UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH ■Qar QL69b V.5 Uailm^tcni JVVc'inoi lal L,ilirary HISTORY OP BRITISH BIEDS, INDIGENOUS AND MIGEATORY. HISTORY OP BRITISH BIRDS, INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY: INCLUDING THEIR ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS ; REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE; AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF BIRDS, AND OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A. M., MEMBER OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA, OF THE LYCEUM OF NEW YORK, OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH CAROLINA; CONSERVATOR OF THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF EDINBURGH, AND LECTURER ON BOTANY TO QUEEN'S COLLEGE. VOL. III. REPTATORES, CREEPERS; SCANSORES, CLIMBERS; CUCULIN^E; RAPTORES, PLUNDERERS, OR RAPACIOUS BIRDS; EXCURSORES, SNATCHERS; VOLITATORES, GLIDERS; JACULATORES, DARTERS. LONDON: PRINTED FOR SCOTT, WEBSTER, AND GEARY, 36, CHARTERHOUSE SQUARE. 1840. W. BUBNKSS, rKrNTKR, KDINBl'HOH. PREFACE. It is under circumstances peculiarly pleasing that I now pre- sent myself to the public. I have accomplished half of my task, having completed the history of the entire series of British Land Birds. The few feeble sounds indicative of disappro- bation, that were elicited by the appearance of my beautiful Cooers and Songsters, died away without an echo, and the rich burst of applause with which my charming favourites were hailed, still resounding in my ears, has inspired me with fresh energy. I am therefore confident that the present volume is in no degree inferior to its predecessors, and hopeful that it will be received with equal favour. Several keen observers of birds have, to my sure knowledge, received from the information conveyed in these volumes, an impulse which will effectually prevent them from ever pervert- ing nature by forcing her into quinary or ternary arrangements, or from dwindling into mere describers of skins, and indiscri- minating compilers of correct, doubtful, and erroneous observa- tions. Of such pupils I am proud, and if my exultation should be held as an indication of vanity, I cannot help it, for I am constrained to speak the truth. Should any man conceive himself injured thereby, I hope he may consider that in mat- ters of science there ought to be perfect freedom of thought, and that a very obscure individual, like myself, may sometimes fall upon truths subversive of theories invented by men of the highest intellect. ii PREFACE. In my efforts on the present occasion I have heen aided by several kind friends and successful observers. May they live to see my labours, in which they have taken so lively an inte- rest, completed, and their object accomplished ! From the south and the north, the east and the west, information has flowed in. Scarcely was my second volume published, when I received, from a gentleman resident in Leicester, who has long dedicated part of his time to the study of birds, an offer of assistance, which I gladly accepted, and congratulations, which excited the most lively emotions, seeing they came from a man of kindred sentiments, whose heart warmed toward one whose writings had afforded him pleasure. Well has that honourable and kind-hearted Englishman, jNIr Harley, per- formed his promises, as the pages of this volume will shew. From the sea-girt rocks of Zetland, the voice of an old and dear friend has come to assure me of his sympathy and esteem. That friend, Dr Lawrence Edmondston, well known as an enthusiastic observer of birds, who has added much to our knowledge of those of his native country, has supplied me with several important articles, and will enrich the remaining volumes with the results of his investigations respecting the habits of the feathered denizens of his semi-Scandinavian Isles. A gentleman familiarly known to my readers, Mr Th. Durham AVeir, — one of whose most strict and scrupulous adherence on all occasions to truth, of whose almost unrivalled perseverance and lyncean acuteness of observation, every one acquainted with him is well assured, — one who personifies honesty and integrity, those most precious but most rare qualities, — has not intermitted his benevolent efforts to forward my views. While he has thus poured in his contributions from the west, an Anglo-Norman in the east, my equally enthusiastic and most estimable young friend, Mr Hepulrx, has favoured me with a mass of interest- ing observations, of which I have been obliged to select only a part, otherwise I should have extended the present volume much beyond its legitimate magnitude. Dr Kodertson of Dun- kcld, to whom I am personally unknown, has most generously ])resented me with specimens, and offered his aid in procuring rnore, as well as in supi)lying observations. The Rev. ^Mr PREFACE. Hi Gordon of Birnie, Mr Barclay, Mr Brown, Mr Duncan, and Mr Mactier, I feel pride in adding to the list of ornithological friends. With them too I must associate on this occasion one who, having finished his task of depicting and describing the birds of another and more extensive portion of the globe, has returned to his native land, Mr Audubon, to whom I am in- debted for specimens of several of our rarer feathered visitants, and of stragglers from America, of which I have failed in pro- curing permission to examine those in Edinburgh. To Mr Macduff Carfrae I again offer my warmest thanks for his liberal supply of bodies for dissection, and of recent and prepared specimens for description. To Mr Fenton also I am in like manner indebted ; as well as to various individuals, far and near, from Oxford to Elgin, who have sent me eggs, nests, and birds. In short, circumstances are now very different with me from what they were, when, among the wild rocks of the Hebrides, I commenced my labours, without aid or sympathy, or when, twenty years ago, I first visited Edinburgh, where I was unknown to a single individual. In this volume are contained descriptions of the birds to which I have given the ordinal names of Creepers, Climbers, Cuckoos, Plunderers, Snatchers, Gliders, and Darters, amount- ing to fifty-six species, together with two birds omitted in their proper places, and a species now first added to the British Fauna. An Appendix contains observations supplementary to the three volumes now published ; and at the end is a systematic Index to the Land Birds, in which they are disposed in families, in the order in which I conceive they may be most advantageously arranged. With regard to what I have called Practical Orni- thology, 1 have found it necessary on this occasion to be some- what less discursive than I could have wished. The anatomi- cally disposed student however will find an account of the exten- sile tongue of the Woodpeckers, the organs of sense of the Ra- pacious birds, instructions for making skeletons, and the usual information respecting the alimentary canal of all the species of which I could obtain bodies, illustrated bv numerous figures. In one of the chapters or Lessons under this head, is a valuable iv PREFACE. Catalogue of the Land Birds of the County of Leicester, by Mr Harley, The Engravings on Wood, which I think superior to those in the preceding volumes, have been executed by Mr Bruce, with the exception of a few by Mr Sclater ; and those on steel, in the present, as well as the other volumes, by Mr Gellatly. The drawings for both have been made by myself, in every case from the objects which they are intended to represent. Notwithstanding the labour and expense of preparing these volumes for the public, I am authorized to say that the fourth, containing the Waders, a great part of which is ready for the compositor, will be published before the third has been well dispersed. In it and the fifth or last, I promise descriptions equally correct, and probably more interesting, as many of the aquatic birds have been very carefully studied by me, under the most favourable circumstances. W. MACGILLIVRAY. Edinborgh, 1, Wharton Place, 1st June 1840. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Essential Characters of the Orders, and Incidental Remarks on Birds, - - - - - 1 ORDER YI. REPTATORES. CREEPERS. Characters of the Reptatores, - - _ 9 FAMILY I. CERTHIAN^. TREE-CREEPERS AND ALLIED SPE- CIES, _ _ . _ 12 Gentjs I. Anorthura. Wren, - - 13 1. Anorthura Troglodytes. The European Wren, 15 Genus II. Certhia. Tree-Creeper, - - 31 1. Certhia familiaris. The Brown Tree-Creeper, 33 Genus III. Upupa. Hoopoe, - - - 40 1. Upupa Epops. The European Hoopoe, - 41 FAMILY II. SITTING. NUTHATCHES AND ALLIED SPECIES, 45 Genus I. Sitta. Nuthatch, - - - 46 1. Sitta europaea. The European Nuthatch, - 48 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. SEVENTH LESSON, . 56 Remarks on Woodpeckers. Structure of the Tongue of Picus viridis, and explanation of the manner in which it is extended and retracted. Its Trachea and Digestive Organs. Description of part of the County of Leicester, including Charnwood Forest. ORDER VIl. SCANSORES. CLIMBERS. Characters of the Scansorcs, ^ - . Q5 vi CONTENTS. FAMILY I. PICINiE. WOODPECKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 69 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Picinae, 71 Genus I. Picus. Woodpecker, .. _ _ 73 1. Picus martius. The Great Black TVoodpecker, 77 2. Picus Pipra. The Pied Woodpecker, - - 80 3. Picus striolatus. The Striated Woodpecker, 8(J 4. Picus viridis. The Green Woodpecker, - 91 Genus II. Yunx. Wryneck, - - - 98 ]. YunxTorquilUa. The Wryneck, - - 100 ORDER VIII. CUCKOOS. CUCULINJE. CUCKOOS AND ALLIED SPECIES, _ 105 Genus I. Cuculcs. Cuckoo, - - - 108 ]. Cuculus canorus. The Grey Cuckoo, - 109 Genus II. Coccyzus. Cowcow, _ _ _ 136 1. Coccyzus americanus. The Yellow -billed Co>yco'\v, 137 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. EIGHTH LESSON, .. HI Eagle-shooting. Organs of sensation of the Rapacious Birds ; structure of the Eye, Nasal Passages, Ear, and Tongue. Organs of Respir- ation of Vultures, Hawks, and Owls- ORDER IX. RAPTORES. PLUNDERERS. Characters of the Raptores, - - - 161 F.VMILY I. VULTURINyE. VULTURES & ALLIED SPECIES, 163 Genus I. Neophron. Neophron, - - 165 1. Neophron Percnoptcrus. The White Neophron, 1()6 FAMILY II. FALCONIN.E. FALCONS AND ALLIED SPECIES, J JO Synopsis of the British (uuiera and Species of Falconino?, 174 CONTEiNTS. Vii Genus I. Buteo. Buzzard, - - - 180 1 . Buteo fuscus. The Brown or Common Buzzard, 183 2. Buteo lagopus. The Rough-legged Buzzard, 1 93 Genus II. Aquila. Eagle, _ _ _ 201 1 . Aquila Chrysaetus. The Golden Eagle, - 204 Genus III. Haliaetus. Sea-Eagle, - - 218 1. Ilaliaetus Albicilla. The White-tailed Sea-Eagle, 221 Genus IV. Pandion. Osprey, - _ 237 1. Pandion Haliaetus. The Fishing Osprey, - 239 Genus V. Pernis. Bee- Hawk, - _ 252 1. Pernis apivora. The Brown Bee-Hawk, - 254 Genus VI. Milvus. Kite, - - 263 1 . Milvus regalis. The Red Kite, - - 264 Genus VII. Nauclerus. Swallow-Kite, - 276 1. Nauclerus furcatus. The White-headed Swallow- Kite, - - - 277 Genus VIII. Falco. Falcon, - _ 281 1. Falco Gyrfolco. The Gyr Falcon, _ 284 2. Falco peregrinus. The Peregrine Falcon, 294 3. Falco Subbuteo. The Hobby Falcon, - 309 4. Falco vespertinus. The Orange-legged Falcon, 313 5. Falco Jisalon. The Merlin, - - 317 6. Falco Tinnuuculns. The Kestrel, - 325 Genus IX. Accipiter. Hawk, _ 333 1 . Accipiter Palumbarius. The Goshawk - 340 2. Accipiter Nisus. The Sparrow Hawk, - _ 'Sid Genus X. Circus. Harrier, 1. Circus cyaueus. The Ring-tailed Harrier, 2. Circus cineraceus. Montagu's Harrier, _ 373 3. Circus aeruginosus. The Marsh Harrier, - .. 382 363 366 FAMILY III. STRIGIN.E. OWLS, 388 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 397 viii CONTENTS. Genus I. Syrxia. Day-Owl, - - 401 1. Syrnia funerea. The Hawk Day-Owl, - 404 2. Syrnia Nyctea. The Snowy Day-Owl, - - 407 3. Syrnia psilodactyla. The Bare-toed Day-Owl, 417 Genus II. Scops. Owlet, - - 421 1. Scops Aldrovandi. The Aldrovandine Owlet, 422 Genus III. Bubo. Eagle-Owl, - - 425 1. Bubo maximus. The Great Eagle-Owl, - - 428 Genus IV. Ulula. Hooting-Owl, - - 435 1. Ulula Aluco. The Tawny Hooting-Owl, 438 2. Ulula Tengmalmi. Tengmalm's Hooting-Owl, 445 Genus V. Asio. Tufted-Owl, - - 450 1. Asio Otus. The Mottled Tufted -Owl, - 453 2. Asio brachyotus. The Streaked Tufted-Owl, 461 Genus VI. Strix. Screech-Owl, - - 469 1. Strix flammca. The European Screech-Owl, 477 De Ululis, - - - 480 ORDER X. EXCURSORES. SNATCHERS. FAMILY I. LANIIN-E. SHRIKES AND ALLIED SPECIES, 486 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 488 Genus I. Lanius. Surikk, - - 489 1. Lanius Excubitor, The Great Cinereous Skrike, 492 2. Lanius Rutilus. The Woodchat Shrike, - 502 3. Lanius CoUurio. The Red-backed Shrike, 505 FAMILY II. MYIOTHERINyE. FLYCHASERS AND ALFJED SPECIES, _ _ _ 512 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 515 Genus I. Muscicapa. Flycatcher, - - 516 1. Muscicapa Grisola. The Spotted Grey Flycatcher, 518 2. Muscicapa luctuosa. The Pied Flycatcher, 524 CONTENTS. ijf FAMILY III. AMPELINJ^. CHATTERERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, . - - 529 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 530 Genus I. Bombycilla. Waxwing, - - 531 1, Bombycilla garrula. The Black-throated Waxwing, 533 FAMILY IV. PSARINJS. THICK-BILLS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 537 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 538 Genus I. Coracias. Roller, - - 539 I. Coracias garnila. The Garrulous Roller, 540 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. NINTH LESSON, - 543 Scene from the Fifeshire coast in March. Velvet Ducks, Cormorants, Larks, Lapwings, Shells, and a Sea-Devil. Various observations. IVIodes of preparing Skeletons and Digestive Organs of Birds. A steam-boat in a storm. Recollections of the Hebrides. ORDER XI. VOLITATORES. GLIDERS. FAMILY I. HIRUNDIN^. SWALLOWS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 553 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 554 Genus I. Hirundo. Swallow, - - 555 1. Hirundo rustica. The Red-fronted or Chimney Swallow, - - - 558 2. Hirundo urbica. The White-rumped Swallow, 573 3. Hirundo riparia. The Bank Swallow, - 593 FAMILY II. CYPSELIN^. SWIFTS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 606 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 608 Genus I. Cypselus. Swift, _ - _ 609 1. Cypselus Melba. The White-bellied Swift, 6J 1 2. Cypselus murarius. The Black Swift, - 614 X CONTENTS. FAMILY III. CAPRIMULGIN.E. GOATSUCKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, _ _ - 627 S^Tiopsis of the British Genera and Species, - 629 Genus I. Caprimulgus. Goatsucker, - 636 I. Caprimulgus europaeus. The European Goatsucker or Nightjar, _ _ _ 633 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. TENTH LESSON, 646 Catalogue of the Land Birds of Leicestershire. By Mr James Harley. ORDER XII. JACULATORES. DARTERS, FAMILY I. ALCEDIN^. KINGFISHERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 667 Genus I. Alcedo. Kingfisher, - - 669 1. Alcedo Ispida. The Halcyon Kingfisher, 671 Genus II. Merops. Bee-eater, - 683 1. Merops Apiaster. The Yellow -throated Bee-eater, 685 SUPPLEMENT, Containing omitted Species, t - 689 Loxia leucoptera. The White-winged Crossbill, - 689 Genus. Calamophilus. Pinnock, - 693 1. Calamophilus biarmicus. The Bearded Pinnock, 694 APPENDIX. Additional Observations relative to the Birds described in the First, Second, and Third Volumes, - - 700 Corvus leucophseus, Pied or Ferroe Raven, - 745 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES. PLATES. XIV. Digestive Organs of Creepers and Woodpeckers. XV. Tongue and Trachea of the Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis. XVI. Digestive Organs of the Grey Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus. XVII. Organs of Sensation of Rapacious Birds. The Eye and the Tongue. XVIII. Organs of Sensation of Rapacious Birds. The Nasal cavity, and the Ear. XIX. Trachese of Vultures, Hawks, and Owls. XX. Digestive Organs of the Sea-Eagle and Golden Eagle. XXI. Digestive Organs of Hawks and Owls. XXII. Digestive Organs of Shrikes, Flycatchers, Chatterers, Swallows, Swifts, Goatsuckers, and Kingfishers. WOOD CUTS. Fio. 186. Heads of two species of Dendrocolaptes. Reduced, . paffe 10 187. Foot of Dendrocolaptes, . • . . H 188. Head of European Wren, Anorthura Troglodytes, . . 15 189. Head of Brown Tree-creeper, Certhia familiaris, . 33 190. Foot of Brown Tree-creeper, . . . .34 191. Wing of Brown Tree-creeper, • . . 34 192. Tail of Brown Tree-creeper, . • 35 193. Head of European Hoopoe, Upupa Epops. Reduced . 41 194. Foot of European Hoopoe, ... 44 195. Head of European Nuthatch, Sitta europaea, . 48 196. Foot of European Nuthatch, . . . .55 197. Wing of European Nuthatch, . . . 55 198. Foot of Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Picus principalis. Red. one-third, 68 199. Sternum of Pileated Woodpecker, Picus pileatus, . . 70 200. Bill of Picus robustus. Reduced one-third, . . 73 201. Tail of Picus robustus, . , . .76 202. Head of Great Black Woodpecker, Picus martins. Red. one-third, 77 203. Head of Pied Woodpecker, Picus Pipra, . . go 204. Foot of Pied Woodpecker, . . , .81 205. Head of Striated Woodpecker, Picus striolatus, . 86 206. Head of Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis. Reduced one-third, 91 207. Head of Wryneck, Yunx Torquilla, . . . loo 208. Foot of Eudynamis orientalis, . . . i05 209. Head of Grey Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, . . 109 210. Head of White Neophron, Neophron Percnopterus. Reduced, 166 211. Sternum of Turkey-Vulture, Cathartes Aura. Red. one-half, 169 212. Head of Brown Buzzard, Buteo fuscus. Reduced one-third, 183 213. Foot of Rough-legged Buzzard, Buteo lagopus. Red. one-third, 194 214. Foot of Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus. Half-size, . 203 215. Head of Golden Eagle. Half-size, . . 204 216. Foot of White-tailed Sea-Eagle, Haliaetus Albicilla. Half-size, 220 217. Head of White-tailed Sea-Eagle, Haliaetus Albicilla. Half-size, 221 218. Head of Fishing Osprey, Pandion Haliaetus. Red. one-third, 239 219. Foot of Fishing Osprey, Pandion Haliaetus. Red. one-third, 251 220. Head of Brown Bee-Hawk, Pernis apivora. Reduced one-third, 254 221. Head of Red Kite, Milvus regalis. Reduced one-third, , 265 xn LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES. Fig. 222. Head of WTiite-headed Swallow-Kite. Reduced one third, pa//e 223. Head of Gyr Falcon, Falco Gyi-falco. Reduced one-third, 224. Head of Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus. Red. one-third, 225. Foot of Peregrine Falcon. Reduced one-third, 226. Heads of Merlin Falcon, Falco ^salon. Reduced one-third, 227. Head of Female Kestrel, Falco Tinnunculus. Red. one-third, 228. Heads of Sparrow Hawk, Accipiter Nisus. Reduced one-third, 229- Foot of Sparrow Hawk. Reduced one-third, 230. Head of Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus. Female. Red. one-third, 231. Head of Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus. Male. Red. one-third, 232. Foot of Hen Harrier. Reduced one-third, 233. Head of Montagu's Harrier, Circus cineraceus. Red. one-third, 234. Head of Marsh Harrier, Circus eeruginosus. Red. one-third, 235. Foot of Mottled Tufted-Owl, Asio Otus. Full size, 236. Sternum of an Owl. Full size, 237. Ears of Falcon, Day-Owl, Hooting-Owl, Tufted-Owl, and Screech-Owl. Reduced, .... 238. Ear of Syrnia nyctea. Full size, 239. Head of Snowy Day-Owl, Syrnia nyctea. Reduced, 240. Foot of Bare-toed Day-owl, Syrnia psilodactyla. Full size, 241. Head of Scops Owlet, Scops Aldrovandi. Half-size, 242. Ear of Great Eagle-Owl, Bubo maximus, 243. Head of Great Eagle-Owl. Reduced one-half, 244. Ear of Tawny Hooting-Owl, Ulula Aluco. Reduced one-half, 245. Head of Tawny Hooting-Owl. Reduced one-half, 246. Ear of Mottled Tufted-bwl, Asio Otus. Reduced one -half, 247. Head of Mottled Tufted-Owl. Reduced one-half, 248. Ear of European Screech-Owl, Strix flammea. Reduced one-half, 249. Foot of European Screech-Owl, 250. Wing of Great Cinereous Shrike, Lanius Excubitor. Reduced, 251. Head of Great Cinereous Shrike, 252. Head of Woodchat Shrike, Lanius Rutilus, . 253- Head of Red-backed Shrike, Lanius Collurio, 254. Head and Foot of Tyrannus crinitus, ., 255. Head of Spotted Grey Flycatcher, Muscicapa Grisola, 256. Foot of Spotted Grey Flycatcher, 257. Head of Spotted Grey Flycatcher, 258. Head of Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa luctuosa, 259. Wing of Black-throated Waxwing, Bombycilla garrula, 260. Head of Black-throated Waxwing, 261. Foot of Black-throated Waxwing, 262. Head of Garrulous Roller, Coracias garrula, 263. Wing of 'NA'hite-rumped Swallow, Hirundo urbica, 264. Wing of Black Swift, Cypselus murarius, 265. Wing of European Goatsucker, Caprimulgus europteus, 266. Head of Red-fronted Swallow, Hirundo rustica, 267. Head of White-rumped Swallow, Hirundo urbica, 268. Head of Sand Swallow, Hirundo riparia, 269. Sternum of Black Swift, 270. Head of White-bellied Swift, Cypselus Melba, 271. Heads of Black Swift, Cypselus murarius, 272. Foot of Black Swift. Cypselus murarius, 273. Foot of European Goatsucker, Caprimulgus europaeus, 274. Head of European Goatsucker, 275. Head of European Kingfisher, Alcedo Ispida, 276. Head of Yellow-throated Bee-eater, Merops Apiaster, 277. Head of White-winged Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera, 278. Head of Bearded Pinnock, Calamophilus biarmicus. 277 284 294 308 317 325 346 362 365 366 377 378 382 390 392 396 403 407 420 422 427 428 437 438 452 453 472 472 491 492 502 505 513 517 517 518 524 532 533 536 540 .552 552 552 558 573 595 608 611 614 626 632 633 671 685 689 694 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS. ORDER VI. REPTATORES. CREEPERS. Bill of moderate length or elongated, slender, more or less arched, compressed, acute ; upper mandible with moderate basal sinuses, filled by the nasal membrane, which is covered by short feathers, its edges slightly overlapping, with a small or obsolete notch on each side, close to the pointed tip. (Eso- phagus narrow, without dilatation ; proventriculus oblong, with cylindrical glandules. Stomach roundish, somewhat compressed, with moderate lateral muscles, and dense rugous epithelium. Intestine short and rather wide ; coeca reduced to very small cylindrical adnate tubes. Feet rather short; tarsus compressed ; toes much compressed, the first large, the anterior three little separated ; claws very long, moderately arched, extremely compressed, very acute. Wings of mode- rate length, broad, concave, rounded, with the first quill very short. PI. XIV. ORDER Vn. SCANSORES. CLIMBERS. Bill large, strong, nearly straight, angular, compressed and generally cuneate at the point ; upper mandible with the nos- trils concealed by the reversed bristly feathers of the narrow basal sinuses. Tongue extensile. (Esophagus of moderate width, without crop, but dilated below into a very large sac, on which the proventricular glands are dispersed. Stomach roundish, of small or moderate size, a little compressed, with a VOL. Ill, A 2 ESSENTIAL CIIARACTERS OF THE ORDERS. thick muscular coat, and thin, dense, longitudinally rugous epithelium. Intestine of moderate length, and very wide ; no coeca ; cloaca very large and elliptical. Legs very short ; tar- sus short ; first toe very short, sometimes wanting, directed backwards, as is the fourth or outer, which is equal to the third or longer, the second and third united at the base ; claws re- markably large, much curved, extremely compressed, broadly grooved on the sides, and with the tips very acute. Wings large, much rounded, the first quill very small. Tail short or of moderate length, often rigid, of ten or twelve feathers. PI. XIV. ORDER VIII. CUCULIN^. CUCKOOS. Bill of moderate size or large, wide at the base, much com- pressed toward the end, somewhat arched and pointed ; upper mandible with the ridge more or less arcuate, the edges notch- less at the end, the tip decurved, acute. Tongue moderate, flattened, tapering. CEsoi^hagus wide, without crop ; proven- triculus large ; stomach very large, round, with its muscular coat thin, and the epithelium soft and rugous. Intestine of moderate length and width, with large oblong coeca. Toes broad beneath, first small, fourth directed backwards, second and third united at the base ; claws moderate, curved, com- pressed, acute, that of the first toe sometimes much elongated. Wings long or moderate, much rounded. Tail long, graduated or rounded, of twelve broad feathers. PL XVI. ORDER IX. RAPTORES. PLUNDERERS. Bill short or moderate ; upper mandible cerate at the base, without sinus, but with the nostrils perforated in the cere, the tip decurved, elongated, and pointed. Tongue short, concave, fleshy, rounded or emarginate. OEsophagus wide, dilated into a crop in the diurnal fi})ecics ; proventriculus wide ; stomach very large, round, with its muscular coat very thin, and the ESSENTIAL CHARACTKRS OF THE ORDERS. 3 epithelium soft and rugous, or very thin. Intestine short and of moderate width, in a few species which feed on fish very long and extremely slender ; coeca in the diurnal very small or ohsolete, in the nocturnal oblong and large. Feet strong, with four toes, of which the outer is versatile in the nocturnal species ; claws long, curved, tapering, very acute. Wings always large, but varying in length. Tail of twelve feathers. PL IV, V, XX, XXI. ORDER X. EXCURSORES. SNATCHERS, Bill short or of moderate length, very broad at the base, compressed only at the tip ; upper mandible with rather wide basal sinuses, filled by the nasal membrane, which is feathered, the edges notched close to the decurved acute tip. Tongue narrow, flat, thin-edged, with the point slit or lacerated. OEsophagus wide, without crop ; proventriculus oblong ; sto- mach elliptical or roundish, moderately muscular, with the lateral muscles distinct, and the epithelium dense and rugous. Intestine short and wide, with very small coeca. Feet of mo- derate size or very small ; tarsus slender ; hind toe long and stouter, lateral toes nearly equal, anterior moderately spread- ing ; claws rather long, curved or arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, very acute. Wings generally rather long, more or less rounded, with the first quill very small. Tail of twelve feathers. PL XXII. ORDER XI. VOLITATORES. GLIDERS. Bill very short in proportion to its breadth ; mouth extremely wide ; upper mandible with the tip very small, and the nasal sinuses feathered. Tongue short, flattened, sometimes very small. CEsophagus wide, somewhat funnel-shaped, but with- out crop ; proventriculus moderate. Stomach broadly ellipti- cal, moderately compressed, in the diurnal species muscular, with thin broadly rugous epithelium, in the nocturnal, very 4 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS. large, with the muscular coat thin, the epithelium hard and rugous. Intestine short and wide, with small or obsolete coeca in the diurnal, but in the nocturnal large and oblong. Feet extremely small, with four toes, the anterior spreading ; claws rather large, arched or curved, acute. Wings very long and pointed. Tail of twelve feathers. PI. XXII. ORDER XII. JACULATORES. DARTERS. Bill large, angular, tapering, straight or arched, pointed ; upper mandible with very short feathered nasal sinuses, and without notches. Tongue very small. CEsophagus very wide, funnel-shaped, without crop. Stomach large, round, with a very thin muscular coat, and a soft rugous epithelium. Intes- tine of moderate length, very slender ; no coeca ; cloaca very large and globular. Feet remarkably small and feeble ; tarsus very short ; toes short and very slender, the first small, broad and flattened beneath, the anterior three parallel and united in part of their length ; claws arched, compressed, acute. Wings broad, rounded, with the first quill extremely small. Tail of twelve feathers. PI. XXII. In commencing a new volume, in which there will neces- sarily be much of the formality essential to the accurate de- scription of organs, whether internal or external, one may, not inaptly, indulge in a little ]n-climinary recreation. A walk into the fields cannot fail to refresh our feelings, enliven our sympathies, and prc])are us for the task, not altogether one of unmixed delight, of composing or perusing eight hundred pages of ornithology. A history unombcllished by fiction cannot bo so entertaining as one in which facts arc modified and accom- jiiodatcd to favourite theories, inferences drawn from loose statements, precise details represented as unimportant, and PREPARATORY AV'ALlv INTO THE COUNTRY. 5 mellifluous sentences constructed with little regard to common sense. There remains for me, then, only one method of giving a general interest to my descriptions, namely that of occasion- ally digressing from the subject, to connect it with those to which it naturally bears reference. If in the following pages some slight attempts at ornament may sometimes be made, the reader will not discover in them any fabulous incidents, or any facts so decorated as to lose their proper character. Making a general inspection of our aerial and terrestrial birds, I might present some statements respecting their distri- bution, and the proportion of resident to migratory species ; or, from facts supplied by observation, I might calculate how many bushels of grain are annually devoured by one set of birds, and how many millions of insects and worms by an- other ; but, leaving such matters to the ingenuity of specula- tive minds, I prefer a visit to the fields, the woods, and the moors, on this beautiful day in the beginning of summer. Some pleasing, if not important, observations may be made, in the course of a long walk, in any part of the country, for, although not a single bird may occur that has not been often seen be- fore, a lover of living nature is hardly ever tired with watch- ing them. What first attracts our notice is a colony of Rooks in the tall trees of the garden. In the hole of that broken limb of the old sycamore is a starling's nest, as you may be assured by the loud cries of its greedy young ones. These will suffice to remind us of the Vagatores. A few Sparrows are seen on the road, a beautiful Chaffinch chants his not unpleasing song on the beech-tree, two Green Linnets are flying about the hedge, and on the stone-wall a Corn Bunting creaks out its curious cry. These and other De.glubitores have already received our attention. Leaving the city, we enter a highly cultivated dis- trict, in which the fields, covered with corn and grass, are separated from each other by hawthorn fences and stone-walls. The rains which have lately fiillen in profusion have imparted a healthy vigour to the vegetation. The merry carol of the Lark comes from on high, and the lively Whitethroat, flitting along the hedge, sings its more cheerful than melodious dittv 6 PREPARATORY WALK INTO THE COUNTRY. as it flies before us, then hovers a while, still singing, plunges into the bush, and emerges at a little distance. Scarcely two birds of this species have the same song, or at least, the voices of individuals differ greatly, and the parts of the performance are variously arranged. Although Larks also differ somewhat in this respect, there seems more uniformity in their song, so that an inattentive listener would scarcely perceive any differ- ence between one individual and another. From among the trees by the brook issues the simple but finely cadenced song of the AVillow ^Vren. The restlessness and frequent cheep of that Pied AVagtail, as it now runs along the pebbly beach, then betakes itself to a tree, and presently darts over head, betray its anxiety for its young. From the plantation on the hill side come at intervals the loud and mellow notes of the Blackbird, and now the delightfully modulated strain of the Garden Warbler. Other sounds mingle w4th these, but we have heard enough to remind us of our former observations on the Caxtatores. In the border of the grassy field, you may see running along a solitary Partridge, and several Wood- pigeons wend their way toward the distant wood. At present we have little chance of meeting with any other Rasores or Gemitores. On that columnar crag is the nest of a Kestrel, of which the situation is marked by a white spot, and in the wood beneath it one sometimes meets with the Tawny Owl. How beautifully these Swallows skim over the pool, now and then dipping as it were into the water ! Some of them have fixed their nests in the window-corners of the farm-house, while others inhabit the holes of that sand-pit. To the Raptores and VoLrrATOREs, of which these birds are representatives, our labours will present- ly be directed. On the bank of the stream, at the commence- ment of that beautiful wood, there used to be the nest, or at least the hole, of a Kingfisher, the only permanently resident representative of the group which I name Jacli.atouk.s ; and on the trunks of those tall trees, should one look sharply, he might discover the Creeper, which belongs to our Rkt'tatores ; but the Si AN.souEsf are .so rare in this part of the country that Avc have no chance of meeting with a A>'^ood])eckor. PREPARATORY A\'ALK INTO THE COUNTRY. 7 How beautiful those green woods of beech and Huic, inter- mingled with stately pines, elms, and sycamores ! The lilac with its lovely thyrsi, the bird-cherry with its white racemes, the laburnum profuse of pendulous yellow flowers, decorate the thickets. On the banks and in the shade of the woods are an hundred species of plants, the examination of which affords delight to that botanist, who, with trowel in hand, and three tin boxes slung to his person, rummages among the tangled roots. The blue hyacinth, the broad-leaved garlick, the pur- ple-spiked orchis, the wild strawberry, the goldilock ranuncu- lus, the creeping bugle, the whorled woodruft', the delicate oxalis, the granulated saxifrage, and many more are seen around us. But see, flitting from the tree to the rock, are two small birds, which from their peculiar cry of chack, chack, we know to be Grey Flycatchers. They represent our Exclr- soREs, not inaptly, as you observe, for one of them has sprung into the air, seized an insect, and returned to the pinnacle on which it had perched. With the exception of the Woodpeckers, we have thus met with representatives of all our larger groups of land birds, un- less we consider the Cuckoo as meriting a place for itself and its companions. As yet not a single bird has occurred of those which will form the subjects of my fourth and fifth volumes, namely the AVading and Swimming Tribes. But now we leave the shade of those beautiful woods, and enter on an open moor, partly covered with furze and heath. Were we to extend our walk, we should meet with the Lapwing, the Curlew, and the Snipe ; but to observe the Swimmers, we should have to betake oursslves to the shores of the distant estuary, whose blue waters, and projecting headlands, form so conspicuously beautiful a portion of the extensive landscape presented to our view. Let us seat ourselves on this mossy knoll, inhale the pure air, and gaze upon the blue hills that skirt the horizon, the extended plains, the green woods, and the brown moors. It is a beautiful, nay, a happy world, although filled with sin and sorrow. How lovely then must be that in which grief has no place, — in which the purified soul lives in the eternal sunshine 8 PREPARATORY WALK INTO THE C'OrNTRY. of God's love ! ^Vitllout gratitude for mercies, humility on account of frailties, hope for happier days, trust in providence, and an earnest desire to do good to our fellow men, our world, beautiful as it may be, would not bo worth living in, and all our ornithology, however scientific and orderly we might make it, however pompously we might talk of it, and M-hatever applause it might elicit from admiring crowds, would be of no real advantage to us. Even as it is, the science that has refer- ence merely to the things of time, seems to me a very small matter, hardly worth disputing about. And yet, when I de- scend from this mound, which to me is the temple of God, and shut myself up in my closet, to pen the pages of a History of British Birds, I shall sometimes forget to exercise that moder- ation toward opposing writers which conscience might approve. But the sky is blackening in the west, large drops are be- ginning to fall, a thread of yellow light has shot across the gloom, and as heavy rain and thunder may be expected, let us betake ourselves to the Hunters'' Tryst, and await the issue. I always feel excited and nervous during a thunder-storm. The glory of the dazzling flash, the pomp of the rolling mass of sound, the thick darkness, and the deluge of waters, impress me with terror and delight, wonder and dread. It is like the v'alley of the shadow of death. When the clouds are past, and the bow of promise gladdens the eye, and the glorious sun shines in the clear blue sky, a gladness tempered with awe comes on the soul, a feeling like that which I hope may be mine and thine, good reader, when the last trumpet shall sum- mon us before the judgment-seat. VI. REPTATORES. CREEPERS. By the ordinal name of Reptatores, or Creepers, may be designated an extensive group of birds, which agree in possess- ing certain forms of the bill and feet that render them pecu- liarly adapted for procuring insects and larvae in the crevices of the bark of trees. But the habits of creeping and climbing are not confined to those birds which have the tail-feathers so stifiened as to be used for the purpose of supporting them while they cling to the surface. For example, the Black-and- White Creeper of America, Mniotilta varia of Vieillot, Certhia varia of Wilson, is described as precisely similar in its mode of life to our Common Tree-Creeper, Certhia familiaris. That bird how- ever belongs to the family of Sylvicolinae, and differs little from Sylvicola coronata, unless in having the bill considerably longer, and the claws much stronger. This latter species is said to feed on insects, caterpillars, berries, and seeds, but does not climb and creep in the manner above described. The species to which collectively I give the name of Creepers are intimately connected on one hand with the Sylvianae and Syl- vicolinae, some of which, as may be seen from the above state- ment, are actually creeping and climbing birds, on another with the Parinae, some of which also creep and climb, and again with the ParadiseanaB, which belong to the order Yagatores. They may be generally described as having a more or less elongated, slender, acute bill, well adapted for being insinuated into the fissures of the bark of trees ; the tarsi short and slender ; the VOL. III. B 10 REPTATORES. CREEPERS. toes also slender, the anterior parallel or more or less syndacty- lous, the hind toe very stout ; the claws large, extremely com- pressed, arched, and very acute. It must here however be stated that in this order the form of the bill varies extremely. There is a small group or genus of South American birds, to which the name of Dendrocolaptes has been given. The different species of this genus are so like each other in form, proportions, plumage, and colour, that, in so far, one description might almost answer for all. Their feet are syndactyle, and adapted for climbing, the toes being long, with strong, curved, acute claws. But the bill, which commonly affords the best generic character, is so different in the different species, that while in one it is not very unlike that of a Flycatcher, in another it resembles that of an Epimachus, as may be seen from the accompanying engravings. In defining this genus, then, nothing more explicit can be said of the bill than what we find in Temminck's character of it : — " The form of the bill diflficult to be indicated by general cha- racters ; depressed and trigonal at the base, compressed or slen- der at the point ; without notch ; straight or more or less curved, with scarcely any nasal groove." Seeing, then, that in a very natural genus of this order, the form of the bill varies so much, wo nmst expect to find in the difierent families and genera, variations more remarkable than in most other orders. The only universal character is that of the syndactylous feet, having long slender toes, of which the three anterior are as it REPTATORES. CREEPERS. 11 were pressed close together, the third and fourth actually united in a great part of their length, the first always long and directed backwards, the claws strong, extremely compressed, and acute. Fig. 187. Now, the birds which exhibit this character in the greatest perfection, may be arranged so as to form several natural groups or families. Those of which the bill approaches nearest in form to that of the smaller Sylvianae, and which in the same manner have the peculiar characters of the feet less developed, are the Melliphagince and the CerthiancG^ the latter including among others the genera Anorthura, Certhia, Thyrothurus, Tichodroma, and Upupa. One of these genera, namely Certhia, composed of a few species, has the feathers of the tail depress- ed, and stiffened. This character is common to all the mem- bers of another family, although in some genera the shafts do not protrude. It is composed of the genera Dendrocolaptes, Sclerurus, Oxyurus, Furnarius, Synallaxis, Anabates, and others, and may be named Dendrocolaptince. The genera Promerops, Epimachus, Cinnyris, Nectarinia, and others con- stitute the family of Cinnyrinw. Lastly, the Sittince formed of the genera Sitta, Climacteris, and a few others, lead us back to the Parinae, which they greatly resemble in form and habits, while they are also in several respects assimilated to the Wood- peckers. Not being satisfied as to the accordance of this association of species with rational principles of classification, because I have not enjoyed opportunities of making myself acquainted with the structure, and especially the digestive organs of a sufiicient number of these birds, I shall not offer any extended remarks on the different families above indicated, but proceed as direct- ly as is consistent with the method which I have adopted, to give the history of the very few species that occur in Britain. 12 CERTHIANtE. TREE-CREEPERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. The Certhianae are birds of small size, having the body short, ovate, and compact ; the neck generally short ; the head rather large and ovate ; the bill of moderate length or elongated, slender, in some degree arched, with the notches obsolete, the tip acute. Internally both mandibles are very narrow, concave, with a cen- tral prominent line. The tongue is usually very slender, emar- ginate and papillate at the base, channelled above, tapering, with the point thin-edged, bristly, and rather obtuse. The digestive organs difter little from those of the Sylvianre, the cesophagus being of moderate width and nearly uniform diameter ; the proventriculus oblong ; the stomach elliptical, moderately muscular, the epithelium dense, with large longi- tudinal rugae ; the intestine rather short and wide ; the coeca very small, the cloaca globular. The trachea is also similar to that of the Cantatores, having four pairs of distinct inferior laryngeal muscles. Plate XIV, Fig. 1, 2. The nostrils are linear or oblong, exposed ; the eyes of mo- derate size ; the aperture of the ear large, and roundish. The plumage soft and blended ; no bristle-feathers at the base of the bill. Wings rather short, broad, concave, much rounded, the first quill short ; tail short or of moderate length, rounded. Anterior toes spreading little, coherent at the base, extremely compressed, the outer longer than the inner, the hind toe very long ; claws long, arched, extremely compressed, acute. To this group belong the genera Troglodytes, nearly allied to the S}lvian.T?, Thyrothurus, Ccrthia, Tichodroma, and Upupa. Only three sjiecies, Anorthura Troglodytes, Ccrthia familiaris, and Uj)upa Epops, occur in Britain. 13 ANORTHURA. WREN. Bill of ordinary length or rather long, slender, tapering, acute, slightly arched, subtrigonal at the base, compressed towards the end : upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly arched, the ridge narrow, obtuse, the sides sloping at the base, towards the end slightly convex and erect, the edges sharp, direct, and overlapping, without notch ; lower mandible with the angle narrow and rather acute, the dorsal outline straight, the back narrow, the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip very narrow ; the gape-line very slightly arched. The upper mandible within is concave, with a central pro- minent line ; the lower deeply channelled. The tongue sagit- tate, very slender, tapering, concave above, slightly jagged towards the tip. The oesophagus of moderate width, without dilatation ; the stomach roundish, very muscular, with a dense longitudinally rugous epithelium ; the intestine short and rather wide, the coeca very small. Plate XIV, Fig. 1. Nostrils linear-oblong, wider at the proximal extremity, ex- posed, with an oblong operculum ; the nasal depression rather large, narrow, feathered at the base. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered. External aperture of ear large, roundish. The general form is full and short, the body ovate, the neck short, the head ovate and of moderate size, the wings and tail short ; the feet of ordinary length ; the tarsus compressed, an- teriorly covered with seven scutella, of which the upper are indistinct, posteriorly edged ; toes rather large, compressed ; first large, and longer than the two lateral, of which the inner is a little shorter, the third much longer ; the third and fourth coherent as far as the second joint of the latter. Claws long, arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, acute. Plumage soft and blended, the feathers ovate, loose, with a very slender elongated plumule. There are no bristle-pointed 14 ANORTHURA. WREN. feathers at the base of the bill. Wing shortish, broad, con- cave, semi-ovate, much rounded, first quill half the length of the second ; third, fourth, fifth, and sixth longest, and nearly equal ; primaries ten, secondaries nine, all rounded. Tail short or of moderate length, rounded, generally raised, and of twelve weak, rounded feathers. The Wrens are nearly allied on the one hand to the Phyllo- pneustsB and Reguli, and on the other to the Certhiae, differing however in several essential respects from all these genera. Their bill is more compressed and arched than that of the Phyllopneustse and Reguli, but less so than that of the Certhice. Their feet are stouter than those of the Reguli, but otherwise very similar ; and the claws of both genera, although long, are proportionally shorter than those of the Certhiae. In Anor- thura, the tail is usually but not always raised or cocked, whereas in Certhia it is just the reverse. Nevertheless all these genera are very nearly allied, and their food is the same, although their haunts are somewhat different. The Reguli search for insects and pupae upon the twigs and among the leaves of trees and shrubs ; the Certhiae in the chinks of the bark of the stems and larger branches ; and the Anorthurae among stones and on low shrubs. From the form of their body, and the shortness of their wings and tail, their flight is direct, being performed by rapidly repeated flaps. They inhabit both continents, some of the species extending as far north as any other small birds of a similar nature. Their colouring is generally dull, or at least not in any case remarkable for brilliancy. They construct a very bulky nest, of which the interior is composed of moss and other soft materials, and often lined with feathers. The eggs are numerous, that is from five to eight, or even more, generally white or very light coloured, more or less dotted or spotted. Only a single species occurs in Britain, where it is a perma- nent resident, and generally distributed. It is the only species hitherto found on the continent, although the existence of another in Italy is conjectured. In North America however, there are several species, whose habits generally resemble those of ours, and of which one is so similar that it can scarcely be distinjxui.shcd. 15 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. EUROPEAN WREN. Motacilla Troglodytes. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 337. Motacilla Troglodytes. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 547. Wren. Mont. Orn. Diet. Troglodyte ordinaire. Sylvia Troglodytes. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 233. Troglodyte ordinaire. Troglodytes vulgaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. III. 160, Common Wren. Troglodytes Europseus. Selb. Illustr. I. 390. Troglodytes Europaeus. Common Wren. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 153. Upper parts reddlsh-hrown, lower light greyish-h^own ; a hrownisJi-white streak over the eye, the hind parts of both sur- faces barred with dusJcy, two transverse hands of white dots on the icings. Male. — The Wren is one of the most familiarly known of our small birds, being rendered remarkable, not less by its pecu- liar form than by the liveliness of its motions. Next to the Robin, it is perhaps the least liable to molestation from boys and idle people ; and for this security it is indebted partly to its small size, and partly to its cheerfulness and innocence. Its aspect is so peculiar that every person must have taken notice of it as differing from that of other small birds, the body being short and full, the tail elevated or erected, the wings short, the head of moderate size, the bill very slender, and the feet mode- rate. The various parts having been described in the generic character, and there being no other species of the genus in this 16 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. country, it is unnecessary to repeat here the details ah'eady given. The tongue is four-twelfths and three-fourths in length. The oesophagus is an inch and eight-twelfths in length ; the stomach five-twelfths long, and of the same breadth, with the lateral muscles very distinct ; the intestine five inches long, two-twelfths in width in the duodenal portion, one-twelfth to- ward the coeca, which are only one-twelfth long. The trachea has four pairs of inferior laryngeal muscles. On the first toe are twelve, on the second eleven, on the third thirteen, on the fourth twelve scutella. When the toes are brought together, the first is nearly as long as the third, the claws included, and the lateral, of which the outer is very slightly longer, are much shorter. The plumage is soft, tufty, unglossed, the feathers ovate, with loose barbs, and very slender elongated plumules. The wing is shortish, broad, considerably curved or concave, and much rounded, of nineteen quills, which are all rather broad and rounded, the first about half the length of the second, which is rather more than a quarter of an inch shorter than the third ; the fifth is longest, but the fourth and sixth are nearly equal ; the rest diminish very slowly, and the inner secondaries are not elongated. The tail is short, much rounded, of twelve slightly curved, narrow, very weak, feathers. PI. XI Y, Fig. 1. The bill is dusky-brown above, the edges of the upper mandi- ble, and two-thirds of the lower brownish-yellow, the tip of the lower greyish -brown. The inside of the mouth, the tongue, and the soft skin at the commissure of the mandibles, bright orange. The irides dark brown, the tarsi and toes pale greenish- brown, as are the claws. The general colour of the upper parts is reddish-brown, darker on the head, brighter on the tail- coverts, ([uills, and tail. There is a white spot near the tips of the posterior dorsal feathers, which, however, is hardly per- ceptible M'hcn they are laid. The secondary coverts, and the first small coverts, have each a white spot at the tip. The wing-coverts and quills are banded with deep-brown and brownish-red; the margin of the reddish bands of the five outer quills reddish-white. The tail is undulatingly barred in the same manner ; the dorsal feathers and tail-covcrts very ob- scurely so. A brownish- white line passes from the upper man- EUROPEAN WREN. 17 dible over the eye, the cheeks are brown, obscurely spotted with paler. The fore-neck and breast pale greyish-brown ; the sides and abdomen barred with brownish- white and dusky ; the lower tail-coverts brownish-red, barred with dusky, and having the tip white. Length to end of tail 4j inches ; extent of wings 6| ; bill along the ridge |^, along the edge of lower mandible {^^ ; wing from flexure 1{1 ; tail 1^ ; tarsus j% ; first toe y*^, its claw ^% ; second toe ^*g, its claw j% ; third toe |*j, its claw 1*^ ; fourth toe i^j, its claw j%. Female. — The female is considerably smaller, and less brightly coloured, with more brown on the lower parts, but otherwise similar to the male. Length to end of tail 4 inches ; extent of wings 6:5 ; bill along the ridge -^%. Variations. — Very considerable differences occur in the size of individuals, and some have the bill much longer and more curved than others, insomuch that I was at one time impressed with the idea of our having two species of Wren ; but more extended observation and comparison have convinced me that these differences, and others seen in the tints of the plumage, are neither so constant nor so decided as to afford specific char- acters. When the feathers are worn in summer, the small white spots on the wings become obliterated. Old individuals have the upper parts of a redder tint, and the lower with more white. Habits. — Excepting the Kinglets, the Creeper, the Chiff- chaff, and the smaller Tits, the Wren is the least of our native birds. Its flight is effected by a rapid and continuous motion of the wings, and therefore is not undulated, but direct ; nor is it sustained, for the bird merely flits from one bush to another, or from stone to stone. It is most frequently met with along stone-waUs, among fragments of rocks, in thickets of whins, and by hedges, where it attracts notice by the liveliness of its motions, and frequently by its loud chirring noise. AVhen VOL. III. c 18 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. standing, it keeps its tail nearly erect, jerks its whole body smartly ; then hops about with great alacrity, using its wings at the same time, and continually enunciating its rapid chit. Although it seldom ascends a tree directly, like the Creeper, it may often be seen climbing sidewise to some height, and on fences or bushes it usually makes its way to the top by hopping from one spot to another. If usually pleased with a low station, it yet sometimes ascends even to the higher branches of very tall trees, and may occasionally be seen there in company with Kinglets and Tits. In spring and summer, the male has a very pleasing, full, rich, and mellow song, which it repeats at in- tervals ; and even in autumn, and on fine days in winter, it may occasionally be heard hurrying over its ditty, the loudness and clearness of which, as proceeding from so diminutive a creature, is apt to strike one with surprise, even after it has long been familiar to him. During the breeding season. Wrens keep in pairs, often in unfrequented parts, such as bushy dells, mossy woods, the banks of streams, and stony places overgrown with brambles, sloes, and other shrubs ; but towards the end of autumn they approach the habitations of man, and although never decidedly gregarious, sometimes ajipear in small straggling parties. They are not properly speaking shy, as they seem to conceive them- selves secure at the distance of twenty or thirty yards, but, on the approach of a person, conceal themselves in holes between stones, or among the roots or bushes. In liveliness and ac- tivity, the Wren rivals the Kinglets, Tits, and Creepers, as in- deed might be expected from its diminutive size, birds as well as quadrupeds being generally more slow in their motions the larger their bulk. Small as the Wren is, it seems to receive as little injury from severe weather as any of the larger birds, although after long- continued frosts, it is said that individuals have often been found to have perished. For myself, I have never met with a dead Wren at all, and should conceive such an occurrence as extremely rare, as the birds would in all probability die in their holes. In the midst of winter I have met with it in the val- leys of the Grampians, among the wild woods, where no other EUROPEAN WREN. J 9 small birds were to be seen, unless a few Tits and Creepers. Yet it is not the less true that at this season it prefers the vi- cinity of houses. But the Wrens do not all in summer remove to the wilds, any more than the Robins, many individuals of both species remaining in gardens, shrubberies, and such shel- tered places, where they breed, as well as in sequestered spots. A pleasant little fable, of which the Wren is the hero, is told by the Hebridians. At an assembly of the birds the Eagle was boasting of his strength, asserting that he could mount higher in the air than any of earth's inhabitants ; when up started the little Wren, and flatly contradicted the tyrant, chal- lenging him to a trial of speed. The eagle regarded his puny rival with contempt, but accepting the challenge, or desirous of displaying his powers, spread out his huge wings, and launched into the air. Up rose the royal bird in majestic gy- rations, over the assembled tribes, up beyond the mountain tops, up beyond the streaks of grey vapour, up beyond the specks and lines of the white cirri and cinocumuli that floated in the blue ocean of ether, up until he seemed but a point in the eye of the Goshawk and Peregrine, who watched his pro- gress with more envy than admiration, and of the Raven, who thought he coi\ld mount as high himself, — still up, until he vanished entirely from the sight of most of the other birds, who were not accustomed to look so far into the sky. But where was the little Wren all this time 1 Had he crept with shame into some hole, or been unwittingly trampled to death by the broad foot of some gazing gander, or the still broader of the pillar-legged pelican ? At length the eagle stops, gasp- ing for breath, with swollen eyes and palpitating heart, un- able to ascend a foot farther, and, spreading wide his wings and tail, floats in the dazzling light. The little vain-glorious thing that had defied him he knows has been left at least a mile behind. But lo ! up again starts the Wren, who had nimbly perched on the eagle"'s back, and kept himself concealed among the feathers. ^Mtli a hop, and a jerk of his tail, and a glance of pride, up springs the little wren into the region of vacuity, and fluttering there for a moment sings his song of triumph. The eagle casts a glance of mortified pride upon him. 20 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. which he heeds not, but seizing a feather of his rivars neck, descends in safety to the ground, to receive the prize to be im- partially adjudged by the astonished conclave. The moral of the fable is, that cunning may supply the lack of power. I know not a more pleasant object to look at than the Wren . it is always so smart and cheerful. In gloomy weather, other birds often seem melancholy, and in rain the Sparrows and Finches stand silent on the twigs with drooping wings and clotted plumage ; but to the Wren all weathers are alike. The big drops of the thunder-shower no more wet it than the drizzle of a Scotch mist ; and as it peeps from beneath the bramble, or glances from a hole in the wall, it seems as snug as a kitten frisking on the parlour rug. It is amusing to watch the motions of a young family of Wrens just come abroad. Walking among furze, or broom, or juniper, you are attracted to some bush by hearing issue from it a lively and frequent repetition of a sound which most resembles the syllable chit. On going up you perceive an old wren flitting about the twigs, and presently a young one flies off*, uttering a stifled chirr, to conceal itself among the bushes. Several follow in succession, while the parents continue to flut- ter about, in great alarm, uttering their loud chit, chit, chit, with indications of varied degrees of excitement. On open ground a young Wren might easily be run down, and I have heard it asserted that an old one may soon be tired out in time of snow, when it cannot easily conceal itself. And yet, even in such a case, it is by no means easy to keep it in sight, for on the side of a bank, or by a wall, or in a thicket, it will find a hole where one least expected it, and, creeping in some crevice beneath the snow, re-appear at a considerable distance. The food of birds can be determined only by opening their crops and stomachs, or by observation directed to living indi- viduals, the former method however being the only sure one. The wrens which I have opened generally contained remains of insects of various kinds, with larva?, and sometimes puprc ; but I have also found in them seeds, and Mr Neville AN^ood states that they sometimes eat red currants. In the stomach of an individual examined in December 1830, I found " manv EUROPEAN WREN. 21 small hard seeds, an entire pupa, and numerous fragments of the shells of pui^re and elytra of coleopterous insects." So small a bird having so slender a bill, might doubtless be taken as a typical entomophagist ; but it is probable that no species of this order confines itself exclusively to insects. The Wren pairs about the middle of spring, and begins early in April to construct its nest, which varies much in form and composition, according to the locality. One brought me by my son, and which he found while gathering plants in a wood near Melville Castle, is of astonishing size compared with that of its architect, its greatest diameter being seven inches, and its height five. It presents the appearance of a rude mass of decayed vegetables, of an irregularly rounded form. Having been placed on a flat surface under a bank, its base is of a cor- responding form, and is comjDosed of layers of decayed ferns and other plants, mixed with twigs of herbaceous and woody vege- tables. Similar materials have been employed in raising the outer wall of the nest itself, of which the interior is spherical, and three inches in diameter. The wall is composed of mosses of several species, quite fresh and green, and it is arched over with fern leaves and straws. The mosses are curiously inter- woven with fibrous roots and hair of various animals, and the inner surface is even and compact, like coarse felt. To the height of two inches there is a copious lining of large soft feathers, chiefly of the Wood Pigeon, but also of the Pheasant and Domestic Duck, with a few of the Blackbird. The aper- ture, which is in front, and in the form of a low arch, two inches in breadth at the base, and an inch and a half in height, has its lower edge formed of slender twigs, strong herbaceous stalks, and stems of grasses, the rest being felted in the usual manner. This nest is a magazine of botany, there entering in- to its composition, leaves of Fagus sylvatica, fronds of Aspidium dilatatum and A. Filix-mas, blades of Phalaris arundinacea, stems of several grasses and other herbaceous plants, some twigs of the larch and other trees, and four or five species of Hypnum. It contained five eggs, of an elongated oval form, averaging eight lines in length, and six lines in breadth, pure white, with some scattered dots of light red at the larger end, 22 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. one of them with scarcely any, and another with a great num- ber. Of three nests presented to me by Mr AVeir, one is ex- tremely beautiful, being composed entirely of fresh green hypna, \A'itliout any internal layer, although, no eggs having been found in it, it possibly had not been completed. It is of an oblong form, seven inches in length, and four in its transverse diameter. The mouth measures an inch and eight-twelfths across, one inch and a twelfth in height. Its lower part is formed of small twigs of larch laid across and interwoven, so as to present a firm pediment. The longitudinal diameter of the interior is three inches and a half. Another, formed on a decayed tuft of Aira coespitosa, is globular, six inches in diameter, and compossed of moss, with a lining of hair and feathers, chiefly of the domestic fowl. The third is globular, and externally formed almost entirely of ferns, like that de- scribed above. In all the nests of this species which I have seen, the lower part of the mouth was composed of twigs of trees, or stems of herbaceous plants, laid across, and kept to- gether with moss and hair. The nests are found in a great variety of situations: — very often in a recess overhung by a bank, sometimes in a crevice among stones, in the hole of a wall, or of a tree, among the thatch of a cottage or out-house, on the loft of a shed or barn, the branch of a tree, whether grow- ing along a wall or standing free, among ivy, honeysuckle, clematis, or other climbing plants. "When the nest is on the ground, its base is generally formed of leaves, twigs and straws, and its exterior is often similar ; but when otherwise, the outer surface is generally smooth, and chiefly composed of moss. Several authors have spoken of the nests frequently con- structed by this bird in spring, and afterwards abandoned, and have indulged in various conjectures respecting them. I should suppose that a nest may occasionally be partially or entirely built, and then deserted because its owners find it unsafe, or have been frightened from it. The ^Magpie often commences a nest and leaves it unfinished, probably for the same reason ; and the same remark mav be made as to the lilackbird and Thrush. EUROPEAN WREN. 23 But Mr Wood relates a very curious fact respecting the Wren, which is that it " often builds itself a dwelling in autumn, and lodges in it on cold nights. These nests," he continues, " are mostly constructed in the usual localities, though I once found one situated in an old Garden Thrush's nest, in a Portugal laurel. Frequently, also, the nests in which one or two broods had been reared in summer, are tenanted every night through- out the winter." On this subject Mr Weir has sent me the following remarks. " ' During the period of incubation, the male' (says an anony- mous writer in Mr Loudon's Magazine) ' apparently from a de- sire to be doing something, constructs as many as half a dozen nests in the vicinity of the first, none of which are lined with feathers ; and whilst the first nest is so artfully concealed as to be seldom found, the latter are very frequently seen.' With respect to the use of these structures, or cock-nests, as they are called in England, if we believe that birds, like some insects, have foresight, a more ingenious theory might be advanced. During the severity of winter they may be intended as houses of refuge for them and their families. Whether this be always the case or not, it will be difficult to ascertain. That they are however sometimes employed for this purpose I can affirm, as the whole of those in my neighbourhood, during the late severe frosty weather (of 1837-8) were occupied by them. I have one of these nests in my possession, in which they lodged, and in which there was a quantity of their droppings." The Wren being a very diminutive bird might be supposed to require this kind of shelter in winter, were it not that the Kinglets and Tits, equally small, are not known to lodge in their nests. Our little friend is a Troglodyte, a frequenter of holes and caverns, and as it always reposes at night in some sheltered retreat, it may occasionally or often betake itself to its old nest as well as to any other place, as that nest is well fitted for its purpose ; but there seems no reason for supposing that this is habitual with all wrens, many of which, in the wilder parts of the country, and in the Hebrides, desert their summer habitations and in winter reside about the farm yards. On the 21st of February 1839, he again writes : — " I 24 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. mentioned that during the last severe winter, 1837-8, all the nests of the kitty-wrens which wanted the lining of feathers, were occupied by them as their places of repose. I have this winter paid a little more attention to this curious fact. In June last, in a plantation in my neighbourhood, a pair of wrens built three nests at no great distance from each other. The one in which they reared seven young ones had a lining of feathers, the other two had none. Every night this winter, when the ground was covered with snow, or the M'ea- ther was very cold, one of the nests without the feathers was inhabited, I suppose, by the same family, as one of the wrens a little after sunset stood within a few inches of the nest and continued chirring until the other eight arrived. It was amus- ing to observe with what astonishing rapidity they answered the call, and flew from all quarters to their tight little dormitory. Their instinct was wonderful. When the wind was from the west, they occupied the nest which had its mouth to the east, and when the wind was from the east they took possession of the other one which had its aperture to the west." The same gentleman, \vhose observations enrich this volume, has transmitted to me an account of the building of a nest, as extracted from his note-book : " May 80, 1837. — I this day had a favourable opportunity of observing the erection of one of the neatest of our British nests. Yesterday a pair of com- mon AVrens flew about for a considerable time, in a particular spot in my shrubbery, as if in search of a proper situation for constructing the dwelling which should contain their intended brood. About a quarter past six o'clock this morning, they appeared to be engaged in the most serious consultation. They hopped up and down amongst the branches of a Spanish juni- per, each of which they surveyed with particular attention. At .seven o'clock, in one of its clefts, about two feet from the ground, with the decayed leaf of a lime tree, the female began to lay the foundation of her building. Although two men were casting a drain within seven yards of it, yet she, like a steady and active workman, was so bent upon the completion of her design, that she laboured as if unaware of their presence. Her perseverance was indeed astonishing, for she sometimes carried EUROPEAN WREN. 25 in bundles of leaves nearly as bulky as herself. To her beloved partner she seemed to give ecstatic delight, for he sat upon the branch of a Portugal laurel a few feet above her, viewing most anxiously her operations, and now and then having mounted to the top of a plane tree, he poured forth his distinct and sweetly modulated notes, which during the day he continued to do almost incessantly. To her he gave but little assistance, thinking no doubt that his song, ' with all the little blandish- ments and soothing arts,' was sufficient to alleviate her fatigues, and to support her under them. That singing produces general excitement, and a power of more energetic performance in all the labours which the birds can undertake, is indeed an opinion entertained by some naturalists. Between eight and nine o'clock she was most actively employed, for during the space of ten minutes, she sometimes carried in four, five, and even six bundles of leaves, in the selection of which she seemed to be very careful, for I observed that after she had minutely examined them, when they did not seem to suit her purpose, she let them drop. I was surprised at the quantity which she collected for the foundation of her nest. After having rendered it compact by pressing the leaves with her breast, and turning herself round upon them in all directions, she began to rear its sides. In this operation, however, she was not so expeditious, as she was under the necessity of flying to a greater distance for materials, in the search of which she sometimes remained out eight and ten minutes. From the inside she built the under part of the aperture with the stalks of leaves which she felted together very ingeniously with moss. The upper part of it was constructed solely with the last mentioned material. To round it, and give it the requisite solidity, she pressed it with her breast and wings, and turned her body in different direc- tions. INIost wonderful to tell, about seven o'clock in the even- ing, the whole external workmanship of this snug little build- ing was almost complete. Being very anxious to examine the interior of it, I went out for that purpose at half-past two o'clock next morning. I introduced my finger, and so close was it, that it resisted some very hea\'y showers of rain. Should any one wish to have his cars delighted with the sweet melody 26 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. of the songsters of the woods, he must awake and roam about at this early hour. It is then that they seem to be in ecstacy, and strive to rival one another in the richness and variety of their notes. At ten minutes past three o'clock, the male hop- ped round and round, and if I may judge from his appearance, surveyed with satisfaction the commodious fabric, in the erec- tion of which his consort had taken the active part. He then flew to the top of a tree, and sung in the most animated strains. At half-past three o'clock, the female went into her nest, in which she remained for five minutes, and rounded the entrance into it, by pressing it with her breast, and the shoulders of her wings. Between half-past three and half-past four o'clock, she went in five times, with very fine moss in her bill. AVith the greatest care she surveyed the whole of her edifice. At half-past four she went in twice with very tender moss, with which she adjusted a small depression in the fore part of it. After having remained out for twenty minutes, she returned with a bundle of leaves to fill up a vacancy which she had ob- served in the back of the structure. Although it was an ex- ceedingly cold morning, accompanied with a boisterous wind' and rain, the male sang most delightfully. Between seven and eight o'clock, he having either received a reproof from his wife, or regretting his former remissness, assisted her more frequently than he had done yesterday. During the space of ten minutes they went into their abode, generally two and three times, with moss in their bills. At eleven o'clock, she flew oft' with him to some distance, in order, I suppose, to enjoy a little relaxa- tion from her labours. They did not return until a quarter past one o'clock. From one to four o'clock, they went into their nest twenty-seven times, at diftcrent periods, sometimes only once in ten minutes, and at other times more frequently, with fine moss in their bills. From four to nearly five o'clock, the female carried in a feather three times, and brought to a conclusion the operations of the day. " Thursday, 1st June. — I went out a little past six o'clock. They had not however as yet visited their residence, which I knew from having put a very slender stalk of a leaf in front of the door, which thcv were obliged to remove before they could EUROPEAN WREN. 27 get admittance. They commenced their work at half-past eight, between which time and ten ©""clock they went in at the rate of five times in eii^ht minutes. The male frequently assisted the female this morning, and every time that he did it, he mounted to the top of the nearest tree, and proclaimed aloud his note of self-approbation. From ten till a quarter past eleven o'clock, they went in about three times in the course of ten minutes, carrying very small quantities of fine moss. She then flew off with her husband, and remained almost the same space of time that she had done yesterday, for she did not return to her nest until about half-past one o'clock. From this time until half-past two o'clock, when they ceased from their labour, they frequently brought in fine moss and feathers. " Friday, 2d June. — This morning, between five and seven o'clock, the male sang almost incessantly. They did not begin to build until half-past nine o'clock, when they went in with fine moss and feathers, sometimes once in ten, at other times once in fifteen and twenty minutes. About half-past eleven, she flew off" with the male, and did not return until about a quarter be- fore two o'clock. They carried in fine moss and feathers only a few times after this. AV'hilst I was anxiously watching their motions in the midst of a very thick arbor-vitae tree, about nine feet from their nest, the female, which was sitting at the door of it, having noticed me, set up her cry of alarm. The male upon hearing it appeared to be in a state of great irritation. I immediately ran ofl:' to some distance, pursued by the little creatures, which were scolding me with great vehemence. " Saturday, 3d June. — Between six and eleven o'clock, they brought in a few feathers and some moss. They then dis- appeared until half-past one o'clock, when they took in a few more feathers, and then rested from their work. " On Sunday morning, 4th June, between eight and nine o'clock, as I was going to feed a pair of goldfinches which I kept in the tool-house of my garden, I saw the female fly in twice with feathers. " On INIonday morning I examined the nest. They appeared to have carried in the same quantity of materials as they had done on Saturday. This morning, 5th June, they did not be- 28 AXORTHURA TROGLODYTES. gin to build until twenty minutes before eight o'clock. Be- tween eight and nine they went in at the rate of two times in ten minutes, with fine moss and feathers. From nine until half-past eleven o'clock, they went in nine times at different intervals, carrying feathers. After this they were not seen for two hours and a quarter, and brought in only a few feathers in the afternoon. " Tuesday, 6th June. — This morning, between seven and ten o'clock, they carried in feathers ten times, at diflerent intervals, sometimes once, at other times twice, in ten minutes, and a very few of them after ten o'clock. " Wednesday, 7th June. — This morning, between eight and ten o'clock, they flew in with a few feathers, and then left off working. " Thursday, 8th June. — This forenoon the nest was finished. It was by far the neatest of the kind that I have seen ; and little wonder, when we consider the long time M'hich they took in the erection of it. I regret that it was torn down by a cat that frequented the neighbourhood. The female, which had gone into it to lay her first egg, had attracted its notice, and had in all probability been devoured, as I never saw her again." AVhat energy and activity on the one hand, enthusiasm and resolute perseverance on the other! No man ever before so gave us the history of the erection of a Wren's nest, and certainly none ever watched birds with half the firmness of my esteemed friend, who thus concludes the letter containing the above. " If you have glanced over these remarks, which were taken out of my note-book, I am sure that you must have exclaimed, Alas ! alas ! I am afraid that my west-country correspondent, poor fellow ! is now labouring under ornitho- mania." Truly I made no such exclamation, for I have long been aware of Mr Weir's " affection," which I believe is in- curable. The following statement with which also I have been favour- ed by him, is of great importance as elucidating the habits of the Wren in a matter not previously made a subject of observa- tion, namely the feeding of its young. The number of eggs which it lays has been variously stated by authors. Mr Weir EUROPEAN WREN. 29 says that although it is commonly seven or eight, so many as sixteen or seventeen have been found in its nest : " Robert Smith, weaver in Bathgate, told me, that a few years ago, ho saw in a nest, which was built on the bank of a rivulet about two miles from Linlithgow, seventeen eggs ; and James D. Baillie, Esq. informed mo that in June last, he took out of one which he discovered in a spruce tree near Polkemmet House, sixteen eggs. He put them in again, and, on return- ing sometime afterwards, found them all hatched." " On Saturday, the 17th of June 1837," Mr Weir con- tinues, " the following observations respecting the habits of the Wren were made in a hut formed of the branches of trees, about the distance of six feet from a nest. Shortly after I had put my finger into it, to ascertain whether or not the young were ripe, their mother arrived, and perceiving that the entrance to it had been touched, set up a doleful lamenta- tion, carefully rounded it with her breast and wings, and with her partner commenced her natural attention to her offspring, which consisted of six young ones. Between three and four o'clock in the morning, they fed them ten times ; and from four to five twenty-one times. The female now went into the nest, and remained a few minutes. From five to six o'clock, they fed their young twenty-one times; from six to seven, also twenty- one times. The female went into the nest twice, and the male sang almost incessantly during the last two hours. From seven to eight o'clock, they fed them twenty-two times ; and, although they were ripe, the female sat upon them nearly ten minutes. From eight to nine o'clock, they fed them fifteen times ; from nine to ten, twelve times ; from ten to eleven, fourteen times ; from eleven to twelve, eighteen times ; and from twelve to one, fifteen times. The female went into the nest for a short time. From one to two o'clock, they fed them eleven times ; from two to three, eighteen times. The female went into the nest, and remained a few minutes. From three to four o'clock, they fed them thirteen times, and from four to five, seventeen times. During the greater part of this hour, there was a heavy fall of rain, accompanied with a great deal of loud thunder. The female entered the nest, and continued 30 ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES. in it a quarter of an hour. From five to six o'clock they fed them fourteen times. The female went into the nest for five minutes. From six to seven o'clock, they fed them ten times ; and from seven to eight, seventeen times. The female went into the nest, and remained a short time. From eight to nine o'clock, they fed them eight times ; and about ten minutes after this, having again fed them, the female went into the nest and remained for the night. From the slender branch of a larch, they supplied with a great variety of flies and insects their young, whose craving appetite seemed never to be satis- fied, no less than 278 times in the course of the day. As the number of insects carried in by them varied, it was impossible to calculate exactly how many were destroyed." Young. — The young in their first plumage differ considera- bly from the old birds. The basal margin of the bill, and the lower mandible, are yellow, the upper mandible pale brown ; the feet brownish-yellow. The upper parts are reddish-brown, the head darker ; the wings and tail barred with blackish ; the lower parts pale yellowish-brown, the tips of the feathers darker, the lower tail-coverts slightly barred. The wing-coverts are destitute of the white tips conspicuous in old birds. Progress toward Maturity.' — After the first moult, the bill is more dusky, the feet darker ; the upper parts more or less undulated ; as are the abdominal feathers and sides ; but the lower parts are still of a dull greyish-brown colour. Remarks. — I have preferred retaining the specific name Tro- glodytes, bestowed by Linnasus, to converting it into a generic name, because the hiding in caves or holes, like the ancient Troglodytae, is not a character common to all wrens, although it belongs to the present species in a remarkable degree. As a generic name, Anorthura, proposed by INIr Rennie, seems to me not merely unobjectionable but very appropriate. 31 CERTHIA. TREE-CREEPER. Bill rather long, very slender, subtrigonal, tapering, much compressed, arcuate, acute : upper mandible with its dorsal outline arcuate, the ridge very narrow, the sides rapidly sloping, the edges sharp, without notch ; lower mandible with the angle very narrow and sharp, the dorsal outline decurved, the ridge narrow, the sides erect, the edges sharp, the tip acute ; the gape -line arcuate. The upper mandible concave beneath, with a central promi- nent line ; the lower deeply channelled. The tongue long, narrow, decurved, sagittate, tapering, its margins lacerate toward the tip, which is acute ; oesophagus of moderate width ; stomach elliptical, muscular ; intestine very short, of moderate width ; coeca very small. Plate XIV, Fig. 2. Nostrils linear-oblong, exposed, with an oblong operculum ; the nasal depression of moderate size, feathered at the base. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered. External aperture of the ear large and roundish. The general form is slender, although the body is very short, the wings and tail being elongated ; the neck short ; the head ovato-oblong and of moderate size; the feet of ordinary length, the tarsus slender, compressed, anteriorly covered with seven broad scutella, of which the upper are indistinct, posteriorly edged ; toes rather large, extremely compressed ; first very large, being with its claw longer than the third, the second much shorter than the fourth, the anterior united as far as the second joint ; claws very long, arched, slender, extremely compressed, later- ally grooved, very acute. Plumage very soft, blended, and elongated, especially on the back ; the feathers ovato-oblong, with very loose barbs, and a long slender plumule of few filaments. Wing rather long, con- vex, much rounded ; of nineteen quills ; the first nearly half 32 CERTHIA. TREE-CREEPER. the length of the second, the fourth longest, the fifth almost equal, the third and sixth nearly of the same length. Tail long, of twelve slightly arcuate pointed feathers, of which the shafts are rather strong, and the extremities of the webs worn. The transition from the bill of Anorthura to that of Certhia is very direct, the latter being merelymore elongated and curved. The plumage of the two genera is similar as to texture ; but while the tail of the former is short and generally raised, it is in the latter elongated, and employed in supporting the bird as it ascends the trunks of trees. The toes, and especially the claws, are longer in Certhia. The Tree-Creepers resemble the Woodpeckers in their mode of progression, which is by extremely rapid short hops or starts against the bark of trees, to which they cling with their sharp claws. Their bill however is so slender and weak that they cannot employ it in perforating the bark or decayed wood, and they are therefore content with searching the chinks for their food, which consists of small insects and larvae. They nestle in holes, and have a rather numerous progeny. Very few species of this genus are known, and only one oc- curs in Britain, the history of w^hich will afford a good idea of the habits of the rest. 33 CERTHIA FAMILIARIS. THE BROWN TREE- CREEPER. CREEPER. TREE-SPEELER. BROWN WOODPECKER. SNAIGEAR. MEANGLAN- STREAPACH. Certhia familiaris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 184. Certhia familiaris. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 280. Common Creeper. Mont. Orn. Diet. Le Grimpereau. Certhia familiaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn, I. 410. Common Creeper. Certhia familiaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 388. Certhia familiaris. Common Creeper. Jen. Brit, Vert. An. 152. Upper part of the head darh-hroimi^ neck and back yelloicish- broicn, each feather icith a median tchitish streak ; rump yelloicish- red ; icings with a transverse whitish hand ; loicer parts silvery. Male. — The Tree-creeper, which is one of the smallest of our native birds, weighing only about two drams, is of a slender elongated form, with the neck short, the head ovato-oblong, and of moderate size. The bill is nearly as long as the head, arcuate, somewhat triangular at the base, much compressed toward the end, both mandibles acute, with the edges sharp, and the upper destitute of notch. The tongue is slender, sagittate and papil- late at the base, horny toward the end, concave above, pointed and bristly. The oesophagus is narrow, without dilatation, an inch and nine-twelflhs in length ; the stomach elliptical, com- VOL. 111. D 34 CERTHIA FAMILIARIS. pressed, five-twelfths of an iuch long, its muscles of moderate strength ; the intestine five inches long, with very small cylin- drical coeca, half a twelfth in length, and a quarter of a twelfth in breadth. See Plate XIV, Fig. 2. The feet are of moderate length and slender ; the tarsus compressed, with seven anterior scutella ; the hind toe large, with ten scutella, the second M'ith eight, the third ten, the fourth twelve ; the anterior toes parallel and united as far as the second joint ; the claws very long, moderately arched, extremely compressed, and very acute ; that of the hind toe extending beyond the claw of the third. The mobility of the toes is very extraordinary : the hind toe may be turned outwards until it forms a right angle with its ordinary direction, and all the other toes may be so twisted as to reverse the position of the claws. Fig. 190. The plumage is full, very soft, and blended, on the back much elongated, with the barbs separated, the feathers there being an inch long, and thus greatly exceeding the diameter of the body. There are no bristle-feathers at the base of the bill. The wings, Fig. 191, are of moderate length, concaA'e, with nineteen quills, of which the outer is scarcely half as long as the second, which is four-twelfths of an inch shorter than the third ; the fourth, which is the longest, exceeds the fifth only by half a BROWN tree-ciiep:per. 3r> twelfth, and the third by one twelfth, while the second and eighth are nearly equal. The tail is long, arched, much rounded at the end, of twelve stifF-shafted acuminate feathers, of which the lateral is eicht-twelfths shorter than the middle. Fig. ] 92. The upper mandible and the extremity of the lower are dusky-brown, the basal portion of the latter whitish ; the irides hazel ; the feet pale flesh-colour tinged with brown, the claws light yellowish-grey. The upper part of the head is dark- brown, with linear-oblong brownish-white streaks ; the rest of the upper parts light brown, with similar streaks, the feathers on the rump becoming dull yellow ish-browTi, The small wing-coverts are variegated with dusky, light brown, and brownish-white ; the primary coverts blackish-brown, with a whitish spot at the tip ; the secondary coverts lighter, wuth a larger whitish sj)ot at the end, but only on the outer w^eb. The quills are dusky, but the inner pale greyish-brown on the inner web, dusky on part of the outer ; all except the outer three have a whitish spot at the end ; the wing is crossed by a band of pale brownish-yellow, which, however, does not include the outer three quills or the inner three secondaries .: the outer webs of most of the quills are light yellowish-grey toward the end. The tail is light yellowish-grey, the inner webs dusky, the shafts yellowish-brown. A white streak extends over the eye, and the lower parts are of a dull but glistening silvery white. The concealed part of the plumage is greyish-black. Length to end of tail 5 1^5 inches; extentof wings 8; bill along the ridge y~-,, along the edge of lower mandible {% ; wing from flexure 2j'^ ; tail 2/3 ; tarsus /| ; first toe j%, its claw ^^ ; second toe ^''l, its claw ji ; third toe {'i, its claw 1% ; fourth toe ^■'^, its claw i\. 36 CERTHIA FAMILIARIS. Female, — The female is similar to the male, but somewhat less, and having the colours of the upper parts paler. Length to end of tail 0/3 inches ; extent of wings 7? ; bill along the ridge 6\ ; wing from flexure 2j% ; tail 2^% ; tarsus j"| ; hind toe ^^j, its claw j% ; middle toe -i^, its claw ^j. Variations. — In adult individuals I have not observed any remarkable variations in colour ; but the bill varies considera- bly in length and curvature, as do the claws, some individuals having the hind claw a third longer than others. Towards the end of summer, before the moult has commenced, the colours are usually much faded. The tint of the lower parts varies, being often much soiled with matters rubbed from the trees. Habits. — On the 4th December 1816, while on an excur- sion in quest of zoological subjects, I happened to stroll into a fir wood, about four miles distant from my residence in the Old Town of Aberdeen, and, being a novice, was quite astonished at seeing a swarm of extremely small birds of different species, moving about among the twigs, and apparently searching for food with incessant activity. Having succeeded in shooting two of them, I found them to belong to the genus Motacilla, and the species Regulus ; but being persuaded that I had seen other small birds in the flock, I returned next day, and pro- cured six Reguli, five specimens of Parus ater, a Motacilla Troglodytes, and a Certhia familiar! s. Such was the nomen- clature in those days, but now the names of only two of these birds remain as they were. The pleasure which I experienced must have been greater than that which the sight of a flock of these tiny and most interesting creatures could now impart ; but still it affords no slight gratification to watch the motions of these wanderers of the wild woods, so intent on their search for food that they take little heed of the near approach of one who may be bent on thinning their swarms. At this season, should you fall in with a flock of Reguli and Pari, scouring a wood, you may be pretty well assured that a few Tree-creepers will be found at no great distance. There, clinging to the rough bark at the base of that old elm, you see BROWN TREE-CREEPER. 37 one, advancing upwards by short jerks. At each movement it emits a shrill but feeble cry. See how it climbs, searching every crevice, now proceeding directly upwards, now winding round the trunk, presently passing behind it, and in a short time appearing on the other side. Observe it well, and you will see that it crouches close to the surface, presses its tail against it, now and then picks something from a cleft, jerks itself forwards, never rests for a moment, but seems in utmost haste, and expresses its anxiety by continually emitting its lisping cry. Yet its efforts are not laborious : it seems to hold on with perfect ease and unconcern, and although it is now half way up, it exhibits no sign of fatigue. There, it passes off from the trunk, creeps along a nearly horizontal branch, wind- ing round it, adhering even to its lower surface, with its back toward the ground. Having gone as far as it finds convenient, it flies back to the trunk, which it ascends, until you lose sight of it among the twigs at the top. What next I will it creep down airain 1 No : there it comes with headlong fliofht, glancincj like an arrow, curves as it comes near the ground, alights at the very root of the next tree, and commences its ascent. You may watch it for an hour, and you will find it as fresh, as lively, and as keen as ever. Should it happen to observe you, and suspect that you mean it no good, it will run up the back of the tree, appearing now and then at the sides, until it is per- haps half vva} up, when it will search all parts alike, being free of the apprehension of injury. But now, hearing its friends the Tits and Reguli at a distance, it looks abroad for a moment from the top of the tree, and uttering a few cries, sweeps away in a curving, somewhat undulatory course. Such, in tact, is the ordinary course of action of the Creeper, which is thus of very peculiar and remarkable habits. It alights at the bottom of a tree, clinging to the bark with its claws, and without a moment's delay begins to ascend, which it does by short starts, leaping forward as it were, and sup- porting itself by pressing the tail against the bark. In this manner it proceeds, diligently searching for insects, which it picks out with the greatest dexterity. Should a person, curious to observe its motions, go very near, it winds round so as to 38 CERTHIA FAMILIARIS. keep on the further side of the tree, but seldom flies off'. Should it meet with a horizontal branch, it can easily proceed along its lower surface, although in that case it usually prefers the sides or upper part. When it has searched the branch, it flies off" to another, or continues to ascend the stem ; and when it has attained the hi^jher branches, it flies off" to the base of a neigjli- bouring tree, and thus proceeds imceasingly. Indeed I have seldom observed one a single minute at rest. Yet, like other birds, it has its periods of cessation from labour, and in the breeding season it is amusing to observe the gambols of a pair, which may be seen chasing each other along the trunk of a tree, perching for a moment on the branches, and then scudding along, all the while emitting their shrill and feeble cries. These birds are easily shot, for, like the Gold-crested King- let and Coal Tit, they seem to pay little attention to a person approaching them, insomuch that I have been within six feet of one, which yet did not fly off", but merely crept round to the other side of the tree. While thus employed, it utters every now and then a very low cheep, and when flying from one tree to another, repeats this cry more frequently, and somewhat more loudly. I suppose that it is destitute of song, never having heard it emit modulated sounds. Its flight is generally short and rapid, from the top of one tree to the base of another ; but it may sometimes be seen traversing a space of several hundred yards, which it does with a quick and undulatory motion, at a considerable elevation. It is a permanent resident, occurs in all the wooded parts of the country, but is nowhere numerous, and never appears in flocks. In winter it shifts about from place to place, generally accompanying a flock of Tits or Kinglets, but sometimes seek- ing for its food solitarily, seldom entering small gardens, but often appearing in woods near houses, hedgerows, or even on large single trees. It pairs in April, and about the beginning of iSIay begins to construct its nest, which it places in some hole in a tree, or rock, or among the roots in a mossy bank. It is composed of withered stalks and blades of grasses, moss, fibrous roots, and other materials, and is lined with feathers. The eggs, from five to seven or eight in number, are seven and a BROWN TREE-CREEPER. 39 half twelfths of an inch in length, five-twelfths in breadth, of a regular ovate form, glossy, white, sprinkled with dots and small patches of brownish-red, often disposed in a broad belt near the larger end, and leaving the narrower half unspotted. Montagu states that " during the time of incubation, the fe- male is fed by the other sex, whenever she quits her nest in search of food." The young arc abroad by the middle of June, and I have reason to think that a second brood is frequently reared. Although the e])[t\iet familiar has been given to this little bird, it cannot be said to deserve it, for its seeming familiarity results merely from its close attention to the objects of its search, and the moment it becomes sensible of the proximity of a per- son it glides out of his sight. Of all our native birds, the Robin is that which reposes most confidence in man. It will often stand, looking at him, until he approaches within two or three yards, and even then exhibit little alarm ; nay, it will sometimes enter his dwelling, and seem quite at home there. But the Creeper is in no sense a familiar bird. This species is generally distributed over Europe, as well as North America. I have compared specimens from both con- tinents, and found them in all respects similar ; Mr Audubon is of the same opinion ; yet the Prince of Musignano, without assigning a reason, or giving distinctive characters, chooses to consider the American bird as a species different from the European. Young. — The young when fledged are similar to their pa- rents, but with the feathers more loose, and the colours duller. 40 UPUPA. HOOPOE. Bill longer than the head, slightly arcuate, very slender, compressed, angular, pentagonal at the base, four-sided toward the end, the point sharp, or somewhat blunted from use ; upper mandible with its dorsal line slightly arcuate, the ridge very narrow, the sides sloping and flattened, the edges sharp, with- out notch, the tip flattened, rather acute ; lower mandible with the angle rather long and narrow, the dorsal line slightly decurved, the ridge sharp, the sides at the base erect and flat, toward the end inclining outwards, the edges sharp, the tip acute, the gape-line slightly arcuate. Fig. 193. The mouth of moderate width ; the palate convex, the upper mandible very slightly concave beneath, the lower almost flat. Tongue very short, fleshy, flattened, as in Alcedo. Nostrils oblong, basal. Eyes of moderate size. The general form is rather slender ; the body ovate ; the neck of moderate length ; the head ovato-oblong, rather small. The feet very short, and of moderate strength ; tarsus very short, roundish, with seven anterior broad scutclla, somewhat sharp behind, with two rows of scales ; toes moderate, com- pressed; the first with its claw longer than the tarsus and nearly equal to the middle toe, the outer adnate at the base, and some- what longer than the inner. Claws of moderate length, stout, that of the hind toe slightly arched, compressed, with the tip acute and abruptly deflected ; the rest well arched, com- pressed, A'ery acute, all laterally grooved. Fig. 194. The plumage soft and blended, the feathers elliptical, with- out plumule ; those on the top of the head oblong, much elon- gated, forming a large crest ; no bristle-feathers at the base of the bill. AVings rather long, very broad, much rounded; the first quill about half the length of the fourth, which is longest ; the quills nineteen, all rounded. Tail nearly even, often rounded soft feathers. 41 UPUPA EPOPS. THE EUROPEAN HOOPOE. Fig. 1D3. Upupa Epops. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 18.'^. Upupa Epops. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 277. Hoopoe. INIont. Orn. Diet. La Huppe. Upupa Epops. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 415. Hoopoe. Upupa Epops. Selb. Illustr. L 393. Upupa Epops. Hoopoe. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 153. Head and necV light red^ crest-feathers tipped with black ; fore part 'of hack light piirplish-red, middle part barred icith black and reddish-ichite, rump ichite, tail-coverts black, barred icith iL'hite ; icings and tail black, the former with several, the latter xcith a single band of white. Male. — This elegant bird, which is an irregular visitant in Britain, is about the size of a ISlissel Thrush, but of a more slender form, with an elongated attenuated bill, and very short feet. Not having met with ii alive, or obtained a recent spe- cimen for dissection, I can only describe it from skins. The generic description already given, will be found to agree with it in every particular, so that here there is only to be added what belongs to the species. The elongated feathers on the head are disposed in several series on each side, the largest 42 UPUPA EPOPS. being about t^yo inches in length, and are capable of being erected from their ordinary position, in which they are recum- bent. The first quill is an inch and five-twelfths shorter than the second, which is seven-twelfths shorter than the third, the fourth a twelfth and a half longer, beinw the longest ; the secondary quills are very long, broad, and rounded ; the tail is almost even. The rest of the plumage is very soft and blended. The bill is black, with the base flesh-coloured ; the feet dusky brown, the claws paler beneath. The crest-feathers are light red, largely tipped with bluish-black, succeeding a wdiite band ; the rest of the head, and the neck all round, light purplish-red ; the fore part of the back and anteriorwing-coverts of the same colour, tinged with greyish-brown ; the feathers on the middle of the back and the scapulars are black, with abroad bar of pale red or reddish-white ; on the rump is a white patch ; and the upper tail-coverts are white, with a black terminal band. The tail is black, with a broad band of white disposed in the form of a crescent, its distance from the tip of the middle feathers being an inch and a half, from that of the lateral feathers scarcely half an inch, the outer feather on each side with an additional white band toward the base ; the smaller wing-coverts are black, with a white band ; the larger also black, the primary without white markings, the secondary with two bands of red- dish-white ; the primary quills are glossy bluish-black, with a broad band of white toward the end, the band of the first being only on the inner web ; the secondary quills gradually become tinged with brown, and assume two additional bands of white, tinged with red on the inner, which are margined with pale red. The light-red of the fore-neck becomes paler on the breast ; some of the feathers on the sides are streaked with dusky ; and the abdomen and lower tail-coverts are white. Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 2j ; wing from flexure 5j% ; tail 4^-g ; tarsus JS ; hind too l^j, its claw yi ; second toe l^^, its claw j\ ; third toe j%, its claw ^^r, ; fourth toe j~^, its claw /g- Female. — The female is similar to the male, differing only in having the bill and crest shorter, and the plumage paler. EUROPEAN HOOPOE. 43 Habits. — The Hoopoe has been met with in most parts of England, as well as in several districts in Scotland, even as far north as Caithness and Orkney, althou<:jh not on the western coast beyond the Frith of Clyde. It is not however a regular summer visitant, but makes its appearance here and there unexpectedly, more frequently in autumn than in summer, and in the latter case seldom breeding. On the continent it appears to be gene- rally distributed, arriving in the beginning of summer, and departing in small flocks in September. The form of its tarsi and claws would lead us to suppose it to be a climbing or creeping bird ; but although it resides chiefly in woods, it is said also to betake itself to the fields in their vicinity, and to walk about in search of its food, which consists of insects and larvae. Its very short tarsi however are obviously not well adapted for walking, and were its habits for the most part terrestrial, its claws could not fail to be in some measure blunted, whereas they are remarkably acute in all the specimens that I have ex- amined. Ploughed land, pasture-ground interspersed with cow-dung, sandy soil, and muddy places by streams, are said to be its favourite haunts. It breeds in hollow trees, forming its nest, according to some, of dry cow-dung and roots, or, ac- cording to others, of decayed wood, or of grass and feathers. The eggs are said to be from two to five, a little more than an inch in length, and of a uniform light grey or bluish-white. It appears that the excrements of the young are allowed to re- main in the nest, which accordingly is described as having an extremely fetid odour, similar to that of the Kingsfisher, which the Hoopoe further resembles in the construction of the bill, and especially in the form of the tongue. The shortness of the latter organ however does not render necessary a diet of fish or frogs, as some have supposed, for Ibises and other birds having equally short tongues can pick up small insects and larvre with ease. This bird has been named Hoojwe from the crest or tuft, hitppe in French, with which its head is adorned. Some however derive its name from its ordinary cry, which is said to resem- ble np-up^ or pu-pu. It is said to be shy, although it allows one to approach within shot, and, when obtained young, to be 44 UPUPA EPOPS. easily reared on flesh, which however, Beehstein remarks, it cannot pick up well, because the tongue is too short to turn the food into the throat, so that it is obliged to throw^ it up into the air, and receive it with open bill. The same author, in his " Cage Birds," states that, independently of its beauty, it is attractive by the drollness of its actions, making a conti- nual motion with its head, and tapping the floor with its beak. M. Yon Schauroth, in a letter addressed to M. Beehstein, gives an account of two young Hoopoes, which he took from a nest placed at the top of an oak. They were exceedingly tame, climbed on his clothes until they reached his shoulders or head, and caressed him very affectionately. They were fond of beetles and INIay-bugs, wdiich they first killed, and then beat them into a ball, which they threw into the air, and caught lengtlnvise. It does not appear that the peculiar habits of this bird have been well described, for the brief notices given in books are not suflicient to enable us to ascertain its character. In exter- nal form it is very nearly allied to the Wall-Creeper, Ticho- droma muraria, and for that reason chiefly I have placed it in the family of Certhianae ; but if not intimately allied to the Alcedinae, it certainly indicates a transition to them. An individual of this species w^as shot near Edinburgh in the autumn of 1832, and Mr Binnie, farmer at Avon Bank, about a mile and a half from Linlithgow, states that in 1835, one was seen in his neighbourhood for seven or eight weeks, residing chiefly in Kinneil Wood, but occasionally coming very near his house. 45 SITTINtE. NUTHATCHES AND ALLIED SPECIES. The birds of this family are of small size, the largest not exceeding a domestic Sparrow, and agree in having the body short and compact, the neck short, the head of moderate size, or rather large ; the bill shorter than the head, sometimes almost as long, straight, or even slightly bent upwards, slender, pentagonal at the base, four-sided toward the end, with the tip acute, or somewhat cuneate. The tongue is slender, very thin, with the point abrupt, and furnished with several bristles ; the oesophagus rather wide, tapering, without crop ; the proven- triculus oblong ; the stomach rather large, broadly elliptical or roundish, muscular, with a dense rugous epithelium ; the intes- tine rather short and wide ; the coeca very small. Plate XIV, Fig. 3. The plumage is very soft, full, and blended ; the wings long, very broad, with the first quill very small, but the second not much shorter than the third and fourth, which are generally longest ; the tail short, broad, and soft. The tarsi are short, or of moderate length, and slender ; the toes long, slender, compressed, the anterior coherent at the base, the inner much shorter than the outer, the hind toe elongated ; the claws long, well arched, compressed, acute. In the form of the feet and claws the Sittin^e resemble the Certhianae, while in the structure of the bill they are allied to the Woodpeckers, and in their aspect and colouring exhibit an affinity to the Tits. Their habits accordingly present a com- bination of those of all these birds. Of the few genera form- ing this family, only one occurs in Europe. 46 SITTA. NUTHATCH. Bill of moderate length, straight, slender but strong, some- what conical, slightly higher tlian broad, pentagonal at the base, four-sided toward the end, with the point sharp, or some- what wedge-shaped from use ; upper mandible with its dorsal outline very slightly arcuato-declinate or nearly straight, the ridge rather obtuse, the sides sloping, a little convex toward the end, the edges sharp, sloping outwards and overlapping, the point narrow, acute, or blunted, somewhat depressed, without notch or sinus ; lower mandible with the angle rather short and of moderate width, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly convex, the sides sloping outwards and flat at the base, convex towards the end, the edges thin and directed outwards, the tip acute ; the gape-line straight. The mouth narrow ; the upper mandible slightly concave internally, with three parallel central prominent lines, and two lateral grooves ; the lower moderately concave, with a strong central prominent line. Nostrils oblong, in the fore-part of the short nasal membrane, which is feathered. Eyes rather small ; eyelids feathered. External aperture of ear large and roundish. The general form is short and robust ; the body and neck very short ; the head ovate, rather large. The feet rather short and strong ; tarsus very short, comjDressed, with seven very broad anterior scutella, sharp behind ; toes large, much compressed ; the first, with its claw, longer than the tarsus or the middle toe, the three anterior united at the base as far as the second joint, the fourth longer than the second. Claws long, much arched, extremely compressed, high, laterally grooved, very acute. The plumage soft and blended, the feathers ovate, those of the back elongated, about the base of the bill short and bristle- tipped ; but there are no bristle-feathers. Wings long, very broad, rounded ; quills nineteen ; the first very small, being SITTA. NUTHATCH. 47 scarcely a third of the length of the second, the fourth longest, but the third and fifth almost equal ; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cut out on the outer web ; the secondaries lon^ and rounded. Tail short, generally even, of twelve moderately broad, weak, rounded feathers. The genus Sitta is composed of small birds, varying in size from that of a Coal Tit or Regulus to the length of six or seven inches. They inhabit the warmer and temperate parts of both continents, but are more numerous in America, only one species occurring in Europe. In the form of their bill, in that of their feet, but more especially in their general appearance, and in their colouring, as well as in their habits, they present a con- siderable affinity to the Tits, between which, on the one hand, an(t the Creepers and Woodpeckers on the other, seems to be their station in a natural arrangement. The Nuthatches, according to the observation of persons Avho have studied their habits, are remarkable for restless activity, move with extreme quickness up and down the branches and trunks of trees, searching for insects in the cre- vices of the bark and among the leaves, cling and hang to the twigs, turning with astonishing agility in all directions, utter every now and then a loud shrill note, fly from tree to tree in the woods, visit the gardens occasionally, and associate with Creepers, Tits, and small Woodpeckers. Their flight is rapid, generally short, but sometimes protracted ; their food consists of insects, pupaj, and larva? of various kinds, as Avell as of acorns, chestnuts, and other hard fruits, which they split or perforate with their bill, after fastening them in a crevice. Not unfrequently they betake themselves to the ground in search of food, and come into the immediate vicinity of houses in winter. They nestle in holes, generally formed by them- selves in decayed trees. They have the singular habit of sleep- ing with their head downwards, as they cling to the surface of a tree, and, unlike the Creepers, which can only ascend, they are equally expert at descending a trunk or branch ; nor do they require to aid their ascent by pressing their tail against the sur- face. 48 SITTA EUROP^A. THE EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. Fig, 195. Sitta europsea. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 177. Sitta europsea. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 261. European Nuthatch. Mont. Orn. Diet. Sittelle Torchepot. Sitta europsea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 407. Sitta europsea. Nuthatch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 154. Nuthatch. Sitta europsea. Selb. Illustr. I. 385. Upper parts hluish-greij ; throat and cheeJcs icliite ; loral space and a hand behind the eye black ; loiver parts light reddish-yelloiL\ sides brownish-red. Male. — This beautiful and lively little bird, which occurs in various parts of England, remaining all the year, is one of the largest species of the genus. Its general appearance may be learned from the generic character, which applies to it in every respect ; the body being short and rather full, the neck very short, the head rather large ; the bill longish, moderately stout, straight, tapering, and towards the end four-sided ; the tarsi very short, the hind toe very long, with eight scutella, the second with eight, the third with twelve, the fourth, which is considerably longer than the second, with ten ; the claws long, much arched, that of the hind toe very large and curved in a semicircle. EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. 49 The plumage is very soft and blended. The wings rather long, with nineteen quills, the first about a third of the length of the second, which is four-twelfths of an inch shorter than the third, the fourth longest, but scarcely exceeding the third and fifth. The tail is short, broad, straight, even, of twelve moderately broad, rounded feathers. The upper mandible is internally almost flat, with a median ridge ; the lower somewhat more concave. The tongue is nearly half an inch in length, emarginate and papillate at the base, slender, thin, with the point abrupt and furnished with strong bristles, like that of a Tit. The oesophagus is two inches and a quarter in length, rather wide, its diameter be- ing two and a half twelfths ; the stomach large, roundish, ten- twelfths in length, seven-twelfths and three fourths in breadth, very muscular, with the epithelium dense and longitudinally rugous ; the intestine nine inches long, wide, having a dia- meter of from two and a half to one and a half twelfths ; the coeca extremely small, being scarcely one-twelfth long, and of an oblong form ; the rectum one inch long, dilated into an ob- long sac. The tongue and digestive organs are thus similar to those of the Tits. The trachea is an inch and eight-twelfths long, one-twelfth in breadth, of seventy-six rings ; the bronchi of fifteen rings ; the inferior laryngeal muscles forming a small knob, and apparently single. PL XIY, Fig. 3. The upper mandible is greyish-blue at the base, dusky in the rest of its extent ; the lower pale grey, with the tip dusky. The iris is brown. The feet are greyish-yellow. The upper parts of the plumage are light bluish-grey. The quills and coverts are greyish-brown, margined with the same colour as the back, the primaries more narrowly, excepting the outer two, which have no coloured margins. The two middle feathers of the tail are bluish-grey, the rest dusky brown, and tipped with grey, diminishing from the outer inwards, the outer with a white spot on each web, the next two with one on the inner web only. There is a brownish-black band on the lore, and another proceeds from the eye down the neck. The cheeks and throat are white, the rest of the lower parts light reddish-yellow, excepting the sides, which are of a rich VOL. III. E 50 SITTA EUROP^A. brownish-red, and the lower tail-coverts, which are white, with a broad edging of brownish-red. Length to end of tail 5/g inches ; extent of wings lO^i ; wing from flexure oj% ; tail I/5 ; bill along the ridge ^ j, along the edge of lower mandible {^ ; tarsus |^ ; hind toe /g, its claw |i ; second toe j^^ ; its claw ^| ; third toe p^, its claw ^\ ; fourth toe j%, its claw j'^. Female. — The female is similar to the male, but with the tints paler, and the size somewhat less. Variations. — This bird is very little subject to change of colour. An individual almost w^hite, with only a few light chocolate feathers at the vent, and here and there a dark fea- ther intermixed with the rest of the plumage, the legs and bill quite white, is mentioned in Mr Loudon''s Magazine, Vol. VIII, p. 112, as having been obtained in Suffolk. Habits. — The Nuthatch is not generally distributed in Bri- tain, being of rare occurrence in the northern parts of Eng- land, and not hitherto observed in Scotland. It is found chiefly in the wooded parts, but is nowhere very common, and is seldom seen in companies of more than seven or eight indivi- duals. Like the Creeper and Woodpeckers, it ascends the trunks and branches of trees by means of its long curved claws, but without employing its tail as a support, and it descends in the same manner head-foremost, in which re- spect it differs from all the birds that occur in our island. In this manner it searches the bark for insects and larvae, sometimes betakes itself for the same purpose to thatched roofs, and occasionally alights on the ground, where it pro- ceeds by short leaps. Besides insects, it feeds on the kernels of nuts, which, having fixed in a convenient crevice in the bark, it hammers with its strong pointed bill, until it perforates the shell, pivoting itself on its legs, and jerking its whole body forwards. All its actions are abrupt and lively ; it climbs by short jerks, perches with ease on the twigs, throws itself into various postures, and is often seen with its head down- EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. 51 wards, in which position it is even said at times to sleep. Its flight is rapid, protracted on occasion, but usually short. It has no song, being furnished with only a single pair of inferior laryngeal muscles, but utters a shrill cry at intervals. My excellent friend, Mr Ilarley, writes me on the subject of the Nuthatch as follows: — " This bird remains with us through- out the year, inhabiting the park and old inclosure more than the hedge-row tree or the dense umbrageous wood. In fact, I have never seen it upon our hedge-row trees, although I have often sought for it when I have been watching the haunts of the Woodpeckers, which so much resemble it in their habits. In winter it is not quite mute, but has a small piping note, not unlike that of the Creeper. This is a call-company note, inas- much as the Nuthatch in winter feeds in little companies or fa- milies of four or six individuals. On the 21st November (1839) I went after a pair of the Greater Spotted Woodpecker and a pair of Nuthatches, in Ganendon Park (near Leicester), the weather being mild, but gloomy, and the wind south. It was not without difficulty that I found the Nuthatches, which in- variably feed where the trees are most protected from the wind. Thus, when the south or forest wind is playing upon the park, the Nuthatches are to be found amongst the large oaks and elms on the north side of it ; and when a north-easter is blowingf, these birds are found feeding on the beeches, chestnuts, and pines which grow on the south side. I know of no birds whose habits and manners are so operated upon by the movements of the wind. Whether this arises from their beiufj so much ex- posed to the weather, in consequence of their being almost con- stantly on the bark of trees at all seasons of the year, I cannot say. The Nuthatch searches the bark like the Creeper, but without deriving aid from its tail, and is able to descend with as much ease as it climbs. You see it now ascending spirally the bole of an oak, then creeping horizontally along an arm, now above, now beneath, and again hanging like a Tit, as it gains the thickened foliage, to examine every crevice of the bark, and the young buds. It proceeds by short leaps, jerks, or notches^ and during its progress droops its wings somewhat after the manner of the Hedge Sparrow. At this season (No- 52 SITTA EUROP^A. vcniber) it generally keeps toward the middle and topmost branches of the trees it inhabits ; but as the spring advances it not only feeds lower down on the bark, but may then be ob- served occasionally betaking itself to the ground. The note in spring is quite different, having in the vernal months a soft flute-like sound, which it gets in February, but somewhat earlier or later according to the nature of the season. The flight of the Nuthatch is very short, and in fact is only made from one tree to another, or from branch to branch. When the bird is flying, it moves its wings very rapidly, and, during these short flights, its course is not undulating. In its mode of flying it bears a great resemblance to the AVren. The pair which I have forwarded for your inspection were shot from the bark of an oak. You may fire several times into the same tree, with- out causing the birds, which at this season are in families, to leave it, although one or two should be killed. When these two were obtained, four shots were fired, and yet all this can- nonading did not drive off" the other four birds, which remained until we departed."" In the stomach of these individuals I found fragments of small coleoptera, several small white pupae contained in very hard elliptical shells, some farinaceous-looking matter in small pieces or chips, a few husks of grasses, and several particles of quartz, the largest two-twelfths in their greatest diameter. The figure and description of the alimentary canal is taken from one of these specimens, a male, as are the measurements of the bill, feet, and other parts. The Rev. W. T. Bree, in Loudon\s IVIagazine, Vol. II, p. 243, states that " it fixes the nuts in a chink or crevice of the bark of a tree, or the like, and commences a vigorous attack upon the shell by forcibly and repeatedly striking it with its beak. This knocking may be heard to a considerable distance. Dur- ing the operation, it sometimes happens that the nut swerves from its fixture, and falls towards the ground ; it has not de- scended, however, for the space of more than a few yards, when the Nuthatch, with admirable adroitness, recovers it in its fall, and replacing it in its former position, commences the attack afresh. The fall of the nut in the air, and its recovery by the EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. 53 bird on the win^?, I have seen repeated several times in the space of a few minutes."" A correspondent, J. D., in the same very useful work, Vol. V, p. 489, has the following notice. " In observing the Nut- hatch climbing tall trees, as the lime and the elm, when, of course, insects, not nuts, were the objects sought, I noticed that the bird ascended in a very zigzag manner, as, at the end of every few inches of its progress upwards, it diverged either to the right hand or to the left ; this, it may be presumed, was less for the purpose of rendering ascent easy, than for that of enlarging its field of search, and so increasing the chances of amplifying its meal. During the winter the Nuthatch was very shy, and as far as my observation went, quite silent. By the 10th of April and before, it had become, I think, less shy, and rather frequently uttered one or the other of its two notes : these are a short broken twitting, and a short, unmodulated, yet mellow -toned whistle." Another correspondent states that it " has only a few short notes, one of them peculiar, and so loud that it may be heard to a considerable distance. It is at all times a busy and cheerful bird, and particularly before breed- ing time. Its favourite food is nuts of any kind, and tree seeds. It builds and roosts in hollow trees, and is seldom seen in the open fields, unless when in quest of the stones of white-thorn. It may be, therefore, properly called a forester. Its dexterity in opening nuts and the stones of fruits is curious ; it fixes tho nut in a crack on the top of a post, or on the bark of a tree, and, placing itself above it, head downwards, strikes with great force and rapidity with its strong wedge-shaped bill on the edge of the shell till it splits it open. When the food of these birds is plentiful, they have a favourite crack for unshellino- the kernels, as sometimes a peck of broken shells may be seen under this crack." According to Montagu, '• it chooses the deserted habitation of a Woodpecker in some tree for the jilace of its nidification. This hole is first contracted by a plaster of clay, Icavincr onlv sufficient room for itself to pass in and out. The nest is made of dead leaves, most times that of the oak, which are heaped together without much order. The e^rgs are six or seven m 54 SITTA EUROP.EA. number, white, spotted with rust colour, so exactly like those of the Great Titmouse in size and markings, that it is impossi- ble to distinguish a difference. If the barrier of plaster at the entrance is destroyed when they have eggs, it is speedily re- placed ; a peculiar instinct to prevent their nest being destroyed by the Woodpecker and other birds of superior size who build in the same situation. No persecution will force this little bird from its habitation when sitting ; it defends its nest to the last extremity, strikes the invader with its bill and wings, and makes a hissing noise ; and, after every effort of defence, will sufi'er itself to be taken in the hand rather than quit." Like the American species, it appears from the testimony of several writers, that the European Nuthatch sometimes makes a hole for itself; and it would seem that the plaster is only used when the entrance is unnecessarily large. Mr Harley informs me that he has known it to nestle in a gate-post, and keep its station although the gateway was often used. In Ganendon Park, where it is pretty common, it nestles in elm, thorn, and maple trees. In a state of captivity the Nuthatch is fed on hemp-seed, oats, barley, and nuts, all of which it cracks or splits M^ith its bill. Its activity, cunning, and drollery, render it an agreeable pet, but it must be kept in a cage entirely of wire, as it de- stroys wood with its bill. Bechstein, in his Cage Birds, relates an instance of its familiarity. " A lady amused herself in winter with throwing seeds on the terrace below the window, to feed the birds in the neighbourhood. She put some hemp- seed and cracked nuts even on the window-sill, and on a board, particularly for her favourites, the Blue Tits. Two Nuthatches came one day to have their share in this repast, and were so well pleased that they became quite familiar, and did not even go away in the following spring, to get their natural food and to build their nest in the wood. They settled themselves in the hollow of an old tree near the house. As soon as the two young ones, which they reared here, were able to fly, they brought them to the hospitable window where they were to be nourished, and soon after disappeared entirely. It was amus- ing to see these two new visitors hang or climb on the walls EUllOPEAN NUTHATCH. 55 or blinds, whilst their benefactress put their food on the board. These pretty creatures, as well as the tits, knew her so well, that when she drove away the sparrows which came to steal what was not intended for them, they did not fly away also, but seemed to know that what was done was only to protect and defend them. They remained near the house for the whole summer, rarely wandering, till one fatal day, at the beginning of the sporting season, in autumn, when on hearing the report of a gun they disappeared, and were never seen again." YouxG. — The young when fledged differ from the adult in having the colours paler and the plumage more loose. Fio. 107. 56 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. SEVENTH LESSON. REMARKS ON WOODPECKERS. STRUCTURE OF THE TONGUE OF PICUS VIRIDIS, AND EXPLANATION OF THE MANNER IN WHICH IT IS EX- TENDED AND RETRACTED. ITS TRACHEA AND DIGESTIVE ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PART OF THE COUNTY OF LEICESTER, INCLUDING CHARNWOOD FOREST. INIoRE than half a year has elapsed since we had one of our pleasant lessons in practical ornitholocjy, and all that time I have been anxiously expecting a Green Woodpecker from some correspondent. One wrote to a friend to procure a specimen, another made inquiries in London, a third engaged three diffe- rent persons who were sure of obtaining a supply, a fourth, on being apprized of my wishes, went out directly and shot one. Here it is, preserved in spirits, along with two Nuthatches. The birds of the family of Picinse are remarkable for their habit of ascending the trunks and branches of trees, while clinging to which with their curved and sharp claws, they derive considerable aid from their very stiff and strong tail, the tips of the feathers of which are pressed against the bark. Another peculiarity is seen in the form of their straight, tapering, angu- lar, wedge-tipped bill, with which they perforate or chip off the bark and wood, in search of insects and their larvse. A third striking character which they possess, although it is not peculiar to them, is exhibited by their slender, stiff-pointed and bristled or prickly tongue, which they have the power of suddenly thrusting out, in order to draw with it into their mouth the small insects on which they feed. All the species of AVoodpecker, about twenty in number, which I have exa- mined, present this structure, with slight modifications. The examination of organs is certainly the most pleasing and important part of zoology, and, whatever superficial observers TONGUE OF THE GREEN A\'OODPECKER. 57 may say, must soon be generally practised ; but as we have a good opportunity, we may take the measurements of the bird: — Length IS. I inches, extent of wings 20 ; wing from flexure G<1 ; tail 4:j% ; bill along the ridge l/^, along the edge of lower man- dible Ijhi width of mouth l^^ ; tarsus 1 /^ ; hind toe/g, its claw /j ; second or inner toe i%, its claw j\ ; third 1 inch, its claw /^ ; fourth or reversed toe j%, its claw {'j. There are six scutella on the tarsus, four on the first toe, nine on the second, twelve on the third, and eleven on the fourth. Now for our dissection. Plerc the bird is laid on its back, the integuments are removed from its breast, neck, and head ; and the parts are before us : the mandibles, the tongue, the hyoid bones, the salivary glands, the trachea, and its muscles. See Plate XV. Our principal object is to trace out the apparently complex apparatus by which the tongue is protruded and retracted. Two slight diagrams will afford a sufficiently correct idea of the mechanism employed, which is extremely simple. Let Fig. 1, a b, be an object or instrument, which is to be carried forward a certain distance, and then drawn back. All that is neces- sary is to lengthen it behind, a c, fix a cord to the end or to some part, c d, pull this cord, and by means of another cord, a e, restore it to its original position. As the elongated part or appendage cannot in a bird project straight backwards, for then it would pass through the vertebrae and spinal marrow, it must be split into two, one-half passing along each side of the neck ; and as the lenglh of this part must correspond to the distance to which the tip of the tongue is to be protruded, it becomes necessary to dispose of it so as not to impede the functions of the neighbouring parts, and thus it may conveni- ently be curved over the head, between the skull and the skin. Fig. 2 represents such an instrument, it being merely Fig. 1 modified : a b, the tongue ; a c, its double appendage ; d c, the muscles or cords by which it is pulled forward ; a e, those by which it is brought back. Now, the tongue of this Green Woodpecker, when examined superficially, in its retracted state, presents the appearance of a slender, cylindrical, somewhat tapering, fleshy body, termi- nated by a slender, flattened horny point, of which the upper 58 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. surface and sides are covered with very delicate acicular, stif- fish, reversed bristles or prickles. These prickles assist in at- taching the insect or larva to be seized, but the object is not transfixed, as some have imagined, otherwise, being so delicate, the bristles would be broken, or at all events would render it im- possible to disengage the insect for the purpose of swallowing it. The fleshy part of the tongue is Ij inch in length, its horny tip ^ ; but it may be drawn out so that the tip shall be pro- truded nearly 2 inches beyond the tip of the bill ; it being in this state oj% inches long. The protrusion is seen to be effect- ed, not by any elasticity or extensility of the tongue, but in consequence of its basal part sliding forwards from within a sheath, which is lined with a smooth membrane, continuous with that which covers the tongue, of which the basal part when retracted is withdrawn by a kind of intussusception, or as if by turning the finger of a glove partly within itself. Be- sides its general covering, and some delicate muscles, the tongue has internally a very slender bone, not thicker than a strong hog''s bristle, 1^^^^- inch in length, tipped by a broader, some- what sagittiform bone, 1^^ long, which is the basis of the horny part. The long bone is the basi-hyal, and the small terminal one the glosso-hyal. Appended to the base of the former are two filiform bones, Ij inch long, to which are appended two still more slender bones, 5^ inches in length. These bones, the apohyal and ceratohyal, are flattened and tapering, and diverging as they proceed backward, curve on the sides of the neck, ascend, converge on passing the neck, meet on the top of the head, leave the median line when opposite the eyes, digressing to the right side, and terminate near the base of the upper mandible, being attached by two slender ligaments to the outer side of the depression in which the right nostril is si- tuated. The length from the tip of the bill to that of the hyoid bones is 8{'j inches. We have thus the solid parts represented by the diagrams Figs. 1 and 2. A tongue of this kind may be protruded in two ways. Either the elongated apohyal and ceratohyal bones may be made to slide in a sheath, so that their tips shall pass from the forehead to the occiput, or even as far as the base of the lower jaw, in which TONGUE OF THE GREEN WOODPECKER. 