma, Rati, Syn. 35, no. 12. Bast. Opusc.

Subs. 41, tab. '2, fig. 6 ; and tab. 7, fig. 1 — 3, pessimal Muscus ma-

rinus major argute denticulatis, Plunk. Phytog. tab. 48, fig. 5. Raii,

Hist. i. 78 Muscus maritimus filicis folio, Morris. Plant. Hist. iii.

650. Uib. 9, fig. 1 Sta-fir, Ellis, Corall. 4, no. 2, pi. 1, fig. b. B.

Sertularia abietina, Z(7i7i. Syst. 1307. Pall Elench. 133. Mull

Zool. Dan. prod. 265. Ellis and Soland. Zoopli. 36. Berk. Syn. i.
216. Turt. Gniel. iv. 676. Blumenb. Man. 273. Wern. Mem. i. 564.
Turt. Brit. Faun. 212. Stew. Elem. ii. 441. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii.
116, 2de edit. ii. 141. Stark, Elem. ii. 440. Risso, L'Europ. merid-
V. 311. Lamour. Cor. Flex. 189. Corallina, 81. Bosc, Vers, iii. 106.
Hogg's Stock. 31. Johnston in Trans. Newe. Soc ii. 256. Templeton

in Mag. Nat. Hist- be. 468 Dynamena abietina, Flem. Brit. Anim.

543 La Sertularie sapinette, Bluinv. Actinolog. 480, pi. 83, fig. 6.

Hah. On shells and stones in deep water, common.
" This elegant coralline is frequently found on our coast, adhering-
by its vermicular tubes to most kinds of shells : it grows very erect,
and is frequently infested with little minute shells called Serpulas." —
Ellis. Polypidom from 4 to 6 inches high, of a yellowish horn co-
lour, smooth and varnished, stout, regularly pinnate, the stem flat-
tened, slightly zigzag ; the branches rather close, linear, alternate,
bifarious, simple, or sometimes pinnated. Cells g-enerally semialter-
nate, rather small, bellied at the base with a narrow everted neck and
plain aperture, so as somewhat to resemble a Florence-flask. Vesicles
scattered, subsessile, proportionably small, smooth, ovate, with an
even shortly tubulous mouth : they are produced pi'incipally in the
winter season, when they are sometimes " in such abundance as al-
most to cover the denticles, but placed in a very regular order," El-
lis, and always on the upper edge of the branch from which they
originate.

13. S. FILICULA, cells of the form of a Florence-flask^ opposite.,
a single one in the axilla of each pinna ; vesicles pear-shaped^
smooth^ the aperture shortly tubulous, entire. Hudson. *

Plate XI. Fig-. 1, 1.
Sertularia filicula or Fern Coralline, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 57, pi. 6,
fig. c, C. Turt. Gmel. iv. 681. Bosc, Vers, iii. 114. Turt. Brit. Faun.
215. Stew. Elem. ii. 445. Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 564. Lam.
Anim. s. Vert. ii. 119. Lamour. Cor. Flex. 188. Corallina, 82.
Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 257. Hogg's Stockton, 32 S.

• William Hudson, a London apothecary, elected F. R. S. in 1761 : the
author of the " Flora Anglica," the publication of which, in 1762, " marks the
establishment of Linnican principles of Botany in England, and their applica-
tion to practical use." — Sir J. E. Smith.

132 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

ftbietina, /3, Pall. Elench. 134 DjTiamena filicula, Flem. Brit. Anim.

544. La D. fUicule, JSlainv. Actinolog. 48-3.

Ilab. Parasitical on sea- weeds, particularly on the entangled roots
of Laminaria digitata. Coast of Yorkshire, Hudson. Scarborough,
Ellis. Frequent about Seaton, Hartlepool, Whitburn, and other
places on the coast of Durham, Hogg. Cullercoats, Northumber-
land, ^bs. ^/rfer. Diinstanhorongh, H. Embleton. Common on the
shores of N. Durham and Berwickshire, Go J. Frith of Forth,
Ja77ieson.

Polypidom arising from a creeping fibre, 1 to 4 inches in
height, spreading bifariously, irregularly branched, slender and flex-
ible, of a straw-yellow or brownish colour, homologous throughout;
the rachis zig-zag, or " bent to and fro into alternate angles," close-
ly pinnated, the pinnae shooting from every bend alternately on op-
posite sides, linear, patent, simple or composite. Cells closely set,
minute, giving a serrulated appearance to the ramifications of the
polypidom, shaped something like a Florence-flask, smooth, the aper-
ture oblique, entire. The vesicles are rarely produced, nor have I
seen a specimen with them : they are represented by Ellis as of a
pear shape with a short tulnilous aperture.

This, like its ally the S. abietina, is often infested with Serpulae,
but it is a much more delicate species, and, notwithstanding the si-
milarity of their specific characters, perfectly distinct. " The singu-
larity of its waved stem, with its erect single denticle at the insertion
of the branches, together with the single pair of denticles on each
part of the stem, that form the angles, make it a very distinct spe-
cies from any of this genus." Ellis.

14. S. OPERCULATA, cells Opposite, inversely conical, the aper-
ture patulous, obliquely truncate, pointed on the outer edge, with
two small lateral teeth ; vesicles obovate. Mr Newton.

Plate XL Fig. 2, 2.
Muscus marinus denticulatiis, procumbens, caule tenuissimo, denticulis bi-
jugis, Rail, Hist. i. 79. Morrison, Plant. Hist. Oxon. iii. 650, tab. 9,

fig. 3. Pluhenet, Phytogr. tab. 47, fig. 11 Corallina muscosa denti-

culata procumbens, Raii, Syn. 36, No. 18 Sea- Hair, Ellis, Corall. 8,

No. 6, tab. 3, fig. h- B. Sertularia operculata, Lin. Syst. 1307- El-
lis and Soland. Zooph. 39. Berk. Syn. i. 216. Turt. Gmel. iv. 676.
Jarneson'irv Wern. Mem. i. 564. Turt.Wit. Faun. 212. Steiv. Elem.
u. 441. Base, Vers, iu. 106. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. u. 118. Hogg's
Stockton, 32. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. fi. 258, plate 11, fig. 2.

Templeton, ut supra cit, 468. S. usneoides. Pall. Elench. 132

Dynamena operculata, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 176. Corall. 78. Flem. Brit.
Anim. 544 — La Dynamene operculte, Blainv. Actinolog. 483, pi. 83,
fig- 5.

Sertularia. Z. HYDROIDA. 133

Hab. Near low- water mark on Fuci. particularly on the stalks of
Laminaria digitata. Common on all parts of the British coast.

Grows in tufts from 2 to 4 inches high. The shoots are slender
and neat, filiform, tlexuose or widely zig-zag, always erect, alternate-
ly hranched, the branches erect, and, like the first shoot, serrulated
with the polype- cells which are exactly opposite, and less everted than
is usual to the genus. The outer angle of the aperture of the cell is
produced into an acute point, and there is a sharp tooth on each side,
which is omitted in the otherwise admirable figure of Ellis, although
it could not escape his lyncean eye. * The vesicles are irregularly
scattered on the branches, large, smooth, egg-shaped, the top often
covered with a sort of rounded operculum : they are produced abun-
dantly in the winter season and in spring, when indeed, I think, the
ovaries appear on the greater number of this order of corallines. It
was from the great resemblance of these vesicular ovaries to the cap-
sules of mosses, that the early botanists drew an additional argument
in behalf of the vegetability of the corallines themselves ;f and a Dar-
winian might be, perhaps, forgiven were he even now to feign how
the Nereides stole them from the mossy herbelets of Flora's winter
and vernal shews, to deck and gem the arbuscular garnitures of their
own coral caves ! J

The shoots are usually so little waved that Pallas' term " subflex-
uosi" is very appropriate, but in the collection of Dr Coldstream there

* " Zoophytorum lynceus Ellisius," Lin. Syst. 1071.

f " These vesicles appearing at a certain season of the year, according to the
different species of corallines, and then falling off, like the blossoms or seeds of
plants, has made some curious persons, who have not had an opportunity of see-
ing the animals alive in the vesicles, conclude them to be the seed-vessels of
plants ; and into this mistake I was led myself, in the account laid before the
Royal Society in 1752. In which account I had taken some pains to point out
the great similitude between the vesicles, and denticulated appearance of some
of these corallines ; and the tooth-shaped leaves and seed-vessels of some spe-
cies of land-mosses, particularly of the Hypnum and Bryum." — Ellis, CoralL In-
trod. be.

\ " Nymphs ! you adorn, in glossy volutes roll'd,

" The gaudy conch with azure, green, and gold.

*«*■♦••*

" You chase the warrior shark, and cumbrous whale,

" And guard the mermaid in her briny vale j

" Feed the live petals of her insect-flowers,

" Her shell-wrack gardens, and her sea-fan bowers ;

" With ores and gems adorn her coral cell,

" And drop a pearl in every gaping shell."

Botanic Garden, Canto iii.

134 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

is a larg-e specimen, from the Frith of Forth, in which they are re-
markably zig-zag or kneed, so as to give it a pecuhar character and
appearance. In the same collection are specimens from the Cape of
Good Hope, which differ in no respect from those of our shores.

15. S. AUGE'STE A, polT/pidojn cauliferous ; cells nearly oppo-
site or suhalternate, urceolate, acutely pointed^ the upper half di-
varicated ; vesicles oval. Merret.

Plate XII. and Plate XI. Fig. 3, 3.
Corallina miiscosa, alterna vice denticulata, ramulis in creberrima capilla-

menta sparsis, Rail, Syn. i. 36, No. 17. Muscus maiinus denticulatus

minor ramulis in creberrima eapillamenta sparsis, Pluknet, Phytog. tab.

48, fig. 3 Muscus marinus minor denticulis alternis, Morris. Hist.

Plant. Oxon. iii. 630, tab. 9, fig. 4 Squirrel's-tail, Ellis, Corall. 6,

No. 4, pi. 2, fig. c, C. Sertidaria cupressina, /3, Lin. Syst. 1308

S. argentea, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 38. Tiirt. Gmel. iv. 677. Wern.
Mem. i. 564. Berk. Syn. i. '216. Tiirt. Brit. Faun. 213. Stew. Elem.
ii. 442. Bosc, Vers, iii. 108- Lam. Anim. s. Vert ii. 117. Lamonr.
Cor. Flex. 192, Corall. 84. Hogg's Stockton, 32. Templeton in lib.

cit. 468. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 258, pi. xi. fig. 4 La

S. argentee, Blainv. Actinol. 480 Dynamena argentea, Flem. Brit.

Anim. 544.
Hab. In deep water. On oysters and other large bivalved shells,
as also on the stalk of Laminaria digitata, common.

Polypidom from 6 to 18 inches high, caulifei"ous, the stem percur-
rent, fihform, waved or straight, smooth, of a dark brown colour, di-
vided at rather wide but regular intervals by an oblique joint, clothed
with short panicled dichotomous branches which spread out on every
side, and being all of the same size or nearly so, (excepting at the
bottom where they are less branched and smaller, and at the top where
they also frequently become gradually shortened,) the whole coralline
assumes somewhat of the shape of a squirrel's tail, and has given ori-
gin to its English name. Two branches usually arise from each in-
ternode of the stem, and they come off in such a manner that four
or five of them complete a whorl. The polype-cells on the stem are
alternate, appressed, and appear to be less than those on the branches,
which are placed in two I'ows with their orifices inclined to one side ;
they are bellied like a Florence-flask with a narrow divaricated neck
terminated with a small oblique aperture : on some of the branchlets
every pair is separated by a joint or stricture, while on others several
pairs occur in succession without the interference of such a structure.
Vesicles scattered, oval, smooth, attenuated at the base.

In young specimens of an inch or two in height the polypidom is
simply pinnate, and as it rises the branches gradually divide into more

Sertularia. Z. HYDROIDA. 135

numerous seg-ments. In Plate XI. Fig. 3, I have given a fig-ure of
such a specimen selected from many others on account of its greater
diverg-ence from the usual character of the species. When, on the
contrary, the polypidom attains a foot or more in height, the lower
half of the stem loses its branches and cells, and becomes entirely
naked. I think it likely that such a specimen, of the unusual size of
3 feet, constitutes the Sertulm'ia uber of Sir J. G. Dalyell in Edin.
New Phil. Journ. xvii. 412.

16. S. CUPRESSINA, polypidom cauliferous ; cells nearly op-
posite, tubulous, adnate, the aperture scarcely contracted, bilabiate,
uiith two minute spinous teeth ; vesicles nearly oval. — Ellis.

Plate XIII.

Sea- Cypress, ^ffis, Corall. 7, No 3, pi. 3, fig. a, A. Sertularia cupres-

sina, Lin. Syst. 1308. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 38. Berk. Syn. i.
216. Turt. Ginel. iv. 677. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Turt. Brit. Faun.
213. Stew. Elem. ii. 442 Bosc, Vers, iii. 108. Lam. Anim. s. Vert,
ii. 118. Lamour. Cor. Flex. 192. Corall. 84. Hogg's Stock. 32. Tem-
pleton in loc. cit. 468. Stark, Elem. ii. 440, pi. 8, fig. 12. Risso,

L'Europ. merid. v. 311 La S. cypres, Blainv. Actinol. 480 Dy-

namena cupressina, Flem. Brit. Anim. 543.

Hab " The Sea-cypress is chiefly found in deep water on the coast
of Yorkshire, Scotland, and the north of Ireland," Ellis. Scarbo-
rough, Mr Bean. Frith of Forth, Jameson. Cork Bay, Mr J. V.
Thompson. On the shore of iNIagilligan Strand, County Derry,
TempJeton.

This is in general a larger and stouter species than the preceding,
with longer branches more decidedly fan-shaped, the pinnae being
closer and more parallel to one another. The cells are in two rows,
nearly opposite, smooth and pellucid, adnate, with the margin of the
comparatively wide aperture sinuated so as to form two or some-
times three prominent denticles. The branches in some specimens
are gTacefully arched, bending as it were under the load of pregnant
ovaries which they carry, and which are arranged in close-set rows
along the upper side of the pinnae. They are of an oval shape,
smooth, attenuated at the base, with sometimes a sharp spine at each
corner of the apex, but these are oftener absent.

This and the preceding have a distinct stem, in which they differ
from all the other native species, which are pre-eminently frondose
or homologous, the offsets and pinnae being in all respects the same
as the primary shoot. Pallas maintains that they constitute but one

species, his S. cupressina, Elench. 141 the charactei's assigned to

them respectively being far from specilical, since he found, on one

136 Z. HYDROIDA. Sertularia.

and the same specimen, that the young vesicles had long- spines at
their tops, the more mature shorter ones, and on full-grown vesicles
they were nearly or altogether obsolete ; while bluntly tubulous and
acutely pointed cells occurred promiscuously, on the same stalk, in
specimens of every size and exterior habit. Linnaeus, apparently
swayed by these assertions, followed Pallas ; but Ellis, in a later
work, adhered to his first opinion, for, " besides the difference of their
denticles (cells) and ovaries," which he evidently regarded as per-
manent, they have, he says, " quite a different habit and manner of
growing." All subsequent writers have assented to Ellis's views,
most of them, at the same time, expressing- a suspicion of their cor-
rectness, and my own limited observations have possessel me with
the same dubiety. Specimens can be readily produced which, from
habit and the figure of their cells, will be at once pronounced the re-
presentatives of distinct species, but a larger examination may lead to
another conclusion. I have seen no specimens of S. cupressina
with the cells of S. argentea, * but I have seen several which, from
their habit, I would refer to the latter, with the cells and vesicles of
the former. Such a specimen is figured in Plate XII. I can also state
that on the same specimen I have observed cells that might be con-
sidered as belonging to either species ; and with these facts I should,
perhaps, have amalgamated the synonymes, had I not been aware
that some of our best naturalists, for example Bean and J. V. Thomp-
son, are opposed to the junction. " Besides," to adopt the words of
Professor Lindley in a somewhat similar discussion, " our daily ex-
perience shows us that excessive analysis is far preferable to excessive
synthesis, especially for the purposes of students ; the former leads
to no other inconvenience, than that of increasing the degree of in-
vestigation which species must receive to be understood ; the latter
has a constant tendency to render investigation superficial, and cha-
racters confused," Syn. of the British Flora, Pref. p. ix.

Professor Jameson has inserted Sertularia cupressoides
among those species found in the Frith of Forth, Wern, Mem. i.
564 ; and in the work entitled " Corallina," p. 83, the elegant Aus-
ti'alasian S. elongata and S. pectinata are said to be found on

the English coast. I believe there is some error in all these in-
stances.

I have repeatedly observed on oyster-shells, and among the roots

• It deserves to be remarked, in connection with this point, that the charac-
ters of S. argentea given by Lamarck are really those of S. cupressina ; and
this has ascribed to it the diagnostics of S. argentea.

TiiuiARiA. Z. HYDIIOIDA. 137

of corallines, a sessile vesicular body filled with milk-white granules,
resembling- very exactly the oviferous vesicle of a Sertularia, but of
what species I am unable to say, if indeed it belongs to any. It is
rooted, subsessile, roundish, slightly flattened on the sides, smooth,
with a short tubulous even aperture. Fig. 10, page 92. It has no at-
tachment to any organized body. Can it be the nidus of some mi-
nute Fusus or Purpura ?

7. Thuiaria, * Fleminor.
Character. Pulypidom plant-like, rooted hy a tubular Jihre,
erect, dichotomously branched or pinnated ; the cells sessile, bise-
rial, adnate to the racliis or " imbedded in the substance of the
stem and branches ;" vesicles scattered. — Polypes hydraform.

1. Th. Thuia, cells ovato-elliptical, rather acute; vesicles
pear-shaped. Sir Robert Sibbald.f

Plate XIV. and XV. Fig, 1, 2.

Plaiita marina equiseti facie, Sib- Scot. ill. ii. lib. iv. 55, tab- 12, fig. 1

Fucus equiseti facie, Ibid- lib. i. 56. Rail, Syn. 50, no. 47 — ^ — Bottle-
brush Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 10, no. 9, pi. 5, fig. b. B Sertularia

thuja, Z(«. Syst. 1308. Pall. Elench. 140. Ellis and Soland. Zooph.
41. Berk. Syn. i. 217. Turt. Gmel. iv. 678. Wern. Mem. i. 564.
Turt. Brit. Faun. 213. Bosc, Vers, iii. 109. Slew. Elem. ii. 442. La-
moitr. Cor. Flex. 193. Corall. 84. Hogg's Stock. 32. Risso L'Europ.

Mend, v, 311 Cellaria thuia, Lam- Anim. s. Vert ii. 339. Stark,

Elem. ii. 439 Thuiaria thuia, Flem. Brit. Anim. 545. Johnston in

Trans. Newc See. ii. 261 — La Biseriare thuia, Blainv. Actinol. 482, pi.
81, fig. 3.

Hab. On shells from deep water. " They are found on the coast

Formed from ^u'ttt — a cedar. There is a Thuarea in Botany, so near to
the zoophytical genus in sound as to render this name objectionable. The Thu-
area is formed from the name of the botanist A. du Petit-Thouars.

■f There is a very interesting life of Sir Robert, written by himself, in the
Analecta Scotica, v. i. p. 126 et seq. It is printed in a separate form with the
title " The Autobiography of Sir Robert Sibbald, Knt. M. D. ; to which is pre-
fixed a short account of his MSS." 8vo, published by Thomas Stevenson, Edin.
1833. The pamphlet forms the basis of his Life prefixed to the 20th vol. of
the " Naturalist's Library," with which a portrait is also given. Sir Robert was
born 15th April 1641 ; graduated in 1662 ; was knighted in 1682 ; and died
probably in 1 722, for the precise date has not been ascertained. See Pulteney's
Sketches of the Progress of Botany, v. ii. p. 4-8. The following Elogium is
from the Second Series of the ATialecta Scotica, p. 153, Edin. 1837.

" Illustrata simul decorat, pariterque Sibaldum

" Scotia, scriptori lumine grata suo."

138 Z. HYDROIDA. Thuiaua.

of Scotland, and in the noi'tb of England, ])articularly about Scar-
borough, where the fishermen have given them the name of Bottle-
brushes," Ellis. " Very frequently found on the coast of Durham,"
J. Hogg. Common on N. Durham and Berwickshire, G. J. Leith
shore, Jameson.

This remarkable coralline is sometimes a foot in height, generally
less, affixed by a tubular fibre, which is sometimes agglutinated to
others from other shoots, so as to form a lichen-like ci'ust concentri-
cally wrinkled. Stem percurrent, erect, filiform, rigid, zig-zag,
knotted, naked underneath, bearing on the upper part a cylindrical
tuft of dichotomous short equal branches, coming off alternately and
so disposed that four complete a whorl. The knots on the lower
part are the remains of former branches which seem to drop off as
the portion of the stem immediately beneath them successively loses
its vitality. The stem has no cells, and neither it nor the branches
are jointed. Cells close-pressed, arranged in two rows, sub-alternate,
smooth, tapered from the base to a contracted orifice. Vesicles sub-
pedicellate, pear-shaped, smooth, placed in clusters or solitary on the
upper side and towards the base of the branches ; they are produced
mostly in the winter season, and are filled with a milk-white grumous
fluid previous to the discharge of the ova.

Young specimens of this polypidom are simply pinnate, but these
may be always distinguished from the following by the greater inter-
vals between the origin of the pinnae, and by the shape of the cells.
The Fig. 1,2 of Plate XV. represents a specimen of this kind, which has
been the more readily introduced, since it exhibits the living polypes
in an active state, and proves that the coralline has no relationship
to Cellaria. — The Sertularia thuia of Fabricius in his Fauna Groen-
landica, p. 444, I am inclined to refer to Sert. pumila.

2. Th. articulata, cells ovate, obtuse or truncate ; ovarian
vesicles elliptical. Ellis.

Plate XV. Fig. 3, 4.

Sea-Spleenwort or Polypody, £ffis, C'orall. 11, no. 10, pi. 6, fig. a, A

Sertularia articulata, Pall. Elench. 137 S. Lonchitis, jBffis and A'o-

land. Zooph. 42 S. Liclienastrum, J5erA. Syn. i. 219. Turt. Gmel.

iv. 683. Turt. Brit. Faun. 216. Stew. Elem. ii. 447. Bosc, Vers,iii.

119. Cellaria Lonchitis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 1.39. Thuiaria

articulata, Flem. Brit. Anim. 545 La B. articulee, Blainv. Actinol.

482.
Hab. On shells and stones in deep water, very rare. In the har-
bour of Dublin, Ellis. At Scarborough, 3Ir Bean.

Polypidom about 4 inches high, pinnate, lanceolate, corneous, sub-

3

Antennularia. Z. HYDliOlDA. 139

pellucid, the stem nearly equal in diameter throughout, compressed
upwards, finely wrinkled when dry, divided by joints not regularly
equidistant, naked on the lower halt, pinnated above and celliferous:
pinnae simple, patent, rather close-set, not exactly opposite nor yet
properly alternate. Cells in a single series along each side, semial-
ternate, ovato-tubular, short with a round plain aperture. Vesicles
issuing from both sides of the pinnae, most numerously from the up-
per, subpedicellate, elliptical, smooth, the oi'ifice contracted and even.
, Through the liberality of Mr Bean, I am enabled to give a figure
— the most perfect one which has been yet published — of this rare
species. Its synonymes are somewhat confused. Pallas aflSrms, cor-
rectly in my opinion, that the Sea-Spleenwort of Ellis is not the Ser-
tularia Lichenastrum of Linnaeus as generally asserted, and he has
described a different species considered by him as identical with the
Linnsean. The figure of Ellis is quoted by Pallas as an admirable re-
presentation of his own S. articulata, but in the description of this
the branches or pinnae are said to be opposite, whereas in Ellis's fi-
gure, and in our own, although less decidedly, they are regularly al-
ternate. Elhs notices under his S. Lonchitis a foreign variety with op-
posite cells and pinnae, having " the joints both on the stem and branch-
es much closer together ;" and it will probably be found that this con-
stitutes a distinct species, hitherto confounded with others nearly
allied.

8. Antennularia,* Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom ■plant-like^ hoimy, simple or hranch-
ed irregularly, the shoots fistular, jointed, clothed with hair-like
verticillate hranchlets : cells small, sessile, campanulate, unilate-
ral : vesicles scattei'ed, unilateral — Polypes hydraform.

1. A. ANTENNiNA. — Mrs Ward, -f-

Plate XVI.

Lobster's -boin coralline or Sea-beard, Ellis, Corall. 15, no. 14, pi. 9, fig.
a, b, A. B. a Phil. Trans, xlviii. G30, tab. 22, no. 3. Phil. Trans.

abridg. x. 491, pi. 12, fig. 3, C. Sertularia antennina, Lin. Syst.

1310. Pall. Elench. 146. Ellis and Solaiid. Zooph. 45. Berk. Syn. i.
217. Tint. Gmel. iv. 679. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Turt. Brit. Faun.

* From Antennula, diminutive oi antenna, a term applied to the feelers of in-
sects.

•)• " Found on the rocks by Mrs Ward, an ingenious gentlewoman of Gisburgh
in Cleveland, Yorkshire, and by her named Sea-beard ; I suppose from its grow-
ing in a thick tuft; Mr Lawson." — Raij.

140 Z. HYDROIDA. Plumularia.

214. Stew. FAem. u. 443. i?osc, Vers, iii. 1 1 1 . Antennularia anten-

iiina, Flem. Brit. Anim. 546. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 260.
Var. 1. The stem simple — Corallina astaci corniculorum semula, Raii, Syn.

i. 34, no. 10. Corallina affinis, nonramosa, Pluhen. Almag. Bot. 119.

Muscus marinus s. coralloid. non ramosus, erectus, Pluhen. Phytog.

tab. 48, fig. 6 Sertularia antennina, Hogg's Stock. 33 Nemer-

tesia antennina, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 163, Corall. 71 Antennularia, in-

divisa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 123. 2de edit. ii. 156. Templeton in Mag.

Nat Hist. ix. 468 L'Antennulaire simple, Blainv. Actinolog. 486,

pi. 83, fig. 3.
Var. 2. The stem branched — Corallina minima, Ger. Herb. emac. 1572, no.
4, quoad fig C. ramosa cirris obsita, Raii, Syn. 35, no. 11 Ser-
tularia seticornis, Hogg's Stock. 33 Nemertesia ramosa, Lamour.

Cor. Flex. 164. Corall. 71 Antennularia ramosa. Lam. Anim. s.

Vert. ii. 123. 2de edit. ii. 156- Stark, Elem. ii. 440. Templeton in ]ib.

cit. 468 L'A. rameuse, Blainv. Actinolog. 486.

Hab. On shells and rocks in deep water, frequent. " In littore
Dubrensi colleg-it D. Dare Pharmacopseus Londinensis," Bai/. Sus-
sex coast, Ellis. From deep water in the Frith of Forth, Jameson.
Common on the coasts of Durham, Northumberland, and Berwick-
shire, G. J. Cork harbour, J. V- Thompson. (I.) " On the
shore of Dublin Bay ; (2.) Found on the shore of Belfast Lough,"
Temple toti.

Stems clustered, rooted by numerous implexed tubular fibres, erect,
straight, attaining a height of 8 inches and upwards, cylindrical, of a
clear yellowish-horn colour, irregularly branched or undivided, and
in the latter instances resembling, when dried, the Lobster's antenna,
to which they have been appropriately compared. The branches are
exactly like the primary shoot, and are equally beset with hair-like
branchlets arranged in numerous whorls. These are often broken
short in specimens cast on shore after storms, but in recent ones dredg-
ed from their native sites they are as long as represented in our fi-
gures. They carry the polype cells, which are distant, small and cam-
panulate with entire rims, and divided from each other by a joint.
The ovarian vesicles are situated in the axils of the whorls, subpedi-
cellate, ovate, smooth, with a subterminal aperture.

I can detect no essential difference between the two varieties, and
I have had, through the kindness of friends, an opportunity of exa-
mining specimens from various parts of the coast.

9. Plumularia ;* Lamarck.
Character. Polypidum plant-like^ rooted, simple or branch-

» Formed from Plumula, the dimin. of Pluma, a feather — I have, in common
with most French authors, adopted the generic names of Lamarck in preference

Pi.uMULAuiA. Z. HYDROIDA. -141

ed, the shoots and offsets plnmous : cells small, sessile, unilateral,
usually seated in the axilla of a horny spine : vesicles scattered,
unilateral. — Polypes hydrajvrm.

* Stem a single tube.
1. P. FALCATA, stein leaved, branched ; branches alternately
pennated ; cells close-ranked, shortly tubulous with a plain rim ;
vesicles oblong- oval. Merret. *

Plate XVll. Fig I, 2.
Corallina mnscosa pennata, ramulis et capillamentis falcatis, Raii, Syn. i.

36, No. 16 Muscus pennatus, ramulis et capillamentis falcatis,

Pluken. Phytog. tab- 47, fig. 12 Muscus maritimus pennatus ramu-
lis et capillamentis falcatis, Morris. Plant, hist. Ox. iii. 650, tab. 9, fig.

2 Sickle Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 12, No. 11, pi. 7, fig. a, A. and

pi. 38, fig. 6 Sertularia fdlcata, Li?i. Syst. 1309. Pall. Elench. 144.

Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 42- Berh. Syn. i. 217. Turt. Gmel. iv. 679.
Blumenb. Man. 278. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Tart. Brit. Faun. 213. Stew.

Elem. ii. 443. Bosc, Vers, iii. 110. Hogg's Stock. 32 Aglaophenia

falcata, ZamoM/-. Cor. Flex. 174. Corall. 77 Plumulariafalcata, Zam.

Anim. s. Vert. ii. 125. 2de edit. ii. 160. Grant m Edin. New Phil.
Journ. i. 155. Flem. Brit. Anim. 546. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc.

to those of Lamouroux, although aware that the claim of priority is generally
allowed to the latter ; but let us hear what Milne-Edwards says — " Pendant
que Lamarck preparait le grand ouvragedont le second volume est consacreaux
Polypes, Lamouroux s'oecupait du meme sujet, et fit paraitre a Caen un traite
special sur les Polypiers coralligenes flexibles. D'apres la date de la presenta-
tion de son manuscrit a I'Institut, on pourrait meme lui attribuer I'anteriorite sur
Lamarck, et penser que ce dernier savant, nomme par I'Academie des Sciences
commissaire pour I'examen du memoire de Lamouroux, avait profite de cette
circonstance pour s'approprier les resultats obtenus par ce zoologiste. Un au-
teur recent semble porte a croire que les choses se sont passees de la sorte ;
mais les traditions du museum prouvent qu'il n'en est rien, et je me plais a ren-
dre ici toute justice a la conduite de Lamarck. En efFet, M. Valenciennes, qui
etait alors attache a Lamarck en qualite d'aide-naturaliste, m'a assure que de-
puis long-temps toutes les divisions generiques etablies par ce professeur dans la
classe des Polypiers se trouvaient indiquees dans la collection publique de mu-
seum, et que pour faciliter le travail de Lamouroux sur le meme sujet, Lamarck
avait mis genereusement a sa disposition toutes les richesses de cet etablissement
deja denominees et classees par ses soins." — Ann. des Sc Nat Part. ZooL Tom.
vi. second ser. p. 12-

* For an account of Dr Christopher Merret see Pulteney's Sketches, v. i. p-
290, &c J and Thomson's Hist, of the Roy. Soc. p. 22. He was born in 1614 ;
was one of the original members of the Royal Society; and died in 1695. Ray's
character of him in 1688 is, — " annis et scientia gravis, de Professione sua
deque Repub. Botanica optime meriti." Hist. Plant, ii. prsf. Contrast this
with the character in Sir J. E. Smith's Eng. Flora, i. pref. vii-viii.

142 Z. HYDROIDA. Plumularia.

ii. 259. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 466. Risso, L'Europ. merid.

V. 31.3 I.a P. en faux, Blainv. Actinolog. 477.

Hah. On shells and rocks near low water-mark and in deep water.
A common and very eleg-ant species, generally from 4 to 6 inches in
height, rising- in wide spiral turns, and sending out from its filiform
percurrent stem, at regulated intervals, alternate spreading plumous
branches which are placed one above the other on the outer side.
Pinnae alternate, bifarious. In young speciniens the branches are
two- ranked and alternate, and I have seen this character remain in one
specimen of considerable size. There are no cells on the spiral
stem, but they occur on the branches as well as on the pinnae, and
are arranged in two rows pointing alternately to opposite sides. There
is a fine figure of the coralline in the centre of the curious frontis-
piece to Ellis's Essay ; and the magnified figure in tab. 38 is a more
correct representation of the cells than that given in tab. 7, which
has been drawn from a dried specimen. The ovarian vesicles are of
uncertain occurrence, and I have seldom seen them ; they are scattered
irregularly on the branches, stalked, ovate or pear-shaped, with a short
tubulous aperture, and occasionally wrinkled longitudinally when dry*
" This species is very common in the deeper parts of the Frith of
Forth ; its vesicles are very numerous, and its ova are in full matu-
rity at the beginning of May. The ova are large, of a light-brown
colour, semi-opaque, nearly spherical, composed of minute transpa-
rent granules, ciliated on the surface and distinctly irritable. There
are only two ova in each vesicle ; so that they do not require any
external capsules, like those of the Campanularia, to allow them suf-
ficient space to come to maturity. On placing an entire vesicle?
with its two ova, under the microscope, we perceive through the
transparent sides, the cilise vibrating on the surface of the contained
ova, and the currents produced in the fluid within by their motion.
When we open the vesicles with two needles, in a drop of sea-water,
the ova glide to and fro through the water, at first slowly, but after-
wards more quickly, and their cilise propel them with the same part
always forward. They are highly irritable, and frequently contract
their bodies so as to exhibit those singular changes of form spoken off
by Cavolini. These contractions are particularly observed when they
come in contact with a hair, a filament of conferva, a grain of sand, or
any minute object ; and they are hkewise frequent and remarkable at
the time when the ovum is busied in attaching its body permanent-
ly to the surface of the glass. After they have fixed, they become
flat and circular, and the more opake parts of the ova assume a radiat-
ed appearance ; so that they now appear, even to the naked eye, like

Plumularia. Z. HYDROIDA, 143

so many minute grey coloured stars, having the interstices between
the rays filled with a colourless transparent matter, which seems to
harden into horn. The grey matter swells in the centre, where the
rays meet, aud rises perpendicularly upwards surrounded by the trans-
parent horny matter, so as to form the trunk of the future zoophyte.
The rays first formed are obviously the fleshy central substance of the
roots, and the portion of that substance which grows perpendicularly up-
wards, forms the fleshy central pai'tof the stem. As early as I could
observe the stem, it was open at the top ; and, when it bifurcated to
form two branches, both were open at their extremities, but the fleshy
central matter had nowhere developed itself as yet into the form of a
polypus. Polypi, therefore, are not the first formed parts of this
zoophyte, but are organs which appear long after the formation of the
root and stem, as the leaves and flowers of a plant." Professor Grant.

2. P. CRiSTATA, shoots simple, plumoiis, the pinna alternate ;
cells in a close roio, cup-shaped ivitii a toothed margin and a short
lateral spine ; vesicles gibbous, girt with crested ribs. Ellis.
Plate XIX. Fig. 1—3, and Plate XX. Fig. 1.

The Podded Coralline, Ellis, Coiall. 13, no. 12, pi. 7. fig. b. B Ser-

tularia pluma, Lin. Syst. 1.309. Pall. Elench. 149. Ellis and Soland.
Zooph. 43. Berk. Syn. i. 217- Tiirt. Gmel. iv. G79. Turt. Brit. Faun.
214. Stew. Elem. ii. 443. Bosc, Vers, iii. Ill, pi. 29, fig. 1, pe.ssima.

Lister in Phil. Trans, au. 1834, 369, pi. 8, fig. 2 Aglaophenia pluma,

Lamour. Cor. Flex. 170- Corall. 75 Plumularia eristata, Lam. Anim.

s. vert. ii. 125. 2de edit. ii. 161. Stark, Elem. ii. 440. Templeton'm Mag.

Nat. Hist. ix. 467. Risso, L'Europ. merid. v. 313 PI. pluma, Flem.

Brit. Anim. 546 La Plumulaire plume, Blainv. Actinol. 477

Sertolaria pluma, CavoL Pol. mar. 210, tav. 8, fig. 5 — 7.

Hah. On Fuci, particularly Fucus siliquosus, and sometimes " on
muscles and other shells." Common on the southern coasts of Eng-
land. Picked up on the shox'e at Stevenston, Ayrshire, Rev. D.
Landsborough. On the coast of Ireland near Dublin, Ellis. On
the shore of Belfast Lough, &c. 3Ir TempJeton.

Attached to sea-weeds by a flexuous horny anastomosing tubular
fibre, which throws up, at intervals, plumous shoots from one to one
and a half inch high : these are very elegant and erect when in the
sea, but when dry become curved in a falcate manner with all their
pinules, which are also frequently laid to one side. " Siccatione
surculi sursum seu contrario modo qiiam fuerant, recurvantur, pin-
nulseque curvatae ad invicem accedunt." Pallas. The polypidom is
of a honey-yellow colour with a dark brown rachis, which is smooth,
and divided by numerous oblique septa or joints, there being one be-

144 Z. HYDROIDA. Plumularia.

tween every pair of pinnae. Pinnae alternate, close, parallel, celluli-
ferous on the upper side ; the cells separated by a joint and set in a
sort of indentation in the stalk. They have been aptly compared by
Ellis to the flower of the lily of the valley, being- of a campanulate
form with the rim cut into eight equal teeth, while in front there is
a stronger spinous process which does not project beyond the cell.
The ovarian vesicles are large and remarkably curious : they are pro-
duced both from the main stalk and pinnae, are shortly pedicellate,
and resemble a swollen pod girded round with from 5 to 9 cristated
ribs or bands proceeding from a dorsal tube, and rising- into short
spines on the anterior margin. When recent " they are translucent,
and six or seven dark oval masses can be seen within each. These
seemed to be ova. The vesicle being torn up, and the ova allowed
to escape, they were seen to be in form irregularly oval, but contain-
ing an opake elongated body in their centre. (Fig. 6, p. 48.) The form
of this central body varied in different ova, but it was generally some-
what hammer-shaped. Neither the general mass of the ovum, nor
this central body were seen to move." Dr Coldstream^ June 10,
1833. — Polypes " minute, delicate ; tentacula 10, annulated ; mouth
infundibuliform." Dr Coldstream.

" Each plume," says Mr Lister in reference to a specimen of this
species, " might comprise from 400 to 500 polypi ;" and a specimen,
of no unusual size, before me has twelve plumes, with certainly not
fewer cells on each than the larger number mentioned, thus giving
6000 polypes as the tenantry of a single polypidom ! Now many
such specimens, all united too by a common fibre, and all the off-
shoots of one common parent, are often located on one sea-weed, the
site then of a population which nor London nor Pekin can rival !
But PI. cristata is a small species, and there are single specimens of PI.
falcata, or Sertularia argentea, of which the family may consist of
80,000 or 100,000 individuals. It is such calculations, always un-
der-rated, that illusti'ate the " magnalities of Nature," and take us
by surprise, leaving us in wonderment at what may be the great ob-
jects of this her exuberant production of these " insect-milhons
peopling every way." But

" So He ordain'd, whose way is in the sea,

His path amidst great waters, and his steps

Unknown ; — whose judgments are a mighty deep,

Where plummet of Archangel's intellect

Could never yet find soundings, but from age

To age let down, drawn up, then thrown again,

With lengthened line and added weight, still fails ;

And still the ciy in Heaven is ' O the depth' !" — Montgomenj.

Plumularia. Z. HYDHOIDA. 145

I have a specimen of PI. cristata gathered in Cork Bay, and present-
ed to me by J. V. Thompson, Esq., which is nearly 3 inches in height,
spreading laterally, the rachis divided in a regular dichotoraous man-
ner, and rough or muricated on one side, wherever it is naked of
pinnae. The vesicles have from 7 to 9 crested ribs with a spinous
dorsal keel. The roughness of the I'achis is produced by the remains
of the deciduous pinnae. I give a figure of this specimen, (Plate XX.
Fig. ],) as an additional proof that little reliance can be placed on ex-
ternal habit as a character in determining the species of this order.

3. P. PENNATULA, plumous, the pimia opposite ; cells in a
close roio, cup -like icith an unequally crenated margin, support-
ed on the under side hy a lengthened incurved spinous process.
Montagu.

Plate XVIII. Fig. 1, 2.

Sertularia perinatula, Ellis and Suland. Zooph. 56, tab. 7, fig- 1, 2- Bosc,

Vers, iii. 114. Fleming m Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 83 Aglaophenia

pennatula, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 168. CoraU. 74 Plumiilaria penna.

tula, Lam. Anini. s. Vert ii. 128. 2de edit. ii. 165. Flem. Brit.

Anim. 546 La P. pennatule, Blainv. Actinolog. 478.

Hub. Coast of Devonshire, rare, Mr Montagu.
" This coralline is as remarkable for the elegance of its form, as its
likeness to the feather of a pen." Specimens from the seas of tropi-
cal climates are from 5 to 6 inches high, but my British specimen,
which I owe to the liberality of J. E. Gray, Esq., is scarcely one inch
and a half. The polypidom rises from implexed tubular fibres : the
lower portion of the cylindrical jointed rachis is naked, the upper
pennate and gracefully proportioned. The cells are small with a
waved margin and a little spine on each side, and they are seated in
the axil of a long tubular incurved process which rises much above
them. Lamouroux has conjectured that the PI. pennatula of Flem-
ing is only a repetition of PI. myriophyllum ; and Milne-Edwards
refers it to PI. cristata. I cannot see the slightest foundation for
these suspicions.

4. P. FINN at a, stem plmnous, the pinnce alternate ; cells ra-
ther distant, one on each internode, campanulate, leaning, the
mouth entire ; vesicles ohpyriform, strongly toothed above. Dil-

lenius.*

Plate XVII. Fig. 4, 5.

* Born in 1687 at Darmstadt in Germany ; came to England in 1721 ; and died
at O.xford in 1747. He was the first Professor of Botany there, and has not been
equalled in celebrity by any successor. It is unnecessary to give particulars of

K

146 Z. HYDROIDA. Plumularia.

Fucoides setis minimis indivisis constans, Rail, Syn. i. 39, no. 7. tab. 2, fig. 2.

lit. a, (injm-ed and deprived of the pinnte. ) Sea Bristles, jE/fc, Corall.

19, no. 16, pi. 11. fig. a. A Sertularia pinnata, Lin. Syst. 1312.

Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 46. Berk. Syn. i. 219. Turt. Gmel. iv.
683. Turt. Brit. Faun. 215. Stew. Elem. ii. 446. Bosc, Vers, iii. 118.

Aglaophenia pinnata, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 172. Corall. 76.

Plumularia pinnata, Zam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 127. 2de edit. ii. 164-
Eisso, L'Europ. merid. v. 313. Johnston, Trans. Newc See. ii. 260,

and in Mag. Nat. Hist. vi. 498 La P. pinnee, Blainv. Actinolog.

477.
Hab. On shells, stones and other corallines in deep water. " In
littore maris pone Sheerness," D. Dillenius. At Brightelmstone and
Whitstable, Ellis. Scarborough, Mr Bean. Cullercoats, Northum-
berland, Mr J. Alder. Common in Berwick Bay, G. J. Frith of
Forth, Dr Coldstream. Cork Harbour, J. V. Thompson, Esq.

In general about on,e inch and a half, but sometimes attains the
height of four inches, very delicate, simple, plumous, white, and
pretty. The rachis is compressed, straight, jointed, the internodes
al)out six times longer than their diameter, and each giving origin
to three pinnae, in which character I find an invariable and ready dis-
tinction between this and the following species. There is a minute
tooth-like spine, only visible under the microscope, between the cells,
which are perfectly transparent, and admit a distinct view of the po-
lypes. These have a reddish body and numerous tentacula. The vesi-
cles are rarely produced, but then profusely, and the specimens on
which I have seen them have lost almost all their polypiferous pinnae.
At the base of the remnants they occur clustered, and are pear-shaped
with an aperture cut into a circle of spinous teeth, or, as Ellis ex-
presses it, " the tops of the ovaries are divided like a coronet."

5. P. SETACEA, pinnate, the pinncs alternate, one originating
at each ringed joint of the rachis ; cells very remote, campanulate,
ivith an even margin ; vesicles elliptical, smooth. Ellis.
Plate XVIII. Fig. 3—5.

Corallina setacea, Ellis, Corall. tab. 38, fig. 4 Sertularia pinnata 0,

Lin. Syst. 1312 S. setacea, Pall. Elencli. 148. Ellis and Soland.

Zooph. 47. Turt. Gmel. iv. 683. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Turt. Brit.
Faun. 216. Stew. Elem. ii. 446. Bosc, Vers, iii. 119- Hogg's Stock.
33. Lister in Phil. Trans, an. 1834, 371, pi. 8, fig. 4, but the vesicles

so eminent a man ; for his life I may refer the reader to Pulteney's Sketches
V. ii. p. 154, &c. ; Thomson's Hist. Roy. Society, p. 26 ; and Brewster's Edin.
Eneyclopffidia, v. vii. p. 742 ; a good article contributed by my worthy friend Dr
Neill. Haller's notice of his friend is short, but interesting. Bib. Bot. v. ii. p.
124.

Plumulaiiia. Z. HYDROIDA. 147

belong to PI. i)iiiiiata Aglaopheiiia sotacea, Lainoitr. Cor. Flex. 172.

Coiall. 70 Pluimilaria setacea, Lam. Aniin. s. Vert, ii, 129. "ide

edit. ii. 165. Flem. Brit- ATiim. 547. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist.

ix. 467. Starh, Elem. ii. 440. Bisso, V Eiirop. merid. v. 313

La p. setacee, Blainv. Actinol. 177.
Hab. Parasitical on other corallines, not uncommon. At Brigh-
ton on flag, Lister. Frequent near Hartlepool, growing on the roots
of the Palmated Fucus, Hogg, On scallop shells in the Frith of Forth,
Jameson. Berwick Bay, G. J. Belfast Lough, Templeton. Co^k
Harhour, Thompson.

In favourable sites this coralline will sometimes attain a height of
six inches, but in general it is smaller, more delicate, and less plumous
than PI. pinnata with which it has been confounded, although its
habit and minuter characters prove it to be quite distinct. The stem
is somewhat waved and regularly jointed, the joints consisting of two
or three I'ings, and immediately under each joint the internode is
somewhat enlarged in consequence of the pinna originating there, a
single pinna only springing from under each joint, whereas in P.
pinnata, as already remarked, three pinnae proceed from each inter-
space, the joints of which, moreover, consist of a single fracture. The
pinnae are jointed like the stem, celliferous, the cells small and dis-
tant. At the base of each there is a minute tubular process (abor-
tive cell ?), visible only with a high magnifier. The vesicles are el-
liptical, smooth, with a narrow plain orifice, .and originate in the axils
of the pinnae. — " The ova within were opake and yellow. Its polypi
had from sixteen to nineteen arms, and when they were full blown it
was an object of remarkable beauty." Lister.

6. P- Catharina, stem plumous^ the pinna opposite, hent
inioards ; cells distant, campamdate icith an even margin ; vesi-
cles scattered, pear-shaped, smooth. G. J.

Vignette, No. 8, page 79.
Plumiilaria Catharina, Johnston in Mag. Nat. Hist. \\. 498, fig. 61, 62.

Hah. On old shells, corallines, and ascidia in deep water. At
Scarborough, rare, Mr Bean. Frith of Forth, Dr Coldstream.
Frequent in Berwick Bay.

This equals PL pinnata in size and delicacy, but diifers from it very
obviously in having opposite pinnae, which, instead of being arched,
bend inwards, so as to render the general form of the coralhne con-
cave on a front view ; an appearance produced by the pinnae origi-
nating, not from the sides, but from the anterior face of the stem.
The stem itself is straight or slightly bent, jointed, pellucid, filled
with a granular fluid matter ; and, in which it diff"ers from its
congeners, bearing cells, there being always one at the base and be-
tween the insertion of the pinnae, and generally another on the

148

Z. HYDROIDA.

Pl-umularia.

interval between them. Be-
tween the cells there is a series
of minute tubular or tooth-hke
cells, visil)le only with a high
mag-nifier. The ovarian vesicles
are produced in summer : they
are stalked, shaped like a pear
or vase, solitary, scattered, and
originating always at the base of
a polype cell. From the interme-
diate cellules, particularly from
the one next the polype-cell,
there often grows up a small
trumpet-hke tube ; and I have
seen, in one specimen, all the
ends of the branches terminated
by four of these tubes diverg-
ing in pairs. — To this very distinct and elegant species I have taken
the liberty of assigning the Christian name of the lady to whom
this work is indebted for nearly all its illustrations.

" O quse fontibus integris

Gaudes, apricos necte flores,

Necte meo Lamiae coronam,
Pimple'i dulcis ! nil sine te mei
Possunt honores." Hor. Carm. i. ode 26.

* * Stem composed of many parallel tubes.
7. P. MYRiOPHYLLUM, clustered, the stems undivided, bellied
at distant intervals, pinnate ; pinncR leaning to one side ; cells
shortly tubular, seated in the axil of a curved spinous process, the
aperture wide and nearly even, Ellis.

Plate XIX. Fig. 4, 5.

Corallina fruticosa pennata, Petiv. Plant. Ital. tab. 2. fig. 11. Pbea-

sanfs-tail Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 14, no. 13, tab. 8, fig. a. A Ser-

tularia myriophyllum, Linn. Syst. 1309. Pall. Elench. 153. Ellis and
Soland. Zoopb. 44. Berk. Syn. i. 217. Turt. Gmel. iv. 678- Turt.

Br. Faun. 213. Stew. Elera ii. 443. Bosc, Vers,iii. 109 Aglaophenia

myriophyllum, Za7Bo«r. Cor. Flex. 168. Corall. 74. Plumularia myrio-
phyllum, Zam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 124. 2de edit. ii. 159. Flem. Brit. Anim.
547. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 466. Stark, Elera. ii. 440.

Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 312 La P. myriophylle, Blainv. Actino-

log. 477, pi. 83, fig. 4.
Hah. Deep water, rare. Near Dublin, Ellis. Coast of Devon-
shire, Dr Coldstream. " Found by R. Brown, Esq., on the shore
at Ballycastle. In Dublin Bay," Templeton.

4

Tlumularia. Z. HYDROIDA. 149

The roots are matted together with numerous entangled fibres.
Stalks 6 inches in height or more, the largest as thick as a crow-quill,
yellowish-brown, straight or slightly curved, swollen at intervals on
the back, and simple or once divided : they are each of them com-
posed of a number of tubes bound together, as is easily seen on a
transverse section, and the oblong dorsal knobs seem to be produced
by a less close adhesion of the tubes at these places, " marking pro-
bably the stages of growth." The branches or pinnag spring from
both sides beginning about the middle of the stalk, the lower part be-
ing naked, but they incline so much one way as to appear unilateral.
The wide cylindrical cells are divided from each other by a joint, and
are seated in the axil of a curved spinous process which projects far

enough to form a short tooth at the under side of the aperture.

When dry the stalk is twisted and more distinctly perceived to be
composed of a bundle of tubes, and consequently furrowed. In each
of the furrows there is a row of small holes with a raised brim as if
punctures had been made by an instrument pushed from within. The
holes are close- set, and regular in their size, form, and in the distances
between them.

8. P. FRUTESCENS, stcm branched, the branches primate ;
pinnce alternate, bifid; cells infundibidiform, leaning, rather dis-
tant, the mouth plain. Ellis.

Plate XX. Fig. 2, 3.

Sertiilaria Gorgonia, Pall. Elench. 158 S. frutescens, Ellis and So-

land. Zooph. 55. pi. 6, fig. a, A. and pL 9. fig 1, 2, encrusted with a
Gorgonia. Turt. Gmel. iv. 680. Turt. Brit. Faun. 214. Steiu. Elem.
ii. 445. Bosc, Vers, iii. 113. Hogg's Stock. 33.— Aglaophenia fru-
tescens, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 173. Corall. 76 Plumularia frutescens,

Flem. Brit. Anim. 547. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 166 La

P. frutesceiite, Blainv. Actinolog. 477.
Hah. Found at Scarborough in Yorkshire, Ellis, — whence I have
specimens from 3Ir Bean, who states that it inhabits deep water,
where it grows attached to stones and shells by a fibrous base, and is
very rare. Hartlepool, Durham, J. Hogg, Esq.

Polypidom between four and five inches in height, firm and woody,
black or dusky-brown, varnished, irregularly branched. Stem and
branches tapered, composed of many parallel twisted capillary tubes,
the branches erecto-patent, spreading laterally, pinnate ; pinnsE rather
close, alternate, two or three from each space between the joints, and
each divided into two branches. Cells rather distant, adnate, cylin-
drical widening outwards, smooth, with an entire slightly everted
margin : there is a small cell in the axils of the pinnae, and a den-

150 Z. HYDROIDA. Laomedea.

tide at the base of all the cells, each of which occupies a joint. Vesi-
cles scattered, small, pear-shaped, the rim of the opening plain.

10. Laomedea.* Lamouroux.
Character. Polypidom rooted by a creeping jihre^ plant-
like^ erect ; jointed at regular intervals^ the joints ringed, incras-
sated, giving origin, alternately on opposite sides, to the shortly
pedicled cells ; cells campanulate : vesicles axillary. — Polypes
hydraform.

1. L. DicHOTOMA, stem filiform, branched dichotomously ;

cells alternate, campanulate, the rim even. Ellis.

Plate XXII. Fig. 1, 2.
Sea-thread Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 21, no. 18, pi. 12, fig. a, A Sertu-

laiia dichotoma, Lin. Syst. 1312. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 48. Berh.

Syn. i. 218. Turt. Gmel. iv. 682. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Turt. Brit.

Faun. 215. Stew. Elem. ii. 446. Bosc, Vers, iii. 118. Hogg's Stock.

3-3 S. longissima. Pall. Elencb. 119. Sert. volubilis. Fabric.

Faun. Groenl. 444. Laomedea dichotoma, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 207.

CoraU. 91. Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 314. La Laomedee dichotome,

Blainv. Actinol. 474. Campanularia dichotoma. Lam- Anim. s. Vert.

ii. 113. Flem. Brit Anim. 548. Stark, Elem. ii. 441. iJjsso, L'Europ.

Merid. v. 309- Grant in Edin. New Phil. Journ. i. 151. Grant in

Cyclop. Anat. and Phys. i. 108, fig. 30. Grant, Comp. Anat. 10, fig.

5. Johnston in Trans. Newc- Soc. ii. 255. Templeton in Mag. Nat.

Hist. ix. 469. Lister in Phil. Trans, an. 1834, 372, pi. 8, fig. 5.
Hab. On old shells in deep water, common. " This is found in
great abundance on the south-west coast of England, and seems most
curiously contrived, from its structure, to resist the violence of the
waves, allits joints bein^ furnished with springs," JEllis. Scarborough,
Mr Bean. Dunstanborough Castle, Mr R. Embleton- Berwick
Bay, G. J. Leith shore, Jameson. Found on the shore of Dublin
Bay, &c. Templeton.

Polypidom confervoid, rooted by a creeping flexuous fibre, from
four to six inches high, slender, filiform, smooth, of a blackish colout-,
wavy, branched in a dichotomous or alternate manner, the branches
ringed at their origins, simple or divided like the primary stem. The
cells are bell-shaped, on ringed stalks, transparent and very tender, so
that specimens gathered amongst the rejectamenta of the sea are
mostly deprived of them. Polypes reddish. Vesicles ovate, smooth,
axillary, filled with ova in spring. These are numerous, " amount-
ing to twenty or thirty in each vesicle," and like the ova of zoophytes

* A*ofjiiS'ii», — the name of one of the Nereids, according to Hesiod's Theo-
gony. V. 257.

Laomedea. Z. HYDROIDA. 15J

in general, clothed with cilia and moveable. Every three of them
are inclosed, while in the vesicle, within a thin transparent motion-
less capsule, presenting at its free extremity several stiff, straight^
diverging pointed processes, which Ellis mistook for the tentacula of
a young polypus. Dr Grant.

Sir John G. Dalyell has made some singular observations on this
species, which seem irreconcileable with those of Professor Grant and
Cavolioi. He tells us that it rarely produces vesicles. When pre-
sent they contain from 20 to 30 greyish corpuscula with a dark cen-
tral nucleus. " At first, all are immature and quiescent, but motion
at length commences : the corpuscula become more distinct ; sevei'al
slender arms protrude from the orifice of the vesicle, which are seen
in vehement action, and, after many struggles, an animated being es-
capes. But this has no relation either to the planula of the Sertu-
larise, or the corpusculum of the Flustra, Alcyonium, or Actinia. It
might be rather associated with the Medusariai. Before ascertaining
its origin, I had named it Animalculum tintinnabuluvi, from its gene-
ral resemblance to a common hand-bell, for the purpose of recogni-
tion. This creature is whitish, tending to transparency, about half
a line in diameter ; the body is like a deep watch glass, surmounted
by a crest rising from the centre, and fringed by about twenty-three
tentacula pendant from the lip below. These are of muricate struc-
ture, or rough, and connected to the lip by a bulb twice their own
diameter. The summit of the crest unfolds occasionally into four
leaves, and four organs prominent on the convexity of the body, ap-
pear at its base. When free, the animal swims by jerks, or leaps
through the water, or drops gently downwards ; it is invited to move
by the light, and it has survived at least eight days. Then it disap-
pears, at least I have not been able to pursue its history longer. No
other product has ever issued from the vesicles of the Sertularia di-
chotoma." Edin. New Phil. Journ. xxi. 91-2.

2. L. GENICULATA, stem zig-zag, simple or sparingly brandi-
ed ; cells on annular stalks from the joints, alternate, campanu-
late, the 7'im plain ; vesicles ovate. Doody.

Plate XXI. Fig. 1, 2.
Corallina confervoides gelatinosa alba, gcniculis crassiusculis pellucidis,

Baii, Syn. i. 34, no. 7. Fucoides setaceum tenuissime alatiini, Ibid.

38, no. 6, pi. 2, fig. 2. Ellis, in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 491, pi. 12, fig.

1, a, A. Knotted-thread Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 22, no. 19, pi. 12.

h. B Sertularia geniculata, Z/». Syst. 1312. Pull. Elencli. 117.

Mull. Zool. Dan. tab. 117, fig. 1-4. Ellis awA Solund. Zooi)li. 49. Berk.
Syn. i. 218. Tiirt. Gmel. iv. 682. Weni. Mem. i. 564. Tint. Brit.
Faun. 215. .S^ew. Elem. ii. 446. ^osc. Vers, iii. 117. Z«»(. Anim. s.

