3D0

"a history of the earth

AND ANIMATED NATURE.)/

BY OLIVEr'gOLDSMITH.'

WITH COPIOUS NOTES;
^nti an ^ppenlitx,

CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS OP TECHNICAL TERMS, AND AN OUTLINE OF
THE CUVIERIAN AND OTHER SYSTEMS,

BY

CAPTAIN THOMAS BROWN,

FX.S., M.W.S., M.K.S.

VOL. l.-PART II.

A. FULLARTON AND CO.,
EDINBURGH, GLASGOW, AND LONDON.

1840.

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GLASGOW:

Fl'LLARTON ANO CO., PUINTBHS, VILLAFIELD.

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ANIMALS. 889

Previous to putting the eggs to the hen, our philosophers first
examined the cicatricula, or little spot, already mentioned ; and
which may be considered as the most important part of the egg.
This was found in those that were impregnated by the cock to
be large : but in those laid without the cock, very small. It
was found by the microscope, to be a kind of bag, containing a
transparent liquor, in the midst of which the embryo was seen
to reside. The embrj'o resembled a composition of little threads,
, which the warmth of future incubation tended to enlarge by vary-
ing and liquefying the other fluids contained within the shell, and
thus pressing them either into the pores or tubes of their substance.

Upon placing the eggs in a proper warmth,^ either under tht
sun or in a stove, after six hours the Altai speck begins to dilate,
like the pupil of the eye. The head of the chicken is distinctly
seen, with the back bone, something resembling a tadpole, float-
ing in its ambient fluid, but as yet seeming to assume none of
the functions of animal life. In about six hours more the little
animal is seen more distinctly ; the head becomes more plainly
visible, and the vertebrae of the back more easily perceivable.
AU these signs of preparation for life are increased in six hours
more : and at the end of twenty-four, the ribs begin to take
their places, the neck begins to lengthen, and the head to turn
to one side.

At this time,' also, the fluids in the egg seem to have changed
place ; the yolk which was before in the centre of the shell, ap-
proaches nearer to the broad end. The watery part of the white
is in some measure evaporated through the shell, and the grosser
part sinks to the small end. The little animal appears to turn
towards the part of the broad end, in which a cavity has been
described, and with its yolk seems to adhere to the membrane there.
At the end of forty hours the great work of life seems fairly be-
gun, and the animal plainly appears to move; the backbone,
which is of a whitish colour, thickens ; the head is turned still more
on one side ; the first rudiments of the ej'es begin to appear,
the heart beats, and the blood begins already to circulate. The
parts, however, as yet are fluid j but by degrees, become more
and more tenacious, and harden into a kind of jelly. At the
end of two days, the liquor in which the chicken swims, seems

3 Malpighi. 4. Harvey.

290 HISTORY OP

to increase ; the head appears with two little bladders, in the
place of eyes ; the heart beats in the manner of every embryr
where the blood does not circulate through the lungs. In abo
fourteen hours after this, the chicken is grown more strong ; '
head however is still bent downwards ; the veins and arteries beg i
to branch, in order to form the brain ; and the spinal marrow •'
seen stretching along the backbone. In three days the vvh' .
body of the chicken appears bent ; the head with its two e;
balls with their different humours, now distinctly appear ; ai
five other vesicles are seen, which soon unite to form the ruf r
ments of the brain. The outlines also of the thighs and wii >
begin to be seen, and the body begins to gather flesh. At
end of the fourth day, the vesicles, that go to form the bra '>■
approach each other; the wings and thighs appear more sol n'
the whole body is covered with a jelly-like flesh ; the heart t ,?
was hitherto exposed, is now covered up within the body, b i'
very thin transparent membrane ; and, at the same time, t
umbilical vessels, that unite the animal to the yolk, now app- u
to come forth from the abdomen. After the fifth and s' iv
days, the vessels of the brain begin to be covered over; t^
wings and thighs lengthen ; the belly is closed up and tuir n
the liver is seen within it very distinctly, not yet grown red; 'i.
of a very dusky white ; both the ventricles of the heart are o
cerned, as if they were two separate hearts, beating distinci
the whole body of the animal is covered over ; and the trr ,i
of the incipient feathers are already to be seen. The sev< ■•
day, the head appears very large ; the brain is covered enti h
over ; the bill begins to appear betwixt the eyes ; and the wi .(
the thighs and the legs, have acquired their perfect figui >!
Hitherto, however, the animal appears as if it had two bodie
the yolk is joined to it by the umbilical vessels that come frc
the belly, and is furnished with its vessels, through which t)
blood circulates, as through the rest of the body of the chickei
making a bulk greater than that of the animal itself. But to
wards the end of incubation, the umbilical vessels shorten tl-
yolk, and with it the intestines are thrust up into the body of t\
chicken by the action of the muscles of the belly ; and the tw
bodies are thus formed into one. During this state, all the oi