59 case the tip of the tongue would advance to a corresponding distance. Or, the tips of the ceratohyal bones being fixed, or having only a little motion by means of an elastic ligament, these bones may form a very large curve, passing down the sides of the neck to a great distance from the base of the skull, in which case the straightening of this curve would carry for- ward the tip of the tongue. In very many Woodpeckers, the whole ceratohyals with their muscles slide backwards and for- wards in a sheath ; but in this species the tips of these bones being nearly fixed, the protrusion of the tongue is effected by the contraction of the muscle straightening the lower part, or that nearest the mouth, which moves in a sheath. A slender muscle proceeds from the lower jaw pretty far forward, on each side, passes backwards, soon attaches itself to the corresponding ceratohyal bone, runs along its wdiole length, covering or enclosing it, and is attached to its tip. This muscle, by contracting, suddenly thrusts out the tongue. To the basi- hyal bone in the cylindrical part of the tongue, is attached on each side a muscle, which proceeds downward in front of the bones of the larynx, on passing which it turns aside, winds round the trachea behind, reappears on the other side, and is twice wound round the trachea, to which it finally adheres. This muscle and its fellow, the trachea being fixed by other muscles, draw back the tongue when it has been protruded. In all Woodpeckers these muscles necessarily exist, and are at- tached to the trachea, but are specially twisted round it only in the Green Woodpecker among the European, and the Golden- winged AVoodpecker, among the North American species. To complete the apparatus, two very large, elongated glands, analogous to the parotid and sublingual in man, secrete a viscid saliva, conveying it each by a single tube, which opens into the mouth, at the angle or point of meeting of the crura of the lower jaw. The fluid thus copiously secreted, fills the place where the tip of the tongue lies when retracted, so that the prehensile bristly tip of that organ is always bedewed with it. Thus a perfectly eflicient instrument for seizing the small and often agile objects on which the AV^oodpecker feeds, is provided by a very simple contrivance. 60 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. Three different views of our Woodpecker's head and neck will render the structure very obvious. In the lateral view of the parts, Fig. 3, are seen a h, the two horny mandibles; the tongue, c d e, its terminal barbed portion, c d, the fleshy part, d e ; the elongated parts of the hyoid bones, with their muscles, f g ; the eye and orbit, li ; the salivary glands, i i ; the neck, / ; the oesophagus, k h ; the trachea, 1 1 ; the lateral or contractor mus- cles of the trachea, mw; its cleido-tracheal muscles, nn^ attached to the furcular bone or clavicle, o. Viewed from before or beneath, the parts seen are : the lower mandible, h ; the salivary glands, i i, turned a little aside ; the hyoid bones with their muscles, fc/, f g ; the oesophagus, k k ; the trachea, ll\ its lateral muscles, m m ; the cleido-tracheal muscles, n n ; the glosso-laryngeal muscles, p p, which, being twisted round the trachea at one end, and attached to the base of the tongue at the other, draw that organ backwards into the mouth ; and lastly, the muscles, q (/, which, arising from the sides of the lower jaw, attach themselves to the apohyal bones,///, are continued to their extremity, and on contract- inof thrust out the tongue. Fig. 5 represents the apohyal bones and their muscles, a a, curving over the occiput, meeting on the top of the head, run- ning forward in a groove, deviating beyond the eyes to the right side, and attached to the upper jaw near the right nos- tril, b. Several modifications of these parts will be seen in the fifth volume of INIr Audubon's Ornithological Biography, of which the anatomical descriptions and drawings were made by me. The trachea is S/^ inches in length, from three to two twelfths in breadth, and composed of about 80 rings, of which the upper are circular, the rest flattened ; the last entire ring bipartite, and succeeded by two dimidiate rings. The lateral or contractor muscles are strong, as are the sterno-tracheal ; and there are two very slender inferior laryngeal muscles. The digestive organs may now be examined. See PI. XIV^, Fig. 5. The oesophagus, a b c, is 5] inches long, its width from half an inch at the commencemeut to three-twelfths, but in the piovcntricular portion, b r, dilated so as to form an SCENERY OF LEICESTERSHIRE. 61 oblong sac, an inch and three quarters in length, and ten and a half twelfths in its greatest breadth. The stomach, cd^ is small, of a roundish form, considerably compressed, nine and a half twelfths in length, ten-twelfths in breadth ; its lateral muscles of considerable strength, one being four and a half twelfths thick, the other three twelfths ; the lower muscle prominent, but very thin ; the tendons large ; the cuticular lining dense, longitudinally rugous, and yellowish-red. The proventricular glands, which are very small, form a belt an inch and a quarter in breadth. The intestine, d efg, is rather short, but extremely wide, and destitute of coeca ; its entire length sixteen inches ; the duodenal portion two inches and three quarters in length, and seven-twelfths in width ; the rest of the intestine contract- ing to five-twelfths ; the cloaca, ij, a very large elliptical sac, ten-twelfths and a half in width. There is no gall-bladder. The contents of the proventriculus are 638 insects and pupoe, most of them ants, four muscae, and a few coleoptera. In the stomach is a mass of the same comminuted, probably 200 more. Consider how many insects a Green \V'ood pecker would at this rate devour in the course of a year. Making the above num- ber the daily average, we find the annual amount to be 305,870, and that of twenty years 6,117,400. Very possibly the num- ber may be double. How many muscular motions of climb- ing, creeping, pecking, tongueing, and swallowing, one cannot even imagine. What say the skin-and-feather ornithologists to all this \ " A knowledge of anatomy is not necessary to the naturalist.""' No truly, not to such naturalists, to whom not even a knowledge of habits is of much importance. How is it that the proventriculus and stomach of a A\'oodpecker should bear so considerable a resemblance to those of a Petrel? The gentleman who has sent me the specimen which we have now examined, Mr Harley, of Leicester, has also favoured me with observations relative to the birds of his neighbourhood, and prefaces them with a brief account of the district, to which it will be useful to refer on occasion. " The small river Soar winds its course hard by the town, turning numerous mills in its progress. After irrigrating many a mead, and refreshing many a field, it falls into the Trent G2 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. about twenty-two miles north of Leicester. The town is situ- ated on a bed of fine red clay, which is covered with a thick bed of gravel. In many parts the soil is deep, but in others scanty. The north-western side of the town is in general very low, with much water, caused by the river being turned for navigation, and its water made available for manufacture and other pur- poses. On each side of the Soar are low meadows, in many places wet and marshy, but generally very productive of fine grasses, which are I believe rather celebrated for fodder. The part of the county which I mean to describe lies between the town of Leicester and the southeastern verge of Charnwood Forest, about six miles distant. After leaving the town, and proceeding about two miles due west, we come to a sort of blue clay, and find detached and scattered pieces of limestone, often containing belemnites. The vegetation here is very scanty, the trees are stunted, and ranpikes are very common. The land intervening between this clayey tract and Bradgate Park, or the Forest of Charnwood, is decidedly woodland, broken, and often picturesque, particularly about the pretty villages of Austy, Grooby, and Newtown Linford. Both the red and blue clays are conspicuous here, but we find them abruptly lost in the granite of Grooby or the schist of Bradgate Park or Charnwood. Two most beautiful streams pass through the villages of Newtown Linford and Grooby. The former rises near to Ulverscroft Priory, winds its way through some picturesque scenery, down a lovely valley, shaded by alders, and passing on to Newtown Linford, runs through Bradgate Park, to join the Soar near Quorndon. The other meanders through a rich and beautiful part of the country, and falls into the stream just mentioned six miles from Leicester. The woods here are rather extensive, particularly Martinshaw, Ulverscroft, and Sheet Hedges. They chiefly consist of oak, ash, and aspen, intermixed with birch, and mountain-ash, the underwood being almost invariably com- posed of hazel, white willow, holly, and honeysuckle. In the vernal months, these woods are bestuddcd with the beautiful Blue Hyacinth, Primrose, Wood Anemone, Sweet-scented Violet ; and as the season advances, the Stitchwort, with its white starry flowers, and the little Germander Speedwell are SCENKRY OF LEICESTERSHIRE. 63 conspicuous in every walk. These woods also abound in some places with the Bear's Garlic, the Red Campion, Ragged Robin, and Herb Robert. " I ought not to omit mentioning Grooby Pool, which is de- scribed by Leland, a distinguished antiquary of the sixteenth century, as a ' faire and large pole.' He says, ' there is a fairo and large parkc by the place, a vi miles in circumpasse, there is also a poor village by the place, (Grooby, this place gives title to the Greys, the present Earl of Stamford is Lord Grey of Grooby) — and a little broke by it, and a quarter of a mile from the place in the bottom, there is a faire and large pole as lightly is in Leycestreshire, there issueth a broket out of this lake that after committs by Grooby and there dryvith a mylle and after resortith to the Sore River.' Grooby Pool in its present state contains about forty acres, and is somewhat less than a mile in circumference. It was formerly much larger, containing between seventy and eighty acres, and extending, it is supposed, to the Ashby-de-la-Zouch road ; but successive encroachments of reeds and other aquatic plants have reduced it to its j^resent size. It is of an oval form, wnth a few slightly indented bays and projecting points of syenitic rock on its margin. Its ut- most length, drawn in a line, from the flood-gates, through the island, to the opposite shore, is about 380 yards. It is in few places more than ten or twelve feet deep, and the greater por- tion is much more shallow. In the dry summer of 1826, it was drained very low, for the purpose of cleaning it out to the extent of two or three acres, where the water-plants had nearly choked it up. " Bradgate Park forms the south-eastern boundary of Charn- wood Forest, and was in early times commonly called the ' Waste.' Leland says it is ' a forest of xx miles or more in cumpasse, having plenty of woodc, the most part belonging to the Marquisse of Dorset, the reste to the King, and the Earl of Huntingdon.' The park in its present state is about seven miles in circumference, and formed into several divisions by means of stone-walls, the materials of which are found upon the spot. It is mostly covered with fern, Pteris aquilina, and the projecting bare and abrupt rocks, rising out here and there, 64 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. with a few scattered gnarled oaks, shivered and blasted, in their last stage of decay, present a scene of wildness and desolation highly contrasted with some of the adjoining beautiful valleys and fertile country. The rocks are in a great measure schistose, being of primitive slate or greywacke, and referred by modern geologists to the Cambrian system. " The Forest of Charnwood, which this park abuts upon, has had an extent of fifteen or sixteen thousand acres. The In- closure Act passed in 1811, when it soon became disafforested, and was shorn of its ancient glory. Now, it is only in the more elevated parts, to which the plough is denied access, that any traces of its pristine condition remain. I may however mention a tract of land situate amongst the AVhitwick Kocks, which overhang Grace Dieu Priory, as having escaped cultiva- tion. Here the gorse blooms in its golden beauty, the Fox- glove, loveliest of our forest flowers, gladdens every dell, and enamels every rock, and the Blue Bell, Campanula rotundi- folia, nods to the passing breeze. Here too we find occasion- ally a patch of brown heath, sometimes tenanted by the Dottrel, the Grey Plover, and the Ringed Thrush. I suppose this tract of table-land may extend to a thousand or fifteen hundred acres. The Trappist monks have a monastery here, and are cultivat- ing a part of the ground. " I shall not attempt further description of our forest range, lest I should become tedious. Yet I ought to say, for your guidance, that Charnwood Forest is free from timber, and was so at the time of its inclosure in 1811. But the recently plant- ed clumps of trees and coppices are growing veiy rapidly, so that in another generation there will remain very little of its present bareness, except the rugged rocks, and everlasting hills. Around Charnwood Forest, unless in the park and wood, and very old inclosure, the Elm, Ulmus campestris, is the principal tree ; and even for miles south of Leicester it prevails." 65 VII. SCANSORES. CLIMBERS. In the arrangements of Cuvier and many other naturalists, a vast number of birds differing from each other in form, structure, and habits, but agreeing in having their outer or fourth toe directed backwards, are brought together to consti- tute an order, destitute of any other common character than that just mentioned, and to which the names of Scansores or Chmbers, and Zygodactyli or Yoke-footed Birds, have been applied. On the same principle, all birds having only the first toe directed backwards ought to constitute a single order, in which Eagles, Pheasants, Pigeons, Finches, and Creepers should be arranged side by side. In truth, a Parrot, a Toucan, a Cuckoo, a Trogon, and a Jacamar, are as essentially different from each other as a Falcon, a Raven, a Nightingale, a Goat- sucker, and a Humming-bird ; and as the groups of the so- called order Scansores present strongly marked differences in their digestive organs, as well as in their habits, I must, in consistency with the principles which I have adopted, reject the opinions of those, however esteemed, who choose on occa- sion to shut their eyes on the truth. " The third order of birds, or the Climbers," says Cuvier, " is composed of birds of which the outer toe is directed back- wards like the hind toe, whence there results a firmer support, of which some genera avail themselves for clinging to the trunks of trees, and climbing upon them. The common name of Climbers, Scansores, has therefore been given to them, although 66 SCANSORES. CLIiMBERS. in strictness it does not apply to all, and although several birds truly climb %yithout belonging to this order by the dis- position of their toes." ]Mr Swainson ho\yever adds these birds to the Scansores, from which on the other hand he ejects many which, although zygodactylous, do not climb or eyen Ayalk, although he retains a very great number of species which no person has ever seen climbing. His Climbers are not an order, but a tribe of the Perchers, and are composed of Toucans, Parrots, Woodpeckers, Creej)ers, and Cuckoos, " the junction of the last with the first being effected by the great hollow-billed genus Phoenicophaeus, and by Scythrops, the Australian genus of Toucans ; ^ but he wisely refrains from attempting to give any general character of the group. M. Temminck defines his Zygodactyli thus: " Bill of varied form, more or less arched, or much hooked, often straight and angular. Feet always with two toes before and two behind, the outer hind toe often reversible." JM. Lesson observes : " Every bird of which the toes are dis- posed two before and two behind, is of the order of Climbers. The manners of most of the species which belong to it are not known ; besides they vary in almost every genus. This is also the case with their food, their habits, and the climates in which they live. Nothing general can be said with respect to them." It is quite unnecessary to offer any remarks on state- ments like these, for the folly of forming such heterogeneous associations must be apparent to all. The Parrots difter from the other birds of this artificial group in many essential respects. Their tongue is short, thick, fleshy, and rounded, or emarginate ; their oesophagus is enlarged to form a crop similar to that of the gallinaceous birds ; their pro- ventriculus is very large ; their stomach very small, but mus- cular ; their intestines of moderate length and width. Their mode of climbing is by grasjiing the branches, and they aid their ascent with their bill. From these and other circum- stances I should conceive that they form a very distinct order. The digestive organs of the A\'oodpeckers differ from those of the Parrots, as will presently be seen, and those of the Cuckoos differ as much from both. AVitli the internal struc- ture of the other groups I am not sufficiently acquainted to be SCANSORES. CLIMBERS. 67 able to form any reasonable idea of the manner in which they ought to be arranged. But this is of little consequence in the present case, as in Britain there are only representatives of two of the groups, the Woodpeckers and the Cuckoos, the former of which, with the Toucans and Barbets, I would consider as forming the order Scansores. The order Scansores, or Climbers, as here instituted, is cha- racterized by a large, strong, nearly straight bill, a long or ex- tensile tongue, and nari'otv zygodactyle feet. Certain other birds also climb much in the same manner, as the Certhiae, Tichodroma?, and Dendrocolaptte, already spoken of, but their feet difter in having only one toe directed backwards ; and asi we name Raptores birds which are peculiarly rapacious, al- though species of other groups are equally so, and apply to a certain series the name of Cantatores or Songsters, although birds of other groups sing, so, wnth equal reason, we may de- signate as Climbers the species of the present group. The feet of the Climbers are short and of moderate strength ; their tarsi more or less compressed, anteriorly scutellate, pos- teriorly with two series of scales ; the toes compressed, of moderate size, excepting the first, which is short, and some- times rudimentary or even wanting, the second and third united at the base, the fourth directed backwards, and longer than the second; the claws strong, much arched, high, compressed, later- ally grooved, and very acute. The bill is straight, or slightly curved, usually about the length of the head, sometimes mujh longer, strong, tapering, and compressed toward the end. The tongue is long, slender, flattened and fringed, or cylindrical, fleshy, with a horny tip, of which the sides are furnished with reversed denticulations, spicula, or bristles. In the latter case, the horns of the hyoid bone being elongated so as to curve over the head, as far as the base of the upper mandible, or even to stretch round the right orbit, the tongue is extensile in a degree corresponding to the space traversed by the tips of these bones, which can be drawn backwards over the occiput, and again forwards to be- neath the ears. See Plate XV. The oesophagus is rather narrow, and without dilatation ; the proventriculus extremely large, the stomach roundish, its muscular coat moderately thick, 68 SCANSORES. CLIMBERS. and its epithelium hard and longitudinally rugous ; the intes- tine of moderate length, and rather wide, without any traces of coeca, and the cloaca enormously large. See Plate XIY, Figs. 4, 5, 6. They cling to the bark of trees by means of their strong curved and acute claws, ascend vertically or obliquely, fix themselves against the surface by their claws, tap the loose bark of decayed trees with their bill, or detach it in frag- ments, or break up the rotten wood, to obtain the larvae and insects which shelter there. They nestle in holes bored by themselves in decayed trees, are generally of solitary habits, and reside at all seasons in woods and forests. Their food is not entirely composed of insects and larvae, for berries and other soft fruits, as well as seeds, are greedily devoured by them. The Scansores thus characterized, are composed of three families ; the Picina? or Woodpeckers, Rhamphastinae or Tou- cans, and Bucconinae or Barbets. They are connected with the Cuculinae by the Wrynecks, which have the digestive or- gans and tongue similar to those of the WoodjDeckers, but in most other respects agree with the Cuckoos. The Jacamars seem to connect them with the Kingsfishers, while the Trogo- nina3 and Bucconinae are in some measure intermediate between them and the Parrots. The great diiferences in the organization, habits, food, and distribution of the birds forming the order Scansores of authors, seem clearly to indicate that the zygodactylous foot is not a feature of primary importance, and that consequently the cha-, racters of the orders or larger groups must be derived from some more essential circumstance. 69 PICIN^. WOODPECKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. Like the Psittacinae, the Pieinje form a well-defined group, of which the affinities are not obvious. Their more essential characters are to be found in their straight, tapering, angular bill, which is wedge-shaped at the end, and constructed for the purpose of splitting or perforating bark and decayed wood ; and their graduated decurved tail, of which the feathers have very strong, elastic shafts, with attenuated webs ; together with their short, strong, zygodactylous feet, and stout, compressed, curved acute claws. The peculiarities of their tongue and di- gestive organs have already been described. The skeleton pre- sents several remarkable peculiarities as compared with that of a Jay or other bird of that family. The skull is of moderate size, roundish-oblong, the orbits with very prominent margins, which are nearly complete, and thus approach to those of the Psittacinae. A double groove for the horns of the hyoid bone is apparent in the median part of the skull, and there is a deep and broad cavity on the forehead, between the anterior parts of the orbits. The jaws are straight and rather long, the lower very deep at the base. There are twelve cervical vertebra?, eight dorsal, twelve lumbar and sacral, and eight caudal. The ribs, eight in number, are stout, the two anterior incomplete. Of the caudal vertebrre the last or eighth is extremely large, presenting a broad plate beneath ; the seventh is anchyloscd with it ; the eighth has a deep notch behind at its lower part, into which is received the very strong inferior spinous process of the sixth, when the tail is depressed. The do^vnward curve of the tail is performed chiefly at the joints between the fifth and sixth, and the sixth and seventh. At the latter the tail may be curved upwards, so as to lie flat 70 PICIN^. on the back. This, however, is not peculiar to Woodpeckers. The lateral processes of the caudal vertebrae are very large, so as to prevent much lateral motion. In the accompanying figure, which represents the sternum of Picus pileatus, the body is seen to have two notches on each side behind, a rather low crest or ridge, which however is much prolonged anteriorly, a slender furcula, of which the crura are extremely compressed, and not widely separated, long coracoid bones, and scapulae singularly curved downwards and enlarged at the end, in which respect they differ from those of any birds known to me. The humerus is large, and has a small bone in its articulation. The metacarpus consists of two undivided bones ; there are, besides the pollex, two digits, one of two phalanges, the other of one. The pelvis is of moderate size. The femur also mode- rate. There is a small patella. The tibia is rather stout, and the fibula extends to half its length ; the tarsal bone is slender ; the phalanges are two, three, four, and five, as usual ; the last phalanx of each toe large, compressed, with a deep lateral groove. As the Woodpeckers seem to be analogous to the Parrots, it appears reasonable that they should form several genera, and, accordingly, some authors, perhaps for the purpose of making or finding the necessary number of groups for their circles, have con- structed numerous subgenera, of which the characters are derived from very slight differences in the form of the bill, and the length WOODPECKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 71 of the tarsus and fourth toe. After a careful examination of numerous species, I feel convinced that the Picin^e are formed of several genera, which, however, exhibit so little variation in structure, that in presenting the history of the few which occur in Britain, it is quite unnecessary to perplex the reader with insignificant distinctions. The groups into which the Woodpeckers might be disposed, cannot be recognised by marks in any degree approaching in prominence to those of the genera of the Falconinae, Psittacinre, Columbinae, Gallinae, and other natural and equivalent families. The only one of the proposed genera that would seem to a beginner to have some right to stand apart, is Colaptes, of which however the characters are derived from very slight variations in the bill, which has the culmen a little more arched than is usual, and the wings with stronger or at least more conspicuous shafts. The genus Yunx, which differs in having the bill shorter and more depressed, and the tail soft, may be appended to the Picinse, as the tongue and digestive organs are nearly similar ; and Yunx minutissimus of authors is certainly more of a Wood- pecker than a AVryneck, although its tail is not stiff. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. PICUS. WOODPECKER. Bill about the length of the head, strong, compact, with its horny covering very thick, straight, pentagonal at the base, four-sided towards the end, tapering to an abrupt, laterally be- velled, point. Tail-feathers stiff, dccurved, attenuated at the end. 1. Picus Martins. Great Black Woodpecker. Brownish- black with red on the head. 2. Picus Pipra. Pied Woodpecker. JNIale with the upper part of the head, the back, and a band on the neck, bluish- black, the occiput crimson ; the abdomen and lower tail-coverts red. Female similar, but with the occiput black. 3. Picus striolatus. Striated Woodpecker. Male with the c^o^^^l 72 PICIN^. bright red, the hind-neck and forepart of the back black, the hind part barred with white, sides of the head and neck white, with a black band ; lower parts brownish-white, longitudinally streaked with dusky. Female similar, but with the crown brownish-white. 4. Picus mridis. Green Woodpecker. Upper parts yellowish- green, with crimson on the head. GENUS II. YUNX. WRYNECK. Bill shortish, slender, straight, tapering, acute. Tail-feathers Boft and rounded at the end. 1 . Yunx Torquilla. Wryneck. Upper parts brownish-grey, spotted, undulated, and dotted with blackish-brown. 73 PICUS. WOODPECKER. Bill rather long, stout, conical, pentagonal, straight, later- ally bevelled at the tip so as to present an edged, abrupt, wedge- like termination : upper mandible with the dorsal outline de- clinate and straight, the ridge sharp, the sides flat and sloping, with a longitudinal ridge, the edges a little inflected, the tip narrow and truncate ; lower mandible with the angle short and rather narrow, the dorsal line ascending and straight, the sides flattened and nearly erect at the base, but beyond the angle sloping, and more or less convex, the edges slightly inflected, the tip slightly truncate ; the gape-line straight. The upper mandible within is slightly concave, with three longitudinal prominent lines, the lower more deeply concave, with a median prominent line. The tongue is extensile, long, slender, subcylindrical, fleshy, with a horny, tapering point, of which the margin, and usually part of the upper surface are covered with acicular reversed prickles. The oesophagus is of moderate width, without crop, but dilated at the lower 74 PICUS. WOODPECKER. part into a large sac, on which the proventicular glands are dispersed. Stomach of moderate size, roundish, a little com- pressed ; its muscular coat thick and composed of large fasci- culi, the epithelium thin, dense, longitudinally rugous. In- testine of moderate length and very wide ; no coeca ; cloaca very large, globular or elliptical. Plate XIV, Figs. 4, 5, 6. Nostrils elliptical or oblong, in the forepart of the short nasal groove, and concealed by reversed bristly feathers. Eyes of moderate size. Aperture of ear also of moderate size, roundish, the inner opening like a transverse slit. The general form is rather slender, the body somewhat elon- gated, the neck of ordinary length, the head oblong, and of moderate size. The feet very short ; the tarsus very short, not robust, with eight anterior scutella, and numerous small scales on the sides and behind ; the first toe very short and directed outwards and backwards ; the second of moderate length, and united as far as the second joint to the third, which is much longer, and generally about equal to the fourth, which is se- parated and directed backwards, so that the first and fourth toes are in grasping placed in opposition to the second and third. Claws remarkably large, much curved, extremely compressed, their outline forming nearly a semicircle, their sides broadly grooved, the tips extremely acute. Plumage generally soft and blended, the feathers ovate, with a very slender plumule of few filaments, on the head oblong or linear ; no bristles. Wings large, being broad and of mode- rate length, much rounded, of nineteen quills ; the first very small, being about a third of the length of the longest, which is the fourth or fifth, the second about as long as the seventh. Tail short or of moderate length, rounded or wedge-shaped, of twelve feathers, of which the lateral are very short, and lie over the next, the rest but especially the central, dccurved, with very strong clastic shafts, and tapering extremities, of which the barbs or filaments are deflected, strong, elastic, and by being pressed against the bark afford the bird a strong support. Fig. 201. The Woodpeckers search the trunks and branches of trees, especially those which are decayed, for insects and larvte, to PICUS. WOODPECKER. 75 procure which they drive off chips of the bark, or dig into the wood. The structure of all birds is of course admirably adapt- ed to their mode of life, and of none more so than of any other ; but sometimes we are able to trace the connection between a curious mechanism and its results, as in this case, where the form and firmness of the bill are obviously so well fitted for the purpose of digging, while the strong, curved, extremely fine-pointed claws, enable the bird to cling with ease to the bark, and its stift' tail, by being pressed against its surface, steadily supi)orts it while thus engaged. If a person apply the lower surface of the tail of a woodpecker to his hand, he wuU find that it requires a vast force to make it slip backwards, such a force as can never be overcome by the weight of the bird. Lastly, the curious but simple apparatus by which tho tongue is extended, so that it can be thrust into a hole or fis- sure far beyond the point of the bill, while its tip is barbed with small filaments, w^hich like the teeth of a rake, serve to pull up the larva or insect, is not less beautiful than easily intelligible. These birds are generally distributed, but more abundant in the warmer regions, although some live on the borders of the frigid zone. Their residence is in the forests and woods. Be- sides insects and larv?e, they eat seeds of various kinds, berries, grapes, and other soft fruits, but their stomach is not formed for grinding, and seeds which they may have swallowed entire are passed undigested. Their flight is powerful. When they pro- ceed to a distance they fly in an undulating manner ; but other- wise directly, or in a single curve, descending from the higher branches of a tree to the lower part of a trunk, which they ascend as if by starts, sometimes in a spiral manner, tapping with their bill, as they proceed, in order to discover the parts that are unsound, on finding which they dig assiduously into them, driving off the bark and chips of rotten wood with great energy, until they have succeeded in obtaining the insects and larvre which have sheltered in them. Thev nestle in a hole dug by themselves in a decayed tree, and deposit the eggs in its bottom, without generally interposing anything between them and the wood. The eggs are not numerous, and are generally 76 PICUS. WOODPECKER. white. Woodpeckers are for the most part unsocial birds, as regards their own species ; but frequently they may be seen in company with Nuthatches, Creepers, Tits, and some other birds of similar habits. Four species occur in Britain, but of these one has been seen only in a very few instances, and the species which is most common in some districts is not generally distributed. 77 PICUS MARTIUS. THE GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER. Fig. 2(12. Picus martius. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 173. Picus martius. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 224. Great Black Woodpecker. Mont. Orn. Diet, Pic uoir. Picus martius. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 390. Great Black Woodpecker. Picus martius. Selb. Illustr. I. 375. Picus martius. Great Black Woodpecker. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 151. Plumage hrownish-hlacJc ; the male with the upper part of the head, the female icith only the occiput, crimson. Male. — The Great Black Woodpecker is one of the largest species of the genus, being about equal in size to the Ivory- billed, Picus principalis, of America. Its body is moderately full, the neck slender, the head rather large, oblong, and com- pressed. The bill is somewhat longer than the head, straight, strong, broader than high at the base, tapering, heptagonal, compressed toward the tip, which is cuneate and vertically ab- rupt. The upper mandible has the dorsal line almost[pcrfcctly 78 PICUS MARTIUS. straight, the ridge sharp, the slope concave to the lateral ridges, which are parallel to the dorsal ridge, and nearer it than the edges, until towards the end, the sides externally of these ridges sloping and convex, the edges overlapping and strong, at the end worn flat, the tip truncate ; the lower mandible with the angle rather long and narrow, the ridge linear, the sides at first gently sloping, then convex, at the base erect and somewhat concave, the edges broad and blunt, the tip truncate. The eyes are of moderate size, the diameter of their aper- ture three-twelfths and a half; the nostrils very small, linear- elliptical, two-twelfths long, basal, concealed by bristly feathers. Feet short ; tarsus very short, feathered more than half way do'SNTi, and having six anterior scutella. The first toe very small, with four scutella, and several series of small scales ; the second toe short, with nine scutella ; the third much longer, with sixteen scutella ; the fourth a little shorter than the third, and with twelve scutella. Claws very large, high, compressed, laterally grooved, curved, acute ; that of the third toe largest, of the fourth next, of the first smallest. The plumage is soft, moderately glossy, rather blended ; the feathers oblong and rounded. The short nasal membrane is covered with stiff reversed bristle-feathers. The M'ings are very long and rounded ; the quills nineteen ; the primaries straight, tapering, stiff"; the first less than a third of the length of the fifth, and pointed ; the second an inch and a half shorter than the third, which is five-twelfths of an inch shorter than the fourth ; the fifth one-twelfth longer than the latter, and the sixth about as much longer than the fifth ; the secondaries are broad, rounded, and very long. The tail is rather long, of ten stiff" decurved feathers, having the groove of their shaft very deep and wide, and their tip emarginate, the terminal filaments extending beyond the end of the shaft. Besides these, there is on each side an incumbent small, soft, rounded feather. The bill is bluish-white, with the tip bluish-black. The eyes are said to be yellow ish- white. The feet and claws black. The general colour of the plumage is brownish-black, on the sides of the head glossed with blue ; the whole upper part of the head bright crimson. GREAT BLACK" AVOOUFECKER. 79 Length to end of tail 19 inches ; bill along the vidge 2f*j, along the edge of lower mandible 2f ; wing from flexure 9ij ; tail 7i ; tarsus 1 /g ; first toe ^*2» its claw {'^ ; second toe /|, its claw II ; third toe |^, its claw "^ ; fourth toe {§, its claw \?^. Female. — The female is scarcely smaller, with the plumage more tinged with brown, and only a small crimson patch on the occiput. Length to end of tail 181 inches ; bill along the ridge S^'*^, along the edge of lower mandible 2/^ ; wing from flexure 94" ; tail 7/j. Habits. — This species has been met with so seldom in Bri- tain, that nothing has been recorded of its manners as observed there. M. Temminck states that it " inhabits the north of Europe, extending to Siberia ; is less abundant in the great mountain forests of Germany and France ; feeds on perforating larva?, bees, wasps, ants, and caterpillars ; and when these fail, on nuts, seeds, and berries ; nestles in the holes which it bores, as well as in the natural hollows of trees ; and lays three eggs, of a shining white." It is said to frequent the pine forests of the Swiss and Tyrolese Alps, and to extend as far as Asia Minor. Dr Latham informs us that it has been sometimes met with in Devonshire ; Dr Pulteney, that two or three specimens have been shot in Dorsetshire ; Lord Stanley is said to have shot one in Lancashire ; and another is reported to have been killed in Battersea Fields, in 1805. Mr Yarrell states that he has been told of two instances of its having been killed in York- shire, and mentions its occurrence in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Plampshire. Although Sir Robert Sibbald includes it among the birds of Scotland, it has not been obtained in that country for many years. The above descriptions are taken from two specimens in my collection, a male and a female, which I purchased from Dr Madden, to whom they had been sent by their owner, as having been shot near Nottingham. That gentleman afterwards obtained for me a certification of the fact by the person who had procured them. 80 PICUS PIPRA. THE PIED WOODPECKER. CHEATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. WHITWALL. WOOD-PIE. FRENCH-PIE. SNAGANDARAICH, Fio. 203, Picus major. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. Picus major. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL Greater Spotted Woodpecker. Mont. Orn. Diet, Pic ^peiche. Picus major. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 395. Greater Spotted Woodpecker, Picus major. Selb. lUustr. I. 37(5. Picus major. Greater Spotted Woodpecker, Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 150. Male with the upper part ofthehead^ the back, and a band on the side of the neck, bluish-black ; a patch of crimson on the hind- head ; a broad band of white over the forehead and under the eye, a patch on the side of the neck, a narrow line over the eye, and the scapidars, white ; the loicer parts broicnish-white, excepting the abdomen and loicer tail-coverts, which are crimson. Female similar, but with the occiput black, the white parts tinged with yellow, and the lower pale-broicn. Young icith the black parts tinged icith brown, and the top of the head crimson. Male. — This species, which is cabout the size of the Missel Thrush, is rare in all parts of Britain, although very exten- PIED WOODPECKER. 81 sively distributed. The individuals from which my descrip- tions are taken were killed in the northern part of the middle division of Scotland ; and I have examined skins of many others shot in various parts of England, as well as in France. The form is rather slender, the body elongated, the neck of moderate length, the head oblong. The bill is straight, strong, conical, angular, and considerably shorter than the head. The upper mandible has the dorsal line almost perfectly straight, the ridge sharp, the sides flat and sloping, an oblique angle or prominent line from the nasal groove to the edge near the end, the tip truncate. The lower mandible also has the ridge sharp, and almost straight, the sides nearly flat, but towards the in- flected edges rounded, the tip truncate in a slight degree. The mouth is of moderate width. The tongue vermiform, termi- nated by a narrow, flat horny point, which is ciliated back- wards with short bristles. The cESophagus is four inches long, rather narrow, the proventricular part however very wide ; the stomach roundish, a little compressed, its muscular coat thin, and its cuticular lining smooth, somewhat villous, and without rugae ; the intestine fifteen inches long, its duodenal portion four-twelfths in diameter ; no coeca. Plate XV, Fig. 4. The tarsus is very short, moderately stout, with seven ante- rior scutella, and numerous small scales behind. The first toe is very short, with five scales ; the other toes gradually longer and larger, the fourth directed backwards and outwards, the se- cond with nine, the third with eleven, the fourth with fifteen scutella. Theclawsaremucharched, deep, extremely compressed, broadly grooved on the sides, and somewhat abruptly pointed. The plumage is soft, blended, and somewhat silky. The VOL. Ill, G 82 PICUS PIPRA. wings are large, broad, and rounded ; the quills nineteen ; the first very small, the fourth longest, the fifth next, the third longer than the sixth, the second nearly as long as the seventh ; the secondaries broad, rounded, and incurvate. The tail is of ordinary length, much rounded or cuneate, of ten feathers, having very strong shafts, which are decurvate at the end, ex- cejjting the lateral, and worn to a double point, the barbs ex- tending beyond the end of the shaft ; besides which there is on each side a very small incumbent soft rounded feather. The bill is dark purplish-grey, darker at the end, the lower mandible paler. The feet and claws dusky-grey. The upper part of the head is glossy bluish-black, with a scarlet band on the occiput. The forehead, and a broad band under the eye, including the ear-coverts, with a narrow line over it, white, the former tinged with brown, the latter with yellow ; there is a roundish patch of the same colour on the side of the neck, and an oblong one on the scapular region. The fore-neck, breast, and sides are brownish-white. A bluish-black band proceeds from the lower mandible down the side of the neck, and joins a patch of the same at its lower part. The hind- neck, back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are bluish-black, the former mottled with white. The wings are brownish -black ; the inner secondary coverts white ; there are, speaking gene- rally, four bands of white spots on the outer and inner webs of the quills, some of the longer primaries having a spot more on the outer, and two less on the inner web, and the inner secondaries unspotted, but with a white tip ; the first quill also is without spots, but is white towards the base on the inner web ; the second has only two spots on the outer, and three on the inner web. The four middle tail feathers are black ; the two next are black at the base, but white with two black bands in the rest of their extent ; the lateral feathers white in their distal half, with two black bars ; the small in- cumbent feathers black. The abdomen and lower tail-covcrts are vermilion. Length to end of tail 9 4 inches ; extent of wings 17 ; wing from flexure 5q ; tail 84 ; bill along the ridge 1/^, along the edge of lower mandible 1 /^ ; tarsus 1 ; first toe -i'^^, its claw I'lEl) WOODPECKER. 83 x'g ; second toe i%, its claw j% ; third toe j\, its claw j"g ; fourth toe j%, its claw ^"g. Femalk. — The female, which is slightly smaller, has the colours distributed in the same manner ; but the red on the occiput is wanting, the whole upper part of the head being glossy bluish-black, excepting the white band on the forehead. Length to end of tail 9^ inches; extent of wings I65 ; tail 3y2 ; wing from flexure 5^ ; bill along the ridge l^',, along the edge of lower mandible l^^^ ; tarsus {I ; fourth toe Ij ; horny part of the tip of the tongue ^. Variations. — I hav^e not met with any remarkable variations in adult specimens, beyond a little difference in the number of white spots on the quills, and black bands on the lateral tail- feathers. The lower parts are often much soiled by matters rubbed from the trees. Habits. — The Pied or Greater Spotted Woodpecker is ex- tensively distributed in England and Scotland ; but in all parts is rare, although specimens are not very unfrequently ob- tained. It is a permanent resident, and has been found breed- ing in various districts. The most northern tracts in which it is met with, are the neighbourhood of Loch Ness, whence I obtained the female described above, in January 1834 ; the extensive fir woods on the Spey, from a specimen shot in which, in October 1836, I have taken my description of the male ; and those in Braemar. In all these tracts it is not extremely unfrequent ; but in other parts of Scotland it is very rarely met with. In England it has been found from the northern counties to those bordering the channel, and is more common than in Scotland, although less numerous than the Green AVoodpecker. Its food consists of larva? and insects of various kinds. The stomach of one killed in January I found filled with small white Nvorms, some of them three-fourths of an inch long, and a line and a half in breadth, while others were scarcely an eighth of an inch in length. Its habits are similar to those of Picus pubescens, P. villosus, and the other variegated "Woodpeckers of North America; its flight being 84 PICUS FIPRA. rapid and undulated, its motions abrupt, and its cry loud and shrill. In ascending a tree it advances by short jerks, directly or spirally, taps with its bill as it proceeds, and on finding a place likely to shelter its prey, drives off the bark, and per- forates the wood. Although a person may approach it while it is actively engaged, it flies off on perceiving him, or glides round to the other side of the tree, sometimes remaining still for a time, as if to conceal itself. Montagu states that " it rarely descends to the ground in search of food, and more frequently makes that jarring noise for which the Woodpeckers are distinguished than either of the other species, especially when disturbed from the nest, wdiich," he continues, "we had an opportunity of observing. It was with difiiculty the bird was made to quit her eggs ; for notwithstanding a chisel and mallet were used to enlarge the hole, she did not attempt to fly out till the hand was intro- duced, when she quitted the tree at another opening. The eggs were five in number, perfectly white and glossy, M^eighing about one dram, or rather more. They were deposited two feet below the opening, on the decayed wood, without the smallest appearance of a nest. As soon as the female had escaped, she flew to a decayed branch of a neighbouring tree, and there began the jarring noise before mentioned, which was soon answered by the male from a distant part of the w^ood, who soon joined his mate, and both continued these vibrations, trying different branches, till they found the most sonorous." ;Mr Harley, of Leicester, who has generously and spon- taneously aided me with observations made on the birds of the midland counties, writes respecting the present species as follows : — " We have the Greater Spotted Woodpecker here also, but it is not quite so common as the Green one. It affects the deep umbrageous woods of Oakley and Piper. In Worcestershire and Herefordshire T have seen it upon the moss-grown apple trees, particularly the very aged ones. From the attention I have paid to its habits, I think I say the truth when I affirm that it afl'ects the tops of trees more than its congener does. The common people here, who have a know- ledge of the bird, call it French Magpie ; and in the counties of Salop and Stafford it is called the Woodpie." IMED WOODPECKER. 85 The eggs arc of an elliptical form, pure white, glossy, an inch and a twelfth in length, and nine-twelfths in breadth. YouNO. — When fledged, the young resemble the adult, with the following differences. The plumage is looser and less glossy ; the black of the upper parts is tinged with brown ; the feathers on the upper and fore part of the head are tipped with crimson ; the white on the sides of the head and neck, as well as that of the scapulars and inner large wing-coverts, soiled with brown ; the longitudinal dark band on the sides of the neck is narrower and blackish-brown, and the lower parts are brownish-white, while the red on the abdomen is duller and of much less extent. In this state, it has been mistaken for Picus medius. Progress toward Maturity. — After the first autumnal moult, the young assume the colours of the adult. Remarks. — A great number of Woodpeckers, such as Picus Canadensis, P. ^lartinte, P. Harrisii, P. villosus, P. pubescens, P. querulus, P. medius, and P. minor, which resemble the present in having the upper parts black, patched with white, may equally be named Spotted Woodpeckers. The older au- thors, Brisson for example, named it the Larger Spotted AVood- pecker, Picus varius major, to distinguish it from the other pied European species ; and Linnaeus, agreeably to the binary nomenclature which he employed, rejected the term varius or spotted, and gave it the specific name of major. This appella- tion, however, is obviously inadmissible, as the bird is not the largest of the spotted or pied species, and much less is it the largest of the AVoodpeckers in general, as the name would imply. I have therefore changed the specific name to Pipra, which is said by Aldrovandi and others to have been that given it by Aristotle. It is difficult to find a good English name for it, but that which I have employed may answer our purpose, and has the advantage of not being new. The name " Red-bellied," which might distinguish it from our other species, has been given to an American Woodpecker, and I am acquainted with eight or ten species which are equally red beneath. 8() PICUS STRIOLATUS. THE STRIATED WOOD- PECKER. LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. HICKWALL. CRANKBIRD. Picus minor. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 17G. Picus minor. Lath. Tnd. Orn. L 229. Pic epeichette. Picus minor. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 399. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Mont. Orn. Diet. Picus minor. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Selb. Illustr. L 379. Picus minor. Lesser Sj)otted Woodpecker. Jen, Brit. Vert. An. 151. Male with the forehead white, the croicn crimson, marcfhied icith hlack, the hack and scapulars transversehj barred ii'ith black and white ; sides of the head and neck tchite, with a black band ; lower parts broicnish-ichite, breast and sides icith longitudinal dusky lines. Female similar, but with the crown white. Male. — This species, which is of less frequent occurrence than the last, being confined to the southern and middle parts of England, is much inferior in size to that species, its length being little more than five inches. The bill is short, tapering, with the point bevelled and abrupt ; the lateral ridges of the upper mandible nearer the margins than the central ridge. The head is rather large, ovato -oblong ; the neck short ; the feet short, with the outer toe about the same length as the third ; STRIATED WOODPECKER. 87 the claws strong, well arched, and very acute. The plumage is soft and blended ; the wings large, broad, rounded, with nine- teen quills, of which the first is very small, the fourth longest; the tail rather short, rounded, of twelve feathers, the lateral small and incumbent, the rest with strong shafts and emargi- nate tips. The bill is greyish-blue, darker at the end ; the iris reddish- brown ; the feet leaden-blue, the claws dusky. The forehead brownish-white ; the crown of the head crimson, with a black band on each side, the occiput of the latter colour ; the sides of the head and neck are white, with a black band from the lower mandible to the wing ; the rest of the lower parts brownish-white, the breast and sides longitudinally streaked with dusky. The hind-neck and fore part of the back are glossy black ; the rest of the back and the scapulars trans- versely barred with black and white ; the winojs black, the secondary coverts with two white bands, the quills marked with white sjiots on both webs, except the first which has the inner web white at the base ; the four middle tail feathers black, the rest white toward the end, the third from the centre with the tip obliquely white, the next with two black bars on the inner webs, the outer with three bars on both webs, the small incumbent feathers black. Length to end of tail ok inches; extent of wings 10 ; bill alons; the ridcje V:?, alon^ the edge of lower mandible A ; wing from flexure 8A ; tail 2 ; tarsus /| ; hind toe /j, its claw 2^ ; second toe y^^, its claw ^% ; third toe y |, its claw j| ; reversed toe /g, its claw /|. Female. — The female differs from the male in having the upper part of the head white. Habits. — This species, which is said to be more abundant in the northern parts of Europe than in France and Germany, has not hitherto been met with in Scotland, or even in many parts of England, although it occurs in most of the southern, eastern, and midland counties, extending a.s far north as Derby, and westward to Shrewsbury and Hereford. It is said by several 88 PICUS STRIOLATUS. observers to be not uncommon in some districts. Thus, Mr Gould, in bis beautiful Illustrations of the Birds of Europe, says, " In England it is far more abundant than is generally- supposed ; we have seldom sought for it in vain wherever large trees, particularly the Elm, grow in sufficient numbers to in- vite its abode : its security from sight is to be attributed more to its habit of frequenting its topmost branches than to its rarity." The Reverend Mr Bree states that " it is by no means of rare occurrence in his neighbourhood, where, however, it is more readily heard than seen. Its loud, rapid, vibratory noise, most extraordinarily loud to be produced by so small an animal, can hardly fail to arrest the attention of the most unobserving ear. Though I have watched the bird during the operation, and within the distance of a few yards, I am quite at a loss to account for the manner in which the noise is produced. It resembles that made by the boring of a large auger through the hardest wood ; and hence the country people sometimes call the bird the ' pump-borer.' " Mr Dovaston informs us that it is a very frequent, but uncertain, visitor to the woods near Shrewsbury, never failing in April to astonish him " with his prodigiously loud churr on the ranpikes of trees, which, the atmosphere being favourable, may be heard more than a mile. It much resembles the snorting of a frightened horse, but louder and longer." He then states that the bird, in performing this sound, " vibrates its beak against the tree ; the motion is so quick as to be invisible, and the head appears in two places at once. It is surprising and to me wondrously pleasing, to ob- serve the many varieties of tone and pitch in their loud churry, as they change their place on boughs of different vibration, as though they struck on the several bars of a gigantic staccato. AVhen actually boring they make no noise whatever, but quietly and silently pick out the pieces of decaying wood, which, lying white and scattered beneath on the ground and plants, leads the eye up to their operations above. They have several fa- vourite spots, to which they very frequently return. Their voice is a very feeble squeak, repeated rapidly six or eight times, ee^ ee^ ee, ee, ee. They bore numerous and very deep liolcs in decayed parts, where they retire to sleep early in the STRIATED WOODPECKER. P9 cveniiif^ ; and, though frequently aroused, will freely return. Whatever be the purpose of this enormous noise, they certainly do very nimbly watch, and eagerly pick up, the insects they have disturbed by it. They fly in jerks like their congeners, and always alight on the side of a tree." These notices are extracted from the earlier volumes of Air Loudon's Magazine of Natural History, a work replete with information respect- ing our native birds. Mr Harlcy informs mc that it occurs about Leicester, but is not a resident all the year round, as are the Green and Greater Spotted AN'oodpcckers, remaining only during the vernal, sum- mer, and part of the autumnal months. IMontagu states that it has all the habits of the Greater Spot- ted AVoodpecker, as well as a similar but less strong note. " The eggs are white, and weigh about thirty-three grains ; five of them we took out of a decayed tree, deposited on the rotten wood, without any nest, and at a considerable distance below the entrance. The aperture corresponded with the size of the bird, but did not appear recently made. It is f)robable, however, it is able to perform this work for itself; and in- stinct points out the insecurity in making choice of a larger opening to their place of incubation, as they would then be lia- ble to be dislodged by the larger species, the daw, and the stare." This curious little bird appears to be peculiar to Europe, where it is generally distributed. It usually prefers the higher branches of trees, although it by no means confines itself to them, and is so intent on searching for its food that it pays little regard to a person coming to watch or shoot it. Like the other species, however, as well as the Creeper, if it perceive its observer, it moves round to the other side of the branch to conceal itself. The loud noise above described is supposed by some to be an amatory performance, as it is heard only or chiefly in spring, while others conjecture it to be pro- duced by a rapid tapping of the bill, for the purpose of disturb- ing insects that are lodged in the bark. This latter opinion is more probable, for in spring it besides emits its ordinary notes so much more frequently and loudly than usual, that they may well pass for a love song. 90 PICUS STRIOLATUS. All that I have here given respecting its habits is downright compilation, for, if I have ever seen the bird alive, I have no recollection of its having afforded me any information. YouxG. — When fledged, the young are similar to the adult, the males, according to INIontagu, having the red on the head before they leave the nest. Remarks. — Although a small bird, this is by no means the smallest of even the Pied or Spotted Woodpeckers, and there- fore I have changed its name to striolatus, expressive of the manner in which its breast and sides are marked. A small Woodpecker, Picus villosus, intermediate in size between the present and the last, but with the upper part of the head in the male black, with a transverse red occipital band, and a white streak over the eye, the red band wanting in the female, has been stated to have been shot near Halifax in Yorkshire. It is supposed, however, that the specimens had come from Halifax in North America. Its habits, accord- ing to Mr Audubon, are similar to those of our own species. It is found at all seasons in the woods, orchards, and fences ; feeds on larvae, insects, seeds of maize, grapes, and other fruits ; breeds in holes which it bores in trees, laying from four to seven eggs ; and emits a sharp loud note, as well as a rolling noise similar to that produced by the other small species. According to Donovan, Picus tridactylus of Linua?us has been shot in the north of Scotland, but I am not aware of its having been met with in any part of Britain. 1)1 PICUS VIRIDIS. THE GREEN WOODPECKER. IIEWIIOI.E. WOODWALL. WOODSPITE. VAFFLER. YAPPINGALE. POPINJAY, RAINBIRD. Fig. 20C. Picus viridis. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 175. Picus viridis. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 234. Green Woodpecker. Mont. Orn. Diet. Pic vert. Picus viridis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 391. Green Woodpecker. Picus viridis. Selb. Illustr. I. 372. Picus viridis. Green Woodpecker. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 148. Male with the upper parts yellowish-green, the rump greenish- yellow ; the tipper part of the head and hind-neck crimson, the loral and orbital spaces, and a mystachial hand, black, the latter with a crimson patch ; the lower parts pcde greenish-yellow, tinged with grey, faintly barred behind with dusky. Female similar, but witJiout red on the cheek. Young greyish-green above, the upper part of the head grey, spotted icith crimson, the lower parts greenish-white, transversely barred tcith dusky. Male. — The Green ^V^oodpecker, which is about the size of a Jay, and remarkable for its lively colours and great activity, is of a moderately stout and rather elongated form, with the 92 PICUS VIRIDIS. neck of ordinary length, and the head ovato oblong and rather large. The bill is longish, somewhat slender, straight, angular, and tapering. The upper mandible has the dorsal outline slightly convex, the ridge sharp, the sides sloping, the elevated longitudinal line from over the nostrils distinct and close upon the ridge, the edges sharp and slightly overlapping, the tip vertically truncate and laterally bevelled. The lower mandible has the angle long and narrow, the dorsal line straight, the sides sloping upwards and a little convex, the edges inflected, thick and blunt, especially in the middle, the tip slightly trun- cate. The mouth is narrow ; the upper mandible moderately concave, with three prominent lines ; the lower more deeply concave, with a median prominent line. On the palate are two longitudinal ridges, and the posterior aperture of the nares is linear-oblong, margined with papillae. The tongue is vermi- form, terminated by a narrow flat horny point, which is fringed with reversed bristles. The oesophagus is six inches long, of which the very large proventriculus occupies an inch and a quarter ; the stomach roundish, rather small, an inch in dia- meter, somewhat compressed ; its muscular coat thin, its cuti- cular lining slightly rugous ; the intestine twenty inches long, its duodenal portion five-twelfths in width ; no coeca ; the cloaca very large. The eyes are rather small, their aperture three and a half twelfths in diameter. The nostrils oblong, two twelfths and a quarter long, and covered over by the reversed bristly feathers of the moderately large nasal membrane. The external aperture of the ear is transversely oblong, its greatest diameter four-twelfths. The tarsus is very short, feathered anteriorly about a third down, with six scutella, behind with numerous scales. The first toe is very small, and directed outwards and backwards, wnth six scutella, the second of moderate length, united to the third as far as the second joint, and having ten scutella ; the third much longer, with fifteen scutella ; the fourth a little shorter than the third, directed outwards and backwards, with twelve scutella. The claws are much arched, deep, greatly com- pressed, broadly grooved on the sides, and extremely acute ; the first smallest, the third largest, the second larger than the fourth. GREEN WOODPECKER. 93 The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers ovate, with a rather large plumule ; those of the nasal membrane stiff, bristly, and directed forwards ; of the head ovate and downy, with a narrowed stiff glossy extremity. The wings are rather long, broad and rounded ; the quills nineteen ; the primaries tapering to a roundish point, the secondaries broad and rounded; the first quill less than a third of the length of the longest, the second one inch shorter than the third, which is two and a half twelfths shorter than the fourth, the fifth almost as long as the latter. The tail is rather short, cuneate, of ten feathers, all pointed and slightly decurved, except the lateral, together with two small incumbent feathers. The bill is greyish-black, the lower mandible with a yellow- ish longitudinal band near the base. The irides are white. The feet are dull bluish-grey, the claws light greyish-brown, with a tinge of blue. The upper part of the head and the nape are bright crimson, the tips of the feathers only being of that colour, while the downy parts are bluish-grey. The lower part of the forehead, the loral space, the parts about the eye, at the base of the lower mandible, and a mystachial band, black, but the latter having a patch of crimson. The upper parts in general are yellowish-green, the rump and upper tail-coverts greenish or lemon-yellow ; the wing-coverts of a somewhat less pure green, being slightly tinged with brown. The edge of the wing is white ; the alula, primary coverts and primary quills greyish-black, their outer webs, excepting towards the end, barred with yellowish-white, the inner with transversely oblong white spots ; the secondaries and their coverts barred with whitish, but that colour not apparent externally, the outer webs being green, with faint light spots, as are the margins of the primaries at the base, except on the outer three. The tail is dusky, faintly barred with brownish or greenish-white, the margins greenish-yellow. The lower parts are pale greenish- yellow, tinged with grey, the throat and sides lighter ; the abdomen, and part of the sides, and lower tail-coverts, faintly undulated with dusky. Length to end of tail 131 inches ; extent of winffs 21 ; winof from flexure 6.j ; tail. 4} ; bill along the ridge lj%y along the 94 PICUS VIRIDIS. edge of lower mandible l^^^ ; tarsus l^-g ; first toe ji, its claw j%; second toe ^%, its claw j% ; third toe 1, its claw ig ; fourth toe j§, its claw j%. Female. — The female difters little from the male. The mystachial band is entirely black ; the red extends less along the hind-neck ; and the lower parts are of a more yellowish grey. Length to end of tail 13 inches ; extent of wings 21 ; wing from flexure 6/^ ; tail 4i ; bill along the ridge 1/^ ; tarsus ly^^j ; middle toe 1, its claw j%. Variations. — In adult birds I have not observed any re- markable variations ; but it is stated that individuals of a white or whitish colour are sometimes met with. Changes of Plumage. — The plumage is completed by the end of autumn, when the tail-feathers are acuminate, but rounded, the shaft suddenly attenuated. AVhen worn by use, they present the appearance of being slit at the extremity, the barbs extending beyond the tip of the shaft. Habits. — The Green Woodpecker docs not occur in any part of the northern or middle divisions of Scotland. None of the birdstufters in Edinburgh with whom I am acquainted have ever had a recent specimen ; and if it exist in the southern parts of that country, it must be extremely rare. Speaking of the valley of the Clyde, which is remarkably well adapted for Woodpeckers, the Reverend Mr Patrick says expressly, " No species of Picus or AVoodpecker has ever been observed in this part of Scotland C and I have had no success in my endeavours to find a locality for the Green Woodpecker north of the Tweed. Mr Yarrell, I think, must have somehow erred in alleging it to be " found over a great portion of, if not all, the wooded districts of England and Scotland." Even in the north of England it is of very uncommon occurrence, but as we proceed southward it increases in frequency, and in sonic districts, especially the southern and midland, is by no means GREP:N WOODPECKEll. 95 uncommon. It is permanently resident, and does not appear to shift its quarters much, remaining at all seasons in the woods, and occasionally betaking itself to orchards and gardens. Its flight is rapid and undulated, when protracted, and all its mo- tions are lively and indicative of great vigour. It ascends in a vertical or spiral direction the trunks and branches of trees, tapping with its bill as it proceeds, to dis- cover the parts in which the bark or wood is decayed. Having found a place likely to yield a supply of food, it strikes the bark smartly, or drives it off with repeated blows, and seizes by means of its exsertile tongue the insects that have been dis- turbed in their retreat. The decayed and worm-eaten wood it perforates for the same purpose, its food consisting not only of coleopterous insects, but of larvae of all kinds that harbour in trees, and especially of that of the Cossus ligniperda, the dis- agreeable smell of which is said to be frequently communi- cated to it. Often in summer and autumn it betakes itself to the ground, to search for insects, and particularly ants and their eggs, which it picks up with its clammy tongue, after demolishing the nests with its bill. It is even said by some to extend its tongue in the paths of the ants, and when several of them have adhered to it, to retract it. Should this statement be correct, it might, in the estimation of the analogical ornitholo- gists, entitle the AVoodpeckers to hold a station parallel to the edentulous anteaters among the mammalia ! It is thought to announce the approach of rain by a peculiar cry, which may be likened to the syWahhs pie u-pleu ; but its or- dinary note is rather harsh, and in the breeding season it emits a noise resembling a shout of laughter, whence its name Yaffler. In spring, like the other species, it produces a remarkable sound, which has been considered an intimation to its mate, by tapping with its bill, strongly and rapidly, on some decayed and sonorous branch, thus causing a noise that may be heard in calm wea- ther to a great distance. About the beginning of April, having paired, it begins to prepare a place for the reception of its eggs, by digging into the decayed wood of a beech, elm, or other tree, a hole, which is carried obliquely downwards to the depth of more than a foot, being at the mouth perfectly round and 96 PICUS VIRIDIS. just sufficient to admit the body, but at the lower part enlarged. Both the male and the female work alternately, and when the cavity is completed, it receives no lining of straws or feathers, but the eggs, to the number of five, of an elliptical form, white, an inch and a quarter in length, are deposited on the bare wood. The young often leave the nest before they are able to fly, creep along the stem and branches, and return to it at night. In winter it is often seen in the neighbourhood of houses, and betakes itself for repose to hollow trees. At all seasons it is shy, although when busily engaged in searching for food, it will allow a person to approach very near it. In autumn, when it is fat, it is frequently eaten, and is sometimes seen in the markets, although usually its flesh is rank and tough. Mr Harley, of Leicester, has favoured me with the follow- ing characteristic account of its habits, as observed in his neigh- bourhood. " The ornithologist desirous of becoming acquainted with the habits of the Green Woodpecker in this part of the country, must repair to the hedge-row tree, the elm, the de- cayed ash, and the ranpikes of the solitary forest oak, and not to the verdant shades of Grooby or Newtown, or the more im- penetrable woods of Sheet Hedges. It sometimes approaches the habitations of man, and I have seen it within a few yards of the buildings of our populous town. On the 16th of April 1834, at five o'clock in the morning, I had a good view of a pair of these birds, as they were at work on an ant-hillock, at the foot of some lofty elms. I remarked the loud sonorous note of the male to proceed from him equally when on the hillock as when on the bole of the tree, to which both he and his partner always resorted when the least danger was appa- rent, or any unusual noise was made. " The elm is the most common tree within a few miles round Leicester, and on its bark the Green AVoodpecker appears happy and at home. Its flight is undulating, but the last un- dulation, before the bird alights on the bole of the tree, is nuich lon"cr than the first. I have never seen it descend the tree after the manner of the Nuthatch, nor have I reason to think that it ever does so. Some authors, in their history of this bird, speak of its carrying away the chips from the foot of GKEEN WOODPECKER. 97 the tree in which it has been preparing a place for its oftspring ; but, although such may bo tho case, I have never, after a very minute search, seen cither male or female removing the chips, which, on tho contrary, 1 have always found in profusion near their holes. This bird never uses masonry, as the Nuthatch does, at the mouth of the holes w^hich it chooses for nidifica- tion. I have never found any appearance of nest, excepting the decayed wood, on which were laid from five to seven deli- cate and beautiful white eggs. " I am not aware of any seasonal difference in the note of the male, save and except in the vernal months, when he is more clamorous, and nuich more frequently repeats his shout. The loud laugh, the plui-jjlui-_phu is the same, not varying in cadence, throughout the spring, and perhaps the summer months. I never saw it scratch when on the ground, even on the most sandy soils, but I have repeatedly noticed it thrust its powerful bill into the ant-hillocks, after the manner of the Rook, and most probably to obtain the eggs as well as the per- fect ants. This habit of the bird will account for its bill being often found covered with earthy and miry substances.'' On the continent, it is said to be generally dispersed, from the Scandinavian peninsula to Greece ; and, according to Pro- fessor Jameson, occurs in the Himalayan range. YouxG. — When full}' fledged, the young resemble the adult, with the following ditlerences : — the upper parts are of a duller green, each feather on the back with a yellowish-white spot, and the tip pale ; those of the rump and the tail-coverts barred with dusky and yellowish-white ; the feathers of the head arc bluish-grey, with a dusky bar, and the tip crimson ; the lower parts are dull yellowish-white, transversely undulated with dusky; the sides of the head and fore-neck streaked with dusky, and the mystachial band small, and brownish-black, with small white spots. i)8 YUNX. WRYNECK. Bill shortish, slender, straight, tapering, acute, rather broader than high at the base ; upper mandible with its dorsal outline almost straight, the ridge very narrow at the base, convex to- wards the end, the sides sloping, but towards the end convex, the edges sharp and sloping, the tip acute, without notch or sinus ; lower mandible with the angle very long and rather narrow, the dorsal outline ascending and straight, the sides sloping outwards and flat, the edges inflected, thick and blunt, the ridge convex, the tip acute ; the gape-line straight. JMoutli rather narrow ; the upper mandible concave, with a central prominent line, the lower more deeply concave, with a similar line. Tongue extremely extensile, vermiform, with its terminal part horny, flat, and tapering, without bristles. Nostrils linear in the upper edge of the membrane, filling up the large anteriorly rounded nasal groove, and anteriorly bare. Eyes of moderate size. Aperture of the ear large and roundish. The general form rather slender ; the neck short ; the hciid oblong, flattened in front. The feet short, and rather slender; the tarsus feathered anteriorly a little below the joint, com- pressed, with seven anterior broad scutella, and an equal num- ber of smaller ones behind. Toes two before, parallel, and united at the base ; two behind ; the first very small, and much more slender than the rest, the fourth directed back- wards, and almost as long as the third. Claws of moderate length, arched, extremely compressed, broadly grooved on the sides, acute. Plumage very soft and blended ; the feathers of moderate length, ovate, and rounded. Wings moderately long, straight, rather acute, of twenty rounded feathers ; the first (juill ex- tremely small and acute ; the third longest ; the second almost as long, the other primaries gradually diminishing. Tail rather YINX. MRVNKtls^. 99 long, straight, rounded, of ten broad rounded featlicrs, of ordi- nary structure. The genus Torquilla has generally been associated Nvitli the genus Picus, to Avhich it undoubtedly bears a great affinity. The extensibility of the tongue is the principal common character, but that organ dift'ers in being barbed in the one genus and smooth in the other. The fourth toe in tho Picinai is directed somewhat outwards and backwards, whereas in Torquilla its natural position is directly backwards, parallel to the first. The bill in Torquilla, however, more closely re- sembles that of the Picina^ than of the Cuculina?, although it is not wedge-shaped at the point. On the other hand, the tail has no resemblance to that of the Woodpeckers. In truth, the genus stands on the limits of the two groups, and forms their connecting link. The common or European species is the only one with which I am acquainted, so that the above generic character has been taken from it exclusively. It ap- pears that there is only another species as yet known, which is a native of Southern Africa, and has been named Yunx pecto- ralis by Mr Vigors. M. Temminck states that " the first quill is a little less long than the second, which is the longest ;" Mr Selby that " the first feather is a little shorter than the second, which is the longest in the wing ;" and Mr Jenyns that " the first quill is a little shorter than the second, which is longest." The first quill I find extremely short, being about a sixth only of the length of the second, which is very slightly shorter than the third. 100 YUNX TORQUILLA. THE WRYNECK. EMMET-HUNTER. LONG-TONGUE. CUCKOO'S MAID OR M.\TE. BARLEY-BIRD. TURKEY-BIRD SNAKE-BIRD. Fig. 207. Yiinx Torquilla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 172- Yun.x Torquilla. Lath Ind. Orn. L 223. Wryneck. Mont. Orn. Diet. Torcol ordinaire. Yunx Torquilla. Temm. ]\Ian. d'Orn. L 403. Wryneck. Yunx Torquilla. Selb. Illustr. I. 38L Yunx Torquilla. Wryneck. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 152. Plumage of the upper farts hroicnlsli-grey^ spotted, undulated^ and dotted with hlackish-hroxini ; a longitudinal hand of dark hroicn on the hind-neck ; the fore-neck and sides gregish-gellotc, with transverse narroic bars cf brownish-black. Male, — The Wryneck is one of the most heautiful of our native birds, being of an elegant form, and having its colours, ^vhich hoNvever arc not brilliant, disposed in a curiously intri- cate manner. As it is the only sjiecies of the genus that occurs in this country, or indeed in Europe, it is unnecessary to de- scribe those parts M-hich have supplied materials for the generic character. Unfortunately I have neglected the examination of the intestinal canal ; and my note-books supply descriptions of the exterior onlv. WRYNECK. 101 The bill, feet, and claws are pale greyish-brown •, the iris light brown. The upper parts are brownish-grey, with small transverse pointed spots, and numberless undulated dots of blackish-brown, and greyish-white markings. A broad band of -elongated brownish-black spots extends from the occiput to the middle of the back. The tail, which is dotted and mottled like the back and wings, has five transverse undulated bands of brownish-black, the last narrowest and subterminal. The quills are brown, marked on the outer webs and inner margins with broad bars or spots of pale red. The fore part and sides of the neck are pale greyish-yellow, marked with transverse narrow bars of brownish-black ; the sides of the body similarly coloured; the breast paler or whitish, with fewer sagittate dusky spots ; the lower tail-coverts yellowish-white, with transverse bars of dusky. Length to end of tail 7 inches ; extent of wings 11, bill along the ridge j^, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; wing from flexure 3j"g ; tail S^^ ^ tarsus y% ; first toe j^, its claw ~^^ ; second toe j%, its claw ■f-y ; third toe ^'i, its claw j^^ ; fourth toe {^, its claw j^^. Female. — The female differs very little from the male, the tints being merely somewhat duller, and the longitudinal band on the neck and back of less extent. An individual shot about eight miles from Edinburgh, in the beginning of INIay 1824, was as follows. Bill and feet pale brownish-grey. The upper parts brownish-grey, with transverse markings of blackish- brown and whitish, the latter terminal ; the whole plumage minutely dotted ; a line of brownish-black spots from the occi- put to the middle of the back ; a few roundish spots of whitish on the wing-coverts ; tail yellowish-grey, barred with five un- dulated black bands ; the quills brown, their outer webs and inner margins with a broad bar of pale red ; the fore-neck and sides pale greyish-yellow, transversely barred with brownish- black, the rest of the lower parts yellowish- white, withtriangu- lar_dark spots, excepting the lower tail-covertSj which are simi- larlv' barred. 102 YUNX TORQUILLA. Length to end of tail 6f inches ; extent of wings 1 1 ; bill along the ridge ^ ; tarsus ^ ; third toe and claw l-^^^. Habits. — The Wryneck arrives from the middle to the end of April, generally preceding the Cuckoo, to which it is nearly allied in form if not in habits, and disperses over the country, extending northward as far as the middle division of Scotland, in which country, however, it is extremely rare. The late Mr George Carfrae broucrht me for examination one shot near Currie, in JSlid-Lothian, in May 1824, and his brother Mr Mac- duff Carfrae obtained a specimen from Fifeshire in 1835. , In many of the southern, eastern, and midland districts of Eng- land, it is not very uncommon, but according to Montagu is of rare occurrence in the western parts. This beautiful bird seems to be precisely intermediate be- tween the ^yoodpecker and the Cuckoo, but in its habits and the structure of its tongue it is more allied to the former. That organ is slender, with a horny point, and is capable of being thrust out to a great length in consec[uence of the extreme elon- gation of the horns of the liyoid bone, which curve over the head and extend to the base of the upper mandible. Two long salivary glands, situated beneath the tongue, open into the mouth by two ducts, and pour forth a copious viscid fluid, which covers the tongue, and thus causes insects, larvae, ants and other small objects forming the food of this species to ad- here to it, when it is ejected for the purpose. " AVe were enabled,"" says Montagu, " to examine the manners of this bird minutely by taking a female from her nest, and confining her in a cage for some days. A quantity of mould with enmiets and their eggs were given to it ; and it was curious to observe the tongue darted forward and retracted with such velocity, and with such unerring aim, that it never returned without an ant or an egg adhering to it, not transfixed by the horny point, as some have imagined, but retained by a peculiar tenacious moisture, by nature provided for tliat purpose. AVliilc it is feeding the body is motionless, the head only is turned to every side, and the motion of the tongue is so rapid that an aufs egg, which is of a light colour, and more conspicuous than the WRYNECK. 1(« tongue, has somewhat the appearance of moving towards the mouth by attraction, as a needle flies to a magnet. The bill is rarely used except to remove the mould in order to get more readily at these insects ; where the earth is hollow, the tongue is thrust into all the cavities to rouse the ants ; for this pur- pose the horny appendage is extremely serviceable, as a guide to the tongue. We have seen the Green Woodpecker take its food in a similar manner ; and most probably every species of that genus docs the same." " Shy and unusually timid," says Mr Knapp, " as if all its life were spent in the deepest retirement, away from man, it remains through the day on some ditch-bank, or basks with seeming enjoyment, in any sunny hour, on the ant hills nearest to its retreat ; and these it depopulates for food, by means of its long, glutinous tongue, which, with the insects, collects much of the soil of the heaps, as we find a much larger portion of grit in its stomach than is usually met with in that of other birds. When disturbed, it escapes by a flight precipitate and awkward, hides itself from our sight, and, were not its haunts and habits known, we should never conjecture that this bust- ling fugitive was our long-forgotten spring visitant, the Wry- neck." But although it thus frefjucnts the ground in quest of food, it also searches the trunks and branches of trees, and has been observed clinging to walls. " I once," says a correspondent in the Magazine of Natural History, Vol. IV, p. 4o0, " saw it climb the perpendicular foce of an old tall wall in the botanic garden at Bury St. Edmund's ; it was seeking either insects or grit, and proceeded as if in neither haste nor fear, but uttered its hawk-like note at intervals." This note is a shrill cry, which has been compared to the scream of the Kestrel, and which is more frequently heard in the earlier period of its so- journ with us. From its appearing about the same time as the Cuckoo, it is named in various parts of England, the Cuckoo's mate, maid, attendant, or messenger. The name of Wryneck is derived from its habit of moving its head and neck in various direc- tions, and probably was originally Writheneck, corresponding 104 YUNX TORQUILLA. to Torquilla and Torticollis. When surprised in its nest,_it is described as making a hissing noise, which some compare to that of a Turkey-cock, others to that of a snake, erecting the feathers of its head, which it moves to either side, stretching it- self at full length, and sometimes so frightening the intruder as to make its escape. It has thus obtained the names of Snake-bird and Turkey-bird. The nest is merely the rounded bottom of a cavity or hole in a tree, which the bird adapts to its purpose by means of its bill, the small chips of wood answering in place of straw or feathers. The eggs, which are generally seven or eight in number, are pure white, ten twelfths of an inch in length, and seven twelfths in their greatest breadth. " The Wryneck," says M. Manduyt, " is remarkable for the habit which has given it its name, that of twisting the^neck with a slow undulatory movement, like that of a snake, turn- ing its head back and closing its eyes. When caught, it never ceases this motion, which it also performs when at liberty, and even the young, M'hile yet in the nest, have the same habit. If one should go near a male A\^ryneck confined in a cage, it immediately ruffles ujd the feathers of its head, spreads out those of the tail and raises them, advances and retires, striking the bottom of the cage with its bill." It is said to be generally distributed on the Continent, and to be common among the Himalayan ISIountains. Young. — The young when fledged arc coloured in the same manner as their parents. 10;3 CUCULINiE. CUCKOOS AND ALLIED SPECIES. Of the extensive series of zygodactylous birds, the most isolated groups seem to be the Parrots and Woodpeckers, which might therefore be considered as forming two distinct orders. Feet of this kind are not necessarily scansorial, and we have seen that the more or less syndactylous feet of Creepers and Nuthatches are as well adapted for climbing as those of Woodpeckers ; large, well-curved, much compressed, and ex- tremely acute, short-tipped claws, whether two only or three of the toes be directed forwards, forming the essential charac- teristic of a scandent foot. Now many of the zygodactylous birds have the feet somewhat diftcrently formed from those of the Woodpeckers, inasmuch as the toes are very broad and flat beneath, so as evidently to be formed for grasping a branch or twig with security, while the claws are not very difterent from those of the Vagatores and other perching birds ; and in some the toes and tarsi are so very small and feeble that they could not support a bird in climbing. These latter, such as the 10(3 CUCULIN^. Jacamars, may be referred to the aerial birds, or those which fly chiefly in procuring their food, but neither climb nor walk much; and the Cuckoos and Anis may be considered as form- ino^ an order, to which, however, I refrain from giving a name, because I have not studied the manners of more than a single species, nor read a good account of any other than the three that occur in North America. The digestive organs of these four species are very similar to those of the Owls, and their coeca are large, while those of the Woodpeckers and Toucans are entirelv wanting. The Cuculinrc form a pretty extensive family of birds, gene- rally inhabitants of the warmer regions of the globe, and of which none permanently reside in countries subject to severe winter cold. They feed on insects, worms, and soft fruits, in procuring which they glide among the twigs and foliage, leap- ing from branch to branch, but never climbing in the manner of Woodpeckers or Creepers, nor even after the fashion of Parrots, which ascend by grasping the branches and aiding themselves with their bill. The general characters of the Cuculinae are as follows. Bill of moderate size or rather large, wide at the base, much compressed toward the end, somewhat arched and pointed ; upper mandible with the ridge obtuse and arcuato-declinate, the edges sharp and overlapping, the tip dccurved, notchless, acute ; lower mandible with the dorsal line straight or decur- vate, the sides nearly erect, the edges thin and somewhat in- volute, the tip narrow, but obtuse. Tongue of moderate size, flattened, tapering. (Esophagus wide, without crop ; proven- triculus large ; stomach very large, round, somewhat com- pressed ; its muscular coat thin, the epithelium soft and rugous; intestine of moderate length and width, with large oblong cocca. ri . X V . Trachea with a single pair of inferior laryngeal muscles. Nostrils linear, oblong, or circular, direct, in the short bare nasal groove. Eyes of moderate size. Feet short, of moderate strength ; tarsus short, with a few very large anterior scutella, edged behind with two scries of scales. Toes four, scutcllate, CUCKOOS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 107 broad beneath ; first small ; second shorter than fourth, and united at the base with the third, which is very long ; the fourth or outer reversed so as with the first to oppose the rest in frraspini; ; claws moderate, compressed, curved, acute. Plumage moderately full, generally compact, but various ; the feathers ovate, with a very short plumule, but having the downy filaments numerous and close. ^Vings long or of mo- derate length, much rounded, the first quill short, the third and fourth longest. Tail long, ample, graduated or rounded, of twelve broad, rounded feathers. In their digestive organs the Cuculina3 bear a striking re- semblance to the Owls and Goatsuckers. They are for the most part of an elongated form, having the body rather slender, the neck short, the head rather small and oblong, the tail very long, and the wings in no instance short. They fly with rapidity, glide among the foliage with great celeritv, advance among the twigs with ease, but on the ground walk in an awkward man- ner, on account of the shortness of their tarsi. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. CUCULUS. CUCKOO. Bill of moderate length, rather slender, arcuato-declinate. Nostrils roundish, with a prominent margin. Feet very short, slender ; tarsi feathered more than halfway down. Wings and tail very long. 1. Cuculus canonis. Gi'ey Cuckoo. Bluish-grey above, fore part and sides of neck ash-grey ; body beneath transversely barred with white and dusky. Young with the upper parts barred with light-red and brown, the lower with brownish- white and dusky. GENUS IL COCCYZUS. COWCOW. Bill of moderate length, slender, arcuato-declinate. Nostrils linear. Feet very short, slender ; tarsi bare. AMngs of moder- ate length ; tail very long. 1. Coccrjziis Americanus. Yelloic-billed Coiccoic. Upper parts greyish-brown tinged with olivaceous ; lower silvery white. 108 CUCULUS. CUCKOO. Bill of moderate length, rather slender, arcuato-declinate, broader than high at the base, compressed toward the end, acute ; upper mandible with the dorsal line arcuato-declinate, the ridge narrow but obtuse, tlie sides sloping at the base, con- vex toward the end, the edges sharp, with a slight sinus close to the declinate, acute tip ; lower mandible M'ith the angle short, the dorsal line slightly decurved, the ridge rather narrow, the sides sloping outwards, toward the end convex, the edges thin, the tip narrow and obtuse ; the gape-line arcuate. Tongue rather short, slender, thin, emarginate and minutely paj)illate at the base, the tip acute. (Esophagus wide, taper- ing ; proventriculus rather large ; stomach large, round, with the muscular coat very thin, and composed of large flattened fasciculi ; the cuticular lining soft and rugous ; intestine of moderate length, rather wide ; coeca large, oblong. Nostrils elliptical, with a prominent margin. Eyes of moder- ate size. Feet very short ; the tarsus feathered halfway down, anteriorly scutellate, scaly behind, and rather sharp. Toes small, broad beneath ; the first very small, the third longest ; the fourth longer than the second, and reversed. Claws rather small, arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, rather acute. I*lumage soft and blended ; the feathers ovate, with a short plumule ; those on the rump elongated and rather stiff. AVings long, straight, and pointed, with twenty quills ; primaries taper- ing and rounded, the first a third shorter than the second, the third longest ; secondaries short, broad, abrupt, the inner rounded. Tail long, graduated, of twelve rounded feathers. This genus is especially remarkable for containing birds which deposit their eggs in the ne.sts of other and smaller birds of various genera, leaving them there to be hatched, and thus committing their oftspring to the care of strangers. Only one species vi.sits this country in summer. 109 CUCULUS CANORUS. THE GREY CUCKOO. Fig. 209. Cuculus canorus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. ]0"8. Cuculus canorus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 207. Common Cuckoo. Mont. Orn. Diet. Coucou gris. Cuculus canorus. Temni. Man. d'Orn. L 38L IIL 272. Common Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus. Selb. Illustr. L 397. Cuculus canorus. Common Cuckoo. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 154. In both sexes the upper parts hluish-f/reif, the fore part and sides of the neck ash-grey, the breast and sides of the body bluish- ichite, transversely barred icith brownish-blacl', the quills dusky- broicn, tinged externally icith grey, their inner icebs bay-red icith ichite ; the tail-feathers greyish-black, spotted along the shafts and on the inner tceb, and tipped with white. Young with the upper parts transversely barred icith light red and clore-broicn, the lower icith broicnish-xchite and dusky. Male. — This general favourite, whose cry is familiar to all, either in the original, or through the medium of imitations, is one of the most elegantly formed and agreeably coloured of our na- tive birds. The singular circumstances connected with its mode of propagation have moreover rendered it an object of peculiar no CUCULUS CANORUS. interest. In shape it bears some resemblance to the Kestrel, and in colour to the Sparrow-hawk. The body is rather small in proportion to the plumage, the head ovate, and of ordinary size. The bill is shoiter than the head, at the base rather broader than high, compressed toward the end, and somewhat arched. The upper mandible has its dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the ridge rather narrow, the sides sloping and becoming gradually more convex towards the end, the tip a little decurved, narrow, sharp, with slight indications of notches, the edges sharp and a little overlapping. The lower mandible has the angle short and wide, the dorsal outline con- cave, the ridge narrow, the sides sloping outwards, flat at the base, convex towards the end, the edges sharp, the tip narrow. The gape-line is considerably arched, and the mouth wide. The upper mandible is internally flat, with a slightly promi- nent central line ; the whole roof of the mouth is also flat, as in Goatsuckers and Swifts. The posterior aperture of the nares linearand papillate. The tongue, PI. XV, Fig. !,«, rather short, slender, thin, oblong, slightly concave above, emarginate at the base, with minute papillae, and a large pointed one at each angle, the tip acute, but varying considerably, as will be after- wards explained. The aperture of the glottis has numerous flat, pointed papilke, and two large acuminate ones behind. The mouth measures ten and a half twelfths of an inch across. The a'sophagus, h, c, is five and a half inches long, and tapers from a diameter of ten twelfths to that of five twelfths, so as to be somewhat funnel shaped in its extra-thoracic part. Its walls are extremely thin, the inner coat longitudinally plicate when not distended, and plentifully supplied with mucus. The proventriculus, d, is elliptical, about an inch long, its greatest diameter seven twelfths ; its glandules large, generally half a twelfth in diameter, the upper oblong and inclined down- wards, as is seen in Fig. 2, «, b, and c, the lowest ovate and directed upwards, those about two-thirds down roundish and direct, all simple or unlobed. The stomach. Fig. 1, e,f, is large, round, an inch and three twelfths long, an inch and two twelfths broad, nine twelfths in thickness ; its nmscular coat is very thin, and composed of distinct flattened fasciculi^ (JRKV CUCKOO. 1 1 I so that there is no division into lateral muscles ; its middle coat very thin ; the inner or cuticular, Fig. 2, c, ;. — The Cuckoo arrives in the south of England about the 2()th of .Vpril, in the south of Scotland towards the cud of that month, and in the northernmost parts of Britain soon after the beginning of May. The periods of arrival, however, vary considerably according to the character of the season, and as the birds do not always announce their return by emitting their well-known cry, they may sometimes be met with at a time when their presence is not suspected. There seems to be hardly 116 CUCULUS CANORUS. any part of the country which they do not visit ; for while some remain in the southern counties, others settle in the remotest islands of the north, and although they are met with in the most cultivated districts, they also frequent the valleys of the wildest of our hilly and mountainous tracts. Perhaps the most favourite resorts of the species are parks and plantations bor- dered with fields and pasture-grounds, or the woods and thickets of the upland glens ; but on the rocky hills of the most treeless regions, and the bleak moors or ferny braes of the interior, it is found often in great numbers, although never in flocks, for if gregarious during its migrations, as some suppose, it manifests no social disposition during its residence. Whether it be more numerous in the south than in the north I cannot afiirm, for while it is stated " that they abound in the INIalvern Hills, making the whole circuit of them resound with their note," they are as plentiful in the wooded valleys of the counties of Ross and Inverness. In the maritime Highlands and Hebrides, about the time of the arrival of the AV^heatear, every one is on the look-out for the Cuckoo. Both birds are great favourites with the Celts, the latter more especially, but both may be the harbingers of evil as well as of good ; for should the Wheatear be first seen on a stone, or the Cuckoo first heard by one who has not broken his fast, some misfortune may be expected. Indeed, besides the danger, it is considered a reproach to one to have heard the Cuckoo while hungry, and of such a one it continues to be said that the bird has muted on him, " chac a chuaig air." But should the Wheatear be seen on a turf or on the grass, or should the Cuckoo be heard when one has prepared himself by replen- ishinif his stomach, all M'ill m well. Such at least was the popular creed twenty years ago, Mdien I began in earnest to look after birds. The Highlanders have perhaps become wiser ; at least they are now poorer, and poverty gives rise to reflection. The Saxons of the south, it would appear, were wont to think diflcrcntly of the Cuckoo, and to listen with no friendly feeling to its cry. But the lover of nature, whether Saxon or Celt, gladly hails the bird of summer. GREY CUCKOO. J 17 '• Cuckoo ! Cuckoo ! O ! welcome, welcome notes ! Fields, woods, and waves rejoice In that recover'd voice, As on the wind its fluty music floats. At that elixir strain, My youth resumes its reign, And life's first spring comes blossoming again." Early in the sunny mornings of May, and towards the close of day, he who wanders along the wooded valleys will be sure to hear the ever-pleasing cry of the Cuckoo, unA^aried though it be, as the bird, perched on a rock, or lichen-clad block, or balancing itself on the branch of some tall tree, cooes aloud to its mate. Let us pause and listen : the bird is not far distant, and we may describe its song, such as it is. You hear nothing but the same Jiu-hu, or if you please so to syllable it coo-coo, repeated at short intervals ; but if you attend better you will find that these two loud and mellow notes are preceded by a kind of churring or chuckling sound, which, if you creep up unseen, you will hear to consist of a low and guttural inflec- tion of the voice, during which the throat seems distended. But the Cuckoo, ever vigilant and shy, has observed you, and flies oflf, followed by two small birds, which, by their mode of flying and incessant cheeping notes, you know to be Meadow Pipits. They keep pace with it, and when it alights on the grassy bank, t^iey alight too, and take their stand in its vicinity. You have heard that Cuckoos lay their egg in the nest of a Pipit or other small bird, and you at first suppose these to be its foster-parents. This, however, is not a young Cuckoo, but an old grey male just arrived from the sunny south. Then what have the Pipits to do with it I I cannot tell, for although I have rarely in the hilly parts of the country seen a Cuckoo unattend- ed by one or two of them, I have not observed that it was fed by them, or that they molested it otherwise than by hovering about it. They attend upon it, fly after it, stand beside it, and seem to be concerned about it, to be distrustful of it, to watch its motions, and to indicate their dislike to it by their con- tinued cheepings. It seems to me that they take it for a hawk. But the Cuckoos are not always followed by Pipits, for often you may see them gliding among the trees without any attend- 118 CUCULUS CANORrS. ants ; yet so generally are these birds seen together on the open moors and pastures, that "the Gowk and the Titling'" is a common saying in Scotland. But it is sadly misapplied to a person following and fawning upon his patron, or to two indi- viduals of disproportionate size whose friendship keeps them continually together. The name which the Scots give to the Cuckoo they also apply to a foolish person, no doubt on account of his continued and silly babble. Later in the season, you may see a young Cuckoo followed and fed by Pipits ; but its colours are very diiferent from those of the old bird. Some- times also you may find it surrounded by Swallows and other small birds, which are intent on molesting it to the utmost of their power. The flight of the Cuckoo is swift, gliding, even, rapid on occasion, generally sedate, usually at no great height. In the hilly parts it maybe seen skimming over the ground, alighting on a stone or crag, balancing itself, throwing up its tail, de- pressing its wings, and then perhaps emitting its notes. In woody districts it glides among the trees, perches on their bouo'hs, and makes occasional excursions into the thickets around. On the ground I have seldom seen it unless when cooing, and there it can scarcely walk with more ease than a Swallow ; but on trees it alights wnth facility, clings to the twigs with firmness, glides among the foliage, and by the aid of its tenacious grasp and ample tail, throws itself into various and always graceful postures, as it searches for its prey. Its food consists of coleopterous, lepidopterous, and dipterous in- sects, in procuring which it must visit a variety of places, and verv much of hairy caterpillars, which it picks from among the grass and heath, where, however, it cannot search by walking, like the plover or curlew, as its feet are too short, and its toes misplaced for such a purpose. Yet it can hobble round a bush to pick the worms from it, as well as cling to its twigs. " The great quantity devoured by the Cuckoos in a short space of time," says ]Mr Weir, " is truly astonishing, and would scarcely be believed, except by those who have been witnesses to tho fact. They have for several years been the means of prevent- ing the gooseberry bushes in my garden from being destroyed." CJREY CUCKOO. 119 The substances which I have usually found in the stomach of the Cuckoo were insects of various kinds, hairy caterpillars, and smooth larva? ; but I have also found in it vegetable mat- ter. Thus, it is recorded in one of my note-books respecting a male examined in June 183G, that the cuticular lining of tho stomach is " smooth, soft, in this instance without hairs, it being filled with vegetable fibres and blades of grasses." I have never met with a fragment of the elytra, the articulation of a limb, or any other hard part of an insect in tho intestines, the contents of which are a uniform pulpy and impalpable mass of a light red colour. Of course, the remains of insects in the stomach must bo thrown up in pellets, as in Hawks and Owls. Hairs and other matters I have several times found in so great a mass as to distend the stomach nearly to its greatest capacity. It has been conjectured that the Cuckoo occasionally feeds on eggs, especially those of the small birds in the nests of which it deposits its own ; but I am not aware of its having been caufrht in the act. It has also been accused of eatinjj voungr birds, but no one has found bones or feathers in its stomach. The Cuckoo is a very shy bird, so that one cannot follow its motions ; but facts in its history and organization lead to infe- rences, which may be correct, if carefully educed. Thus, it may be heard cooing at most hours from sunset to dawn, and I have listened to its notes at midnight, when they have a very singular effect. This circumstance has been noticed by others as well as myself. Thus, in the third volume of the INIagazine of Natural History, p. 4:66, Mr White makes the following statement : — " During the summer of 1830, the days were wet and chilly, and the nights clear and calm ; so that the night was, in fact, more pleasant than the day : so much so, that I frequently walked out after supper, and as frequently heard both tho Cuckoo and the Nightingale from ten till eleven o'clock ; but on two succeeding evenings, the 4th and 5th of June, the moon being about full, and shining M-ith ' unclouded majesty,"' I heard, about ' the witching hour of night,'' both the Cuckoo and the Nightingale ; and on the i)th, as I was returning from a party of friends, with the fair partner of my pleasures and pursuits, a little after midnight, we were highly gratified in 120 CUCULUS CANORUS. hearing a trio, with all the native melody of the grove, perform- ed by the Cuckoo, the Nightingale, and the Sedge- Warbler." It is frequently seen abroad at early dawn, and sometimes very late in the evening ; while at mid-day you seldom meet with it unless in woods, or perched on a stone in the moors. Is it not then somewhat nocturnal I Then, its mouth is wide, bedewed with a viscid fluid, and the flat form of its palate re- minds you of that of the Goatsuckers and Swallows, as well as of the Owls. Its digestive organs are like those of the for- mer and latter of these birds, and its food is similar, bating mice and birds. It is therefore probable that it takes a part of its prey on wing, more especially in the twilight. Now, if we seek for analogies and afiinities, we may feel dis- posed to think that Cuckoos are " in their own circle analo- gous" to what ? — according to jNIr Swainson, to the Tenuiros- tres among the Insessores, and to the Rasores or Gallinaceous birds in the series of orders. You will naturally think that their nearest allies are Goatsuckers and Owls ; but if you will have all things by fives or threes you must not scruple to prefer remote to direct aflSnities when it suits your purpose to do so. The Grey Cuckoo is not necessarily and therefore not essen- tially a bird of the woods, like a Woodpecker or a Parrot ; nor is it therefore a climber. Its haunts are more esjsecially the open pastures, and although it perches on a tree or a stone, and has feet like a Woodpecker in this one rcsjjcct that the outer toe is turned backwards, it is not therefore any more a climber than a Thrush or a Swallow, certainly less so than a Siskin or a Redpoll Linnet. But many birds of similar form are de- scribed by authors acquainted with their habits as sylvicolous and as climbing, not indeed in the manner of Woodpeckers, but somewhat like Parrots, that is by grasping the twigs or branches, and young Cuckoos kept in captivity have been ob- served occasionally to employ the same action. The feet of the Cuckoo however do not present the very strong curved claws pe- culiar to the truly climbing birds, or rather to those which are capable of clinging to a perpendicular surface. Some species of this fomily have the claws elongated and little curved, and liaviuff also tarsi of considerable lenetli, arc thus enabled to walk GREY CUCKOO. 121 with ease over the grass or other herbage. As to our bird, it no doubt can cling to the branches with fn-mncss, but it is no more a climber in any sense than the Jay or the Blackbird, which, although they often resort to woods, also frequent the open grounds. In fact, the order Scansores of authors is a most heterosenous association. Greater differences than there are between the feet of a Cuckoo and those of a Linnet, occur in even the most possibly natural family, namely in the Cheli- dones ; and if a certain arrangement of the toes, without re- gard to their strength and the form of the claws, were so im- portant as some ornithologists would have us to believe, the Swifts and Swallows ought to stand in different orders ; the common Gull and the Kittiwake in dilferent genera. The most remarkable trait in the character of the Cuckoo is its confidinfT the charfro of hatchinoj its eirGts, and rearintj its young, to some other bird, always much smaller than itself. The species on which it thus imposes its progeny is gene- rally the ^leadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis. In Scotland I have never heard of its laying in the nest of any other bird, but in England its egg has been found in those of various species : — the Hedge Chanter, White AVagtail, Sky Lark, Kightingale, Garden A\"arbler, and others. The e^g is small in proportion to the size of the bird, being generally not much larger than that of its foster parent, its average length from ten to eleven twelfths of an inch, its greatest diameter from eight to nine twelfths, its colour white, greyish- white, or reddish- white, speckled with ash-grey or greyish-brown. Various con- jectures have been hazarded as to the cause of the dispropor- tionately small size of the eggs. If we say that as the Cuckoo is physically constrained to deposit its egg in the nest of some small bird of the insectivorous kind, its egg must be nearly of the size of those of its dupe, we may state a truth, but we afford no explanation of the phenomenon. Why should it be so con- strained .' why does it not form a nest, hatch its eggs, and rear its young I Because, as some say, it leaves its sunnner resi- dence early in July, and as it remains only two months there, it could not leave its young in a sufficiently advanced state to shift for themselves. But why should it hurry away so fast ? 122 CUCULUS CANORUS. has it not abundance of food I does it not go away at the very time when insects and larvae are most abundant ? If it dreads the cold of early autumn, is not that of April or even ^lay much greater ? and if its tender young find enough of heat un- til September, how is it so much more sensitive i It has been alleged, conjecturally I believe, that the ovary is less plentifully supplied with blood than that of other birds of similar size, and therefore the eggs are not developed. I can see no difference in this respect between the Cuckoo and the IMagpie or Jay ; but if there were, although the smallness of the eggs might be accounted for in so far, how is it necessary that they should be small l In short, all that we know about the matter is just this : The Cuckoo arrives in the end of spring, and departs in July ; it forms no nest, but deposits its eggs singly in the nests of various small birds, which hatch them, and rear the young. The latter not being well fledged until September, remain two months behind their parents. The eggs of birds are not proportioned to their size. The single egg of the Auks is enormously large ; the three eggs of the Cormorant very small ; the numerous eggs of the Geese moderate ; those of the Wren very large. It is as incompre- hensible that a Guillemot should lay only one egg of extrava- gant size, as that a Cuckoo should lay twenty of the opposite kind. Were we to suppose that eggs few in number are pro- portionally large, observation would convince us that this is not always and regularly the case. The Curlew lays four eggs ; and the Hooded Crow five ; but although these birds are nearly equal in size, one of the eggs of the former weighs more than all those of the latter. The Rock Pigeon and Jackdaw are about the same size ; so are their eggs ; but the former lays only two, and the latter five. It must not therefore be said that the Cuckoo's eggs are very small, because they are very numerous. According to the statement of M. Temminck, the phenomena in question have been explained as follows : — " M. Schlegel, one of the assistant naturalists of the museum, has furnished, in an essay crowned by the Natural History Society of Harlem, details of the greatest interest as to the very prol^ablc causes which induce the Grey Cuckoo, as well as all the species which lay GREY CUCKOO. 123 in the nests of small insectivorous birds, not to hutch and rear its young ; and he considers as a principal cause of this pecu- liarity the choice of their ordinary food. The nourishment of the Cuckoo consists almost entirely of very hairy caterpillars, as Bombyx caja, &c., the great bulk of which overloads and siniiularly inflates the stomach, affordini; at the same time very little nourishment. From this nutrition results a great de- velopment of the whole organ, and an unceasingly returning hunger. The development of the stomach appears to influence that of the eggs in the ovary, which are known to be very small, and which the bird lays at intervals of from six to eight days. The sum of the author's observations is, that the Cuckoo cannot attend to incubation, as it is incessantly occupied in pursuing its prey ; that it cannot, by means of the food which it prefers, satisfy the wants of from four to six voracious young ones, which grow with an astonishing rapidity. The j^ositiou and great size of the stomach would hinder digestion during the act of incubation ; should incubation take place, the con- stantly recurring need of food would be injurious to the neces- sary development of the young in the egg ; to lay from four to six eggs, the Cuckoo would take so many weeks, and the first egg would be addled before the last were laid. Lastly, the young could not be developed in time to perform their miora- tion, for want of the food necessary for themselves and their parents. If such is actually the cause of this phenomenon in some species of Cuckoos, which I am inclined to believe it to be, it would follow that certain species, which are not sub- jected to this same mode of nourishment, may nestle and attend to incubation exactly like other birds." Now, I have found by dissection that the two common Cuckoos of North America have the stomach capable of great distension, and covered internally with hair, so as to be precisely similar to that of the Grey Cuckoo. 'W'hat then comes of all the above reasoning? Moreover, the Barn Owl has a stomach M'hen collapsed an inch and a quarter long, and when distended three inches, and it occupies precisely the same place as in the Cuckoo, and is larger in proportion to the size of the bird. Yet the Owl incubates, and although it has but a short time to look for 124 CUCULUS CANORUS. food, and therefore fills its stomach as full as it can, and swal- lows hair, down, and feathers, hatches its eggs and digests its food quite efficiently. It appears from the observations of various persons, that the Cuckoo, having found a nest, watches for the absence of its owner, then deposits its egg, and flies off; that in general the nest in which it places its egg contains none or few eggs ; that the owners of the nest sometimes eject the intruded egg ; and that in a few instances two Cuckoos"' eggs have been found in the same nest. It is also stated that the Cuckoo, on depositing its egg in a nest already containing eggs, sometimes carries off one or more of them ; but frequently nests have been found containing the ordinary number of eggs along with that of the Cuckoo. Pipits and other small birds finding a Cuckoo at or near their nest manifest alarm, anxiety, and hatred towards it, just as they would toward a Jay or other suspected bird. It was known to the ancients that this bird leaves its egg to be hatched by another, but they mingled the real with the fabulous, believing that the young devoured not only those of its foster-parents, but finally the latter themselves. The man- ner in which the young Cuckoo's fellow-lodgers disappear from the nest is perhaps as marvellous as anything else in the his- tory of this strange bird. A pair of Pipits, Wagtails, or Hedge Chanters, would find it a sufficient task to provide their own young with food, and probably would be unable to satisfy in addition the incessant cravings of the young Cuckoo, which grows very rapidly, and as it soon completely fills the nest, would crush to death or suffocate its feebler fellow-lodgers. The young Cuckoo, as if in order to obtain sufficient nourish- ment, and prevent the protracted misery of its foster-brethren, ejects them from the nest, and their parents, unable to replace them, or failing to recognise them, leave them to perish. The exclusive occupation of the nest by the young Cuckoo was first satisfactorily accounted for by Dr Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, who, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1788, states that having found a nest of the hedge-sparrow contain- ing a cuckoo's egg and three of the hedge sparrow's, but the day following a yoinig cuckoo and a young hedge-sparrow, two of GREY CUCKOO. 125 the eggs having disappeared, he " saw the young cuckoo, though so lately hatched, in the act of turning out the young hedge- sparrow. The little animal, with the assistance of its rump and wings, contrived to get the hird upon its back, and mak- ing a lodgement for its burden by elevating its elbows, clam- bered backwards with it up the side of the nest till it reached the top, where, resting for a moment, it threw off its load with a jerk, and (piite disengaged it from the nest. It remained in this situation for a short time, feeling about with the ex- tremities of its wings, as if to be convinced whether the busi- ness was properly executed, and then dropped into the nest again. With these, the extremities of its wings,"" he conti- nues, " I have often seen it examine, as it were, the egg and nestling before it began its operations ; and the nice sensibilities which these parts seem to possess, seemed sufficiently to com- pensate the want of sight, which as yet it was destitute of. I afterwards put in an egg, and this, by a similar process, was conveyed to the edge of the nest and thrown out. These ex- periments I have since repeated several times, in different nests, and have always found the young cuckoo disposed to act in the same manner."" He then states that its shape is well adapted for this purpose, as its back is very broad, with a depression in the middle, which is not filled up until it is about twelve days old. When two cuckoos"* eggs happen to be deposited in the same nest, a severe contest takes place between the newly- fledged young, and continues until the weaker is ejected. These observations have been verified by Montagu, who, in the Introduction to his Ornithological Dictionary, makes the following statement. " I first saw it (the young Cuckoo) when a few days old in the Hedge-Sparrow's nest in a garden close to a cottage, the owner of which assured me the Hedge-Sparrow had four eggs when the Cuckoo dropped a fifth; that on the morn- ing the young Cuckoo was hatched, two young Hedge -Sparrows were also excluded, and that on his return from work in the evening, nothing was left in the nest but the Cuckoo. At five or six days old I took it to my house, when I frequently saw it throw out the young Swallow (which was put in for the pur- pose of experiment) for four or five days after. This singular 126 CUCULUS CANORUS. action was performed by insinuating itself under the swallow, and with its rump forcing it out of the nest with a sort of jerk. Sometimes, indeed, it failed after much struggle, by reason of the strength of the Swallow, which was nearly full- feathered, but after a small respite from the seeming fatigue, it renewed its efforts, and seemed continually restless till it suc- ceeded. At the end of the fifth day this disposition ceased, and it suffered the Swallow to remain in the nest unmolested." Similar observations made by Mr Blackwall, are recorded in the Manchester Memoirs, 2d series. Vol. IV. " On the 80th of June," he relates, " I took a young Cuckoo that was hatched in a Titlark's nest on the 28th, seven days after the old birds had quitted the neighbourhood ; and this nestling, while in my possession, turned both young birds and eggs out of its nest, in which I had ])laced them for the purpose, and gave me an opportunity of contemplating at leisure the whole pro- cess of this astonishing proceeding, so minutely and accurately described by Dr Jenner. I observed that this bird, though so young, threw itself backwards with considerable force when any thing touched it unexpectedly." Beyond this, there is nothing marvellous in the history of the young bird, which, carefully fed by its foster-parents, who no doubt believe it to be their own progeny, grows apace. It appears that very many species of birds having hatched the eggs of other birds, consider the produce to be really their own ; and that many also without having incubated will adopt a helpless youngling and feed it. It is not more wonderful that the Pipits or AVagtails should harbour no suspicion of the alien character of the jireat bird which fills their nest, than that a hen should continue to perform a motherly part toward the ducklings which manifest the difference of their nature by gladly lictaking themselves to the water of which she has a salutary dread. While the young Cuckoo remains in the nest, it is plentifully supplied with food by its friends, who, ignorant of the destruction of their own young, and having their parental feeling excited by its continued demands, cheerfully labour in its behalf. When it can fly, and has left the nest, they continue to provide for and protect it to the best of their power, and this (JURY CUCKOO. ]27 conduct of theirs seems the more strange that it contrasts with that of other little birds, even of the same species, but espe- cially Swallows, which fly after and endeavour to molest it. Mr Durham A\^eir has sent me the follovvinf; notes havin2 reference to this subject : " ' There is one point," says a modern naturalist, ' in the anomalous history of the Cuckoo, which has not been so well authenticated as the rest, and that is, whether the male falls into the same dupery as the female, and aids in rearing the Cuckoo V That he sometimes assists the female, in giving food to her adopted young one, I can affirm, as several instances have occurred to my knowledge. In June 1835, the following one came under my notice. Upon the top of Mony- foot Hill, Linlithgowshire, I knew a Titlark's nest built under a bush of heath. It contained five eggs, one of which had been deposited in it by a Cuckoo. The rightful owners, a few days after they had been hatched, were lying dead on the ground, having been turned out by the intruder, who became the sole occupant of the nest. One afternoon, I observed the male and female Titlarks repeatedly flying in with worms and flies in their bills, and feeding the nestling with the greatest care and anxiety. When I went near the nest, they hovered about me, uttering their cry of alarm. They always flew oft' together, and returned with the food which they had obtained. When about three weeks old, this young Cuckoo assumed an air of boldness, and when I handled it, it ruffled its feathers, and put itself in an attitude of defence. I took it home with me, and kept it between four and five months. It soon became very tame and even familiar. It was at times fierce and pugnacious, and when teased, it came out of its cage and fought with my fingers, spar- ring and buffeting with its wings, like a game-cock. Its vo- racity was insatiable. The Cuckoo for some weeks after it is fully fledged, is fed by its foster parents. When they see any one approaching their charge, they give it instant warning, on which it flies off* to some distance. These young birds are so very shy, that although I have pursued them for hours, I have seldom been able to get within shot of them." In a subsequent communication, dated the 16th July 1S38, he presents the following very interesting account of a younfT 128 CUCULUS CANORUS. Cuckoo, which is fairly worth all the notions of the closet na- turalists from Pliny to the present day. " In this part of the country, the nest of the Titlark is the one almost invariably selected by the Cuckoos for depositing their eggs. Indeed, I have never seen them in any other. In Balgornie Moor, situate in the extremity of the parish of Bath- gate, on Saturday the 19tli of May 1838, a pair of Titlarks finished their nest. The female laid an egg upon Sunday, Mon- day, and Tuesday. During one of these days, a Cuckoo took the opportunity of dropping her egg amongst those of the Tit- lark. How she succeeded in doing this, I know not, as the nest was built upon the side of a deep perpendicular ditch, the top of which was thickly covered over with strong heath in the shape of a dome, and the entrance into it was very narrow. " Nearly the same period of incubation seems to be required for hatching both kinds of eggs. Upon Wednesday morning the 23d, the female Titlark began to sit upon the eggs, and upon that day fortnight, the 6th of June, they were all hatch- ed. I saw them a short time after this had taken place. The young Cuckoo appeared to be about one-third larger than the Titlarks, and of a dark colour. It was constantly gaping for food. Upon its back, from the shoulders downwards, there was a particular depression, which I do not recollect of having seen in any other young bird. On the afternoon of the 10th, two of the Titlarks were found lying dead at the bottom of the ditch. The other one had disappeared. " On Wednesday afternoon the 13th, the feathers of this young bird had a strong resemblance to the prickles of the hedge-hog, and it had grown so fast that it nearly filled the whole nest. When any thing touched it unexpectedly, as has been remarked by Mr Blackwall, it threw itself back with considerable force. It was bold and fierce. ^Mlen I put my finger near its bill, it ruffled its feathers, stood upon its legs, struck at it with its wings, and even attempted to bite. For several hours I watched the motions of the foster parents in order to ascertain whether they were still kind to the charge committed to their trust, and they continued to pay it the same unwearied attention. During the space of an hour they fed it generally ten or twelve times. The riRHV CrCKOO. 129 female occasionally remained in the nest several minutes. Both were exceedingly shy and cunning. So long as I was within sight of them they would not feed the Cuckoo. I was therefore obliged to conceal myself in a plantation with the branches of the Scotch fir. A\ hen they brought food they always alighted at the distance of about fifteen or twenty yards from their nest, and stole softly amongst the grass at the bottom of the ditch, and now and then stood still and looked around them with a jealous glance to see if their motions were watched. So art- fully was their retreat concealed, that no one to whom it was not pointed out, would have had much chance of discovering it. As it was at a distance from my residence, I found it inconve- nient to watch the habits of this Cuckoo so frequently as I wished. I therefore put it into the nest of a Titlark in my im- mediate neighbourhood, in which were five young ones about six days old, three of which I allowed to remain. I went next day in the expectation of seeing the young Cuckoo lying dead. To my astonishment, however, the female was covering it most carefully, with outstretched wings, from a very heavy shower of rain which was then falling. Plow she devoted her care to this surreptitiously introduced stranger, while her own young ones had in the meantime been expelled by the Cuckoo, and were at that moment lying lifeless M'ithin two inches of her nest, is a mystery in the economy of nature, which it would be extremely difficult to solve. I do not recollect having seen it mentioned in any book M'liich I have perused, that the cry of the Cuckoo when young resembles that of the titlark. This perhaps was the reason why the foster parents were so sud- denly reconciled to their newly adopted nestling. They fed it most assiduously. On the afternoon of Thursday the 21st, it pursued my fingers, when I teased it, nine or ten inches beyond the nest, sparring with its wings, and crying like a hawk. As has been noticed by Colonel Montagu, when about fourteen days old, the restless disposition of these birds appears to cease, for after that, this Cuckoo suffered young birds to remain un- molested in the nest. " From a hut formed of heath, within sixteen feet of the same nest, on Saturday the SOth of June, I made the follow- VOL, iir. K 130 CUCULUS CANORUS. ing observations. The male Titlark had disappeared for two or three days, having been, in all probability, destroyed by a Sparrow Hawk, which had young ones in the neighbourhood. The female, notwithstanding the loss of her partner, continued to shew to the Cuckoo the same unremitting kindness. Before she went to feed it, she always alighted upon the top of a Scotch fir, where she remained for some minutes looking anxiously around. She then flew down upon the ground at the distance of several yards from the nest, making zig-zag windings, and occasionally standing still. She brought to it sometimes snails, at other times a mouthful of large worms, some of w^hich were more than three inches in length. One might have almost been inclined to believe that she was aware of the nature of the intruder and the voracity of its disposition, for I have never seen any of them bring such quantities of meat when feeding their own young. At the regularity with which she supplied its wants, I was truly surprised. For nine suc- cessive hours, during which I had watched her, she gave it food exactly four times in each hour. I remained until nine o'clock. She however left oif her parental duties at a quarter past eight o'clock. In the morning she attempted to satisfy its craving appetite more frequently, genei'ally seven or eight times within the hour. " I shall now give you a short account of the manner in which the egg that I lately sent you was discovered to have been depo- sited in the nest of the titlark. In its size, tint, and markings it was the same as the one out of which the Cuckoo was hatched, whose habits I have just now described. Two sons of Mr David Tripen}', farmer in Coxmuir, asserted to me, that upon Sun- day forenoon the 24th of June 1838, when they were sitting in a plantation tending their cattle, they saw a Cuckoo alight at no great distance from them, upon a hillock of moss. It picked up an egg with its bill, and after having looked round about as if to ascertain whether there was any one in sight, it hopped down with it amongst the heath. The lads immediately ran to the place into which they had observed it descend, and when at the distance of about six feet, they saw it rise from the side of a titlark's nest into which it had introduced its head. GREY CUCKOO. 131 Ju the nest, M-hicli was arched over with strong heath, and had a narrow entrance from the side, there was a newly dropped Cuckoo''s egg along with one of the titlark's own. As I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of this observation, it confirms the statement of the celebrated Vaillant with respect to the Gilded Cuckoo, although the correctness of it is questioned by some, namely, that she puts her eggs into different kinds of nests by conveying them with her bill, and satisfactorily ac- counts for the way in which the Common Cuckoo, in some instances at least, is enabled to deposit her eggs. " Two eggs of the Cuckoo are sometimes dropped in the same nest. One forenoon about the middle of June last, in the nest of a Titlark in my neighbourhood, built amongst heath, and which contained three eggs, there W'ere two Cuckoo's eggs. In this nest it was observed that the Cuckoo's esss were hatched fully a day sooner than those of the Titlark, On the third or fourth day after this, the young Titlarks were found lying dead on the ground, and the Cuckoos were in possession of the nest. They remained together in it nearly five days. On the morning of the sixth day, however, one of them had disap- peared, and the other, which was the strongest, was brought up by its foster parents until it was able to provide for itself. It is very probable that the young birds which so soon dis- appear after they have been ejected from their nests, are car- ried away by mice, as these animals prowl about at night in pursuit of their food. I have heard the old Cuckoos crying during every hour of the day and night. They cease to emit their notes about the middle of July, and are seldom seen be- yond that time. The young disappear about the middle or end of September." It has been supposed that Cuckoos do not pair, but live in promiscuous concubinage, the fruits of which are consigned to the charge of other birds ; and the supposition may prove cor- rect, although as yet observations are wanting to confirm it. The old birds arrive in full plumage, and depart without hav- ing moulted. The young also take their departure previously to moulting, which, as in the old birds, takes place in winter. A young Cuckoo kept by the late Mr George Carfrac, being 132 CUCULIS CANORUS. fed on flesh, coutinued alive until the end of the following spring, when it had assumed the colours of the old bird, only that the fore-neck and breast were tinged with red, and the back with brown. Mr llichardson, engraver, in Preston Street, Edinburgh, obtained in the summer of 1838, a young Cuckoo unable to fly, which he fed chiefly with meat. It lived through the winter, having been kept near the fire, and is now, on the 20th of October 1889, in good health. It moult- ed in spring for the first time, and then assumed the plumage of the adult. It is very seldom however that one can be rear- ed in captivity and brought through the winter. Another in- dividual which I have seen had not moulted in November when it died, and one kept by Montagu from July till the 14th of December, luiderwent no change of plumage. I am therefore not inclined to credit the assertion of M. Temminck and others, that M'hcu the young depart in autumn, " they have all the upper parts of a uniform very dark olivaceous grey ; some faint reddish bands on the nape ; broader bars of the same colour on the secondary quills ; the throat and breast transversely barred with reddish-grey and black ; but all the rest of the plumage precisely as in adult individuals." In speaking of the Song Thrush, I adduced, as related by Ml' Weir, an instance of its feeding a young Cuckoo. An- other of the same nature is related by the Bishop of Norwich, in his Familiar History of Birds, The case was this : — A young Cuckoo was taken from the nest of a Hedge-Sparrow, and a few days afterwards, a young Thrush, scarcely fledged, was put into the same cage. The latter could feed itself, but the Cuckoo, its companion, was obliged to be fed with a quill ; in a short time, however, the Thrush took upon itself the task of feeding its fellow prisoner, and continued so to do with the utmost care, bestowing every possible attention, and manifest- ing the greatest anxiety to satisfy its continual cravings for food. "The following," he continues, "is a still more extraor- dinary instance, corroborating the above, and for the truth of which we can vouch in every particular. A young Thrush, just able to feed itself, had been placed in a cage ; a short time afterwards a young Cuckoo, which could not feed itself, was GREV CUCKOO. 