152 Z. HYDROIDA. Laomedea.

Vert. ii. 120. 2de edit. ii. 149. Hogg's Stock. 33 Laomedea geni-

culata, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 208. Corall. 91. Templeton in Mag. Nat.

Hist. ix. 466. La L. geniciilee, Blainv. Actinol. 474 Campanularia

geniculata, Flem. Brit. Anim. 548. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii.
235.
Hab. Parasitical and gregarious on sea weeds that grow near low-
tide mark, especially on tlie frond of Laminaria digitata, very com-
mon.

Polypidom attached by a creeping tulnilar thread, erect, about an
inch in height, simple or sparingly branched, regularly zig-zag, slen-
der and flexile, of a clear white colour, often tinted more or less with
rose-red, and filled with a dusky granular pulp : at every flexure, the
stem is divided by a single joint and incrassated, a twisted pedicle
originating from the incrassated part alternately from opposite sides ;
the pedicle consists of 4-6 nearly equal rings, is erecto-patent, taper-
ed slightly and terminated with a bell-shaped cell, perfectly transpa-
rent and entire. The vesicles are matured in spring : they originate
from the incrassation of the joints at the side of the cells, and re-
semble an elegant Greek vase or urn, being of an elliptical or ovate
shape, with a very short tubular opening on the flattened apex. The
ova are comparatively large.

The polypidom is occasionally tinted of a pink or rose-red colour,
. — an accident which is not unfrequent with the Sertulariadse in ge-
neral, especially with Sert. abietina and pumila. On what the colour
depends has not been ascertained. Some specimens so tinted retain
the colour after being dried, while others lose it. The nature of the
habitat has apparently no influence on it, for I have often observed
coloured and colourless specimens on the same stone or sea-weed.

f5. L. GELATINOSA, " Sill) Ordinate branches dichotomously
branched ; cells on twisted footstalks^ companulate^ icith even mar-
gins." Ellis.

Plate XXI. Fig. 3, 4. and Plate XXIII. Fig- 1.
Corallina tiliformis ramosa pedunculis calyeulonim contortis, Ellis, Corall.
pi. 38, fig. 3, and p. 23, pi. 12, fig. c, C. — Sertiilaria gelatinosa, Pall
Elench. 116. *S^ew. Elem. ii. 444. jBosc, Vers. iii. 112. Fleming in

Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 84. Flem. Phil. Zool. ii. 616. pi. 5, fig. 3

Campanularia gelatinosa, Flem. Brit. Anim. 549. Johnston in Trans.

Newc. Soc. ii. 254. Sertularia dichotoma, in part. Lister in Phil. Trans.

an. 1834, 372, 375, pi. 10, fig.^^l — Laomedea gelatinosa, Corallina, 92.

La L. gelatineuse, Blainv. Actinol, 475 — La Scrtolara dictoma, Cavol.

Pol. mar. 194, tav. 7, fig- '5 — 8.

Hab. On stones ^tween tide marks. "Very common in the

Tay above Balmerino, towards Flisk beach," Fleming. In Berwick

Bay, abundantly, G. ./,

Laomedea. Z. HYDROIDA. 153

This species, in its most perfect state, rises to the height of 8 or 10
inches. The stena is as thick as small twine, straight, opake, and
composed of many tubular threads twisted together. It does not
properly divide itself, but sends off branches from all sides, which are
either opposite or alternate, and much ramified into diverging branch-
lets, each of them marked with three or four rings at its base, and
terminated with a bell-shaped polype-cell of a very thin corneous
texture. A specimen of this description from Shetland, in the col-
lection of my friend Dr Coldstream, is figured in Plate XXII I.

But more commonly Laom. gelatinosa is found in a much hum-
bler condition, and under a guise that requires for its discrimination
from Laom. geniculata, a careful examination. It occurs thus in
Berwick Bay, growing gregariously on the sides and under surface of
stones lying in shallow pools between tide-marks, and seemingly
giving a preference to those that contain an impure or brackish
water. The shoots are all connected with one another by the ra-
dicle fibre which creeps in an irregular manner along the rock ; they
are rarely above an inch in height, simple or sparingly branched,
consisting of a single tube of a light corneous colour and texture,
ringed above the origins of the long twisted filiform pedicles on which
the polype-cells are raised. These cells are deeply cupped, transparent,
with a wide even margin. Vesicles urn-shaped, smooth, shooting
from the axils of the pedicles. They are matured during the
summer months, when we find them filled with ova of a circular flat-
tish form, marked with a dark speck in the centre. At first they fill
not more than half of the vesicle, but by their increase in size they soon
come to occupy the whole cavity, and are ultimately extruded from the
top, after which the empty vesicle soon disappears. The ova while
in the vesicle are ai'ranged round a central placentular column, and
the lid which closes the vesicle is a mere dilatation of this column,
which appears to be composed of two pieces soldei'ed together, and
bulged at intervals, where perhaps the ova are more immediately af-
fixed in their immature state.

The Polypes have about twenty long filiform tentacula roughened
with minute tubercles placed in whorls. In their centre is the mouth,
which assumes the shape sometimes of a rounded projecting tubercle,
sometimes of a narrow column, and sometimes of a broad flat disk
with a stricture under it simulating a neck. It leads directly to the
stomachal cavity which is large and undivided, and I have occasional-
ly witnessed within it currents of a fluid filled with minute granules,
as has been more fully noticed by Mr Lister and Dr Fleming.

Milne-Edwards, in the belief of there being a specific difference
between the zoophytes described by Pallas and Fleming, has propos-

154

Z. HYDROIDA.

Camp A NUL ARIA

ed to call the latter Campanularia Flemingii, distinguished by the
cells having an even rim, whereas it is stated to be serrulated in the
other. I have preferred following the judgment of Fleming, who
has very carefully studied the species.

1 1. Campanularia, * Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom rooted, creeping or when compound
erect, the main tube filiform, continuous, giving off its peduncu-
lated cells irregularly or in whorls ; pedicles ringed, usually long ;
cells campanulate ; vesicles scattered, sessile. — Polypes hydra-
form.

* Stem a single tube.
1. C. voLUBiLis, stem creeping, filiform ; cells on long slen-
der annidar pedicles, campaniform ivith a serrated rim ; vesicles
ovate, lorinkled concentrically. Ellis.

Fig. 17

ri
\ \

Small climbing Coralline with bell-shaped cups, Ellis, Corall. 24, no. 21 ,
pi. 14, fig. a. A. Phil. Trans, xlviii. 629, pi. 22, no. 2. Phil. Trans.

abridg. x. 491, pi. 12, fig. 2, B. Sertularia volubilis, Lin. Syst. 1311.

Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 31, pi. 4, fig. e, f, E. F. copied into Kirb,/'s
Bridgew. Treat, i. pi. 2, fig. 2. Berk. Syn. i. 218. Turt. Gmcl. iv.
080. Fabric. Faun. Grcenl. 444. Wern. Mem. i. 3G4. Turf. I5rit.
Faun. 214. Slew. Elem. ii. 444. Bosc, Vers, iii, 112. Hof/y's Stock.

* From Campanula, a bell.
3

Campanularia. Z. HYDROIDA. 155

34, S. imiflora, Pall. Elench. 121. Ellis, in Phil. Trans. Ivii. 437,

pi. 19, fig. 9 Clytia volubilis, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 202. Corall. 88.

Campanularia volubilis,ZaHi. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 113. 2de edit. ii. 132. Flem.
Brit. Anim. 348. Risso, L'Europ. merid. v. 309. Johnston in Trans

Newc. Soc. ii. 255. Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 466 La

Campamilaire grimpaute, Blainv. Actinolog. 472, pi. 84, fig. 2.
Ilab. Parasitical on other corallines, frequent. Brighthelrastone,
on the coast of Sussex, JEllis. Frith of Forth, adhering to Flustrae
and Fuci, Jameson. Berwick Bay, G. J. Found in Belfast Lough,
Templeton. On specimens of Sertularia tamarisca, &c. from Scar-
borough, Bean.

A minute species, and a beautiful object for the microscope. I have
seen the antennae of a crab (Lithodes spinosa) so profusely invested
with this zoophyte as to resemble hairy brushes. The coralline in
this instance had chosen a station by which it obtained all the bene-
fits of locomotion. Our figure represents a specimen which had
adorned in a similar manner the remnant of a Pluraularia falcata. The
stem is a capillary corneous tube which creeps and twists itself upon
its support, throwing out, at alternate intervals, a long slender stalk
twisted throughout or only partially, that supports a bell-shaped cup
of perfect transparency and prettily serrulated round the brim. The
ovarian vesicles arise from the creeping tube, are sub-pedicellate,
ovate, coarsely wrinkled, and contain each several ova. Polypes with
numerous slender white tentacula.

2. C. SYRiNGA, stem creeping, capillary ; cells on shorter
twisted pedicles, tubulous, ivith a plain margin. Ellis.

Fig. 18.

Creeping Bell-Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 25, pi. 14, fig. h. B Sertularia

syringa, Lin. Syst. 1311. Berk. Syn. i. 218. Turl. Gmel. iv. 680.

Turt. Brit. Faun. 214. Stew. Elem. ii. 444. Bosc, Vers, iii. 113

S. volubilis, Pall. Elench. 122 S. repens, JEJWs- and Soland. Zooph.

156 Z. HYDROIDA. Campanularia.

52. Hogg's Stock. 34 Clytia syringa, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 203.

Corall. 89. Campanularia syringa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 113. '2de

edit. ii. 132. Flem. Brit. Anim. 548. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc.
ii. 256. Blainv. Actinolog. 472.
Hub. Parasitical on other corallines and the lesser fuci, less com-
mon than the preceding.

This is only to be distinguished from C. volubilis by the aid of the
microscope. The two species frequently grow intermixed, and their
habit is the same, but the syringa is easily distinguished by its denser
corneous structure, its cylindrical tubular cells, and the shortness of
the pedicles which support them. Polypes with 8 filiform equal ten-
tacula. — Pallas describes a branched variety from the coast of Corn-
wall, which, however, undoubtedly belongs to C. dumosa. His words
are — " Nuper ex Oceano Cornubiam alluente, ubi haec Sertularia in
testaceis et Zoophytis omnibus abundat, accepi ramescentem eandem,
seu vegetantem ; dum tubuli 2)lurimi proprii simul assurgentes effi-
ciunt stirpes sponte erectas, stepe sesqui-pollicares, ramumque unum
vel alteram exserentes, totas ab imo ad summum calyculis tubulifor-
mibus, sine ordine, quaquaversum muricatae/'

* * Stem composed of many parallel tubes.
3. C. VERTiciLLATA, erects branched ; cells on verticillate pe-
dicles, campanulate icith a serrulated rim. Dr Brownrigg.*

Plate XXII. Fig. 3, 4.
Horse-tail Coralline with bell-shaped cups, Ellis, Corall. 23, no. 20, pi.

13, fig. a, A Sertularia verticillata, Z>znw. Syst. 1310. Pall. Elench.

115. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 50. Berk. Syn. i. 218. Titrt. Gmel.
iv.. 679. Turt. Brit. Faun. 214. Stew. Elem. ii. 444. Base, Vers,

iii, 112. Hogg's Stock. 34. Clytia verticillata, Lamour. Cor. Flex.

202. Corall. 88. Campanularia verticillata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii.

113. 2de edit. ii. 131. Flem. Brit. Anim. 550. Templeton'm Mag. Nat.

Hist. ix. 466. Stark, Elem. ii. 441.- La Laomedee vertieillee, Blainv.

Actinolog. 475, pi. 84, fig. 3.
Hah. " Near Whitehaven, in Cumberland," Dr Brownrigg. Near
Hartlepool, Durham, not very frequent, J. Hogg, Esq. Not uncom-
mon on the coast at Scarborough, adhering to shells, &c. Mr Bean.
Cullercoats, Northumberland, Mr Joshua Alder.

* Dr William Browmrigg, born at High Close Hall, Cumberland, March 24,
1711 ; graduated M. D- at Leyden in 1737 ; elected F. R. S. in 1742 ; in 1748
published his valuable work on the art of making common salt ; received the
Copley medal for the year 1765 ; continued to prosecute with zeal his chemical
and philosophical experiments, and to eiijoy his literary taste, until the period
of his death, which took place at Ormathwaite, January 6, 1800, aged 88 years.
For an able biographical account of this learned and excellent physician, see the
Annals of Philosophy, Vol. x. p. 321, he.

Campanulakia. Z. HYDROIDA. 157

Polypitloiu adhering; by creeping- tubulous fibres, erect, iiTegularly
branched, the stem and branches composed of many closely applied
parallel tubes ; branches erect or erecto-patent, cylindrical, straight,
hirsute from the capillary pedicles of the cells which originate in
whorls at stated intervals : the pedicles are ringed at top and bottom
but generally smooth about the middle, patent, simple : the cell itself
campanulate, thin and transparent with a serrated brim. Vesicles
scattered, arising- from the branches, solitary, very shortly stalked,
oval, smooth, with a narrow aperture.

4. C. ? DUMOSA, erector climbing, ii^regularly branched, hirsute
with the cells, lohich are long, tubular, patent, almost sessile, the
aperture entire. Rev. Dr Fleminor.

PLATEXXIII.Fig-. 2— 5.

Coralliiiii astaci corniculorum semiili, Petiv. Plant. Ital. pi. 2, fig. 10 —

Sertularla dumosa, Fleming in Edin. Phil. Jouni. ii, 83 Tubularia

tubifera, Johnston in Edin. Phil. Journ. xiii. 222, pi. 3, fig. 2, 3 La-

fea cornuta, Lamour. Soland. ^ooph. 5, pi. 65, fig. 12-14 Campanu-

laria dumosa, Flem- Brit. Anini. 548. Johnston in Trans. Newc Soc ii.
254. pi. 11, fig. 1 La Laomedee touffue, Blainv. Actinol. 474.

Hah. On rocks, shell-fish, and other corallines, in deep water.
On the shores of Devonshire, Montagu. At Newhaven in the Frith
of Forth, at Aberbrothick and in Zetland, Fleming. Berwick Bay,
ver}^ common, G. J.

There are two varieties of this species : the first is from 2 to 4 inches
in height, bushy, irregularly branched, the branches straight, square,
slightly tapered upwards, and formed of several parallel tubes ; (Fig. 4.)
the second is a single thread-like tube which climbs up the stalks
of other flexible corallines, giving off on all sides its long spreading-
trumpet-shaped cells, which are not unlike those of C. syringa, but are
to be distinguished by their thicker and much more horny texture, and
by being almost or altogether sessile (Fig. 2, 3.) Small specimens
of the first variety are very common on some sorts of crabs, but the
larger specimens have their roots or base almost invariably immersed
in the substance of a sponge, the Halichondria panicea or papillaris.
Neither the vesicles nor polypes have been observed, and there is
something in the habit, and in the form of the cells, which renders it
very doubtful whether this species belongs to this order.

This appears to be the proper place to notice two doubtful zoo-
phytes which have been I'eferred to the genus

158 Z. HYDROIDA. Cymodocea.

Cymodocea,* Lamouroux.
Character. " Plant-like ; cells cylindrical, varying in
length, Jiliform, alternate or opposite ; stem Jistular, marked loith
rings beloiv, plain above, and without interior division."

1. C. SIMPLEX, stems simple, slightly undulated, tivig-like ;

cells long and filiform, alternate. Dawson Turner.-f-

Cymodocea simplex, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 216, pi. 7, fig. 2. Corallina, 95,

pi. 7, fig. 2 La Cymodocee simple, Blainv- Actinolog. 487. pi. 81,

fig- 4.

Hab. The sea near Yarmoiith, and in Ireland, Turner.
Height nearly three inches : colour a yellow-fawn.

2. C. coMATA, stems straight, cylindrical, almost simple ;

branchlets capillary, whorled, numerous, fiexuous, jointed and

ceiliferous. Dr Leach.J

Cymodocea comata, Lamour. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 15, pi. 67, fig-
12, 13. Flem. Brit. Anim. 551. La C. chevelue, Blainv. Actino-
log. 487.

Hab. Coast of Devonshire, Leach.

Height about one decimetre : colour yellowish. At each joint of
the branchlets there is a short cell ringed at its base, and almost in-
visible to the naked eye.

I have seen no authentic specimen of either species, the above
descriptions being translated from the works of Lamouroux. He
says that Cymodocea has the closest relations with Tubularia,
from which, however, it differs in the position of the polype-cells
which are placed, not at the top of the branches, but upon these
branches or upon their divisions. From this circumstance La-
mouroux classes the genus amongst the Sertulariadse, to which alli-
ance the absence of ovarian vesicles seems opposed, nor can we hope
to locate the genus with any certainty until the polypes have been
discovered. The very existence of the genus has in fact been ques-

* The name of one of the sea-nymphs into which the ships of iEneas were
changed by Cybele.

f D. Turner, Esq. of Yarmouth, F. L. S. : — very eminent for his knowledge
of cryi^togamic botany, and for his skill in antiquities. He is the author of a
beautiful work on the Fuci. The genus Dawsonia of Robert Brown is a just
tribute to his merit.

\ William Elford Leach — a naturalist of most indomitable enthusiasm and very
extraordinary acquirements. He died in Italy in 1836, of cholera. " We may
say, with respect to the extent and effect of his zoological labours, — Nihil non
tetigit, et omnia quae tetigit ornavit." — Kirhy.

Cymodocea. Z. HYDROIDA. 159

tioned. IMr J. E. (Jray, a high authority in matters of this kind,
says, " the Cymodocea) appear to be only Sertularite which liave lost
their cells," (Synop. of Brit. Mus. p. 75) ; and Blainville makes the
same assertion in reference to the above species.* Dr Fleming is of
opinion that C. simplex has been established from an individual of
Campanularia dichotoma in a depauperated state ; (Brit. Anim. 548,)
while again IMr Hogg informs me that he is almost satisfied that this
Cymodocea is Plumularia pinnata with its pinnae rubbed off by the
waves or tide on the beach ; and the specimens he has sent me in
confirmation of this supposition are certainly very exact to Lamou-
roux's figure, nat. size, — for it must be observed that his magnified fi-
gure represents the polypidom as unjointed or continuous, whereas it
is regularly jointed both in the Campanularia and Plumularia. But
I make this remark not to invalidate the opinions either of Dr Flem-
ing or Mr Hogg, for that of the latter I am disposed to adopt ; but it
gives me an opportunity of warning the student against an implicit
reliance on the figures of Lamouroux, which we are assured by Blain-
ville, who has compared them with the specimens from which they
were made, are in many instances very erroneous.

* Milne-Edwards also adopts this view. Lam. Anim. s. Vert 2de edit- ii.
157.

" All the works of the Lord are exceeding good : and none may say, What is

this ? Wherefore is that ? for at time convenient they shall all be sought out

All the works of the Lord are good : So that a man cannot say, This is worse
than that ; for in time they shall all be well approved." — Ecclesiasticus.

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

PART III.

ZoOPHYTA ASTEROIDA.

Fii(. li).

GORGONIA FlABELLUJI.

" — — — — — all the firmament

" Was throng'd with constellations, and the ^v;\

" Strown with their images " — James Montgomery.

" Nicostratus in ^lian, finding a curious piece of wood, and being wondered
at by one, and asked what pleasure he could take to stand as he did still gaz-
ing on the picture ? answered, Hadst thou mine eyes, my friend, thou wouldst
not wonder, but rather be ravished as I am at the inimitable art of this rare and
admirable piece- I am sure no picture can express so much wonder and excel-
lency as the smallest insect : but we want Nicostratus his eyes to behold them.

" And the praise of God's wisdom and power lies asleep and dead in every
creature, until man actuate and enliven it. I cannot, therefore, altogether con-
ceive it unworthy of the greatest mortals to contemplate the miracles of nature,
and that as they are more visible in the smallest and almost contemptible crea-
tures, for there most lively do they express the infinite power and wisdom of
the great Creator, and erect and draw the minds of the most intelligent to the
first and prime Cause of all things, teaching them as the power, so the presence
of the Deity in the smallest insects. " Samuel Purchas.

ZOOPHYTA BRITANNICA.

ORDER II.
Z. ASTEROIDA.

Character.

Polypes compound, the mouth encircled icith 8 pectinate tenta-
cida ; stomach membranous ivith dependant vasculiform appen-
dages ; intestine 0 ; anus 0 ; reproductive gemmules produced in-
teriorly. Polype-mass variable in form, free or permanent-
ly attached, carnose, generally strengthened with a horny or cal-
careous axis enveloped ivith the gelatinous or creto-gelatinous
crust in which the polype-cells are immersed, and which open
on the surface in a starred fashion with 8 rays.

Observations.
On a cursory view the Polypidoms of the three families em-
braced in this order appear very dissimilar, and accordingly, by
many recent authors, they have been scattered over the class,
and placed widely asunder. The affinity between them, how-
ever, is generally acknowledged, and had been distinctly per-
ceived by some of the earliest zoophytologists. Thus Bohadsch
found so much in common between the typical Pennatulae and
a species of Alcyonium, that he has not hesitated to describe
them as members of the same genus ; and although the more
systematic character of Pallas prevented him falling into this
error, — if error it can indeed be called, — he did not the less
recognize the relationship between the genera or families.* Pal-

" " Pennatulae Alcyoniis specierum gradatione ita propinquse sunt et tamen
simul structura, habitu, vitseque sensitivse gi-adu discrepant, ut exempliini majoris
siraul affinitatis et discordantise inter duo genera in rerum natura vix dari exis-
timem. Certo respectu Pennatulae ad Alcyonia sunt, quod Hydraead Sertularias."
Elench. p. 362 — In' relation to this paragraph consult also p. 370, 343, 162,
191:— and Misc. Zool. p. 177.

164 ZOOPHYTA ASTEHOIDA.

las also tells us that his Pennatula cynomorium ditfers from the
Alcyonium only in this, that the former is a moveable, and the
latter a fixed polypidom ; and he saw with equal clearness, the
connection which exists between these genera and the shrub-
like Gorgonia. Of the Pennatula mirabilis he had entertained
doubts whether it was not rather a species of Gorgonia until
he perceived that the stem was attenuated at each end and free ;
and of the Sea- Pens generally, Ellis remarks, that they are " a
genus of zoophytes not far removed from the Gorgonias, on ac-
count of their polype mouths, as well as having a bone in the
inside, and flesh without." On the other hand the Gorgoniae,
says Pallas, seem, with the exception of their horny skeleton, to
be nearly similar in structure to the Alcyonia ; but as there are
species of Gorgonia which are suberose internally and almost
of a uniform medullary consistence, even this mark of distinction
fails to separate the tribes, and we have little left to guide us in
arranging these osculant species excepting their external habit,
or, if we may so express ourselves, their physiognomy. Gorgonia
Briareus has been described by some authors as an Alcyonium ;
and Pallas would have enumerated the Gorgonia radicata in the
same genus, had not its gorgon-like habit interfered. I am satis-
fied that no zoophytologist can examine Ellis's figure and de-
scription of Gorgonia suberosa without being convinced that it
pertains rather to the congenerous family, or holds at least very
debateabie ground between them.

The names which the fishermen have conferred on the poly-
pidoms of this order will convey to the student a better idea of
their general appearances than any laboured description. The
Pennatuhe in their language are Sea- Pens ; the Virgularige are
Sea- Rushes ; Sea- Paps, Deadman's hand or Dead-man's toes,
if not agreeable, are yet expressive names for the Alcyonia ;
and the Gorgoniae are Sea-shrubs when they branch away irre-
gularly, but when the branches inosculate and form a sort of
net, they become Sea- Fans, which some naturalist, of more than
our usual fancy, has appropriated to the use of Venus — Fla-
bellnm Veneris.*

* Kay has especially culleil attention to the fan-like growth of submarine bodies.
— "That the motion of the water descends- to a good depth, I prove from those
plants that grow deepest in the sea, because they all generally grow flat in man-
ner of a fan, and not with branches on all sides like trees ; which is so contriv-

ZOOPIIYTA ASTEROIDA. 165

In every polypidom of this order there are three parts which
require notice, — the polypes, the fibro-fleshy calcareous crust
in which they are placed, and the internal axis. The con-
nection between these parts is indissoluble, and although
we may treat of them separately, and as if they were some-
what independent, yet we must guard against the entertain-
ment of any such opinion. * It was once indeed a debated
question whether each polypidom might not rightly be con-
sidered a mere aggregation of separate animalcules, but all that
we know of their habits and structure goes to prove the contrary,
so that no one probably now disputes that the polypidom with
its polypes constitute but one body, the latter being in the place
of as many mouths and stomachs scattered over the surface.
The whole mass, with the exception at most of the axis in those
which possess a stony or horny one, is living and organized, re-
ceiving the material of its nourishment and growth from the food
captured and digested by the polypes ; and as they have not
only an organical union with the irritable flesh in which they are
immersed, but are many of them more intimately associated to-
gether by means of canals and intestines, so they participate in
every benefit and every evil. When, therefore, one pinna of a
Sea- Pen is lacerated or cut away, the remaining pinna? gradu-
ally shrink, the polypes withdraw, and the whole body con-
tracts in every dimension ; or if a portion of the Alcyonium be
subjected to irritation, the gradual collapse and contraction of
the polypidom renders it obvious that the irritation has been
communicated and felt through the entire mass.-f- On the con-
ed by the providence of nature, for that the edges of them do in that posture
with most ease cut the water flowing to and fro ; and should the flat side be ob-
jected to the stream, it would soon be turned edge-wise by the force of it, be-
cause in that site it doth least resist the motion of the water : whereas did the
branches of these plants grow round, they would be thrown backward and for-
ward every tide. Nay, not only the herbaceous and woody submarine plants,
but also the lithophyta themselves afl^ect this manner of growing, as I have ob-
served in various kinds of corals and pori." — The Wisdom of God in the Crea-
tion, p. 77.

• Tiedemann has inadvertently asserted that the polypes '• are able to leave
the crust and return to it." Comp. Phy. 306.

}• " Unknown to sev the pregnant oyster swells,
And coral-insects build t/ieir radiate cells ;
Parturient Sires caress their infant train,
And heaven-born Storge weaves the social chain ■

166 ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA.

trary, when at rest and undisturbed, the polypes protrude their
tentacula and a portion of the body, and, imbibing the circum-
fluent water, this percolates into the interior through numerous
anastomosing canals, and distends the polypidom so much that
it will more than double or treble its former size. In this re-
spect the Zoophyta asteroida show an affinity to the Helianthoida,
and differ from the hydraform and more especially from the as-
cidian orders.

The axis of the Alcyonidse is imperfect, but exists neverthe-
less in the form of calcareous or siliceous spicula diffused through
the gelatinous interior, or more or less densely clustered at the
centre; and the appearance of these spicula is such that we
are almost tempted to believe they may possibly be the products
of crystallization rather than of any regular secretion.* It might
not be difficult, but it is beyond my province, to trace the gra-
dual increase and consolidation of these spicula through many
intermediate species to the horny flexible axis of Gorgonia,
where it has become such an efficient support to the whole soft
envelope as to claim not improperly the name of its skeleton ;
thence to the stony axis of the coral ; and having there reached
its maximum of developement, I might, on the other hand, have
marked its progress towards degeneration until it became again
only a partial support, such as we find it in the naked middle
portion of the Pennatulidae, more especially in some of the fo-
reign and less typical species of that family.

According to Lamarck, this axis, under all its modifications, is
inorganic, containing neither vessels nor any portion of the
body of the polypes, but formed of matter excreted by them,
and afterwards thickened, solidified and depurated by af-
finity.-f- Although this is rather, on Lamarck's part, the de-

Successive births her tender cares combine,
And soft affections live along the line."

DarwiiVs Temp, of Nature, canto ii.
* They may be compared with the Raphides found in the intercellular pas-
sages of certain monocotyledonous plants. See Lindley's Introd. to Botany,

p. 29 Mr Children found in the ashes of a piece of the axis of Gorgonia

Flabellum, a distinct trace of pure silica, sufficient to form a globule before the

blow-pipe Ann. of Philosophy, New Series, Vol. ix. p. 43).

t " L'obscrvation constate que I'axe central de ccs polypiers, quoiqu' offrant
quelquefois dcs couches concentriqurs, ne fut jamais organise, n'a contenu ni
vaisseaux quelconques, ni aucune portion du corps dcs polypes ; qu'il est le
rcsultat dc matieres excretees par ces polj'pes, matieres qui se sont epaissies,

ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA. 167

duction of theory than of observation, yet the opinion is in the
main correct, and in correspondency with what had been long
previously maintained by Ellis. In the spicula of Alcyonidae
certainly, we can find no traces of organism, and they lie seem-
ingly unconnected with the adjacent parts. The axis of Pen-
natula is a solid bone formed of laminae laid over each other,
softer and cartilaginous at each extremitv where it seems to be
organically connected with the soft surrounding flesh : it is evi-
dently secreted, and deposited successively in layers, from the
inner surface of a thin pellucid membrane which Bohadsch has
described as investing it in the manner of a periosteum,* and
probably is endowed with that low degree of vitality which pre-
serves the horns, hairs and feathers of the higher animals in that
elastic and fresh condition which they have only when in
connection with living parts. The horny axis of Gorgon ia,
notwithstanding some observations of Ellis which apparently
tend to a different conclusion,-}- is not more distinctly organized,
and is doubtless formed in the same manner as the axis of Pen-
natula, for it is also of a lamellated structure, and, according to
Lamouroux, is invested with a similar periosteum. % A cross
section of the stem or of a principal branch will show the layers
to be disposed concentrically round a central medulla, the layers

coiidensees, epurees par I'affinite, reunies, juxta-posees successivement, et ont
forme, par leur reunion, I'axe central et longitudinal dont il s'agit. Aussi cet
axe est-il d'une substance continue, non poreuse." — Anim. s. Vert. V. ii. p. 294.
See also p. 78—80 ; and p. 311.

• " Totum OS membrana tenuis, lutescens, pellucida cingit, atque in utroque
extremo in ligamentum contorquetur, quod ex una parte in apice trunci pinnati,
ex altera vero in apice trunci nudi in.seritur." — De Anim. mar. p. 104. See also
Corall. p. 214,218,224.

f " Proceeding thus far, I was led on to observe, what kind of communica-
tion there was between the suckers (or polypes) and the bone of the animal ;
for this end I examined several specimens, both dry, as well as those that were
preserved in spirits, with good magnifying glasses, and could distinctly trace an
infinite number of minute winding canals, that lead from the suckers through
the flesh into those parallel longitudinal tubes, which closely surround the bone
or solid part on all sides ; perhaps these may not improperly be called the peri-
osteum ; for all along that side of those tubes by which they adhere to the bony
part, I could discover the pores very plainly from whence the juices flow, that
supply it with proper materials to answer this great end." — Soland. Zooph. 69.

\ " L'ecorce des Gorgoniees ne se lie pas immediatement a I'axe, elle en est
separee par une membrane d'une nature particuliere, si mince dans Ic genre
Horgonia, qu'il est tres-difficilc de I'apcrrevoir ; elle est plus apparentc dans les
Plexaures et les Eunicees." — Polyp Corall. Flex. p. 391.

168

ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA.

more or less compactly pressed according to the nature of the spe-
cies. (Fio-. 21.) The whole section presents a certain resemblance
to a similar section of a dicotyledonous tree : (Fig. 20.) the me-
dulla in position and outward appearance is a pith ; the horny
axis is the wood ; and the fleshy crust has been denominated the
bark;* — nor perhaps could fault be found with this language,
since it is sufficiently illustrative, had it not been the mother of
some very erroneous notions, and a great means of their propa-
gation and continuance. Thus Linnaeus, in his definition of
Gorgonia, calls the axis a vegetating stem ; and as if this was
not sufficiently explicit, we find Pallas entering into detail and
telling us that the concentric circles are produced by successive
transmutations of the fleshy crust, in the same manner that the
circles of the wood of trees are formed by transformations of the
inner layers of the bark.f And this opinion, if we may judge
from their language, has been adopted by many, and even re-
cent, authors, though Ellis had previous to its promulgation:}:,
Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

and also shortly afterwards, demonstrated that there was not on-
ly no real resemblance, but such remarkable differences as
rendered the hypothesis altogether untenable. § The pith of

* Lin. Syst. 1289.

f Elcneli, p. 162. He seems, however, to have had his suspicions that the
theory was questionahle, for he adds — " Qiianquam diversissima corticis natura,
ejusdemque facilis a ligno separatio, siiggerere possent : hujus strata potius ex
depoi-ito intiis succo fieri, aut lignum, prout ossa animalium sanguineorum intra
periosteum, generari, augeri, durescere."'

t Coral. 65. Lin. Corresp.. i. 225. Phil. Trans, (an. 1776) abridg. xiii. 721.

§ What then could induce Blumenbach, so late as in 1825, to write thus?—
" The stems appear to be reallt/ vegetables (the woody nature of which in the
larger ones cnnnot be mistaken) incrusled with corals." — Man. of Nat. Hist.
Trans, p. '271-

ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA. 169

the Gorgonia is not continued, as in the tree, from the trunk
through the branches, but is interrupted at their origins by se-
veral intervening hxyers of fibres, so tliat they are rather, as it
were, inserted upon the stem than propagations of it ; the axis
possesses none of that curious complexity of structure, — of fibres,
of sap and air vessels and utricular cells, — which renders the wood
so beautiful an object under the microscope ; and lastly there
is between the bark and the crust of the zoophyte nothing but
contrasts and discrepancies.*

The axis of a Gorgonia, at least of our native species, resem-
bles a tree in this, that the stem always bears a certain propor-
tion in thickness to the size of the polypidom, being slender in
the small, and thicker in the larger specimens : it tapers from
the rock or dilated base, and becoming gradually more gracile
and attenuated, disappears at the extreme points of the branch-
es. It is covered throughout with the fleshy which is the same
in structure at all points, but thicker and more loaded with po-
lypes towards the ends of the branches than on the stem or
near their base, whence the former generally assume a cylindri-
cal form. This flesh when dry is earthy and friable, a consi-
derable proportion of carbonate of lime entering into its compo-
sition ; but in a recent state it is soft and fleshy, and excavated
with numerous cells for the lodgement of the polypes. When
a portion of a branch is macerated in a weak acid, the lime is
entirely removed, but the branch retains its original size and
figure, and shows the frame-work to be an irregular close tex-
ture of corneous fibres, the interstices of which had been pro-
bably filled in part with a gelatinous fluid. And this is much
the same structure that we find in the Alcvonium. The skin is
coriaceous, strengthened with calcareous particles, but the in-
terior off"ers a fibrous net-work containing a transparent jelly in
the squares, and permeated with a certain number of longitu-
dinal cartilaginous tubes. The soft part of Pennatula seems
more uniformly fleshy or gelatinous, and its polypes are placed
only on certain wings or appendages of the polypidom, but the
skin is also coriaceous, and has moreover in its substance a great
number of calcareous spicula placed parallel to one another, and
which must greatly add to its consistency and strength.

* Ellis and Soland. Zoophytes, 76 — 70.

170 ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA.

The polypes are placed in this external fleshy crust, which,
indeed, is but a continuation of their tunic, and serves as a
connecting medium to the whole assemblage. Their position
in it is marked by an orifice on the surface distinguished by its
being cut into eight rays in a starred fashion, and which open
when the superior portion of the body is forced outwards. *
This exsertile portion, in a state of expansion, resembles a cy-
lindrical bladder or nipple crowned with a fringe formed by the
eight short thick pectinated tentacula which encircle the
mouth. (Plate xxvi. Fig. 1.) Under this orifice we perceive
the stomach, readily distinguished through the transparent
parietes by its opacity, occupying the centre of the cylinder,
and itself of a cylindrical figure. The space between it and
the outer envelopes is divided into eight equal compartments
or cells by as many thin ligamentous septa, which, originat-
ing in the labial rim, between the bases of the tentacula, de-
scend through the cylinder, attached on the one side to the
inner tunic of the body, and on the other to the stomach, which
is by this means suspended and retained in its position. The
canals or cells formed by these septa communicate freely with
the tubulous tentacula above ; and they have a still wider com-
munication with the abdominal cavity underneath the stomach,
into which we may observe the septa are also continued for a
certain way, adhering still to the tunic, but free on their inner
edges, for now instead of septa, they form only the same num-
ber of plaits of more or less prominence and width. Attached
to them, and indeed forming a part of them, there are an equal
number of twisted somewhat glandular filaments, which, origi-
nating round a small aperture in the base of the stomach,
appear to be suspended in the cavity, gradually losing them-
selves in its depth. By most authors these have been mis-
taken for ovaries, -f- but though this assignation of function to

• See on this part of zoophytology Milne- Edwards Memoires " sur les Alcy-
ons" in Ann. des Sc Nat part. Zool. iv. p. 333, &c. an. 1835 : and in the 2de
edit, of Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. p. 465.

f Cuvier, Reg. Anim. iii. p. 309, 310, 319. Lamarck gives us Savigny's
opinion in the following passage : " Les huit intestins d'un Polype semblent de
deux sortes, car ils ne se ressemblent pas tou.s par la forme, ni vraisemhlable-
ment par les fonctions. Deux d'entre eux descendent distinctementj usque an
fond du corps du Polvpe, et n'arrivent a aucun ovaire. Les six autres, plus

3

ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA. 171

them is easily proved to be erroneous, their true office remains
conjectural. Milne-Edwards says they have great analogy with
the biliary vessels of insects ; and they probably secrete some
fluid subservient to digestion and to the more complete assimila-
tion of the food.

As already remarked the protrusile portion of the polype is
very delicate, the internal viscera being as it were enclosed in
a serous bladder so transparent as to permit a view of their dis-
position. This envelope is itself, however, composed of two
very thin membranes in intimate union : at the base of the
body the outer of these assumes a considerable thickness, and
in coalescing with that of the adjacent polypes, constitutes the
common cortical portion into which each animalcule retreats at
will by a process of invagination, which we have had occasion al-
ready to compare to that by which a snail shortens its horns. (PI.
xxvi. Fig.2.) In the greater number of the Asteroida this common
portion secretes carbonate of lime, which is deposited in the meshes
of its tissue either in granules or in crystalline spicula, and im-
parts more or less of consistency to the whole. The inner tunic
on the contrary continues unaltered, and prolonged within the
polypiferous mass, it lines the cell, the abdominal cavity, and
the longitudinal canals which permeate the mass, as well as the
very tine tubular net-work with which the spaces between these ca-
nals isoccupied, (Fig. 5.) for Milne- Ed wards has shewn that there
is a free communication between these parts through the medium
of numerous minute apertures perforated in the sides of the ab-
dominal cavity. * It is probably in this tenuous inner tunic that
the buds or gemmae by whose increase and evolution the polype-
mass is enlarged are generated, the shape and size of the mass
depending upon the manner, or pre-ordained fashion, in which
the buds are evolved, for in some, as in Pennatula, determinate
spots only have the appropriated organization ; while in others,
as in Alcyonium, the generative faculty appears to be undefined
and diffused. These buds are produced in the net -work of the
crust ; while the gemmules or ova by which the species is pro-
varies dans leur forme, selon les genres, paraissent s'arreter a. six grappes
de gemmules oviformcs qui imitcnt six ovaires." — Aiiim. s. Vert. ii. p. 4"5 — 7;
417.

♦ Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 46.3. 2de edit.

172 ZOOPHYTA ASTEROIDA.

pagated are the peculiar products of the Hning of the abdominal
cavity. The ova sometimes originate in its lamellae, sometimes
from the interspaces, and in other cases from the walls of the
permeating canals. In Pennatula we first detect them between
the membranes of the polypiferous pinnae ; in Alcyonium in the
cartilaginous canals which are traced through the polype-mass,
or in the abdominal sac sprouting from the plaits ; and in Gorgo-
nia, Cavolini informs us, they germinate in eight distinct " ova-
ria at the base of each polypus." They first appear like a
minute smooth wart which gradually rises up from the surface,
enlarging itself at the same time, and when a certain size has
been attained, the wart becomes constricted at its base, then
shortly pedicelled, and at lastit separates afree egg by the absorp-
tion ofthis retaining neckor umbilical cord. (Plate xxvi. Fig. 6.)
The eggs now at liberty to move, gradually approach the base
of the stomach, which, as already mentioned, is perforated with
an opening that can be made wider or closed by means of its
sphincter muscle. After several approaches and as many repul-
sions, the aperture at length allows the egg to pass through into
the stomach, whence it is ejected through the mouth into the
open sea. Professors Grant and Milne-Edwards have witnessed
this process in the Alcyonia, and the former also in the Penna-
tula and Virgularia ; but in the Gorgonia, according to Cavo-
lini, the ova pass upwards " through eight small oviducts," and
are discharged, by as many apertures, " between the bases of the
e\a\\i tentacula." *

The structure of the ova has been well described by Cavolini,
and more especially by Professor Grant. Before their detach-
ment they seem, in general, to be white, but when mature they
are almost always vividly coloured, globular, and apparently
smooth, but clothed, as the microscope shews, with short ciliae,
which by their vibration cause them to move to and fro as if
they were actuated by volition. They are membranous capsules
filled with a gelatinous matter composed of very minute transpa-
rent globules similar to those which compose almost all the soft
parts of animals, or like the sporules of the lower cryptogamic
plants. The investing capsule is soft and irritable, for during
their motions the ova are seen frequently to contract themselves

' Edin. Now I'hil. Jouiii. i. 15-2.

ZOOPMYTA ASTKROIDA. 173

and alter their form. " When placed under the microscope,"
says Professor Grant,* " and viewed by transmitted light, they
appeared as opaque spheres surrounded with a thin transparent
margin, which increased in thickness when the ova began to grow,
and such of the ova as lay in contact united and grew as one ovum.
A rapid current in the water immediately around each ovum,
drawing along with it all loose particles and floating animalcules,
was distinctly seen flowing with an equal velocity as in other ci-
liated ova, and a zone of very minute vibrating ciliae was per-
ceptible, surrounding the transparent margin of all the ova. The
progressive motion of the ova, always in a direction contrary to
that of the current created by their cilise, was very obvious,
though less rapid than in any other zoophyte in which I have
observed the same remarkable phenomenon. The specimen
suspended in a glass jar filled with pure sea- water I now brought
so close to the transparent side of the vessel, that I could ex-
amine through it, with the assistance of a powerful lens, and
without disturbing the animal, the motions and progress of the
groups of ova passing through the colourless bodies of the poly-
pi. To the naked eye at first sight all appeared motionless.
The deep vermilion hue of the small round ova, and the colour-
less transparency of the outer covering of the polypi, formed a
beautiful contrast with the pure white colour of the delicate
longitudinal folds, the central open canal, and the slender fila-
ments which wind down from its sides towards the clusters of
white ova at the base ; but the living phenomena discovered
within were even more admirable than the beautiful contrast of
colours, the elegant forms, and the exquisite structure of all the
parts. When observed with a lens the ova were seen to be in
constant motion, and quite free within the bodies of the polypi.
They moved themselves backwards and forwards, and frequent-
ly contracted their sides, as if irritated or capable of feeling. I
could observe none passing upwards between the stomach and
the sides of the polypi. They never assumed the appearance
of a string of beads inclosed in a narrow shut curved tube, as
represented by Spix, but swam freely in the water which dis-
tended the polypi, as figured by Ellis. Their motions in the

* Dr Grant's observations, quoted in tlif text, were made on Alcyonium di-
gitatum, but the generalities may be safely applied to the other families, agree-
ing as they do with the observations of Cavolini on Gorgonia.

174 ZOOPHYTA A STEROID A.

polypi, though circumscribed, were so incessant, that by watch-
ing attentively I could observe them with the naked eye, and
they became more conspicuous as the ova advanced to the open
base of the stomach. From their restlessness, as they approach-
ed that last passage which separates them from the sea, they
seemed to feel the impulse of a new element, which they were
impatient to enjoy, and by following the direction of that im-
pulse they appeared to find their way into the lower open extre-
mity of the stomach, w^ithout any organic arrangement to lead
them into that narrow canal. In their passage through the sto-
mach, which was effected very slowly, the spontaneous motions
of the ova were arrested, unless some imperceptible action of
their ciliae, or some contractions of their surface, might tend to
irritate the sides of that canal, and thus direct or hasten their
escape."

The native species referable to the Order are not well ascer-
tained. They are apparently few in number, but belong to
three distinct families.

Family I. PENNATULID.E.

Polype-mass free, pennated, carnous, the skin spicuUferous, the
axis hony, simple, continuous : Polypes arranged along the margin
of the pinna.

12. Pennatula. Polype-mass plumous.

13. ViRGULARiA. Polype-mass linear-elongate.

Family II. GORGONIADiE.
Polype-mass fixed, arborescent, the axis covered with a thick cre-
taceo-gelatinous celluliferous crust : Polypes scattered over the whole
surface.

14. GoRGONiA. Polype-mass arborescent with a horny continu-
ous flexible axis: " cells for the polypi sessile."

Family III. ALCYONIDiE.

Polype-mass fixed, coriaceous or somewhat carnous, without any
distinct axis hut strengthened by variously disposed calcareous or
siliceous spicula : polype-cells subcutaneous, scattered over the sur-
face.

15. Alcyonium. Polypes scattered over the whole surface : the
spicula calcareous.

16. Cydonium. Polype-mass tuberous : the spicula siliceous.

Fig. 2'2.

FAMILY IV. PENNATULID^.

12. Pennatula,* Linnaeus.
Character. Polype-mass free^ plumous^ the shaft suhcylin-
dricalf nahedbeneath, pennated above ; piniue two-ranked^ spread-
ing, flattened^ and poly piferous along the upper margin.

\. P. phosphorea, purplish-red, the base of the smooth stalk
pale ; rachis roughened with close set papilla and furrowed down
the middle ; pinnce close ; polype-cells uniserial, tubular, with
spinous apertures. Sir R. Sibbald.

Vignette, Fig. 22.

' Formed from Penna, a quill — which the species so remarkably resemble
that we may say in the words of Lamarck — " II semble, en effet, que la nature,
en formant ce corps animal compose, ait voulu copier la forme exterieure d'une
plume d'oiseau." — Anim. s. Vert. ii. 425.

176 Z. ASTEROIDA. Pennatula.

Penna niarina, Sib. Scot. ii. lib- teit. 28 P. rubra, Bohad. Anim.

Mar. 101, pi. 8. lig. 1-G Pennatula pLospliorea. Lin. Syst. 1332.

Ellis in PhU. Trans, liii. 420, pi. 19- fig. 1-5. Mull Zool. Dan.

prod. 255, no. 3075. Turi. Gmel. iv- 688. Wern. Mem. i. 565.

Tint. Brit. Faun. 217- Stew. Elem. ii. 450. Blumenb. Man. 274. Lam.

Anim. s. Vert. ii. 426. 2de edit. ii. 643. Citv. Reg. Anim. iii. 318.

Bosc, Vers, iii. 62, pi. 28, fig. 3, 4. (pessima) Flem. Brit. Anim. 507.

Stark, Elem. ii. 420. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 248, pi. 7-

Roget, Bridgew. Treat, i. 174, fig. 71, 72. (bad.) P. rubra, Pall.

Eleneh. 368 P. Britannica, Ellis and Suland. Zoopli. 61. La

Pennatule luisante, Blainv. Actinolog. 517.
Hab. Deep water. " Jt is found in great plenty sticking- to the
baits on the tishermen's lines, ronnd the coasts of this kingdom; es-
pecially when thty make use of muscles to bait their hooks. Great
numbers have been taken on the coast of Scotland, especially near
Aberdeen," Ellis. Frith of Forth. Jameson. Coast of Berwick-
shire, abundant, G. J

Our fishermen call this zoophyte the Cock's-comh, a name which
is not unapt, but less expressive of its general form than that of Sea-
pen conferred by naturalists. It is from two to four inches in length,
and of a uniform purplish-red colour, except at the tip or base of the
stalk, where it is pale orange-yellow. The skin is thickish, very
tough, and of curious structure, being composed of minute crystalline
cylinders, densely arranged in straight lines, and held together by a
firm gelatinous matter or membrane. These cylinders are about six
times their diameter in length, straight and even, or sometimes
slightly curved and bulged, closely compacted yet distinct, and of a
red colour, for the colour of the zoophyte is derived from them, and
they are accordingly less numerous where the purple is faint or de-
fective. They are apparently inorganic and calcareous, being dis-
solved, with effervescence, in the mineral acids.* Their form and ar-
rangement is the same in every part of the skin ; and the papillae on
the back of the rachis, as well as the polype-cells, are constructed of
them, but none can be detected in the subcutaneous uncoloured ge-
latinous flesh.

The stalk is hollow in the centime, and contains a long slender
bone, which is white, smooth, square, and tapered at each extremity

* Dr Coldstream, of Leith, on wbose observations I place a greater reliance
tban on my own, writes me tbus — " The spicula of the Pennatula appear to me
to be solid. I have examined them with high powers, after having exposed them
to a high temperature, and have not been able to see any evidence of a cavity
within ; — whether viewed with reflected or transmitted light they seemed to be
opaque. When connected with the body of the animal, they certainly seem to
be red, but a slight degree of heat is sufficient to bleach them."

4

Pknnatula. Z. ASTEROIDA. 177

to a fine point. It seems intended to stiffen the polypidom, but it
does not extend the whole length of the stalk, for before it reaches
either end, the point is bound down and bent backwards like a shep-
herd's crook. It consists, according to Sir E. Home, of phosphate
and carbonate of lime, making thus a near approach to the bone of
vertebrate animals. Lect. Comp. Anat. i. p. 59.

The papillae on the back of the rachis, and between the pinnae, are
disposed in close rows, and do not differ from the polype cells except
in size. The latter are placed along the upper margin of a flattened
fin ; they are tubular, and have the aperture armed with eight
spinous points, which are moveable, and contract and expand at the
will of the animated inmates. These are fleshy, white, provided with
eight rather long retractile tentacula beautifully ciliated on the inner
aspect with two series of short processes, and strengthened moreover
with crystalline spicula, there being a row of these up the stalk,
and a series of lesser ones to the lateral cilise. The mouth, in the
centre of the tentacula, is somewhat angular, bounded by a white H-
garaent, a process from which encircles the base of each tentaculum,
which thus seems to issue from an apei tui'e. The ova lie betvi^een
the membranes of the pinnae ; they are globular, of a yellowish co-
lour, and by a little pressure can be made to pass through the mouth.

Bohadsch says that the Pennatulae swim by means of their pinnae
which they use in the same manner that fishes do their fins. Ellis
says it " is an animal that swims freely about in the sea," " many of
them having a muscular motion as they swim along ;" and in ano-
tber place he tells us that these motions are effected by means of
the pinnules or feather-like fins, — " these are evidently designed by
nature to move the animal backward or forward in the sea, conse-
quently to do the office of fins." — Phil. Trans, abridg. xii. 42. Pal-
las adopted, with some reservation, J the opinion of Bohadsch ; but
Bosc, in an effort to be original, fancied that these remai'kable zoo-
phytes lay during the winter at the bottom, concealed among sea-
weed and in the crevices of rocks, while in summer they often swam
at the surface ! Cuvier tells us that they have the power of moving
by the contractions of the fleshy part of the polypidom, and also by
the combined action of its polypes ; and, to adopt the words of Dr
Grant, " a more singular and beautiful spectacle could scarcely be con-
ceived, than that of a deep purple Pen. phosphorea, with all its deli-
cate transparent polypi expanded and emitting their usual brilliant
phosphorescent light, sailing through the still and dark abyss by the

• Misc. Zool. p. 177.

178 Z. ASTEROIDA. Pennatula.

regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute fringed arms of the
whole polypi." And Bohadsch asserts that he has been a witness of
this spectacle. " Deget nostrum Zoophyton in altiori mari, ubi in-
terdum cum aliis piscibus capitur. Dum versus maris supei'ficiem
fertur, buUulae innumerae corpus ejus circumdant, quae stellarum instar
de die splendent ; id quidem non hac occasione, sed anno 1749, dum
Liburno Marsiliam versus per mare proficiscerer, observavi. Quo
tempore in historia naturali minime versatus corpus bullulis nitens ad
quatuor circiter pedes infra superficiem maris conspiciens e nautis
quaesivi, quidnam rei esset ? qui Pennam esse pro responso dedere."
An. Mar. p. 107 — Linnaeus had thei'efore some grounds for inserting
the " phosphox'escent Sea- Pens, which cover the bottom of the ocean,
and there cast so strong a light, that it is easy to count the fishes and
worms of various kinds sporting among them" — amongst the most
memorable productions in Nature, See Smith's Tracts relating to
Nat. History, p. 43. But some authors, as Lamarck and Schweigger,
reasoning from what is known regarding other compound animals,
have denied the existence of this great locomotive power in a zoo-
phyte placed so low in the scale, as contrary to every analogy, and
not necessary to the existence or wants of the animal. And there
is little doubt these naturalists are right, for, when placed in a basin
or plate of sea-water, the Fennatulae are never observed to change
their position, but they remain on the same spot, and lie with the
same side up or down just as they have been put in. They inflate
the body until it becomes in a considerable degree transparent, and
only streaked with interrupted lines of red ; they distend it more at
one place and contract it at another ; they spread out the pinnae, and
the polypes expand their tentacula, but still they never attempt to
swim or perform any effort towards locomotion. Our fishermen
believe that they are fixed at the bottom with their ends immersed in
the mud, and the paleness of the base, when viewed in connection
with the preceding observations, go far, in my opinion, to prove this
statement to be correct. " Si les pennatules nagent aussi," says
Blainville, " ce dont je doute un peu, quoiqu'elles rampent tres-lente-
ment, c'est peut-etre en chassant le fluide qui est entre dans leur
systeme acquifere, plutot qu'a I'aide des pinnules polypiferes." — Ac-
tinolog. p. 83.

As the name imports, this Pennatula is a phosphorescent animal,
but the light, of a faint blue colour, is emitted only under circum-
stances that tend to shew that the polypes have felt some painful ir.
ritation which they would drive away by the dread influence of their
tiny lamps. I have repeatedly kept living specimens for several days

ViRGULAKiA. Z. ASTEROIDA. 179

in sea water, and have observed them at all hours, without once de-
tecting them in a vohintary emission of the fiame. It proceeds solely
from the polypes themselves, and can only be elicited by mechanical
irritations, which have no sooner ceased than the phosphorescence
declines and dies away.

" Spangling the waves with lights as vain
As pleasures in this vale of pain,
That dazzle as they fade."

Sir W.Scott.

13. ViRGULARiA,* Lamarck.
Character. — Polype-mass free-, linear-elongate, " support-
ing, towards the upper extremity, sessile lunate lobes embracing
the stem obliquely, and bearing a row of cells on their margin."

1. V. uiKXBii.is, stem filiform, with alternate lobes transverse^
ly ridgedr Mr Simmons, f

Plate XXIV.
Pennatiila mirabilis, Lin. Syst. 1322. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 255, no-
307-t — Zool. Dan. tab. 11, fig. 1-3. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 63.
Sowerhy, Brit. Misc. 51, pi. 25. Turt. Brit. Faun. 217. Jameson in

Wern. Mem. i. 565. Stew. Elem. ii, 450. Bosc, Vers, iii. 62

Virgularia mirabilis, Lam. Anim. s. vert- ii. 430, 2de edit. ii. 647. Flem.
Brit. Anim. 507. Grant in Edin. Joiirn. of Science, no. 14. Stark,

Elem. ii. 420. Scirpearia mirabilis, Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.

470 La Virgulaire aailes laches, £laitiv. Actinol. 514, pi. 90, fig. 3.

Hab. Dredged up by Mr Simmons off Inch-Keith, Sowerhy. Pres-
tonpans Bay, Jameson. " On the east and north coast of Scotland,
where it is believed by the fishermen to have one end lodged erect in
the mud ; in Zetland it is called the Sea-rush," Fleming. Dredged
up in Belfast Lough, Templeton.

" Seems to represent a quill stripped of its feathers. The base
looks like a pen in this as in the other species, swelling a little from
the end, and then tapering. The upper part is thicker, with alter-
nate semicircular pectinated swellings, larger towards the middle, ta-
pering upwards, and terminating in a thin bony substance, which

passes through the whole." Soiverby. " From 6 to 10 inches

in length." " They perfectly correspond in form and external ap-
pearance with the elegant coloured figure given by INIuller. Their
axis is calcareous, sohd, white, brittle, flexible, cylindrical, of equal

* Formed from Virgiila, the diminutive of Virga — a rod.
f " A young man who has since fallen a sacrifice to his zeal for Natural His-
tory in the West Indies." — Leach- He was, I believe, a native of Edinburgh.

180 Z. ASTEROIDA. Virgularia.

thickness throughout, and exhibits no mark of attachment at either
end. When broken, it exhibits a radiated surface, like the broken
spine of an echinus. The axis appears to have little connection with
the fleshy part, and to consist of concentric layers deposited by the
soft parts surrounding- it. When a portion of the axis is broken off
from either extremity, the animal retracts at that part, so as con-
tinually to expose a fresh naked portion of the axis : hence we can
take out the axis entirely from its soft sheath, and we always find
the lower pinnae of the animal drawn up closely together, as if
by the frequent breaking of the base. These very delicate and brit-
tle animals seem to be confined to a small circumscribed part of the
coast which has a considerable depth and a muddy bottom, and the
fishermen accustomed to dredge at that place believe, from the clean-
ness of the Virgularise when brought to the surface, that they stand
erect at the bottom with one end fixed in the mud or clay. Mul-
ler's specimens were likewise found on a part of the Norwegian coast
with a muddy bottom. The Polypi, much resembling those of the
common Lobularia digitata, are long, cylindrical, transparent, marked
with longitudinal white lines, and have eight tentacula which pre-
sent long slender transparent filaments or cilise on each of the lateral
surfaces when fully expanded. The polypi are easily perceived ex-
tending through the lateral expansions or pinnae, to near the solid
axis, where we observe two transverse rows of small round white ova
placed under each pinna, and contained within the fleshy substance.
These ova appear to pass along the pinnae, to be discharged through
the polypi, as in the Lobularia, Gorgonia, Caryophyllea, Alcyonia,
&c." Grant.

The figures in our plate were drawn from specimens with which
I was favoured by Dr Coldstream, and which had been preserved for
some time in spirits ; but to shew the difference between the animal
in this contracted condition and when alive, I have placed beside
them Figures 5 and 6, copied from Muller. The dissimilarity between
figures taken in these diff"erent states has rendered the synonymy of
the species perplexed and almost inextricable. According to Cuvier,
Lamarck, and Blainville, the species delineated by Muller, and which
is certainly identical with the British one, is not synonymous with
the Linnaean ; but this opinion rests solely upon the circumstance
of Linnaeus having quoted a figure in the " Mus. Ad. Fr." — belong-
ing confessedly to another Zoophyte — as a representative of the spe-
cies he intended, which may have been done from the then un-
certainty of the limits of the species, or from having seen specimens
in spirits only. His character is verv applicable to our animal, —

ViRGULARlA.