1 Haller.

ANLMALS. 291

gans ai'e found to perform their secretions ; the bile is found to
'^e separated as in grown animals ; but it is fluid, transparent,
\ id without bitterness : and the chicken then also appears to
' ■xve lungs. On the tenth the muscles of the wings appear, and
■ le feathers begin to push out. On the eleventh, the heart,
hich hitherto had appeared divided, begins to unite ; the ar-

I Ties which belong to it join into it, like the fingers into the
•Jm of the hand. All these appearances only come more into

■lew, because the fluids the vessels had hitherto secreted were

iore transparent ; but as the colour of the fluids deepen, their

aerations and circulations are more distinctly seen. As the

"imal thus, by the eleventh day completely formed, begins to

f.ther strength, it becomes more uneasy in its situation, and

i !rts its animal powers with increasing force. For some time

fore it is able to break the shell in which it is imprisoned, it

• heard to chirrup, receiving a sufiicient quantity of air for this

•4rpose, from that cavity which lies between the membrane and

e shell, and which must contain air to resist the external pres-

e. At length upon the twentieth day, in some birds sooner,

later in others, the enclosed animal breaks the shell, within

II ich it has been confined, with its beak ; and by repeated ef-
th s, at last procures its enlargement.

f From this little history we perceive, that those parts which

most conducive to life are the first that are begun ; the

V A and the back-bone, which no doubt enclose the brain and

pi 'spinal marrow, though both are too limpid to be discerned,

' the first that are seen to exist: the beating of the heart is

I Reived soon after : the less noble parts seem to spring from

jse ; the wings, the thighs, the feet, and lastly the bill. What-

•er, therefore, the animal has double, or whatever it can live

'ithout the use of, these are latest in production ; Nature first

•edulously applying to the formation of the nobler organs, witli-

)ut which life would be of short continuance, and would be be-

!;un in vain.

The resemblance between the beginning animal in the egg,

nd the embryo in the womb, is very striking ; and this simili-

ude has induced many to assert, that all animals are produced

rom eggs in the same manner. They consider an egg excluded

from the body by some, and separated into the womb by others,

to be actions merely of one kind ; with this only difference, that

2 B 2

292 HiSTOPvY OF

the nourishment of the one is Icept within the body of the pa-
rent, and increases as the embryo happens to want the supply ;
the nourishment of the other is prepared all at once, and sent
out with the beginning animal, as entirely sufficient for its future
Kupport. But leaving this to the discussion of anatomists, let
us proceed rather with facts than dissertations ; and, as we have
seen the progress of an oviparous animal, or one produced from
the shell, let us likewise trace that of a viviparous animal, which
is brought forth alive. In this investigation, Graaf has, with a
degree of patience characteristic of his nation, attended the pro-
gress and increase of various animals in the womb, and minutely
marlsed the changes they undergo. Having dissected a rabbit,
half an hour after impregnation, he perceived the horns of the
womb, that go to embrace and communicate with the ovary, to
be more red than before ; but no other change in the rest of the
parts. Having dissected another six hours after, he perceived
the follicules, or the membrane covering the eggs contained'
the ovary, to become reddish. In a rabbit dissected after twend
four hours, he perceived in one of the ovaries, three follicules,
and, in the other, five, that were changed ; having become, from
transparent, dark and reddish. In one dissected after three days,
he perceived the horns of the womb very strictly to embrace the
ovaries ; and he observed three of the follicules in one of them,
much longer and harder than before ; pursuing his inquisition, he
iilso found two of the eggs actually separated into the horns of
the womb, and each about the size of a grain of mustard-seed ;
these little eggs were each of them inclosed in a double mem-
brane, the inner parts being filled with a very limpid liquor.
After four days, he found in one of the ovaries four, and, in the
other, five follicules, emptied of their eggs ; and, in the bonis
correspondent to these, he found an equal number of eggs thus
separated : these eggs were now grown larger than before, and
somewhat of the size of sparrow-shot. In five days, the eggs
were grown to the size of duck-shot, and could be blown frooi
the part of the womb where they were, by the breath. In seven
days, these eggs were foimd of the size of a pistol-bullet, each
'hovered with its double membrane, and these much more dis-
tinct than before. In nine days, having examined the liquor
contained in one of these eggs, he found it from a limpid colour
'ess iluid, to have got a light cloud floating upon it. In ten