133 introduced into the same cage, a large wicker one, and for some time it was with much difficulty fed ; at length however it was observed that the young Thrush was employed in feeding it, the Cuckoo opening its mouth and sitting on the upper perch, and making the Thrush hop down to fetch food up. One day when it was thus expecting its food in this way, the Thrush seeing a worm put into the cage could not resist the tempta- tion of eating it, upon which the Cuckoo immediately descend- ed from its perch, and attacking the Thrush, literally tore one of its eyes quite out, and then hopped back : the poor Thrush felt itself obliged to take up some food in the lacerated state it was in. The eye healed in course of time, and the Thrush continued its occupation as before, till the Cuckoo was full grown." A case of a like nature, but referring to the Cow Bunting, a small bird whose mode of propagation is similar to that of the Grey Cuckoo, is related by AVilson, in his American Ornitho- logy. Having taken from the nest of a Maryland Yellow- throat, a young male Cow Bunting, he " placed it in the same cage with a Red Bird, Lo.via cardinalis, who at first, and for several minutes after, examined it closely, and seemingly with great curiosity. It soon became clamorous for food, and from that moment the lied Bird seemed to adopt it as his own, feed- ing it with all the assiduity and tenderness of the most affec- tionate nurse. When he found that the Grasshopper which he had brought it was too large for it to swallow, he took the in- sect from it, broke it in small portions, chewed them a little to soften them, and, with all the gentleness and delicacy ima- ginable, put them separately into its mouth. lie often spent several minutes in looking at and examining it all over, and in picking off any particles of dirt that he observed on its plum- age." But this assumption of the office of a nurse has been manifested by many birds of the orders Cantatores, Deglubi- tores, and Vagatorcs, with regard to helpless individuals, not only of their own but of other species ; insomuch that it would seem to result from the excitement of the parental instinct ef- fected by the solicitations of the destitute orphan. Young. — The young Cuckoo when fledged may be described 134 CUCULUS CANORUS. as follows. The bill, which is much shorter and less curved than that of the adult, is dusky, with the sides of both mandi- bles yellowish ; the iris brown, the feet and claws dull yellow, the latter a little dusky towards the end. The upper parts are transversely banded with light red and dark greyish-brown, most of the feathers being also tipped with reddish-white. The alula, jirimary quills and their coverts are clove-brown, narrow- ly tipped with reddish-white, marked along their outer webs with squarish spots of light red, and on their inner with bars of paler red, the spots and bars not extending to the shafts ; the secondary quills and their coverts are like the back. There is more red on the rump, and the tail-feathers are diagonally banded with light red and blackish-brown, with a white tip, the part of each red band close to the shaft being also white. On the occiput are generally some partially white feathers. The fore-part and sides of the neck are transversely banded with blackish-brown and white, more or less tinged with red. The rest of the lower parts, including the wing-coverts, are white, with narrower and more distant bands of dusky ; the lower tail coverts reddish-white, with dusky spots and imper- fect bars. The above description is taken from a bird shot in Forfar- shire, and having the bill two-twelfths of an inch shorter than that of an adult, with the tail-feathers not fully developed. M. Tenmiinck is therefore in error when he describes this state of plumage as characteristic of the bird when a year old :~" Top of the head, nape, back and all the coverts of the wings transverse- ly barred with deep red and black ; quills blackish, terminated by a small white spot ; the ovoidal spots of the inner barbs of a reddish- white ; on the outer barbs red square spots ; feathers of the tail red, marked with diagonal black bands ; a broad transverse band towards the end, and all tipped with white ; on the shafts small white spots ; sides and fore part of the neck of a reddish- white with numerous blackish-bands," A young bird having the tail and wings yet so short that it was unable to fly, and which was found in the King's Park near Edinburgh, was similar to the above, but with the upper parts darker, and an individual sent to me by Mr Weir in 1838 was coloured in the same manner. At this early ago M. Tern- GREY CUCKOO. 135 niinck describes it as follows: — At the period of leaving the nest, the young have all the upper parts of a greyish-brown ; the fea- thers and quills terminated by a white band ; red spots disposed upon the wings, and those of an ovoidal form on the inner barbs of the quills, equally red ; a large white spot on the occiput ; fore- part of the neck and breast marked with very close blackish bands ; belly, thighs and abdomen whitish, with black bands as in the adults." It is only however when the feathers are yet short that the upper parts are greyish-brown, with whitish bands, for when they elongate, the red bars appear. Mr Selby's figure of an individual a little more advanced is very inaccurate, for the black bands on the tail are transverse, which is never the case in any young Cuckoo, and the markings in general are very rudely represented. M. Temminck's account of " the young at the time of leaving the nest"'"' is thus sufficiently correct; but his " Cuckoo at the age of one year,"'"' is merely the young fully fledged ; and his " young such as they are when they emigrate in autunm"'"' either imaginary, or birds in the first spring, and indeed he elsewhere states that the young do not moult before their de- parture. His statements as to the " Coucou roux, or Cuculus hepaticus of the systems,"'"' are therefore partly incorrect. In this state, as I have shewn, it is merely the fully-feathered young bird, and not " the common grey Cuckoo in its second year." He is aware that this rufous bird is never seen in spring in the northern countries, and therefore he supposes that the Cuckoo during its second year remains in the southern and eastern parts of Europe, where he has often followed them for hours in the beginning of spring. The fact appears to be merely this. The young Cuckoo departs in its first plumage, moults in the south in early spring, revisits its native country in the beginning of summer, when it is grey glossed with green on the upper parts, but has brownish bars on the sides of the neck, and frequently a few of the feathers of the first plumage remaining. In this state many authors have described it as the adult female ; but the latter I have found of the same colours as the male ; and these grey Cuckoos tinged with red or brown, are both male and female. 13fi COCCYZUS. cowcow. Bill nearly as long as the head, slender, arcuato-declinate, broader than high at the base, compressed toward the end, acute ; upper mandible ^yith the dorsal line arcuato-declinate, the ridge narrow but obtuse, the sides sloping at the base, con- vex and erect toward the end, the edges sharp, with a slight notch close to the declinate acute tip ; lower mandible with the angle short, the dorsal line slightly decurved, the ridge rather narrow, the sides nearly erect, toward the end convex, the edges sharp, the tip narrow and rather obtuse ; the gape- line arcuate. Tongue very slender, thin, emarginate at the base, with long slender papillae, the edges toward the end lacerated, the tip rather acute. Qilsophagus rather wide, tapering ; proventri- culus rather large ; stomach large, roundish, with the muscu- lar coat very thin, and composed of a single series of small fasciculi ; the cuticular lining soft ; intestine of moderate length, rather wide ; ccxca large, oblong. Nostrils linear-elliptical or oblong, half-closed by a membrane. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids bare, unless at the margin. Feet short ; tarsus feathered one-third down, rather stout, with seven very broad scutella. Toes small, broad beneath ; the first very small, the third longest, the fourth longer than the second, and reversed. Claws rather small, arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute. Plumage soft and blended ; the feathers ovate, with a short plumule. AMngs of moderate length, pointed, with twenty quills ; primaries tapering and rounded, the first a third shorter than the second, the third longest ; secondaries short, broad, rounded. Tail very long, graduated, of ten feathers. This genus differs from C'uculus chiefly in having the bill more arched, the nostrils linear in place of elliptical, and with- out a prominent margin, and the tail composed of ten instead of twelve feathers. 137 COCCYZUS AMERICANUS. THE YELLOW- BILLED COWCOW. CAROLINA CUCKOO. COWBIRD. RAIN-CROW. Cuculus americaaus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 170. Cuculus americanus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 2] 9. Cuculus carolinensis, Wils. Amer. Orn. IV. 13. Coccyzus americanus. Audub. Synops. 187. Coccyzus americanus. Carolina Cuckoo. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 155. Bill broicnisk-black above, yellow beneath ; plumage of the upper parts light c/reenish-broicn, the head tinged icith greg, of the lower parts siherg white ; tail-feathers, the middle excepted, broicnish-black, tipped icith white. ^L\LE. — This elegantly formed but plainly coloured bird has occurred so seldom in liritaiu, that I am obliged to have re- course to specimens from its native country, for its form and plumage, and to the works of JNIr Audubon, for its habits. It is considerably inferior in size to the Grey Cuckoo, and of a more delicate form, having the body slender, the neck of mo- derate length, the head rather small. The bill is slender, considerably arched, and in all respects as described in the generic character. The roof of the mouth is flat ; the upper mandible very narrow toAvard the end, slightly concave, with three longitudinal ridges, the lower deeply channelled. The tongue is very slender, ten and a half twelfths long, horny in the greater part of its length, with the edges lacerated, and the tip rather acute. On the tarsi, which are .short, and rather stout, are seven very large scutella, which almost meet behind ; the first toe has six, the second eight, the third twelve, the fourth sixteen scutella ; the toes are small, and the claws slender and somewhat bluntly pointed. The plumage is blended, on the upper parts somewhat compact and glossy. The third ]38 COCCYZUS AMERICANUS. quill is longest, the second and fifth are nearly equal, and the first is as long as the seventh. The lateral tail-feathers are two inches and a quarter shorter than the middle. The upper mandible is broAvnish-black, its basal margins and nearly the whole of the lower mandible yellow, of which colour also is the bare space about the eye. The iris is hazel, the tarsi and toes are greyish-blue, the claws black. The gene- ral colour of the upper parts is light greenish-brown, the head tinged with grey ; that of the lower greyish or silvery white, the inner webs of the quills are brownish-orange. The tail- feathers, the two middle excepted, which are coloured like the back, are brownish -black, tipped with white, of which colour is nearly the whole outer web of the lateral feathers. Length to end of tail 121 inches ; extent of wings 16 ; bill along the ridge "J ; along the edge of lower mandible 1^% ; wing from flexure 5/t5 ; tail 5j% ; tarsus 1 ; hind toe 1%, its claw 1^2 ; second toe yV, its claw ^'^ ; fourth toe 1%^ its claw /j ; fifth toe P^, its claw j%. Female. — The female resembles the male in colour, and is little inferior in size. One which I examined for ]\Ir Audubon had the oesophagus three inches and seven twelfths long, six twelfths wide at the commencement, gradually diminishing to four twelfths ; the provcntriculus five twelfths in breadth ; the stomach very large, broadly elliptical, compressed, an inch and two twelfths long, one inch in breadth ; its walls extremely thin, its muscular coat being formed of a single scries of small fasciculi. Being distended with remains of insects, and a great quantity of hairs, it seemed to occupy almost the whole cavity of the abdomen beyond the sternum. The inner coat, or epi- thelium was soft, destitute of ruga?, red, and stuck over with some of the same kind of hairs as those intermixed with the remains of the insects. The pro ventricular glands large, cylin- drical, forming a belt about nine twelfths broad. The pylorus extremely small, with a thickened margin ; the intestine four- teen inches and three quarters long, its width from three and a (juarter twelfths to two and a half twelfths ; the ccrca one inch and eight twelfths long, oblong, narrow at the commence- YELLOW-BILLED COWCOVV. 139 ment ; the cloaca oblong. The digestive organs are thus ia all respects precisely similar to those of the European Grey Cuckoo. Length to end of tail ll;i inches; to end of wings 9 ; extent of wings log ; wing from flexure ^{'^ ; tail S/g. Habits. — The Yellow-billed Cowcow is distributed over the United States of America from Texas to Nova Scotia, and ex- tends into the interior as far as the Rocky Mountains, It breeds in all these districts, which it visits from March to ^lay, re- tiring about the middle of autumn, although some remain in Florida through the winter. Its habits have been described by Wilson, and Mr Audubon ; but in the works of the latter observer are found many particulars relative to its manners and organization not contained in that of the former. To him therefore I have recourse for the following condensed notice respecting it. IMoving with a rapid and silent flight from one place to another, it wends its way with ease among the bran- ches, occasionally inclining its body to either side. When migrating southward, it flies high, in loose flocks, but arrives singly in spring, the males preceding the females. Its notes resemble the word cow, repeated eight or ten times, whence its name of Cowcow or Cowbird. It feeds on insects and larva?, occasionally on eggs of small birds ; and, in its turn, often flills a prey to the Pigeon Hawk. Berries of many kinds, as well as grapes, aftbrd an abundant supply of food in autumn. On the ground " they are extremely awkward at walking, and move in an ambling manner, or leap along sidewise, for which the shortness of their legs is ample excuse." The nest is flat, formed of sticks and grass, and placed on a horizontal branch, often not far above the ground. The eggs, four or five, are bright green, and of an elongated oval form. In June 1837, Mr Audubon visited at Charleston, the grounds of Mr Rhett, to examine a nest of this species, in which were found two young birds nearly able to fly, which scrambled ofl" among the branches, but were caught ; three others, all of different sizes, one apparently just hatched, another probably several days old, the third, covered with pin-feathers ; lastly, HO COCCYZUS AMERICAN US. two eggs, one containing a chick, the other newly laid. Mr Rhett stated that in another nest " eleven young birds had been successively hatched and reared by the same pair, in one season, and that young birds and eggs were to be seen in it at the same time for many weeks in succession." Dr T. M. Brewer, of Boston, corroborates this statement, observing that " the female evidently commences incubation immediately after laying her first cg£i. Thus 1 have found in the nest of both our Cuckoos one egg quite fresh, while in another the chick wnll be just bursting the shell ; and again, I have found an egg just about to be hatched, while others are already so, and some of the young even about to fly." Now the stomach of both this species and the Black-billed, which incubate and rear their young, being as large as that of our European Cuckoo, and their food the same, namely hairy worms and insects, the reasoning founded on these facts to ex- plain the peculiar habits of the latter bird, is obviously false. This succession of eggs and young in the same nest at consi- derable intervals, is one of the most curious phenomena in the history of birds, and nearly as marvellous as that which has rendered so celebrated the Grey Cuckoo. An individual of this species was killed in the preserves of Lord Cawdor, in AVales, in the autumn of 1882, and is now in the museum of the Zoological Society of London. Another is stated to have been obtained in Cornwall, and Ireland has furnished two more. The species thus merely ranks with us as a very rare straggler. Remarks. — Mr Jenyns calls the tarsi of this bird " long," although by his own statement they measure not quite an inch. In the second part of a popular compilation entitled " The Natural History of the Birds of Great Britain and Ireland," published in October 1831), it is said that " for all that we know of its habits we are indebted to Alexander Wilson." On the contrary, all that is related above of its habits is derived from John James Audubon. Ill PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. EIGHTH LESSON. EAGLE-SHOOTING. ORGANS OF SENSATION OF THE RAPACIOUS BIRDS'; STRUCTURE OF THE EYE, NASAL PASSAGES, EAR, AND TONGUE. OR- GANS OF RESPIRATION OF VULTURES, HAWKS, AND OWLS. Having examined the series of land birds characterized by their habit of walking or leaping on the ground or on trees, when searching for their food, we now come to those which, in pursuing their prey, are incapable of advancing through the instrumentality of what anatomists call their sacral extremi- ties, but trust entirely to those named the atlantal, although generally they can hop or hobble on the ground, and a few perform there a kind of locomotion not altogether unworthy of being called Avalking. It is now the early part of summer, and we have anticipated the sun, for Avhile with our guns we advance along the hill side, he still lingers behind the grey mass of granite that obstructs our View of the Minsh. The sandy pastures have assumed a lively tint of green, the yellow pilewort and pink-tipped daisy are scattered profusely around, and the Draba verna strives, half in vain, to ornament the turf of the rude stone-wall, on which are seen a pair of Wheatcars, anxious for the safety of their not yet finished nest. Although the Golden Plovers have betaken themselves to the moors, and the Redwino^s have fled to the north, the mellow notes of the gentle Rino^ Dottrel come from the pebbly beach, the cry of the Cuckoo is heard on the hill, the Snipe drums away on rapid wino^, and the little bays are tilled with flocks of Terns, screaniinof joyously as they pursue the shoals of sand-eels. Hark to the cry of the Corn Crake issuing apparently from that patch of 142 PRACTICAL ORXITHOLOGV. yellow iris, whose light green leaves are scarcely yet long enough to conceal it ; and now bursts from the summit of that moss-clad crag, projecting from the granite vein, the mellow song of the ever-welcome Thrush. Here on the shore the rocks are clad with a profusion of scurvy-grass, rose-root, and beautiful tufts of sea-pink. Flocks of Rock Doves, mixed with Starlings, issue from the coves at the base of the tall cliff, which seems to frown in scorn on the sullen waves that in vain strive to scale its sides, as they rush gloomily in from the Atlantic. The sun now shoots its bright beams across the shelves of the gneiss rock ; having reached the margin of which, let us ascend some hundred yards, and cast our eyes over the wide waste of waters. Far away in the north-west are the dimly-discovered hummocks named the Flanuan Isles ; nearer is the rock of Gaskir, the resort of multitudes of seals ; and still nearer, though yet many miles distant, the little group of the Glorik Ilocks, on which thou- sands of Gulls and Terns rear their young, usually in security, though sometimes plundered by the prowling crew of one of the few boats that venture far upon those desolate seas, where the sight of a ship is a phenomenon that calls forth the admi- ration of the shepherd, as he rests by the mountain cairn. The frolicsome lambkins chase each other around their dams that are quietly grazing among the heath. See, here is a skin, with the skull and legs appended, — all that has been left by some hungry polecat or raven. Take care, good pupil, for being literally on the brink of a precipice, with about a Imn- dred feet below you the nest of an Eagle, which is itself at least four hundred feet from the water, should you slip, you will spoil our sport. Surely this heap of stones must bo artificial, and yet of what use can it be i That you will find out presently, but in the meantime pull from its side the bunch of heather and get in, while I expose the dead sheep that has been left hero on purpose. Now, good pupil, here we are, in the bosom of mother earth ; sit thee down, put thy gun in trim, rest its iiuizzlc on the edge of that hole, point it at the dead sheep, s/aGLE shooting. 143 and fall not asleep, while I read a page or two of this choice hook. The eagle has not yet come ahroad, and possibly the first thing to attract his notice may be this very carcass. " The Golden Eagle has ever been associated with majesty or nobility ; in ancient mythology, an eagle was alone thought worthy to bear the thunder of Jove. By rude and savage nations he is combined with courage and independence. The young Indian warrior glories in his eagle's plume as the most distinguished ornament with which he can adorn himself The dress of the Highland chieftain is incomplete without this badge of high degree. And if, by the trammels of system (which, nevertheless, is indispensable, when the number of objects to be arranged exceeds eight thousand) we are forced to place him in an aberrant or less honourable situation, yet, when met with on his native mountains, free and uncontrolled, we cannot refuse the tribute which has been rendered to him by our predecessors." That we sha^n't. Let him but present himself, and he shall have a tribute of buckshot. But here in the bag are some remaining leaves of another valuable book, and as fortune favours the brave, so here we have a sketch of the Golden Eagle. " Their feathers are tinted and tempered in the fury of the blast ; and they acquire not their full depth and lustre till they have borne that for four successive winters ; and so it would be vain to hope that we could either obtain or preserve them in confinement." Come, mind your gun, and don't stare at me. I read fairly. " Her strength of endurance also enables her to keep her footing and preserve her existence, under circumstances to which the powers and the life of almost any other animal would be obliged to yield. The same elastic ligament, which, of its own nature, and without effort from the bird, compresses her toes in clutching, enables her to cling to the pinnacle of the rock, and to cling the more firmly the ruder the blast. The claws are not used in those cases, as that would injure their points and unfit them for their proper func- tions ; but the pads and tubercles hold on upon places where the foot of all else would give way ; and the Eagle sits with closed wings and close plumage, as if part of the rock itself, while the wind roars and the snow drives, tearing the bushes 144 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. from their roots, sending them rolling over the precipices, and literally scourging the wilderness with ruin. The strength of the hill ox, the fleetness of the mountain deer, and the re- sources of the mountain traveller, are often unavailing ; and when the storm breaks, the signal of the raven and the crow points out the place of their bones ; but the bones of the eagle are not thus given by nature to be tugged at by ignoble birds. Queen of the tempest, she rides as secure amid its fury, as when, on a cloudless and breezeless day, she floats down the valley with easy and almost motionless M'ing." This may be poetry, but, sure I am, it is not natural history. I have seen an Eagle abroad in a tempest, on this very coast, and a sad time she had of it, for when the blast came upon her una- wares, she was driven about by it, with ruffled feathers, until she recovered her position and faced the wind. ^\ hile all the time a Raven and some Gulls seemed to enjoy the exercise of labouring with strong beats against the breeze, then M'ith u}>- turned side giving way to it, bearing up again in an eddy, now shooting high, then slanting downward, the Eagle was glad to make the best of her way to a shelf of the rock. I have seen storms here, that constrained the very Cormorants and Rock Doves to remain for days in their caves, and then, be assured, no Eagle was abroad. A Black-backed Gull has alighted near the carcass. How prettily it Avalks with its small steps as it eyes the carrion with apparently some apprehension. Do you think it smells us? Shall I fire? — No, it will help to entice the Eagle, which may observe it from a distance. The Gull sees some- thing, as you may perceive by its turning its head to one side, and looking wistfully upwards. Heard you not the croak of the Raven ? Ah I there thou art, thou old prowler ! Many liard winters hast thou struggled through, and yet there thou art as grave and fierce as ever, with thy glossy plumes glit- tering in the morning sun. Approach, fear not, for thou shalt receive no harm. There he stands on a tuft, eyeing the dead sheep, and now bending his body forward, he croaks aloud. Presently his mate will be here. The Eagle too, knows the signal croak of the Raven. Should he come, let EAGLE SHOOTING. IJ:* him settle on the carcase, and then let fly. In the meantime it is amusing to Avatcli the carrion birds. The Cull walks about, scarcely venturing a tug, but the Raven, alightmg on the head, strives to pick out an eye, Avliich he has now done. Having gulped it down, he croaks again, and is joined by an- other. They tear up the flesh in morsels, and seem to enjoy their good fortune, yet not without fear, for every now and then they listen and cast a glance around. — There, they are all olf. Some sudden alarm. Have they not smelt us ? — No, they have seen a dog, or a shepherd, or an Eagle ; they have not gone for. — Beautiful bird ! thou wcrt worthy of being the thunder-bearer of Jupiter ! There thou standest perched on the ribs of that dead sheep, and gatlierest up thy large wings, and erectest thyself, casting a glance of pride on those birds which thy presence has awed. — But the explosion puts an end to admiration, and the smoke has obscured the view ; let us out, and see what the buckshot has done to those " mus- cles which are as firm as pieces of cable, and their tendons almost as rigid as dried cat-gut." Returning from this imaginative digression, we may now ex- amine the organs of sense in a bird of the rapacious family. One well suited for this purpose is the common Buzzard, which is sufficiently large to enable us to see the different parts of the organs in a satisfactory manner, and not so rare but that a person desirous of verifying our observations may contrive to procure a specimen. In the head of this bird, of which one has just arrived from Dr Robertson of Dunkeld, Plate XYII, Fig. 1, we observe externally, the upper mandible, a ; the lower mandible, h ; the tongue, c, with the aperture of the windpipe at its base ; the palate, (?, having in its median line, the long slit, placed opposite the aperture of the glottis, and into which, when the mouth is shut, the air passes into the canal of the nose ; the cere, e, or bare skin at the base of the upper mandible, in which are perforated the nostrils ; then the eyes, over which are the supraocular ridges ; and lastly, the external aperture of the ear, concealed among the plumage. Let us now examine these parts in succession. VOL. III. L 146 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. The Eye. — The aperture left between the eyelids, Nvhen the bird is awake, is of a circular form, half an inch in diameter. There are two canthi, or angles, slightly marked, an anterior or inner, and a posterior or outer. Of the eye itself the cornea, or transparent part, projects considerably, and through it we perceive the iris, an annular membrane of a yellow colour, surrounding a circular space, the pupil, through which the black colour of the interior of the eye is seen. The eye is de- fended externally by the Eyelids^ of which there are two, an upper and a lower. Over the latter is a thin ridge, projecting horizontally, and named, from its position, the Supraocular Ridge. It is produced by a thin flat bone, appended to the frontal, and at its outer edge is covered by a dense bare skin, like the cere. The Upper Eyelid is formed externally of skin, covered with small soft feathers, internally of a thin layer of a fibrous structure, and a delicate membrane continuous with that of the anterior surface of the eyeball, and therefore named the conjunctiva. It has a bare crenate margin, fringed exter- nally with small bristles, which are the prolonged shafts of fea- thers. This eyelid is very thin, having no cartilage, and so narrow as not to cover more than a fourth of the eye when closed. The Loicer Eyelid is much larger, covers three-fourths of the eye, and is similarly constructed, but on turning it out. Fig. 2, so as to examine its inner surface, we find interposed between the fibrous layer and the conjunctiva, a concave, yellowish-white, dense, thin, flexible, cartilaginous plate, of a circular form, which, when the lid is raised, exactly covers the cornea or transparent part of the eye. Its principal object seems to be to give firmness to the eyelid ; but may it not also be intended to prevent, when the bird is asleep, the transmis- sion of light through it ? The eyelids are closed by means of a thin orbicular muscle, which surrounds the eye, and is attached to the inner edge of the orbit. A small muscle, the levator jyalpehra; superioris, arising from the upper part of the orbit internally, and attached to the hind part of the upper eyelid, raises it up. The lower eyelid is depressed or drawn down by a corresponding muscle, the depressor palpebral inferioris. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 147 llemoving these parts, we come next to a membrane lying in its folded state, Fig. 4, along the upper and fore edge of the eye, but capable of being stretched out so as entirely to cover the external surface of the organ. Fig. 3 represents this organ, the Memhrana nictitans, which is formed by a reduplication of the tunica conjunctiva, and is frequently designated by authors as a third eyelid. The lower eyelid turned down is seen at a ; the posterior bony edge of the orbit at h, the eyeball covered by the conjunctiva at c, the cornea, through which are seen the iris and pupil, at f^. The nictitant membrane, e f g, is drawn over two-thirds of the eye. It is seen to advance back- wards in an oblique manner, with a semicircular edge, and having at its lower part a very slender tendon, which passes over the edge of the eyeball, in a sheath. But to understand this mechanism, we must remove the eye, carefully separating its muscles. In Fig. 6 is seen a small triangular muscle, a, named the pi/rainklalis, arising from the lower and fore part of the back of the eyeball, and of which the tendon curves over the optic nerve, and passing downwards over the edge of the eyeball, ascends in front, and is found to be that of the nicti- tant membrane, which w^e were tracing. This position of the pyramidalis is perhaps rendered necessary by the great extent of the movement of the nictitant membrane, the tendon of which, unless curved, would be too long to be conveniently disposed of. But the optic nerve, being immediately below the curve of the tendon, would be liable to be injured by it, were it not for a peculiar contrivance. A broad thin muscle, b, of a somewhat square shape, and therefore named quadratiis, arises from the upper part of the posterior surface of the eye- ball, proceeds downwards and backwards, and terminates in a thin edge, of ligamentous tissue, in which is a sheath, for the reception of the tendon of the pyramidalis. The quadratus muscle acting simultaneously w^th the pyramidalis, the tendon of the latter is carried in an arch quite clear of the optic nerve. The nictitant membrane being attached by its upper and ante- rior margin to the eyeball, and folding up in consequence chiefly of its elasticity, and partly by the action of some muscular fibres, forms no impediment to the motions of the eyeball. To brino- 148 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. it over the eye effectually and expeditiously, so as not to obstruct vision for an instant, the tendon attached to its free or poste- rior edofe might be placed high toward the outer edge of the orbit ; but when the membrane was retracted, the tendon would be across the eye, or would require some mechanism inconsis- tent with the free use of these parts. The tendon is therefore carried over the edge of the eyeball, and as it must be drawn upwards, it is attached to a muscle, the quadratus, placed high on the eyeball ; but as this direct connexion would leave the tendon too short, it is continued farther, curves downward, and ends in another muscle placed near the lower and anterior edge of the eyeball. The uses of the membrana nictitans are to clear the eye of extraneous objects, as dust, accidentally intro- duced, to moisten its surface by diffusing the lachrymal fluid over it, and occasionally to protect it from the light. Having removed from the orbit, or cavity in which it was contained, the Eyeball, we observe that it is of enormous size in proportion to that of a quadruped, being an inch and one eighth in diameter. Its form is not globular, but composed of two segments of unequal spheres, and an intermediate portion. Viewed anteriorly. Fig. 5, it presents the transparent con- vex cornea, the iris and pupil ; a dark coloured rim to which the cornea is attached, like a watch-glass in its case, then a circle of bony plates, included in the fore part of the rough glistening membrane, or sclerotica, which bounds the posterior part of the eye. Viewed from behind, Fig. G, it presents a small segment of a large sphere formed by the sclerotic coat, the optic nerve, cut across at its entrance into the eye, and the muscles by which the eyeball is moved. Of these there are six, four straight, and two oblique. The recti, or straight muscles, arise from the bottom of the orbit, around the aperture for the passage of the optic nerve, and are attached to the eye by thin tendons, of which the fibres blend with those of the scle- rotic coat. The rectus superior, marked c, by pulling down the upper edge of the eyeball, directs the axis of the eye upwards, and is thus named attollcns ocuVi. The rectus inferior, or depri- meus, d, has the opposite effect. The rectus posticus, exter- nus. or abducens, e, directs the axis of the eye outwards, while STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 149 the rectus anticus, iiiteruus, or adducens, f\ directs it forwards. Acting simultaneously, these muscles would by compressing the sclerotic coat, produce an effect upon the internal parts which will be afterwards explained. The two oblique muscles arise from the inner or fore part of the walls of the orbit, and are inserted in the same manner as the recti : the obliquus superior^ g^ and obliquus inferior, A, of which the action is to direct the eye forwards. Viewing the eyeball laterally, as in Fig. 7, we observe that its posterior surface forms the segment of a sphere, of which the radius is seven and a half twelfths of an inch, while the anterior or transparent part forms the half of a sphere, of which the radius is three twelfths and a half. These two scsrmenta are united by an intervening portion, convex in the greater part of its extent, but concave toward the anterior part. We have now to examine the structure of the ball of the eye. The dense membrane or coat which inverts the posterior part of the eye, as far as the cornea, b 6, is named the Tunica scle- rotica, on account of its comparative hardness. It is rather thin, firm, somewhat elastic, and of a glistening bluish white colour. Although, according to authors, divisible into three layers, it seems to me to be separable into two only, of which the inner is transparent, and of an almost horny hardness. But at its anterior part, c c, it is strengthened by a broad belt, com- posed of a series of distinct flat bones, overlapping each other by their edges, and interposed between the inner and outer membranes. At the anterior edge of this bony circle, the membranous structure is resumed ; and lastly, there is a thick- ened margin of the same nature, but of a dark colour, b b, to which the remaining convex part of the outer coat of the eve is attached. Before describing the sclerotic bones, we may examine this anterior membrane, b b b, which, on account of its bearinorsomo resemblance to clear horn, is named the Tunica cornea. It is of considerable thickness, and has its outer and inner layers of denser structure than the intervening portion. Beinf' per- fectly transparent, it allows the free transmission of the rays of light to the interior of the eye. It is so firmlv attached to 150 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. the anterior edge of the sclerotica as to seem continuous with it ; but some have supposed it to be inserted as if into a groove. The Sclerotic Bones, represented by Fig. 8, are in this eye fifteen in number, and, although not precisely equal in size, arranged in a particular manner. The lowermost, a, overlaps those next to it with both its margins ; the next on the right hand overlaps by its right margin its successor, and all the rest lie in the same relative position, to the number in all of nine, exclusive of the first, until we come to that marked c, which is analogous to a, being overlapped by those on each side of it. From a to c, there are only four, exclusive of these two, which overlap it in the same manner as the nine on the other side, but in the contrary direction. The bone opposite to a is h, and were the arrangement symmetrical, ought to be the central ; but the two key-bones of the arch, a and c, are not opposite to each other. Let us now make a vertical section of the eyeball, and take note of the appearances disclosed, Fig. 9. Here we observe first the external coat, the sclerotica, a; within it a delicate layer, the choroid cocit, covered with a dusky substance, the lAgmentum nigrum, h ; anteriorly, and commencing at the posterior edge of the sclerotic bones, a zone having a plaited or fibrous ap- pearance, c, which at its anterior margin is attached to the lens, d, a round, considerably flattened, transparent body ; then another zone coming oif near the base of the cornea, or the iris, e, having a circular hole in its centre, the pupil; and, lastly, the anterior transparent coat of the eye, or the cornea, f. The optic nerm is seen at g, penetrating the sclerotic coat, en- tering an oblique sheath, and reappearing internally in a nar- row slit, h ; from the side of which rises an elongated plaited membrane, i, named the pecten. The optic nerve, on entering the eye, expands into a very delicate pulpy layer named the retina, or net, which however is not a very appropriate term, it being not a piece of net- work, but a delicate pulpy substance. This internal cavity of the eyeball is fiHed with fluid con- tained in a filmy transparent membrane. The space behind the lens, d, is occupied by a fluid named the vitreous, er glassy ; riiie with the following account of it as observed in Shetland. " This, T believe, is the only species of Eagle that breeds in WHITE-TAILED SEA-EAGLE. 231 Shetland, where however it is rare. Perhaps the whole of the islands could not produce more than a dozen of pairs. It is generally, unless at the brecdinfr season, found in sinf,de indi- viduals. It feeds chiefly on rabbits and sea birds, especially the young of the larger gulls ; but it does not neglect carrion, if it is to be had, in lonely places, and before it becomes very putrescent. It is not very destructive to sheep. In spring, it often sweeps along the cottages very early in the morning, to the fatal experience of the poultry. During summer and har- vest, large flocks of geese pasture among the most retired hills, without any protection, and in the vicinity of its favourite haunts, yet its depredations on them are rare. This abstemious- ness must not, however, be taken for amiable self-denial, but for a most uneagle-like pusillanimity. The wing of the gan- der, which not unfrequently is uplifted in defence of his young, has a moral if not a physical power, which the robber Erne seems to quail under. " Occasionally, during warm weather, skate and holibut bask on the surface of the water, and the Eagle pounces on them ; but several instances have occurred of this aquatic hunt being fatal to him. Indeed, I am inclined to think that this habit is one chief way in which his numbers are kept down. If the fish is not so large as to be able immediately to drag him under w'ater, he elevates his wings, and in this way, if the wind happens to be blowing on the land, he often manages to reach it in safety. An instance of this once occurred to my grand- father, who, concealing himself until the bird had thus sailed ashore, seized both him and his victim, a small holibut. " It is not to be supposed, whatever the natives may say, that the Eagle in this case, regards his wings as sails. He keeps them as long as he can in the air, because this is their natural element, and because he, finding he has ' caught a Tartar,' wishes to disennafro himself. And, whatever be the intention of spreading his canvass to the breeze, it as often destroys as saves him by carrying him from as to the land. After reach- ing the shore, the first thing he does is to exti'icate his claws with his beak, and by repeatedly stroking his feathers to dry 232 HALIAETUS ALBICILLA. himself sufficiently for flight, and then, and not before, he feasts on his slippery victim if he perceives the coast clear of danger and detection. " The account given by Von Buch of the mode in Avhich Eagles in Norway sometimes attack cattle, may be more ap- parently than really improbable. Granting the fact however, it is not likely that it relates to the Albicilla, a bird by no means remarkable for courage ; though, like the wolf, there is no saying to what lengths hunger may impel him. Xor Avould the attack be probably made with so reasonable and politic a calculation of means as that of throwing dust in the eyes of his victim. A fact however may be very commonplace, while its theory may be marvellous enough. In this way, perhaps, it may be accounted for : — Eagles are numerous in Norway ; so are fish. In their attempts to catch them, their plumage may be wetted, and in drying it they may roll themselves, like poultry, in sand or mould, and soon after may be seen to attack the diminutive cattle of these regions, as the Golden Eagle, I be- lieve, sometimes assails deer, by striking at their heads and eyes. And why might not the Erne attack a weak horse or ox, as well as the Raven ? or, it may be their habit, like that of Crows and Ravens, during warm weather, especially when annoyed by vermin, or during the moulting season, to wash themselves, and then roll amongst the sand or dry earth. " He is attacked, or rather molested, by every bird, great or small, when he approaches their nests. Gulls, Lestres, Oyster- catchers, Terns, all repeatedly dash up to him, but yet not dar- ing contact, their clamours, not their blows, being the weapons to which they prudently have recourse, and they thus literally scold him from his propriety, and their territories ; for with a very rustic awkwardness, and want of self-possession, he makes his obeisance, and decamps. " He breeds on the most inaccessible clifts, remote from the vicinity of other birds, unless it may bo a pair of Ravens ; lays two eggs, sometimes three, it is said ; and generally has two young ones. He is seldom shot, being very circumspect, but if wounded, is verv tenacious of life. 1 have seen one flv a WHITE-TAILED SEA-EAGLE. 233 luilo with a musket ball through his body. In the few at- tempts made to domesticate him here, he has been true to his nature, fierce and ruthless." In Orkney, according to Mr Low, " this very largo species is very often seen, and sometimes surprised on our low shores, feeding on fish, which it has cither caught itself, or has been left by the otter. I have often seen it soaring, at a vast height in the air, immediately over a conger or other fish, w^hicli has by any accident been left dry by the tide ; and this may shew us the vast strength of this creature's sight, which can take in such a small object at such a great distance." The Great Black- backed Gull soars over a stranded fish in the same manner ; but the object of both birds in so doing is merely to pass the time until, in the absence of enemies in the neifirhbourhood, they can feast in safety. Like the story of the weasel that killed the eagle by fastening on its throat, which has been twenty times repeated, and every time told as new, that of eagles carrying off children has been appropriated in almost every district in the Highlands. Per- haps the story of its sailing to land with a fish in its claws, may be classed with the rest. Such an occurrence undoubtedly took place, as related above, but who has seen it repeated I A weasel too may have killed an eagle, and an eagle may have killed or carried oft' a child ; but when and where has this been done a second time i I have never seen this bird truly domesticated ; but indivi- duals are frequently kept chained or caged, and some have lived in captivity to a very old age. When thus confined, it loses its timidity, and becomes savage and ferocious, so as readily to attack a dog, a child, or sometimes even a grown person. In this state it may be fed with meat, oftal, or fish. It readily clutches any living animal of small size, and should a piece of meat, a rat, or other article of food be thrown to it, it will often catch it in its mouth, or with one of its feet. On comparing its cry when in this state with that of the Golden Eagle, I have found it louder and shriller. The trachea of both is unossified and very wide, but that of the Sea-Eagle is nearlv double the size of that of the other. 234 HALIAETUS ALBICILLA. Young. — The descriptions generally sfiveu of the young of this bird seem to me to be hypothetical rather than derived from strict observation. I have been very fortunate however in obtaining in the autumn of 1839 an individual not quite fledged, the quills and tail-feathers not having attained their full length. The down on all parts is light-grey, on the legs intermixed with slender white tufts. The bill is brownish- black, the base of the lower mandible yellow, the cere green- ish-yellow ; the feet yellow, the claws black. The bases of all the feathers are brownish-white, their middle parts light reddish-brown, their tips only blackish-brown. The head and nape are dark brown, each feather with a minute brownish- white spot on the tip. On the middle of the back and on the wings light reddish-brown is the prevalent colour, the black tips of comparatively small extent ; on the hind part of the back there is much white, that colour extending farther from the base. The quills and larger wing-coverts are blackish- brown, with a tinge of grey ; the tail-feathers brownish- white in the centre, black toward the margins, with irregular Mliito dots. The lower parts are of the same colours as the back, or are pale reddish brown, marked with longitudinal streaks and spots of dark brown ; the lower wing-covert^ brown, the tail- coverts white, with light brown tips. Progress toward ^Iatlrity. — In the second year the young exhibit little difference, being however of a darker tint on the back and wings. An individual at this age has the bill brown- ish-black, tinged with blue, its base and the cere greenish- yellow ; the iris hazel-brown ; the feet gamboge, the claws brownish-black. The head and nape are decj) brown ; the base of all the feathers on the upper parts is white ; on the hind-neck and fore part of the back that colour, tinged with yellowish-brown, prevails, a lanceolate or obovate deep brown spot being on each feather toward the end ; on the middle of the back the brown prevails, on the hind part white, and the rumj) and upper tail-coverts are light-brown, tip])ed with darker. The scapulars are dark-brown, with a })urplish tinge ; the wing-coverts dark-brown at the end, but most of the larger pale-brown in the greater part of their extent ; the (j[uills WIIITP:.TAILED SEA-EAGLE. 23.") black, with a purplish-grey tinge, the secondaries gradually becoming more brown, and all faintly variegated with light grey and brown on the inner webs. The tail is brownish- black, with a tinge of grey, and more or less finely mottled with whitish. The lower parts maybe described as brownish- white, longitudinally streaked with dark-brown, there being a lanceolate patch of the latter on each feather ; the lower wing-coverts and feathers of the legs dark-brown ; the lower surface of the quills bluish-grey ; the lower tail-coverts white, tipped with brown ; the down on the breast pure white. At the first moult the light-brown becomes darker, and the proportion of white is somewhat diminished, unless on the tail, where it is on the contrary increased. The bill and claws are still brownish-black, and the cere greenish-yellow. At each suc- cessive moult the bill assumes a lighter tint, passing through shades of brown, until it ultimately becomes pale-yellow ; the iris undergoes a similar change ; the proportion of white at the base of the feathers diminishes, the dark part enlarfes in extent, but becomes paler ; the tail-feathers, which are at first freckled with white, or brownish-white, become patched, and finally, at the age of six or seven years, pure white. In an individual kept by Dr xXeill, at Canonmills Cotta^^e, and wdiich was procured by him in the autumn of 1827, in its first i)lumage, the changes have taken place as above described ; but in November 1839, when in perfect condition, the colour of the plumage was purplish-grey, tinged with blue, the edges of the feathers lighter ; the anterior parts paler ; the quills greyish-black ; the tail pure white ; the bill and cere pale greyish-yellow, the eye brownish-yellow, and the feet oranrre. But the beautiful purplish-grey tint of this individual, al- though sometimes seen in captive eagles, does not occur in those enjoying their freedom. Remarks. — For the purpose of obtaining some General re- sults by an extended comparison, it may here be well to re- mark that in this species the bill and iris change from dusky- brown to pale-yellow, and that the plumage, at first white at the base, and dark-brown at the end. gradually loses its white, 236 HALIAETUS ALBICILLA. while the dark parts become paler and more extended, the final colouring being more uniform. The tail forms no ex- ception, for its basal white also diminishes ; but the white which is gradually substituted for the brownish-black, spreads from near the end to the base. The American White-headed Sea-Eagle follows the same rule ; but in it, not only the tail, but also the head and neck become white. This species is said to be rare in the south of Europe, and to be most numerous in the colder parts of the temperate zone, extending as for as Iceland. ^M. Temminck remarks that " in its migrations, it seems to follow the largest flocks of Bean-Geese, which in autumn betake themselves to the estuaries of rivers ;"" but from Dr Edmondston's account, this eagle is hardly a match for a goose, which yet is surpassingly strange, when we are told by ^Mr Audubon that its brother, the White-headed Eagle, captures Swans. Haliaetus Albi- cilla has not been found in America, but the American H. leu- cocephalus is said to breed in Norway. It is indeed strange that a bird so robust, with a body much larger than that of the Golden Eagle, and with the most for- midable bill and talons, should not be distinguished for its feats of daring and strength. The faculties and instincts of animals correspond with their organization, and one cannot help thinking that these enormous claws were given for the purpose of piercing and carrying off nobler game than rabbits and rats. Yet it cannot be denied that this huge bird possesses not a tithe of the spirit of the Peregrine Falcon or Sparrow Hawk ; for I have seen it sailing about and screaming, while a ])erson was dangling on a rope above its nest, without so much as making a pretence of attacking him, unless by thrust- ing out its feet and alternately opening and closing its talons. 237 PANDION. OSPREY. Body compact, of moderate size ; neck of moderate length ; head ovate, and not remarkably large. Bill shorter than the head, stout, as broad as high at the base, gradually compressed : upper mandible ^vith the cere rather narrow, the dorsal outline a little declinate and slightly convex as far as the edge of the cere, then dccurved in about the fourth of a circle, the ridge broadly convex at the base, narrowed toward the end, the sides rapidly sloping and con- vex, the edges sharp, slightly inflected, with a festoon, and a wide sinus at the curvature, the tip deflected, trigonal, very acute ; lower mandible with the angle short and rather wide, the dorsal line convex, the back broadly rounded, the sides convex, the edges inflected, decurved toward the end, the tip being obliquely truncate and rounded. Mouth rather wide ; palate flat, with two prominent papil- late ridges, and an anterior median ridge. Tongue short, emarginate at the base, with numerous very slender papillae, one of which on each side is large, its upper surface concave, the tip rounded. Oesophagus very wide, enlarged into a crop of great capacity, then narrowed in entering the thorax, again enlarged at the prevent riculus, of which the glands are ex- tremely numerous, very small, oblong, and form a broad con- tinuous belt. Intestine extremely long and slender, forming very numerous convolutions ; coeca very short ; cloaca very large and globular. Plate XXI, Fig. 1. Nostrils oblong, oblique, lateral. Eyes of moderate size, without projecting superciliary ridge ; eyelids edged with bristly feathers. Aperture of ear rather small and roundish. Feet very robust ; tibia^ long and muscular ; tarsi very short, thick, covered all round with imbricated scales, of which the posterior are smaller, and have the upper angle elevated into 238 PAN DION. OSPREY. a point ; toes thick, strong, free ; the fourth versatile and larger than the second ; all with a few broad scutella at the end, but in the rest of their extent covered above with imbri- cated scales, those on the sides and especially on the lower surface, rising into a conical central point ; some of them on the inner side of the outer toe being so prominent as to resem- ble short spines. Claws long, rather slender, well-curved, rounded above and beneath, with the sides flattened, the tip very acute ; those of the hind and outer toe largest, that of the middle toe with an inner longitudinal edge, and a flat surface. Plumage compact. Cere bare above ; eyelids feathered ; space between the bill and eye sparsely covered with bristly feathers. On the head and neck, the feathers are rather short, narrow, tapering, and compact ; on the back broad, rounded, but acuminate ; on the breast similar ; on the ab- domen softer and more elongated ; on the tibia short, slender, and rather soft, the outer not elongated as in the Eagles, Buz- zards, and most other genera of this family. Wings extremely long, comparatively narrow, rounded, with twenty-eight quills; the third longest, the first longer than the fifth ; primary quills tapering and rounded, secondary broad and rounded, tertiary or humeral largely developed. Tail rather long, a little round- ed, of twelve broad feathers. The genus Pandion appears to have a considerable affinity to ITalial'tus, with which it seems to be connected by a group of which Falco Ichthyactus of Dr Ilorsfield is the species best known. The more remarkable peculiarities in the structure of the Osprey, the only species which I have examined internally as well as externally, are : the extreme elongation of the in- testine, which toward its lower extremity is not larger then a raven's quill ; the inferior convexity of the claws ; the want of a tuft of long feathers on the outer side of the tibia ; tho conical pointed form of the scales on the lower surface and sides of the toes, and the great length of the wings. The flight of this bird is light and buoyant, as well as strong, and ac- cordingly the ridge of the sternum is very elevated, although the body is not large in proportion to the other parts. 2:ii) PANDION HALIAETUS. THE FISHING OSPREY. FISHING EAGLE. FISH HAWK. BALD BUZZARD.. lOLAIR-UISG. Fig. 218. Falco Haliat-tus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 129. Falco Ilaliat'tus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 17. Osprey. Mont. Orn. Diet. Aigle Balbusard. Falco Halifetus, Temm. ^lan. d'Orn. L 47 Osprey. Pandion IlaliaCtus. Selb. lllustr. I. 24. Aquila llaliaeijtus. Osprey. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 81. II. 2.5. Adult tcith the hill hluish-black, the cere liffht blue, the feet pale greijish-blue ; the plumage above deep timber-brown, the upper part of the head and neck white, the middle of the crown dark brown ; a broad band of dark broicn on the cheeks and neck ; the lower parts white, the neck streaked with brown. Young icith the feathers of the tipper parts deep brow?}, ter- minalhi margined icith reddish-white. Male. — The Osprey, which is distinguished from all the British species of this family, by living exclusively on fish, 240 PANDION IIALIAETUS. which it captures for itself, has a form and structure intelH- gibly correspondent with its habits. It is now so scarce a bird with us that many years may elapse before a person can procure one entire for examination. I have been fortunate however in this respect, having obtained three individuals, two of which were killed in Scotland. The body is proportionally small, but compact and muscular ; the pectoral muscles in particular being very large, and the spine of the sternum correspondingly jjromi- nent. The head is of moderate size, oblong ; the neck rather short, and strong. The bill shorter than the head, very strong, rather higher than broad at the base ; the upper mandible with the cere narrow, the dorsal line a little declinate as tar as the edge of the cere, then decurved in nearly the third of a circle, the ridge broadly convex, the edges with a slight festoon, the tip deflected, subtrigonal, acute, and at the end perpendicular to the gape-line ; the lower mandible with the angle short and rather Avide, the back broad, flattened at the base, rounded to- ward the end, the edge-line arched, the tip obliquely truncate and rounded. The mouth is of moderate width, its breadth being one inch two twelfths ; the palate flat, with two prominent papillate ridges, corresponding to the tongue, and an anterior median ridge. The posterior aperture of the nares oblong, anteriorly linear, slightly papillate on the margins. The tongue is one inch long, sagittate and finely papillate behind, concave above, with the margins rather thick, and the tip rounded, the back horny as usual. The oesophagus is nine and a half inches long, at first little more than an inch in width, but presently dilated into a sac or crop, of which the greatest width is three inches ; it then contracts to ten-twelfths of an inch, and enlarges to an inch and a quarter in the proventricular portion. The coats of the a'sophagus are very thin ; the proventricular glands ex- tremely numerous, very small, and arranged so as to form a continuous belt, an inch in breadth. The stomach is round, a little compressed, two inches in diameter ; its muscular coat extremely thin, the inner smooth, without epithelium ; the central tendons five-twelfths in breadth. The pylorus has a slightly thickened margin, and three small knobs, terminating FISHING OSPREY. 241 a simicircular elevated lino or ridge, and a smaller line pro- ceeding from it. The intestine is extremely elongated, slender, and arranged into numerous convolutions, forming in all forty- six folds. The duodenum forms a loop in the usual manner, and is not convoluted as in the IchtliyaL'ti. Its widest part measures three twelfths of an inch across, and the narrowest part of the intestine toward the cocca scarcely two-twelfths. The cocca are five inches distant from the rectum, four-twelfths long, three-twelfths in width. The rectum has at first a width of seven-twelfths ; and the cloaca is globular, and one and a half inch in diameter. The intestine from the pylorus to tho anus measures eleven feet three inches ; the oesophagus and stoTuach eleven and a half inches ; the alimentary tube in all twelve feet two and a half inches. The lobes of the liver are less unequal than usual, one being three inches long, the other three twelfths shorter; the gall-bladder oblong, and ten twelfths in length. Plate XXI, Fig. 1. The nostrils are oblong, oblique, lateral ; the eyes of mode- rate size ; the eyelids with three series of short ciliary bristles. There is no projecting lachrymal bone. Aperture of the ear small and circular. The legs are of moderate length, but ex- tremely stout ; the tibia long and very muscular ; the tarsus very short, very thick, feathered anteriorly halfway down, covered all round with thick scales, of which the anterior are larger ai\d flattened, those behind more prominent, on the outer side conical. The toes are extremely stout, scutellate toward the end, the first having five, the second five, the third four, the fourth four entire scutella ; the rest of the upper parts with thick flat scales, the sides and lower surfaces with smaller roundish scales, those on the large pads beneath conical, rigid, and acute. There is a cluster of nine large pointed papillae on the inner side of the outer toe at tho end, and a similar but smaller cluster on the opposite side of the third or middle toe. The hind toe is very short, and has considerable motion late- rally ; the fourth or outer largest, and reversible so as to form a right angle with the third, which is considerably longer, the second or inner being shorter than the outer. The claws are large, well curved, compressed, rounded above and beneath, VOL. nr. R 242 PANDIOX HALIAETUS. and tapering to a fine point ; that of the middle toe with a flat surface and sharp edge on the inner side. Fig. 219. The plumage is dense and compact. The feathers of the head and neck small, lanceolate, and acuminate ; those of the occiput and upper part of the hind-neck rather long, and erec- tile into a kind of crest ; of the fore part of the back large, and ovate, of the hind part small ; the scapulars very large and strong ; feathers of the breast ovate, of the anterior part of the abdomen longer, so as to cover a flap of large downy feathers, lying over the very dense downy plumage of the abdomen ; lower tail-coverts long, compact only at the end. "Wings ex- tremely elongated, with ten primaries, eighteen secondaries, and five strong humerals ; the outer four quills are abruptly cut out on the inner web, the second, third, and fourth slightly so on the outer ; the first a little longer than the fifth, the third longest ; the shafts strong, towards the end elastic. Tail rather long, nearly even, of twelve broad, rounded feathers. Bill brownish-black, toward the base bluish, as are the soft margins ; cere light greyish-blue ; iris deep yellow ; feet pale greyish-blue ; claws black. The general colour of the plumage on the upper parts is deep brown, glossed with purple, the margins of the feathers paler. On the crown of the head and the occiput, the feathers have merely a central streak of dark brown, the rest being yellowish-white ; the sides of the head are white ; a broad blackish -bro%^n band from the eye down the side of the neck. Quills dark brown, the primaries toward the end brownish-black, and glossed with purple, the inner webs barred with greyish-white ; tail light brown, faintly barred M-ith darker, the tips yellowish-white, the inner webs, those of the two middle feathers excepted, marked with confluent greyish-white spots. All the lower parts are white, excepting the lower part of the neck and a portion of the breast, on which there are numerous light brownish-red streaks, and the lower wing-coverts, which are spotted with brown. Length to end of tail 24.- inches, to end of wings 2() ; extent of wings f)4 ; wing from flexure 20 ; tail 9? ; bill along the ridge l}^ ; length of cere |; edge of lower mandible l/j ; depth of bill at fore-edge of cere \ ^ ; tarsus 2] ; first toe |^, I'lSHlNG OSPREY. 243 its claw 1 1^2 '•> second toe Ij^^, its claw ly*^ ; third too 1^"^, its claw If'g ; fourth too 1^^, its claw l^'.,- Female. — The female differs little from the male in colour, but is considerably larger. The feathers on the upper part of the head are more broadly streaked with brown, and the co- loured patch on the fore part of the neck and breast is larger. Length to end of tail 26 inches, extent of wings G8 ; wing from flexure 20 ; tail 10 ; bill along the ridge 2, along the edge of lower mandible 1/^ ; tarsus 2^% ; first toe 1, its claw 1 IS ; second toe 1/g, its claw l/j ; third toe l;i, its claw T j"j ; fourth toe 1}, its claw I5. Variations. — In adult birds I have not observed any re- markable variations, the white on the head and neck beinor merely more or less pure, the brownish-red on the breast more or less marked, and sometimes almost entirely wanting. Changes of Plumage. — The moult is completed in Decem- ber. After being worn and bleached, the feathers in autumn become of a dull light-brown, the pale-coloured tips are abrad- ed, and the yellowisliAvhite terminal band of the tail has dis- appeared. In winter, when the plumage is fresh, it is much more beautiful, glossy, and deeply coloured, as is the case with all the birds of this family. IIahits. — The Osprey prefers for its habitation the remote and thinly peopled districts beyond the Grampians ; but even there it is of extremely unusual occurrence, unless in particu- lar spots where it finds abundant food and comparative security. In the Outer Hebrides I have never met with it; but at the mouths of rivers, and especially on lakes, along the north-west coast of Scotland, it may here and there be seen. A pair generally take up their residence on an island of Loch Maree, the waters of which are well supplied with trout and salmon ; and on all the larger lakes, such as Lochlagan, Loch Tay, Loch Awe, and Loch Lomond, a few may be met with. On the other side of the country, it is seen in Caithness and Suther- 244 PANDION HALIAETUS. laud, as is attested by my friend Mv A. G. IMacgillivray. In- dividuals have frequently been seen, and sometimes shot on the Tweed. ^Ir Stevenson of Edinburgh has in his collec- tion a fine specimen killed there by himself. I have seen one that was shot in Fifeshire, and another among the Pentland Hills, near Edinburgh. Mr S. H. Greenhow of Tynemouth informs me that in 183o four Ospreys were shot in April and May in that neighbourhood, and another in September. Speci- mens have been shot in all the eastern and in a few of the mid- land counties of England. Mr White of Selborne has men- tioned an instance of its having been killed on a pond not far from that village ; and Montagu and Dr Moore certify its not very unfrequent occurrence in DeA'onshire. It appears that the Osprey is not a permanent resident with us, but arrives in spring, and departs towards the end of autumn, or in the beginning of winter. Its breeding-places are generally the ruined buildings on islands in lakes. !Mon- tagu states that he once saw its nest " on the top of a chimney of a ruin, in an island on Loch Lomond ; it was large and flat, formed of sticks laid across, and resting on the sides of the chimney, lined with flags." According to the same observer, it " flics heavily, not much unlike the common Buzzard, but not unfrequently glides slowly along with motionless wing. When examining the water for prey, its wings are in con- tinual motion, although it remains stationary for a consider- able time ; its superior weight perhaps renders it difficult to continue suspended in the air, with the imperceptible motion of the wings observed in the Kestrel." When crossing the bridge over the river Avon, at Aveton Giflbrd, in April 1811, he " observed an Osprey hawking for fish ; at last its attention was arrested, and, like the Kestrel in search of mice, it became stationary, as if examining what had attracted its attention. After a pause of some time, it descended to within about fifty yards of the surface of the water, and there continued hovering for another short interval, and then precipitated itself into the water with such great celerity as to be nearly immersed. In three or four seconds the bird rose without any apparent diffi- culty, and carried off a trout of moderate size, and instead of FISHING OSPIIEY. 245 alighting to regale upon its prey, it soared to a prodigious height, and did not descend within our view." Little of importance can be added to these notes from the accounts given by more recent observers in Britain, where the bird is so uncommon as to render a continuous account of its habits almost impracticable. In North America, however, where it is very abundant, it has been more satisfactorily ex- amined. " The flight of the Fish Hawk," says Wilson, the Scottish ornithologist of America, " his manoeuvres while in search of fish, and his manner of seizing his prey, are deserving of particular notice. In leaving the nest, he usually flies direct till he comes to the sea, then sails around, in easy curving lines, turning sometimes in the air as on a pivot, apparently without the least exertion, rarely moving the wings, his legs extended in a straight line behind, and his remarkable length, and cur- vature or bend of wing, distinguishing him from all other hawks. The height at which he thus elegantly glides is vari- ous, from one hundred to one hundred and fifty and two hun- dred feet, sometimes much higher, all the w^iile calmly recon- noitering the tace of the deep below. Suddenly he is seen to check his course, as if struck by a particular object, which he seems to survey for a few moments with such steadiness that he appears fixed in air, flapping his wings. This object, how- ever, he abandons, or rather the fish he had in his eye has dis- appeared, and he is again seen sailing around as before. Now his attention is again arrested, and he descends with great ra- pidity ; but ere he reaches the surface, shoots ofi:' on another course, as if ashamed that a second victim had escaped him. He now sails at a short height above the surface, and by a zig- zag descent, and without seeming to dip his feet in the water, siezes a fish, which, after carrying a short distance, ho probably drops, or yields up to the Bald Eagle, and again descends, by easy spiral circles, to the higher regions of the air, where he glides about in all the ease and majesty of his species. At once, from this sublime aL-rial height, he descends like a perpendicular torrent, plunging into the sea with a loud rushing sound, and with the certaintv of a rifle. In a few moments he emersfes, bearing in his claws his struggling prey, M'hich he always 246 PANDION HALIAETUS. carries head foremost, and, having risen a few feet above the surface, shakes himself as a water-spaniel would do, and directs his heavy and laborious course directly for the land. If the wind blow hard, and his nest lie in the quarter from whence it comes, it is amusing to observe with what judgment and exertion he beats to windward, not in a direct line, that is, in the wind's eye, but making several successive tacks to gain his purpose. This will appear the more striking, when we consider the size of the fish which he sometimes bears along. A shad was taken from a Fish Hawk near Great Egg Har- bour, on which he had begun to regale himself, and had al- ready ate a considerable portion of it ; the remainder weighed six pounds. Another Fish Hawk was passing Mr Beasley's, at the same place, with a large flounder in his grasp, which struggled and shook him so, that he dropt it on the shore." Yet the weight of the Osj^rey itself is only from four to five pounds. Sometimes, according to the same author, it over- rates its strength, and " the bodies of sturgeon, and several other large fish, with that of a Fish Hawk fast grappled in them, have at different times been found dead on the shore, cast up by the waves." It may be so, but Wilson does not say that he has seen an Osprey at anchor on a sturgeon. The descent from " the higher regions of the air" too, I think re- quires proof Mr Audubon says that " whilst in search of food, it flies with easy flappings at a moderate height above the water, and with an apparent listlessness, although in reality it is keenly observing the objects beneath. No sooner does it spy a fish suited to its taste, than it checks its course with a sudden shake of its wings and tail, which gives it the appear- ance of being poised in the air for a moment, after which it plunges headlong Avitli great rapidity into the M'atcr, to se- cure its prey, or continues its flight, if disappointed by having observed the fish sink deeper." It is only when it has satisfied its hunger that, according to this more accurate observer, it sails about at a great height over the neighbouring waters. According to the same author, the nest is generally placed in a large tree near the water, but occasionally at no greater height than seven or eight feet. On the Florida Keys he saw FISHING OSPIIEY. 247 it twice on the ground, and once on the roof of a low house. " The nest is very large, sometimes measuring fully four feet across, and is composed of a quantity of materials sufficient to render its depth ecjual to its diameter. Large sticks, mixed with sea-weeds, tufts of strong grass, and other materials, form its exterior, while the interior is composed of sea-weeds and finer grasses." The eggs, as he informs us, are three or four, of a broadly oval form, yellowish-white, densely covered with large irregular spots of reddish-brown. An eg^ of this bird in my possession is two inches and four twelfths in length, one inch and ten twelfths in its greatest breadth, of a short ovate form, with the narrow end much rounded, its ground co- lour white, M-ith large irregular blotches of dark greenish- brown, and numerous small spots of light brownish-grey. According to the American ornithologists above mentioned, the female, while incubating, is supplied with food by the male, and the young remain in the nest until perfectly fledged and able to provide for themselves. Their parents however assist them for several weeks after they have gone abroad. This bird is indeed remarkablv ati'ectionate and gentle, seldom molests any other species, confining itself entirely to the pur- suit of its finny prey, and is more social than any other of its family. In America it is greatly molested by the A\'hite- headed Sea-Eagle, which frequently wrests from it the fish which it has just caught. In our country no instance of this kind has been observed ; but with us, both the Osprey and the White-tailed Eagle are of so rare occurrence that their encouu- ters must be very unusual. An examination of the organs of this bird, with reference to its habits, may prove interesting not only in itself, but with respect to other birds. We may assume that in a family of a rapacious character destined to seize on living prey, it has been intended to confine itself to fish, which it must clutch from the deep as they swim near the surface. As fishes only occasionally come within reach, the Osprey is furnished with extremely long wings and strong drepressor muscles, by means of which it is enabled not only to fly with ease to great dis- tances over the water, and remain long on wing without un- 248 PAN DION HALIAETUS. dergoing fatigue, but also to fix itself in a particular s-pot with a quivering or undulating motion, in order to watch the pro- per moment for descending. Then, as it has to plunge into the M'ater, or at least is liable to come in contact with it, the plumage of its lower parts is rendered more dense and com- pact than usual, and the elongated tufts seen on the outer side of the tibire in other hawks, are here replaced by short feathers. On the upper parts, however, the plumage is not more compact than in Eagles or Buzzards. Great rapidity of flight, and the power of executing sudden turnings, are not necessary for this mode of life, and therefore the tail is not so long as in hawks generally, for the Osprey, having spied its prey, merely drops perpendicularly upon it. The peculiar form of its prey, the slippery nature of its surface, and the facility M'hich it has of getting out of reach, render necessary a very powerful in- strument of prehension, and accordingly the foot has the tibia extremely muscular, the tarsus very short, the toes of extreme thickness, and covered beneath with prominent conical points. All the toes are possessed of great mobility, and the lateral can be placed at right angles to the first and third, so as to ensure an ample and secure grasp. The very elongated, well-curved, pointed claws are obviously excellent instruments for this pur- pose ; and while in other hawks they are flat beneath and edged, they are in this rounded, so as when introduced into the soft flesh not to tear it, and at the sametime be readily withdrawn should such a measure be rendered expedient by the bird's having seized a fish too strong for it. The oesophagus and stomach do not differ essentially from those of other birds of the family ; but the intestine is excessively elongated and attenuated. It is the same, but in a less degree, in the Sea- Eagles, which feed partially on fish. And hence it might be inferred that an intestine of this form is best adapted for ex- tracting the nutriment from that sort of food, but how or why does not appear ; and many birds that feed in the same man- ner have short and wide intestines. The capacity of the in- testinal tube of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle is not greater than that of the Cioldcn Eajjle, althouQ;h the length is as five to one ; nof is that of the Osprey greater than that of the Buzzard, al- FISHING OSPREY. 249 though the length is as eight to one. Crude conjectures are easily made. Thus, it has been supposed " that the small (quantity of nutriment which fish, as an article of food, is khown to afford, rendered this extent of canal necessary, in order that every portion of the nutriment might bo extracted," and that althoudi some fish-eating water-birds have a short intestinal canal of large calibre, yet they can catch fish much more readily than the Osprey, and can therefore fill their sto- mach oftcner. This explanation is obviously unsatisfactory, since birds very similar in mode of flight and habits, as the Frigate Pelican, have a wide intestine. It has been suggested by me that the arrangement is made on account of the Osprey ""s plunging into the sea, and being thus liable to sudden shocks, which have less effect upon a slender coil of intestine. But many plunging birds, as Gannets and Terns, have the intes- tine wide, while in the Herons, which never plunge, it is as narrow as in the Osprey. In North America the Osprey, according to Mr Audubon, is generally distributed, occurring all over the United States, from Texas northward, as veil as along the north-M'estern coast. In Europe it is said by various authors to be found in Siberia, Norway, Russia, Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy. In Africa it has been obtained in Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. M. Temminck states its occur- rence in Japan, and there is a specimen from New Holland in the museum of the University of Edinburgh. YorNG. — When fully fledged, the young difter considerably from their parents, their upper parts being much darker, and all the feathers there margined with white, giving them a re- markably beautiful appearance. At this age, the bill is black, the cere on both mandibles greyish-blue, the iris rich yellow ; the feet pale blue, with a tinge of green, the soles flesh-coloured, the claws black. The feathers of the head are white, each with a central brownish-black lanceolate streak, those of the occiput and nape white, with pale reddish-yellow tips. A black band passes over the eye, and a broad band of the same colour extends from behind the eye on each side down the neck, 250 PANDION HALIAETLS. the two meeting behind. On the upper parts in general, the feathers are chocolate-brown, tinged with purple, and margin- ally tipped with reddish-white. The quills are banded with white on the inner webs, their general colour brown, but the outer four purplish-black; the tail greyish-brown, the middle fea- thers with seven, the lateral with eight brownish-black bands, the inner webs whitish between the dark bands, the shafts brownish-white, the tip light yellowish-red. The lower parts are white ; the throat with longitudinal dusky lines, the lower part of the neck and fore part of the breast with lanceolate light-brown spots, besides which there are on many of the fea- thers one or two concealed darker spots ; the axillar feathers white, with three spots, dark-brown, reddish-brown, and brownish-yellow. The larger lower wing-coverts are white, with three broad blackish-brown bands ; the next brownish- yellow, M-itli large dusky spots, the rest brown, tipped with yellowish-white ; those on the edge of the wing yellowish, with a dusky lanceolate spot ; the lower tail-coverts white, tipped with reddish-yellow. The Osprey thus affords another example of a falconine bird, which when young has the tints much darker than when adult, although more variegated. Remarks. — Having dissected three individuals of this species, I may here present a comparative view of the dimensions of their digestive organs. M. M. F. Tongue in length — 11 CEsophagus in length 9 .1 9^ 9g Widthofcrop 2^ 3 2.^ Narrowest part 2 12 r% Stomach in diameter If 2 1{^ Intestine in length Ill 135 117 Greatest width of intestine |^j j^ ^^^ Least width of intestine ji^ t?| y| Length of cocca ^'2 I'g ^^ Length of rectum 4.? 5 4 Diameter of cloaca 1 1 ,! '2\ FISHING OSPREY. 251 The trachea of two individuals examined, a male and a fe- male, was in the former 7, in the latter *7^^ inches lonf,' ; its breadth at the upper part f*?^, ^\ ; its rings 102, 9G, the two lower dimidiate. Right bronchus of 22, 18 rings, left of 16, 15. The contractor muscles large, as are the sterno-tracheal ; a single pair of inferior laryngeal muscles, going to the mem- brane between the last ring of the trachea and the first bron- chial ring. In preparing the digestive organs of an individual of this species, I found that the fluid of the proventricular glands had, after a lapse of about a week, dissolved many of the glands into a pulp, as well as the transverse muscular fibres lying over them, while the rest of the tube in its whole length was perfectly sound. 252 PERNIS. BEE-HAWK. Bill shorter than the head, somewhat broader than high at the base, compressed towards the end, strong : upper mandible with the dorsal line convexo-declinate as far as the edge of the large bare cere, then decurved in the third of a circle, the ridge rather narrow, the sides convex, the edges soft at the base, beyond the nostrils hard, direct, and sharp, with a very slight festoon, the tip descending, slender, acute ; lower man- dible with the angle of moderate length, broad, and rounded, the back broad, the sides rounded, the edges thin, somewhat .inflected, the tip rounded but thin-edged ; the gape-line arcuate. Mouth rather wide ; upper mandible internally a little con- cave, lower broadly channelled with a median prominent line ; palate flat, with two longitudinal soft ridges. Tongue short, deeply concave above, with the sides nearly parallel, the tip rounded but emarginate, its free jjart horny beneath, its base with a concave outline, and fringed with pointed papilla\ The other parts in the mouth as in the Buzzards and Kites. (Eso- phagus very wide, and about the middle dilated into a very wide crop. At the upper part it has an outer layer of incon- spicuous longitudinal fibres, and in its whole length is encircled with slender fibres ; its inner coat is smooth, when dilated even, and when contracted thrown into longitudinal ruga?. Proventricular glandules small, oblong, forming a complete belt. Stomach large, roundish, its muscular coat very thin, and in fasciculi ; its tendons rather large and roundish. Intes- tine of moderate length, rather wide ; cloaca elliptical, very large ; no coeca. liody rather elongated, moderately full ; neck rather short ; head of moderate size, flattened above, ovate. Nostrils linear- oblong, or narrow elliptical, oblique, lateral, about equally dis- tant from the edges and ridge. Eyes rather large ; eyelids closely covered with small compact feathers, and destitute of ciliar}- bristles, but with the margins bare ; the superciliary pro- PKRNIS. BEE-IIAWK. 2r»3 jection small. Aperture of car large, transversely elliptical. Legs short, robust ; tarsi very short, strong, roundish, covered with feathers for half their length in front, on the rest of their extent with Hat hexagonal scales, of which the anterior arc large. Toes of moderate length, strong, the first stouter, the fourth most slender, and connected with the third at the base by a pretty largo web ; all covered above with transverse series of scales, and toward the end with scutella, beneath with round- ish, prominent, hard papilLnc. Claws long, rather slender, arcuate, less curved than in any other British genus, tapering, acute, rather compressed, laterally somewhat convex, with a slight groove, concave beneath ; those of the first and second toes nearly equal and strongest, the third longest, and having an inner sharp edge. Plumage compact, soft, slightly glossed. Cere bare, being destitute of bristles ; feathers on the fore-part of the head, checks, loral space, and chin, very small, ovato-oblong, obtuse, compact ; those on the rest of the head oblong, of the hind-neck ovate, of the rest of the upper parts broad and rounded, of the fore-neck and breast oblong ; the feathers of the abdomen and tibiae more compact than usual ; the outer tibial feathers elon- gated ; the lower tail-coverts very long and compact. Wings very long, broad, rounded, of twenty-three or twenty-five quills, of which the third is longest, the outer five abruptly cut out on the inner web ; all the rest rounded, with a minute tip. Tail long, broad, even or slightly cmarginate, but at the sides rounded, of twelve broad, acuminate feathers. This genus, of which the species are not numerous, appears to be intermediate between Buteo and Milvus, and in the general form and short strong tarsi to approximate to Pandion. It is distinguished from Buteo by having the bill longer, the cere broader, the feet nuich shorter and stronger, the tarsi des- titute of scutella, the wings and tail much longer. From IMilvus it diilers in having the bill more slender, the feet much stouter, the tarsi not scutellate, the tail not forked. From all the genera of this family it is distinguished by the imbricated, compact, scale-like feathers on the parts about the base of the bill. 254 PERNIS APIYORA. BROWN BEE-HAWK. HONEY BUZZARD. Falco apivorus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 130. Falco apivorus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 25. Honey Buzzard. Mont. Orn. Diet. Buse Bondri'e. Falco apivorus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L C" ; IIL Honey Buzzard. Pernis apivorus. Selb. Illustr. I. G2. Buteo apivorus. Honey Buzzard. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 88. Tail xcith four broad and numerous small dusJcy hands ; icings with two similar hands. Adult male with the anterior j)0.rt of the head brown ish-p re//, the upper parts deep broicn, the throat white, with longitudinal dark lines, the rest of the loicer parts white, with broad bands and spots of broicn. Young male with the head broicn, anteriorly tinged with grey, the upper parts deep broicn, the throat light 7-eddish, with longitudinal dark lines, the rest of the loicer jiai-ts deep brown, with darker longitudinal lines. Female with the forehead bluish-grey, the upper parts deep broicn, the loicer pale yelloicish-red, with large reddish brown spots. Young with the head white, spotted icith broicn, the upper parts deep broicn, the feathers broadly edged with light red, the loicer parts light yellowish-red, spotted with brown. BROWN BEE-HA\\K. 2r.5 The colouring of this bird, which varies nearly as much as that of the Brown Buzzard, is still a subject of dispute, some authors considering the individuals of which the head and lower parts arc white, as adult, while others are of opinion that thcy'aro young. The Honey Buzzard being of very rare occurrence, so that one has little chance of meeting with a live or recent spe- cimen in the course of many years, this question cannot be de- cided by me. I shall therefore confine myself to the description of two individuals obtained in Scotland, one of Mhich I had the good fortune to receive entire. The other I have examined after it was preserved and mounted. They were both males, but while one was of a nearly uniform brown colour, the other was brown above, and white spotted with brown beneath. The former would be considered a young bird by M. Temminck, the latter an adult. YouxG Male. — This individual was killed near Stirling in June 183S, and came into my hands on the 9th of that month, when it was perfectly fresh. The description which I took at the time is as follows : — The form is rather slender and elon- gated, the body moderately full, the neck of ordinary length or rather short, the head ovato-oblong. The bill, although slen- der, compared with that of other birds of this order, is rather stout. The aperture of the mouth is wide, and extends to be- neath the anterior angle of the eye ; the cere large ; the upper mandible with its outline as far as the edge of the cere convexo- declinate, then curved in the third of a circle, the sides convex, the edges soft to beneath the anterior extremity of the nostrils, then hard, direct, and sharp, the tip slender, acute, dcsccndinor; the lower mandible comparatively small, with the back broad, the sides rounded, the edges as in the upper, the tip rounded ; the gape-line arched from the base. Nostrils oblongo-linear, large, oblique. Upper mandible a little concave, lower broadly channelled, with a median prominent line. Tongue deeply concave above, with the sides nearly parallel, the tip rounded but emarglnate. Eyelids feathered, but their margins bare. Limbs short ; tarsus robust, anteriorly covered with feathers halfway down, on the rest of its extent \vith angular scales. 250 PERNIS APn'OIlA. Toes of moderate size ; the first stoutest, the second next, the fourth least ; the first with four large scales ahove, the second with three, the third with four, the fourth with three. The claws long, rather slender, tapering, arcuate ; the first and se- cond strongest, the third longest, with a thin inner edge, the second next in length, the fourth smallest. Plumage compact. The feathers on the fore part of the head and cheeks ovate, compact, and small, especially on the loral space, and about the eye. The feathers in general are ovate, curved, with a large downy plumule, on the lower parts nearly as compact as ou the upper, ^yings long and very broad, extending to two inches and a half from the end of the tail ; quills twenty-three ; the outer six separated at the end when the wing[ is extended, and havinsf the inner web cut out to- wards the end, but indistinctly in the inner two ; all the rest rounded, with a minute tip. Tail long, a little emarginate and rounded at the end, the feathers broad. The first quill is two inches and seven-twelfths shorter than the second, which is eleven-twelfths shorter than the third, the latter exceeds the fourth by only one-twelfth, the rest gradually diminish. The middle tail-feathers are three-twelfths shorter than the third, which exceeds the lateral by ten-twelfths. The cere is of a dusky green colour, but at the base pale yel- low. The bill black, the base of the lower mandible flesh- coloured. The mouth flesh-coloured ; the mandibles black within, excepting the median line of the upper ; the horny part of the tongue black. The margins of the eyelids black ; the iris pure yellow. Tarsi and toes orange, claws black. The loral space and anterior part of the forehead are brownish-grey ; the head reddish-brown ; the rest of the upper jjarts umber- brown, the feathers generally darker on the shaft and towards the end. The primary coverts and primary quills are blackish- brown at the end, and in the rest of their extent have generally on both webs three bands of dark-brown on a lighter ground ; the inner webs white, except at the end, where they are light brown, mottled with darker ; the outer quill however has only a single dark band, reduced to two spots ; the second and third have two bands, also reduced to spots ; on the secondaries the HROWN BKE-HAWK. 257 dark bands arc reduced to two, and gradually approximate inwards. The tail-feathers have the tips brownish-white ; then a broad band of brownish-black, and a dusky space with seven indistinct darker bands, between which and the base are three large blackish bands. Upper tail-coverts light umber. The throat is light reddish-brown ; the rest of the lower parts umber, each feather with the shaft and a portion near it dusky. The feathers of the legs are lighter, as are the lower tail-coverts, which have two bands of white toward the base. The con- cealed and downy parts of the plumage are white, which ap- pears on the hind-neck and head when the feathers are raised, as it extends over more than half their length. The lower wing-coverts umber-brown. The digestive organs arc in all respects similar to those of the Common Buzzard. The oesophagus is six inches long, its width at the upper part one inch. The crop is very large, its M'idth being two inches ; the proventricular belt three fourths of an inch in breadth. The stomach is large, roundish, an inch and a half in diameter ; its muscular coat very thin, and disposed in fasciculi ; the tendons rather large and roundish. The intestine twenty-two inches long, its diameter from five- twelfths to two-twelfths ; the duodenum only three inches and a half in length. The cloaca is elliptical, two inches long. There are no coeca. The crop contained four pieces of meat, which had apparently been cut with a knife ; and the sto- mach was fdled with fragments of bees and numerous larva?, among which no honey or wax was found. The soles were crusted with mud or earth ; the claws very slightly blunted. Length to end of tail 24-1 inches; extent of wings 52; wing from flexure IGf ; tail 111 ; bill along the ridge l^i, alonor the edge of lower mandible also l^b ; tarsus 1 ji ; first toe i|, its claw 1 ; second toe l^'j, its claw 1 ; third toe Ij^^, its claw ly'j ; fourth toe Ij^^, its claw j%. That this individual was not a young bird of the season is evident, not from the firnmess of its plumage but from the tex- ture of its bones, as well as the period at which it was procured. Yet if we compare the Bee-Hawk ^vith the Kite, we shall VOL. III. s 268 PERNIS APIVORA. ""^ be induced to consider our specimen as young, for in the latter species the young are much darker than the adult, and have the bands on the tail more distinct. I am therefore inclined to agree with M. Temminck in this matter. The other speci- men which I have examined I shall now describe. Adult Male. — In form and proportions this individual agreed with the above. The tarsi, which are feathered ante- riorly about halfway down, are covered with flat hexagonal scales, of which the anterior are very large, and six in a line. The toes are covered above with transverse series of scales, en- larging toward the end, where they change into scutclla, of which there are four on the first, three on the second, three on the third, and four on the fourth. The claws are long, slen- der, curved in about the fourth of a circle, flat beneath, ex- tremely acute. The plumage is soft, but compact, rather glossy on the back and wings. The cere quite bare. The fea- thers on the loral spaces and fore part of the head and cheeks small, ovate, and compact ; those on the rest of the head short and rounded ; on the body broad and rounded ; the elongated feathers of the tibiae and abdomen more compact than usual. The WMngs very long, broad, and rounded ; the first five pri- mary quills deeply sinuate on the inner web, and beyond the sinus having their edges nearly parallel until near the rounded tips ; the secondary quills thirteen, very long, broadly rounded, with a minute acumen. Tail nearly as long as the body, neck, and head, even, but with the lateral feathers on each side a little shorter. Bill black ; cere dusky ; tarsi and toes yellow, claws black. The head to behind the eyes, the auriculars, and the short fea- thers margining the lower mandible, are light brownish-grey. That colour gradually passes on the hind-neck into deep umber- brown, which is the general tint of the upper parts, which are however shaded with grey, the shaft of each feather, together with a patch on the centre, being blackish-brown. All the feathers are white at the base, those on the hind-neck for two- thirds of their length. The larger wing-coverts and scapulars are brownish-grey in the middle ; the secondary quills grey in BROWN BEE-HAWK. 259 the middle, faintly barred with brown, brownish-black toward the end, the margins of the tips pale brown. The alular fea- thers and primary quills are similar, their grey part sprinkled with brown dots, and a large portion of their inner webs white. The tail-feathers are umber-brown, tinged with grey ; their base white, that colour succeeded by a bar of deep umber ; then, within half an inch, another bar of the same colour, par- tially concealed by the tail-coverts ; the next brown bar, which is all exposed, is a little more than half an inch distant, and at an interval of six inches, on which are six faint bands of brown, is a subterminal bar of blackish-brown, an inch and a half in breadth ; the tips brownish-white. The sides of the neck are greyish-brown above, umber-brown below ; the throat white, with brownish-black shaft-lines ; the lower part of the neck anteriorly pale brown, with brownish-black lines ; the breast, sides, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts, white, with broad transverse bands of umber-brown. These bands are formed in this manner : — The feathers of the lower neck have a large terminal triangular spot, those of the fore-breast have a similar spot, and about the middle a band ; those on the lower breast and sides a spot and two bands ; the long feathers on the side a spot and three bands ; those of the abdomen two, the lower tail-coverts three, the axillar feathers four bands. The outer lower wing-coverts are chocolate-brown, the rest banded with white and brown ; the lower surface of the quills and tail- feathers is pale grey, with white shafts, and three bands of brownish-black, two being sub-basal, and one terminal. Length to end of tail 24 inches, to end of wings 23 ; extent of wings estimated at 50 ; wing from flexure loj, tail 10 ; bill along the back ly^, along the edge of lower mandible l-^^^ ; tarsus 2 ; first toe ^2, its claw {^ ; second toe l^'g, its claw 1 ; third toe 1/^, its claw l|*g ; fourth toe 1^\, its claw {^. Habits. — The Bee-Hawk is of rare occurrence in any part of Britain, and being consequently in great request among col- lectors, has little chance of remaining unmolested whenever it makes its appearance. In the northern and middle divisions of Scotland it has not yet been met with, and in the southern I 2C0 PERNIS APIVORA. am aware of only three instances of its having been killed. In the Statistical Report of the Parish of Hamilton, the Rev. ]\Ir Patrick states that one was shot at Chatelherault in the antumn of 1831. The light-coloured specimen above described, which formerly belonged to Dr Bushnan, then of Dumfries, but is now in the museum of the University of Edinburgh, was killed at Drumlanrig in that county. The other, also described, and now in my collection, which has in four years gradually in- creased to two thousand specimens, was killed near Stirling. In Northumberland and Durham several individuals, some of which have been described by the Hon. Mr Liddel, J. P. Selby, Esq., and Sir William Jardine, Bart., have been obtained of late years. James Wilson, Esq., one of the very few zoologists of Edinburgh, remembers having seen in Penrith three, which, with some others, were shot in Cumberland by Lord Lons- dale's game-keepers. It has several times been killed in Nor- folk and Suffolk, as well as in Dorsetshire, Devonshire, and Worcestershire. In the midland and western parts of England it appears to have been very seldom met M'ith. Owing to the unfrequency of its appearance, its habits are very little known. It has been seen attacking the nests of wasps, and these animals with their larvjE have been found in its stomach. In consequence of its efforts in digging them out of the ground, its feet have been seen covered Avitli soil, as have its bill and the fore part of the head. Willughby and Vieillot say it runs very swiftly, like a domestic fowl, but this state- ment, if we judge from analogy and the structure of the feet, seems to require confirmation. Various observers have found in its crop and stomach remains of moles, mice, birds, frogs, lizards, snails, and caterpillars, and it has been seen skinmiing over water as if in pursuit of insects. In the crop of a female shot in Selborne Hanger, W'^hite says there were found limbs of frogs and many grey snails. Willughby relates that a pair which bred in the deserted nest of a kite, fed their young with larva? of wasps, as well as with lizards and frogs. M. Temminck adds hamsters to its bill of fare, and doubtless it feeds much in the same manner as the liuzzard, which it usually excels in fatness, although that bird is generally found in excellent con- BROWN BEE-HAWK. 2G1 dition, especially in autumn and winter. Indeed, owinij; to the great quantity of oily fat under the skin, it is difficult to pre- pare specimens of it. Its flight is said to be low and not usually extended, and this may be the case when it has assumed a sta- tion in a favourable locality ; but from the length and form of its wings and tail, it must have a mode of flight very similar to that of the Kite. A\'^ith us it is apparently a sunnner visi- tant, and not a permanent resident, for all the specimens whose dates of capture or death are recorded, have been obtained in summer and autumn. A few instances of its breeding in England arc known. White, in his celebrated Natural History of Selborne, says, " A pair of Honey Buzzards built them a large shallow nest, composed of twigs, and lined with dead beechen leaves, upon a tall slender beech, near the middle of Selborne Hanger, in the summer of 17S0. In the middle of the month of June, a bold boy climbed this tree, though standing on so steep and dizzy a situation, and brought down an e^g, the only one in the nest, which had been sat on for some time, and contained the embryo of a young bird. The egg was smaller, and not so round as those of the common buzzard, was dotted at each end with small red spots, and surrounded in the middle with a broad bloody zone." Mr J. ]\I. Brown informs me that ho " once found a nest of the Honey Buzzard in the woods of Abergeldie in Aberdeenshire. It was built in a tree, and re- sembled that of the Common Buzzard. There were three eggs, of a whitish colour spotted with light and dark brown. The male was shot, before it was known what species had been met with." M. Temminck says its eggs are '' marked with largo reddish-brown patches, and are often entirely of that colour, or with numerous spots so close together that the white is scarce- ly perceptible.'" An egg from France, in the museum of the University of Edinburgh, is of a broadly elliptical form, two inches and half a twelfth in length, one inch and six and a half twelfths in breadth, white, with blotches of greenish-brown, which have probably been at first reddish-brown. Mr Yar- rell, in his History of British Birds, mentions his having seen three or four specimens, one of which resembled that described 262 PERNIS APIVORA. by White, M-hile another in hig collection is "mottled nearly all over with two shades of orange-brown : long diameter two inches and one line ; transverse diameter one inch nine lines." Two young birds seen by Willughby were " covered with a white down, spotted with black. Their feet were of a pale yel- low ; their bills between the nostrils and the head, white." Beyond this, I apprehend, there is little certainty, for the young partially or fully fledged have not, it would appear, been described from observation. It may however be expedient to adjoin the following notice by M. Temminck. " The young of the year have the cere yellow, and the iris light-brown ; the head spotted with white and brown ; the lower part of the body of a reddish-white with large brown spots ; the feathers of the upper parts margined with reddish. " The female and the young have only greyish-blue on the forehead ; the fore part of the neck marked with large spots of light-brown ; breast and belly of a yellowish-red with spots of deep brown; upper parts of a reddish-brown with darker spots; often the lower part of the body whitish with spots of reddish- brown." 263 MILVUS. KITE. Bill shorter than the head, somewhat broader than high at the base, much compressed toward the end, strong ; upper mandible with the dorsal line slightly convex, and descending a little to the edge of the large bare cere, then decurved in the fourth of a circle, the ridge broad and flattened at the base, toward the end narrow but convex, the sides rapidly sloping, and but slightly convex, the edges soft at the base, beyond the cere hard, direct, and sharp, with a slight festoon, the tip de- flected, tapering, trigonal, rather blunt ; lower mandible with the angle large, wide, anteriorly rounded, the outline slightly convex, the back broad, the sides rounded, the edges thin, somewhat inflected, the tip rounded, but thin-edged ; the gape- line nearly straight. Mouth wide ; upper mandible internally a little concave, with a median ridge, lower deeply concave, with a median prominent line ; palate flat, with two papillate longitudinal soft ridges ; posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, margined with acute papilla.\ Tongue short, fleshy, sagittate, and papillate at the base, concave above, horny beneath, rounded and emarginate. (Esophagus wide, about the middle dilated into a moderate crop ; proventricular belt complete. Stomach roundish ; its muscular coat thin, being composed of a single series of fasciculi, the lateral tendons roundish. In- testine of moderate length, slemler ; cocca very small ; cloaca very large and globular. Plate XXI, Fig. 2. Body moderately full, compact ; neck short ; head of mo- derate size, ovate, rather flattened above. Nostrils rather small, elliptical, oblique, lateral, nearer tlie ridge than the edge, and close to the anterior margin of the cere. Eyes large ; eyelids feathered, and furnished with ciliary bristles ; the su- perciliary ridge prominent. Aperture of the ear large and 264 MILVLS. KITE. roundish. Legs short, robust ; tibia? short ; tar.si very short, roundish, feathered anteriorly for more than a third, then covered with a few larsre scutella, on the sides and behind with angular scales ; toes of moderate length, strong, the first and second nearly equal, the third much longer, the fourth more slender than the rest, a little longer than the second, and con- nected with the third by a pretty large basal web ; all covered above in nearly their whole length with large scutella, laterally and beneath with prominent tubercular scales. Claws long, well curved, tapering, compressed, very acute, convex on the sides, concave beneath ; the first and second largest, and nearly equal, the third longest, and having an inner sharp edge. Plumage soft, rather blended; slightly glossed. Cere bare on its upper part ; space between the eye and bill closely covered with small, slender, bristle-tipped feathers, of which the base is downy. Feathers of the head, neck, and breast oblong and pointed, of the outer part of the tibia elongated, as are the lower tail-coverts, of the abdomen softer and loose, of the upper parts broadly ovate and rounded. Wings extremely long, broad, narrow, but rounded at the end ; the third quill longest, the fourth almost equal, the first short ; the primary quills of moderate strength, broad, toward the end tapering, in- curved, with the tip rounded, the outer five having the inner web cut out. The secondary (piills thirteen, long, broad, rounded, with a minute tip. Tail very long, broad, forked or emarginate, of twelve broad feathers. The genus INIilvus, of wdiich the species are not numerous, is very intimately allied to Pernis, from which it is distin- guished by the still more elongated wings and tail, the bristly nature of the covering of the loral space, and the more curved claws. It approximates to the genus Elanus, which has the wings and tail extremely elongated, and differs further in hav- ing the tarsi destitute of scutella. The Ivitcs are remarkable for their gliding and buoyant flight. They prey on birds, small quadrupeds, reptiles, insects, sometimes fishes, and occa- sionally cat the flesh of dead animals. Only one species occurs in Britain, in some districts of which it is still rather plcn- liftd. 265 MILVUS REGALIS. THE RED KITE. COMMON KITE. GLED. GLEAD, GLADE. RED GLED, SALMON-TAILED GLED, FORK-TAILED GLED. PUTTOCK. CKOTCHET-TAILED PUTTOCK. AN CLAMHAN GODHLACH. Faico ]\Iilvus. Linn. Syst. Nat. T. 12G. Falco Milvus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L -20. Old. Falco austriacus. Lath. Ind. Orn. ]. 21, Young. Kite. Mont. Orn. Diet. ^lilan Royal. Falco Milvus. Temm. INIan. d'Orn. I. 59. Kite or dead. Milvus vulgaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 74. Common Kite, ililvus Ictinus. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 86. 3Ta/e icith the upper parts rcddis/i-brotoi, marked with longi- tudinal hlackish-lroicn streaks, the lower parts liaht hroicnish red, icith narrower dusky streaks. Female tcith the head and upper part of the neck oret/ish-ichite, streaked tcith diisk/f, the other parts nearly as in the male. Younrf of a duller brotcnish- red, tcith the central dark markings of the feathers broader. Tail deeplif emarginate. 266 MILVUS REGALIS. Male. — The Kite is distinguished from the other native birds of this family by the superior elegance of its buoyant flight, as well as by its elongated -wings, and deeply emarginate tail. Its form, \Yhit'li closely approaches to that of the Bee- Hawk, is not less graceful than that of any other British species, the body being short, ovate, and compact, the head of mode- rate size, the neck short, as are the feet, while the organs of flight are greatly elongated, and the bill and claws of moderate size. On the tarsus are seven anterior scutella, of which the lower two are divided, on the first toe arc three, on the second six, on the third twelve, on the fourth six scutella, besides se- veral basal series of scales. The hind claw is deeply grooved on the sides, and slightly larger than the second, the third with a very thin prominent inner edge. The mouth is wide, measuring an inch and two-twelfths across; the tongue and other parts as described in the generic character. The oesophagus six inches and a half long, the crop two inches in width ; the stomach round, and two inches in diameter, its muscular coat very thin. The intestine five feet long, from four to two and a half twelfths in width, until the commencement of the rectum, which is half an inch wide, and forms a large globular dilatation. The plumage is rather compact on the upper parts, more blended on the lower ; the feathers very downy at the base, with a rather large plumule. The loral space is covered with divergent slender bristle-tipped feathers ; the greater part of the cere bare ; the ciliae large and strong. The feathers of the head, neck, and breast are narrow and pointed, of the back ovate and rounded, of the sides, outer part of the tibia, and subcaudal region, elongated and obtuse ; those of the abdo- men downy. The wings are broad but pointed, although the first quill is four and a half inches shorter than the fourth, which scarcely exceeds the third, the second half an inch shorter than the fifth ; the outer five quills deeply cut out on the inner web, and less so on the outer ; the secondary quills very broad, rounded, with a minute acumen ; the primary coverts broad and rounded, the alula large. The tail is very long, deeply emarginate, of twelve broad, rounded feathers, the RED KITE. 2G7 outer curved a little outwards at the tip, and three inches shorter than the central. The tips of the wings when closed reach to the end of the middle tail-feathers. The bill is brownish-black, its base, basal margins, and ccro pure yellow ; the superciliary ridge and eyelids dull yellow, the margins of the latter dusky. The iris is pale yellow. Tho feet of a rich yellow inclining to orange, the claws brownish- black. The general colour of the head and neck is light brownish-yellow, longitudinally streaked w'ith blackish-brown, the tips of the feathers on the head greyish-white ; the an- terior part of the forehead, the cheeks^ and the throat greyish- white, streaked with brownish-black. The anterior upper parts of the body are light reddish-brown, each feather with a narrow lanceolate median brownish-black mark. On the scapulars the dark markings are broader. The middle and hind parts of the back are light red, with linear dusky streaks. The alula, primary coverts, and outer five primary quills are deep bluish-black ; the other primaries have the greater part of the outer web greyish-brown ; and the inner web of all, except the first, is paler, barred with brownish-black, with the marginal portion yellowish-white. The secondary quills are greyish-black, tinged with purple ; their inner webs more or less barred or mottled, and their tips reddish-white ; the inner secondaries similar to the feathers of the back, but with their inner webs barred with dusky. The tail is brownish-red, with dusky shafts, the outer two feathers on each side having the greater part of the outer webs blackish-brown, their inner webs with about twelve faint dusky bars, and most of the other feathers with traces of similar bars. The fore part of the neck, the breast, and the sides are light yellowish-red, each feather with a very narrow, tapering medial dusky streak, and a red- dish-white tip ; the abdominal and tibial feathers, and the lower tail-coverts, much paler, with only the shafts dark brown until near the end. Length to end of tail 25 inches ; extent of winsfs 61 ; winf» from tlexure 19 ; tail 13? ; bill alonj? the ridfje lj%. alon2 the ed_e of lower mandible 1 jS ; tarsus 2 ; first toe { §, its claw 1/, ; second toe |i, its claw 1/, ; third toe Ij'j, its claw \l ; fourth toe 1 , its claw /^ . 268 MILVUS REGALIS. Female, — The female, although considerably larger, difiers little from the male in colour, the upper parts being merely of a deeper tint, the head paler and tinged with grey. The fol- lowing is the description of a line individual obtained in Dum- bartonshire. The tongue is ten-twelfths of an inch long, with the base cniarginate and papillate, the tip rounded. The oeso- phagus six inches long, the crop an inch and a half in width. The stomach globular, an inch and four-twelfths in diameter ; its muscular coat very thin, being composed of a single series of fasciculi. The whole length of the intestine is five feet six inches ; the duodenum, which is eighteen inches lonsf, is con- voluted in four folds. The cloaca is globular, an inch and a quarter in width. On the tarsus are seven scutella, of which one of the lower is slit ; on the first toe three, on the second three, on the third ten, on the fourth six. The wings extend half an inch beyond the fork of the tail, of which the lateral feathers are three inches and a half longer than the middle. The first quill is three inches and a quarter shorter than the second, which is an inch and three quarters shorter than the third, this latter being four-twelfths shorter than the fourth, which exceeds the fifth by ten-twelfths. The bill and claws black ; its base and the cere rich yellow, as are the tarsi and toes ; the iris pale yellow. The head and upper part of the neck are grey ish- white, longitudinally streaked with blackish-brown . The general colour of the fore part of the back, scapulars, and wing- coverts, is brownish-red, each feather with an elongated central deep-brown space, broader on the scapulars, and much narrower on the wing coverts. Alula, primary coverts, and outer five quills brownish black, the other primaries greyish-brown ex- ternally ; the secondaries deep brown, the inner greyish-brown. The inner webs of the primaries toward the base are greyish- white, of the secondaries grey, all barred or mottled M'ith dark grey. The middle and hind parts of the back, with the upper tail-coverts, light red, each feather with a brownish-black shaft- line. The tail li^ht red, the two outer feathers on each side dusky on their outer webs, all barred with dec]) brown, the bars on the outer feathers twelve, on the middle reduced to nine small central traces. The lower parts are light red, with RED KITE. 2(VJ lonffitiulinal pointed streaks of blackish-brown, which ^ijradually become narrower, so as to be confined to the shafts on the tibial and snbcandal feathers, which are of a lighter tint. The base of all the feathers is white, and the scapulars, which are very large, have four or five transverse dusky bars. Length to end of tail 27 inches ; extent of wings G3 ; wing from flexure 19:i ; tail 14; bill along the ridge I/3, along the edge of lower mandible 11% ; tarsus 2-f^ ; hind toe {§, its claw 1^-g ; second toe |^, its claw l^^j ; third toe l/g, its claw \l ; fourth toe 1, its claw /^. An individual shot in Nairnshire, in April 1832, and simi- lar to the above, was 27| inches in length, and 04 in alar ex- tent. The entire length of the intestinal canal was 70 inches, of which the oesophagus measured 7 ; the stomach 2 inches in diameter. Variations. — Differences in size are not very remarkable in individuals of this species ; nor are those of colour very decided, consisting chiefly of a greater or less breadth of the dusky streaks, and a varying depth of tint in the reddish parts. Changes of Plumage. — The moult is not completed until late in autumn. When the plumage is new, the tints are much brighter and deeper than in summer, toward the end of which the dark parts are tinged with greyish-brown, the red are faded, and the paler margins and tips abraded. Habits. — In the northern parts of Scotland, the Kite is of very rare occurrence ; in the outer Hebrides I am not aware of its having been observed ; and in the counties to the south of the Friths of Tay and Clyde, it is of extremely rare occurrence ; but from Stirling and Perth westward, it is often seen, and in some parts of the counties of Dumbarton, Argyle, and Perth, cannot be considered as scarce. In Cumberland and West- moreland it appears to be more frequent than in the eastern parts of the north of England ; while in the southern it is very seldom met Avith. Montagu remarks that in twelve years' residence he never observed but one individual in the southern 270 MlLVrS REGALIS. parts of Devonshire. Thus, although the species is not widely extended on the Continent, being found from Norway to Italy, and thus is not peculiarly a northern bird, it is more abundant in the middle districts of Scotland than in any part of Eng- land, where, owing to the care bestowed on the preservation of game, it has less chance of thriving than in a wilder country. The flight of this bird is remarkably elegant, the lightness of its body, and the proportionally great extent of the wings and tail, producing a buoyancy which reminds one of the mode of flying of the Gulls and Jagers. AV'hcn searching for food, it moves along at a moderate height, wheeling and gliding in an undulatory course, and proceeding at intervals with motionless wings- Like the Buzzard and Eagles, it sometimes soars to a great elevation, gliding in circles, and sailing gracefully with outspread wings and partially expanded tail, the peculiar form of which I'cnders it recognisable even at a very great distance. All the hawks which prey chiefly on mice, lizards, and other small animals M'hich they seize when on the ground, have a habit of fixing themselves at intervals in the air, apparently for the purpose of examining the space beneath them, and this re- markable character is observed in the Kite, although it is not so decided as in the Kestrel. " One cannot," says Buffon, " but admire the manner in which the flight of the Kite is performed ; his long and narrow wings seem motionless ; it is his tail that seems to direct all his evolutions, and he moves it continually ; he rises without cflbrt, comes down as if he were sliding along an inclined plane ; he seems rather to swim than to fly ; he darts forward, slackens his speed, stops, and remains suspended or fixed in the same place for whole hours, without exhibiting the smallest motion of his wings.*" This mode of flying is very different from that of the heavy-bodied, compact, jDointcd-wingcd Falcons, which speed along with quick beats of the wings, pursue their prey in open flight, and seldom at- tack a bird on the ground. The Kite on the contrary usually obtains its food there, for, as it consists for the most part of snakes, lizards, frogs, small mammalia, and young birds, it cannot gratify those observers who are pleased with nothing less than the dashing flight of the fierce Peregrine, and are RED KITE. 271 profuse in contemptuous epithets when speaking of those hawka which, being furnished with very long rounded wings, are not well able to overtake a bird in open flight. Occasionally it feeds on carrion, dead fish, and insects, as well as worms, and has been accused of destroying young lambs, and committing depredations on poultry. But little apprehension is now neces- sary on the latter score, and in truth the Sparrow Hawk is the kite of the farm-yard. A writer in ^Ir Loudon's Magazine of Natural History says he has frequently seen a kite come from the forest at Blois to fish in the Loire, which it seemed to do with much success, seldom appearing to miss its prey ; and both on the continent and in this country it has been seen feeding on dead fish. Very contradictory accounts of the moral and physical powers of this bird have been given by authors. Thus, Willughby re- presents its audacity as such as to render it au object of appre- hension and hatred to housewives on account of its depredations on poultry ; and Montagu relates that one was so intent on obtaining some chickens from a coop, as to afford a servant girl an opportunity of knocking it down with a broom. The same author states that a kite, which had been for some time hovering over a woman who was washing some entrails in a stream, came down and carried oft' a portion of them that ex- tended some yards into the water, in spite of all her efforts to frighten it away. These are acts of courage or audacity ; but then they are met with remarks on the cowardly character of a bird which allows itself to be defeated by the Sparrow Hawk, and intimidated even by a clucking hen. The following cha- racter by ^L Valmont Bomare is of a mixed kind, and in most respects, I believe, not incorrect. " The Kite, when it flies, extends its long wings and balances itself in the air, where it remains a long time in a manner motionless, without its winofs appearing to be agitated ; but it directs at its will all its mo- tions by those of its tail ; always master of its flight, it quickens or slackens it, shoots along or remains suspended in the same point, according to circumstances. Its sight is very penetrating. This powerful bird pursues only field-mice and young birds ; in defect of these it pounces on reptiles, even grasshoppers, 272 MlLVrS REGALIS. dead fish thrown ashore by the waves, and sometimes on car- rion. It is not afraid of approaching dwelling-places, and car- ries off a great number of ducklings, goslings, and chickens ; but the mere anger of the hen is enough to drive it back, and it presently flies off. No 1 ird has a more easy or rapid flight. It is named the Royal Kite, because it was subservient to the pleasure of princes, who hunted it with the falcon and sparrow- hawk ; but the ej^ithet royal is ill merited by the kite. In fact we see this cowardly bird, which ranks among the ignoble hawks, because it is not susceptible of any education, although endowed with all the faculties which ousht to mve it couraoe, and having no defect of arms, strength, or agility, refuse to fight, and fly before the much smaller sparrow hawk, turning and rising to conceal itself in the clouds, until the more active and courageous hawk overtakes it, assails it with wings, talons, and bill, and drags it to the earth less wounded than beaten, and more vanquished by the dread than by the strength of its enemy." There is nothing marvellous in a Falcon's beating a Kite, it being a more muscular and vigorous bird. As to the Sparrow Hawk, its audacity seems scarcely to have any bounds, for it has been seen to strike even a Golden Eagle, and it is very probable that it might disable a Buzzard as well as a Kite. If this bird does not defend itself against its jDuny antagonist, it must be because its organization does not fit it for this sort of warfare, and if it seldom ventures to attack a large bird or (juadruped, it must be for the same reason ; yet the Kite, judging from its appearance, is well furnished witli arms, for its bill is powerful, and its claws well curved and finely pointed, and it has a kind of flight not excelled in case and ilexility by that of any other British bird of prey. Few of our birds have been yet studied with sufiicient minuteness and care, so that the accounts given by authors arc not always to be de- pended upon. For my part, I am more disposed to give credit to those who admire the Kite for its good qualities, rather than despise it for its inferiority to some other birds. As to its ignobility, or, in other words, its incapability of being taught, this is contradicted by Mr Thompson of Belfast, who. RKD KITE. 273 in the Magazine of Zoolofry and Botany, states that " Mr R. Langtry, when at Loch Awe, in Argyllshire, early in the sum- mer of 1833, procured from the nest two young Kites, which proved a highly interesting addition to his aviary. They at once became very tamo and familiar, and were so gentle in disposition as to be most engaging. Every morning they had their liberty, never flew far, but soared to a great height in the air, and, in still repeated circles, displayed their graceful and peculiar flight. To either lure or fist they always returned when called. Mice were preferred by them to birds or any other food. \\'lien these Kites were on winfr, rats let oft' from the cage-trap were expertly caught by them." In the south-eastern counties of Scotland this bird is so sel- dom seen that when it happens to present itself it excites a great degree of curiosity. " In the neighbourhood of Bath- gate,'" ]Mr Weir writes to me, " the Fork-tailed Kite very seldom appears, as during the long period of twelve years I have seen one male only. For three successive seasons he frequented this parish, and was in the almost daily habit of visiting the same localities, making his appearance at his difterent haunts about the same hour each day. Amongst partridges and other birds he committed very great havoc. His flight was easy and graceful, consisting of curves and extensive circles, which were performed by the almost imperceptible motion of his wings, and guided by his forked and elongated tail. He occasionally soared to a great height. AVhen with outstretched wings he performed some of his majestic aerial evolutions, he has again and again delighted and astonished the inhabitants, w4io believed that he was one of Jove's noble birds that had come from the cold regions of the north to visit this our more genial clime. In the pursuit of this very shy bird I have sj)ent many a weary hour in wandering over mountain and dale ; indeed, I had almost given up the hope of ever get- ting within reach of him, until one morning when shootin^ I observed him at a distance intent upon securing a partridge for his repast. He fortunately pounced upon it near an old and very long wall on the lands of Coston, in the parish of Bathgate. With almost breathless anxiety and high palpita- VOL. HI. T 274 MILVLS REGALIS. tion of heart, I crept upon my hands and knees until I was within sixty yards of the place where he stood. Up he started so soon as I raised my head above the wall, I levelled my gun, and brought him to the ground. In securing this my long-wished-for prize, I had some difficulty, as when I ap- proached him, he struck at me with his bill and talons most fiercely and resolutely. 1 assure you (for you, Sir, experi- mentally know the enthusiasm with which one is excited when in pursuit of a fine specimen of the feathered tribe) that I could not have been elated with greater self complacency, even though I had, at the late far-famed tournament, encountered and defeat- ed the noble Earl of Eglinton, or the redoubtable Marquis of Waterford, aye, and received the well-earned palm of victory, and the smiles of approbation from the ' bewitching and match- less Queen of Beauty.' This Kite is the one which belongs to Mr Henderson, and which you have at present." It is the specimen from which I have taken the description of the male. I have never seen a Kite's nest, but have examined two eggs taken from one in Argyllshire, of which one was bluish-white, the other yellowish -white, clouded with reddish-brown; their form broadly elliptical, the greatest diameter two inches and a quarter, the breadth an inch and eight twelfths. Mr Yarrell, in his well-arranged and beautifully illustrated History of British Birds, says, " The nest, formed of sticks, and lined with various soft materials, is usually placed in the forked branch of a tree in a thick wood. Two, and sometimes three eggs, of a short oval form, measuring two inches and two lines in length by one inch nine lines in breadth, of a soiled white colour, marked with a few reddish-brown spots over the larger end, are laid early in the season." Two eggs from France which I have seen were of this kind, being Avhite, with a few dots of brown, and almost precisely of the same dimensions. In defending its nest the Kite shews no lack of courage, for it has been known to attack the aggressor, and in all cases threat- ens him by its loud screams and violent plunges. Young. — The young, M-hich at first are covered with white down, are when fledged of a darker and duller colour than the RED KITJ]. 275 adult. Tho head and neck are of a darker tint, but have tlio leathers tipped with whitish ; on the rest of the upper parts the feathers are brownish-black, with broad yellowish-red mar- gins, their tips whitish, the dark central markings being larger than in the adult, and on the back and wings glossed with pur- ple. The tail is nuich darker, its dark bars, of which tliero are twelve on the outer feathers, distinct and extending over both webs, the tips yellowish-red. The throat is whitish, with very slender shaft-streaks, the rest of the lower parts brownish- red, fading behind into dull light-red, the elongated central markings brownish-black, gradually becoming narrower, and disappearing on the abdomen, tibial feathers, and lower tail- coverts, of which the basal part of the shaft only is dusky. The cere and feet are pale yellow, the bill and claws brownish- black, the iris yellowish-brown. In the female the last dusky bar on the tail is larger than the rest, but not in the male. Progress toward Maturity. — In the second plumage, the colours and markings are nearly the same as in the adult state, but the feathers on the head are largely tipped with white, those of tho lower part of the hind-neck with yellowish. As the bird advances in age, the head assumes more of a greyish- white tint, the lower parts become of a lighter red, the dark central markings of the feathers grow narrower. The female has always more greyish -white on the head, some of the fea- thers of the back tinged with grey, and the red of the lower parts lighter than in the male. Hemarks. — The gradation of colouring in this species deserves to be here alluded to, as, with others, it affords an analogy in cases not known from direct observation. In the first place, the young are darker than the adult ; the central dark mark- ings of their feathers are larger, and the light-coloured margins narrower, while the tips are whitish on the head and neck. The dark brown or blackish tints become tinged with grey, the light tints become paler but dearer, and the dark bars di- minish in size as the bird advances in age. Such appears also to be the case in the Buzzards and Perns, and such it certainly is in the Hawks and Falcons. 276 NAUCLERUS. SWALLOW-KITE. Bill short, broader than high at the base, much compressed toward the end, of moderate strength ; upper mandible with the dorsal line declinato-decurvate from the base, the sides nearly flat, the ridge broad as far as the edge of the cere, the sharp edges with a slight festoon, the tip slender, acilt^,' and declinate ; lower mandible with the angle very wide, the dor- sal line slightly convex, the ridge broad, the edges slightly in- flected, much decurved toward the tip, which is rounded. Palate flat, with two longitudinal ridges ; upper mandible with a tuberculate median ridge, lower deeply concave ; pos- terior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, with the edges papillate. Tongue somewhat decurved, emarginate and finely papillate at the base, flat above, its tip narrow and acutely emarginate. Oesophagus of nearly uniform width, being des- titute of crop, and thus resembling that of the Owls ; its walls extremely thin ; stomach very large, round, slightly compress- ed, its muscular coat very thin, and composed of a single series of fasciculi. Intestine short and rather wide ; pylorus with three knobs, duodenum forming a loop in the usual man- ner ; no coeca ; rectum short, with a large globular dilatation. Head rather large, roundish, flattened above. Eyes large ; nostrils round, with a central papilla ; aperture of ear roundish and rather large. Neck short, body compact. Feet short ; tarsus very short, robust, covered all round Avith scales ; toes of moderate size, scutellate above, covered beneath with pro- minent pointed papillne. Claws rather long, well curved, slender, acuminate. Plumage blended, glossy, on the back and wings rather com- pact. Wings extremely elongated, rather narrow, and pointed ; the third (piill longest ; the secondaries short and rounded. Tail extremely long, very deeply forked, of twelve feathers. 277 NAUCLERUS FURCATUS. THE WHITE-HEADED SWALLOW-KITE. SWALLOW-TAILED HAWK. SWALLOW-TAILED KITE. Falco furcatus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 129. Falco furcatus. Lath. lud, Orn. I. 60. Swallow-tailed Elanus. Elanus furcatus. Selb. lUustr. I. "7. Milvus furcatus. Jen. Brit. Vert. An, 86. Swallow-tailed Hawk. Falco furcatus. Aud. Oru. Biogr. L 368 ; V. 371. Nauclerus furcatus. Audub. Syuops. 14. Uead^ nech^ and lower parts white ; hack^ tcings^ and tail black. Male. — This beautiful bird is at once distinguished from all the British falcouine species by its very long and deeply forked tail, as well as by its peculiar colouring. It agrees in every respect with the generic character, it being in fact the only species of its genus known to me. The oesophagus of an indi- vidual %yhich I examined for Mr Audubon measured five in- ches and a half in length, and one inch in width throughout ; the stomach was two inches and a quarter in diameter ; the intestine twenty-two inches long, and from five-twelfths to three-twelfths in width ; the rectum three inches and a half in length, and its cloacal dilatation one inch in diameter. In another individual, the intestine was twenty-two inches long. 278 NAUCLERUS FURCATUS. The very short, thick tarsi, strong, scutellate and tuberculate toes, and long taper-pointed claws, entirely unfit it for walk- ing, and its extremely elongated wings and tail render it more aerial in its habits than any other of this essentially aerial tribe of birds. The feathers are oblong and rounded, but unless on the back and wings blended. The first quill is equal to the fifth, the second shorter than the fourth, and the third longest. The cere, edges, and base of the bill are light blue, the rest black ; the iris dark ; the feet greenish-blue, the claws flesh- coloured. The feathers of the head, neck, breast, and other lower parts, are white, slightly tinged with grey ; the rest of the plumage black, glossed M'ith purjjlish-blue. Length to end of tail 22 inches, to end of wings 19 ; extent of wings 47 ; bill along the ridge 1 /^ ; wing from flexure 18 ; difierence between the middle and outer tail-feathers 8 ; tar- sus I5 ; first toe j^^, its claw j% ; second toe ^%, its claw ^% ; third toe jA, its claw j\ ; fourth toe ^"5, its claw /g. Female. — The female is distinguished from the male only by her superior size. Habits. — The proper country of this bird is the tropical and temperate regions of America. In summer it seldom advances farther northward than Kentucky and Virginia, so that not- withstanding its buoyant and rapid flight, its occurrence in Bri- tain is calculated to excite some surprise. An individual is recorded by the late Dr. Walker, Professor of Natural History in Edinburgh, to have been killed at 13allychulish in Argyll- shire, in 1772 ; and another was caught in Shawgill, near Ask- rigg, in Wensleydale, in Yorkshire, in September 1805. As the Scottish specimen does not appear to have been preserved, and that obtained in England made its escape a month after its capture, it might be doubted whether the species has a decided claim on our recognition, were it not that we can hardly suppose it to have been mistaken in either case, its form and colouring being so peculiar. For its habits and distribution reference must be made to the Ornithological Biography of Mr Audubon, WHITE-HEADED SWALLOW-KITE. 279 he being the only person who has described them from obser- vation. The following condensed statement will be found to contain all that is necessary for our purpose. The Swallow-tailed Hawk is not uncommon in Texas. In the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where it arrives early in April, it is abundant ; in the large prairies of the Attacapas and Appellousas it is extremely common ; in Florida and Vir- ginia it is of rare occurrence ; it is sparingly met with in South Carolina, and has been seen once or twice in Pennsylvania. Its flight is singidarly beautiful, its motions in the air combin- ing the utmost grace and ease. " Gliding along in easy flap- pings, it rises in wide circles to an immense height, inclining in various ways its deeply forked tail, to assist the direction of its course, dives with almost the rapidity of lightning, and, sud- denly checking itself, reascends, soars away, and is soon out of sight. At other times a flock of these birds, amounting to fif- teen or twenty individuals, is seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst the branches, glancing along the trunks, and seizing in their course the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest. Their motions are astonishingly rapid, and the deep curves which they describe, their sudden doublings and crossings, and the extreme ease with which they seem to cleave the air, excite the admiration of him who views them while thus employed in searching for food. They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather, they soar to an immense height, pursuing the large insects called musquito-hawks, and performing the most sin- gular evolutions that can be conceived, using their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their principal food however is large grasshoppers, grass-caterpillars, small snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a snake, and holding it fast by the neck, carry it ofli" and devour it in the air. They are very fond of frequenting the creeks, which in that country are much encumbered with drifted logs and accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of the nume- rous water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash along the trunks of trees, and snap off the 280 XAUCLERUS FURCATrS. pupfe of tbo locust, or that insect itself. Although when on wing they move with a grace and ease M'hich it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are scarcely able to walk." In the stomach of one which I opened in the presence of Mr Audubon were six slender light green snakes, one of them twenty-two and a half inches in length, together with a large larva, three inches long, and two coleopterous insects. In an- other, the stomach contained a green snake nineteen inches long, six lizards, and four very large coleopterous insects, with two eggs of reptiles seven twelfths and a half long. " The Swallow-tailed Hawk pairs innnediately after its ar- rival in the Southern States, and as its courtships take place on the wing, its motions are then more beautiful than ever. The nest is usually placed on the top branches of the tallest oak or pine tree, situated on the margin of a stream or pond. It resembles that of Corvus Amcricanus externally, being formed of dry sticks, intermixed with Spanish moss, and is lined with coarse grasses and a few feathers. The eggs are from four to six, of a greenish- white colour, with a few irregu- lar blotches of dark brown at the larger end. The male and the female sit alternately, the one feeding the other." YoLNG. — " The young are at first covered with buff-coloured down. Their next covering exhibits the pure white and black of the old birds, but without any of the glossy purplish tints of the latter. The tail, which is at first but slightly forked, be- comes more so in a few weeks, and at the approach of autumn exhibits little difference from that of the adult birds. The plumage is completed the first spring." 