Z. ASTEROIDA.

181

" P. stirpe Jiliformi, rachi distiche pennata : pinnis lunatis remotis
alternis ;" and the habitat " m O. Norvegico," seems to confirm
the reference.

Virgularia differs from Pennatula remarkably in this that no spi-
cula enter into the composition of its soft parts. The polypiferous
pinnules are secund, leaving- the posterior part naked, and this is
marked with a deep furrow extending- from one end to the other,
dividing the polypidom into two symmetrical halves.

Fig. 24.

Fig, 25.

FAMILY V. GORGONIAD^.

14. GoRGONiA,* Linnaeus.
Character. — Polype-mass rooted^ arborescent, consisting of a
central axis barked with a polypiferous crust : the axis horny,
continuous and flexible, branched in coequality icith the polype-
mass : the crust when recent soft and fleshy, ivhen dried porous
and friable : the orifices of the polype-cells more or less protube-
rant.

1. G. VERRUCOSA, much and irregularly branched, the branch-
es spreading laterally, cylindrical, flexuous, barked when dry
loith a lohite icarted crust : segments of the cells unequal, obtuse.

Cole, t

Plate XXV. Fig. 1.
Frutex marinus flabelliformis, Rail, Hist. Plant, iii- 7. Sir H. Sloane in

Phil. Trans, abridg. (an. 1746) ix. 198, pi. 4, fig. 4. Keratophyton

flabelliforme, cortice verrucosa obductum, Eaii, Syn. 32. Erica ma-
rina alba frutescens, Petiv. Mus. cent. prim. 9, no. 50. Warted Sea-
fan, Borl. Cornw. 238, tab. 24, fig. 1 Gorgonia verrucosa, Lin.

Syst. 1291. Pall. Elench. 196. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 89- Turt.

• From Gorgon — the name of a daughter of Phorcys, whose locks of hair
were changed into serpents by Minerva.

f Ray, in his Historia, mentions Mr, afterwards Dr, Cole of Bristol as the
finder of this zoophyte on the coast of Cornwall. Cole is well known to natu-
ralists by his ingenious enquiry into the purple liquor of the Purpura lapillus.

GoRGONiA. Z. ASTEROIDA. 183

C.mel. iv. 648- Turt. Brit Faun. 206. Cavol. Polyp, mar. 29, tav.
1, Hg. 1-11, and tav. 4, fig. 1-16. Lam- Anim. s. Vert. ii. 315. 2de
edit. ii. 491. Bosc, Vers, iii. 36. Lamarck in Mem. du Mus. ii. 82.
Corall. 207. Stew. Elem. ii. 430. Flem. Brit. Anim. 512- Risso,

I'Europ. Merid. v. 327 Gorg. viniinalis, Soiver- Brit. Misc. 81, pi.

40. Jameson iii Wern. Mem. i. 560. Turt. Brit. Faun. 206 La

G. verruqueuse, Blainv. Actinol. 505, pi. 87, fig. 3.

Hah. Deep water. " Mount's Bay in Cornwall," 3h' Batten.
Plentiful on the Devonshire coast, Montagu. Said by Dr Walker
to occur in Scotland, Jameson. " I have also received it from Scot-
land," Sowerhy.

Polype-mass more than 12 inches in height, and 15 or 16 in
breadth, fixed to rocks by a broad circular fibro-corneous disk,
shrub-like, branched from near the base, the branches expanded la-
terally, cylindrical, erect or erecto-patent, warty. Axis black, smooth
and somewhat glossy, round or a little compressed, compact and cor-
neous, with a snow-white pith in the centre, irregularly cellular and
very like the pith of a rush ; near the extremities of the branches
the axis appears to be a single tube striated longitudinally, but this
appeai-ance is produced by drying, for when steeped in water the
striae are removed ; it is often bulged or knotted at uncertain inter-
vals, but no pores can be detected in its parietes. Crust white, cre-
taceous, friable, warted with numerous polype-cells and wrinkled in
the small spaces between them ; thickest towards the ends of the
branches which it covers over. Cells partly filled with a yellowish fi-
brous substance being the remains of the polypes, their orifices clos-
ed with eight converging obtuse small segments, one of which is so
much larger than the others as to occupy a half or a third of the whole
circumference.

2. G. PLACOMUS, irregularly branched, the branches disposed
in a dichotomous order and a Jlattish form, cylindrical, warty ;
cells protuberant, conical, surrounded at top by little spines. Ellis.

Plate XXV. Fig. 2.

Warted Sea-fan, £//is, Corall. 67. no. 1. t. 27. fig. a, A. 1, 2, 3 Gor-

gonia placomus. Pall. Elench. 201. Lin. Syst. 1290. Mull Zool. Dan.
prod. 254. no. 3061. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 86. Turt. Gmel. iv.
649. Lamarck in Mem. du Mus. ii. 83. Turt. Br. Faun. 206. Berk.
Syn. i. 212. Lam. Anim, Vert. ii. 316. 2de edit. ii. 492. Bose, Vers, iii.
31. Corall. 207. Stew. Elem.ii. p. 430. Flem. Brit. Anim. 512. La
G. plac'ome, Blainv. Actinolog. 505.

Hah. Coast of Cornwall, Ellis.

184 Z. ASTEROIDA. Gorgonia.

" This Sea- Fan is of a reddish brown colour ;" " has its branches
disposed in a dichotomons order and a flattish form ; they bend irre-
gularly towards one another, but rarely unite. Their mouths are co-
nical, project, and are surrounded at top by little spines. The bone
or support is nearly of the substance of wood." Ellis.

3. G. ANCEPS, branched, suhdichotomous ; branches with the
jieshfiat on each side, with a row of little mouths along both the
margins. Mr Dale. *

Plate XXV. Fig. 3.
Keratophyton dichotomum ; caule et ramulis leviter compressis, Rail, Syn.

.32 Sea Willow, Ellis, Corall. 68. no. 2, tab. 27, fig. g Gorgonia

anceps, Pall. Elench. 183. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 89. Berk. Syn.

i. 212. Lin. Syst. 1292. Turt. Br. Faun. 206. Lam. Anim. s. Vert.

ii. 317. 2de edit. ii. 494. Lamour. Cor. Flex. p. 395. Turt. Gmel. iv.

649. Bosc, Vers, iii. 37. Lamarck in Mem. du Mus. ii. 84. Corall.

200. Stew. Elem. ii. p. 430. Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 512. La Gorgone

gladiee, Blainv. Actinol. 505.

Hab. Deep water, very rare. Found by Mr Dale growing near

Margate, Dillenius. Now and then found on the coast of Great

Britain and Ireland ; but not frequently, Ellis.

" This Gorgon is branched nearly in a subdivided manner." " The
bone is roundish, and small at the ends, of a horny nature, inclining
to leather." Specimens recent from the sea " are of a fine violet co-
lour ; but when we receive them, some are yellow, others white."
Ellis. The claims of this species to be considered a British native
are doubtful.

The following species, referable to this family, have been indicat-
ed as British, but neither figures nor descriptions of any of them, de-
rived from native specimens, have been as yet published :

Gorgonia Flabellum, ^^ grows inform of a net, with its
branches compressed inwardly : the flesh is yellow, sometimes pur-

• " Samuel Dale, Medicus et Pharmacopoeus vicinus et familiaris noster,
Bantriae in Essexia degens," one of the four botanists to whom Ray acknowledges
his greatest obligations in the compilation of his " Historia Plantarum." Praf.
1686 — He died in 1739, at. 80. Petiver aflfectionately styles him " my very
kind friend," and " our curious brother." — In the latter peiiod of his life he set-
tled as a physician at Bocking. He is the author of a " Pharmacologia," and
of a History of Harwich, — both works of merit, and once of repute. See Pul-
teney's Sketches, Vol. ii. p. 122-8- Pulteney says he was a F. R. S., but I do
not find his name in the list of Fellows given by Dr Thomson.

GoRGONiA. Z. ASTEROIDA. 185

ple^ with stnall mouths placed irregularhj, having polypes with
eight tentacles : the hone is black, horny, and slightly striated on
the large branches.""

Vignette, No. 19, Page 161.
Flabellum Veneris, Ellis, Corall. 61. pi. 26. fig. A— M. (foreign). Borl.

Cornw. 238 Gorgonia Flabellum, Lin. Syst. 1298. Mull. Zool.

Dan. prod. 253. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 92- Berk. Syn. i. 212.

Turt. Grael. iv. 651. Turt. Brit. Faun. 206. Jameson m Wern. Mem.

i. 561. F/e/n. Brit. Anim. 511.

Hah. " The Flabellum veneris has been found on the shores of

Mount's Bay after a storm, but whether from a wrecked vessel, or

torn off by the violence of the waves from some rock in the Bay, is

not to be asserted positively," Borlasse. " Leith Shore, found by

the late Mr Mackay," Jameson, " Mr Neill informs me that he saw

Mr Mackay's specimen shortly after it was found, and that it had

all the aspect of being fresh and recent," Fleming.

Gorgonia lepadifera, " this Gorgon is dichotomous : it is
almost covered ivith mouths, which are placed close together, hang-
ing over one another ; they are bell-shaped, bent doivnicards, and
full of small scales : the flesh is covered with minute whitish scales.
The bone in the larger branches is testaceous, or rather like bone,

and in the smaller ones horny ^

Gorgonia lepadifera, Lin. Syst- 1289. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 254. Ellis
in Phil. Trans, abridg. xiii. 728, pi. 12, fig. 12. Ellis and Soland. Zooph.

84. tab. 13, fig. 1, 2. Wern. Mem. i. 560. Stew. Elem. ii. 430

Primnoa lepadifera, Flem. Brit Anim. 513.
Hab. " Found on the coast of Aberdeenshire, and coasts of Shet-
land islands," Jameson.

Isis HiPPURis, " has a jointed stony stem, which rises into
many loose branches. The bone or support of the animal consists
oj white, cylindrical, stony, channelled joints, connected together
by black contracted horny intermediate ones. The flesh is lohit-
ish, plump and full of minute vessels ; the surface of it is full of
the little mouths of the cells, which are disposed in a quincunx
order, covering the polypes with eight claws."

Isis Hippuris, Lin. Syst. 1287- Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 105, tab. 3, fig.
1 — 5. Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 560. Stew. Elem. ii. 429. Stark,
Elem. ii. 427, pi. 8. fig. 7, 8-
Hab. " Said by the late Dr Walker to occur on the east coast of
Scotland, and also in the Orkney islands," Jameson.

186

Z. ASTEROIDA.

Isis,

Drayton, in the Poly-olbion, mentions the Isis as a product of
Portland isle, but his Isis is probably the Corallina officinalis. I glad-
ly quote the lines :

" Upon whose moisted skirt, with sea-weed fring'd about.
The bastard coral breeds, that, drawn out of the brack,
A brittle stalk becomes, from greenish tum'd to black ;
Which th' ancients for the love that they to Isis bare
(Their goddess most ador'd) have sacred for her hair.
Of which the Naiads and the blue Nereids make
Them taudries for their necks : when sporting in the lake,
They to their secret bowers the sea-gods entertain."

Song 2.

The Isis Entrochus of Turt. Brit. Faun. 206, is a fossil species
of Pentacrinus.

Fig. 26.

OrA OF THE GORGONIA.

Fig, 11.

FAMILY VI. ALCYONID^.

14. Alcyonium,* Linnaeus.
Character. — Polype-mass lohed or incrusting^ spongious, the

♦ From Alcyon — the King's-fisher : the word itself signifies " sea-foam" of
wbich the Halcyons were supposed to make their nests. See Lib- Entert-
Knowl- " The Architecture of Birds ;" p. 45, &c.

" And every thing dispos'd it to my rest,

" As on the seas when th' Halcyon builds her nest.

" When those rough waves, which late with fury rush'd,

" Slide smoothly on, and suddenly are hush'd :

" Nor Neptune lets his surges out so long,

" As nature is in bringing forth her young."

Drayton's Heroical Epistles.
To the reasons adduced by Milne- Edwards for retaining the name Alcyonium
to this group, I would add that Lohularia is inadmissible, having been preoc-
cupied by the botanists. The Alcyonium of Lamarck is composed of certain
sponges, of which the true character remains unknown.

188 Z. ASTEROIDA. Alcyonium.

skin coriaceous, marked with stellated pores ; interior gelatinous,
netted icith tubular fibres and -perforated loith longitudinal ca-
nals terminating in the polype-cells, ichich are subcutaneous and
scattered. Polypes exsertile.

1. A. DiGiTATUM, polymorphous, greyish-xchite or orange-co-
loured, the skin someiohat wrinkled, studded over with stellated
pores even tvitk the surface. Dillenius.

Plates XXVI. and XXVI*.

Alcyonium ramosa-digitatuni molle, astericis undiquaque oniatum. Raii,
Syn. 31, no. 2. Breynius in Ephemerid. Acad. Leopold, cent. 8, app.

\ 59. Bast. Opus. Sub. i. 24. tab. 3. fig. 6, 7. pessima Main de mer,

Jussieu in Mem. Acad. Roy. des. Sc. an. 1742, 294, tab. 9, fig. 1

Dead Man's hand or Dead Man's toes, Ellis, Corall. 83, no. 2, pi. .32, fig.

a, A. A. 2. Alcyonium manus marina, Ellis in Phil. Trans, liii. 431.

tab. 20, fig. 10—13 A. digitatum, Ztn. Syst. 1294. Mull. Zool.

Dan. prod. 255, no. 3078. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 447. Ellis and Soland.
Zooph. 175, pi. 1, fig. 7. Berk. Syn. i. 212. Turt. Gmel. iv. 652.
Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun. 207. Stew. Elem.
ii. 431. Bosc, Vers, iii. 156, pi. 30, fig. 4, 5. Fleming in Edin. Phil.
Journ. ix. 251. Cuv. Reg. Anim. iii. 321. Hogg's Stock. 38. Tem-
pleton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 470. Harvey in ibid, new series, i. 475,

fig. 56. 57, (very inacciu-ate) Ale. lobatum. Pall. Elench. 351.

Lamour. Cor. Flex. 336, pi. 12, fig. 4, and pi. 13, fig. omn. Corall. 243,

pi. 12, fig. 4 ; pi. 13, and pi. 14, fig. 1 Lobularia digitata, Lain.

Anim. s. Vert. ii. 413. 2de edit. ii. 631. Flem. Brit. Anim. 515. Grant
in Edin. Joura. of Science, no. 15. Stark, Elem. ii. 421. Johnston in
Trans. Newc Soc. ii. 250, pi. 8. Roget, Bridgvv. Treat, i. 162, fig.

56. Le Lobulaire digite, Blainv. Actinol. 521.

Hah. On stones, old shells, &c. in deep water.
This is one of our most common marine productions, so that, on
many parts of the coast, scai'ce a shell or stone can be dredged from
the deep that does not serve as a support to one or more specimens.
It appears often in the form of a mere crust about the eighth of an
inch in thickness when removed from the sea and in a state of con-
striction, but more commonly it rises \ip in conoid masses of vari-
ous sizes and lobed in a very irregular manner. Sometimes the
polypidom is a simple obtuse process, very much resembling the
teat of a cow's udder, whence our fishermen have happily named it
Coivs-paps : other polypidoms are more or less divided into finger-
like lobes, and assume figures that have suggested the names of Dead
Man's toes or Dead Man's hands. The outer skin is tough and
coriaceous, studded all over with stellate figures which, if attentively

4

Alcyonium. Z. ASTEROIDA. 189

examined, are seen to be divided into eight rays, indicating the num-
ber of the tentacula of the polypes, which issue hei'e. The body of
the polypes is as it were enclosed in a transparent vesicular mem-
brane, dotted with many minute calcareous grains, and marked with
eight white longitudinal lines or septa which, stretching between the
membrane and the centi'al stomach, divide the intermediate space in-
to an equal number of compartments. These lines not only extend
to the base of the tentacula, but run across the oral disk, and termi-
nate in the central mouth. The tentacula are short, obtuse, ciliated
on the margins, and strengthened at their roots by numerous linear
straight crystalline spicula. From the base of the white longitudi-
nal lines an equal, number of white tortuous glandular filaments de-
pend, hanging loose in an abdominal cavity placed underneath the
fleshy cylindrical stomach, and continuous with the aquiferous canals.*
The Polype-cells are oval, placed just under the skin, and are the ter-
minations of the long aquiferous canals which run through the whole
polypidom. These canals divide in their course into branches that
diverge towards the circumference where they dilate into the cells ;
they have strong cartilaginous, perhaps muscular, coats ; and are fil-
led with a much less consistent matter than that of the body of the
polype itself. It appears, from this disposition of the tubes, that many
polypes communicate together and form a compound animal, but that
all the polypes of the same polypidom do not communicate directly
by their medium. The space between the tubes is occupied by a
loose fibrous net-work, and the threads being a little more crowded at
particular places, they form lozenge-shaped compartments within which
are smaller meshes ; and the interstices of the whole are filled with a
transparent gelatine, in which numerous crystalline irregular spicula
lie immersed. These spicula are mostly in the form of a cross and
toothed on the sides, but they have no organic connection either with
the reticular fibres or with the tubes : they are calcareous, for if a
portion of the zoophyte is immersed in a mineral acid, a strong effer-
vescence immediately takes place, and spicula are no longer discernible.

* A classical friend on seeing the specimen from which our figure was taken
in full expansion, when it is translucent and permits a view of the interanea,
was reminded of the following lines :

" In liquidis translucet aquis ; ut eburnea si quis
" Signa tegat claro, vel Candida lilia, vitro."

" salientia viscera possis

" Et perlucentes numerare in pectore fibras."

Ovid. Met. vi. 354 and .390.

190 Z. ASTEROIDA. Alcyonium.

The ova are placed in tbe polype-tixbes ; they are white at first,
but ultimately become of a scarlet colour, opake, globular, and about
the size of a grain of sand. Each ovum is filled with a mass of ex-
tremely minute pellucid granules, and is ultimately discharged through
the mouth. They seem to be produced in spring and summer, for
in June and July I have seen many specimens with not more than
three or five polypes developed, and these are as large and perfect as
the polypes of the oldest specimens.

Dr Fleming is of opinion, that the Alcyonium lobatum of La-
mouroux, whose figure I have quoted without any mark of doubt, is a
perfectly distinct species, because its tentacula " are sub-cylindrical,
rounded at the extremity, and covered above and on the margin with
blunt tubercles;" whereas of the British Alcyonium "the tentacula
in Ellis's figures (and, having compared these with nature, we can
pronounce on their accm'acy,) are pinnate and pointed." But of
these figures of Ellis's, it may be observed that the one he has given
in his essay on Corallines * is very unlike the figure of the same
parts in his Nat. Hist, of Zoophytes ; and 1 must acknowledge that
neither of them correspond with what 1 have myself seen. When a
specimen of Alcyonium digitatum is placed in a vessel of sea-water,
the polypes protrude themselves amazingly, and extend their tenta-
cula, which are thick, obtuse, grooved along the centre, and not long-
er than the diameter of the oral disk, being in fact very like what
they are represented to be by Lamouroux ; but when these organs
are removed and slightly pressed between plates of glass, they be-
come so much elongated that 1 can readily believe they may, when
the animal is active and in its native site, assume the shape and ap-
pearance of Ellis's latter figure. And I am thus drawn to the con-
clusion that the differences in the different figures will not justify the
establishment of distinct species, but are to be attributed to the ani-
mal being- in different states when observed, — a conclusion which a
writer in the Encyclop. Method. Supp. p. 497, has also come to.
*' Les figures donnees par Ellis, Spix et Lamouroux ne se ressemblent
guire; je pense neammoins que cette difference ne peut etre rapportee
a aucune inexactitude, mais depend de I'etat du polype a I'instant ou
il a ete dessine."

The Alcyonium rubrum oi Mailer defined to be ^^ crust aceum,
molle, miniatmn, punctis sparsis saturatiorihus," — Zool. Dan. prod.
255, no. 3081, — is, moreover, surely nothing else but this species in
its primary crustaceous condition, and of a reddish-orange colour, as

* This figure it appears, was taken from specimens which had been immers-
ed in spirits. Introd. to Corall. p. xii.

Cydonium. Z. ASTEROIDA. 191

I have occasionally met with it. I have not seen the original figure,
but the copy of it given by Blainville, Man. d'Actinol. pi. 88, B,
fig. 7, does not diminish the strength of my suspicion, which, how-
ever, some may deem a very vague guess, when they observe that
it has been referred even to a diftereut genus, and forms the Ardhelia
rubra of the author just mentioned, Actinolog. p. 524 ; and the Sym-
podium 7'ubrum of Ehrenberg. Lam. Anira. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 625.

16. Cydonium,* Fleming.
Character. — " A coriaceous skin, internally carneous, with
numerous straight ridged spicida, perpendicular to the surface.
Polypi with a central opening, and an orifice at the base of each
of the eight pinnated tentacula"

1. C. MuLLERi, ^^ skin yelloivish, ivith numerous stellate pores ;
internally broivn." Jameson.

Alcyonium cydonium, " Mull. Zool. Dan. tab. 81, fig. 3, 4, 5-" Fabric-
Faun. Groenl. 448, no. 464. Javieson in Wern. Mem. i. 563. Stew.

Elem. ii. 432 Lobularia conoidea, Lam. Anim. s. vert. ii. 413

Cydonium Mullen, Flem. Brit. Anim. 516. Grant in Edin. New Phil.

Journ. i. 195 La Cydonie de Muller, JBlainv. Actinolog. 525, pi. 92.

fig. 2.
Hab. " Island of Fulah and Unst," Jameson.
" Base of adhesion narrow, body massive, surface irregular ; the
skin consists of animal matter cementing innumerable round siliceous
grains ; the cells leading from the stellate pores are indistinct ; the
spicula, which converge towards the centre, are fusiform, grouped in
small bundles, and many of them at the skin are tricuspidate. In a
dried specimen from Zetland, which I have had an opportunity of ex-
amining through the kindness of Professor Jameson, the surface is
slightly villous, owing probably to the contraction of the skin, leav-
ing the extremities of the fibres free. With the exception of the
stellate pores, it agrees with the Alcyonimn primum Dioscoridis of
Donati ( Adriat. 56. t. ix. f. 1.) in the villous skin and the simple and
tricuspidate spicula." — Fleming.

In the 2d edit, of Lamarck's Anim. s. Vert. ii. 632, I find it stated
that Ehrenberg considers the Alcyonium cydonium of Muller as
founded on a young individual of Alcyonium digitatum, of which, in-
deed, it has much the appearance ; but the zoophyte which Dr Flem-
ing has had in view, seems to be different.

* Cydonium — a quince, in allusion to the figure of the Zoophyte.

192 Z. ASTEROIDA.

In the " Annals of Natural History" for May 1838, Mr J. E.
Gray has inserted the following notice — " Miss AttersoU has lately
discovered, on the coast of Sussex, the Cornularia rugosa of
Cavolini, growing on a Tubularia, and has communicated specimens
of these interesting zoophytes to the British Museum. This genus
has hitherto been believed to be confined to the Mediterranean. It
diifers from most other horny zoophytes in the tentacles being pin-
nate like those of Gorgonia." V. i. p. 238.

To enable the student to identify this species— certainly among the
most singular of its order — I have given a copy of Cavolini's figure,
(Vignette, No. 27, p. 187) ; and it may be useful to add the generic cha-
racter : " Polyparium basi affixum, corneum ; surcuHs simplicibus, in-
fundibuliformibus, erectiusculis, polypum unicum singulis continenti-

bus. Polypi solitarii, terminales : ore tentaculis octo dentato-pinna-

tis, uniserialibus." Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 128, 2de edit.

On the eve of the preceding remarks being sent to press, I receiv-
ed from Mr J. E. Gray a specimen of the Cornularia from " Wey-
mouth." I agree entirely with this sagacious naturalist in his
opinion of the identity of the zoophyte with Cavolini's. In texture
it accords with Sertularia. The root-like fibre is filiform and tubu-
lar, creeping in a flexuous manner, along the stem of Tubularia indi-
visa, and putting out at irregular intervals, tubular vase-like cells from
two to three lines in height. The cells are smooth, with a narrow
base and a wide even aperture. (Fig. 23, a and b, p. 181.)

The examination of it has thrown new light on the Polypidom
described at p. 157, under the name of Campanularia dumosa. I have
there expressed my doubts as to the real position of that species,
and I had indeed a suspicion of its being an ascidian zoophyte allied
to the Vesicularia. Now, however, there can be little doubt that it

a Cornularia, probably identical with the C. rugosa, for its com-
paratively smaller size may depend on peculiarity of habitat. To
shew their similarity, 1 place a figure of it beside the other.
(Fig. 24, a, i. p. 181.)

IS

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

PART IV

ZOOPHYTA HeLIANTHOIDA.

Fig. 28.

0^

0

°*^^f^;^^'^-'i^

Css?

l#

'm^m^^Wj'^^/^'

■3

LUCERNARIA AURICULA-

in the waters we may see all creatures.

Even all that on the earth are to be found,

As if the world were in deep waters drown'd.

For seas have

As well as earth — Vines, Roses, Nettles, Melons,

Mushrooms, Pinks, Gilliflowers, and man}' millions

Of other plants, more rare, more strange than these,

As very lishes, living in the seas."

Du Bartas.
N

" Mihi firme persuadeo, eum, qui plantas marinas et insecta marina perscru-
tari velit, magna perfusum iri voluptate : est enim hie novus raicrocosmus,
cujus incolae parum innotuerunt, sed qui propter proprios propagandi modos, ri-
tus, oeconomiam, aliasque qualitates, attentione Naturae venatoris sunt dignissi-
mi." — J. Basterus.

" and made their beauties known,

" Not without moral compliment."

Crabbe.

" Still life was theirs, well pleasing to themselves,

" Nor yet unuseful, as my song shall show.

* * * * v

"_ — — _ — — All

" Life's needful functions, food, exertion, rest,

" By nice economy of Providence

" Were overruled to carry on the process,

" Which out of water brought forth solid rock."

Montgomerij.

ZOOPHYTA BRITANNICA.

ORDER III.
Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

Charactku.
Polypes separate or compound, free or attached, Jlosculous ; the
body regular tvith a circular periphery, contractile, internally
divided into numerous spaces by perpendicular muscular septa :
mouth superior and central, encircled ivith one or more series
of tubular tentacula : stomach membranous : anus 0 : ovaries
and cceca placed in the septa between the stomach and skin.

Observations.
I borrow the name of this order from Latreille, * but give to
it a wider appUcation than it has in the classification of that il-
lustrious naturalist, that it may embrace the madrepores and
starred stones, which the observations of Le Sueur, confirmed
as they have been by subsequent voyagers, demonstrate to be
the products of zoophytes similar, in all essential points, to the
naked Actiniae. The order thus corresponds to the class
" Zoantha" of De Blainville, — a name which has the claim of
priority, and might have been adopted by me, had not its con-
junction with zoophyta appeared inappropriate, as involving a
tautology. The term preferred expresses the resemblance which
the animals it designates have to the compound or syngenesious
flowers, — a resemblance which has been very generally re-
marked, and the source of the name — Sea Anemonies — by which
the typical species are known in this country. When speaking
of these Ellis says, — " their tentacles, being disposed in regu-
lar circles, and tinged with a variety of bright lively colours,
very nearly represent the beautiful petals of some of our most

* Fam. du Rcgiic Animal, p. 535.

196 ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the Carnation,
Marygold, and Anemone." The language of Le Sueur in re-
spect of the tropical coral-bearing tribes is still warmer. The
little polypes of Porites astroides, when in blow, remind him of
a field enamelled with small flowers ; and of them in general
he says, — " Quand la mer est calme, c'est un spectacle admira-
ble que de voir les belles couleurs veloutees qu'ils e'talent : elles
imitent les tapis les plus riches et les plus varies. Pres d'eux
se montrent des gorgones et des serpules dont les houpes
blanches, jaunes et rouges, brillent de I'eclat le plus vif, et des
amphitrites qui elevent au-dessus de I'eau leur tete couronnee
de palmes enrichies des teintes les plus variees. Je ne pouvois
me lasser d'admirer avec quelle profusion ces animaux sont
groupes et enlaces : c'etoit a regret qu'apres m'etre promene
long-temps au milieu d'eux je me determinois a les arracher du
sein des eaux, et a en mettre des fragments dans un baquet, que
je faisois de suite transporter chez moi pour examiner a loisir
les animaux particuliers a chacun des polypiers." * — It is only,
however, when they lie with their upper disk expanded and
their tentacula displayed, that they solicit comparison with the
boasts of Flora, for when contracted the polypes of the madre-
pores conceal themselves in their calcareous cups, and the Ac-
tiniae hide their beauty, assuming the shape of an obtuse cone
or hemisphere of a fleshy consistence, or elongating themselves
into a sort of flabby cylinder that indicates a state of relaxation
and indolent repose.

The Actinia gemmacea is the only species which the anato-
mist has yet examined with care, f but it may safely be chosen as
the representative of its order, the probability being that the
deviations from its structure in the other species and genera are
only of secondary consequence. Of the species mentioned Mr
Teale has given a very elaborate anatomy, :}: more correct and
minute than any hitherto published, but the sketch to suit our
design, must be of a more general character.

* Memoires du Museum, Tom. vi. p. 272 and 287.

f M. Delle Chiaje has, it seems, anatomized several other species, but I have
no access to bis works. Bull. des. Sc. Nat. xvii. 470.

I " On the Anatomy of Actinia coriacea, by Thomas Pridgin Teale," in
Transactions of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, Vol. i.

ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA. 197

The body of the Helianthokla may be compared to a trun-
cated cone or short cyHnder, seated on a flat plain base, while
the opposite end is dimpled in the centre with the oral aperture,
and garnished with variously figured tentacula which originate
from a space between the proper lip and the free somewhat
thickened border of the disk. In a state of contraction the
mouth is closed, the tentacula are shortened, and the whole
concealed by this border, being drawn like a curtain over them,
leaving a mere depression on the top. The mouth leads by a
very short and wide passage into a large stomach, which is a
membranous bag puckered internally with numerous plaits, and
divided in a perpendicular direction into two equal halves, by a
deep smooth furrow with cartilaginous sides, as was first remark-
ed by Reaumur.* There is no intestine, nor any other visible
exit from the stomach than the mouth, bv which the undigested
remains of the food are ejected, always enveloped in a large
quantity of a clear glairy fluid. But in a state of expansion and
of hunger, many kinds of Helianthoida can protrude the stomach
beyond the lip in the form of large bladder-like lobes, which
often hang over the sides and almost conceal the rest of the
body ; and amidst them there are very frequently extruded at
the same time some white filaments, like bundles of ravelled
thread, which have escaped either through a rupture, or a cir-
cular opening in the bottom of the stomachal membrane. The
space between the walls of this organ and the outer envelope is
divided into numerous narrow compartments by perpendicular
and parallel lamellae of a musculo-tendinous texture, which ex-
tend from the oral disk to the base, and radiate to the centre
like the gills of a mushroom to its stalk, — a comparison the more
exact as some only of the lamellae reach and touch the stomach,
the rest coming more or less short, and forming consequently
imperfect interseptal spaces. " The breadth of the leaflets va-

* " They (the furrows) are produced on each side by the firm adherence of
the gastric membrane to a i)air of very dense, fleshy, but narrow leaflets, through-
out their whole extent, or, in other words, from the top to the bottom of their
internal border. These depressions divide the animal into two lateral halves,
constituting a bilateral symmetry in Actinia, as has been observed by M. Agassiz

in other supposed radiated animals." Teale in loc. cit. 102 But in Actinia

Dianthus the channel or furrow exists on one side only.

198 ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

ries considerably, some extending scarcely a line from their ex-
ternal attachment, others reaching as far as the stomach, being
nearly half an inch in breadth. The height generally corre-
sponds with the height of the animal ; a few, however, of the
narrowest leaflets extending upwards from the base, terminate
obliquely in the sides, without being prolonged as high as to the
lip or roof."* These lamellae are of a muscular character, and
by their actions cause the body to assume its various forms. The
spaces between them are filled, 1st, with the ovaries attached, in
elongated masses, to the inner border of most of the leaflets ;
and 2dli/, with the " vermiform filaments" which, as already
mentioned, are often extruded at the mouth. These filaments
are capillary, greatly convoluted, smooth and of a white colour,
with a sort of mesentery extended along one side. Their ap-
pearance naturally suggests the idea of their being either the in-
testines or the oviducts of the creature, but they perform no
function of the kind ; and probably they are csecal, analogous
to the filaments which hang from the stomach of the asteroid
zoophytes. They have been often described as ovarian, even by
late authorsjf but Mr Teale has fully shewn the improbabihty,
if not the erroneousness of this opinion. He believes the fila-
ment to be tubular, though he acknowledges he has not been
able to obtain any evidence of the fact, and " under the micro-
scope it appears simply as a round, solid, translucent chord."
Such also has it always appeared to me, so that I can scarcely
hesitate to pronounce Dicquemare's description of its structure
to be altogether incorrect. " I have observed," he says, " that
there grows or comes out of their body and mouth a sort of
threads about the size of a horse-hair, which being examined with
a solar microscope of five inches diameter, appear as if made up

* Teale in Trans. Leeds' Soc. i. 96.

f " Entre ce sac interieuv (the stomach) et la peau exterieure, est une orga-
nisation assez compliquee, mais encore obscure, consistent surtout en feuillets
verticaux et fibreux, auxqiiels adherent les ovaires, semblables a des fils tres en-
tortilles." Cuvier, Reg. Anim. iii. p. 290. Delle Chiaje in Bull, des So. Nat.
xvii. 471. See also J. R. Jones in Cyclop, of Anat. and Physiol, ii. 409 —
Sharpey describes them as oviducts. Cyclop, cit. i. 614. Dicquemare had a
singular notion that they contained certain bulbs or buds " which open in time
and cleaving to the bodies on which these threads are extended, produce small
anemonies." Phil. Trans, abridg. xiii. 6.39.

ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA. 199

of a prodigious number of vessels, wherein a liquor is seen to
circulate. The largest of these unite together, much in the
same manner as the optic nerves do in man."*

The external envelope of the naked Hydroida is a thick firm
fleshy or coriaceous skin consisting of a corium and epidermis,
— the former layer constituting the chief organ of support, and
giving to the animal its peculiar form. " A circular horizontal
portion forms the base or foot ; a cylindrical vertical portion
constitutes the sides, and is inflected at the superior border, so
as to form a thick rounded lip. The corium is afterwards pro-
longed over the tentacula, ffivinof investment and form to these
organs, and is then extended horizontally to form the roof, near
the centre of which it again becomes folded upon itself, forming
an internal lip or mouth, at which part it is continuous with the
digestive sac." f — " The epidermis forms a thin layer of unor-
ganized matter spread over the whole extent of the corium, and
may be traced into the stomach. The external surface of the
epidermis is dense and membranous ; internally, when examin-
ed by the lens, it appears as a pulpy substance. Intimately in-
termixed with it, in irregular patches, and not constituting a dis-
tinct or separate layer, is a pigment varying in colour in different
parts of the same animal, and in diff"erent individuals. This
colouring matter is extensively distributed over the base, sides,
tentacula, and roof, but I have never observed any trace of it in
the stomach." I The surface is either smooth or studded over
with glandular warts, which, having an adhesive quality, enable
the creatures the more completely to conceal themselves by in-
duing the body with an extraneous coat formed of the sand,
gravel, and broken shells which lie around their peculiar locali-
ties. This is exchang'ed in the madrecolous tribes for the more
perfect defence which a hard coral affords, into which the soft
parts are withdrawn at will. " This coral is calcareous, and the
cells which are inhabited by the animals are furnished with more
or less distinct longitudinal lamellae, placed in a radiating posi-
tion round the central axis, so as to give the cavity a star-like
appearance." § Its structure is in fact a model cast in lime of
what may be called the skeleton of the Actiniae, — the parts on

» Phil. Trans, abridg. xiii. 6.39. t Teale in lib. supra cit. 93.

J Teale in loc. 95. § Gray in Synop. of British Museum, 70.

200 ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

which the support depends being converted into stone by a de-
position of calcareous matter in their texture, — the corium in
this manner becoming a sohd polypidom, and the muscular leaf-
lets partitions of limestone.*

When a Helianthoid Polype is at rest and unalarmed, it can
dilate the body to fully twice its ordinary bulk by imbibing water
through the mouth or tentacula,-f- the bases of which open in
the spaces between the perpendicular lamellae. These spaces
being filled, the water is then made to permeate the rim of
the oral disk, which is full of cavities and cells for its recep-
tion ; and the tentacula are in the same manner distended, the
water being forced into them from behind while the little open-
ing on their tips is held close. The whole animal is thus dis-
tended to a wonderful degree, and every organ stretched and
displayed;— the tentacula spread out in quest of prey, — the
skin rendered almost clear from very fulness ; and the stomach,
pushed beyond its natural bounds, lies over the sides in swol-
len diaphanous lobes. The water thus introduced is doubtless
subservient to the purposes of respiration, and to aid this, the
vermiform filaments, and the internal surface of the stomach
and tentacula are clothed with vibratile cilia, exciting and di-
recting currents over the surfaces.:}: Since too the contents of the
stomach must be fully exposed to the influence of the water, the

" " Dans cette classe d'animaux, le polypier ou la partie solide qui reste quaiid
le partie animale a ete dessechee et enlevee, est done une sorts de reseau calcaire
d"un tissu plus ou moins compacte, qui remplissoit les mailles, les vacuoles de
celle-ci. La proportion de ces deux parties est en rapport avec I'age du zoan-
thaire : plus il est jeune, plus il y a de matiere animale ; plus il est age, et plus
il y a de matiere inorganique : aussi la base de ces polypiers, le plus souvent
morte, est-elle fort dure, tandis que le sommet ou les bords essentiellement vi-
vans sont entierement mous." Blainville, Actinolog. 311 — See also Harvey in
Mag. Nat. Hist. n. s. 1. 474.

•f " It has not, so far as I know, been clearly shevra by which of the com-
municating orifices the water enters. Though I took considerable pains, I have
not been able satisfactorily to ascertain this point ; I may remark, however, that
I have repeatedly noticed water entering at the mouth." Sharpey in Cyclop.

Anat. and Phys. i. 614 Delle Chiaje asserts that it enters by the tentacula.

Bull, des Sc. Nat. xvii. 471. He adds, " II est curieux d'observer le courant
d'eau qui, lorsque T Actinic se relache, penetre par quelques tentacules, et des
qu'elle se contracte, sort par d'autres tentacules precisement opposes aux pre-
miers. Ce phenomene s'observe sur toutes les especesd'Actinies."
^ Sharpey in lib. cit. i. 614 — 15.

ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIUA. 201

nutrient parts may be by its means fitted for more immediate
assimilation, for as there is neither circulating nor lymphatic sys-
tems, the absorption of the nutrient fluids must be made direct-
ly from the stomach itself. By the contraction of the periphery
of the body, this water is again expelled at pleasure through the
tentacula in a continuous stream or in jets, and if the contrac-
tion is sudden and strong, the water may be thrown out with
such force as to rise to the height of at least a foot. It is re-
markable that the water does not escape from all or the great-
er number, but only from a few of the tentacula. Whether
any part escapes by the mouth is doubtful.

All the native species are single, viz. every individual is iso-
lated and complete in itself, and not organically associated with
others, as the polypes of the preceding orders are. They are
also all oviparous, the ova being generated in appropriated or-
gans. According to Spix the ova, in the Actinise, form several
grape-like clusters, situated in the interseptal spaces, with ducts
which open into the base of the stomach by several apertures,
and hence the ova are presumed to gain their freedom by tra-
versing the stomach and mouth.* Blainville doubts this, being
led from analogy to believe it more probable that the oviducts
may open in the labial rim, as they do in the asteroid zoo-
phvtes. -f- Delle Chiaje says that they terminate in the tentacula
of the Actiniae ;% and Cavolini states, that in the Caryophyllia
the ova are discharged through small distinct openings between
each of the tentacula.§ Their natural passage of egress may
be considered to be undetermined, but it seems to be ascertain-
ed that they do, under certain circumstances, escape from the
body sometimes through the tentacula, or in apertures between
them, and sometimes through the mouth. Mr Teale, after vainly
attempting to discover any proper oviduct, thinks it probable that
the ova, when sufficiently matured, " actually burst their mem-
branous envelope, and become lodged in the interseptal spaces
where they are exposed to the free access and continued sup-
plies of sea water, the grand stimulus to their further develope-

" Cams, Conip. Anat. Trans, ii. 308, pi. i. fig. x.

f Man. d'Actinologie, 79-

f Bull, des Sc. Nat. xvii. 471.

§ Edin. New Phil. Journ. i. 153.

202 ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

ment."* The supposition readily explains some facts which have
given rise to an opinion of their viviparous generation, for the
young will be born alive if the easy admission is made that some
of the ova may have their egress delayed until they have passed
through their first stages of evolution. That many ova, and pro-
bably by much the greater number, escape previously to this is
now well ascertained.

Mr Teale's description of the ovaries varies also from Spix's,
and is very accurate. In Actinia gemmacea he tells us they
form " elongated masses attached along the inner border of
most of the leaflets. Each ovary is composed of several hori-
zontal folds or plaits, which, when unfolded, show this structure
to be about three times the length it assumes when attached to
the leaflet. By carefully spreading out these folds, the ovary,
with the assistance of a lens, is seen to consist of two very de-
licate layers of membrane, enveloping a closely compacted layer
of ova. After enveloping the ova, the membranous layers are
placed in apposition, and form a kind of mesentery, by which
the ovary is attached to the internal border of the leaflet. The
two layers afterwards separate to pass one on each side of the
leaflet, thereby lining the interseptal spaces from which this
membranous investment is prolonged into the tentacula, as well
as into the cavities within the structure of the lip and mouth.
At the summits of the tentacula, and of the tubular eminences
of the lip, the membrane becomes continuous with the common
integument, whilst at the inferior part of the interseptal spaces
it is continuous with the digestive sac. The breadth of the
ovaries is nearly uniform from the top to the bottom. Some ir-
regularities are occasionally observed in their attachment to the
leaflets. Sometimes one leaflet supports two ovaries, and not
unfrequently two neighbouring ovaries are continuous with each
other at their inferior extremities." '\-

The period of propagation is probably, in most Helianthoida,
not limited to any particular season. According to the obser-
vations of Cavolini the Caryophyllia matures its ova in spring ;
and it is only at this season that I have found the Lucernarise on

* Leeds Phil, and Lit. Soc. Trans- i. IIL f Lib. supra cit. p. 104.

4

ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA. 203

our northern shores, when they are big with numerous eggs. But
in the Actini;e, ova in every state of developement may be seen
in the same individual throughout the year ; perhaps, however,
they are most abundantly laid in autumn. They are usually of
a roundish figure, and, like the gemmules of polypes in general,
contractile and motive, being carried about from the action of
the cilia that clothe the surface. " Under the microscope they
prove of diversified form, many resembling flattened pease, some
elongated or exhibiting irregular prominences, some almost
spherical, others as if composed of two or even of three un-
equal spheres, and some which cannot be referred to any par-
ticular figure." After moving about for several days, during
which their forms suffer some slight change, they insensibly
relax in their activity, the cilia disappear, and, having become
stationary, each rapidly runs through the stages of develope-
ment that lead it up to the similitude of its parent.

Every one has read of the coral islands of tropical seas ; how
they grow from the fathomless profound, and how they rise to
day by the operations of puny insects, which, in countless num-
bers, and in untold generations, effectuate changes on our globe
superior, perhaps, to what all other animals united do, and com-
pared to which the greatest achievements of " intellectual man,"
sink to insignificance.* Geology teaches us that with these
worms the great work of creation began ; and from that uncer-

* " Their plants are made of stone, and they build dwellings. Dwellings ; —
they construct islands and continents for the habitation of man. The labours
of a worm, which man can barely see, form mountains like the Apennines, and
regions to which Britain is as nothing. The invisible, insensible toil, of an ephe-
meral point, conspiring with others in one great design, working unseen, un-
heard, but for ever guided by one volition, by that One Volition which cannot
err, converts the liquid water into the solid rock, the deep ocean into dry land,
and extends the dominions of man, who sees it not and knows it not, over re-
gions which even his ships had scarcely traversed. This is the Great Pacific
Ocean ; destined, at some future day, to be a world. That same power which
has thus wrought by means which blind man would have despised as inadequate,
by means which he has but just discovered, here too shows the versatility, the
contrast of its resources. In one hour it lets loose the raging engines, not of
its wrath, but of its benevolence ; and the volcano and the earthquake lift up to
the clouds, the prop and foundation of new worlds, that from those clouds they
may draw down the sources of the river, the waters of fertility and plenty."
Dr Macculloch, Highlands and West. Islands, Vol. iv. p. 14.

204 ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

tain date even to the present day, their amazing labours have
been continued, the product remaining in the extensive ranges
of limestone rocks which lie buried in our northern regions, as
well as in those islands of new formation with which they threat-
en to convert the equatorial seas into dry land. " They that
sail on the sea tell of the danger thereof ; and when we hear it
with our ears we marvel thereat."*

" Millions of millions thus, from age to age,

With simplest skill, and toil unwearyable,

No moment and no movement unimproved,

Laid line on line, on terrace terrace spread.

To swell the heightening, brightening gradual mound,

By marvellous structure climbing tow'rd the day.

Each wrought alone, yet all together wrought,

Unconscious, not unworthy, instruments.

By which a hand invisible was rearing

A new creation in the secret deep.

Omnipotence wi'ought in them, with them, by them ;

Hence what Omnipotence alone could do

Worms did. I saw the living pile ascend,

The mausoleum of its architects.

Still dying upwards as their labours closed :

Slime the material, but the slime was tum'd

To adamant, by their petrific touch ;

Frail were their frames, ephemeral their lives,

Their masonry imperishable." f

By much the greater number of those wonder-working zoo-
phytes belong to this order. In former ages ihe geologist tells
us that they were numerous and varied in our seas, — their re-
mains, entombed in limestone and marble, constituting the mo-
dels by which he decyphers their forms and species ; but this
ancient host is now represented by two or three species only,
and these so small and rare, that it would be giving them a dis-
proportionate importance to make them more than the subject
of a passing allusion to the labours of their races.

The British species may be arranged under the following
genera ;

' Ecclesiast. chap, xliii. v. 24.

t IMontgomery's Pelican Island, canto ii. p. 27.

ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

205

Family I. MADREPHYLLIiEA.
Body cased icith a solid calcareous cupped polypidom, lamel-

lated internally.

17. TuRBiNOLiA. Polypidom turbinate, becoming free by age.

18. Caryophyllia. Polypidom cylindrical, always attached.

Family II. ACTINIID^.

Body naked^Jleshy, contractile^ locomotive.

19. Actinia. Body conoid or cylindrical ; the tentacula retractile.

20. Anthea. Body cylindrical ; the tentacula non-retractile.

21. Lucernaria. Body somewhat campanulate ; the tentacula
in tufts disposed at distant intervals round the margin.

Fig. 29.

Actinia viduata.

III. ZOOPHYTA HELIANTHOIDA.

FAMILY VII. MADREPHYLLI^A.

17. TuRBiNOLiA,* Lamarck.
Character. Animal like the Actinia, single : Polypidom
fixed token young, becoming detached in the progress of its growth,
simple, inversely conical, furrowed on the outside, pointed at the
base, and terminating above in a lamellated stellular cell.

\. T. BOREALis, " widely conical, slightly bent." Rev. Dr
Fleming.-|-

Fungia turbinata, Fleming in Wern. Mem- ii. 250. Turbinolia borealis,

Flem. Brit. Anim. 309 La Turbiiiolie boreale, Blainv. Actinolog. 341.

Hah. " Zetland," Fleming.

" This species occurred in the same boat in which I picked up the
Caryophyllea cyathus. Thoug-h greatly defaced, it still exhibits
proofs of its recent origin. It is inversely conical, pointed, subarcu-
ated, with a concave disc and a prominent centre ; the plates appear
to have been equal. It is about five-tenths of an inch in height, and
nearly the same in breadth across the star." Fleming.

Lamouroux maintains, in opposition to Lamarck, that the Turbino •
liae are fixed, and says that in well preserved specimens a distinct pedicle,
with the point broken ofi^, is obvious. J The fact seems to be, as stated

* From turbo, a top.

f The author of the " Philosophy of Zoology," and the " History of British
Animals." He, for many-years, discharged the duties of a minister of the Church
of Scotland ; and is now Professor of Natural Philosophy in King's College,
Aberdeen. To his labours and writings I am inclined to ascribe a considerable
share in diffusing that taste for natural history which is now abroad.

\ Soland, Zooph. new edit. p. 51.

CARyoiHYJ.LiA. Z. HELIANTHOIUA 207

by Mr J. E. Gray,* that they are fixed in their rirst stage of existence,
but become detached by age. Dr Fleming, to his description of the
species, adds, " From its shape, it appears probable, that it grows with
its base fixed in the sandy bottom of the sea, as Pallas formerly con-
jectured."

18. Caryophyllta, f Lamarck.
Character. Animal like the Actinia : Polypidom permanent-
ly Jixed^ simple^ cylindrical or conoid, striated externally in a lon-
gitudinal direction, the top holloiced into a lamellated stellular cup.

1. C. S'SUTHU, polypidom cylind7'ical ; lamelloi entire, arched,
faintly crenate, from 3 to 5 smaller ones beticeen the larger ;
centre tubercular. Rev. Dr Fleming.

Vignette, No. 30, page 206.
Caryophyllia cyathus, Fleming in Wern. Mem. ii. 249 ; and in Edin. New
Phil- Journ, viii. 70. Broderip in Ibid. viii. 312. Flem. Brit. Aiiim. 508.
— C. Sniitliii, Stokes and Broderip in Zool. Journ. iii. 486, pi. 13, fig.
1-6. and in Bull, des Sc. Nat. xvii. 157. Buckland, Bridgew. Treat, ii.
90, pi. 54 fig. 9-11. Harvey in Proc. Zool. Soe. 1834, part ii. 28 : and
in Mag. Nat. Hist. New Series, i. 474, fig. 5b-
Hah, " From deep water off Foulah, in Zetland," Fleming.
Southern coast of Devonshire, Thomas Smith, Esq. Cornwall,
Mr Coutch.

The Polypidom is firmly attached to the rock so as apparently to
make a part of it : it is cylindrical, whitish stained with brown, stri-
ated or finely grooved on the exterior, internally cupped and lamel-
lar. The lamellae are of three kinds, a larger and more prominent,
between every pair of which there are generally three, but sometimes
five lesser ones, of which the central one differs from the others in
being divided into two portions, the innermost half projecting beyond
the others towards the centre and forming an inner series. J All

* SjTi. of Brit. Museum, p. 70. See also in relation to this point Mr Stutch-
bury's observations on the growth of young Corals of the genus Fungia, in Lin.
Trans, xvi. p. 493.

f From KA^voy, anut, and<?i/X?iov,a leaf. — The name has been so generally re-
ceived that it might be difficult to substitute another for the genus, and yet it
is very objectionable. There is a Caryophyllceus amorg the intestinal worms ;
and the Caryophyllece are familiar to all botanists — The following generic cha-
racter of Caryophi/llia is given by Mr Stokes : " Polyparium simplex, basi
affixum. Corona lamini.s duplici serie dispositis, cxterioribus majoribus, re-
gulariter insequalibus, maximis inter seriei internie laminas interpositis. Dis-
cus lamellis erectis, prominulis foliatis."

\ Dr Fleming describes the plates thus -. " The lamellseare disposed in fours.

208 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Caryophyjllia.

the lamellae are arched, entire, striated on the sides, whence the mar-
gin appears somewhat crenulate : they terminate about half across
leaving- a plain centre which is roug-h or tubercled. In one specimen
before me the primary lamellae are 14 in number ; in another they
are 20 ; but Dr Fleming gives about 40 as the number in his Zetland
specimen. Height from two-tenths to half an inch ; diameter three-
tenths to one inch.

My friend Dr Coldstream has furnished me with the following
account of the animal of this interesting zoophyte, which he watched
for several successive weeks during his residence at Torquay.
" When the soft parts," he writes, " are fully expanded, the appear-
ance of the whole animal resembles very closely that of an Actinia.
When shrunk they are almost entirely hid amongst the radiating
plates. The specimens I have seen have varied in size from three-
tenths to one inch in diameter, and from two-tenths to half an inch
in height. They are found pendant from large boulders of sandstone
just at low water-mark ; sometimes they are dredged from the mid-
dle of the bay. Their colour varies considerably ; I have seen the
soft parts white, yellowish, orange- brown, reddish, and of a fine apple
green. The tentacula are usually paler. During expansion, the
soft parts rise above the level of the calcareous disc to about twice
its height. The tentacula are pushed forth very slowly, but some-
times are as long as the whole height of the body. They are ter-
minated by a rounded head. * The mouth has the appearance of an
elongated slit in the centre of the disc : it is prominent, and the
lips are marked with transverse striae of a white colour. When a
solid body is brought into contact gently with the tentacles they ad-
here pretty strongly to it, just as the Actiniae do ; but when they
are rudely touched, they contract very quickly, and if the irritation

and may be distinguished into three different kinds. The first are the highest
and the broadest at the margin, but as they descend into the disc they become
narrower before they join the central plate. The second kind are narrower
than the preceding at the margin, but towards the middle they suddenly enlarge
and join the middle plate. The third kind are the smallest and terminate be-
fore reaching the middle plate- The space included between a pair of the first
kind of plates, contains one of the second kind in the middle, with one of the
third kind in each of the lateral spaces. Those on the sides are rough, with
small scattered tubercles, and their margins are curled. This last circumstance
occasions the roughness externally, where the longitudinal striae are the remains
of the gills. The plate which occupies the bottom of the cavity is smooth, vari-
ously twisted, and connected with the base of the lateral plates."

' " They are nearly transparent except at the termination, which is a little
ball, white and opake." De la Beche.

MiLLEPORA. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 209

be continued, the wliole soft parts sink within the calcareous cup."
5th April 1833.

PociLLOPORA iNTEUSTiNCTA. Madrepora interstincta, Mull.
Zool. Dan. prod. 252 — Dr Fleming (Brit Anim. 511) has seen a
specimen <' probably of this species," obtained by Dr Hibbert in
Zetland, but I am not aware that any description of it has been yet
published.

Madrepora musicalis, Lin. Syst. 1278. Berk. Syn. i. 211.
Turt. Gmel. iv. 625. Turt. Brit. Faun. 204. — Said to be some-
times cast on the Irish coast ; but without the slightest claim to
denization.

Madrepora porpita, Turt. Gmel. iv. 616 A fossil confound-
ed with the M. porpita of the Indian seas.

MiLLEPORA TRUNCATA, Stew. Elem. ii. 426- Marked erroneous-
ly as British.

MiLLEPORA LICHENOIDES, Tuvt. Brit. Fauu. 204. Turt. Gmel.
iv. 635. — I am not aware on what authority this has been introduced
into our native Fauna by Dr Turton. Ellis says nothing that can
lead one to suppose that his specimen was British.

Fig. 31.

FAMILY VIII. ACTINIID.E.

19. Actinia,* Linnseus.
Character. Body conoid or cylindricaly adhering by a
broad base : the space between the mouth and the rim of the up-
per disk occupied by one or more uninterrupted series of conical
undivided tubular tentacula lohich are entirely retractile.

1. A. MESEMBRYANTHEMUM, body conoid, smooth ; tentacu-
la numerous, multiserial ; margin of the oral disk ornamented
with a circle of azure-blue tubercles.

Var. a. Body and tentacula of a uniform liver-broMTi or olivaceous colour,
rarely streaked with bluish or green lines.

Vignette, No. 31.

Ortie de mer, Reaumur in Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des Scienc. 1710, pi. 10.
fig. 22 Priapus equinus, Lin. Syst. edit. 10. 656. Hydra disci-
flora, tentaculis retractilibus, extimo disci margine tuberculato, Gccrtner

in Phil. Traas. lii. 83, pi. 1. fig. 3. Actinia equina, Zm. Syst. 1088.

Dicquemare in Phil. Trans. Ixiii. 364, pi 16, fig. l-Tf Mull. Zool.

* From uKTiv, a ray.

f Dicquemare himself uses no specific names": they were applied to his
figures by Dr Solander, who, it is to be presumed, was well acquainted with the
Linnjean species.

Actinia. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 211

Dan. prod. 231, no. 2793. Turt. Gmol. iv. 104. Flem. Brit. Anim.
497. Cuv. Reg. Anim. iii. 292. Bosc, Vers, ii. 255. Johnston in
Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 243. Dalyell in Edin. New. Phil. .lourn. xvii.
41] ; and in Proc. Brit. Assoc. 1834, 599. Templeton in Mag. Nat.

Hist. ix. 303. A- mesembryanthemiim, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 4.

Turt. Brit. Faun. 131. Rapp, Polyp. 52, taf. 2, fig. 1. J ohiiston in

Mag. Nat. Hist. viii. 81, fig. 12 A. hemispherica, Pen. Brit. Zool.

iv. 104. Berk. Syn. i. 186. Hogg's Stock. 30 A. rufa. Mull. Zool.

Dan. prod. 231. Zool. Dan. tab. 23, fig. 1-^. Pen. Brit. Zool. iv. 105.
Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 558. Stew. Eleni. i. 393. Lam, Anim. s.
Vert. iii. 67. Stark, Elem. ii. 412. Rapp, Polyp. 53. Boget, Bridgevv.

Treat, i. 198. fig. 86, 87 A. Anemone, Pm. Brit. Zool. iv. 106.

Hogg's Stock. 30 A. corallina, Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 285

A. margaritifera, Templeton in Mag. Nat- Hist. ix. 304, fig. 50 Com-
mon Actinia, Buckland, Bridgew. Treat, ii. 89, pi. 54, fig. 4 Hydra

mesembryantliemum, AVew. Elem. ii. 451. Small red Sea- Nettle, Wal-
lis. Hist, of Nortliumb. i. 374.
Var. ^. Body paler striped longitudinally \\dth white ; tentacula annulated
with white.