ANIMALS. 293

days, this cloud began to thicken, and to t'orm an oblong body,
of the figure of a little worm ; and, in twelve days, the figure of
the embryo was distinctly to be perceived, and even its parts
came into view. In the region of the breast he perceived two
bloody specks ; and two more that appeared whitish. Fomteen
days after impregnation, the head of the embryo was become
large and transparent, the eyes prominent, the mouth open, and
the rudiments of the ears beginning to appear ; the back-bone,
of a whitish colour, was bent towards the breast ; the two bloody
specks being now considerably increased, appeared to be no-
thing less than the outlines of the two ventricles of the heart ;
and the two whitish specks on each side, now appeared to be
the rudiments of the lungs ; towards the region of the belly, the
liver began to be seen, of a reddish colour, and a little intricate
mass, like ravelled thread, discerned, which soon appeared to
■ ^ the stomach and the intestines ; the legs soon after began
> be seen, and to assume their natural positions -. and from
chat time forth, all the parts being formed, every day only
served to develope them still more, until the thirty-first day,
when the rabbit brought forth her young, completely fitted for
the purposes of their humble happiness.

Having thus seen the stages of generation in the meaner ani-
mals, let us take a view of its progress in man ; and trace
the feeble beginnings of our own existence. An account of
the lowliness of our own origin, if it cannot amuse, will at
least serve to humble us ; and it may take from our pride, though
it fails to gratify our curiosity. We cannot here trace the
variations of the begitming animal, as in the former instances;
for the opportunities of inspection are but few and accidental :
for this reason, we must be content often to fill up the blanks of
our history with conjecture. And, first, we are entirely igno-
rant of the state of the infant in the womb, immediately aftei
conception ; but we have good reason to believe, that it pro-
ceeds, as in most other animals, from the egg.' Anatomists
inform us, that four days after conception, there is found in the
womb an oval substance, about the size of a small pea, but
longer one way than the other ; this little body is formed by ail

I This history of the ehild iu the womb is traiiblaled from Mr Biifl.di with
snioe alt«ratiuiu.

29'1> HISTORY OF

extremely fine membrane, inclosing a liquor a good deal re-
sembling the white of an egg -. in this may, even then, be
perceived, several small fibres, united together, which form
the first rudiments of the embryo. Beside these, are seen
another set of fibres, which soon after become the placenta,
or that body by which the animal is supplied with nourish-
ment.

Seven days after conception, we can readily distinguish by the
eye, the first lineaments of the child in the womb. However,
they are as yet without form ; showing at the end of seven days
pretty much such an appearance as that of the chicken after four
and twenty hours, being a small jelly-like mass, yet exhibiting
the rudiments of the head ; the trunk is barely visible : there
likewise is to be discerned a small assemblage of fibres issuing
from the body of the infant, which afterwards become the blood-
vessels that convey nourishment from the placenta to the child,
while inclosed in the womb.

Fifteen days after conception, the head becomes distinctly
visible, and even the most prominent features of the visage begin
to appear. The nose is a little elevated : there ai-e two black
specks in the place of eyes ; and two little holes where the ears
are afterwards seen. The body of the embryo also is grown
larger ; and both above and below, are seen two little protube-
rances, which mark the places from whence the arms and thighs
are to proceed. The length of the whole body at this time is
less than half an inch.

At the end of three weeks, the body has received very little
increase ; but the legs and feet, with the hands and arms, are
become apparent. The growth of the arms is more speedy than
that of the legs ; and the fingers are sooner separated than the
toes. About this time the internal parts are found, upon dis-
section, to become distinguishable. The places of the bones
are marked by small thread-like substances, that are yet more
fluid even than a jelly. Among them, the ribs are distin-
guishable, like threads also, disposed on each side of the
spine ; and even the fingers and toes scarcely exceed hairs ia
thickness.