281 FALCO. FALCON. The Falcons are by most ornithologists considered the typi- cal birds of the great family to which they belong, or those possessing in the greatest perfection the peculiar characters by which the second group of the diurnal rapacious birds is distin- guished. It appears to me that there is little occasion for dis- puting the pre-eminence thus assigned to them. They are birds of small or moderate size, of a compact form, remarkably muscular, with the anterior part of the body very broad and deep ; the neck short ; the head large, round, and flattened above. The bill short, very strong, of nearly equal breadth and height at the base, moderately compressed toward the end : upper mandible with a broad cere, the dorsal line convex from the base, the ridge rounded, the sides convex, the edges ante- riorly thin and overlapping, with a medial festoon or convex prominence, and an anterior angular process, usually called a tooth, the tip trigonal, acute, decurved, with its lower part nearly perpendicular to the gape-line ; lower mandible with the angle wide and rounded, the dorsal line very convex, the back broad and convex, the edges involute, with a rounded notch on each side near the tip, which is truncate. Mouth wide ; upper mandible internally nearly flat, with a prominent central line, lower deeply concave, with a slight ridge ; palate flat, with two longitudinal soft, minutely papil- late ridges. Tongue short, fleshy, concave above, sagittate and papillate at the base, with the sides nearly parallel, the tip rounded and cmarginatc. CEsojdiagus wide, with a large dila- tation or crop ; its walls thin, the inner coat smooth, when contracted forming longitudinal plica\ Proventricular glands oblong or cylindrical, arranged so as to form a complete belt, somewhat marked with longitudinal depressions. Stomach 282 FALCO. FALCON. large, round, its muscular coat very thin, composed of a single series of fasciculi, its tendons rather large and round. Intestine of moderate length and width ; cloaca elliptical orglohular, very larjje ; coeca very small. These organs are minutely described in Vol. I, p. 53, and illustrated by Plate IV, representing those of Falco peregrinus. Nostrils sub-basal, lateral, round, with a central papilla or knob, connected -svith the upper edge by a thin plate. Eyes large, with the eyelids generally bare, but margined with bristly feathers like eye-lashes ; the superciliary ridge promi- nent and bare. Aperture of ear round, and rather large. Legs of moderate length, stout ; tibia rather long and very muscu- lar; tarsus short, rounded, reticulated or covered with scales, of which the anterior are larger and subhexagonal. Toes strong, scutellate above, padded and papillate beneath ; the fii'st short, the third much longer than the fourth, which ex- ceeds the second, and is connected by a basal membrane. Claws w^ell curved, long, tapering to a fine point, a little com- pressed, rounded above and on the sides, flat beneath, with two sharp edges ; those of the first and second toes largest. Plumage generally compact, on the abdomen loose. Cere bare ; space between the bill and eye covered with radiating bristle-tipped plumelets. Feathers of the head short and nar- row, of the neck rather long, of the back and breast ovate or oblong, of the outer part of the tibia elongated. AVings very long and pointed; the second longest, the first little shorter ; one or two of the primaries having the inner web abruptly cut out at the end ; secondaries thirteen or fifteen, of moderate length, broad and rounded. Tail long, broad, rounded, of twelve broad, rather pointed feathers. The Falcons, which are more compact and muscular than most of the other birds of this family, differ from them in their mode of flight, it being performed by regular beats, with little sailing or gyration, although they are ca]iable of hovering or remaining fixed in a spot l)y means of rapid movements of the wings. They generally descend perpendicularly on their prey, which thoy capture in the air as well as on the ground. Their food consists of small (piadrupeds, birds of various kinds, rep- FALCO. FALCON. 283 tiles, and insects. They breed on rocks, in trees, or on tho ground, forming a bulky nest of sticks, twigs, and other coarse materials, and laying from three to six eggs, generally speckled or spotted with red or brown. The young are covered with thick white down. The difference in size between the male and the female is very remarkable in this genus ; the sexes are sometimes similar in colour, and sometimes different, in which case the young resemble the female. The Falcons, on account of their docility, and their superiority of flight and mode of capturing their prey, were considered by falconers as " noble," while the other hawks and the eagles, being less easily induced to relinquish their natural habits, were termed " ignoble." Being for the most part very destructive to game, they are much persecuted with us ; but in this respect they differ little from their brethren, every hawk being considered by the game- keeper as a malefactor. Six species occur in Britain : the Gyr Falcon, tho Peregrine Falcon, the Hobby, the Merlin, the Red-footed Falcon, and the Kestrel. 284 FALCO GYRFALCO. THE GYR FALCON. JER FALCOX. JERKIN. ICELAND FALCON. GREENLAND FALCON. Falco rusticolus. Limi. Syst. Nat. I. 1"2."). Adult. Falco Gyrfalco. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. i;U1. Adult. Falco islandicus. Lath. Lid. Orn. L '.V2. Adult, Falco Gyrfalco. Lath. Lid. Orn. L .32. Adult. Falco sacer, B. Lath. Lid. Orn. L 34. Adult. Jer Falcon. Mont. Orn. Diet. Faucon Gerfaut. Falco islandicus. Temni. Man. d'Orn. L 17 ; IIL 9. Jer-Falcon. Falco islandicus. Selb. lUustr. L '.Ut. Falco Islandicus. Jer-Falcon. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. lil. Adult of both settees idiite^ having the upper parts marked with semilunar or saqittiform dark-r/rei/ spots ; the bill light blue, the cere and feet pale-iiellow. Young brou'nish-greg above, spotted trith gcllowish or reddish-ichite, the tail with numerotis light bars, which on the middle feathers are generally opposite, but sometimes alternate, the lower parts gellotcish-ichite, longitudinallg spotted with duskif. GYR FALCON. 285 The Gyr Falcon, the most powerful, and one of the most beautiful species of its genus, has frequently been met with in various parts of Scotland, as well as in England, although it can scarcely be considered as a permanent resident, there being no authentic account of its breeding with us. Formerly it was divided into several sjiecies, and very recently attempts have been made to separate its members into two, under the names of Iceland Falcon and Greenland Falcon. Of the dif- ferences which have given rise to this opinion some account will be given in the sequel ; and as, in such a case as this, minuteness of description is especially necessary, I shall give a full account of the several specimens which I have examined. Male. — The general appearance of this bird is indicative of the highest degree of activity and vigour, its form being re- markably compact and robust, its neck short, its head rather large, round, and flattened above. The bill is short, as broad as high at the base, with the dorsal line of the upper mandible decurved from the base, the sides convex, the edges thin and overlapping, with a slight festoon, and a distinct angular ^^ro- cess, the tip trigonal, descending, acute, and rather short ; the lower mandible with the angle formed by the separation of its crura very wide, the dorsal line convex, the back very broad at the base, the sides rounded, the tip directly truncate, with a nearly semicircular notch behind it on each side. Palate nearly flat, with two longitudinal papillate ridges; upper man- dible with a prominent broad median ridge beneath ; lower deeply concave. Cere of moderate breadth, and mostly bare. Nostrils basal, lateral, round, with a central prominent papilla terminating a ridge from the upper edge. Eyes large, with a bare projecting superciliary ridge ; eyelids ciliated. Aperture of the ear rather large and roundish. Legs robust, rather short ; tibia very muscular ; tarsus feathered more than half- way do^vn, its exposed part covered with scales, of which the anterior are larger, but not scutelliform ; toes strong, of mode- rate length, padded and papillate beneath, scutellate above, unless toward the base, where they are scaly ; the first toe short, the second much longer, and nearly as long as the fourth, 286 FALCO GYRFALCO. which is connected with the third by a rather Lirgc basal web. On the first toe are iive, on the second ten, on the third ciohteen, on the fourth ten scutella. Claws large, strong, well curved, somewhat compressed, flattened and marqinate beneath, taper- ing to a fine point. The plumage is compact. The space between the bill and the eye is covered with short bristle-tipped plumelets. The wings are long and pointed, of twenty-five quills ; the first quill ten-twelfths of an inch shorter than the second, which is longest, and exceeds the third by a quarter of an inch, the fourth two twelfths shorter than the first, which has the inner web abruptly attenuated toward the end ; the second also at- tenuated, but without a notch, as is the third in a less degree. The secondaries arc rather short, and most of the outer have a terminal sinus or slight notch on the inner web. Tail long, straight, slightly rounded, of twelve broad feathers, which at the end taper to a point. Bill very pale blue, at the end darker, at the base pale yellow ; cere, superciliary ridge, and edges of eyelids yellow ; feet pale yellow, the bases of the digital scutella blue ; claws bluish black. The general colour of the plumage is white ; the forehead, cheeks, throat, tibial feathers, abdomen, and lower and upper tail-coverts unspotted. On the rest of the lower parts each feather has a small guttiform greyish-brown spot. The tips of the bristles about the base of the bill are dusky. On the upper part of the head and neck each feather has a linear-lanceolate streak ; on the back and wings each has a subterminal cordate, generally pointed, or sagittiform spot of dusky-grey. The quills and their coverts are barred with that colour; the outer primaries greyish-black toward the end, and with the bars on their inner webs not extending to the margin. The tail is white, with the exception of seven spots toward the edges of both webs of the two middle feathers. These spots are not all exactly opposite to each other, some of them being alternate. Jjcngth to end of tail 21 inches ; bill along the ridge I/2 ; wing from flexure loA ; tail 9; tarsus 2.^; hind too jj, its claw 1 '1 ; second too Ij'^, its claw l^^^j ; third too 2, its claw 1 ; fourth toe 1 j'j, its claw J^. GYIl FALCON. 207 The above description is taken from the skin of an indivi- dual obtained in Shetland. Female. — The female is much larger than the male, but scarcely differs in colour. The following description is taken from the individual figured by Mr Audubon, which was at least seven years old, and was procured in Iceland. The fes- toon on the edge of the upper mandible distinct, but the angu- lar process or tooth in a great measure worn dow^n. All the other characters as above ; the second quill longest, the third two-twelfths shorter, the first three quarters of an inch shorter than the second ; the tail slightly rounded, the lateral feathers being three quarters of an inch shorter than the longest. The bill is very pale blue, the upper mandible black at the end, the lower yellow ; the cere, superciliary ridge, edges of eyelids, tarsi, and toes pale yellow^ ; the claws black. The general colour of the plumage is white ; the feathers of the back, the scapulars, the wing-coverts, and the secondary quills with a greyish-black, generally arrow-shaped spot near the end. The anterior dorsal feathers have also a dark shaft-line, those farther back a lanceolate streak, and those on the rump a similar streak with an additional spot. The primary quills have seven partial bars toward the end, besides a large subter- minal space of the same dark colour ; and the secondary quills and coverts have three or four bars or spots ; the shafts of all the quills dusky above, as are those of the two middle tail- feathers, which have eight spots on the inner, and four on the outer margin. On the lower parts are no markings excepting a few lanceolate streaks on the sides, and on the elongated tibial feathers. The oesophagus seven inches and a half long, of great width, dilated into a large crop ; proventrieular glandules oblong, arranged into four very prominent longitudinal ridges, with deep grooves between them. The stomach round, compressed, about an inch and a half in diameter ; its muscular coat thin, and composed of a single series of large fasciculi ; its inner coat soft and irregularly rugous ; the pylorus with three knobs. The intestine is thirty-six and a half inches in length, from five 288 FALCO GYRFALCO. twelfths to four-twelfths in Midth. until the rectum, which is three inches and a half long, half an inch in width at the com- mencement, and dilated into a globular sac two inches in dia- meter ; the coeca only two-twelfths long. Length to end of tail 231 inches, to end of wings 21^ ; extent of wings 511" ; wing from flexure 17 ; tail 9f ; bill along the ridge l/'j ; tarsus 2j'j ; hind toe l^'^, its claw Ij^ ; middle toe 23^2, its claw {^, but Avorn. Vartatioxs. — The only variations that present themselves in the adult state refer to the greater or less extent of the dark markings, which are sometimes entirely wanting on the head, neck, and tail. They arc precisely analogous to those seen in the Snowy Owl, and require no particular descri]ition, althougli on paper slight differences of this kind have a formidable appearance. Habits. — The Gyr Falcon has been met with by various observers in Norway, Sweden, and several of the northern coun- tries of Europe ; in Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and the Fur Countries of North America. It breeds in the arctic regions, and presents itself in the temjicrate parts of Eurojie only as an occasional visitant, and generally in winter. A\'hcn falconry was in vogue, it was procured in Iceland and Norway, the birds from the former country being more highly esteemed, and by some considered as of a different kind from those obtained in the latter. Of its habits in the wild state little is known to ornithologists, and it does not appear that in IJritain they have ever been the subject of observation to any person cajiable of describing them. Mr Audubon, who found it breeding in Labrador, where ho obtained two specimens, states that its flight resembles that of the Peregrine Falcon, but is more elevated, majestic, and rapid. " They rarely sailed when travelling to and fro between their nest and an island where multitudes of Puffins were breeding, and to which they daily resorted, but used a constant beat of their wings. When over the Puffins, and high in the air, they would hover almost motionless, as if watching the proper GYR FALCON. 289 moment to close their pinions, and when that arrived, they would descend almost perpendicularly on their unsuspecting victims. Their cries also resembled those of the Peregrine Falcon, being loud, shrill, and piercing. Now and then they would alight on some of the high stakes placed on the shore as beacons to the fishermen who visit the coast, and stand for a few minutes, not erect like most other hawks, but in the posi- tion of a Lestris or Tern, after which they would resume their avocations, and pounce upon a Puffin, which they generally did while the poor bird was standing on the ground at the very entrance of its burrow, apparently quite unaware of the approach of its powerful enemy. The puffin appeared to form no impe- diment to the flight of the hawk, which merely shook itself after rising in the air, as if to arrange its plumage, as the Fish Hawk does when it has emerged from the water with a fish in its talons." Only four individuals were seen, which were be- lieved to be of one family. The nest, which was placed on a precipice, " was composed of sticks, sea-weeds, and mosses, about two feet in diameter, and almost flat." Dr Richardson, who found it a constant resident in the Hudson's Bay territories, where it is named the Speckled Part- ridge Hawk and the Winterer, and where it usually preys on the Ptarmigan, although it also destroys Plovers, Ducks, and even Geese, gives the following anecdote illustrative of its bold- ness in defence of its young : " In the middle of June 1821, a pair of these birds attacked me, as I was climbing in the vici- nity of their nest, which was built on a lofty precipice on the borders of Point Lake, in latitude 65}>°. They flew in circles, uttering loud and harsh screams, and alternately stooping with such velocity, that their motion through the air produced a loud rushing noise. They struck their claws within an inch of my head. I endeavoured, by keeping the barrel of my gun close to ray cheek, and suddenly elevating its muzzle when they were in the act of striking, to ascertain whether they had the power of instantaneously changing the direction of their rapid course, and found that they invariably rose above the obstacle with the quickness of thought, shewing equal acute- ness of vision and power of motion." VOL. III. u 290 FALCO GYRFALCO. Tho cjrjrs are said to be similar to those of the Peregrine Falcon, but larger. It does not appear, however, that there is much certainty on this subject. Young. — The skin of a young bird fully fledged, from Green- land, in my collection, may be described as follows. The bill is similar in form to that of the adult, but with the festoon of the upper mandible very slight ; its colour pale blue, the base of the lower mandible yellowish, the tip of the upper bluish- black ; the cere greenish-blue. The tarsi and toes are greyish- blue, the soles yellowish ; the claws black. The general colour of the plumage on the upper parts is brownish-grey. On the forehead the slender feathers are edged with }ellowish-\vhite ; on the upper part of the head and the hind-neck, all the feathers have a large oblong yellowish-white space on the inner web to- ward the end. These white markings are larger and more conspicuous on the hind-neck, most of the feathers on which have also a patch on the inner web toAvard the base. On the rest of the upper parts the feathers are narrowdy margined with paler ; the anterior dorsal feathers and small wing-coverts with two small marginal subtcrminal yellowish-white spots ; the middle and posterior dorsal feathers similarly marked ; and the upper tail-coverts with the spots approaching in form to bars. The first primary has twelve slight marginal spots on the outer web, and on the inner fifteen transverse indentations which do not reach the shaft ; tho inner webs of all the other quills barred in the same manner, but the outer without markings. The tail is also barred, there being on the two middle feathers twelve, on the lateral fifteen bars, or series of transverse nar- row spots, on both w'ebs, which, although opposite to each other on the middle feathers, do not meet or run into the shaft, and toward the lateral become more oblique, and sometimes are not opposite ; the tips white, or formed of two confluent spots of that colour. The lower parts are yellowish-white, longitudinally marked with linear-oblong brownish grey bands ; the long feathers on the sides and legs, and the a.xillars, with the dark part larger, and tho inner web with one or more light patches or spots. A small part of tho throat without spots, GYR FALCOX. 291 and the lower tail-coverts with only the shaft and a narrow oblong space toward the end dark. Length to end of tail 21 inches ; wing from flexure 15 ; tail 9 ; bill along the ridge l:i ; tarsus 2j\ ; middle toe 1-}^, its claw 1. Progress toward Maturity. — In the next stage, as it would appear, the upper parts become of a more uniform bluish-grey, most of the whitish spots having disappeared from the back, and upper part of the head. Of this kind were the two birds figured by Mv Audubon, and obtained by him in Labrador, as mentioned above. In this state also I have exa- mined the skin of a female from Shetland. In one of these the light bars on the tail had nearly disappeared ; but in the two females they were quite distinct, and those on the middle feathers opposite, though not continuous. In the Shetland specimen, which is apparently a female, its length being twenty- four inches, the lower parts are yellowish-white, with longitu- dinal oblong, brownish-grey spots ; the upper parts slate-grey tinged with brown, the feathers margined with paler ; the bill light blue, dark at the tip, and yellowish at the base ; the feet blue, but with the edges of the scutella yellowish. Dr Richardson, who no doubt has had opportunities of ob- serving the changes which take pla -e in the colouring, says : — " The young Gyr-falcons show little white on their plumage, being mostly of a dull brown colour above. As they grow older, the white margins encroach on the brown, which be- comes merely a central blotch, indented on each side by the white ; while in aged birds the plumage is mostly pure white, varied only by a few narrow transverse bars on the upper parts." Remarks. — Mr Hancock, in a paper read to the British As- sociation, and published in the Annals of Natural History, Vol. II. p. 241, is decidedly of opinion that two species have been confounded under the synonjnnous appellations of Jer or Gyr Falcon and Iceland Falcon. Both species, Falco Islandicus and Falco Groenlandicus, he says, are precisely similar in their first plumage, with this exception, that the young F. Islan- dicus has the bars on the two middle tail-feathers " non-con- 292 FALCO GYRFALCO. tinuous, or not opposing each other, whilst they are continuous in the young F. Groenlandicus." The distinctive characters which he assigns to the adult of these species are the following : Falco Inland iciis. Ground of the upper plumage a dark lead or mouse colour, barred and spotted wuth cream colour ; (on the) under parts the ground is huff, marked with streaks, heart-shaped spots, and bars of dark mouse colour. Wings reaching to within about 1^ in. of the end of the tail. Adult male 1 foot 9 in. ; extent of wings 3 feet 10 in. Adult female, length 1 foot 11 in. ; extent of wings 4 feet 2 in. Falco Groenlandicus. Ground of the plumage pure white ; upper parts elegantly marked with arrow-shaped spots of a dark grey ; under parts and head streaked with the same ; wings reaching to within 2 inches of the end of the tail ; second pri- mary the longest. Adult male, length 1 foot 9 in. Adult female, length 1 foot 11 in. ; extent of wings 3 feet 10 in. It is further stated that all the mature specimens from Ice- land seen by the author, amounting to seven, have the upper mandible furnished with two processes, whilst in the many Greenland specimens examined, only two had the double pro- cess, and these were apparently very old individuals. Without expressing any decided opinion upon the subject, I have to observe that analogically the alternation or continuance of the bars on the two middle tail-feathers is of no value as a character ; for, having examined a great number of skins of Falco Tinnunculus, Falco ^salon, Buteo vulgaris, Cuculus canorus, Eudynamis oricntalis, and several other species having numerous bars on the tail, I find that in all of them the bars are sometimes continuous and sometimes alternating. In tho Snowy Owl, the bird which most resembles the Gyr Falcon in its st}le of colouring, the bars arc either direct or alternate. Unless therefore every one of these species is composed of two, there is no reason to believe that this character is sufiiciently distinctive in the case of the Gyr Falcon. In the two adult *' Greenland Falcons," one of which, however, was from Ice- land, and that upon unfjuestionable authority, the festoon or second tooth was conspicuous, while in the younger individuals it is scarcely apparent. As to the dift'erence of half an inch in GYR FALCON. 203 the comparative length of the wings and tail, it is obviously of no account, and cannot even be determined with certainty in skins. Farther observations, however, are necessary to de- termine whether the grey birds from Iceland, if kept several years, remain of the same colour or change to white. Of all the dcscribcrs of birds, Brisson seems to me to be the most accurate, and yet his Gyrfalco Islandicus, which he says is found in Iceland, is represented as having the bands on the two middle tail-feathers continuous, and the upper parts dusky spotted with whitish. The figure, however, is not correct in the form of the bill and several other particulars. But whether there be two species or not of Jer Falcons, I believe that those above described by me are all of one single species, of the many specific names given to which I think the best are those of Ch/rfalco and candkans. Linnaeus, whose specific names have the best claim upon us, named it Falco Gyrfalco, and re- ferred to Brisson"'s figure and description, both of which i-epre- sent an adult white bird. This name, therefore, ought un- questionably to be retained. 294 FALCO PEREGRINUS. THE PEREGRLNE FALCON. BLLE HAWK GREV HAWK. HUXTIXG HAWK. GOSHAWK. FALCON. COMMON FALCON. SHEABHAG. Falco peregriuus. Lath. Iiid. Oru. I. 33. Adult. Falco communis. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 30. Young. Faucon peleriii. Falco peregrinus. Tenim. Man. d'Orn. I. 22 ; IIL 11. Peregrine Falcon. JNIont. Orn. Diet. Peregrine Falcon. Falco peregrinus. Selb. Illustr. L 30. Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 82. Whif/s u-hen closed about half an inch shorter than the tail. Adult male with the head., hind-neck, and a broad band on the cheeks., black, the tipper parts deep hi uiKh-nreii, fadinn behind ijito ash-greij, and barred xvith greyish-black, the loxcer parts white, the breast and side^ transversely spotted and barred with dusky. Female with the upper parts more dusky., the lower reddish-white, with larger markings. Young u'ith the upper parts deep brownish- black, faititly spotted with reddish, each feather tipped with light red, the lower parts yellowish-trhife, trith longitudinal dusky streaks. PEREGRINE FALCON. 295 Equal in beauty of form, and little inferior in strength or spirit, the Peregrine Falcon is next in size to the species last described, and like it exhibits the peculiar characters of the genus in great perfection. It ranks next to the Gyr Falcon in the estimation of those who train rapacious birds for the chase, and, being the species usually employed in hunting the larger kinds of game, has obtained pre-eminently the name of Hunt- ing Hawk. Although nowhere very numerous, it is exten- sively distributed in Britain, so that specimens are plentiful in museums and private collections. ^Iale. — In form the Peregrine Falcon is compact and ro- bust, its body being ovate, anteriorly broad, with the breast full and well-rounded, the neck short, the head large, round, and rather flattened above. The bill is short, thick, and strong ; the upper mandible with the cere rather shorty the dorsal line curved from the base, the ridge convex but rather narrow, the sides convex, the edges with a slight festoon, and a prominent angular process, the tip trigonal, descending, and acute ; the lower mandible with the angle broad and rounded, the dorsal line convex, as are the sides, the edges somewhat in- volute, the tip directly truncate, with a distinct sinus behind. The interior of the mouth, the tongue, and the digestive or- gans having been minutely described at p. 53 of Vol. I, and figured in PI. IV, it will here suffice to give the measurements of these parts in the individual selected for description. The oesophagus is six inches in length, an inch in width at its com- mencement, and presently dilating into a crop two inches in width ; the stomach two inches and two-twelfths in length and breadth, its round central tendons three-eighths in diameter ; the intestine three feet Ions;, varvinij in width from three- eighths to two-eiLrhths, but the rectum, which is three inches long, is wider, and dilates into a globular cloaca, an inch and a half in width ; the coeca only a twelfth and a half in length. The nostrils are round, a twelfth and a half in diameter, with a central papilla ; the eyes large, their aperture four and a half twelfths ; the eyelids bare, but ciliated, the projecting 296 FALCO PEREGRINUS. supraocular ridge also bare ; the aperture of the ear roundish- elliptical, four-twelfths in width. The feet are robust ; the tibia of moderate length and very muscular, the tarsus short, feathered more than halfway down, and covered all round with reticular scales, of which the anterior are larger and subhexa- gonal ; the toes large ; the first rather long, with six scutella, the second longer, Avith nine, the third very long, with eighteen, the fourth longer than the second, with ten scutella, and con- nected with the third by a basal web. The claws arc large, strong, well-curved, rounded above, considerably compressed, narrow and marginate beneath, with a fine taper point. The plumage is very close and compact on the upper parts, less so on the lower ; the feathers of the head short and oblong, of the back ovate and rounded, of the lower parts ovato-oblong and rounded, of the outer part of the tibia elongated. Even the abdominal feathci-s and lower tail-coverts are firm, and the plumage is altogether denser and stronger than that of any other British species of this family. The space between the bill and the eye is covered with bristle-pointed plumelets. The wings are pointed and very long ; the quills twenty-three ; the pri- maries of moderate breadth, narrow^ed toward the end, the first quill with a sinus on the inner web, and half an inch shorter than the second, wdiich is longest, and exceeds the third by four and a half twelfths ; the secondaries are broad, and obtuse, with an acumen. The tail is rather long, exceeds the wings by half an inch, and is slightly rounded, the middle feathers being three quarters of an inch longer than the lateral. The bill is pale blue, toward the end bluish-black, tinged with yellow at the base, especially on the lower mandible ; the cere oil-green, the bare orbital space orange-yellow, the iris dark hazel, the feet greenish-yellow, the claws bluish-black. The head, hind-neck, and a large mystachial patch on each side, are black, with a tinge of bluish-grey. The general co- lour of the upper parts is deep bluish-grey, on the back and tail-coverts fading into ash-grey ; the dorsal feathers, wing- coverts, and tail coverts barred with greyish-black. The pri- mary (luills are greyish-black, their inner webs marked with reddish-white bars, of which there are fourteen on the first PEREGRINE KALCOX. 297 quill ; the secondary quills lighter, their outer webs obscurely barred with dark grey, the inner barred like those of the pri- maries. The tail is greyish-blue, the middle feathers with eleven, the lateral with thirteen bars of greyish -black, those to- ward the base narrower and more grey, the last much larger, the tips white. The throat and sides of the neck are white, without markings ; the general colour of the rest of the lower parts is white, on the sides of the body and outer part of the tibiae tinged with grey ; the fore-neck with very slender cen- tral streaks on the feathers ; those on the breast at first lan- ceolate, then roundish, and lastly transverse ; the sides and tibiae distinctly barred with greyish-black ; the bars on the sides of the rump, the lower tail-coverts, and abdomen fainter ; the lower wing-coverts white, with dark bars. Length to end of tail 16^ inches, to end of wings 16; ex- tent of wings 36.J ; wing from flexure 12j ; tail 65 ; bill along the ridge l^\, along the edge of lower mandible Ij-^ ; tarsus 1^% ; hind toe 1|§, its claw 1^'^ ; second toe l^-^, its claw y"| ; third toe 2, its claw ^% ; fourth toe I5, its claw j%. Female. — The female, Avhich is much larger, is easily dis- tinguished by the tints of the plumage, which is reddish on the lower, and less blue on the upper parts. The proportions are similar ; the diameter of the nasal aperture two-twelfths, of the eye five and a half twelfths, of the ear four-twelfths. The oesophagus is seven inches long, an inch and a quarter in width at the top, two inches and a half in the dilated part ; the stomach two inches and three-fourths in diameter ; the intestine forty-nine inches in length, its width in the duodenal part three-eighths, toward the end two-twelfths ; the cocca a twelfth and a half in length ; the cloacal dilatation of the rec- tum an inch and a half in width. The first quill is four- twelfths shorter than the second, which exceeds the third by half an inch. The bill is gi-eenish-yellow at the base, then pale blue, with the tip black ; the cere and eyelids yellow ; the iris dark hazel ; the feet greenish-yellow, the claws bluish-black. The general colour of the upper parts is deep grey, of the head greyish- 298 FALCO PEREGlllXUS. black, its anterior feathers tinfred with brown, the tint on the back lighter, on the rump ash-grey ; the upper parts barred with greyish-black as in the male ; the transverse spots or bars on the inner webs of all the quills reddish-white ; the tail barred as in the male, with the tip reddish-Avhite, and the subterminal dark bar proportionally larger. On the inner web of the first quill are fourteen spots ; on the middle tail-feathers ten, and on the lateral thirteen dark bars. The cheeks and mystachial bands are greyish-black ; the throat and sides of the neck reddish-white ; the general colour of the lower parts reddish-white, richer on the breast, paler behind ; the spots as in the male, but larger, and of a deeper black ; the lower wing- coverts also more largely barred. Length to end of tail 19o inches, extent of wings 42^ ; bill along the ridge 1/g, along the edge of lower mandible Ij ; wing from flexure ll^ ; tail To ; tarsus ^^^r? ; first toe 1, its claw 1 j'a ; second toe l/^, its claw 1 ; third toe 2j, its claw { J ; fourth toe l^'j, its claw {^. Variations. — The above descriptions are from a male and a female shot on the Pentland Hills in January 1838, and now in my collection. Variations are observed in size, the males measuring from sixteen to eighteen inches in lenjjth, the fe- males from eighteen to twenty-three. In colour, adult males vary little, the head -being greyish-black or brownish-black, the bluish-grey of the back deeper or lighter, sometimes ap- proaching to ash-grey behind ; the fore-neck sometimes with- out streaks or spots, sometimes slightly marked ; and the spots and bars on the breast and sides narrower or broader. The females arc brownish-grey, greyish-brown, or blackish -grey above, seldom of so light a tint as the males, and generally more obscurely barred. They are always yellowish or reddish be- neath, the tint on the breast being sometimes very rich. The intestinal canal varies considerably in length, as do the cocca, of which I have seen one wanting. The following table con- tains measurements of the digestive organs in different indivi- duals. rEREGUINE FALCON. 299 M. M. M. F. F. F. K. Tongue iu length... — ^\ ^\ ^% ^\ — — (Esophagus 6 6 6i: 7 6^ 7\ 7 Width of crop 2^ lr«2 2 2^ — 2 2^ Stomach in diameter 2/^ 1^ 2 2^'^ 2{i 2{^ 2i Intestine in length... 36 36' 38 49 51 54 50 Its greatest width... | ^**g ^^2 | ^^ /^ ^^ Its smallest width.. f ^% ^% /^ l\ 1*2 ^«iy Cccca in length -J^ ^^ ^^ 11? i^ ^ A Rectum 3 3 3 3 8 3.^ — Cloaca iu diameter.. — I4 — — — I5 — The scutella vary considerably, although less than in many species. M. M. M. M. F. F. F. F. First toe 6 6G76767 Second toe 9 9 9 10 9 11 12 9 Third toe 18 17 17 16 18 17 18 18 Fourth toe 10 10 10 11 10 12 10 10 Changes of Pll.mage. — The moult takes place early in sum- mer ; but I think is not completed until November, for seve- ral specimens examined in that month exhibited young feathers about the head. Perhaps a renewal of parts of the plumage takes place in the Falcons, as in the Eagles, at all seasons. At all events, the plumage is perfect in the beginning of winter, and then all the feathers on the wings and back have a slight edging of paler. In summer the tints are much faded, and the feathers more or less worn and ragged. Haiuts. — Although it seldom happens that one can have an opportunity of seeing much of this beautiful Falcon, unless he watch it in one of its breeding places, it is not difficult in Scot- land to become in some degree acquainted with it, for even at the present day, after unrelenting war has been waged against the rapacious birds for many years, the Blue Hawk is not re- markably scarce with us. In Edinburgh more specimens are annually prepared than of any other species, excepting the 300 FALCO PEREGRINLS. Sparrow Hawk, Kestrel, Merlin, and Buzzard. I have ex- amined about fifty individuals, of wliieli more than ten were recent and entire, so that if my descriptions are not correct, I deserve the censure of " the candid critic." My opportuni- ties of studying the living birds have enabled me to otter the following remarks. The flight of the Peregrine Falcon is very rapid, being per- formed by quickly repeated beats, much in the manner of the Rock Dove. In searching for prey, it does not fly so low as the Sparrow Hawk or Hen Harrier, nor does it glide among trees, but keeps to the open country, scouring the hills and moors, and, on discovering a fit object, pouncing upon it in perpendicular or slanting descent, or pursuing it in direct flight, but always keeping above its quarry until a favourable opportunity of clutching it occurs. It may be occasionally seen balancing itself in the air, but it seldom floats or as it were sails in circles, like the Eagles, Buzzards, and other rapa- cious birds which have long, broad, and rounded wings. Its speed must be very great, and has been variously estimated at sixty or a hundred and fifty miles an hour, and yet it does not much exceed that of a Pigeon. Even a Grouse, which the closet-naturalists tell us is ill adapted for rapid flight, is not overtaken by a Peregrine in a moment. I have in my mind a vivid picture of a chase which I witnessed on the Pentland Hills. One day when reclining among the heath I was aroused by a sudden noise, and on looking up observed two Red Grouse advance over an eminence and shoot obliquely downward across the face of the hill M'ith marvellous speed, and without utter- ing any cry, although there was a loud sound from their wings. As I was wondering what could be the cause of all this head- long hurry, a Peregrine Falcon appeared on the eminence, and shot along with easier and more rapid flight, after the grouse, which soon disappeared round the hill, so that I could not see the result of the chase. The Brown Ptarmigan or Red Grouse, and the Grey Partridge are with us its favourite victims ; but it also feeds on Black Grouse, Pheasants, Mallards, Teal, Pigeons, Gulls, Puffins, Auks, (iuillemots, rabbits, and young hares. It has been seen to feed upon a dead slieep, but this PEREGRINE FALCON. 301 sort of food appears to be less palatable to it than to Eagles and Buzzards. Although not addicted to committing depre- dations among domestic poultry, it sometimes manifests little regard for the proximity of man, and has been known to snatch a wounded bird from before the sportsman. For the most part it is solitary and silent, pursuing its avocations as if little disposed to pay attention to any thing else ; but sometimes a pair hunt together, and in the breeding season it is rather cla- morous in its rocky haunts, emitting a loud, clear, and shrill cry, like that of the Kestrel. It has few enemies besides man, for none of our native birds seem capable of injuring it, and it is so bold as sometimes to attack the Eagle, should he approach its domain. With its rapid and gliding flight, it forms a less conspicuous object than the Buzzard, which, as it floats slowly along, presents a more interesting feature in the wild scenery of our hilly ranges. Under ordinary circumstances it is shy and vigilant, so that one seldom finds an opportunity of shooting it ; but at its breeding place it is in general easily approached, as the female is not readily put from the nest, and the male flies around, uttering loud screams. No instance is recorded of its breeding in trees, the nest being always placed on the face of a maritime clifli' or inland precipice, generally beyond the reach of man, unless with the aid of a rope. It is bulky, and composed of sticks and herbaceous plants, varied according to the locality. Thus, in the Bass Rock, it is formed solely of grass and other soft materials, there being no ligneous plants there. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a broadly elliptical form, two inches or a little more in length, and about an inch and seven twelfths in breadth, dull light red, dotted and patched with darker red. The young, which are at first covered M'ith white down, are abundantly supplied with food. So great is the strength of this bird that, according to the keeper of the Bass Rock, it has been kno\\ai to carry to its nest there at one time a male Black Grouse, and at another a Pheasant. Auks, Guillemots, Kittiwakes, various sea birds. Plovers, Pigeons, and Brown Ptarmigans, are the food usually brought to the young in that place. 302 FALCO PEIIEGRIXUS. " In May 1S39," says my son John, " I fell in \yitli a nest of the Peregrine in one of a range of cliffs in the neighbourhood of Tantallon, on a bold headland, the most projecting part of the coast. It was situated on a shelf, at the distance of about forty feet from the base of the cliff, and above it was a precipice of about sixty feet or more. From its situation, OMing to a portion of the crag which formed an arch over it, and pre- vented inspection from above, as well as the abruptness of the neighbouring rock, it seemed perfectly secure from all intruders; but from a rock in the sea immediately opposite, a good view of it could be had. It was constructed externally of sticks and sea weeds, which formed a mass about two feet in diameter. The rock around it was profusely covered with white patches of dung. In the course of the same afternoon I saw a fine female Peregrine which had been shot that day by the gamekeeper at Dirleton. I was informed by him that he had killed it at sea close to a small island, nearly opposite North Berwick, on which, as well as on the Bass, a pair annually breed. When killed it had a partridge in its talons." " In Shetland," says Mr Dunn, ^' it selects the most moun- tainous parts, where it can settle on the shelving rocks of the stupendous cliffs, and breed in security in the midst of jdcnty ; it is rare that more than a single pair have their nest on the same cliff, or even near to each other. I once found two pairs during the breeding season on Noss Head or Hang Cliff; and a better place they could not have chosen, from the secu- rity it affords and the abundance of food which the nests of the sea-birds, abounding in the same rocks, supply them with. During my visits I captured several specimens of the Peregrine Falcon, and also procured some of their eggs. It is a shy bird, and difficult to get within shot of. I have rcpeatctyy lain in wait for it on the tops of the cliffs, and observed it flying slowly along the face of the rocks immediately below me, but out of distance, watching the opportunity during the absence of the Herring Gulls and Kittiwakcs, to pick a young one from their nests, which it frequently does with great dexterity. I know of no certain method of decoying this bird; the way in which i obtained my specimens was by first finding out their breed- rEREGIlIXE FALCON. 303 ing-place, and then lying in wait for and shooting the hirds as they riew to and from their nests." The breeding places which I have seen are in the island of Pabbay, Berneray of Barray, the Bass Rock, and the rocks at the head of Moftatdale. Tantallon Castle rock, St. Abb''3 Head, and the Isle of May are also mentioned as nesting places. In Shetland it is not uncommon, according to Dr Ed- mondstone and Mr Dunn ; and as it usually bears the name of Goshawk, it is probable that Mr Low alludes to it as occurring in Orkney under that appellation. In the northern ranges, as well as in the Gramjjians, it is not unfrequently met with ; but it seems to be more abundant in Peebles-shire and the ad- joining mountainous districts of the counties of Selkirk and Dumfries, than in most parts of Scotland ; so that although it often breeds on maritime cliffs, this habit is not determined by any predilection for the sea. In some of the northern dis- tricts of England, and in Wales, it is also here and there met with. The Isle of Wight, several parts of Devonshire and Cornwall, Holyhead, and some other places of resort are men- tioned ill that country, in the low and cultivated parts of which, however, it is very uncommon. According to Mr Thompson, it occurs in suitable localities throughout Ireland. My friend Mr Hepburn has favoured me with the following notes. " Some years ago, when I frequently rambled amongst the Avild moors in the northern parishes of Peebles-shire, and about the head waters of the Clyde, I almost daily saw the Goshawk, as the country people call the Peregrine Falcon, hunting about in quest of Red Ptarmigans and Partridges, to the former of which he is said to be very destructive. INIal- lards and Teal also constitute part of his food. In East Lothian I have not met with it on the Lammermoors, and but seldom on the sea-coast. A gamekeeper in this neighbour- hood, when going his rounds one day, observed a Peregrine Falcon, after a rapid pursuit, drive a Pheasant dead to the ground. On finishing a meal he departed ; and the keeper, after fixing the carcase to the ground with pegs, went home for a trap, which he placed near the dead bird in such a way that nothing could reach it without either removing or springing 304 FALCO PEIIEGRINUS. the trap. Some hours after the Falcon arrived, alighted near his prey, examined the barrier, and essaying the entrance, touched the fatal spring, and was a prisoner. It frequently preys on the domestic pigeon, either driving it to the ground, or trussing it in the air, and carries it off to some quiet place. In this district it usually goes by the name of King Hawk." Mr Thompson, in the second volume of the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, gives a number of very interesting anec- dotes illustrative of the habits of this bird, one of which I take the liberty of transferring to this page. " Mr Sinclaire, when once exercisin" his dogs on the Belfast mountains, towards the end of July, preparatory to grouse-shooting, saw them point, and on coming up he startled a male Peregrine Falcon off a grouse (Tetrao Scoticus) just killed by him, and very near the same place he came upon the female bird, also on a grouse. Although my friend lifted both the dead birds, the hawks con- tinued flying about, and on the remainder of the pack, which lay near, being sprung by the dogs, either three or four more grouse were struck down by them, and thus two and a half or three brace were obtained by means of these wild birds, being more than had ever been procured out of a pack of grouse by his trained falcons.'' This is a striking example of the disre- gard for the presence of man which a very shy bird will occa- sionally exhibit when impelled by the cravings of appetite. An eagle has seized a domestic fowl almost in the midst of a number of people, and another has carried off a grouse just disabled by a shot ; and yet were one to attempt to approach an eagle when not occupied, he would find his endeavours fruitless. The Peregrine Falcon appears to bo at least as common in North America as in Europe. The birds of both regions are those which have been most minutely and correctly described, and it is to a Scotchman that the world is indebted for the first accurate account of those of the United States. M'ilson, how- ever, knew very little of the Peregrine Falcon, which has been better studied by his successor Mr Audubon, who states that in America its habits are precisely the same as in Euroj)c. " Hav- ing arrived within a few feet of the prey, the Falcon is seen PEREGRINE FALCON. 305 protruding his powerful legs and talons to their full stretch. His wings are for a moment almost closed ; the next instant he grapj)lcs the prize, which, if too weighty to be carried off directly, ho forces obli([uely toward the ground, sometimes a hundred yards from where it was seized, to kill it, and devour it on the spot. Should this happen over a large extent of water, the Falcon drops his prey, and sets off in quest of another. On the contrary, should it not prove too hea\^, the exulting bird carries it oft* to a sequestered and secure place. He pursues the smaller Ducks, AVater-hcns, and other swimming birds, and if they are not quick in diving, seizes them, and rises with them from the water. I have seen this hawk come at the report of a gun, and carry off" a Teal not thirty steps distant from the sportsman who had killed it, with a daring assurance as surprising as unexpected." In Labrador and Newfoundland, where ho found it more abundant than elsewhere, " the nests were placed on the shelves of rocks, a few feet from the top, and were flat, and rudely constructed of sticks and moss. In some were found four eggs, in others only two, and in one five ; in one nest only a single young bird was found. The eggs vary considerably in colour and size, which I think is owing to a difference of size in the females, the eggs of young birds being smaller. The average length of four was two inches, their breadth an inch and five-eighths. They are somewhat rounded, though larger at one end than the other ; their general and most common colour is a reddish or rusty yellowish-brown, spotted and confusedly marked with darker tints of the same, here and there intermixed with lighter. The young are at first thickly covered with soft white down. They take food almost immediately after being removed from the nest. Remains of Ducks, Willow Grouse, and young Gulls were found about the nests, which are easily discovered by the excrements on the rocks." In the olden times, when ferocious feuds aftbrded occupa- tion to the nobility, and when even the pursuits of peaceful days had reference to bloodshed, hawking was a favourite amusement with those whose rank entitled them to enfraf^o in it. Various species of predatory birds were trained for this VOL. in. X 306 FALCO PEREGRINUS. purpose, and among the most esteemed was the Peregrine Fal- con, which being easily procured, remarkable for docility, and by its expertness in the art of destruction well qualified to af- ford amusement, not to barons bold only, but to gentle dames, was the kind commonly employed. The female, or Falcon pro- perly so called, was flown at Herons, Geese, Ducks, and in general the larger sorts of birds, while to the male, who, from being about a third smaller, was called the Tiercel or Tiercelet, were allotted partridges and other small game. A^'hen old the bird was a Hagard, when well trained and handsome a Gentle Falcon (bien fait, bien dresse, d'une jolie figure), when in its first plumage a Red Falcon. Many other names were em- ployed, which, having been taken up by the ornithologists, gave rise to much misconception ; although of late years the intricacies resulting from the errors of describers have been unravelled, and the Peregrine Falcon in all its stages is now simply the Peregrine Falcon. It is from this species that the art of Falconry derives its name, although it appears that two others, superior in size, and at least equal in courage and strength, were employed, namely, the Iceland or Gyr Falcon, also named the White Falcon, and the Lanner. " The Fal- con," says Buflbn, " is perhaps the most courageous of all birds in proportion to its size ; it throws itself directly and per- pendicularly upon its prey, whereas the Goshawk and most other birds of prey come laterally upon it ; it falls like a shot upon its victim, kills it, eats it on the spot if it be large, or, if it be not too heavy, carries it oft' rising perpendicularly. It is seen all of a sudden pouncing upon its prey, as if it fell from the clouds, for it comes from such a height, and in so short a time, that its appearance is always unforeseen, and often un- expected. It is fre(juently seen to attack the Kite, but it treata him as a coward, chases him, strikes him with disdain, and does not j)ut him to death." Although the eloquent Count is not always to be trusted, such, according to other authors, is the style of hunting of the Falcon, M'liich in pursuing its prey advances directly towards it, keeping above its level, and sud- denly closing its wings, dashing down upon it, and either clutch- ing it and bearing it away, or driving it to the ground, or in the PEREGRINE FALCON. 307 case of a large bird, as the Heron, grappling it and descending with it. It is not by coming against it with its breast, nor by hitting it with its wings, nor by tearing it with its bill, that it destroys its prey, but by grasping it with its long toes, and thrusting into its vitals its curved and pointed claws. The art of Falconry has of late years been partially revived. Since the above was in types I have been favoured by Mr Weir with the followin tarsus l^^^ ; first toe i, its claw j~g ; second toe ,"j, its claw ^"2 ; third toe l^'j, its claw /j ; fourth toe /j, its claw jg. KESTREL FALCON. 329 Variations. — The males vary little in size. The grey of the head is sometimes tinged with brown ; the red of the upper parts varies considerably in tint ; the spots in size and form ; and the tail may retain traces of its original ten bars, which on the middle feathers may be either direct or alternate, with the exception of the last, which is always continuous. The females assume more grey on the head, rump, and tail as they become older. The coecal appendages of the intestine vary in size, from a quarter of an inch in length to half a twelfth ; or they may be wanting on one or on both sides. Change of Plumage. — When fresh, the colours of the plu- mage are much richer than toward the period of renewal, when they are sometimes much faded. Harits. — The peculiar habits of this beautiful Falcon are well adapted for illustrating the range of vision of the diurnal rapacious birds. It has been alleged that Eagles, Kites, and Ospreys, not to mention other species of the same family, are capable of perceiving a very minute object at a most marvel- lous distance, even from a height at which they seem no larger than a midge or a mote. Experience, however, has led me to discredit such assertions, and to consider them as resulting rather from a vigorous imagination than from actual observa- tion. There is no truth, not even probability, in the assertion that Eagles perceive living prey from a height exceeding a few hundred yards, although it is certain that they can distinguish the carcase of a sheep at a much greater distance. The Hen- harrier, the Sparrow Hawk, and the Kestrel, wdien searching for small birds, mice, and other objects, fly at a height of from ten to fifty feet. The latter never hovers at a greater dis- tance from the ground than forty feet, and we know that its power of distinguishing its prey does not extend over a much greater range, for in traversing a meadow, it requires to as- sume numerous stations in succession. A Falcon, however, can perceive a Heron or other bird at a vast distance in the air^ and I have seen domestic fowls aware of the presence of an Eagle two thousand feet above them. 330 FALCO TINNUNCULUS. The Kestrel, when searching for food, is easily distinguish- able by its habit of hovering over the fields, — a habit which, although sonietiincs observed in other species, is in it so re- markable as to attract the notice of the least observant, and to have procured for it the name of Windhover. There it comes, advancinfif brisklv airainst the breeze, at the height of about thirty feet, its wings in ra})id motion, its head drawn close be- tween its shoulders, its tail slightly spread in a horizontal di- rection, and its feet concealed among the jjlumage. Now it sails or glides a few yards, as if on motionless wings, curves upwards some feet, and stops short, supporting itself by rapid movements of its pinions, and exj)anding its tail. In a few seconds it flies forwards, flapping its wings, shoots ofl'to a side, and sails, then rises a little, and fixes itself in the air. On such occasions it is searching the ground beneath for mice and small birds, feeding or reposing among the grass. Having discovered nothing, it proceeds a short way, and again hovers. In a few seconds it wheels round, flies right down the wind at a rapid rate, to the distance of some hundred yards, brings up, and hovers. Still nothing results, and again it glides away, bearing up at intervals, fixing itself for some seconds in the air, and then shooting along. AVIicn about to hover, it rises a few feet in a gentle curve, faces the wind, spreads its tail, moves its wings rai)idly, and thus balancing itself, keenly surveys the ground beneath. The range of the tips of the wings at this time is apparently about six or eight inches, but sometimes for a few seconds these organs seem almost, if not entirely, motionless. The bird has once more suddenly drawn up, and is examining the grass with more determinate attention. It slowly descends, fixes itself for a moment, inclines a little to one side, hovers so long that you may advance nmch nearer, but at length closing its wings and tail, falls like a stone, suddenly expands its wings and tail just as it touches the ground, clutches its prey, ami ascending oblicpiely flies ofl" with a rapid and direct flight. The food of this species consists chiefly of mice, Alussylvati- cus, Mus domesticus, Arvicola agrestis, and shrews, especially Sorcx araneus. Hut it preys on many other animals, and in the numerous individuals which I have opened, 1 have found re- KESTRKL FALCON. 331 nuiins of young larks, thrushes, Uipwings, and several small birds, both grauivorous and slender-billed, together with the common dung-beetle, many other coleoptera, and the earthworm. It is also said to feed on lizards, and it has been known to carry oft' young chickens. Mice it sometimes swallows entire, more freijuently breaks into two or three portions, but the birds, if Hedged, it generally plucks. One is surprised on opening the stomach to find how large a mass it contains, rolled up into a ball, and, if digestion has far advanced, composed externally of hair and feathers, with the bones and teeth in the interior. This mass of refuse is ejected by the mouth in pellets, as is the practice with all the birds of this family. I have never happened to see it pursue a bird in open flight ; but in such districts as the Outer Hebrides, where if field mice exist, they are extremely rare, it can have no other prey during the winter. When advancing from one place to another, without search- ing for food, the Kestrel flies at a considerable height, with rapid flaps of its wings, and occasional sailings. In the neigh- bourhood of its haunts it may often be seen wheeling in irre- gidar curves, nowhere more beautifully than when its breed- ing-station is on some maritime cliff. On such occasions, as well as when perched on a rock or tree, it frequently emits a loud shrill cry, somewhat similar to the syllables plee^ plee, plee, or klee, klee, klee, or, as the country people in the south of Scot- land interpret it, keelie, keelie, Jceelie. At the commencement of the breeding season it is remarkably vociferous ; but when traversing the fields in search of plunder it is seldom heard to emit any cry. It resorts to rocks on the coast, or in the in- terior, to ruined castles or other buildings, sometimes to towers or steeples in the midst of towns, and frequently to trees in flat wooded districts. It often takes possession of the deserted nest of a crow or magi)ic, but in rocky tracts, and in the un- wooded parts of the country, it breeds on clifts or on cra<»gy banks, usually scraping a slight cavity for its eggs. Those who maintain that the Kestrel always breeds in trees, may be in- formed that on the face of the Castle Rock of Edinburgh, fac- ing Princes Street, there has been a Kestrel's nest for more 332 FALCO TINNUNCULUS. than twenty years. Indeed in Scotland, twenty nests might be pointed out in rocks, for one in a tree. The eggs, which vary from three to five, are of a broadly elliptical or roundish form, pale reddish-orange, or reddish-white, confusedly dotted or patched all over with dull brownish-red. They vary in length from an inch and a half to an inch and three-fourtlis, with an average breadth of an inch and a quarter. This Falcon appears to be the most numerous of our rapa- cious birds, being generally distributed in England and Scot- land, from Devonshire to Cape Rath and the Shetland Isles, and from the eastern to the western shores. It is difficult to say w^here it is most abundant, it being found equally in bare and in wooded tracts ; but in rocky maritime pasture-lands, and in the grassy valleys of the interior, it is more frequently seen, while in the central heathy parts it is of very rare occur- rence. It is less frequent in the north than in the south of Scotland, and it would probably be more numerous in England than in the latter district, were it not liable to be destroyed by game-keepers. Mr Harley, wdio resides in Leicestershire, states that it abounds there. " The numbers," he continues, " are greatly diminished in the brumal inonths, and therefore we may con- clude that a partial migration then takes place. It generally nestles in the spruce fir, selecting the deserted nest of a Carrion Crow or Magpie, in one of each of which I have found its eggs. Like the Cuckoo, it does not make a nest for itself Atkinson, in his Compendium, says ' it breeds in hollow trees, and lays four or five pale reddish eggs ;' but I have never met with it breeding in such places. I have known a bird of this species, which was kept two or three years as a garden pet, lay three eggs, and sit upon them with the same patience as if she had a partner. The eggs of course were unproductive. The kestrel when pinioned will climb up a cage side, or a small tree, hold- ing fast by the bill, after the manner of a parrot. I saw one doing so at Bradford, in Yorkshii-e, in January 1839. Con- finement and domestication bring: out new habits in animals. Thus, my Goldfinch will climb all round a large breeding-cage, KESTREL FALCOX. 333 just like a parrot, seizing fast hold by the bill, and moving the feet alternately. In this way ho will clamber either up or down, horizontally or diagonally, all over the cage." Kestrels taken from the nest are easily tamed, so as to be- come familiar, confiding, and in some degree obedient. The species was formerly trained to pursue small birds, such as quails, snipes, and larks, and was held in considerable estima- tion. Mr Thompson of Belfast states that " the kestrel has been so far trained by Mr William Sinclaire as, when given its liberty, to attend and soar above him like the peregrine fal- con, and fly at small birds let off from the hand. One of these hawks, which was kept by this gentleman in the town of Bel- fast, had its freedom, and flew every evening to roost in an ex- tensive plantation in the country, about a mile distant, in fly- ing to and from which it was at first recognised by the sound of the bells attached to its legs. This bird returned regularly to its town domicile at an early hour in the morning." Mr Waterton, who has given a pleasing account of this bird in his Essays on Natural History, finds it migratory in his neighbourhood, and is " of opinion that a very large propor- tion of those which are bred in England leave it in the autumn, to join the vast flights of hawks which are seen to pass periodi- cally over the Mediterranean Sea, on their way to Africa. Last summer," he continues, " I visited twenty-four nests in my park, all with the windhover's eggs in them. The old birds and their young tarried here till the departure of the swallow, and then they disappeared. During the winter, there is scarcely a windhover to be found. Sometimes a pair or so makes its appearance, but does not remain long. When Fe- bruary has set in, more of the windhovers are seen; and about the middle of the month their numbers have much increased. They may be then heard at all hours of the day ; and he who loves to study nature in the fields may observe them, now on soaring wing, high above in the blue expanse of heaven ; now hovering near the earth, ready to pounce upon the luckless mouse ; and now inspecting the deserted nests of crows and magpies, in order to secure a commodious retreat, wherein to perform their approaching incubation. Allowing, on an aver- 334 FALCO TINNUNCULUS. a^e, four young ones to the nest, there must have been bred here ninety-six windhover hawks last summer : add the parent birds, aud wc sliall have, in all, one hundred and forty-four. Scarcely five of these birds were seen here from Michaelmas to the latter end of January." I have not observed any deficiency of Kestrels in the districts bordering on the Frith of Forth in Minter, when, on the con- trary, I think they are more numerous there than in sunnner. Probably, like the ^Merlin, this species merely migrates from the interior to the coast. In the inland parts of East Lothian, Mr Hepburn also finds it more numerous in summer, as will be seen from the following notice with which he has fiivoured me. " Though by no means an uncommon bird in this county, yet from the middle of October 1838 to March 1839, I did not see a single individual ; but as spring advanced, their num- bers increased. This season, I have seen none since the 15th of October. From this I think it is probable that they an- nually migrate from this district ; but as I only began in May 1838 to pay particular attention to matters of this kind, I can- not speak decidedly on the subject. Delightful truly it is to seek the haunts of the Kestrel on some calm spring morning, when love has tuned every throat in song, and to observe what effect the season has upon its race. There they are, high up in the blue vault of heaven, soaring about, now descending to search the fields, and again mounting aloft. Hark how the woods and rocks resound to their joyous kee., kee^ keelie, keelie. There is grace in every action, and to me music in each note. They commonly make use of the deserted nest of the Carrion Crow, laying from three to five eggs, about the end of March. The young are fledged in June. Many years ago I knew of a Kestrel's nest in a hole in a precipitous old-rcd-sandstone rock, on the banks of Whittingham water. A young man, who knows the species well, informs mo that he has frctpiently known it to nestle in such situations. Two or three jiairs breed annually among the rocks on the south side of Traprain Law, about one mile from this place. " It is much to be rcLrrctted that the Kestrel should suflbr for KESTREL FALCON. 335 the Sparrow Hawk, with which it is in this neighbourhood al- most always confounded. I have often spoken to game-keepers in its behalf, but the mangled forms which I too often see nailed against the walls of the dog-kennel, shew that my friendly advice has been disregarded. AVith us its food con- sists chiefly of mice, and when in search of prey it glides softly through the air in large circular sweeps, at a moderate eleva- tion, now poised on fluttering pinions, now resting in the air without motion, and now descending on the unconscious quarry. AVith all deference to the superior knowledge of that distin- guished naturalist Mr Waterton, I shall humbly endeavour to account for its migration. After the fields are cleared of the grain, the Field-mouse begins to form a store, and nestling in a warm bed- of leaves of trees, bushes, and the cultivated grasses, he probably feels little desire to bask in the sun, without a blade of any thing to screen him from his numerous foes. The ground, too, is very damp at this season, and, all things con- sidered, it prefers moving during the darkness, so that the Barn Owl does not starve. 1 have dug the burrows of the mice in December, and have often found from a half to three quarters of a pint of grain in them. Consider how very few beetles are moving during this season, and it is not to be wondered at that the Kestrel leaves us. Birds constitute no part of its food. If you doubt this, go to the fields and observe for yourself. The Lark ceases not his song in its presence, and the Bro^^^l Lin- net passes it unheeded, as with mellow note he bounds to his nest in the golden-blossomed furze. When he comes to the stack-yard, no anxious cluck is heard from the domestic hen to her young, the Chaffinch and Sparrow continue picking up the seeds at the barn door, and tlie Swallow, his rival in graceful flight, sings his song from the top of the chimney of the steam- engine. I however own that when a locality is much disturbed by the Sparrow Hawk, the Kestrel is liable to be mobbed. " I have no means of ascertaining how many mice it requires per diem. Allow 4, which is surely a moderate estimate, and multiplying by 210, the number of days it remains with us, we find the result to be 840 mice. Supposing the sexes to be in equal proportion, there would be 420 pairs. Adult mice are 330 FALCO TINNUNCULUS. said to breed four times in the year. Allow that one half have 4 litters, one fourth 3 litters, and the remaining fourth two lit- ters. Give 7 to each birth, which is about the average, and the amount will be 9oo5. Thus, a single Kestrel, during a re- sidence of 210 days, is the means of destroying 9555 + 840 = ] 0,395 mice. Ifw^ewere to calculate how many young the progeny of these 840 mice would produce, and so on, the num- bers would exceed belief. It is quite certain, at all events, that the Kestrel, feeding for the most part on mice, must de- stroy vast quantities of them, and that he well deserves protec- tion as the benefactor of man. 1 much fear, however, that all humane considerations will be little heeded so long as the pre- sent game-laws arc in force." In one particular Mr Hepburn is certainly mistaken ; for, as I have stated, I have repeatedly found remains of birds in its stomach. Ujion the whole, the habits of this species are pretty well known, and as I have nothing further of importance to say on this head, we may now inspect the young, which are at first covered with greyish-white down. YorxG. — AVhen fledged they nearly resemble the adult fe- male. The bill is light greyish-blue, toward the end yellowish- grey ; the iridcs dark brown ; the cere and superciliary ridge pale greenish-blue, the feet yellow, the claws brownish-black with their tips paler. The head and hind-neck are light brownish-red, with longitudinal blackish-brown streaks ; the upper parts of the body, the wing-coverts and tail, light red, the feathers transversely marked with broad dark brown bands, of which the last is somewhat triangular. The primary quills and their coverts are dark brown, the latter with light red spots on the inner, the former on both webs. There are eight dark bars on the tail, the last three-quarters of an inch in breadth, the tips dull rcddish-wliitc. The lower parts are pale yellowish- red, the sides of the neck and the breast with longitudinal dark brown streaks, the sides marked with streaks transversely barred. The feathers of the legs, abdomen, and .subcaudal region light reddish yellow, some of the former having a dusky shaft-line. KESTREL FALCON. 337 Progress towaud Maturity, — At tho first moult, the male assumes a groyish-bluo colour on the head, rump, and tail ; but the head is still tinircd with red, and the tail barred on both webs. At the next moult, the tints are purer, the dark markings smaller, and the spots on the outer webs of tho tail- feathers have disappeared. The dark markings of the female also become more attenuated ; but the parts which ultimately become greyish-blue in the male, are in her merely tinged with that colour, and the tail continues barred. Remarks. — Tho comparative shortness of the middle toe, the enlarged anterior scales of the tarsus, and the rounded tail, of this bird, have induced some ornithologists to separate it from the genus Falco ; but if dift'crences so slight suffice to form generic characters, hardly two species can be kept to- gether. Falco tinnunculoides of the south of Europe, and Falco sparverius of America, are the species most nearly allied to the Kestrel, which in form difters little from the Merlin. The young of that species bear a considerable resemblance in colour to the young and female of the Kestrel, the latter of which was figured by BufFon as a Merlin. I omitted to mention in the proper place that, as the Rev. Mr Gordon, of Birnie, informs mo, " the Kestrel, which is the most abundant of the small hawks in Morayshire, builds at the Rocks of Covcsca, on the cliffs above Mill of Birnie, and in ravines about the Glen of Rothes, as well as in many similar situations."" VOL. HI. 338 ACCIPITER. HAWK. The genus Accipiter is composed of birds, generally of mode- rate size, which collectively occupy a station intermediate be- tween the Falcons, Buzzards, and Harriers. Some of the larger species approach in form to those of the genus Buteo, and being proportionally more robust, with shorter and stronger tarsi, and a less elongated tail, have by some been formed into a separate genus, to which the name of Astur is given ; while the smaller and more slender species are taken to constitute the genus Ac- cipiter or Nisus. It docs not however appear to me that the dif- ferences as to form and proportions between the largest and the smallest of these species are sufficient to constitute generic cha- racters. The body in all is light, rather broad anteriorly, very narrow behind ; the neck short or of moderate length ; the head rather large, roundish or broadly ovate, and flattened above. Bill short, stout, compressed toward the end ; up])cr man- dible with its dorsal line decurved from the base, nearly in the fourth of a circle, the ridge convex, the sides sloping and some- what convex, the edges sharp and overlapping, with a promi- nent broad lobe beyond the middle, the tip trigonal, a little concave beneath, and deflected ; lower mandible with the angle wide and rounded, the dorsal line convex, the ridfjo broad, the sides rounded toward the end, the edges inflected, the tip obliquely truncate and rounded. Mouth rather wide ; palate flat, with two prominent longi- tudinal lines ; upper mandible slightly concave, lower deeply channelled ; tongue short, fleshy, concave above, rounded and slightly emarginate. (Esophagus wide, about the middle di- lated into a largo crop ; provcntricular glands small, oblong, forming a complete bolt. Stomach roundish or oldtjug, a little compressed, its muscular coat very thin and composed of a single scries of fasciculi, its inner coat smooth and soft ; intcs- ACCIPITEK. HAWK. 3ai) tine rather short and of moderate width ; cocca very tsniall ; rectinn with a glohular dilatation. Nostrils ovato-obloniT, lateral. Eyes rather large ; eyelids ciliated ; the lachrymal ridge prominent. Aperture of the ear roundish, rather large. Legs of moderate length, slender; tarsus rather long or of moderate length, generally slender, anteriorly scutellate, laterally scaly, posteriorly with large scales or scutella ; toes slender, covered above with numerous short scutella, beneath tuberculate, there being a long fleshy knob on the last joint of each, and one at the next joint of the outer two ; the third and fourth toes connected by a basal web, the first and second nearly equal, the third much longer. Claws long, well-curved, tapering, compressed, convex above, slightly concave beneath, acuminate. Plumage compact above, blended beneath. Cere with bristle- tipped plumelets at the sides ; space between the bill and eye covered with radiating slender feathers of the same nature. Feathers of the head rather short, of the neck moderate, of the sides and outer part of the tibia elongated, all more or less oblong and rounded, ^^'ings long, much rounded, with twenty- three quills ; primaries moderately strong, the first short, the fourth and fifth longest, the outer five with the inner web somewhat abru])tly cut out. Tail very long, straight, even or slightly rounded, of twelve rather broad rounded feathers. The species of this gcmis are distinguished by their elegant, generally slender form, the prominent festoon of the upper mandible, their comparatively short rounded wings, lengthened tail, and slender tarsi and toes, of which the third is very long in the smaller species. They fly low when searching for food, advancing with a rapid gliding and stealthy flight, dart upon their prey on the ground, or in the air, or perched on trees or bushes, between the branches of which they glide on occasion even at full speed. They nestle in trees, or on rocks, forming a rude nest of twigs and some soft materials, or appropriate the nest of a Crow or other bird, and lay from three to five large, broadly elliptical, spotted cgi;s. Species occur in all parts of the globe. Two are met with in Britain, one very common, the other extremely rare. 340 ACCIPITER PALUMBARIUS. THE GOSHAWK. Falco Palumbarius. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 130. Falco Palumbarius. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 29. Adult. Falco gentilis. Lath. Ind. Orn. L '2'.*. Young. Goshawk. Mont. Orn. Diet. L'Autour. Falco Palumbarius. Temm. Man. d'Oin. L 5.'j ; IIL 27. Goshawk. Astur Palumbarius. Sclb. Illustr. 1. 29. Accipiter palumbarius. Goshawk. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 85. Male about twent>/ inches long., with the upper parts dark hluish-grey^ the crown of the head and a broad band on its sides black, the lowern-hite, transversely barred with blachish-prei/, and marked with longitudinal shaft-lines. Female about ticentii-fire inches long., icith the colouring similar., but the ripper parts greg- ish-brotcn. Young brown above, the feathers edged with reddish- tchite, the head broicn, the nape gellou-ish-white, streaked with dark broicn., the lower parts yellowish-white, with longitudinal oblong dusky spots. Male. — The Gcshawk, which has become so exceedingly rare in liritain, that I have never been able to obtain a recent .specimen, and have not seen more than half a dozen in muse- ums, is among the most beautiful of our rapacious birds, being in form intermediate between the Sparrow Hawk and the Brown Buzzard, but in most respects much more nearly allied to the former than to the latter. Its body is moderately full, its neck rather short, its head of moderate size, roundish, and flattened above. The bill short, strong. wi(h the dorsal line of the upper mandible nearly straight and .slightly dcclinato to the edge of the cere, then decurved in about the fourth of a circle, its sides slightly convex, the edges with a rather prominent broad lobe, behind which is a slight festoon, the tij) trigonal and acute ; the lower mandible with the angle wide, the dorsal GOSHAWK. 341 lino convex, the sides rounded, the edges arched, the tip obliquely truncate. The palate is flat, with two soft longitudinal ridges, tlio upper mandible slightly concave, the lower deeply concave, both with a slightly prominent median line. The tongue fleshy, sagittate and papillate at the base, channelled above, with the tip rounded and emarginate, its lower surface horny, with a shallow median groove. The eyes large ; the eyelids bare, but ciliated ; the supraocular ridge distinct. Nostrils oblique, ob- long, broader behind. Aperture of ear roundish, and rather large. Feet of moderate length ; tarsi anteriorly feathered for nearly half their length, rather short, strong, anteriorly covered with fourteen short but broad scutella, laterally with angular scales, behind with numerous scutella. The toes strong, of mo- derate length, the first and second stoutest, and nearly equal in length, the third much longer, and connected by a basal w^eb with the fourth, which is longer than the second ; on the first are six, on the second four, on the third eighteen, on the fourth ten scutella. Claws strong, well arched, considerably compress- ed, acuminate. The plumage is full, compact above, blended beneath ; the cere laterally covered with bristle-tipped plumelets, as is the loral space ; the feathers of the upper parts oblong and rounded, of the head short, of the lower parts narrower, those of the outer part of the tibia elongated. The wings are of moderate length, broad, and rounded ; the primaries strong, tapering to a rounded point ; the outer five with the inner web, and the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth with the outer web, nar- rowed toward the end ; the secondaries, thirteen in number, broad, and abruptly rounded. The tail is long, broad, rounded, of twelve rounded feathers, of which the outer is an inch shorter than the middle. The bill is light blue at the base, bluish-black at the end ; the cere greenish-yellow ; the iris reddish -orange, the supra- ocular ridge yellowish-green ; the feet yellow, the claws black. The general colour of the upper parts is deep bluish-grey; the upper and hind parts of the head, and a broad baud from tho cheeks to the nape, black ; over the eye a white band streaked 342 ACCIPITER PAUMBARirs. ^v^tll brownisli-black ; the feathers of the nape white, M'ith only the tips black. The alula, jiriinary coverts, and primary quills are hair-brown, with the shafts lijjhter alonjj the middle ; the primaries barred with dark brown, the intervals between the bars being on the inner webs whitish, and variegated with grey ; the secondaries greyish-blue externally, their inner webs with broad alternate bands of whitish variegated with grey. The tail brownish-grey, the middle feathers with four, the lateral with seven broad bands of brownish-black, the terminal band much larger, the tips white. The lower parts are greyish- white ; the fore-neck and breast with longitudinal dusky lines, the breast with transverse undulated bars of blackish-grey, of which there are four on the anterior feathers ; the tibial feathers beautifully barred with a lighter tint ; the lower tail-coverts white, the lower wing-coverts white, barred with deep grey. Length to end of tail 20 inches, to end of wings IGh ; extent of wings 43 ; wing from flexure 13 ; tail 11^ ; bill along the ridge I5 ; along the edge of lower mandible l/^ ; tarsus 3; first toe 1/j; its claw l/^ ; second toe 1^%, its claw IjS ; third toe l|g, its claw 1 ; fourth toe 1/^, its claw i§. Fem.vlk. — The female resembles the male in colour, but has the upper parts tinged with brown. Length to end of tail 26 inches, to end of wings 231 ; extent of wings 4.") ; wing from flexure 13^; tail 12; bill along the ridge 1 Jj ; tarsus Sj ; hind toe l^^^g, its claw If ; middle toe 2i*g, its claw 1. ILmuts. — Of this beautiful species, considered with reference to Britain, nothing is known beyond the fact of its having rarely been met with in Scotland, and still more rarely in Eng- land. It is said by several persons to be not very unconunon in Shetland and Orkney ; but until specimens obtained there are produced, I must take leave to sujipose that the natives of these islands have mistaken the J'eregrine I^'alcon for the Goshawk. In many districts the latter name is that usually given to the Peregrine, and it does not ajipcar that the tJOSIIAAVK. 343 true Goshawk has been obtained in any part of Scotland for se- veral years, insomuch that wo might very reasonably apprehend the total failure of the native breed in that country. Mr Feii- ton iMt'orm.s me that he saw one which was shot in Forfarshire about fifteen years ago, and in the museum of the University of hidinburgh is a young bird said by the late Mr Wilson to have been shot in Scotland. 1 have nothing to add to its his- tory since in 183G I penned the following remarks in my de- scriptions of the Rapacious Birds of Great Britain : — " In the more inland parts of the middle division of Scotland, especially among the Grampians of Aberdeenshire, it may now and then be observed ; but the few opportunities of studying its manners which have occurred to me were so fleeting, that 1 can add no- thing to its history in this respect. When you are least ex- pecting its appearance,- it sweeps rapidly past you, or is seen swiftly winging its way over the fields or woods with a bird in its talons. In so far as I am acquainted with it, it resembles the Sparrow llawk in its manners.'''' According to M. Tem- minck, it is essentially a northern bird, which migrates south- ward in winter, few remaining to breed in the central parts of Europe. It was much esteemed when falconry was in vogue, and was flown at Pheasants, Partridges, (J rouse, Ducks and Herons, as well as hares, which it pursued in direct flight, without rising above them like the Peregrine Falcon, from which it further differed in pursuing its quarry into woods and thickets. Its flight, which is rapid and gliding, is performed at a small height ; its activity almost equals that of the Sparrow Hawk ; and its disposition is sanguinary, suspicious, and unso- cial, iusonuich that it has often been known to kill its com- panions in captivity. Authors dift'er respecting the nest and eggs, and a good history of this bird is a desideratum, which cannot be accomplished by British observers, at least in their own country. W^ere it not doubtfid whether the Goshawk of North .\merica be really of the same species, I might refer to Mr Audubon's account of its habits. A specimen of that bird in my collection, and three others which I have seen, difl'er in some respects from ours, more especially in having the trans- verse markings on the lower parts more numerous and more 344 ACCIPITER PALUiMBARIUS. undulated, and the head and cheek-bands deep black. Mr Audubon, however, states that the American Goshawk exhibits numerous variations of i)luma2fe, some having transverse bars of large size on the breast, and even if it should be distinct from the European bird, its habits are probably very similar. They are thus described by him : — " The tlight of the Goshawk is extremely rapid and pro- tracted. He sweeps along the margins of the fields, through the M'oods, and by the edges of ponds and rivers, with such speed as to enable him to seize his prey by merely deviating a few yards from his course, assisting himself on such occasions by his long tail, which, like a rudder, he throws to the right or left, upwards or downwards, to check his progress, or enable him suddenly to alter his course. At times he passes like a meteor through the underwood, where te secures squirrels and hares with case. Should a flock of wild pigeons pass him when on these predatory excursions, he immediately gives chase, soon overtakes them, and forcing his way into the very centre of tho flock, scatters them in confusion, when you may see him emerg- ing with a bird in his talons, and diving towards the depths of the forest to feed upon his victim. \Mien travelling, he flies high, with a constant beat of the wings, seldom moving in large circles like other hawks, and when he does this, it is only a few times in a hurried manner, after which he continues his jour- ney." lie further describes it as restless, seldom alighting un- less to devour its prey, which consists of small quadrujjeds, grouse, ducks, pigeons, snipes, and other birds. Its nest, which is placed on the branches of a tree, near tho trunk, is large, and constructed of twigs and coarse grass, with a lining of fibrous materials. The eggs dull bluish-white, or greenish- white, sometimes spotted with brown, but often without mark- ings. Those of the European Goshawk, according to M. Tem- minck, are greenish-grey, without spots. Yor.Nc;. — When fledged the young differ much in colour from their parents. The bill is dark brown, paler toward thq base ; tho cere and legs greenish yellow, tho claws brownish- black. On the upper part of the head the feathers arc dark GOSHAWK. 345 brown, with light yellowish-red margins ; on the hind-neck yellowish-white, each with a terminal streak of dark brown. The general colour of the upper parts is hair-brown or greyish- brown, the feathers edged with yellowish-red ; the scapulars with three broad conceded whitish bands. The quills are brown, broadly barred with darker, and tipped with whitish. The tail is alternately banded with dark brown and light greyish-brown, and largely tipped with white, there being five dark bands on the middle feathers. The lower parts are light yellowish-red, or reddish-white ; the throat, legs, and lower tail-coverts with longitudinal blackish-brown lines, the ante- rior part of the breast with oblong, and the rest with lanceolate spots of the same colour. Remarks. — In a list of the birds of Shetland, with which I have been favoured by Dr Laurence Edmondston, that gentle- man, whom a long residence and continued observation have rendered familiar with the productions of those islands, has the following note : — " Falco Palumbarius is not uncommon at all seasons. I have not myself seen its nest, but it is said to build in rocky cliffs. It preys chiefly on rabbits and pigeons." A Shetland specimen of this very rare bird would be a great acquisition to the London or Edinburgh ^Museums. 34(5 ACCIPITER NISUS. THE SPARROW HAWK. Sl'EIRSHEOG. Falco Nisus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I. llil. Falco Nisus. Lath. Iiid. Orn. L 44. Sparrow Hawk. Mont. Orn. Diet. L'Epervier. Falco Nisus. Temin. Man. d'Orn. L .'>(>•, \\l. 28. Sjjarrow Hawk. Accipiter fringillarius. Selb. lUustr. I. '.i'2. Accipiter fringillarius. Sparrow Hawk. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 85. Male about ttcdce inc/ieslour/, iclth the upper parts dark hluish- (/rei/y the lower reddish- white, transctrsehi barred with ydlowish- red. Female about fifteen inches lon(/, with the tipper parts (/}-ei/ish-brown, the loicer orei/ish-white, traiisrersel// barred icith dark greij. Youncj brown abate, the feathers marained with light red, the markiuf/s on the loicer parts more duskg, and the last band on each father somewhat cordate or pointed, the female more tinged icith red. In all stages, six duskg bands on the lateral, and four on the middle tail-feathers. The Sparrow Hawk, although bearing a general resom- blanco to the Goshawk, is of a much more slender form, inso- much that many ornithologists, for this reason alone, have re- Sl'AIlROW IIAU K. 347 ferred it to a separate genus. The principal character on which this distinction is founded exists in the comparatively slim and elongated tarsi and toes ; but as gradations occur be- tween the sharp-shinned Hawk of America, which has the tarsi still more slender, and the Goshawk, I cannot see the propriety of forming the group into two genera. A greater difference as to size is seen between the male and the female in this than in any other British bird of prey, and even be- tween individuals of the same sex the differences are such that many persons have supposed the Sparrow Hawk divisible into several .species. Male. — This remarkably elegant bird has the body slender, the neck short, the head of moderate size, broadly ovate, and rather convex above. The bill is very short, moderately stout, compressed ; the upper mandible with its dorsal line decurved from the base, nearly in the fourth of a circle, the sides rapidly sloping and nearly flat, the edges anteriorly sharp, with a broad rounded dentiform process or festoon about the middle, the tip trigonal and very acute ; the cere short, and in the greater part of its extent bare ; the lower mandible with the angle short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal line convex, the back broad at the base, the sides rounded, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip obli(piely truncate, with a shallow sinus, thin-edged, and rounded. Internally the upper mandible is slightly concave, the lower deeply concave, with a prominent median line. The palate is flat, with two soft longitudinal, slightly papillate ridges. The posterior aperture of the nares is oblong behind, linear before. The tongue is half an inch long, sagittate and serrulate at the base, oblong, fleshy, broadly channelled above, with the tip rounded and cmarginate. The a?sophagus is four inches and a half long, at the u))per part half an inch wide, then dilated into a crop an inch in width, after which it contracts to five twelfths. The proventricular portion is eight twelfths long ; its "landules cylindrical, forming a continuous belt having four sli^it lonf^i- tudinal depressions. The stomach is of a roundish form, some- what compressed, an inch and a half in diameter ; its muscu- lar coat very thin, the fibres arranged in fasciculi, the tendons 348 ACCI PITER NISUS. about three twelfths in diameter, the inner surface smooth. Tlie pylorus is very narrow, and has three valvular protuber- ances. The intestine is two feet six inches long, three-twelfths in width in the duodenal portion, its smallest diameter two twelfths ; the cocca very small, being only two twelfths in length, three and a half inches distant from the extremity. The rectum, at first three twelfths in width, dilates toward the end so as to have a diameter of one inch. The eyes are large, the eyelids margined with ciliary bristles, the lachrymal ridge prominent. The nostrils are rather large, oblique, oblong, broader behind. The aperture of the ear roundish, and rather large. The tarsi, which are feathered anteriorly for nearly a third of their length, are rather long, very slender, compressed, narrower before than behind, with an anterior elongated plate, obscurely marked with eighteen scutella, the sides with hexagonal scales, as is the hind part, on which they are much larger. The toes are very slender ; the first short, the second stouter and somewhat longer, the third very long, and connected by a basal web with the fourth, which is longer than the second. On the first toe are nine scutella, on the second fourteen, on the third twenty-eight, on the fourth eighteen and several basal scales. The claws are well curved, compressed, laterally grooved, finely acuminate, the first and second largest and about eipial. The ])lumage is moderately full, soft, on the upper parts rather compact, on the lower blended. The loral space is co- vered with bristle-pointed feathers curving upwards. The wings are rather long, broad, much rounded ; the fourth and fifth (piills are longest and about equal, the first three inches, the second an inch and a quarter, the third foiu- twelfths shorter. The outer five are slightly attenuated on the outer, deeply on the inner web. The secondary quills, thirteen in number, arc broad and rounded. The tail is long, straight, even at the end, of twelve ratlier broad, rounded feathers. The l)ill is light blue at the base, bluish-black at the end ; the cere and eyelids greenish-yellow ; the iri.s orange ; the tarsi and toes yellow, the claws like tho bill. The palate livid-blue. The general colour of the plumage on the upper SPARROAV HAWK. 340 parts is slate bluo, or deep greyish-blue, with darker shaft- lines. The feathers on the naj)c are white at the base, and on each of the scapulars arc two broad bands of the same colour. The outer primaries are dusky greyish-brown, and all the quills have the inner web marked with dusky bands, between which the inner margins are greyish-white. The tail is deep srov, with six broad bands of blackish-brown on the lateral and four on the middle tail-feathers, the last band broader and more distinct, and the tips greyish-white. The upper part ctf the cheeks is bluish-grey, the rest and the sides of the neck yellowish-red, the throat reddish-white. The fore part of the neck, the breast, sides, abdomen, and tibin?, are transversely barred with reddish-white and yellowish-red, the latter colour prevailing on the breast and sides ; each feather having five bands of white, and an equal number of pale red and dusky. The coloured bands become fainter on the hind parts, and gra- dually disappear on the abdomen, some of the feathers of which, as well as the lower tail-coverts, are white. The tarsal fea- thers are light red. The lower M-ing-coverts reddish- white barred with dusky. The dark bars of the wings and tail are more conspicuous on their lower surface. Length to end of tail 13 inches, to end of wings 11 ; extent of wings 23 ; wing from flexure 8 ; tail 6\ ; bill along the ridge ^%, along the edge of lower mandible ^^ ; tarsus 2^; first toe ^5, its claw f*! ; second toe ^%, its claw /^ ; third toe \j%, its claw {% ; fourth toe ji, its claw i%. Fkmale. — The female, which is much larger than the male, and proportionally somewhat more robust, differs considerably in colour. The bill and tarsi are much stouter, insomuch that the latter are not very different in strength from those of some species of the division to which the name of Astur is applied. In an individual shot on the 2d October 1839, the oesophagus was four inches and three quarters in length, the crop an inch and a half in width, the contracted intrathoracic part seven- twelfths wide. The stomach a little compressed, round, an inch and a quarter in diameter. The proventricular belt com- plete, an inch and three-twelfths in breadth, without grooves. 350 ACCIPITEK NISUS. The intestine two feet three inches in length, its widest part two and a half twelfths, the narrowest, toward the rectum, a twelfth and a quarter. The ca?ca are two sliirht knobs, one- twelfth in length and diameter. The rectum three inches long, its cloacal portion an inch in width. The gall-bladder oblong, half an inch in length ; the entrances of the cystic and hepatic ducts four-twelfths apart. This individual not having been described, I now take another shot on the 18th May 1834. The form of the parts is as described in the male. On the tarsus are eighteen indistinct anterior scutella, on the first too six, on the second eight, on the third twenty-seven, on the fourth fourteen and several basal series. The fourth quill is longest, the lifth little shorter ; the tail a little rounded, the lateral feathers being half an inch shorter than the longest. The bill and claws are light blue at the base, black toward the end ; the cere and supraocular edge light greenish-yellow ; the iris orange ; the feet yellow-orange. The general colour of the upper parts is brownish-grey ; the feathers of the hind-neck white at the base, the scapulars and inner secondary coverts with two large concealed bands of the same colour. On the tail are four dusky bars, and an obscure basal bar, the tip greyish-white. The quills are obscurely barred with dusky, and have their inner webs in the intervals yellowish-white, unless toward the end. The general colour of the lower parts is greyish-white, transversely marked with narrow bars of dusky-grey and brownish-red, each feather on the breast hav- ing five bars, the throat with longitudinal lines of deep brown. The abdomen is less barred, and the lower tail-covcrts are white ; the lower wing-coverts reddish-white, barred with dusky ; the lower surface of the quills and tail-feathers pale grey, tinged with red, and barred with dark brown. Length to end of tail 15^ inches; extent of wings 28^; bill along the ridge \^, along the edge of lower mandible ^"^ ; wing from flexure O/g ; tail T/j ; tarsus 2/'^ ; first too /^, its claw {'^j ; second too i"^, its claw } J ; third too l/j, its claw ,"3 ; fourth toe 1, its claw /j. SPARROW IIAAVK. 351 Variations. — Males vary in length from twelve to thirteen and a half inches, and proportionally in bulk. In adults the colour of the upper parts scarcely varies, but on the lower the red bars vary in breadth and purity. The largest females are seventeen inches long, the smallest fourteen. Very old indi- viduals are sometimes nearly as blue on the back as the males, but generally greyish-brown, or hair-brown tinged with bluish- grey, is the prevailing tint. The length of the alimentary canal varies considerably. The iris varies in the males from yellow to orange and even yellowish-red. M. Oesophagus in length.... 4^- Crop in width 1 Stomach in diameter lf\ Intestine in length 30 Cocca j-^ Rectum 8Vheu formed by itself, its nest is nearly Hat, composed of sticks and slender twigs, rudely put together, with some grass, moss, or wool in the central small depression. The eggs, from three to five in number, are very broadly ovate or roundish- elliptical, bluish-white, blotched and irregularly spotted, some- times sparingly, sometimes profusely, with umber-brown of various shades ; the largest in my collection is an inch and eight-twelfths long, an inch and four-twelfths in breadth, the smallest an inch and seven-twelfths in length, and an inch and a fjuarter in breadth. " In one of the plantations on Boghead," Mr Weir writes, *' for several years past a pair of Sparrow Hawks have reared their young, either in the deserted nest of the Carrion Crow or Magpie. They were uncommonly bold, and with the rapidity of an arrow skimmed over the ground. Amongst partridges, pigeons, and other smaller birds, they committed great destruction. AVitli almost unerring aim they pounced upon their prey. From a hut formed of the branches of trees I watched for several hours the habits of a pair of these vora- cious birds whilst they were engaged in feeding their young, which were nearly half fledged. During the time that I re- mained in it, the female continued to sit upon them. The male, sometimes at shorter, and at other times at longer inter- vals, alighted upon the toj) of a tree, at the distance of about forty yards from the nest, with a bird in his talons. The fe- male always took it from him, and divided it amongst her nest- lings. Sometimes he arrived w^ith a blackbird or a thrush, but more frequently with a lark, a yellow bunting, or a chaf- finch. Being anxious to know whether the male is in the habit of feeding his offspring, I one morning, in a place of con- cealment, watched another pair of them for four or five hours. The male always alighted, as in the former case, upon the top of a tree at some distance from the nest, with a bird in his claws, and called upon his mate, who came and caught hold of it in her bill. I shot her as she was carrying it to her young. About nine o'clock in the morning I went home. At six in the even- ing I returned with a boy, who climbed the tree to see what was in the nest. He had no sooner looked into it, than with asto- 3()0 ACCIPITER NISUS. nishmcnt he exclaimed, ' All ! Sir, the poor little things are gasping/ They were in fact almost suffocated by the dead birds about them. He threw down no less than sixteen, amongst which were larks, yellow buntings, chaffinches, hedge-sparrows, and green linnets. I took home the young, which were four in number. They seemed not to have been fed during the day, as they were exceedingly hungry. In these two instances it would appear that the male bird provided the food, but did not give it to his family. AMiethcr this is always the case with the Spar- row Hawk I cannot ascertain until I have further opportunities of observing their habits." YorxG. — The young arc at first entirely covered with soft white down. Their feet are yellow, the claws dusky, inclin- ing to flesh-colour at the base. The first plumage, when the feathers are but partially grown, is dark greyish-brown on the upper parts, the feathers terminally margined with light red, and on the lower parts light red barred with dusky. When fully fledged they have the cere greenish-yellow, the bill dusky at the end, pale blue with some yellow at the base, the iris light brown, the feet greenish-yellow. The feathers of the upper parts are greyish-brown, margined with light red, that colour jirevailing on part of the hind-neck, those of the nape white excepting the tij)S, the scapulars with two large reddish- white spots ; the tail-feathers are wood-brown, the two mid- dle with four, the lateral with six dusky bands. The lower parts are dull reddish-white, the throat and part of the neck with longitudinal linear dusky streaks, the breast and sides barred with dusky, there being generally four dusky bars on each feather, that toward the end heart-shaped and pointed ; the lower tail-coverts reddish-white ; the lower wing-coverts pale reddish, barred with dusky ; the spaces between the dark bands on the inner webs of the quills reddish -white. Progress toward Matlrity. — In the first plumage there is little difference between the male and the female. In the se- cond, the male and female are of the same greyish-brown above, the feathers narrowly l)ordcrcd with light red. The loNver parts are more tinged with red, and more broadly barred, in SPARROW HAAVK. 361 the male than in the female. As the birds advance in age, the brown or dusiky bands on the lower parts of the male become converted into light red, which colour ultimately predomi- nates ; whereas in the females, the reddish colour gradually disappears, the bars becoming dusky and then deep grey, their intervals reddish-white and then greyish-white. The upper parts change from brown to deep greyish-blue in the male, and to brownish-grey in the female. I have seen a few old females, however, of as blue a tint as the males. The bars on the wings and tail become fainter the older the bird is, but without vary- ing in number ; there being six on the outer and four on the middle tail-feathers in both sexes. Remarks. — The habits and gradations of jilumage of the Spar- row Hawk are satisfactorily known, and have been more fully described in the preceding pages than they have hitherto been. The numberless differences in tints and markings, as well as in size, have led some ornithologists to divide this species into two or more. Having been at one time impressed with the idea of there being two species in Britain, I have paid much attention to the subject, and examined about a hundred indi- viduals, until, having traced the gradations in the two sexes, I am convinced that we have only one Sparrow Hawk in Scot- land at least. As to the difference in size between the sexes, it is by no means greater than is observed in the American Accipiter fuscus and A. Cooperi, birds which have a wonder- fully close resemblance to A. Nisus, although differing in size, the male of A. Cooperi being about equal to the female of A. Nisus, and the male of the latter considerably larger than that of A. fuscus. By a note in the third part of M. Temminck's Manual, it appears that Mess. Becker and Meisner have invented a greater Sparrow Hawk, Falco nisus major, which is said to have the bill strong, the cere yellowish-grey, the iris and feet lemon - yellow ; the head greyish-brown marked with numerous white spots ; the nape brownish, here and there marked with white feathers ; all the upper part of the body and tail more brownish than blui,sh or grey ; the breast, lower part of the body, and 362 ACCIPITER NISUS. thitrhs barred with ilusky on a white ground ; tail with five bands and a terminal light brown band, its lower surface dull white. Tt diflbrs from the smaller species — 1st, In being larger ; the tail an inch and a half longer ; 2dly, In having the eggs larger, more rounded, greyish-white, and only dotted with brown at large intervals ; 3dly. In the male and the female be- ing almost precisely similar ; -ithly, In the males having no reddish-brown on the belly or thighs. On this subject I would offer a few remarks. Young males of the common Sparrow Hawk often have no red on the lower parts, and in this state are very similar to old females ; individuals of either sex vary as much as to render the tail of one two inches longer than that of another individual of the same sex. As to the eggs, one finds in the same nest a large ef^g and one considerably smaller, a blotched egg, an egg merely dotted, and an egg al- most destitute of markings. The colouring as above given differs in nothing from that of many conmion Sparrow Hawks, excepting in the white spots on the head, and the different number of bands on the tail, both of which circumstances may be incorrectly stated. Finally, however, it is very possible that two species may be confounded under the same name. 363 CIRCUS. HARRIER. The birds which constitute the genus Circus are remarkable for presenting characters indicative of an approximation to the Owls on the one hand, and on the other to the Hawks, pro- perly so called, and the Buzzards. The bill is short, as broad as high at the base, compressed and attenuated toward the end : upper mandible with its dor- sal outline declinate and nearly straight as far as the edge of the cere, then decurved in about the fourth of a circle, the ridge on the cere broad and flattened, afterwards narrow but convex, the sides rapidly sloping and moderately convex, the edges with a broad festoon, the tip deflected, subtrigonal, acute ; lower mandible with the angle medial, wide, and rounded, the crura sloping upwards and feathered, the dorsal line somewhat convex, the back broad, the sides rounded, the edges involute, beyond the middle sharp and slightly arched, the tip obliquely trun- cate. Figs. 230, 231, 233, 234. Mouth wide ; upper mandible concave beneath, with a groove on each side, and thin projecting margins ; lower mandible deeply concave, its edges fitting into the grooves of the upper. Palate flat, with two longitudinal papillate ridges ; posterior aperture of nares oblong, anteriorly linear, with papillate mar- gins. Tongue short, fleshy, concave above, horny beneath, sagittate and papillate at the base, its tip rounded and slightly emarginate. (Esophagus, PI. XXI, Fig. 3, abed, very wide, with an extremely large crop, b c\ its proventricular portion, d e, much dilated, and having a complete belt of glandules. Stomach, c, very large, round, somewhat compressed ; its mus- cular coat very thin, being composed of a single series of fas- ciculi, its tendinous spaces small. Pylorus without valves ; intestine, e/J, of moderate length and width ; coeca very small, cloaca, j I, very large and globular. 3G4 CIRCUS. HARRIER. Nostrils large, ovato-oblong, in the middle and fore part of the cere, and havinii an oblique plate from the upper edge. Eyes large ; eyelids feathered and ciliated ; the lachrymal ridge not projecting. Aperture of ear very large, elliptical or oblong, Avith a bare space extending from it to the base of the lower jaw. Head of moderate size, ovate ; neck rather short ; body very slender, much compressed behind. Tibia long and muscular ; tarsus long, slender, compressed, with a series of large oblique scutclla on the fore and outer part, reticular oblong scales ou the sides, and scutclla behind, unless at the upper and lower parts. Toes rather small, slender ; prominently padded be- neath, scutellate above unless at the base ; the third and fourth connected by a pretty large basal web ; first stouter, but con- siderably shorter than the second, third much longer, fourth longer than the second. Claws long, moderately curved, slen- der, compressed, rounded above, flat beneath, tapering to a fine point. Those of the first and second toes much larger, that of the third with a dilated thin inner edge. Fig. 232. Plumage very soft, and generally blended. Loral spaces and sides of the cere covered with rather long, bristle-tipped plume- lets, partially concealing the nostrils. Feathers oblong, and rounded ; those of the head of moderate length, of the neck bulky. A distinct ruff of narrow dccurved feathers extends from behind the eye to the throat. On the sides the feathers are elongated, on the abdomen downy, on the outer part of the tibia long. Wings long, broad, much rounded, of twenty- three quills ; primaries rather broad, obtuse ; the fourth and third longest, the first much shorter, being about equal to the seventh ; the outermost four having the inner web sinuously cut out toward the end ; and with the outer web attenuated ; secondaries broad, broadly rounded, with a minute tip. Tail long, nearly even, or rounded, of twelve broad rounded feathers. In this genus the general appearance approaches to that of Accipiter. The bill is intermediate in form between that of Accipiter and Huteo ; the elongated tarsi resemble those of the former genus, and the toes might belong to either. The plu- mage, especially in the females, is almost as soft as in some CIRCUS. HARRIER 3(:5 owls, and in them its colours farther indicate an affinity, which is more decidedly shewn by the structure of the ear, and the rufFof oblong feathers. It seems somewhat strange, however, that the digestive organs make no approximation to those of owls ; for while in the latter the oesophagus is of uniform width throughout, and the coeca are large and oblong, these parts are in the Harriers much the same as in Buzzards. The Harriers, when searching for food, fly low, with a gliding and gentle motion, often in circles, pounce upon small quadru- peds, birds, and reptiles, or sometimes pursue birds in open flight, and feed occasionally on insects and fishes. They nestle on the ground, laying three or four eggs, migrate from the colder districts at the approach of the cold season, and as a genus are very extensively distributed on both continents. Three species are found in Britain : the Ring-tailed, Mon- tagu's, and Moor or !Marsh Harriers. The accompanying figure represents the head of a female of the common or Ring-tailed sj)ecies. 3GG CIRCUS CYANEUS. THE RING-TAILED HARRIER. lOMMON llAnniER. BROWN KITK. HEX HARRIER. ni.l'E HAWK. RLUE KITE. BLIK OR BROW X OLEDE. UREID-AHt-TOIN. Falro cyaneus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. l'2rownish- red. The tail-feathers arc brown tinged with grey, ti])pcd with reddish-white ; the inner webs of most of them paler, and variegateTiy wings, that one is not by hearing ren- dered sensible of their immediate presence. Some species how- ever have a more direct, vigorous, and hawk-like flight. When alighted on a flat surface, they bring forward the outer toe, and incline the body considerably, so as not to injure the tail ; but when perched on a narrow space, they stand nearly erect, and reverse the outer toe. By day they repose on rocks, or other elevated objects, or in the hollows of trees, in recesses of buildings, or cavities of rocks, some species however on the ground. The form of their feet, and especially the elongation and curvature of their finely pointed claws, incapacitate them from walking, so that in moving from one place to another they advance by awkward Laps. They are solitary, or live in pairs, their kind of food rendering associations injurious. Their peculiar physiognomy gives them an appearance of gro- tesque gravity, which men have mistaken for wisdom ; while their nocturnal habits, and retired and often gloomy haunts, together with their harsh or uncouth cries, have wrought upon the imagination until the Owl has become associated with calamity, desolation, and death. Owls however are generally very harmless, and often very beneficent creatures. Such of them as are truly nocturnal, seem bewildered and blinded when accidentally abroad by day, and are liable to be insulted and bufl'etcd by other birds. A\'hen surprised or irritated, Owls hiss in the manner of the domestic cat, and click their bills. Some species have a harsh shrieking cry, and others emit various sounds, not always disagreeable, which are denoted by the term hooting. They nestle in the hollows of trees, in crevices of rocks, in dark corners in buildings, on lofts in outhouses, in dove-cots, and sometimes on the ground. The nest is rudely constructed of twigs and grass ; or sometimes there is none at all ; or the deserted nest of another bird is adopted. The eggs are gene- rally roundish, or broadly ellij)tical, but sometimes oval, always OWLS. 395 white, and vary from two to five. The young, which are at first covered with greyish, brownish, or whitish down, remain long in the nest, and after going abroad are aided for some days by their parents. When fledged, they generally differ very little in colour from the old birds ; the older the individual is, the more simple is its colouring, the dark markings gradually diminishing in extent, and the tints becoming lighter. The moult, which is very gradual, commences in summer, and is completed by the end of autumn. The plumage, owing to its delicate texture and great elasticity, suffers little from friction, and its colours are generally little acted on by the wea- ther. The males are always smaller than the females ; but the sexes seldom differ in colour. Some species are in a great measure diurnal, and in aspect as well as manners approach the Falconine birds. They have the plumage somewhat more compact, and the aperture of the ear smaller. The form of their cranium also is very similar to that of the diurnal Raptores. The larger the conch of the ear, and the more downy the plumage, the more strictly nocturnal are the habits. Hence, in arranging the Owls into genera, it is of importance to attend particularly to the organ of hearing. Various arrangements, exhibiting various degrees of inge- nuity, have been proposed. All that I have seen are very de- fective ; and I have not yet acquired sufficient knowledge of the subject to frame a satisfactory classification, having dissected only about fifteen species, and examined the skins of about double that number. I shall therefore discard criticism on the present occasion, relinquish the hope of excelling my predecessors, and confine my efforts to the construction of such an arrangement of the British Owls as may enable the student readily to distinguish their species and genera. Let us in the first place attend to the ear. In birds generally, and in the Peregrine Falcon in particu- lar, taking it merely as a convenient example, the external ear, Fig. 237, a, is of a roundish form, and of moderate size. It pre- sents a circular thickened margin of skin, a little raised above the surrounding parts, and having its outer edge beset with slen- der feathers, of which the anterior are recurved, much longer 396 STRIGINJi:. than the rest, and capable of covering the aperture. Within this rim is an irregular cavity, having at its lower part a trans- verse oblong aperture, the commencement of the passage that leads to the membrane of the tympanum, on which the im- pulses of the air impinge. In man and the mammalia this passage, the meatus auditorius externus, is of considerable length, but in birds extremely short, sometimes not more than a twelfth of an inch. Fig. 2,17. Now, in some Owls, for example the Snowy Owl and the Hawk Owl, Strix nyctea of Linnccus, and Strix funerea of Gmclin, the external ear differs from that of Hawks only in being proportionally much larger. In these birds, it is of an elliptical form, Fig. 237, b, and its greatest diameter is not more than from a third to a half of the height of the skull. In the Eagle Owl, Strix Bubo of Linnanis, the external ear is about half the height of the skull, being an inch or a little more in length, and nearly of the same form as in the Snowy Owl. In both cases, it has the margins little elevated, and beset with slen- der feathers. In several Asiatic species which I have examin- ed, otherwise allied to the Eagle Owl, I have found the aper- ture of the ear proj)ortionally much smaller. In our common Tawny Owl, Strix Aluco, it is of medium size, for that of an owl, although in fact very large, Fig. 237, c, being more than half the height of the skull, and has moreover an elevated anterior semicircular flap or lid. Such an ear, having its margins elevat- ed in whole or in part, bears some resemblance to the liuman ex- ternal ear, which having ])y anatomists been likened to a shell, OWLS. 3!)7 is named the concli. In the large-eared Owls then, the external ear also is called a conch. In our " Long-eared" Owl, Strix Otus, 80 called on account of its ear-like tufts of feathers, the conch is higher than the skull, Fig. 237, d, for it extends in a semicircular direction from the base of the lower mandible to above the middle of the eye, and has anteriorly in its whole length an elevated opercular margin. Lastly, in the Barn Owl, Strix flamraea, the conch is as long as in the last-mentioned species, but is thinly covered with feathers, and has not distinctly ele- vated margins, but is furnished with an anterior operculum, not extending along more than half its length, Fig. 237, e. Were generic characters to be derived solely from the conch, we should have only four genera of Owls : those with a mo- derately large simple aperture, h ; the head tuftless or tufted, the tarsi feathered or bare, very short or rather long, the tail very short, short, or longish ; those with a large aperture, havino- an anterior operculum in part of its length, c ; those with an excessively developed conch, of which the margins are elevat- ed in their whole length, d ; and lastly, those having an equally elongated conch, without elevated margins, but with an oper-. culum, e. These genera, being thus \vell characterized, might perhaps suffice ; but as in other groups we take our characters from the bill, Avings, and feet, it may with justice be said that we ought to treat the Owls in the same manner. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. SYRNIA. DAY-OWL. Bill very short, strong, with the ui)per outline decurved from the base ; nostrils ovate or elliptical, rather laro-e ob- lique ; conch elliptical, simple, or without operculum, its greatest diameter not more than half the height of the skull • facial disks incomplete above the eyes ; ruff incomplete and inconspicuous ; head very large, roundish ; tarsi very short, feathered ; wings very large, the third quill lono-est 398 STRIGIN.E. the first with the outer filaments thickened but scarcely recurv- ed at the end. 1. S//r?iia funerea. HaicJc Dan-Oicl. Tail long, much rounded ; upper parts brownish-black, spotted with white, lower parts barred with brown and white. 2. Siirnia nyctea. Snow// Dcnj-Oid. White, with dark brown spots on the upper parts, and bars beneath ; toes covered with loose-edged shaggy feathers. Young with the dark mark- ings larger, 3. Si/rnia psilodactijla. Bare-toed DaihOid. Upper parts "wood-brown, spotted with white, lower yellowish- white with longitudinal brown spots ; toes covered with bristles, between which the scales are apparent. GENUS II. SCOPS. OWLET. Bill short, strong, with the upper outline decurved from the base ; nostrils roundish, large ; conch elliptical, simple, having only a slightly elevated fringed margin, its length about a third of the height of the head ; facial disks incomplete above the eyes ; ruff inconspicuous and incomplete ; head very large, roundish, with two elongated tufts ; tarsi of moderate length, slender, covered with short feathers or half-bare ; wings long, rounded, with the third quill longest. 1. Scops Aldrorandi. Aldrorayidine Oirlet. Tufts of about twelve feathers ; upper parts variegated with grey and brown, and streaked with brownish-black ; lower pale grey. GENUS III. BUBO. EAGLE-OWL. Bill shoi-t, deep, convex, with the upper outline decurved from the base ; nostrils roundish or broadly elliptical ; conch elliptical, simple, fringed, without operculum, its length from a third to half the height of the skull ; facial disks incomplete above the eyes ; ruff inconspicuous and incomplete ; head very large, roundish, with two elongated tufts ; tarsi very short, strong, densely feathered, as are the toes ; wings with the first quill short, the fourth longest. OAVLS. 399 1. Buhomaximtts. Great Eagle-Oid. Tufts of about eighteen feathers, projecting more than two inches ; upper parts varie- gated with dark brown and light reddish-yellow ; lower parts of the latter colour, with longitudinal blackish-brown spots and streaks, and numerous transverse undulating lines. GENUS IV. ULULA. HOOTING-OWL. Bill short, strong, with its upper outline decurved from the base ; nostrils large, elliptical or roundish ; conch more than half the height of the head, extending from the level of the upper part of the eye to the base of the lower jaw, fringed, and having anteriorly an elevated semicircular, stiff, operculum, beset with slender feathers ; facial disks very large and com- plete ; ruif conspicuous and complete ; head extremely large, and round ; tarsi very short, and with the toes densely feather- ed ; wings much rounded, with the fourth quill longest, the first about the length of the tenth. 1. Ulula Aluco. Tmcny Hooting-Oid. Greyish-brown, mottled and longitudinally streaked with dark brown. Young birds brownish-red, similarly marked. In all, large white spots on the wings. 2. Ulula Tengmalmi. TengmalnCs Hooting-Owl. Upper parts liver-brown spotted with white, lower yellowish-white with longitudinal brown markings ; tarsi and toes with long soft downy feathers, which distinguish it from Syrnia psilodactyla. GENUS V. ASIO. TUFTED OWL. Bill short, of moderate strength, with its upper outline slightly decurved from the base ; nostrils large, oblong, ob- lique ; conch of extreme size, extending from over the middle of the eye to the base of the lower mandible, of a semilunar sub- elliptical form, having anteriorly in its whole length an oper- culum stiffened with long narrow feathers, and posteriorly a broad membranous fringed membrane ; facial disks very large and complete ; ruff conspicuous and complete ; head very large, subtrigonal, with two small tufts ; tarsi short and with the toes 400 STRIGIN.l^. densely feathered ; Avings with the first quill about the length of the fourth, the second longest. 1. Asio Otiis. Mottled Tufted-Oicl. Tufts of about twelve feathers, projecting about an inch ; upper parts light reddish- yellow, spotted and undulated with brown and greyish-white ; lower parts buft-colourcd, less spotted ; the eye half- encircled with dark brown. 2. Asio Brachiiotus. Streaked Tufted Owl. Tufts of three feathers, projecting about half an inch ; upper parts light reddish-yellow, broadly streaked and barred with brown; lower parts with narrow brown streaks ; the eye surrounded with brownish black ; many of the scapulars and wing-coverts with a large white spot at the end ; the light bands on the middle tail-feathers with a brown central patch. GENUS YI. STRIX. SCREECH-OWL. Bill rather short, compressed, with the upper outline straight to the end of the cere, then decurved ; nostrils subovate ; conch of extreme length, semicircular, extending from over the ante- rior angle of the eye to the middle of the lower jaw, beset wuth filaments, margined with slender feathers, and having a short truncate operculum stifi'ened with small feathers ; aperture of meatus square ; facial disks very large and complete ; ruft' con- spicuous and complete ; head extremely large, somewhat tri- angular ; but the skull not larger than in the last genus, and more elongated ; tarsi rather long, covered with short soft featliers ; toes scaly and bristled ; claw of the third toe with its thin edge serrate. 1. Htrix flammea. European Screech-Owl. Operculum with the feathers complete (they being in the American species re- duced to the tidje) ; upper parts light reddish-yellow, varie- gated with ash-grey, and dotted with black and white ; lower parts white, with small dusky spots. 401 SYRNIA. DAY-OWL. CoMMExciNG the scries of Owls with those which in their structure and habits seem to approach nearest to the Falcons and Hawks, we find the Snowy Owl, in the comparative small- ness of its auricular conch, general form, and diurnal habits, the first in order of our British species. The Hawk-Owl, and several other species, agree with it in presenting the following generic characters. liill short, strong, compressed toward the end : upper man- dible with the cere short, the dorsal outline decurved from the base, the ridge broad and convex, the sides convex toward the end, the tip trigonal, acute, decurved so as to be nearly perpen- dicular ; lower mandible straight, with the crura short, the angle wide and rounded, the dorsal line short and convex, the edges toward the end sharp, inflected, and decurved, with a shallow sinus on each side close to the rounded tip. Mouth very wide ; palate flat, sloping a little upwards at the sides, with two longitudinal ridges, and entirely covered with minute papilla) ; a prominent ridge toward the mandible. Pos- terior aperture of the nares broadly elliptical, with an anterior slit. Tongue short, deeply sagittate and papillate at the base, nearly flat above with a median groove, its sides nearly parallel, the tip narrowed, rounded, and slightly emarginate. Oesophagus wide, without dilatation. Stomach large, roundish ; its mus- cular coat very thin, being composed of a single scries of fasci- culi ; the epithelium thick, moderately tough, and rugous. Pylorus very small, with two prominences; intestine of mode- rate length, rather wide ; cccca large, oblong, narrowed at the base ; cloacal dilatation globular and very large. Nostrils ovate, oblique, in the fore part of the cere, which is generally tumid behind them. Eyes very large ; eyelids with broad thin crenate margins, but without distinct cilise. Conch VOT.. III. D D 402 SYRNIA. DAY-OWL. of the ear simple, elliptical, very large, although comparatively small, being less than half the height of the head, its slightly elevated margin fringed with linear feathers. Head very large, broad, rounded, anteriorly narrowed ; neck short ; body of moderate size, much narrowed behind. Legs rather short, stout ; tibia of moderate length ; tarsus short, feathered ; toes short, covered with feathers of which the fila- ments are hair-like, but in some species wanting, the shafts alone remaining ; all Mith two scutclla at the end, padded and with flattened papilhv beneath ; the first very short, with much lateral motion ; the fourth longer, and reversible ; the third longest, but not much exceeding the second. Claws long, well curved, tapering, very acute, compressed, rounded above, slightly convex on the sides, narrow beneath ; the third with a dilated inner edge. Plumage very full and soft, somewhat compact above, blended beneath. Facial disks incomplete above the eyes, their fea- thers with loose filaments ; the anterior longer, more bristly, and partially concealing the bill. Ruff incomplete and incon- spicuous. Feathers in general oblong, rounded ; those of the abdomen downy, of the legs wuth soft disunited filaments. Wings large, broad, rounded ; primary quills broad and rounded ; the first four sinuate on both webs, more deeply on the inner ; secondary quills fifteen, broad and rounded. Tail broad, rounded, of twelve slightly arched, rounded feathers. The largest species of this genus, Syrnia nyctca, has the appearance of a very robust bird, although, as usual in this family, the greater part of its bulk is made up of feathers. The Ilawk-Owl, Strix funerea of Linn.Tus, is of a more elong- ated form, but belongs to the same genus. The Little or Pas- serine Owl, Strix passorina of some, and S. nudipes of others, seems to me to a])j)roximate so nearly in the form and size of the ear, and in other respects, although its tarsi are longer, and its toes less feathered, that 1 think there is little reason for instituting a new genus for its reception. Strix cuniculnria, which has nuich longer tarsi, forms the ultimate gradation ; and yet it does not difler more from Strix funerea, than the Sparrow Hawk from the (ioshawk. Those who unite tho SYRNIA. DAY-OWL. 403 Rougli-legp;c(l and tho Bare-lcggcd liuzzards into one genus, cannot consistently separate Strix cunicularia from Strix nyctea, on the ground of some dift'erence in the feathering of tho tarsi and toes. The birds of this genus inhabit open districts in preference to such as are densely wooded. They are for the most part con- fined to the arctic regions during the warmer season, and at tho approach of winter advance a little southward. Being adapted for a residence in regions where for a great part of the year there is no night, they are enabled to discover and pursue their prey during the day ; in which respect they differ from most other Owls. Their food consists of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and in- sects. They nestle in rocks, on trees, or on the ground. Of the two species which have been met with in Britain, neither is permanently resident. Another has been procured at some distance from the coast. The accompanying figure shews the conch of the Snowy Owl, of the natural size. The shafts only of its marginal feathers have been represented. 404 SYRNIA FUNEREA. THE HAWK DAY-OWL. HAWK-OWL. HUDSON'S BAY OWL. Strix canadensis. Briss. Ornith. I. 518. Strix funerea. Gniel. Syst. Nat. I. 204. Strix hudsonia, Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 295. Chouette Caparacoch. Strii funerea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 8(j. Tail rather long and much rounded; toes covered with shangy feathers. Upper parts hrownish-hlacic, spotted and barred tcith white; lower parts white, narroidg barred tcith dusky. Tins Owl, which in form makes a considerable approxima- tion to a Falcon, having been met with only once, and that not in any part of Britain, but on the coast, has truly very little claim upon our recognition. That individual not being accessible to me, I shall take my description from North American specimens. Male. — The head is very large, roundish, and convex above, the skull having very much the resemblance of that of a Falcon or Hawk, but with the su})crciliary bones subulate and anchy- losed ; the neck very short ; the body of moderate size. The bill is short and strong, with the upper mandible having the dorsal line declinate and dccurvate, the sides convex, the edges nearly straight, the tip decurvate, trigonal, and acute ; the lower mandible with the angle very wide, the dorsal outline convex, the ridge broad, the edges a little inflected toward the end, the tip obtuse. Nostrils roundish ; eyes very largo ; aper- ture of car broadly elliptical, five twelfths of an inch in length, and sim])le. Legs very short, robust ; tarsus very short, and, with the toes, feathered ; claws long, compressed, well curved, finely pointed, the third with a dilated thin edge. IMiunage full, very soft, and blended. Cere covered with slender stiffish reversed feathers ; facial disks incomplete above. HAWK DAY-On^L. 405 Win<;s rather long, rouiulcd ; the first (j[uill intermediate be- tween the fifth and sixth, the third longest, the fourth scarcely two twelfths shorter ; the outer four having the outer web at- tenuated ; the first in the greater part of its length, and the second toward the end, with the filaments thickened, and a little separated. Tail rather long, much rounded, the lateral being two inches shorter than the middle feathers. The bill is pale yellow or yellowish-white, the claws dusky, the iris pure yellow. The facial disk greyish-white, anteriorly mixed with black filaments. The upper part of the head and the hind-neck are brownish-black, the former with numerous round- ish white spots, of which there are three on each feather, the lat- ter with two broad longitudinal bands of white spots ; the facial disk margined behind with blackish-brown. The upper parts are chocolate-brown, with white spots, which are larger on the scapulars, and disposed in bars on the rump and upper tail- coverts. Both webs of the quills, excepting the outer of the first and second, and the inner of the last five, marked with transverse elliptical white spots. Tail with about eight bands of narrow oblong white spots ; the quills and tail-feathers tipped with white. Throat greyish-white, fore part of neck with a semicircular band of white, and another of brownish-black ; the lower parts white, barred with dusky, the bars on the ab- domen and feet fainter, and on the lower tail-coverts greyish- brown. Length to end of tail 15 inches, to end of wings 12 ; wing from flexure 9^ ; tail 7k '•> bill along the ridge Ij^^ ; tarsus 1 ; first toe ^%, its claw i§ ; second toe j^^, its claw {^ ; third toe J 2, its claw {§ ; fourth toe ^%, its claw {'^. Female, — The female, which is considerably larger, resem- bles the male, but has the ground colour of the upper parts of a lighter tint, and the white markings smaller. Length to end of tail 17 inches ; bill along the ridge 1/g ; wing from flexure 10 ; tail 8 ; tarsus l^'j ; first toe j^^, its claw j^ ; third toe {i, its claw \^. H.