Vignette, No. 29, page 205.
Actinia viduata, Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 231, no. 2799. Zool. Dan. pi.
63, fig. 6-8, — copied in Encyclop. Method, tab. 72, fig. 4, 5. Johnston
in Mag. Nat. Hist. viii. 82, fig, 13. Turt. Gmel. iv. 101. Lam. Anim.
s. Vert. iii. 68. Bosc, Vers, ii. 256.
Hub. On rocks between tide-marks, very common.
Body one or one and a half inch in diameter, hemisphei'ical when
contracted, when relaxed forming a short cylinder with a breadth
gi'eater than the height, of a uniform liver-colour or often olive-green,
and sometimes streaked with blue or greenish lines, either continu-
ous, or in spots : the base generally of a greenish colour encircled
with an azure-blue line, but it is often also streaked with red, and the
blue marginal Une is wanting. The tentacula, when fully extended,
are nearly equal to the height of the body, and of the same colour.
The tubercles within the margin of the oral disk are formed by pa-
pillary projections of the parenchyma of the body, covered over on
the top with a thick layer of dense blue matter : in it, as well as in
the skin generally, minute fusiform calcareous spicula, some slenderer
than others, may be detected in abundance with the microscope.

In its young state, A. mesembryanthemum is liable to greater va-
riations in colour than when mature. One of these varieties, as it
seems to me, constitutes the A. viduata of Muller, distinguished by
its light olive body striped with white ; while the tentacula are pret-
tily ornamented with white and olive green rings. This variety usu-
ally attaches itself to shelving rocks, where it is covered over and
concealed by a layer of sand, protruding the tentacula through a
small aperture at the surface opposite the mouth. On the recess of

212 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Actinia.

the tide, nothing of the animal can be seen, and its presence in a lo-
cality is only to be guessed at by the holes in the sand, which, how-
ever, are exactly like the holes of many arenicolous worms.

Actinia niesembryanthemnm lives between tide-marks, and is most
plentiful near that of high water. It is consequently often left ex-
posed to the open atmosphere, but it expands only when covered with
water. It never, so far as I have observed, emits from the mouth,
like the other species, any thread-like tangled filaments ; nor does it
seem to have the power of protruding the membrane of the stomach
in the form of vesicular lobes. Gsertner says that " the colour of its
body is always red in the summer, but changes into a dusky green, or
brown, towards the latter end of autumn," — a remark which certain-
ly does not hold good on the northern shores of Britain, where the
red and dusky green varieties may be found intermingled at all seasons.

2. A. Bellis, " body lengthened^ the lower part narrow,
smooth, the upper enlarged and glandularly loarty ; oral disc ex-
panded, lohed ; tentacida in several rows, variegated." Gaertner.
Hydra calyciflora, tentaculis retractilibus variegatis ; corpore verrucoso,

Gaertner in Phil. Trans, lii. 79. tab. 1, fig. 2 Actinia Bellis, Ellis

and Soland. Zooph. 2. Turt. Gmel. iv. 103. Turt. Brit. Faun. 131.

A. pedunculata, Pen. Brit Zool. iv. 102. Berk. Syn. i. 186. Lam.

Anim. s. Vert. iii. 70. i?osc, Vers, ii. 258. Stark, Elem. ii. 412. Flem.

Brit. Anim. 498. Templeton \nMa.g. Nat. Hist. ix. 303. Hydra bellis,

Stew. Elem. ii. 431.
Hah. " Frequently found in the pools about the Mount's Bay,"
Cornwall, " It is rare to meet with a single one in a place, there
being most commonly four or five of them living so near together in
the same fissure of the rock, which they constantly inhabit, that their
expanded calyces form a row of flower-like bodies, that seem to grow
upon the dig's under water," Gcertner. " Found in a pool on the
rocks at the north end of the Island of Rathlin, August 1795,"
Templeton.

"From its small basis rises a cylindric stalk, which supports the
roundish body of the animal, from whence afterwards the calyx, being
a continued membrane of the body, draws its origin. The stalk, or
the pedunculus of the polype, is quite smooth, and its colour inclines
towards the carnation. The outside of the calyx, and the body of
this animal, are marked with a number of small white protuberances,
resembling warts, to which fragments of shells, sand-grains, &c.adhere,
and hide the beautiful colour of these parts, which, from that of car-
nation, is insensibly changed towards the border of the calyx first in-
to purple, then violet, and at last into a dark brown. The inside of
the calyx is covered with the feelers, that grow in several ranges

Actinia. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 213

upon it : they differ considerably in length ; those that are near the
edge of the calyx being but small papilla^, in proportion to those that
surround the disk, or the central ])art of the body. They are almost
transparent ; and some of them are of a pale ash colour, with brown
spots ; others, on the contrary, are of a chesnut colour^ marked with
white spots. The disk is formed like a star, which, according to the
figure that is traced out by the innermost row of the feelers, consists
of many angles. The colour of this part of the body is a beautiful
mixture of brown , yellow, ash-colour and white, which together form
variegated rays, that from the centre, or the mouth of the animal, are
spread over the whole surface of the disk. This polype contract-
ing- itself, changes its body into an irregular hemisphere, which is so
covered with the several extraneous bodies that stick to it, that it is
extremely difficult to know the animal in this state, and to discern it
from the rubbish, that commonly surrounds it." Gcertner.
Perhaps a variety of the A. gemmacea.

3. A. iNTESTiNALis, " hodij cylindrical, the wpyer half sud-
denly contracted and nnrroio" Dr Fleming.

Actinia intestinalis, i^air. Faun. Groenl. 350, no. 342, pi. I, fig. 11. Flem.
Brit. Anini. 498.
Hah. " Adheres to rocks at low water-mark, Zetland," Fleming.
" When contracted, the body seems like two broad rings, of near,
ly equal breadth, and about half an inch in diameter ; when expand-
ed to nearly two inches, the body consists of two cylindrical portions
of different dimensions, smooth, pellucid, yellowish ; a few longitudi-
nal white streaks under the skin ; oral disk not expanded, surround-
ed with about 18 filiform tentacula in two alternate rows." Fleming.

4. A. GEMMACEA, hody conoid, variously coloured, rough icitk
glandular warts or sometimes smooth ; tentacxda numerous, in 3
or 4 series, shorter than the diameter of the oral disk, thick, and
generally variegated with red and v;hite rings.

Plate xxvii.
Actinia senilis, Fle/n. Brit. Anim. 498. Juhnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii.

244.
Var. «. Body warty, the warts large and arranged in vertical rows Ortie

(le mer, Beaumur in Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des Scieiic 1710, pi. 10, fig.

21, 23 — 26 Hydra disciflora, tentaculis retractilibus subdiaphanis ;

corpore cylindiico, miliaribus glandulis longitudiiialiter striate, Gartner

in Phil. Trans, lii. 82, tab- 1, fig. 4 Hydra gemmacea. Stew. Elem.

ii. 451 Actinia gemmacea, £//(s and Soland. Zooph. 3. Turt. Gmel.

iv. 104. Turt. Brit. Faun. 131. Wern. Mem. i. 558 A. verrucosa,

Penn. Brit Zool- iv. 1C3. Berh. Sjm. i. 186. Lam. Anim. s. Vert.

iii. 70. Stark, Elem. ii. 412. Bupp, Polyp, p. 50 A. glaudulosa

214 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. , Actinia.

Bosc, Vei-s,ii. 259 A. monile (the young,) Templeton in Mag. Nat.

Hist. ix. 303, fig. 49. A. Bellis, Rapp, Polyp. 30. tab. 1, fig. 1, 2.

Var. y3. The body warted, the warts equal, distinct, but scattered without

order over the surface. Act. senilis, Dicquemare'm Phil. Trans. Ixiii.

367, tab. 16, fig. 10 ; and tab. 17, fig. 11, 12. Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 105-

Blumenh. Man. 246. Templeton in Mag. Nat- Hist. ix. 303. A. cori-

acea, Cuv. Reg. Anim. iii. 291. Rapp, Polyp- 51, tab. 1, fig. 3, 4. Teale
in Trans. Leeds Soc. i. 91, pi. 9, 10, U.

Var. y. Body warted, the warts distant, equal, and sometimes obscure

Act. equina, Sowerby, Brit. Misc. 7, pi. 4. Turt. Brit. Faun. 130.

Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 106. A. effoeta? Rapp, Polyp. 34, taf. 2, fig.

2. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 303.
Var. <r. Body quite smooth, irregularly clouded with scarlet, tentacula an-

nulated with red and white Priapus sive Actinia proboscidibus crassis

rotundis, Bast. Opusc. Subsec. i. lib. 3. 143, tab. 13, fig. 1 Act. feli-

na, Lin. Syst. 1088. Barhut, Gen. Verm. 53, tab. 5, fig. 6. Bosc, Vers,

ii. 255 A. coccinea. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 231, no. 2792. Zool.

Dan. tab. 63, fig. 1-3. (young.) Bosc, Vers, ii. 253. Lam. Anim. s.

Vert. iii. 68. A. crassicornis. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 231. Adams in

Lin. Trans, iii. 252. Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 105. Turt. Gmel. iv. 100-
Turt. Brit. Faun. L30. Stew- Elem. i. 393. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. iii.
67. Stark, Elem ii. 412. Fabric. Faun. Grcenl. 348, no. 341. Jame-
son in Wern. Mem. i. 358 A. truncata, Jamesonin Wern. Mem. i.

538. Pe?in. Brit. Zool. iv. 106. Turt. Gmel. iv. 101. Turt. Brit.
Faun. 131.
Hab. In crevices of rocks between tide-marks, and on shells, &c.
in deep water, very common.

Body usually rather more than two inches in diameter, hemispheri-
cal when contracted, covered with glandular warts, arranged some-
times in regular perpendicular lines, sometimes irregularly, and some-
times they are scarcely or not at all obvious. The tentacula are dis-
posed within the circumference of the oral disk, in 3 or 4 close rows ;
they are thick, short, obtuse, somewhat compressed, almost always
annulated or variegated with white and red, but when the body is of
a uniform pale, flesh, or cream colour, the tentacula are of the same
colour and without rings. The animal protrudes from the mouth at
pleasure four or five vesicular, pellucid, scored lobes, which vary in
size according to their degree of evolution, and often hang over the
sides. When kept for a few days in a basin of sea-water, it becomes
much larger in all its parts, paler and almost diaphanous ; and the
tentacula elongate themselves, swell out, and are distinctly seen to be
tubular. These adhere tenaciously to foreign bodies, for their apices
act as suckers, and carry prey to the mouth in spite of all its strug-
gles.

This species is liable to great variation in colour and size. The

Actinia. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 2J5

littoral varieties, or such as are alternately submerged and exposed by
the recess of the tides, are always strongly warted, generally orange -
coloured with dusky blotches, and coated with particles of broken
shells, small gravel and pieces of sea-weed, by which means, when
contracted, they are detected with difficulty in the recesses or sandy
places which they prefer. This foreign covering adheres to the glands
W'ith great tenacity, and cannot be removed by any natural causes to
which the Actinia is exposed ; but what is surely worthy of our ad-
miration, and seems to prove the existence of an instinct even in
these lowest creatures, the individuals which are placed in deep water,
as if aware they did not require such a mode of concealment, form
no extraneous covering, but leave the surface clean, and this acquires
then more vivid and varied tints, while at the same time the warts
become smaller or disappear. Of these pelagic sorts there are some
eiuinently beautiful : one is of a uniform bright scarlet studded over
with pale warts like ornamental beads ; another is of a pale sulphur
yellow, or greenish with orange-coloured stripes, the oral disk and ve-
sicular lobes borrowing the hues of the wild rose ; but they vary in this
respect so much that no description can do justice to them or define
their limits.

I have little doubt that all the synonymes quoted under this spe-
cies truly belong to it. Gsertner's figure represents it of a more
cylindrical shape than I have ever seen it assume, and with only a
single row of rather slender tentacula, which, he says, vary from 18
to 36 in number. Hence the figure we may suppose to have been
taken from a young individual, which is certainly the case in the Ac-
tinia monile of Mr Templeton.

Dicquemare says — " Of all the kinds of sea-anemonies, I would
prefer this for the table ; being boiled some time in sea water, they
acquire a firm and palatable consistence, and may then be eaten with
any kind of sauce. They are of an inviting appearance, of a light
shivering texture, and of a soft white and reddish hue. Their smell
is not unlike that of a warm crab or lobster." Phil. Trans, abridg.
xiii. 637.

Ehrenberg divides the family Actiniidse into two sections, — the
second embracing such genera as have glandular pores in the skin.
The genus '* Cribrina," in this section, has Act. gemmacea for its
type, which is thus far sundered from the species with which it is
here associated. Ehrenberg seems to me to have been peculiarly
unfortunate in his choice of a character, for if I have studied the ani-
mal rightly, so far from being of sectional or generic value, it serves
not even to discriminate a species, which may have its smooth and

216 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Actinia.

glandular varieties, passing too into one another by such " unpei*-
ceived shades" that the limits cannot be distinctly defined. Nay, as
Mr Teale has also noticed, I have seen specimens which were glan-
dular on one-half of the body and smooth on the other, illustrating in
a striking manner the inconstancy of the structure, and its subordi-
nate value.

In most systematic works on British Zoology there is an Actinia
effcetay which is referable sometimes to this species, and sometimes
to Act. maculata. The Act. effceta of Linnaeus, Syst. 1088, is found-
ed on the " Tertia Priapi marini sive Actiniae species" of Baster,
Opus. Subsec. 143, tab. 14, fig. 2. This figure is very unlike any
variety of Act. gemmacea, or any other species with which I am ac-
quainted. All the description Baster gives is this : " Directas ilia
habet in corpore strias, et inferne basin, sive marginem, qua se
affigit."

5. A. DiANTHUS, body cylindraceous^ smooth ; oral disk
marked in the centre with clavate radiating hands ; tentacula nu-
merous, irregular, the outer small and forming round the margin
a thick filamentous fringe. Ellis.

Plate xxviii.
Priapus sive Actinia proboscidibus tenuibus brevibus, Ba&t. Opusc. Subsec
i. lib. 3, 143. tab. 13. fig. 2 — 4. (bene) — Actinia senilis, Lin. Syst.

1089.* Actinia Dianthus, jEZ/w in Phil. Trans. Ivii. 436. tab. 19. fig. 8-

Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 7. Shaw, Nat. Misc. xiii. pi- 539 ; (copied from
Ellis and coloured from the description !) Turt. Gmel. iv. 104. Turt.

Brit. Faun. 131. Stew. Elem. i. 394. Flem. Brit. Anim. 498

Fourth species of Anemony, Dicqnemare in Phil. Trans, abridg. xiii.
638. pi. 12. fig. 9 — A pentapetala, Pe7in. Brit. Zool. iv. 104. Berk.
Syn. i. 187. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. iii. 71. Bosc, Vers, ii. 259. Actinolobe

ceillet, Blainv. Actinol. 322 A. plumosa, Mull Zool. Dan. prod. 230.

no. 2791. Zool. Dan. tab. 88. fig. 1. 2. (drawn when the animal has
been in a very relaxed and half expanded condition.) Turt. Gmel. iv.
100. Turt. Brit. Faun. 130. Stew. Elem. i. 394. Lam. Anim. s.
Vert. iii. 68. Bosc, Vers, ii. 256. Stark, Elem. ii. 412. Cuv. Reg. Anim.
iii. 291. Rapp, Polyp. 55, tab. 3. fig. 1. (good) Johnston in Trans.

Newc. Soc. ii. 246. La Metridie plumeuse, Blainv. Actinol. 321

A. senDis, Barb. Gen. Verm. 53. tab- 5. fig. 5. Adams in Lin. Trans.
v. 9. Lam. Anim- s. Vert. iii. 68. Stark, Elem. ii. 412 — Hydra Dian-
thus, Stew. Elem. ii. 451.
Hob. On rocks and shells in deep water or within low tide-mark.

* Linnieus quotes two distinct figures of Baster for his senilis, but as he sub-
sequently refers to one of these figures for his effceta, the other (tab. 1 3. fig. 2. )
must be considered as representing the true senilis.

Actinia. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 217

At Hastings in Sussex, Ellis. Tenbigh, Wales, Adams. Frith
of Forth, Dr Coldstream. Berwick Bay, common.

When contracted the body is of a thick short sxibcylindrical form,
deeply wrinkled in two or three places, about three inches long, and
one-half of that in diameter, but when fully expanded about five
inches : the skin is quite smooth, and of a uniform whitish, cream or
flesh-colour. The centre of the oral disk is ornamented with a circle
of white bands radiating from the mouth, and the transparency of
the skin here permits us to see the lamellae running across the cir-
cumference with their narrow colourless interspaces. From these
interspaces the tentacula originate ; the largest about one inch long,
watery, white, tapered, smooth, irregularly dispersed, and very nu-
merous. They are all placed between the mouth and the margin,
which is encircled with a dense fringe of inimitable beauty, com-
posed of innumerable short tentacula or filaments forming a thick
furry border.

I have seen specimens of this species, which is certainly as MuUer
says " actiniarum pulcherriraa," from the size of a split pea to fully
five inches in diameter, and have found it, in all the intermediate
sizes, uniform in shape and colour, but others have found it variable
in these respects. It is strictly gregarious, and the larger individuals
are generally surrounded by a multitude of small and middle-sized
ones, which form very pleasing groups. From this gregarious habit
it is subject to monstrosities, two or three occasionally uniting and
coalescing into one body, of which Dicquemare has described an ex-
ample.

" This species is good to eat," according to Dicquemare ; and his
testimony may be strengthened by the authority of Plancus, who
says of his " Urtica soluta caryophyllura referens," — a synonyme
probably of A. Dianthus, * — " hsec more ostrearum coquitur, et una
cum ipsis, quibus, ut dixi, frequentissime heeret, comeditur." Plane.
de Conch, min, not. 43, tab. 4, fig, 6. +

No one who has studied the species but will, I think, assent to the
conjecture of Cuvier that the A. Dianthus of Ellis is a mere variety
of the A. pluraosa of subsequent authors, the former having had the
oral disc deeper lobed than is usual from peculiarity of position or

• If this opinion is correct, and to me the thing seems indisputable, then the
Actinia judaica, Lin. Syst. 1088, and of all other systematists who have fol-
lowed him, must be added to the aliases of A. Dianthus.

f In reference to these edible Actinia I may here remark tliat the Anemonia
edulis of Risso, which, according to Rapp, is synonymous with the Anthea Ce-
reus of this work, furnishes the dish called Rastegna, a favourite in Provence.
" Nostrates vero hoc cibo delectari nonduni comperi." Baster,

218

Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

Actinia.

from the mere will of the creature, which has great powers of con-
tractility. This being assumed, we are entitled to say to Oken, who
makes one genus of the Dianthus, and another genus of the plumosa,
— " Generis falsa est ea fabula vestri."

Mr Templeton under the name of" A. dianthus ?" describes a
species which appears tobe distinct. — "Conic, rounded above, of a green
or greenish-yellow colour, with a few scattered warts in longitudinal
rows ; disk light blue, often divided into 1 1 lobes ; tentacula numerous,
pale, in from 3 to 7 fascicuh, variegated with dark annuli. In the
hollows of the rocks at Ballyholm Bay, Bangor." Mag. Nat. Hist,
ix. 304.

6. A. MACULATA, hasc fixed to a thin horny expansion attached
to the apertures of various dead shells ; body longitudinally sul-
cated, marked ivith purple spots ; tentacula numerous, rather
short, arranged in three or four irregular rows. Mr Adams.

Fig. 32.

Actinia maculata, Adams in Lin. Trans, v. p. 8. Turt. Gmel. iv. 105.
Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 104. Coldstream' in Edin. New Phil. Journ. ix. p.

2.36. t. 4. f. 6. 7. and in Edin. Journ. Nat and Geog. So. iii. 49 A.

carciniopados, Otto in Nov. Act. Acad. C. L. C. Nat. Cur. xi. 288. pi.

40. Parasite Aetinea, Landsborough in Scottish Christian Herald, ii.

333 A. effoeta, Turt. Brit. Faun. p. 131. Turt. Gmel. iv. 101.

Hab. Milford Haven, surrounding the apertures of deserted shells
of the Murex despectus, Adams. Torbay ; and in Rothesay and
Karnes Bays in Bute, either thrown ashore after easterly gales, or
drawn in by flounder-nets, Dr Coldstream. Stevenston, Ayrshire,
Hev. D. Landsborough.

" This beautiful species is longitudinally sulcated, having the edges
of the base crenated : the lower part is an obscure red, and the up-
per part is transparent white marked with fine purple spots ; the
outer cii'cumference of the aperture has a narrow stripe of pink.

Actinia. Z. HELIANTHOIDA 219

When expaiuled, the superior division of the body seems formed
of fleshy bars placed in a reticulated manner, and lined with a fine
membrane. From perforated warts, placed without order on the outer
coat, issued white filameutose substances variously twisted together :
I have observed a similar body ejected from the mouths of all the
species of this genus which have fallen within my notice." Adams.

The following- more detailed description of this very interesting

species is by Dr Coldstream. " General mass of the animal flattened
and extended ; thickness at the oral disc three-tenths of an inch, di-
minishing towards the circumference of the base ; longest diameter
of the base about three inches ; margin minutely crenated ; colour of
the body, near the base, reddish brown, passing gradually into a light
cream colour towards the oral disc ; whole surface striated longitudi-
nally with alternate opaque white, and translucent bluish lines, and
marked irregularly with bright reddish-purple spots. These spots
are confined to the outer coat, which is easily peeled off". That be-
low it is of a pink colour, and is marked with the strise, which shine
through the outer coat. Oral disc of an elongated oval form, white,
and bearing on its outer margin numerous rather short tentacula ar-
ranged in three or four irregular rows : tentacula shorter than the
body, acuminated, white, each marked with a faint streak of brown ;
mouth large, oval ; lips white, contracted into folds ; internal sur-
face of the stomach marked with numerous white strise. Base
fixed to a thin horny expansion attached to the apertures of va-
rious dead shells, such as Trochus cinerarius and T. Magus, and form-
ing, as it were, an extension of the body- whorl of the shell in a spir-
al form. Over this, the Actinea is spread entirely, and covers also
more or less of the shell. Its oral disc is uniformly situated close to
the inner lips of the horny case. The aperture of the case is accu-
rately surrounded by its body, the margins of the opposite sides of
which meet, and are closely applied to one another at the middle of
the outer lip of the aperture, whence they run upwards towards the
old shell, where they generally separate again, leaving its apex un-
covered." " The horny membrane to which the Actinia is

attached, covers, for the most part, nearly the whole of the external
surface of the ,old shell to which it is fixed, and from the circumfe-
rence of its aperture, is prolonged into a large hollow expansion, re-
sembhng in form, and occupying, relatively to the shell, the place of,
a ventricose body-whorl. Its substance is of a uniform thickness
throughout its whole extent, of a greenish-brown colour, translucent,
having both surfaces irregularly wrinkled transversely. In a recent
state it is quite flexible, but when dried it is brittle. It takes fire
and burns readily, leaving a very small residuum, which does not ef-

220 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Anthea.

fervesce with acids. It is insoluble in boiling water and in alcohol,
but dissolves slowly in acids, and in solutions of the alkalies. Its
general appearance may be compared to that of the cases of Tubularia
indivisa, except in point of colour."

" The case thus formed by the old shell and the horny membrane,
and covered by the Actinia, I have always found inhabited by a va-
riety of the hermit-crab." " Its natural history is perhaps doubt-
ful. Is the horny case secreted by the Actinia? Or is it the dead
axis of some zoophyte, like that which covers old Buccina (Alcyoni-
um echinatum, Fl.), and which I have found forming an extension
of the body-whorl of the Turbo littoreus, also inhabited by the Pa-
gurus ? Or, is it likely that the old shell, with a young crab in it,
may have been swallowed by the Actinia ; that the crab may have
forced its way through the walls of the stomach, and the integuments
of the latter, and that, the Actinia then secreting a peculiar mem-
brane to defend its base, the crab may have found itself provided with
a habitation suited to its wants ? To this last supposition an objec-
tion is found in the fact, that the full grown shell of Trochus Magus
forms sometimes the base of the horny case, and this shell is too large
to enter the mouth of the Actinia. It seems to be probable that the
horny membrane is produced by the Actinia ; and that its formation
presents a striking instance of the operation of that beautiful law of
Nature which makes the habits of one animal subservient to the
wants of another."

Bohadsch, in his work de Animalibus marinis, has described a spe-
cies nearly allied, if not identical with the above, under the name of
Medusa palliata, p. 135 t. 11. f. 1 : which is probably identical with
the Actinia picta of Risso, L'Europ, Merid. v. 286. See also a no-
tice by Professor Jameson in Edin. New. Phil. Journ. July 1830,
p. 332.

20. Anthea,* Johnston.
Character. Body cylindraceous, adhering by a broad base :
tentacula disposed in circles round the mouthy elongated, taper-
ed and incapable of being retracted within the body.

* From rti/floc — a flower : the name borrowed from Drayton —
" Anthea, of the flowers, that liath the general charge,
" And Syrinx of the reeds, that grow upon the marge."

The genus was first proposed, and indifferently characterized by Risso under the
name of Anemonia, which being the same as Anemone must be rejected, for it"
new generic names formed by the mispelling of old ones were tolerated, confu-
sion and barbarism would soon be the result-

Antiiea. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 221

1. A. Cere us, body someichat ci/lindrkal, furrowed length-
loays ; tentacula numerous, longer than the body, smooth. Dr
Gsertner.

Hydra tentaculis denudatis, numerossimis ; corpore longitudinaliter sulca-

to, Gcertner'm Phil. Trans, lii. 78, tab. 1. fig. 1 Act. Cereus, Ellis

and Soland. Zooph. 2. Turt. Gmel. iv. 103. Turt. Br. Faun. 131.

Rapp, Polyp. 56, tab- 2, fig. 3 Act. sulcata, Pen. Brit. Zool. iv.

102. Berk. S}7i. i. 18G. Stew. Elem. i. 394. Flem. Brit. Anim. 498.

Lum. Anim. s. Vert. iii. 69. Bosc, Vers, ii. 257 Hydra Cereus,

Stew. Elcm. ii. 4.51.
Hab. " Very frequent upon the sea- coasts" of Cornwall, Gcertner.
Anglesey, Pennant. Torquay, Dr Coldstream.

" The body of this polype is of a light chesnut colour, and feels
perfectly smooth, though it be lengthways sulcated by a number of
sulci, that are frequently divided into three smaller ones, and are
continued into the dentated margin that surrounds the upper peri-
phery of the body, just beneath the insertion of the feelers. These
feelers, arising from the disk of the polype, are, according to the age
of the animal, between 120 and 200 in number ; they exceed the
body, when expanded, by more than an inch in length, and are of a
beautiful sea-green colour, except towards their extremities, which
are coloured with a lively red, like that of the rose. The disk is of the
same brown colour with the rest of the body, and contains in its cen-
tre the mouth of the animal, which is an aperture of various shape

and diameter. The two varieties of this species, which I met

with, differ but little from the already described animal. The feelers
of the one, instead of being green, are throughout of a red colour,
like that of the mahogany wood. The other variety has pale ash-
coloured feelers, marked with a small white line running along their
back ; its body is of the same chesnut coloiar with that of the first
species ; but the sulci are not divided, nor has it a dentated margin
surrounding its upper periphery." Gartner. The Act. sul-
cata of Templeton, which he says is " most probably the young" of
Actinia effceta, Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 303, can scarcely belong to this
species.

2. A. TuEDiiE, body sometohat cylindrical, smooth or wrink-
led with circular folds; tentacida numerous, shorter than the
body, lonyifudinally striate. G. J.

o.>o

Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

Anthea.

Fig. 33.

Actinia Tuediie, Johnston in Mag. Nat. Hist. v. 163, fig. 58 ; and Trans.

Newc. Nat. Hist. Soc. ii. 246 Anemonia edulis, Risso, L'Europ.

Merid. v. 289.

Hab. Coast of Berwickshire, in deep water.

Anthea Tuedise is amongst the largest of our species. The body,
when relaxed, generally measures three inches in length, and about
the same in diameter ; it is of a uniform reddish or brownish-orange
colour, and either smooth or contracted at pleasure into circular folds.
The base is smooth and oi-ange- coloured, with a thin areolar skin.
The mouth is ever varying in size and form, and there are often pro-
truded from it vesicular-like lobes of a reddish colour scored with
fainter lines. When fully expanded, the oral disk is not less than
four inches across ; there is a smooth space between the mouth and
tentacula, which are very numerous, and placed in several rows
ai'ound the circumference ; those of the inner row are larger than the
others, measuring frequently two inches in length, and they become
gradually shorter in the exterior series. They are of a chesnut or
reddish flesh colour, often darker coloured towards the bases, but
never variegated with rings of different hues, thick and clumsy, ta-
pered to an obtuse point, marked longitudinally with distinct lines or
impressed striae, tubular, perforated at the ends, and constricted at
their insertions. The creature has no power of withdrawing them
within the oral aperture, nor does it seem capable even of shortening
them in any considerable degree, but it twists them in a wreathed or
spiral form, or gives the whole circle a greater or less degree of ex-
pansion.

Actinia.. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 223

The trivial name which I have bestowed on this species is intend-
ed to indicate the place of its first discovery, Tuedia being, according
to Sir Robert Sibbald, the ancient name of the maritime parts of Ber-
wickshire. It is not uncommon on that coast, but is found only in
deep water, whence it is dragged up by the fishermen. I have often
found the tentacula, in a separate state, adhering to their lines ; and
as these retain their irritability and motion for a long time, they are
apt to be mistaken for independent and perfect worms, which they
much resemble.

Dr Turton has introduced into his Compendium of the British
Fauna, p. 131, two species which I purposely omit. These are, I.
Actinia Caryophillus,* for which " Martin's Marine Worms" is
quoted, a work apparently very rare, and which 1 have not been able
to procure ; 2. A. ANEMONOiDp;s,f quoted from Shaw's Natura-
list's Miscellany, tab. 26, 27. The plates referred to I have not seen,
but I have looked over some volumes of the work, and I entirely
agree with Dr Leach in thinking it contemptible and unworthy of ci-
tation : the figures are in general copies from others, coloured from
the descriptions, without a single hint being given that this is the
case, and the colours are laid on in a patched and gaudy manner, only
to be rivalled in the pictures which adorn the toy-books of children.

Observations.
The Actiniae adhere to rocks, shells, and other extraneous bodies
by means of a glutinous secretion from their enlarged base ; but they
canleave their hold and remove to another station whensoever it pleases
them, either by gliding along with a slow and almost imperceptible
movement,:}: as is their usual method ; or by revei'sing the body and
using the tentacula for the purpose of feet, as Reaumur asserts, § and
as I have once witnessed ; or lastly, inflating the body with water to
render it more buoyant, they detach themselves and are driven to a
distance by the random motion of the waves. They feed on shrimps,
small crabs, whelks, and similar shelled mollusca, or, probably with
indifference, on whatever animals are brought within their reach, and
whose strength or agility is insufficient to extricate them from the
grasp of their numerous tentacula, for as these organs can be inflect-

* Stew. Elem. i. 394. Turt. Gmel. iv. 103. Pe7i. Brit Zool. iv. lOG.

f Tnrt. Gmel. iv. 101. Act. anemone, Pen. Brit. Zool. iv. 106.

I Reaumur found that they require an hour to advance one or two inches .
but I have seen A. Mesembryanthemum advance at a rate considerably quicker
— half an inch in about five minutes.

§ Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des Sc. 1710, p. 621.

224 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Actinia.

ed in any direction and greatly lengthened, they ai'e capable of being-
applied to every point, and adhere by suction with considerable tena-
city. * The food is retained in the stomach for ten or twelve hours,
when the undigested remains are regurgitated, enveloped in a glairy
fluid, not unlike the white of an egg. The size of the prey is fre-
quently in unseemly disproportion to the preyer, -j- being often
equal in bulk to itself. I had once brought me a specimen of Act.
gemmacea, that might have been originally two inches in diameter,
and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of Pecten maxi-
mus of the size of an ordinary saucer. The shell, fixed within the
stomach, was so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so
that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened
like a pancake. All communication between the inferior portion of
the stomach and the mouth was of course prevented, yet instead of
emaciating- and dying of a hytrophy, the animal had availed itself
of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident, to increase
its enjoyments and its chances of double fare. A new mouth, fur-
nished with two rows of numerous teutacula, was opened up on
what had been the base, and led to the under stomach : — the indivi-
dual had indeed become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater in-
timacy and extent in its unions I

The existence of nerves in the structure of the Actiniae is still
doubtful. Spix tells us, that he detected near the base and centre of
the body some small nodules or ganglions jjlaced in pairs, from which
filaments emanate towards the circumference, constituting, as he be-
lieves, their nervous system. Blainville asserts, however, that in
numerous dissections made with every possible care, he could see
nothing like what Spix has described and figured ; and the only part
that he can regard as nervous, is a sort of grey pulpy cord in the
margin of the labial rim. Delle Chiaje, and Mr Teale agree with
Blainville.J Be the fact as it may, we know that every part of the

* According to Gaertner the animal fixes the tentacula by throwing out of their
whole surface " a number of extremely minute suckers, which, sticking fast to
the small protuberances of the skin, produce the sensation of a roughness, which
is so far from being painful, that it even cannot be called disagreeable." Phil.
Trans, v. 52. p. 76. — No such structure can be discovered.

f " Fauces hsec animalia, subtus sacci instar penitus clausa, superne habent

pro libitu tam patulas, ut mytulos satis magnos aliasve conchas ingurgitent, e

quibus, modo nos fugiente, pisces extrabere, et evacuatas testas per eandem

aperturam, ejicere riursus valent Quae testte, si majores sint, et segre per fauces

transituras essent, Priapus non solum fauces late expandit, sed easdem, ut so-

lemus tibialia, quasi invertit, quo spatium brevius et apertura fit latior." Bas-

teri Opusc Subsec. i. lib. iii. 122.

\ But Dr Grant says — " The nervous system has been long known in the

4

AcriNi.i:. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 225

body is very sensible to external irritations : no point of the skin,
the tentaciila, nor the membrane of the stomach can 1)C touched, but
immediately the creature evidences its sense of the injury by contrac-
tions and other motions of the part. They are said also to be very
sensible of atmospherical changes : they shrink under a glare of light;*
but in a calm and unclouded sky expand and disclose every beauty,
while they remain contracted and veiled in cloudy or stormy weather.
Dicquemare has even found, from several experiments, that they
foretell changes in the weather as certainly as the barometer : when
they remain naturally closed there is reason to fear a storm, high
winds, and a troubled sea ; but a fair and calm season is to be antici-
pated when they lie relaxed with spread-out tentacula. f

Actinia." — " Nervous filaments surround the muscular foot of the Actinia, be-
neath the stomach, and present minute ganglia in their course, from which nerves
pass out to the circumference, and to the muscular folds which here possess
great power of contraction. The same system probably exists in many other
closely allied forms of polj-pi." Outl. of Comp. Anat. p. 182.

* It has been suggested that their perception of light may be communicated
through the tentacula, on the tips of which, Bosc assures us, there is a black
point or eye. Vers, Vol. ii. p- 247. This black point, as well as the other parts of
Bosc's description of the tentacida, is wholly imaginary ; nor is there a necessity
of an eye to explain the phenomena, for there can be " little doubt that a dif-
fused sensibility to light and sound exists in animals which present no special
organs of vision or hearing." Brit, and Foreign Med. Rev. v. p. 491.

f Dicquemare's observations seem of sufficient interest to justify their insertion
at length. He says, " My very earliest observation showed that the sea ane-
monies feel and prognosticate, within doors, the different changes of tempera-
ture in the atmosphere. I had not leisure at that time to form tables of their
various indications, but I have since done it. This fact, if applied to practice,
might be of use in the formation of a sea-barometer, an object of no small im-
portance, which several ingenious men have hitherto endeavoured in vain to
furnish us with. I should prefer the anemonies of the third species for this pur-
pose, their sensation being very quick ; they are also easily procured, and may be
kept without nourishment. Five of them may be put in a glass vessel, four inches
wdde and as many in depth, in which they will soon cleave to the angle formed
by the sides and the bottom. The water must be renewed every day, and as
they do not require a great quantity of it, as much may be fetched from the sea (if
they be kept on land) as will supply them for several days ; its settling some
time will only improve it- If the anemonies be at any time shut or contracted, I
have reason to apprehend <m approaching storm, that is high winds, and an agitated
sea. When they are all shut but not remarkably contracted they forebode a
weather somewhat less boisterous, but still attended with gales and a rough sea.
If they appear in the least open, or alternately and frequently opening and clos-
ing, they indicate a mean state both of winds and waves. When they are quite
open I expect tolerable line weather and a smooth sea. And lastly, when their

P

226 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Actini.t^.

That the Actiniae are vivijiarous is very commonly alleged, and
almost every naturalist who has paid attention to their habits may
he quoted as a witness of the escape of the young from the stomach
through the oral aperture. * Some have maintained that these
young may have been swallowed accidentally by the supposititious
mother, and being found unfit for digestion are consequently rejected,
quoting in favour of this not very feasible conjecture, an experiment
of Dicquemare, who, offering several small individuals to a larger one
of a different species, found that it swallowed them readily, " but threw
them up again alive within eight, ten, or twelve hours, or even later."
Dicquemare himself, although he expresses himself in dubious terms,
evidently believed them to be viviparous, having seen several bring
forth even in his hand, eight, ten, or twelve young ones like to their
parents in all but size, and which iiTimediately affixed themselves,
and began to stretch their tentacula as if in quest of prey. Ellis was
of the same belief ;f and Sir J. G. Dalyell, the best authority on the
subject, also says that they are viviparous. " The embryos, one or
more, appear firstin the tentacula, from whence they can be withdrawn
and transmitted to others by the parent, and are at last produced by
the mouth. In the course of six years, a specimen preserved by the
author, produced above 276 young ; some pale, and like mere specks,
with only eight tentacula, others florid, and with twenty. They are fre-
quently disgorged along with thehalf-digested food, thirty-eight appear-

bodies are considerably extended, and their limbs divergent they surely prognos-
ticate fixed fair weather and a calm sea. There are times when some of the
anemonies are open and others shut ; the number must then be consulted, the
question is decided by the majority. The anemonies used as barometers should
not be fed, for then the quantity of nourishment might influence their predic-
tions. Anemonies of this and of the first species live and do well for several
years without taking any other food but what they find disseminated in the sea
water ; but should a respite of some days be granted them, they might then be
fed with some pieces of muscles of soft fish, and thus restored to their original
vigour. Whenever the vessel is sullied by the sediments of salts, slime, the
first shoots of sea plants, &c. it may on changing the water be cleansed by wp-
ing it with a soft hair pencil, or even with the finger, carefully avoiding to rub
or press hard on the anemonies. Should any of them drop off during this opera-
tion, they may be left at liberty, for they will soon of their own accord fix them-
selves to some other place. Should any of them die, which will soon be disco-
vered by the milky colour of the water, and an offensive smell on changing it, it
must be taken out, and on the first opportunity another of the same species be
put in its place ; those of a moderate size are the most eligible." Dicquemare
in Phil. Trans, abridg. xiii. G42-3.

* " Leur generation ordinaire est vivipare. Les petites actinies passent de
I'ovaire dans lestomac et sortent par la bouche." Cuvier, Reg. Anim. iii. 291.

t Phil. Trans. Ivii. 429.

3

AcTiNi/E, Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 227

ing- thus at a single litter. An embryo extracted artiricially from the
amputated tip of a tentaculum, began to breed in fourteen months, and
survived nearly five years. Monstrosities by excess are not uncom-
mon among the young : one produced naturally, consisting of two
perfect bodies, and their parts sustained by a single base, exhibited
embryos in the tentacula at ten months, bred in twelve, and lived
above five years. While one body was gorged with food, the other
continued ravenous."* These facts are to be explained on the siip-
position that the ova have been detained and developed in the inter-
septal spaces, for it is very well ascertained that the creatures are
truly oviparous. The ovum, under oi'dinary circumstances, is recog-
nizable as the young of an Actinia about twenty days from the

Fig. 34.

time of its separation, f It has at first very few tentacula, — from
four to twelve, arranged in a single row, but they gradually germi-
nate in greater numbers, and arrange themselves in two or more im-
perfect circular series ;J — a fact which strikingly illustrates the futili-
ty of that classification which mainly rests the distinction of its ge-
nera upon the number of these circles. §

The Actiniae are very patient of injuries, and rival the Hydra in
their reproductive powers. They may be kept without food for up-
wards of a year ; they may be immersed in water hot enough to
blister their skin, or frozen in a mass of ice and again thawed ; and
they may be placed within the exhausted receiver of the air pump,
without being deprived of life, or disabled from resuming their usu-
al functions when placed in a favourable situation. If the tenta-
cula are clipped off they soon begin to bud anew, and if again cut away
they grow again, so that " it seems these reproductions might ex-
tend as far, or be as often repeated as patience and curiosity would
admit." If cut transversely through the middle, the lower portion of

• Rep. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, p. 599 ; and Edin. New Phil. Journ. xvii.
p. 411.

f Dalyell in Edin. New Phil. Journ. xxi- p. 89, 90.

\ Dalyell in Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, art. " AnimfU Flower," p. 1.32. Tem-
l)leton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 303 ; and Harvey in ibid. n. s. i. p. 474.

§ Brandt. A Synopsis of his System is given by Blainville. Actiuologic,
p. 066.

228 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Lucernaria.

the body will after a time produce new tentacula " pretty near as they
were before the operation ;" while the upper portion swallows food as
if nothing had happened, permitting it indeed at first to come out at
the opposite end, "just as a man's head being cut off, would let out
at the neck, the bit taken in at the mouth," but which it soon learns
to retain and digest in a proper manner. In an experiment of this
kind, the upper half, instead of healing up into a new basis, actually
produced another mouth and tentacula, so that an animal was formed
which caught its prey, and fed at both ends at the same time! If
again the section of the body is made in a perpendicular direction so
as almost to divide it into two halves, these halves unite again in a
few days. If the section is complete, two perfect individuals is the
result ; and to complete the wonder, if the body is torn away and
only a portion of the base remain, from this fragment a new offspring
will sometimes rise up to occupy the place of its parent !* Yet these
creatures, almost indestructible from mutilation and injury, may be
killed in a few short minutes, by immersion in fresh water.

21. LucERNARiA,f Muller.
Character. Body somewhat campanulate,Jixed lohen at rest
hy a narrow disk or stalk : mouth quadraiiyidar, hi the centre of
an nmhrellar expansion : tentacida disposed in ^cide1y separate
tufts on the margin.

1. L. FASCiCULARis, ^^ peduncle of the body produced : tuft of
tentacula in pairs^ ahoid a hundred in eachj" Rev. Dr Fleming.
Lucernaria fascicularis, Fleming in Wern. Mem. ii. 248, pi. 18, fig- 1, 2.
Flem. Brit. Aiiim. 499. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 304. Blainv.

Actinolog. 664. Lucernaire fasciculaire, Lamouroux in Mem. dii

Mus. ii. 470.
Hah. Common in Zetland, where " it is chiefly found on the leaves
of Fucus digitatus and F. esculentus, which grow in deep water,"
Fleming. " Found on the coast at Donaghadee, after a strong east-
erly gale, adhering to a fragment of Fucus serratus," Templeton.

" Colour dark brown ; peduncle cylindrical, flexuous, wrinkled,
with a narrow base ; body bell-shaped, subquadrangular, concave ;
margin divided into four pairs of arms, concave within ; mouth cen-
tral, tubular, consisting of a loose membrane, four notched at the tip,

* Dicquemare in Pliil. Trans, abridg. xii. 640, &c. ; xiv. 129. Yet, accord-
ing to the same excellent naturalist, a wound or rent of the basis of an Actinia
often proves falal. xiii. 637.

f F'l'ou) Lucerna, a himp.

LUCERNAIUA.

Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

2:20

and also expanded, circular, or striated at the pleasure of the animal ;
the inside with numerous white filaments." — " The animal contracts
itself into various shapes. It moves the tentacula very quickly, espe-
cially if muddy water is poured upon it. Although I have kept it
alive several days, I have never observed it in an upright position.
It in general hangs downwards, as expressed in the figure, sometimes,

however, it is nearly horizontal." Fleming. " When at rest, it

assumes very much the form of a common drinking-glass, and is ex-
ceedingly conspicuous from its beautiful rose tint." Templeton.

2. L. AURICULA, body sessile, cMinpanulate ; tufts of tentacula
8, equidistant, with a marginal tubercle between each pair. G.

Montao-u.*

Fig. 35.

Holothuria lagenam referens tentaculis octonis fasciculatis, Mull. Zool.

Dan. prod. 232, no. 2812 Lucemaria auricula, Fabric. Faun. Groenl.

341. Tvrt. Gmel. iv. 121. Montagum Lin. Trans, ix. 113, pi. 7, fig. 5.
Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 1 10. Flem. Brit. Anim. 499. Johnston in Mag.
Nat. Hist. V. 44, fig. 29 ; and in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 248. Templeton

in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 304. L. octoradiata. Lam. Anim- s. Vert. ii.

474. L. auricule, Lamour. in Mem. du Mus. ii. 471.

llab. Coast of Devonshire, Montagu. Adheres to Fuci, near low-
water-mark, on different parts of the coast, Fleming. " Found ad-
hering to the Fuci on the shore at Ballycastle, and in the cave near

* George Montagu, Esq. F. L. S. the autlior of " Testacea Britannica," and
of a much valued Ornithological Dictionary. His contributions to the history
of invertebrate animals were also numerous, and always interesting : the best,
perhaps, is his Essay on Sponges in the Wernerian Memoirs. He is often styled
Colonel Montagu, probably being the commander of some volunteer corps. He
died at Knowle House, his residence, near Kingsbridgc, Devonshire, on June 1 9,
1815, in the 76th year of his age, from tetanus produced by a wound in his foot
from a nail. Annals of Pliilosophy, vi. p. 77. His collections are now in the
British Museum. F'or an estimate of his rliaracter sec Fleming's Brit. Animals,
Pref. p. X.

230

Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

LuCERNARIA.

Dunluce Castle, county Antrim, in great numbers ; July 1815," Tern-
pleton. Berwick Bay, rare.

Our figures represent this beautiful animal in its natural size. The
individuals from which they were drawn were of a clear pinkish red
colour, but Montagu says that it is " pellucid, green, brown, purple,
red, or yellow, and all the intermediate shades in different subjects."
It adheres by a short stalk, cupped in its base and variable in its de-
gree of distinctness, dilating into a sort of campanifonn blossom, the
margin of which is set round usually with eight short processes or
arms, each of them terminated with a globose tuft of about sixty glandu-
liferous filaments, (Fig. 36, a.) The arms are mottled with two rows

Fig. 36.

of spots, occasioned by the ova (6) ; and they are connected together
by a thin transparent membrane. Between each pair there is an oval
vesicle (c) placed on the edge of this membrane. Lamouroux asserts,
apparently on the authority of Ch. Muller, that this vesicle appears
only at certain seasons, and again disappears, — a statement which re-
quires confirmation. The mouth forms a slight quadrangular pro-
jection in the centre of the cupped expansion, exactly opposite the
contracted base.

In the specimens which furnished the vignette to this order (Fig.
28,) there were nine glanduliferous tufts ; and Montagu's figure re-
presents a monstrosity with seven only, but as there is no appearance
of marginal tubercles in it, the figure may belong to the following

LUCEKNARIA.

Z. HELIANTHOIDA.

231

species. Otho Fabricius tells us — " Vescitur oniscis, praesertim onisco
ahyssino, quern semper fere solum in ventriculo ejus inveni ; raro in
majoribus squilla lobata occurrit. Hi miseri in aperturam corporis
(lilatatam oft'endentes, statim tentaculis concludentibus capiuntur et
ingurgitantur. — Saepe in uno verme plures oniscos invenire contigit,
interioribus corruptis, exterioribus adhuc integris." — Otho Fabricius.

3. L. CAMPANULATA, hody suhsessHe, campanulate ; tufts of
tcvtacula 8, equidistant, icithout intermediate marginal tubercles,
Dr John Coldstream.*

Fig. 37.

■ Lucernaria campanulata, Lamouroux in Mem. du Mus. ii. 472, pi. 16, fig.

1 — 7. L. Convolvulus, Johnston in Mag. Nat. Hist. viii. 59, fig. 3.

Lucemaire auricule, Blainv. Actinolog. pi. 30, fig. 4.

Hub. On sea-weed near low-water mark. Torbay, Dr Coldstream.
Berwick Bay, G. J.

About an inch in height ; of a uniform liver-brown colour, smooth,
adhering by a circular disk, above which there is a deep stricture or
short peduncle : the disk even, strengthened by an interior cartila-

* A native of Leith, where he is now settled as a physician. Dr C. is an
alumnus of the University of Edinburgh, and graduated M. D. in 1827 ; his
Thesis being " de Indole Morborum periodica." He early distinguished him-
self by rcseaiches in Meteorology and Zoology, more particularly by his essays
on the chromophorous globules of the Cephalopoda, and on Limnoria terebrans.

232 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Lucernaria.

ginous lamina which rises up the short peduncle, and forms a minute
hollow firm centre. The margin of the oval expansion is somewhat
thickened, and divided into eight equal arms, each furnished with a
tuft of numerous short tentacula tipped with a gland, and brighter
coloured than the body. The interior is hollowed like the blossom
of a flower, the square extensible mouth projecting in the centre ;
and in the space between the arms there is a complicated structure
composed apparently of two series of foliaceous processes arranged on
each side of a white line that seems to spring from the sides of the
mouth. These processes are formed by the complicated foldings of
a thin membrane attached by one side in the manner of a mesentery ;
there are no vessels in the membrane, but some portions of it exhi-
bit, when magnified, a kind of net-work of irregular cells, and the
outer and free edge is bounded by a thread-like line. The white cen-
tral line which divides them is formed of small roundish bodies ar-
ranged in two or three close series ; and some of these ova can at
times be traced along the margin of the circumference to the tenta-
cula. The latter are cylindrical and terminated with a globular head,
which is seemingly imperforate. The stomach is a loose thin plait-
ed extensible bag, having attached to its inner surface numeroiis fili -
form CBRca, (Fig. c) that, after their removal from the body, retain
their irritability for a long time, and writhe themselves like a knot of
worms. — Dr Coldstream has favoured me with the following obser-
vations on the habits of this Lucernaria. — " I find the animal very
hardy. It is constantly in a state of expansion, and does not contract
excepting when very rudely handled. One specimen has lived with
me for three weeks although the water has not been very often
changed. When 1 first procured it, the two rows of spots running
from the mouth along each arm were prominent, and of a dark red-
dish-brown colour. Since that time they have increased in size, and
have become studded with numerous white oval bodies which I sup-
pose to be ova. I see some of these have made their way into the
web connecting the arms, but I have not observed any expelled from
the body."— 5th April 1833.

Observations.
The Lucernarise are of a gelatinous consistence. The skin or co-
rium is smooth and thickish. After covering and giving form to the
body it is reflected over the oral disk, and encloses, within the du])li-
cature formed by this reflection, the internal viscera. The body is
more or less distinctly campanulate, and is prolonged inferiorly into
a pedicle, very variable in length, which has its bottom conformed
into a small sucker. From this point four ligaments, probably of a

4

LvcERHAiuJF.. Z. HELIANTHOIDA. 233

muscular nature, rise up within the peduncle, dividing at the expan-
sion of the l»ody, into eight distinct fasciculi, one proceeding to each
arm. These fasciculi are composed of long parallel fibres, are analo-
gous to the lamella} of the Actinia), and like them divide the body
into eight equal compartments, for the inner fold of the corium is in-
timately connected with them on both sides. The vermiform caeca
lie in these compartments ; and the ova appear also to be generated
in them, but whether they have an appropriate ovary is doubtful. A
specimen which had undergone a certain degree of putrefaction and
dissolution exhibited these ova forming a complete circle round the
mouth with rows running up the arms to the base of the tentacula.
(Fig. 36.) The ova were proportionably large, roundish or oval (Fig.
36, d), and irregularly grouped. The change produced in the appear-
ance of the tentacula was considerable, for the globular apex had dis-
appeared, and all had assumed a linear or conical figure (Fig. e), — the
centre filled with an opake granular matter forming a dark speck at
the apex, and covered with a clear mucous skin. The vesicle pre-
sented precisely the same structure, but no apertui'e was visible in
either part.

The Lucernarise can swim with some rapidity in the water by al-
ternate dilatations and contractions of the body, but they are usually
found adherent to sea-weeds, the first species in a dependent position,
the two latter invariably erect, so that Lamarck is in error when he
describes the mouth as being inferior. When in a state of expan-
sion, few marine worms exceed them in beauty and singularity of
form ; when contracted they are shapeless and easily overlooked.
They feed on small crustaceous animals brought within reach by the
tide or their own destiny,* and to arrest them more certainly the ten-

" Lamouroux asserts that L. campaniilata perceives its prey wlien within a
short distance and pursues it. His words are — " J'avois la precaution de chan-
ger I'eau de mes Lucernaires deux fois par jour ; dans un vase qui ne contenoit
qu'un de ces animaux, ce dernier executa des mouvements qui me parurent ex-
traordinaires dans un etre d'un consistance aussi molle, immediatement apres
que j'y eus de I'eau nouvelle ; avec la loupe je m'aper^us que ces mouvcmens
etoient causes par la presence d'un animalcule que la Lucernaire sembloit i)ur-
suivre en se portant a droite et a gauche, pour taclier de le saisir ; toutes les
fois qu'il s'eloignoit a la distance d'environ lui pouce, la Lucernaire cessoit tout
mouvement ; s'il se rapprochoit, la chasse recommen9oit de suite, et les mouve-
mens etoient vifs et prompts : I'animalcule fut enfin saisi par les tcntacides d'un
dcs rayons, qui a I'instant se replie vers la bouche ; les autrcs rostercnt tou-
jours etales ; ce rayon reprit pen a pen sa position ordinaire, M'utant procure
d'autres animalcules, je les donnai a mes Lucernaires, et j'cus le plaisir de voir
leurs mouvemens se repcter avec les memes circonstances." Mem. du Mus. ii.
4G4.

234 Z. HELIANTHOIDA. Lucernari;e.

tacula are widely displayed ; but no sooner have they felt the prey
than they instantly contract, envelope it in their joint embrace,
and carry it to the mouth by an involution of the whole marginal cir-
cumference. I have found that the glands with which the tentacula
are tipped pei'form the office of suckers, as Lamarck conjectured, and
thus retain their captives with greater certainty ; but if Dr Fleming's
figure of L. fascicularis is correct, its tentacula are not glauduli-
ferous.

" O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all :
the earth is full of thy riches : so is this great and wide Sea, wherein are
things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts." — Psalmist.

BRITISH ZOOPHYTES.

PART V.

ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

Fig. 38. b

Lagenella repens.

" How many animals, whose middle part

" The sharpest eye

« Can't see ?

" How subtle then the guts, the heart, the eye I

" How thin each little member of the whole !"

Lucretius, s. Creech.

" Aiiisi poiu- I'espece humaine on peut dire que les Zoantliaires ne sont utilos
que comme moyen philosophique. Ce sont en effet des animaux fort remar-
quables sous ce rapport, et dontla connoissance a introduit des considerations tres
interessantes dans la science de la vie." — H. M. D. De JBlainville.

" Combien on a eu tort de negliger, dans la recherche des lois de la vie,
I'etude de ces etres microsoopiques que Ton se contentait de releguer dans le
domaine des ainusemens et des petites recreations physiques, comme si, dans les
profondeurs de la nature, il existait de petit autre chose que les petits esprits !"
— M. Raspail.

" O how desirable are all His works ! and that a man may see even to a spark.
All these things live and remain for ever for all uses, and they are all obedient-
All things are double one against another : and He hath made nothing imper-
fect. One thing cstablisheth the good of another : and who shall be filled witli
beholding His glory." — Ecclesiasticus.

ZOOPHYTA BRITANNICA.

ORDER IV.

Z. ASCIDIOIDA. *

Character.
Polt/pes aggregate^ the mouth encircled with filiform ciliated
retractile tentacula ; a distinct stomach, with a curved intestine
terminating in an anus near the mouth ; ova internal. — Polypi-
dams very variable, — either horny fistidar and confervoid, or cal-
careous, membranous, or fibro-gelatinous, formed of cells connected
and arranged in a determinate and usually quincuncial manner.

Observations.
In the preceding orders we found reason to conclude that
the polypidom of the Hydroida was a sheath disconnected, or
at least not in organic union, with the soft pulpous matter which
it invests and protects ; that the corresponding part in the Aste-
roida, become an interior siieleton or axis, held the same rela-
tion to itspolypiferous crust; nor was this relation altered when
the polypidom had again, in the Helianthoida, assumed an ex-
ternal position, forming an integral part of the epidermis. In
all these instances the polypidom. appears to be unorganized,
and when once formed, beyond the reach of change from either
the polypes or its own inherent powers ; -f- but in the present

* This order corresponds with the Polyzoa of Thompson, the Bryozoa of
Ehrenberg, the Bryozoaires of Milne- Edwards, and the Ciliobrachiata of
Farre. Our order Hydroida Farre designates Nudierachiata, thereby indicat-
ing the absence of cilia on the tentacula ; aiid Milne- Edwards les Sertulai-
RiENS. His Alcy'oniens is synonymous with our Asteroida ; and the Zoan-
taires with Helianthoida, but Farre unites these under the name of Antho-
ZOA, borrowed from Ehrenberg.

•\- " Unorganized non-vascular parts are produced by an organized matrix,
and grow by the continued deposition of new matter on one surface." Miiller's
Elements of Physiology, p. 384.

238 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

order, the cell, although pre-eminently entitled to the name of
polypidom from its appearance and use, is a living portion of
the animal which it seemingly contains. The cell is in fact the
outer tunic of the polype, analogous to the envelope of the com-
pound mollusca, endowed certainly with no very sensible or active
properties of life, yet in organic connection with the interior parts
and liable to organic changes. The relationship in which they
stand to one another is nearly, if not precisely, the same as
that which the fleshy crust of the Asteroida bears to its polypes,
as a comparison of the Alcyonium with the Alcyonidium or Al-
cyonella will render sufficiently plain ; and it is not less real
even in those genera where the cells, when dried, have hard
calcareous and apparently impermeable parietes. For the proof
of this fact, — a very important one in their physiology, and in
any question touching their rank in the animal kingdom, — na-
turalists are principally indebted to Milne-Edwards, and I can-
not do better than lay his arguments in its behalf before the
reader in a translation of his own words. * The connection is
effected by means of an inner tunic which, after enclosing the
polype's body as in a pouch, is afterwards reflected over the
aperture of the cell, — the reflected portion becoming exterior
and solidified either by calcareous depositions in its texture, or
by a mutation of its thin membranous character into a horny
investment better suited to the office it has now to perform of pro-
tecting the sentient body from a too rough contact of the medium
in which the animals live, and from worser foes. From this mode
of connection it results that when the polypes retire within, they
at the same time must close the aperture to their cells, for that
portion of the inner tunic which is pushed outwards by their
exit, in their withdrawal follows the body by a process of invagi-
nation, becoming at one and the same time a sheath for the
column of tentacula, and a ])lug to the aperture, which, when
of a flexible material, has its margins also drawn tighter and
closer together.