In a month, the embryo is an inch long ; the body is bent
forward, a situation which it almost always assumes in the womb,
either because a posture of this kind is the most easy, or be-

ANIMALS. 295

cause it takes up the least room. The human figure is now no
longer doubtful : every part of the face is distinguishable ; the
body is sketched out; the bowels are to be distinguished as
threads ; the bones are still quite soft, but in some places begin-
ning to assume a greater rigidity ; the blood-vessels that go to
the placenta, which, as was said, contributes to the child's nour-
ishment, are plainly seen issuing from the navel (being therefore
called the umbilical vessels,) and going to spread themselves
upon the placenta. According to Hippocrates, the male em-
bryo developes sooner than the female : he adds, that at the end
of thirty days, the parts of the body of the male are distinguish-
able ; while those of the female are not equally so till ten days
after.

In six weeks, the embryo is grown two inches long ; the hu-
man figure begins to grow every day more perfect ; the head
being still much larger, in proportion to the rest of the body ;
and the motion of the heart is perceived almost by the eye. It
has been seen to beat in an embryo of fifty days old, a long
time after it had been taken out of the womb.

In two months, the embryo is more than two inches in length.
The ossification is perceivable in the arms and thighs, and in
the point of the chin, the under jaw being greatly advanced be-
fore the upper. These parts, however, may as yet be considered
as bony points, rather than as bones. The umbilical vessels,
which before went side by side, are now begun to be twisted,
like a rope, one over the other, and go to join with the placenta,
which, as yet, is but small.

In three months, the embryo is above three inches long, and
weighs about three ounces. Hippocrates observes, that not till
then the mother perceives the child's motion : and he adds, that
in female children, the motion is not observable till the end of
four months. However, this is no general rule, as there are
women who assert, that they perceived themselves to be quick
with child, as their expression is, at the end of two months ; so
that this quickness seems rather to arise from the proportion be-
tween the child's strength and the moth; r's sensibility, than from
any determinate period of time. At all times, however, the
child is equally alive ; and, consequently, those juries of ma-
trons that are to determine upon the pregnancy of criminals
•should not inquire whether the woman be quick, but wliether

296 HISTORY OF

Bhe be with child ; if the latter be perceivable, the former follows
of course.

Four months and a half after conception, the embryo is from
six to seven inches long. All the parts are so augmented, that
even their proportions are now distinguishable. The very naiU
begin to appear upon the fingers and toes : and the stomach and
intestines already begin to perform their functions of receiving
and digesting. In the stomach is found a liquor similar to that
in which the embryo floats : in one part of the intestines, a
milky substance ; and, in the other, an excrementitious. There
is found, also, a small quantity of bile in the gall bladder ; and
some urine in its own proper receptacle. By this time, also, the
posture of the embryo seems to be detevmined. The head is
bent forward, so that the chin seems to rest upon its breast ; the
knees are raised up towards the head, and the legs bent back-
ward, somewhat resembling the posture of those who sit on their
haunches. Sometimes the knees are raised so high as to touch
the cheeks, and the feet are crossed over each other ; the arms
are laid upon the breast, while one of the hands, and often both,
touch the visage ; sometimes the hands are shut, and sometimes
also the arms are found hanging down by the body. These are
the most usual postures which the embryo assumes ; but these
it is frequently known to change ; and it is owing to these alter-
ations that the mother so frequently feels those twitches, which
are usually attended with pain.

The embryo, thus situated, is furnished by nature with all
things proper for its support ; and, as it increases in size, its
nourishment also is found to increase with it. As soon as it
first begins to grow in the womb, that receptacle, from being
very small, grows larger ; and, what is more surprising, thicker
every day. The sides of a bladder, as we know, the more they
are distended, the more they become thin. But here the larger
the womb grows, the more it appears to thicken. Within this
the embryo is still farther involved, in two membranes called the
chorion and amnios; and floats in a thin transparent fluid, upon
which it seems, in some measure, to subsist. However, the
great storehouse, from whence its chief nourishment is supplied,
is called the placenta ; a red substance somewhat resembling
a sponge, that adheres to the inside of the womb, and commu-
nicates, by the uuibilical vessels, with the embryo. These umbt.