\BiTs. — This bird inhabits the northern parts of both con- 406 SYRNIA FUNEREA. tinents, advancing little southward in winter. Dr Richard- son says, " it is a common species throughout the fur countries from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific, and is more frequently killed than any other by the hunters, — which may be partly attri- buted to its boldness and its habit of flying about by day. In the summer season it feeds principally on mice and insects ; but in the snow-clad regions which it frequents in the winter, neither of these are to be procured, and it then preys mostly on Ptarmijran. It is a constant attendant on the flocks of Ptarmigan in their spring migrations to the northward. It builds its nest on a tree, of sticks, grass, and feathers, and lays two white eggs. When the hunters are shooting grouse, this bird is occasionally attracted by the report of the gun, and is often bold enough, on a bird being killed, to pounce down upon it, though it may be unable from its size to carry it off." M. Temminck states that it sometimes appears as a bird of passage in Germany, and more rarely in France, but never in the southern provinces. Whether the solitary individual met with ofl' the southern coast of England, came from America or the European continent, or was a tame bird that had escaped, can only be conjectured. It was captured, in !March 1830, in an exhausted state, on board a collier ; and an account of this occurrence was presented to the Zoological Society, in 1835, by Mr Thompson of Belfast. Kemakks. — My account of the digestive organs of a male of this species, with figures, will be seen in the fourth volume of Mr Audubon's Ornithological Biograjdiy. They difler in no essential respect from those of the other owls ; the a>sopliagus four inches and three-fourths in length, and from ten to eleven twelfths in width ; the stomach an inch and five twelfths long, an inch and a twelfth and a half in breadth, its epithelium very soft and rugous ; the intestine eighteen inches long, from four twelfths to a twelfth and a half in width ; the rectum two inches long ; the c(rca two inches and a cpiarter in length ; and the <:lobular cloaca ten twelfths in diameter. 407 SYRNIA NYCTEA. THE SNOWY DAY-OWL. SNOWY OWL. HARFANG. '.:c.^\ Strix nyctea. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 132. Strix nyctea. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 57. Snowy Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. Chouette Harfang. Strix nyctea. Temra. Man. d'Orn. \. 82. Snowy Owl. Syrnia Nyctea. Selb. lUustr. L 0.). Noctua nyctea. Snowy Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 9.3. Tail rather long, moderately rounded; plumage w/iite, the head and back spotted, the wings, tail, and loicer parts barred with dusk// brown. Young with larger markings. Male. — Exccptintr the Eagle-Owl, this is the largest spe- cies met with in liritaiii, where however it is of very rare oc- currence, and has not been found breeding. It is more robu.st than any other species of its genus, with a very large round 408 SYRNIA NYCTEA. head, six inches in breadth including the feathers, short neck, and strong feet. The bill is stout, with the outline of the up- per mandible curved from the base, its ridge broad, but toward the end narrowed, the sides very convex beyond the cere, the tip acute and decurved ; the lower mandible with the angle wide, the dorsal line convex, the sides rounded, the edges in- flected, with a shallow notch on each side, close to the rounded tip. The mouth is two inches in width ; the palate and tongue as described in the generic character ; the latter nearly an inch in length ; the oesophagus nine inches long, and an inch and a quarter in width. The stomach large, roundish, two inches in diameter, with a very thin muscular coat, and a thick, rugous epithelium ; the intestine forty-two inches long, from five to three twelfths in width ; the coeca fiv'e inches long, half an inch wide toward the end ; the cloacal dilatation of the rectum globular, and two inches in diameter. The digestive organs of another male have been minutely described and figured in the First Volume, p. 61, PI. V. The nostrils are ovate, four and a half twelfths long; the aperture of the eye eleven twelfths. The external ear is as al- ready described, an inch in length, and about half as broad. The tarsus short ; the toes with two distinct scutclla at the end; the claws long, well curved, slender, tapering to a fine point ; the first and fourtli rounded beneath, the second flattened, the third convex, but with an inner sharp edge. On the face the feathers are long and slender, with disunited filaments, and the bill is nearly concealed by them. The facial disks are incomplete, not extending above the eye, the feathers there being short ; and the rutf occupies only a small space on each side. On the upper parts, the feathers are broad, rounded, and somewhat compact ; on the lower ovato-oblong and softer. The wings are long, broad, rounded ; the primary quills broad and rounded ; the outer four deeply sinuate on the inner web, and slightly narrowed on the outer ; the first shorter than the fifth, an inch and a hah' shorter than the second, and liaving the tips of its outer filaments free and recurved ; the third longest, be- ing a (juarter of an inch longer tlian the second, and two- SNOAV'V DAV-OWL. 409 twelfths lonircr than the fourth ; the secondary quills broad and rounded. The tail is rather long, moderately rounded, and exceeds the closed wings about an inch and a half. The bill and claws are black ; the inside of the mouth deep flesh-colour, the tongue paler, the iris pure yellow, the thin edges of the eyelids blackish-brown. The general colour of the plumage is pure white ; the upper part of the head, and the back spotted with dark brown, the scapulars and wing- coverts having two transverse spots toward the end ; the quills and tail-feathers are banded, and the breast and sides narrowly barred, with the same. To speak more particularly : — The forehead, fore-neck, part of the breast, lower wing-coverts, ab- domen, and lower tail-covcrts are white. The rest of the lower parts are transversely barred with blackish-brown, the bars varying in breadth from one to two twelfths, and placed at in- tervals of about half an inch. The feathers on the upper part of the head are tipped with brown, on part of the hind-neck without markings ; the rest of the upper parts banded ; the quills banded on both webs, as are the tail-feathers, except the outer, the rest having toward the end a number varying from one to four. Length to end of tail 23 inches, to end of wings 21 h ; extent of wings 56 ; wing from flexure I7i ; tail 9^ ; bill along the ridge 1/,, along the edge of lower mandible 2; tarsus 2j-^ ; first toe i^g, its claw 1^^ ; second toe l^^^, its claw lj% ; third toe l-Jg, its claw lj% ; fourth toe ^v, its claw Ij^^. Fkmale. — The female greatly exceeds the male, but in co- lour difters onlv in having the dark markings larsrer. Length to end of tail 20 inches, to end of wings 24 ; extent of wings 65; wing from flexure 18; tail 9| ; bill along the ridge 2 ; tarsus 2 ' ; first toe j^, its claw 1 ^^g ; second toe l^^g, its claw Ij'g ; third toe lj%, its claw l^'^ ; fourth toe i%, its claw 1/2- Vakiations. — Some individuals are almost entirely white, the spots on the head and back being very small, and those on the wings and tail almost obliterated. Others have the mark- 410 SYRNIA NYCTEA. ings large, and the bars on the lower parts distinct. But I am not aware of any other diti'erences in adults, excepting the tint of the niarkiuLTs, which varies from light to dark brown. The bands on the middle tail-feathers are sometimes continuous or direct across both webs, and sometimes alternate. HAniTs. — It appears that the only part of Britain which can lay claim to this species as a permanent inhabitant, is Shet- land, where, however, it is not numerous, although several specimens have been obtained. It has also been more than once procured in Orkney. In the spring of 1833, after a severe gale from the north, an individual was wounded and caught on the Culbin Sands, near the mouth of the river Findhorn, my authority for which fact is the liev. Mr Gordon of Birnie, Mr Selby states that in the latter part of January 1833, during a severe snow-storm, two individuals, a male and a female, were killed near Rothbury in Northumberland. Mr Denny states that on the 13th of February 1836, a male was shot three miles below Selby-on-the-Moor, in Yorkshire. It is re- markable that no instances arc recorded of its having been met with on our western coasts, although specimens have been ob- tained in various parts of Ireland. As a British species, the Snowy Owl was first described in 1812, by Mr Bullock, mIio met with it in the course of a tour through Orkney and Shetland. Jiut, as will presently be seen, it had previously been found by Dr Laurence Edmondston, of Shetland, who in 1822 publi.shed a detailed account of its habits in the Transactions of the Wernerian Society of Edin- burgh. That gentleman being the only person who has re- corded observations made upon it in this country, an extract from his paper cannot fail to be interesting. " Its form and maniicr are highly elegant ; its flight less buoyant, and more rapid, than that of the other owls ; and the su])crior boldness and activity of its disposition, the unconnnon size of its talons, and vigour of its limbs, secure it against dan- ger from feathered enemies. It affects solitary, stony, and ele- vated di.stricts, which, by the .similarity to it in colour of the rocks, render it diflicult to be di.scovered, and by the inccpiali- SNOWY DAY-OWL. 411 ties of their surface afford it shelter from the rays of the sun ; but on the approach of twilight, it may be seen perching on the exposed eminences. It then quits its haunts, and frefiuents tho cultivated fields, prowling over the low grounds in quest of mice and small birds. When first observed to leave its retreat, it is frequently assailed by crows and other birds ; but it re- ceives their attacks rather as an amusement than an annoy- ance, and dashes through the air despising their hostility. It preys chiefly on sandpipers, on which it pounces with pre- cision and agility as it skims along the marshes. The speci- men oriven to Mr Bullock's museum had an entire one in its stomach when I shot it ; and a mouse perfectly whole was taken from that of the present specimen. I may here remark, that the stomach appears to be peculiarly small, and less mem- branous than what occurs in other carnivorous birds, and the food seems to be swallow^ed entire ; indeed, its bill being fea- thered to its point, renders this almost necessary." ^Vith regard to the stomach I must here oft'er a few remarks. I have carefully examined the digestive organs of several indi- viduals, and have described and figured those of one in my First Volume, p. 62, PI. V. In it the stomach was not small, nor more muscular than that of the Eagle-Owl ; but its inner coat or epithelium was thick and very rugous ; which I think often happens in birds kept in confinement, as was the case with this. Another individual was preserved in spirits. j\Iy de- scription of its digestive organs, in the fifth volume of ]\Ir Au- dubon's Ornithological Biography, contains the following pas- sage relative to the part in question. " The stomach is large, roundish, two inches two-twelfths in length, two inches one- twelfth in breadth, its muscular coat very thin, being com- posed of a single series of fasciculi ; the inner coat thick, moderately tough, and rugous." Again, the feathers about the bill do not render it necessary that its prey should be swallowed entire ; and observations made in America on wild birds, and at Dr Neiirs on a captive, shew that the Snowy Owl can tear its prey into morsels as readily as an Eagle or a Ilawk. These circumstances I mention because ornithology re([uires to bo purified of erroneous facts and inferences. 412 SYRNIA NYCTEA. I have recently been favoured by Dr Edmondston with the following notice respecting this beautiful bird : — '' The first time I saw it was in 1808. An individual had been shot by a lad who hung it uj) as a scarecrow. At that period I knew nothing of book ornithology, or of animals, farther than might be expected of a boy passionately devoted to the observation of their habits and distinctions. The next oppor- tunity of seeing one was in the spring of 1812, and when I had enjoyed the privilege of a little acquaintance with the Hicrh Priest of Natural Ilistorv, Linnaeus. A fewdavs after I succeeded in shooting the individual, the skin of which I pre- sented, about a month or two afterwards, to my friend Mr Bullock, who was then on a visit here collecting materials for his beautiful museum in London. He had seen the bird in Orkney in July 1812, but this was the first specimen he had obtained, and it was the first recorded instance of one being killed in Britain. It continued to be exhibited in his collec- tion till its dispersion. i\.t the same time I communicated to him the facts and observations I had collected regarding the species, and which I afterwards published in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh ; and in this manner were the claims of the Kat-yogl to British citizenship first ad- vanced. " I have always doubted whether it bred here. Presump- tions were in favour of the affirmative, but actual proof was wanting. I have been latelv informed that its nest was found two years ago, in August, in a low rocky ledge not far from here. The young, three in number, fully fledged, were of a brown colour, sprinkled with grey. If it migrate at all, it is in winter, though even during that season I have met with it. I have seen it many times and in different localities, but I never saw one in that state of jilumage which I am led to think is that of the young. The predominant colour of all was white, a little more or less dotted with brown, hardly ever more so, I think, than the specimen given to the Ivlinburgh Museum alluded to by you in your ' Rapacious jiirds.' The females are much larger than the males, and less white in the plumage. " it is not a common or easily discovered bird ; but 1 do not SNOWY DAY-OWL. 413 recollect a year or season, when attentively looking out for it, and tamiliar as I am with its habits and favourite haunts, in which 1 have failed to discover it. It is by no means shy, and there is little difficulty in approaching it within near shot, until it has been fired it, or otherwise alarmed. It is easily ren- dered familiar, if I may judge by observations made on indi- viduals wounded and kept confined ; and its disposition appears gentle and intelligent. I should bo apt to call it an amiable owl. It is viewed as a bird of evil augury, and to this super- stitious fear which it inspires it has no doubt often been in- debted for its protection. " Whatever ornithologists may assert of its habits in America, it does not prey by day in Shetland, nor, so far as I know, in other parts of Europe where it is found. Perhaps the freer republican institutions of the New World affiard more scope for its enlightened rapacious propensities than do the disciplined habits, dull despotism, and dense population of the Old, and thus transform the bird of Minerva into that of Jove, staring even Phoebus out of countenance." The Snowy Owl occurs in the northern parts of the conti- nent of Europe, whence it migrates southward at the approach of winter. It is equally an inhabitant of North America, where it appears to be more abundant ; and as its habits have been observed there by Mr Audubon and Dr Richardson, it may be proper to present an extract from the writings of each of these celebrated naturalists. The former writes thus : — " The Snowy Owl hunts during the day, as well as in the dusk. Its flight is firm and protracted, although smooth and noiseless. It passes swiftly over its hunting ground, seizes its prey by instantaneously falling on it, and generally devours it on the spot. AVlien the objects of its pursuit are on wing, such as ducks, grouse, or pigeons, it gains upon them by urging its speed, and strikes them somewhat in the manner of the Pere- grine Falcon. It is fond of the neighbourhood of rivers and small streams, having in their course cataracts or shallow rapids, on the borders of which it seizes on fishes, in the manner of our wild cat. It also watches the traps set for musk-rats, and devours the animals caught in them. Its usual food while it 414 SYRNIA NYCTEA. remains with us, consists of hares, squirrels, rats, and fishes, portions of all of which I have found in its stomach. In several fine specimens which I examined immediately after being killed, I found the stomach to be extremely thin, soft, and ca- pable of great extension. In one of them I found the whole of a large house-rat, in pieces of considerable size, the head and the tail almost entire." Dr Richardson also informs us that it hunts by day, and remarks that unless it could do so, it would be unfit to pass the summer within the arctic circle, where at that season there is no night. " When seen on the barren grounds, it was generally squatting on the earth, and. if put up, it alighted again after a short flight, but was always so wary as to be ap- proached with great difficulty. In the woody districts it shews less caution ; and, according to Hearne, has been known to watch the grouse-shooters a whole day, for the purpose of sharing in the spoil. On such occasions it perches on a high tree, and, when a bird is shot, skims down and carries it off before the sportsman can get near it. It preys on lemmings, hares, and birds, particularly the willow-grouse and ptarmi- gan. I have seen it pursue the American hare on the wing, making repeated strokes at the animal with its foot ; but on that occasion, through the intervention of an Indian, it was driven from its (piariy." In a state of captivity this bird is found to be gentle, and at first very timid. One which Dr Neill kept for some months, and which was procured in Sanda, one of the Orkney Islands, in April 1835, I had opportunities of observing. On a level surface, it .stood with the body nmch inclined, the head raised, the wings hanging loosely along the sides, one generally having the tip placed over that of the other. On a perch it secured itself by dircctin2[ the outer toe backwards, and inserting the tips of all the claws. It was easily alarmed, or irritated, and then raised its head, opened its mouth wide, hissed exactly in the manner of a cat, and at times clicked its mandibles. Occasionally when displeased, it uttered a sharp low cry, some- what resembling the .syllable quee (piickly repeated. I/lid not .SCO it until tlic winter, when its plumage was marked in the SNOWY DAY -OWL. 415 manner usually considered as indicative of youth ; but it had moulted in the previous autumn, and when procured had the markings still larger. It died in the beginning of A))ril, when its body having been sent to me by Dr Ncill, 1 had an oppor- tunity, for the first time, of examining the interior of a Snowy Owl. As already mentioned, its digestive organs have been described and figured in my First Volume. An individual kept by Mr INIacculloch of Pictou, was at first very timid, and ultimately very gentle. Of three young birds reared from the nest, as mentioned by Mr Thompson, two were wild, sometimes fasting for one or two days, though food was within reach, while the other, a female, was somewhat playful and quite familiar even with strangers. These birds were not affected by bright sunshine, and were capable of observing birds passing at a great height in the air. M. Temminck states that the Snowy Owl " nestles in steep rocks, or on the old pines of the frozen regions ; and lays two eggs," which, according to M. Vieillot, are marked with black spots, but, according to other naturalists, of a pure white. Dr Richardson says that in the northern regions of America it " makes its nest on the ground, and lays three or four white eggs, of which two only arc in general hatched." YoDNG.-^According to M. Temminck, the young are at first " covered with a brown down, and their first feathers are also of a light brown." Dr Edmondston, it has been seen above, was informed that three young birds " of a brown colour sprinkled with grey " had been seen in Shetland. Mr Audu- bon says " I have shot specimens which were, as I thought, so young as to be nearly of a uniform light brown tint, and which puzzled me for several years, as I had at first conceived them to be of a different species. This indeed led me to think that, when young, these birds are brown." Afterwards how- ever he declares that the young are " pure white." The truth appears to be that from personal observation no ornithologist can say whether they be pure white or pure scarlet. Mr Thompson however has thrown some light on the subject. In the Annals of Natural History, Vol. I, p. 21-2. he states that his 41 G SYRNIA NYCTEA. friend Mr Langtry received in October three Snowy Owls whieli had been taken in the previous month of August, from a nest on the coast of Labrador, at which time they were covered only with down. " On arrival, when they were in good condition, the birds under consideration were as follows : — One much smaller than the others, and presumed to be a male, was considerably whiter than the specimen shot in a wild state (which was white, with the upper parts spotted and barred, and the breast and sides finely and distantly undulated with brownish-black), but dis- played two markings which it does not possess ; the back of the head where it joins the body being blackish-brown, and another patch of this colour on the body just before the carpal joint of the wing. The supposed females, which are much larger than the last mentioned, differ exceedingly from it in markings. Thoy have the facial plumage, or that within the disk, the throat, body beneath the wings, under surface of the latter, and the legs and toes pure white. The plumage of the head from the disk posteriorly, back, upper side of wings, and whole under plumage between the folded wings, presents as much of a blackish-brown colour as of white, the former being disposed in the same manner as described in the specimen above alluded to ; but the bars and other dark markings are so broad as to occupy equal space with the white or ground colour." Progkkss toward Maturity. — According to Mr Audubon and Dr liichardson, the brown spots and bars on the plumage gradually contract as the bird advances in age. Those indi- viduals which are almost entirely white are therefore sup- posed to be very old ; and this change is in analogy with that undergone by the Jer Falcon. 417 SYRNIA PSILODACTYLA. THE BARE-TOED DAY-OVVL. LITTLE OWL. PASSERINE OWL. Chouette Chev^che. Strix passerina. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 92. III. 49. Little Owl. Noctua nudipes. Gould. Birds of Europe. Little Night-Owl. Strix passerina. Aud. Orn. Biogr. V, 269. Little Night-Owl. Noctua passerina. Selb. Illustr. 107. Noctua passerina. Little Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 94. Toes covered with shaft-hristles, between which the scales are apparent ; upper parts broicn, the head icith linear-oblong^ the neck, back, and icings icith roundish, the tail with four bands of transverse, tchite spots ; loicer parts yellowish-white, with lon- gitudinal broicn spots. Male. — This species, which has frequently been confound- ed with another of smaller size, and having the toes densely feathered, may be compared to the Jay in bulk, although greatly inferior in weight, and differently proportioned. It has more of the appearance of an Ulula or Hooting-Owl than of a Syrnia or Hawk-Owl. Its ear however corresponds with that of the latter genus, and if its tarsi are a little longer, and less feathered than in it, the difterence seems to be of little importance. It is at once distinguishable by having the toes covered with bristles only, from all our Owls, excepting the Screech-Owl, which otherwise has little resemblance to it, and the Scops Owlet, which has tufts on the head. The head is very large, the neck short, the wings of mode- rate length, the tail small, the tarsi short, and the toes stout. The upper mandible has its outline curved from the base, the sides convex toward the end, the edges direct, the tip decurv- ed and acute ; the lower mandible has the angle wide, the dorsal line convex, the edges toward the end inflected and de- VOL. III. E E 418 SYRMA rSIL()I)A{ TVI.A. curved, with a sinus on each side close to the abruptly round- ed tip. The cere is rather short, and bare above ; the nostrils roundish, each in the fore part of a remarkable bulge. The conch is of an elliptical form, five twelfths of an inch long, simple, and fringed. The tarsi are moderately stout, and co- vered with downy feathers ; but the toes with adpressed bris- tles, allowing the obscurely defined transverse series of scales to bo seen, each moreover having two terminal scutella. The claws are long, stout, tapering, very acute, and little curved ; the first and fourth smaller and rounded beneath, the second flattened but narrow, the third with a thin inner edge. The facial disk is incomplete, the feathers over the eye being of the ordinary kind, and even its lower part not entirely radi- ant, for its posterior portion has much of the usual texture of ear-coverts. The bristle-tipped plumelets at the base of the bill are long. The ruif is very inconspicuous and incomplete, the feathers being merely a little more curved than the rest. The plumage is very soft, on the lower parts downy, the fea- thers generally ovato-oblong. The wings are long and round- ed ; the outer four sinuate on the inner web, and narrowed on the outer, the first with the tips of the filaments slightly re- curved, the third longest, the fourth scarcely shorter, the se- cond a little longer than the fifth, the first shorter than the sixth. The tail is short, nearly even, somewhat arched, and rather narrow. The bill is greyish-yellow, somewhat dusky toward the base ; the claws yellowish-brown, with the tips dusky. The general colour of the u])per parts is umber-brown, tinged with grey. On the upper part of the head arc numerous linear-oblong white spots, there being one along the middle of each feather ; on the hind-neck the spots are large and roundish or irregular ; on the back and scapulars most of the feathers have two round- ish spots ; the wing coverts one. All the (juills have marginal whitish spots, those on the outer webs being triangular, on the inner transversely oblong. The tail is marked with four bands of narrow transverse spots. The anterior feathers of the disk are whitish, with dusky shafts, the lower whitish, barred and tipped with greyish-brown, the posterior brown ti]ipcd with IJARE-TOEI) DAY-OWL. 419 white. Tho throat is white, and a band of that colour curves upward on each side to the ear ; on the fore-neck is a brownish belt, and beneath it a white space ; the general colour of tho rest of the lower parts is yellowish-white, each feather with a broad longitudinal band of brown ; the abdominal and sub- caudal feathers unspotted ; the tarsal yellowish, with some faint brown spots externally. Lcnirth to end of tail 10 > inches, to end of winffs 10; wins from flexure G] ; tail 3; bill along the ridge |!j, along tho edge of lower mandible -^^ ; tarsus 1 \ ; first toe /g , its claw f\ ; second toe 1^3, its claw {-^ ; third toe -}^, its claw ^\ ; fourth toe ^v , its claw /I . Female. — The female resembles the male in colour, but is considerably larger. I have not however examined a sufficient number of specimens to be able to speak decidedly on this subject. Variations. — In the few individuals which I have seen, there was considerable difference in the feathering of the tarsus, that part being in one feathered to the toes, but in another hav- ing its lower third as bare as the latter organs, that is, covered only with shafts. Similar differences I have seen in the Bur- rowinj; Owl of North America, the tarsal feathers becominof by being worn reduced to the shafts. The tint of the upper parts varies from umber-brown to wood-brown, becoming lighter toward the period of renewal. Habits. — This Owl is of very rare occurrence in Britain, al- though instances are mentioned of its having been met with from Devonshire to Northumberland. It is said by M. Tem- minck to be found in almost all the countries of Europe, in places where there are old houses or deserted towers, and to be common in Holland and Germany, but not to extend north- ward beyond the 55th degree of latitude. Not having seen it alive, or met with a recent specimen, I cannot speak of its manners or internal structure. The former are described as similar to those of the smaller owls in general. It feeds 420 SYRMA PSILODACTYLA. on mice, small birds, and insects ; frequents old buildings, towers, and cliurcbes, where it also nestles, laying two eggs, on wbicli the male sits alternately with the female. Accord- ing to some, it is nocturnal, and may easily be captured, on discovering its retreat, by placing a bag-net over its hole. In captivity, it thrives pretty well, and it is often exposed for sale on the Continent. This species not having been clearly dis- tinguished by many authors from Strix Tengmalmi, it is not expedient to venture upon many remarks respecting it. I shall therefore conclude with an abridged extract from ]M. Valmont- Bomare. Its ordinary cry, which it repeats when flying, is poupou, poupou ; but when settled it emits a louder and sharper cry, so distinct that one might take it for a person calling out aime, heme, esme. M. BufFon says that one of his people was so deceived by the cry of one at night, that he went to the window, and called out, " Who is down there I INIy name is not Edmc but Peter." It is not entirely nocturnal, but flies during the day much better than any of the other owls, and often pursues swallows and other small birds, although seldom with success. It succeeds better with mice and young rats, M'hich it tears to pieces with its bill and claws. It also plucks birds very neatly before eating them, whereas most other owls swallow feathers and all. It lays five eggs, which are spotted with white and yellowi.sh. 121 SCOPS. OWLET. The genus Scops is composed of several small Owls, of which the more remarkable cliaracters indicate a station intermediate between the genera Syrnia and Bubo. They have the small and simple conch of both, but differ from the former in gene- rally having elongated tufts on the head, and from the latter in having the wings longer, the tarsi more slender, and the toes more or less bare. Bill short, stout, compressed tow^ard the end : upper mandi- ble with the dorsal line curved from the base, its sides slightly convex, the edges anteriorly sharp, the tip prolonged, acute, and decurved ; lower mandible with the angle wnde, the dorsal line convex, the edges decurved, with a slight notch on each side, close to the rounded tip. Nostrils roundish. Eyelids with broad thin crcnate margins, and without distinct ciliary fringes, although feathered. Conch elliptical, simple, about a third of the height of the head. Head very large, roundish ; neck short ; body slender. Legs rather short ; tarsi slender, feathered ; toes short, bare, reticu- late, at the end scutellate ; claws long, slightly curved, taper- ing, compressed, acute, narrow^ beneath, but thtit of the third toe with a thin inner edge. Plumage full and soft, on the upper parts somewhat com- pact. Facial disks incomplete above the eyes ; ruff incon- spicuous and incomplete. Feathers generally ovato-oblong ; those of the aljdomen downy, of the tibirc silky, of the tarsi short, and somewhat dense. Wings long, with the third quill lonsjrest. Tail rather short, slightly rounded, of twelve some- what arched feathers. Some of the species, as Strix portori- ccnsis, are destitute of tufts on the head. 422 SCOPS ALDROVANDI. THE ALDKOYANDINE OWLET. SCOPS E.VUED OWL. LITTLE HORNED OWL. Fig. 241. Strix Scops. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 129. Strix Scops. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 56. Little Horned Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Ilibou Scops. Strix Scops. Temm. Man. d'Orn. lO.S. Scops-eared Owl. Scops Aldrovandi. Selb. Illustr. L 92. Bubo Scops. Scops-eared Owl. Jen. Brit, Vert. An. 91. Head with tufts of about ticehe feathers ; plumaf/e Ii')1. Great Eared Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. llibou Grand-Due. Strix Bubo. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 100. Great-Horned or Eagle-Owl. Bubo maximus. Selb. lllustr. L H'2. Bubo maximus. EaKle-Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 90. Tufts of about eifjhteen feathers^ project iiif) more than two inches bei/ond the plumage of the head ; upper piirt.< rurienated with dark brown and Vuiht rrddi{ih->/el/ow ; lower parts of the latter colour^ with lofigitudinal blackish-brown sjtots and streaks, and GREAT EACiLK-On'L. 429 numerous transverse nndulatinn lines; facial dish f/rei/is/i-broicn, obscurehi barred ; throat with a patch of white ; hill and elates black toicard the end, greyish-blue at the base. Male. — The Great Eagle-Owl is the largest species of this family that occurs in Britain, where however it is very seldom met with, insomuch that I am obliged to have recourse to foreign specimens for description. An individual from Norway presents the following characters. The body is robust, although, as usual, the feathers form the greater part of its bulk; the neck short; the head very large, flat- tened above, narrowed anteriorly. The bill is short, very robust, considerably compressed; the cere rather large, and nearly bare, although concealed by the feathers in the neighbourhood. The upper mandible has the dorsal outline decurved from the base, the ridge broad on the cere, and convex in its whole length, as are the sides toward the end, the edges soft and straight as far as the middle, then sharp, arched, with a faint lobe, the tip very strong, decurved, and acute ; the lower mandible with the back and sides convex, the edges inflected toward the end, with a distinct notch on each side close to the rounded tip. The nostrils are large, broadly elliptical, oblique, divided by a soft projecting ridge, their greatest diameter four twelfths of an inch. The eyes extremely large, fixed, and obliquely placed. Conch more than half the height of the skull, elliptical, an inch in length. The tibia is rather short ; the tarsus short, robust, and with the toes feathered. The first toe very short, the se- cond considerably longer than the fourth, and in about the same degree exceeded by the third ; the two latter connected by a short web ; all with three terminal scutella, and their lower surface padded and papillate. The claws are very long, curved in the third of a circle, the first in a semicircle, taper- ing, convex above and on the sides, with a groove beneath, ex- cepting the third which is broader, with a dilated inner edge. The plumage is very full, soft, blended, and elastic. The facial disks extend round two thirds of the eye, leaving the up- per part covered with shorter feathers ; those at the base of the cere are linear, with strouc: shafts and l)ristlv filaments. 430 ULIK) .MAX I. MIS. The eyelids arc iVinsjcd with short feathers havin2: disunited filaments. The ruff extends from a little above the ear to the chin, and is formed of oblons:, slightly curved feathers. Over and above the eye, on each side is a double scries of elongated feathers, of which there are nine in each row, the longest pro- jecting upwards of two inches beyond the rest of the plumage. On the upper parts, the feathers are oblong and rounded ; on the throat downy, on the fore-neck ovato-oblong, on the upper part and sides of the thorax elongated, oblong, rather pointed, and covering those of the thorax and abdomen, which are downy. On the outer side of the tibia is a tuft of very soft elongated feathers ; and the tibi.'i?, tarsi, and toes are covered with soft blended feathers. The wings are long, of great breadth, and rounded ; the ([uills twenty-seven ; the primaries very broad, the first four cut out on the inner web near the end, the outer two only having an abrupt sinus ; the second, third, and fourth with the outer web slightly narrowed; the first with the barbs of the outer web free and recurved at their extremity in its whole length, the second and third toward the end. The first quill is an inch and a half shorter than the second, the third longest, exceeding the second by two twelfths, and the fourth by one twelfth. The tail is broad, arched, rounded, the lateral feathers being an inch shorter than the longest. The bill is greyish-blue at the base, bluish-black toward the end ; the cere dusky ; the soft edges of the mandibles flesh- coloured, as is the inside of the mouth.' The iris is bright orange ; the bare edges of the eyelids and the margin of the nictitant membrane dusky. The scutclla are pale greyish- blue, the claws of the same colour as the bill ; the soles pale flesh colour. The facial disks are pale yellowish-brown, faintly barred with dusky ; their anterior part greyish-white, with the shafts black at the end. The feathers of the lower eyelid are greyish- white, of the uj)pcr chiefly black. Those over the eye, and the long tufts, are brownish-black, internally edged or mottled with reddish. The general colour of the upi)er parts is reddish-yel- low, spotted, barred, and minutely dotted with dark brown. On the lower part of the hind-neck, most of the feathers have GREAT EAGLE-OWL. 131 only a median longitudinal blackish-brown band, 'i'he .small wing-coverts at tlio flexure, the alula, and the primary coverts, are almost entirely dusky. The quills are barred with brown- ish-black, and in the intervals yellowish-red, nearly pure on the inner webs, but on the outer closely and minutely undulat- ed with brown. The tail is similar, but with less yellow. The feathers on the u})per part of the throat are white ; a band of barred and mottled feathers then crosses the throat, being con- tinuous with the ruff; and on the middle of the neck is a white patch, with some dusky spots. The rest of the neck is reddish- yellow, each feather with an oblong brownish-black longitu- dinal band, and transverse lateral undulated bars. On the thorax and sides the feathers arc similar, the central dusky patch gradually becoming narrower, and on those farthest back ceasing ; while the narrow transverse bars become numerous in the same proportion. The large tibial feathers and lower tail-coverts are greyish yellow, mixed with red, and barred with dusky ; those of the tibia? more tinged with yellow, and more faintly barred. The downy or concealed part of the plumage is dark greyish-blue. Length to end of tail 24 inches ; extent of wings 58 ; wing from flexure 19 ; tail 11 ; bill along the ridge 2,j ; cere |i ; edge of lower mandible 2 ; tarsus ^^t^ ; hind toe l^r, its claw l-j"g ; second toe 1|°, its claw l^^ ; third toe 2/^, its claw l/g ; fourth toe 1 y^, its claw l/g. Female. — An adult female, which was presented to me by Mr Audubon, and which I killed for the purpose of examin- ing its digestive organs, was in all respects similar to the above- described male, but somewhat darker in its tints. The tongue fleshy, oblong, an inch and two twelfths in length, deeply sagittate and papillate at the base, having the posterior half of its surface covered with small papillae, its lower free part horny, the tip slightly cmarginate. The entire length of the alimentary canal five feet two inches. The pharynx two inches wide, the mouth an inch and three-quarters. The oesophagus, Plate XXI, Fig. 4, a be, nine inches and a half in length ; it.s outer coat very thin ; its width from two inches to an inch and a half, when mo- 432 BUBO MAX I Mrs. derately dilated. The proventrieulus, h c, of which the glan- dules are very numerous and cylindrical, gradually dilates into the stomach, c d ; which is roundish, somewhat compressed, three inches and a half in its greatest diameter ; its muscular coat thin, and composed of a single series of fasciculi ; the ten- dons roundish, very thin, ahout nine twelfths in diameter ; the epithelium soft, smooth, and even. The intestine, de/(y, is forty- nine inches long; its diameter in the duodenal part nine twelfths, then gradually contracting to four twelfths. The cocca. Fig. 5, cd, cd, narrow for half their length, then enlarged into an oblong sac ; one of them five inches long, the other four and a half. The rectum, b c, at first about eight twelfths in width, enlarges into a nearly globular cloaca, y', two inches in width. Length to end of tail 2G inches, to end of wings 24 ; extent of wings Gl ; wing from flexure 20 ; tail 10 (somewhat worn) ; bill along the ridge 2^^, along the edge of lower mandible 2 j'j ; tarsus 2f ; first toe 1^, its claw l^j ; middle toe 2^^, its claw 2i'2. Habits. — The Great Eagle-Owl is said by authors to inhabit the continent of Europe, from Sweden, Norway, and Lapland, southward to the shores of the Mediterranean. It has also been obtained from some parts of Asia ; but its range over that continent is unknown. AL Temminck states that it is very common in Russia, Germany, and Switzerland. Indivi- duals have been obtained in Devonshire, Sussex, Yorkshire, the county of Durham, and one or two other districts in Eng- land. In Scotland, I am unable to refer to any authentic ac- count of its capture. Mr Low, who is often quoted as an authority for its occurrence in Orkney, merely says he has been credibly informed that it " is still to be found, especially in the hilly parts, where it is often surprised sleeping." It can hardly bo supposed now to breed in any part of Britain, so that the individuals occasionally seen there are probably stragglers from the continent. All that appears to be known of its habits amounts to very little. It is not very unconnnon in the Scandinavian countries, where it resides in the forests, feeds on quadrupeds GREAT EAOLK-OW'L. 43:} and birds, especially hares and grouse, forms a bulky nest, which is generally placed on a rock or on the ground, and de- posits two or three broadly elliptical, white eggs. The Bishop of Norwich, in speaking of the attachment of Owls to their young, relates the following instance, witnessed by a Swedish gentleman, who resided several years near a steep mountain, on the summit of which two Eagle-Owls had built their nest. One day, in July, a young bird, nearly fledged, was caught by the servants, and shut up in a large hen-coop. On the following morning a young partridge was found lying dead near the door of the coop ; and night after night, for four- teen days, the same mark of attention was repeated. The gen- tleman and his servant watched several nights, in order that they might observe through a window, when and how this sup- ply was brought ; but in vain, although there could be no doubt that the parents of the bird were the caterers. The one which I kept alive for some time, generally perched on the highest place it could find, inserting the tips of the first and fourth claws behind, the rest before. On a flat surface however the outer toe was not directed backwards, but out- wards, and the claws extended. It generally rested the whole tarsus, and sometimes stood on one foot. When sleeping, it kept its feathers close, its neck erect, and the tufts on the head usually raised. It seemed incapable of walking, and in shift- ing its place leaped, assisted by its wings. When alarmed, or irritated, it raised its feathers, depressed its head, stared with expanded pupils, hissed at intervals like a cat, and snapped its bill. The eyes reflected no light in the dark or twilight. When irritated or looking intently on an object, it dilated the pupil, and when listless or dozing with half-closed eyes, contracted it. The iris exhibited the most delicate mobility, and was conti- nually expanding or contracting. It frequently drew the nicti- tant membrane over the eye, generally employing both mem- branes simultaneously, but at times only one. Sometimes also it moved the upper eyelid of one eye while the other remained drawn up. When it was asleep, the upper eyelid covered more than two-thirds of the eye. VOL. III. r F 434 BUBO MAX I. MLS. In perching it steadied itself with its wings, which it often, even when undistnrbed, extended and flapped for a minnte or more. On being roused from sleep it sometimes yawned, stretched out and flapped its wings, and extended its legs in succession. It trimmed its feathers with its bill, but never applied to the uropygial gland, and in scratching its head and cheeks, invariably used the inner dilated edge of the middle toe. When it observed an object which it thought it might capture, it stood erect on its toes, drew its feathers close, stretched out its neck, raised its tufts, and fixed its eyes so steadfastly on it, that its attention could not be diverted even by pushing it with a stick. One kept by Sir William Jardinc, he describes as being ex- tremely active at night, when he " sometimes keeps up an incessant bark, so similar to that of a cur or terrier, as to an- noy a large Labrador house-dog," who, in replying, nightly disturbed his neighbours. YouxG. — The young, which at first are covered, according to Linnaeus, with soft whitish down, are when fledged similar to their parents, but with the lighter tints more tinged with red. 435 ULULA. HOOTING-OVVL. The species of this genus closely resemble those which have been united under the generic designation of Syrnia, from which however they are distinguished by having the head larger, the neck thicker, the facial disks more expanded, the ruff complete so as to encircle the face, and the conch furnished with a prominent anterior operculum. Bill short, strong, compressed toward the end : upper man- dible with the cere large, and tumid behind the nostrils, the dorsal outline decurved from the base, the ridge broad, convex, anteriorly narrowed, the sides rapidly sloping, convex toward the end, the tip trigonal, acute, decurved so as to be nearly perpendicular ; lower mandible straight, with the crura short, the angle wide and rounded, the dorsal line convex, the edges toward the end sharp, inflected, anteriorly decurved, with a sinus on each side close to the abruptly rounded tip. Mouth very wide ; palate flat, sloping a little upwards at the sides with two longitudinal ridges, and a median tubercu- lated ridge toward the mandible. Posterior aperture of the nares oblong, with an anterior slit. Tongue short, narrow, deeply sagittate and papillate at the base, covered above with minute papillae, its sides nearly parallel, the tip rounded and emarginate. Oesophagus wide, without dilatation. Stomach very large, roundish ; its walls very thin, the muscular coat composed of a single series of fasciculi ; the inner surface soft and slightly rugous. Aperture of the pylorus extremely nar- row, with a semicircular flap. Intestine of moderate length, rather wide ; cocca large, oblong, narrowed at the base ; cloa- cal dilatation globular and very large. 436 ULULA. HOOTIXG-OWL. Nostrils roundish, near the ridge, iu the fore part of the cere, which is turaid behind them. Eyes very large, obliquely situated, slightly mobile ; eyelids with broad, thin, papillate margins, but without distinct cilia?. Conch of the ear some- what elliptical, extending from the level of the upper part of the eye to the base of the lower jaw, and having an anterior semicircular operculum, fringed with linear-oblong feathers ; the meatus auditorius oblique, elliptical, at the lower part of an elliptical deep cavity, which is about half the length of the conch. Head extremely large, broad, rounded, or somewhat trian- gular, with tlio sides flattened and sloping forwards ; neck short ; body short, slender, of greater depth than breadth an- teriorly, much compressed behind. Legs of moderate length, stout ; tibia rather long ; tarsus short, feathered ; toes short, covered with feathers of which the filaments are hair-like and separated ; all with two scutella at the end, padded and papil- late beneath ; the first very short, with much lateral motion, the fourth reversible and shorter than the second, the third not much longer. Claws long, well curved, tapering, very acute, compressed, rounded above, slightly convex on the sides, nar- row beneath, the third with a dilated inner edge. Plumage very full and soft, somewhat compact above, blend- ed beneath. Facial disks very largo, complete or entirely sur- rounding the eye, and composed of stiffish linear-oblong feathers with loose barbs ; the anterior longer, more bristly, and par- tially concealing the bill. Ruft' complete and conspicuous. Feathers in general oblong, rounded ; those of the abdomen downy, of the legs with soft disunited filaments. Wings long, very broad, convex, much rounded ; primary quills broad and rounded, the first five cut out on both edges, abruptly on the inner ; the fourth longest, the first about the same length as the tenth ; secondary quills thirteen, broad, and rounded. Tail broad, rounded, of twelve arched, rounded feathers. To this genus belong, as I have ascertained by the examina- tion of recent specimens, Strix nebulosa, Strix cincrea, Strix acadica, Strix Aluco, and Strix Tcngmalmi, of authors ; al- ULULA. IIOOTING-OWL. 437 though the first two, having the conch proportionally smaller, might perhaps be referred to a genus apart. In Britain two species are met with, one common and generally distributed, the other of rare occurrence. The accompanying figure represents the ear of the Tawny Owl, Ulula Aluco, which is proportionally larger than that of the Eagle-Owl, and moreover furnished with an anterior oper- culum or flap. Fio. 244. 438 ULULA ALUCO. THE TAWNY HOOTING-OWL. BROWN OWL. TAWNY OWL. WOOD OWL. GREY OWL. IVY OWL. BEECH OWL. SCREECH OWL. IIOWLET. JENNY HOWLET. CUMH.\CH.\G. C.MLLEACH- OIDHCHE. Stri.t Aluco. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 132. iStrix stridula. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 13.'{. Strut Aluco, Lath. Ind. Orn. I. ;')9, Stri.x stridula. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 58. Tawny Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Chouette Hulotte. Stri.x Aluco. Temni, Man. d'Om. L 8!». Tawny Owl, Ulula stridula, Selb, lUustr, L 103, Syrnium Aluco, Tawny Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 'J3, Upper parts in both seres hroicnhli-red, more or less tinned with grey, marked with longitudinal dark-hroicn streaks, and transverse lines of a lighter tint ; the lower parts reddish-ichite, or 1/elloicish, irith longitudinal linear-lanceolate and transverse undulated dark-broini markings ; large tchite spots on some of the scapulars and wing-coverts ; bill gregish-i/ellotc ; iris bluish- black. Young bi)-ds more tinged with red, old birds more greg. Mali:. — The Tawny 0\\\ has the apj^earancc of a rcmark- nhly full and robu.'it birth havinii the head proportionally Larger TAWNY HOOTING-OWL. 439 than that of any other British species ; but for this portliness it is indebted chiefly to its ample covering of extremely soft fea- thers, for when plucked, its body is very small, and its muscu- lar apparatus of very moderate development. The bill is short, rather stout, considerably compressed ; the upper mandible with its outline decurved from the base, the sides rapidly sloping, slightly convex, the tip acute and decurved; the lower mandible with the crura narrow, the angle wide and rounded, the dorsal line short and slightly convex, the edges anteriorly decurved, with a sinus close to the tip, which is obliquely rounded. The mouth is very wide, measuring an inch and three-fourths across ; the palate flattened, with two lateral longitudinal soft ridges, and an anterior tuberculate ridge running to the tip of the mandible ; the lower mandible deeply concave, with a pro- minent median line. The tongue small, seven-twelfths long, concave above, and emarginate. The oesophagus is five inches in length, very wide,, w^ithout dilatation; the proventriculus with a belt of very small cylindrical glandules, and gradually enlarged into the stomach, which is when inflated two inches in diameter, roundish ; its muscular coat very thin, being com- posed of a single series of distinct fasciculi ; the central tendons very thin and roundish ; the inner coat soft and slightly rugous. The pylorus is extremely narrow, and closed by a thin valvular margin. The intestine is twenty-five inches long, from four- twelfths to two-twelfths in width. The cceca, which come oft' at the distance cf three inches from the extremity, are oblong, narrowed toward the base, three inches in length, four-twelfths in their greatest width. The nostrils are roundish, in the fore edge of the cere, which is somewhat prominent behind them, and although bare above and anteriorly, concealed by the bristly feathers at the base of the bill. The eyes are very large, oblique, slightly mobile ; the eyelids with a bare crcnate margin. The conch of the ear is of a somewhat elliptical form, an inch and a twelfth in length, extending from near the top of the head to the base of the lower jaw, having an elevated margin behind, and a distinct semi- circular operculum before, both beset with linear-oblong feathers. 440 ULULA ALLCO. The plumage is very full, elastic, and extremely soft. The facial disks are complete, though narrower above the eyes. The ruft' also is complete, extending from the base of the upper mandible to the throat, and composed of narrow recurved fea- thers. The feathers in general are oblong, with their downy part greatly extended, those on the upper parts somewhat com- pact, on the lower almost downy ; on the tarsi and toes very soft and blended. The wings are long, very broad, much rounded ; the outer six quills a little sinuate on the outer and inner webs ; the barbs of the outer web of the first, and the sinuate portion of the second and third, free and recurved ; the first two inches shorter than the second, which is one inch shorter than the third, the fourth a quarter of an inch longer than the latter, and slightly exceeding the fifth ; the secon- daries thirteen, very broad and rounded. The tail is of mode- rate length, arched, a little rounded, the lateral feathers nearly an inch shorter than those in the middle. The bill is pale greyish-yellow, the cere flesh-coloured. The iris bluish-black. The soles of the feet are flesh-coloured, the claws greyish-yellow^ at the base, dusky toward the end. The inside of the mouth is light flesh-coloured, excepting the ante- rior part of the palate, which is of a dull greyish-blue tint. The general colour of the upper parts is light yellowish-red, longitudinally streaked, mottled, and transversely undulated with dark brown ; the hind part of the back mottled and barred, with the streaks reduced to lines. Some of the outer scapulars, smaller wing-coverts, and outer secondary coverts, have a largo white spot on the outer web toward the end. The quills are broadly barred with umber brown and dull light yellowish- red tinged with grey ; the primary coverts darker, but similarly barred. The tail-feathers, except the two middle, which are like the hind part of the back, are marked like the quills, and tipped with yellowish-white. But both they and the quills are finely barred or mottled with brown, especially toward the end. The facial disks are greyish- white, the anterior with black shafts, those behind tinged with yellowish-brown. The ruif is yellowish-red, inclining to white anteriorly, mottled with brown above, at the middle brownish -black. The lower parts TAWNY HOOTING-OWL. 441 are yellowish -white ; the breast and sides longitudinally streak- ed, and transversely undulated with blackish-brown, the latter also tinged with reddish. The legs are yellowish- white, faintly mottled with brown. Length to end of tail 14 inches, to end of wings 12 ; extent of wings 31 ; wing from flexure IO5 ; tail 6^ ; bill along the ridge 1/j, along the edge of lower mandible Ij^ ' tarsus IJ2 ; first toe j^2i its claw j% ; second toe l^^g, its claw jg ; third toe 1/2, its claw j^^ ; fourth toe ^%, its claw 1*2 • Female. — The female, which is considerably larger, resem- bles the male in colour. The bill is light yellowish-grey ; the iris bluish-black ; the claws yellowish-grey at the base, dusky toward the end. The general colour of the upper parts is pale yellowish-red, streaked and undulated with blackish-brown ; many of the feathers on the nape, and some of the outer scapu- lars, smaller wing-coverts, and outer secondary coverts, with a white spot on the outer web toward the end. The lower parts are reddish-white, but otherwise marked as in the male, and the sides tinged with red. In the female, then, the upper parts are of a somewhat duller brown, and the lower more tinged with red ; but otherwise the dift'erences are not remark- able. In an individual obtained in June 1835, the oesophagus was five inches long ; the stomach tsvo inches and a half; the intestine thirty inches. One of the coeca w^as four inches three- fourths in length, the other a little shorter. The rectum three inches and a half long. Length to end of tail 16 inches, to end of wings 14 ; extent of wings 34; wing from flexure 11; tail 7; bill along the ridge 1^ ; tarsus 1^^ ; hind toe y%, its claw j% ; second toe 1^, its claw J2 ; third toe LJ, its claw ^^j ; fourth toe /j, its claw 1*2- Variation!-. — Individuals vary considerably in the tint and intensity of their colours, some having the upper parts of a much duller brown than others, and the lower with more white. As the period of moulting approaches, little change takes place in the colours. 442 ULULA ALUCO. Habits. — In the iiortheni parts of Scotland, this species is seldom if ever met with ; but in the wooded portions of the middle and southern divisions, it is more frequently obtained than any other, cxccptin<^ the Long-eared and Barn Owls. In most parts of England suited to its nature, it has also been ob- served, and in some is said to be nearly as common as any other species. Its habits are strictly nocturnal, and when forced from its retreat by day, it is oj)pressed by the glare of light, seems bewildered, and may easily be destroyed. It is generally in the shade of some dense wood that it reposes, usually in an elevated station among the branches, but some- times on the ground. At night, it emits a loud and doleful cry, which has been likened to the syllables hoo-hoo-hoo, and which Butlon remarks *■' has a considerable resemblance to the cry of the wolf, a circumstance which induced the Latins to give it the name of Ultda, which comes from tdulare, to howl or cry like the wolf Besides this hooting noise, as it is termed, it occasionally utters a harsh scream. Its food con- sists of young hares, rats, mice, moles, birds of various species, beetles, and other insects. Several persons have stated that it also feeds on fish, and I found the stomach of one nearly filled with earth-worms, Mhich had been torn into fragments of about half an inch in length. I have never seen the nest of this bird. Montagu, however, states that it breeds in the hollows of trees, sometimes in barns, prepares very little nest, or even deposits its eggs on the de- cayed wood. According to M. Temminck, it lays in the de- serted nests of buzzards, crows, and magpies. The eggs, three or four in number, are pure white, smooth, an inch and eleven- twelfths in length, an inch and a half in breadth. The young, which arc at first of a dull yellowish-grey colour, are supplied with mice, rats, and young hares. As stated by the Rev. Mr Bree in the ^Lagazine of Natural History, Vol. I, p. 179, they are also fed with (ish. " Some years since, several young owls were taken from the nest, and placed in a yew tree in the gar- den of Allesley Rectory, near Coventry. In this situation, the ])arcnt birds repeatedly brought them live fish, bull-heads (Cot- tus (iobin), and loach (C'obites barbatula). which had doubt- TAWNY IIOOTING-0^rL. 443 less been procured from the neighbouring brook, in which these species abound. Since the above period, I have on more than one occasion found the same fish, either whole or in fragments, lying under the trees on which I have observed the young owls to perch after they have left the nest, and where the old birds were accustomed to feed them."" This Owl, as well as other species, has in fact been seen to seize fishes in the water. On this subject the Bishop of Nor- wich makes the following remarks : " It has been conjectured by some, that as fish are attracted by a light or any shining sub- stance, there may be a luminous appearance in the large, round, and bright eyes of an Owl, like those of a cat, which are known to all for their glaring in the dark, by which the fish are at- tracted within reach of its beak or claws." Now, in the first place, I have carefully observed the eyes of two species of Owl, but found that they emitted no light in the dark ; and secondly, in all the eyes of Owls that I have dissected, there is no tape- tum, like that which reflects light in quadrupeds, but the cho- roid coat is entirely covered with pigmentum nigrum. Young. — The young of both sexes resemble the adult, with this difference only, that they are more tinged with red. Progresss toward Maturity. — It appears that the older the individuals, the more grey they assume on the upper, and the more white on the lower parts ; but at what period of life they assume the colouring which gave rise to the idea of a distinct species is not known. An individual which is presumed to be old may be described thus : The general colour of the upper parts is pale umber, tinged with grey, longitudinally streaked with darker brown, and transversely barred, undulated, and dotted with greyish-white and greyish-brown. The facial disks are greyish-white, the anterior feathers with the shafts black toward the end, those behind with a faint brown bar near the tip. The ruff is reddish above, white below, but marked with dark brown, that colour occupying nearly the whole of the feathers in the middle part. The lower parts are greyish-white, streaked and barred as in the young. 444 TLULA ALUCO. Remarks. — The habits of this species have not been minutely described by authors ; and the dift'erences in the tints of its plumage are not satisfoctorily traced. Although my descrip- tions have been taken from recent specimens, as well as skins, I must confess that my knowledge of the Tawny Owl is not of the most respectable character. The young of both sexes are of more ferruginous tint than old birds, and so continue for at least a year ; but whether the individuals of which the plumage is much tinged with grey, are of both sexes, has not yet been determined. If analogy be of any importance, we might infer from M-ell ascertained facts that the young of both sexes are the tawny, and the adult the greyish birds. Thus, Dr Bach- man, in Mr Audubon's Ornithological Biography, Vol. V, p. 329 : " There is no doubt about the correctness of the changes of plumage of this species (Strix Asio), for I have seen it in its various stages from red to grey. I kept it more than a year in domestication, when it underwent all its changes. I have taken the young red birds from the nest, and the old in the same hole, very pret/. The bird breeds in the red state the following spring, and does not become grey until two years old. Specimens have been procured partially red and grey in the intermediate state." 445 ULULA TENGMALMI. TENGMALM'S HOOTING- OWL. Strix funerea. Linn. Fauna Suecica, p. 25. Strix Tengmalmi. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I- 291. Strix Tengmalmi. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 60. Chouette Tengmalm. Strix Tengmalmi. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 94. Tengmalm's Night-Owl. Noctua Tengmalmi. Selb. lUustr. 105. Noctua Tengmalmi. Tengmalm's Night-Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 94. Strix Tengmalmi. Tengmalm's Owl. Fauna Bor. Amer. II. 94. Upper parts chocolate-brown, spotted with ichite ; tail with five rows of transversely elongated spots ; lower parts yelloicish-w'hite, with longitudinal brown markings ; tarsi and toes covered with doicny feathers ; length about ten inches. This pretty little Owl, the Strix funerea of Linnaeus, Strix passerina of many authors, and Strix Tengmalmi of Temminck, ha.s often been confounded with Syrnia passerina already de- scribed, from which, however, it is easily distinguished by dif- ferences in colour, inferiority of size, and especially by the dense covering of feathers upon its toes, those organs in that species being almost bare. The American bird described by Dr Richard- son, Mr Audubon, and others under the same name, and con- sidered identical by them, has lately by the Prince of Musi^- nano been named Nyctale Richardsoni, and viewed as distinct from his Xyctale Tengmalmi ; but as he has not given descrip- tions, it is impossible to know whether this determination has been founded on reason, or caused by caprice. On this sub- ject I shall presently offer some remarks, but in the meantime proceed to describe the bird, of which however my specimens are American. ]Male. — In form this species resembles the Brown Hootin(y- Owl, and the Passerine Day-Owl ; the head being very larf^e, 446 ULULA TENGMALMI. the neck short, the body full, but only in appearance, owinc» to the thick and very soft plumage. The bill is short, very deep and strong ; the upper mandible with its outline decurvcd from the base, the ridge and sides convex, the tip acute and at the end nearly perpendicular ; the lower mandible with the angle wide, the dorsal line slightly convex, the edges inflected, and toward the end dccurved, with a distinct sinus on each side close to the abruptly rounded tip. The nostrils are broadly elliptical, oblique, in the fore part of the short cere, which bulges out behind them. The eyes are large. The conch is of an elliptical form, and of great size, being an inch and a quarter in length, extending from near the top of the head to the base of the lower jaw, and having an anterior semicircular opercu- lum stretching along its whole length. It is thus very dirter- ent from that of Syrnia passerina, being proportionally as large as that of Ulula Aluco, and precisely of the same form. The head is extremely large, and somewhat triangular. The feet are rather short ; the tarsi and toes covered with very soft downy feathers ; the latter having two scutella at the end. The claws are well curved, slender, compressed, and taper to a fine point. The facial disk is complete, being composed of series of ra- diating feathers havinfj disunited filaments. The ruff is also complete, extending from the base of the upper mandible to the throat, and composed of several series of narrow, slightly recurved, rather compact feathers. The plumage is full, very soft, and blended ; the feathers broadly oblong and rounded at the tip. The wings are rather long, very broad, much rounded, and convex ; the first five quills having the inner web cut out near the end ; the second, third, and fourth with the outer nar- rowed ; the first quill equal to the seventh, the second four twelfths of an inch shorter than the third, Mliich is longest, but scarcely exceeds the fourth ; the filaments of the outer web of the first with their tips free and recurved ; those of the second and third similar toward the end. The tail is of moderate length, slightly arched, and somewhat rounded. The bill is greyish-brown at the base, ycllowish-whitc at the end ; the claws yellowish-brown, with their tips dusky. The TENGMAL.MS HOOTING OWL. 447 general colour of the upper parts is chocolate-brown, or rather greyish-brown, tinged with olivaceous. The feathers of the head have each a central oblong white spot ; those of the hind- neck are similarly marked with larger spots, some of which are so disposed as to form a semicircular band ; the scapulars have two or four large round spots near the end ; and some of the dorsal feathers and wing-coverts have single spots on the outer web. All the quills have marginal white spots on both webs ; those on the inner much larger. On the tail are five series of transversely elongated narrow white spots. The facial disks are yellowish-white, anteriorly black, tinged with brown behind. The ruft' also yellowish-white, mottled with black. The chin is white, the throat brown ; the general colour of the lower parts yellowish-white, longitudinally streaked with brown. The central part of each feather being of the latter colour ; some of the posterior lateral feathers have two white spots near the end. The plumage of the tarsi and toes greyish-yellow, with faint transverse bars of brown. Length to end of tail 10 g inches ; bill along the ridge 1 ; wing from flexure 6{§ ; tail 4] ; tarsus {§ ; hind toe /j ; its claw ^2 ; second toe y^, its claw j\ ; third toe j%, its claw /^ ; fourth toe -^^ , its claw ^ | . Fe.male. — The female is considerably larger, but precisely similar in colour. Length to end of tail llA inches, to end of wings lOf ; wing from flexure 7i ; tail 4^ ; bill along the ridge 1 ; tarsus {^ ; first toe /g, its claw ^% ; second toe j\, its claw j\ ; third toe ^2 > its claw /g ; fourth toe /^ , its claw {'*2 . Remarks. — The description given by Mr Selby from an individual killed at Morpeth, in ?sorthumberland, in 1812, is as follows : — " Bill much curved and compressed ; the culmen and tip yellowish-white, the sides dark-grey. Facial disk black at the posterior and anterior angles of the eye-orbits ; the rest greyish-white, mixed with black. Ear-conch large, with a nar- row operculum. Velvety feathers behind the auditory open- ing, brownish-black. Crown, nape, and hind part of the neck. 448 I'LULA TENGMALMI. liver-brown, spotted with white ; those upon the latter parts large, and surrounded by a margin of liver-brown. Back, wincr- coverts, and scapulars, liver-brown, spotted with M'hite ; the spots upon the mantle nearly concealed by the overlaying tips of the feathers. Quills liver-brown ; their exterior webs having three or four oval white spots, forming imperfect bars. Points of the outer barbs of the whole of the first quill open and re- versed ; those of the second the same for one-half of its length ; of the third a small portion only near the tip. Third and fourth quill-feathers the largest in the wing ; the third rather exceed- ing the fourth. The first and second having their inner webs notched, the second and third with their outer webs sinuated. Tail extending nearly an inch beyond the closed wings, liver- brown, crossed by five interrupted white bars, or rather rows of spots, the last about half an inch from the tip. Under plum- age white, varied with paler liver-brown. Legs having the tarsi short, and, as well as the toes, thickly clothed with soft hair-like feathers. Claws of a tolerable length, and moderately incurved." This description agrees sufficiently with mine, and with those given by Mr Yarrell, who, however, does not inform us as to the country of his specimens, and by M. Temminck, who among his synonyms makes no reference to the American birds. Habits. — This species is said by authors to inhabit the nor- thern parts of Europe, and to extend in diminished numbers as far south as France, Switzerland, and Italy. A very few in- dividuals have been met with in England. Mr Selby, as al- ready mentioned, procured one shot in Northumberland, and Mr Yarrell states that in 183G "a recently shot specimen was purchased in a poulterer's shop in London ; and in ALay of the same year, Mr John Leadbcater of Brewer Street received a specimen for preservation which had been shot in Kent." M. Temminck says it nestles in the natural holes of pines, laying two pure white eggs ; and feeds on mice, moths, beetles, and other insects, as well as sometimes on birds. In North Ame- rica, according to Dr Richardson, it appears to inhabit all the wooded country from Great Slave Lake to the L'^nitod States, TENGMALM'S HOOTlN'Ci OWL. 449 and is very common on the banks of the Saskatchewan. lie informs us that it is strictly nocturnal, and " when it acciden- tally wanders abroad in the day, is so much dazzled by the light of the sun as to become stupid, and it may then bo easily caught by the hand. Its cry in the night is a single melan- choly note, repeated at intervals of a minute or two." Mr Hutchison states that it builds a nest of grass, halfway up a pine tree, and lays two white eggs. Remarks. — This species is undoubtedly in all essential re- spects so similar to the Tawny Owl, that there can be no rea- sonable question as to the propriety of referring it to the same genus. Yet our most recent authors have thought otherwise. Thus, JSIr Yarrell refers the Tawny Owl to the genus Syrnium, which he places between Strix and Surnia, of which the Barn Owl and Snowy Owl are typical, while Tengmalm's Owl is referred to the same genus (Noctua) as the Passerine Owl, from which it ditfers entirely in the form and size of the ear, which in the latter is small and destitute of operculum, where- as in the former it is very large, and has a distinct anterior semicircular operculum extended along its whole length. G G 450 ASIO. TUFTED-OWL. Although furnished with tufts of feathers on the head, the birds of this <]^eniis arc distinguished from those on which the generic appellation of Bubo has been bestowed, by the enor- mous size of their auditory concha, more elongated wings, and other peculiarities. Bill short, moderately strong, compressed toward the end : upper mandible with the dorsal line decurved from the base, at first slightly, the ridge broad on the cere, which is large, narrowed anteriorly, convex in its whole length, the sides con- vex toward the end, the edges soft as far as the nostrils, then sharp, direct, and decurved, the tip acute and descending obliquely ; lower mandible with the crura narrow, the angle wide, the dorsal outline very short, slightly convex, the back and sides rounded, the edges toward the end sharp, inflected, decurved, with a slight sinus on each side close to the oblique- ly truncate tip. Mouth very wide ; palate prominent, sloping upwards at the sides, with two lateral soft ridges, and an anterior elevated cen- tral line running to the mandible ; posterior aperture of the nares narrowly elliptical, with an anterior fissure. Tongue short, narrow, fleshy, oblong, deeply cmarginate and papillate at the base, its upper surface with a median groove, its tip thin, and emarginate. (Esophagus very wide, of nearly equal diameter throughout ; proventricular glandules small and cylin- drical. Stomach large, roundish, its muscular coat very thin, being composed of a single series of distinct fasciculi, the cen- tral tendons thin and roundish ; the epithelium thin, soft, and somewhat rugous. l*ylorus closed by a thin margin. Intes- tine of moderate length and width ; cocca of considerable length, oblong, contracted toward the base ; rectum dilated into a very large oblong cloaca. ASK). TUFTED-OWL. 451 Nostrils large, medial, lateral, oblong, oblicjue. Eyes very largo, ol)li(|iiely placed ; eyelids with broad crenate thin mar- gins, and ciliary fringes of small feathers having distant fila- ments. Conch of the ear extremely largo, extending from over the middle of the eye to the base of the lower mandible, and of a curved elliptical or semilunar form, with an anterior semi- circular flap or operculum in its whole length, and a broad memljranous margin behind, both beset with recurved feathers. The aperture of the meatus elliptical, in the lower part of the conch, bounded anteriorly by the eye, above by a ligament stretching to the operculum, and behind by a ligament extend- ed along the edge of the temporal bone. Above the meatus is a deep depression, abov^e which another ligament passes to the operculum. Head very large, short, somewhat triangular, with the sides flattened and sloping forwards. Neck short ; body short, deeper than broad, much compressed behind. Legs short, moderately stout ; tibia muscular ; tarsus short, and with the toes covered with soft somewhat silky feathers, having the fila- ments disunited. First toe very short, with much lateral mo- tion ; the fourth next in length, the third longest ; all with two terminal scutella. Claws long, moderately curved, slen- der, tapering, extremely acute, compressed, with the sides con- vex ; the lower surface of the first rounded, of the second and fourth narrow, flattened or slightly grooved ; the third with a dilated inner edge. Plumage full, and extremely soft. Facial disks very large, complete, composed of linear-oblong softish loosely-barbed fea- thers. The ruft' complete, and composed of oblong, compact, but very soft, recurved feathers. Bill partially concealed by bristly feathers directed forwards ; cere bare above. A tuft of elongated feathers on each side over the eve. The feathers in general oblong, rounded, loosely margined, almost downy ; those of the abdomen downy ; of the feet soft and glossy. Wings very long, broad, and rather pointed ; primary quills broad and rounded ; the second longest, the first and fourth about equal, the first only having a slight sinus in the inner web close to the tip ; its outer barbs free and recurvate, as are 452 ASIO. TL'FTED-OWL. those of part of the second. Tail rather short, slightly arched, of twelve broad, rounded, weak-shafted feathers. The species of this genus seem to be those to which the Circi are most nearly allied. In external aspect they approach the genus Bubo, but are less robust. They also bear a considerable resemblance to the Hooting Owls, but have the head much smaller, and its fore part more narrowed by the large disks, which almost meet upon it, as in the genus Strix. Their habits are nocturnal ; but they are capable of flying by day. Two species occur in Britain, one of them the most common of all our Owls, M-ith the exception of Strix flammea. .//// 453 ASI OTUS. THE MOTTLED TUFTED-OWL. LONG-EARKD OWL. COMMON EVRED OWL. HORNED OWL. ^^m^i^'iiPM '■v.* '' Fio. 247. Strix Otus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 132. Stri.\ Otus. Lath. Ind. Orn. 1. 53. Long-eared Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Hibou Moyen Due. Strix Otus. Terain. Man. d'Orn. 10'2. Long-eared Owl. Otus vulgaris. Selb. lUustr. I. 85. Otus vulgaris. Loug-eared Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. .01. Tufts conspicuous, projecting an inch and a half betjond the plumage of the head ; tipper parts light reddish-f/ellou; longitu- dinally streaked, transversely barred, finely undulated with brown and greyish-ichite ; lotcer parts light reddish-yelloic, with oblong broicn streaks, and faintly undulated ; facial disks whitish in their anterior half pale yellowish-brown behind, the eye half surrounded by dark brown. Young with the facial disks yellowish-brown, and the dark nmrkings on the lower p)arts broader. •154 ASIO OTLS. Male. — This Owl, which is one of our most common spe- cies, is readily distinguishable by the eloncrated tufts of feathers on its head, taken in connection with its size, which is about that of the Barn or AMiite Owl, and the minutely mottled co- louring of its upper parts. Although apparently robust, owing to the great bulk of its plumage, its body is but small and its neck slender. The head is very larcr parts may be described as lonf^itudinally streaked with dark brown, barred and finely undulated with the same, and with greyish-white. The first row of coverts is tipped with white on the outer web ; and the edge of the wing, and the outer margin of the first alular feathers are of the same colour. The alula and primary coverts are greyish- brown, barred with darker ; the quills and scapulars pale grey, barred with dark brown, and having more or less buff' toward the base of the outer web, that colour being conspicuous on the outer six primaries. The tail is barred and dotted in the same manner; the dusky bars narrow, eight or ten in number. The facial disk is white anteriorly, with the tips black, reddish- yellow behind ; and the feathers on the upper eyelid are black. The ruff' is reddish, mottled with black. The lower parts are in general similar to the upper, but with more buff, and fewer spots, each feather with a linear-oblong dark-brown streak, and several irregular transverse bars. The feathers of the tibiae, tarsi, and toes are pure buff'. The lower wing-coverts are light buff; the primary coverts white, largely tipped with dark- brown ; the quills yellowish-white, banded with brown toward the end. Length to end of tail 14.j inches, to end of wings ISi ; ex- tent of wings 3(5; bill along the ridge 1 /j, along the edge of lower mandible ] /'^ ; wing i'rom flexure 11.] ; tail 54; tarsus 1.]; first toe .), its claw /^ ; second toe 1, its claw 1% ; third toe 1], its claw ■'^ ; fourth toe j, its claw ^g. Fkmale. — The female, which is considerably larger, has the ujiper parts lighter, but in other respects is similar in colouring. Length to end of tail IG inches, to end of wings 17; extent of M'ings 40 ; bill along the ridge ] .', ; wing from flexure 12 ; tail 5f ; tarsus lj~^ ; hind toe ^ j, its claw -^^ ; middle toe 1?,, its claw j'*g. \'aiu.\tions. — This species exhibits little variation in its co- lours, some individuals merelv havinir more arev than others MOTTLKI) TUFTED-OWL. 457 on the upper parts, and the huft' of the lower being more or less intense. The intestinal canal varies a few inches in length, and the cwca are very seldom equal. Habits. — This Owl is a constant resident, and occurs in most of the wooded districts of England and Scotland. Next to the Barn Owl, it is our most common species, although not of frequent occurrence in any part of the country. Tt is strictly nocturnal, coming abroad in the evening, and resting by day in woods and thickets. The first individual which I ever saw alive, I shot in a small wood of pinus sylvestris, near Elgin, to which I was directed by Mr Barclay of Calcoats. It was re- posing on one of the higher branches of a tall tree, and allowed me to approach within forty yards. The food of this species consists of small glires, moles, and birds, as well as insects. If disturbed by day, it flies in a buoyant but rather slow and wavering manner ; but of its nocturnal flight I am unable to speak. It generally appropriates the deserted nest of a rook or other large bird, but sometimes forms one for itself, and lays from three to five eggs, which are elliptical, an inch and nine twelfths in length, an inch and four twelfths in breadth, smooth, and of a pure white colour. The young, which are hatched in the beginning of May, are at first covered with down, not white as some have stated, but of a light yellowish-grey tint, barred with faint brown, and have two conspicuous tufts on the head. They frequently emit a loud rather shrill cry, and even when they have come abroad in June, continue for some weeks to importune their parents for food in the same manner. The old birds at night occasionally emit a plaintive cry. "■ The Long-tufted Owl," Mr Hepburn informs me, " is rather a common species in East Lothian, roosting and nestling in our dark pine woods. Sol will sometimes surprise the nocturnal wanderer, feasting on his prey in the meadow. He seeks the friendly shelter of the hedgerow or neighbouring wood, where he hopes to remain in peace until night again throws her veil over nature. Vain are his hopes, for a prying wren has discovered the intruder, and sounds an alarm. The robin, the white- throat, the chanter, and other birds hasten to the spot. First 450 ASIO OTUS. and ibremost are the chaffinches. They buftet him, peck at, and menace him on every side, while the Owl turns his eyes from party to party, evading their blows as well as he can. The uproar is now great, each bird in his mother-tongue vent- ing execrations against the poor Owl. On such occasions one may get within a few feet of it, the distance varying according to the depth of shade in which he may be sitting. At length he takes wing, generally flics a short distance, often pursued by a chaffinch or two. On alighting he is still persecuted ; and unless he gain some suitable roosting place among the fir-trees, the alarm-notes of these watchful birds are heard the live-long day. " I have seldom seen it hunting for prey before it is quite dusk. I have known it occupy the deserted nest of the wood-pigeon and the carrion crow, merely adding a few sticks and wool. Indeed it seldom makes a nest for itself The young, usually four or five, are hatched in the beginning of May. Its cry, consisting of two or three notes, is plaintive ; I have often heard it when walking through our woods at niffht. Its food consists of small quadrupeds, as well as of beetles in their season." An individual of this species, which was sent to mc in win- ter by the Rev. Mr Adam, having been left at night perched on the back of a chair in my drawing-room, tore to tatters six valuable skins of birds from the Kocky Mountains, and an equal number of nearly equally rare specimens from India. A young bird which I kept for some time, on perching, stood at first with the body inclined, afterwards nearly erect, and slept in the latter posture, with its neck rather extended, its feathers drawn close, and its tufts recumbent. AN'lien irritated it raised its plumage, threw its body forward, and uttered a sharp cry. It seized its food with its bill ; if large transferred it to one of its feet, but if otherwise retained it in his bill. In flying, it carried a small object in its bill, but a larger in its foot. It could close one eye, while the other remained open, and when ])laced in a strong light, fre([uently drew the membrane over the lighted eye, while the other remained unsheathed, though for the most part it winked with both simultaneously. The irides contracted unequally, according to the degree of light. MOTTLED TUFTED OWL. 459 When perched at night it sometimes emitted a clicking noise, like that of a spi-ing, with its bill ; but when provoked, it neither hissed nor snapped, but uttered a shrill, tremulous, plaintive cry, or succession of short notes, erecting its tufts at the same time. On the European Continent this species extends from the Scandinavian Peninsula to the shores of the Mediterranean. It has also been found in Africa. In North America it is very extensively dispersed, but, according to Mr Audubon is more abundant in the middle and eastern than in the southern and western parts. Its habits there, as described by him, are the same as with us. " During the day it is not uncommon to see it perched on the top of a low bush or fir. At such times it stands with the body erect, but the tarsi bent and resting on a branch, as is the manner of almost all Owls. The head then seems the largest part, the body being much more slender than it is usually represented. Now and then it raises itself and stands with its legs and neck extended, as if the better to mark the approach of an intruder. Its eyes, which were closed when it was first observed, are opened on the least noise, and it seems to squint at you in a most grotesque manner, although it is not difficult to approach very near it. It rarely on such occasions takes to wing, but throws itself into the thicket, and makes oft* on foot by means of pretty long leaps. When en- camped in the woods, I have frequently heard the notes of this bird at night. Its cry is prolonged and plaintive, though con- sisting of not more than two or three notes repeated at inter- vals. Its food consists of rats, mice, and other small quad- rupeds, as well as birds of various species ; its stomach having been found by me crammed with feathers and other remains of the latter." But the Prince of Musignano, holds the American Long- eared Owl to be distinct from the European, and in his Com- parative List has named the former Otus Americanus, the latter Otus vulgaris. As no reasons are assigned, and as I have compared skins and recent birds from both countries, I take leave to deny the accuracy of this statement. 460 ASK) OTCS. YoLNt:. — \\'lRn completely fledged, the young are coloured like their parents, but with the tints much deeper, and the dark markings broader. The iris is orange ; the bill brownish-grey, at the tip greyish-yellow ; the claws greyish-brown. The facial disks are yellowish brown ; the bars on the wings and tail are more strongly marked, and the reddish-yellow on the six outer quills is of a richer tint. Progress toward Maturity. — After the first moult the dark markings are still considerably broader than in the adult, and the lower parts more barred. In old individuals, the lower parts are pure buft', with narrow longitudinal spots only, the transverse bars having disappeared. 4(11 ASIO BRACHYOTUS. THE STREAKED TUFTED- OWL. SHORT-EARED OWL. HAWK OWL. WOODCOCK OWL. MOUSE-HAWK. Strix Ulula. Lath. Iiul. Orn. I. CO. Strix brachyotos. Lath. Ind. Orn. L ,55. .Short-eared Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Hibou brachiote. Strix brachyotus. Temni. Man. d'Orn. L 99. Short-eared Owl. Otus Brachyotos. Selb. Illustr. L 88. Otus brachyotos. Short-eared Owl. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. f)2. Tu/ts iticonspicuous, projecting about half an inch heijond the plumage of the head ; upper parts light reddish-gelloic, icith broad longitudinal streaks and transverse bars of deep broicn ; lower parts light 7-eddisk-yelloic, with narrow longitudinalbroicn streaks; facial disk ichitish in its anterior half, pale gelloicish-broicn be- hind, the eye completebj surrounded icith brotcnish-black ; middle tail-feathers icith a brown central patch in each of the light-colour- ed spaces beticeen the dark bands. Young similar to the adult. Male. — This species closely resembles that already described, being of nearly the same size, and agreeing in the tints of its plumage, but is easily distinguished by attending to its pecu- liar markings, independently of the less elongated tufts on its head. Although seemingly robust, when covered with feathers, its body on being denuded is found to measure only two inches and a quarter in its greatest depth, two inches in its greatest breadth, and to be so much compressed behind as to measure no more than ten twelfths in the abdominal region. The head is very large, and somewhat triangular ; but it is proportionally smaller than that of any other of our Owls. The bill is short, moderately stout, and considerably compressed ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline decurved from the base, bulg- ing a little on the cere, the sides sloping and but little con- vex, the edges .soft as far as the nostrils, then direct, sharp, and 402 ASIO BRACHVOrrS. ilecurved, the tip acute and deflected ; the lower mandible with its crura narrow and flexible, the angle wide and elongated, the dorsal line short and convex, the edges inflected, the tip obliquely truncate, with a slight sinus on each side. The mouth is very wide, measuring an inch and a twelfth across ; the palate flat, with two longitudinal ridges, and the sides sloping upwards ; the aperture of the posterior nares nar- rowly elliptical, with an anterior fissure. The tongue is small, narrow, seven-twelfths long, sagittate and papillate at the base, bristly on the sides, its tip thin and slightly bifid. The oeso- phagus is five inches in length, of the nearly uniform width of four and a half twelfths when contracted, and of ten-twelfths when inflated. The proventricular glandules, Mhich are rather large, form a belt about eight-twelfths in breadth. The sto- mach is nearly globular, two inches and two-twelfths long, two inches in breadth, and an inch and a quarter across ; its mus- cular coat thin, being composed of a single series of rather coarse fasciculi : its tendons about four-twelfths in diameter, the epi- thelium soft, thin, and longitudinally rugous. The pylorus is extremely narrow, and closed by a thin margin. The intestine is twenty-two inches long, from five -twelfths in width to a twelfth and a half; the rectum three inches long, for an inch and a half of its length three-twelfths in diameter, then enlarged into a srlobular cloaca, an inch in width. The cccca arc three inches and two-twelfths long, for two inches narrow, having a breadth of only one-twelfth, then expanded into an oblong sac, of which the greatest breadth is five-twelfths. The nostrils are large, oblong, oblique, in the fore part of the cere. The eyes very large ; the eyelids with broad thin crenate margins, and ciliary fringes of small distantly barbed feathers. The tarsi are short and rather stout ; the toes also short, and feathered ; the first shortest, the third longest, the second con- siderably longer than the fourth ; two terminal scutella on the hind toe, three on the rest. The claws are long, slightly arched, tapering, extremely acute, compressed, the first and second nar- row and rounded beneath ; that of the fourth toe smallest, of the first a little larger, those of the other toes much larger and nearlv cciual. STREAKED TUFTED-OWL. 463 The plumage is extremely soft and blended, although some- what firmer than that of the other species. The facial disks are complete, and composed of circular series of weak, slender, slightly recurved feathers having distant filaments. The rufi" is also complete, and composed of oblong, recurved, compact feathers. The cere is bare above, but it and part of the bill are concealed by bristly feathers. On the upper parts the fea- thers are oblong ; those on the hind part of the back entirely downy ; on the lower parts also oblong, and mostly downy ; on the tibia* short, extremely soft, and somewhat silky ; on the tarsi and toes small, soft, and blended. The wings are long, broad, and somewhat rounded ; the primary quills very broad, with slender shafts ; the first sinuate on the inner web, the se- cond faintly so ; the second longest, the third scarcely shorter, the first a little longer than the fourth ; the secondary quills fifteen, broad and rounded ; the first primary in its whole length, the second towards the end, and the first alular feather, with their external barbs disunited and recurved at their points. The tail is rather short, slightly arched, somewhat rounded. The bill is brownish-black; the cere flesh-coloured ; the irides bright yellow ; the claws brownish-black, tinged with grey. The anterior half of the facial disk is white, the feathers with black tips ; the posterior yellowish with black shafts ; and the eye is surrounded by a ring of brownish-black, which is much broader behind. The ruft-feathers are yellowish, with an oblong brownish-black spot. The upper part of the head, hind-neck, and fore part of the back, are reddish-yellow, M'ith the central part of each feather dark-brown. The scapulars and wing coverts are spotted and banded in large patches with the same colour, many of them having also a large yellowish- white spot on the outer web near the end. The edge of the wing is whitish ; the alula and jirimary coverts dark brown, the outer webs pale buff at the base ; the quills buft", w^ith a narrow space along the shafts, the ends, and two or three broad bands, dark brown. The tail is buff, with five broad bands of brown, the tip yellowish-white : the two middle feathers with the light-coloured spaces ocellatc, having a brown patch in the middle. The lower parts are pale buff, whitish behind ; the 404 ASIO BRACHYOTUS. neck with oblong, the breast and sides with linear dark-brown markings ; the upper part of the throat, the abdomen, lower tail-coverts, legs and feet without spots. The lower surface of the wing is yellowish-white ; some of the coverts with a brown spot ; the quills broadly banded with dusky toward the end. Length to end of tail 1 5 inches ; to end of wings 17 ; extent of wings 38 ; bill along the ridge lj\ ; along the edge of lower mandible l^'j ; wing from flexure ll;i ; tail 6:} ; tarsus I/5 ; first toe ^"2, its claw j% ; second toe l^'o, its claw j§ ; third toe 1/2, its claw ^% ; fourth toe 1%, its claw 1*^. Female. — The female is considerably larger than the male, but similar in colouring, the upper parts have their brown markings lighter, the lower parts of a richer tint, and with broader streaks. The (rsophagus five and a half twelfths long, nearly an inch in M'idth when inflated. The stomach two inches and a quarter in diameter. The intestine twenty-three inches and a half in length, from four twelfths to two twelfths in width ; the rectum M-ide, its dilatation globular. The cocca two inches and three fourths in length ; the greatest width half an inch, the smallest nearly one twelfth. Length to end of tail 16 inches, to end of wings 18 ; ex- tent of wings 40. Variations. — Individuals vary in the tints of their plumage, the ground colour being yellowish-red, bufl', or yellowish-white; but the difterences are not very remarkable. Habits. — This species may be considered as permanently re- sident in Britain ; for although towards the end of October there is an immigration from the north, and in spring a cor- responding diminution takes place, yet many individuals breed in the country. It is by no means an extremely rare bird ; but probably the circumstance of its residing in exposed ])laces ren- ders it more easily detected, which may be the reason why more .specimens should be obtained of it than of any other, in pro- portion to their respective numbers. In winter it is dispersed over the country from the northern part.s of Scotland to the STREAKED TUFTED-OWL. 4(m southern counties of England. Altliougli often raised by sports- men and others, it is not certain that it usually hunts during the day. It is found in stubble fields, or among turnips, by the side of a hedge, or on the grassy margin of a brook or ditch, where it rests in an erect posture. On being disturbed, it flies off in an undulating manner, with a buoyant flight, shooting away in various directions, and inclining its body alternately to either side, much in the manner of the smaller gulls. After proceed- ing some hundred yards, it generally alights, when a person may get within shot, although it does not allow so near an ap- proach as most other species. Bewick having mentioned the occurrence of twenty-eight in a turnip field in November, ^Montagu thinks that the cir- cumstance of its being thus occasionally gregarious may be ac- counted for by the abundance of food in a particular place. " Mr Austin assures us that a few years since, mice were in such vast abundance as to destroy a large portion of vegetation in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater ; and in autumn a great many of the Short-eared Owls resorted to that part in order to prey on them. They were found in the fields amongst the high grass." In December 1835, I came upon one standing by the side of a ditch, about a mile from Edinburgh. On my approach it flew off, and although shot at, without being wounded how- ever, alighted at the distance of about two hundred yards, by the edge of a turnip field. Before I got half way to its new station, it rose, ascended to a considerable height, and hovered about, very much in the manner of a gull. A rook presently made up to it, and endeavoured to peck at it, but the owl took care to keep beyond reach, by rising in a spiral direction. It was then attacked by another rook, and afterwards by two more ; but it still kept above them, and continued to ascend until it gained a great elevation, when they left it one by one. After sailing a long time in circles, it flew off to a great dis- tance. It was a clear sunny day ; yet the owl seemed in no degree incommoded by the light. Montagu states that " the Short-eared Owl comes to us in October, about the time the Woodcock makes it appearance, VOL. III. II u 4G(j ASIO BRACHYOTUS. and departs at the same time with that bird, in March ; whence its name of Woodcock Owl. With us this bird is observed never to perch on a tree, but generally hides itself in long grass, fern, or the like ; and seems partial to open, barren si- tuations. When disturbed it flies a little way, and lights again on the ground. In dusky weather it \\\]\ prey by day. and sometimes fly at small birds as well as mice. It is a bold bird, but seems contented in confinement. One which was taken in a lark-net became tolerably tame in a few months, and when hungry would take food from the hand. It was mostly fed with small birds and mice, but would eat any raw meat, which it first took in its bill, and immediately placed in its talons, and devoured it l)y piecemeal. When it was asleep or undis- turbed the aurated feathers were very distinguishable, standing above the rest about half an inch ; but on its being disturbed they were instantly depressed, and the head apparently enlarg- ed by the feathers round the face being somewhat raised." Since Montagu's time, however, it has been found breeding in England. The late Mr Hoy, an enthusiastic observer of birds, says in Mr Loudon's Magazine, " I am acquainted with two localities in the south-western part of Norfolk, where pairs of this bird breed ; and I have known several instances of their e^ss and youn;? beincj found. One situation is on a drv heathy soil, the nest placed on the ground amongst high heath ; the other in low fenny ground, among sedge and rushes." Sir \\'illiam Jardine has also found it breeding in Dumfriesshire. Two nests which he discovered on an upland moor, and which contained five eggs, " were formed upon the ground among the lieath ; the bottom of the nest scraped until the fresh earth appeared, on which the eggs were placed, without any lining or other accessory covering, ^\'llen a]i])roaching the nest or young, the old birds fly or hover around, uttering a shrill cry, and snapping with their bills. They will then alight at a short distance, survey the aggressor, and again resume their flight and cries. The young arc barely able to fly by the 12th of August, and appear to leave the nest some time before they arc able to rise from the ground." Mr Low, in his Fauna Orradcnsis, says, " It is very frequent in the hills of Hoy, and STREAKED TUFTED-OWL. 467 builcia its nest among the heath. It is impudent in breeding- time, sometimes catching up chickens from the doors. I have likewise seen it in chase of pigeons in daylight, which is not ordinary with the owl kind. In a nest I found in Hoy were the remains of a moorfovvl, two plovers, besides the feet of several others, and the birds, two in number, ready to fly. The nest was in a large heath-bush, made without any art ; intoler- ably fetid, by reason of the heat of the weather, which had putrified some part of the provisions ; and which was still in- creased by the dung of the birds, which the parents did not seem so attentive to remove as I have observed the smaller birds upon such occasions.'" It is very remarkable that a bird of so small muscular development should be able to kill and carry off a red grouse, the weight of which is more than double its own ; but Mr Low could not have been mistaken, as he describes the bird with accuracy. The ordinary food of this species consists of small quadru- peds and birds. It is generally distributed on the continent of Europe, and has been found in sotuc parts of Asia and Africa. It is also extensively distributed in America, being plentiful to the north of the St Lawrence in summer, and extending in winter southward as far as Florida. Having compared Ame- rican skins and recent specimens with European individuals, I feel assured that the Short-eared Owl of Wilson, Richardson, and Audubon, is the same as ours. Its habits, as described by Mr Audubon, are similar to those of our bird. He found it plentiful in Florida, during winter, where he was " surprised to see the great number which at that period were to be found in the open prairies, rising from the tall grass in a hurried man- ner, and zig-zagging for a few yards, as if suddenly wakened from sound sleep, then sailing to some distance in a direct course, and dropping among the thickest herbage. On being pursued and repeatedly started from the ground, those birds extended their flight so far as to be quite out of sight before alighting. I never started two birds at once, but always found them singly at distances of from twenty to thirty yards ; and although on several occasions as many as three were seen on wing, they having been put up by my companions and myself, they 468 ASIO BRACHYOTL'S. never flew towards each other, but went oft" in dift'ercnt direc tions, as if unaware of each other's presence. Its predilection for the groiuid forms a very distinctive peculiarity in the habits of this owl, as compared with the Long-eared ; for, although it aliirhts on bushes and trees, this seems more a matter of neces- sity than of choice. The only nest of this bird that 1 have found, contained four eggs, of a dull bluish-white, and of a somewhat elongated or elliptical form, an inch and a half in lencrth, and an inch and an eichtli in breadth. The nest, which was placed under a low bush, and covered over by tall grass, through which a path had been made by the bird, was formed of dry grass, raked together in a slovenly manner, and quite flat, but covering a large space, on one side of which were found many pellets and two field-mice. On examining the pellets I found them to be formed of the remains of bones of small quadrupeds, mixed with hair, and the elytra of various coleopterous insects. In its diurnal flight, the flappings of its wings are noiseless, as in most other species, and it is apt to sail many yards before alighting. Like the rest of the family, when rc])Osing, they stand as if crouched on the full length of their tarsi, and the slight crests or tufts of feathers on their head are, on such occasions, usually so lowered as to be scarcely jierceptible.'' The substances which I have found in the stomach, were remains of field-mice, and small birds. Montagu found in the stomach of one the fragments of a sky-lark and a yellow-hammer. The male above described, which was shot in January 183G, contained four heads of mice, with a great (juantity of hair and bones. One examined by Mr Ilarley, at Leicester, on the Lst November 1830, contained " the entire hind foot of a field- mouse and numerous small bones, likewise a great cpiantity of fur, but no remains of beetles. This individual weighed 14oz, and measured in length 15 inches, in extent of wings iO.', ." Mr Hepburn says, " one that 1 examined was shot at Tyning- ham, the noble seat of the Earl of Haddington, on the 27th of May 1 888. The contents of its stomach were mice and coleop- tcra. On the 29tli July 1880, I examined two newly fledged Short-tuftod Owls, sliot in the morningof that day in the Hirks Wood iu the pari.-ih of W'liittinghani.' 460 STllIX. SCREECH-OWL. The (^enus Strix, of which the Barn Owl of Europe, Strix llainniea, and the American Screech-Owl, Strix Americana, are characteristic species, is distinf^uished from the other genera hy pecuHarities which are obvious to the most superficial ob- server, and which may readily be selected from among those constituting the following generic description. Bill short, of moderate strength, compressed toward the end : upper mandible with the dorsal outline straight to the edge of the cere, then decurved in the fourth of a circle, the ridge broad at the base, narrowed and convex anteriorly, the sides convex toward the end, the edges soft until nearly opposite the nostrils, where they are a little inflected, then sharp and direct to the end, the tip acute and decurved over that of the lower mandi- ble ; wdiich is straight, with the crura narrow and flexile ; the angle long, the dorsal line short, ascending and somewhat con- vex, the back and sides convex, the edges soft until near the end, when they become sharp, inflected, and curve downwards, forming on each side a small sinus, close to the rounded tip ; the gape-line slightly sinuous. The mouth is very wide ; the palate concave in the middle, sloping upwards at the sides, with two longitudinal papillate ridges, and an anterior median tuberculate ridge. Posterior aperture of the nares elliptical with an anterior slit, the mar- gins of which and the space between it and the ridges are covered with minute papillte directed backwards. Tongue nar- row, fleshy, sagittate and papillate at the base, one of the papillae on each side being much larger, the sides nearly parallel, the upper surface flattened, with a median groove, the tip thin, bifid, with two pointed lobes, a small portion beneath horny, w'ith a median groove. (Esophagus very wide, of uniform diameter ; proventricular glands forming a continuous broad belt, Sto- 470 STRIX. SCREECH-OWL. mach very large, roundish, a little compressed ; its muscular coat very thin, and composed of a single series of coarse fasci- culi ; the central tendons thin and small, the inner coat very thin, perfectly smooth, and even. Pylorus very small, closed by a rim, or having one triangular prominence. Intestine of moderate length, narrow, contracting toward the cceca ; which are long, of the same diameter at the base as the intestine, gra- dually enlarge, and terminate in an oblong extremity ; cloacal dilatation extremely large and globular. Nostrils medial, large, ovate, oblique, in the anterior edge of the cere. Eyes very large, slightly mobile, obliquely situated ; eyelids with ciliary fringes of small feathers having distant filaments, and broad, thin, crenate margins, which are discon- tinued at the two canthi or angles ; both eyelids equally mobile. Aperture of the ear, properly so called, large, subrcctangular, oblique, with an uj^pcr and a lower somewhat elevated margin, and an anterior operculum, which is large, erect, somewhat semicircular, subtruncate, and beset with feathers. Conch extremely large, semicircular, extending from over the ante- rior angle of the eye to the middle of the lower jaw ; its surfoce sparsely covered with long, slender feathers, of which the basal half is destitute of filaments. Head extremely large, broad behind, somewhat trigonal, with the sides flattened and sloping forwards. ^Vhcn the fea- thers are removed the skull is found to be more elongated than in the other genera, its anterior part remarkably spongy, so that the septum between the orbits is of great thickness. The neck is as thick as the head, and exceeds in this respect the greater part of the body ; but on being denuded is found to be slender. The body also is slender, deeper than broad, and much com- pressed behind. Legs rather long, of moderate strength ; tibia longish and muscular ; tarsi of moderate length, covered with small downy feathers ; toes short, covered above with trans- verso series of small scales, together w^ith adpressed shaft- bristles, and two or three large terminal scutella, beneath pad- ded and covered with flattened papillae ; the third and fourth connected by a very small basal membrane ; the first very short, the third longest, but not nuich exceeding the second STIIIX. SCREECH-OWL. 47I Nvhicli is considerably longer than the fourth. Claws long, nioclerately curved, tapering, extremely acute, rounded above, convex laterally, very narrow and grooved beneath, that of the second too longest, the inner dilated thin edge of the third cut transversely or serrated. Plumage extremely full, soft, and downy. Two very large, complete, facial disks, composed of circular series of slender, slightly recurved feathers, liaving distant fdamcnts. Cere covered on the sides with bristles concealing the nostrils. Mar- gining the conch externally is a beautiful and perfect ruff, of several series of linear-oblong curved feathers, having the fila- ments loose, unless toward the end. The feathers of the narrow frontal space are concealed by those of the disks and ruff. The feathers in general are oblong, elongated, very downy ; on the wings shorter and more compact ; on the tarsi very short and downy, on the toes generally reduced to the shafts. A\'ings long, very broad, of twcnt} -five quills, which are rounded, and all entire on the margins; the outer with the external fila- ments free and recurved, the second longest, the first and third slightly shorter. Tail short, decurved, even, of twelve broad, rounded, rather weak feathers. The extreme lightness of the birds of this genus compared with their bulk, renders their flight in the highest degree buoy- ant, insomuch that it assumes a character of unsteadiness. In descending upon their prey, they must employ a mode consi- derably different from that of the heavy-bodied Falcons, which drop headlong almost with the velocity of a stone. The soft- ness of their plumage renders their flight noiseless, and they are thus enabled to steal unawares upon the quarry until with- in a distance at which they can pounce with certainty. It is perhaps owing to this circumstance that the tails of owls in general are very short and narrow compared with those of Hawks, which, having a more rapid flight, and being heavier, require an instrument to enable them to perform sudden devi- ations, and to break their fall, when they come upon their prey. The Screech-Owls have, when at rest, an annising aspect of gra- vity, which degenerates into grotesqueness when apprehension of danger or curiosity induces them to examine the approaching 472 STRIX. SCREECH-OWL. observer ; the extreme mobility of their neck enabling them to throw themselves into various postures Mith case. Although it appears that they can see by day sufficiently well to enable them to find their way, it is not until toward evening that they sally forth in quest of food. They nestle in buildings, rocks, and other high places, as well as on the ground. The eggs, two or three in number, are elliptical or oval, being more elongated than in the other genera. Only one species occurs in Britain, where it is generally distributed. Fig. 248 represents more especially the external ear of the Screech-Owl. Fig. 249 shews its foot, and more particularly the serrated claw. This figure is of the full size ; the other reduced. iittiiSi>"'""" 473 STRTX FLAMMEA. THE EUROPEAN SCREECH- OWL. BARN OWL. CHURCH OWL. SCREECH OWL. HLSSING OWL. WHITE OWL. YELLOW OWL. GILLIHOWTER. HOWLET. HOOLET. C.\ILL.\CH- OIDHCHE-GHEAL. Strix flammea. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 133. Strix flammea. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 60. Barn Owl. Mont. Orn. Diet. Chouette Effraie. Strix flammea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 91; IL 48. Barn or White Owl. Strix flammea. Selb. Illustr. I. 99. Strix flammea. Barn Owl. Jen. Brit, Vert. An. 92. Operculum margmed tcith linear ohlonp perfect feathers ; bill yellowish-ichite ; claws black ish-g ret/ ; tipper jyarts light reddish- yellow ; variegated icith minutely mottled ash-grey^ aiid small black and ichite spots ; facial disks and lower parts tchite ; the latter icith small dusky spots. Young similar to the adult, but tcith the upper parts darker. Male. — The Common Barn Owl of this country, to which I have given the name of European Screech-Owl, to distinguish it from an American species, which has usually been confound- ed with it, is one of the most beautiful birds of the family to which it belongs, and, were it not for the enormous size of its head, would not be deficient in elegance of form. The propor- tions of its parts being fully described in the generic character, it is unnecessary to repeat them here. There is a peculiarity in this species however which requires to be attended to : the operculum is fringed with delicate feathers having all their parts complete, whereas in the very closely allied American Screech-Owl, these feathers are destitute of the filaments and shaft, being reduced to the tube. The tongue is three quarters of an inch in length, narrow, 474 STRIX FLAMMEA. and bifid. The CESophagus four inches and a half long, and of the nearly uniform width of nine twelfths; the stomach two inches in diameter, round ; its muscular coat very thin ; the pylorus extremely narrow; the intestine twenty-three inches long, from four and a half twelfths to a twelfth and a half in width ; but enlarged beyond the coeca, which are two inches and a quarter in length, a twelfth and a half in width for one inch, then di- lated into an oblong sac, of which the greatest width is three twelfths ; the rectum two inches long, its cloacal dilatation globular, and one inch in width. The plumage is extremely soft, the feathers generally oblong ; the disks and ruft" complete ; the WMngs long, the first quill one twelfth of an inch shorter than the second, which exceeds the third by four-twelfths ; the tail short, decurved, almost even at the end. The bill is yellowish-white; the cere and inside of the mouth light flesh-colour ; the iris black, the edges of the eyelids dark brown ; the scales of the toes dusky, the claws dark purplish- grey. The facial disks are white, with a large brownish-yel- low spot before the eye ; the ruff-feathers reddish-yellow in their upper third, then yellowish white, and toward the bill tipped with brown. The general colour of the upper parts is light reddish yellow, variegated with ash-grey, each feather being toward its extremity of the latter colour, minutely un- dulated with darker grey, and having near its tip a small oblong space marked with two white and two dusky spots. The quills are of the general colour, minutely dotted with grey ; the primaries with four or five indistinct dusky bars or spots on both webs, and having more than half the breadth of their inner webs white ; the secondaries similarly marked, but with their tips and nearly the whole of their iimer webs white. The tail has four bars, with a slight basal bar or spot, the lateral feathers yellowish- white with the bars smaller. All the under parts are pure white, each feather, excepting on the throat, with a small faint roundish dusky spot near the tip. Length to end of tail l-i inches ; extent of wings 35 ; wing from Hexuro 11 1 ; tail o ; bill along (ho ridge U, along the EUROPEAN SCREECH-OWL. 475 edge of lower mandible 1^ ; tarsus 2^% ; hind toe i, its claw j% ; second toe 1^^, its claw pg ; third toe l-^\, its claw j\ ; fourth toe j%, its claw {'^. Female — The female is considerably larger, but differs little in colour, the upper parts being merely somewhat darker. In a perfect specimen examined on the Sd October 1835, the diameter of the aperture of the eye was seven twelfths, that of the ear measured four and a half twelfths in one direction, and two and a half twelfths in the other ; the operculum an inch and a twelfth in length, five and a half twelfths in height. The bill flesh-coloured, with a small portion of the tips yellowish- white ; the cere and inside of the mouth flesh-coloured ; the iris black ; the edges of the eyelids and nictitant membrane blackish-brown ; the tarsal scales purplish-brown, the scutella and claws dark purplish-grey ; the soles dull greyish-yellow. The facial disks white, with a brownish-red patch anterior to the eye. The inner feathers of the ruff white, the rest buff, those of its lower third tipped with brownish-black. The upper parts are light reddish-yellow, variegated with ash-grey, which on the hind-neck and back is the prevailing tint, when the feathers are laid close, although it occupies only a small portion of the end of each, which is minutely mottled with greyish-white and dark greyish-brown, and has along the me- dian line from two to five small spots of dark brown and white. The primary quills are mottled with grey at the end, the secon- dary more or less over the outer webs ; there are five faint bars of brownish-grey in dots and undulations on the outer, and greyish-brown spots on the inner webs ; all the quills pure white on three-fourths of the breadth of their inner webs. The tail is more distinctly marked with five dark-grey bands ; the inner webs, excepting the two middle, and the outer webs of the two lateral, white. The sides and fore part of the neck of a most delicate pale buff; the rest of the lower parts, includinf» the surfiice of the wings and tail, white ; some of the feathers of the sides and a few of the lower wing-coverts have two small dark spots near the end. (Esophagus four inches and a half long ; stomach broadly 476 ST 11 IX FLAM ME A. oval, two inches and three-eighths in length, one inch and three-eighths in breadth ; the central tendons five-eighths by five-twelfths, and six-eighths by five-tweltths ; pylorus very narrow, with a roundish knob projecting from its thickened margin ; intestine nineteen feet long, in the duodenal part five- twelfths in width, at the smallest near the coeca two and a half twelfths ; the coeca two inches and two-twelfths in length, for one inch of the uniform width of two-twelfths, then enlarged into an obovate sac, five-twelfths in its greatest width ; the rectum two inches and a half long, with a large globular cloaca. In another individual shot in April 1836, the tongue was nine-twelfths long, the oesophagus four inches and a half, ten twelfths in width ; the stomach two inches in diameter ; the intestine twenty-two inches long ; the coeca two inches and a quarter, the rectum two inches. Length to end of tail 15 inches ; to end of wings log ; ex- tent of wings 38; wing from flexure 11 1 ; tail 5 ; bill along the ridge l^j ; along the edge of lower mandible l-^ ; width of mouth 1 ; tarsus 2^^^ ; hind toe p^, its claw |*j ; second toe Ij, its claw |^ ; third toe 1 j*j, its claw {?, ; fourth toe ^"g, its claw i§. Variations. — In individuals apparently adult, some slight difi'erences are observed in the colouring. The bill is ivory- white, or tinged with yellow, or tlcsh-colour ; the facial disks rarely without a reddish patch, which however varies in size ; the ruff" sometimes entirely white, sometimes tij)ped with buff" or yellowish brown, its lower part often dark brown or dusky. The upper parts are more or less grey or yellow, and the lower sometimes pure white, sometimes tinged with yellow, but usually marked with small dusky spots. Changes of Plumage. — Toward the period of moult, there is less grey on the upper parts, and the spots on the lower are fewer, the tips of the feathers having been partially abraded. Habits. — If we give " a local habitation " to the ^V'hite Owl, EUROPEAN SCREECH-OWL. 477 lot it be, not a barn, nor a cathedral, but this huge mouldering tower, once the seat of the powerful lords of IJorthwick. To it I give the preference, because, as the minister of the parish remarks, " It is pleasing to recollect, that it has not been stained or rendered in any respect horrible to the imagination by the perpetration of any of those darker and more atrocious crimes which were so common in Scotland during the times of the Jameses, and which still seem to adhere in gloomy co- lours to the ruins that awaken our interest. 13ut families," as the reverend man observes (gentleman, I say not, for no bishop of a christian church can be distinguished by any title that be- longs merely to the world) " have their times of rise, of gran- deur, and of ultimate decline. The immense possessions of this once powerful and respectable family have long fallen to other occupants, their race has become almost extinct, and the scene of their greatness and splendour is an uninhabited and fast crumbling ruin. It is solemn, amidst such thoughts, to stand, while the shadows of evening are falling on the surround- ing glen, beside the ever-murmuring brook that hastens doMH the valley, and to permit the scene before us to make its na- tural impression on our minds. A few scattered lights are beaming from the humble windows of the lowly cottages that lie under the shadow of the ruin ; the castle itself, in all its gloomy and solitary grandeur, still lifts its imposing mass into the dusky air ; and over all are the enduring lights of heaven, which have witnessed, without change, so many revolutions among the dwellings of men, and which are destined, through the long coming years of the history of our race, to shine on so many myriads who have as yet no intimation of the wonders of that ever-varying scene into which they are eventually to be ushered. The present, the past, and the future, are thus brought, by the different features of the scene, at one moment before us ; and each portion of the picture derives additional interest from the others with which it is associated. The effect of the whole is an impression that is at once solenm and imposing." If the belief of ghosts had not long ago been extinct among the more enlightened at least, to which class I and my readers be- long, I had taken that shriek for the cry of the beautiful, guilty, 478 STRIX FLAMMEA. autl deservedly miserable (|ueeii jNIary. But it may not be : we are now reduced to the necessity of seeking for natural causes. Gliding downwards from one of the higher windows comes the bird of night. Meteor-like it sweeps away, flying at the height of a few feet from the ground ; and in cndeavour- \nis very large, in the fork of a branch at a considerable height from the ground, forming it of moss and stems of dry grass, and lining it with wool and hair. The eggs are from five to eight, greyish-white, marked toward the larger end with spots of reddish-brown and greyish-purple ; their length an inch and two-twelfths, and their greatest diameter ten-twelfths. They defend their nest against crows and hawks with admirable VOL. III. K K 498 LANIUS EXCUBITOK. courage and skill, so as to put to flight birds possessed of ten times their strength ; and their aft'ection for their young cor- responds Mith the ardour of their temper, as appears to be generally the case in animals. After the young come abroad, they remain with their parents until the commencement of the pairing season. Although individuals have been found with us at all times of the year, it has not been observed to breed in this country. It is not uncommon however in France, where it remains all the year, keeping in summer and autumn generally in the woods, but approaching inhabited places in winter, and thus appearing to be more common at that season. It is found as far south as Spain and Italy, and extends northward to Sweden, Russia, Norway, and Lapland, leaving these countries however at the approach of winter. In England, its migrations are very irregular. Messrs Shep- pard and Whitear have, in the Liuncean Transactions, Vol. XV, the following remarks on this subject : — " It has been killed in Suftblk in the months of January, April, INIay, and September. And on the 9th of July 181G, we saw a female Cinereous Shrike at Baytham in that county, which made a noise like that of a pair of shears clipping a fence. We are informed by the Rev. George Reading Leather, that this bird has been frequently seen in the Hyde near Bury (a large wood on the estate of Sir Thomas Gage), and that he has received a specimen shot there. In the autumn of 1819, four of these birds were sent to Mr Hunt, Avliich had been killed in Norfolk. Early in December 1819, a Cinereous Shrike frequented a thick thorn hedge, near Mr Hoy's house in lligham, but was so shy that it could not be approached within gunshot. On examining the hedge Mr Hoy found three frogs, and as many mice, spitted on the thorns. He therefore set six very small steel traps, each baited with a mouse. On the following day two of the traps were found sprung, and the bait gone. By watching in concealment, Mr Hoy soon afterwards observed the shrike to dart down to a bait, and rise perpendicularly, but not quick enough to escape, as it was caught by two of its toes. The bird was carried alive to the house, and placed in a room, GREAT CINEREOUS SHRIKE. 499 in which a thorn bush was fixed, and some mice given to it ; one of which it was observed through a hole to spit upon a thorn with the greatest quickness and adroitness." " The specimens of the Greater Shrike, Lanius Excubitor, that have come under my observation," Mr Harley writes to me, " have been killed betwixt the autumnal and vernal equi- nox. I have never heard of the nest of this species being found in England, but I have known of many specimens being shot during winter. I am in the possession of a very fine male bird M'hich was shot by George Osbaldeston, Esq. of Quomdon, out of a flock of Fieldfares." Mr Hepburn, who had the good fortune to procure the indi- vidual from which I have taken the description of the adult male, has transmitted to me the following account of it. " On the morning of the 29th of November 1839, a labourer, A. Watt, who has a good knowledge of the birds found in this district, informed me that a strange bird, which he described, was sitting on the garden hedge. I immediately sallied forth with my gun, and carefully examined the neighbourhood, but without success. On the morning of the 3d of December, however, as I was walking along a low hedge-row, wdiose twigs had not yet undergone their annual switching, I ob- served several blackbirds hopping about, and repeating their alarm notes w^th much vehemence. Thinking that it might be some skulking cat or weasel, I paid no further attention to them, and was proceeding, when of a sudden, a strange bird, which I took for a kind of Thrush, sprung from the hedge, about twelve paces in advance of me. It flew directly from the fence, then wheeled to the left, and pursued its course in a parallel direction, bounding along, with an undulating flight, like that of a wagtail. Of a sudden it shot upwards to the height of six or eight feet above the line of its flight, which was nearly fourteen feet from the ground, hung in the air for fifteen seconds, moving its wings with great rapidity, and occa- sionally dangling its legs. Dropping down a few feet, it re- sumed its ordinary flight. These manoeu\Tes were repeated several times, till it alighted on the top of a tall willow tree, in a small plantation between the stack-yard and garden. i')00 LAXIUS EXCrBITOR. HaviniT contrived to reach the house, without disturbins; the bird, although I passed Nvithin twenty yards of the tree, I charged my gun with a mixture of Nos, 4 and 6, and in a few minutes stood within a long range of him. But observing that his attention was fully occupied with a host of Buntings and Chaffinches hovering and diving about his head, and shrieking their alarm notes, I rapidly advanced within twenty-five yards, and brought him to the ground. Great was my joy at shoot- ing this very rare bird, and much also, let me assure you, did I feel, when I learned that you were so well pleased with the present. On the 2.5tli of the same month, one of the plough- men informed me that he had observed a similar bird fly over the field in which he was at work." In a paper entitled " Reminiscences of the Bhine," published in the Naturalist, No. lY, p. 1G4, is the following notice of this bird. " I can testify to the power assigned to it by some naturalists, of varying its notes, or rather imitating those of other birds. Not exactly indeed ; for my first acquaintance with the Butcher-bird was occasioned by hearing notes not entirely familiar to me, though much resembling those of the Stonechat. Following the sound, I soon discovered the utterer, and while listening, to my surprise, the original notes were discarded, and others adopted of a softer arid more melodious character, never, however, pro- lonired to anv tliinsj like a continuous sonj;. Bs grave ash- coloured garb, with its peculiar black patch on the cheek, soon convinced me that my unknown friend was the Butcher-bird, that petty tyrant of its neighbourhood, carrying on incessant warfare and wanton waste of life amongst the small fry of the I'asserine Order, and whoso war-cry was wont to set a host of minor warblers to flight.''' Young. — The young when fledged have the bill greyish- brown, blackish toward the end ; the feet blackish-brown ; the upper parts brownish-grey, the tail-coverts faintly barred with dusky ; the lower parts greyish-white, tinged with brown, and transversely barred with brownish-grey ; the lateral band on the head brown ; the wings and tail blackish-brown, marked w I'll wliito as in the adult, but to a less extent. GREAT CINEREOUS SHRIKE. 501 Progress toward MArrinTY. — As the bird advances in age the upper parts become of a purer grey ; the lower white, but seldom entirely destitute of faint traces of the transverse lines; the lateral band on the head blacker, and the wings and tail of a deeper tint. The males after the first moult resemble the adult females. Remark.?. — Several species are very closely allied to the present. Lanius meridionalis differs merely in being a little larger, in having the grey of the upper parts of a deeper tint, and the fore-neck and breast tinged with purplish-red. An American species, Lanius borealis, which has by many authors been confounded with Lanius Excubitor, may be distinguished by its greater size, by having the white on the wings and tail less extended, the bases of the primaries only, not of the secon- daries, being of that colour. Even the Loggerhcaded Shrike, Lanius ludovicianus, is not readily distinguished, although it possesses distinctive characters, among others the want of white at the base of the secondaries. ^Mr Selby's figure of Lanius Excubitor wants this white patch on the base of the secondary/ quills, it being represented only on the primary, and therefore may belong to Lanius borealis or Lanius lu- dovicianus. The same error has been committed by Mr Gould, in his figures of both Lanius meridionalis and Lanius Excubitor. Having examined the bird in a fresh state as well as stuffed and in skin, I am qualified to say that when the wing is closed, as represented by these authors, two con- tiguous patches of white are seen, one on the bases of the primaries, the other at those of the secondaries. Fig. 250. All the species above mentioned vary considerably in sum- mer, the lower parts being then of a purer white, the trans- verse lines entirely wanting, the tips of the feathers being worn off, the upper parts paler, the wings and tail more browned, and the white on the tips of the quills and tail-feathers more or less obliterated by wearing, so that many of these feathers are black at the end ; and the difference appears very striking when new feathers are coming in among the old. 503 LANIUS RUTILUS. THE WOODCHAT SHRIKE. WOODCHAT. WOOD SHRIKE. Fio. 252. Lanius rutilus. Lath. Ind. Orii. I. 70. Woodchat. :Mont. Orn. Diet. Woodshrike. Supp. Pie-griuche rousse. Lanius rufus. Temm. INIan. d'Orn. I. liT. Woodchat. Lanius rufus. Selb. Illustr. I. 153. Lanius rufus. Woodchat. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 96. Male icith the upper part of the head and the hind-neck hroicn- isk-red, the back black, the scapulars white, the rump grey, the ijcings black, the base of the primaries and the tips of the secon- daries white, the tail black excepting the outer feathers, the basal half of the next and its tip, with those of the rest, which are white ; a broad black frontal band, margined anteriorly with white; a black cheek-band ; the lower parts white, female with the head and neck dull red; the back brownish-black, the lower parts greyish-white, icith transverse broicnish lines. Young reddish-brown above, brownish-white tcith transverse lines be- neath. Male. — Tho Woodchat Shrike is much inferior in size to the species last described, which it however resembles in form, WOODCIIAT SIIIUKE. 