The polype which endues itself with this cell is widely diff'er-
ent from any previously described ; and in a system that should
pretend to arrange animals according to their agreements in or-
oanization, could not be placed in one common class. Be-

• See Additional Note, No. 4.

ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA. 239

tween the polypidoms there is an apparent affinity. The Crisiadoe
are not unhkc the Sertuhiriacla?, and it is still disputed whether
some Gemmicellariyo appertain to this family or to the Flustra ;
the resemblance between the Sertularite and the Vesiculariadse
misled even Lamarck to their union under one genus ; and their
names would seem to imply that the framers of the genera Al-
cyonidium and Alcyonella believed them to be in a family re-
lationship to Alcyonium. These are examples which prove the
fallacy of outward characters ; and how darkly the naturalist
must grope his way who would walk through Nature's labyrinth
without the ariadnsean thread that the anatomist alone can give
him ! In the instance before us he has demonstrated that the
resemblances indicated above imply no propinquity in their ob-
jects. The ascidian polypes the Creator has cast in the mould
— not of the radiata — but of the mollusca, — yet with such a con-
siderable variation as to mark their ordinal distinctness ; for the
Mollusca Tunicata — their nearest allies — are not protrusive from
their cells as these polypes are ; and this seeming slight dis-
crepancy connects itself, perhaps of necessity, with a total change
in the position and nature of their respiratory organs. Interior
and immotive in the one tribe, they line, in a reticular pattern, the
parietes of a sac capacious enough to contain a sufficiency of the
aerating fluid ; while in the other they clothe the exsertile ten-
tacula in the form of cilia which must be placed outwards amid
the circumfluent waters before they can play and fulfil their func-
tions.

Notwithstanding the great diversity in the forms of the poly-
pidoms of this order, there appears to be a very remarkable uni-
formity in the habit and structure of the polypes. The body lies
doubled up in the cell (Fig. 39, a, b.), its oral extremity crowned
with a circle of lono- filiform ciliated tentacula.* From the
centre of this circle the mouth opens into a sort of pharynx
(Fig. 39, a, 1.) which begins the cesophageal tube, generally of

* At page 34 the tentacula of the Ascidioida are stated to be solid .• an error
which Dr Farre enables us to correct. In Alcyouidium, " with an amplifying
power of 200 linear," " they are seen to be (ubular throughout, and to have an
aperture at each extremity; (hat nt the base apparently communicating with a
fine canal round the oral rim, which probably unites the tentacular canals into
one circle." Phil. Trans, an. 1837, p- 406. This is a structure very like that
in the two preceding orders.

240 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

considerable length, and studded, especially at the upper part,
with minute oval spots arranged in close contact with each other.
The whole tube appears to be highly irritable, and contracts
vigorously when food is introduced into it. "At the termi-
nation of the oesophagus is a distinct cardiac orifice (a, 2.) that
opens into a small globular cavity of singular construction, which
appears to perform the office of a gizzard, (a and b, 3.) The
parietes of this organ are thicker than in any other part of the
alimentary canal. They contain two dark round bodies placed
opposite to each other, from each of which dark lines are seen
radiating." In the space between these bodies may be seen a
number of scales grouped in a close, regularly tessulated man-
ner, which line the inner surface of the cavity, and probably
serve the office of gastric teeth, having their motions regulated
by the muscular fibres whose disposition is indicated by the dark

radiating lines.

The o-izzard,*or when it is absent (which proves to be the case
in many oenera), the oesophagus, opens downward into the true
digestive stomach, (a, 4.) from which it is separated only by the
contraction of the parietes. This stomach is usually of an ob-
long shape, and its walls are thickly studded with spots of a rich
brown colour, — apparently hepatic follicles that secrete a fluid
which often tino-es the whole organ, as well as its contents, of a
similar hue. — " From the upper part of the stomach, and by
the side of the entrance from the gizzard, arises the intestine
{a, 6.) by a distinct pyloric orifice (a, 5.) that is surrounded by
vibratino- cilia. The intestine passes up straight and narrow by
the side of the oesophagus, from which it is entirely separate and
free, and terminates by a distinct anal orifice {a, 7.) in the deli-
cate parietes of the body, close to the outer side of the tentacu-
lar rino-. The parietes of the intestine are marked with pale
spots, something like those of the pharynx, and the whole tube,
like the rest of the alimentary canal, possesses a high contrac-
tde power. Thus the alimentary canal consists of pharynx or
oesophagus, gizzard, stomach and intestine, with subsidiary se-

* Compare this with a somewhat similar structure in the planarian worms
which I have phiced in the genus Nemertes. Mag. of Zool. and Bot. Vol. i. p.
530. pi. 17, fig. 5.

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ZOOPHYTA ASC'IDIOIDA. 241

creting follicles, and distinct oral, cardiac, pyloric, and anal ori-
fices. The whole floats freely in a visceral cavity, the bound-
aries of which are formed by the delicate transparent parietes
of the animal ; the space between the alimentary canal and the
parietes being occupied by a clear fluid, and by the muscles
which act upon the animal."*

Let us now suppose that the polypes are in a state of extru-
sion and fully expanded, as represented in Fig. 39, a ; all the cilia
in play, and the water whirling in rapid streams up and down
the opposite sides of the tentacula, carrying with them nutri-
ment and the breath of life. All is quietness and security
around, and the little creatures are evidently in a state of hap-
piness and enjoyment : no one who has witnessed the micro-
scope scene, — the myriads of the little flosculous heads that
pullulate and blossom over the entire polypidom, as thickly
peopled as the swarming hive, can have any doubt of this,-}- es-
pecially when he remarks the acuteness and vivacity of their
sensibilities and actions, for, under his eye, one will ever and
anon suddenly sink out of view, hide itself within the cell, again
on a sudden emerge and expand, or, it may be, lay itself down
in repose and concealment, until digestion has freed it from a
state of repletion, or forgetfulness has removed the alarm of an
enemy.:}: These positions are assumed with such a rapidity that
the eye cannot trace the steps of the process ; and large glasses
and minute skill are required to reveal to us its mechanism.

• Farre in lib. cit. p. 393.

t " The heart is hard in natm-e,

that is not pleased

With sight of animals enjoj'ing life,
Nor feels their happiness augment his own."

Cowper-
\ " No trace of either nerves or ganglia could be detected ; yet the attributes
of a nervous system were so clearly exhibited as to leave no doubt but that this
must exist, and probably in some degree of perfection. Not only was the deli-
cacy of their sense of touch very strongly marked, but the operations also con-
sequent upon the enjoyment of such a sense were sometimes singularly striking.
This is seen in the instant retiring of the animal on the slightest alarm, and the
caution which it sometimes shows before emerging again from its cell ; in the
obvious selection of its food ; and in the pertinacity with which it refuses to ex-
pose itself to water that has become in the least degree deteriorated." — Farre in
Phil. Trans, an. 1837, p. 414.

242 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

The polype then is expanded and wishes to sink within its cell.
To answer this wish two distinct sets of muscles are provided,
the one acting upon the animal, and the other upon the flexible
part of the cell, or, in other words, on that portion of the inner
tunic which has been carried outwards in the polype's egress.
The former set originate from the bottom of the cell («, 8,) and
from the sides near the bottom (ar, 9) ; whence trending upwards,
they are inserted into the stomach, and into the pharynx and
tentacular ring. It is obvious from this position, that their con-
traction will draw the whole body down in the cell, where it lies
doubled up in the form of a letter S, that all its parts may be
brought within the compass of its house. The other set of
muscles for the retraction of the flexible portion of the cell, or
operculum, have their origin from the inner surface and near the
top of the fixed immotive part, and are inserted into the piece
on which they act ; (Fig. b, 2, 3,) so that when the first set have
partially done their duty, the second follow up the process by
pulling after the sinking body the flexible membrane, inverting
it at the same time as we undo a stocking from the leg ; and as
the last result, closing the aperture or fixing the operculum down
upon it.

To replace the polype in its external relations a very diffe-
rent mechanism is brought into play. The inner tunic of the
cell, or that which immediately invests the body and encloses the
viscera as in a sac, appears to be susceptible of changes in its
capacity from the action of some muscular fibres that run in a
transverse direction through it. When the polype lies perdue,
the sac is distended and the muscles relaxed, but on their con-
traction the capacity of the sac is reduced ; and the body,
pressed upon on all sides, must of necessity rise upwards in that
direction in which it is most free to move. At the same time
the little creature appears to have the power of straightening the
alimentary canal ; and by its pressure against the bottom of the
cell, the extrusion of the body is aided and completed.*

* It would appear as if muscular fibre were here reduced to its simplest con-
dition. The filaments are totally disconnected, and are arranged the one above
the other in a single series. They pass straight and parallel from their origin
to their insertion, and have a uniform diameter throughout their course, except
that each filament generally presents a small knot upon its centre, which is most

ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA. 243

The cell tenanted by this polype is of a tubular, an elliptical,
oval, or hexangular figure, circumscribed by distinct walls which
apparently separate it from those that lie in juxtaposition, and
hinder any intercommunity. The isolation, however, I believe
to be more apparent than real. In Vesicularia the cells are
apart from each other, and rise from a common tube, — the zoo-
phyte affording by this disposition of them a very favourable ob-
ject for observing their true connection. Now Ellis states that
while a branch of this species was in a watch-glass of sea -water,
on the stage of the microscope, he " could plainly distinguish
that the internal hollow part of the whole coralline was filled
with the substance of the parent polype, which appeared to be
of a tender gelatinous nature ; and upon the least extension or
contraction of the young polypes, this tender fleshy substance
was visibly affected ; for each one was united to it by their lower
part or tail."* I think 1 have also noticed a distinct thread of
communication between the polypes of the Flustra ; and
though tlie closeness of their proximity, and their opacity, may
prevent the demonstration in other genera, yet a like union may
be probably inferred, for other conclusion seems incompatible
with the mode of increase of the polypidoms, and the regula-
rity of their patterns.

The polypidom, formed in some species of a congeries of
many thousand cells, begins with one only. This original or
seminal cell has no sooner been completed, or even in many in-
stances previous to its perfection, than another begins to shoot
out from a fixed point of its parietes, the bud gradually en-
larging and developing itself until the form and size of the pri-
mary one has been attained.-f- This process can most easily be

apparent when it is in a state of contraction, at which time the whole filament
also is obviously thicker than when relaxed. The filaments have a watery tran-
sparency and smooth surface, and under the highest powers of the microscope
present neither an appearance of cross markings nor of a linear arrangement of
globules." Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1837, p. 394.

* Essay on Corallines, p. 21.

f Of Lcefling's observations on Meinbranipora pilosa, Pallas says — " Vidit
propagari seu augeri, per gemmas a marginalibus seu extremis cellulis protrusas,
in perfectas cellulas efBngendas, e quibus polypus dein exseritur. Interdum 2
proles ab eadem cellula, at non simid exseri, sicque series duplicari atque in la-
titudinem pandi cnistam vidit." Elench. Zooph. p. 51. See also p .34.

244 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

traced in the Vesiculariadse, and in our common Flustrae and
Escharinae, where round the margin of the crust, cells can at all
seasons be observed in every stage of their evolution ; — one just
jutting out, another half-formed, and others again nearly com-
plete. They never begin their original in the body of the po-
lype, but always from the parietes, or rather the connecting
medium ; * nor indeed is the embryo distinguishable within
until the cells have made considerable advances to maturity.
Then the softer parts begin to assume a shape, and gradually
to limb themselves after the similitude of their antecedent co-
partners, when having reached their term and ready for a par-
tial independency, they burst their outward cerements, always
at a fixed point, prepared for their exit by the same Power
which has moulded the whole.

From this mode of increase there would seem to be no natu-
ral limits set to the magnitude and duration of the polypidom,
except what arise from accident or extrinsic causes. The ori-
ginal polype and its immediate successors may grow old, lan-
guish and die ; but the solid cells remain in their connection
as a root and fixture, while the newer races, which have sprung
up towards the outskirts, continue their work, — generation fol-
lowing generation in rapid and ever-multiplying successions.
The polypidom in this respect i-esembles a tree in its growth :
the trunk and main branches have stood years and centuries, but
the increase has been made by annual shoots and renewals, and
the last know only vigour and juvenescence. And as the form
of the tree depends on the fashion of its ramifications, so that of
the polypidom on the mode of evolution of its cells, for every
part of the axis is not equally organized to produce buds, nor
the same parts in all. Hence if the primitive cell has only one
point fitted for this gemmation, the polypidom will be builded
up in a catenated chain ; if the cell has two points, two series

* They, in this respect, are formed the same as the Asteroida, of which Milne-
Edwards says: — " On voit done qu' ici la partie qui donne naissance aux bour-
geons reproducteurs est precisement la partie qui n'api)artient en propre a aucun
des Polypes reunis en masse, mais qui leur est commune a tons. Le tissu gene-
rateur entoure ces petits etres comme une sorte de gangue vivante et produit
dans la profondeur de sa substance de nouveaux polypes sans qu'aucun de ceux
deja existans paraissent intervenir d'une maniere directe dans I'acte de la repro-
duction. ' Ann. dcs Sc. Nat. iv. p. 310. 1835.

ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA, 245

of cells are formed, and in several the multiplication goes on in
a regular arithmetical progression ; but in others the cells are
heaped together without apparent regularity, as in Alcyonella
and Alcyonidium, where the softness of all the parts seems to
allow of a non-regulated succession of buds. The general dis-
position of the cells, however, in this order is certainly after the
quincunx, affording examples which the learned Sir Thomas
Browne would have gladly adduced in proof that " Nature geo-
metrizeth and observeth order in all things, and of the generality
of this mystic figure." Nor indeed were they entirely overlooked
by this observant physician. " The spongy leaves of some sea-
wracks," he says, " Fucus, Oaks, in their several kinds, found
about the shear, with ejectments of the Sea, are over-wrought
with net-work elegantly containing this order (the quincunx) :
which plainly declareth the naturality of this texture ; and how
the Needle of Nature delighteth to work, even in low and
doubtful vegetations."*

Whilst the composite individual is thus increased by gemmules
or buds, the species is propagated and diffused by means of ciliat-
ed ova, of which the source has been a matter of some difference
of opinion among naturalists. There appear at certain seasons,
on many of these zoophytes, round pearly testaceous bodies
which are placed on or above the mouths of the cells. Ellis
believed these to be their matrices or ovaries " which, in time,"
he says, " may unfold and extend themselves into those many
beautiful tree-like forms that we find them in."f This opinion
was also adopted by Pallas, because of the seasonal appearance
of the bodies in question, and because they are found only over
full-^rown and matured cells.! No one after this seems to have
held other belief, § until recent discoveries, demonstrating the
complexity of the organization of this order, rendered the exis-

• The Garden of Cyrus, p. 33. Lond. 1686. folio.

f Essay on Corallines, p. xi Ellis's earlier conjectures, which, being erro-

■neous, it is unnecessary to detail, may be seen in Phil. Trans, abridg- (an.
1753) X. p. 346.

I Elench. Zoophytorum, p. 36.

§ " I am inclined to consider them as ovaria enclosing the germs of future
individuals ; having observed that these vesicular bodies are sometimes whole,
and in this case I have always found them filled with small globular bodies."
Lamonroux, Corall. p. 58.

•246 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

fence of an internal separate ovary probable ; and some have
asserted its discovery. Mr Thompson, for example, maintains
that the organ suspended from the bend of the body of the Ve-
siculariadge is " an ovum or ovarium," because it is " quite ana-
logous in situation with the same organ in the lately discovered
compound Ascidise ;"* and when treating of the Cellarise Milne-
Edwards assigns to this organ a similar function, -f- but in other
places he tells us that it is connected with the biliary secretion. I
Previously however to the researches of either Thompson or Ed-
wards, Professor Grant had told us that the ova were generated
exterior to the body of the polype and disjunct from it, pullulat-
ing from the common connecting medium, for the ova and gem-
mules have the same origin, but the ova sprout from its inner
surface, whereas the gemmules grew from the exterior side on-
ly, and in consequence are capable of being developed without
separation. The correctness of this opinion seems to be prov-
ed by the observations of Dr Grant on the Flustra, in which he
saw that the ova were developed from the sides of the cell,
which they gradually filled by their increase in size, the body of
the polype being at the same time absorbed ; by the observations
of Raspail on the Alcyonella in which no ovary could be de-
tected, and in which the ova are evidently the produce of a
part disconnected with the animal viewed abstractedly ; and by
the researches of Dr Farre, who has equally proved that there is
no ovary in the Vesiculariadse, the organ which had been so
considered being in fact the proper stomach.

The following synopsis exhibits the genera arranged under
their respective families, but at the same time it ought to be re-
membered that as, of many of the species and of some genera,
the polype remains unknown, their true position in the class is
only conjectural.

• Zool. Researches, p. 96.

f " On remarque aussi au bas de I'anse, forme par I'intestin, un organe par-
ticulier qui pourrait bien etre un ovarie destine a produire des gemmes reproduc-
teurs." Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. p. 175. 2de edit.

^ " — une anse a laquelle est comme suspendu im appendice ceecal gros et
court." Ibid. p. 214. This opinion is also that of Professor Grant. Outlines
of Comp. Anat. p. 314.

1.

ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA. 247

* Natives of the sea. (Tentaciila forming a perfect
circle.) Polypiaria infundibalatii P. Gervais.

Family I. VESICULAKlADiE.

Poh/pidoms corneous, Jistular, conjervoid : cells vesicular,
deciduous, non-oijerculate.

22. Vesicularia. Cells ovate, disjunct, uniserial, unilateral.

23. Serialaria. Cells tubulous, adjacent, uniserial, unilateral.

24. Valkeria. Cells ovate, clustered, or in pairs.

23. Bowerbankia. Cells elliptical, irregularly scattered, unila-
teral.

Family II. CRISIADiE.

Pohjpidom calcareous or suhcalcareous, branched, confervoid,
jointed : the cells linked together in one or more series, distinct,
tubular or elliptical, ivith a terminal or suhterminal aperture,
never closed loith an operculum.

26. Crisia. Cells tubular, catenated in one or two alternating
series, the aperture round and terminal.

27. NoTAMiA. Cells ovate, geminate, opposite, the aperture
suhterminal.

28. HiPPOTHOA. Cells elliptical, linked together, the aperture

superior and lateral.

29. Anguinaria. Cells spathulate, separate, the aperture lateral.

Family III. TUBULIPORIDiE.

Polypidoms calcareous, variable in shape but never confervoid :
cells tubular, rowed, rising from a base and projecting, the aperture
terminal and non-operculate.

30. TuBULiPORA. Cells tubular, rowed, with distinct parietes.

31. DiscoPORA. Cells tabular, quincuncial, confluent.

Family IV. CELLEPORIDiE.

Polypidoms calcareous or membrano-calcareous, lohed, ra-
mous or crustaceans, formed of an aggregation of cells disposed
usually in quincunx : cells utricular, in juxta-position, with a
contracted terminal aperture, often covered ivith an operculum.

32. Cellepora. Polypidom lobed or raraous ; cells heaped.

33. Lepralia. Polypidom crustaceous ; the cells in a single lay-
er, rowed, subaltcrnate, with a contracted orifice.

248 ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

34. Membranipora. Polypidom membranous ; the cells distinct,
membranous with an ossified rim to the aperture which is patulous.

Family V. ESCHARIDiE.
Polypidoms calcareous^ membrano-calcareous or membranous,
very variable in form, composed of cells usually disposed in
quincunx ; the cells oblong, pentagonal or hexagonal, conjunct,
immersed or horizontal to the plane of axis, icith a subterminal
or lateral aperture usually covered with an operculum.

35. Flustra. Cells quadrangular or hexagonal, on one or two
planes, forming mat-like expansions, free and foliaceous or incrusting.

36. Cellularia. Cells oblong with a terminal aperture, in two
sublaternate rows on a single plane, forming a dichotomously divided
narrow subcalcareous polypidom.

37. Acamarchis. Cells oblong with a wide lateral aperture, in
two subalternate rows, forming a dichotomous confervoid polypidom.

38. Farcimia. Cells rhomboidal, immersed ; the polypidom di-
chotomous, with jointed cylindrical branches.

39. Retepora. Cells immersed, quincuncial, on the upper side
of a frondescent, netted, calcareous polypidom.

40. Eschara. Cells immersed, quincuncial, in a double layer
placed back to back like the cells in honey-comb, forming a frondes-
cent membrano-calcareous polypidom.

Family VI. ALCYONIDUL.^.
Polypidoms sponge-like, fleshy, polymorpihous ; the cells irre-
gular in disposition, immersed and concealed, loith a contractile
non-operculate aperture.

41. Alcyonidium. Cells immersed, irregular, with a contractile
aperture, forming a fleshy lobed polypidom.

42. Cliona. Cells amorphous, perforated in a sponge-like polypi-
dom strengthened with siliceous spicula.

** Lacustkine. (Tentacula in the form of a horse-shoe.)
Polypiaria hippocrepia, P. Gervais-

Family VII. LIMNIADES.

Polypidoms fleshy or spongy or corneous, polymorphous, the
polypes placed in tabes tvith angular or round orifices, closed
lohen the animals recede.

43. Cristatklla. Polypidom fleshy or sponge-like, massive.

44. Plumatella. Polypidom horny, fistular, confervoid.

FUj. 40.

JV. ZOOPHYTA ASCIDIOIDA.

FAMILY IX. VESICULARIADJS.

Since we profess to be guided, in the classification of zoophytes, by simi-
larity in the structure of the polypes considered independently of their poly,
pidoms, the Vesiciilariadje, notwithstanding their apparent dissimilarity, must be
associated in the same order N\ith Alcyonidium and Flustra. They have been
hitherto united with the Sertulariadee, and previous to our knowledge of their
polypes, this seemed a very natural union, for the polypidoms of both are slen-
der and plant-like, horny, fistular and flexible, and furnished with somewhat si-
milar cells on their branches. But the differences between them even in out-
ward aspect are not inconsiderable, and although it may be difficult to point out
these by any description, they are nevertheless not the less obvious to one fa-
miliar with the objects. The polypidoms of the Vesiculariadae are more flexible
and of a thinner texture, less arboreal and more confervoid, not so regularly
jointed, nor ramified in the same determinate and fixed manner. They are all
marine productions, generally not more than an inch or two high, and are found
attached only to sea-weeds or other corallines.

For a knowledge of the animated tenants of these structures we are indebted
to Cavolini, the Rev. Dr Fleming, J. V. Thompson, Esq. and more particularly
to Dr F'arre, of whose researches a summary has been given in the preliminary
observations. The following is his description of the cells in the present fa-
mily :

" The transparent horny cell which closely embraces the body of the animal
is nearly unyielding in its lower two-thirds, but terminates above by a flexible
portion, which serves to protect the upper part of the body when the whole is

250 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Vesicularia.

expanded, in which state it is of the same diameter as the rest of the cell ; but
when the animal retracts is folded up and drawn in after it, and completely closes
the mouth of the cell.

" The flexible part consists of two portions, the lower half being a simple
continuation of the rest of the cell ; the upper consisting of a row of delicate
bristle-shaped processes or setae, which are arranged parallel with each other round
the top of the cell, and are prevented separating beyond a certain distance by a
membrane of excessive tenuity, which surrounds and connects the whole. This
mode of termination of the ceU is one of constant occurrence, as will be describ-
ed in other species, and is evidently a provision for allowing of the freest possible
motion of the upper part of the body in its expanded state, to which it affords
at the same time support and protection." Phil. Trans, an. 1837, p. 393.

22. Vesicularia, * Thompson.
Charactek. Polypidoms rooted^ confervoid, Jistular.^ horny,
dichotomoiisly branched, jointed at the divisions : cells ovate, dis-
junct, iiniserial and unilater'al. Polypes ascidian.

1. V. spiNOSA. Dillenius.

Plate xxix. Fig. 1-4.
Conferva marina cancellata. Rait, Syn. i. 59, no. 1 1 . Dill. Hist. Muse. '24,
no. 22, pi. 4, fig. 22, — fide D. Turner in Lin. Trans, vii. 106 Con-
ferva cancellata, Lin. Syst. ii. 720. With. Bot. Arrang. iv. 131

Silk Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 20, no. 17, pi. 11, fig. b, B, c, D Ser-

tularia spinosa, Lin. Syst. 1312. JEllis and Soland. Zooph. 48. Turt.
Gmel. iv. 682. Jameson, in Wern. Mem. i. 364. Bosc, Vers, iii. 118.
Stew. Elem. ii. 446. Berk. Syn. i. 219. Turt. Brit. Faun. 215. La-
marck, Anim. s. Vert. ii. 120. 2de edit. ii. 148. Hogg, Stock. 33

Sert. sericea. Pall. Elench. 114 Laomedea spinosa, Corall. 91.

Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 466 Valkeria spinosa, Flem. Br.

Anim. 551 Vesicularia spinosa, Thomp. Zool. 111. 98, pi. 3. fig. 1-8.

Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1837, 401, pi. 22 La Laomedee epineuse,

Blainv. Actinolog. 474.

Hab. In deep water, not uncommon. " Junio et Julio mensibus
pone Sheerness in insula Shepey copiose observavi," Dillenius. " At
the Nore, near the entrance of the Thames," Ellis. Leith shore,
Jameson. " Rarely found near Hartlepool," J. Hogg. " Found
on the shore of Belfast Lough : common/' Templeton. Liverpool,
Hev. D. Landsborough.

Polypidom affixed by a fibrous base, very slender, confervoid, of <i
thin membi'anous pellucid texture, much branched, erect, sometimes
as much as 8 inches in height, usually about 4 ; main branches com-
posed of intertwined capillary tubes, tapered, zigzag ; branchlets arising
from the bends, eitlier solitary or in pairs, short, much divided dicho-
toniously, the apices pointed and closed ; all the branches are joint-

* From vesicula, diminutive of vesica, a bladder

SEniALAiuA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 251

ed under each bend, and the branchlets at each division, and they are
perforated with u single series of rather distant holes with a raised
rim as if thoy had been bored from within outwards : cells three between
each joint, deciduous, oval, transparent. — " The animals are very easi-
ly seen in all their details in this species, from the great transparency
of the vesicles, and are provided with eight tentacula," Thompson)
which '' are ciliated but not armed with spines." Farre.

The holes in the sides of the capillary branches mark the places
whence the polype-cells have fallen. The spine-like points in which
the divisions of the branchlets terminate have suggested the Linnean
specific name ; and that of Ellis and Pallas expresses the silky ap-
pearance which dried specimens exhibit. Ellis has well marked the
distinctions which separate the species from the Sertulariadse. " The
motion of the intestines of the young Polypes was very distinguish-
able till the water became putrid ; and then both vesicles and poly-
pes dropped off, like blighted blossoms off a tree ; and the substance
of the parent polype, though seeming to fill the whole cavity of the
branch before, as soon as the water became improper for its support,
shrivelled up immediately so as scarce to be visible"

23. Serialaria,* Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom confervoid, horny, the shoots slen-
der, filiform, Jistular and branched : cells tub ulous, uniserial and
unilateral, disposed in close parallel companies at stated intervals.
— Polypes ascidian.

1. S. LENDiGERA, much branched, the branches spreading, sub-

dichotomous ; cells in isolated groups, erect, with wide uneven

apertures. — Doody.

Vignette, No. 40, page. 249.
Fucoides lendigenim capillamentis Cuscutae instar implexis, Rail, Syn.

38. no. 3 Nit Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 27, no. 24, pi. 15, fig. b. B.

Sertularia lendigera, Lin- Syst. 1311. Pall. Elench. 124. Ellis

and Soland. Zooph. 52. Turt. Gmel. iv. 682. Berk. Syn. i. 218.
Stew. Elera. ii- 445. Wern. Mem. i. 5G4. Turf. Brit. Faun. 215.
Bosc, Vers, iii. 117. Hogg's Stock. 33. Lister in Phil. Trans, an.

1834, 384 La Sertolara lendinosa, Cavol. Polip. Mar. 229, tav. 9,

fig. 1, 2 Serialaria lendigera, Z,am. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 130. 2de

edit. ii. 169. Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 315. Flem. Brit Anim. 547

Stark, Elem. ii. 439. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 467. Ama-

thia lendigera, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 159. Corall. 68 La Serialairc

lendigere, Blainv- Actinol. 476, pi. 83, fig. 2.

" From seriala, diminutive formed from series, a row.

252 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Valkeria.

Hah. At the roots of Fuci about low- water mark. " In Sussex -
iae littore supra Fucos siliquosum et lumbricalem frequentem banc
speciem observavi," Pallas. Leith shore, Jameson. " Found in
Belfast Lough, and Dublin Bay, &c." Templeton.

" This extremely small climbing- coralline arises from very minute
tubes, by which it adheres to Fucus's, and other marine bodies ; and
is so disposed from its jointed shape, that it climbs up and runs over
other corallines and Fucus's, as Dodder does over other plants.''
Ellis. The tufts thus formed resemble a flock of hair with clusters
of nits scattered over it, and though the comparison is an ugly one,
it is yet expressive. The filaments are capillary, smooth, pellucid,
kneed and jointed at their dichotomies, immediately imder which the
cells are usually placed in a short row containing from four to eight
or nine cells, growing gradually shorter outwards, and so arranged as
to resemble a Pan's-pipe in miniature " with cylindrical reeds vary-
ing in their length." — That the Polypes are ascidian is satisfactorily
proved by Cavolini ; and Lister informs us that they have eight ciliat-
ed arms.

24. Valkeria, * Fleming.
Character. Polyjndom confervoid, horny, Jistular, irregu-
larly branched ; the cells ovate, clustered or scattered. — Polypes
ascidian, without a gizzard.^

V. CuscuTA, branches opposite ; " cells usually in pairs, op-
posite." Ellis.

Climbing Dodder-like Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 28, no. 26, pi. 14, fig. c. C
Sertularia Cuscuta, Lm. Syst. 1311. Pall. Eleneh. 125. Ellis and

* " This genus is dedicated to the late Dr John Walker, Professor of Natural
History in the University of Edinburgh, a laborious and an accomplished natu-
ralist." Fleming. Sir J. E. Smith characterises him as " a most amiable, wor-
thy and ingenious man." Sir James visited Moffat in the autumn of 1782, of
which parish Dr W. was the minister. " 1 spent that day," he says, " and the
next very happily with the Doctor ; he is a very agreeable man : the life and
soul of Moffat ; his loss will be equally felt by the gay, the industrious, and the
unhappy," — alluding to his approaching removal or translation to Collington,
near Edinburgh. His posthumous " Essays on Natural History," Edin. 1812,
Bvo. is an interesting volume, which I have had occasion to regret was not more
noticed in our Faunas and Floras.

■f The animal of Valkeria differs from that of Vesicularia and Bowerbankia,

" in the entire absence of the manducatory organ ; a difference which it is of

great importance to observe with reference to a natural arrangement of the

class " Farre-

3

Valkeria.

Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 253

Soland. Zooph. 53. Berk. Syn. i- 218. Turl. Gmel. iv. 680. Turt.
Brit. Faun. 214. Wern. Mem. i. 564. J5osc, Vers, iii. 113. Stew.
Elem. ii- 444. Fleming in Wern. Mem. iv. 485, pi. 15, fig. 1 Val-
keria cuscuta, Flem. Brit. Anim. 550. Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1837,

402, pi. 23. Vesicularia Cuscuta, Thomp. Zool. HI. 97, pi. 2, fig. 1-

4 La Cuscutaire cuscute, Blainv. Actinol. 497, pi. 82, fig. 2.

Hah. On Fuci and corallines. West coast of England, Ellis. In
the Frith of Tay, Rev. Dr Fleming. Leith shore, Jameson.

" The main stems originate from tubular creeping roots, which in-
vest marine jijants in shoal water : these stems are often jointed at un-
equal distances, and give off a number of short branches, which ori-
ginate in pairs from its opposite sides, frequently just above a visible
joint ; these branches support the vesicles, which are scattered over
their surface in an irregular manner, and do not differ except in size
and number of tentacula, from those of V. imbricata : the tentacula
being 8 in number." Thompson — " Height seldom above two
inches; several stems usually arise from the same base, fiUform,
jointed, waved, and support the branches and cells bifariously ; bran-
ches opposite, nearly perpendicular to the stem, with a joint imme-
diately above their insertion : cells oval, sessile, upwards of ten times
the breadth of the stem, in pairs, at remote distances, projecting, and
are probably ultimately converted into branches : sometimes they oc-
cur in pairs or crowds in the axillae of the branches ; polypi extend
considerably beyond the margin, tentacula with hairs, which, by their
motions, cause the water to ascend in a current on one side, and de-
scend on the other, acting, probably, as aerating organs." Fleming.

2. V. UvA, ^^ stem creeping y irregularly branched ; cells scat-
tered." Ellis.

Grape CoraUine, Ellis, Corall. 27, no. 25, pi. xv. fig. c. C, D. Sertularia
uva, Lin. Syst. 131 1. Ellis and Soland. Zoopb. 5.3. Berk. Syn. i. 218-
Turt. Gmel. iv. 682- Turt. Br. Faun- 215. Stew. Elem. 445. Ja-
meson in Wern. Mem. i. 564. Bosc, Vers, iii. 117. Hogg's Stock. 34.
Clytia uva, Corall. 89. Templeton in ' i- Nat. Hist. ix. 466 Val-
keria uva, Flem. Brit. Anim. 551 La Campanulaire ovifere, Blainv.

Actinol. 473.
Hab. " Growing on Fucus's and other corallines, on the British
coast," Ellis. Leith shore, Jameson. " Found on Fucus nodosus,
on the coast at Kirkubbin, county Down, July 1806," Templeton.

" This exceeding- small coralline creeps on the broad-leafed horn-
wrack" (Flustra foliacea ;) "and sends out clusters of vesicles from se-
veral parts of its creeping- tube, each of which has a black spot in it,
like the spawn of frogs : Or rather, these look when they are mag-
nified, like a bunch of full ripe transparent oval-shaped grapes witli

254 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Valkeria.

the stones in them" — " Among many other marine substances re-
ceived fresh from the sea, in September 1 753, this object happened
to present itself under ray magnifying- glasses ; when, to my surprise,
I found those grape -like bodies were a cluster of polypes, each hav-
ing eight claws or tentacula, very lively, extending themselves about
in pursuit of prey ; and upon their dying, the animals contracted
themselves into their vesicles, which closed at the top : What we
discover as a spot, is only the intestines of the polype with its food
in it." Ellis.

3. V. IMBRICATA, cells in dense clusters irregularly scattered
on the jiolypidom. Adams.

Plate xxix. Fig. 5, G.
Sertularia imbricata, Adams in Lin. Trans, v. xi. pi. 2. fig. 3 — 11. Turt.

Gmel. iv. 683. Turt. Br. Faun. 216. Steio. Elem. ii. 450. Thomp.

Zool. 111. 94. pi. I. fig. 1-4 Valkeria glomerata, Coldstream in Edin.

New Pbil. Journ. ix. 235. pi. 2. fig- 1,2: and in Edin. Journ. Nat. and

Geog. So. iii. 53 Serialaria imbricata et S. verticillata, Templeton,

in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 467, fig- 66.
Hab. Parasitical on various littoral Fuci. On Fucus nodosus
in Milford haven, Adams. In small pools, at low-water, near Leith,
Dr Coldstream. " On the Fuci and Confervas, on the shore of
Belfast Lough, near White-House Point," Templeton. In the harbour
of Cove, one of the most obvious and common species, J. Thompson,
" Stem simple, slightly branched, partly creeping, pai-tly erect : cells
ovate, lengthened, with the mouths slightly compressed quadrangu-
larly, scattered over the stem in irregular groups. Before the polype is
evolved, the cell is closed at the distal extremity by a conical covering.
Polypi with ten tentacula, finely ciliated : they extend considerably
beyond the mouths of the cells, to the margins of which each is at-
tached by a membrane, which is protruded before the tentacula when
the polype is about to expand itself. When alarmed, it contracts
very rapidly." Dr Coldstream. — According to Mr Thompson this
species creeps over the surface of the Fuci by means of its tubular
ramifying roots, and throws off numerous flaccid irregularly branched
shoots to the length of from one inch to one and a half or more,
often so densely clustered as entirely to cover the plant on which it
grows.

4. V. PUSTULOSA, vesicles clustered, unilateral. Ellis.

Plate xxix. Fig. 7-9.
Dichotomous tubular Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 54. pi. xxvii. fig. h. B —
Sertularia pustulosa, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 54. Turt. Gmel. iv.
680. Bosc, Vers, iii. 113- Steic. Elem. ii. 444. Turt. Brit. Faun.

liowERBANKiA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 255

*214. Flem. Brit. Anim. 551 — Vesiculaiia piistuloHa, Thump. Zool.
111. 99, pi. 1, fig. 5—11.

Hab. Parasitical on Fuci. Isle of Wight, Ellis. Cove Harbour,
J. V. Thompson.

This " arises from the surface of marine fuci with a straight flex-
uose stem, to the height of two or three inches, giving off at each
flexure a spreading branch, which in like manner gives off secondary
ones, all however, both primary and secondary, lying in the same
plane, they are hence what botanists term distich ; each flexure of
the stem and branches and each terminal branchlet is composed of a
distinct joint, each of which are perforated by a double row of holes
from 6 to 18 with elevated margins, on all of which in perfect speci-
mens are placed oval transparent vesicles, furnished with animals hav-
ing 8 tentacula : the rows of perforations having a spiral tendency,
the clusters of vesicles hence present themselves in every direction."
Thomjjson.

25. BovvERBANKiA,* Farre.
Character. Polypidom confervoid, horny, creeping; the
cells sessile, unilateral, irregular, the inflected portion with a spi-
nous or filamentous rim : — Polypes ascidian.

1. B. DENSA, matted ; stem creeping ; cells from the sides and
upper surjace, thiclily set, elliptical : Polypes ivith 10 tentacula
about one-third the length of the body, sparingly hispid along the

outer side. Farre.

Bowerbankia densa, Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1837, 391, pi. 20 and 21.
Hab. " Found commonly on Flustra foliacea thickly aggregated in
masses of half of an inch to one inch diameter." Isle of Sheppey,
Parre.

" The animal when fully expanded is about one-twelfth of an inch
in length. In its retracted state it is completely inclosed in a de-
licate horny cell, sufficiently transparent to admit of the whole struc-
ture of the contained animal being seen through its parietes. The
cells are connected together by a cylindrical creeping stem, upon
which they are thickly set, and sessile, ascending from its sides and
upper surface."

* " Believing it to be new I have named it after my friend Mr Bowerbank,
whose zeal displayed on this as on many other occasions where the study of na-
tural history may be promoted, was mainly instrumental in inducing me to fol-
low up these investigations, on account of the many supplies that I received from
him, and I gladly therefore take the opportunity of acknowledging and record-
ing tlie obligation that I am under to him." Dr Farre.

256

Z. ASCIDIOIDA.

BOWEIIBANKIA.

" The animal when completely expanded is seen to possess ten
arms of about one-third the length of the whole body, each arm being-
thickly ciliated on either side, and armed at the back by about a doz-
en fine hair-like processes, which project at nearly right angles from
the tentacula, remaining motionless, while the cilia ai*e in constant
and active vibration."

2. B. REPENS, stem creeping ; cells irregularly disposed or scat-
tered, elliptical. Polypes icitli 12 tentacula. Farre.
Vignette, No. 38, page 233.
Lagenella repens, Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1837, 403, pi. 24.
Hab. " Parasitic, with a creeping stem, on Sertularia and on
Halodactylus diaphanus. Not very common," Farre.

" This species has twelve ciliated arms, not spiny. The alimen-
tary canal is short and stout, and whilst the animal is expanded re-
mains high up in the body. During retraction the stomach is never
brought down to the bottom of the cell, but remains suspended from
the upper part of it by the intestine, which appears to have some at-
tachment at this point. The upper part of the tube, however, is
generally brought down lower than the stomach, in order that the

BowEKBANKU. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 257

tentacles may be completely drawn in. By this suspension of the
stomach from the upj)er })art of the cell a fixed joint is obtained, from
which the retracted Hexed portion of the tube may erect itself with
the same effect as if the stomach were in contact with the bottom of
the cell. This is a point which it would be important to observe in
generic distinctions ; but here, as with many other points in this spe-
cies, my observations were not carried to the extent that they have
been in others, as this was one of the specimens with which my in-
vestigations were commenced, and I have never since had an oppor-
tunity of confirming them."

" The cells have an oblong form, and are connected to their
narrow creeping stem by a short peduncle. The opercular portion
terminates in a notched margin, and is very short. (It is possible
that this notched margin luay be formed by the extremities of short
and broad setae, but this was not determined.) The cells spring from
the sides and upper surface of the stem, and turn upwards as in Bow-
erbankia. They are set at some distance apart." Farre.

Dr Farre considers this species as forming a distinct genus, but I
have not been able to seize upon characters, in his description, of va-
lue suflBciently high to justify its separation.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1834, p. 385, pi. 12, fig. 5,
Mr Lister has figured a zoophyte which he refers to the genus Tibi-
ANA of Lamouroux, but erroneously in the opinion of Milne-Ed-
wards.* It seemingly belongs rather to this than to any other fa-
mily of its order, but the polypes, instead of being contained in dis-
tinct deciduous cells, issue from one continuous with the common
stalk. This is represented as slender, alternately branched, the bran-
ches simple, erect, forming a long tubular cell. The polypes appear
to have eight tentacula. It was found at Brighton. (See wood-cut
No. 42, a, h.)

" A. zoophyte allied to the above was found upon the same marine
plants, which seems to be that imperfectly represented by Ellis, pi.
xxxviii. 5. F."f

' Ann. des Sc. Nat. Part. Zool. vi. second, ser. p. 18. He refers it to his
genus Lucia, slightly indicated in the 2de edit, of Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 72,
and says it should stand near to Crisia. Ibid. p. 185. I am not aware that any
more detailed account of thj genus or of its species has been published.

f The Hydra coronata of Fleming, Biit. Anim. 554. Ellis's specimens were

parasitical on Plumularia falcata Professor Sharpey has given a figure and

R

258

Z. ASCIDIOJUA.

Fig. 42.

" It consists of a creeping tube and a number of stems branching-
from it, each ending in an animal that is shown (not very distinct-
ly) at fig. 42, d. The stems, though commonly still, have free power
of motion ; and when one is disturbed it bends quickly to and fro, so
as to strike one or two more ; these again strike upon others, and
thus for a few seconds all are in action : but they soon return to
quietness, and the arms, which during the commotion had been doubled
in, open again. (Fig. 42, c.)

" The arms are placed on the edge of a pi-etty transparent tunic,
and have granulations on their back. They are fringed with cilise
possessing the same action as those of Ascidiae and Flustrae ; and
in the specimen drawn, small substances were occasionally seen car-
ried downwards along them. As in Flustra, a part of the intestine
had within it a revolution of particles and dark matter round its axis,
and this part communicated with an ascending rectum. The arms
at the part of the circle opposite to the rectum appeared to be con-

description of what appears to be the same species in the Cyclop, of Anat. and
Physiology, i. 610, fig. 293; for a mere difference in the ramification can scarce-
ly be considered specifical in this tribe.

3

Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 259

tinued below the edge of the tunic, and the current produced in the
Water, and the food it brought, flowed into a cavity there, at the bot-
tom of which was active indistinct motion as if of filaments. A con-
nexion was thought to exist between that j)art and the place where
the revolution was going- on, but no act of deglutition was per-
ceived.

" No current of blood was visible in the stem, nor any circulation
either in the body or the arms. Much of the space within the tu-
nic was occupied by a darkish appearance, the nature of which was not
ascertained. I had not opportunity to inspect other individuals, but
the species seemed to be intermediate between such animals of Flus-
tra as I had met with, and the pedunculated compound Ascidia;
more nearly related to the former, but approaching- the latter in the
form of the lower part of the body, the position of the rectum, and
the absence of all apparent effort of swallowing : and if with the help
of imagination we could connect the ciliated arms together by cross
bands at intervals and unite their ends in a circle, extending the tu-
nic to meet that circle, and leaving an opening- for the funnel where
the rectum is placed, the organ would not be unlike the branchiae of
some Ascidise. Indeed the affinity appeared to me not very distant
between Ascidia and Flustra ; while, to the Sertulariae, except in the
resemblance given by their projecting arms, I can discover no more
analogy in the Flustrae than in the Ascidise themselves." Lister.

Fig. 43.

FAMILY X. CRISIAD^.

26. Crista,* Lamouroux.
Character. Polypidom conjervoid, Tooted hy tubular fibres,
dichotomously branched ; the cells long and tubular^ catenated to-
gether in one or two series, the apertures round, terminal, and all
inclined to one side. — Polypes ascidian.

* Cells linked in a single series. (Eucratea.;

1. C. cornuta, cells tubulous, curved, the aperture divaricated,

with a long bristle at the bend. Ellis.

Plate xxx. Fig. 1, 2.

Goat's-hom Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 42, no. 10, pi. 21, fig. c, C. Ser-

tularia cornuta, Lin. Syst. 1316. Berk. Syn. i. 220. Turt. Gmel. iv.

686. Turt. Brit. Faun. 217. Stew. Elem. ii. 449 Cellularia fal-

cata, Pall. Blench. 76 C. cornuta, Hogg's Stock. 35 Cellaria

cornuta, Ellis and Solatid. Zooph. 25. Bosc, Vers, iii. 134. Lam. Anim.

* From Kpifftt, separation.

Crisia. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 261

s. Vert. ii. 139. 2de edit. ii. 187 Eucratea cornuta, Lamour. Cor.

Flex. 149. Corall. 64. Risso, L'Europ. Mend. v. 319. Fkm. Brit.

Anitn. 541. Te.mpleton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469 L'Unicellaire

cornue, Blainv. Actinol. 462.

Hub. Parasitical on other corallines, and " adhering to Fuci be-
yond low water-mark, not common," Fleming. Very rare at Scar-
borough, Mr Bean. Occasionally found in tufts of Crisia eburnea
on the coast of Berwickshire, G. J. " Found in the pools on the
rocks below Bangor, very common," Templeton.

Polypidom sometimes half an inch in height, very slender, erect,
confervoid, white and brittle when dry, rooted by a few tubular fibres,
alternately branched, the secondary branches unilateral, secund.
The coralline consists of a series of cells placed one above another,
the upper cell originating from the one below near the middle, at its
point of divarication from the straight line ; and a long tubular spine,
which ov^ertops the cell, rises from the same place. The cells are
curved, tubular, smooth, the upper half everted, with a plain circular
aperture. In some specimens oval-shaped vesicles are found scatter-
ed over the polypidom : they originate from the base of a cell, are
specked, and have a small tube at the back.

2. C. CHELATA, cells ill the form of a horn; the aperture ob~
lique, marginatedi vAth a spinous process beneath the rim. Ellis.
Vignette, Fig. 43, page 260.

BuU's-horn Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 42, no. 9, pi. 22, fig. h,B Sertu-

laria loricata, Lin. Syst. 1316. Berk. Syn. i. 220. Turt. Gmel. iv.

686. Turt. Brit. Faun. 217. Stew. Elem. ii. 449 Cellularia che-

lata. Pall. Elench. 77 CeUaria chelata, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 25.

Bosc, Vers, iii. 134. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 140. 2de edit. ii. 189.

Eucratea chelata, Corall. 64, pi. 3, fig. 5 E. loricata, Flem.

Brit. Anim. 541 L'Unicellaire cornet, Blainv. Actinolog. 461, pi.

77, fig. 2 Loricula loricata, Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469.

Hah. Parasitical on Fuci, rare. On stones at very low tides, very
rare at Scarborough, Mr Bean. " Common on the coast" of Ire-
land, Templeton. Cork Harbour, J. V. Thomj^son.

Smaller and more distinctly catenulated than the preceding. Ellis's
description is very good. " This beautiful coralline is one of the
smallest we meet with. It rises from tubuli, growing upon Fucus's ;
and passes from thence into sickle-shaped branches, consisting of
single rows of cells, looking, when magnified, like bull's horns invert-
ed, each one arising out of the top of the other. The upper branches
take their rise from the fore part of the entrance of a cell, where we
may observe a stiif short hair, which seems to be the beginning of a

262 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Crista.

branch. The opening of each cell, which is in the front of its upper
part, is surrounded by a thin circular rim; and the substance of the
cells appears to consist of a fine transparent shell, or coral-like sub-
stance."

* * Cells paired, with a joint between each pair. (Crista.)

3. C. EBURNEA, " cells looselxj aggregated^ cylindrical^ bent,
tubidar orifices free^^ Ellis.

Plate xxx. Fig. 3, 4.
Tufted Ivory Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 39, no. 6, pi. 21, fig. a, A Cel-

lularia eburnea. Pall. Elench. 73. Hogg's Stock. 35 Sertularia

eburnea, Lin. Syst. 1316. Berk. Syn. i. 220. Turt. Gmel. iv. 686.

Wern. Mem. i. 565. Turt. Brit. Faun. 217. Stew. Elem. ii. 449

La Sertolara d'avorio, Cavol. Pol. Mar. 240, tav. 9, fig. fig. 5, 6

Cellaria eburnea, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 24. Bosc, Vers, iii. 133.

Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 138, 2de edit. ii. 184. Johnston in Trans. Newc.

Soc. ii. 262, pi. 11, fig. 5 Crisia eburnea, Lamour. Cor. Flex. 138.

Corall. 60. Flem. Brit- Anim. 340. Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist.

ix. 468 La Crisie ivoire, Blainv. Actinolog. 460, pi. 78, fig. 3. Risso,

L'Europ. Merid. v. 318.
Hah. Parasitical on the roots of sea-weed, and on other zoophytes,
very common. " Alibi pollicarem et ultra inveni, in Sussexise v. gr.
littore, ubi in Fuco pinastroide, una cum C. falcata et anguina abun-
dabat," Pallas.

Grows in little bushy tufts of ivory whiteness, frequently tinted
with rose-red, from a quarter to fully an inch in height, attached by a
few capillary fibres dilated at their points of insertion into minute calca-
reous bulbs. Polypidom much branched, the primary divisions alter-
nate, spreading ; the secondary from one side only and bending in-
wards with a slight curve. Cells in two rows, nearly opposite or
semi-alternate, with a joint between each pair, adnate, frosted, the
aperture circular, somewhat oblique, even and entire. Vesicles ob-
pyriform, roughish or granulated, sparingly and seldom produced.

4. C. LUXATA, " cells closely aggregated, cylindrical^ nearly
straight, with short tubular orifices ; joints black." Rev. J.
Fleming.

Plate xxx. Fig. 5, 6.

Crisia luxata, Flem. Brit. Anim. 340 La C. luxee, Blainv. Actinolog.

460.
Hah. " On corallines, not rare, from various parts of the coast,''
Fleming. CuUercoats, Northumberland, Mr Jos. Alder. Berwick
Bay, very rare.

Polypidom erect, about an inch in height, white and calcareous,

NoTAMiA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 268

bushy, dichotomously divided, the branches inclining- inwards ; the
joints jet-black ; the internodes narrow at their origin, widened up-
wards ; the cells entirely adnate, tubulous, semi-alternate, with round
even apertures. This, though in many respects similar to the pre-
ceding-, is yet essentially different, and has been well characterized by
Dr Fleming-. It is of a denser texture ; the branches, or rather the
spaces between the joints, are longer, broader and thicker in the mid-
dle ; the cells are more closely connected ; their orifices are not de-
tached from the sides, and the joints are black, so that the polypidom
appears dotted to the naked eye.

* * * Cells ternate, with a joint above and below.
(Tricellaria.)
5. C. ? TERN ATA, " cclls lengthened, rounded at top, with spi-
nous processes." Dr David Skene.

Cellaiia ternata, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 30 — Seitularia ternata, Turt.

Gmel. iv. 687. Stew. Elem. ii. 449. Turt. Br. Faun. 217 Crisia

ternata, Corall. 61 Tricellaria ternata, Flem. Br. Anim. 240. La

Tricellaire ternee, Blainv. Actinolog. 438.
Hah. From Aberdeen, Skene. Zetland, Fleming.
" Height scarcely an inch, dichotomously branched ; the cells en-
large gradually in breadth towards the top, which is armed with two
or three spines ; when the outermost one is short, the cell external-
ly has an angulated appearance ; at the joints the stem is narrow."
Dr Fleming.

27. NoTAMiA,* Fleming.
Character. Polypidom plant-like, suhcalcareous, rather soft
and flexible ichen dry, much branched dichotomously : cells gemi-
nate, exactly opposite, united hack to back with a thick dissepi-
ment, a joint above and below each pair.— Polypes ascidian.

1. N. loriculata, cells subcylindrical and obliquely truncated,
the aperture plain. Doody.

Plate xxxi. Fig. 12, 13.

Muscus coralloides mollis elatior ramossissimus, Doody in Rail, Syn. 1.

.34, no. 6 Coat of Mail Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 40. no. 7, pi. xxi.fig.

h, B Sertularia loriculata, Lin. Syst. 1314. Turt.Gme\. iv. 684.

Berk. Syn. i. 219. Turt. Br. Faun. 216. Wern. Mem. i. 564. Stew.

Elem. ii. 447 Cellularia loriculata, Pa//. Elench. 64 Hogg's Stock.

33 Cellaria loriculata, Ellis and Soland- Zooph. 24- Bosc, Vers, iii.

133. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 136. 2deedit. ii. 179. JoAhs^oh in Trans.

• From " r«T8f, dorsum, and tc«ui(oi', cella," Fleming.

264 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Notamia.

Newc. Soc. ii. 2G2 — Crisia loriculata, Corall. 61. Loricariaeuropsa,

Lamonr. Zooph. 7 Notamia loriculata, P/e??i. Br. Aiiim. 341. Farre

in Phil. Trans, an. 1837, 413, pi. 27, fig. 6-9 Gemicellarialoriculata,

Blainv. Actinol. 461, pi. 78, fig. 4.
Hah. " A few fathoms beyond low water-mark," common on all our
coast.

Polypidom attached by capillary roots, from 2 to 4 inches long,
very bushy, " in cupressi formam elongata," greyish-white, flaccid
even when dry ; the branches close, erect, dichotomous, filiform, con-
sisting of a series of paired cells divided by a simple joint. Cells
adnate, smooth, obliquely truncated, placed back to back, "• so that the
pair together resemble a coat of mail, or pair of stays ; and the en-
trances of the cells look like the places for the arms to come out at."
Ellis. The Polypes have 10 tentacula : they have no gizzard, but
in other respects the alimentary canal presents the usual details.
Farre.

2. N. ? BURSARiA, cells compressed, keel-shajjed, " ivith a little
tube, sivelling at top like a tobacco-pipe, that appears to come out
of them:' Ellis.

Shepherd's-purse Coralline, lEMis, Corall. 41, no. 8, pi. 22, fig. a, A

Sertiilaria bursaria, Lin. Syst. 1314. Tnrt. Gmel. iv. 684. Berk. Syn.
i. 219. Steiv. Elem.ii. 447. S. Bursa, Turt. Brit. Faun. 216

Cellularia bursaria, Pall. Elench. 65. Ellis in Phil. Trans. Ivii. 437, pi.

19, fig- 12 Cellaria Bursaria, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 25. Bosc,

Vers, iii. 134. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 140. 2de edit. ii. 189 Dy-

namena bursaria, Corall. 79. Blainv- Actinol 483 Notamia bursa-
ria, Flem. Brit. Anim. 541 Gemicellaria bursaria, Blainv. Actino-

log. 461.
Hah. Parasitical on sea-weeds, very rare. " Mare anglicura, in
cujus fucis crescit parasitica," Pallas.

" This most beautiful pearl-coloured Coralline adheres by small
tubes to fucus's, from whence it changes into flat cells; each single
cell like the bracket of a shelf, broad at top, and narrow at bottom ;
these are placed back to back in pairs, one above another, on an ex-
tremely slender tvdie, that seems to run through the middle of the
branches of the whole coralline. The cells are open at top. Some
of them have black spots in them : And from the top of many of
them, a figure seems to issue out like a short tobacco-pipe ; the small
end of which seems to be inserted in the tube that passes through the
middle of the whole.

" The cells in pairs are thought by some to have the appearance
of the small pods of the Shepherd's Purse : By others, the shape of
the seed-vessels of the herb Veronica or Speedwell." Ellis.

HiprOTHOA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 265

Milne-Edwards refers this species to Sertularia, section Dyname-
na, but there is something in the habit to render this reference very
doubtful, unless it is founded on an examination of the polype, which
it is not mentioned to be. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 180.

28. HiPPOTHOA,* Lamouroux.
Character. Polypidom confervoid, adherent and creeping^
calcareous, irregularly branched, the branches frequently anasto-
mosing, formed of elliptical cells linked to each other at the ex-
tremities ; aperture lateral, near the distal end. — Polypes asci-
dian.

1. H. CATENULARiA, " cells rounded anteally, tapering to the
other extremity, aperture oval." Jameson.

Plate xxx. Fig. 9, 10.
Tubipora catenularia? Jameson, in Wern. Mem. i. 561. T. catenulata ?

Stew. Elem. ii. 423 Hippothoa catenularia, Flem. Br. Anim. 334.

H. EUiotae, Gray, Zool. Misc. 34.

ffah. On shells in deep water, not uncommon, Dr Fleming. Ork-
ney and Shetland Islands, Jameson. Attached to Pinna ingens in
the harbour of Kinglade near Cork, Miss Elliot.

Polypidom closely adherent, much and irregularly branched in a
confervoid manner, white, smooth, glossy, calcareous, the branches
spreading, frequently anastomosing, sometimes parallel and coales-
cing, formed of a series of cells connected like a string of bugles ;
cells oval, widest and rounded anteally. the aperture oval with a plain
thickish rim, placed near the top. — In its mode of ramification this
coralline resembles many of the plant-like figures in marble or agate.
" The branches proceed nearly at right angles, issuing from the mar-
gin beside the mouth," and will spread, on a favourable site, to such
an extent as will cover an inch or two square surface. When alive
it " appears like dew drops, and is easily separated from the shell by
a pin ; but is strongly attached when dry." Gray. In this state
the aperture of the cells is sometimes closed by a membrane, the re-
mains of the polype, which remains undescribed.