ANIMALS. 297

*

lical vessels, which consist of a vein and two arteries, issue from
the navel of the child, and are branched out upon the placenta ;
where they, in fact, seem to form its substance ; and, if I may so
express it, to suck up their nourishment from the womb, and the
fluids contained therein. The blood thus received from the
womb, by the placenta, and communicated by the umbilical vein to
the body of the embiyo, is conveyed to the heart ; where, without
ever passing into the lungs, as in the born infant, it takes a shor.
ter course ; for entering the right auricle of the heart, instead of
passing up into the pidmonary artery, it seems to break this
partition, and goes directly through the body of the heart, by an
opening called the foramen ovale, and from thence to the aorto,
or great artery ; by which it is driven into all parts of the body.
Thus we see the placenta, in some measure, supplying the
place of lungs ; for as the little animal can receive no air by in-
spiration, the lungs are therefore useless. But we see the
placenta converting the tluid of the womb into blood, and send-
ing it, by the umbilical vein, to the heart ; from whence it is
despatched by a quicker and shorter circulation through the whole
frame.

In this manner the embryo reposes in the womb ; supplied
with that nourishment which is fitted to its necessities, and fur-
nished with those organs that are adapted to its situation. As
its sensations are but few, its wants are in the same proportion ;
and it is probable that a sleep, with scarcely any intervals, marks
the earliest period of human life. As the little creature, how-
ever, gathers strength and size, it seems to become more wake-
ful and uneasy ; even in the womb it begins to feel the want of
something it does not possess ; a sensation that seems coeval
with man's nature, and never leaves him till he dies. The em-
bryo even then begins to struggle for a state more marked by
pleasure and pain, and, from about the sixth month, begins to
give the mother warning of the greater pain she is yet to endure.
The continuation of pregnancy, in woman, is usually nine
months ; but there have been many instances when the child has
lived that was born at seven ; and some are found to continue
pregnant a month above the usual time. When the appointed
time approaches, the infant, that has for some months been
giving painful proofs of its existence, now begins to increase its
efforts for liberty. The head is applied downwaid, to the aper-

298 HISTORY OF

lure of the womb, and by reiterated efforts it endeavours to ex-
tend the same : these endeavours produce the pain, which all
women, in labour, feel in some degree ; those of strong constitu-
tions the least, those most weakly the most severely ; since we
learn, that the women of Africa always deliver themselves, and
are well a few hours after; while those of Europe require assis-
tance, and recover more slowly. Thus the infant, still continu-
ing to push with its head forward, by the repetition of its endea-
vours, at last succeeds, and issues into life. The blood which
had hitherto passed through the heart, now takes a wider circuit ;
and the foramen ovale closes ; the lungs, that had till this time
been inactive, now first begin their functions ; the air rushes in
to distend them ; and this produces the first sensation of pain,
which the infant expresses by a shriek ; so that the beginning of
our lives, as well as the end, is marked with anguish.'

From comparing these accounts, we perceive that the most
laboured generation is the most perfect ; and that the animal,
which, in proportion to its bulk, takes the longest time
for production, is always the most complete when finish-
ed. Of all others, man seems the slowest in coming into
life, as he is the slowest in coming to perfection ; other ani-
mals, of the same bulk, seldom remain in the womb above
six months, while he continues nine ; and even after his
hirth, appears more than any other to have his state of imbecil-
ity prolonged.

We may observe also, that that generation is the most com-
plete, in which the fewest animals are produced ; Natuie, by
attending to the production of one at a time, seems to exert all
her efforts in bringing it to perfection ; but, where this atten-
tion is divided, the animals so produced come into the world
with partial advantages. In this manner twins are never, at
least while infants, so large, or so strong, as those that come
singly into the world ; each having, in some measure, robbed the
other of its right ; as that support, which Nature meant for one,
nas been prodigally divided.

In this manner, as those animals are the best that are pro-
duced singly, so we find that the noblest animals are ever the
least fruitful. These are seen usually to bring forth but one at

1 Bounet Conteinplat. de la Nature, vol. i. p. 213.

THE EARTH. 299

a time, and to place all their attention upon that alone. On the
other hand, all the oviparous kinds produce in amazing plenty ;
and even the lower tribes of viviparous animals increase in a
seeming proportion to their minuteness and imperfection. Na-
ture seems lavish of life in the lower orders of the creation ;
and, as if she meant them entirely for the use of the nobler races,
she appears to have bestowed greater pains in multiplying the
number than in completing the kind. In this manner, while the
elephant and the horse bring forth but one at a time, the spider
and the beetle are seen to produce a thousand : and even among
the smaller quadrupeds, all the inferior kinds are extremely fer-
tile ; any one of these being found, in a very few months, to be-
come the parent of a numerous progeny.