503 the body being moderately stout, the neck short, the head ovate; the bill short, stout, compressed toward the end, its outlines convex, the tip of the upper mandible deflected and acute, that of the lower reflected and also acute, the notch and dentiform process of the former distinct, and the gape-line slightly arched. The feet arc rather small ; the tarsus slender, compressed, with seven anterior scutella ; the first toe with eight, the second with ten, the third twelve, the fourth also twelve scutella. The plumage is soft and blended. There are five strong bristle- feathers at the base of the upper mandible on each side. The wings arc of moderate length ; the first quill nearly half the length of the second, which is a quarter of an inch shorter than the third, the latter being the longest feather in the wing, the second equal to the fifth. The tail is long, straight, and much rounded or graduated, the lateral feathers being half an inch shorter than the longest. The bill is black, as are the feet and claws. The upper part of the head and the hind-neck are brownish-red, the anterior part of the back black, the hind part grey. The wing-coverts and quills are black, the bases of the primaries white, as are the outer scapulars, and the tips of the secondaries. The tail- feathers are black, their bases and tips white, that colour in- creasing outwards so as to cover the whole of the outer feather excepting a part of the shaft. A broad black band extends from the forehead over the loral space, includes both eylids, enlarges on the car-coverts, and terminates behind them. On its lower margin before the eye is a narrow white stripe. The lower parts are pure white. Length to end of tail 7/g inches ; bill along the ridge ^*5, along the edge of lower mandible j^ ; yv'mg from flexure Sjg ; tail 3j^^ ; tarsus {^ ; first toe ^'j, its claw ^'^ ; second toe ^*j, its claw ^% ; third toe {%, its claw ^'g ; fourth toe ji, its claw /g. Femalk. — The female has the upper part of the head and the hind-neck dull brownish-red ; the black of the back tinircd with brown ; the rump brownish-grey, transversely barred with brown ; the wings and tail brownish-black, with the white markings less extended and tinged with bro^^•n. The band on 504 LAN 1 US RUTILUS. the side of tlie head is brown ; and the lower parts are greyish- white, the sides tinged with brown, the fore-neck and breast marked with faint semicircular brown lines, of which there are two on each feather. Length to end of tail 7j% inches ; bill along the ridge ^''^ ; tarsus [I ; middle toe and claw j"|. Habits;. — The Woodchat Shrike, which extends as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and is abundant in many parts of Africa, where individuals are said to reside all the year, visits the European continent in spring, and extends its migrations to Italy, France, Switzerland, and Germany, returning south- ward in September. It is said to resemble the next species in its habits, to frequent the hedges and sides of roads, to have a short and undulated flight, and to imitate the cries of other birds. Its food consists of insects of various kinds, as well as occasionally of small birds and quadrupeds. Mr Hoy, in Lou- don's Magazine of Natural History, states that it nestles in- A'ariably in trees, preferring the oak. " The nest is fixed to the fork of a projecting branch, and is composed on the outside of sticks and wool, mixed with white moss from the bodies of the trees, and lined with fine grass and wool. Eggs four or five in number, rather smaller than those of the Red-backed Shrike, and varying much in markings ; the ground colour be- ing j)ale bhic in some, in others a dirty white, surrounded near the larger end with a zone of rust-coloured spots ; in some, again, the markings and spots arc of a paler colour, and more dispersed over the cg<^. It is not a wild bird, often building close to houses and public roads." The same gentleman men- tions two instances of its having been kilk'd in England, near Canterbury, and in the neighbourhood of Swatfham in Nor- folk. Five others are brought forward by Mr Yarrell, in his instructive and beautifully illustrated History of British Birds; so that this species is confirmed as a rare visitant in England. Yorxc. — The young, after the first moult, are said by M, Temminck to be "• of a dull white beneath, with grey bands, reddish-brown above, with brown semilunar markings ; the wings and tail blackish-brown." 505 LANIUS COLLURIO. THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE. REU-BACKED BUTCHER-BIRD. KLUSHER. Fio. 253. Ltinius Collurio. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 136. Lanius Cullurio. Lath. Ind. Orn. L G9. Red-backed Shrike. Mont. Orn. Diet. Pie-grieche Ecorcheur. Lanius Collurio. Teram. !Man. d'Orn. L l47. Red-backed Shrike. Lanius Collurio. Selb. lllustr. I. 150. Lanius Collurio. Red-backed Shrike. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 96. Male icith the hack and iclng-coverts hroicnish-red, the crown of the head, hind-necJc, and rump ash-r/rey, the breast and sides rose-coloured, a broad band of black from the bill to behind the ear ; tail xchite, toicards the end blackish-brown, of which colour are the two middle feathers. Female tcifh the tipper parts red- dish-broicn, the hind-neck tinged with grey ; the lower parts grey- ish-white, transversely undulated with dusky. Male. — The Red-backed Shrike, which is about the size of the Corn Bunting, and of a compact form, has the body mo- derately full ; the head rather large ; the bill short, stout, con- siderably compressed, its outlines convex, the tip of the upper mandible deflected, the notch and dentiform process distinct, 50G LANIUS COLLURIO. tho ti]) of tho lower mandible a little reflected, and the gape- line slightly arclicd. The feet are rather small ; the first toe with eight, the second with ten, the third twelve, the fourth twelve scutclla ; the toes very slender ; the claws of moderate length, arched, slender and sharp pointed. The plumage is soft and blended ; the bristle-feathers at tho base of the upper mandible small. The wings of moderate length ; the first quill one-third of the length of the second, which is three-twelfths of an inch shorter than the third, and one-twelfth longer than the fifth, the third longest. The tail is long, straight, slightly emarginate, and considerably rounded, the middle feathers being one-twelfth of an inch shorter than the next, and the latter four-twelfths shorter than the longest. The bill and feet are black ; the i rides brown. The upper part of the head and the neck are ash-grey ; the back, scapu- lars, and wing-coverts brownish-red, the rump shaded with ash-grey ; the quills dusky, with brownish-red margins ; most of the primaries having also a white patch at the base, of which scarcely any is perceptible without removing their coverts. The two middle feathers of the tail, and the terminal third, with the shafts of all the rest, brownish-black, the remaining parts white ; excepting the two middle, they are also termin- ally margined with white. A broad band of brownish-black from the bill to the eye, margining both eyelids, and extending to behind the car. The fore part of the neck and the abdomen are white ; the lower part of the former, the breast and sides, tinged with rose-colour; the lower wing-coverts and tail- covcrts white ; the tibial feathers dusky. Length to end of tail 7:1 inches ; extent of wings 12 ; wing from flexure 3/g ; tail 3fg ; bill along the ridge j^^ '- along the edge of lower mandible -"^j ; tarsus jg ; first toe y*g, its claw i',, ; second toe /^, its claw /^ ; third toe -J^j, its claw ^\ ; fourth toe ^^j, its claw -j%. Femalk. — The female diftcrs considerably in colour. Tho bill is dark brown above, paler beneath. The upper parts are of a dull reddish-brown tint, the hind-neck and nunp tinged with ash-grey, tho tail of a more dingy brown, and faintly RED-BACKED SIIlUlvE. 507 marked with transverso dusky lines, of which some are percep- tible on the back also. There is a whitish band over tlio eye ; the auriculars are brown ; the lower parts greyish-white, tinged with brown on the breast, and except the throat and abdomen, marked with curved lines of dusky brown, of which there are two on each feather. Length to end of tail 7\ inches ; extent of wings I2-4. Habits. — This species is not very uncommon in many dis- tricts of England, as about London and Bristol, in most of the southern counties, and many of the eastern and western, but gradually diminishes in number as we proceed northward, and has not hitherto been observed in any part of Scotland. It frequents the margins of woods, thickets, and tall hedges, as well as open downs and commons which are more or less covered with furze. It is frequently seen perched on a top twig, whence it issues in pursuit of insects, which it fixes upon the thorns, eating the soft parts, but generally leaving the tho- rax and elytra. It has been seen by several creditable observers to prey upon small birds, with which it deals in the same man- ner as the Cinereous Shrike. Messrs Sheppard and Whitear state that tliey once saw a male eager in chase of a Blackbird. Its flight is quick and undulated, and it frequently hovers over a spot in the manner of the Whinchat. Its ordinary note is a kind of chirp, but it has also a short modulated song, and is capable of imitating the cries of several other birds. It appears that the nest of this species is sometimes selected by the Cuckoo in which to deposit her egg. In speaking of the latter bird, the Reverend Messrs Sheppard and Whitear, in the Linnrean Transactions, Vol. XV, p. 28, state that on the 21st July 1816, they " observed a pair of Kcd-backcd Shrikes very busy in feeding a young Cuckoo which was perched on an oak." This fact confirms Temminck's remark, who says that the Cuckoo will sometimes lay its egg in the nest of the above-mentioned Shrike. It also contradicts Montagu's, who asserts that the " Yellow-hammer"'s egg is larger than that of any other bird in whose nest the Cuckoo chooses to lay ;" for the egg of the Red-backed Shrike is superior in size. 508 LANIUS COLLURIO. Mr Harley, who resides in Leicester, has favoured me with the following notice respecting this species. " The Red- backed Shrike occasionally visits us, but is more common in the counties to the westward, that is, in Shropshire, Stafford- shire, Herefordshire, and Worcestershire. In July 1833, as I was walking alongside of an old hedge, near to Ganendon Park, which was composed of maple, crab, hawthorn, hazel, and stunted ash, I heard a sparrow-like note, which to me was somewhat new. This note I found proceeded from the Red- backed Shrike, who was beset with a few pairs of Titmice, Parus cceruleus and Parus ater ; and a pretty loud scolding noise they were making. I could not discover that any bird, mouse, or beetle had been impaled by it, although I spent a long time in attempting to observe, if possible, that habit. The pugnacity of the Titmice is as strongly manifested against the Cuckoo, the A\'indhovcr, and the Owl, should the latter be abroad in the day-time, as it was in this instance against the Shrike. When we are desirous of seeing this species, we must wait until jNIay comes in, and we must not then repair to the extensive wood, the leafy dell, the cultivated upland, or the barren down ; but traverse the borders of the grassy mead, where the cowslip and saxifrage vie with the buttercup and ladysmock ; ' In days when daisies deck the ground, And bhickbirds whistle clear.' Yes, there and then we shall meet with this bold black-eyed bird. 'Tis now the 20th of May ; the oak and ash have not yet unfolded their leaves; but the fine bright foliage and delicate- ly tinted blossoms of the crab rival in beauty those of the fan- tastic maple and nodding beech. The hawthorn too is putting forth its pink-eyed florets, which will soon enamel every hedge, and regale the sense. Here too beneath that over- hanging sj)ray of woodbine we jicrceive the Scilla nutans, droo])ing its modest head, and the cowled Arum in its green pavilion, keeping watch like a sentinel over the flowers around. The wood-j)igeon cooes beside his mate on yon lofty beech ; the wryneck with his shrill pee-pce is heard from the pollard ash ; RED-BACKED SHRIKE. 509 the landscape glows in beauty, and nature teems with life. Hark to that sparrow-like note issuing from the stunted sloe- liedgo. It is our friend the Red-backed Shrike. His black cheek and bold mien bespeak the prcyer. There he sits in the very attitude of the Flycatcher. Now mark his flight, for he is on wing — a miniature windhover. He has seized his prey, a cock-chafer, and bears it to yon solitary hawthorn bush. How very singular is the flight of this Flusher : it is undu- lating, but the tail is kept straight out, like that of the Lonor- tailed Tit, the feathers being held very close together, so that an observer might imagine the bird to have only one feather in it. " This species is very regular in its visits in certain localities, indeed nearly as regular as the Flycatcher. For instance, in the month of June in 1837, and the two succeeding years, I found its nest in an old crab pollard in Staffordshire ; and the gentleman in whose grounds this nest was found assures me that a pair of these birds had a nest in the pollard for several years previous. AMien the bird alights, which it commonly does upon the ranpikes of an old maple or crab, or ash, it has a pe- culiar way of moving its tail up and down, after the manner of the Robin, or rather, may I be allowed to say, of the Magpie ; and 1 am not certain whether this habit is not con.spicuou3 in the Flycatcher. The bird which I noticed in the neighbour- hood of Ganendon Park we shot, and on opening it we found nothing but remains of beetles, cock-chafers, and other insects. The nest is large and put together in rather a slovenly way, the outside being formed of twigs, fibrous roots, and green moss, of the same sort as that which the hedge-sparrow uses, and the lining of hair. Looking at the nest, one would take it for that of a Missel Thrush, inasmuch as a great deal of wool is in- wrought amongst the twigs, around the exterior, which gives it a slovenly appearance, as I have said. I have not seen this bird after August is out, and therefore conclude that it leaves us early after the breeding season. This Shrike has a habit of perching on the topmost as well as the outside twig of a hedge or bush, so that one might at a distance take it for a Yellow or Corn Bunting." 510 LANIUS COLLURIO. The species is said to be found in various parts of Africa, even the Cape of Good Hope, in Italy and other portions of the south of Europe, in France, Germany, and the northern countries as far as Sweden and Norway. In the colder parts it is a migratory bird, and in England makes its first appear- ance in the beginning of May, seldom arriving earlier than the 10th or later than the 20th. It usually places its nest in a thick hedge or bush. According to Montagu, it is " com- posed of moss and fibrous roots put together with wool, and lined with hair. It lays five or six eggs, of a bluish-coloured white, with cinereous brown spots, most at the larger end ; sometimes the eggs are white with dusky spots, ^^'hen it has young and you ajiproach the nest, the birds are clamorous, making a chattering noise." Two young birds which he kept chained " would come to the call for the sake of a fly, of Mhich they were extremely fond ; M-hen raw meat was given them, they would endeavour to fasten it to some part of their open ca^e in order to tear it ; would eat mice and small birds cut in pieces, feathers, fur, and bones, disgorging the refuse like the hawk tribe." After the young have come abroad, they keep tof^ether, and associate with their parents, until the period of their departure, which is towards the end of September. The nest may be more particularly described as very bulky, having an external diameter of from six to seven inches, the internal three. It is composed of slender twigs, fibrous roots, and moss, with a lining of wool, and the hair of various ani- mals. The eggs are ten and a half twelfths long, seven-twelfths in breadth, ovate, with the narrow end rounded, generally light cream-coloured, but sometimes tinged with blue, and marked with dots, spots, and small patches of reddish-brown, and pale purplish-grey, sparse on the smaller end, but collected into a broad ring towards the larger. They are very similar in co- louring to those of the Grey Flycatcher and Missel Thrush. YoiNf;. — Young birds have the upper parts dull reddish- brown ; the hind-neck and rump tinged with grey, the scapu- lars redder with dusky tips ; the ([uills dusky, the inner secon- daries lighter, and bordered with greyish-red, within which is RED-BACKED SHRIKE. 511 a blackish line ; tlio tail-covorts similarly marked, the tail reddish-brown, with reddish-white tips, anterior to which is a dusky line. The anterior part of the forehead, and a band over the eye, are brownish-white, mottled with dusky ; the ear- coverts brown, the loral space whitish. The lower parts are greyish-white, the breast and sides tinged with red ; the throat, middle of the thorax, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts un- marked, the other parts covered with dark brown undulated semicircular lines, of which there are two on each feather. Progress toward Maturity. — After the first moult, the young have the plumage marked as in the adult female ; the males having the colours brighter. It has been suggested by Mr Yarrell that the female ultimately resembles the male, as is the case with our other species. This opinion has originated from the remarks of Mr Hoy and Mr Blyth. The former, in Lou- don''s Magazine, Vol. IV, p. 344, says, " I have a female bird of the red-backed species, in the full garb of the adult male. I had found the nest, and observed near the spot apparently two male birds. Not being able to discover the female, I was in- duced to shoot both ; and, on dissection, one proved the female, with the eggs much enlarged, and one nearly ready for exclu- sion." The latter, in the same useful repertory of facts relative to British birds, Vol. VIII, p. oG4, mentions his having fallen in with a nearly similar individual. " It was a female, partly in the male plumage ; but the ovaries were perfect, and contained eggs ; and it was in company with a partner of the other sex at the time it was shot." 512 MYIOTHERIN.E. FLYCHASERS, AND ALLIED GEXERA, The extensive family of the Myiotherinne, of which species are found in all the warm and temperate parts of the globe, has in Britain only two representatives, the Grey and the Pied Flycatchers, which in form are so closely allied to many species of the Sylvianae, that a person unacquainted with the more re- markable exotic ircnera might naturally conceive it to be quite unwarrantable to refer them to a family distinct from the War- blers. If we compare Muscicapa grisola with Sylvia atrica- pilla, these birds being nearly of the same size, we find that the differences presented by their bills are extremely slight, the one having that organ merely a little broader at the base and less compressed at the end than the other, that their plumage is precisely similar in texture, their wings and tail scarcely dif- ferent in any appreciable degree, and their feet of the same form, although those of the Flycatcher are very much smaller, and in fact so singularly diminutive as to remind us of those of the Swallows. But if we bring together specimens of va- rious species of this group, we find that considered collectively they may with propriety be viewed as constituting a family, possessing decided characters, of which it will suffice here to indicate the more prominent. The family of Myiothcrinre then is composed of birds general- ly of small size, none of them being so large as a Jackdaw, while some arc extremely diminutive. Their bill, Fig. 25-1', is straight, of a tapering form, but depressed or flattened, it being much broader than high at the base, and generally compressed only just at the tip. The upper mandible has its dorsal outline de- clinato convex, the ridge narrow and distinct, the sides slop- ing and becoming more convex toward the end, the edges sharp FLYCIIASERS AND ALLIED GENERA. 513 and deflected, the tip very narrow, deflected, and generally curved over that of the lower, the notch very small or -reduced to a slight sinus. The lower mandible has the an»le mode- rately long, wide, and rounded, the back flattened or convex, the dorsal outline slightly ascending and nearly straight, the sides sloping outwards, flat at the base, convex towards the end, the edges sharp and a little inflected ; the gape-lino straight. Although often very large, the bill is very light, the bony parts being verv thin, and the horny little more than a membrane. »vxx_0:i/^ The mouth is wide; both mandibles internally moderately con- cave, with a central prominent line ; the palate flat ; the pos- terior aperture of the nares linear, and margined with rather large papilla?. The tongue, Plate XXII, Fig. 2, a, triangu- lar, flat, emarginate and papillate at the base, the tip slit and lacerated. The oesophagus, h c J, gradually contracts at the top, and is then of nearly uniform diameter ; the stomach, d e, is a roundish or broadly elliptical moderately compressed VOL. III. 514 MYIOTIIERIN.E. gizzard, with the muscles of moderate size, but not compressed on the edges of the organ ; the intestine, efg h^ short, rather wide, with two minute coeca near the extremity, which has a large pyriform dilatation. The eyes are of moderate size, the eyelids feathered. The external aperture of the ear very large, elliptical. The nostrils very small, elliptical or roundish, in the anterior part of the broad nasal membrane. The hind limbs are very small ; the tarsus very short and slender, moderately compressed or roundish, with seven anterior scutella ; the toes small, much compressed, the first not much stouter than the third, and of moderate length, the second and fourth equal, the third much longer, and united to the fourth at the base ; the claws long, slender, arched, com- pressed, laterally grooved, acute. Fig. 251'. The plumage is generally soft and blended. On each side of the base of the upper mandible are about six strong bristle- feathers, and several smaller on the nasal membrane. AV^ings of moderate length, broad, semiovate, of eighteen quills, the secondaries long, the primaries presenting various modifications. Tail generally rather long, of twelve feathers, and in some degree emarginate, sometimes flattened and triangular, with the lateral feathers very long. The peculiar form of the bill, M'ith the strong bristle-feathers at its base, and the small size of the feet, afford the most pro- minent characters of this family, the species of which reside in woods and thickets, among the twigs and foliage of which they search for their insect food, seldom alighting on the ground, for walking or leaping on which they are in a great measure incapacitated by the structure of their feet. Very frequently they take a station on a twig, from whence they sally forth after passing insects. The larger species also attack and prey upon smaller birds, and are of a very bold and quarrelsome disposition, defending themselves and their young from birds of prey with great courage. The smaller species are of a more quiet temper, confine their destructive powers to insects, and in general re- 6em])le the i^ylvisc in their manners. This family presents various affinities, passing on one hand into that of the Shrikes, on the other into that of the Sylviana?. FLYCHASERS AND ALLIED GENERA. 515 The genera of which it is composed are Muscicapa, lliphidura, Myiagra, Myiothera, and several others. The last-mentioned genus, peculiar to the warm regions of America, is that which I consider as uniting the peculiar characters of the family in the most obvious manner, and consequently that whose name must be applied to it. AVhen the Flycatchers or Muscicapae formed a single genus, one of them bore the name of Muscicapa Tyrannus, partly on account of its domineering temper, and partly because of the bright spot on its head, which was fancifully compared to a regal diadem. This species and many others having similar characters have been formed into a genus, to which the name Tyrannus (Tyrant or King) has been given. But to this mode of naming birds I have already objected. The species of this family are eminently Flychasers, Myiotheres, as Vieillot has called them, and although Myiothera has been applied by Illiger to a genus of the Antcatchers, I think Yieillot has done well in altering it to Myrmothera. It thus remains free to be applied to the genus Tyrannus of authors, which being apparently the most typical or characteristic, gives its name to the family. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS L MUSCICAPA. FLYCATCHER. Bill of moderate length, straight, broad at the base, gradu- ally compressed toward the end : upper mandible with a very small notch close to the small deflected tip ; head rather large, ovate, depressed ; body rather slender, feet short ; tarsus very short, slender, with six or seven very broad scutella ; toes small ; claws rather long, very slender, acute, arched ; plum- age blended ; wings long, the second and third quills longest ; tail long or of moderate length, even or emarginate. 1. Muscicapa grisola. Greij Fhjcatcher. — Upper parts brown- ish-grey, lower white, the head and breast spotted with brown. 2. Muscicapa I uctuosa. Pied Flycatcher. — Upper parts black, the forehead, a patch on the wing, part of the tail, and all the lower parts, white. Female dusky brown above. ilO MUSCICAPA. FLYCATCHER. The Flycatchers constitute one of those genera of the Myio- therince most nearly allied to the Sylviana?, and distinguished by the following characters : — Bill of moderate length, straight, broader than high at the base, becoming gradually compressed toward the end, the ridge rather sharp, the sides sloping, flat at the base, but convex toward the tip, which is narrow, a little declinate, with the notch very obscure ; lower mandible with the angle of moderate length and rather wide, the back a little flattened at first, but afterwards narrow, the sides sloping out- wards, flat on the crura, convex towards the end, the edges a little involute, the tip straight and sharp ; the gape-line straight. The mandibles are internally moderately concave, with a cen- tral prominent line, the upper with a slight groove on each side, the palate flat ; the posterior aperture of the nares linear, edged with rather large acute papilhc, and having a small round knob at its anterior extremity. The cesophagus rather wide at the top, afterwards of nearly uniform breadth ; the proventriculus a little wider, with numerous rather large short glandules. The stomach is a broadly elliptical gizzard, with moderate lateral muscles, rather small tendons, and an inner tough and broadly rugous coat. The intestine is short, rather wide, with two minute ccrca near the extremity; the rectum dilated behind. The nostrils are elliptical, pervious, in the fore part of the large nasal membrane, which is feathered at the base. The eyes arc small, the eye-lids feathered. The aperture of the ear elliptical, and very large. The general form is slender ; the body ovate ; the neck short ; the head of moderate size, liroadly ovate, rather rounded above. Tho feet are short and feeble ; the tarsus very short, slender, compressed, with the seven anterior scutella generally blended, excepting the lower two or throe ; tho toes small and com- MUSCICAPA. FLYCATCIIEll. ',17 pressed, the hind toe not much stronger than the second, the lateral toes equal, the third much longer ; the claws rather long, arched, extremely compressed, and very acute. Fig. 25G. The plumage is soft and hlended, the feathers ovate, with the filaments loose towards the end. Several long stiff bristles at the base of the upper mandible on each side, and a series of shorter bristles along the upper edge of the nasal membrane. Wing rather long, broad, semiovate, rather pointed, with eighteen quills, of which ten are primary or manual, the first not half the length of the second, the latter and the third longest ; the primaries tapering but rounded, the secondaries broadly and abruptly rounded. The tail is of moderate length, straight, even or a little emarginate, of twelve rounded feathers of moderate breadth. Species of this genus occur in the warmer and temperate parts of the old Continent, a few migrating in summer into the northern regions. Their food consists of insects, which they frequently or generally seize on wing, launching in pursuit of them from an elevated station to which they return. But they also search the ground, on which however they do not walk with ease, their progression there being by short hops. Their flight is quick and light ; they are expert at executing rapid turns ; and in flying to a distance they move in an undulatory manner. Their nests are of moderate size, neatly constructed of straws, fibrous roots, and similar materials, and lined with hair or feathers. The female seldom differs much from the male in colour, and their attire is not generally gaudy. Two species occur in Britain, both summer birds. Fio. 256. 518 MUSCICAPA GRISOLA. THE SPOTTED GREY FLYCATCHER. SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. GREV FLYCATCHER. BEE BIRD. CHERRY CHOPPER. F/o. 257. Muscicapa Grisola. Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 328. Muscicapa Grisola. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 467. Spotted Flycatcher. Mont. Orn. Diet. Gobe-mouche gris. Muscicapa Grisola. Temm. Man. d'Orn. J. 152. Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa Grisola. Selb. Illustr. L 141. Muscicapa Grisola. Spotted Flycatcher. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 97. Upper parts hrownish-grey, the head spotted with hroicn ; lower parts white, the neck and fore part of the breast streaked with grei/ish-broicn. Male. — The Spotted Flycatcher is about the size of the Meadow Pipit, or the Black-capped AYirblcr, and of an equally slender form, the body ovate and a little compressed, the neck rather short, the head of moderate size, broadly ovate, rounded above. The bill is straight, of moderate length, rather stout, depressed or broader than high at the base, tapering to a point ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly declinate, a little convex towards the end, the ridge narrow, the sides slop- ing and towards the end convex, the edges sharp, direct, and overlapping, the tip very narrow, slightly declinate, the notch reduced to a slight sinus; the lower mandible lias the ancle rather short, wide, and rounded, the dorsal outline a.scending SPOTTED GREY FLYCATCHER. 519 and slightly convex, the sides at the base sloping outwards and concave, towards the end convex, the back broad and flattened, but towards the end narrow, the edges sharp and sloping out- wards ; the gape-line straight. Both mandibles are internally slightly concave, with a central prominent line, the upper with a groove on each side for the edges of the lower ; the palate is flat ; the posterior aperture of the nares linear, margined in its whole length with rather large papillit. The tongue, Plate XXII, Fig. 2, rt, five and a half twelfths long, flat, deeply emarginate and finely papillate behind, ciliated on the edges at the base, the tip slit and lacerated, the points very slender. The oesophagus, h c d, is two inches in length, of nearly uniform dia- meter, its average width two twelfths. The stomach, d e, is seven twelfths long, six broad, moderately compressed, its late- ral muscles of moderate thickness, its tendons rather small, the inner coat thin and broadly rugous. The intestine, e/^ h, is six inches long, rather wide, having a diameter of from two twelfths to one ; the cceca, (/, extremely small, cylindrical, a twelfth long, and ten twelfths of an inch distant from the ex- tremity. The nostrils are elliptical, open, perforated, in the fore part of the large nasal membrane, which is anteriorly bare, one twelfth of an inch long. The eyes are small, their aperture two twelfths. That of the ear elliptical, very large, nearly three twelfths. The feet are very small and slender ; tarsus very short, compressed, anteriorly with six scutella, acute be- hind ; the toes very small ; the hind toe not stouter than the third, and with its claw equal to the second and fourth, the third much longer ; the first with eight, the second with ten, the third thirteen, the fourth twelve scutella. Claws of mode- rate length, rather strong, extremely compressed, moderately arched, acute. Plumage very soft, blended, the feathers ovate, with the fila- ments free at the end, and a very slender long plumule of few barbs. There are five long, stiffish bristle-feathers on each side at the base of the upper mandible, and several small ones on the nasal membrane. ^V'ing of moderate length, broad, semiovate, rather pointed, with eighteen quills, of which ten 520 xMUSCICAPA GRISOLA. are primary ; the first about a fourth of the length of the second, which is longest, but scarcely exceeds the third, the fourth three twelfths of an inch shorter, the other primaries slowly gradu- ated, all rounded ; the secondaries long and abruptly rounded ; the third and fourth primaries slightly cut out on the outer web at the end. The tail is of moderate length, straight, emargi- nate, the feathers rounded. This species is remarkable for hav- ing, like the Robin, some Thrushes and other birds, a few fila- ments protruding from among the feathers of the nape. They are tipped \yith six barbs. The bill is black, the base of the lower mandible deep flesh- colour, its edges lighter ; the tongue and soft palate orange, the horny part of the mouth dusky. The iris is dusky ; the feet brownish-black. The general colour of the upper parts is a light brownish-grey, the rump more tinged with brown, the head spotted with dusky-brown ; the quills, coycrts, and tail-feathers dusky, margined with light greyish-brown. The loral space and marginal feathers of the eyelids are brownish-white, the ear-coyerts greyish-brown. The lower parts are greyish-white, the neck and fore part of the breast streaked with greyish-brown, the sides light reddish-brown, as are the axillar feathers, and lower wing-coyerts ; the lower tail-coverts with the central part brown. Length to end of tail Gf^ inches; extent of wings 10^; wing from flexure 3} ; tail Sj"^ ; bill along the ridge j^|, along the edge of lower mandible {^ ; tarsus ^"^ ; first toe /g, its claw -/I ; second toe ^^^, its claw ^% ; third toe ^"^g, its claw j^^ ; fourth toe ji , its claw p^ . Fkmale. — The female is a little less, but in colour differs so little that one can hardly distinguish her without dissection. Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 1 0 ; bill along the ridge ^^j ; tarsus ^'^ ; middle toe and claw -Z^. Variations. — I haye met with no other variations tlinn a slight diflorence in the tints of the upper j)arts, and in the dark- ness and size of the streaks on the lower parts, which are some- times extended over the whole of the thorax. SPOTTED GREY FLYCATCHER. 521 Changes of Plumage. — This bird arrives in full plumage, M-ith the feathers entire. As the season advances, the tips of the feathers are abraded, when those of the head become pointed and the brown spots then are more apparent ; the upper parts in general become paler, and the light margins of the quills narrower. Habits. — The Spotted Flycatcher arrives from the middle to the end of May, and is generally distributed both in England and Scotland, but is less common in the latter country, although in some districts there it is by no means scarce. Tt occurs only in wooded parts, frequenting plantations, low bushy hollows, orchards, and gardens. Its flight is rapid and undulated, but it is seldom observed to fly to a great distance. It glides among the twigs in pursuit of insects, perches with ease on trees, walls, and other eminences, sometimes settles on the ground, where it moves by short leaps, and may often be seen making excursions on wing from a tree in the manner of the Chats and Redstart, and returning to its station, to sally forth again when an insect passes near. This is its favourite mode of seizing its prey, which consists exclusively of in.sects of various kinds. In Au- gust and September, when its young have come abroad, it ac- companies them into the woods, and continues there until its departure, which takes place in the beginning of October. On the oth of September 1832, I met with a large flock of these Flycatchers in a fir wood about five miles below Tushielaw in Ettrick ; but, from the few opportunities which I have had of observing them late in the season, am unable to say whether they usually collect in numbers previous to their departure. On this occasion they were searching for food on the ground, among the moss and decayed leaves, and betook themselves to the trees only on being disturbed. This circumstance was no doubt owing to the vast number of insects, and especially of ants, which swarmed on the ground ; but in general the Fly- catcher is not apt to betake itself to such a mode of feeding. It is pleasing to watch it when it has stationed itself on a twier, whence, on the approach of an insect, it glides after it, and having seized it with a snapping noise, returns to the same or 522 MUSCICAPA GRISOLA. a neighbouring station, to watch its prey. This is the charac- teristic action of all the Myiotherinne, but, of course, is not ab- solutely peculiar to them, various allied species of the Sylvianaj exhibiting the same artifice. The nest is placed in a hole of a wall or tree, or on a branch, especially of a fruit tree, or of ivj, against the wall, in which latter case it is usually incomplete at the back part, the inner layer however being perfect. It is small, compact, and hemi- spherical, its greatest diameter measuring four and a half inches, the inner two and a quarter. The exterior is composed of moss, straws, and fibrous roots ; within which is a layer of finer straws, moss, and hair ; while the interior is composed of feathers, generally of domestic birds. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a longish oval form, nine-twelfths of an inch in length, six and a half twelfths in breadth, bluish-white, or very pale greyish-blue, clouded and spotted with light brownish-red and purplish-grey, the markings more numerous toward the larger end. They are very similar to the eggs of Lanius Col- lurio, although much smaller, being about equal in size to those of the Redstart. My friend Mr Durham Weir, whose observations regarding the feeding of Thrushes have already been recorded in the second volume of this work, having instituted a similar inves- tigation of the habits of this species, has communicated to me the results. " Boghead, 22d December 1887. — ' The Spotted Flycatcher is rare in Scotland, if indeed it at all reaches that country.' So says Mr Mudie in his Feathered Tribes of the British Islands, Vol. I, p. 240. In this neighbourhood three or four pairs make their annual appearance. In my garden a male and a female have nestled for twelve successive years. Upon the lowest branch of one of the wall trees, at seven o'clock on Thurs- day morning, the 22d of June 1837, I observed them begin to build their nest. Its construction occupied them little more than a day and a half, for early on Friday afternoon it was finish- ed. On Thursday the 27th the female began to sit upon four eggs, and on the 24tli of July the young were ripe. Next day 1 made the following observations, it being very warm and sunny. At twenty-five minutes before four o'clock, they com- SPOTTED GREV FLYCATCHER. 523 menced feeding their younf;. From that time until four o'clock, they fed them ten times ; from four to five o'clock, sixteen times ; from five to six o'clock, twenty-eight times ; from six to seven o''clock, twenty-nine times ; from seven to eight, thirty- four times ; from eight to nine, forty times ; from nine to ten, thirty-nine times ; from ten to eleven, thirty-five times ; from eleven to twelve, forty-four times ; from twelve to one, forty times ; from one to two, thirty-three times ; from two to three, forty-eight times ; from three to four, thirty-seven times ; from four to five, thirty- eight times ; from five to six, twenty-one times ; from six to seven, sixteen times ; from seven to eight, twenty times ; and from eight to ten minutes before nine o'clock, they fed them nine times. They thus fed their young in the course of the day five hundred and thirty-seven times. Their motions were so uncommonly rapid, that I could not for a single moment keep my eye off the nest. Before they fed their young, they alighted upon a tree for a few seconds, and looked round about them. By short jerks they usually caught the winged insects. Sometimes they ascended in the air, and dropped like an arrow ; at other times they hovered in it like a hawk, when set on its prey. They beat off' most vigorously all kinds of small birds that approached their nest. It is im- possible to give the precise number of flies that might have been consumed by their brood, as they sometimes brought to them one large fly, at other times two, three, four, five, and even more flies of different sizes." Young. — The young when fledged have the bill light broAyn, with its basal margins yellow, the feet greyish-brown, and the claws dusky. The upper parts are dull yellowish-grey, the feathers edged with dusky ; the wing-coverts, quills, and tail- feathers chocolate brown, the former tipped, and the latter margined with pale brownish-red. The sides of the head, and the fore part of the neck are reddish-white, the feathers tipped with dusky, the breast and belly greyish-white, the sides faintly marked with dusky. Progress toward Maturity. — At the first moult in August and September the plumage assumes tlw colours of the adult. 524 MUSCICAPA LUCTUOSA. THE PIED FLY- CATCHER. Fig. 258. Muscicapa Atiicapilla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 396. Muscicapa Atiicapilla. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 935. Adult Male. Muscicapa Atiicapilla. Lath. Tnd. Orn. I. 467. Adult Male. Pied Flycatcher. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supp. Motacilla Ficedula. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 936. Young and Female. Sylvia Ficedula. Lath. lud. Orn. IL 517. Female and Young. Gobe-mouche bec-figue. Muscicapa luctuosa. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 155. Pied Flycatcher. Muscicapa luctuosa. Selb. lUustr. L 143. • Muscicapa luctuosa. Pied Flycatcher. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 97. Male with the upper parts black ; part of the forehead., a patch on the tcinp, and the outer icebs of the two outer tail feathers on each side., as icell as cdl the loicer parts, xchite. Female greyish- hroicn above, brotcnish-white beneath. Male. — Tho Pied Flycatcher, -svliich, like the Grey, is a Kuninicr bird in Britain, is much more uncommon there than that species, and does not appear to extend to Scotland, although it has been found as far north as the Border counties of Eng- land. It is considerably smaller, but much more beautiful than its British congener, which it resembles in its propor- tions. The bill is shortish, straight, slender, a little broader than high at the ba.sc, compressed beyond tho niiddle ; tho upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly declinate, a PIICl) FLYCATCIIKH. r»25 little convex towards the end, the ridge narrow, the sides slop- ing at the base, convex toward the end, the tip slightly de- curved, the notch reduced to a slight sinus ; the lower man- dible with the angle of moderate length and rather wide, the dorsal outline ascending and rather convex, the tip narrow. The nostrils are elliptical, in the fore part of the rather largo nasal membrane, which is feathered at the base. The feet are very small and slender ; the tarsus short, compressed, anteri- orly M'ith a long jdate and two scutella, acute behind ; the toes very small ; the hind toe rather stouter than the third, and with its claw longer than the second and fourth ; the claws rather long, extremely compressed, arched, acute. Plumage very soft and blended, the feathers ovate. There is a row of long stiffish bristle-feathers on each side at the base of the upper mandible, and several smaller ones on the nasal membrane. Wing of moderate length, broad, semiovate, with eighteen quills ; the first about a third of the length of the second, which is shorter than the third, and equal to the fifth, the third longest. The tail of moderate lengthy straight, emar- ginate, and laterally rounded. The bill, feet, and claws are black ; the iris hazel. The upper parts, including the sides of the head, are greyish-black, the rump tinged with brownish-grey ; a patch on the forehead white ; the quills brownish-black ; the secondary coverts and inner secondary quills broadly margined with white, that colour including the whole of the three inner excepting the tips ; the bases of all the quills except the outer three wdiite ; the tail- feathers brownish-black ; the outer two feathers on each side with the outer web and part of the inner white, the next with a small part of the outer web of the same colour ; the whole under surface, including the throat, white. Length to end of tail o\ inches; extent of wings 8 ; wing from flexure 3j% ; tail 2^'^ ; bill along the ridge j^^, along the edge of lower mandible ^% ; tarsus j% ; first toe y^^, its claw {^ ; second toe j^^, its claw f| ; third toe {%, its claw {'j ; fourth toe ^^, its claw j^^. Female. — The female is scarcely smaller, and difters in want- 526 MUSCICAPA LUCTUOSA. ing the ^vbite patch on the forehead, and in having the upper parts hair brown, the lower dull white. Length to end of tail o^'^ inches; wing from flexure 3^g ; tail 2^% ; bill along the ridge ^"'^ ; tarsus j% ; middle toe j^, its claw j%. Habits. — This species is in form and proportions nearly as much a Sylvia as a Flycatcher, being more especially allied to the Redstart and others of that group. It arrives from the middle to the end of April, and appears to be more abundant in Cumberland and Westmoreland than in the other counties. Up to 1813, when the Supplement to Montagu's Dictionary appeared, very little was known as to the habits of this bird, all that is related bv that excellent ornithologist beincj as fol- lows. " As it rarely makes its appearance in the southern parts of the island, it may be inferred to be a northern species, and probably indigenous rather than merely a summer visitant. But being a local species, which never has been plentiful, and seems to be diminishing, this point has not been ascertained. The Rev. Mr Dalton of Copgrove, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, had transmitted a pair shot in his neighbourhood, in which there was no material distinction between the sexes, except that the female was rather less bright in the black parts of the plumage ; but subsequent observations do not agree with this, for the female has been found to diflcr materially in colour. A nest and eggs were taken in the beginning of May 1811, in the same county, and transmitted by Mr Dalton. The nest was taken from a hole in a tree ; it is composed of dry leaves intermixed with broad pieces of the interior bark of some tree, and a little hay, with a few long hairs, and three or four fea- thers form the lining. The materials are so coarse, and des- titute of wool or other substances capable of connecting the parts, that it scarcely holds together, evidently bespeaking that it had been taken from the situation described. The eggs are five in number, of a very pale blue, about the size and colour of those of the Redstart, but rather paler. The nest is very dif- ferent from that of the Redstart, which is more compact, and formed of moss, plentifully lined with hair and feathers ; where- PIED FLYCATCHER. 527 as ill tlio Flycatclier's nest now before us, there is not a single sprig of moss/'' The alleged difterences in the tints of the plumage, some being " said to be mixed with grey on the upper parts, or spotted with white on the rump or upper tail coverts ; others having white on the three exterior feathers of the tail ; and some having only the outer feather marked with white," were not accounted for or properly described ; and as the " young birds at first resemble the female, and in their change of plumage the males have all the intermediate shades from brown to black, this has probably given rise to an opinion that the male changes his plumage in the winter, and becomes like the female." A Carlisle correspondent in the Magazine of Natural History, Vol. Ill, 173, gives the following succinct account of it. " The migration of this species appears to be principally confined to the northern counties, as it is seldom observed beyond York- shire, and rarely seen in the south of England, although it has occasionally been met with in Norfolk, Suffolk, Middlesex, Surrey and Dorsetshire. In some parts of Westmoreland it is very plentiful, especially in the beautiful and extensive woods surrounding Lowther Castle, the magnificent and princely re- sidence of the Earl of Lonsdale, where we have seen it in very great numbers, and where it has bred unmolested and almost unknown for years. On the contrary, we have reason to think it has not resorted to the vicinity of Carlisle more than five or six years, and, as far as we have yet been able to ascertain, only to one locality, where it is evidently upon the increase. In this situation the males generally arrive about the middle of April, the females not until ten or fifteen days afterwards. They commence nidification early in May, and the young are ex- cluded about the first or second week in June. We have hitherto invariably found their nests in the hole of a tree, sometimes at a considerable height, occasionally near the sur- face of the ground, and, for two successive years, in the stump of a felled tree. In texture and formation, the nest is very similar to those of the Greater Pettychaps, Blackcap, and White-throat, being only slightly put together, composed al- most entirely of small fibrous roots and dried grass, always 528 MUSCICAPA LUCTUOSA. lined with a little hair, and oreuerally a few decayed leaves on the outer side, but entirely without moss. Their eggs vary in number : we have found their nest with five, six, and now and then with seven ; their colour a pale green ; and they so greatly resemble the eggs of the redstart, that it is frequently very difficult to distinguish them, unless contrasted together : they arc, however, fiir from being so elegantly made, of a rounder form, and rather less, weighing from 28 to 30 grains. The males, soon after their arrival, should the weather be at all favourable, will frequently sit for a considerable time on the decayed branch of a tree, constantly repeating their short, little varied, although far from unpleasing song, every now and then interrupted by the pursuit and capture of some pass- ing insect. Their alarm note is not very unlike the word child; which the}' commonly repeat two or three times when approached, and which readily leads to their detection. The manners and habits of the pied flycatcher have considerable affinity to those of the redstart ; they arrive about the same time, associate together, and often build in the same holes, for which they will sometimes contend. On one occasion we found a dead female redstart in the nest of a pied flycatcher contain- ing two eggs ; and at another time, when both those species had nests within a few inches of each other, upon the red- start's being removed, the female redstart took forcible posses- sion of the flycatcher's nest, incubated the eggs, and brought up the young." It may seem somewhat strange that this species should not have been met with in any part of Scotland. On the Continent it extends northward as far as the middle parts of Germany, and is abundant in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The nest is said to be loosely constructed of fibrous roots, grass, dry leaves, and hair, the latter with some fine grass forming the lining. The eggs, six or eight in number, are pale blue, about eight and a half twelfths in length, rather broadly oval, their greatest breadth being somewhat more than half an inch. Yorxu. — The young, which are hatched in the beginning of June, are when fledged similar to the female. ii>y AMPELIN^. CHATTERERS AXD ALLIED SPECIES. TiiF, birds of which this group is composed present in com- bination so many characters individually representative of other groups, that although their affinities may easily be traced to a considerable extent, it is difficult to assign them a precise sta- tion in a methodical arrangement. If we examine a Pipra, the species named gutturosa, for example, and compare it with a Parus of the same size, Parus ater, for instance, we cannot fail to perceive that the transition from one genus to the other is almost direct, the general form, the feet, the wings, the plumage, and even the style of colouring, presenting a remark- able similarity. The greatest diti'erence is in the bill, \vhich in Pipra is much broader, with the outline of the upper man- dible more curved, its ridge more narrow, and its sides more slanting and flattened. These latter particulars are in a re- markable degree repeated in the species of the genus Bomby- cilla, which forms part of a group composed of the genera Am- pelis, Procnias, Calyptomena, and Casmarhynchus, having in their widened mouth, somewhat triangular bill, and small feet, an obvious relationship to the Myiotherinje or Flychasers. AVhethcr the Ampelina? should be considered as forming part of the order Cantatores, or of that of Myiotherinje, it is thus difficult to determine. They are generally regarded as chiefly frugivorous, and the only species which visits us is decidedly so in the winter season at least ; but so are many Cantatores, the Thrushes for example, and many Myiotherinne, even the com- mon Grey Flycatcher ; and, although the bird usually named the Bohemian Chatterer may not very much resemble the species just named, I think it may be placed next to it as well as in proximity to a Thrush or a Tit. In their general form the Ampelinae are rather full and com- 530 AMPELIN^i:, pact, with a short neck, an oblonc head of moderate size, small feet, and blended plumage. The bill is always shorter than the head, broad at the base, and presenting a triangular form wdien viewed from above or beneath ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline decurved, its ridge narrow, the sides sloping, the edges direct, the tip small and deflected, with small but distinct notches ; the lower mandible smaller, with the ansle wide, the dorsal line slightly convex, the sides rounded, the edges rather inflected, the tip very narrow. The tarsi are generally short ; the toes small or of moderate size, the first strongest and considerably larger than the lateral, of which the outer is a little longer, the soles flattened. The claws are of moderate size, well curved, compressed, laterally grooved, very acute. The wings are of moderate length, or rather long, generally concave, with nineteen quills. The tail short, or moderate, of twelve feathers, which are a little arched. The plumage is various, generally blended, and often highly coloured. The Ampelinas are chiefly natives of warm climates, espe- cially of those of America. Their principal food consists of soft fruits and insects, but their habits are little known. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. BOMBYCILLA. WAXWING. Bill short, rather stout, broad at the base, gradually com- pressed toward the end ; upper mandible with the dorsal line convex and declinate, the ridge narrow, the sides sloping and convex, the edges sharp and overlapping, the tip deflected, narrow, and rather acute, the notches distinct ; lower mandi- ble with the dorsal lino convex and ascending, the edges in- flected, the tip very small, acute, ascending. Toes and claws moderate ; the latter arched, compressed, acute. Wings rather long, broad, and pointed. Tail of moderate length, even. 1. Jioinhjicilla fiarnda. Black-throated iVa.riviuf/. Upper parts light greyish-brown, forehead browniish-orango ; throat black, lower tail-coverts yellowish-red ; oblong vermilion ap- pendages to the ipiills. 531 BOMBYCILLA. WAXWING. Only three species of this genus are known, which agree in presenting the following characters : Bill short, straight, broad at the base, compressed toward the end : upper mandible with its dorsal line convex and de- clinate, the ridge narrow, the sides sloping and anteriorly con- vex, the edges sharp and overlapping, the notches distinct, the tip small, declinate, rather acute ; lower mandible smaller, with the angle wide, the dorsal line convex and ascending, the sides convex, the edges sharp and somewhat inclinate, the tip acute and slightly ascending, with a small sinus ; the gape- line straight. Mandibles moderately concave ; palate with three slight longitudinal ridges anteriorly, covered behind with papilUe ; tongue short, triangular, sagittate and papillate at the base, concave above, with the tip horny and deeply slit ; mouth wide. (Esophagus very wide, enlarged about the middle ; stomach small, moderately muscular, roundish, with a dense, longitu- dinally rugous, epithelium ; intestine short and excessively wide ; coeca very small, oblong ; rectum wider, and very short. The oesophagus resembles that of the Deglubitores ; the tongue, mouth, stomach and intestine, those of Swallows and Flycatchers. PL XXII, Fig. 3. Nostrils large, oval, partly concealed by the reversed feathers. Kyes of moderate size. Body moderately full, neck short, head ovato-oblong. Legs short and moderately stout ; tarsus short, compressed, with seven scutella ; toes of moderate size, first stout and broad beneath, outer slightly adherent at the base, and a little longer than the inner. Claws moderate, arched, compressed, laterally grooved, acute. Plumage very soft and blended, with little gloss. Head with a conspicuous tuft. Wings rather long, pointed, of nine- teen quills ; primaries graduated, the first and second longest ; 532 BOMBYCILLA. WAXWING. secondaries abruptly rounded, with the shaft prolonged into a narroNv oblong coloured horny expansion, Fig. 259. Tail of moderate length, slightly rounded or even, of twelve rather narrow obliquely rounded feathers. The "W'axwings, so named on account of the alar append- ages, which in colour resemble red sealing wax, belong to the arctic regions of both continents, whence they advance south- ward when the cold becomes severe. In winter, they feed chiefly on berries, but in summer are said to live on insects. 533 BOMBYCILLA GARRULA. THE BLACK- THROATED WAXWING. BOHEMIAN CHATTERER. Fig. 260. Ampelis Garrulus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 297. Ampelis Garrulus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 363. Bohemian Chatterer. Mont. Orn. Diet. Grand Jaseur. Bombycivora garrula. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 124. Bohemian Wa.T-wing. Bombycilla garrula. Selb. lUustr. I. 268. Bombycilla garrula. Bohemian Wax-wing. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 125. General colour of the plumage light greyish-hroicn, shaded be- hind into ash-grey ; forehead and lorcer tail-corerts hroicnish- orange ; throat and a band from the nostrils to the occiput black ; primary coverts tipped with white ; primaries with a yellow^ se- condaries with a white spot, at the end of the outer web ; tail greyish-black, tipped with yellow. r)34 BOMBYCILLA GARRULA. Male. — This lovely bird, which rarely makes its appearance in our country, and then only in winter, is nearly equal in size to the Song Thrush, and much exceeds the Carolina Waxwing, which is coloured nearly in the same manner. The principal features have been described in the generic character. There are no bristles at the base of the bill ; the feathers on the fore part of the head, forming the tuft or crest, are linear-oblong, slightly decurved, with loose filaments, the largest an inch and a quarter in length ; the other feathers generally are ovato-ob- long ; and the plumage is blended, extremely soft, with a slight gloss, not approaching to silky. The wings are of moderate length, broad, pointed, with the first quill longest, the second scarcely shorter, the other primaries regularly graduated ; all the secondaries, except the inner two, are obliquely rounded, and terminated by a narrow oblong expansion of the prolonged shaft, of the colour of red sealing-wax. The tail is of moderate length, even, or very slightly emarginate, the middle feathers being a twelfth of an inch shorter than those next the lateral. The tongue is triangular, five twelfths long, sagittate and papil- late at the base, its tip pointed and deeply slit. The oesophagus, PI. XXII, Fig. S,ab c d, is three inches and a quarter in length, and is presently enlarged into a kind of crop inclined to the right side, and three quarters of an inch in width. The stomach, d e, is small, and moderately muscular, with a dense longitu- dinally rugous epithelium of a reddish colour. The intestine, efff h i, is ten inches long, very wide ; the coeca, h, two and a half twelfths long ; the rectum very short and dilated into an oblong sac. The bill is black, as is the interior of the mouth ; the feet and claws are also black ; the iris purplish-red. The general colour of the plumage is light greyish-brown, anteriorly ap- proaching to browni.sh-orange, of which colour is the forehead, and posteriorly shaded into ash-grey, but with the lower tail- coverts brownish-orange. A band of black from the base of the up])er mandible, includes the loral space, passes over the eye, and terminates on the occiput, where it is concealed by the crest. On the throat is a glossy black patch, about three (piarters of an inch in length, inargined on each side with a band of which BLACK-THROATKD WAXWIN(;. 535 the anterior part i.s white, the posterior brownish-orange. The quills and larger coverts are dark grey, towards the end grey- ish-black, the primary coverts largely tipped with white ; the primary quills with an elongated yellow spot at the end of their outer web ; the secondary quills with a similar spot of white. The tail is grey at the base, black toward the end, with a terminal bar of pure yellow. Length to end of tail 9 inches ; to end of wings 8^} ; extent of wings IG ; wing from tiexure 4/^ ; tail 3 ; bill along the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible y*^ ; tarsus j%; first toe /g, its claw -p^ ; second toe -/|, its claw /| ; third toe /i, its claw ^i ; fourth toe /'j, its claw /|. Female. — The female is somewhat less, but otherwise similar to the male. The vermilion tips of the secondary quills are more slender, and less numerous. Length to end of tail 8\ inches ; bill along the ridge j% ; wing from flexure 4^3 ; tail 2\^ ; tarsus j% ; hind toe and claw /g ; middle toe and claw j%. Variations. — The principal variations have reference to the wax-like appendages to the secondary quills, of which the greatest number is seven. Hahits. — This bird, which I have not had the good fortune to see alive and at liberty, visits us accidentally, or at irregular periods, making its appearance generally in large flocks, and in winter, when it betakes itself to the hedges and rowan trees, to feed on their berries. It has been met with so frequently in Scotland as to render it unnecessary for me to present a list of places and times at which it has been seen, and yet at such irregular and often distant periods that it must be considered as a ver}' rare bird even there. In England, if we except the nor- thern counties, it is of still less frequent occurrence, although specimens have been obtained as far south as Devonshire and Cornwall. It is said to extend over the contiuciit in winter, and to return in the end of spring to the arctic regions ; but its breed- ing places are unknown. Its geographical range is vas-t, for it equally inhabits the north of Asia, is mentioned by M. Tern- 536 BOMBYCILLA GAIUIULA. minck as occurring in Japan, and has been observed by Dr Richardson, Mr Macculloch, and others in North America, where it miiirates in the same manner. With us it is gener- ally shy, easily put to flight, and of active habits. It is said to feed not only on berries of the ivy, rowan, white- thorn, and wild roses, but also on insects, which it pursues in the same manner as Shrikes and Flycatchers. The Cedar Bird of America, which is a species of the same genus, is represented as feeding chiefly on berries, but as also seizing insects in the manner of Flycatchers, although not with equal dexterity. Both species are said to be much addicted to glut- tony, and in a state of captivity to gorge themselves so ex- cessively as sometimes to be suffocated. The habits of the American species have been pretty well described by AV'ilsou and others, but those of the European are little known. The latter is usually named the Bohemian Chatterer, although a remarkably silent bird, and not more common in Bohemia than in many other parts of Germany. As the black patch on the throat is one of its principal distinctive characters, Black-throated is evidently a better specific name than Bohe- mian. 537 PSARIN^. THICK-BILLS AND ALLIED iiPEGIES Nearly allied to the Lanilnne and Myiotherinae on the one hand, and to the Turdinnc and Thremmaphilina* on the other, is a family of birds, which includes the genera Psaris, Grau- calus, Irena, Eurystonius, Coracias, and several others, of which the general characters are as follows. ]iill stout, of moderate length, opening to beneath the mid- dle of the eye, broad at the base, gradually compressed toward the end : upper mandible with the dorsal outline convex and declinate, the ridge indistinct, the sides convex, the edges thin, slightly arched, with a faint sinus close to the tip, which is slender and deflected ; lower mandible with the angle short, the dorsal line slightly convex, the ridge obtuse, the sides con- vex, the edges slightly arched, the tip obliquely truncate. Nostrils basal, rather large, partially concealed by the fea- thers. Eyes of moderate size, eyelids generally bare unless to- ward the edges. Aperture of ear roundish, of moderate size. Head large, roundish, or broadly ovate ; neck short ; body moderately full. Feet small ; tarsus very short, rather stout, with seven broad anterior scutella ; toes moderate, the second little longer than the first, the fourth considerably longer ; claws moderately curved, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute. Plumage moderately full, generally blended. Bristles at the base of the bill usually strong. Wings of moderate length, broad, of twenty-three (juills, of which the third is longest, the first little shorter than the second ; the primaries not much exceeding the secondaries. Tail of twelve feathers, of mode- rate length, generally even, but various. These birds arc all inhabitants of warm climates, and for the 538 PSARIN^. most part gaudily coloured. Their habits are little known, but it appears that they generally feed on insects. One species ranks with us as a rare and accidental visitant. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. CORACIAS. ROLLER. Bill nearly as long as the head, rather wide at the base, stout, compressed ; the upper mandible with the dorsal line slightly arched and dcclinate, the edges nearly straight, with a very slight sinus, the tip small, slender, declinate ; feet very short ; tarsus with seven very broad scutella ; toes free ; second considerably longer than the first, and much shorter than the fourth ; claws moderate, arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute ; strong decurved bristles at the base of the upper Tuandiblc ; wings of moderate length, very broad, rather rounded ; tail generally even ; of twelve broad feathers. 1. Coracias garrula. Garrulous Holler. Head, neck, and lower parts pale bluish-green, back reddish-brown. 539 CORACIAS. ROLLER. The Rollers are birds generally of the size of a Jay, and somewhat resembling that species in form, but with much shorter feet, and remarkable for the bright colours with which their plumage is adorned. They seem to be connected with the Thremmaphilina} by the genus Gracula, and with the Al- cedinte by ^lerops, which they resemble in colouring; but their general form seems to me to indicate a greater affinity to the Laniin.t and Myiotlierina? than to the families just mentioned. Their body is rather full ; the neck short ; the head large and roundish. The bill nearly as long as the head, opening to beneath the eyes, rather wide at the base, but presently com- pressed, and higher than broad ; uj)per mandible with the dor- sal outline slightly arched and declinate, the sides rapidly sloping and convex, the ridge obtuse, the edges acute, with, a slight sinus close to the small, deflected, rather acute tip ; lower mandible with the angle moderate, the dorsal line nearly straight, the tip narrow, and obliquely truncate. Nostrils basal, lateral, oblique, linear, rather long, partially concealed by the feathers, which are not directed forwards. Eyes of moderate size, with a bare triangular space behind. Feet very short ; tarsus with seven very broad scutella ; hind toe rather small, second shorter than the third, anterior toes free. Claws of moderate length, arched, much compressed, slender, acute. Plumage rather full, blended. Several strong decurved bris- tles on each side of the mouth. Wings of moderate length, very broad ; the second and third quills longest ; the primaries not much exceeding the secondaries when the wing is closed. Tail rather long, generally even, of twelve broad feathers. The Rollers are peculiar to the old continent and its islands, species occurring in the warmer parts of Asia, and in Africa, and one of them extending into Europe. 540 CORACIAS GARRULA. THE GARRULOUS ROLLER. "?« 1 Fio. 202. Coracias Garrula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 150. Coracias Garrula. Lath. Ind. Oni. I. 168. Roller. Mont. Orn. Diet. RoUier vulgaire. Coracias garrula. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. \'27 . Garrulous Roller. Coracias garrula. Selb. Illustr. L 117. Coracias garrula. Garrulous Roller. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 156. Head, neck, and loicer parts liaht bluish-preen ; back andsca- pidars light brown ; smaller wing-coverts bright blue ; quills light greenish-blue at the base, deep bluish-black in the rest of their ex- tent ; tail greenish-bine, the outer feathers tipped with black. ^L\i,E. — The Garrulous Roller, which is ahout the size of the Blue-vvinqcJ Jay, is moderately stout, and of rather elegant proportions, but with the head large, and the feet very short. The bill is rather long, stout, much higher than broad, being considerably compressed, with the tip of the upper mandiblo slender and deflected, and that of the lower narrow and oblique- GARRULOUS ROLLER. 541 \y truncate. The tarsus is shorter than the middle toe, rather stout, with seven very broad scutella, and reticulated behind ; the hind toe with six, the second \vith nine, the third with twelve, the fourth with twelve scutella, the anterior toes free to the base, the fourth considerably longer than the second. The claws are of moderate lenjrth, much compressed, laterally grooved, and acute. The nostrils linear, oblique, four-twelfths of an inch long ; the eyes of moderate size ; the aperture of the ear roundish, a quarter of an inch in diameter. The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers generally ovate, but on the head, fore-neck, and part of the breast oblongo- lanceolate. The wings are of moderate length, very broad, the secondary quills being of great length ; the first quill half an inch shorter than the second, which is scarcely exceeded by the third ; the outer secondaries obliquely emarginate. The tail is even, but with the outer feather on each side about a quarter of an inch longer. The bill is brownish-black, darker toward the end ; the iris reddish-brown ; the feet light brown, the claws brownish-black. The head, neck, breast, and lower parts generally, are of a light bluish-green, approaching to verditer ; the neck and breast with paler streaks ; the back, scapulars, and inner secondaries, yellowish-brown ; the anterior smaller wing-coverts and rump azure blue, the latter of a deeper tint ; the other wing-coverts light greenish-blue. The quills are verditer blue at the base, deep bluish-black in the rest of their extent ; the tail-feathers are greenish-blue, the two middle much darker, the outer tipped with black. Length to end of tail 13 inches; bill along the ridge Ij^j, along the edge of lower mandible 1 /g ; wing from flexure 7y"j ; tail 5 ; tarsus 1 ; hind toe j%, its claw i\ ; second toe ^'^, its claw i*j ; third toe 1, its claw {% ; fourth toe j J, its claw j\. Female. — The female resembles the male. Habits. — The Roller is said to occur in Africa, various re- gions of Asia, the European countries bordering on the Medi- terranean, the southern provinces of Russia, some parts of r)4'2 CORACIAS GARRULA, France and Germany, and even Denmark and Sweden, In Britain, although its visits are rare and at uncertain periods, it has hecn killed in Orkney on the one hand, in Cornwall on the other, and in various intermediate places, chiefly along the eastern coast. In 1835, an individual shot in the neighbour- hood of Inverness was sent to Mr Carfrae in Edinburgh, to bo prepared. A specimen, now in decay, which has long been in the JMuseum of the University of Edinburgh, is said to have been shot at Dunkcld. Mr Sclby mentions one that was found dead in Northumberland, and at least two more have been obtained in the same district. Several have also been pro- cured in Yorkshire, Norfolk, and Sufi'olk. The Roller how- ever, while it is one of the most beautiful, is also one of the rarest of our land birds ; and, as opportunities of observing its actions so seldom occur, they have not been described by any of our ornithologists. Of a shy and restless disposition, it prefers the forests and solitary places, but sometimes associates with rooks and other birds, searching the meadows and ploughed fields for food. It lives chiefly on insects, but also eats slugs, worms, reptiles, and soft fruits. Its flight is rapid, and it has been seen to descend at times like the rook or tumbler-pigeon. Its voice is said to be loud and harsh. It nestles in the hollows of trees, or, when these are wanting, in holes which it digs in the banks of rivers. The eggs arc broadly elliptical, nearly an inch and a half in length, smooth and of a glossy white. They are thus similar to those of the Kingsfisher and Bee-eater, and this circumstance, together with the similarity in the mode of nestling of these birds, indicates an affinity of structure. Young. — According to Mr Yarrell, " young birds do not attain to brilliant colours till their second year, previous to which they are dull brown above, and greyish-green under- neath." 543 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. NINTH LESSON. SCENE FROM THE FIFESHIRE COAST IN MARCH. VELVET DUCKS, CORMO- RANTS. LARKS. LAPWINGS, SHELLS, AND A SEA-DEVIL. VARIOUS OBSERVA- TIONS. MODES OF PREPARINO SKELETONS AND DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF BIRDS. A STEAM-BOAT IN A STORM. RECOLLECTIONS OF THE HEBRIDES. Few landscapes in Britain combine more of the elements of natural and artificial beauty and grandeur than that which now presents itself to our view. From this craggy eminence on the Fifeshire coast, one sweep of the eye discovers the wide entranceof the Frith of Forth, with the Bass and North Berwick Law, two mounds of plutonic rock that have emerged from the primal abyss, the gently rising grounds of East Lothian, blending into the dim ridge of the Lammcrmuir, which runs into the Peebles-shire hills, the Pentlands clad in their wintry garb of pure white, the nearer prominences of Salisbury Craigs and Arthur's Seat, the beautiful expanse of waters, with its islands and undulated shores. Right opposite is the capital of old Scotland. How beautifully, ridge beyond ridge, rises the noble city, from the sea-shore to the crowning heights of the Calton Hill, the High Street, and the Castle Rock ! As a Scot, 1 feel proud of thee, Edina, thou queen of cities I See how the elements conspire to adorn the picture : the strong blasts of the east wind have ruffled the bosom of the Frith ; a fleet of small vessels has taken shelter in the lee of Inchkeith; a huge grey hail-cloud pours down its long winding streams on the valley of Dalkeith ; and the smoke of the city spreads to the westward, like a dense autumnal mist. Let the Englishman, on Shooter's Hill, gaze with wonder and delight on the vast mass of brick that con.stitutes the metropolis of his native land, and of the comiTMjrcial world, the long-extended forest of masts that springs from the silver Tliames, the smooth landscape, and the 544 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. murky sky of the London basin ; — for my part, I am content to gaze upon those cold but glorious hills, and shiver in the keen blast that rolls the ragged clouds toward the Grampians. The Velvet Ducks, yesterday so numerous in the liay of Kirkaldy, have sought refuge farther up the estuary ; but the Cormorants are still seen reposing on the rocks off Seafield Tower, Avhcre all the year round you may find them at low water, often in large flocks, standing lazily on the blackened crags, now and then spreading their large broad wings to the breeze, as if to dry them. Well, there being such a surf on the shore, I suppose a boat cannot land at Pettycur, and therefore we must walk to Burnt- island. It is just so ; but a naturalist needs never be at a loss for amusement. Go where you will, there are birds. These larks, which a few days ago were in full song, are now almost mute ; but, although crowded in the shelter of the stone fences, and on the western slopes of the little hills, they diligently search the ploughed fields. Here, over the wall, we may view them at hand. Now and then a male erects himself, and emits a pleasant churr, which is responded to by a female, for I think they have paired, although it is only the beginning of March. One has encountered a rival, and they flutter in the air ; but the blast drives them to the ground, and seems to have cooled their ire. A few Thrushes are seen gliding along the hedges, and a Blackbird hies away to the farm-yard. There a flock of Lap- wings ! How beautifully they glide and wind, now inclining to one side, now to the other, now shooting away, now labour- ing against the gale. Some birds are speeding swiftly with quick equal beats of their curved and pointed wings. They are (iolden Plovers, proceeding toward the shore, the high grounds being covered with snow, and the marshes frozen. Here are some Pipits cowering among the sea-weeds, and chirp- ing at intervals their feeble and monotonous cries. Behind the breakers is a Northern Diver, who gallantly floats on the surges. He has a fish in his bill, apparently a flounder, which he cannot swallow , wide as his gullet is, and is dabbing at it OBSERVATIONS ON LIVE BIRDS. 545 niul shaking it, probably endeavouring to tear it to pieces. Here too is a pair of lovely Long-tailed Ducks, Ilarelda gla- cialis. The sands are strewed with razor-shells and algae : — Venus pullastra, Venus gallina, Venus exoleta, Cyprina islandica, Buccinum undatum — but our business is not at present to ga- ther shells. Let us see what these crows are eating. It is a large Sea-Devil, or Frog-fish, Lophius piscatorius. On the links are scattered many Gulls : the Great Black- backed, the Herring Gull, Larus canus, and Larus ridibundus, together with a great number of Rooks and some Daws. Three weeks ago, when about the middle of the Frith, I saw two of these birds crossing from Newhaveu to Pettycur, with a strong westerly side-wind, and it was curious to observe that they ad- vanced sidewise, keeping their heads to the wind, when it blew fresh, and shooting along in the quieter intervals, sometimes gliding rapidly as if they had met with a clear space, and again making little progress, as if it rec^uired nearly all their efibrta to maintain their place. Gulls, although unsteady fliers, shoot along in their desultory manner with much more ease ; but the smaller waders beat all in their flight, no gale appearing to im- pede their progress. See that thin dusky streak far away over the water ! Now it expands and curves. It is singular enough, if it be vapour. It is a flock, and a large one too, of Sandpipers, probably Tringa Cinclus, crossing the Frith. The Thrushes have been busy with these snails with which the stone-wall is crusted ; but at present not a single small bird is to be seen on these bare pastures. If we visit the stack-yai-d on the hill-side, we shall probably meet with many. Some of the ricks have been sadly plundered : the straws are lying about, and the husks emptied. These depredations have been committed by the Rooks. You see them covering that solitary stack at a distance. The Corn Bunting has been accused of pulling out the straws de- liberately to get at the seeds, but I have never seen it do so, even in the Hebrides, where it is very abundant, and the straws being short and slender, more easily removed. In truth, VOL. III. N N 546 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. 1 do not believe it has strength enough to pull out a wheat stalk with the spike attached. Here are a few of these Buntings, more of the Yellow species however, Brown Linnets, Green Finches, two or three dozen of Larks, and a flock of Sparrows. How merrily the little ^^'ren glides along the side of the stack, peeping into the cavities, while the disconsolate-looking Hedge Chanter creeps alon" the jiround. AN'cll, after all, birds must commit consi- derable havock at times, and it would be difficult to determine in how far they counterbalance it by destroying grubs and in- sects. They do indeed. I have seen on the north-west coast the fourth part of a crop of barley, in a remote situation, destroy- ed by the Grey Geese, which came in flocks at night to feed upon it. So wary were they too, that although a friend of mine went out almost every night, he never succeeded in get- ting a shot. We are fortunate after all : here in the harbour is the Steam- er, although the passage will be desperately rough. Some Pied Wagtails are gleaning by the edge of the water. Let us adjourn to the inn, refresh ourselves, and talk of national affairs, the In- trusiouists, the Chinese war, Socialists, Phrenology, and the Canadians. By the way, I never yet saw more than one Ameri- can, who did not seem or affect to have, occasionally at least, a mortal hatred to England, nor one, who while he professed to be democratic, did not fail to boast of his aristocratic friends. Measuring national greatness by the acre, some of them talk of England as coutemjitible. One of them whom I met on Loch Lomond two autumns ago called our mountains mole- bills, our lakes pools, and our trees shrubs. Probably with him our men are Lilliputians, our cities villages, our eagles sparrow-hawks, and our salmon small fry. Those people for- get that the best of them are merely Britons, domiciled over the waters. May they j)ro.sper ; but Old Scotia, thou little bit of barren rock and peat-bog, thine be honour and renown. As we have half an hour to wait, let us rather talk about birds : — the art of making skeletons for example, or of pre- paring the digestive organs. SKKLETOXS OF lURDS. ;V17 With all my heart. But rcnicinhcr, that can be taught to advantage only by some practice. However, I may now state the process. First then, how to make a skeleton. Take a bird, skin it, remove the greater part of the flesh with a scal- pel or penknife, take out the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and put it into a jar of water. The M-ater will remove the Idood from the bones, should there be any in them. Next day begin at the head, and remove by cutting with a scalpel the flesh and periosteum, commencing at the base of the bill, and ending at the neck. This must be done neatly and carefully, so as not to scrape the bones, nor leave upon them the least mark of the knife. I have seen skeletons prepared by an ex- cellent anatomist, of which most of the bones were scraped, then smoothed with sandpaper, and ultimately polished ; but, although they looked pretty, they had lost their natural cha- racter. Well, when you have worked an hour or two, put the skeleton again into clean water. Next day, clear the neck ; and so on, going over the spine, the anterior, and the posterior ex- tremities, and lastly the ribs, liy this time, or sooner, the horny covering of the jaws or mandibles, and the claws, will readily come off on being pulled. All the ligaments by which ono bone is connected with another having been left, the bones still remain attached to each other. You now cut across the ligament by which the occiput is connected with the cervical vertebra^ ; take a small slender-pointed syringe, and squirt water into the cavity of the skull, through the foramen mag- num, until the brain and its membranes are removed. Then bore a small hole in each end of the long bones, and inject a so- lution of soda in water into their cavity, so as to clear away the blood and grease. After this, put the skeleton into clean water, in which a little muriate of soda has been dissolved, and let it remain there for a night, or a week, until it is quite clear of blood. In order to whiten it, you may put a very little solu- tion of chloride of lime into water, and leave the skeleton in it for a night ; then remove it into clean water, and let it re- main there for twenty-four hours. Now, lay it out to dry for some hours, fasten its feet upon a board or perch by means of pins, or small wires, or thread, place it in the attitude you judgo 548 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. best, fix it so by means of a frame of brass wires, such as can easily be invented for the occasion, fastening its parts to the wires with threads or finer wires, and let it so remain some days until perfectly dry. Then apply with a camel-hair pencil a coat of mastic varnish to the ligaments, to prevent the sub- sequent effects of moisture, or the attacks of insects. Small skeletons, up to the size of a Crow or Grouse, may be prepared in this manner. Those of large birds require to be supported by having the bones of the leg bored and wires run up through them, and a stout wire run into the spine, along the cavity for the spinal marrow. Or the supporting wires may run externally of the bones, in various ways, which will readily suggest themselves. The bones of some birds, as Geese, Ducks, and Divers, espe- cially those of the inferior extremities, are liable to be very greasy. Some soda in the water in which they are placed for a night or so, will assist in removing the oily matter by means of a brush. Several skeletons may be cleaned at the same time, an hour or so being taken to each daily. Patience, ncat-handedness, and some ingenuity, are all that are requisite in making skele- tons of birds. Skulls may be prepared in the same way. Or they may be macerated in water until all the flesh is putrid, when it may be washed clean away with water from a syringe. But in this case, some of the bones are apt to separate, and must be re- stored to their places by isinglass or gum. Very beautiful preparations of the digestive organs may bo made in various ways. You have a bird, of which the organs have not been damaged by shot. Fill a basin or other conve- nient vessel with hot water, and place the bird in it. Renew the water, if necessary, until all the parts of the bird have acquired a high tenqieraturc. In the meantime have your in- jecting apparatus ready, and a pot of white bees' wax, mixed with a little turpentine, on the fire. Fix the pipe of the syringe into the top of the gullet, and tic the extremity of the rectum. Inject the intestinal canal. Let the bird remain until cool, or pour cold water upon it. Then remove all the parts, dissect DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 549 the organs clean, lay tlicm out, arranged in their natural posi- tion. When perfectly dry, wash them with oil of turpentine, and afterwards give them two coats of copal varnish. Or the digestive organs may be taken out, carefully dissected and put into water for a night, or longer, to remove the blood. Tie the rectum, and inflate them with a blowpipe introduced into the wsophagus. Ilang them up, or lay them out, to dry, supporting the parts in their natural position by propping them up with wool, or hair, or some other contrivance. AVhen dry, varnish, and suspend in a glass jar, of which the top is to be secured with a bladder. Or these organs, as well as any others, may be preserved, after being carefully dissected and well cleaned, in clear whisky of ordinary strength, being suspended in a jar, which is secured by a layer of bladder, a layer of tin or sheet lead, and an outer layer of bladder, tied down, until dry, when the top is to be painted and varnished. I have made some beautiful preparations in all these ways. Among the best that I have is the entire intestinal canal of a Sea-Eagle, and a CJannet, inilated and dried. A fine prepara- tion of the entire intestinal canal of a Golden Eagle, filled with white wax, I gave to Professor Jameson. To the use of all my preparations any one is welcome ; and him who may excel mo in making them, or in observing and describing birds, I will try to admire, without envying ; although, to tell the plain truth, I should really like to be first in these matters. Let every one have his turn. Mine comes next. But I hear the steam whizzing. Let us be off. We shall have a rough ride over the Frith. Good pupil, be not so dejected ; arouse thee ; let us look on deck, and see the waves wash over it. AVliat a lovely sight ! Come, come, this is too serious I tell you. I never was be- fore in such a sea. Yet those billows are awfully beautiful, and the thick snow drives so furiously that I am sure the pilot can- not see five yards ahead, I hope we shall not come foul of the guard-ship. Let us down again to our den, and bo thank- ful that we are not in an open boat, or, like Arion, astride on that porpoise. 550 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. No, no : these ordinary matters are good enough for ordinary minds. A high-souled critic informs us that wc must not mingle the sublimities of nature with common occurrences. Let the people below amuse themselves as they best can. There, a gull swept over the vessel, like a meteor ; and I almost fancied that a guillemot peeped over the gunwale, as if he expected to find a shoal of herrings afloat on the deck. I wish we had a cock- ney ornithologist here. These magnificent waves remind me of a more awful scene. Some people came from an island one night in winter to take me to see a patient. We set out as night fell, having six miles to row in darkness, over the deep black sea, amid enormous waves that rolled in smoothly and si- lently from the Atlantic, there having been a storm a few days before. It was a dead calm. A long loud clear howl came over the waters. The rowers rested and each blessed himself and his friends, as the Celts do when in danger or dread. Was it a drowning man l Some said it might be the Great Northern Diver. We lost our way, and could not see the land ; when suddenly an enormous mass of water rose up behind us, broke into white foam, and rushed roaring along a reef of rocks half a mile in length, over which we had barely passed. NV^ave after wave rolled over the barrier, until it presented an appear- ance such as might well frighten a poor ornithologist. The boatmen gazed into the dark night, shuddered when they re- flected that they had escaped destruction only by two minutes, then pulled their oars with vigour, and soon gained the land. .051 XI. \ Oi:iTAT01lES. (;L11)ERS. 'I'nE birds of tins order may be distinguished by characters indicative of that peculiar adaptation to rapid, light, and long- sustained flight, which has suggested tome the nameVoLiTATOREs. Feeding almost exclusively on insects, which they seize in the open air, they have a form, which, although moderately mus- cular, is rendered buoyant by their extremely elongated though very narrow wings. Their head is broad and depressed ; the bill very short in proportion to its breadth, the mouth of ex- treme width, and copiously supplied with a viscid mucus, which enables them more easily to retain the insects on which they feed. They have a peculiarly light and bounding flight, glide along with astonishing speed, deviate on occasion as if without effort, and seem to be scarcely liable to fatigue in their aerial wanderings, which are therefore extremely protracted. On the other hand, some of them are totally incapable of walk- ing, and none ever advance to any distance on the ground. Three distinct groups enter into this order, which is the same as that named Chclidones by M. Teniminck. The Hirundincc, or Swallows, are characterized by their very short, somewhat tri.angular bill ; extremely long and narrow wines; emarginate or forked tail ; and very small feet, of the ordinary form, the first toe being directed backwards, and the third considerably longer than the other anterior toes, and also exceeding the tarsus. Their digestive organs do not ditl'cr ma- oo2 VOLITATORES. GLIDERS. terially from those of the Excursores and Cantatores ; and their trachea is furnished ^vith inferior laryngeal muscles, which gives them the power of uttering modulated sounds. The Ci/pselimv, or Swifts, differ little in external appearance from the Swallows ; but have the toes all directed forwards, and the third toe exceeding the lateral less than in any other group. Their wings are extremely long and narrow ; their tail even or emarginate. Their digestive organs differ, inas- much as the ca?ca, which are very small in the SwalloAvs, are in them entirely wanting. The inferior larynx is destitute of muscles, as in the next group. The Capri luiihi/icc, or Goatsuckers, have the mouth exces- sively wide, but the horny part of the bill generally very small ; the eyes and ears very large ; the feet feeble, like those of the Swallows ; the wings very long, but broad, and the tail elon- gated. The gullet and stomach are very wide and thin, and the intestines are furnished with large oblong coeca, like those of the Owls, to which they are also allied in the texture of their plumage, and their nocturnal habits. Fig. 268 represents the wing of a Swallow ; Fig. 264 that of a Swift ; and 265 that of a Goatsucker. F 10.265. 553 HIRUNDIN^. SWALLOWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. The birds of which this family is composed have by several recent authors been grouped into genera distinguishable by slight difterences in their organization, and more especially by the srreater or less emar<;ination of the tail. Some of these genera are perhaps founded on sufficient grounds; but our three British species difter too little to sanction any subdivision of the single genus, Hirundo, to which they have usually been referred. As the characters of that ffenus will be given at con- siderable length, it is unnecessary here to state more than is absolutely essential. The Hirundinjc have the bill short, much depressed, broad at the base, compressed at the tip ; the head broad and depressed ; the neck very short ; the body moderate ; the feet very small, the claws compressed, curved, acute. The plumage glossy and blended ; the wings very long and narrow, the secondaries being very short and few ; the tail of twelve feathers. The mouth is very wide ; the stomach elliptical, muscular ; the coeca very small. They nestle in holes, or against the face of rocks, buildings or trees, in which case they con- struct a nest of mud, or of twigs held together by a glutinous substance. The eggs are generally four or five, white, either plain or spotted. All the species which breed in the cold and temperate regions retire within the tropics in winter, their exclusively insectivorous regimen rendering it impossible for them to subsist when the cold is severe. Their extreme activity, the elegance of their flight, and the attachment which they shew to human habitations, render them universal favour- ites. In the structure of their digestive organs, as well as in their habits, they are nearly allied to the Myiotherin.x, which arc equally migratory. 554 HIRUNDIN^. SYXOPSfS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AXD SPECIES. GENUS I. HIRUNDO. SWALLOW. Bill very short, triangular, opening to beneath the fore part of the eye, the gape-line straight, with a slight notch ; nostrils small, linear-oblong ; wings extremely long and pointed ; tail of twelve feathers, emarginate or forked ; tarsus extremely short, bare or feathered ; the first toe directed backwards, the third much longer than the rest ; claws rather long, arched, acute. 1. Hirundo rustica. Ited-f routed Siccdloic. Tail very deeply forked ; upper parts glossy blue ; forehead and throat red ; tail with white spots. 2. Hirundo ruhica. Whlte-rumped SicaUoic. Tail deeply forked ; tarsi and toes feathered ; rump white. 3. Ilirvndo r'qxiria. Bank h^ivcdloic. Tail slightly forked ; upper parts greyish-brown. HIRUNDO. SWALLOW. ]3iLL very short, much depressed, very broad at the base, nar- rowed to the point, so as to present a triangular form when viewed from above : upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly convexo-dcclinate, the ridge obliterated, the sides slop- ing at the base, sloping but convex toward the end, the edges slightly inflected, the tip slender but rather blunt, the notch distinct ; lower mandible with the angle very large and wide, the dorsal outline ascending and nearly straight, the sides slop- ing outwards but convex, the edges a little involute, the tip narrow but rather obtuse ; gape-line commencing beneath the anterior angle of the eye, nearly straight. Mouth very wide ; the upper mandible slightly concave, with a slender prominent central line, the lower also shallow, with a similar line ; the palate flat, but slightly arched, with two faint lateral lines; the posterior aperture of the nares linear, papil- late behind, and having its lateral spaces also covered with small papillae. Tongue short, sagittate, emarginate and papil- late at the base, two of the papilhe much larger, flat above, its tip bitid. The oesophagus is wide at its commencement, gra- dually contracts, and preserves a nearly uniform diameter ; the provcntriculus being but slightly enlarged. The stomach is a broadly elliptical, moderately compressed gizzard, of which the lateral muscles are of moderate thickness, the cuticular linins thin and broadly rugous. The intestine is short, and rather wide ; the coeca very small. The oesophagus is rather narrow ; the lateral muscles of the stomach of considerable strength, the lower muscle not distinct from the right lateral. PL XXII, Fig. 4. The nostrils are small, linear-oblong, in the fore part of the large nasal membrane, which is bare anteriorly and along the outer edge. The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids bare. 556 HIRUNUO. SHALLOW. with two marginal series of feathers, their bare edges creuate. External aperture of the ear rather large and elliptical. The general form is slender ; the body short, ovate, rather compressed ; the neck short ; the head ovate, with the fore part flattened. The feet are extremely short and slender ; the tarsus extremely short, bare or feathered, but always M'itli some dis- tinct scutella below. The toes are feathered, or bare and pre- cisely similar to those of the Sylviic and other birds of that family, being of moderate length, slender, and much com- pressed ; the first stouter, with two joints, the second with three, the third with four, the fourth with five, the second and fourth equal, the third much longer, and connected with the fourth at the base. Claws rather long, moderately arched, laterally grooved, tapering to a very acute point. Plumage soft, blended, glossy on the upper parts, the feathers oblong, those on the fore part of the head short ; the bristle- feathers at the base of the upper mandible very small. Wings extremely long and pointed ; the quills and coverts with very strong elastic shafts ; the quills eighteen ; the secondaries rather short, incurved, broad, and deeply cmarginate ; the primaries tapering to a rounded point, the two outer longest, and a little incurvate towards the end. Tail varying in length and form, of twelve feathers, and even or forked. The Swallows form a very numerous genus of birds, varying in size from tliat of a ^\ illow A\ reu to tliat of a Song Tlirush, and inhabiting both continents, but all residing in the tropical regions during the winter, and only some migrating towards the poles in summer. They live on insects, which they catch on wing, and therefore are furnished with the means of per- forming the most rapid and gliding flight. Their feet being small and feeble, they are scarcely able to walk on the ground, and seldom aligbt there, even to drink, but sip the water as they skim over its surface, and bathe by dipping into it while on wing. They fasten their nests to walls or rocks, or place them in holes and other concealed stations. They are often externally composed of solid materials, such as eartli or sand agglutinated in pellets, and are lined with straws, feathers, and other soft substances. The eggs are generally four or five, IIIRUNDO. SM'ALLOW. 557 white, or having a light ground with reddish spots. They moult once in the year, and always in their winter quarters, so that they arrive in the colder regions in full plumage. " I am indebted," says M. Tcnuninck, " to M. Natterer of Vienna for the very interesting observation that the Swallows and Swifts moult once a-ycar in February, therefore at the time of their residence in the warm climates of Africa and Asia : a fact which is fatal to the alleged winter torpidity or sleep of these birds. M. Nattcrer's observations were made on swallows kept in cages, of which a few lived eight and nine years in captivity." As to the torpidity of these birds in winter, their being found in holes, and under water, it is surely now time to give up so absurd a notion. It is strange but true that fancies of this sort, such as the breeding of geese from barnacle shells, remain for ages matters of popular belief, after the learned, with whom perhaps they originated, have given them up. The Swallows difter considerably from each other in the size of the bill, the form of the tail, the clothing or nakedness of the feet, and other circumstances, insomuch that several sec- tions might be instituted in the genus ; but as only three spe- cies occur in Britain, it is unnecessary to separate them in this manner. As all our species are referred to the single genus Iliriaido, so they all ought to receive a single generic name, Su-allotc. One of them has been named the Chimney Swallow, and another the Window Swallow or Martin ; but these names are not very correct, for the former rarely builds in chimneys, and both nestle in windows, as well as in other places. I therefore prefer naming the one the Red-fronted, and the other the White-rumped. 558 HIRUNDO RUSTICA. THE RED-FRONTED OR CHIMNEY SWALLOW. SWALLOW. COMMON SWALLOW. GOBHLAX OAOITHE. Fig. 2G(! Hiruudo rustica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 343. Hirundo rustica. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 572. Chimney or Common Swallow. Mont. Orn. Diet. Hirondelle de Cheminc'-e. Hirundo rustica. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 427« Chimney Swallow. Hirundo rustica. Sclb. lUustr. I. 120. Hirundo rustica. Chimney Swallow. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 1.)". Upper parts ploss^H steel-blue ; forehead and throat broicnish- red ; a broad hand on the fore-neck diisl-^ ; tail vert/ deeplu forked, each feather, e.rceptina the two middle, with a white spot on the inner iceb ; breast and abdomen reddish-ichitc. Malk. — This beautiful, most lively, and faiuiliaily known bird, which, with the other swallows, wc gladly hail as the harbinger of summer, is of a slender form, having the body small and somewhat compressed, the neck short, the head rather large ; the bill short, depressed, very broad at the base, the tip of the upper mandible a little deflected, the notch dis- tinct. The mouth is very wide, measuring half an inch acro.ss ; both mandibles .slightly concave ; the palate ilat and but slight- ly arched ; the tongue short, triangular, three and a half twelfths long, cmarginate and papillate at the base, the tip slightly bifid. The cTcsophagus, Plate XXII, Fig. !•, abed, which is two RKD-FIIONTEL) SA\'ALLC)\\ . 559 inches and (ivc-twelfths long, gradually contracts from fivc- tvvelftlis to two-twclt'ths ; the proventricular glandules arc hroad and about halt' a twelfth long. The stomach, d ef\ is a gizzard of moderate power, oblong, seven-twelfths of an inch in length, its muscles somewhat distinct, the cuticular lining thin and ru- gous. The intestine, effj A, is six and a half inches long, rather wide, the diameter of the duodenal portion three-twelfths, the smallest diameter two-twelfths. The cocca, ^, oblong, two- twelfths long and three-fourths of an inch from the extremity. The rectum, r/ //, is wide from the commencement, and dilates into a pyriform sac half an inch in diameter. The nostrils are linear, oblique, one-twelfth of an inch long; the aperture of the eyes a twelfth and a half ; that of the ears two and a half. The feet are very short and slender ; the tar- sus extremely short, being shorter than the hind toe with its claw, bare, excepting for a short space above, and having an- teriorly a single undivided scutellum, and an inferior one, be- hind sharp-edged ; the toes resemble those of a Sylvia ; the first stronger, with seven scutella, the second with eight, the third with ten, the fourth with ten ; the claws rather long, moderately arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, taper- ing to an extremely fiue point, that of the first toe rather shorter than that of the third. The plumage is very soft, blended, highly glossed or splen- dent on the upper parts ; the feathers oblong. The wings are extremely long ; the quills eighteen, the primaries nine ; the first longest, the second almost equal, the rest rapidly gra- duated ; the primaries narrow and rounded ; the secondaries rather short, curved inwards, deeply emarginate. The tail is very long and deeply forked, of twelve straight feathers, the lateral very narrow and much elongated, exceeding the mid- dle by an inch and a half, or sometimes by more than three inches. The bill is black, the mouth yellowi.sh, the iris light brown, the feet and claws brownish-black. The tbrehead and throat are deep chestnut or brownish-red ; all the upper plumage, except the quills and tail-feathers, splendent with steel-blue changing to purplish ; the neck all round being of the same 5G0 HIRUNDO RUSTICA. colour. The rest of the lower parts reddish-white, or greyish- white with a yellowish-red blush, or when the ])lumage is quite fresh of a most beautiful pale red. The quills and tail are greenish-black ; their outer webs glossed with greenish- blue ; the tail-feathers have a large spot of white on the inner web, about a third from the end, excepting the two middle ones. Length to tips of tail 8f inches ; extent of wings 14 ; wing from flexure 4|5 ; tail, middle feathers l^S, lateral 5{ ; bill along the back ^%, along the edge of lower mandible ^j ; tar- sus /g ; first toe ^3, its claw j% ; second toe ^^, its claw |^g ; third toe -f^j, its claw |*, ; fourth toe ^^|, its claw -i. Female. — The female differs very little from the male. The tail is considerably shorter, the red of the forehead and throat lighter ; the dark band across the neck narrower, and the lower parts less tinged with red. Length to end of tail Tf inches ; extent of wings 14 ; wing from flexure 4{§ ; longest tail-feathers of. Variations. — Adult males exhibit little variation, the lower parts being merely lighter or darker, and more or less tinged with red, and the lateral tail-feathers more or less elongated. The same may be said of the females. Changes of Plumage. — This species arrives in complete plu- mage, and does not moult until after its departure. The tints fade considerably as the summer advances, but the changes are not remarkable. A fine specimen newly shot exhibits the most splendent tints of blue and purple on the upper parts, which become much fainter in less than an hour, the purple almost entirely disappearing. Habits. — The elegance and celerity of the motions of Swal- lows exceed those of the flight of almost all birds, and cannot fail to be observed and admired even by those most habitually inattentive to the phenomena of nature. The ])resent species occurs abundantly, during the summer months, in the vicinity RED-FRONTED SWALLOW. :,(JI of towns, villages, and farm-buildings. Its food, like that of all the other species, consists of small insects, which it seizes almost exclusively on wing. Its mouth is bedewed with a pro- fuse clammy secretion, to which the insects adhere as they arc caught ; and on shooting a swallow, you often find half a dozen or more in its mouth. This happens early in the season, when as yet it has not built its nest, as wxll as after its young have burst the shell, and indeed at all times during its residence with us ; so that it seems in this manner to collect a number sufficient to make a morsel, and not to swallow each insect individually. It also probably collects insects thus for its young, as indeed do many other birds, such as the Robin, the Hedge Chanter, the Sylvianae in general, and many of the Deglubitores ; for although, when flying about in the imme- diate vicinity of their nests. Swallows seem to carry each insect as it is caught to their young, yet we often find them during the breeding season flying at the distance of miles from any place where there are nests, and in this case it is not reasonable to suppose that they would return with a single insect. During flight, the tail is generally little expanded, but in exe- cuting sudden turns, especially those of ascent and descent, it is sometimes spread out to its full extent, so as to disclose the white spots. It seems to glide through the air with the most per- fect ease, in continuous sweeps, without the undulatory motion which most small birds exhibit. In fine weather it generally flies high, but in rain or during cold easterly winds, when the insects keep low and in the shelter of trees and walls, it comes nearer the ground, and may often be seen skimming along the tops of the herbage. AMien busily engaged in chasing its prey, it seldom utters any note, although at times it emits a low chatter. JNIany prognostics of the weather are derived from this and the other species ; but most of them are erroneous, and some apparently fabricated by persons who have not studied their motions. Swallows fly low or high according to the flight of insects, which is influenced by the state of the atmosphere ; but little judgment can be formed of the future by attending to their motions. Thus, they fly low when there is a smart VOL. III. o o 562 IIIRUXDO RUSTICA. cold breeze, especially if it be accompanied with moisture ; but this circumstance is not an indication of the continuance of rain or cold. I have seen the Swallows flying very low, in the shelter of trees, during rainy and rather cold weather, and yet, on the following day, none could be seen, the weather being clear. I have also observed them flying high in warm wea- ther, amidst the clouds that were pouring down rain, accom- panied with thunder. Yet people nsually say that when Swallows fly high, fine weather may be expected. Once, how- ever, I had the pleasure of observing a xevy marked instance of an indication of a change of weather afforded by the flight of birds. It had been raining for several hours, when sudden gusts of wind swept the trees, and a very heavy shower began to fall. At this moment a flock of rooks, which had taken shelter in some large trees, rose and swept across the direction of the wind, and soon after several swallows were observed beating up against it. At first I thought that the violence of the blasts had disturbed the rooks ; but not judging such a cause sufiicient to drive the swallows abroad, I supposed that these birds, pining at home all day with hunger and inaction, had become sensible of a change indicative to them of fair weather, and in their impatience had come out in the very midst of the heaviest but last fall of rain. I intimated to those near me that such was my opinion, and waited for the issue. In half an hour, we had a clear sky, with a steady westerly wind, and abundance of birds abroad at their avocations. It is very pleasant to Avatch the Swallows flying with their young over some meadow, sheltered by trees, among which multitudes of small insects are sporting. The young are easily distinguished from the old birds by the comparative shortness of their tail, and by a less decided mode of flight. You see them mingled together, and following with your eye an old bird, as it meanders through the air, you perceive that it has caught several insects in succession, when inmicdiately it calls, by a rapid enunciation of soft cheeps, to the young, which presently comes up, and on wing receives the morsel from its mother, the two birds rising a little when they meet, and fluttering to jioiso themselves. They then scj)aratc, each to renew its pleasant JlED-rilONTKl) Sn ALU)^\■. '>(];] labours. In the mcantiinc a continued cheeping is kept up in the flock, although each bird emits generally only a single note at a time, which is occasionally res])onded to by one or more of the rest. I have seen the young birds betake themselves to the upper twigs of a tree for the purpose of resting, and on many oc- casions have seen both young and old so perch for a while. The flight of this species, when in pursuit of its prey, over a low meadow, or among trees, or by a hedge, is wavering and as if undecided, although the inflections are no doubt mado on purpose. It seldom shoots directly forward to any distance, but winds and turns in all directions, sometimes ascends or descends abruptly, wheels in wide circles, or skims along with an undulatory motion. The fla])s or strokes of the wings are performed in a soft and sedate manner, and in its ordinary flight the tail is but very slightly spread. The use of that or- gan however is apparent at every turn, for then it may be seen expanded or closed, bent to either side, or directed downwards or upwards. The Red-fronted Swallow occasionally associates with the Whitc-rumped species and the Bank Swallow ; at least, they may all be seen together pursuing their prey over the same field. In windy weather, they collect in the shelter of walls, hedges, trees, or thickets ; and, in rain, fly under the trees. When there is thin rain, or drizzling mist, they generally fly low ; but in fine clear weather, they may be seen sporting in the open air — not that they are merely amusing themselves in their aerial rambles, but that their flight, being so buoyant, grace- ful, and varied, suggests the idea of play rather than of labour. 1 have carefully watched this species as it flew past, often with- in a few yards of me, to discover whether it keeps its mouth open, and I am decidedly of opinion, that in flying, it invari- ably retains the mandibles in close apposition, until it comes up to an insect. Indeed, the notion of its flying with open mouth is preposterous, although several excellent ornithologists have entertained it ; for were swallows to proceed in this man- ner, there being no special apparatus for closing their oesopha- gus, the extreme velocity with which they rush against the air, would necessarily force it into their stomach. If a partial or :')fi4 HIRINDO RLSTICA. slight opening of the mouth be contended for, I answer that it is not in the least necessary, for the bird on coming close to an insect can no doubt open its bill to receive it, and that, having closely watched Swallows, I have failed to see their open mouths, and cannot believe the statement, until a respectable witness assures me that he has satisfied himself as to its accuracy. The sight of a Swallow must be extremely acute, when it can per- ceive a minute insect in the midst of its rapid career, and when it may often be seen abrui^tly to deviate several feet or even yards in order to seize one. This species, like the others, besides perching on a twig or branch with ease, is also frequently seen to settle on the roof of a house, a chimney, or a wall ; and it can walk, although only in a hobbling manner, on the ground, where it sometimes alights as if to pick up insects which it has observed there. I have often seen Swallows so employed, ^vhen, on going up, I could per- ceive nothing. Sometimes, over a pool, you may see a multitude of Swal- lows collected in a quiet evening. As the insects are abundant, they fly more leisurely, and sweep in smaller curves, than on ordinary occasions, so that their actions may be here more satis- factorily studied than when they are flying at large. Every now and then, you observe one flutter over the water, and pick up an insect from its surface. On such an occasion I have seen two settle on a heap of soft cow dung, and holding up their wings and tail, and raising their body as high as possible on their short legs, pick up the insects which had attracted their notice. Often over a lake or river or canal, you see them picking up in their rapid and graceful flight, the insects that float on tho surface, or that have been drowned. On such occasions, they frequently stop suddenly on coming up, spread out their tail, raise their wings, flutter for a moment, and dash off". But sometimes also they pick up the insect in full career, by skim- ming the water in a gentle curve, ^\'hether they actually drink on wing I cannot afiirm ; the fact seems doubtful ; at least I have seen Swallows drink in the ordinary manner. One, for example, alighted on the street, hobbled to the gutter, and lluTc sij)ped until .'jutisfied. RED-FRONTED SWALLOW . 565 In fine weather after rain they are often seen flying over the fields, or gliding above the trees, frequently uttering a short series of lively notes, which have some claim to be entitled a song, although ])coplo usually call them a chatter. I thought it remarkable that during the annular eclipse of the sun in the summer of 183(), when the Hooks and Sparrows had gone to bed, thinking it was night, this Swallow continued flying about as usual. It commences its labours before sunrise, and continues abroad until dusk, ajiparently continuing its pursuit all day with little intermission. Swallows frequently assail Sparrow Hawks, or at least hover around and endeavour to annoy them, as do many other small birds. They seem to have a special antipathy to young Cuc- koos also. A correspondent in the Magazine of Natural His- tory, Vol. lY, p. 14G, relates the following curious instance of audacity in a birdof this species. " In the fine brilliant after- noon of the 17th of last May I was walking through a retired village lane, when a stout issued from the hedge, and placed himself in the path a few yards before me. A Swallow (Hi- rundo rustica) which was winging its airy circles just by, im- mediately perceived the little intruder upon ' broad- eyed garish day,' and, what I should have conceived completely contrary to its nature, pounced upon him, and straightway forced him to retire to his hiding-place. In a minute after- wards, however, the stoat again appeared ; when the bird, hav- ing taken another round in the air, again obliged him to re- treat. This was repeated four several times ; and to my eye, it appeared that once the stoat was actually assaulted by the swallow ; but in this I am inclined to think I must have been mistaken. At length, however, tired of the gambols of the frolicksome bird, the little quadruped, which in all probability under other circumstances would have made a hearty meal of his audacious prey, disappeared in the hedge, and I saw no more of him."" This species arrives in the south of Scotland from the 20th of April to the 5th of May, seldom earlier or later about Edin- burgh. In the Statistical Account of Paisley, it is stated that " between the 8th and 18th of April, the Hirundo riparia, rus- o66 HIRUXDO RUSTICA. tica, and nrbica, make their appearance ; the first generally by the 9th, while the Cx'psclus Apus seldom arrives till the end of the month. By the beginning of October they take their departure^ In the south of England it sometimes makes its appearance as early as the first week of April, but generally about the middle of that month. '■ It sometimes happens," says Montagu, " that after their arrival, a long easterly wind prevails, which so benumbs the insect tribe, that thousands die for want of food. AVc recollect as late as the 9th of May, the Swallows on a sudden disappeared from all the neighbouring villages around. The thermometer was at 42, and Ave were at a loss to conceive what was become of these birds, which a day or two before were seen in abundance. But by chance wo discovered hundreds collected together in a valley close to the sea side, at a large pool which was well sheltered. Here they seem to Rave found some species of fly, though scarce sufiicieut to support life ; for many were so exhausted that after a short time on wing they were obliged to pitch on the sandy shore." In a sheltered hollow at Colt Bridge, about a mile from Edinburgh, in cold seasons, the Swallows often remain a week or more after their arrival, when scarcely an individual is to be seen in any other place in the vicinity. It is not until a considerable tin)e after their arrival that they begin to construct their nests, which they generally place, not usually in chimneys, as is alleged, but under the eaves of out- houses, and on beams or rafters within them, when free admis- sion is obtained, sometimes also in the corners of windows, and even on the face of rocks, in quarries, or on the sides of a well or the shaft of a deserted coal-pit. " Here and there," says AVhite, '■ a bird may afiect some odd, ])cculiar place ; as we have known a swallow build down the shaft of an old well, through which chalk had been formerly drawn up for the purpose of manure ; but, in general, with us this hirundo breeds in chim- neys, and loves to haunt those stacks where there is a constant fire, no doubt for the sake of warmth. Not that it can subsist in the inmiediate shaft where there is a fire : but prefers one adjfjining to that of the kitchen, and disregards the perpetual smoke of that fuuntl, as 1 have often observed with some degree RED- FRONTED SWALLOW. 567 of wonder. Five or six, or more feet down the chimney, does this little bird begin to form her nest about the middle of May, which consists, like that of the house-martin, of a crust or shell composed of dirt or mud, mixed with short pieces of straw, to render it tou74 IIIRTNDO IKUK A. tinct. The mouth is five-twelfths of an inch in breadth ; botli mandibles are slightly concave internally, with a central pro- minent line ; the palate is llat, and but slightly arched ; the tongue short, triangular, three-twelfths of an inch long, emar- ginate and papillate at the base, its tip slightly bifid. Tho oesophagus is two inches and a quarter long, and gradually contracts to a diameter of two-twelfths ; the proventricular glandules are half a twelfth lonfi, and about half as broad. The stomach, a gizzard of moderate power, and of an ellipti- cal form, is six twelfths of an inch in length, its cuticular lining thin, dark brown and nearly smooth, its lower muscle not distinct from the right lateral, its tendons large. The in- testine is seven inches long, rather wide, its greatest diameter two and a half twelfths ; the coeca a twelfth and a half, of an oblong form, and eiiiht-twelfths from the extremitv. The nostrils are elliptical, very small, being only three- fourths of a twelfth in length ; the aperture of the eyes a twelfth and a half in diameter ; that of the ears two and a half twelfths. The feet are very short ; the tarsus extremely short, rather stout, with six anterior scutella, but thinly covered all round with feathers ; the toes are rather short, and very slender, scutellate above, but thinly feathered, the first rather stronger and having six scutella, the second eight, the third twelve, the fourth twelve ; the claws are moderately stout, arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute, that of the first toe shorter than that of the third. The ])lumage is very soft, and blended ; on the head and part of the back splendent, but elsewhere without lustre ; tho feathers ovate and rounded, without plumule. The wings are extremely long ; the quills eighteen, the primaries nine ; tho first and second C(pial and longest, the rest rapidly graduated ; tho primaries tapering to a rounded point ; the secondaries short, obli(iuely rounded and cmarginate. The tail is rather long, and deej)ly forked, of twelve nearly straight feathers, tho lateral longest and exceeding tho medial by about ten- twelfths of an inch. Tho bill is black, the mouth yellow ; the iris brown ; the scutella and claws pale yellowish-grey. The u})per i)art of tho A\'inTE-ur.MiM<:i) swaij.uw. 575 head, the hind-neck, the anterior half of the hack and the scapulars, with sonio of the small wing-coverts, are glossy steel-hlue, with greenish and purplish reHections ; the hind part of the back is white, with the shafts dusky, and all the lower parts are white excepting a transverse dusky mark an- terior to the wings ; the shafts of the lower tail-coverts, and the lower wing-coverts, which are greyish-brown edged with browii- ish-white. The wings, tail, and upper tail-coverts are choco- late brown, slightly glossed with greenish ; the inner secon- daries narrowly tij)pcd with white. The concealed part of the plumage is dull greyish-blue, but the feathers of the hind- neck and fore part of the back have a wdiite patch towards the end. Length to end of tail 5/5 inches ; extent of wings 12 ; wing from flexure ij^ ; tail, middle feathers 1^1%, lateral 2-^% ; bill along the back {'^3 ; along the edge of lower mandible j% ; tarsus |*g ; hind toe /g, its claw |^g ; second toe /^^ its claw /j ; third toe /j, its claw ^^3 ; fourth toe j^, its claw j^. Female. — The female cannot be distinguished from the male unless by dissection, the size, proportions, and colours being similar in both. Length to end of tail 5^% inches ; extent of wings 12. Variatioxs. — Adult individuals very seldom exhibit any re- markable differences, although, as in the preceding species, accidental changes to white or cream-colour sometimes occur. Changes of Plumage. — This species arrives in full plumage, and departs before moulting. The tints merely fade a little as the season advances. Habits. — The AVhite-rumpcd Swallow arrives generally a few days later than the Red-fronted, but sometimes the two species make their appearance together. In the south of Eng- land the period of its arrival varies from the 10th to the 20th of April ; and in the south of Scotland, from the 25th of that month to the 5th of May. It is more widely dispersed than ')70 HIRINDO IRKICA. the preceding species, for, besides occurring in the neighbour- hood of towns, villages, and farm-buildings, in the lower and populous parts of the country, small colonies establish them- selves on the inns and larger houses in many of the remote valleys, where the strolling naturalist is often delighted as well as surprised by the sight of them. In the valleys of the upper districts of the Clyde, the Tweed, the Dee, and the Tay, the presence of these beautiful and lively birds gives an intimation of our approach to the haunts of civilization and commerce, as we emerge from the moors and wild glens of the pastoral regions. The ease and rapidity of its flight, however marvellous, ex- cite no astonishment, as we are daily in the habit of witness- ing them ; but a true lover of nature can nevertheless contem- plate its airy windings for hours Nvith delight. The evolutions of this species resemble in all respects those of the Red-fronted Swallow; but its flight is perhaps somewhat less rapid, although it is certainly very diflicult to decide with accuracy in a com- parison of this kind. Its sweeps and curves however seem to me to be less bold, or rather less extended ; but its dexterity is equally remarkable. It mingles in its sportive-like pursuits with both the other species, although each kind seems to give some preference to the society of its own members. The in- fluence of the weather on the flight of insects causes it to ob- serve the .same selection of places as they ; so that in calm and cloudless days it flies more in the open air, in windy weather more in the shelter of hedges and walls, and in damp evenings it skims over the grass and corn. Its ordinary cry is a rather loud chirp, which it frequently emits, more especially when it flies in the vicinity of its nest. It has been called a twitter, but the syllables which it most re- sembles are chir-rup. AN'hen flying over a field, or under the shelter of trees, with its yoimg, it has a softer and more plea- sant chirp, which is responded to by them ; and in calling to one to come up and receive an insect, it utters a repetition of its notes, so as to produce a low chittcr. Its song is loud enough to bo heard in calm weather at the distance of three hundred vards, and is cheerful, although not remarkable for WHITE-RUMPED SWALLOW. 577 melody. It is often emitted at intervals while the bird is on wing in the neighbourhood of its nest, and is sometimes heard more continuously, in fact for ten minutes or more, when perched on the roof of a house or other elevated place. It is always amusing to watch a group of Swallows in active pursuit of their tiny ])rey. Let us stand for a little while at the end of this pond, and observe them. 15oth species are seen, the Window Swallow and the Chimney Swallow, the former more numerous. Their flicrht and actions however are precisely similar. Selecting an individual, you see it advance over the surface of the pool, at a height perhaps of two inches, its wings slightly raised, to prevent their hitting the water. It picks up an insect, proceeds, suddenly stops, stretches up its wings almost perpendicularly, dips its breast, seizes a fly, advances again, secures an insect on wing, and now comes up, but, on perceiv- ing you, wheels away, and with devious and random flight passes over the corn-yard, then curves toward the farther end of the pond, skims along, and performs the same actions as be- fore. They seldom make much noise on such occasions, a few chits now and then being all that you hear. Although the feet of this bird are very small, it can settle without dithculty on a wall top, a roof, the branch of a tree, or on the ground, and is capable of walking, although in an uneasy and rather ungraceful manner. Unlike the Swift, both spe- cies rise without difficulty from a flat surface. The White-rumped Swallow^ begins to build or repair its nest about the middle or towards the end of May. It is,. or has been, a common, but erroneous belief, that Swallows collect the materials of which their nests are composed when on wing; that they skim over water, dip into it, and then drop in like manner over a dusty road ; that thus they gather mud, which they remove from their breast with their bill, form into pellets, and apply to their nest. All this is mere fancy. Swallows shot in the early or middle part of summer have the feathers on their breast perfect, and in no degree exhibiting indications of having been soiled by mud ; they dip into the water solely for the purpose of taking up insects, as I have satisfied myself by close observation ; and, lastly, they obtain mud in quite a VOL. III. r r 578 HIRUNDO IRBK A. different manner, for they alight hy the edge of a pool, or brook, often on the street or road after rain, select a portion, seize it with their bill, fly off to their nest, and apply it in its wet state to the edge of the unlinished crust, which they thus gradually build from the bottom upwards, until it is completed. The different pellets thus carried are discernible in the finished nest, which is externally knobbed or tuberculated, generally very friable when dry, and without any intermixture of glutinous matter, so that the copious application of thuir saliva in the manner of cement, which many authors allege to take place, is I think conjectural. Straws and feathers they pick up in the same manner, that is by alighting, and seldom while on wing. However pleasant it is to have a Swallow's nest in the cor- ner of one's window, to see the birds constantly flying about, and hear their pleasant notes, yet when a whole colony has settled on the house, and the corners of all the windows are occupied with nests, one is apt to consider them rather trouble- some, especially when the panes become crusted with their dung. They may be prevented from building in such places by applying soft soap or tallow^ to them. JNIr Rennie, who is indignant at some of his " northern neighbours"" for endeavour- ing to banish the Martins from their windows, asserts "' that no sincere lover of nature — nobody who has music in his soul, will be apt to adoj)t the expedient." Unfortunately for this theory, the only j)erson of my acquaintance who adopted it on a large scale, is one of the most fervent lovers of nature that I know, although, like our " southern neighbours," he admires cleanliness, and would be apt to brush away the most beauti- ful cobweb. The greatest patron of the ^lartins that I have met with is the Earl of Traquair, whose benevolent disposition induces him to extend his protection to all the birds that choose to reside on his domains, where the Blackbirds and Thrushes feast unmolested on the cherries, the Curlews feed on the lawn, and the wild Mallards mingle with the domestic Ducks in the pond. Having with them .shared his lordship's hospitality in the autumn of 1839, I counted under the eaves, and in the corners of the windows of Traquair House, an hundred and si.\ nests, all tenanted, besides several that had been deserted, in- WHITE-RUMPED SWALLOW, 579 jurod, or taken possession of by sparrows. It was a continued treat to see the lively creatures feeding their young and skini- minfT' over the grass in search of insects. He informed mo that very frequently they reared only one brood, and that in very dry seasons they found great difficulty in building their nests, a pair of them having worked one summer three weeks in his bed-room window, without accomplishing their object. Most commonly the nest of this swallow is placed in the upper corner of a window, often also under the eaves of out- houses, and in similar situations, where it is sheltered from above, sometimes on the face of a rock, whether on the sea- shore or inland. The only instance of the latter kind of situa- tion which has occurred to me was in an old limestone quarry, at the Roman Camp, near Dalkeith, ^\llen in the corner of a window, it is of a rounded form externally, flat on the adher- ing sides, rectangular above, and has a roundish or transversely oblong aperture at the top, almost always on the sheltered side, or that next the middle of the window. I have seen several instances in which the aperture was at the outer edge of the window, and sometimes it has a kind of neck, or the mouth projects an inch or more. The nest is usually large, having an external diameter of from six to eight inches. The outer part of one examined by me at Bield Inn, in Tweedsmuir, in August 1834, consisted of pellets of friable sandy mud, not in the least glutinous, intermixed with small, generally angular pebbles or gravel. Into this outer crust were thrust numerous straws or fragments of stems of grasses, which became free in- ternally, and were circularly disposed. AVithin was a layer of wool, partly interwoven with the straw, and lastly a thick bed of large feathers of the domestic fowl. Another nest from a village near Edinburgh, is six inches in diameter externally. The outer shell is a solid mass of fine loam, which has been built of pellets in the form of soft mud, so that the outer sur- face presents horizontally compressed mammillre. The average thickness of this crust is seven-twelfths of an inch. It is quite friable, and if any glutinous matter has ever been intermixed with the mud, it has entirely disappeared, but it is in some measure held together by a considerable intermixture of short 580 HIRUNDO URBICA. straws. The next layer is of straws of various kinds, mostly decayed. This is followed by a thick layer of wool, which is succeeded by a 2freat quantity of hogs' bristles, cows' hair, hu- man hair, a piece of linen, a bit of tape, and a number of feathers, chiefly of the domestic fowl. Other nests which I have examined were similar. In general, within the outer crust of mud there are two layers, the outer of straw, the inner of feathers of domestic fowls, often mixed with wool, hair, and other soft substances. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a longish oval form, rather pointed, about nine-twelfths of an inch in length, and six and a half in breadth ; their colour pure white, without spots. The construction of the nest occupies from six to ten days. Two broods are generally reared in the season, the first being abroad by the beginning of July, the other about the end of August. During incubation both the parents are frequently seen in the nest, and at all times they repose there at night. When the young are nearly fledged, they frequently appear at the edge of the aperture, and arc occasionally clamorous for food, which is brought to them sometimes with astonishing rapidity. For some days after they have left the nest, they fly about in its vicinity, and are fed by their parents. It is amusing to see the expedients to which recourse is often had to induce them to leave the nest, the parent birds sometimes pushing or dragging them out, but more frequently enticing them by shewing how easy it is to fly away. Very frequently the young betake themselves to the upper corner of a window to rest, clinging for a short time by means of the feet and tail ; and in this situation I have seen them fed. For some time after they have come abroad, they return to the nest at night, repos- ing there with their parents. To these particulars derived from my own observation, I add the ample contributions of Mr Hepburn and Mr Durham Weir. " The House Swallow or Martin," Mr IIci)burn writes, " arrives at the village of Linton, on the Tyne, in the last week of April, though in 1839 a few were seen by the 17th of that month. For the last two years they have not appeared at our on«tcad bofore the 30th of April. They usually rommcnco ■WIIlTE-RL'MrED SWALLOU'. 