2. H. LANCEOLATA, cells slender, ovate-lanceolate, the aper-
ture small and round. Miss Elliot.

Hippothoa lanccolata, Gray, Zool. Misc. 33.

* A Nereid -.—//esiorf. Tbeog. 251.

The charming Hippothoa and rosy-armed Hipponoe.

266 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Anguinaria.

Hab. On Pinna ingens in the liarbour of Kinglade, near Cork,
Miss Elliot.

" Coral attached, slender, dichotomously and divaricately branch-
ed, pearly white ; cells slender, linear, ovate, base filiform, generally
emitting- a cell at right angles from the middle of each side ; mouth
small, round, with a raised margin, placed near the top of the cell."

" This species is very like H. divaricata, t. 10, f. 15, 16, Lamou-
roux, Expos, but he describes and figures the cells as fusiform, and
not ovate, lanceolate, and his is fi'om a Fucus." Gray.

29. Anguinaria, * Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom calcareous, creeping, adnate, slen-
der, Jistular, the cells scattered, erect, free, spathulate, tvith a la-
teral aperture near the apex, — Polypes ascidian.

1. A. SPATULATA. J. Ellis.

Plate xxx. Fig 7, 8.

Snake Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 43, no. 11, pi. 2-2, fig. c, C. D Sertu-

laria anguina, Lin. Syst. 1317. Turt. Gmel. iv. 686- Berk. Syn.i. 220.

Turt. Brit. Faun. 217. Stew. Elem. ii, 449 Cellularia angiiina, Pall.

Elench. 78. Ellis in PhU. Trans. Ivii. 437, pi. 19, fig. 10. Hogg\

Stock. 35 Cellaria anguina, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 26- Bosc,

Vers. iii. 135 Anguinaria spatulata, Lam- Anim s. Vert. ii. 143. 2de

edit. ii. 196. Stark, Elem. ii. 4-39. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.

466 Ang. anguina, Flem. Brit. Anim. 542. Lister in Phil. Trans.

1834, 385, pi. 12, fig. 4 Aetea anguina, Corall. 65, pi. 3, fig, 6. La-

mour. Soland. 151 L'Anguinaire serpent, Blainv. Actinolog. 467, pi.

79, fig. 3.

Hab. Parasitical on the smaller Fuci, rare. Brighton, Mr Mac-
gillivray. Scarborough, Mr Bean. " Found on the shore at Carrick-
fergus, on the sand," Templeton.

This remarkable coralline creeps along the stalks of the sea- weed
it prefers in a wavy line, the capillary tube swelling out at irregular
intervals, and sending up numerous clavate processes or cells, which
are from one to two lines high, more or less bent at the top, of a
pale pink or flesh-colour or white, smooth, glossy, calcareous ; the
aperture inferior, subterminal, oval, with plain margins.

Lamouroux suspected that this might prove different from any po-
lypous production, and he felt inclined to class it near to or with the
Vorticellae, but the conjecture has been shewn to be groundless by
Mr Lister's discovery of its polypes, which are truly ascidian, and
nearly allied to those of the Flustra.

* From Anguis, a snake.

Fig. 44.

FAMILY XL TUBULIPORID.E.

30. TuBULiPORA,* Lamarck.
Character. Polyindom attached hy a partial adhesion of
the base, sometimes crustaceous : cells placed on a calcareous basis,
arranged in rotes, long and cylindrical, separate, with a round
erect aperture. — Polypes ascidian. f

* Base subcircular, cupped. (Discopora, Fleming.)
1. T. v\T\^K, aperture of the cells round and toothless. Pallas.
Plate xxxi. Fig. 1-3.
Caryophyllus sive Fuiigites minimus tubulosus littons Ariminensis, Plane.

de Conch, min. not. 26, tab. 2, no. 9 Madrepora verrucaria, Lin. Syst.

1272. Pall. Zooph. var. /3. 281. Turt. Gmel. iv. 616. Turt. Brit.
Faun- 204. Stew. Elem. ii. 426. Hogys Stock. 38. Millepora ver-
rucaria, Ellis a-nA Soland. Zooph. 137 — Tubulipora patina, Lam. Anim.
s. Vert. ii. 1C3. 2de edit. ii. 244. Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v, 338.
Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 269, pi. 9, fig. 8 — T. patene, Blainv.

* From tubulus — a tube, and jrafoc — a passage.

t See " Memoire sur les Polypes du genre des Tubulipores, par M. H. Milne-
Edwards," in Ann. des. Sc. Nat. Part. Zool. viii. 321.

268 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Tubulipora.

Actinol. 425. Milne-Edwards in Ann. des. Sc. Nat. Part. Zool. viii.
329, pi. 13, fig. 1 — Discopora verrucaria, Flem. Brit. Anim. 530.

Hah. On shells and corallines from deep water, frequent. " Mi-
nuta specimina ad Angliam in Fucis Escharisque observavi," Pallas.

Polypidom like a little saucer, calcareous, white, about half an
inch in diameter ; the base thin, subcircular, forming' a shallow cup
crowded with cells in the centre, the margin plain, entire, scored
with faint lines ; central cells shorter than those towards the cir-
cumference and frequently closed, most of them laid obliquely, but
some erect, tubulous, with a round even aperture. — In its perfect
state this zoophyte has been aptly compared to a compound flosculous
flower ; but specimens sometimes occur without any free margin to
the base, when the congeries of cells forms a mere wart-like crust.
It is to specimens of this kind, which are not unfrequent and va-
riable, (some with erect cells forming a minute fluted column,) that
I feel inclined to refer the Madrepora verrucaria of Otho Fabricius,
(Faun. Groenl. 430, no. 432,) and the Tubulipore verruqueux of
Milne-Edwards, so well described and figured in Ann. des. Sc. Nat.
Part. Zool. viii. 323, pi. 12, fig. 1 : remarking at the same time, how-
ever, that this celebrated naturalist refers it to the following, of which
he considers the Obelia tubuliferaofLamouroux to be another variety.

* * Base ramous. (Idmonea, Lamouroux.)
2. T. SERPENS, " creeping, prostrate, in obtuse linear divi-
sions, tcit/i tubular pores on the upper surface disposed in trans-
verse roivs." Ellis.

Plate xxxi. Fig. 4-6.
Small purple Eschara, Ellis, Corall. 74, no. 6, pi. 27, e, E — Tubipora
serpens, f-in. Syst. 1271. Fabric. Faun. Grcenl. 428. Turt. Gmel.
iv. 614. Jameson in Werri- Mem. i. 561. Stew. Elem. ii. 426. Bosc,

Vers, ii. 351 Millepora liliacea. Pall Elench. 248. Turt. Gmel. iv.

639. Twr^. Brit. Faun. 205. Bosc, Vers, ii. 345 M. tubulosa, iJffis

and Soland. Zooph. 136. Turt. Gmel. iv. 639. Turt. Brit. Faun. 205.
Stew. Elem. ii. 428. Bosc, Vers, ii. 345. Hogg's Stock. 37 Tubuli-
pora transversa. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 162. 2de edit. ii. 242. Stark,
Elem. ii. 437. Larnour. Zoopb. 1, pi. 64, fig. 1- Risso, L'Europ. Merid.

V. 338. Jo/ui.s^on in Trans. Newe. Soc. ii.269 Tubulipora transversa,

Blainv. Actinolog. 424. T. pourpre, Ibid. Atlas, pi. 72, fig. 3 T.

serpens, Flem. Brit. Anim. 529.

Hab. Attached to corallines, old shells, Sec. especially to Plumu-

laria falcata. Common on all parts of the coast. " Ex mari Cor-

nubiam alluente allatse Sertulariae eandem crebram, in piso majores

glomeres convolutam aut laciniosos passim et revolutos flosculos

TuBULiPoiiA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 269

mentientem exhibuerunt," Pallas. Orkney and Shetland islands,
Jameson.

Polypidom adherent by a narrow base, calcareous, of a faint pur-
ple colour or white, depressed, irregularly divided, the segments flat,
bifid, spreading, more or less revolute, obtuse, the under surface even
and striate, the upper rough with the tubulous cells arranged in trans-
verse rows, but divided by a central groove, which winds along the
branches : the cells are generally placed in close apposition, some-
times they are disjunct, and the walls are minutely frosted. — The
entire polypidom rarely exceeds half an inch in length.

Milne-Edwards is of opinion that the T. serpens of O. Fabricius
is not synonymous with the Linnaian species, but with the T. fim-
briata of Lamarck, in which opinion a re-perusal of the description,
in the Fauna Gro?nlandica, does not induce me to coincide. Milne-
Edwards refers our polypidom to the genus Aulopore. Ann. des Sc.
Nat. Part. Zool. viii. 331.

3. T. TRUNCATA, " stem round, branched, ending icith enlarg-
ed globular heads, radiated with plates of united vertical cells."
Jameson.

Tubulipora truncata, Flem. Br. Anim. 329 Millepora truncata? Ja-
meson in Wern. Mem. i. 560 T. tronque, Blainv. Actinol. 425.

Hab. " In deep water, Zetland," Dr Fleming. Shetland Islands,
Jameson.

" About an inch in height, the branches scarcely exceeding one-
eighth ; the branches are short, pierced by numerous pores, the open-
ings of cells converging towards the centre ; the head is stellate, the
rays are highest in the middle of their course, diminishing towards
the centre and lower margin of the head ; each ray is compressed,
and consists of two rows of tubular cells, united, crowded, with sub-
angular orifices ; the tubes have a central direction, and give to the
sides of the plates a striated appearance. This species has probably
been referred to as an inhabitant of the north seas, under the title
of Millepora truncata,* but it differs widely from the Myriozoos of
Donati, to which the term was restricted by Pallas." Fleming.

* * * Crustaceous. (Obeli a, Lamouroux.)
4. T. Obelia, crustaceous, the cells in rows, tubular, icith an
oblique even rim. Miss Elliot.

Plate xxxi. Fig. 7, 8.

* Stew. Elem. ii. 426, pi. 12, fig. 7-

270 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Discopora.

Obelia tubulifera? Blaiiw. Actinolog. 424, pi. 71, fig. 1. Lam. knim.
s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 246 O. tubifera? Gray, Zool. Misc. 35.

Hab. In the harbour of Kinglade near Cork, parasitical on a Pinna,
Miss Elliot. In deep water at Scarborough, on Modiola vulgaris,
rare, 3Ir Bean.

Crust rather thin, entirely and very closely adherent, chalk- white,
even, spreading in somewhat circular expansions : the cells alter-
nate, rather distant, rowed, radiating from several centres, divided
by paler lines, horizontal, tubulous, mostly immersed, the mouths
raised with a wide round oblique plain aperture.

This description is taken from a specimen in the collection of Mr
Bean. It adheres to the shell of Modiola vulgaris, and is six-tenths
of an inch in one direction and nearly five-tenths in another. The re-
semblance between it and Obelia tubulifera is fully sufficient to war-
rant the conjecture of their identity, for the differences which the
student will detect between our figure and that of Laraouroux, copied
by Blainville, are probably the mere peculiarities which mark the in-
dividuals of a variable species. Of Obelia as a genus, Blainville re-
marks that it is truly unimportant, scarcely differing from Tubuli-
pora ; and the merging of them into one seems therefore a natural
union, while at the same time we get quit of a name that has been
also applied to some Medusae.

Of Obeliae generally Mr Templeton says, " There are at least^fe
native uncharacterised species, on small corallines and shells, very com-
mon in protected bays" of the Irish coast. Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 470.
To determine these will be the pleasant duty of the naturalists of that
country.

31. Discopora,* Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom calcareous, adherent throuylwut ;
the base a circumscribed crust ; the cells coalescent, indistinctly
quincuncial, tubular, erect, with a round patulous terminal aper-
ture without an operculum. — Polypes unknown.

1. D. HispiDA, crust spreading subcircularly, roughish, wavy
or ridged ; the cells erect, obscurely voiced, with one larger and
two minute denticles on the side of the apertures.— T>v Fleming.

Plate xxxi. Fig. 9 — U.

Discopora hispida, Flem. Brit. Aiiim.530 Le discopore h^visse, Bluinv.

Actinolog. 446.
Hab. " On Corallines from deep water. Zetland," Fleming.

' From discus, a flat plate or disk, and ■n-opoi.

Pherusa. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 271

Coast of Devonshire, Dr Coldstream. Stevenston, Ayrshire,
Rev. D. Landsborough.

" Breadth nearly an inch, hispid ; the cells seem distributed over
the whole surface, and more vertical than the preceding ( Tub. pati-
na) ; there are, however, waved porous grooves, and the cells seem
disposed on each side of these in irregular transverse rows, united or
free, short, with expanding orifices dividing into irregular spinous pro-
cesses." Fleming. — I have two specimens of a polypidom, given to nie
by Dr Coldstream, which agree very well with this description, and are
figured in the plate referred to, but they adhere to a piece of sand-
stone, and were found in situ at low-water mark. The crust is half
an inch or a little more in diameter, and scarcely a line in thickness,
circumscribed by the thin very narrow edge of the basilar layer. It
is hard, calcareous, entirely adherent, of a greyish white colour, with
lighter slightly elevated roundish spots on the surface, or raised into
transverse ridges, conforming in this respect, perhaps, to the form of
the rock over which it spreads. The cells are barely visible with the
naked eye, erect, very close or coalescent, and not arranged distinct-
ly in any order. Their apertures are even with, or raised somewhat
above, the surface, circular, and armed on one side with three small
teeth, of which the central one is larger than the other. Many of
the cells are destitute of these, which are only perceptible when the
polypidom is viewed obliquely.

The genus Discopora differs from Tubulipora in having cells in such
close and intimate union that they seem almost to be rather immersed
or excavated in the crust than separate tubes ; while from Lepralia
it estranges itself by the erect position of its cells, their tubular form
and non-constricted aperture, which, moreover, are at no season closed
with ovaries. The British species answers so well to Lamarck' s
definition of Discopora verrucosa, Anim. s. Vert. ii. 165 ; Stark,
Elem. ii. 436 ; that at one time I had concluded their identity to be
scarcely doubtful, but Blainville's figure (if correct) of the latter
proves the contrary, and represents a species with oblique ventricose
cells, similar in all apparent respects to those of a Lepralia, The fi-
gures I give of the natural size are very exact to nature, — that drawn
iinder the microscope is perhaps less characteristic, but there was no
possibility of communicating to it a greater verisimilitude.

Pherusa tubulosa, Lamoiir. Corall. 53, pi. 2, fig. 1. Blainv.
Actinolog. 453, pi. 80, fig. 1. — Flustra tubulosa, Ellis 'AnA Soland,

272 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Filipora.

Zooph. 17. — According- to Mr Templelon this is '< found affixed to
Sertularise, &c." on the coast of Ireland. Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469.

TuBiPORA MusicA, Lin. Syst. 1270. Marked as British by 3Ir
Stewart, Elem. ii. 425,— without doubt erroneously.

Filipora filograna, Fleming, Brit. Anim. 530 : Tubipora fas-
cicularis, Stew. Elem. ii. 426 ; Jameson in Wern, Mem. i. 561 ; is a
species of Serpula, as it was properly described by Linnaeus and Pal-
las, Elench. Zooph, 240. The most accurate description of the spe-
cies is given by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley in Zool. Journ. iii. 230.

Fig. 45.

FAMILY XII. CELLEPORID^.

32. Cellepora,* Otho Fabricius.
Character. Polypidom calcareous, cellular, irregularly loh-
ed or ramous, formed of urceolate cells heaped together or arrang-
ed in quincunx. — Polypes ascidian.

1. C. vvMicosA, glomerous, rough, porous ; cells sub orbicular,
the mouth round toith a produced marginal process. J . Ellis.
Plate xxxii. Fig. 1, 2, 3.
Porous Eschara, Ellis, Corall. 75, no. 7, pi. 27, fig. /, F, and 72, pi.

30, fig. d, D. Tubipora verrucosa, Lin. Syst. edit. 10, 789

Cellepora pumicosa, Lin. Syst. 1286. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253.
Turt. Gmel. iv. 640. Berk. Syn. i. 212. Wern. Mem. i. 560. Turt.
Brit. Faun. 206. Stew. Elem. ii. 428, pi. 12, fig. 16, 17, copied
from Ellis. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 170. 2de edit. ii. 256. Corall.
40. Boic, Vers, iii. 147, pi. 3, fig. 3. Flem. Brit. Anim. 532. Hogg's
Stock. 37. Stark, Elem. ii. 436. Johnston in Trans. Newe. Soc. ii.

267. Templeton in Mag. Nat Hist. ix. 469 C verrucosa, Lin. Syst

1286. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 434 C. spinosa, Turt. Brit. Faun. 205.

Millepora pumicosa, Pall- Elench. 254. Ellis and Soland. Zooph.

135. Turt. Gmel. iv. 639. Wern. Mem. i. 560. Stew. Elem. ii. 428.

Flustra buUata? Ellis and Soland- Zooph. 16. Stew. Elem. ii.

436. Turt. Gmel. iv. 664 Le cellepore pouce et C. verruqueux,

Blainv. Actinolog. 443-4.
Hab. Found on the stems of various corallines, on stones, and on
the roots of Fuci, common.

The cells, by their conglomeration, form a porous friable calcareous

' From cella a cell, and 5r«{of.
S

274 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Cellepora.

mass, encrusting- submarine bodies, rarely exceeding an inch in length,
usually round when small, more or less oblong and knobbed when
large. It is rough, when quite recent of a pinkish colour, dirty-white
when dry, rarely tinted with purple. The aperture of the cells is
often toothless, but in a perfect condition a short mucro projects

from the superior margin, and often a lesser one on each side.

Linnaeus' description under C. pumicosa is scarcely applicable, but
his quotation of Ellis's figure determines the species he had in view.
There can be little doubt that his C. verrucosa — " cellulis suhrotun-
do-glomeratis ovatis ore suhtridentato" — belongs to the same species,
although Blainville considers it synonymous with the Discopora ver-
rucosa of Lamarck.

2. C. RAMULOSA, dichotomously branched, the branches cy-
lindrical, rough ; cells irregularly clustered^ loith a mucro on the
outer edge of the aperture. Pallas.

Plate xxxii. Fig. 4, 5.
Cellepore ramulosa, Lin. Syst. 1283. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253, no.
3049. Bosc, Vers, iii. 148. Flem. Brit. Anim. 532. Johnston in
Trans. Newc Soc ii. 267, pi. 12, fig. 3, 4. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de

edit. ii. 258 La C. rameux, Blainv. Actinol. 443.

Hah. In deep water, attached to old shells, " not rare," Fleming.
Lizard Point, Cornwall, Pallas. On Serpula tubularia from the coast
at Dunstanborough Castle, 3Ir R. Emhleton. Coast of Berwick-
shire, occasionally, G. J.

Polypidom attached by a spreading base, calcareous, white, light
and porous, rising to the height of between 2 and 3 inches, branch-
ed from the base, the branches bifid, spreading, cylindrical, the ulti-
mate ones a little attenuated at the apex, very rough with the mu-
cronate cells, which are urceolate, without any very regular arrange-
ment^ the aperture contracted, the mucro about as long as its diame-
ter. Pallas (Elench. 233,) and Ellis (Soland. Zooph. 136,) con»

sidered this a variety of the preceding. The polypes are of a faint

red or flesh coloiir, with two darker spots indicating the position of
the stomach and ovary ; tentacula numerous, filiform.

3. C. Skenei, much compressed, divided in a bifid manner,
rough ; cells roived, with a strong mucro on the outer edge of the
7'ound aperture. Dr David Skene.*

Plate xxxii. Fig. 6, 7, 8.

* " Dr David Skene — after a short time of study at Paris, in addition to the
more ordinary preparations — settled as a medical practitioner in Aberdeen, where

Cellepora. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 275

Millepora Skenei, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 135. Turt. Gmel. iv. 635.

Turt. Brit. Faun. 204. Stew. Elem. ii. 427 Cellepora palmata,

Flem. Brit. Aniin. 532. C. Skenei, Johnston in Trans. Newc Soc.

ii. 267 L'Eschare palmee, Blainv. Actinol. 428.

Hab. In deep water, attached to shells and corallines. Near Aber-
deen, Skene. " A single specimen from deep water, Zetland," Flem,'
ing. Coasts of Northumberland and Berwickshire, not rare.

Polypidom attached by a spreading base, calcareous, erect, from
half an inch to an inch high, much compressed, divided in a palmate
manner, the segments truncate, the surface very rough with the mu-
cronate cells, which are immersed, arranged in regular rows, and have
a roundish aperture guarded by a strong divaricate mucro, and in
some of the cells there are one or two shorter spines at the base of
this. From these spines being worn away the base of the polypidom

his father and grandfather had been physicians of reputation ; and he soon be-
came eminent in his owti profession, as well as in literature and science- To
Botany he was particularly devoted ; and he frequently herborized in company
\vith Principal Campbell and Dr Reid, who were both fully aware of his merits.
The former is said to have often lamented that his observations on plants had
never been given to the world ; while Dr Reid, in a letter addressed to him,
observes, regarding his extensive acquirements — ' But is it all to die with you, and
to be buried in your grave ? This, my dear sir, ought not to be. Stultum est
peritura parcere chartce. Can you find no time either when you are laid up in
the gout, or when the rest of the world is in good health, to bequeath something
to posterity? Think seriously of this.' I find the same distinguished philoso-
pher in another of his letters from Glasgow, urging the physician to present
himself as a candidate for one of the medical chairs of that place, about to be-
come vacant by the removal of Dr Black to Edinburgh, particularly as this
might become a step towards the University of Edinburgh, to which Dr Reid
thought his ambition should extend. Nor was this a mere partiality derived
from previous personal intimacy ; for more than one seem to have been anxious
that the Scottish metropolis should become Dr D. Skene's place of abode.
Thus Lord Kames, a frequent and attached correspondent, says in one of his
letters (dated Blair Drummond, 11th January 1769,) ' I have a most hearty re-
sentment at you for refusing the off'er made you by Dr Hope, which would have
settled you in the town of Edinburgh, much to your profit I am certain ; but
no particulars till I see you in the Harvest circuit ;' and in another, ' I wish from
my heart to have you settled here, and cannot but regret a good opportunity you
missed.'" Dr Skene was also the correspondent of Pennant, Ellis, Walker,
and of Linnaeus, several of whose letters to him are still preserved. He died
in December 1771, aged 36, leaving behind him numerous manuscripts ; and a
museum, consisting of plants, minerals and shells, which might well have been
called immense. Taking him all in all he was " probably as extraordinary a man
as the north of Scotland ever produced ;' and it is hard to believe that, even
in his native city, his name should now be entirely forgotten. See the " North-
ern Flora," by Alexander Murray, M. D. pref. p. x.

276 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Cellepora.

is generally smooth and more or less rounded : it is sometimes of a
yellowish-brown colour, but commonly white, and when dry appears
" as if covered over with a silver varnish."

Notwithstanding the apparent dissimilarity in habit of the three
preceding Celleporae, 1 cannot but suspect that they are merely dif-
ferent states of the same species : for in these productions the "fronti
nulla fides" receives many an apposite illustration.

4. C. CERVicoRNis, much and irregularly branched ; branches
compressed, palmate, truncate ; surface roughish or even, com-
pact, with simple circular pores disposed in quincunx. Borlasse.*

Plate xxxiii.

Porus cervinus, Borl. Cornw. 240, tab. 24, fig. 7 Millepora cervicor-

nis. Stew. Elem. ii. 427. Turt. Brit. Faun. 204 M. compressa, Sow-

erby, Brit. Misc. 83, pi. 41. Turt. Brit. Faun. 204. Jameson in Wern.
Mem. i. 560 Cellepora cervicornis, Flem. Brit. Anim. 532.

Hab. " In deep water, not rare," Fleming. Cornwall, Borlasse.
Devonshire, Dr Coldstream. Shetland Islands, Jameson.

A single specimen of this coral is about 3 inches in height and
somewhat more in breadth. It rises from a broad flattened base, and
begins immediately to expand and divide into kneed branches or broad
segments, many of which anastomose so as to form arches and imper-
fect circles. The extreme segments are dilated and variously cut,
truncate. Both sides are perforated with numerous pores just visible
to the naked eye, and arranged in regular rows : the pores are circu-
lar, even with the surface on the smooth and newly formed parts, but
on the older they form the apertures of urceolate cells which appear
to be formed over the primary layers of cells, and give to the surface
a roughish or granular appearance. The orifice is simple, contracted,
with a very small denticle on one side. The thickness of the branches
varies from a half to two lines ; the interior cellular ; the new parts
formed of two layers of horizontal cells, but the older parts are thick-
ened by cells superimposed on the primary layers. This species

certainly treads closely upon the genus Eschara, but Dr Fleming and
Milne-Edwards, who had examined an authentic specimen in the
York Museum, both agree in making it a Cellepora. It is entirely
distinct from Eschara cervicornis, with which it has been confounded.

• Borlasse, William, of Ludgvan in Cormvall, T>. D., born Feb. 2, 1695-6 ;
elected F. R. S. in 1750 ; died Aug. 31, 1772 : tbe author of a History of Corn-
wall still held in estimation ; and characterized by his contemporaries as an " able
and worthy man." See I'ennant's Literary Life, p. 1.

Cellepora. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 277

5. C. LiEvis, " dichotomously branched^ cylindrical, the pores
wide, with simple mouths." Rev. Dr Fleming.

Cellepora he vis, jF/em. Brit. Anim. 532. L' Eschars lisse, Blainv. Acti-

iiol. 4-28.

Hah. " A single specimen from deep water, Zetland," Fleming.

" Height an inch and a quarter, diameter one-tenth ; the branches
are smooth, with the orifices of the cells smooth and concave ; to-
wards the extremities the branches are rough with the forming cells,
and the orifices are more declining', circumscribed, a little prominent,
with a blunt process at the proximal margin." Fleming.

33. Lepralia,* Johnston.
Character. Polypidom calcareous or memhrano -calcareous,
adnate, crustaceous, spreading circularly^ formed of a layer ofur-
ceolate cells in juxtaposition, horizontal, and arranged in quin-
cunx ; aperture terminal, often covered with an opercular ovary.
— Polypes ascidian.

* Margin of the aperture plain.

1. B. HYALiNA, " diaphanous, the cells forming an even smooth
crust, with tubular simple moutlis." Rev. Dr Fleming.

Cellepora hyalina, Lin. Syst. 1286. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 4-35. Bosc,

Vers, iii. 148 Berenicea hyalina, Flem. Brit. Anim. 533 La

Berenice hyaline, Blainv. Actinol. 445..

Hub. " On stones, shells, and corallines from deep water," Fleming.

" The crust is semitransparent, the divisions of the narrow cells

indicated by whitish lines, and the orifices are narrow, cylindrical,

simple tubes. The crust is not circumscribed, otherwise it resembles

the genus Discopora." Dr Fleming.

2. L. NiTiDA, cells ovate, prominent, transversely ridged, or,
when dry, fissured. Dr Fleming.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 7.

* Lepralia — " sea-scurf" — derived from Atw^a, leprosy, and otA/oc, marine :
an expressive name for the genus suggested by my friend, the Rev. Thomas
Riddell. It is spionymous with the " Berenicea" of Dr Fleming, but not of La-
mouroux, and the name belongs of right to the latter ; — the more readily yield-
ed up since we find a " Berenicea" also amongst the Medusae. Milne- Edwards
names the genus " Escharoides," but neither this nor Escharina, another of his
names, can be adopted, since some natinalists use the terminations aide and ina
as family appellatives. Moreover what saith Linnajus? — " Generic names includ-
ing other generic names are unworthy of a scientific nomenclature." And again
— " Generic names ending in oides are prohibited." See Young's Med. Litera-
ture, p. 28.

278 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Lepralia.

CeUepora nitida, Fabr. Faun. Grcenl. 435. Bosc, Vers, iii. 148. Lam.

Anim. s. Vert. '2de edit. ii. 259. Corall. 38. Berenicea nitida, Flem.

Brit. Anim. 533- " La B. brillante, Blainv. Actinol. 445.

Hab. On shells, rare, Dr Fleming. In Berwick Bay on Patella
caerulea, G. J.

Crust spreading circularly, closely adherent, rather thin, greyish-
white, calcareous ; cells contiguous, in radiating rows, large, subalter-
nate, ovate, ventricose, silvery, the walls fissured with 6 or 7 cross
slits which meet on the mesial line ; aperture subquadrangular, de-
pressed, terminal ; anterior to it there is often found a globular smooth
pearly oviferous operculum with a round even aperture. The re-
markable structure of the cells renders this one of the most interesting
species under the microscope. There is sometimes an appearance of
a spine on each side of the lower angle of the mouth, which is mere-
ly the commencement of the walls of the next cell.

3. L. COCCI NE A, cells ovate, granulous, the aperture with a
.•ihort tooth-like process above the superior margin. G. J.
Plate xxxiv. Fig. 1, 2, 3.

CeUepora coccinea, Corall. 40 Berenicea coccinea, Lam. Anim. s.

Vert. 2de edit. ii. 259. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 267, pi. 12,
fig. 3.

Hah. On rocks near low water-mark, and on the roots of Lami-
naria digitata, common on the coast.

The spots formed by this species are often an inch or upwards in •
diameter, the crust closely adherent, thin, roughish to the naked eye,
generally of a flesh-red or purplish colour, but sometimes pure white.
The cells are disposed in adjacent rows, either opposite or subalter-
nate, and lie upon the crust ; they are ovate, granulated or frosted,
and, when dry, sometimes appear to be perforated with minute holes.
Above the aperture, and a little removed from the margin, there rises
up a blunt white tooth or mucro, but the margin itself is not tooth-
ed : the aperture is roundish, emarginated above, terminal, and on
each side of many of them, in some specimens, there is a small trian-
gular slit, which seems to be the aperture of an abortive or partially
developed cell. Many of the cells are usually covered with a large
pearly- white striated operculum.

4. L. VARIOLOSA, crust punctured or sometimes frosted only ;
the cells immersed, cylindraceous, raised anteriorly, iviih a plain

semioval aperture. G. J.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 4.
Hab. On shells and stones in deep water. Scarborough, Mr Bean.
Berwick Buv.

Lepralia. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 279

Crust spreading, rather thick, adherent, even, often roughened in
the centre, greyish -white, dull, the space between the cells closely
punctured like the end of a thimble ; cells immersed, cylindraceous
or somewhat ventricose, arranged in regular rows divided by a raised
line very obvious in recent specimens, the apertures roundish or se-
mioval, plain or with a small tooth on the upper edge, and in some
cells two short blunt teeth are visible on the upper lip. Opercu-
la pearly, globular, smooth. When dry the crust can in some in-
stances be separated from its foreign base in small pieces, but in ge-
neral it is very firmly adherent, and has a decided tendency to grow
in a circular form. In a very fine specimen which Mr Bean submit-
ted to my examination, the space between the cells was not punctur-
ed, but merelv rough or frosted, which I attribute rather to accident,
or to a difference produced in drying, than to any specific character in
the zoophyte.

* * Margin of the aperture spinous.
4. L. CI LI ATA, cells ovato-glohose, frosted, the aperture con-
tracted, circular, armed with from 5 to 1 long spines. Pallas.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 6.

Eschara ciliata, Pall. Elench. 38 Cellepora ciliata, Lin. Syst. 1286.

Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 434. Bosc, Vers, iii. 147. Corall. 41

Berenicea utriculata, Flem. Br. Anim. 533. Johnston in Trans. Newc.
Soc. ii. 268, pi 12, fig. 6, (not good.)

Hah. On shells and stones from deep water, common.

The crust is always white, spreading circularly, thin and closely
adherent, so that it cannot be removed entire from its foreign base.
" The cells appear as unconnected though adjacent," and their aper-
tures look upwards. The aperture is encircled, for about two-thirds
of its circumference, with from 3 to 7 spines almost as long as the cell
itself, but they are of unequal lengths, and are so easily broken off
that it is rare to find them perfect (very often no vestige of them is
visible) excepting near the margin of the crust, or when this lies
protected by some inequality of the surface which it grows upon.

I have seen many specimens of this species in the form of a calca-
reous compressed mass hispid on both sides with the teeth of the
cells, which were aggregated in a double layer. These masses re-
semble some specimens of Cellepora pumicosa, or rather of Mem-
branipora pilosa, and are proof that the distinctions between the ge-
nera are but of secondary importance, as Blainville has properly re-
marked.

280 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Membranipora.

5. L. TRispiNOSA, cells radiating from a centre^ the aperture
armed below with 3 lonp spines. G. J.

Platk xxxiv. Fig. 5.

Discopora trispinosa, Johnston, in Edin. Phil. Journ. xiii. 222 Bere-

nicea trispinosa, Johnston, in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 268.

Hob. On shells from deep water, rare. Berwick Bay.

Crust thin, circular, adherent, yellowish, or of a silvery white co-
lour with minute yellow dots : cells in rows radiating from the cen-
tre, horizontal, immersed, the apertures raised, round, cleft, but not
deeply, above, and belov/' armed with three spines of which the mid-
dle one is the longest. — The margin of the crust is a thin pellicle
marked with the raised lines which are to form the partitions between
the future cells.

6. L. IMMERSA, crust Spreading irregularly^ the cells immersed
with small round apertures^ having a tooth on the proximal and
several spines on the distal margin. Fleming.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 8.

Bereniceaimmersa, F/em. Brit. Anim. 533 B. flava, Johnston, in Trans.

Newc. Soc. ii. 268 La B. immergee, JBlainv. Actinolog. 445.

Hab. On stones and shells from deep water, frequent.

Crust rather thick, spreading irregularly, ochre-yellow, or some-
times cream-yellow, roughish and punctured to the naked eye by the
apertures of the cells which do not radiate from a centre, though ar-
ranged in regular series. They are immersed in the crust so that
their divisions are indistinct ; the apertures contracted with a tooth
on the upper edge and several spines on the lower margin which are
very brittle and liable to be broken off, but when entire are longer
than the diameter of the cell.

34. Membranipora,* Blainville.
Character. Polypidom encrusting, membrano-calcareous,
spreading irregularly, formed of a single layer of alternating ap-
proximated cells; cells oval, horizontal, membranous, the aper-
ture ■patulous with a hard calcareous rim. — Polypes as'cidian.

1. M. PI LOS A, aperture of the cells with one long hair and se-
veral spinous denticles. J. Ellis.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 10-12.
Irregular spongy foliaceous Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 73, no. 4, pi. 31.

* From membrana — a thin skin or film, and Trepm.

Membranipora. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 281

Eschara pilosu, Pall. Eleiich. 50 Flustra pilosa, Lin. Syst. 1301.

Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 1 3. Berk. Syn.
i. 214. Turt. Gmel. iv. 663. Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun.
209. Stew. Elcm. ii. 43G. Base, Vers, iii. 140. Lam. Anim. s. Vert,
ii. 159. 2de edit. ii. 224. Grant in Edin. New Phil. Journ, iii. 111.
Flem. Brit. Anim. 537. Hogg's Stock. ,36. Bisso, L'Europ. Merid.
V. 335. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 265, pi. 9, fig. 5. Lister in Phil.
Trans, an. 1834, 384, pi. 12, fig. 2. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.

469 La F. pileuse, Blainv. Actinol. 450.

Var. /?. The long bristle abortive or destroyed. Ellis, Corall. pi. 29, fig.

Z). Ellis in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 492, pi., 12. fig. 4, D Flustra

dentata, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 15. Turt. Gmel. iv. 664. Turt.
Biit. Faun. 209- Stew. Elem. ii. 436. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 158.
2de edit. ii. 224. Bosc, Vers, iii. 142. Stark, Elem. ii. 437. Hogg's

Stock. 36. Temfilcton, loe. s. cit. 469 La Flustre dentee, Blainv.

Actinolog. 450 Membranipora pilosa, Farre in Phil. Trans, an.

1837, 412, pi. 27, fig. 1-5.

Hub. On the lesser sea-weeds most abundant, and not uncom-
monly on old shells.

Polypidora incrusting, merabrano-calcareous, irregular, follow-
ing- the shape and form of the objects it grows upon, straw-yellow,
thickish, porous, hairy : cells short, somewhat tubulous, with large
roundish apertures ossified and toothed on the margin, the teeth short,
sharp and rigid, and behind the mouth of each cell there is a very
long tubular bristle which issues from a hollow base like a hair from
its bulb. — Polypes with 12 tentacula, long in proportion to the body,
thick and rather clumsy. Farre. " Polypus — tentacula circiter 20,
sequalia et corpus sequantia, in campanse formam expandit." Pal-
las.

When the polypidom encrusts the broad-leaved fuci or shells the
texture is thinner and the cells more completely developed, and then
their surface is perceived to be finely frosted. The small spines of
the aperture are omitted in the figure of Ellis ; and that referred to
for the variety dentata is imperfect and unfinished. Many believe
this variety to be distinct in species, and specimens, sufiiciently cha-
racteristic, can easily be produced in favour of the opinion, which,
however, 1 am satisfied is erroneous.

M. pilosa often rises into small sponge-like fronds, cellular and
hirsute on each side. " In frondes lubenter assurgit, utrinque cellu-
losas crassiusculas, spongiosas ; primo simplices, lineares, obtusas ;
deinde ramosas ; imo pinnato-multifidas fere nunquam poUice longio-
res." Pallas.

282 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Membranipora.

2. M. SPONGIOSA, aperture of the cells with several long setce.

Robert Brown.*

Flustra spongiosa, Templeton, in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469.

Hab, " Found by Robert Browiij Esq. on the coast of Ballycastle,"
Templeton.

" Allied to the preceeding- : the mouths of the cells with several
long setae. In pilosathe mouths of the cells are surrounded by several
very short teeth, with only one hair-like appendage. In this species
the teeth appear lengthened into long setaceous bristles." Temple-
ton.

* The author of the " Prodromus Florae Novae HoUaiidise."

Fig. 46.

FAMILY XIII. ESCHARID^.

35. Flustra,* Linnaeus.
Character. Polj/pidom plant-like, membranaceous, Jlexile,
frondose or crustaceous, formed of cells arranged quincuncially in
several series and in one or two layers : cells in juxtaposition,
more or less quadrangular, fat, with a distinct border ; the
aperture transverse, semilunar, valvular, subtermijial.'f — Poly-
pes ascidian.

* Foliaceous, with cells on both sides.
1. F. FOLiACEA, cells narrow at the proximal and arched at
the distal extremity., with scattered marginal denticles.

Plate xxxv. Fig-. 1, 2.
Fucus marinus scruposus albidus telara sericeam textura sua semulans, Mor-
ris. Hist. Plant, iii. 646, tab. 8, fig. 16. (bona.) Fucus telam lineam

sericeamve textura sua aemulans, Rail, Syn. 42, no. 9. Jussieiiin Mem.
Acad. Roy. des. Sc. 1742, 298, pi. 10, fig. 3 Broad-leaved Horn-
wrack, Ellis, Corall. 70, no. 2. pi. 29, fig. a, A. B, b Curious sea-
weed, Hoohe, Microg. 140, pi. 9, fig. 2 ; and pi. 14, fig. 1. Eschara

foliacea, Lin. Syst. edit. 10, 804. Pall. Blench. 52 Flustra folia-

cea, Lin. Syst. 1300. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253. Fabric. Faun.
Groenl. 436. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 12, pi. 2, fig. 8. Berk. Syn. i.
214. Turt. Gmel. iv. 663. Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun.

• From the Saxon Flustrian, to weave : hence Flustra applied by Linnieus
to these sea-mats.

f " The aperture of the cells is formed by a simicircular lid, convex exter-
nally and concave internally, which folds down when the polypus is about to
advance from the cell. The opening of this lid in the F. truncata, where it is
very long, appears through the microscope like the opening of a snake's jaws,
and the organs by which this motion is efl!ected are not perceptible. The lid
of the cells opens and shuts in Flustric, without the slightest perceptible
synchronous motion of the Polypi." Grant in Edin. New Phil. Journ, iii. 339.

284 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Flustra.

209. Blumenb. Man. 272. Stew. Elem. ii. 433. Corall. 44. Lam.

Anim. s. vert. ii. 156. 2de edit. ii. 219. Grant in Edin. New Phil.

Jonrn. iii. Ill and 337. Flem. Brit. Anim. 535. Hogg's Stock. 36.

Stark, Elem. ii. 437. Johnston in Trans. Newc Soc ii. 26.3. Mag Nat.

Hist. iii. 483, fig. 120. Templeton in Ibid. ix. 469. Risso, L'Europ.

merid. v. 333 La Flustre foliacee, Blainv. Actinolog. 450, pi.

75, fig. 1.
Hab. Common on hard ground, in a few fathoms water.
Polypidom corneous, frondose, arising from a spreading base with
a single plane of cells, about 4 inches high, of a uniform wood-brown
colour, thickish, deeply divided into numerous broad segments ge-
nerally somewhat narrowed at their origin, often bifid or trifid, some-
times palmate near the apex which is slightly rounded ; the surface
roughish, minutely reticulated : cells small, in semialternating rows,
narrow at the base, dilated and arched at the top, the superior mar-
gin armed with four stout conical processes shorter than the diame-
ter of the celL The top of the cells is sometimes covered with a

small hollow globular pearly operculum opening downwards.

The segments vary very much in breadth, but are rarely, if ever,
proliferous. " Varietas vulgatior frondibus latiusculis, dilatatis, ex-
tremitate lata laciniosa. Rarior frondibus longis atque angustis.
Perrara extremis frondium angustiorum latis et palmatis. Rarissi-
ma subpiunatis aut latissimis margineque tantum divisis frondibus."

Pallas Hooke, in his celebrated " Micrographia," says, " for

curiosity and beauty, I have not among all the plants or vegetables
I have yet observed, seen any one comparable to this sea-weed."
When recent it exhales a pleasant scent, which Pallas compares to
that of the orange, Dr Grant to^ that of violets, and which a friend
tells me smells to him like a mixture of the odour of roses and geranium.

2. F. CHARTACEA, " cells sUghtly enlarged distalh/ ; margins
smooth." J. Ellis.

Eschara papyracea utrinque cellefera, summitatibus securis aciei instar trun-

catis, Ellis, Corall. pi. 38, fig. 8 Flustra papyracea, Ellis and Soland.

Zooph. 13. Flem. Brit. Anim. 535. Lister in Phil. Trans, an. 1834,
384, pi. 12, fig. 3. Edwards in Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 220.

La F. papyracee, Blainv. Actinolog. 451 F. chartacea, Turt.

Gmel. iv. 663. Turt. Brit. Fauii. 209. Stew. Elem. ii. 436. Bosc,
Vers, iii. 141. Corall. 45. Risso, L'Europ. Merid, v. 333.
Hah. Coast of Sussex, Ellis. Brighton, Lister.
" The cells of this sea mat are of an oblong square figure, swel-
ling out a little in the middle of each side. The openings of the cells
are defended by a helmet-like figure ; from hence the polype- shaped
suckers extend themselves. This sea mat is of a slender and deli,
cate texture, like thin semitransparent paper, of a very light straw

Flustra. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 285

colour It was first found on the coast of Sussex, adhering to s

shell. I have since met, on the same coast, about Hastings, in the
year 1763, with several specimens, whose tops were digitated, and
others that were very irregularly divided." Ellis.

As this is very certainly distinct from the F. papyracea of Linnaeus,
I have preferred the name of Gmelin. Dr Fleming seems inclined
to consider the species as a variety of the preceding. For my own
part I know not how it is to be distinguished from that which follows.

3. F. TRUNCATA, cells Unear-oblong , with smooth margins.

Plate xxxv. Fig. 3, 4.
Fucus marinus scruposus albidus augustior compressus, extiemitatibus quasi

abscissis, Rail, Syn. 43, no. 10. Morris. Hist. Plant. Oxoii. iii. 646,

tab. 8, fig. 17, opt Narrow leaved Horiiwrack, Ellis, Coral. 69, no.

l,tab.28,fig. 1, a. A, B Escliara foliacea /3, Zan. Syst edit. 10,804.

E. securifrons, Pall. Elench. 56. Flustra truncata, Lin. Syst.

1300. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 11.

Berk. Syn. i. 214. Turt. Gmel. iv. 663. Warn. Mem. i. 563. Turt.

Brit. Faun. 209. Stew. Elem. ii. 436. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 157.

2deedit. ii 219- Corall. 44. Bosc, Vers, iii. 140. pi. .30, fig. 1. Risso,

L'Europ. Mend. v. 334. Grant, in loc cit. ill. Flem. Brit. Anim.

535. Hogg's Stock. 36. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 264. pi.

12, fig. 1. Templeton in Mig. Nat. Hist. ix. 469 La Flustre tron-

quee, Blainv. Actinolog. 450
Hab. In deep water, very common.

Attains a height of four or five inches, very bushy, of a straw-co-
lour, smooth, varnished when dry, rather thin in texture, origina-
ting from a matted base formed of capillary fibres, which, by their
union, compose a short stem that divides, after a dichotomous man-
ner, into numerous flat narrowish segments, either linear or dilated
upwards. From the edges of these there often sprout out wedge-
shaped leaflets, affixed by a small pedicle, simple at first, but after-
wards deeply bifid : the ends of all the segments are abruptly trun-
cate. Cells linear-oblong, their septa unarmed, usually marked with
a black dot towards the centre, which seems to be the remains of
the shrivelled polype, and at some seasons covered with a hood-like
operculum.

* * Foliaceous, with cells on one side only.

4. F. CARBASEA, Cells oblong^ narrorced and truncate below, the
margin toothless. Dr Skene.

Plate xxxvi. Fig. 1, 2.

Flustra carbasea, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 14, pi. 3, fig. 6, 7. Turt.

Gmet. iv. 663. Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun. 209. Stew.

Elem. ii. 436. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 157. 2de edit. ii. 221. Boscy

286 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Flustra.

Vers, iii. 141. Corall. 45. Flem. Brit. Anim. 535. Hogg's Stock. 36.
Grant in Edin. New Phil. Jouin. iii, 111. Stark, Elem. ii. 437. John-
ston in Trans. Newc Soc. ii. 264, pi. 9, fig. 4. Templeton ut. sup. cit.
469. Roget, Bridgew. Treat- i. 165, fig. 63, 64; and 172, fig. 69, 70.
Dalyellin Edin. New Phil. Journ. xvii. 413; and in Rep. Brit. Assoc.

an. 1834, 60-3 La F. voile, Blainv. Actinolog. 451.

Hab. On shells from deep water. From Aberdeen, Skene.
Leith shore, Mr Parsons. Not unfrequent at Seaton, Hartlepool,
Whitburn, and other places on the coast of Durham, J. Hogg. Coast
of Berwickshire, not uncommon, G. J. Ireland, Templeton.

Polypidom frondose, fixed by a small disk, narrow at the base with
thickened margins, dilating- upwards and becoming very broad in
proportion to the height, which at most is about two inches, thin,
yellowish brown, deeply divided, the segments broad and somewhat
rounded on the apex. Cells on one side only, large, and smooth.
Polypes with about 22 tentacula, which are " nearly a third of the
length of the body, and there appear to be about 50 cilise on each
side of a tentaculum, making 2200 cilise on each polypus. In this
species there are more than 18 cells in a square line, or 1800 in a
square inch of surface, and the branches of an ordinary specimen pre-
sent about 10 square inches of surface ; so that a common specimen
of the F. carbasea presents more than 18,000 polypi, 396,000 tenta-
cula, and 39,600,000 cilise." Grant.

5. F. SETACEA, cells in 2 or 3 rows, oval, with a setaceous

bristle. Rev. Dr Fleming.

Flustra Ellisii, Fleming in Wern. Mem. ii. 251, pi. 17, fig- 1 — 3

F. setacea, F/em. Brit. Anim. 536. La F. setacee, Blainv. Actinolog.

451.
Hah. " Along with Cellepora cervicornis, from deep water, Zet-
land," Dr Fleming.

" Height nearly two inches ; branches linear, not the tenth of an
inch in diameter ; substance firm, brittle ; the base consists of small
tubes, which by their union, form the branches, dorsally carinated
by the union of the tubes, which, diverging to each side and dividing
form two denticles and a long bristle, the latter serrated on one side ;
cells oblique." Dr Fleming.

6. F. Avicui.ARis, cells in 4 or Jive rows, oblong, with a strong
conical spine at each side of the aperture. J. Ellis.

Plate xxxvi. Fig. 3, 4.
Corallina cum appendiculis lateralibus avium capitum forma, Ellis, Corall.

pi. 38, fig. 7. Cellularia avicularia /?, Pall. Elench. 68. Flustra

avicularis, Soverhy Brit. Misc. ii. 21. pi. 7L Turt. Brit. Faun. 210.
Flem. Brit. Anim. 536. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 265 La

Flustra. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 287

F. aviculaire, Bluinv. Actinolog. 451 F. angustiloba, Lam. Anim.

s. Vert. ii. 158. 2de edit. ii. 222 F. capitata, Hogg's Stock. 36.

Crisia flustroides, ZamoMr. Corall. Flex. 141. Corall. Gl.

Hab. Attached to other corallines and old shells in deep water.
Torhay, Dr Coldstream. Cullercoats, Northumberland, Mr Alder.
Berwick Bay, G. J. Cork harbour, J. V. Thompson.

Usually about an inch in height, csespitose and fan-like, or spread
out circularly, of a cinereous colour, merabrano-calcareous, brittle
when dry, deeply divided in a dichotoraous manner into narrow thin
plane segments, truncate at the end, formed of four or five series of
oblong cells, capped with a hollow globose pearly operculum seated
between the spines, of which there is one on each side of the circu-
lar aperture. The opercula are so numerous that they give to the
upper surface the appearance of being thickly strewn with orient
pearls : the under surface is even and longitudinally striated, the
number of striae corresponding to the number of rows in which the
cells are disposed.

7. F. MURRAY ANA, cells multiserial, ovate, the margin armed
icith 6 or 8 spines shorter than the diameter of the cell. Mr Bean.

Plate xxxvi. Fig. 5, 6.
Flustra Murrayaiia, Bean, MSS. named " after Dr Murray, a scientific and
zealous naturalist of Scarborougb."

Hah. In deep water. Scarborough, very rare, Mr Bean.

This pretty species grows in entangled spreading masses which are
rooted to the object of attachment by numerous long thread-like tu-
bular fibres, wrinkled when dry, and apparently always pullulating
from the side or inferior surface of a marginal cell. Polypidom
scarcely an inch in height, of a light colour and thin membranous
texture, dichotomous, spreading, the segments plane, narrow wedge-
shaped, truncate, the upper surface roughish with the cells, which are
disposed in the usual quincuncial manner, but are more elevated than
in any other species ; the under surface glistening, striate : cells uni-
lateral, so large that their figure is perceptible to the naked eye, ovate,
truncate above with a short hollow spinule at each angle, and there
are from 4 to 6 rather longer spinules protecting the margin of the
elliptical aperttire — I have seen only Mr Bean's fine specimen, which
is accurately delineated in our figure. The species is very distinct
from any hitherto described.

* * * Crustaceous.
8. F. MEMBRANACEA, cells ohlong, icith a short blunt spine at
each corner. J. Ellis.

Plate xxxvii. Fig. 1, 2, 3.

288 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Flustra.

Flustra membranacea, Lin. Syst. 1301. Fabric Faun. Groeiil. 437, no.

446. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod, 253. Ellis and Soland, Zooph. 18.

Turt. Gmel. iv- 665. Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun. 21 C

Stew. Elem. ii. 437. Bosc, Vers, iii. 144. Corall. 47. Hogg's Stock.

36. Flem. Brit. Anlm. 536. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 265.

La F. membraneuse, Blainv- Actinol. 450 Fl. telacea. Lam. Anira.

s vert. 2de edit, ii- 223. Grant in loo. s. cit. iii. Ill La naem-

branipore membraneuse, B!ainv. Actinol. 447.
Hab. On the frond of Laminaria digitata. common.
Polypidom forming- a gauze-like incrustation on the frond of the
sea-weed, spreading irregularly to the extent of several square inches,
in general, thin, and closely adherent, but sometimes becoming thick-
ish, and then capable of being detached in considerable portions ; cells
very obvious to the naked eye, oblong, quadrangular with a blunt hol-
low spine at each angle. In many specimens there are some anoma-
lous processes, a quarter of an inch in height, scattered over the sur-
face : they arise from within the cells, are simple, horny and tubular,
but closed at top. Ellis conjectured they were ovaries, but the con-
jecture is certainly unfounded. — When the polypes are all protruded
they form a beautiful object under the microscope, from their num-
bers, their delicacy, the regularity of their disposition, and the viva-
city of their motions, now expanding their tentacula into a beautiful
campanulate figure, now contracting the circle, and ever and anon
retreating within the shelter of their cells. The tentacula are nume-
rous, filiform, white and in a single series.

9. F. LINEATA, cells oval, separate, the margin armed with
several short equal spirious denticles. Professor Jameson.

Plate xxxvii. Fig. 4.
Flustra lineata, Zzn. Syst- 1301. Mull. Zool. Dan. prod. 253. Fabric.
Faun. Groenl. 437. Turt. Gmel. iv- 665. Corall. 46. Jameson in

Wern. Mem. i. 563 La F. lineee, Blainv. Actinol. 450 F. spi-

nifera, Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 266, pi. 9, fig. 6 F. hir-

ta? Bosc, Vers, iii. 144. Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 334. Corall. 49.
Hob. On stones at low-water mark in Berwick Bay, G. J. Ork-
ney Islands, Jameson.

Polypidom membranous, of a horny texture, yellowish-brown,
rough, closely adnate, thin, spreading irregularly : cells scarcely visi-
ble to the eye, separate by a space not equal to the cell in breadth,
the marginal teeth stout and somewhat inclined inwards.

10. F. ? carnosa, ^^ sid)stancejleshy ; cells remote, aperture
contracted, armed at the top with spinous processes." Jameson.

Plate xxxvii. Fig. 5.
3

Flustra. Z. yVSCIDIOIDA. 289

Flustra liisi)ida, Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 438 Jameson in Wern. Mem. ''.
563. Flem. Brit. Anim. 537- Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. '260,

pi. 9, fig. 7 La F. hispide, Blainv. Actinolog. 450.

Hub. " Investing- Fucus serratus ; everywhere common," Flem-
ing. Leith shore, Jameson. Berwick Bay, at low water mark.

" Substance thick, tough, full of mucus, brown ; base of the cells,
where attached, contiguous and angular ; at the surface the cells are
ovate, the aperture lunate. Polypi with an enlarged head, and from
20 to 30 tentacula," Fleming. — As the Flustra hispida of Pallas is
unquestionably a diffex'ent species, it has become necessary to adopt
another specific name.

1 1. F. TUBERCULATA, membrano-colcareoiis ; cells oval with
tioo short spines at the sides of the aperture and one above it.

Fleming.

Plate xxxiv. Fig. 9.
Flustra tiiberculata ? Bosc, Vers, iii. 143 " F. dentata ? Mull. Zoo).

Dan. iii. tab. 95, fig. 1, 2." F. unicornis? Fleming, in Edin. Phil.

Journ. ii. 87. Flem. Brit. Anim. 536. Johnston, in Trans. Newc. Soc.

ii. 266. Fl. membranacea? Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 225. Le

Membranipore unicorne? Blainv. Actinolog. 447 La Flustre uni-

come, Ibid. 450.
Hah. On stones within low water-mai'k, Fleming. Frequent in
Berwick Bay.

Polypidom in the form of a thin closely adherent greyish- white
subcalcareous crust, reticulated like a piece of gauze to the naked eye,
spreading circularly : cells quincuncial, short, oval, with a large ovate
aperture armed with two short spinous teeth inclined inwards, the
margin somewhat thickened : in the space between the cells and
above the aperture there is a conical process which appears to be per-
forated on the top.

This is more calcareous in its texture than any of the preceding-
species, and hence assumes a white colour when dried. When per-
fect and young, the denticles to the aperture are very evident, (Fig.
a), but in old or exposed specimens no vestige of them can be disco-
vered. (Fig. h.) At one time I had nearly concluded that these
specimens belonged to different species, but the timely possession of
a perfect polypidom prevented the commission of the error, for in it
the cells towards the margin have all the characters of a, and those
near the centre the character of b. I have not seen MuUer's figure,
but the description of F. tuberculata given by Bosc agrees with the
the first state of the species ; and it appears to be probable that on
the second state is founded the F. unicornis of Fleming.

T

290 ASCIDIOIDA. Cellularia.

Flustra arenosa, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 17. Steiv. Elem. ii. 437-

Bosc, Vers, iii. 142. Millepora arenosa aiiglica, Raii, Syn. i. 31

English Sandy Millepore, Ellis, Corall. 74, no. 5, pi. 25, fig. e

Escharalutosa, Pall. Elench. 37. Alcyonium arenosum, Turt. Gmel.

iv. 364. Turt. Brit. Faun. 207 According to Mr Boys this "isun-

doubtedly the nidus of some marine animal, as I have found the cells en-
tire, with eggs in each." Lin. Trans, v. 231. Mr J. Hogg has proved
that it is the nidus of Nerita monilifera. Lin. Trans, xiv. 318, &c.

36. Cellularia,* Pallas.
Character. Polypidom calcareous or memhrano-calcareousy
confervoid, divided sidtdichotomously, the divisions Jiarrow, com-
posed of two alternating series of ohlong sessile cells on a single
plane ; the apertures terminal, oblique, facing one way, and usual-
ly covered with an opercidum. — Polypes ascidian,

1. C. ciLiATA, erect, dichotomous ; cells alternate, turbinate,

with an oblique open aperture armed on the outer edge with 4 or

5 long spines. — Ellis.

Plate xxxviii. Fig-. 1-2.

Ciliated Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 38, no. 5, plate 20, d, D Sertularia

ciliata, Lin. Syst- 1316. Berk. Syn. i. 220. Turt. Gmel. iv. 685. Turt.
Brit. Faun. 217. Wern. Mem. i. 565. Stew. Elem. ii. 448 Cellu-
laria ciliata. Pall Elench. 74. Flem. Brit. Anim. 340. Hogg's Stock.

35. Cellaria ciliata, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 24. Bosc, Vers, iii.

133. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 139. 2de edit. ii. 186 Crisia ciliata,

Corall. 60. Tempkton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 468 La Bicellaire ci-

liee, Blainv. Actinolog. 439.

Hah. Parasitical on corallines and the roots of Fuci, not uncom-
mon. " Mare Anglicum ; ubi, in Fucis, Spongiis, Sertulariis, para-
sitica crescit," Pallas. Leith shore, Jameson. Scarboroug-h, Mr
Bean. Rare on the coast of Berwickshire, G. J. " Found on Fu-
cus siliquosus, and on other corallines" in Ireland, Templeton.