In this manner, therefore, the smallest animals multiply in the
greatest proportion ; and we have reason to thank Providence
that the most formidable animals are the least fruitful. Had
the lion and the tiger the same degree of fecundity with the
rabbit or the rat, all the arts of man would be unable to oppose
these fierce invaders ; and we should soon perceive them become
the tyrants of those who claim the lordship of the creation.
But Heaven, in this respect, has wisely consulted the advantage
of all. It has opposed to man only such enemies as he has art
and strength to conquer ; and as large animals require propor-
tional supplies, nature was unwilling to give new life, where it
in some measure, denied the necessary means of subsistence.

In consequence of this pre-established order, the animals that
are endowed with the most perfect methods of generation, and
bring forth but one at a time, seldom begin to procreate till they
have almost acquired their full growth. On the other hand,
those which bring forth many, engender before they have arrived
at half their natural size. The horse and the bull come almost
to perfection before they begin to generate; the hog and the
rabbit scarcely leave the teat before they become parents them-
selves. In whatever light, therefore, we consider this subject,
we shall find that all creatures approach most to perfection,
whose generation most nearly resembles that of man. The
rep tile produced from cutting is but one degree above the vege-
table. The animal produced from one egg is a step higher in the
scale of existence ; that class of animals which are brought forth
alive, aie still more exalted. Of these, such as bring forth one

300

HISTORY OF

at a time are tlie most complete ; and the foremost of these
stands Man, the great master of all, who seems to have lunted
the perfections of all the rest in his formation.

CHAP. III.

THE INFANCY OF MAN.

When we take a survey of the various classes of animals, and
examine their strength, their beauty, or their structure, we shaJl
find man to possess most of those advantages united, which the
rest enjoy partially. Infinitely superior to all others in the
powers of the understanding, he is also superior to them in the
fitness and proportions of his form. He would, indeed, have
been one of the most miserable beings upon earth, if with a
sentient mind he was so formed as to be incapable of obeying
its impulse ; but Nature has otherwise provided j as with the
most extensive intellects to command, she has furnished him
with a body the best fitted for obedience.

In infancy,' however, that mind and this body form the most
helpless union in all animated nature ; and, if any thing can
give us a picture of complete imbecility, it is a man when just
come into the world. The infant just born stands in need of
all things, without the power of procuring any. The lower races
of animals, upon being produced, are active, vigorous, and capa-
ble of self-support ; but the infant is obliged to wait in helpless
expectation ; and its cries are its only aid to procure subsistence.

An infant just born may be said to come from one element
into another : for, from the watery fluid in which it was sur-
rounded, it now immerges into air ; and its first cries seem to
imply how greatly it regrets the change. How much longer
it could have continued in a state of almost total insensibility in
the womb, is impossible to tell ; but it is very probable that it
could remain there some hours more. In order to throw some
light upon this subject, Mr Buffon so placed a pregnant bitch,
as that her puppies were brought forth in warm watei', in which

1 Buffiin, vol. iv, p. 173.

ANIMALS. 301

he kept them above half an hour at a time. However, he saw
no change in the animals, thus newly brought forth ; they con-
tinued the whole time ^•igorous ; and, during the whole time, it
is very probable that the blood circulated through the same
channels through which it passed while they continued in the
womb.