681 building in the first week of May, but are sometimes much later. On the 3(1 of June last, a party of six arrived here, and spent the whole day in examining the eaves of the dwelling- house, barns, stables, and granary. The following morning they commenced a general foundation for their three nests, be- neath the water-spout on the back wall of a wing of the house, having an eastern exposure. Each pair worked at a particular part, and before noon it presented one continued line of mud. By the 13th two pairs had left off working, when their nests were nearly half-finished. The only remaining pair brought their labours to a close on the l7th. Suitable materials for the nest are procured from the banks of the pond or the puddle in the lane. If you follow them thither, you will see much to increase your regard for these pretty birds. There they come, sailing placidly over the tree tops ; now they descend so as almost to sweep the surface of the little sandy pool ; some alight, while others suflf'er themselves to be borne away on the breath of the summer's wind, again to advance and ex- hibit the same beautiful evolutions. A\'hen alighted, if the surrounding mud is not suitable, they Vv-alk about with short steps, till the objectof their visit is obtained, frequently seizing a small piece of straw or grass at the same time. When both are not to be procured at once, they will frequently carry the straw to the mud, temper it well, and then carry off a portion. Let us now follow them to their nest. Seated in the room, you give them no uneasiness. You see that yesterday "'s work is now dry, and sufficient to allow one bird at a time to perch on it. Still using its tail planted against the wall, or, when the nest is somewhat advanced, against its walls, it deposits the materials by giving its head a rapid wriggling motion, by which means the mud slides gently into the crevices of yesterday's work. It now perhaps retouches the whole of the newly de- posited materials. At particular stages of the work much ma- terial is lost. Not unfrc(iuently will one of the birds arrive with a load, and drive oil" the other, even before its burden is deposited, and sometimes the worker will snappishly resist, the new-comer will depart and describe several additional turns and windings, for so far as my little experience goes, these birds rarely if ever fly directly to and from the mud-hole and their 582 IIIRUNDO LRBICA, nest. The quantity of mud carried in the mouth is inconsi- derable compared with that carried on the sides of the mandi- ble. They never alight on the nest without twittering. At noon, if the weather is sultry, they betake themselves to the fields, or taking a dip or two in the pond, they sun themselves on the house-top for half an hour or so. Yet the latter act is not always a consequence of the former. Previous to their hawking about for food, sometimes one returns after the lapse of an hour or two, retouches the work, and, if it is sufficiently advanced, will sit for ten minutes or so to consolidate the ma- terials. Should the day prove stormy, then they do not ap- pear ; if it clear up, then they commence their labours. Should it prove rainy, cold, or windy, then they work but little all day long. They seldom recommence work till four or five in the afternoon, sometimes not till six. A\'hen they cease for the day, at the beginning of the work especially, both leave this place, and probably go to Linton, which is some miles distant. As the work advances, one and then both will sit all night, sometimes even when windy and cold ; but on such occasions they generally disappear. " To see these household birds constructing their nests in the corners of our windows is a matter of such common occurrence as to excite little more than a passing notice even from the field naturalist ; but let any one watch, as I have often done, the progress of their labours from the instant that the first knob appears on the wall, till the last feather is laid in the finished {structure, and he will sec much to admire in the instinctive science, the industry, and perseverance, which they display. I am aware that much has been written on this bird, but in studying the habits of even our most common species, there is still nmch to be done. In confirmation of the above remarks, T will here present some extracts from my journal. " May 1st, 1839. — The Martins began to work by daybreak ; worked till noon, sported about till 5 p.m., worked till G, then disappeared, liright sunshine. A\'ind M\ Therm. 62" at noon. '• 2d. Martins apjionrcd at 11 a.m., an hour after began to build a little, at 3 p.m. disappeared. Cloudy aud cold. Wind W. 'I'licrni. .56". WHITE-RUMPED SWALLOW. 583 " 3d. Martins worked very little all day ; sometimes in frolic they alight on their neighbours"' nests, without doing them any damage. Cloudy. Wind N.W. Therm. 53°. " 4th. No Martins seen to-day. Rain. Cloudy and cold. Wind N.W. Therm. 47°. " 5th. A most delightful morning. Martins built briskly till 9 A.M., Avhen a thick mist accompanied with rain and a cold wind caused them to retire till 5 p.m., when the sky again became bright, and they worked for an hour, then sat on tho nest for some time, but soon flew off, returned at half-past six o'clock, when side by side they squatted in the shell, where they remained all night. The wind was piercing cold, and contrary to their usual practice, not a twitter was emitted. Wind. E. Therm. 45°. " 6th. Cold and cloudy till 5 p.m. Only one pair returned as usual, the other has not been seen for two days. The former built for an hour, then disappeared. Tho sides of tho nest now begin to slope inwards. When they deposite the mate- rials, they place the point of their bill on the outside, then draw it inwards with the usual vibratory or wriggling motion. Cold and cloudy. Wind E. Therm. 45°. " 7th. The pond was covered with ice this morning. Martins did not build till it was thawed. Although the lower half of the nest is scarcely finished, yet are they rapidly buildin^ up the part nearest to the rivets. The walls and the corners are nicely rounded off, thus giving additional security to the whole fabric. In finishing oft' the top of the wall, sometimes the bird will cling to the outside, and at other times will most materially support itself in the inside by using both the wings and tail as sup- ports. When their bill comes in contact with the old and dried materials, a harsh rustling sound is produced. When busy, they carry materials to the nest about once in a minute and a half Very busy all day. Both remained all night. Sunny. Wind E. and W. Therm. o6\ " 8th. Martins worked very constantly, still following out the same plan of building, very little mud being deposited near the window. Both sat all night. Bright sunshine. AVind W. Therm. 58". 584 HIRUNDO URBICA. " 9th. Martins worked none. Both remained all night. Very cold and cloudy. Wind "W. and X. Therm. 42°. " 10th. Martins began to build about noon, but made very little progress. Only one of them remained all night. Cold and cloudy. Wind X.E. Therm. 42'. " 11th. Martins built a little, both sat all night. Cloudy. Wind N.E. Therm. 53^ '■ 12th. Martins built a little. Nest nearly completed. Dis- appeared towards evening. Cloudy. Wind X.E. Therm. 55°. " 13th. Martins built very little, disappeared early. Cloudy. Cold. Wind N.E. Therm. 45'. " 14th. No Martins. Snow showers from half-past 7 a.m. till 10. Cloudy and cold. Wind N.E. Therm. 43'. " 15th. No Martins. Very cold and cloudy. High wind, N.W., accompanied by heavy rain. Therm. 45°. " 16th. No Martins. Kain. Wind N.W. " 17th. No Martins. Very cloudy, ^^"md N.W. Therm. 50°. " 18th. Martins appeared about 1 v. m., worked for some time, remained all night. Cloudy. Wind S.W. Therm. 50°. " 19th. Martins finished building their nest, remained all night. Cloudy. Wind N.W. Therm. 58'. "Now that their labours were brought to an end, I entertained hopes that the structure would last them many years ; but on the 23d of June, during a heavy and continued rain, almost the whole of it fell to the ground, together with the young birds which it contained. A short timebefore the catastrophe occurred, I observed the old birds hovering about, and expressing great uneasiness. They almo.st immediately left this place, but re- turned the following day, and spent it in hawking about, and examining the window. Next morning they commenced repair- ing the nest. On the morning of the 2Gth they made great pro- gress, but after 9 a. m., when rain began to fall, they worked very little. On the 30th, they advanced rapidly, and both re- mained sitting on the nest all night. On the 1st of July they finished it. They twittered incessantly all the evening till it was dark, and now and then preened each other's heads, as seated Ride by side they prepared to pass the dark hours. On the Istli WHITE-RL'MPED SWALLOW. ii85 of the same month, in the evening, during a great storm of wind and rain, part of the upper front fell down, carrying with it one of the eggs, in which was an embryo chick far advanced. The old birds, as usual, fluttered about, uttering plaintive cries. Early next morning they began to repair the damage, although it rained heavily all day. Part of the lining hanging over tho side was incorporated with the new layers of mud. The urgency of this case required that they should work during bad weather. Throughout the day, there was generally one sitting on the nest, whilst the other laboured assiduously. Kindly was he wel- comed by his mate, who sometimes during his absence nibbled and retouched the materials which he had just deposited. In a fews days it was finished, and shortly after the young were born. " When their nests are destroyed, these birds do not always re- build them, but sometimes forsake the neighbourhood entirely. On the 20th of July last, I observed a pair of Martins carrying mud to support their tottering edifice, applying it to the base. In May 1838, a pair of Martins built their nest in the staircase window. They reared two broods, and departed in due season. Last season, about the period of their arrival, a pair of House Sparrows took possession. The female I suspect was barren, as up to the 27tli of May no eggs were deposited. In the morn- ing of that day, and without any squabbling, a pair of Martins took possession of the nest, and in a few days the female was incubating. When the Martins' nest in one of the front win- dows fell on the 23d of June, I placed the young on some cot- ton in a little basket in their native window, covering them with a large sheet of brown paper ; but during the remainder of that day, and on the following day, their parents took no notice of them. Seeing that the poor creatures would perish of hunger, I placed them on a table in the room, and fed them with common house flies for two days. On the evening of the 26th, I resolved to try an experiment. Taking up the young ones, I pushed them gently into the nest in the staircase window, which contained young a few days old. It was about 8 r. m., and rain was falling heavily at the time. No sound was heard, save the cheeping of the young birds, and the dashing of the 586 HIRUNDO URBICA. storm against the window-glass, A minute elapsed, when forth ru!?hed the parents, and darted wildly about, shrieking their alarm notes, and again and again wheeled up to their nest, until at last they drifted away in the storm. I watched them till they disappeared about half-past J) o'clock. During all this time they only twice summoned up courage to look into the nest. Next morning I was rejoiced to see them attending assiduously to the young ones. Toward night, however, they disappeared, and as they never returned, their progeny perished of hunger. These two instances do not redound to the honour of the species. " Besides the places above-mentioned, in which they fix their nests, I have seen them in arches, once against a rafter, im- mediately under the ridge hole of a shed, on another occasion, in the south-east angle of the wall of a houi^c, at the distance of eighteen feet from the ground, and about six or eight feet from the eaves. Although quite exposed, it bore with im- punity all the storms by which it was assailed, and its owners raised two broods in it. I am credibly informed that they breed about the rocks near Tantallon Castle, opposite the Bass Rock. I have never seen its nest placed so low that you could reach it when standing. The favourite haunts of this species are towns and villages, near large streams and lakes. Win- dows appear to be their favourite places for building. It is not uncommon to see a nest in each corner. I have frequently seen them where their owners were obliged to pass round a large tree before reaching them. In such a situation as the corner of a window, it jiresents the appearance of the quarter of a rude globe, in most cases, if not always, somewhat pro- duced about the entrance, which is always on the side next the window. It is usually finished in twelve or fourteen days. AN'hcn Iniilt in a sheltered situation, it will last for years, and is occupied every season probably by the same pair. It is sometimes lined with moss and wool, in other instances with soft straw and feathers, and frequently with a mixture of the four kinds. The straw 1 have seen them collecting from tho tojjs of tho out-houses. Trom three to five white eggs are de- posited, and in the intervals tho parents pursue the gnats in WIIITE-RUMPED SWALLOW. 507 Bouie quiet glade or valley, amongst the cows grazing in the meadow, or the lambs at play on the hillside. If the day is warm, they will dip their snowy breasts in the glassy water, and then perch on a paling or housetop, and preen their fea- thers. They frequently enter their nest, where they twitter or warble incessantly. If I recollect right, their song may bo syllabled thus : chir-r-ruee, chur-r-ruee, mee, nice. When incubation commences, I suspect that the male feeds his mate, as he frequently visits her, and then the twittering generally subsides for a short time. About sunset I have frequently found the nest deserted ; so it is probable that she then takes some recreation, and stretches her wearied limbs. In two in- stances which came under my observation, twenty-six days elapsed between the finishing of the nest and the appearance of the young, which is announced by the broken eggshells and their exuvia wrapt in its tough kind of jelly, both of which the birds drop over the side. After the lapse of some days the young perform a somewhat similar operation for them- selves. Their wants are sup])lied with unwearied assiduity. " On the 5th of August, having a little spare time, I devoted it to the observation of a pair of these birds feeding their two young ones. In half an hour at noon, they fed them twenty- two times. The old birds sometimes clung to the entrance, and at other times entered the nest. They were welcomed with an incessant cheep cheep. Part of the food is apparently carried in the oesophagus, and it requires considerable muscu- lar effort to disgorge it. They retired to roost about 8 p. m. The monotonous call of the young, heard for about an hour afterwards, is occasionally relieved by the gentle twitter from the parents. On the 19th of August, in the course of an hour in the afternoon, the young were fed nineteen times. The young one whose turn it was to be fed sat in the entrance, to which the parent clung when feeding them. Should any por- tion of food remain about the bill of the young, or drop from its mouth, it is instantly seized by its companions. I have fre- quently observed young Martins nibbling the walls of their home, as if to procure sand to aid digestion. The following morning, about eight o'clock, immediately after my return 588 II I RUN DO lUBICA. from the fields, I observed the old birds dashing up to the window, thou describing short curves in the air, and repeat- ing a note, the meaning of which could not be misunderstood. I knew from experience the young were about to take their flight. One of them balanced itself in the entrance, looked timidly into the void, considered the risk for sometime, and then allowed its fellow to take its place. During all this time the parents kept diving about, within a few feet of the nest, and often fluttering within a few inches of the entrance, and endeavourincT bv manv winnin2[ jiestures to induce their charge to follow them. The remaining bird also, after sitting for some time, distrustful of its powers, retired, and the first one once more appeared. Opening and shutting his wings, and often half preparing to retire, he at length summoned up all his resolution, sprung from his perch, and with his self-taught pinions winnowed the air. He and the parents, who were in ecstacies, returned to the window, and, being joined by the other young bird, they all day long sported chiefly about the tree tops, till seven in the evening, when they re-entered the nest. The following day they were again sporting about, and the young were repeatedly fed by their parents. In the even- ing, about six o'clock, a most interesting scene occurred. Con- trary to my wishes, the nest was pulled down. On their re- turn, each dashed up into the corner in which it had been fixed, and then without uttering a sound they all wheeled about, and again successively examined the place. Shrieking their alarm note, they now darted wildly over the tops of the laurels and hollies, advanced and retired. Each examination served to increase their rage or alarm, and now a dozen of their neighbours from New Whittingham arrived, examined the window, and joined the injured family, thereby greatly in- creasing the confusion and uproar. If one clung to the win- dow corner, two or three settled on his back, and down they came. In this manner they kept hovering about for an hour, when they disappeared. The family group fretjuentcd our fields for some days, and then withdrew for the season. " In several instances I have seen the neighbours add their inducements to those of the parents, wlien the latter invito their WHITK-RL'MPEI) SWALLOW . 5ii9 young to leave their homo. In a family of five, three left the nest a day before the others. If the happy day prove fine, they seldom return to the nest till sunset ; if otherwise, I have seen them return two or three times a day to rest themselves. The first brood, which is generally abroad by the middle of June, live apart. The second brood is fledged by the end of August. They and their parents join the first brood and their companions, at Linton Distillery, when some hundreds of the species are to be seen. The remainder of their stay is spent in short aerial excursions, in sunning themselves on house-tops, in feasting and song ; until, about the third week of Septem- ber, when they bid fiirewell to the scenes of their youth, which many of them are never again to behold, and avray they speed in a body far towards the noontide sun." "Martins," says Th. Durham Weir, Esq., " have built their nests in most of my windows for many successive years. The panes of glass being greatly soiled by the droppings of the young birds, I resolved that I should prevent them from troubling me next season, and accordingly took steps to that effect. They went oft' in a pet, and to my astonishment did not return for four years, at least they did not attempt to build, for they only ho- vered about the house for a few days, and then took their de- parture. This shews their wonderful sagacity and recollection. They must have remembered the harsh way in which I had formerly treated them, and advised their companions, in some way, of which we cannot form a right conception, to beware of taking up their residence at the abode of so hard-hearted a fel- low. I may remark, that had I then been so keen an ornitho- logist as I now am, I would not have treated these interesting visitors in such an imfriendly manner. In 1835, being very anxious to procure some good specimens for stuffing, I went into the town of Bathgate, late one evening, and with the aid of a ladder caught several pairs sitting on their eggs. As they were all more or less injured in the feathers of their tails, no doubt owing to the way in which they build their nests, I im- mediately set them at liberty. It is very remarkable, that next year not a single nest which I had searched was reoccupied, and the windows were completely deserted, and have been so 590 IIIRUNDO URBICA. ever since (September 1S39.) In one of the windows, how- ever, in which there were two nests, I had left one nest un- touched, and to it a pair of Martins, perhaps the former occu- pants, returned the followinix season, and brought out young ones. This is another proof of their astonishing memory. In the summer of 18SG, six pairs built at Boghead. One evening when nearly dark, I caught a pair on their nest, but as they did not please me, I immediately put them away. No sooner, however, did they escape from my hand, than they set up a cry of alarm, upon which I heard the other Martins fly out of their nests, uttering the same sound ; and though they had been for a considerable time on their eggs, they never returned to them, but left the neighbourhood altogether. Birds in gene- ral, it is said, ' are wise in their selection of situation.' ' The choice they make," says the celebrated Wilson, in his interest- ing account of the American Chimney Swallow, ' bespeaks more than mere unreasoning instinct, and does honour to their discernment.'' With the Martins which have frequented my house, this has indeed been the case. Although for several years they have built in the north, east, and south windows of it, I have never seen them attempt to build in those exposed to the west. The length of time which they take in the erec- tion of their nests seems to depend on the state of the weather or their own inclinations. On the 20th of May 1837 three pairs of them began to build. In the forenoon of the Gth of July one of their nests was comjjlcted, the other two were not finished until the 10th and lltli of the same month. I have, however, seen them inhabited in the course of six and eight daj's, particularly when the former ones had been washed down by heavy showers of rain. A sparrow which for several years had built on the top of a leaden water-pipe, having been disappoint- ed of his old situation, was determined to remain as near to it as he could. He watched the Martins for eight days with un- ceasing care whilst they were erecting their abodes. No sooner was the outwork of the first of them finished, than he took forcible possession of it. During the greater part of a day, 1 observed the proprietors with six of their friends attempting to ])ut the iuvador nut. but their endeavours proved fruitless, as WHITE-IU:.MPEU SV\ ALLOW. 51)1 ho niado a determined resistance, and finally was victorious. He and his partner finished the interior of it, in which they reared their family, and lived with the Martins afterwards on terms of good neighbourhood. ' The whole account given by Avicenna, Albertus jMagnus, Rzaczynski, l^atgowski, Lin- nneus, and other naturalists with respect to these birds build- ing up sparrows into their nests of which the sparrows had taken possession, is,"* says the editor of the volume on the Ar- chitecture of Birds in the Library of Entertaining Know- ledge, ' a fanciful legend, for the sparrows with their strong bills would instantly demolish the thickest wall which the swallows could build, instead of quietly permitting themselves to be imprisoned."* Tn opposition, however, to this bold assertion (and it ought to be a warning not to condemn too rashly the statements of others), I am enabled to re- cord three well authenticated facts of the kind. A few years ago in the window of the second story of a house in Lin- lithgow, inhabited by Mr James Brown, heckle-maker, a pair of ^Lartins built a nest, which was taken possession of by a female sparrow. In attempting to dislodge this bold intruder, a dozen of their companions came to their assistance. After many severe struggles they were unable to effect their ob- ject. For her rash conduct, however, they were determined to make her sufl^er. They agreed to entomb her alive by clos- ing up the entrance with the mortar which they use in build- ing their nests, and in this they succeeded. ^Ir James Douglass, slater, with whom I have been for a long time acquainted, and upon whose veracity 1 can depend, assured me that he was a spectator of the occurrence, and that he, in the presence of several individuals, some of whom he named, took the dead bird out of the nest. The truth of it is further confirmed by Mr John Ray, nailer in Linlithgow, who told me that he was also present when it happened. At Bathgate mill, in June 1835, another instance of the same kind occurred. A male sparrow having persisted in occupying the dwelling of a pair of Martins, they, with twenty of their kindred, finding that they were unable to force him out of it, shut him up with mor- tar. Mr John Saycr, the miller, his brother, and the engineer 092 HIRCNDO URBICA. informed ine that they were eye-witnesses of the fact, and that they had the bird in their hands after it had been taken out. The same disaster happened to another sparrow in a nest, ■which was built in the window of the house of ^Ir Henry Reid, grazier in Bathgate. " These birds produce two broods in the season ; the young of the first brood do not desert their parents when they have a second fiimily, but as many of them as can be rightly accom- modated roost with them during the night. One evening in August last I caught in a nest the male and female with four of their second brood and two of the first. " It is a remarkable fact that they annually return to their old residences. In the town of Bathgate I know two nests which for the last three years have remained entire, and have been regularly tenanted each season, but whether by the same in- mates or not I cannot aflfirm ; Captain King has however been able to prove that the same pair of Martins do sometimes re- occupy their fomer nest. In his narrative of a journey to the shores of the Arctic Regions in 1833, 1834, and 1835, in Vol. I. p. 97, he makes the following statement with respect to these birds : — ' That the House Martin not only visits the same place, but the same nest year after year, is a fact which I ascertained by experiment. While residing in Kent, about ten years ago, having selected a detached nest, I fastened a small piece of silk round one of the legs of its inmate, then sitting upon eggs. The following season the bird returned, and with the garter still affixed, was secured in the same nest, — a convincing proof of the instinctive knowledge attributed to it.' In further con- firmation of the above statement I may mention that at the windows of my house, during the month of September 1838, I caught several pairs of Martins, and fixed small silver rings round their legs. In my immediate neighbourhood about the middle of May last, one of them was shot. " The regularity of the arrival of these ' joyous prophets of the year,' at their breeding places, is truly astonishing. David Falconar, Ivsq., told me that for the very long period f»f forty successive years, a pair of them had come to Carlo w- rie, either upon the 22d or 23d of April. On the forenoon of M'lIlTE-RUMPED SWALLOW. oy;j the 23d of April 1837, he asked his gardener if they had made their appearance i " Not yet," he replied. About four o'clock however, in the afternoon, ho entered the house, in a great hurry, and with ecstatic delight announced to his master that they had just now alighted upon the top of the stable. They were not seen in 1 838 until the 27th of April. " In one of the bedrooms of my house, on Friday the 28th of July 1837, I made the following observations. At 25 minutes after 4 o'clock in the morning, the old martins began to feed their young ones which were four in number. Froni that time until 5 o'clock, they fed them four times ; from 5 to G o'clock eleven times ; from 6 to 7 o'clock twenty-four times ; from 7 to 8 o'clock fifteen times ; from 8 to 9 o'clock twenty-three times ; from 9 to 10 o'clock twenty- five times ; from 10 to 11 o'clock twenty times; from 11 to 12 o'clock twenty-six times; from 12 to 1 o'clock twenty-six times; from 1 to 2 o'clock twenty-seven times ; from 2 to 3 o'clock twenty-eight times ; from 3 to 4 o'clock twenty times ; from •! to 5 o'clock twenty times ; from 5 to 6 o'clock twenty-seven times ; from 6 to 7 o'clock ten times ; and from 7 to 8 o'clock only once, making in all 307 times. At 10 minutes after 8 o'clock, having ceased from their labours, they went into their dormitory. They brought to their nestlings at each time, sometimes two, at other times three, four, five, and even more flies of different sizes. " It was a most beautiful and bright sunny day, and I ob- served that the female went into her nest five times, and re- mained about four minutes each time. In a dull and rainy day, the same birds fed their brood only 212 times. The young ones at the time I made those observations were ripe, and the attempts to which the old birds had recourse to induce them to leave the nest were indeed very ingenious. At the distaEce of about four inches from its orifice, the male held out to them a fly in his bill. In endeavouring to take hold of it, they again and again nearly lost their balance. The female made use of the same stratagem, but it did not succeed, as they were exceed- ingly cautious. Being therefore unable to prevail upon them to come out by artifice, she was determined to try it by force. She several times got into a passion, and with the claws of her right VOL. HI. Q Q 594 HIRUNDO IRBICA. foot seized one of them by the lower inaudible, while it was gaping in the expectation of receiving food, and used all her cftbrts to pull it out of the nest, but they were unavailing, as it clung to it like a squirrel. Upon Monday evening the 5th of July 1835, I took out of the nest of a martin, in a window in the town of Bathgate, one of the young birds, which was nearly ripe. I brought it home to try to tame it, but it refused to take food. Being anxious to ascertain how long it could sub- sist without food, I kept it from 9 o^clock in the evening of Mon- day until 12 o'clock upon Friday, being three days and fifteen hours. It then appearexl lively, but considerably lighter. I then put it into the nest of a Chimney Swallow which was built in my coal-house, where it was carefully fed. This M'ill in some measure account for the wonderful flights which they must take without having the means of procuring subsistence. If the young martins can want food so long, doubtless one would think that the old birds can endure hunger much longer." Towards the end of September, the House Martins collect into large flocks, which for several days perform long excur- sions in the neighbourhood of their residence, and are seen set- tling on the house-tops. At length, in the beginning of Octo- ber, they disappear, although here and there a few individuals may be seen flying about for some weeks later. Instances of their occurrence even in November are mentioned by several ])ersons, but none are seen after that month. Being at Mr AVeir's, near Bathgate, in Linlithgowshire, on the 20th of Sep- tember 1837, I was told that the Swallows, which had bred in the windows, had disappeared two days before ; but we found them in the low jirounds about Balbardic House, in the neiiih- bourhood. On the 22d, they had left Edinburgh, although on the 2 Ith I observed some in the sheltered valley of Colinton ; and on the 2d of October a few were seen in the neighbour- hood. VouNc;. — The young when fledged diflor from the old birds chiefly in having the dark parts of the plumage duller, and tinged with brown. 595 HIRUNDO RIPARTA. THE BANK SWALLOW. SAND MARTIN. SAND SWALLOW. MALLAG. F;g. 268. Hirundo riparia. Linu. Syst. Nat. I. ,"544. Hirundo riparia. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 575^ Sand Martin. Mont. Orn. Diet. Hirondelle de rivage. Hirundo riparia. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 429. Sand Martin. Hirundo riparia. Selb. Illustr, I. 125. Hiruudo riparia. Bank Martin. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 158. The upper parts and a broad hand across the breast greyisk- brown, the loicer parts broicnish-ichite. Male. — The Bank S^yallo^v is by much the smallest British species of this genus, and is therefore easily distinguished from the rest, to which it is inferior in beauty of plumage. But, al- though plain in its appearance, it is elegantly formed, and in agility is certainly not surpassed by any bird whatever. It is proportionally more slender than the preceding species ; but in form resembles the White-rumped Swallow, its feet how- ever being bare, excepting a few small feathers on the hind part of the tarsus. The bill is extremely .short, depressed, the ridge of the upper mandible rather distinct, its outline convex, as is that of the low^er, so that the bill is somewhat stronger than that of the other species. The mouth measures four twelfths of an inch across ; the oesophagus is two inches long; :m HI RUN DO RIl'AUIA. the stomach seven twelfths in length, and live and a half in breadth ; the intestine six and a half inches long. The nostrils are very small, elliptical ; the eyes of moderate size ; the aperture of the ear large. The feet are very short ; the tarsus a little longer than the hind toe with its claw, bare anteriorly, with seven anterior scutella feathered behind for half-way up; the first toe with six, the second with eight, the third with ten, the fourth with eight scutella ; the claws rather long, much compressed, moderately arched, laterally grooved, and tapering to a very acute point, that of the hind toe stronger but rather shorter than that of the third. The plumage is soft and blended, faintly glossed. The wings are extremely long, with eighteen quills, of which nine are pri- mary, tapering to a rounded point, the first slightly longer than the second; the secondaries, the inner excepted, are emarginate, and the inner four primaries have also a faint notch. The tail is of moderate length, and slightly forked, the lateral feathers exceeding the medial by nearly half an inch. The bill is black ; the iris brown ; the feet and claws wood brown. The general colour of the plumage is greyish-brown, the primary quills darker ; the throat, hind part of the breast, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts, brownish- white. Length to end of tail 5 j^ inches ; extent of wings 11 ; wing from flexure 4y-j ; tail, lateral feathers 2, medial 1?; tarsus ^%\ first toe /j, its claw |*g ; second toe j"*!, its claw ^^^ ; third toe^ ^, its claw /j ; fourth toe i^*g, its claw ]^. Female. — The female is precisely similar ; at least T am unable to distinguish her otherwise than by dissection. Length to end of tail 5 inches ; extent of wings 1 1 . Changes of Pll-.mage. — Like the rest, this species arrives in full plumage. The colour fades much before the period of its departure, the back assuming a bleached appearance. Variations. — Individuals of a whitish colour are said to occur, but I have never met with any remarkable deviations iVom the ordinary appearance. BANK S^VALLO^V^ M7 Hauitsi. — The Bank Swallow, \vhich differs esHentialljr in some of its habits from our other species, arrives about the same period as they, and although in one sense more local, is yet more extensively distributed, as it occurs in the most re- mote parts of Scotland, as well as in the most southern of England, and even frequents the sandbanks on the shores of the northernmost Hebrides, where neither the other Swallows nor the Swift are ever seen. Immediately after its arrival, it betakes itself to the stations in which it intends to reside during the season, unless the weather hap])cns to be very severe, in which case it remains for a time in some sheltered hollow, where the insects are most numerous. AVhercver a perpendicular section of diluvium is made, whe- ther by natural causes, or, as is more frequently the case, by ar- tificial excavations, colonies establish themselves, proportionate in numbers to the facilities afforded for lodging themselves, and sheltering their nests. Steep banks of rivers, sand-pits, quar- ries, and faces made in the soft soil by the action of the sea, are the j)laces in which they are usually found. Sand, gravel, clayey diluvium, or loam, are all adapted for their purpose ; and, al- though instances of their breeding in holes in walls and old buildings are sometimes met with, they are extremely rare. They seldom appear in cities, unless one of their breeding places be in the immediate vicinity ; nor do they seek the neighbourhood of man, but prefer the most sequestered spots, on dry heaths or in valleys, although they are not met with in the ravines or glens of our more elevated mountainous dis- tricts. It has been alleged that they prefer the vicinity of lakes and streams, and White asserts " that no instance oc- curs of their abounding but near vast pools or rivers ; and, in particular, it has been remarked that they swarm in the banks of the Thames, in some places below London Bridge." But when I consider the places in which I have met with them, as the banks of sea-sand in the island of Harris, a clayey bank on the sea shore near Portobello, various parts of the diluvial banks of the Dee and Spey, the clinkstone quarries of lilack- ford Hill, various sandstone quarries and sand-pits near Edin- burgh, and other localities. T must come to a different conclu- 5i»8 lUIUNDU UirAKlA. sioii, and state it to be my opinion that they take up their abode in situations favourable to mining, ^vhethe^ there be water near them or not. In the face of these banks the little creature commences its operations by clinging -with its sharp claws to a selected spot, and digging with its very short and pointed bill, as with a pike. One may convince himself that it is a very efficient in- strument for the purpose, by employing one of similar form and hardness, for a few minutes, against a section of sand or loam. The circular cavity is gradually deepened, the bird always forming its extremity of a conical or hemispherical shape, and after some progress is made, the debris are ejected with the feet. The hole, which is horizontal, generally extends to a depth of about two feet, and is seldom quite straight, although it makes no abrupt bend, and seems to become sinuous more from accident than design. Frequently deserted holes are found, some just commenced, others in which considerable pro- gress has been made ; and it is probable that the cessation has in them been caused by the occurrence of some insuperable obstacle, a stone or bit of hard ground. The form of the aperture varies according to the nature of the materials of which the bank is composed. When the ground is clayey and tenacious, it is circular ; when very loose, and the sand is disposed in thin layers, it is often rectangular. It also, and for the same reason, varies in size, sometimes being not much larger than is necessary for the passage of the bird, and sometimes having a diameter of three or four inches. The extremity of the hole is wider than the rest, rounded, and scooped out beneath, its diameter about five or six inches. The nest is shallow, forming a small segment of a hollow sphere, and is composed of dry grass, rudely put together, with a lining of a few large feathers. Tn a specimen found in a sand-])it near lOdinburgh I can distinguish Poa trivialis, Festuca duriuscula, l*ba pratensis, in long stalks, with their roots, leaves, and panicles, besides a spike of unripened wheat, and a leaf of Po- tentilla anserina ; the feathers those of the domestic duck. The eggs are of an elongated oval form, about eight-twelfths in length, five and a half in breadth, white, without spots, and four or live in numl)er. BANK SW.MJ.OW. -,[)[) The holes are IbruitJ at tlie top of a cjuarry merely because that is the only place where the materials are soft Cnougli for the purpose. In a shallow sand-pit I have seen some so low as to bo reached by the hand, and a few not at a greater height than ■four hot. In another pit, they were scattered about the middle, where there was less coarse gravel. Frequently, on the other hand, when bored in the soil, they are within two feet or even less of the surftico. Now, certainly, had these birds reason, it would bo very thoughtless or foolish in them to deposit their nests so frequently in j)laces where they can be so easily reach- ed by boys and others ; but as they have merely the boring instinct, they exercise their propensity without reflection. Mul- titudes of their nests are destroyed every year by workmen who break down the sides of sand-pits, and boys who dig them out. The flight of the Bank Swallow is light, graceful, flickering, and rapid. White remarks that it has " a peculiar manner of flying, flitting about with odd jerks and vacillations, not unlike the motions of a butterfly," and doubtless there is some resem- blance ; but the other species exhibit the same motions, although with more freedom as it were, or on a larger scale. It is to be seen flying about chiefly in the vicinity of its nest, but also over meadows, pools, and rivers, and in all varieties of low situations, in which the insects that form its food abound. I have not fouud sand or gravel in the stomach of this species, more than in that of the others. Its mouth is equally bedewed with a viscid saliva. Some writers, observing this copious secretion in the mouths of swallows, and seeing the mud crusts of their nests pretty firmly compacted, have alleged that they employ it as a cement. Others have even gone so far as to assert that the Java Swallow forms its esculent nests of this viscous mat- ter. I have failed in discovering traces of glutinous or albu- minous matter in the nests of our AVhite-rumped and Red- fronted Swallows ; that of the Sand Swallow can have no pre- tension to any ; and as many birds, such as Goatsuckers and SylvicV, which do not form concrete nests, have an equally abundant saliva, I cannot but consider the notion as totally unfounded. How manv theories, jjencralizations, and alleged facts, in Natural History, have turned out to be l)ascless, rash, or inauthentic I 600 milUNDO R J PAR I A. But see ! there comes a Bank Martin, skimming along the surface of the brook, gliding from side to side, deviating by starts, now sweeping over the bank, wheeling across the road, making an excursion over the corn-field, then rising perpendi- cularly, slanting away down the wind, fluttering among the spikes of the long grass, and shooting off into the midst of a multitude of its fellows. They advance toM-ards us, wheeling and gliding in untraceable mazes. See how beautifully they curve up against the face of the rock ; there one has plunged into its hole in the bank, — another — several at once ; some come out, and others cling to the pebbly surface. In this very spot an acquaintance of mine once saw a pair of magpies prowl- ing about, and endeavouring to mine out the young from one of the uppermost holes, when the Swallows, chattering in fierce anger, attacked them in a body, and put them to flight. Sparrows sometimes appropriate the nests of the Bank Swal- lows to themselves, and notwithstanding the pertinacious at- tacks of the owners and their friends, maintain their conquest. I have seen a colony thus located in a quarry on Blackford Hill, near Edinburgh. This species is much infested by fleas, witji which the nests often swarm. The voun^r are abroad about the end of June, and the second brood in August. Very large flocks may be seen over lakes and rivers about this season, being attracted by the abundance of insects ; but this species does not appear to collect in great numbers, like the others, previous to its departure, which takes place aljout the middle of September. The followins: account of the manner in which the excava- lions are made by the Bank Swallows, having been sent to me by Mr Robert Dick Duncan, a keen and accurate observer, I have pleasure in presenting to my readers, as he has watched the process more accurately than I have had an opportunity of doing: " The Sand Martins, Mhen they arrive in our district, on the banks of the Almond, in Linlithgowshire, anmse them- selves for a few days in skimming the surface of the deep pools, and recognising the places which were their favourite haunts during the preceding year. After these pleasures have been BANK Sn'ALLO\\'. GOl enjoyed for a time, as the season advances, they begin to think of the happiness of domestic life, and to prepare a receptacle for the coming brood. Accordingly, they with us resort to a per- pendicular bank of sand, situated on the west of the Almond, and washed by a stream which issues from a sheet of water a little way up the river, and there they repair their old cells, or burrow new ones. It is extremely jdeasant to observe the pro- cess of burrowing, and it is by no means difficult to enjoy a view of their operations. Taking with me a small telescope or opera- glass, I seated myself at a little distance, on the opposite bank, early on a warm morning in JNIay. The Swallows, noway molested by my presence, continued at intervals to excavate their nests. Grasping the perpendicular surface of the bank with their claws, and steadying themselves by means of their tails, they commenced working by pricking a small hole with their bills. This hole they gradually enlarged by moving round and round, and edging oft' the sand with the side of their bills, which they kept shut. Their progress at first was slow, but after they had obtained room to stand in the excavation, they proceeded very rapidly, working within with their bills, and carefully pushing out the loosened sand with their feet. At one time the male, at another the female, was the excavator. AV^hen their burrowing was impeded by the resistance of a stone or any other obstruction, if unsuccessful in their eftbrts to remove it, they left the cell and commenced digging a new one. They engaged in these exercises only for a short time each morn- ing, as they abandoned themselves to enjoyment throughout the day. The nests were deposited at the end of the cells, the depth and direction of which varied much. Some extended three feet, others only a sixth of that distance ; some were hori- zontal, some descended nearly perpendicularly for a little, and then rose again ; while others turned in many directions. In all, however, the nest was a little elevated above the entrance of the cell. This provision was evidently to facilitate the egress of moisture. The materials of the nest were uniformly a few straws of hay, and many whitish feathers, very carelessly thrown together. The number of eggs which I usually find in each of the nests in this colony on an average, is six. They are small. 602 niRI'XlK) RIPAUI A. of a snow-white colour, tin7 longitudinally rugous. Intestine extremely short, rather wide ; 110 cooca ; rectum enlarged into an ovate cloaca. No inferior laryngeal muscles. Plate XXII, Fig. 5. Nasal sinus large ; nostrils basal, oblong, approximate. Eyes large ; aperture of ear rather large. Feet extremely short ; tarsus stoutish, feathered or bare; four toes, all directed forwards, and having the same number of phalanges, namely two, or at least having the basal phalanges abbreviated; the first toe small- est, the third little longer than the second and fourth, which are nearly equal ; claws rather large, stout, decurved, very acute. The plumage is rather compact above, blended beneath, mo- derately full. No bristles about the mouth. The wings are extremely elongated, falciform ; the quills about eighteen ; the secondaries very short, the first or second primary longest. Tail of ten feathers, of moderate length, or long, but much exceeded by the wings. These birds are remarkable for the extreme rapidity of their flight, and their unwearied activity, in which respects they excel even the Swallows. Feeding exclusively on insects, which they seize in open field, they migrate from the warmer regions in which they have passed the winter, advancing northward as the temperature increases, and, remaining for a shorter period than almost any other migratory bird, return long before the swallows. They place their nests in holes and crevices of buildings and rocks, or attach them to elevated places, laying from two to five very elongated white eggs, are generally of a social disposition, and are noted for their loud, shrill, and joyous cries, but have no song or modulated notes, their inferior larynx being destitute of the muscles observed in birds which have a varied voice. Their digestive organs differ from those of the Swallows in having no ca?ca ; but in the form of the mouth and bill they approach nearer to the Goat- suckers, whose digestive organs more resemble those of the Owls and Cuckoos. In the Swifts, as in the Swallows, the bones of the wing are extremely short, especially the humerus ; but the sternal apparatus diiiers, its crest being extremely elevated an- teriorly, and its posterior margin even, in the former. Fig. 269, C08 CYPSEL1N\E. whereaa in the latter the crest is less raised, and the posterior margin deeply notched, as in the Cantatores and Excursores, in which the skeleton is otherwise very similar. Indeed the affini- ties of these birds are very complex ; but for the present occa- sion it will suffice to shew that in the British series, the Cyp- selina? are intermediate between the Hirundinae and Caprimul- ginre. SYXOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AXD SPECIES. GENUS I. CYPSELUS. SWIFT. Bill very small, weak, opening to beneath the hind part of the eye, much compressed at the end ; gape-line arched ; nos- trils oblong, marginate ; wings extremely long, falciform ; tail of ten feathers, emarginate or forked ; tarsus very short, fea- thered ; all the toes directed forwards, and having only two phalanges, three of them nearly equal ; claws stout, decurved, acute. 1. Cypselus Melha. White-heUied Swift. Greyish-brown, with the throat, breast, and abdomen, white. 2. Cypselus murarius. Black Sicift. Brownish-black, with the throat whitish. coo CYPSELUS. SWIFT. Bill extremely short, depressed, broad at the base, narrowed to the point, so as to present a trianfjular form when viewed from above ; upper mandible slightly longer, its dorsal outline convex, the ridge convex, the sides sloping at the base, convex at the end, the eJges sharp and incurved, the nasal sinus very large ; lower mandible much smaller, very broad, its angle very large and wide, the dorsal outline convex, the edges invo- lute, the tip narrow but obtuse ; gape line commencing nearly beneath the posterior angle of the eye, ascending to near the nostrils, then slightly arched. The mouth very wide ; the upper mandible shallow, with a slight prominent central line, the lower also shallow, with a similar line ; the palate flat, but slightlyarched, with two faint lateral lines; the posterior aperture of the nares linear, papillate behind, and having its lateral spaces also covered with small papilla\ Tongue short, sagittate, papillate at the base, its tip bifid. The oesophagus is rather narrow, wide at the commencement ; the proventriculus oblong, with short glan- dules. The stomach is elliptical, somewhat compressed ; its muscular coat rather thin, its tendons moderate, its cuticular coat thin, tough, and longitudinally rugous. The intestine is very short ; the duodenal portion much wider than the rest, excepting the rectum, which gradually dilates to a very largo pyriform sac ; no cocca. Plate XXII, Fig. 5. The nostrils are prominent, oblong, with an elevated mar- gin, oblique, in the fore part of the large nasal membrane, which is feathered behind. The eyes are rather large ; the eyelids bare, but with two submarginal rows of feathers, the bare edges crenate. External aperture of the ear large and roundish. The general form is rather full ; the body of an elongated flattened shape ; the neck very short, the head broad. The feet are extremely short, but strong, and more resemble those VOL. III. R R ()!(» CYPSELUS. SWllJ'. of a quadruped, than the feet of any other bird ; the tarsus ex- tremely short, feathered anteriorly, bare behind. The pollex or inner toe smallest, the third largest, the second next ; the first toe not directed backwards, but forwards and inwards, so that it cannot be put in opposition to the rest, collectively, al- though it may to the fourth or outer. Another very remark- able circumstance is that the toes have all the same number of articulations, namely two, and are very short ; they have a few scutella above, and are obscurely papillate beneath. Claws large, strong, tapering, curved, very acute, moderately com- pressed, convex above, ilatti.sh beneath. Plumage soft, rather blended, glossy, the feathers oblong, with a rather tufty moderate plumule. There are no bristle- feathers at the base of the bill. A\'incrs extremclv longf, nar- row, and pointed ; the quills and coverts with exceedingly strong, elastic shafts ; the quills eighteen, the secondaries very short and rounded, the primaries ten, tapering to a rounded point, the outer a little incurvate towards the end, so as to ren- der the wing falciform. Tail long, but much exceeded by the wings, deeply forked, of ten tapering feathers having strong shafts, the outer slightly recurved. The Swifts differ from the Swallows chiefly in having their feet stronger, although shorter, and their toes dili'ercnt in form and disposition, Nvith stronger claws all so directed that tho bird can cling very securely even to a perpendicular surface. Owing to the extreme shortness of their feet, they are imablo to walk, unless with a most constrained and hobblinfi gait, with the aid of their wings, the extreme length of which com- bined with the form of the feet, prevent them from rising from a flat horizontal surface, so that they never settle on the ground, but alight only on such ])laces as jiresent a brink or de- clivity from the edge of which they can launch forth in a curve. Their flight is extremely raj)id, and on wing they perform tho most aburpt turns and the most varied evolutions, with the greatest ease. 1'hey nestle in holes in buildings, or in crevices of rocks, forming their nest of materials gathered on wing. Only two species occur in Europe, of which one is generally distributed in Tiritain. Two or three individuals of the other have been killed in England. till CYPSELUS MELBA. THE WHITE-BELLIED SWIFT. Fig. 271'. Hiruiulo Melba. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 31.i. lUruiido major hispanica. Biiss. Av. II. .>fll. Hinindo Mclba. Lath. IiiJ. Orn. II. .')S2. Martinet a ventre blanc. Cypselus alpinus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 4.33. Alpine Swift. Cypselus alpinus. Selb. lUustr. I. 12". Cypselus alpinus. Alpine Swift. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 159. All the upper parts, together tcith the sides and lou'er part of the 7ieck, the sides of the body, legs, and lower icing and tail- coverts, gregish-broini ; the rest ichite ; length to end of tail about nine inches. Male. — In form and proportions the White-bellied Swift resembles the common species, havinp: the bodymoderatelystout, thencckshort, thehead rather large and depressed ; thebillsome- what more slender and elongated, its upper outline considerably curved ; the nostrils linear-oblong, marginate, a twelfth and a half in length. The tarsus is very short, rather stout, and feathered ; the first toe much smaller than the rest ; the se- cond and fourth about equal, the third a little longer ; all bare, with a soft skin, on which arc merely indications of scutclla, 612 CYPSELUS MELBA. there being five on all, except the third, which has seven. The claws are remarkably stout, well curved, much compress- ed, concave beneath, very acute. The plumage is slightly glossed, and somewhat compact ; the feathers ovato-oblong. The wings arc extremely long and narrow, extending nearly two inches beyond the tail ; the second quill a quarter of an inch longer than the first ; the secondaries extremely short, and only eight in number. The tail is rather short, deeply emarginate, the lateral feathers nearly an inch longer than those in the middle. The bill is black ; the iris hazel ; the toes dusky flesh- colour, the claws dusky, with the tips pale. The general colour of the plumage is greyish-brown, the quills of a darker tint, their shafts grevish- black. There is a larire patch of white on the throat, and the breast and abdomen are of that colour ; the rest of the lower parts, namely the sides and lower fore -part of the neck, the sides of the body under the Avings, the lower wing-coverts, tarsal feathers, and lower tail-coverts, of the same tint as the back. Most of the brown feathers, especially those on the lower parts, are terminally edged with paler. Length to end of tail 9 inches, to end of wings 10j§ ; ex- tent of wings estimated at 21 ; wing from flexure 9j^ ; tail 3(2 ; bill along the ridge j^' ^^ong the edge of lower mandi- ble ly'2 ; tarsus f^^ ; first toe ^3, its claw j^^ ; second toe ^*2 its claw /j ; third toe j%, its claw ['^^ ; fourth toe f^, its claw ^*j. Femalk. — The female is similar to the male. Habits. — This species, which is easily distinguished from the other, by its superior size, and the white so conspicious on its lower parts, appears to rank no higher with us than as a rare and accidental straggler, although it has been conjectur- ed that it may breed on the southern coast of Ireland. An in- dividual is recorded to have been shot in the Isle of Thanet, in June 1820; another near Huckenham Church in Xortblk, in September 1831 ; and a third was found dead near SaftVon Walden in Essex, in July 1838. A specimen was also ob- WHITE-BELLIED SWIFT. G13 taincd, in March 1833, at Ratlifarnham in Ireland. Mr Har- ley, of Leicester, informs mo that between five and six o'clock of the evening of the 23d September 1839, ho saw an indivi- dual of this species, which he says he could not possibly have mistaken. " The stretch of the wings having been much too great for the conmion Swift, probably not less than eighteen or twenty inches. The throat, breast, and belly, down as low as the vent, appeared white. The evening was serene, and the bird was gliding gently along, at the height of fifteen or twenty yards. Its motion in passing overhead was just like the shoot of the Windhover through the air." About the middle of spring, the White-bellied Swift passes from Africa to the European countries bordering on the Medi- terranean, many individuals proceeding as far as the Tyrol, Switzerland, and the parts of France adjoining the Alps. M. Temminck states that it is very abundant at Gibraltar, in Sardinia, Malta, and the islands of the Archipelago. Its places of repose are precipices and the most elevated parts of buildings, in the crevices and against the walls of which it fixes its nest, which is formed of straws and moss kept to- gether by some glutinous substance. The eggs, three or four in number, are white, and of an elongated form. Young. — 'When fledged, the young are similar to the adult, but with all the dark feathers on the upper parts margined with paler, and those on the lower having a semilunar termi- nal white band. Remarks. — Not having seen this species alive, or obtained recent individuals, I have taken my descriptions from preserved skins. (511 CYPSELUS MURARIUS. THE BLACK SWIFT. BLACK MARTIN. SWIFT. SCRKECH. DEVELIXO. Fro. 271. Hirundo Apus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 344. Ilirundo Apus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 582. Swift. Mont. Orn. Diet. Cypselus miirarius. Temm. Man.d'Orn. 1. 434. Common Swift. Cypselus murarius. Selb. Illustr. I. 127. Cypselus Apus. Common Swift. Jen. Brit. Vert, An. 151). Bhickis/i-broivn, sli^/dh/ plossed tcith f/reen, the throat greijish- tchite. Male. — The form of the Swift is admirably adapted to its mode of hfc, but not more so than that of any other bird, al- though we are enabled to trace the connection between its form and habits in a comparatively satisfactory manner, both being so remarkable as to render the task easy. The body is of a somewhat elongated and flattened shape, anteriorly broad, with the pectoral muscles large ; the neck very short, the head broad, the wings excessively long and narrow, the tail rather long and deci)ly forked, the feet very short, but strong, the bill very small, the mouth very wide. lioth mandii)lc.s are dellected, and taper rapidly to a narrow ItLACK SWIFT. GIT) blunt point. Tlie mouth opens nearly as far back as the pos- terior edge of the eye, and measures eight and a half twelfths across. 'J'he tongue is very small, three-twelfths of an inch long, triangular, with the apex slit. The salivary glandules, Plate XXII, Fig. 5, //, are aggregated into two large masses, placed under the tongue, and the mouth is copiously supplied with a viscid secretion. The a?sophagus, hcd^ is two inches and seven-twelfths long, narrow, of uniform width ; the pro- ventriculus, cJ, with very short glandules. The stomach, d e^ is ten-twelfths long, or when dilated an inch and nine-twelfths broad, elliptical, compressed ; its muscular coat rather thin, of rather large fibres ; its tendons of moderate size ; the cuticular lining rather thin, tough, and rugous. Pylorus small, without valve, entered by the cuticular coat of the stomach. Intestine, deffc^ seven inches and a quarter long ; its duodenal portion, fg h, three twelfths in diameter, the rest contracting to a twelfth and a half; but the rectum rapidly enlarged to a pyriform sac, J i-, half an inch in diameter. There are no caeca. The eyes are rather large and prominent, their ajjerture two- twelfths in diameter ; that of the ears three-twelfths. The feet are extremely short, but very strong ; the tarsus feathered anteriorly ; the toes very short, differing little in length, but the third largest, the second next, and the first or inner smallest ; the latter is directed inwards and forwards, but can- not be turned directly backwards ; they all have only two phalanges. The claws are very strong, curved, acute. The plumage is soft, slightly glossed, moderately compact. There are no mandibular bristles. The eyelids are bare, but ciliated with short, tufty, feathers. The wings, which extend about an inch and a half beyond the tips of the tail, are falci- form, being incurved towards the end ; the quills eighteen ; the secondaries and their coverts very short, and rounded ; the primaries and their coverts excessively long, \vitli very strong shafts ; the second (^uill is a little longer than the first, when the wing is closed, but the latter is slightly longer when the wing is extended ; the third is a good deal shorter, and the other primaries rai)idly dimini.sh. The tail is long, and much 616 CYPSELUS MURARILS. forked, the lateral feathers an inch and a quarter longer than the medial, and a little recurved. The bill, feet, and eyes are black. The general colour of the plumage is blackish-brown, generally glossed with slight greenish reflections ; the throat Avhitish ; the outer primaries darker than the rest. Length to end of lateral tail-feathers 7A inches ; extent of wings 16^ ; wing from flexure 7 ; tail 31, the middle fea- thers 2 ; bill along the ridge j, along the edge of lower man- dible 1^ ; tarsus |^g ; first too i^, its claw f^ ; second toe ^^1, its claw y'g ; third toe f'l, its claw j^^ ; fourth toe -fl, its claw ^2. Female. — The female is a little lighter above, and has the feathers of the lower parts slightly margined with a paler tint, the throat whiter, its feathers dusky on the shafts. Length to end of tail 7i g inches ; extent of wings 151, wing from flexure G| ; tail 3} ; bill along the ridge j\, along the edge of lower mandible j% . Variations. — In adult individuals, the variations are not re- markable. Changes of Plumage. — This species arrives in Britain in perfect plumage. The colours fade considerably as the sum- mer advances, becoming of a browner tint, and by the middle of August the plumage has acquired a bleached appearance. Hahits. — The Black Swift arrives in the south of Scotland in the beginning of ALiy. Mr Selby says that " it is seldom seen in the northern parts of England before the end of May or the beginning of June ;"" but this appears to be a mistake, for in I'^dinburgh it always comes before the tenth of May, and even in the very severe weather of 1S37 it was seen at Canon- mills by my son on the 1st, and at Newingtou by myself on the 3d of May. In the south of England it is stated to appear between the 20th of April and the Ist of May ; and Mr liar- BLACK SWIFT. GIJ ley informs me that in Leicestershire it usually makes its ap- pearance before the 8th of that month. It is not in general, however, until after the different species of Swallow have been seen that it makes its appearance, a few individuals only pre- senting themselves at first, and the number gradually increas- ing, until at length they become in many places plentiful, and attract attention by their extremely rapid flight and loud screams. It betakes itself to steeples, high towers, ruinous castles, and abrupt rocks, where it nestles in the holes and crevices. At early dawn, in fine weather, it is to be seen shooting through the air in all directions, with a rapidity scarcely equalled by that of any other bird. Its flight is performed by (piick flaps of its long narrow wings, alternating with long glidings or sail- ings, durinff which these organs seem motionless, but extended nearly at a right angle. If you watch an individual, you observe it speeding away with quick motions of the wings, which being raised and depressed over a great range, seem to alternate \vith each other; but this is not in reality the case, at least, I have failed in satisfying myself that it is so. There, it shoots along on motionless wings, turns to the right and left, flutters for a moment, ascends, comes down abruptly, curves, and winds in various directions, darts in among its fellows, and is lost to your view. The ease with which it rises, falls, bonds to either side, glides in short or long curves, or stops in the midst of its full career, is less astonishing than it ought to be, familiarity in this, as in other instances, producing a disposition to regard as simple what is the result of elaborate mechanism. It continues searching the air in this manner during the whole day, when the weather is good ; nor does a shower, how- ever heavy, usually induce it to relinquish its pursuit. Even in the midst of heavy thunder rains, it may often be seen wheel- ing and diving with unremitting vigour ; and in drizzly wea- ther, when the Swallows have disappeared, it pursues its avoca- tions, heedless of the damps. On the day on which the ac- cession of her Majesty was proclaimed in Edinburgh, the weather was extremely sultry and oppressive, and a very heavy rain fell in the afternoon, during which I was a little surprised 018 CYPSELUS MURARIUS. to see the Swifts \vlieelino; joyously over the town at a consider- able height. How the insects, of which of course they were in pursuit, could exist in such a rain is not less astonishing]^. In dry and sunny weather, however, it generally rests in the mid- dle of the day, and towards evening is extremely active, filling the air with its shrill and joyous screams. Its food consists entirely of insects, which it seizes exclu- sively on wing. Several curious circumstances may be noted with reference to its pursuit of these animals. In rainy or damp coldish weather, the Swifts are to be found flying at no great height, generally from ten to fifty or sixty yards, fre- quently in bands of twenty or more, often shooting along the sides of the hedges, descending in curves, and skimming the surface of the grass, wheeling and circling, now and then turn- ing abruptly on spying an insect out of their course, and per- forming all sorts of evolutions, scarcely describable, however, at least with a rapidity calculated to impress an idea of that which they exhibit. On such occasions they are easily shot, for they often come quite close to the gunner, being altogether heed- less of his presence, so intent are they on capturing their prey. In fine weather, they fly low in the mornings and evenings, and are among the first birds that come abroad, and the latest that retire to their places of repose ; but during the greater part of the day they are to be seen chiefly at a great elevation, apparently that of several hundred yards. Yet I have seen them living high in rainy weather, when the clouds were sepa- rated by long intervals ; and, from long observation, I am satisfied that no prognostication of the weather can be based on the flight of Swifts and Swallows. These birds lly high or low, according as their prey is abundant in the higher parts of the air, or near the surface of the ground or woods; and as insects fly lower in the evening and morning, or in damp weather, so the Swifts then descend. lu drv sunny weather, they frecpiently utter a long, loud, shrill scream, as they pursue their prey ; but not in such wea- ther alone, for you often hear it before or during rain, especially in the evening. Some have fancied this scream to be an iuli- mation given by the male to his mate that he is at hand, and IJLAC K SWIFT. 619 others that it is caused by the excitement of electricity ; but these conjectures arc destitute alike of ingenuity and truth. It is not in thundery weather alone that Swifts screau), but often in the clear, dry, and sunny skies, that exhibit no phenomena indica- tive of a want of electric equilibrium. And as to the other theory, it suffices to reflect that Swifts scream as frequently over the open fields at the distance of a mile or more from their • nesting places, as when wheeling near steeples or towers. The cry of the jackals and hounds when in full chase seems to be analogous to the scream of Swifts under similar circumstan- ces ; but the cause and use of either is not satisfactorily ascer- tained. I have observed however that single birds very sel- dom scream, and that the loudest and most frequent cries are heard when birds are evidently in active and successful pur- suit. It is so with Terns, Gulls, and even Gannets ; and when you see these birds hovering over the sea, and hear their mingling cries, you may be sure that they have discovered a shoal of fishes, and are enjoying their good fortune. They seem to scream or cry out from pleasure, and thus give inti- mation to their fellows of the ])lentiful existence of food. As to the organ of this loud and shrill scream in the Swift, name- ly, the trachea, it is short, remarkably flattened, gradually di- minishes in diameter to the bifurcation, and is destitute of inferior laryngeal muscles. It has no song, or twitter, like the Swallows. Now, having described the organization and habits of this bird, I may offer some explanations as to the action of the for- mer. If we suppose that the Swift is destined to feed exclu- sively on insects as they flutter in the air, we can be at no loss to trace the reason of its peculiar form. Its body is light, but moderately stout, and its pectoral muscles are large, otherwise it could not move its wings with the necessary stren^^th and rapidity. The wings are extremely elongated and narrow, be- cause great rapidity of flight is required in the pursuit of ani- mals which themselves fly with speed, and because sudden turns require to be executed in .seizing them. A short, broad, con- cave M-ing. as that of a Partridge, on being rapidly moved pro- duces considerable rapidity, but is not fitted lor either buovant 020 CYPSELUS MURARIUS. gliding or quiciv evolution. For the latter the surface of the wing must be extended in length and narrowed, and instead of presenting a concavity must be straight in the horizontal direction. Accordingly in the Swift the wing has its humeral articulation peculiarly free, insomuch that holding one alive in your hand you at first imagine that its wings have been broken. At the same time, their muscular apparatus is remark- ably strong. Then the secondary quills are very short, and the primaries gradually and rapidly elongated, and furnished with very strons but hiiihlv elastic shafts. The tail, although not so long, is similarly constructed, being deeply forked, and so in a manner divided into two pointed and elongated laminae similar in some degree to the wings, and aiding their action in executing turns. In seizing its prey, while gliding or flut- tering in the air, the bird would bo incommoded by any length of neck ; that part is therefore extremely abbreviated, so that the head seems as if stuck upon the shoulders, as is the case, for a similar reason, in the Cetacea and fishes. A long pointed bill would be of use only to a bird that has objects to pick from the ground or any other surfoce, or from among soil or foliage. In the present case, the bird, carried with rapidity to its tiny prey, merely requires to open its mouth, which is extremely en- larged, and supplied with an abundant viscid secretion, which immediately entangles the fly that has been caught, and pre- vents its escape should the mouth be opened the next instant. A bird so living has no need of walking, and there being nothing superfluous in nature, its feet are reduced to cramping organs, by which it can cling to any kind of surface when en- tering its nest, and its gait is merely a hobbling motion, aided by the wings. It cannot rise from a flat surface, as I have as- certained by experiment, but it launches from any little emi- nence, and if it can spring out horizontally, is enabled to fly off", although its usual mode of launching is like that of the Gannet by a deep curve. 'J'hese two birds arc very similar in some points of their organization. Their wings are long and narrow, and their flight is rapid and buoyant ; they seize their ])rey ])y throwing themselves with velocity upon it ; they launch from the rocks BLACK SWIFT. 621 in the same manner, and exhibit other points of mutual re- semblance ; as do the Terns more especially, which, on account of their form and buoyant fli<,'ht, have received the vul<.'ar ap- pellation of Sea Swallows. The want of walking feet might be supposed to be somewhat inconvenient on many occasions. Thus, when the bird has its nest to make, it must gather straws and feathers. But so great is its dexterity on wing that it picks them up with ease as it skims along. The nest is placed in the crevice of a wall or rock, in a steeple or tower, in holes under the eaves, or in some such place, at as great a height as possible, and is com- posed of twigs, straws, and feathers, being bulky, but shallow, and not neatly arranged. The eggs are two or three, of an elongated form, pure white, their average length one inch, their greatest breadth seven and a half twelfths. They are deposited from the beginning to the middle of June, and the young are abroad by the end of July. Only one brood is reared in the season. The Swifts take their departure from the mid- dle to the end of August, thus rcsidin" with us onlv about three months and a half. As the insects on which they live are generally very small, they do not swallow each as it is caught, but collect a number previous to the act of deglutition, for at whatever period they are shot, one generally finds insects in their mouths, ^^"hen collecting food for their young, they do not return to the nest so frequently as the Swallows, but accumulate a considerable quantity at a time. I have never found any particles of gravel or sand in their gizzards, of which the hard cuticular lining is of a reddish-brown colour, as in most birds that feed on insects, such as Wagtails, Pipits, and U'arblers. The insects on which they feed arc various species of Coleoptera, Ephemera>, Phry- gane.T?, and occasionally Libelluhe and Musca?. White seems to be the first who observed that Swifts copu- late on wing. " If any person,"'"' he says, " would watch these birds of a fine morning in May, as they are sailing round at a great height from the ground, he would see every now and then, one drop on the back of another, and both of them sink down together for many fathoms with a loud piercing shriek. 622 CYPSELUS .MLllAKIUS, This I take to be the juncture when the business of generation is carrying on." Such phenomena certainly present themselves, yet it is not by any means improbable that they are merely in- dicative of the hostility of rival males ; for we often see larks fighting in the air, and so keenly engaged that they sometimes descend " many fathoms " before separating; and I have ob- served eagles struggling on wing, and emitting '• a loud pierc- ing shriek," although no one could reasonably suppose them to be then copulating. In the longest days of June, the Swift comes abroad as early as half-past two, and I have seen it flying as late as half-past nine. In the summer of 1 837, I made some observations on its mode of flight, which I here transfer fi-om my note-book, they having always been written down on the spot. There, on this beautiful evening of the 1st of Julv, when the whole sky is cloudless, but overspread with a filmy haze, through which the setting sun displays his broad red disk, the Swifts come screaming in troops over the house-tops. They fly so rapidly that you can scarcely suppose them to be search- ing for prey ; yet now and then a sudden turn indicates the capture of a fly. AVhen they separate, they cease from their noise, and for a while speed along in curves rapidly moving their wings ; but now three or four sweep past in succession, as if one had in view to overtake or outstrip another, and their shrill cries form a continuous scream. Another band dashes into the line, and thcv mingle together for a moment, then separate, and fly off solitarily. Their cries, shrill and some- what harsh as they are, seem cries of joy, for they are loudest and most frequent when they fly close together ; and certainly they are not indicative of animosity, for Swifts on such occa- sions never fight or attempt to injure each other. Again they shoot past ; but by this time we have enough of them. In half an hour, they will have retired to their holes, and when our own flight of life is over, we shall follow their e.\;im])le. Now, if elec- tricity be the exciting cause of all this screaming, let us take note of the weather, and see if it will lead us to any result. On the 2d July, the sun shone brightly till about eleven, when the sky became overcast with a thin blue stratus, the |{LA( K S\\'JFT. (i'2:i weather was opi)res.sively hot, the atmosphere pei-fectly sta;^'- nant, ami I judged it possible that there might be thunder before night. The Swifts flew at a moderate height, in perfect silence, and appeared busily occupied, neither mingling in groups, nor chasing each other. About six in the evening, having seated myself on a rock on Blackford Hill, I watched about a dozen flying at about the same height over the little valley. They retained the same silence which they had kept all day, flew rather more slowly than usual, and never chased or interfered with each other. The Bank Swallows had re- tired to their holes, a very few Larks and Corn Buntings were heard singing ; but the birds in general were unusually silent. The Swifts now and then came so close to me, that I could perceive with certainty that their mouths were not open, and trace all their motions in a satisfactory manner. They keep the head quite retracted, and rather below the level of the back ; the wings are never fully extended, unless during some sudden turns ; but when the bird is gliding along, the two wings appear to form a curve of about the third of a circle ; the tail is very slightly spread so that the fork is just percepti- ble, but, during deflection in a vertical direction is spread out and depressed or elevated. On returning home, I found the Swifts flying low over the houses, much in the same style, but occasionally emitting a scream, which had not however the usual joyous cx])ression. The dark haze hung over the sky, but, although the air had an electric feeling, and there was not a breath of air, no thunder was heard, and no rain fell. The weather continued the same until eight next morning, when a slight breeze sprung up, a smart shower of very heavy drops fell, and by ten the sky w^as clear, with thin cirrocumuli, and a light wind. In the evening the Swifts flew more joyouslv, screaming and chasing each other. The heat was then much less oppressive, for there was a good breeze, and a clear sky. On the fourth day, the weather was close and sultry. The Swifts were silent. At five rain fell, and continued until night. For an hour or so, no Swifts were seen, but in the evening they were flying ju.st over the houses, in the midst of the rain, dashing along, and screaming, in their most joyous mood. 024 C VPSELUS Ml'RARIUS. Now, the inferences from these facts are : that close, dull, electrical weather, instead of exciting, depresses Swifts and other hirds, and renders them dull and silent ; that from the flight of these birds, considered as to its elevation, no indica- tion of the coming weather can he formed ; for on the fine hazy evening, the suffocating, dull, electrical evening, the moder- ately cool dull evening, and the rainy and refreshing evening, they flew much about the same height. Until the 12tli day of July, the weather continued clear and excessively warm, and the Swifts flew in their usual man- ner, at a low or moderate elevation, occasionally screaming and mingling with each other. On that day, the wind having become easterly, and the ujiper current moving in an opposite direction, the sky became overcast, and in the evening some showers fell, and a little thunder was heard. Yet the Swifts flew in the same manner, although they were more silent than usual. On the 13th it rained a good deal, yet they flew about, screaming, in the midst of the showers ; but at four o'clock a tremendous flood poured down and seemed to send all the birds to places of shelter ; although immediately after, the Swallows were seen. In the evening the Swifts flew as usual, generally low, and occasionally screaming. On the 14th, the clouds mustered about nine in battle array, and in about half an hour commenced a thunder-storm which lasted until near twelve. The rain fell incessantly, and at times in torrents, yet the Swallows and Swifts kept flying about at the usual height or rather higher, all the time, and so continued all day, without any alteration in their manner. The rain continued at inter- vals until night. All nature seemed refreshed ; the birds were cheerful, and chirped more than usual, and I could perceive a decided alteration in the men and women in the streets, who instead of walking languidly as in hot dry weather, moved with uncommon vivacity. So is it always during or immedi- ately after rain, which is one of our greatest blessings at all seasons, however much it may be blamed by foolish and in- considerate people. Ky the middle of August the Swifts are all gone, and to him who attends to the habits of birds their absence produces BLACK SWIFT. (>25 at first a disagreeable feeling, like the regret at the absence of a familiar friend. The Swallows too become scarcer in the cities, for at this season, most of those whose young are abroad betake themselves all day to the fields, where they find an abundant supply of insect food. " In June 183G," Mr Weir writes, "being very anxious to examine some Swifts' nests, I with great difficulty procured two of them from the top of the old quire of Torphichen. They were formed of feathers, straw, grass, and other mate- rials. The inside of them appeared to be firmly cemented to- gether with what seemed to me the resin of the Scotch Fir, thickly intermixed with the membranous scales of the terminal branch buds. " In the ancient town of Lauder a great number of Swifts annually build. On the 1st day of August 1839, under the thatch of one of the houses, in the .space of twenty-five feet, I examined no less than nine of their nests. They were com- posed of almost the same materials, and cemented with the same composition as those which I had formerly obtained. Each of them contained two young ones fully fledged. AN'hen feeding them the parents usually fixed themselves against the face of the wall by means of their strong toes and hooked claws. They had a great number of flies in their mouths, as I observed some of them take three minutes and a half, others four minutes in feeding their brood." Two of these nests, brought to me by Mr Weir for the pur- pose, I have minutely examined. One of them more perfect than the other, may be thus described. It is very rudely con- structed, flattened, about six inches in diameter, and half an inch thick ; composed of panicles of Aira coespitosa, straws of oats, wheat, and grasses, intermixed with fibrous roots, moss, wool, cotton, hair, and feathers of the domestic fowl, partridge and rook. These materials are confusedly felted, and agglutinated ; the glueing matter being of a gelatinous, not of a resinous nature, and in extremely thin shreds, which crackle, but do not readily burn, when flame is applied to them. There is however a small quantity of the membranous VOL. in. s s 626 CYPSELUS MURARU'S. scales of the Scotch Fir, together with some resinous matter in one of these nests. In another nest sent to me by Mr AVeir, the external parts are similarly constructed, the feathers in the interior are agglu- tinated in the same manner, and there are numerous bud- scales of the fir, to which a little resinous matter adheres. But I am convinced that the principal part of the agglutinat- ing substance does not consist of resin, but of gelatinous mat- ter, Avhich may probably enough be derived from the salivary glands, Plate XXII, Fig. 5, //, which are aggregated crypts, secreting a fluid similar to that of the proventricular glands. YouxG. — The young are of a dusky colour, at first blind, and almost naked, having merely a few straggling tufts of down. ^Vhen fully fledged, they are of the same colour as the adults, but of a lighter tint, with the edges of the feathers of the head paler. They do not moult previous to their de- parture. Fio. 27i' 027 CAPRIMULGIN^. aOATSUCKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. Birds of this fziniily are as readily recognised as those con- stituting the Falconina?, Striginae, Hirundinae, or any other of the most strictly natural families, so that there is not much necessity for entering here upon copious illustrative details, especially as in Britain there is only a single representative of it. The following appear to be the most important general characters. The body is very small in proportion to the plumage ; the neck rather short ; the head very large, broad and depressed. The nostrils elliptical, prominent and marginate ; the eyes ex- tremely large, the eyelids ciliated with slender barbate plume- lets ; the aperture of the ear of great size, and resembling that of many Owls. The mouth opens to beneath the centre of the eyes, and is of extreme width. The bill is very short, much depressed, generally feeble, the horny part being small, but in some large and very strong ; the upper mandible with the dor- sal outline convex, the ridge rather narrow, the edges inflected toward the end, the tip very narrow and deflected ; the lower mandible smaller, with the angle extremely large, the crura slender, the edges inflected toward the end, the tip small and deflected. Palate nearly flat behind, concave, covered with a smooth transparent membrane. Tongue extremely small, slender, ta- pering to an obtuse point. (Esophagus wide, without crop, very thin ; stomach large, roundish ; its muscular coat very thin, and composed of a single series of fasciculi; the epithelium very hard, with prominent longitudinal rugoc. Intestine short, wide, and extremely thin; ca?ca large, oblong toward the end, narrow at the base ; cloaca globular. Trachea of nearly uni- form width, and destitute of inferior laryngeal muscles. 628 CAPRI MULGIXJ^. The feet are very small ; the tarsus partially feathered ; the toes four, with their lower surface broad and flattened ; the an- terior toes connected by basal membranes ; the first toe shortest and directed inwards, the second next, the third much longer than the fourth. Claws moderate, well arched, compressed, acute. The plumage is full, very soft, blended ; the feathers ovate or oblong. ^Vin^s very long, with the second and third quills longest. The tail long, rounded, even, or forked, of twelve soft feathers. Almost all the species have very strong bristles along the base of the upper mandible ; and some have the feathers of the face radiated like those of Owls. The Caprimulginnc, named after the genus Caprimulgus, the extreme absurdity of the name of which seems to be its best recommendation, are remarkable for their nocturnal or crepus- cular habits, light and rapid flight, and great activity. They feed on insects, es})ecially nocturnal lepidoptera ; but some, it would appear, are properly frugivorous, living on berries. This circumstance becomes less remarkable when we remember that even among the Hirundinje some, and among the ISIyiotherinas many, also feed on vegetable substances. The Caprimulginae are especially natives of warm climates ; but a few species mi- grate, like the Swallows. They nestle on the ground, in caves, or in hollow trees, and generally lay two eggs. The young are at first covered with down. The genera of which this family is composed are Stcatornis, Podargus, yEgotheles, Nyctibius, and Caprimulgus. The first is characterized by a strong bill nearly half the length of the head, the upper mandible curved and denticulate, the wings having the fourth quill longest. Steatornis caripensis, disco- vered by Humboldt in South America, although nocturnal in its habits, feeds on fruit, and not on insects, and is said to bo intermediate between the Crows and Goatsuckers. The genus Podargus also has the bill strong, although short, bristly radi- ating feathers on the face, and rounded wings. Its species in- habit New Holland, Van Diemen''s Land, and the Indian Archipelago. .Egothelcs and Nyctibius form the transition from these genera to Caprimulgus, of which the characters arc given in detail in the following pages. GOATSUCKERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 029 In the order of Volitatores, the Caprimulginae bear the same relation to the Ilirundina> as the Striginae bear to the Falco- nina; in the order Raptures, SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. CAPRIMULGUS. GOATSUCKER. Bill feeble, both mandibles very slender ; the mouth ex- tremely wide, the gape-lino extending to beneath the middle of the eye ; nostrils elliptical, prominent ; wings long and pointed ; the second quill longest ; the first longer than the third ; tail long, rounded ; tarsus very short, feathered in part ; third toe much longer, with its claw pectinate on the inner edge. 1. Caprimulgus europccus. European Goatsucker. Grey, minutely dotted and undulated with dusky, variegated with yellowish-red ; the head and back with longitudinal black streaks. 630 CAriUMULGUS. GOATSUCKER. Bill extremely small and feeble ; upper mandible depressed, being triangular when viewed from above, compressed towards the tip, which is very small and deflected, the edges sharp and inflected towards the end ; lower mandible with the angle long, the dorsal outline ascending, the sides extremely narrow, the edges much inflected towards the end, the tip curved up- wards ; the gape-line commencing nearly beneath the posterior angle of the c\t. The mouth extremely wide ; the palate flat, covered with smooth membrane, which is transparent, as arc in some measure the bones ; the posterior aperture of the nares short, linear, and without marginal papillne. Tongue, Plate XXII, Fig. 6, a, very small, triangular, (Esophagus, bed, rather wide, with- out dilatation ; proventriculus, c d, large ; stomach, d e/, very large, round, membranous, its muscular coat being composed of fasciculi, as in the Owls and Cuckoos; the inner coat thin, soft, with small di.'4-2 CAPRI MI LGUS EUUOP.EUS. cast corner, and continued to whirr for three minutes and a half. After having hawked about for six minutes, he alighted upon a tree at the north-east corner, where lie whirred for a short time. lie then flew to the north-west corner, where he uttered his whirring sound for one minute and a half. He once rose to the height of about sixty or seventy feet, whistling as he mounted. On this occasion his peculiar mode of flight was similar to that which the male Cushat makes when he rises and falls in the air, at the season of pairing. At a quarter from ten o'clock, after having made almost a complete circuit of the wood, he returned to the same tree upon which he was perched when first heard. After remaining there about two minutes, he flew past me in an abrupt and wavering manner, and was not heard again during that evening. The wind had by this time risen, which perhaps accounts for his silence. His flight was sometimes A-ery rapid, and not unlike that of the Swallow. The particular noise, which has been compared to that of a spinning-wheel, is said by some ornithologists to be produced when the bird is perched with its head lowermost. This, however, is not always the case, for upon this evening I again and again distinctly heard and saw the Nightjar whir- ring while perched upon the top of a Scotch fir, with his head in a position even more erect than that in which he generally carries it. On Tuesday evening, the 23d, about a quarter be- fore nine o'clock, I again went to watch this bird. I continued upon the moor until half-past eleven, but I neither saw nor heard him, although the wind was southwest, and the ther- mometer 59". At nine o'clock on A\'ednesday evening, the 24th, I again returned, being determined, if possible, to get another glimpse of him. Having remained for an hour in a state of anxiety, I was just ujjou the eve of dc])arting, when exactly at ten o'clock, in the north-west side of the moor, I heard the accustomed sound, which continued one minute. Having flown about for two minutes in search of moths and l)cetles, the bird alighted ui)on a tree at the north-east corner, where he whirred for about four minutes. After a momentary pause he whirred for a similar period ; then making another pause for a moment, he whirred three minutes. After having EUROPEAN GOATSUCKER. 043 been engaged for twenty-eight minutes in capturing his prey, and whistling now and then whilst doing so, he sat upon the top of a tree, at the east corner, and whirred six minutes with- out intermission. Having paused for a second, he whirred other two minutes, and then went in search of food for a short time. From the top of a tree in the south-cast corner he whirred five minutes, then having made a momentary cessation he whirred other two minutes. At one minute after eleven ©""clock he flew very quickly past me, making a whistling sound eight times. lie performed exactly the same circuit round the moor as he had done on the 20th inst., but in the reverse direc- tion, and stopped at the same places as on that evening. Al- thoufjh it was a most charming bright moonlight evening, and the ensuing morning very beautiful, the wind from the south- west, and the thermometer 53°, he did not again whirr. I re- mained in the moor until twenty minutes to three o'clock. Be- tween eleven and half-past one o'clock, I occasionally heard him whistle. He ceased from feeding when the morning light came in ; at least, I did not observe him, although I traversed the moor in every direction. The Nightjar occasionally whirrs between twelve and two o'clock in the morning, sometimes even later.'' The serrature of the middle claw of this and the other spe- cies has elicited various conjectures as to the use of so curious a structure. Several ])ersons have supposed or imagined it to be for the purpose of enabling the bird to clear away from be- tween its basirostral bristles the fragments of wings or other parts of lepidopterous insects, which by adhering have clogged them. This at first sight seems a remarkably plausible account of the matter, but a very little reflection, with a slight inspec- tion of the parts, will suffice to shew its futility. The bristles are large, strong, and placed at some distance from each other. The teeth of the claw are extremely thin, and very close, being separated only by a mere chink. The claw then cannot act as a comb, because one of the bristles is as broad at the base as two or three of the teeth, so that it cannot enter between them, and although it tapers away towards the end, yet even there it is too wide to be insinuated. But, although the claw may not G44 CAPRI MULGUS EUROP.EUS. act as a comb, it may be said that its serrated edge will more readily than a continuous edge catch hold of any thing stuck between the bristles. This is likely enoufih ; but then the species of the genus Podargus, or strong-billed Goatsuckers have similar bristles, but are destitute of clefts in the claw. Gannets, Heron?, and other birds that have no bristles, yet have a serrated claw. Therefore, the serrature is not intended for the purpose of cleaning the bristles. Yet it may be quite true that the Goatsucker uses its claw to produce that effect. But it is not less true that Parrots, Finches, and other birds, having no such serrature, employ their claws for scratching the parts about the head. And thus, another reason must be sought for. The young Goatsucker has at first no serrature on its claw, any more than the young Gannet. One, fully fledged, and shot about the 10th of September, now before me, has the toe scarcely half the length of that of an old bird, and with only five teeth, the old bird having ten. The chinks in the young bird's claw are less deep than those in the claw of the old bird. A young fledged Gannet shows the same circumstance. All birds whose middle claw is serrated, have that claw elongated, and furnished with a very thin edge. It therefore ajipcars that the serration is produced by the sjditting of the edge of the claw, after the bird has used it, but whether in consequence of pres- sure caused by standing or grasping can only be conjectured. The Flycatchers, and other birds of the same family, which have strong bristles, intended for the same use, have not serrated claws ; yet, if their bristles become clogged, they no doubt will clean them in the same manner. It appears then, that the use of the serrature is not that of cleaning from the bristles the scales of k'i)idopterous insects, because fish-eating birds, without any bristles, have similar serratures ; but there is no reason for doubting that Goatsuckers brush away adherent matters with their claws, just as other birds do, the domestic fowl for ex- ample. Another supposition is that the serrature enables the Goat- sucker to hold more securely a large insect which it has caught with its foot. And observers have stated that tliev have been KUROPEAN GOATSUCKER. 645 pretty sure of having seen that bird, when flying, raise its foot to its mouth, as if, in the manner of a parrot, carrying an insect to it. A\ lute of Selborne thouj^ht he saw it while on winir put out its leg, and bending its head, deliver something into its mouth. He therefore conjectured that it catches its prey with its i'eot., and that thus the use of the serrature of the middle claw is rendered apparent. But it does not appear that the serrature could have the effect of enabling it to seize an insect more firmly; nor is it likely that a bird having a mouth obviously so well adapted for seizing and retaining insects on wing, should use its feet for that purpose, especially as the great width of the mouth would then bo rendered unnecessary, and the bristles at its base form an impediment to the delivery of the insect into it. As yet no one has quite satisfactorily seen a Goatsucker catch a moth or a beetle with its foot ; and at all events this cannot be the use of the serrature, for many birds which have the middle claw serrated, do not seize their prey with their feet. Mr AVeir states that in the dusk of a warm summer even- ing, about the end of June, he has seen the male alight amongst dust, in the middle of a parish road in his neighbourhood. But whether the Goatsucker dusts itself like the Lark and some other birds, he is unable to say, not having had a favourable opportunity of observing them near enough. The eggs of the Goatsucker are two in number, broadly ellip- tical, an inch and two-twelfths long, ten-twelfths across, whitish and clouded with ash-grey and brown. The young are densely covered with long whitish down. YouxG. — When fledged, the young are similar to the adult female, but of a darker colour, and with the markings consider- ably larger. They have in this state some resemblance to the young of the Cuckoo, for which it appears they have sometimes been mistaken. 64() PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. TENTH LESSON. '• FAUNISTS, AS YOU OBSERVE, ARE TOO APT TO ACQUIESCE IX BARE DE- SCRIPTIONS AND A FEW SYNONYMS : THE REASON IS PLAIN, BECAUSE ALL THAT MAY BE DONE AT HOME IN A MAN'S STUDY, BUT THE INVES- TIGATION OF THE LIFE AND CONVERSATION OF ANIMALS IS A CONCERN OF MUCH MORE TROUBLE AND DIFFICULTY, AND IS NOT TO BE ATTAINED BUT BY THE ACTIVE AND INQUISITIVE, AND BY THOSE THAT RESIDE MUCH IN THE COUNTRY. MEN THAT UNDERTAKE ONLY ONE DIS- TRICT, ARE MUCH MORE LIKELY TO ADVANCE NATURAL KNOWLEDGE, THAN THOSE THAT GRASP AT MORE THAN THEY CAN POSSIBLY BE AC- QUAINTED WITH. EVERY KINCiDOM, EVERY PROVINCE, SHOULD HAVE ITS OWN MONOGRAPHER."— (;iLUA\Rr TVHITK. CATALOGUE OF THE LAND BIRDS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. BY MR JAMES IIARLEY. Leicestershire is one of the most central counties in the kingdom. Its surface may be in general designated as table- land. AVc have no elevations sufficient to excite those feelings of a\ve which in mountainous countries enforce, even in the mind of the heedless rambler, the conviction of an omnipresent Cod. The highest eminence is Bardow Hill, 853 feet above the level of the sea, and forming part of Charnwood Forest, the most rugged and picturesque part of the county. The geological features of the district arc for from being un- important. AN'c have various minerals of considerable value : lime, gypsum, coal, slate, and syenite. The lime, which is found at Barrow, is celebrated for its property of setting under water, and contains remains of Ichthyosauri, Plesiosauri, and other primeval animals. Coal is obtained abundantly on tho western side of the county, and in this district metalliferous limestone abounds ; besides which, we have a magnesian lime- stone at Cloud Hill and Brccdon. Along the valley of the Soar, HIRDS OF LEICESTEUSIllllIC. 647 which runs from the south to the northern side of the county, wc have the red sandstone, or red marl, abundantly distributed, and intersected here and there with gypsum. Slate occurs at Swithland, and syenite at Markfield, where the rocks assume a very porphyritic character. Of the southern part of the county, little can be said, except that it stands high in the estimation of the agriculturist for its fertility and rich pasturage. The south-eastern part boasts of its rich Vale of Bclvoir, composed chiefly of the blue marl or clay. The most remarkable feature that presents itself to the naturalist is the Charnwood Forest range of hills, forming a ridge which intersects the northern part of the county. The western side of it, which before its inclosurc in 1810-11, was rugged and covered principally with fern, gorse, and stunted heath, is now formed into fields, with here and there a patch of barren waste, setting at defiance the powers of man. The south-eastern side of the range is less rugged, and much more fertile. The surface is undulated, the soil chiefly of red marl, and cultivation has made great progress. It is on the extreme southern verge of this ranfje that Bradgate Park abuts, with its old storm-riven oaks, and weather-beaten crags. From its central situation, Leicestershire cannot boast of any large rivers, although it has many small streams and rivulets. One of our streams joins the Severn, and consequently falls into the Bristol Channel ; while another unites with the Humber, which empties itself into the German ocean. Grooby Pool, which is scarcely a mile in circumference, is our largest ex- panse of water. From the absence of large rivers and lakes, together with our distance from the sea, Crrallatorial and Nata- torial birds are not numerous with us. The changes which have taken place, in consequence of the progress of cultivation, have materially altered our ornithology. The Kite, the Bittern, the Curlew, and the Golden Plover, have disappeared from the forest. The Stoncchat, the Snipe, and the Woodcock are every year becoming scarcer. On the other hand, the Partridge is becoming abundant in the cultivated parts, while in the woodlands the Pheasant is rapidly increas- 648 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. ing. These birds, fostered by the gamekeeper, are taking the place of our waders, and following cultivation to the tops of our highest hills. Our woodlands, which although not very exten- sive, are more so in the northern parts, consist chieHy of oak, ash, elm, and alder, with white-willow, birch, hazel, and black- thorn for underwood. Here too Ave have a loss in the Raven ; and ere long the Buzzard will probably be extirpated. But whatever may have been the former state of the county, consi- dered with regard to its animal productions, the following Catalogue includes all the species of Land Birds, which, in the course of many years, 1 have ascertained as now existing in it : — 1. The Ospreij. Pandion Haliactus. Very rare. One was shot several years ago, by Mr Adams, on Grooby Pool. 2. Perearine Falcon. Falco perearinus. An occasional visi- tor. Specimens are annually obtained in the county, and may be seen in most collections. 3. Hohhy. Falco Suhhuteo. Occasionally visits our woodlands. A fine specimen was shot by ^Ir Chaplin, in Martinshaw "Wood, in January 1840. 4. Merlin. Falco JEsalon. Not very plentiful. Does not breed with us, being only an occasional visitor. Several specimens arc killed annually in our woodlands. 5. Kestrel. Falco Tinnuncidus. Plentiful, but more abundant in summer than in winter, a partial migration takinij place in the autunmal months. Makes no nest, but selects the deserted one of the Carrion Crow or Magpie. Preys near to large towns ; feeds much on mice, particularly the Long- tailed Field Mouse. 6. Goshaick. Accipiter Palufnbaritis. Very rare ; but a speci- men is now and then obtained. Used to frecpient Oakley and Piper woods ; from whence my brother has had speci- mens sent to him. 7. Sparrow ITaick. Accijnter Nisus. Common. Remains with us throughout the year. Nestles in the deserted nest of the Carrion Crow, breeding in most of our extensive and undisturbed woods. Preys much on small birds, makes BIRDS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. 049 sad bavoc amongst Dove-cot Pigeons, searches for food late in the evening, and is perhaps the latest preyer of our diurnal non-migrating birds of prey. 8. Kite. Milciis Id inns. Although not many years ago not uncommon, now very rare. A fine specimen was killed by Mr Chaplin, in Martinshaw Wood, in December. 9. Common Buzzard. Ihiteo vuh/aris. Not plentiful. Breeds sometimes in Bardow Wood. Used to be very common, and nestles in most of our large woods. Resident, and feeds much on rabbits. Very subject to variations in plumage. 10. Bough-legged Buzzard. Buteo lagopus. An occasional winter visitor. Feeds much on rabbits. Thirteen speci- mens were obtained in these parts in the winter of 1839-40. 11. Marsh Harrier. Circus rzi/us. Occasionally met with, but does not breed in the county. 12. Hen Harrier. Circus cganeus. Now and then met with in the shooting season. Many instances are on record of its bearing away wounded partridges, in despite of the ma- ledictions of sportsmen. Vulgarly called Blue Hawk in these parts. 13. Long-eared Owl. Otus ridgaris. Permanently resident. Nestles in hollow trees. Not plentiful now ; but used to be found in abundance in Bradgatc and Ganeudon Parks. 14. Short-eared Old. Otus brachgotus. Common. Found in the autumnal months on wheat stubbles. Feeds much, if not principally, on moles and mice. I never found its nest, and cannot say whether it breeds in this county. 15. White Owl. Strix fammea. Plentiful. Permanently resident. Nestles in old hollow or decayed trees, particu- larly if they are well overgrown with ivy ; also in barns, churches, and ruins. Plentiful about the old stables at Bradgate Park. I have seen the young of this species in several stages of growth taken from the same nest. 16. Tawng Owl. Sgrnium Aluco. Common. Remains with us all the year. Inhabits our closest woods. Nestles early in some hollow tree, well clad with ivy. Remarkable for " hooting." Preys much on young partridges. 17. Cinereous Shrike. Lanius Excuhitor. Rare. A winter 650 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. visitor. I have a fine specimen, a male, killed several years ago at Quomdon. It was in company with a flock of Field- fares and Kedwings. 18. Bed-hacked Shrike. Laniiis Collurio. Not uncommon. A summer visitor. Arrives about the middle of May. Breeds with us, and commonly returns to the same locality to nestle, selecting an old pollard crab, ash, or maple. Feeds on chaf- fers and beetles. Departs in September. 19. Spotted Fhjcatcher. Muscicapa Grisola. A regular sum- mer visitor, arriving towards the 25th of May, and retiring silently about the autumnal equinox. Nestles in holes of walls, trees, and door-posts. Feeds on wing. 20. Pied Fhjcatcher. Muscicajya luduosa. Very rare. A summer visitor. Chaplin has a young male, which he shot in September, on a tree, on the banks of Grooby Pool. 21. Water Ouzel. Cindus europanis. Rare. Found some- times upon the streamlets that rise in Charnwood Forest. I do not think it breeds with us. 22. Missel Thrush. Turdus tiscivorus. Abundant, and jier- manently resident. Nestles early, in the fork or on the horizontal branch of an apple, cherry, or pear tree, using wool as one of its building materials. Very pugnacious during the breeding season, and afterwards makes great havoc among cherries, gooseberries, he. In winter grega- rious, and associates with other thrushes. 23. Fii'ldfare. Turdus pilaris. A winter visitor, arriving about the beginning of October, and departing in May, or sometimes not until June. Feeds in meadows and pastures, in winter associates with other Thrushes, and approaches villages and towns to feast on the berries of the holly and hawthorn. Roosts on the ground. 24-. Sana Thrush. Turdus musicus. A permanent resident. Abundant. Nestles very early in spring, commonly selects the close-set hedge, thick hawthorn bush, holly, or fir tree. Sings throughout the year, except in the moulting season, and in very severe weather. 25. Redicinf/. Turdus ilincus. A winter visitor, coming in September a few days before the Fieldfare. Very plentiful. HIKDS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. (Jol Gregarious, feeding along with other Thrushes. Roosts on trees in deep woods. Leaves us in May. 2(). Blackbird. Turdus Merula. I'lentiful. Permanently resident. Subject to variety. 27. Ring Ouzel. Tardus torquatus. Xn occasional summer visitor to Charnwood. 28. Hedge Accentor. Accentor modularis. Plentiful. Sings throughout the year. Subject to variety. 29. Redbreast. Eritluicus Rubecula. Plentiful. Very pugna- cious in the autumnal months. Subject to variety. 30. Redstart. Ruticilla Phoenicurus. A summer visitor, arriv- ing toward the end of April, and departing about the au- tumnal equinox. Frequents old walls about towns ; nest- ling in holes of old walls or buildings, and in hollow pol- lards, particularly willows. 31. Stonechat. Fruticicola Rubicola. Permanently resident. Frequents waste, solitary places, where gorse and fern abound, seldom visiting cultivated lands. 32. Whinchat. Fruticicola Rubetra. A summer visitor, arriving about the 20tli of April, and departing toward the close of September. Aft'ects our rich and cultivated fields, as well as moist meadows ; nestling on the ground. 33. Wheatear. Saxicola (Enantke. A summer visitor. The males arrive toward the close of March, the females about a week after. At first they frequent the fallows and grass fields ; then betake themselves to the higher districts of Bradgate Park and Charnwood Forest, where they breed undisturbed in the rabbit holes, and are very plentiful. De- parts toward the close of September. 34. Grasshopper Warbler. Sibilatrix Locustella. A summer visitor, arriving about the 20th of April. Pretty plentiful, frequenting most of our thick hedge-rows, wherever they are overgrown with brambles. 35. Sedge Warbler. Calamoherpe phragmitis. A summer visitor, not arriving before the close of April, and seldom heard till May. Abundant. Afiixcs its nest to three or four reed- stalks or osiers. Haunts hedges which skirt the woodlands, 652 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. where reeds and equiseta grow. Departs toward the close of September. 36. Beed Warbler. Calamoherpearundinacea. A summervisitor. Arrives about the end of April ; rarely sings before May ; departs about the autumnal equinox. Not so plentiful as the Sedge Warbler ; affects the more densely covered wil- low and osier holts, and seldom leaves the thick and tan- gled covers, or tall aquatic plants. Fixes its nest to three or four reed-stalks. Mimics the song of other small birds. 37. Nifiktingale. Philomda Luscin'ia. A summer visitor. Com- mon, but not abundant. Arrives toward the end of April. Found in most of our retired woods ; also affects beds of osiers or willows. Found close to Leicester, immediately below the Castle, in a bed of \villows, also in the young plantations of oak on the grounds of the Abbey. 88. Blackcap WarUer. Siihia Atricapilla. A summer visitor, coming towards the close of April, and withdrawing in September or October. Plentiful in young plantations, where it hides amid the thickened upper foliage. Nestles in low bushes. A delightful songster. 39. Garden Warbler. Sylvia hortensis. A summer visitor, arriving towards the end of April, and departing in Sep- tember. Plentiful, pretty generally diffused, haunting plantations and gardens, where it nestles ; sometimes builds among pea-sticks, or fixes its nest to twigs of rasps, when they arc tied up. •iO. Whitethroat. Si/lcia cinerea. A summer visitor, arriv- ing about the middle of April, and departing immediately after the autumnal equinox. Abundant, and generally distributed, haunting all our hedge-rows. When the breed- ing season is over, frequents kitchen-gardens, to feed on gooseberries and currants. 41. Lesser Whitethroat. Sijlcia r/arrula. A summervisitor, arriving about the beginning of May, and departing silently in September. Not unconmion. Affects gardens and shrubberies; nestles in hedges, and amongst gooseberry and rasp bushes. After the breeding season, feeds in concert BIRDS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. (m.J with tlio Whitethroat, Blackcap, Garden \\'arbler, Sec, on gooseberries and currants. 42. Wood Warbler. Pliiillopneiiste syhicola. A summer visitor, arriving about the middle or end of April, according to tho state of the weather, and departing early in September. Common and generally distributed, haunting all our deep retired woods, particularly where beeches abound, amidst the upper foliage of which it appears to disport and sing its truly sylvan notes. Nestles on the ground, or beside a deep retiring bank, beneath the cover of which it forms its nest, which is oval, and composed principally of dry grass. After the breeding season, it visits the neighbourhood and inte- rior of towns, along with the Willow ^Vren. 43. Willow Wren. Phijllopneuste Trochilus. A summer visitor, arriving about the 20th of April, and departing in Septem- ber. Abundant, and generally distributed, frequentiug all our woods. Nestles on the ground. After the breeding: season approaches towns, feeding with the ^Vood Warbler. 44. Chiff-chajf. Phi/llopneuste Hippolais. A summer visitor, ar- riving in ^larch, and departing in September. Abundant in all our deep woods. Rarely commences singing until April. 45. Dartford Warbler. Melizophilus provincialis. Henry Bickley, Esq. of ^lelton Mowbray, has given a locality to this bird in Leicestershire ; but I have not heard of another instance of its occurrence. 46. Golden-crested liegulus. liefjidus auricaplllus. Permanent- ly resident. Very plentiful, haunting fir plantations. At- taches its nest to the bough of a sjiruce fir. Feeds wholly upon insects. 47. Greater Tit. Par us Frinaillaao. Permanently resident. Abundant. 48. Blue Tit. Parus cceruleus. Permanently resident. Com- mon. Nestles in holes of trees or old walls. In winter associates with Chaffinches, Yellow Buntings, Sparrows, and other small birds, feeding in farm-yards amongst do- mestic poultry, or clinging to the sides of corn-stacks. 0'54 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. Haunts towns throughout the year. Attacks birds of prey, and clamours loudly against the Red-backed Shrike. 49. Cole Tit. Parus ater. Permanently resident. Abun- dant, and generally dirtributcd. Associates with its con- geners, the Blue, Marsh, Great, and Long-tailed Tits, feed- ing in harmony with them. Haunts trees in gardens, in the middle of towns. 50. Marsh Tit. Parus palustris. Permanently resident. Abundant, haunting deep woods, as well as hedge-rows. Associates with its congeners, and is found at times in the midst of towns, feeding upon insects and larvae. In deep woods very generally affects the underwood, where the white willow and hawthorn abound. 51. Long-tailed Tit. Mecistiira lonpicaudata. Permanently resident. Common and generally distributed. Nestles early, often in February, making an oval domed nest, most beauti- fully constructed, and profusely lined with feathers. I have known it lay ten, twelve, and even fourteen eggfi. The young keep together in families until spring. 52. Bohemian Waxiving. BomhuciUa garrula. A casual win- ter visitor. Jan. 5th 1835, three of these birds were killed at Loughborough by Mr George Nash, as they M'ere sitting upon a rail. Their crops were found to contain berries of the mountain ash and haws. 53. Pied War/tail. Motacilla alba. Permanently resident. Common, and generally distributed. Partially migrates in winter. Nestles on the ground, under banks, where they are hassocky, on stacks of wood, Sec. In August and Sep- tember congregates into large bodies in the evenings, and roosts among aquatic plants in osier beds. 54. Greii Wagtail. Motacilla Boar ula. A WMutcr visitor with us. Haunts the same localities as the Pied AWagtail, that is low flat lands, drains, mill banks, and the sides of canals and rivers. 55. Raijs Wagtail. Budgtes Jlata. A summer visitor to this county, arriving in the end of April. Affects our uji- lands, and is a great frequenter of our cow pastures. In BIRDS OF LEICESTERSIIIRK. Of,.-) August, congregates with the Pied species, and roosts in thick aquatic herbage, in beds of osiers and willows. Leaves us in September. 56. Tree Pipit. Anthus arboreus. A summer visitor, arriv- ing towards the end of April, but seldom singing much before May comes in, and departing in September. Nestles upon the ground. Sings while perched on a tree or bush, also when he rises in the air, descending in a joyous manner, making the woodlands resound to its pleasing ditty. .57. Meadow Pijy't. Anthus pratensis. Permanently resident. "Widely distributed. Nestles on the ground. Has a pleas- ing song, not unlike that of the Tree Pipit. Affects our fields and pasture grounds. C ommenccs its song early in the season. 08. Sk>i Lark. Alauda arrensis. Plentiful throughout the year. 59. Wood Lark. Alauda arhorea. Permanently resident. Abundant in our woodlands, and generally distributed. Go. Snow Bunting. Plectrophanes nivalis. A winter visitor. Specimens are obtained nearly every winter. I have re- peatedly seen them in the adjoining county, above Bux- ton, on those wild moors. 61. Common Bunting. Emberiza Miliaria. Permanently resident. Common and generally distributed. Nestles about the middle of .Vpril, in open corn fields, as well as beside the banks of ditches. In winter, becomes gregarious, and flocks with Chaflinches, Sparrows, and other small birds, frequenting farm-yards, and clinging to the stacks. t)2. Black-Headed Buntina. Emberiza Schceniclus. Perma- nently resident. Abundant. In winter becomes partly gregarious, and flocks with Chaffinches, Sparrows, &c., to feed in farm-yards. Nestles in willow holts, on canal banks, and amongst hassocks and sedges, in low and wet lands. G3. Yellow Bunting. Emberiza Citrinella. Permanently resident. Abundant, and generally distributed, occurring in all kinds of situation. Gregarious in winter. G4. Cirl Buntino. Emberiza Cirlus. Although I am sure we 65(] PRACTICAL OUNITHOLOGV. have this bird, I cannot speak as to the extent of its distribu- tion or habits. 65. Chaffinch. Frhigilla Cahh.^. Permanently resident. Abun- dant. Very destructive to the buds of the cherry and apple. Subject to variety in plumage. In winter gregarious. 60). Mountain Finch. Fringilla Mont i/rinp ilia. A winter visitor. Nearly every year many specimens are obtained. I have noticed it in Staflbrdshire, feeding in company with Chaffinches, Linnets, and Buntings, on the stubbles, and in the farm- yards. 67. Tree Sparroic. Passer montanus. Permanently resi- dent, and pretty extensively distributed. 68. House Sparrow. Passer domesticus. Permanently resi- dent. Extremely abundant. Subject to variety in plumage. 69. Green Finch. Linaria Chloris. Permanently resident. Abundant, and generally distributed. In winter gre- garious. 70. Hawfinch. Coccothraustes atror/ularis. A winter visitor, or straggler. Feeds on haws, seeds of the hornbeam, and berries of the mountain-ash and ivy. Visits Cianendon Park, in parties of five or six. Several were shot in 1830-40, about the woodlands of Ansty. 71. Gohljinch. Carduelis elegans. Abundant throughout the year, although not so numerous as formerly, the improve- ments in agriculture having extirpated many of the weeds on which it used to feed. 72. Siskin. Carduelis spinus. A winter visitor. Rather rare, appearing now and then in little parties of five and six, haunting waste lanes, where thistles abound. It does not stay to breed with us. 73. Common Linnet. Linaria canncthina. Abundant through- out the year. Nestles in the holly hedge, hawthorn bush, and gorse. Ciregarious after the breeding season, associat- ing with Chaffinches, Sparrows, and other small birds, frequents stubble-fields, and close sequestered lanes, and in winter haunts farm-yards. 7k Lesser Tiedpoll. Linaria minor. Conmion with us in the winter season, keeping in happy parties, affecting the stubbles, anipselus alpinns. On the 2od September 1839, at half-past five in the evening, I saw, to my astonish- ment, a bird of this species, gliding along, in a southerly direction, at the height of fifteen or twenty yards. From 662 PRACTICAL ORMTIIOLOGV. the stretch of its wings, and the white colour of its lower parts, it could not be mistaken. 102. Goatsiich'r. Caprimulgus Europwus. A summer visitor, not arriving before the middle of May, and departing toward the end of August, although individuals remain nearly to the end of September. Haunts most of our deep and retired woods, plantations, copses, marsh scrubs, and waste lands, locally found in Bardow, Grooby, and Ulvers- croft Woods, and their outskirts. Lavs two cfrss, in a slight depression, on the ground, under fronds of fern. 103. Binff Dove or Wood Pi. Common Party uli/e. Pcrdir cinerea. Permanently resi- BIRDS OF LEK ESTERSIIIRE. (3(53 dent. Abundant, and widely dispersed. Very subject to malformation of the bill, of which I have seen many exam- ples. 110. Common Quail. Perdix Coturyiix. A summer visitor. Not uncommon. A few pairs annually nestle in the mea- dows bordering the Soar. In June found in the meadows about Louirhborouirh and Cossinston. Of the 110 species hero enumerated, 55 arc permanently re- sident ; '2D summer birds which breed with us, but depart in autumn ; 9 regular winter visitors ; and 17 stragglers or irre- gular visitants, some of which appear in summer, and others in winter. The above List, the only one hitherto published, of the Birds of Leicestershire, will, I trust, in so far as it goes, be found to afford a correct idea of the number and distribution of our Terrestrial species. The Aquatic birds, which are proportion- ally fewer, will form the subject of another list. Ganendon Park, mentioned in these notes, belongs to Charles March Phillips, Esq., formerly Member of Parliament for this county, and lies on the northern verge of Charnwood Forest. It contains about four hundred and tw'enty acres, is finely wooded, and abounds with deer. There was an Abbey here formerly, founded in 1133, by Robert Bossu, Earl of Leices- ter, as a cell to Waverly Abbey, for monies of the Cistertian order. Bradgate Park belongs to the present Earl of Stamford, and is celebrated as being the birth-place of Lady Jane Grey. The mansion is now in ruins. The park is large, contains much deer, and, being situated in the midst of little-explored woodlands, is highly interesting to the ornithologist. It seems somewhat strange that migration should be so little influenced by the state of the weather, and that in the remark- ably genial spring of 1 840, our summer birds should not have arrived at an earlier period than usual. A single Swallow was 664 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. seen here on the 1 8th of April, and two were observed on tha 20th. The 'N\'illow Wren arrived on the 1 oth. The Cuckoo was first heard on the 2()th ; the Tree Pipit and Whitethroat on the 2.3d ; the Sedge Warbler on the 25th ; the ^Vhinchat, Redstart, and Yellow Wagtail on the 28th. My brother states that the Martins did not arrive at Loughborough till the 24tli ; and the Swifts have only come two days earlier than last year. Although the weather has been so fine with us, it may how- ever have been the reverse in the countries to the southward through which the migratory birds had to pass. Yet that their journeys are not determined merely by an increase of temperature, seems from many considerations to be apparent. ««•■) Xir. JACULATORES. DARTERS. The Fissirostral Birds of authors form an extremely hetero- geneous association, as will be apparent to the student who places before him skins of a Bee- eater, a Kingfisher, a Jacamar, a Swallow, a Swift, a Goatsucker, and a Roller, these birds scarcely agreeing in any other character than that of having very small feet, which however diftcr in several respects. The Swallows, Swifts, and Goatsuckers, I have referred to an order apart ; the Rollers I have placed among the Excursores ; and there now remain to be arranged the Kingfishers and those genera closely allied to them. With our common European Kingfisher, we find a great number of birds in Africa, Asia, and America, that agree in form and habits, constituting the genus Alcedo, characterized by its long, straight, four-sided, compressed, and pointed bill, and very diminutive feet, of which the anterior toes are more or less coherent or syndactyle. Other birds very similar, but having the bill much stouter, form the genera Halcyon, and Dacelo, which are said to difler from the Alcedines in not plunging into water, to capture small fishes. The feebleness of the feet of these birds incapaci- tates them from walking or hopping, so that they merely as- sume a station, whence to dart upon their prey, or to which they return after an extended flight. Their wings are short or of moderate length, but always of great breadth ; and their flight, although seldom buoyant, is always rapid. In the form of their feet, the Bee-eaters agree with the Kingfishers; their 666 JACULATORES. DARTERS. bill is very similar, although somewhat arched ; and their wings differ only in having the primaries more elongated. Nearly allied to these are the Jacamars and others, which have the feet zygodactyle ; and to the same gronp may be referred a number of genera, chiefly tropical, which connect the Alce- dinnc with the Excursores, and especially with the Psarinas and Laniina\ But of these there is hardly occasion to speak, as in Britain there arc only two representatives of the single family of Alcedino?. All the species of the genus Alcedo are believed to feed chiefly on small fishes, which they seize by plunging into the water ; and for this reason I at fii-st proposed giving the name of Immcrsores to the group. But the thick-billed Kingfishers of the genus Halcyon, are supposed to live on insects ; and the Bee-eaters are not known to capture fishes. Their peculiar mode of flying has suggested to me the idea of naming them Darters, a term not more fanciful as applied to them than to the genus Plotus. If Jaculator signifies, not one who darts, or moves with the rapidity of a dart, but who casts darts from him, yet a Kingfisher, not having the power of casting his, unless by propelling it by following, is not the less a Darter. 607 ALCEDIN^. KINGFISHERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. The birds of this group are of small or moderate size, with the body compact, the neck short, the head rather large and oblong. The bill is longer than the head, straight, or slightly arched, opening to beneath the middle of the eye, pentagonal at the base, four-sided in the rest of its extent, compressed, and tapering to a point. The tongue is very short, fleshy, with the sides nearly parallel, and the tip bluntish. The a?sophagus is wide ; the stomach very large, roundish, somewhat compressed ; the intestine long and very slender, without cceca. Plate XXII, Fig. 7. The feet are very small ; the tarsus short and bare ; the toes small ; the first smallest and directed backwards ; the ante- rior united in part of their extent, and incapable of spreading ; the claws well-curved, slender, compressed, acute, but feeble, having very thin margins. The plumage is blended but gene- rally firm, and often highly coloured. The wings are of mode- rate length, broad, of about twenty-three quills. The tail of twelve feathers, but varying in length and form. SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES. GENUS I. ALCEDO. KINGFISHER. Bill straight, longer than the head, four-sided, compressed, and tapering to a point ; feet very small ; tibia bare at its lower part ; tarsus extremely short, roundish, with indistinct scales ; toes feeble, the second little longer than the first, the cm ALCEUINiE. third and fourth united for more than half their length ; \ving« rather short, broad, somewhat rounded ; tail rather short, and rounded. 1. Alcedo Ispida. European Kingfisher. Upper parts green and light blue ; lower parts yellowish-red. GENUS II. MEROPS. BEE-EATER. Bill arched, longer than the head, four-sided, compressed, and tapering to a point ; feet very small ; tibia bare at its lower part ; tarsus extremely short, roundi.sh, with indistinct scales ; toes feeble, the second nearly as long as the fourth, which is united with the third for more than half its length ; wings long, broad, pointed, but with the first quill extremely small ; tail long. 1. Merops Apiaster. YelUnc-tkroated Bee-eater. Upper parts chiefly yellowish-red ; lower light green ; throat yellow, with a transverse dusky band. ALCEDO. KINGFISHER. The genus Alcedo is composed of species generally remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage, and which are for the most part natives of the warmer regions of the globe. They are of a short and rather robust habit, with the neck short, the head large and oblong, the wings broad and rather short, the tail abbreviated, and the feet very small. The bill is straight, longer than the head, pentagonal at the base, then four-sided, compressed, and tapering to a point. Upper mandible with the dorsal outline declinate and almost straight, the ridge narrow, carinatc, slightly flattened, the sides sloping, the edges direct, sharp, and overlapping, the tip acute and destitute of notch ; lower mandible with the angle short and rather acute, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly con- vex, the ridge narrow, the sides sloping outwards and nearly flat, the edges sharp, the tip acute. The gape-line straight, at the base a little declinate, and extending to beneath the middle of the eye. The upper mandible concave, with a slightly pro- minent middle line ; the lower more deeply concave, with a more prominent line ; the palate flattened. The tongue, Plate XXII, Fig. 7, a, very small, fleshy, flattened, broad, with a suddenly contracted tip. The oesophagus, bed, very wide, without crop ; the stomach, d ef^ large, with a very thin muscular coat, and a soft rugous epithelium ; intestine, /"a/* /", of moderate length, very slender; no cwca ; cloaca, j k\ very large and globular. Nostrils linear, direct, in the lower and fore part of the short nasal membrane, which is covered with short feathers of ordi- nary texture, and directed backwards. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered near the edges, which are crenate. External aperture of ear rather small, and roundish. The feet remarkably small and feeble ; the tibia bare above the joint ; the tarsus extremely short, roundish, or transversely G70 ALCEDO. KINGFISHER. flattened ; its scales indistinct. Toes short and very slender ; the hind toe proportionally small, hencath broad and flattened; the anterior toes parallel, the inner shorter, and free beyond tbe second joint ; the third not much longer than the fourth, with which it is united to half its length ; the scales indistinct. Claws arched, compressed, acute, laterally grooved, the hind claw not so large as the rest, the middle claw with a slightly dilated thin inner edge, the sharp margins of the anterior claws running, in our species, into the point, so as not to leave notches, which, however, is the case in many. Plumage generally soft and blended, but varying in texture ; the feathers oblong, with the barbs separated ; those of the hind head generally, and of the rump often, elongated. AN^'ings rather short, very broad, concave, rounded ; the quills twenty-five ; the primaries not much longer than the secondaries ; the first quill extremely small, the second considerably shorter than the third, which is about the same length as the fourth ; the other primaries diminish slowly ; the secondaries of moderate breadth, and rounded. The tail short, rounded, of twelve moderately broad, soft, rounded feathers. The Kingfishers, as above characterized, are extensively dis- tributed over the old continent, the Indian islands, and Aus- tralia. They feed on small fishes and insects, wdiich they procure by darting upon them from an elevated place. They generally nestle in holes, feed their young with fish, and aro of solitary habits. Only a single species occurs in Britain. ♦571 ALCEDO ISPIDA. HALCYON KINGFISHER. Fig. 275. Alcedo Ispida. Linn. Syst- Nat. I. 179- Alcedo Ispida. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 2,52. Common Kingfisher. Mont. Orn. Diet. Martin-pccheur Alcyon. Alcedo Ispida. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 423. Common King's-fisher. Alcedo Ispida. Selb. lllustr. I. l.'5G. Alcedo Ispida. Common King-fisher. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 157. Upper part of the head and tcing-coterts dull (jreen spotted trith light blue ; middle of the hack and rump glossy light blue ; throat and a patch on the side of the neck yellowish-white ; loicer parts yelloicisk-rcd. Female similar. Male. — The Halcyon Kingfisher, although one of the least elegantly formed of our native birds, is among the most dis- tinguished for the beauty of its plumage, which is such as at once to recal to mind the splendour of the feathered denizens of the tropics. Its large body, short and thick nock, dispropor- tionately long bill, diminutive feet, and abbreviated tail, give it a peculiar appearance, so that the least observant cannot mis- take it for any other bird. The bill is considerably longer than the head, straight, rather slender, higher than broad in its whole lensTth, four-sided, its outlines almost straight, and its 672 ALCEDO ISPIDA. tip pointed. The very short tarsi are roundish, and destitute of defined scales ; the first toe shorter than the second, the third shwhtly longer than the fourth ; the claws arched, slender, compressed, and acute. The tongue is triangular, sagittiform, flat, rather acute, a quarter of an inch long. The oesophagus three inches long, seven-twelfths wide, extremely thin ; stomach large, round, somewhat compressed, an inch in diameter ; intestine ten inches and a half in length, from two and a half twelfths to a twelfth and a half in width ; no coeca ; cloaca globular. Plate XXII. The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers generally long, especially on the hind head and rump ; of an oblong form, without plumules. The wnngs are rather short, but very broad, the secondary quills being of great length ; the quills twenty- five, all rounded ; the first extremely small, its length being only three-twelfths of an inch, the second two and a half twelfths shorter than the third, which is longest, but scarcely exceeds the fourth ; the rest slowly diminishing. The tail is very short, a little rounded, of twelve rather narrow, rounded feathers. The upper mandible is dark brown, as are the margins and tip of the lower, the remaining part being pale orange. The iris hazel. The tarsi and toes orange red ; the claws dark brown. The upper part of the head is dull green, each feather with a transverse bar of light greenish-blue near the end ; the hind-neck, sides of the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts are of a similar dull green, tinged with purple in a different light, the latter feathers tipped with light blue. The middle of the back, the rump, and tail-coverts are of a beautiful glossy light greenish- blue ; tlie tail of a duller purplish blue. The quills are brown, with the outer webs dull green. A band of yellowish-red from the nostril to the eye ; part of the loral space dusky ; behind the eye, a similar yellowish-red band, below which, arid ex- tending from the lower mandible is a band of greenish-blue, terminating behind in a yellowish-white patch. The throat is of the latter colour, and the rest of the lower parts yellowish- red, of a richer tint anteriorly. Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings 10', ; bill along the ridge 1 ^, along the edge of lower mandible 1 l"j ; wing IIALCVON KIX(iFISlIf:R. (JJ^ from flexure Sj'^^, tail 2 ; tarsus ^'^^ ; first toe y|, its claw /?j ; second too j\, its claw j% ; third too j*,, its claw /, ; fourth toe /j, claw /'^. Fkmale. — Tho female is somewhat smaller, but similar in colour, the tints beinf:^ only a little less bright. Variations. — In adults there are considerable differences, not in the distribution, but in tho tints of the colours. The older tho individuals arc, the more bright is the green of tho upper parts, and the lighter the blue on the back, which thus may be purplish blue, ultra-marine, smalt, or verditcr. Habits. — The woods are resuming their green mantle, and the little birds chantiu" their summer sonj^s. From afar comes the murmur of the waterfall, swelling and dying away at inter- vals, as the air becomes still, or the warm breezes sweep along the birchen thickets, and ruffle the bosom of the pebble-paved pool, margined with alders and willows. On the flowery bank of the stream, beside his hole, the water-rat nibbles the tender blades ; and on that round white stone in the rapid is perched the Dipper, ever welcome to the sight, with his dusky mantle and snoN^y breast. Slowly along the pale blue sky sail the white fleecy clouds ; as the lark, springing from the field, flut- ters in ecstacy over his happy mate crouched upon her eggs under the shade of the long grass, assured that no rambling urchin shall invade her sanctuary. But sec, perched on the stump of a decayed willow jutting out from the bank, stands a Kingfisher, still and silent and ever watchful. Let us creep a little nearer, that we may observe him to more advantage. Bo cautious, for he is shy, and seeks not the admiration which his beauty naturally excites. There he is, grasping tho splint with his tiny red t^cet, his bright blue back glistening in the sunshine, his ruddy breast reflected from tho pool beneath, his long dagger-like bill pointed downwards, and his eye intent on the minnows that swarm among the roots of the old tree that project into the water from the crumbling bank. He stoops, opens his wings a little, shoots downwards, plunges VOL. III. x X G74 ALCEDO ISPIDA. headlong into the water, reappears in a moment, flutters, sweeps off in a curved line, wheels round, and returns to his post. The minnow in his hill he heats against the decayed stump until it is dead, then tossing up his head, swallows it, and resumes his ordinary posture, as if nothing had happened. Swarms of insects flutter and gamhol around, hut he heeds them not. A painted butterfly at length comes up, fluttering in its desultory flight, and as it hovers over the hyacinths, unsuspicious of danger, the Kingfisher springs from his perch, and pursues him, hut without success. There, swift as the barbed arrow, darting straight forward, on rapidly moving pinions, gleams his mate, who alights on a stone far up the stream, for she has seen us, and is not desirous of our company. He presently follows, and our watch being ended, we may saunter a while along the grassy slopes, inhaling the fragrance of the primrose, and listen- ing to the joyous notes of the Blackbird, that from the summit of yon tall tree pours forth his soul in music. It is chiefly by the still pools of rivers and brooks that the Kingfisher is met with. Although not plentiful in any part of the country, nor anywhere gregarious, it is generally dis- persed in England, and occurs in the southern and part of the middle division of Scotland, but has not, I believe, been met with beyond Inverness, for the Kingfishers, so called, of the north, are merely Dippers. It remains with us all the year, Bhiftin" its station on the streams, and in summer selectins some place having a steep bank, in a hole in which it deposits its eggs. T have once only seen the nestling place of this bird : it was a large hole, among the roots of a tree on the bank of the Water of Leith, and in the neighbourhood of numerous burrows of the water-rats. My friend INIr A\'eir however writes me thus : " In July 18o(J, in a bank of sand upon the Water of Leith, I discovered a hole in which they bred. It was about twelve feet above the level of the river. Tlie roots of a large beech tree hung like a network in front of it, and kept it from being seen. The hole was two feet three inches in length from the orifice, sloping ujiwards, being narrow at the entrance, but widening in the interior, and rounded at the extremity, in order to give the birds room to turn. Upon the IIALCVUN K1N(;FISIIER. G75 floor of it the moist and fetid pellets of fisli-bones were strewed in all directions. It appeared to have been inhabited for two or three years. The old birds were exceedingly shy. If any one made his appearance within sight of their abode, they would not go near it. Young birds in general, when their parents are absent, do not utter the slightest note until they return. AVith these Kingfishers however this was not the case, for had it not been owing to their loud and incessant chirping for food, the nest would not, in all probability, have been discovered. But whether this is a general characteristic of the species, I have not had the means of ascertaining. As they became ripe, they were very voracious, and not easily satisfied. They were six in number, and continued a long time in their abode, before they took to flight. They usually sat at the mouth of the hole when they received food, in the same way as the sand martins, when they are nearly fledged. " In July last, I saw a male and a female Kingfisher with four young ones about eight days old, which were taken out of a hole about two feet in depth, in a sand bank upon the river Calder, at a short distance from Douglass Park, in the parish of Bothwcll, Lanarkshire. The brood, according to report, had been sitting upon sand intermixed with a small quantity of the fibrous roots of trees, and surrounded by the pellets of fish-bones." Mr Henry Turner states in Loudon's Magazine, Vol. IV, p. 450, that at Bury St Edmund's in Suffolk " some boys watched an old one into a hole in the bank of the river Lark, and attempted to capture it on its exit ; but without success in this case. They then with a crooked stick pulled out a por- tion of the nest, consisting of a few feathers, old dried roots, and hay. I subsequently examined the hole," he continues. '• It was in a low meadow 300 yards east of Northgate Street, and on the bank of a small stream. The entrance to the hole was about three feet from the water, and one foot beneath the level of the meadow. Hole nine inches in diameter, and about five feet in length ; straight, and somewhat larger at the end than at the entrance." Various other individuals have alleged C7<> ALCEDO irSIDA. that the nest is formed of dry grass, roots, and feathers ; hut Montagu gives a different account of it. " The hole chosen to breed in is always ascending, and gene- rally two or three feet in the bank ; at the end is scooped a hollow, at the bottom of which is a quantity of small fish-bones, nearly half 'an inch thick, mixed in with the earth. This is imdoubtcdly the castings of the parent birds, and not of the young, for we have found it even before they have eggs, and have every reason to believe both male and female go to that spot for no other purpose than to eject this matter for some time before the female begins to lay, and that they dry it by the heat of their bodies, as they are frequently known to con- tinue in the hole for hours long before they have eggs. On "this disgorged matter the female lays to the number of seven eggs, which are perfectly white and transparent, of a short oval form, weighing about one dram. The hole in which they breed is by no means fouled by the castings ; but before the young are able to fly it becomes extremely fetid by the foeces of the brood, which is of a very watery nature, and cannot be carried away by the parent birds, as is common with most of the smaller species. In defect of which instinct has taught them to have the entrance to their habitation ascending, by which means the filthy matter runs off, and may frequently be seen on the outside. Wq never could observe the old birds with any thing in their bills when they went in to feed their young; from which it may be concluded they eject from their stomach for that purpose." This account of the nest however is very improbable, and accordingly Mr Kennie, in his edition of Montagu's Dictionary, doubts its accuracy. " In the bank of a stream, at Lee in Kent, we have been acquainted with one of these nests in the same hole for several successive sunmiers, but so far from the exuviae of fish-bones ejected, as is done by all birds of prey, being dried on ])urposc to form the nest, they are scattered about the floor of the hole in all directions, from its entrance to its termination, w itliout the least order or working up with the earth, and all moist or fetid. That the eggs may by acci- dent be laid upon portions of these fish-bones is highly probable, HALCYON KINGFISHER. C77 as tlio tloor is so thickly strewed with them, that no vacant spot might bo found, but they assuredly are not by design built up into a nest. The hole is from two to four feet long, sloping upwards, narrow at the entrance, but widening in the interior, in order perhaps to give the birds room to turn, and for tho same a])])arent reason the eggs are not placed at the extremity. I am not a little sceptical as to its sometimes selecting the old hole of a water-rat, which is the deadly enemy to its eggs and young; but it seems to indicate a dislike to the labour of dig- ging. It frecpients the same hole for a series of years, and wnll not abandon it, though the nest be repeatedly plundered of the eggs or young." In the second volume of tho Naturalist, p. 27^;, Mr AUing- ton gives the following account of it : "A friend of mine while fishing on a small trout-stream, near Louth, called the Crake, in the early part of June, observed a Kingfisher, with a fish in its mouth, flying several times near his hat with a whirring noise. He watched it until it entered a hole in the bank, the entrance to which was strewed wntli fish bones. On .diffsinor into the hole (which commenced low down in the bank, and ran upwards in a slanting direction for about two feet), he found the nest, containing seven young birds just hatched. The bot- tom of the nest was excessively thick, and mixed up with small bones of the stickleback. Its structure, excepting the mixture of fish-bones, was not very unlike that of a Thrush. It crum- bled to pieces on being touched, and I could procure no portion worth preserving. Near the nest was another hole, which had all the appearance of having been the Kingfisher's last yeai*"s residence, the bones at the entrance being dry and crumbly ; but in this the parent bird again commenced laying, and on opening the nest six eggs were found on the fragments of the structure. They were white, and beautifully transparent, shew- ing the yolk through, which gave them a pinkish hue at tho larger end. I have now in my collection one of the eggs, which, though so transparent, I was surprised to find thicker and stronger than the generality of eggs, and rounder in its form, the circumference being two inches and a half, the length eight- tonths of an inch/' G78 ALCEDO ISPIDA. The question as to its nestling in a water-rat's hole can be decided only by actual observation. Its bill is certainly well adapted for digging into earth or sand, but its feet one might suppose would prove very inadc(|uate instruments for scraping out the debris alonj; a tunnel of three or four feet. On the other hand its hole is often at a greater height from the water than we ever find that of the water-rat ; in the case of Mr Weir''s above mentioned, it was twelve feet ; and all accounts agree in describing it as straight and sloping upwards, whereas the holes of Avatcr-rats are usually tortuous. It is possible enough that sometimes the Kingfisher may take possession of a water-rat"'s hole, or even that of a common rat or mole, and enlarge it, as I have seen the Starling do in the islet of Copay in Harris with rats'* holes ; and that it may also dig a hole for itself, like the Bank Swallow. At all events, we have certain evidence that the American Kingfisher, Alcedo americanus (A. Alcyon of Linnreus) digs its hole. Mr Audubon states that " the male and female, after having fixed upon a proper spot, are seen cliuffinfi to the bank of the stream in the manner of Woodpeckers. Their long and stout bills are set to work, and as soon as the hole has acquired a certain depth, one of the birds enters it, and scratches out the sand, earth, or clay, with its feet, striking meanwhile with its bill to extend the depth. The other bird all the while appears to cheer the labourer, and'urge itto continue its exertions ; and, when the latter is fatigued, takes its place. Thus, by the co-operation of both, the hole is dug to the depth of four, five, or sometimes six feet, in a horizontal direction, at times not more than eighteen inches below the surface of the ground, at others eight or ten feet.'^ The eggs are five or six in mimbcr, broadly ovate, pure white, eleven-twelfths of an inch in length, and nine-twelfths in breadth. The flight of the Kingfisher is direct and rapid, performed l)y quick beats of the wings, and very similar to that of the Dipper, which it however excels in speed. The movements of the wings are indeed so rapid that one can scarcely perceive them, and the flight of this bird, the Dipper, Auks, and Guille- mots, and other short-winged birds, might induce the closet- HALCYON KINGFISHER. <)79 naturalists to revise their opinions as to flight, founded merely upon the length and breadth of wings ; for a long wing is not always so well adapted for speed as a short one, and a Cuille- mot can easily outstrip a Gull. Its feet are not adapted for walking or hopping, and therefora it takes its stand on a stone, a stump, a rail, or a branch overhanging the water, waits with patience, and when a minnow or a stickleback comes near the surface, darts upon it, and secures it. In like manner it sal- lies forth in pursuit of the larger insects. Although very shy, insomuch that one can very seldom get within shot of it when perched, it does not shun the vicinity of human habitations, but, on the contrary, often breeds at no great distance from them. It does not associate with any other birds, and it is seldom that even two of its own species are seen together. Being highly prized by collectors and others, it is much harassed, and although nowhere plentiful, may be obtained in almost any district to the south of the Forth and Clyde. In some places they leave the larger streams in autumn and betake themselves to the brooks, so that a person not aware of their habits in this respect might suppose them to be migratory. Even in the more northern parts, however, they remain all the year, and I have seen spe- cimens shot near Edinburgh in December and January. " In my neighbourhood," Mr Weir writes to me, " King- fishers are never seen before the beginning of Sej^tember, and they usually disappear about the end of March. They then re- tire to the river Avon, where they breed. In Bathgate and Boarbaughlaw Waters, they prefer those parts where the banks are covered with alders and willows. In severe winters they some- times become so tame that they even venture within a few feet of the door of Bathgate Mill, which is situate in the immediate vi- cinity of houses. I have had opportunities at different times, during the month of March, in three successive seasons, of observ- ing through an aperture in an old ' Galloway dyke,' situate about twenty-five feet from a rivulet in this parish, the habits of a male Kingfisher. His flight was very rapid, and in a straight and horizontal direction. Upon the top of an old wall, three feet in height, and at a short distance from the edge of the stream, or upon a small bough overhanging it, he usually perched, 080 ALCEDO ISPIDA. sometimes remaining motionless for more than half an hour, anxiously AA'atching his prey. He must have been uncom- monly quick-si silted, for when he darted into the water, he always came up with a minnow in his bill, with which he in- stantly alighted on a stone or paling, and after killing it he swallowed it whole. He continued his fishing until it was almost dark, and before he went to roost he plunged into the stream several times, and in rapid succession." The following account of its habits, as observed in the county of Leicester by Mr Harley, will, I think, render its history pretty complete. " The Kingfisher, which is a permanent resident with us, not only frequents our broadest rivers, as the Trent and Soar, but also our pools, fish-ponds, smaller brooks and rills, even as high as their sources. From what I have now stated, you will hardly judge it necessary for me to enter my protest against the assertion made by the author of the ' Ornithologia,"' relative to this bird and its proximity to the habitations and works of man. A few minutes'' walk from hence by our river's side, will satisfy the most scrupulous ob- server that the Kingfisher is not merely a bird of the wild, confined to the banks of streams remote from cities. This bird feeds, and nestles too, near the habitations and in hearing of the hum of men. One feeding spot which it apparently delights to frc. Length about six and a half inches ; mandibles extremely com- pressed toward the end ; icings blacl\ tcith two transverse white bands. Male bright crimson above and beneath. Female dusl-g tinged icith yellow above, the rump icax-yelloic, the lower parts yellowish-grey, longitudinally streaked icith dusky. Young like the female, but with less yellow. Male. — This species, of which a very few individuals have been procured in Britain, is distinguished from the rest by its extremely compressed bill, and the two broad bands of white on its wings, both characters being so remarkable that one of VOL. lit. Y Y 690 LOXIA LKrcOPTEIlA. its first dcscribcrs named it the Sickle-billed, and the other the White-winged Crossbill. It is inferior in size to the common species, and somewhat less robust, but otherwise similar in form ; its head being large and broadly ovate ; the eyes small ; as are the nostrils, which are round, and concealed by short bristly plumelets. The bill is rather long, higher than broad even at the base, extremely compressed toward the end, with the mandibles laterally deflected so as to cross each other, as in the common species ; the upper mandible with the dorsal outline convex and dcclinate, the sides little convex, the mar- gins united toward the end, so as to form a single cutting edge, the tip extremely thin and much elongated ; the lower mandible with the dorsal line convex and ascending, the edges approxi- mated at the tip, which is extremely compressed and pointed. The tongue is compressed at the base, dilated, concave above, and rounded at the end ; its length three twelfths and a half. The cx?sopliagiis, which is two inches and three quarters in length, dilates into a crop proportionally as large as in most gallinaceous birds, its greatest breadth being ten-twelfths of an inch, and part of it curving round the right side of the neck. On entering the thorax it contracts to two-twelfths, and, as usual, terminates in a bulbiform proventriculus. The stomach is of rather small size, but muscular, being a roundish gizzard, five-twelfths in length, six-twelftlis in breadth, with a dense, longitudinally rugous, reddish epithelium. 1'hc intestine is of moderate length and width, measuring teu inches and a half, with an average breadth of two-twelfths. The coeca are little more than a twelfth in length, and an inch and two-twelfths distant from the extremity of the rectum, which is dilated into an oblong cloaca. The feet are rather short and strong ; the tarsus short, with seven scutella ; the toes moderate, the first strong, the lateral nearly equal ; the pads and papilhv large as in the other spe- cies ; the claws long, arched, much compressed, and pointed. The plumage is blended. The wings of moderate length, and pointed; the fu\st and second vlorus to the anus is thirty-one inches and a half (in another malo thirty-one) ; its greatest breadth in the duodenum two-twelfths and a half, gradually contracting to a twelfth and a quarter. In a female, the oesophagus is two inches ten-twelfths long ; the intestine thirty-one inches long. In all these individuals and several others, the stomach contained a great quantity of par- ticles of white quartz, with remains of seeds ; and in the oeso- phagus of one was an oat-seed entire. Although this bird is in its habits very similar to the Crossbills, and feeds on the same sort of food, it diflcrs from them in the form and extent of its crop, in having the gizzard much larger, and the intestines more than double the length, in proportion to tlie size of the bird. LOXIA EUROREA. EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. Yd. I, p. 417. Mr J. ^I. Brown, who has paid much attention to the habits of birds, has favoured me with the following notice re- specting this species. " The Crossbill, although not found in great numbers in any part of Scotland, remains with us during the whole year, and may be met with in small flocks of from eight to twenty or more individuals, among the pines of the midland and higher districts of the country. They feed most eagerly on the seeds extracted from the cones of the Scotch fir, larch, and spruce ; and whilst thus occupied, they keep very quiet, and can be discovered only by the crackling noise made by their tonrini: open the cones with their powerful and curious EUROPEAN CROSSIJILL. 705 beaks, and the occasional dropping of the cones they have rifled. They always move from one part of the forest to another, at a signal given by one of the party that acts as leader, and is stationed on the summit of the tree. They mani- fest their desire to move by uttering a sharp loud note, and when the watchman observes any symptoms of impatience among those below, among the branches, he takes the lead in uttering his shrill note in a louder and more rapid manner than the others, for a few seconds, and on his taking wing the rest instantly let go the cones on which they have been operating, and accompany him, flying in a compact body, and uttering their note, as they fly along. They often take long flights, and frequently return to a neighbouring tree after making a few circuits. When feeding on the low branches of a tree, it is surprising how little fear they exhibit, even when approached so closely as to be almost within reach of the hand. Having slightly wounded one in the wing, I carried it home and placed it in a cage, with a quantity of larch cones, which it imme^ diately attacked, without showing any symptoms of fear, and helped itself most plenteously. Shortly afterwards, however, it died ; and this I attributed to my neglect in supplying it with water to drink. I have often endeavoured to find out the nests of these birds in the usual season, but never succeeded, and was surprised at last by discovering that their brood are all on the wing before their neighbours of the woods have set about preparing their nests. I was attracted one day in the end of February, during a heavy snow-storm, by the peculiar chirping of nestlings in the act of feeding ; and on ascending the tree found five or six Crossbills almost fully feathered and quite vigorous, notwithstanding the severity of the weather, snugly huddled together in a nest composed of small twigs ex* ternally, and lined with matted wool. In mild seasons I sup- pose they breed, even in this country, in the month of January. They are not entirely destitute of song. I have often been de- lighted wuth a concert of these birds, perched on the sunny side of a tree. Although not loud, their song is pleasingly varied, a good deal resembling that of the Bullfinch, and not unlike that VOL. HI. z 7. 700 APPENDIX. of the \\'atev-Ouzel, when you chance to overhear his gentle warhhng, as he sits on a ledge of rock or ice, in a frosty day." Mr Durham A\'eir, who has always exerted himself to the utmost in obtaining from personal observation such facts as were more especially required to give interest to these volumes, has also supplied me with the following remarks. " About the beginning of February 1839, I winged a female Crossbill, which is now in my possession, in good health, and very tame. It is an active and amusing bird, but at times rather an- noying, from the loudness of its chirping. It is very mis- chievous. By means of its thick bill, which is furnished with very strong muscles, it has destroyed the framework of several cages. It inserts this powerful instrument between the scales of the cones of the different kinds of firs, opening them with ease, and with great dexterity takes out the seeds with its tongue, which is admirably fitted for that purpose. I have seen it with its bill lift up to its perch, which is nine inches from the bottom of the cage, cones of the spruce tree four inches in length, and two and a half in circumference, and there keep firm hold of them with its long and hooked claws, until it had ex- tracted the seeds. AVhat is still more remarkable, when the perches were removed a few inches higher up, it had the saga- city to carry the cones to the side of the cage, and raise them up endwise against the bars, before it attempted to seize them, which it afterwards did with its bill, when suspended head downwards by the claws. One might have been almost in- clined to believe that it could calculate to a nicety the distance at which it was able to reach, and the strength required to raise the cones. Like the Parrot tribe, it climbs along the wires of the cage in different directions, by means of its bill and claws, and often opens the door of it, although T fix it with a i)iecc of cord. ^\'hcn pleased, it utters a cry which has a strong resemblance to that of the Blackbird, when that bird is in a state of alarm. It feeds clnefly on hemp-seed, which it prefers to all other kinds of seeds. It seems likewise to be fond of walnuts, almonds, and filberts, the shells of which it easily 8j)lits with its bill, if a very small hole be previously made in EUllOPEAN CROSSBILL. 707 tliem. It occasionally cats the kernel of the cocoa-nut, and the crust of loaf-bread. " For the period of ten years Crossbills had not made their appearance in this part of the country. In the beginning of September 1838, however, I observed a dozen of thcin feeding upon the seed of the larch, in a plantation near to Polkemmet House, the residence of Sir AVilliani Baillie, Bart., in the parish of Whitburn. To this place, for nearly six months afterwards, during the morning and forenoon, they almost daily resorted, and roosted every night in an old Scotch fir planta- tion, about a mile and a half distant. One afternoon, M'hilo I was watching them, they alighted upon the top of a tree, at a short distance from me. In a moment they crept into the thickest of the branches, and although a young man and I threw stones at them until we were tired, we only succeeded in ex- pelling one of them from their roosting place. As it was nearly two hours before their usual time of retirement, we were sur- prised at the occurrence. In the course of the evening it blew a severe hurricane, accompanied by a very heavy fall of rain, which may account for their unwillingness to leave the place, which was to shelter them from the storm, of the speedy ap- proach of which they seemed to have an instinctive know- ledge. " After feeding, they often fly round and round in the air for a few minutes wnth great velocity, emitting a sharp note, and then, alighting upon the top of a high tree, they remain there for some time. Upon a fine sunny forenoon, about the end of January, I have heard them warbling to each other, in low pleasing strains, bearing some resemblance to the notes of the Bullfinch. " That Crossbills occasionally breed in Scotland, I can no^y assert from personal observation. About the end of March 1839, a pair began to build at the extremity of the upper branch but one of a spruce-tree about forty feet high, growing in the middle of a small clump of firs upon the banks of the river Avon, in the parish of Torphichen, and about sixty yards from Crawhill House. The outside of the nest was formed of the twigs of the Scotch fir and spruce, the bark of the larch drawn 708 APPENDIX. by their bills into strings, and different kinds of grasses. The inside was lined with the strands of bass matting torn into fine pieces, intermixed with moss and a considerable quantity of human hair of different shades of colour, which had been picked up by them before the doors of some cottages in the immediate neighbourhood. The nest contained three young ones, which were fledged about the beginning of May, and continued to fly about with their parents for nearly two months. " In the beginning of April, at the distance of about three hundred and thirty yards from the celebrated Wallace Stane, in the parish of Polmont and county of Stirling, a pair of Crossbills built a nest and reared their brood. The nest was placed at the extremity of the lowest branch of an old Scotch fir, nine feet from the trunk, and as nearly as I could guess about twenty from the ground. The tree was eleven yards from the high road, upon which people are passing and re- passing almost every hour of the day, and twenty-eight yards from a cottage which was occupied by a labourer and his fa- mily. While the female was feeding her young, the male usually sat near her, and kept up a continual chattering. They always flew off together in search of their food, uttering their sharp shrill note, not unlike that of the Greenfinch, but stronger. Upon Sunday afternoon, the 5th of ^lay, M'hilst some boys were in pursuit of their favourite amusement, they imfortunatcly discovered the nest, and as they could not reach it by climbing, they pelted it down with stones. It contained three young ones about half-fledged. One of them was killed by the fall, another was destroyed by a cat, and the third is still alive. AVhen about six weeks old, it was remarkably tame. It crept upwards and downwards in its cage, both with beak and claws, in the manner of a parrot, and occasionally at- tempted to sing. The nest was larger than that of the Green Linnet. The outside was chiefly composed of the old twigs of the larch and Scotch fir, with fibrous roots and grass ; and the in- side lined with fine moss and grass, and diflcrent kinds of hair. " Since the month of November 1838, a pair of Crossbills have frequented an old Scotch fir plantation upon the estate of EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 700 Torbanchill, belonging to Sir Richard B. J. Honynian, liart., about a mile from my house. Sometime in the beginning of April 183!) they built a nest, but I could not discover it, as the trees were high and the branches very thick. On the fore- noon of the third of June, after the young brood had flown, I observed the parents feeding them with the seeds of the larch, uttering whilst doing so a kind of twittering note, and when I approached them, the old birds set up a very loud cry of alarm, and seemed to be in great uneasiness. I fired at one of the young birds, and killed it. The remaining two of the brood flew oft' with great rapidity to a considerable distance, accompanied by their parents. " On Tuesday morning the 4th of June last, ten Cross- bills were seen peeking seeds out of the cones of the larch, in a plantation in my neighbourhood. There were four old and six young ones. They were the last that were observed dur- ing the season." The young bird mentioned above as having been shot while its parents were feeding it, was sent to me by Mr Weir, and is still in my collection, being preserved in spirits. The plu- mage is not perfect, as the quills and tail-feathers had not at- tained their full growth. Length five inches and eight-twelfths ; extent of wings ten ; bill along the ridge seven-twelfths ; wing from flexure three inches and two-twelfths ; tail one inch and one-twelfth. The bill is perfectly symmetrical, being rather short, robust, tri- gonal at the base, considerably compressed, and much higher than broad ; the outline of the upper mandible decurved, its sides sloping and flattened, the edges straight, sharp, and slightly overlapping ; the tip very small, acute, deflected, only one-twelfth of an inch longer than the lower ; the lower man- dible with the angle broad and rounded, the dorsal line ascend- ing and nearly straight, the edges involute, the tip pointed and a little ascending. The lower jaw is of extreme width at the base, the distance from the exterior of one joint to that of the other being nine-twelfths of an inch. The lateral motion is very great, but there is no greater facility of movement to- ward one side than toward the other, the tips of the man- 710 APPENDIX. dibles being separable in a lateral direction three and a half twelfths to either side. On the roof of the upper mandible are two longitudinal flattened ridsjes. The tongue as in the adult. The general colour of the plumage of the upper parts is dull greyisli-ochrc, longitudinally streaked with dusky, the central part of each feather being of the latter colour, which is more decided on the back ; the rump with more yellow, the checks and sides of the neck lighter. The lower parts are white, the fore part of the breast tinged with yellow, and the whole under surface streaked with greyish -brown in linear-oblong lines. The quills and coverts are blackish- brown, narrowly edged with pale yellowish-brown, as are the tail-feathers. Mr Yarrell, in his beautifully illustrated and carefully com- piled History of British Birds, describes a young Crossbill which " was brought from Hampshire at the latter end of March, and was obtained within a few miles of Winchester. Its whole length is only five inches ; the feathers of the wings and tail not yet completed ; the former measuring but three inches from the carpal joint to the end, and the tail-feathers only extending five-eighths of an inch beyond the ends of the upper tail-coverts. This bird cannot have flown far from the nest in which it was reared, and was probably hatched about the beginning of March. In the colours of its plumage it very closely resembles those on young birds of the year when ob- tained in June, namely, the head, neck, and upper part of the back, the rump, and all the under surface of the body, greyish- white, streaked longitudinally with dusky brown ; the feathers of the wings and tail dark brown, with narrow edges of pale brown ; the beak, though rather long, has both its mandibles perfectly straight, the lower one just shutting within the edges of the upper, nor is there the slightest indication to which side either mandible would hereafter be inclined." It thus appears, that until the Crossbill has used its beak in extracting the seeds from between the scales of the cones of pines and firs, so as, by the peculiar action which it employs in so doing, to bend the tip of the upper mandible to one side, KUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 711 the curious crossing and elongation of the tips of the mandibles characteristic of this genus are not observeable, the bill being similar to that of a Finch or Sparrow, though stronger and more compressed. In this respect the Crossbills are not singu- lar. Thus, the Oyster-catcher, when young, has the tips of both mandibles pointed, and that of the upper considerably elon- gated ; whereas, by the action of driving limpets from the rocks, the end of the bill is ultimately thinned on either side, so as to become wedge-shaped. It appears that in some degree the bills of Woodpeckers owe their cuneate form to the same cause. The thin edges of the mandibles of many sea-birds, as the Gan- nets and Phaetons, become transversely or oblicpiely fissured by use ; and the scrratures on the claws of Ganncts, Cormorants, and Herons, have no existence while the young birds remain in their nests. The undue prolongation of the mandibles, in consequence of a deflection from their natural direction, is frequently observed in the Rook, which, on account of its habits, is peculiarly liable to this accident. It is also not unfrequently seen in cage-birds. The elongation of the upper mandible invariably takes place in all birds which, by captivity, are prevented from using their bills in the natural manner or degree, and is usually very con- spicuous in tame Eagles and Parrots. This abnormal growth is not confined to the mandibles, but is common to all horny parts, as the claws and hoofs of birds and quadrupeds, as well as the horns of the Huminantia, and extends even to the teeth, as is naturally seen in the Hog genus, and accidentally in the Glires. EMBERIZA SCHCENICLUS. THE REED BUNTING. Vol. I, p. 453. In winter and spring this bird feeds much on the buds of willows and other trees or shrubs, growing in marshy places. I have derived much pleasure from watching a flock so engaged ; for they cling to the twigs in various positions, and exhibit nearly as much activity as the Siskin does when similarly en- 712 APPENDIX. gaged in picking the seeds from the catkins of the alder. Even during frost, it is seldom met with at a distance from water. CORVUS CORAX. THE RAVEN, OR CORBY CRO'^^ Vol. I, p. 498. I have described the manners of this interesting bird, as ob- served by me in the Hebrides, where it is not uncommon. The following notice by Dr Laurence Edmondston, refers to it as studied in Shetland. " The Raven uniformly breeds in the most inaccessible pre- cipices, and has three or four young. He is destructive to lambs, and to weak animals of every kind. His first attacks arc always directed at the eye, and if unmolested, in a few seconds the animal may be destroyed, for he not only digs out the eye with his powerful bill, but penetrates to the brain in the course of the optic nerve. He has consequently been long proscribed, and a price set on his head. He is the true Gre- garach Ornithos of Hialteland, levying black mail with un- scrupulous assiduity if not courage. More recently indications of a milder legislation have appeared. The spirit of retrench- ment, economy, and free trade, hostile to all bounties, and the philanthropy of reform reprobating all capital punishments, will ere long, it is to be hoped, enable the Corby Dim sub- limely to croak in security amidst the lonely moors and naked rocks of ' melancholy Thule."' His note, although, it must be confessed, not over-melodious, is varied and expressive. One of his solos is thought peculiarly indicative of an approach- ng funeral. It is strange that in almost all countries where le occurs, some lugubrious superstition is associated with him. " This bird, although scantily provided with fat and feathers, is especially the denizen of cold regions, and is impatient of leat, even of our summer. He becomes languid and oppress- ed, ruffles his plumage, and fans himself with his wings, pant- ing with open mouth like a fatigued dog. Can the alkalino putrescent nature of his food stand in any relation of cause or cftcct to this impatience of high temperature I RAVEN. 713 " No instance that I am aware of has occurred in this country of the White or Piebald Raven, ahliough it is perhaps as com- mon in the Fcero Islands as the Black, and where it is said both kinds are sometimes found in the same nest, the parent birds being indifferently of either colour. This latter point however requires stricter inquiry. Those islands are 180 miles from here ; but this is no great journey for such a bird as the Raven to perform. From this we may conjecture that the species is indisposed to migration to any distance, at least across the waters ; or we may suppose that this Piebald Raven is a very distinct and permanent variety. The Foeroese often teach the Raven to speak, and they prefer for this purpose the Piebald. Previous to instruction they cut, I believe, the frenum linguae, and then they initiate him into all the classical mysteries of old Norse. " A curious fact in the history of the Raven is the use to which he was applied by the ancient and intrepid Scandina- vian mariners. To them he was as the magnet to the mo- derns ; he was the great precursor in their adventures of nauti- cal discovery and national agitation. AMien uncertain of their course, out of sight of land, yet imagining it to be near, a Raven was let loose. If he left the vessel, the course he took was steered, experience seeming to have taught them that land was near, and in the direction of his flight. If he returned to the ship, it was supposed to be at a distance. In this way, the Icelandic Sagas, so remarkable for the air of minuteness and truth of their narratives, inform us was Iceland originally dis- covered. AN'hat led these bold and resistless Vickinge to select the Raven for their nautical pioneer ? History points to Asia Elinor as the origin of Odin and his people, and the tradition there of the use of the Raven in the Deluge may have led to his employment by them in their first attempts at navigation. In possession of such a tradition, as mostly all the inhabitants not utterly uncivilized of that part of the globe might be sup- posed to be, and in the natural ignorance of an inland tribe of maritime affairs, it was not unlikely that in their first attempts on the ocean, they would have recourse to the terrene instinct of the Raven, when nothing but the pathless sea was around. 714 APPENDIX. But, whether they were led to this practice by oriental tradi- tion or spontaneous ingenuity, it is a very remarkable circum- stance in the history of as remarkable and heroic a race as ever existed. " Then — to return to the Piebald Raven — May it not have been a peculiar variety of Raven, and not the common, which was thus made use ofi and this might have been the Piebald. This hypothesis might plausibly account for his frequent occur- rence in Fcrro or Iceland, and his absence here. In Shetland he would naturally at first bo less frequent, for, as it lies com- paratively near Norway, and from thence is easy to be found, little necessity would after its first discovery have existed for letting loose such feathered pilots. ]\Iorcover, Shetland has been longer and more numerously peopled, it is nearer other countries, and Piebald Ravens would attract more attention, would be more easily captured, or more apt to wander. Al- most every voyage to Iceland or Foero on the other hand, in these early and rude, though daring, periods of navigation, would seem to have required such advanced guards. " Another inquiry is this : — AVe read in many of the Sagas of Ravens as inseparable companions, as unquestionably they were appropriate emblems, of the devastating progress of the Sea Kings. The Raven was the sacred standard of the great Odin. Whence were the supplies of these birds derived ? As they seem to have been at certain periods essential to the North- men in their piratical or exploratory voyages, and many woultl of course be necessary, they must have trusted to other sources of supply than the precarious and scanty ones of the nests of the wild birds, which at best, from the constant habits of the species, arc, even when found, of all others the least accessible. The probability is that they were kept by them in a semi- domestic state, as we observe Storks, Carrier Pigeons, Eider Ducks, &c., in certain instances ; and if they were so for many generations, this may seem to account for the sporting of colour, for the habits and other specific characters of the Black and the Piebald appear alike. One of the latter I kept tame for seve- ral months, but could detect no peculiarity. If they are origi- nally the .same, the great permanence of the Piebald variety RAVEN. 715 under circumstances similar to those of the common, its definite and circumscribed residence, are singular facts ; for, although a full or partial albino Haven may as a matter of great rarity occur in other countries, in none is the bird to be met Avith that I have heard of so numerously as in Foero. Is the Raven of Piebald colour, or peculiarity of habit, or species, or domes- ticated, to be found anywhere in Asia Minor 1 On the whole, I am inclined to the opinion that the ancient Scandinavians kept the Raven, and perhaps the Gyrfalcon in a semi-domestic state for many ages ; that probably the breeds of both were originally brought by them from the East, and that long-con- tinued domestication especially is the cause of the occurrence of Piebald Ravens, which is comparatively so common in some of the more distant colonies of Norway, such as Foero and Ice- land. A curious presumption would, from these desultory speculations in which I have indulged, seem to arise for the Asiatic origin of the Scandinavians ; and thus ornithology would throw light on a most important and influential epoch in the history and migrations of nations ; and further, it might lend weight to the arguments for Revealed Theology by corro- borating the facts and traditions of Noah's Deluge. Among some of the tribes of the Caucasian range might we then wan- der, to unfold the germs of many of the institutions of the Gothic race, instead of taking Tacitus and Torfoeus for our guides, and limiting our researches into the theory of our man- ners, and the foundations of our jurisprudence, to the woods of Germany or the rocks of Scandinavia." Mr Mackinnon, iactor for St Kilda, informs me that Ravens are very abundant there, and attain a large size. He has never observed any white or pied individuals. CORYUS CORONE. THE HODDY OR CARRION CROW. Yol. I, p. 516. Mr Harlcy has favoured me with the following account of this bird, as observed by him in the county of Leicester : — " Although the Raven has been totally exterminated in this part of the 716 APPENDIX. country, it has fareil far otherwise with the Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone, which, I am happy to say, abounds with us, albeit every man's hand appears to be uplifted against him. I generally see a pair or two all the year round close to our town. They haunt the river side, keeping a sharp look-out after the animal and vegetable otial left upon the pastures by sudden inundations. These birds, however, are not numerous in the immediate neighbourhood of Leicester, being much harassed by the gamekeepers ; but in the southernmost part of the county, they are abundant. There the fields are large, grassy, and open, being principally adapted for pasturage, and feed- inor cattle for the London markets. There beins; thus little tillage, and a corresponding paucity of game, the Carrion Crow is not there persecuted as in other parts of the county, where game is abundant, and persons are employed to pro- tect it. Hereabouts I have seen it in little groups of fours and sixes, perhaps so many families, which had not broken up their brotherhood. The Carrion Crow is easily known by its black mandibles, and loud sonorous croak, which is deeper and less frequently emitted than that of the Rook, and in uttering which it distends and stretches out its neck, after the manner of the Turkey, this habit being not so per- ceivable in the Rook. Besides, it is the latest of our diurnal birds in retiring to roost. I have seen them in the pastures when it has been nearly dark, so that 1 have come upon them unobserved. On the 9th October 1839, when crossing a large pasture field, T came upon a ])air that were feeding on the black beetles and their grubs, Geotrupcs stercorarius, which are always to be found in great plenty in pastures and old inclo- sures where cattle feed. The evening was dark and overcast, so that I could not discern them at a greater distance than about ten yards ; but there was no croak, no sound save the whistle of their wings, as they made their circuit around me to settle upon the ranpikcs of a solitary ash. I mention this circum- stance in order to shew that it is not in the breeding season alone that we find the Carrion Crow so late in the pastures. I am indeed ])crsuadcd that it remains ujion the pastures long afler all our diurnal non-migrating birds have retired to rest CARRION CROW. 717 for the night ; and it is in consequence of their feeding in silence that we do not notice them so late in the evening. I know the loud croak of this bird may be heard in wooded countries, but am persuaded it feeds where and when * The beetle homeward wheels her droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant fold.' " The Carrion Crow does not cover her eggs when she leaves the nest, after the manner described by some ornithologists ; at least I have never been able to discover that habit in this bird, and I think I should have done so had it existed. AVhen I was a boy, I have not only been up to the nest of the Carrion Crow, but have plundered some scores, and when farther ad- vanced in life I have peeped into many, to gratify my curi- osity. I can speak of the eggs being very subject to variety in colour, and also in shape, so that a person not aware of this, might, on seeing some, be doubtful as to whether they belonged to the Carrion Crow or the Rook. It sometimes has young late in the season, even in September, Thus, on the 9th Oc- tober 1839, 1 saw four young ones just fledged at Foxton, in this county. They could have left the nest only a few days, as they were not thoroughly strong upon the wing, when I saw them. Indeed Mr Stain assured me they were bred in an elm tree, in one of his hedge-rows. The old birds were feeding there when I saw them." CORYUS CORNIX. THE HOODED CROW. Vol. I, p. 529. In my account of the habits of this species, I alluded to the alleged conventions said by Mr Low and others to take place, but of which I had not seen any example. Dr Edmondston, in the following notice, describes them as observed by himself in Shetland. " The Hooded-Grow remains with us throughout the year. It breeds on clift's always easily accessible, and produces an- nually four and sometimes five young. It is easily tamed, and is lively and fomiliar, but from the inveterate habit of conceal- 718 APPENDIX. ing every thing, it becomes often a troublesome pet. This propensity, which all its congeners seem to possess, I am dis- posed to ascribe to their instinctive desire for carrion, not to that of hoarding and concealing food to serve as a future sup- ply. Their natural and favourite food is what is in a putres- cent state, and burying it under ground is one means of pro- ducing this. The dog does the same, and he always prefers putrid carrion in his unsophisticated state to fresh animal substances. There is some analogy between the Dog and the Crow, viewed in their respective places in the scale of nature. " A curious habit of this species is what is here termed Kraas Court. The season when it occurs is I think always spring ; but it is not a regular or frequent habit. Flocks of scores or hundreds may be seen for an hour or so assembled. A few of the number are loc^uacious and locomotive : these may be re- garded as the barristers. The great majority are taciturn and quiescent, appearing to be listeners or spectators, intent on the issue of the proceedings. Neither judges nor jury, witnesses nor accusers, have I been able to discover. After the meeting has quietly separated, one or two corpses are not unfrequently found remaining in the place where the Ting has been held. What the mode of execution had been even a post-mortem examination throws no light upon. It must, at all events, have been sudden, for no such indecorous or prolonged indica- tions of an execution as sometimes takes place among clothed bipeds, are observed among Hooded Crows. Here is realized the great desideratum of certain Utopians in legislature, that of bringing prompt if not gentle justice to every man's door. A capital crime is plod, judged, punished in an hour. Truly we, unfledged lords of the creation, have much to learn and unlearn, reform and improve. Another theory, less solenm and imposing it is true, but perhaps more agreeable to vulgar fact, may be this : — that the Kraa's Court, instead of being a College of Justice, with its acts of sederunt and other supreme powers and privileges, happens in this way. Some strangers or long emigrant Hoodies apjiearing near the domiciles or hunting grounds of the resident aborigines, are by them in- HOODED CROW. 719 hospitably, or as some would say patriotically attacked, as would be the case in similar circumstances in rookeries. " A favourite food of the Hooded Crow is the l^eriwinkle ; but the shell is hard, and in order to <^ct at the inhabitant, the Crow may often be seen near the sea-shore, flying up in the air from twenty to thirty yards, and letting it drop. The ob- ject seems to be here not so much to break the shell, for this is seldom done, as to kill the limax by concussion, and this is generally effected by repeated falls, whether these take place on the sward or beach. The Cornix is not it seems a bad pathologist : he knows the difference between fracture and concussion, and avails himself of this knowledge. " Enormous multitudes of this species inhabit in winter the cities on the shores of the Baltic, as Dantzic, &c., as I have wit- nessed, roosting on the house-tops, and literally covering them. They are then almost domestic and little molested, performing the duty of expert and gratuitous scavengers. In summer they disappear, probably returning to the mountains of Sweden and Lapland, for incubation ; for this species, like the Raven, is impatient of heat, and besides, these wilds afford theui abun- dance of food in larvcc and wild berries." Mr Low's account of the matter is this : — " They meet in the spring in vast flocks, as if to consult the important aflairs of sum- mer, and, after flying about in this manner for eight days or so, separate into pairs, and betake themselves to the mountains." I would suggest that, if one or two individuals are often found dead at these convocations, and if these individuals are the " talkative and locomotive barristers," they have been affected with some disease, the indications of which have induced a num- ber of their fellows to gather around and persecute them. Thus, a sparrow, with a piece of red cloth glued to its head, or a straw or string fastened to its tail, will be presently at- tacked by a multitude of sparrows, and a wounded deer is pur- sued by the rest of the herd. Some more precise observations are wanted. The following observations are from Mr Durham ^Vei^ : — " Hooded Crows are seldom seen in my neighbourhood. Dur- ing the long period of ten years, I have known only five of 720 APPENDIX. their nests. They were built upon the tops of high old Scotch fir trees. The outside was formed of twi^s ; upon these was placed a layer of the fine roots of trees, then about two inches of earth or clay intermixed with decayed leaves, and lined in the inside with wool, hair, and other soft materials. Of all the birds which I have attempted to gin or shoot, they are I think the most cunning. About four years ago, I found great difficulty in destroying a pair of them whilst feeding their young. For this purpose I constructed several huts with the branches of trees, within shot of their nest ; but I was obliged to pull them down, as the birds would not feed their brood so long as they remained. I however discovered a plan by which I suc- ceeded in carrying my purpose into eft'ect. Having made ano- ther place of concealment about two feet in height, and covered it over with grass and moss resembling as nearly as possible the ground around it, I crept into it, and whilst lying upon my side, I accomplished my object by shooting both the parent birds. " The attachment of the mother to her brood and partner is indeed very strong. I once fired at a female, when giving food to her young, and although three pellets of large shot pe- netrated her neck, in the course of a few hours she returned to her charge. As I could not, however, get a right view of the old birds, owing to the branches about the nest, I tied a cat next morning to the bottom of the tree upon M'hich it was built, and by this stratagem 1 succeeded in destroying them. Whilst they were setting up a most dismal croaking, and Hying up and down in a state of great irritation, within a few feet of their enemy the cat, I shot at the male and killed him. The next moment, when the old fellow was lying u])on his back, in the agonies of death, his loving partner walked again and again round about him, dragging her wings and tail slowly upon the ground, uttering the most melancholy lamentations, as if aware of his fate. I completed the tragedy by shooting the survivor, and any qualms of conscience I might have at the time, were speedily smothered in the consciousness of having secured two good specimens of the Hooded Crow, and the recollection of their havoc amongst the game in my neighbourhood." HOODED CHOW. 7l>I From those northern isles, let us hctakc ourselves to a southern and inland county, taking INIr Harley's report as to the demeanour of the Hooded Crow there : — " I have very little to say about the Grey or Royston Crow, Corvus Cornix, which comes to us towards the close of the year, but is not very common in these parts. It feeds in our pastures along with the Rook, Jackdaw, and Starling, and appears to live in harmony with them during the time of its sojourn. An old coachman, who for at least twenty years drove the London and Leeds Express Coach from Loughborough to Mansfield across Sherwood Forest, used to say that he knew to a day when the Grey Crows would come upon the Forest. That day he said was Guy Fawkes' day of notable memory, the 5th of Novem- ber. Now whether this story of the old coachman was true or not, I shall not take upon myself to argue ; but I know somo of our migrating birds are punctual almost to a day, when they visit us. In Gilbert White's Miscellaneous Observations we find this note : — ' May 22d. The Flycatcher comes to my vinos, where probably it was bred, or had a nest last year. It is the latest summer bird, and appears almost to a day.' Hav- ing remained with us through the winter, the Hooded Crow departs early in spring." Very few instances are given of this bird's breeding in England, the most southern locality being in Norfolk, as men- tioned by Mr Hunt. It is a very remarkable circumstance that of the Grey Crows which have bred in that country seve- ral are recorded as having paired with the Carrion Crow. Thus, Mr ^Villiamson states that " the Hooded Crow has been known to breed near Scarborough on two or three occasions. In one instance, a female Hooded Crow was observed to pair with a Carrion Crow on a large tree at Hackness, where they succeeded in rearing their young." Two or three instances of the same kind are mentioned as having taken place in the south of Scotland ; which would lead us to believe that a Hooded Crow left perhaps accidentally in a district where there are none of its kind, may readily pair with the Carrion Crow. In the northern isles, this never happens, for the Grey Crows are there abundant, and the Black Crow never or very seldom VOL. HI. 3 A 722 APPENDIX. appears. A few Hooded Crows breed in the Lothlans. I have frequently seen a family of them near Cockenzie in Had- dinrjtonshire, and Mr Weir has found a few in West Lothian. The digestive organs of this species are precisely similar to those of the Carrion Crow. The oesophagus of a male indivi- dual was five inches and a half in length, funnel-shaped at the commencement, in the rest of its extent nearly of the uniform diameter of eight twelfths. The stomach is a moderately mus- cular gizzard, of an elliptical form, somewhat compressed, an inch and nine twelfths in length, an inch and a half in breadth ; its muscular coat thick ; the epithelium dense, with a few deep longitudinal rnga^. The intestine is four feet long, five twelfths in width in the duodenal portion. The coeca are cylindrical, half an inch long, two twelfths in breadth, two inches distant from the extremity. The rectum dilated toward the end. CORVUS MONEDULA. THE JACKDAW. Vol. I, p. 552. The Jackdaw is a common bird in Leicestershire, according to Mr Harley, who informs me that it there resides " in hollow trees, the ash, elm, horse-chestnut, oak, or ma})le, as well as the ruined tower, the venerable gateway, and lofty spire. Jackdaws," he adds, " will sometimes breed in chimneys, even when used. About ISIO I recollect seeing a servant man of my father's take a nest with four or five young ones out of a chimney, which Mas constantly kept in use. It was perhaps twenty yards high. The nest was built across from ledge to ledge, about two feet from the top, and a very largo one it was too. I recollect seeing a wheelbarrow load of sticks and cow-hair, and bits of old cotton print and strings. Jerry Hayes, who took it down, was then, and is now, a daring fel- low, a good bird's-nester. I have seen a Jackdaw in which the nape of the neck was nearly white, the throat white, the breast whitish-grey, the wing-coverts white, and the tail- feathers tipped with the same." LONG-BILLED CHOUGH. 72.1 FREGILUS GRACULUS. THE LONG-BILLED CHOUGH. Vol. I, p. 587. In an individual obtained in the Isle of Mull, the oesophagus was four inches and a half in length, of nearly uniform width ; the proventricular portion one inch long. The stomach oblong, an inch and three-eighths in length, an inch and one-twelfth in breadth ; its muscular coat moderately thick ; the epithelium dense and rugous. The intestine was two feet long, four-twelfths in width in the duodenal portion ; the cocca half an inch long, and two-twelfths in breadth. In the stomach were a Carabus, several spiders, a vast number of small white larVcT, a grain of oats, and some particles of quartz. TIIREMMAPHILUS ROSEUS. THE ROSE-COLOURED COW-BIRD. Vol. I, p. 613. A beautiful specimen of this bird was shot in July 1839 at Ladythorne, the seat of R. Wilkic, Esq. It was an adult male, in perfect plumage. The most northern locality that I have been credibly informed of, is the neighbourhood of Ding- wall, in Ross-shire. PICA MELANOLEUCA. THE MxiGPIE. Vol. I, p. 562. Although not usually social, the Magpie is sometimes seen in largo flocks. In the spring of 1839 I observed twenty-one in a grass field near South Quccnsferry. Mr Ilarley informs mo that in England also " it becomes in part or temporarily gregarious, in the month of February, if the weather is open. For instance, I once counted forty-six together in a low pas- ture field on the banks of the Dcrwcnt in Derbyshire, in 1834. It abounds in Leicestershire, and remains in pairs throughout the year. Indeed I do not think any migration whatever, partial or general, takes place in this species. Why such a 724 APPENDIX. Avary bird should at times choose the lowly hedge-row, or soli- tary thorn bush, for its place of nidification, when in the same hedge-row are trees which to all appearance would aftbrd it better protection against the prying urchin, or destructive gamekeeper, or wandering naturalist, is a question which in my opinion is not likely to be soon solved. I have found its nest in very solitary thorn-bushes, and not more than ten or twelve feet from the ground. Circumstances like these have given careless observers an idea that we have two kinds of Magpies, the Tree Mag, and the Hedge Mag. It builds occa- sionally not only close to the cottage door, but even in the midst of towns. In 1820, I saw in the middle of Lough- borough a magi^ie's nest on a very tall elm, in a gentleman''s garden ; but this nest was not renewed in 1821. The Magpie makes use of the old materials in building her nest, as I have ascertained beyond dispute. In a spruce-fir tree, Pinus Abies, growing at Thorpe Cottage, in this county, I have known a magjiie's nest having been made since 1814, year after year ; and there is at this moment (1839) a nest in the same tree which the magpies used last sjDring. I shall not attempt to prove that the same pair have tenanted the nest all along, but it is reasonable to suppose that some members of the same family have." Another correspondent, Mr R. D. Duncan, informs me of a Magpie's nest which " was fixed amongst the to]i branches of a hawthorn bush by the side of the northern road between Edin- burgh and Glasgow. This presents us with a new trait in the character of the Magpie, as it exhibits a boldness not often used by it." GARRULUS GLANDARIUS. THE BLUE-WINGED JAY. Vol. I, p. r.76. The Jay occurs here and there in the woods skirting the Cirainpians from Forfarshire to Dumbartonshire, and in all the more or less wooded districts to the southward. Mr Harley informs mc that it is found at all seasons in the hedge-rows, BLUE-WINGED JAY. 725 coppices, or umbrageous woods of the county of Leicester. " I believe," he adds, " none of our woodland species arc more destructive to the ejifrs of the smaller birds. I have found its nest in the holly, as well as in the ' hazel mantled with wood- bine,' but never in a hedge, or hedge-row tree." In a list of some of the birds of Glamorganshire obtained l)y Mr Hepburn for mc from the Rev. James Evans, LandafF, is the following notice. " The severest conflict I ever witnessed between birds was between a cock Blackbird and a cock Missel Thrush, on the ode hand, and a Jay on tlie other. The conflict was car- ried on to the music of the most horrid shrieks I ever heard. It ended in the Jay disappearing in a cloud of his own feathers. The assailants retired together in another direction, seemingly perfectly satisfied. As it was in the breeding season, the Jay had probably attacked their nests." " Of the voracious habits of this bird," says !Mr Durham Weir, in a recent communica- tion, " I was not until lately aware. Having got a male which was caught in a trap on the afternoon of the 2Gth January 1838, I put him into the tool-house of my garden, in which I kept a variety of birds. Upon going in next morning I was asto- nished at finding that two of them had been devoured. I thought that rats had killed them, but I soon discovered that I had been mistaken. A Rose Linnet having alighted upon the branch of a tree which I had fixed in the wall, and upon which the Jay was sitting, he caught him by the throat with his bill, and killed him in a few minutes. In about half an hour after this, he preyed upon a green linnet, and after pluck- ing off" the feathers, he swallowed the whole bit by bit, except the head," TURDUS PILARIS. THE FIELDFARE THRUSH. Vol. II, p. 105. Mr Harley has ascertained that even in a partially wooded district, this bird, sometimes at least, reposes on the ground. " In the neighbourhood of Leicester it appears in September, and departs in May and June. It most certainly roosts on the 726 APPENDIX. ground, amongst long grass and tall herbage. About nine miles below Leicester, on the banks of the Soar, there is a celebrated place of resort of these Thrushes, but more particularly one meadow, which may be called a dormitory ; for, toward night- fall, throughout the winter months, I have seen thousands wending their way thitherward for the night. This movement of the Fieldfares is almost as regular as that of the Rooks. I have been there both late and early, and so also was the Fieldfare; for which reason I am fully persuaded Colonel Montagu was justified in concluding that this bird reposes on the ground. I may as well mention, however, that while the movement of the Rooks toward their roosting trees is performed silently, that of the Fieldfares is accompanied with a garrulous noise. They proceed in straggling parties, some making half circles, flying back as it were in the midst of their companions, others strag- gling onward, but all bound to the same roosting grounds." This is also usually the manner of flying of the Starling, Brown Linnet, and, I believe, in some degree, of all the smaller birds which are densely gregarious. RUTICILLA PHCENICURUS. THE RED-FRONTED REDSTART. Vol. II, p. 305. The young, when fledged, have the bill flesh-coloured at the base, dusky toward the end, the inside of the mouth yellow, the feet purplish-dusky. The upper parts are olivaceous, spotted with reddish-yellow, each feather having an oval mark of that colour, and terminated by dusky ; the rump yellowish- red, faintly undulated with dusky ; the tail dull orange-red, except the middle feathers, which are dusky ; the quills and coverts dusky brown, edged with yellowish-red ; the lower parts bright buft', the margins of the feathers dusky ; the abdo- men with fewer markings ; the tail-coverts pure bufl'. NIGHTINGALE. 727 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA. THE NIGHTINGALE. Vol.11, p. 321. " It is firmly asserted by several naturalists,'' says Mr Weir, " that the northern boundary of the Nightingale is in the neigh- bourhood of Doncaster in Yorkshire, as no well authenticated instances have been adduced of its appearance beyond that town. Yet Captain Hamilton Dundas assured me, that whilst riding home from Edinburgh to Duddingston House, one morning in Juno 1831), he heard one of these delightful birds pouring forth his melodious strains in the neighbourhood of Dalmeny Park, the residence of the Earl of Rosebery. He said he could not have been mistaken, having had frequent opportunities of hear- ing them in France, Germany, and England." SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA. THE BLACK-CAPPED WARBLER, OR BLACKCAP. Vol. II, p. 339. I have received from Mr Weir the following notice respect- ing this bird : — " On the niorning and forenoon, and part of the afternoon of Tuesday the 2otli of June 1831), the thermo- meter 62° in the shade, in the shrubbery near Polkemmet House, Parish of Whitburn, Linlithgowshire, I listened with pleasure to the music of this charming warbler of the grove. As the foliage of the trees was greatly injured by the severe frost that had taken place on the 14th and loth of the previous mouth, I had a favourable opportunity of observing his habits. Between seven and nine o'clock he sang almost incessantly. After having been silent for two hours he again commenced, and continued his song for a considerable time. From the top of a tree he sometimes poured forth his delightfully melodious strains, at other times from the middle of a shrub. When singing, the feathers upon the crown of his head were gene- rally erected, and his throat considerably inflated. He was uncommonly lively, and in constant motion, flitting from branch to branch with the greatest activity in pursuit of flies. He 728 APPENDIX. examined almost every sprig, and pecked the larva? of insects from the bark. His flight was usually short and very rapid, and many of his motions were like those of the Willow AVren. I never observed him alight on the ground. x\s he continued so long about the same place, I thought that the female was then sitting upon her eggs. Being very anxious to discover the nest, I searched for it very diligently. The attempt, how- ever, proved unsuccessful. On Thursday the 27th I renewed it, being assisted by a youth. For nearly six hours we examined almost every spot in the neighbourhood, with the same bad success. From seven in the morning until one o'clock in the afternoon, he poured forth his delightful melody. On Wed- nesday the 8d of July, a very warm day, the thermometer in the shade being at 6V, I again went in search of him. To my great grief, however, I was informed that for two days he had neither been seen nor heard. On my return home, about four o"'clock in the afternoon, I met with my old friend singing in a plantation, at the distance of about a (juarter of a mile from his former retreat. In this well-sheltered and sequestered spot his continuance was but short, as in the course of two da3's he took his departure from the neighbourhood. From his rest- less disposition 1 have no doubt that he had not as yet paired, and Avas in pursuit of a mate to console him in his retirement. If the above observations be correct, they will not, at least in this instance, favour the opinion of the celebrated Montagu, who thought that the male of the migrative species never quits the place he first resorts to, but attracts the females by his song. On Tuesday the 9tli of July, the thermometer GO , and the wind south, when I was in search of a kingfisher's nest on the banks of the Avon, in Kinniel A\'ood, I heard one singing most melodiously. And on Tuesday afternoon, the IGth of the same month, the thermometer G3\ the wind S.W., I heard another near Carriber Mill, parish of Torphichen. As the underwood was exceedingly thick, conq^oscd of the sloe and bramble, I was unable to get within shot of him. The situa- tions which the Blackcaps seem to prefer are close thickets, and woods verv rank with undergrowth." GARDEN WARBLER. 729 SYLVIA IIORTENSIS. THE GARDEN WARBLER. Vul. II, p. 345. " The Garden Warbler," Mr Hepburn writes, " is pretty generally distributed in East Lothian, and is especially abun- dant in the ])lantations and thickets on the brink and at the foot of the old red sandstone clift's in the Glen of the Whittinw- o ham Water. I never observed it until the 11th of May 1839, when one ali^^hted near me on the margin of Prcssmenan Lake. As a songster I think it superior to all our Scottish birds. For about a month after its arrival, you may advance within six or seven yards of it, as it flies amongst the broad leaves, snatch- ing its prey, and boldly replying to the rival notes of its fellows, which at intervals fill the whole glen with their wild warblinjrs. I have found its nest in tall hedgerows, sloe thickets, and amongst the branches of young spruce and hawthorn trees, at a few feet from the ground. Sometimes it was very indiffer- ently concealed. The young are mostly fledged by the begin- ning of July ; but some broods not before the end of that month. If you approach a nest containing young, the parents shew themselves at first, but soon retreat to the thickest shade, uttering a note resembling the syllabic check, check. The song of this species ceases about the middle of July. The last bird which I saw was on the 7th of August." SYLVIA GARRULA. THE WIIITE-BREASTED WARBLER, OR LESSER AVIIITETIIROAT. Vol. II, p. 357. " After many unsuccessful attempts," Mr Weir writes to me, " I at length succeeded, on Thursday forenoon, the 18th of June 1839, in discovering the nest of the Lesser Whitethroat in the midst of a plantation about fifty yards from my garden. It was built in a tuft of windlcstraw grass, Aira cocspitosa, of the preceding year's gro^^'th, about four inches from the ground, and overshadowed by the branches of a larch tree. It is small- er and more compact than that of the larger Whitethroat, and 730 APPENDIX. is here aud there intermixed with the coverings of spiders'' eggs. In its structure it is not unlike the one which Mr Selby found in Suftblk, and contained five efrffs." The nest and an egg having been sent tome, I may here de- scribe them. Although more compact than that of the White- throat, as observed by Mr Weir, the nest is still but loosely constructed. It is bulky, for the size of the bird, formed exter- nally of soft but coarse straws and blades of grass, with a con- siderable number of threads aud tufts of a fine greyish-white downy substance, several cotton threads, some of which have been in cloth, and a few tufts of down, loosely interwoven. Within this outer layer the grasses are finer, chiefly of Agrostis, and the inner layer is formed of fine grasses, delicate fibrous roots, a considerable quantity of hypna and other mosses, inter- mixed with fine fibres and hairs. Two or three stalks of a Galium, which appears to be the palustre and a few stems of Stellaria appear in the outer layer. The external diameter is four inches and a half, the internal two and a half, and the depth of the interior an inch and nine-twelfths. The egg is broadly oval, but rather pointed, greyish-white, fiiintly mark- ed all over with pale greyish-brown, and having a zone of stronger and larger purplish-grey spots at the larger end ; its length eight-twelfths, its breadth six-twelfths. "On Monday morning, the 17th of June," Mr Weir continues, " when walking in my shrubbery, about eighty yards from the nest, I found a portion of the shell of one of the eggs of this bird. As I had on the preceding day caught a Magpie in a trap, in the immediate neighbourhood, I ran to the spot in a state of alarm, thinking that the nest had been pillaged by some bird of prey. I was, however, agreeably disappointed, and discovered in the nest a newly-hatched young bird. The shell had been instinctively taken away by the mother, in order to prevent the discovery of the place of her retreat. The male occasionally sang amongst the shrubs and trees, at the outside of the garden. The song was not so loud as that of the Larger Whitethroat, and I never observed him utter it on the wing, ^^'hcn in a state of alarm he set up a peculiar shrill note which I had never before heard. In his habits he was so uncommonly shy and retired that I MARSH IIEEDLING. 731 coukl very seldom get a glimpse of him. The female usually dropt from her nest in the same way as the Grasshopper Chir- ])er, and with the most astonishing rapidity winded her way through the grasses, weeds, and other entanglements, and in a moment disappeared. When catching insects their motions seemed to be like those of the Larger AV^hitethroats. Their young ones were very impatient of observation, for on my tak- ing one in my hands in order to examine it, it no sooner gave a chirp, no doubt its alarm- note, than the rest of them imme- diately leaped out of their abode, although not much more than half-Hedged, and with great celerity hopped amongst the grass." Another nest of this bird obtained near Oxford is very simi- lar to that found by Mr AVeir, but has no moss internally. Both are so loosely interwoven that one may perceive an object through them. In the English specimen the outer blades of grasses are larger, and instead of cotton thread, some small tufts of wool are intermixed. The interior is formed of delicate panicles of grasses, fine fibrous roots, and a little hair, its breadth two inches and a half, its depth one inch and ten twelfths, the ex- ternal diameter four inches and a quarter. The five eggs which it contains are similar to that described above, but less broadly ovate, and varying considerably in their tints. Mr Hepburn informs me that he saw seven or eight indivi- duals, in East Lothian, in the summer of 1839. CALAMOHERPE ARUNDINACEA, THE MARSH REEDLING. A^ol. II, p. 395. " This bird," says ]Mr Harley, " invariably attaches its nest to the stalks of reeds, and to those of the common nettle. I have before me a nest which I took from a willow-holt, on the 20th of May 1839. It is attached to three stalks of the nettle, and was about four feet from the ground. It is internally and externally composed of fine grasses, and small fibrous roots, without any hair about it. The nettle stalks were of the pre- vious year's growth. It is deeper and more bulky than that 732 APPENDIX. made by the Sedge Keedling. As far as my observations have gone respecting this bird, it does not haunt the hedge-rows, either of hawthorn or sloe, hazle or white willow, after the man- ner of the Sedge Reedling, but keeps closely concealed amongst osiers, rieeds, and equiseta. It clings to the reed stalks and hangs about them in the same way as the pretty Goldfinch clings to the thistle. The notes of the male are a hurried c/iidd/f, c/iuhhf^ chidth/^ c/tt't, chit, cha, cha, chit, chit. It is a true polyglot, mocking in turn the Sparrow, Swallow, White- throat, and Chaffinch, running from the note of one into that of another/' Mr Durham Weir has favoured me with the following note : " In mv former communication regarding this bird, in the list of the summer visitants of West Lothian, it ought to have been stated, I have only known of one nest, supposed to have been that of the Marsh Reedling. As I had not an opportunity of seeing the birds themselves, nor of examining the nest out of which the egg had been taken (the nest having been carried off by some boys the day after the female had begun to sit), I cannot give any decided opinion respecting it. The egg was compared with several eggs of the Sedge Reedling, with which it did not agree, and as it had a strong resemblance to some specimens said to be those of the Marsh Reedling, and very nearly corresponded with the account given of them in several works, it was thought by an able ornithologist to be one be- longing to this species. As there is however such a diflerence between the eggs even of the same bird, I frankly admit that he might have been mistaken in his conjectures, and therefore it must be received with doubt, until corroborated by more extended observations." CALAMOIIERPE PIIRAGMITIS. THE SEDGE REEDLING. Vol. II, p. 390. " This bird,"" Mr Ilarley writes, " is much more widely dis- persed over the midland counties than the Marsh Reedling. GRASSHOPPER CHIRPER. 73.'} It is a true babbler, a thorouffb mocking-bird, but may easily be distinguished from its congener, not only by the buff streak over the eye, but by its frequenting the hedge-rows more than it. Close to Leicester, it haunts the same hedges as the White- throat, but I have usually found the hedges where both these birds abound, to be choked in the summer with reeds, horse- tails, and rushes, and often composed of white sloe and crab, sometimes hazel and white willow. AV^hen this bird comes to us first, he is very shy, and will scarcely let us get a peep at his striped cheek. This diffidence continues until May, when his spouse arrives, and then he at once becomes loquacious. It does not weave its nest amongst the reed stalks so commonly as the ^Marsh Reedling does. I have one attached to the fork of an osier twig, about three feet from the ground. It is com- posed of hypna, small roots of dry grass and some wool, the lining of dry grass without any mixture of hair ; its depth about an inch and a half. I have never known this bird to stop with us after the 20th of September." SIBILATRIX LOCUSTELLA. THE GRASSHOPPER CHIRPER. Vol. II, p. 399. " The Grasshopper Warbler," according to Mr Harley, " is common in some of our braky lanes and unplashed hedgerows. On the 19th of April 1834; I heard it singing for the first time, the apparent ventriloquism of this bird is produced by moving its head about, in the manner of the male Goatsucker and the Corn Crake. In the month of June I have heard its trillinsr note at ten o'clock in the evening, the males then appearing to rival each other. The sibilous cry is monotonous and pro- longed, hke the purring of a cat, the cry of the Goatsucker, or the drone of the Chafter. It leaves us about the 20th of Sep- tember." 734 APPENDIX. ANORTIIURA TROGLODYTES. THE WREN. Vol. Ill, p. IG. The following account of this bird by Mr Hepburn eluci- dates some points of its history. " About the beginning of August, when the cares of breeding are over, the ^^'rens resort in considerable numbers to gardens, being doubtless attracted by the multitudes of insects which frequent our fruits and flowers. Jit this season they roost chiefly in the ivy. AVith the first streak of day, the little fellow bustles from his perch, mounts some neighbouring spray, and greets the morn, ' the dew-drop trembling as the minstrel sings.' Now he gleans his breakfast among the flowers, frisks about the flower-stalks of the Dahlia and Hollyhock, which appear to abound in suit- able game. A Hedge Chanter perhaps perches on a neigh- bouring stake, but the AVren, having a great opinion of his own dignity, resents the affront by driving him off. He now commences his toilette, arranging with care his plumage, which has become draggled by the dew-drops. If you advance to- ward him when engaged in searching for food, ho gives vent to his alarm or anger in a sharp and very shrill chirp. If you advance nearer, the chirp becomes a sort of prolonged c/iirr, which, were it not so shrill, would very closely resemble the alarm notes of the Missel Thrush. In the winter season, when it frequents the hedges near dwellings, it is usually the first to detect a skulking foe ; on perceiving a cat, it sounds its alarm note, flies to the branches overhead, displays the greatest activity, gets into a mossy fork, peeps over the side, darting fierce glances at the prowler, which it dodges at every turn till he dci)arts. At this season it searches the caves of stacks, the roofs of stables and out-houses, the chinks of Avails and the banks of streamlets, in quest of spiders, larvae, and pupa?, and rests at night in holes in the thatch or in the sides of stacks. A friend informs me tliat he has frequently taken from four to six individuals in one hole. In the end of Febru- ary or beginning of !March the males in earnest commence their song, which, though deficient in melody, is truly remark- WREN. J.Vj able for its boldness of tone, the fulness of joy which pervades it, and the frequency of its repetition. One cannot help re- niarkini,' how the woods rinf^ to their incessant roundelays, as they ho]) on the ground, thread the old hedgerow, fly from brake to brake, aye or frisk about the topmost boughs of trees which arc forty feet in height. After the middle of October they gradually leave oif singing, and by the beginning of No- vember have entirely ceased. From that time to the 17th of February, this year, I heard only one individual sing. It was on a bright sunny forenoon on the SOtli of December. AVlien they recommence singing for the season, it is in a very low key, when the weather happens to be mild, and the same is the case at the time when they are about giving it up. During the season of pairing the males engage in sharp contests, striv- ing to outsing each other. The eggs are usually about eight. I have several times seen ten or twelve, and I once found in a young spruce tree a nest which contained the astonishinof number of fifteen. Two broods are sometimes reared in the season." " I was not aware," says Mr Weir, " it had been taken notice of by any naturalist, that the European Wren, or at least some of this species, take possession of their nests as places of repose during the severity of winter, until I lately perused a very interesting account of the habits of these little birds by Neville Wood, Esq., who says, ' Whether the nests in which one or two broods had been reared in the summer are tenanted every night throughout the winter by the old or the young birds, is a question more curious than easy to determine, on account of the difficulty, almost amounting to impractica- bility, of catching the birds at night. This I have repeatedly endeavoured to cftect with a view of settling the point, but without success.' I am happy to say that after much trouble, I have so far succeeded in determining this curious question. About nine o'clock of the evening of the 7tli of jNIarch, in one of their nests, which was built in a hole in an old wall, I caught the male and female, and three of the brood, the other four young birds which were also in the nest, made their escape. They were the wrens I mentioned formerly as having during 730 APPENDIX. last winter occupied the two nests which wanted the lining of feathers." BUTEO FUSCUS. BROWN BUZZARD. Vol. Ill, p. 183. On the head and neck of an individual killed in the end of March 1840, many feathers of a blackish-brown colour, very different from the umber -brown of the old plumage, were sprouting up. This circumstance I mention, because it shews that the Buzzard begins to moult at a very early season, and that, either the older it grows the darker is its plumage, or that merely the new feathers have at first a much deeper tint than their predecessors. BUTEO LAGOPUS. ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD. Vol. Ill, p. 103. It would appear that an unusually large number of Rough- legged Buzzards visited Britain in the winter of 1839. I have seen an individual killed in Fifeshire, and another in Dum- friesshire ; ^Ir Hepburn mentions two that were shot in East Lothian ; and ^Ir Harley of Leicester writes thus : — " Is it not somewhat strange that so many sj>ecimens should have been killed this winter in our district. Five have boon obtained at Bunney Park, five in Charnwood, and three by keeper Adams in Bradgate Park ; in all thirteen. I had an oppor- tunity of observing the habits of this bird in Bunney Park, when in company with my brother. Its flight was flagging and heavy, not unlike that of the Barn Owl, Strix flanmiea. We saw it make several transits from the wood to a rabbit- cover. These Buzzards appear to come in small flights. A female that was shot on the 12th November 1839, by keeper Adams, in Bradgate, measured 23 inches in length, and 54 in alar extent ; its weight was 2 ft 4 oz. The wings when closed were of the same length as the tail. In its crop 1 found rab- bits' fur, pieces of flesh, small bones, and the feet of what ii()i(;ii-LK<;(;i:i) liLzz.vuD. 737 secmcJ to be the field inou.so. Jn the stomach were nibhits' fur and small bones, mixed with decomposed animal matter. The male was caught two days afterwards in a trap baited with a piece of flesh and the intestines of rabbits. AMien first seen, there were four birds, and they were surrounded by Carrion Crows, whose loud croakings foretold their approach. I have seen the Carrion Crow evince the same rancorous hostility to the Kestrel, Sparrow Hawk, and Buzzard.'' The specimen from Dumfriesshire, which was shot by Mr Shaw, head gamekeeper to the Duke of Buccleuch, is remark- ably interesting. Its length wa^ 2:^ inches, extent of wings 58; wing from flexure 18i ; tail 9}Jj. Its general appear- ance and colours are precisely similar to those of the bird de- scribed at p. 193, the brown tint being merely somewhat paler. But on the hind part of the neck, and amongst the scapulars, are several feathers of a chocolate or blackish-brown colour, with broad yellowish-white lateral margins. These feathers are perfectly entire, fresh, and having their bases still sheathed ; whereas the other feathers are all more or less worn. On the head, hind-neck, and back a great number of young feathers, of the same black colour, are found sprouting up among the down. None of the quills or tail-feathers have been shed, and there are no young feathers on the lower parts. The bird has commenced its moult, and is in all probability a young one of the preceding year. The second plumage is thus shewn to be chocolate brown, or at all events the plumage is ultimately darker ; and thus the opinion of Mr Audubon appears to be correct. As all the birds hitherto found in this country and described have been light-coloured, it would a])pear that no adult individuals arrive here, but that the small flocks consist of the young of a brood, and that they alone migrate so far southward ; and as they return northward in spring, they have not moulted at the time of their departure. Perhaps the moult had commenced earlier than usual in this individual, for, as light-coloured birds have been seen breeding, and as the moult is not completed until the beginning of winter in this or the common Buzzard, it can scarcely be supposed to commence in general so early as March. Judging from the tints of the new VOL. III. 3 B ':\S ATIMCNDIX. feathers, this iiulivulual wouUl, when its phiniace was partially renewed, exhibit the appearance of the adnlt male described in the fifth volume of Mr Audubon's Ornithological Biography. PERNIS APIVORA. BRO^VN BEE-HAWK. Vol. Ill, p. 204. Dr Robertson, of Dunkeld, Perthshire, has favoured me with the following notice : — " A very beautiful specimen of the Honey Buzzard, Pernis apivorus, Cuv. Reg. Anim., was shot on the Dalguisc property, about four miles west of this, in the autumn of 1836. It was shot in an open park, near the river, in front of Dalguise House, and is in the possession of tho Honourable Mr Maule. I mention this particularly, as it is the only instance known to me of this bird having been found so far north. Its length is about 20 inches. The bill bluish- black, tho cere light yellow. The tarsi are well-feathered half down. The feet, as well as the uncovered half of the tarsi, yellow ; claws not much crooked. The upper plumage is of an almost uniform dark brown, except on the head and upper part of the neck, where the feathers arc very short and very thick-set, and of a light bluish colour. The lower part of the plumage is white, and there are one or two dark feathers on the breast. The tail is of a brownish cast, with dark bars, and extends a little beyond the wings." FALCO GYRFALCO. OYR FALCON. Vol. HI, p. 284. Mr Mackinnon informs me that this bird breeds on the Main Island of St Kilda. 1 le states that several pairs occur there ; that the young have the u]>])cr parts grey all winter, and change to white in summer ; that he has been at the nest of one ; and that tho old birds were so violent in their attacks that he had difficulty in keeping them off with a stick. si'c/iTED (;rey flycatcher. 7;w MUSCICAPA GRISOLA. SPOTTED GREY FLYCATCHER. Vol. Ill, p. -AH. The cry of alarm or anxiety of this species is fee-ckac-chac, which it utters incessantly when apprehensive of danger to its nest. I have seen one watch a cat for a long time, flitting about with extreme restlessness, and all the while cmittins; its cry. This species does not merely pursue insects on wing, but also searches for them on the twigs. I have seen it bathe by fluttering on the leaves of a lime-tree after a heavy shower, and the sight was a peculiarly pleasing one, the act having been performed by numerous repetitions until the plumage was all draggled, when by fluttering and preening the bird began to dry itself in the sunshine. Mr Harley informs me that when the young can fly, and have just left the nest, they will sit all of a row upon a rail, or the uppermost bar of a gate, and wait for food from their parents. They receive it with joyous twit- ters, and a tremulous movement of the wings. Both parent birds feed their young. CARDUELIS SPINUS. SISKIN. Vol. I, p. 400. Vol. Ill, p. 702. I have the pleasure of presenting here a detailed account of the Siskin's nest, mentioned in p. 702, as having been found in Kincardineshire, by Mr William Mactier, an enthusiastic young ornithologist, \vho has favoured me with the following notice : " The nest which you got to-day I found on the 2od of April. IMy attention was first drawn to it by the cry of one of the old birds, which was hopping about in the neighbourhood. It was placed in a larch tree about thirty feet from the ground, and on the upper surface of a long projecting branch, near the point, and at the place where it separated into two twigs. The situation was not a very retired one, for it was within three hundred yards of the house, and overhung a road by which people occasionally passed. As there was great difficulty in 7^0 APPENDIX. reaching the branch, I climbed a neighbouring tree, and with the assistance of a long stick drew the nest near enough to ascertain that it contained young. "While I was thus employed, the hen bird expressed great anxiety, and even flew into the nest as I was drawing it towards me. The cock was much more shy, and kept at a safer distance. On my going up to it about a fortnight after, with a laddei', the birds all made their escape. The nest was therefore taken down. It was an inch or so thicker on the side next the point of the twig than on the opposite side, to make up for the dip of the branch. As you will see, it is composed chiefly of roots, moss, hair, and a downy substance, but has no feathers in its lining."" It may be described thus : It is regularly cup-shaped, four inches and a half in diameter externally at the mouth, and two inches and a quarter internally, its walls being about an inch and a quarter in thickness. Externally it is composed of hypna, kept together by hairs and delicate fibrous roots, the mouth strengthened by slender stalks of herbaceous plants and woody root-fibres. The inner layer, which is half an inch thick, is composed chiefly of pappus, or seed-down, of two kinds, some being simple, others plumose, densely felted and held together by numerous hairs. Externally of this inner layer are several downy feathers, and internally is a great number of strong horse hairs, most of them black, but some white, arranged in a circular manner. Intermixed with the pappus is a great quantity of fine whitish scales, which on being rubbed between the fingers have exactly the appearance and feeling of steatite, these scales being, I believe, the remains of the tubes in which the feathers of the young birds were enveloped. That the fibres are pappus, and not willow-down, is apparent, both from many of them being plumose, and from their attachment to the peri- carj)s being still obvious. 741 OUSKKVATIONS ON THE SONG OF BIRDS. BY MR. ARCHIBALD HEPBURN. The following Table is the result of two years'' observation on the Song of our Birds. Two or three species are omitted, and to others I am unable to fix the periods at which they com- mence and cease singing. These periods of course, like the migrations of birds, vary according to the weather. On com- paring these notes with some papers in White"'s Selborne, I was much surprised at the difference which they exhibit. 1. Cinclus europa'us. Sings all the year. 2. Turdus viscivorus. Begins to sing third week of January. Sings occasionally at all seasons. 3. Turdus musicus. Begins fourth week of January : ceases second week of July. Sings occasionally in autumn and winter. 4. Turdus Merula. Begins fourth week of January : ceases second week of July. Sings occasionally in autumn and winter. 5. Turdus torquatus. Begins third week of April. 6. Alauda arvensis. Begins fourth week of .January : ceases third week of July. Sings again in September and October. 7. Anthus pratensis. Begins third week of April : ceases third week of July. 8. Anthus arboreus. Begins second week of May. 9. Anthus aquaticus. Begins in April. 10. Motacilla Yarrelli. Sings during its stay in East Lothian. 1 1 . Accentor modularis. Begins second week of February : ceases first week of August. Sings occasionallv in au- tumn and winter. 12. Erithacus Rubecula. Sings all the year. 13. Fruticicola Rubetra. Begins third week of April. 742 ()BSER\ ATIONS ON TJIK 14. Fruticicola Rubicola. Begins first week of April : ceases third week of June. 15. Saxicola ffinanthe. Begins second week of April. 16. Ruticilla Plia?nicurus. Begins fourth week of April. 17. Sylvia atricapilla. Begins second week of May : ceases third week of July. 18. Sylvia hortcnsis. Begins second week of May: ceases third week of July. 19. Sylvia cinerea. Begins fourth week of April : ceases third week of July. Sings occasionally in August and September. 20. Sylvia garrula. Begins second week of May. 21. Phyllopneustc sylvicola. Begins first week of May. Sings till its departure. 22. Phyllopneuste Trochilus. Begins fourth week of April. Sings till its departure. 23. Calamoherpe phragmitis. Begins first week of May: ceases first week of July. 24. Regulus auricapillus. Begins third week of February : ceases third week of July. Sings occasionally at all seasons. 25. Columba Palumbus. Begins first week of February: ceases first week of October. 2G. Fringilla coclebs. Begins fourth week of January : ceases second week of July. Sings again in autumn, and even winter. 27. Linaria Chloris. Begins second week of March : ceases first week of August. 28. Linaria cannabina. Sings at all seasons. 29. Carduelis elegans. Begins second week of April : ceases in September. oO. Emberiza miliaria. Begins second week of January : ceases second week of August. Sings occasionally in winter. *n. Emberiza Citrinella. Jiegins second week of February: ceases third week of August. Sings occasionally in autumn and winter. *>2. Ijiiberiza Schanichis. Begins second week of April. SON (J OK lUUDS. 743 lis. llirumlo rustica. Jiegins fourth week of April. JJ4. Troglodytes europa?us. Begins in February : ceases third week of November. Rarely heard in winter. '35. Cuculus canorus. Begins first week of May : ceases first week of July. The season of love certainly exerts a most powerful influence as to the song of birds ; but to what influence should we ascribe those songs which we hear in autumn and winter .'' Are they owing to the abundance of food and occasional warmth of the air I These no doubt exert a certain influence ; but then why did the Chaffinch sing so frequently in the winter of 1889-40, while during the same season of the previous years its voice was never heard i In this case, neither the weather nor the scarcity of food could have any influence ; and why, may I ask, are not all our choristers hoard during the delightful days which we sometimes enjoy in winter i Granivorous birds can never want food in the stackyards of the Lothians. I am now almost persuaded that all the facts which can ever be accumu- lated, will never explain this great mystery. In the course of my rambles in my native country, I have endeavoured to ascertain at what time our warblers commence their matin lays. In the beginning of July, at about half-past one o'clock, up springs the Sky Lark, to greet the coming morn ; at two the Swallow twitters from his " straw-built shed ;" soon the mellow-toned Blackbird and the thrilling Thrush call up the grove ; the Robin Redbreast takes up the burden of the song, and the Wren, as he bustles from his ivy roost, joins the strain. Now the Blackcap is heard loud and clear ; let the enraptured ear dwell for three or four minutes on the charming and ever-varied song of the Garden ^Varble^, risiuff and fallinfj in the softest and sweetest swells and caden- ces. Advancing along the woodland path, we listen to the melody of the Green AVoodwrcn, the curious song of the Yellow Woodwren, high up in the becchen tree the notes of the White-throat ^^^arbler, in some individuals musical, in others harsh, and of many other songsters, which mingle with the call of the Guckoo, and the murmur of the Cushat. 744 OBSKRVATIONS OX TlIK SONG OF BIRDS. But would the field ornithologist investigate the songs of par- ticular birds, the evening is the best time, for as twilight ad- vances, they one by one drop into silence, and the excellencies of each may be duly appreciated. Truly, the most unalloyed pleasures of rural life are known but to a few. And now I think I have brought my labours to a close, for a time at least, and truly they have been labours of love, both as regards the kind friend whom T so highly esteem, and the science to which wc are so devotedly attached. In other years, in a foreign land, far from the groves of my forefathers, dear will be the remembrance of the days which I spent in examin- ing the habits of the birds of East Lothian. Archibald Hephurn. Whittixgham, 9th May lo4(). PICUS riPRA. GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. Vol. in, p. 80. Dr Robertson of Dunkeld has sent me a specimen of this Woodpecker, shot in the Duke of iVtholTs grounds. He states that some years ago the species was not very uncommon in the woods there, but that of late it has entirely disappeared, the individual sent beinjr the last that has been seen. 745 CORVUS LEUCOPH.EUS. THE PIED RAVEN. WHITE RAVEN. FERROE RAVEN. Corvus borealis albus. Briss. Oruith. VI. Suppl. 33. PI. II. Fig. 1. Corvus leucophiEus. Vieill. Gal. des Ois. I, PI, c. Corbeau leucopUee. Corvus Itucophccus. Terum. Man. d'Orn. III. 5G, Bill and feet diishf, elates and tips of mandibles white. Head^ throat, breast, abdomen, the greater part of the icings, some of the loicer tail-eoeerts, and part of the middle tail-feathers, white ; hind-neck, bach, scapulars, some of the wing-coverts and secon- daries, upper tail-coverts, most of the tail-feathers, and some of the elongated feathers on the fore-neck, black. In the first volume of this work, at p. 501, It is stated that I saw ill Harris a Raven that was patched with white. It frequented for several weeks the Hill of Northtown, did not associate with other birds, and seemed a neglected or persecuted stranger. This bird I had always considered as a pied variety of the common Raven, until the 12th of May 1840, when I was presented by Dr Lawrence Edmondston, of Balta Sound, Shetland, with a specimen of the Pied Raven of Ferroe, when I at once saw that the Hebridian bird was the same. I there- fore introduce it here, being pretty well convinced that the Ferroe Raven is a distinct species. The specimen alluded to may be thus described. The form and dimensions are those of the Common Raven, in so far as can be judged from a prepared skin, of which the tips of the primaries are cut, and the tail-feathers partially damaged. The bill, however, is much larger, being not only higher at the base, but more elongated, and in form more atten- uated at the end, so as in this respect to resemble in some de- gree that of the Rook. It is of a greyish-black colour, with the tip of each mandible and a small portion of the ridge of 746 ( OllVlS LEUCOPH.EL'S. the upper white. The feet are black, some of the scutella with whitish margins, and the claws are white. The head is white, but with several ])lack feathers irregularly interspersed. The reversed bristly feathers at the base of the bill are also white. The hind part of the neck, the whole of the back, the scapulars, and some of the wing-coverts, as well as the tail- coverts, are greyish-black, glossed with blue. The tail-feathers are dull black, except the basal half of the middle four, which is brownish-white, and the shafts of all, which are white at the base, and light brown toward the end. The primary quills, their coverts, the alula, many of the smaller coverts, most of the secondary coverts, and the outer secondary quills, white. In the left wing, only two secondaries, but in the right seven, are black ; the outer primary of the right wing is nearly all brown, and two of the other primaries are tinged with that colour. The throat and sides of the neck are white ; at the lower part of the neck and fore part of the breast, is a patch of glossy black, including a great part of the elongated lanceolate feathers. The breast and abdomen are white, with some black feathers on the sides. The smaller lower wing-coverts black, the larger white ; the tibial feathers black, as are those under the tail, excepting some in the middle part. The downy part of all the black feathers is light grey. Length to end of tail about 25 inches ; bill along the ridge 3 1^2 ; its height at the base 1 /. ; edge of lower mandible 3 ; tarsus 2:^ ; hind toe 1, its claw 1 ^[^ ; third toe 2, its claw l^-^. M. Temminck^s description agrees with this, the dift'ereuces being slight. The individual described by Brisson corresponds in all respects with the above, only more of the tail-feathers are white, and there are some differences in the quills. This figure so nearly represents my specimen, that it might well pass as having been taken from it. As all the specimens hitherto described are similar, with slight ditlerences, it seems not improbable that the Ferroe Raven is a distinct sjiecics. The question, however, can be decided only by a good observer, who, visiting its native country, shall investigate its habits, and doscriltc it from numerous specimens. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE XIV. Digestive Organs of Creepers and Wood- peckers. Natural size. The same letters refer to the same parts in all. Fig. 1. Digestive Organs of the Wren, Anorthura Troglodytes. a, h, c, the oesophagus. b, c, proventriculus. d, stomach. d, e,/, duodenum. g,j, rest of intestine. h, coeca. i, j, cloacal dilatation of the rectum. Fig. 2. Digestive Organs of the Creeper, Certhia familiaris. Fig. 3. Digestive Organs of the Nut- hatch, Sitta europaa. The stomach remarkably large. Fig. 4. Digestive Organs of the Pied Woodpecker, Picns Pipra. The oesophagus extremely dilated in its proventricular portion, b, c ; the sto- mach rather small, but muscular ; the intestine wide ; no coeca ; the cloaca extremely large. Fig. 5. Digestive Organs of the Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis. The same circumstances as in the Pied Woodpecker; the stomach still smaller. PLATE XV Fig. Tongue and Trachea of the Green "Woodpecker Picus viridis. Natural size. 1, 2. Diagrams illitstrafire of an Extensile Tongue. Fig. 3. Lateral View of the Head and Neck, shewing the Tongue, Hyoid Bones, Salivary Glands, Trachea and its Muscles. a, b, mandibles. r, d, e, tongue. /, g, hyoid bone and its muscle. h, orbit. i, i, salivary glands. _;, neck. k, k, oesophagus. /, /, trachea. m, m, lateral muscles of trachea. n, n, 0, cleido-tracheal muscles. Fig. 4. Head of the Green Woodpecker, viewed from below. b, lower mandible- i, I, salivary glands. f< g, hyoid bones and muscles. 74fi EXPLANATION OF PLATKS. k, k, lejophagus. /. /, trachea. m, m, its lateral muscles. «, «, cleido-tracheal muscles. p, p, glosso -pharyngeal muscles, twisted round the trachea. q, fj, nnisdos wliich thrust out the tongue. I Fig. 5. Head of the Green Woodpecker, teen from above, nhewing, a, a, the hyoid bones and their muscles, attached to the upper jaw, near the right nostril, d. PLATE XVI. Digestive Organs of the Grey Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus. Beduced. Fig. 1. Digestive Organs. a, tongue. d, c, oesoi)hagus. c, d, proventriculus. e,f, stomach. g, one of its tendons. c, h, i, j, k, intestine. Fig 2. Proventriculus and Stomach laid open. a, h, belt of proventricular glands. b, c, d, inner membrane of stomach. Fk;. .'{. Another Stomach laid open, sheving the hairs thrust into its epithelium. Fig. -1. Rectum and Caeca. a, d, intestine. e, d, coeca, unequal in size. Fig. .5. Tongues of four Individuals. a, acute. b, slightly emarginate. c, emarginate. d, obtuse and bristled. j Fig. fi. Ovanj and Oviduct. , a, eggs in progress. I b, oviduct, c, rectum. Fig. 7. Inner Sinface of Oviduct. Fig. 8. Cwcu of another Individual. IM^ATF. XVIT. Ucad, Mouth, and Eye of the Brown Buz- zard, liutco fuscus. Natural size. Fig. 1. Head. n, ujiper mandible- f>, lower mandible, r, tongue. d, palate. Fi(i. ■_'. Lower Eyelid everted. Fig. 3. Ege and Nictitant Membrane. a, lower eyelid turned down. b, po.-iterior bony edge of orbit. c, eye-ball. d, cornea. ''i.ft ffi nictitant membrane, drawn partly over the eye. KXPLANATIOX OF I'l.ATKS. 749 Fio. 4. Xiedluiit Membrane folileil up. Fig. J. Anterior View of the Eye-ball. Fig. (). Posterior View of the Eye-ball. a, pyramidal muscle, of which the ten- don is attached to the nictitatit membrane. b, quadratus muscle. c, rectus superior. d, rectus inferior. e, rectus posticus. f, rectus auticus. g, obliquus superior. A, obliquus inferior. Fig. 7. Lateral View of the Eye-hall. a, a, a, posterior surface. c, c, anterior part of sclerotica. b, b, margin of sclerotica. b, b, b, cornea, hemispherical. Fig. 8. Circle of Sclerotic Bonn. a, inferior central bone. c, superior central bone. Fig. 9. Section of the Eye- a, a, sclerotic coat. b, b, choroid coat and pigmentum. c, ciliary circle. d, lens. e, e, iris. f, cornea. g, optic nerve. h, pecten. Fig. 10. The Lens. a, viewed laterally. b, seen from before. PLATE XVITT. Brain, Nasal Cavity, and Organ of Hearinj^ in the Brown Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris. Ear of Falcon. Natural size. Fig. 1. Section of the Head of a Buzzard, a, b, c, d, section of skull. a, b, cerebellum. b, e, cerebrum. e, optic lobe. /, g, pharynx-. h, tongue. i,j, entrance of nasal passage. _;, *, median outline of palate. /, nostril. m, n, 0, upper, middle, and lower tur- binated bones. p, m, olfactory nerve. e, m, k, branch of fifth pair. Fig. Skull of Buzzard, shewing the Internal Ear. a, b, external aperture of ear. a, b, c,- meatus externus, slit open. d, tympanum. e, muscle of lower jaw. f, g, Ji, semicircular canal. «', vestibule. PLATE XIX. Respiratory Organs of Vultures, Hawks, and Owls. Natural size. Fig. 1. Lower part of the Trachea of rf, e, bronchi, membranous in a great part the Turkey Buzzard, Cat hart es Aura. i of their extent. a, b, trachea. c, inferior larynx. f, g, contractor muscles, ending in the sterno-tracheales. 750 EXPLANATION OK PLATES. Fig. "2. Trachea of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus, viewed from be- hind. a, tongue. b, mucous crypts toward its base. c, hyoid bones. d, e, trachea. f,f, last dimidiate tracheal rings. ff, g, tirst bronchial half-rings. g, h, bronchi. i,j, lateral muscles. _;', k, steruo-tracheal muscles. j,f, inferior-laryngeal muscles. Fig. 3. Last entire Ring of the Trachea. Fig. 4. Side Vien- of lower part of Largiur and Bronchus, shewing the inferior Laryngeal Muscle. Fig. 5. Section of Inferior Larynx. Fig. (i. Front View of Inferior Larynx and Bronchi. Fig. 7. Front View of Superior Larynx. a, a, glosso-pLaryngeal muscles. b, b, thyroid cartilage. e, c, commencement of lateral muscles. Fig. 8. Posterior Vieui of Upper Larytw. a, apertor glottidis. b, constrictor glottidis. Fig. 9. Trachea of the Stwwy Owl, Symia nyctea, viewed from before. a, tongue. b, its basal part. c, c, hyoid bones. d, e, trachea. f, g, dimidiate rings of trachea. g, h, bronchi. i,j, lateral muscles. j, k, sterno-tracheal muscles. j,f, inferior-laryngeal muscles. PLATE XX. Digestive Organs of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle Bednced. and Golden Eagle. Fig. 1. Digestive Organs of the White- tailed Sea-Eagle, Haliaetus Albi- cilla. a, tongue. I, hyoid bones. b, c, d, e,f, oesophagus. c, d, its dilated part, or crop. g, h, stomach, empty. h, i, duodenum, singularly elongated and coiled. h, i,j, k, I, intestine, extremely narrow and elongated. k, I, cloaca. m, coeca. Fig. 2. Digestive Organs of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysa'etus. a, tongue. b, hyoid bones. b, c, d, e,f, oesophagus. c, d, its dilated part, or crop. g, h, stomach, full. //, i, duodenum, bent in the usual man- ner. h, i,j, k, I, intestine of moderate length and width. k, I, cloaca. m, coeca. EXl'LANAIION Oi' I'LATKS. 751 PLATE XXI. Digestive Orprans of Hawks and Owls. Reduced. Fig. 1. Proventricuhts, Stomach, and Intestine of the Osprey, Pandion Haliaetus. a, b, c, proveutriculus. c, d, stomach. ''i *» /> ffi h, i, k, intestine, extremely narrow, and elongated. i, j, cloaca. k, bursa Fabricii. /, /, ureters. Fig. 2. Proventricuhis, Stomach, and In- testine of the Kite, Mili'us regalin. a, b, c, proventriculus. c, d, stomach. ^> ^fft ff> ^i hji intestine. i,j, cloaca. Fig. 3. Diyestive Organs of the Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus. a, h, c, d, oesophagus, the crop, l> c, ex- tremely large, d, e, proventriculus. e, stomach. e.y, h,j, intestine, very short. /, ureters. k, bursa Fabricii. Fig. 4. Digestive Organs of the Great Eagle-Oivl, Bubo maximus. a, b, c, oesophagus, destitute of dilata- tion, or crop. d, e,f, duodenum. fh e, f, g, j, intestine, rather short and narrow. Fig. 5. Caeca of Eagle -Owl. a, b, part of intestine- c d, c d, cceca. PLATE XXn. Digestive Organs of Shrikes, Flycatchers, Chatterers, Swallows, Swifts, Goatsuckers, and Kingfishers. Half size. Fig. I . Digestive Organs of the Cinereous Shrike, Lanius Excttbitor. a, tongue. b, c, d, oesophagus, d, e, stomach. f,g, h, duodenum. ft ff) h, i,j, k, I, intestine. j, cceca. m, n, trachea. 0, 0, bronchi. p, p, sterno-tracheales. c, inferior larynx. Fig, 2, Digestive Organs of the Greg Flycatcher, Muscicapa Grisola. a, tongue. b, c, d, oesophagus. ^)f 9> h, intestine. h, coeca. Fig. 3. Digestive Organs of the Waxwing, Bombycilla garrula. a, b, c, d, oesophagus, widely dilated from b to c. d, stomach. f./> 9i h, i, intestine, short and wide. h, coeca. Fig. 4. Digestive Organs of the Chimney Swallow, Hirundo nistica. a, bill. b, c, d, oesophagus. 752 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. d, e, stomach. ft fft ft, i,j, k, iutestine. j, coeca. Fig. 5. Digestive Organs of the Black Swift, Cypselns murarius. o, biU. b, c, d, oesophagus. c, d, proventriculus. d, e, stomach. f> fft ft) hj, f^', intestine. /, /, salivary crypts. m, n, trachea. 0, 0, bronchi. p, p, sterno-tracheales. Fig. 6. Digestive Organs of the Goat- sucker, Caprimvlgi'S c'iropceus. a, tongue. b, c, d, oesophagus. d, e, stomach. f, g, h, i,j, I, w, intestine. k, k, coeca, resembling those of Owls. /, m, cloaca, n, 0, trachea. r, r, bronchi. q, q, sterno-tracheales. Fig. 7. Digestive Organs of Kingfisher, Alcedo Ispida. a, tongue. b, c, d, oesophagus. d, e,f, stomach. ft 9t ft< h j< ^< intestine, very narrow, without coeca. j, k, cloaca. Vol. I, p. S27. I- 15. For thfir fingers read fii4 fingers. Vol. n, p. 138, 1. 13 and 14. Read, the young birds frequently stretched out their wingj. iM.ATr: XIV niexairvK oiuhtjrs of cxtxsrsKs amb wooiwxoxeks. I'xp * . Cri-ifirr fill .3 Xn/fiiitr/i WXkc aiBorr\ti Publisied by Sooit,"Wel33ter & Geary, CharieiiioTise Saaare, London. PLATK XV W Maz G^Hirr^ajti PulsKshed. 'bY Scou.WetsieriGearT; Ciiarterhouse Square, London, PLATE XVI. y//'//i'.v /■/»'/.• n/ ou/.\- />'/ yj^'ltr ^al)K3hed ty Scott. TTel^sier icGesiy. Cliarterhoiise Souare. London. I'l.ATK XXII /■>/)i/:.vT/v/: i>/{Oj\s A /. \ li / /S/tfJ.'y Ful / I'tltft'l'ttux X/ifl/K-f I'm 7 liiiuil'-lfr Fu, .) »•„,»•„,,/ />// 'i.lirr\ FIrrillrhrr I'l'l /• .>'i>v////< /•/,/ ./ .1» //■/ Published by C - ti-'/'rcosieiii: Geary, Char'. c -re, -.or.cc'^. INDEX TO THE SPECIES DESCRIHED. The Approved Names only are employed, the Synonymen and Provincial Names being eucluded. Accipiter Nisus Accipiter Paluuibarius Alcedo Ispida Aldrovaudine Owlet Anorthura Troglodytes Aquila C'hrysaLtus Asio brachyotus Asio Otus Bank Swallow Bare-toed Day-Owl Bearded Pinnock Bee-eater, Yellow-throated Bee- Hawk, Brown Black Swift Black-throated Waxwing Bombycilla garrula Brown Bee-hawk Brown Buzzard Bubo maximus Buteo fuscus Buteo lagopus Buzzard, Brown Buzzard, Common Buzzard, Rough-legged Calamophilus biarmicus Caprimulgus europseus Certhia familiaris Chimney Swallow- Circus cineraceus Circus cyaneus i Circus jeruginosus Coccyzxis americanus Coracias garrula Corvus leucophseus Cowcow, Yellow-billed Crossbill, White-winged Cuckoo, Grey Cuculus canorus Cypselus Melba Cypselus murarius VOL. III. Pa ye 346 Day-Owl, Bare-toed Paye 4 1 7 340 Day-Owl, Hawk . 404 an Day-Owl, Snowy 407 422 15 Eagle, Golden 204 204 Eagle-Sea, White-tailed 221 4«1 Eagle-Owl, Great 428 453 European Hoopoe 41 European Nightjar 633 595 European Nuthatch 48 417 European Screech-Owl 473 f;94 European Wren 15 C85 254 Falco -lisalon 317 614 Falco Gyrfalco 284 533 Falco peregrinus 294 r)33 Falco Subbuteo 309 254 Falco Tinnunculus . 325 183 Falco vespertinus 313 428 Falcon, Gyr 284 183 Falcon, Hobby 309 193 Falcon, Kestrel .325 183 Falcon, Merlin 317 183 Falcon, Orange-legged 313 193 Falcon, Peregrine 294 Fishing Osprey 239 694 Flycatcher, Pied 524 633 33 Flycatcher, Spotted Grey 518 558 Garrulous Roller 540 78 Goatsucker, European 633 366 Golden Eagle 204 302 Goshawk 340 137 Great Black Woodpecker 77 540 Great Cinereous Shrike 492 745 Great Eagle-Owl 428 137 Green Woodpecker 91 690 Grey Cuckoo 109 109 Gyr Falcon 284 109 611 Halcyon Kingfisher 671 614 Haliaetus -\lbicilla 221 3c 754 INDEX TO SPECIES. Harrier, Marsh Page 382 Red-backed Shrike Page 505 Harrier, Montagu's 378 Red-fronted Swallow 558 Harrier, Ring-tailed 3(i6 Ring-tailed Harrier 366 Hawk Day-owl 404 Roller, Garrulous 540 Hawk, Gos 340 Rough-legged Buzzard 193 Hawk. Sparrow 346 Hirundo riparia 595 Scops Aldrovandi 422 Hirundo rustica 558 Screech-Owl, European 473 Hirundo urbica 573 Sea-Eagle, White-tailed 221 Hobby Falcon 309 Shrike, Great Cinereous 492 Hoopoe 41 Shrike, Red-backed 505 Hooting-Owl, Tawny 438 Shrike, Woodchat 502 Hooting-Owl, Tengmalm's 445 Sitta europtea 48 Snowy Day-Owl 407 Kestrel 325 Sparrow Hawk 346 Kingfisher, Halcyon 671 Spotted Grey Flvcatchcr 518 Kite, Red 265 Streaked TufledlOwl 461 Striated Woodpecker 86 Lanius Collurio 505 Swallow, Bank 595 Lanius Excubitor 492 Swallow, Chimney 558 Lanius Rutilus 502 Swallow, White-rumped 573 Loxia leucoptera 690 Swift, Black 614 Swift, White-bellied 611 Marsh Harrier 382 Syrnia funerea 404 Merlin Falcon 317 Syrnia nyctea 407 IMerops Apiaster 685 Syrnia psilodactyla 417 Milvus regalis 265 Montagu's Harrier 378 Tawny Hooting-owl 438 Mottled Tufted-owl 453 Tengmalm's Hooting-owl 445 Muscicapa Grisola 518 Tree-creeper, Brown 33 Muscicapa luctuosa 524 Tufted-owl, Streaked 461 Tufted-owl, Mottled 453 Neophron Percnopterus 166 Neophron, White 166 Ulula Aluco 438 Nightjar, European 633 Ulula Tengmalmi 445 Nuthatch, European 48 Upupa Epops 41 Orange-legged Falcon 313 Waxwing, Black-throated 533 Osprey, Fishing 239 White Neophron 166 Owlet, Aldrovandine 422 White-bellied Swift 611 White rumiied Swallow 573 Pandion Haliaetus 239 White-winged Crossbill 690 Peregrine Falcon 294 Woodchat Shrike 502 Pernis apivora 254 Woodpecker, Great Black 77 Picus Martius 77 Woodpecker, Green 91 Picus Pi])ra 80 Woodpecker, Striated 86 Picus striolatus 86 Woodpecker, Pied 80 Picus viridis 91 Wren, European ].-> Pied Flycatcher 524 Wryneck 100 Pied Woodpecker 80 Pinnock, Bearded 694 Yellow-billed Cowcow 137 Yellow-throated Bee-eater 685 Raven. Pied or Ferroc 745 Yunx Torquilla 100 Red Kite 265 GENERAL INDEX. Accipiter, li'M. Accipiter Nisus, 34G. Accipiter Palumbarius, '.Viii. Alcedinoe, 667. Alcedo, G69. Alcedo Ispida, G71. Aldrovandine Owlet, 422. Ampelinse, 529. Anorthura, 13. Anorthura Trojjlodytes, 13, 734- Appendix, G!)y. Aquila, 201. Aquila ChrysaCtus, 204. Ash-coloured Falcon, 378. Ash-coloured Harrier, 378. Asio, 450, Asio brachyotus, 461. Asio Otus, 453. Athenian Owl, 428. Bank Swallow, 595. Barley-bird, 100. Bare-toed Day-Owl, 417. Barn Owl, 473. Bearded Pinnock, 694. Bearded Tit, 694. Bearded Titmouse, 694. Bee-bird, 518. Beech Owl, 438. Bee-eater, 683. Bee-eater, Yellow-throated, 685. Bee- Hawk, 252. Bee-Hawk, Brown, 254, 738. Black-capped Warbler, 727. Black Eagle, 21)4. Black Martin, 614. Black Swift, 614. Black Woodpecker, 77. Black-throated Waxwing, 533. Blue Hawk, 294. Bombycilla, 531. Bombycilla garrula, 533. Bradgate Park, 63. Brown Bee-Hawk, 254, 738. Brown Buzzard, 183, 736. Brown Eagle, 201. Brown Owl. 438. Brown Tree-creeper, 33. Brown Woodpecker, 33. Bubo, 125. Bubo maximus, 428. Bulltinch, 703. Bunting, Reed, 711. Butcher-bird, 492. Buteo, 180. Buteo fuscus, 183, 736. Buteo lagopus, 193, 736. Buzzard, 180. Buzzard, Brown, 183, 736. Buzzard, Common, 183, 736. Buzzard, its organs of sense, 145. Buzzard, Rough-legged, 193, 736. Cailleach-oidhche, 438. Calamoberpe arundinacea, 731. Calamoherpe phragmitis, 732. Calamophilus, 693. Calaraophilus biarmicus, 694. Caprimulginae, 352, 627. Caprimulgus, 630. Caprimulgus europaeus, 633. Carduelis Spinus, 7(l2, 739. Carolina Cuckoo, 137. Carrion Crow, 713. Catalogueof Birds of Leicestershire, 646. Certhia, 31. Certhia familiaris, 33. Certhiante, 12. Chatterers and allied Species, 529. Cherry Hopper, 518. Chimney Swallow, 338. Chirper, Grasshopper, 733. Churn Owl, 633. Cinereous Eagle, 221. Cinereous Shrike, 492. Circus, 363. Circus cineraceus, 378. Circus cyaneus, 366. 750 GExNERAL INDEX. Chough, Long-billed, "23. Clamhan-gobhlacb, 265. Clamhan ruadh, 3'25. Climbers, G.i. Coracias garrula, o40. Charnwood Forest, 64. Coccyzus, 136. Coccyzus aniericanus, 137. Columba Palumbus, 699. Columba Tiirtur, 701. Common Bee-eater, 685. Common Buzzard, 183. Common Falcon, 294. Common Kite, 265. Common Swallow, 558. Contents, Table of, v. Coracias, 539. Cormorants, 544. Corvus Corona, 715. Corvus C'orax, 712. Corvus Cornix, 717. Corvus leucophEEus, 745. Corvus monedula, 722. Coturuix dactylisonans, 699. Cowbird, 137. Cowcow, 136. Cowcow, Yellow-billed, 137. Crank bird, 86. Creeper, 33. Creepers, 9. Crossbill, European, 704. Crossbill, White-winged, 689- Crotchet-tailed Puttock, 265. Cuckoo, 1(!8. Cuckoo, Carolina, 137. Cuckoos and allied Species, 105, Cuckoo, Grey, 1<>9. Cuckoo's mate, 100. Cuculinre, 105. Cuculus, 108. Cuculus canorus, 109. Cumhachag, 438. Cypselinse, 552. Cypselus, 609. Cypselus Melba, 611. C}^pselu3 murarius, 614. Darters, 6G5. Day-Owl, 401. Day-Owl, Bare-toed, 417. Day-Owl, Hawk, 404. Day-Owl, Snowy, 407. Dt'predations of Birds, 546. Develing, 614. Digestive organs, modes of preparing, 518. Digestive organs of Chatterers, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Creepers, PI. XIV. Digestive organs of Eagles, PI. XX. ^ Digestive organs of Flycatchers, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Goatsucker, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Grey Cuckoo, PI. XVI. Digestive organs of Hawks, PI. XXI. Digestive organs of Kingfishers, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Owls, PI. XXI. Digestive organs of Shrikes, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Swallows, PI. XXII. Digestive organs of Swifts, PI. XXII. Dor Hawk, 633. Duck Hawk, 382. Eagle, 201. Eagle, Black, 204. Eagle, Brown, 204. Ea. Hawk, 338. Hawk, Gos, 328. Hawk, Sparrow, 34(j. Hawk Day-Owl, 404. Hawk-Owl, 4(;i, 404. Hawk, Rock, 317. Hewhole, 'Jl. Hickwall, «(J. Hirundinie, 551, 553. Hirundo, 555. Hirundo rijiaria, 595. Hirundo rustica, 558. Hirundo urbica, 573. Hobby Falcon, 30;». Honey Buzzard, 254. Hooded Crow, 717- Hoopoe, 40. Hoopoe, European, 41. Hooting-Owl, 435. Horned-Owl, 453. Hooting-Owl, Tawny, 438. House >Iartin, 573. House Swallow, 573. Howlet, 438. Hudson's Bay Owl, 404. Humours of the Eye, 152. Hunting Hawk, 294. Iceland Falcon, 284. lolair bhuidhe, 221. lolair dhubh, 204. lolair riamhach, 221. Ivy Owl, 438. Jackdaw, 722. Jaculatores, 665. Jar Owl, 633. Jay, Blue-winged, 724. Jenny Howlet, 438- Jer Falcon, 284. Jerkin, 284. Kastril, 325. Keelie, 325. Kestrel, 325. Kistril, 325. Kite, 183, 263, 382. Kite, Red, 265. Kingfisher, 669. Kingfishers and allied Species, GGT. Kingfisher, Halcyon, 671. Land Birds of Leicestershire, 646. Laniinae, 486. Lanius, 489. Lanius Collurio, 505. Lanius E.\cubitor, 492. Lanius rutilus, 502. Least Butcher-bird, 694- Leicestershire, Birds of, 646. Little Owl, 417. Long-billed Chough, 723. Long-eared Owl, 453. 758 GENERAL INDEX. Long-tongue, 100. Loxia europaea, 70-1. Losia leucoptera, 6'83. Magpie, 723. Mallag, 595. Martin, 573. Martinet, 573. Martlet, 573. Marsh Harrier, 382. Marsh Reedling, 731. Meanglan-streapach, 33. Merlin Falcon, 31". Merops, 683. Merops Apiaster, 685. Milvus, 263. jNIilvus regalis, 265. Montagu's Harrier, 378. Moor Buzzard, 382. Moor Harrier, 382. Mottled Tufted Owl, 453. INIountain Magpie, 492. Mouse Hawk, 461. Muscicapa, 516. ^luscicapa Atricapilla, 524. Muscicapa grisola, 518, 739. ]Muscicapa luctuosa, 524. ]Muscles of the Eye, 148. MyiotherinEC, 512. Nauclerus, 27G. Nauclerus furcatus, 277. Neophron, 165. Neophron percnopterus, 1G6. Nictitant Membrane, 147. Night Churr, 633. Night Hawk, 633. Night Jar, 633. >iightingale, 727. Nuthatch, 46. Nuthatch, European, 48. Nuthatches and allied Species, 45. Olfactory Nerve, 155. Orange-legged Falcon, 313. Orange-legged Hobby, 313. Orders, Essential Characters of the, 1. Organs of Digestion of Creepers and Woodpeckers. PI. XIV. Organs of Digestion of Grey Cuckoo. PI. XVI. Organs of Digestion of Eagles, Owls, and Hawks. I'l. XX, XXI. Organs of Digestion of Shrikes, Fly- catchers, Chatterers, Swallows, Swifts, Goatsuckers, and Kingfishers. PI. XXII. Organ.-* of Hearing, 156. Organs of Respiration of Rapacious Birds, 158. Organs of Sense, 145. Organs of Sight, 146. Organs of Smell, 154. Organs of Taste, 157. Organs of Touch, 158. Omitted Species, 689. Osprey, 221, 237. Osprey, Fishing, 239. Owlet, 421. Owl, Barn Hawk, 404. Owl, Horned, 453. Owl, Little, 417. Owl, Long-eared, 453. Owl, Passerine, 417. Owl, White, 473. Owls, 388. Pandion, 237. Pandion Haliai-tus, 239. Passerine Owl, 417. Peregrine Falcon, 294. Pernis, 252. Pernis apivora, 254. Pharaoh's Chicken, 166. Philomela Luscinia, 727. Pica melanoleuca, 723. PicinjE, 69. Picus, 73. Picus martius, 77- Picus Pipra, 80, 744. Picus striolatus, 86. Picus viridis, 91. Pine Bullfinch, 703. Pied Flycatcher, 524. Pied Raven, 745. Pied Woodpecker, 80. Pinnock, 6.03. Pinnock, Bearded, 604. Plates, E.vplanation of the, 747. Plates, List of, .\i. Plunderers, 161. Popinjay, 91. Practical Ornithology, 56, 141,543,646. Preface, i. Psarina\ 537. Puttock, 183, 265. Pyrrhula Euucleator, 703. Quail, 699. Rain-bird, 91. Rain-crow, 137. Rai)torcs, 161. Raven, 712. Raven, Ferroe, 745. Raven, Pied, 745. Red-backed Butcher-bird, 505. Red-backed Shrike, 505. Red-fronted Swallow, 558. Red Gled, 265. GENERAL INDEX. !) Red-legged Falcon, 313. Red Kite, 2(;5. Redstart, White fronted, i^G. Ritd Bunting, 711. Refilling, Marsh, 731. Reedling, Sedge, 732. Reptatores, 9. Ringed Dove, . Gen. XXL Muscicapa. Flycatcher, iii, ,51G. 37. Muscicapa Grisola. Spotted Grey Flycatcher, iii, 518. Em. 'Mi. Muscicapa Atricapilla. Pied Flycatcher, iii, 52-1. . Em. FAMILY VIII. AMPELIN-E. CHATTERERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 52!). Gen. XXII. Bombycilla. Waxwing. iii, ^ii\. 3'.). Bombycilla garrula. Black-throated Waxwing. iii, 533. Str. FAMILY IX. CORACIN.E. ROLLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 537. Gen. XXIII. Coracias. Roller, iii, 539. 40. Coracias garrula. Garrulous Roller, iii, 540. . Sir. FAMILY X. ALCEDIN.E. KINGFISHERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 6(J7. Gen. XXIV. Alcedo. Kingfisher, iii, 6G9. 41. Alcedo Ispida. Halcyon Kingfisher, iii, 671. . Rea. Gen. XXV. Merops. Bee-eater, iii, (583. 42. Merops Apiaster. Yellow-throated Bee-eater, iii, 685. Sir. FAMILY XL LANIIN-E. SHRIKES AND ALLIED SPECIES, iu, 486. Gen. XXVI. Lanius. Shrike, iii, 489. 43. Lanius Excubitor. Great Cinereous Shrike, iii, 492. . Str. 44. Lanius rutilus. Woodcliat Shrike, iii, 502. . Sir. 45. Lanius CoUurio. Red-backed Shrike, iii, 505. . . Em. FAMILY XII. CORVIN.E. CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES, i, 487. Gen. XXVII. Garrulus. Jay. i, 573. 46. Garrulus Glandarius. Blue-winged Jay. i, 576 ; iii, 724. Res. Gen. XXVIII. Pica. Magpie, i, .')o9. 47. Pica melanoleuca. Chattering Magpie, i, 562 ; iii, 723. Res. Ge.v. XXIX. CoRVUS. Crow. i. 494. 48. Corvus Corax. Black Raven, i. 498 ; iii, 712. . Res. 49. Corvus leucophaus. Pied or Ferroe Raven, iii, 745. . Sir- 50. Corvus Coroiie. Carrion Crow. i. 516 ; iii, 715- . Res- 51. Corvus Cornix. Hooded Crow. i. 529 ; iii, 717. . Res- 52. Corvus frugilcgus. Bare-faced Crow, or Rook, i, 535. Res. 53. Corvus Moncdula. Jackdaw, i. 552 ; iii, 722. . Res. 764 INDEX CATALOGUE OF Gen. XXX. Nucifraga. Nutcracker, i, 581. 54. Nucifraga Caryocatactes. Spotted Nutcracker, i, .583. Str. Gen. XXXI. Fregilus. Chough, i, 585. 53. Fregilus Graculus. Long-billed Chough, i, 587 ; iii, 723. Res. FAMILY XIII. THREMMAPHILINiE. COW-BIRDS AND ALLIED SPECIES, i, 590. Gen, XXXII. Sturxus. Starling, i, 593. 56. Sturnus guttatus. Spotted Starling, i, 595. . JRes. Gen. XXXIII. Thremmaphilus- Cow-Bird, i, 610. 57. Thremmaphilus roseus. Roseate Cow-bird, i, 613 ; iii, 723. Str. FAMILY XIV. MYRMOTHERIN^. ANTCATCHERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, u, 45. Gen. XXXIV. Cinclus. Dipper, ii, 48. 58. Cinclus europceus. European Dipper, ii, 50. . lies. FAMILY XV. TURDIN.E. THRUSHES AND ALLIED SPECIES, ii, 66'. Gen. XXXV. Oriolus. Oriole, ii, 71. 59. Oriolus Galbula. Golden Oriole, ii, 73. . Str. Gen. XXXVI. Turdus. Thrush, ii, 77. 60. Turdus IMerula. Black Thrush, or Blackbird, ii, 81. . lies. 61. Turdus torquatus. White-breasted Thrush, or Ring Ouzel. ii, 100. ..... Im. 62. Turdus pilaris. Chestnut-backed Thrush, or Fieldfare, ii, 105 ; iii, 725. ...... Im. 63. Turdus viscivorus. Missel Thrush, or Shrite. ii, 114. Res. 64. Turdus musicus. Song Thrush, or Mavis, ii, 127. . Res. 65. Turdus Iliacus. Red-sided Thrush, or Redwing, ii, 141. Im, 66. Turdus varius. Variegated Thrusli. ii, 146. . Sir. FAMILY XVII. ALAUDINiE. LARKS & ALLIED SPECIES, ii, 150. Gen. XXXVII. Alauda. Lark, ii, 155. 67. Alauda alpestris. Shore Lark, ii, 159. . . Str. 68. Alauda arvensis. Sky Lark, ii, 163. . . Res. 69. Alauda arborea. Wood Lark, ii, 174. . . Res. iiy.s. XXXVIII. Anthus. Pipit, ii, 178. 70. Anthus pratcnsis. Meadow Pipit, ii, 181. . . Res. 71. Anthus arborcus. Tree Pipit, ii, 188. . . Em. 72. Anthus aquaticiis. Shore Pijut. ii, 194. . . Res. 73. Anthus Richardi. Richard's Pipit, ii, 199. . Str. HRITISII LAND HIRDS. 765 FAMILY XVII. MOTACILLIN^. WAGTAILS AND ALLIED SPE- CIES. ii, 202. Gen. XXXIX. Budytes. Quakf.tail. ii, 204. 74. Budytes flava. Bluc-headcd Quaketail. ii, 208. . Sir. 75. Budytes Rayi. Green-headed Quaketail. ii, 212. Em. Gen. XL. Motacili.a. "Wagtail, ii, 218. 7(3. Motacilla alba. Grey-and-Wliitc Wagtail, ii, 221. . Str. 17. Motacilla Varrelli. Pied Wagtail, ii, 225. . Res. • 78. Motacilla Boarula. Grey-and- Yellow Wagtail, ii, 2;{o. lies. FAMILY XVIII. SAXICOLIN/E, STONECHATS AND ALLIED SPE- CIES, ii, 244. Gen. XLI. Acckntor. Chanter, ii, 249. 79. Accentor moJulaiis. Hedge Chanter, ii, 251. . Ret. 80. Accentor alpinus. Alpine Chanter, ii, 258. . . Str. Gen. XLII. Erithacus. Redbreast, ii, 2C1. 81. Erithacus Rubecula. Robin Redbreast, ii, 2G3. . Res. Gen. XLIII. Fruticicola. Bushchat. ii, 271. 82. Fruticicola Rubetra. Whin Bushchat. ii, 273. . Em. 83. Fruticiola Rubicola. Black-headed Bushchat. ii. 270. Res. Gen. XLIV. Saxicola. Stonechat. ii, 285. 84. Saxicola (Enanthe. White-rumped Stonechat. ii, 289. . Em. Gen. XLV. Ruticilla. Redstart, ii, 208. 85. Ruticilla Cyanecula. Blue-throated Redstart, ii, 300. Str. !!t). Ruticilla Phoenicurus. White-fronted Redstart, ii, 305 ; iii, "'-'(J. ..... Etn. 87. Ruticilla Tithys. Black-breasted Redstart, ii, 311. . Str. FAMILY XIX. SYLVIANE, WARBLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, ii, 313. Gen. XLVI. Philomela. Nightingale, ii, 319. 88. Philomela Luscinia. Brake Nightingale, ii, 321 ; iii, 727. Em. Gen. XLVII. Sylvia. Wardler, ii, 337. 89. Sylvia atricapilla. Black-capped Warbler, ii, 390 ; iii, 727. Em. 90. Sylvia hortensis. Garden Warbler, or Pettychaps. ii, 345 ; iii, 729. ...... Em. 91. Sylvia cinerea. White-throated Warbler, or Whitethroat. ii, 350. ...... Em. 92. Sylvia garrula. White-breasted Warbler, or Babbler, ii, 357; iii, 729. ...... Em. Gen. XLVIII. Phyllopneuste. Woodwren. ii, 361. 93. Phyllopneuste sylvicola. Yellow Woodwren. ii, 3(>4. • Em. 94. Phyllopneuste Trochilus. Willow Woodwren. ii, 371. . Em. 95. Phyllopneuste Ilippolais. Short-winged Woodwren, or Chiff- chaff, ii, 379. ..... Em. 766 INDEX CATALOGUE OF Gen. XLIX. Melizophilus. Furzeling. ii, 382. 96. Melizophilus proviucialis. Provence Furzeling. ii, 383. . Res. Gen. L. Calamoherpe. Reedling. ii, 388. 97. Calaraoheqje pbragmitis. Sedge Reedling, ii, 390; iii, 732. Em. 98. Calamoherpe arundiuacea. Marsh Reedling. ii, 395 ; iii, 731. Em. Gen. LI. Sibilatrix. Chirper. ii, 397. 99. Sibilatrix Locustella. Grasshopper Chirper. ii, 399 ; iii, 733. Em. Gen. LII. Regulus. Kinglet, ii, 405. 100- Regulus auricapillus. Gold-crowned Kinglet, ii, 408. Res. 101. Regulus ignicapillus. Fire-crowned Kinglet, ii, 416. Sfr. FAMILY XX. PARIN/E. TITS AND ALLIED SPECIES, ii, 418. Gen. LIIL Parus. Tit. ii, 422. 102. Parus Fringillago. Ox-eye Tit. ii, 42(5. . . Res. 103. Parus coeruleus. Blue Tit. ii, 431. • . . Res. 104. Parus ater. Coal Tit. ii, 440. . . . Res. 105. Parus Palustris. Marsh Tit. ii, 415. . . . Res. 106. Parus cristatus. Crested Tit. ii, 450. . . Res. Gen. LIV. Mecistura. Mufflin. ii, 453. 107. Mecistura longicaudata. Long-tailed Mufflin. ii, 454. Res. FAMILY XXI. CERTHIAN.E. TREE-CREEPERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 12. Gen.lv. Certhia. Tree-Creeper. iii, 31. 108. Certhia familiaris. Brown Tree-creeper, iii, 33. . Res. Gen. LVI. Anorthura. Wren, iii, 13. 109. Anorthura Troglodytes, European Wren, iii, 15 ; iii, 734. Res. Gen. LVII. Upupa. Hoopoe, iii, 40. Ho. Upupa Epops. European Hoopoe, iii, 41. . Sir. FAMILY XXII. SITTINGS. NUTHATCHES AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 45. Gen. LVIII. Sitta. Nuthatch, iii, 46. 111. Sitta europrea. European Nuthatch, iii, 48. . , Res. FAMILY XXIII, PICINyE. WOODPECKERS & ALLIED SPECIES, iii, 69. Gen. LIX. Piccs. Woodpecker, iii, 73. 112, Picus martius. Great Black Woodpecker, iii, 77. . Str. \IA. Picus Pipra. Pied Woodi)Cckcr. iii, 80. . . Res. 114. Picus striolatus. Striated Woodpecker, iii, l!(i. . Res. 115. Picus viridis. Green Woodpecker, iii, Hi. . Res. Gen. LX. Yunx. Wryneck, iii, 98. 116. Yunx Torquilla. Wryneck, iii, 110. . . Em. IJIUTISil LAM) HIIIDS. 707 FAMILY XXIV. CUCULlN.i:. CUCKOOS AND ALLIED SPECIES, iii, I0'>. Gen. LXI. Cncui,us. Cuckoo, iii, 108. 117. Cuculus canorus. Grey Cuckoo, iii, lOK. . Em. Gkn. LXII. Coccyzus. Cowcow. iii, \3G. 118. Coccyzus americanus. Yellow-billed Cowcow. iii,l.<"- S/r. FAMILY XXV. EMBERIZANyE. BUNTINGS AND ALLIED GENERA. i. -la;?. Gen. LXIII. Emberiza. Bunting, i, 438. 119. Emberiza Miliaria. Corn Bunting. 1,4-10. . Pet, 120. Emberiza Citrinella. Yellow Bunting, i, 44.'). . Hes. 121. Emberiza Cirlus. Cirl Bunting, i, 4o0. . . lies. 122. Emberiza Schoeniclus. Reed Bunting, i, 4.');{; iii, 711. Jtex. 12.'?. Emberiza bortulana. Ortolan Bunting, i, 4.>7. . •^'''■• Gen. LXIV. Plectrophanes. Lark-Bunting, i, 4.')8. 124. Plectrophanes nivalis- Snow Lark-Bunting, i, 4()0. Im. 125. Plectrophaues lapponica. Lapland Lark-Bunting, i, iCtO. S(r. FAMILY XXVL PASSERIN-E. SPARROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES, i, 319. Gen. LXV. Fringilla. Fincii. i, 327. 120. Fringilla ccelebs. Chaffincb. i, 329. . . Hes. 127. Fringilla Montifringilla. Mountain Finch, or Brambling. i, 335. ....... /»». Gen. LXVI. Coccothraustes. Grosbeak, i, 353. 128. Coccothraustes atrogularis. Black-throated Grosbeak or Haw-finch, i, 35G. Gen. LXVII. Passer. Sparrow, i, 338. 129. Passer domesticus. House Sparrow, i, 340. 130. Passer montanus. Tree Sparrow, i, 351. Gen. LXVIII. Linaria. Linnet. 1, 3G3. 131. Linaria Chloris. Green Linnet, i, 366. 132. Linaria cannabina. Brown Linnet, i, 371. 133. Linaria flavirostris. Mountain Linnet, or Twite. 134. Linaria minor. Smaller Redpoll Linnet, i, 383. 133. Linaria borealis. Mealy Redpoll Linnet, i, 388. Gen. LXIX. Carduelis. Thistlefixch. i, 391. 136. Carduelis Spinus. Black-headed Thistlcfincb, or Siskin. i, 400 ; iii, 702, 739. ..... lies. 137. Carduelis elegans. Red-fronted Thistle-finch, or Gold- finch, i, 393. ..... lies. Gkn. LXX. Calamophilus. Pinnock. iii, 693. 138. Calamophilus biarmicus. Bearded Pinnock. iii, 694. . lies. 'ies. and S/r. lies. lies. lies. lies. 379. lies. lies. Sir. 7G8 INDEX CATALOGUE. Gen. LXXI. Pyrrhula. Bdllfixch. i, 405. 139. Pyrrhula pileata. Coalbood Bullfinch, i, 407. . Res. Gen. LXXII. Corythus. Pinefixch. i, 409. 140. Corythus Enucleator. Red Pinefinch. i, 411 ; iii, 703. Ln, Gen. LXXIII. Loxia. Crossbill, i, 414. 141. Loxia europaea. European Crossbill. 1. 417 ; iii. "04. Res, and Im. 142. Loxia pytiopsittacus. Parrot Crossbill, i, 429. . S(r. 143. Loxia leucoptera. White-winged Crossbill, iii, 689. SI?: FAMILY XXVI. COLUMBINiE. PIGEONS, i, 249. Gen. LXXIV. Columba. Dove, i, 255. 144. Columba Palumbus. Ringed Dove, i, 259, iii, 699. Res. 145. Columba Livia. Rock Dove, i, 268. . . Res. 146. Columba CEnas. Blue-backed Dove, i, 287. • Res. 147. Columba Turtur. i. 291 ; iii, 701. . . Em. FAMILY XXVII. PHASIANIN^. PHEASANTS AND ALLIED SPE- CIES, i, 109. Gen. LXXV. Phasianus. Pheasant, i, 109. 148. Phasianus colchicus. Colchian Pheasant, i, 144. . Res. FAMILY XXVIII. PERDICIN^. PARTRIDGES AND ALLIED SPECIES, i, 127- Gen. LXXVI. Perdix. Partridge, i, 211. 149. PerdLx Rubra. Red Partridge, i, 215. ; Res. 150. Perdix cinerea. Grey Partridge, i, 218. . . Res. Gen. LXXVII. Ortyx. Colin, i, 226. 151. Ortyx virginiana. Virginian Colin, i, 288. . Res. Gen. LXXVIII. Coturnix. Quail, i, 231. 152. Cotumix dactylisonans. Wandering Quail, i, 233 ; iii, G99. Eiti. FAMILY XXIX. TETRAONINiE. GROUSE AND ALLIED SPECIES, i. 131. Gen. LXXIX. Tetrao. Grouse, i, 134. 153. Tetrao Tetrix. Lyre-tailed or Black Grouse, i, 145. Res. Gen. LXXX. Lagopus. Ptarmigan, i, 165. 154. Lagopus scoticus. Brown Ptarmigan, i, 169. , Res. 155. Lagopus cinereus. Grey Ptarmigan, i, 187. . Res, END OF VOLUME THIRD. W. BURNKSS, PniNTKR, KDINnUR(;)l.