Tufted, about half an inch in height, very slender and delicate,
hispid, pellucid white, calcareous, dichotomously branched. The
cells are rather widely alternate, turbinate, with the apertures evert-
ed, patulous, and armed with long spines which are apt to be broken
off. The spines appear to be tubular. A sacate j)early lid covers
the mouth of many cells ; and at or near the base there is, on some
of them, a small anomalous appendage something like a bird's head.
The pellucidity and delicacy of this species, with its pearly lids scat-

* From cellula, diniir.utive of cella, a cell-

CEM.ur,AniA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 291

tered over the branches, render it a remarkably beautiful object un-
der the microscope.

2. C. SCRUPOSA, creeping, dichotomous ; cells alternate with a
plain aperture, " an amjie projecting on the outward side of each."
Ellis.

Plate xxxviii. Fig 5, 6.
Creeping stony Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 38, no. 4. pi. 20, c, C. Cellifeious

Coralline with angular edges to its cells, Ellis, in Phil. Trans, xlviii. pi.

13, no. 7. Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 493, pi. 12, fig. 7, K, L Sertula-

ria scruposa, Lin. Syst. 1315. Turt. Gmel. iv. 686. Berk, Syn. i.

220. Turt. Brit. Faun. 216. Wern. Mem. i. 363. Stew. Elem. ii. 448.

Cellularia scruposa, PoW. Elencb. 72. Flem. Brit. Anim. 339

Cellaria scruposa, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 23. Bosc, Vers, iii. 132, pi.

29, fig. 7. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 141. 2de edit. ii. 192. Johnston in

Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 261, pi. 11, fig. 3 Crisia scruposa, Corall.

Templeton in lib. cit ix. 469 La. B. raboteuse, JBlainv. Actinolog.

439.
Hub. On the roots of Laminaria digitata, on FlustraR, corallines
and old shells, common.

This frequently covers a space about an inch square, the branches
diverging and creeping along the surface or the entangled roots of
sea-weed, to which they are attached by simple tubulous root- like
fibres pullulating from the plane inferior surface. The branches are
rather broad, dichotomous, of an earthy brown colour, brittle when
dry. Within the cells I have occasionally seen one, or sometimes
two, nearly globular orange-coloured ova.

3. C. REPTANS, creeping, dichotomous ; cells alternate with an
oblique aperture armed with short spines at the top. — Ellis.

Pi/ATE xxxviii. Fig. 3-4.

Creeping Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 37, pi. 20, no. 3, fig. b- B. Sertularia

reptans, Lin. Syst. 1313. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 44-5, no. 439. Turt.

Gmel. iv. 685. Tvrt. Brit. Faun. 217. Stew. Elem. ii. 448 S.

repens, Berk. Syn. i. 220 Cellularia reptans. Pall. Elench. 73.

Flem. Brit. Anim. 540. Hogg's Stock. 35 Cellaria reptans, Ellis

ioiA. Soland. Zooph. 23- ^osc, Vers, iii. 132. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii.
141. 2de Edit. ii. 191. Stark, Elem. ii. 439. Johnston in Trans. Newc.

Soc. ii. 262 Crisia reptans, Coral. 60. Risso, I'Europ. Merid. v.

318. Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469 — La Bicellaire rampante,
Blainv. Actinol. 439.
Hah. On Flustra foliacea and other submarine bodies, common.
Similar to the preceding in form and mode of growth, but its spread-
ing tufts cover in general a larger space, and are more densely matted.'

292 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Cellularia.

The radical tubes are flexuous, corneous, and divided at the extremity
into two or three small knob-like processes. Branches linear, plane,
jointed at their origins, composed of two rows of semialternate oval
cells, with an oblique terminal aperture level with the surface, and
armed with several short brittle spines. Ellis represents only two
spines to each cell, and Pallas follows him in his description, but they
are commonly more numerous. Stretched across the mouth of the
cells there may occasionally be observed, in dried specimens, an ir-
regularly veined pellucid membrane, undoubtedly the remains of the
polype's sac or tunic. Opercula are also to be seen over some cells,
but these are not common.

4. C. ? AvicuLARiA, erect^ dichotomous ; the cells with two

spines at the aperture. Ellis.

Plate xxxvi. Fig. 7, 8.
Bird's-head Coralline, Ellis. Corall. 36, no. 2, pi. 20, fig. a, A- Cellularia

avicularia. Pall. Eleiich. 68. Hogg's Stock. 35. Sertularia a\'icu-

laria, Lin. Syst. 1315. Berk. Syn. i. 220. Wern. Mem. i. 565. Turt.

Brit. Faun. 216. Stew. Elem. ii. 448. Cellaria avicularia, Ellis and

Soland. Zooph. 22. ^osc, Vers, iii. 131. Lam. Anim. s. Vert ii. 141.

2de edit. ii. 191. Johnston in Trans. Newc. See. ii. 262 Crisia

avicularia, Lamoiir. Cor. Flex. 141. Corall. 61. Templeton, in Mag.
Nat. Hist. ix. 468.
Hab. Parasitical on other corallines in deep water. From the
sea-coast near Dublin, Ellis. " Mare inter Angliam et continen-
tem terram," Pallas. Not very uncommon at Hartlepool, J. Hogg.
Leith shore, not common, Jameson. Scarborough, on stones &c.
at low water, not uncommon, Mr Bean. Ireland, Templeton.

Polypidom caulescent, erect, bushy, from one to two inches in
height, membrano-calcareous, silvery or glassy greyish-white, brit-
tle when dry, attached by a fibrous root, the stalk composed of nu-
merous interwoven fibres ; primary branches alternate, flabellate, di-
vided dichotomously into many narrow linear flat segments, which
are rough and cellular on the upper or inner side, but smooth and
longitudinally striate underneath. Cells in two semialternating rows,
coalescent, opening on one plane, oblong, flat, their parietes thin and
pellucid, a strong spine at each of the superior angles, the aperture
subterminal, transverse, generally covered with a large globular
pearly operculum placed between the spines ; and at the external
side there is in many a curious appendage which Ellis has aptly com-
pared to a " bird's head, with a crooked beak, opening very wide."
These appendages, of unknown use, are about one fourth the size of
the cell, and, when the coralline is in a living state, are continually

AcAMARCHis. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 293

moved \ip wards and downwards with the regularity of a pendulum.
The polypes have apparently twelve tentacula.

The cells have the characters of Acamarchis or Flustra rather than
of Cellularia. IMany naturahsts make the zoophyte a vari ety of Flustra
avicularia, but Mr Bean and Milne Edwards dissent from this associa-
tion. The principal distinction between them lies in the dissimi-
larity of their habit : in the shape of the cells I do not perceive any
noticeable difference, but in this I have never seen more than two
spines at the top of each cell, while in the Flustra I have seen four
on some cells, though certainly many of them are armed with two
only.

5. C. HOOKERi, ^^ cells rounded, diverging, projecting." — Sir

W. J. Hooker.

Cellularia Hookeri, Flem. Brit. Anim. 339 La Bicellaire de Hooker,

Blainv. Aclinol. 460.

Hab. " Found by Dr Hooker at Torquay, 1812," Fleming.

" H eighth upwards of an inch, dichotomously branched, branches
straight, stiff, brittle, divaricate ; the cells are protuberant dorsally,
and their rounded top is nearly free, projecting laterally, giving the
edge a remarkably jagged outline, and the pearly ovaria are rounded."
Fleming. — This is probably syonymous with Cellaria denticulata
of Lamarck, Anim. s. vert. ii. J 37.

37. Acamarchis,* Lamouroux.
Character. Polypidom plant-like, subcalcareous, attached
hy fibrous radicles, bushy, dichotomously branched, the branches
composed of a double series of semialternate oblong cells whose
apertures occupy nearly one side and face one way, usually pro-
tected by an operculum. — Polypes ascidian.

1. A. neritina, " cells quadrangular, lengthened, with a

truncated summit, the outer angle projecting." — Miss Blackburne.

Remarkable Coralline, Ellis in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 345, pi. 8, fig. a, A.

G. Ellis, Corall. 33, pi. 19 Sertularia neritina, Lin. Syst. 1313.

Turt. Gmel. iv- 683. Stew. Elem. ii. 448 Cellularia neritina,

Pall. Elencb. 67. Flem. Brit. Anim. 339 Cellaria neritina, £ffis and

Soland. Zooph. 22. Bosc, Vers, iii. 131. Lam. Anim. s. vert ii.

140. 2de edit, ii- 190 Acamarchis neritina, Corall. 38, pi. 3, fig. 2.

Risso, I'Europ. Merid. v. 318. Blainv. Actinolog. 439, pi. 77, fig. 3. Tem-
pleton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469-
Hab. On the English coast, very rare. " I possess a specimen

" The name of one of the daughters of Oceanus,

•294 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Acamahchis.

from the collection of the late Dr Walker, which he received from
Miss Blackburne from the coast of Cheshire," Fleming. " Found
in Dublin Bay and Belfast Lough," Templeton.

" Height several inches, dichotomously divided, spreading ; the
cells are narrow, rather diverging, and more than the half of the outer
summit is free ; the pearly helmet-shaped ovaria opening transversely,
were at one time considered by Ellis as the young of Neritae." Flem-
ing.

2. A. PLUMOSA, cells linear-oblong^ with a spine at the outer
and upper angle ; the aperture elliptical, entire. Doody.

Plate xxxix.

Corallina pumila erecta ramosior, Raii, Syn. i. 37, no- 20, tab. 2, fig. 1.
Ellis, in Phil. Trans, abridg. x. 346, pi. 8, fig. h, B-B Soft feather-
ed coralline, Ellis, Corall. 33, no. I, pi. 18, fig. a, A Sertularia

fastigiata, Lin. Syst. 1314. Fabric. Faun. Grcenl. 445. Turt. Gmel.
iv. 684. Berk. Syn. i. 219. Turt. Brit Faun. 216. Wern. Mem. i.

565. Stew. Elem. ii. 448 Cellularia plumosa. Pall. Elench. 66.

Hogg's Stock. 35 C. fastigiata, Blumenh. Man. 273. Flem. Brit.

Anim. 539 Cellaria plumosa, Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 21. Bosc,

Vers, iii. 131. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 140. 2de edit. ii. 190. Crisia

plumosa, Corall. 62 C. fastigiata, Templeton in Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.

468 La Bicellaire plumeuse, Blainv. Actinolog. 459.

Hah. " Not uncommon beyond low water-mark," Fleming. Leith
shore, Jameson. In deep water at Scarborough, common, Mr Bean.
Eare in Berwick Bay, G. J. " Common on the coast" of Ireland,
Templeton.

Polypidom attached by fibrous roots, subcalcareous, caulescent,
erect, from 2 to 4 inches high, very much branched, the branches
panicled, dichotomous, with linear or filiform segments ; cells oblong
with a short pointed spine on the superior outer angle, smooth, pel-
lucid or somewhat crystalline, marked always with a black or orange-
coloured dot near the centre, the remains of the dried polype ; ovaries
pearly, globular or pear-shaped, placed over the apertures.

In habit this fine species is sometimes like Sertularia argentea, but
in general it is more tufted and bushy. Specimens occur without
an ovary on any cell, while others are loaded with them ; and in one
of the latter sort I found some of the segments of the branches com-
posed of a triple series of cells. The whole polypidom is often co-
loured of a pink or pui'plish hue. In an old condition the cells be-
come obsolete, and the habit of the species so altered, as to render
its detection in this guise somewhat difficult to the inexperienced.
Dr Fleming does not adopt this genus, which Blainville is also of

4

Farcimia. Z. ASCIDrOIDA. 295

opinion differs too little from Cellularia to be admitted. There is
certainly much sameness in the characters of these genera, but there
is a recognizable difference in the form of the cells, more particularly
in the aperture, liker in Acamarchis to that of Flustra than of Cellu-
laria, which warrants us in laying hold of it as a line of separation in a
case where the dissimilarity in habit is very obvious. The agree-
ment in this respect between the species seems no less patent, al-
though it has not been hitherto perceived.

Farcimia,* Fleming.
Character. — Polypidom rooted^ plant-like, calcareous, di-
chotoinous ; the branches cylindrical, regularly jointed, with im-
ynersed rhomboidal cells diverging from the axis, disposed in quin-
cunx, and opening on the surface ; the apertures lateral, plain,
non-operculate.

1. F. &!s.hico'R^i\, articulations nearly cylindrical ; the cells
rhomboidal, plain.

Plate xxxvii. Fig. 6, 7.

Corallina fistulosa fragilis, Raii, Hist. i. 65 Corallina fistulosa fragilis,

internodiis praelongis laevibus, albis, farciminum mode cateiiatis, Pluken.

Phytog. pi. 26, fig. '2 Bugle Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 46, no. 1, pi.

23. Escbara fistulosa, Lin. Syst. edit. 10, 804 Tubularia fistu-
losa, Lin. Syst. 1302. Berk. Syn. i. 214. Turt. Gnael. iv. 666. Turt.

Brit. Faun. 210. Stew. Elem. ii. 438 Cellularia Salicornia, Pall.

Blench. 61 Cellularia farciminoides, Ellis and Solajid. Zooph. 26.

C. salicornia, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 135. 2de edit. ii. 176. Stark,

Elem. ii. 439. Bosc, Vers, iii. 129, pi 28, fig. 6, Corall. 55- Lamour.

Zooph. 5. Risso, L'Europ. merid. v. 317 La Cellaire salicorne,

Blainv. Actinol. 455, pi. 77, fig. 1 Farcimia fistulosa, Flem. Biit.

Anim. 534. Johnston in Trans. Newc. Soc. ii. 266 Salicomiaria

fistulosa, Templetonin Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 469 Isis hippuris ? Fa6rjc.

Faun. Groenl. 427.

Hab. On corallines and old shells from deep water, not uncommon.
Torquay, Dr Coldstream. CuUercoats, Northumberland, Mr Jos.
Alder. Dunstanborough, Mr Emhleton. Coast of North Durham
and Berwickshire, occasionally, G. J.

One of the finest of British zoophytes. Polypidom from 1 to 3
inches high, white, calcareous, fibrous at the base, erect, regularly
dichotomous ; branches erecto- patent, straight ; joints constricted,

* From Farcimen — a sausage, in allusion to the manner in which the inter-
nodes are joined. The genus is synonymous with the Cellaria of Lamouroux,
and with the Salicornaria of Cuvier, Reg. Anim. iii. 303.

296 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Retepora.

often blackish and emitting fibrous radicals ; the intervening spaces
long, cylindrical, frequently swollen near the upper end, covered all
round with lozenge-shaped immersed cells, disposed in quincunx, and
radiating from the centre.

In a weak mixture of muriatic acid and water, the calcareous por-
tion of the polypidom is entirely removed without any other altera-
tion in its form and structure, and we learn from the experiment that
the joints are connected together by capillary corneous tubes, equal
in number to the series of cells. These tubes cannot be traced
through the immediate spaces, but from the circumstance of their
being hollow, it seems not unreasonable to infer that they may na-
turally be filled with an irritable pulp, and be the medium of com-
munication between the cells and polypes of the different interspaces.
The branches are not tubulous or fistular, as Blainville has properly
remarked ; whence the impropriety of the Linnaean trivial name, the
retention of which only tends to the perpetuation of error.

Under this species Pallas has the following interesting observation :
" Celerrime hanc Celhdariam crescere, saltem celerius embryone
Squall, docuerunt ova Squali Promontorio merid. Africes allata, in
quibus pl^ntulas plures semipollicares observavi, quanquam foetum
adhuc immaturum continerent."

38. Retepora,* Lamarck.
Character. — Coral foliaceous^ stony, fragile, netted: cells
opening only on the upper or inner side, short and not prominent,
— Polypes ascidian.

1. R. RETICVI.ATA, polypidom latticed, ivavy and convolute, the
upper side warty and very porous. Rev. William Borlasse.

Millepora retepora, Borl. Cornw. 240, pi. 24, fig. 8 Millepora reticu-
lata, Lin. Syst. 1284. Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 433. JEllis and Soland.
Zoopb. 138 M. frondipora, Pall. Elench. 241 Retepora reti-
culata. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 182. 2de edit. ii. 273. Bisso, L'Eiirop.

Merid. v. 343. Flem. Brit- Anim. 531. Stark, Elem. ii. 435 Re-

tepore reticulee, Blainv. Actinolog. 633 Frondipore reticule. Ibid.

406, pi. 69, fig. 1.

Hab. Deep water, rare. Cornwall, Borlasse.

" Expanding to the extent of 2 or 3 inches ; more or less cup-
shaped, waved, uniting ; the lobes are oval, regular, the intervening
spaces supporting two or three pores in oblique rows. This species

" From Rete and to^oc, i. e. a " a porous net-work."

3

EscHARA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 297

is very distinct from the R. celiulosa, with which it has been con-
founded." Fleming.

2. R. CELLULOSA, polypidom reticulated^ umbilicate , Junnel-
shaped, tvavt/, celluliferous on the inner side ; the pedicle short,
subtubular. Ellis.

Vignette No. 46, page 283.
Retepora eschara marina, Fer. Imperat. Hist. Nat. 630, c. fig. Ellis, Corall.

72, pi. 25, fig. d, D, F. Millepora retepora. Pall Elench. 243.

M. celhilosa, Lin. Syst. 1284. Turt. Gmel. iv- 637. Turt. Brit. Faun.
205. Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 560. Steiv. Elem. ii. 427. Bosc,
Vers, ii. 34-3, pi. 25, fig. 5. Cavol. Polyp, mar. 73, tav. 3, fig. 12-14.

Blumenb. Man. 270 M. foraminosa, Fllis and Soland. Zooph. 138.

pi. 26, fig. 2 Retepora celiulosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 182. 2de

edit. ii. 276. Stark, Elem. ii. 435. Risso, L'Europ. Merid. v. 343.

Johnston in Mag. Nat. Hist. vii. 6-38, fig. 69 La Retepore dentelle

de mer, Blainv. Actinolog. 433, pi. 76, fig- I .

Hub. Deep water, rare. Shetland islands, and in the island of
Fulah, Jameson. Scarboroug-h, Mr Bean.

Polypidom about an inch in height, affixed by a hollow, thick, and
A'ery short stalk, which expands into a shallow cup with unequal wav-
ed and sinuous margins ; pure white, calcareous and beautifully reti-
culated, the meshes about a line in length, oval, subequal, regular
and divided by celluliferous spaces, rather wider than their own short-
est diameter ; the cells immersed, quincuncial, leaning, with the
apertures looking upwards, a little prominent, round, with a small
tooth on the distal edge ; they open only on the superior or inner
aspect, for the under surface of the polypidom is imperforate and al-
most smooth.

39. Eschara,* Ray.
Character. — Polypidom membrano-calcareous, inflexible,
brittle, expandimj in the form of foliaceous porous lamellce, vari-
ously folded and anastomosiny, and consistiny oftioo layers of op-
posite cells : cells immersed, coalescent, horizontal to the plane of
axis, openiny on both surfaces in quincuncial pores protected with
an opercidum. — Polypes ascidian.

1. E. FOLIAGE A, plates foliaceous, ivindiny, unitiny irreyu-
larly andforminy sinuous cavities. Dillenius.

Plate xl.

* Ey;(;aga, the scar from a burn.

298 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Eschaka.

Eschara retiformis, JRaii, Syn. i. 31. Flem. Brit. Anim. 531 Stony

foliaceous Coralline, Ellis, Corall. 71, no. 3, pi. 30. fig. a, A. B. C.

Borl. Cornw. 239, pi. 24, fig. 6 Millepora fascialis, Lin. Syst. 1283.

Stew. Eleni. ii. 427 M. foliacea, Ellis and Soland. 133. Turt.

Ginel. iv. 636. Turt. Brit. Faun. 205. Steiu. Elem. ii. 427. Hogg's

Stock. 37. Bosc, Vers, ill. 341, pi. 25, fig. 4 Eschara fascialis,

Pall. Elench. 44 E. foliacea. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 175. 2de edit.

ii. 266. jRisso, L'Europ. Merid. V. 341. ^-far^, Elem. ii. 436. Blainv.
Actinolog. 428, pi. 75, fig. 3. Milne Edwards in Ann. des. Sc. Nat.
Part. Zool. vi. 36, pi. 3, fig. 1.

Hah. On various parts of the English coast in deep water.
" Conchis testisve adnascitur et circa Cockbxish in Sussexia saepe
reperitur," Dillenius. Isle of Wight, Ellis. Cornwall, Borlasse.
Devonshire, Dr Coldstream.

This curious polypidom attains a large size being often 3 or 4
inches high, and frona 1 2 to 20 in its greatest diameter. It may be
described as a broad membrane twisted into winding folds, leaving
large sinuosities and cavernous interstices : it is very light and floats
in water, crisp when dry, membrano-calcareous, cellular, of a yellow-
ish-browu colour, roughish and punctured with the numerous pores
which open on both sides. The membrane is less than a line in
thickness, and consists of two layers of cells separated behind from
one another by a thin plate down the middle. The cells open ob-
liquely by contracted roundish apertures disposed in a quincunx order
on the surface, and which, more especially when recently formed,
are often covered by a small operculum. When a portion is macerated
in diluted muriatic acid, it retains the original form, but becomes
soft and flaccid from the subtraction of the carbonate of lime. The
cells are liable to all the changes of form which have been indicated,
in an appended note, as the results of age upon these polypidoms in
general.

2. E. FASCIALIS, '• expansions narrow^ compressed, branched,

occasionally united" Pallas.

Italian Coral, Ellis, Corall. 72, pi. xxx. fig. b Eschara fascialis var. a.

Pall. Elench. 42. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 175. 2deedit. ii. 267. Flem.

Brit. Anim. 531 Millepora tcenialis, Ellis and Soland. Zoopb. 1.33.

M. fascialis, Turt. Gmel. iv. 636. Berk. Syn. i. 211. Turt. Br. Faun.

204. L'Eschare a bandelettes, Blainv. Actinolog. 428. Milne-Ed-

toards in Ann. des. Sc. Nat. Part. Zool. vi. 43- pi. 4, fig. 1.

Hab. Deep water. Isle of Wight, Pallas.

" This Millepore grows in very irregular masses, but always pre-
serves the same habit of growing ; that is, the branches are flat, nar-
row, and regularly subdivided : they coalesce, twist, and branch out

EscHARA. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 299

again, leaving- certain hollow spaces between them ; their cells are
much smaller, though of the same shape with the cells in the folia-
ceous Millepore" (E. foliacea). Solander. — Pallas maintains that
it is merely a variety of the preceding ; but Milne-Edwards thinks
it ought to be retained distinct, for its peculiarity of ramification, and
the narrowness of the divisions, do not depend on age, and seem to
indicate a specifical difference. The cells in both are alike.

Fig. 47.

FAMILY XIV. ALCYONIDUL^..

40. Alcyonidium, * Lamouroux.
Character. Polypidom fiesliy^ lohed or crustaceans ; cells
immersed^ pentagonal, icith Jihro-corneous parietes, the aperture
terminal, simple, contractile, "f- — Polypes ascidian.

1. A. GELATiNosuM, polypidom variously lohed or branched,

subcylindrical or somewhat compressed^ the sui'face smooth and

even. Johnson. :|:

Plate xli. Fig. 1-3.
Fucus spoiigiosus nodosus, Ger. Herb. emac. 1570, no. 10, fig. Raii. Syn.

i. 49, no. 42. Alcyonium, seu fucus nodosus et spongiosus, Ellis

Corall. 87. no. 5, pi 32, fig. d. D. Alcyonium ramosum nioUe, mul-

tis polypis obsessum, Bart. Opusc. Subs, i, 40, tab. 1, fig. 5, A. B

Alcyonium gelatinosum. Pall. Elench. 353. Lin. Syst. 1295. Mull.
Zool. Dan. prod. 255, no. 3082. Ellis and Soland. Zooph. 176. Turt
Gmel. iv. 633. Jameson in Wern. Mem. i. 563. Turt. Brit. Faun. 207-
Stew. Elem. ii. 432. Bosc, Vers, iii. 157. Flem. Brit. Anim. 517. La-
moiir. Cor. Flex. 350. Corall. 249 L' Alcyon gelatineux, jB/ainj;. Ac-

* From Alcyonium, to which the name implies a resemblance.

f According to Dr Farre the retractile portion of the cell, or that which con-
stitutes the base of the polype, is composed of a series of stout short setae.

I Johnson, Thomas, born at Selby in Yorkshire ; a Lieut. Colonel in the
royal army during the civil wars, created M. D. Oxon, in 1643, in considera-
tion of his loyalty and learning j killed in 1644, " at which time his worth did
justly challenge funeral tears ; being then no less eminent in the garrison for his
valour and conduct as a soldier, than famous through the kingdom for his excellen-
cy as an herbalist and Physician." See Pultcney's Sketches, i. p. 128. &c.

Alcyonidium. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. ;3Ul

tinolog. 525, pi. 92, fig. 1 Ulva diaphana, Eng. Bot. pi. 2G3. Wifh.

Bot. Arrang. iv. 121. Hull, Brit. Fl. ii. 312. Lam. and Decand. Flor.

Fran9. ii. 6. Alcyonidium diaphanum, Lamour. Soland. Zooph. 71.

Gray Brit. PL i. 353. Hook. Fl. Scot. ii. 75. Loud. Encycl. PI. 928,

no. 15045 Al. flavescens, Lout/. Encyclop. PI. 928, no- 15046

Halodactylus diaphanus, Farre in Phil. Trans, an. 1 837, 405, pi. 25 and 26-

Hab. Deep water, attached to old shells and stones. " Margate
in the island of Tanet," Johnson. " Prope INIargate in insula Tha-
net Cantio adjacente primum observavit Johnsonus, postea D. Dale
in insula Mersey, and D. Doody in insula Shepey," Ray, " Satis
copiose reperitur posteriore insula, sed long-e copiosius observatur in
insula Thamesis ostio altius adjacente, Grain vocata," Dillenius.
" In the month of August 1752, there was so great a quantity of it
driven near Sheerness, in the Isle of Sheppey, as to clog the fisher-
men's nets, and interrupt their fishing," Ellis. Isle of Anglesea and
Walney, Hudson. Lowestoffe, Woodward. Leith shore, Jameson,
where Dr Coldstream tells me it is sometimes very abundant. Very
rare in Berwick Bay, G. J. Orkney islands, Dr Pat. Neill.

The polypidom is attached by a narrow base to the substance from
which it grows, and rises to the height of from 6 to I2 inches, '* some-
times attaining the length of two or three feet." It resembles a com-
pact sponge, but is more pellucid and gelatinous ; sometimes simple
and entire, usually branched ; the olour, as is well observed in Eng-
lish Botany, varying from a very pale brown, almost like that of wet
sea-sand, to a clear yellow ; in the latter case the polypidom has
exactly the appearance of barley-sugar of the paler kind. The sur-
face is smooth and speckled with minute dots produced by the
dark bodies of the inhabitant polypes, which protrude their ten-
tacula through angular apertures, aud are all placed immediately un-
derneath the skin, for the centre of the polypidom is a clear transpa-
rent jelly traversed with corneous fibi'es forming a very wide and ir-
regular net-work. The polypes are so intimately connected with
their cells that it is almost impossible to remove them without mu-
tilation. They have 16 filiform tentacula, disposed in a single
circle, which are capable of being retracted within the cell. " The ten-
tacula are sixteen in number, (occasionally fifteen,) fully two-thirds
the length of the body of the animal, and extremely slender and
flexible. When expanded they are frequently seen to roll up closely
upon themselves, even down to their base, the revolution taking
place either inwardly or outwardly, and in one or more arms at the
same time. Their full expansion affords a more perfect campanulate
form than is usually met with in this class, each of the arms having

302 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Alcyonidium.

a slight curve outwards towards its extremity, which gives to the
whole a very elegant appearance. It is remarkable that in some
specimens the arms are much shorter on one side of the body than
on the other." Farre.

" The stomach is not furnished with a gizzard in this species. The
intestine forms a considerable elbow at its origin, and is short and
wide, terminating not as in other cases near the tentacular ring, but
about midway up the body, at a point opposite the base of the setae.

" A very singular organ was frequently observed, consisting of a
little flask-shaped body situated between the base of two of the arms,
and attached to the tentacular ring by a short peduncle. The cavity
in its interior is lined with cilia which vibrate downwards towards
the outer, and upwards towai'ds the inner side ; it has a narrow neck
and a wide mouth, around which a row of delicate cilia are constant-
ly playing. No flow of fluids could ever be detected through it,
nor did the use of carmine assist in showing with what parts the ca-
vity in its interior might communicate. From the circumstance that
it is more frequently absent than present, it cannot be an organ of
vital importance to the animal : and it is too intimately blended with
the sides of the tentacula, and too constant in its position to be re-
garded as a parasite. Does it indicate a diff"erence of sex ?" Farre.

This production was first described by Johnson, the editor of Ge-
rarde's Herbal. His description, which is characteristic enough, is
as follows : " This is a very succulent and fungous plant, of the
thicknesse of one's thumbe ; it is of a dark yellowish colour, and
buncheth forth on everie side with many unequal tuberosities or
knots : whereupon Mr Thomas Hickes being in our companie did
fitly name it Sea ragged Stafi"e." — It was afterwards observed on the
southern coasts of England by Dale and Doody ; and Ray introduced
it into his synopsis of British Plants as a fucus. Ellis at first suspec-
ted it to be the spawn of some shell-fish, but (whether relying on the
authority of Pallas, who had seen the polypes, or upon subsequent
original observations, is uncertain,) he ultimately came to a correct
conclusion, for in his history of Zoophytes he says, " This is found at
particular seasons full of minute papillaj which send forth polypes."
The fact was overlooked ; and on the authority of Ray and Hudson,
botanists continued to rank it in the vegetable kingdom, where it re-
mained until very recently. Even I^amouroux considered it at first
as a sea-weed, but he had the fortune afterwards to detect the poly-
pes which he describes as having a cylindrical body and 12 tentacula ;
and the description which Dr Fleming has given is essentially the
same. If no error has crept into their calculation, the speri(>s must

Alcvomdium. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 303

be distinct from ours, for a very careful examination has satisfied me
that the tentacula are 16 in number.

D'Orbigny says that the Ulva diaphana of the Flore Fran9aise
" n'est autre chose qu'un amas de series d'ceufs d'une espece de gas-
teropode nu." Mem. du Museum, vi. 181. The description, how-
ever, so evidently belongs to the Alcyonidium before us, as to make
it almost certain that this remark has originated in some misapplica-
tion of it.

2. A. HIRSUTUM, polypidom variously divided, compressed^
the surface covered with minute conical papillce or polype-cells.
Fleming.

Plate xlii. Fig. 1, 2.

Alcyonium gelatinosum, Fabric. Faun. Groenl. 447 A. hirsutumt

Flem. Brit. Anim. 517. Johnston in Zool. Joum. iv. 418. and in Trans.
Newc. Soc. ii. 231, pi. 9, fig. 1. L'A. vein, Blainv. Actinolog. 525.

Uab. Parasitical on various sea-weeds, at low-water mark, very
common on the coasts of Scotland and North of England. Coast of
Devonshire, 3Ir Jos. Alder.

Polypidom variously divided, often proliferous, sometimes sub-cy-
lindrical, commonly flattened and palmate, of a dirty straw-yellow
colour, often partially stained with red, and marked with numerous
yellowish circular spots irregularly disposed. It is thickish, some-
what cartilaginous, and to the naked eye resembles a compact sponge.
When viewed through a common magnifier, the surface is seen to be
covered with close-set conical transparent papillae, each of which is a
cell containing a polype with 16 long filiform tentacula, and in its
structure resembling the polype of a Flustra. The yellowish spots,
mentioned in the description, are produced by clusters of ova lying-
imbedded in the cellular texture. These are opaque milk-white,
large enough to be easily visible to the eye, of a roundish figure,
but not all of them alike, for some are ovate, and others incline
to a heart-shape, rather compressed, the surface uneven. The ^^g is
not clothed all over with cilia, but there is a fringe of cilia encircling
it ; these cilia appear to be of a yellowish colour, and to be hooked
near the apices, (wood-cut No. 7, page 51.) They are of equal size
and shape, and all inclined in one direction, moving with a uniformity
and quickness which is admirable and very pleasing to the beholder.
When the e^^ is at rest, their velocity is not diminished, excepting
at the will, so to speak, of the ovum, for it may be seen to become
slower and less constant, to cease entirely for a moment, and again
be renewed with its former force. The e^^ at rest will at once start

304 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Alcyonidium.

from its place, and swim about hither and thither as it were endow-
ed with volition, turning on its axis frequently, moving- sometimes
on one side, sometimes on its edge, when the cilia become invisible.
I have seen the cilia, when the ovum was at rest, suddenly disappear,
withdrawn as it seemed within themselves, or under the opaque mar-
gin, and again be quickly protruded. By their motion they drive a
current of water over the surface, but this current has certainly not
an uninterrupted circular motion — it is rather a flowing to the sur-
face, and a cm'rent from it, or as Raspail would express it, an inspi-
ration and expiration of water. — When lying still, I have seen the eggs
exhibit the most unequivocal signs of irritability, contracting and di-
lating themselves. The ovum appears to be formed of a firm elastic
coat or shell filled with agranular matter ; it is opaque, excepting on
■ the margin, under which the cilia appear to originate.

3. A. ECHiNATUM, polypidom incrusting dead univalve shells,
the surface muricated with rough prominerit papillce or cells. Mr
Montagu.

Plate xlii. Fig. 3, 4.
Alcyonium echinatum, Flem. Brit. Anim. 517. Johnston \n Trans. Newc

Soc. ii. 251, pi 9, fig:. 2 L'A. herisse, Blainv. Actinolog. 525.

Hub. Parasitical on Buccinum undatum and similar univalve
shells ; not uncommon. Stevenston, Ayrshire, Rev. D. Landsbo-
rough. Berwick Bay.

" This species incrusts dead univalve shells exclusively ; and is
about the one-twentieth of an inch in thickness. When first taken
out of the water, it is soft and spongy, but becomes rigid on drying."
The surface in this state is muricated with spinous papillce, somewhat
less than a line in height aud rough with minute prickles pointing
upwards and arranged in rows. The polypes appear to have only 12
tentacnla.

4. A.? PARASiTicuM, inc7'usting corallines, earthy, the sur-
face even and porous. Rev. Dr Fleming.

Plate xli. Fig. 4, 5.

Alcyonium parasiticum, Flem. Brit.' Anim. 518 L'A. parasite, Bhiinv-

Actinol. 525.
Hab. Parasitical on Sertulariadse and old shells. Hartlepool, ,/.
Hogg. On the valve of an old Venus islandica dredged from deep
water at Scarborough, 3Ir Bean. Berwick Bay, rare.

This production spreads up the stem and branches of various flexi-
ble corallines coating them with an incrustation of an earthy appear-
ance, from a line to the eighth of an inch in thickness. The sur-

Cliona. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 305

face is porous or cellular, even, roughish, the pores roundish or pen-
tagonal, distinct and separate, but not arranged in rows, or in any re-
gular fashion ; the interior is irregularly cellular, and earthy. — None
of the mineral acids have any effect on this substance, nor does it absorb
water like a sponge, but when dropt into a glass of water, it sinks to
the bottom and lies there unaltered. No siliceous nor calcareous spi-
cula enter into its structure, but it seems to be entirely composed of
particles of sand cemented together with mud or clay. It has there-
fore no character of a proper polypidom, although the conformation
and regularity of its cells prove it to be the work of some gregarious
animal.

41. Cliona, * Grant.
Character. Polypidom amorphous^ Jieshy, containing sili-
ceous spicula and perforated with ramified canals. — Polypes mi-
nute, retractile, placed in tubular papillce.

1. C. CELATA. R. E. Grant, f

Plate xlii. Fig. 5, 6.

Cliona celata, Grant in Edin. New Phil. Journ. i- 78 ■ ii. 183, pi. 2, fig. 7,

(the spiculum.) Flem. Brit. Anim. 516. Stark, Elem. ii. 421

La Clione cachee, Blainv. Actinolog. 527.
Hab. In perforations of the shell of the oyster (Ostrea edulis) :
abundantly in the oyster beds at Prestonpans, off Inchkeith, and in
the roads of the Firth of Forth, Grant.

This sponge-like zoophyte inhabits and fills up the worm-like holes
in old oyster-shells. The part which projects beyond the orifice
of the hole is papillary, about a line in height and about the same in
breadth, of a yellowish colour, tubular, and either closed or widely
open at the apex. In texture it resembles the Halichondria papil-

' " I have termed this genus Cliona, (from KXitce, claudo), from its most ob-
vious and remarkable property of retracting and shutting the papilla when irri-
tated ; and the above described species, the only one I have met with, is named
celata, from its concealed and secure habitation within the substance of oyster-
shells." Grant.

f Dr G. is a native of Edinburgh, where he received his education, and gra-
duated M. D. in 1814, when he was President of the Royal Medical Society.
His Thesis was " de Circuitu Sanguinis in Foetu." Shortly afterwards his at-
tention was turned to natural history ; and his researches into the nature of
sponges and zoophytes laid the foundation of that reputation which readily se-
cured him the chair of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the London Uni-
versity, on its first establishment, — a chair which he continues to fill with the
most distinguished ability.

U

306 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Cliona.

laris, and, like it, is almost entii'ely composed of siliceous spiciila,
which are straight and in shape like a pin, but from their brittleness
few can be separated from the mass in an entire state, and we seldom
observe one with the enlargement that takes the place of the head. I
have examined specimens in oysters brought to market, and having
placed these in sea water, other fellow parasites of their own class
soon gave evidence of their being yet living and active, but I had
never the pleasure of seeing the polypes of this production.

" The Cliona in the living state consists of a soft, fleshy, granular
and distinctly irritable substance, of a greenish yellow colour, tra-
versed, like many other zoophytes, with minute and regularly formed
spicula. Its form depends on that of the cavities which it fills ; it
insinuates itself into their minutest ramifications, and adheres so close-
ly to their smooth parietes, that it cannot be separated without tearing.
The parts of the Cliona which project through the holes on the sur-
face of the shell are tubular ; and on removing the outer layers of
the shell, we can perceive several empty canals winding and ramify-
ing from these tubular papillae, through the body of the zoophyte.
During the months of March and April, when these observations
were made, numerous small yellow ova were seen in the vicinity of
the canals, agreeing much in their form, colour, size, and mode of
distribution with those of the Spongia papillaris and Spongia pani-
cea, which were then nearly in the same stage of advancement. The
projecting tubular papillae possess a complicated structure, and a high
degree of contractile power, and exhibit a singular series of appear-
ances, when the zoophyte is attentively examined while at rest in pure
sea water. When under water, the papillae are seen projecting from
the apertures of the shell, sometimes to the length of a line and a
half ; they present a wide circular opening in their centre, and a rapid
current of water issues constantly from them, conveying occasional
flocculi of a grey membranaceous matter. But on being touched with
a needle, or withdrawn from the water, the opening gradually closes,
the current ceases, and the whole papilla continuing slowly to con-
tract, is withdrawn completely within the aperture of the shell. The
papillae, viewed in their contracted state, present a smooth, rounded,
shut extremity ; but when they begin to advance beyond the surface
of the shell, their extremity becomes flat and slightly dilated, assumes
a villous appearance, with open fissures, radiating from the centre to
the margin of the papillae, and at length a minute circular opening is
perceived in the centre of the villous surface. The papilla advances
from the shell, and its central opening enlarges in proportion to the
healthy state of the zoophyte, and the purity and stillness of the wa-

Cliona. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 307

ter ; its flat downy radiated surface gradually diminishes by the widen-
ing: of the central opening-, till only thin margins are left around the
onflce, and the current is again seen to play briskly from it. In re-
cent specimens of the Cliona dredged from an oyster-bed near the
shore at Prestonpans, and examined under the most favourable cir-
cumstances on the coast, I have twice observed polypi of extraordi-
nary minuteness and delicacy placed around the margin of the orifice
and which kept in constant motion, advancing and withdrawing
themselves into the substance of the papilla, m hile the current flowed
from Its central opening. The polypi were perfectly invisible to the
naked eye in an ordinary light and position ; but by suspending the
Chona in a crystal jar with clear water, and placing it between the
eye and a candle, or the sun, they were seen like filaments of silk or
asbestus constantly rising and sinking on the margin of the papilla.
On cutting oflf a papilla, and placing it under a microscope in sea wa-
ter, the polypi continued their motions, and were seen to consist of a
long, slender, transparent, cylindrical, tubular fleshy body, at the far-
ther extremity of which were placed about eight short broad tentacu-
la, slightly dilated at their free ends, which were constantly inflecting
and extending themselves irregularly, while the polypi advanced or
retreated. In two entire and fresh specimens, the polypi continued
visible and in motion for more than twenty-four hours in ajar of wa-
ter at Prestonpans ; but I have not yet succeeded in perceiving them
in any of the numerous specimens which I have preserved alive in
the water procured from Newhaven." Professor Grant. The spi-
cula " are about the fourth of a line in length, and appear through
the microscope as minute curved pins spread irregularly through the
whole fleshy substance of the animal :" they are " slender, cylin'drical,
tubular, slightly curved, shut at both ends, a little fusiform in the'
middle, acutely pointed at one end, and terminated by a small hollow
round head at the other." Grant.

Dr Coldstream writes me that, judging from the form of the spi-
cula, he believes he possesses another species of Cliona from Bute,
perforating the walls of the limpet (Patella vulgata.)

FAMILY XV. LIMNIADES.

42. Cristatella,* Cuvier.
Character. Polypes with about 60 tentacula, affixed with-
in a floating membranaceous sac, variously aggregated ; a sepa-
rate oriflce to each ; gevimiparous or oviparous, the ova spinife-
rous.

1. C. MucEDo. Sir John Graham Dalyell. f

Plate xliii.
Cristatella mucedo, Cuv. Reg. Anim. iii. 296. Gervuis in Ann. des Sc.
Nat. part. Zool. vii. 77, n. s. Turpin in ibid. vii. 65, pi. 2 and 3, fig.

1-7 C. vagans, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 97. 2de edit ii. 110. Blainv.

Actinolog. 489 and 678, pi. 85, fig. 7. Bosc, Vers, iii. 180, pi. 30, fig.

9. Stark, Elem. ii. 442 C mirabilis, Dahjell in Edin. New. Ph il.

Joum. xvii, 414 ; and in Rep. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, 604.
Hab. " An inhabitant of the fresh waters of Scotland," Sir J. G.
Dalyell.

" Perfect specimens occur from six hnes to twenty-four in length,
by two or three in breadth, of a flattened figure, fine translucent green
colour, and fleshy consistence. Some of the shorter, tending to an
elliptical form, may be compared to the external section of an ellip-
soid ; but those of the largest dimensions are Hnear, that is, with pa-
rallel sides and curved extremities." — " The middle of the upper and
the whole of the under surface are smooth ; the former somewhat
convex, occasioned by a border of 70 or 80, or even of 350 individual
polypi, disposed in a triple row. Their number depends entirely on
the size of the specimen, — increasing as long as it grows."

" This product is endowed with the faculty of locomotion, either
extremity indifferently being in advance, but its progression, uncom-
monly slow, seldom exceeds an inch in twelve or twenty -four hours.
Each of the numerous polypi, though an integral portion of the com-
mon mass, is a distinct animal, endowed with separate action and sen-
sation. The body, rising about a line by a tubular fleshy stem, is
crowned by a head which may be circumscribed by a circle as much

• The diminitive of cristata — crested,
t The author of a very interesting work on the Planariae.

Cristatella. Z. ASCIDIOIDA.- 309

in diameter, formed as a horse-shoe, and bordered by a hundred ten-
tacula. Towards one side the mouth, of singular mechanism, seems to
have projecting- lips and to open as a valve, which folds up within, con-
veying the particles which are absorbed to the wide orifice of an intes-
tinal organ which descends, perhaps in a convolution, below, and re-
turns again to terminate in an excretory canul under the site of the
tentacula. Probably the whole race of Cristatellse is distinguished by
a similar conformation."

" The polypus is a very vivacious animal, quickly retreating for
security when alarmed, and rising to expand in activity. Though
each be endowed with independent life, sensation, and all the motions
that can be exercised without actual transition, the whole are sub-
jected to the volition of the sluggish mass in respect to progression :

— they arc borne along with it." " A specimen having been cut

transversely asunder, each portion seemed to recede by common
consent ; but both survived, as if sustaining no injury. Neither is
any polypus affected by the violence offered in its vicinity.

" Twenty, thirty, or more lenticular substances, of considerable
size and in the most irregular arrangement, imbedded in the flesh,
are exposed through the translucent green of the animal. Its death
and decomposition towards the end of autumn liberate them to float
in the water. Subjected to the microscope, or, indeed to the naked
eye, their convex surfaces prove brown, the circumference yellow,
and begirt with a row of spines terminating in double hooks. Each
is an ovum of the Cristatella with a hard shell, and occupied by yel-
lowish fluid contents." " In 3 or 6 months the ovum gapes at

one side to allow the protrusion of an originating polypus, which by
a remarkable provision of nature now floats reversed, with the head
downwards, to ensure absorption of the liquid element below. On
quitting the ovum it attaches itself to some solid substance by the
base, then disproportionately large, from which a second polypus
quickly rises, then a third, and a fourth ; and thus with others. In
earlier stages the Cristatella mirabilis seems to be of a circular figure,
and in its most mature state there is a margin projecting beyond
the root of the polypi." Dalyell.

To illustrate this description of Sir J. G. Dalyell, the only
naturalist who has observed the species in Britain, I have given
copies of the beautiful figures of M. Turpin in Plate xliii, for
there can surely be scarce a question of the identity of the
continental and British zoophyte. Turpin's figures, it is to be
noticed, were drawn from young or slightly developed specimens ;
a mature polypidora with its 300 individuals must indeed present

310 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Cristatella.

to the naturalist a spectacle of such singular curiosity and beauty
as perhaps can meet its supei'ior or rival in no other creature. I
am unwilling to borrow, from the memoirs of the foreign authors,
any additions to Sir J. G. Dalyell's short history, for I am aware of
the confusion to which such a practice has occasionally led, but no
harm can arise from the mention of some particulars which are evi-
dently generical. I may state then, that the tentacula are cihat-
ed like those of other ascidians ; the intestine has an oral and anal
aperture, the latter with a medial position ; and there is no trace of
any organ like what, in some other families of the order, has been
reckoned an ovary. The egg, according to M. Turpin, forms a small
flattened sphere with a papillous surface slightly incrusted with cal-
careous matter. The centre is of a dark reddish-brown or vinous
colour, the margin more transparent and yellowish, proving that the
egg is vesicular, — the exterior circle marking out the thickness of
the cocoon or shell, and the more opake disk the part occupied with
the embryotic fluid. About 16 rough spines radiate stiffly from
the circumference : they are tubular, yellow, terminated with from
two to four crotchets, and apparently vary in length, for they arise
alternately from the edge and from the surface a Httle behind this.*
The egg is filled with an albuminous granular fluid analogous to the
vitellus or yolk, for in it the foetus is perfected after a period which
probably depends, in a great measure, on the temperature of the sea-
son in which they are laid. The time of birth having arrived, the
shell opens in two gaping halves, as an oyster opens its valves, to
permit the escape of the young polypus, which enters on its existence
complete in all respects, either a single individual, or with one or
two others, less mature, pullulating from the sides.

One of the most interesting facts ascertained by M. Turpin is
that the eggs before exclusion, and immediately after, are oval or
lenticular, and entirely/ free of the spines which roughen them at a
later stage. Hence an easy solution of a question touching the man-
ner of escape from the mother, which, before this discovery, seemed
incapable of being eff"ected without a painful laceration from their
bristling armature. This alteration in the structure of the egg is
very remarkable, although not singular, for the eggs of several mites

* According to M. P. Gervais this is not the case, — the spines orignate sole-
ly from the line of junction between the marginal band and the disc ; — " du point
de contact de cet anneau et du corps disciforme partaient sur I'une des faces les
crochets doiit j'ai parle. Je reconnus depuis que I'autre face presentait aussi
les appendices en crochets, mais qu'ils y etaient moins allonges."

Cristatella. 7. ASCIDIOIDA. 311

are known to undergo somewhat similar changes. The eggs float
in the water from their lesser specific gravity, but often they be-
come attached by their spines to the filaments of confervae, <S:c. where
they float until the young are hatched and aff'ord to them an im-
mediate place of rest.

M. Turpin has ascertained that some varieties of silex contain im-
mense numbers of the ova of the Cristatella and Alcyonella, preserv-
ed in entire perfection. Ann. des Sc. Nat. Part. Zool. vii. 120,
plates 6 and 7.

43. Alcyonella,* Lamarck.
Character. Polypidom Jixed^ ina-ustingf or Jloating, in
the form of an irregular sponge-like mass composed of vertical
aggregated 7nembronaceous tubes opening on the surface. — Poly-
pes ascidian, the mouth encircled loith a single series offiUform
tentacula depressed or iricomplete on one side : eggs coriaceous,
smooth.

1. A. stagnorum.

Plate xliv.

Variation *. Sponge-like, massive Alcyonium fluviatile, Bosc, Vers, iii.

159. Corall. 250. Ephydatia Gibbsii, Gray, Brit. PI. i. 353

Alcyonella stagnorum, Lam, Anim. s. Vert. ii. 102. 2de edit. ii. 116.
Stark, Elem. ii. 442. Lamour. Soland. tab. 76, fig. 5—8. (bad.) Teale
in Trans. Leeds Phil, and Lit. See. i. 116, pi. 12, and in Mag. Zool.

and Bot. i. 293 A. fluviatilis, Raspail in M^m. de la See. d'Hist.

Nat. de Paris, iv. 130, pi. 12 — 16. L' Alcyonella des etangs, Blainv.

Actinolog. 491, pi. 85. fig. 8.

Variation /S. Polypidom lohed or stellate — Polypes a panache, Tremb. Mem.

210, pi. 10, fig. 8—9. Reaum. Mem. des Insect, vi. pref. Ixxvi The

Bell- Flower- Animal or plumed Polype, ^aAer, Employ. Micros. 306, pi.

12, fig. 15 — 22. Hydra campanulata, Zin. Syst. edit. 10, 817

Tubularia erystallina, Pall. Elench. 85 T. campanulata, Lin. Syst.

1303. Berk. Syn. i- 215. Shaw Nat. Misc. x. pi. 354. Turt. Gmel. iv.
668. Turt. Brit. Faun. 211. Adams on the Microscope, 449, pi. 22,

fig. 32. Bosc, Vers, iii. 92. Blumenb. Man. 272 T. reptens, Bosc,

Vers, iii. 93 Plumatella cristata. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 107. 2de

edit. ii. 122. Stark, Elem. ii, 441. Blainv. Actinol. 490. PI. campa-
nulata, Risso, L'Euvop. Merid. v. 308 Naisa reptans, Corall. 99,

pi. 6, fig. 4. Cristatella campanulata, Flem. Brit. Anim. 518

C. paludosa, Dalyell in Rep. Brit. Assoc, an. 1834, 606.
Hab. Stagnant waters, especially in such as are tinctured with iron

• A diminutive from Halcyon. The sponge -genus Alcyonelliim of Quoy and
Gaymard, being of subsequent creation, cannot be retained.

3V2 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Alcyonella.

in solution : their developement chiefly in autumn. Habitat ad
Angliam, Linnceus. About Chelsea, Dr Shmv. Not uncommon
in Hyde-park, and Green-park, in the centre of London, J. E. Gray.
Near Leeds, Mr Teale. Near Hovvick, Northumberland, Mr R.
Emhleton. On leaves in ponds in Scotland, Sir J. G. Dalyell.

Polypidom, when at maturity, in large amorphous compact masses,
soft, compressible, and somewhat elastic, of a blackish green colour,
irregularly lobulated or sinuous on the surface, which has a lubricous
appearance, and is more or less apparently porous. The mass is com-
posed of subcylindrical tubes rising from the base to the surface, near-
ly parallel, connected by, or permeating, a transparent firm jelly-like
substance, with which the tubes appear to be also partially filled.
The tubes are simple or uubrancbed, and open outwardly by a round-
ish or pentagonal aperture, which is closed by a thin membranous
cover. The walls of the tubes are of the same thin membranous
character, pellucid, colourless, or tinted with green, and without any
visible vessels ; they contain innumerable lenticular ova of a dark
brown colour, about half a line in their longest diameter, very hard
and incompressible, but in drying the centre becomes depressed and
more transparent than the edges. These singular ova are quite smooth,*
and arranged in rows in the tubes, though not very regularly : they
are more abundant near the surface than at the base of the polypi-
dom, and exist in such amazing numbers as to excite surprise at the
seeming productiveness of an animal which appears to be very partial-
ly diff'used, and is very capricious in its appearance even in ponds fa-
vourable for its growth, — swarming in one season, of rare occurrence
in the next, and perhaps then for years lying dormant until some un-
discovered cause hatches the <i^^ and renews its pristine fertility.
When freed from the mass, the greater number of the ova swim on
the surface of the water, but some sink to the bottom.

To this description, derived from specimens in a recent, but not
living condition, sent me by Mr Embleton, I add the following par-
ticulars derived fi'om Mr Teale's valuable paper. A good idea of the
polypes will be obtained by reference to figures 5, 6, of Plate xliv,
which are reduced copies of Raspail's. It is organically connected
with the mass, the tube forming its tunic, from which the animated
body issues by a process of evolution similar to that which developes
the horn of a snail. When developed, the head projects a short way,

* M. Meyeii says, on the contrary, that the envelope of the ovum is covered
with very fine vibratile cilia. Bull, des Sciences Nat. xviii, 313. Has not
Meyen mistaken the ova or seeds of the Spongilla for those of the Alcyonella ?
lor niKloubtedlv the ova of the latter are smooth.

Alcyonella. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 313

and is crowned with a " beautiful expansion of tentacula, about fifty
in number, arranged in an unbroken circle, which is, however, de-
pressed into a deep concavity on one of its sides, so as to produce the
appearance of a double row of tentacula in a horso-shoe form. About
one thousand six hundred polypes are situated on a square inch of sur-
face of the mass, consequently the number of polypes" in one speci-
men which weighed 17 ounces, and measured 14^ inches in circum-
ference, " may be computed at one hundred and six thousand, and the
tentacula at five millions three hundred and twenty thousand I" The
mouth is, as usual, in the centre of the crater formed by the tenta-
cula, and is the entrance to an alimentary canal that, descending in
the body, swells out into a stomach, and then bends to gain an up-
ward course, having its termination exterior to and underneath the
indenture in the tentacular circle. " The lower portion of the stomach
is of a bright brown colour, longitudinally striated. The colour ap-
pears to depend upon the alimentary materials which it contains, and
the vertical striae are probably produced by folds in the organ. On
lacerating the stomach, the brown matter escapes in the form of in-
numerable minute grannies. A sort of vermicular motion is some-
times observed in the stomach."

The ova ai'e generated in that portion of the polype-tubes which
is prolonged from the stomach through the common mass, (fig. 2,)
not germinating in any certain point, but from all the gelatinous sides.
♦' Those which are perfectly matured are of a dark reddish-brown
colour. Others of the same size have their external envelope opaque
and white ; others are somewhat smaller and translucent, whilst some
are very minute and perfectly transparent. The mature and imma-
ture ova appear scattered indiscriminately throughout the tube. The
ova ai*e stated by Raspail to occur in a double series ; I have, how-
ever, almost invariably found them in a single row. M. Raspail also
says he has been able to see the small filament which connects the

ova to their containing membranous tube." There appears to be no

duct or aperture through which the ova can escape, their liberation
being apparently dependent on the decomposition of the body. This
is of two kinds : " In the first, the papilla which during life closes
the tube, dies and becomes softened, ragged, and flocculent, and in
this state no longer forms a barrier to the exit of the ova. In No-
vember, many of the specimens were seen in this condition. On ex-
amining the surface of the polypiferous masses, they were seen co-
vered with ragged shreds of membrane instead of the well-defined
conical papillae' or expanded polypes. In the second stage, air is dis-
engaged from decomposition of tlie contents of the horny tube or

314

Z. ASCIDIOIDA.

Alcyonella.

ovary. If a recently dead specimen in which the papillae are reduced
to the state above described, be examined with the lens, a succession
of air-bubbles are seen frequently escaping from the horny tubes.
By the successive formation and ascent of these bubbles, the ova
which at this period are loose and floating in the tubes, are gradually
elevated and conveyed to the exterior. In November, many of the
specimens were seen with air-bubbles and ova successively escaping,
and the external surface was covei'ed by ova thus conveyed to the ex-
terior. Those specimens which were black and putrid, and appeared
to have been dead some time, exhibited the horny tubes nearly de-
void of ova. After a time the horny basis itself becomes softened,
and appears to undergo decomposition. During the following spring,
according to the evidence of Vaucher and Raspail, the horny envelope
of each ovum separates into two lateral halves adhering on one side
as by a hinge. From these valves a small gelatinous tubercle pro-
jects, which soon expands into a distinct polype, and gradually be-
comes elongated into a tubular form. From the sides of this tubu-
lar polype, small gelatinous buds soon appear, and these again be-
come developed into distinct polypes ; the tubular parietes gradually
become consolidated, and form the horny basis of the mature Al-
cyonella."

Fig. 48.

Si

^

Alcyonella. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 315

The Alcyonella, if I have correctly sorted the synonynaes, was disco-
vered by Trembley in the spring of 1741. It seems necessary to give a
copy of his figures here, (wood-cut, No. 48,) since on them is founded
the second variation of the species, and they exhibit it in a guise very
different from that represented in our Plate xliv. His history of the
animal is marked with much of that excellence which distinguishes
the inquiries of this naturalist. He correctly describes the connec-
tion and relationship between the polype and the common mass ; the
arrangement of the tentacula, and the structure of the alimentary
canal, although he failed to detect the anus. He overlooked the
cilia of the tentacula from employing magnifiers of too low a power,
and attributed the whirlpools created in the water by their play to
the motion of the tentacula themselves, which he says were also used
separately to force the aniraalcular prey into the mouth. He knew
that the polypes were not contractile, and believed their retraction
within the tubes was dependant on the play of a muscular thread
which descended from the body in the common mass. The gemmi-
parous mode of increase in the polypidom is also detailed with some
minuteness, but he had not seen the ova, at least in a state of ma-
turity.*

Immediately after Trembley's discovery, Reaumur and Bernard de
Jussieu found this animal in the neighbourhood of Paris, and detect-
ed its ova, from which they saw the young issue. Reaumur's ac-
count of the growth of the compound animal appears to me to cor-
roborate the opinion of the sameness of the Plumatella and Alcyonella.
He says that while the polypes a panache are still very young, they
increase in the same manner that the locomotive polypes do, with
one difference only which it is essential to note, since it explains
clearly the formation of those polypidoms that resemble plants. The
tube of a newly evolved polype continues as it were permanently
grafted upon the tube of that which has given birth to it : from the
polype tube he has seen germinate by little and little another which
contained a nascent polype ; he has seen this tube elongate itself, and
the polype tenant at length show itself outwards to follow out the
destined tenor of its life. Scarcely had a few days passed until this
again gave birth to a young one whose tube was in connection with

* It is even doubtful whether the bodies he took for imviature ova were
really so. " J'ai vu dans plusieurs des Polypes a panache, sur lesquels j'ai fait
mes obser\-ations, de petit corps spheriques de differentes grandeurs, blancs et
transparens. J'ai seulement soup(;onne que ces petits corps etoient des oeufs,
mais je n ai pas eu occasion d'cxaminer si ce soup9on etoit fonde, ou non. ' p.
219.

S16 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Alcyonella.

the parent's, and continued so. In this manner he has seen files of
tubes and polypes formed, grafted the one on the other ; he has seen
these unite in polypidoms which there would have been no hesitation
in regarding as plants, if he had not followed them in the progress
of their growth, and if he had not had the opportunity of convincing
himself that the whole was but the assemblage of cells constructed
and developed one after another, and inhabited by animalcules.

Baker next described the animal in what Raspail considers its se-
cond stage of developement ; and as his description is derived from
native specimens, 1 insert it entire, anxious to give as much com-
pleteness as possible to the history of a zoophyte which appears un-
der so many phases, and regarding which there still exist considerable
doubts. "I was first informed," Baker says, "of this creature bymyin-
dustrious friend Mr William Anderson, towards the end of the year
1743, as his letters shew : and in the year 1744, it was taken notice of
by Mr Trembley,who gave it, in his Memoirs, the name of the Polype
d Panache, or the Plumed Polype. My friend, who discovered it in
his searches for the Polype, called it the Bell-Flower Animal ; and
after favouring me with his own observations, sent me some of the
creatures themselves, which, living with me for several mouths, I
had suflBcient time and opportunity to examine and consider them.
And as there seems some little difference between those in my keep-
ing, and what Mr Trembley describes, they may possibly be of an-
other species, though of the same genus.

" This is one of the many kinds of water animals which live as it
were in societies ; of which some sorts hang together in clusters, but
can detach themselves at pleasure ; whilst others are so intimately join-
ed and connected together, that no one seems capable of moving or
changing place without affecting the quiet and situation of all the
rest. But this creature forms as it were an intermediate gradation
between the other two, dwelling in the same general habitation with
others of its own species, from whence it cannot entirely separate
itself; and yet therein it appears perfectly at liberty to exert its own
voluntary motions, and can either retire into the common receptacle,
or push itself out from thence and expand its curious members, with-
out interfering with or disturbing its companions.

" They dwell together from the number often to fifteen, (seldom ex-
ceeding the latter or falling short of the former number,) in a filmy kind
of mucilaginous or gelatinous case, which out of the water has no
determined form, appearing like a lump of slime, but when expand-
ed therein, resembles nearly the figure of a bell with the mouth up-
wards ; and is usually about the length of half an inch, and one quar-

Alcyonella. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 317

ter of an inch in breadth or diameter. This case being very trans •
parent, all the motions of its inhabitants may be discerned through
it distinctly. It seems divided internally into several apartments, or
rather to contain several smaller Sacculi, each of which encloses one
of these animals. The openings at the tops of these Sacculi are but
just sufficient to admit the creature's head, and a very small part of
its body, to be thrust out beyond them, the rest remaining always in
the case. The animal can, however, when it pleases, draw itself en-
tirely down within the case, which is an asylum to secure it from its
enemies, (for it is not unlikely many of the larger aquatic insects prey
upon it,) and a safe and agreeable retirement wherein to perform the
functions of digestion, sleep, and the other necessary calls of nature.
This case it can, I say, retire into at pleasure ; and it never fails to
do so when any sudden motion of the water or of the vessel it is in dis-
turbs it : as also when it has seized with its arms any of the minute
insects which serve for its food.

" The arms are set round the head to the number of forty,
having each the figure of a long^ one of whose hooked ends is
fastened to the head ; and all together when expanded compose a
figure somewhat of a horse-shoe shape, convex on the side next
the body, but gradually opening and turning outwards, so as to
leave a considerable area within the outer extremities of the arras.
And when thus extended, by giving them a vibrating motion, the
creature can produce a current in the water, which brings the ani-
malcules, or whatever other minute bodies are not beyond the sphere
of its action, with great velocity to its mouth, whose situation
is between the arms : where they are taken in if liked, or else by a
contrary current, which the creature can excite, they are carried away
again : whilst at the same time other minute animalcules or substan-
ces, that by lying^without-side the inclosure made by the arms are
less subject to the force of the stream, are frequently seized by them :
for their sense of feeling is so exquisite, that on being touched ever
so slightly by any such little body, it is caught immediately and con-
veyed to the mouth. However, one may observe the creature is
sometimes disappointed in its acquisition, for after drawing down one
of the arms suddenly inwards towards the mouth, it may be perceiv-
ed slowly extending itself again without the creature's retiring into
its case ; which it fails not to do on meeting with anything worth

the while.

" The food is conveyed immediately from the mouth cr opening
between the arms, through a very narrow neck, into a passage seem-
ingly correspondent to the oesophagus in land animals ; down which

318 Z. ASCIDIOIDA: Aixyonella.

it ^passes to the stomach, where it remains for some time, and then is
voided upwards in small round pellets, (which at first I imagined to
be its eg-g-s,) through the gut, whose exit is near a neck, where it
was first taken in.

" The body of this animal consists of three parts or divisions, in
the uppermost whereof all the aforementioned intestines are con-
tained, though they are not to be distinguished when the creature is
hungry ; but after it has eaten they become distended and opake, and
may very plainly be discovered. The other two divisions (the lower-
most of which I take to be fixed to the bell or outward case,) seem
of no other service than to give the creature power of contraction
and extension.

" The arms seem not able like those of the common Polype to
contract or shorten themselves ; but instead thereof, when the ani-
mal retires into his case, they are brought together in a close and cu-
rious order, so as easily to be drawn in. Their general figure when
expanded is that of a cup, whose base and top are of an horse-shoe
form ; but they present sometimes a very diff'erent appearance, by
separating into four parts, and ranging themselves in such sort as to
represent four separate plumes of feathers.

" I could never discover any eyes they have, and yet find some
reason to believe they see : for on being set in the light of the sun,
or a candle, or brought out of the dark into daylight, though con-
tracted before and I'etired into the bell, (as indeed they generally are
when in the dark,) they constantly extend their arms for prey, and
shew evident signs of being pleased.

" Besides the particular and separate motion each of these crea-
tures is able to exert within its own case and independent of the rest,
the M'hole colony has together a power of altering the position, or
even of removing from one place to another the bell or common ha-
bitation of them all. Hence this bell is seen sometimes standing
perfectly upright, sometimes bending the upper part downwards.

" It has been mentioned already, that between ten and fifteen of
these animals dwell together, as it were a little community, in one
bell-like case or common habitation : but their number increasing,
this bell may be observed to split gradually, beginning from about the
middle of the upper or anterior extremity, and proceeding downwards
towards the bottom, till they separate at last entirely, and form two
complete colonies, independent of each other ; one of which some-
times removes itself to another part of the vessel. The manner how
the single animals propagate I have not been able to discover, though

Alcyonei.la. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 319

there is some reason to conjecture it may be by the means of eggs ;
as small opake bodies of a constant and determinate figure are some-
times seen lying in their bells : and unless they are eggs I know not
what to make of them. Their shape is nearly that of a weaver's
shuttle, being composed of two circular arcs, whose concave parts are
towards each other. The breadth is about two-thirds of the length,
and in the middle of each a circular spot appears more opake than the
rest, which possibly may be the embryo. But as I never saw any of
them come to perfection, I can make no farther judgment of them
than what their situation and form suggests.

" The bells or colonies of these animals are to be found adherine:
to the large leaves of duckweed and other aquatic plants ; and may
easiest be discovered by letting a quantity of water with duckweed
in it stand quietly for three or four hours in glass vessels, in some
window or other place where a strong light comes ; for then, if any
are about the duckweed, they will be found on careful inspection ex-
tending themselves out of their cases, spreading their plumes, and
making an elegant appearance.

" They are extremely tender, and require no little care to preserve
them : their most general disorder is a kind of slime or mouldiness,
which will sometimes envelope them in such a manner as to prove
mortal. The best way of curing this is by gently pouring a large
quantity of water (perhaps two or three quarts) into the vessel where
they are kept, and letting it run off slowly : by which means the
sliminess will gradually be loosened and carried away with the water.

" As to food, if fresh water be given them daily they will find
sufficient for themselves ; and it is dangerous to try any other way
of feeding them, for the smallest worms or other visible insects one
can think of giving them will tear their delicate frame in pieces."

Pallas has added nothing to the history of this polype, which he

had, nevertheless, personally examined. Bosc having collected, in

ponds near Paris, a polypidom of a massive character, apparently un-
known, sent it to Bruguiere, who described it as a new species of
Alcyonium. The same production having come under Lamarck's
inspection, he formed oi it the genus Alcyonella, which was imme-
diately adopted by all naturalists, for Bruguiere's description of the
polypes (the accuracy of which was vouched for by Lamouroux!) difi'e-
red in so many obvious particulars from Trembley's, that no one could
suspect their identity, the more especially as the figures of the poly-
pidoms were equally dissimilar. Bosc's polypidom was therefore ca-
talogued in o\ir systems as an Alcyonella, and Ti'embley's as a spe-

320 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Alcyonella.

cies of Plumatella, Thus matters stood when Raspail was led, in
1826 and 1827, to examine the subject, and the result of his inge-
nious labours has been very curious, though some of his conclusions,
notwithstanding the boldness of their enunciation, seem to me un-
proved, and one of them, which identifies the Cristatella with the
Alcyonella, has already been shewn to be erroneous. He has, how-
ever, demonstrated very satisfactorily the entire sameness of the Po-
lypes a panaches of Trembley, the Bell-flower animal of Baker, and
the Alcyonella of Lamarck, — the variations in the polypidom, which
had deceived all others, being produced by age, or by external and for-
tuitous circumstances, as for example by peculiarities in its site : when
this is the floating leaves of Lemnae, or the upper or under side of a
stone, the developement is difl'used, or lobed, or arborescent, or creep-
ing, or massive and spongy, according as the polypidom has free-
dom to spread, or is restrained by its position, or is influenced by the
mere gravitation of one part against another. I can find, however,
in the beautiful series of figures which illustrate his Memoir, none to
make me assent to Raspail's opinion that all the Plumatellae are cei'-
tainly mere variations of this zoophyte : at present the facts appear
rather of an opposite tendency ; — while, on the contrary, subsequent
observations have shewn that he is right in considering as embryo
Alcyonellse the Leucophra heteroclita and Trichoda floccus of Mul-
ler, as well perhaps as the Difl3ugia protaeiformis of Leclerc, although
Ehrenberg declares against this conclusion.

Raspail's description of the zoophyte is admirable, and is rendered
peculiarly interesting from the generalizations in physiology which
the author ever and anon boldly hazards on certainly a very narrow
basis ; and the curious experiments detailed in it. He has fully re-
cognized the merits of Trembley, and has confirmed his accuracy in
most particulars ; he has explained the cause which led Trembley
erroneously to ascribe a retractor muscle to the body, the appearance
being the result of a fold or plait in the tunic in certains positions of
the body ; he ascertained the position of the anus ; gave a complete
view of the tentacular apparatus, and an inimitable anatomy of the ova,
which we shall transcribe at least in part. The ova, he says, are in ge-
neral one-third of a millimetre in their longest diameter. On each of
the two parallel faces we distinguish a shield, a little convex, and of
the same shape as the e^^ itself, surounded with a rim of the same co-
lour and consistence. (Fig. 49, a.) In drying, these two faces approxi-
mate and become concave, while the rim remains unaltered. A sec-
tion perpendicular to the two faces shews that the rim has no com-
munication with the shield, (Fig. 49, b.) ; that it is distended with a eel-

Alcyonella.

Z. ASCIDIOIDA.
Fig. 49.

321

/.

lular tissue of the same substance as the parietes ; and that the shield
incloses, under a shell of the same nature as the rim, a glutinous cel-
lular tissue, the cells of which are filled with transparent, apparently
amylaceous, g-rauules, spread in my«ads over the object-glass when the
perisperm is torn. The most minute observation has been employed
without success in fiiyjing any indication of an organ analogous to
the embryo.

By a section parallel to the two faces the difference which exists
between the structure of the rim and shield is made apparent. Of
the former the coat, deprived of the tissue which it contains, is
seen to be transparent and divided into j^.

cellules arranged in rays which point
towards the centre of the organ ; while
the resinous and woody thickness of
the shield presents a great number of
small globular yellowish cells dispos-
ed in quincunx. (Fig. 30.) This ar-
rangement becomes still more appa-
rent on boihng the ovum in alcohol,
Avhich however, no otherwise than
ether, does not seem to discolour it
much. Its brown colour is not owing
to the presence of iron, for a long soak-
ing of the eggs in prussiate of potass
sharpened with sulphuric acid has not
communicated the slightest tint of
blue to their surface, even when they
have been bruised previous to the maceration. Alcohol changes to
a golden yellow the original brown colour of the shield. Iodine

322

Z. ASCIDIOIDA.

Plumatella.

does not colour at all, if not a yellow, the granules of the perisperm
which their appearance suggested to be amylaceous, but alcohol sepa-
rates from them a fatty substance, for, in spontaneous evaporation,
this menstruum deposits on the object-glass a white layer over which
water glides without raising any thing from it.

On examining by refraction one of the eggs with a magnifier of
100 diameters, very often another transparent narrow margin becomes
visible, which overlaps all the circumference and indicates an external
envelope of extraordinary delicacy. On one side of this there is to be
distinguished an evident trace of the old adhesion of the egg to the
walls of the tubes which enclosed them, — a point which may be call-
ed the hilum. Very often, however, this delicate tunic may be
sought for in vain on other eggs.

43. Plumatella, * Bosc.
Character- Polypidom fixed, membranaceous, confervoid,
slender, tubular, irregularly branched ; the polypes issuing from
the apices of the branches. — Polypes ascidian, croicned with a
single series of ciliated tentacula.

it-
1. P. REPENS, " stem adhering ; tentacula disposed in a cres-
cent." Rev. Dr Fleming.

Fig. 51.

Tubipora repens, Lin. Syst. edit. 10, 790 Tubularia repens, Mull.

Verm. i. ii. 16. Zool. Dan. prod. 254. Bosc, Vers, iii. 93 Tub.

reptans, Turt. Gmel. iv. 669. Plumatella repens, Lam. Anim. s.

Vert. ii. 108. 2de edit. ii. 123. Flem. Brit. Anim. 322. Stark, Elem.

ii,441 Naisa repens, Coral. 98 La Plumatella rampante,5Zamr.

Actinolog. 490. f-

* The diminitive oiplumata — plumed.

f To this synonymy it may be useful to add the following, communicated to me
along with a dried specimen of the polypidom, by J. Hogg, Esq. " A small
piece of it is figured in Schaff. Armpolyp. tab. i. fig. 1, 2, published in 1754.
The next representation of it is in tab. 19, fig. 1-5, in the Bulletin Philomatique

Plumatei.la. Z. ASCIDIOIDA. 323

Hab. " On the under side of stones. Lochmill-loch, Fife," Flem-
ing. " Not unfrequent in a rivulet of beautifully clear water, at Nor-
ton, in the county of Durham," John Hogg, Esq.

" Stem extending; several inches, irregularly branched, slightly en-
larging towards the aperture, dilatalde ; tentacular margin divided
into two lobes, tentacula ciliated in opposite directions. Besides a
gullet, stomach, and gut, there is a distinct rectum, terminating in a
tubular orifice seated externally to the tentacular margin, out of which
I have witnessed the remains of the food swallowed but a short time
before forcibly ejected." Fleming.

*2. V. g'E.IjKTI'hos A, ^'^ free, branched ; tentacula circularly dis-
posed."— Rev. Dr Fleming.

Tubiilaria gelatinosa, Pall. Elencli. 8.3 Plumatella gelatiiiosa, Flem.

Br. Anim. 553.

Hab. "■ Found along with the preceding," Fleming.

" Height about two inches, tufted, shrubby ; stem dichotomously
branched, scarcely enlarging at the extremity ; polypi with a bell-
shaped disk, the tentacula regularly disposed, and appearing as if
webbed at the base ; mouth with a valve." Fleming.

3. P. SULTANA, irregularly branched ; tentacula campanulate.
J. G. Dalyell.

Tubularia sultana, Blumenh. Man. 272. pi. 1. fig. 9. Bosc, Vers, ill. 93.

Hab. Fresh water. Near Foulden, Berwickshire, Dalyell.

Polypidom irregularly branched, about an inch in height, earthy
brown, roughish and opaque, the tubes short, cylindrical and unjoint-
ed ; polypes entirely retractile, with about 20 slender white tentacu-
la, assuming when expanded a regular campanulate figure. Blumen-
bach says they are ciliated at the base.

As I have already stated, Raspail considers the Plumatellae (with
the exception of P. sultana, which he does not mention,) to be mere-
ly states of the Alcyonella,* — an opinion which future inquiries may
shew to be true, but at present there are some difficulties in the way
of its adoption. Pallas had examined both the Polypes-a-panache of

(not Bull. des. Sciences Nat.) p. 157, no. 81, an 12 (de la Republique)=1804,
belonging to an extract from a memoir by Vaucher on the fresh-water Tubulariae :
there fig. 1. much resembles the polypary in its natural state, but the animal mag-
nified is not near so like as that figured in the former work : however neither
plates do justice to the polj-pes."

" Mr J. E. Gray, in 1832, says, " It is probable that the Plumatellae may be
only the young of the Alcyonellae." Syn. of Brit. Mus. p. 75.

324 Z. ASCIDIOIDA. Plumatella.

Trembley, and his Tiibnlaria gelatinosa, in a living state, and he as-
serts that the latter — a Plumatella— differs from the former — an Al-
cyonella — not solely in habit,* but in having fewer, shorter, and more
recurved tentacula. " Interaneis quoque" he adds, " a prsecedenti
differt et distinctissima est hcec species, quae interdum in iisilem cum
praecedenti (semper rariore, adeoque, ut videtur, minus prolifica) re-
peritur aquis." Muller's description of Plumatella repens certainly
affords nothing in opposition to Raspail's theory, but on the contrary
may be deemed favourable to it, since he tells us that it is intermedi-
ate between the very species which Pallas considered so widely diffe-
rent, possessing many of the characters of both, and differing princi-
pally in the appearance of the polypidom. Lamarck* perceived the
affinity of the genera, which he nevertheless kept separate, resting
the distinction on the massive and ramous forms of the polypidoms.
Baer, apparently speaking from personal examination of the produc-
tions in question, has expressed his conviction of the perfect distinctness
of Alcyonella and Plumatella, and this subsequent to his knowledge of
Raspail's Memoir : and Milne-Edwards has still more recently shown
that this essay had at least not conveyed perfect conviction to his
mind, otherwise he would scarce have expressed himself in this man-
ner : " II nous parait en effet probable que ces Polypes, observes a
des periodes diverses de leur developpement, ont ete pris pour des
animaux differens et decrits sous des noms particuliers. Mais il se-
rait possible aussi que les formes transitoires de I'Alcyonelle decrites
par M. Raspail se rencontrassent d'une maniere permanente chez
d'autres Polypes, et par consequent, on ne pent encore rayer des ca-
talogues zoologiques la longe suite d'especes mentionnees ci-dessus."
Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 2de edit. ii. 116. — Under these circumstances I
have deemed it the best course to keep the genera separate, as least
likely to perplex the student.

Of the P. Sultana little is known. 1 have seen a living specimen
in the possession of Sir John G. Dalyell, but had no opportunity of
making an examination of it. Naturalists wait with some impatience
the publication of a work from this ingenious observer, on which, it
is understood, he has been long engaged, and which will disappoint ex-
pectation if it does not disclose many novel facts, and illustrate many
present obscurities, and give additional respect and permanence to
his name and reputation as a naturalist.

• " Habit is a general agreement in growth and appearance." f.imifeus.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

1. The Nature vf Sponges. Page 29 ^

1 may fortify my opinion of the vegetable nature of these productions by the
following quotation from the " Elements of Physiology" by Muller, the cele-
brated professor of anatomy in the university of Berlin " If, therefore, it is

still a matter of doubt whether certain simple organized beings, such as the
sponges and several so called alcyonia, are animal or vegetable, the absence of
all voluntary motion in these bodies, whether of the whole or of individual parts
of it, must determine the question, and they must more properly be numbered
among the vegetable marine structures. It may certainly be said that the embryo
of sponges, as Dr Grant has shown, like the embryo of polypes and corals,
moves by means of cilia ; but the distinctive marks between the embryo of
sponges and marine infusoria are by no means certain, and similar motions have
been many times observed in the embryo of true vegetables, — of the alga, for
example." p. 42. Lond. 1837.

Mr J. Hogg, hi a letter dated June 25, states that the green colour of the fresh
water sponge (Spongilla fluviatilis) depends upon the action of light, — as he has
proved by experiments which shewed that pale coloured specimens became green
when they were exposed, for a few days, to the light and full rays of the sun ;
while on the contrary green specimens were blanched by being made to grow in
darkness or shade. Hence Mr H. infers the vegetability of this sponge ; but he
still leans to the opinion that the sea sponges are animals.

Dujardin, again, is a new advocate for the animality of all sponges ! " M.
Dujardin having repeated his observations on spongillse or fresh water sponges,
as well as others on marine sponges, thinks he has proved, that these ambiguous
beings are positively groups of animals, capable of contraction and extension.
If a piece be detached from a living sponge, and submitted to a microscope, it
will be seen to groupe itself into irregularly rounded masses, and change the
form of its edges incessantly : isolated portions, detached from the general mass,
move slowly in the liquid, and creep along by means of their alternate contrac-
tion and expansion." Athenaeum, June 16, 1838, p. 430 I may remark on

these experiments, that locomotion is no proof of animaUty. Several algce are
locomotive.

2- The asexual character of Zoophytes. Page 46.
This is contrary to the opinion of Professor Wagner. He says that double-
ness of sex appears to be an invariable condition of all animals ; and when the
sexes are not separate individuals, there always exists a hermaphroditical organ-
ZHtion. He has discovered masculine organs in the Actinice. " I found, last
Autumn," he says, " in the isle of Heligoland, upon the Actinia holsatica and rufa

326 NOTES.

testicles formed by numerous canals twisted around one another : tbey were
much developed and placed along-side the ovaries, which they equalled in num-
ber." Their real nature was ascertained by the detection of spermatic animal-
cules in them ; and these were also found in the Act. effceta Ann. des Sc.

Nat. tom. viii. p. 283, &c.

3. Structure of the Hydra. Page 99.

Augustus Josephus Corda has recently published a memoir on the anatomy of
Hydra fusca, where he shews that this is greatly more complicated and curious
than has hitherto been imagined. According to Corda each tentaculum forms a
slender membranaceous tube filled with an albuminous nearly fluid substance
intermixed with some oleaginous particles -. this substance swells out, at certain
definite places, into denser wart-like nodules which are arranged in a spiral line.
These are the tubercles noticed by all observers, but no one had hitherto develop-
ed their structure. Corda says that each nodule is furnished with several spini-
gerous vesicles used as organs of touch, and mth a very singularly constructed
organ for catching the prey. The organ of touch consists of a fine sac enclosing
another mth thicker parietes, and within this there is a small cavity. From the
point where the two sacs coalesce above, there projects a long cilium or capil-
lary spine which is non-retractile, and apparently immoveable. Surrounded by
these cUia, and in the centre of the nodide, is placed the captor organ, called the
hasta. This consists of an obovate transparent sac, immersed in the nodule,
with a small aperture even with the surface. At the bottom of the sac, and
within it, there is a saucer-like vesicle, on whose upper depressed surface is seat-
ed a solid ovate corpuscle that gives origin to, or terminates in, a calcareous
sharp sagitta or arrow, that can be pushed out at pleasure, or withdrawn till its
point is brought within the sac When the Hydra wishes to seize an animal, the
sagittoE are protruded, by which means the surface of the tentacula are roughen-
ed, and the prey more easily retained : and Corda believes that a poison is at the
same time injected, which will explain the remarkable fact of the almost instant
death of the prey.

The nodules of the tentacula are connected together by means of four muscu-
lar fibres or bands which run up forming lozenge-shaped spaces by their inter-
sections. These are the extensor muscles of the tentaculum. They are again
joined together by transverse fibres, which Corda believes to be adductor mus-
cles, and to have also the power of shortening the tentacula. Corda states that
there is no communication between the tube of the tentaculum and the ca\'ity of
the body.

The lip of the mouth is armed with hastce and cilia similar to those of the
tentacula, but the rest of the body is destitute of them.

The skin consists of two strata, the exterior largely cellular, the inner with
cells of a much smaller size. In thje latter the gemmules lie. Under it there
is a layer consisting of densely aggregated cells, filled and coloured with minute
granules. This layer Corda regards as muscular ; and within it there is another
layer which, from its texture and position, he says may be called the villous coat.
From the inner surface of this, numerous villi project into the stomachal cavity,
collected into masses which are divided from each other by passages destitute of
villi. Each of the villi is in the form of a cylindro-conical pellucid vesicle filled
with the nutrient matter ; and most of them are perforated on the tip while

3

NOTES. 327

others arc closed, though equally filled with nourishment. The digestion of
animal matter is very rapid ; the pachydermatous larva of an insect being ren-
dered irrecognisablc in four minutes. Vegetable matter is an inappropriate
food, and seemingly indigestible. See Ann. dcs Sciences Nat Part. Zool. tome
viii. p. 363, &c — It were well that this anatomy of Corda was confirmed, for
the fallacy of the microscope is almost proverbial, and powers of very high in-
tensity must have been used in this demonstration.

4. The nature of the Cells of the Escharidce- Page 238.

" If the stony cells of the Escharidae were formed by the exudation of a cal-
careous matter which moulded itself on the surface of the secreting membrane, it
is evident that the first layer thus formed must be the external one, and that the
addition of new quantities of this earthy matter could only augment the thickness
of the parietes of the cell, and modify the disposition of its interior cavity, with-
out at all changing the exterior configuration of the first formed layer ; for here
the solid cell completely envelopes the animal, and is not overlapped by the se-
creting organ, as in the Mollusca gasteropoda, whose shell changes its form with
age, because the deposit of new matter, taking place on the border of the part
already consolidated, continually lengthens it, and is moulded on the soft parts
whose configuration is liable to change.

" To throw some light on the mode of formation and on the nature of the
cells of the Eschares, it became consequently interesting to examine these cells
at diflferent ages, and to see if their exterior form changed or remained always
the same. This study, indispensable for the anatomical and physiological history
of these little beings, may also lead to a knowledge useful to zoology and to
geology J for the determination of the species, recent and fossil, rests principally
on the characters furnished by these cells ; and we are still ignorant whether or
not they can be modified in the progress of age.

" This examination can be made more easily than one might at first ima-
gine ; for neither the observation of the same individual, at different stages
of its developement, nor the collection of a series of specimens so as to repre-
sent all the phases through which these little creatures pass successively, is re-
quired. Indeed, since these polypes spring from each other, and do not separate
from their parents, each polypidom must present a long series of generations en-
chained to each other, and in each of these series, the relative age of living in-
dividuals must be indicated by the place which they occupy. To resolve the
question which we have put, it is sufficient therefore to study comparatively the
cells situated near the base of the polypidom, in its middle, in its young branches,
and towards the extremity of the latter ; for we are certain that it is not only
in this last place that living polypes are found, as some authors affirm, but that
they exist over almost the entire extent of the polypidom.

" After examining in this manner, with a sufficient magnifying power, the cells
of the Eschara cervicornis, I am quite convinced that the mode of develope-
ment of these stony cells is not that which is usually admitted.

" Indeed, I have seen that not only does the general conformation of the cells
change with age, but also that these changes operate in a great measure on the
exterior surface, — that is to say, on that side of their parietes, which, in the
hypothesis of their formation by layers, must exist from the first, and once con-
solidated, ought to change no more, unless from exterior and accidental frictions.

328 '' NOTES.

" In the young cells, whose partitions, although thin, have already acquired a stony
consistence, the exterior surface is quite convex, and the margin of their aper-
tures jut out so that they are easily distinguished ; but by the progress of age
their appearance changes ; their free surface rises so as to efface the deep de-
pressions which marked originally their respective limits, and to raise to the le-
vel of the surface the border of the openings. The result of this is that
the cells cease to be distinct, or even distinguishable without, and that the poly-
pidom seems to be formed of a stony continuous mass, in the substance of which
are excavated certain holes slightly widened interiorly, and disposed in quincunx.

"But differences of this nature cannot be formed by the simple juxtaposition
of new calcareous layers under those primitively formed ; for the soft parts of
the animal, the only ones which can be the seat of a secretion of this calcareous
matter, do not extend over the surface which is thus modified ; and the position
of the cells thus immersed in the apparently common mass of the polypidom is
often such that we cannot attribute their change of form to any operation or
friction of foreign bodies.

" It appears evident to us that these facts indicate the presence of life in the
substance which composes the parietes of these cells, and can only be explain-
ed by the existence of a nutritive movement ; like to that which, in the confi-
guration of bones, effects analogous modifications.

" To know better the nature of these cells, I submitted to the action of ni-
trous acid diluted with water, a part of a polypidom recently taken from
the sea. A brisk effervescence was visible immediately, and in some minutes the
cells became flexible, and separated from one another. Before treating them thus,
no distinct membrane was seen on the internal wall of these cells ; and when
the nitrous acid had destroyed all the calcareous carbonate on which their ri-
gidity depended, these same parietes still existed and had not changed their
form much : only they were formed now of a soft and thick membrane con-
stituting a bag, in the interior of which we perceived the digestive apparatus of
the polype. The opening of this bag was no longer truncated, as it appeared
when the texture of the membrane was thickened by the stony deposit from
which we had just freed it, but the membrane was continued uninterruptedly
with the tentacular sheath.

*' We see then that in the Eschares, the cell in which it is said the polype
retires as into a shell, is a component part of the animal itself, in which it conceals
itself, if we may use the comparison, as the hedgehog enters into the thorny skin
of his back. It is not a calcareous crust which is moulded on the surface of
its body, but a portion of the general tegumental membrane, — of the skin of
the polype, — which, by a molecular deposit of earthy matter in the meshes of
its tissue, ossifies as the cartilages of superior animals ossify, without ceasing to
be the seat of a nutritive movement.

" We see also that that which is considered generally, as being the body of these
polypes, constitutes in reality only a small portion of it, and consists of little but
the digestive, and probably breathing organs, of these little animals.

" The tegumental bag, freed from its carbonate of lime, seems to me formed
of a toraentose membrane covered, particularly \vithout, with a multitude of cy-
lindrical filaments, disposed perpendicularly to the surface, and pressed close to
one another. It is in the spaces left between these fibres that the calcareous
matter appears to be principally deposited, for if we examine, with the micro-

NOTES. 329

scope, a transverse cut of the polypidom in its natural state, we distinguish in it an
analogous conformation, the external wall of the cells being not composed of
layers, but rather of cylinders or irregular prisms placed perpendicularly to its
surface.

" As to the operculum, which serves to shut the entrance of the tegumental
cell of the Eschara, when the animal is wholly concealed in it, it is but a labial
fold of that which we may call the skin of the polype, and of which the pro-
jecting margin has acquired a horny consistence, whilst that portion continuous
with the general envelope, preserves sufficient softness to remain flexible, and
to obey the action of the muscles whose tendons are inserted in its thickness.

" The changes which we have indicated above in the external formation of the
cells of the Eschares are not the only ones effected by the progress of age in the
stony integuments of these zoophytes. The form of their opening is modi-
dified considerably, as may be seen by the figures which accompany this memoir -.
the sinus or emargination situated under the operculum disappears by degrees,
and their interior ca\Tty becomes filled up so as not to occupy more than about
the quarter of their original diameter. This thickening changes even a little
the genend appearance of the polypidom ; for as it is more considerable in the
cells situated farthest from the extremities of the branches, it results that
these, at first almost flat, become more and more cylindrical. Lastly, it is not
without surprise that we have seen these same cells when they are arrived at ex-
treme old age, lose altogether the opening from which the polype extended
its tentacula. In fact, the margins of this opening swelling more and more out-
wardly come at last to touch and to close, so that no trace of its existence is
left : but the cell, now a shut cavity, still exists towards the axis of the polypi-
dom.

" Thus, then, the last external mark of the individual existence of these col-
lected polj-pes, disappears before that life is extinct in the interior, and the most
remarkable character of the polypidom is lost without hope of recovery.

" Reflecting on the fact we have just noticed, we are naturally led to ask how
the nourishment necessary for the support of the secretions on which the pro-
gress of consolidation depends, can continue when the cell containing the di-
gestive apparatus of the animal is shut up in this manner. Is it from its neigh-
bours that it receives its nutritive matters, or can it continue to absorb them direct-
ly from without through these stony integuments? The nature of this solid shell
seems at first sight to oppose great obstacles to this imbibition, particularly to
that which would take place by the free surface of the polypidom, but an ex-
periment which is, so to speak, the counterpart of that which has been already
detailed, shov/s that it is otherwise.

" On boilinga fragment of the solid polypidom ofan Eschara in a solution of caus-
tic potash, I have extracted the major part of the substances which compose the
organized part of its tissue, and I have then seen that the appearance of the
polypidom is considerably changed. The external parietes of the cells had become
of an almost spongy texture, and its surface, instead of being simply granular,
presented a great number of very distinct pores, which were before concealed by
the soft parts with which they were filled.

" We may understand, then, that the organized tissue of the old polypes finding
itself without covering in different points of the external surface of the cells.

330 NOTES.

the absorption may continue to be effected directly from wnthout, although the
opening by which the nutritive matters penetrate usually into the digestive
cavity, is obstructed and obliterated." — Ann. des Sciences Nat. Part. Zool.,Vol.
i. p. 25-31.

" And novv^, shoidd it be asked, granting all this to be true, to what end has so
much labour been bestowed in the demonstration ? I can only answer, that as
to me these disquisitions have opened new scenes of wonder and astonishment,
in contemplating how variously, how extensively life is distributed through the
universe of things : so it is possible, that the facts here related, and these in-
stances of nature animated in a part hitherto unsuspected, may excite the like
pleasing ideas in others ; and in minds more capacious and penetrating, lead to
farther discoveries, farther proofs (should such be wanting,) that One infinitely
wise, good, all-powerful Being has made, and still upholds, the whole of what
is good and perfect ; and hence we may learn, that, if creatures of so low an
order in the great scale of nature are endued with faculties that enable them to
fill up their sphere of action with such propriety ; we likewise, who are advan-
ced so many gradations above them, owe to ourselves, and to Him who made us
and all things, a constant application to acquire that degree of rectitude and
perfection, to which we also are endued with faculties of attaining." — Ellis.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I. Fig. 1. Hydra vulgaris, var. b, natural size : specimens from Yet-

holm Loch, Roxburghshire. Fig. 2. H. vulgaris, var. a, nat. size and

magnified.
PLATE II. Fig. I. Coryne squamata., nat. size and magnified. Fig. 2. C.

squamata, loaded with reproductive gemmules. Fig. 3. The same magni-
fied. Fig. 4. Variety of C. squamata, Fig. 5. The same magnified.
PLATE III. Fig. 1 Tubularia indivisa, nat. size. Fig. 2. Head of the same

magnified. Fig. 3. Tub. Larynx, nat. size.
PLATE IV. Fig. I. Hermia glandulosa, var. nat. size. Fig. 2. The same

magnified. Fig. 3. Tubularia Larynx, var. nat. size. Fig. 4. The same

magnified. Fig. 5. Gemmules, magnified.
PLATE V. Fig. 1. Tubularia ramea, nat. size. Fig. 2. A portion of the same

magnified. Fig. 3. Tubularia Larynx, var. nat. size. Fig. 4. A portion

of the same magnified.
PLATE VL Fig. 1. Thoa halecina, nat. size. Fig. 2. A small variety of the

same. Fig. 3. A piece of the stalk magnified. Fig. 4. A piece of the poly-

pidom magnified.
PLATE VII. Fig. 1, 2. Thoa Beanii, nat. size and magnified. Fig. 3, 4. Thoa

muricata, from a specimen communicated by Mr Bean.
PLATE VIII. Fig. I. Sertularia polyzonias. Fig. 2. A variety of the same.

Fig. 3. The same magnified. Fig 4, 5. Sertularia rugosa. Fig. 6. A creep-
ing var. of Sert. rugosa, magnified.
PLATE IX. Fig. I. Sertularia rosacea, of the nat. size. Fig. 2. A portion

magnified. Fig. 3, 4. Sertularia pumila. Fig, 3, 6. Sertularia pinnata.
PLATE X. Fig. 1, 1." Sertularia abietina, of the nat. size and magnified.

Fig. 2. Sertularia tamarisca. Fig. 3. A portion magnified. Fig. 4. The

ovarian vesicle, copied from Ellis.
PLATE XI. Fig. 1, L* Sertularia filicula, nat. size and magnified. Fig. 2,2.*

Sert. operculata. Fig. 3, 3.* Sert. argentea, var. in a young state.
PLATE XII. Fig. 1. Sertularia argentea. Fig. 2. The same in its young state.

Fig. 3, 4. Portions of two diiferent specimens of the same magnified, to

shew the variations of the cells.
PLATE XIII. Fig. 1, 2. Sertularia cupressina, from a specimen presented to

me by J. V. Thompson, Esq.
PLATE XIV. Fig. 1, 2. Thuiaria thuja, nat. size and magnified.
PLATE XV. Fig. 1, 2. Thuiaria thuja, in its primary state. Fig. 3, 4. Th. ar.

ticulata, from a specimen in the collection of Mr Bean.
PLATE XVI. Antennularia antennina. Fig. 2. represents the branched variety.

332 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XVII. Fig. 1, 2. Plumulaiia falcata. Fig. 3. The vesicle magnified.

Fig. 4, 5. PI. pinnata, of the natural size and magnified.
PLATE XVIII. Fig. 1, 2. Plumulariapennatula, from a specimen presented to

me by J. E. Gray, Esq. Fig. 3, 4, 5. PL setacea, 4, is from specimens

sent from Cork by Mr Thompson.
PLATE XIX. Fig. i, 2, 3, Plumularia cristata. Fig. 4, 5. PI. myriophyllum,

from a Devonshire specimen given to me by Dr Coldstream.
PLATE XX. Fig. I. A variety of Plumularia cristata. Fig. 2, 3. Plum, fru-

tescens : specimen from Mr Bean.
PLATE XXI. Fig. 1,2. Laomedea geniculata. Fig. 3, 4. Laomedea gela-

tinosa.
PLATE XXII. Fig. 1, 2. Laomedea dichotoma, nat. size and magnified.

Fig. 3, 4. Campanularia verticillata.
PLATE XXIII. Fig. 1. Laomedea gelatinosa, variety, from a specimen in the

collection of Dr Coldstream. Fig. 2. Campanularia? dumosa, variety.

Fig. 3. The same magnified. Fig. 4. C ? dumosa. Fig. 5. The same

magnified.
PLATE XXIV. Fig. I, 2, 3, 4. Virgularia mirabilis, from specimens sent to

me by Dr Coldstream. Fig. 5, 6. The same, copied from Muller.
PLATE XXV. Fig. I. Gorgonia verrucosa, reduced one half. Fig. 2- Gorg.

placomus, copied from Ellis. Fig. 3. Gorg. anceps, also copied from Ellis.
PLATE XXVI. Alcyonium digitatum, nat. size, with its polypes fully ex-
panded.
PLATE XXVI.* Alcyonium digitatum. Fig. 1. The Polype as it appears

when fully extruded and seen through a magnifier. Fig. 2. The Polype

when about to develope itself, and about one-third protruded. Fig. 3. A

view of the oral disk after the animal has been killed by immersion in fresh

water, and the piece placed between two plates of glass. Fig. 4. A view

of the upper part of the body compressed between plates of glass. Fig. 5.

A view of a transverse section of the polypidom, highly magnified, shewing

the longitudinal canals cut across, and the ova in them. Fig. 6. A cell still

more highly magnified to shew the developement of the ova. Fig. 7. The

spicula.
PLATE XXVII. Actinia gemmacea, natural size.
PLATE XXVIII. Actinia Dianthus.
PLATE XXIX. Fig. I. Vesiculaiia spinosa, a small and perfect specimen.

Fig. 2. Specimens of the same as they are found when cast on the shore.

Fig 3. A portion of the same magnified ; the cells have fallen oflf. Fig. 4.

A portion with the cells remaining : copied from Thompson. Fig. 3, G.

Valkeria imbricata. Fig. 7, 8, 9. Valkeria pustulosa. For the sjjecimens

which furnished these figures I am indebted to Mr Thompson.
PLATE XXX. Fig. 1, 2. Crisia cornuta. Fig. 3, 4. Crisia eburnea. Fig. 5,

6. Cr. luxata. Fig. 7, 8. Anguinaria anguhia. Fig. 9, 10. Hippothoa

catenularia.
PLATE XXXI. Fig. I, 2,3. Tubulipora patina. Fig 4, 3, 6. Tubulipora

serpens. Fig. 7, 8. Tubulipora Obelia. Fig. 9, 10, II. Discopora hispida.

Fig. 12, 1.3. Notamia loriculata.
PLATE XXXII. Fig. 1,j2. Ccliepoiii pumicosa, nat. ^izc. Fig. 3. The same

4

EXPLANATION Or THE PLATES. 333

magnified. Fig. 4. Cellepora ramulosa, iiat. size. Fig. 5. A cross section
of a branch enlarged. Fig. 6. Cellepora Skenei, nat. size. Fig. 7. The
same magnifi«!d. Fig. 8. A transverse section.

PLATE XXXIII. Fig. 1. Cellepora cervicornis, nat. size. Fig. 2. Amagnificd
view of old or mature cells. Fig. 3. The cells from near the edge of the
divisions. Fig. 4, 5. Transverse sections of the branches.

PLATE XXXIV. Fig. 1, 2, 3. Lopralia coccinea, 1, nat. size; 2, a few of
the cells magnified ; 3, the cells with their ovarian opercula. Fig. 4. Le-
pralia variolosa. Fig. 5. Lep. trispinosa. Fig. 6. Lep. ciliata. Fig. 7. Lep.
nitida. Fig, 8. Lep. immersa. Fig. 9. Flustra tuberculata. Fig. 10, II,
12. Membranipora pilosa. 10, nat. size; 11, cells of, magnified; 12, cells
of varietj' y8.

PLATE XXXV. Fig 1 , 2. Flustra foliacea. Fig. 3, 4. Flustra truncata.

PLATE XXXVI. Fig. I, 2. Flustra carbasea. Fig. 3, 4. Fl. avicularis.
Fig. 5, 6. Fl. Murrayana. Fig. 7, 8. Cellularia avicularia.

PLATE 'XXXVH. Fig. I, 2, 3. Flustra niembranacea, nat. size and magni-
fied. Fig. 4. Flustra lineata. Fig. 5. Fl. carnosa. Fig. 6, 7. Farcimia
salicornia.

PLATE XXXVIII. Fig. I, 2. Cellularia ciliata, nat. size and magnified.
Fig. 3, 4. Cell, reptans. Fig. 5, 6. Cell, scruposa.

PLATE XXXIX. Acamarchis plumosa, of the natural size and magnified.

PLATE XL. Eschara foliacea, reduced one half, with portions magnified to
shew the cells.

PLATE XLL Alcyonidium gelatinosum. Fig. 1 and 2, specimens of the na-
tural size to shew the variations to which the species is subject in outward
form. F'ig. 3. The polype removed. This figure was made in the year
1833 ; and is less accurate than that of Dr Farre's. Fig. 4, 5. Alcyonidium
parasiticum.

PLATE XLIL Fig. I. Alcyonidium hirsutum, of the natural size ; and Fig.
% a portion of the surface as seen through a magnifier. Fig. 3, 4. Alcy-
onidium echinatum. Fig. 5. Cliona celata. Fig. 6. The spicula of the
same.

PLATE XLIII. Cristatella mucedo, copied from Turpin. Fig. 1. The poly-
pe at the period of its birth, magnified. Fig. 2. The same when fully de-
veloped : a, the transparent margin ; b, the disk of the polypidom ; c, the
holes whence the polypes protrude ; d, the neck of the polypes and anus ;
e, the tentacular arms, with the mouth at their base ; f, the filaments which
fringe the tentacula ; the arroics mark the direction of the currents of water.
Fig. 3. The tentacular filaments very much magnified to show their cilia.

PLATE XLIV. Alcyonella stagnorum. Fig I. natural size and appearance.
Fig. 2. A longitudinal section. Fig. 3. A portion of the surface magnified.
Fig. 4. A transverse section. Fig. 5. A front view or the polype. Fig 6.
A back view of the same : copied from Raspail.

INDEX TO THE WOOD-CUTS.

No. 3-2.
31.
34.
29.
49.
50.

7.

5.
33.
39.
41.
24.
18.
17.
30.
23.
27.
43.

2.
10.
21.
19.
25.
26.
12.
42.
11.

4.
38.

9.
28.
35.
36.
37.
42.
22.
51.

Actinia maciilata

mesembrj'anthemiim

-, young of,

viduata

Alcyonella, ovum of,

, ovum of,

Alcyonidium, ovum of.
Alcyonium digitatum, section of,
Anthea Tuedioe
Bowerbankia densa

Campanularia dumosa

syringa

voliibilis

Caryopbyllia Smitbii.
Cornularia rugosa

Crisia cbelata
Flustra membranacea
Fusus, tbe capsule of?
Gorgonia, section of the stem of,

Flabellum

verrucosa, animal of,

, ova of,

Hermia glandulosa

Hydra coronata. Fig. c, d.

fusca

viridis

Lagenella (Bowerbankia) repens
Laomedea gelatinosa, polype and cell
Luceraaria auricula

tentacula and ova of.

campanulata

Lucia ? Fig. a, b.
Pennatula pbosphorea
Plumatella repens

Page

Coldstream. 218

G. J. 210

G. J. 227

G. J. 205

Raspail. .321

Raspail. 321

G. J. 51

G. J. 39

G. J. 222

Farre. 240

- - - Farre- 256

G. J. 181

- G. J. 155

- G. J. 154

The animal is after De la Beche. 206

G. J. 181

Cavolini. 187

G. J. 260

G. J. 34

G. J. 92

Ellis. 168

G. J. 161

Cavolini. 182

Do. 186

G. J. 109

Lister. 258

Baker. 93

G.J. 37

Farre. 235

Lister. 83

G. J. 193

G. J. 229

G. J. 230

G. J. 231

Lister. 258

G. J. 175

G. J. 322

336 INDEX TO THE WOOD-CUTS.

No. 8. Plunaularia Catharina - - -

16. , magnified

6. cristata, gemmae of,

48. Polypes a panache . _ _

46. Retepora eellulosa _ _ _
40. Serialaria lendigera
1 3. Sertularia nigra - - - •

15. , magnified,

14. rosacea, cells and vesicles,

20. Tree, dicotyledonous, section of,

1. Tubularia ramea ....

3. Vesicularia imbricata, polype of,
45. View of one of those Scenes on the coast, into which
the naturalist is led in his search after zoophytes.

47. Ditto. - - -

Page

G.J.

79

G.J.

148

Coldstream.

48

Tremhley.

314

G. J

283

G.J.

249

G. J.

119

G.J.

129

G.J.

125

- EUis.

168

G.J.

1

Thompson.

35

■IX

274

^

300

INDEX.

AcAMAKCHis - Page 293

neritina - - 293

plumosa - - 294

Actinia - . 210

anemone . 211

anemonoides 223

Bellis . 212

carcbiiopados - 218

caryophyUus - 223

Cereu.i - 221

coccinca - 214

comtnon - 211

coraUina - - 211

coriacea - 214

crasskornis - 214

Dianthus - 216

effata . 214-218

equina . 210-214

fe/ina . . 214

gemmacea - 213

gland ulosa - - 213

hemispherica - 211

intestinalis - - 213

judaica . - 217

maculata - - 218

margarilifera - 211

mesembryanthemum 210

monile . . 214

parasite - - 218

pcduncuhta . - 212

pentapctala - . 216

plumosa - . 216

mfa . - 211
senilis . . 213-216

sulcata - - 221

triincata - - 214

Tuedice - . 222

verrucosa - . 213

viduata - - 211

ACTINIID^ - - 205

Aetea ariguina - . 266

Aglaophenia falcata - . 141

frutescens - I49

myriophr/llum . 148

pennatula - - 145

pinnata - ]4g

pluma - - 143

sctacea . . 147

Alcyonella

Page 311

stagnorum

0

311

ALCYONID^

174

Alcvonidium

300

diaphanum

301

echinatum

304

Jlavescens

301

gelatinosum

300

hirsutum

303

parasiticum

304

ALCYONIDUL^

300

Alcvonium

187

cydonium

191

digitatum

188

Jluviatile

311

gelatinosum

300

tohatum

- 188

parasiticuni

304

rubrum

190

Amathia leudigera

251

Anemonia ediilis

222

Anguinaria

266

anguina

266

spatulata

266

Antennularia

139

antennina

139

indioisa

140

ramosa

140

Anthea

220

Cereus

221

Tuedias

221

ASCIDIOIDA

76-237

ASTEROIDA

76-163

Berenicea coccinca

278

flava

280

hyalina

277

i7nmersa

280

nitida

278

trispinosa

280

ntriculata

279

BOWERBANKIA

255

densa

2.').5

repens

256

Campanulauia

154

dichotoma

150

dumosa

157

338

INDEX.

Campanularia

gelatinosa

geniculata

syringa

verticillata

volubilis
Caryophyllia

cyathus

Smithii
Cellaria angtiina

avicularia

hursaria

chelata

cUiata

cornuta

eburnea

LonchHis

loriculata

neritina

plumosa

repians

scruposa

ternala

thuia
Cellepora

cervicornis

cUiata

coccinea

liyalina

laevis

iiitida

palmata

pumicosa

ramulosa

skenei

spinosa

verrucosa
CELLEPORID^
Cellularia

anguina

avicularia

hursaria

chelata

ciliata

cornuta

eburnea

falcata

farciminoides

fastigiata

Hookeri

loriculata

neritina

plumosa

reptans

salicornia

scruposa
Clytia rugosa

syringa

Cl.lONA

celata
Clyt'iu uva

vertlcillula

Page 154

Conferva cancellata

152

Cornularia rugosa

152

CORYXE

155

glandulosa

156

7nulticornis

155

squamata

207

Crisia

207

avicularia

207

chelata

266

ciliata

192

cornuta

264

eburnea

261

flustroides

290

loriculata

260

luxata

262

plumosa

138

reptans

263

scruposa

293

ternata

. 294

CRISIAD^

291

Crist atella

291

campanulata

263

mirabilis

137

mucedo

273

paludosa

276

vagans

279

Cuscutaire cuscute

278

CVDONIUM

277

Mulleri

277

Cymodocea

278

comata

275

simplex

273

274

Discopora

274

hispida

273

trispinosa

273

Dynamena abietina

247

argentca

290

hursaria

266

cupressina

292

Dynamena Evansii

264

Jilicula

261

nigra

290

operculata

260

pinnata

262

pumila

260

rosacea

295

tamarisca

294

293

Eschara

263

ciliata

293

fascialis

294

Jistnlosa

291

foliacea

295

foliacea

291

pilosa

124

retiformis

156

securifrons

305

ESCHARIDiE

305

Encratea chelata

253

cornuta

156

loricatn

Page 250
192
109
112
110
109
260
292
261
290
260
262
287
264
262
294
291
291
263
247
308
311
308
308
311
308
253
191
- 191
158
158
158

270
270
280
131
134
264
135
127
132
128
132
127
126
124
130

279
298
295
283
297
281
298
285
248
261
261
261

INDEX.

339

1'ahci.mia

Page 295

HVDUA

Page 93

Jistitlosa

- 295

conjnaiia

98

salicoriiia

295

Dianthus

- 216

Filipora Hlograna

- 272

fusca

96

Fistiilaria mtiscoides

- 115

gcmviacea

213

ramosa

117

grisea

95

Flabelliim veneris

185

Httoralis

98

Flustra

283

Jutea

98

angustiloha

287

mesemhryanthemum

211

avicularis

286

oligactis

96

hulluta

273

ramosa

112

capitata

287

squamata

109

carbasea

- 285

verrucosa

97

caiiiosa

288

viridis

- 93

chartacea

284

viridissima

94

denlata

281

vulgaris

95

Ellisii

286

HYDRAID.E

91

foliacca

- 283

HYDROIDA

75-«l

?iiria

288

hispida

289

Isis entrochus

186

liiieata

288

Hippuris

185

membranacea

287

Murrayana

- 287

Lagcnella repens

- 256

papyracea

284

Laomedea

. 150

pilosa

- 281

dichotoma

- 150

setacea

286

gelatinosa

- 152

spinifera

288

geniculata

151

spongiosa

- 282

muricata

121

telacea

288

spinosa

- 250

tuberculata

289

Lepralia

277

truncata

- 285

ciliata

279

tuhiilosa

271

coccinea

278

unicornis

289

hyalina

277

Fungia turhinata

206

immersa

280

nitida

277

Gemicellaria bursaria

264

trispinosa

- 280

loriculata

264

variolosa

- 278

GORGONIA

182

LIMNIADES

- 248

anceps

- 184

Lohularia conoidea

191

flabellum

184

digiiata

- 188

lepadifera

- 185

Loricaria curopea

- 264

placomus

183

Loricnla loricata

- 261

verrucosa

182

LUCERNARIA

228

viminalis

183

auricula

229

GOllGONIAD^

174

campanulata

- 231

convolvulus

231

Halodactylus diapbanus

301

fascicularis

228

HELIANTHOIDA

76-195

octoradiala

229

Hermia

111

Lucia ?

257

glandulosa

111

HiPpOTHEA

- 265

MADREPHYLLIiEA

- 205

catenularia

265

Madkepora interstincta

209

Elliotce

- 265

musicalis

- 209

lanceolata

- 265

porpita

. 209

HVDRA

93

truncata

- 209

Bellis

- 212

verrucaria

267

hrunnea

95

Membranipora

280

campanuldtoi

311

pilosa

280

capUala

no

spongiosa

. 282

Ccreus

221

Mclridititn pluinosum

2J6

coronata

257

iNIillcpora cellulosa ., .

297

340

INDEX.

Millepora cervicontis Page

276

Salicornaria Jistulosa

Page 295

compressa

276

Scirpeaiia mirahilis

179

fascialis

298

Serialaria

251

foliacea

298

imhricata

254

foraminosa

297

lendigera

251

frondijmra

296

verticillala

254

lichenoides

209

Sertularia

121

liliacea

268

abietina

130

pvrmcosa

273

anguina

- 266

retepora

296

antennina

139

reticulata

296

argentea

- 134

Skenei

275

articulata

138

tanialis

298

avicularia

292

truncata

269

bursa

264

tululosa

268

bursaria

264

verrucaria

267

ciliata

290

cornuta

260

Naisa reptans

311

cupressina

- 135

repens

322

cnscuta

252

Nemertesia antennina

140

dichotoma

150

ramosa

140

dumosa

157

NOTAMIA

263

eburnea

262

bursaria

264

Ellisii

123

loriculata

263

ericoides

122

Evansii

127

Obelia tuUfera

270

falcata

141

tuhuUfera

270

fastigiata

294

Penna marina

176

iilicula

131

rubra

176

frutescens

149

Pknnatula

175

fuscescens

127

Britannica

176

gelatinosa

152

mirahilis

- 179

geniculata

151

phosphorea

175

Gorgonia

149

PENNATULID^

174

halecina

120

Pherusa tubulosa

271

Hibernica

128

Plumatella

322

imbricata

254

campanulata

311

lendigera

251

Crist al a

311

Lichenastrum

128-138

gelatinosa

233

Lonchitis

138

repens

322

longissima

150

sultana

333

loricata

261

Plumularia

140

loriculata

263

Catharina

147

vniricata

121

cristata

143

myriophyllnm

148

falcata

141

nigellastrtim

124

frutescens

149

neritina

293

myriopbyllum

148

nigra

128

pennatula

145

operculata

- 132

pinnata

145

pennatula

145

pltima

143

pinnata

128-146

setacea

146

pluma

143

Pocillopora interstincta

209

polyzonias

122

Polypes a panache

311

pumila

125

Polypes verds

93

pustulosa

254

Polypus, fresh-water -

93

repens

155-291

Porus cerxnnus

276

reptans

291

Primnoa lepadifera

185

rosacea

124

rugosa

123

Retepora

296

scruposa

291

cellulosa

297

sericea

250

reticulata

296

setacea

146

INDEX.

;341

Seiitularia

Page 121

Tlbl'laria

Page 118

seticornis

140

indivisa

113

ipinosa

250

larynx

115

ayringa

155

muscoidex

115

tamarisca

130

ramea

117

Templetoni

123

ramosa

116

ternata

263

repens

322

ihuia

137

sultana

32i3

nnijlora

155

trichoides

116

usneoides

132

tuhifex

157

Hva

283

TUBULARIAD^

91

verttciUata

156

TUBULIPORA

- 267

voluhilis

150-154

obelia

- 269

SERTULARIADiE

92

patina

267

serpens

268

Thoa

119

transversa

268

Beanii

120

truncata

269

halecina

- 119

TUBULIPORIDiE

247

muricata

- 121

TURBINOLIA

206

Savignii

- 117

borealis

206

Thuiaria

137

articulata

138

Ulvu d'laphana

;301

tbuia

137

U nicellaii-e cornet

261

Tricellaria ternata

263

Unicellaire cornue

261

Tubipora catenulariu

265

fasciciilaris

272

Valkeria

252

inusica

272

Cuscuta

252

repens

312

glomerata

254

serpens

268

imbricata

254

verrucosa

273

pustulosa

254

Tubularia

113

spinoia

250

affinis

110

uva

253

calamaris

114

Vesichlaria

250

campaniilaia

311

cuscuta

253

coryna

112

pustulosa

254

fistulosa

295

spinosa

250

flabelliformis

118

VESICULARIAD^

247

gelatinosa

323

ViRGULARIA

179

gigantea

114

mirabilis

179

gracilis

114

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