Almost all animals have their eyes closed,' for some days
after being brought into the world. The infant opens them the
instant of its birth. However, it seems to keep them fixed and
idle ; they want that lustre which they acquire by degrees ; and
if they happen to move, it is rather an accidental gaze, than an
exertion of the act of seeing. The light alone seems to make
the greatest impression upon them. The eyes of infants are
sometimes found turned to the place where it is strongest ; and
the pupil is seen to dilate and diminish, as in grown persons, in
proportion to the quantity it receives. But still the infant is
incapable of distinguishing objects ; the sense of seeing, like the
rest of the senses, requires an habit before it becomes any way
serviceable. All the senses must be compared with each other,
and must be made to correct the defects of one another, before
they can give just information. It is probable, therefore, that
if the infant could express its own sensations, it would give a
very extraordinary description of the illusions which it suffers
from them. The sight might, perhaps, be represented as in-
verting objects, or multiplying them ; the hearing, instead of
conveying one uniform tone, might be said to bring up an inter-
rupted succession of noises ; and the touch apparently would
di\-ide one body into as many as there are fingers that grasp it.
But all these errors are lost in one confused idea of existence ;
and it is happy for the infant that it then can make but very
little use of its senses, when they could serve only to bring it
false information.

If there be any distinct sensations, those of pain seem to be
much more frequent and stronger than those of pleasure. The
infant's cries are sufficient indications of the uneasiness it must,
at every interval, endure ; while, in the beginning, it has got no
external marks to testify its satisfactions. It is not till after
forty davs that it is seen to smile ; and not till that time also,

1 Buffuii, vol. iv. p. 173,

302 HISTORY OF

that tears begin to appear, its former expressions of uneasiness
being always without them. As to any other marks of the pas-
sions, the infant being as yet almost without them, it can ex-
press none of them in its visage ; which, except in the act of
crying and laughing, is fixed in a settled serenity. All the other
parts of the body seem equally relaxed and feeble : its motions
are uncertain and its postures without choice ; it is unable to stand
upright ; its hams are yet bent, from the habit which it received
from its position in the womb ; it has not strength enough in its
arms to stretch them forward, much less to grasp any thing with
its hands ; it rests just in the posture it is laid ; and, if aban-
doned, must continue in the same position.

Nevertheless, though this be the description of infancy among
mankind in general, there are countries and races among whom
infancy does not seem marked with such utter imbecility, but
where the children, not long after they are born, appear posses-
sed of a greater share of self-support. The children of negroes
have a surprising degree of this premature industry j they are
able to walk at two months ; or, at least, to move from one
place to another : they also hang to the mother's back without
assistance, and seize the breast over her shoulder ; continuing in
this posture till she thinks proper to lay them down. This is
very different in the children of our countries, that seldom are
able to walk under a twelvemonth.

The skin of children newly brought forth, is always red, pro-
ceeding from its transparency, by which the blood beneath ap-
pears more conspicuous. Some say that this redness is greatest
in those children that are afterwards about to have the finest
complexions ; and it appears reasonable that it should be so, since
the thinnest skins are always the fairest. The size of a new-
born infant is generally about twenty inches, and its weight
about twelve pounds. The head is large, and all the members
delicate, soft, and puffy. These appearances alter with its age ;
as it grows older, the head becomes less in proportion to the rest
of the body ; the flesh hardens ; the bones, that before birth
grew very thick in proportion, now lengthen by degrees, and the
human figure more and more acquires its due dimensions. In
such children, however, as are but feeble or sickly, the head al-
ways continues too big for the body ; the heads of dwarfs being
extremely large in proportion.

ANIMALS. 303

Infants, when newly born, pass most of their time in sleeping,
end awake with crying ; excited either by sensations of pain or of
hunger. Man, when come to maturity, but rarely feels the want
of food, as eating twice or thrice in the four and twenty hours
is known to suffice the most voracious : but the infant may be
considered as a little glutton, whose only pleasure consists in it«
appetite ; and this, except when it sleeps, it is never easy with-
out satisfying. Thus nature has adapted different desires to the
different periods of life ; each as it seems most necessary for
human support or succession. While the animal is yet forming,
hunger excites it to that supply which is necessary for its growth ;
when it is completely formed, a different appetite takes place,
that incites it to communicate existence. These two desires
take up the whole attention of different periods, but are very
seldom found to prevail strongly together in the same age ; one
pleasure ever serving to repress the other : and, if we find a
person of full age placing a principal part of his happiness in the
nature and quantity of his food, we have strong reasons to sus-
pect, that with respect to his other appetites he still retains a
part of the imbecility of his childhood.

It is extraordinary, however, that infants, who are thus more
voracious than grown persons, are nevertheless more capable of
sustaining hunger. We have several instances, in accidental
cases of famine, in which the child has been known to survive
the parent, and seen clinging to the breast of its dead mother.
Their little bodies also are more patient of cold ; and we have
similar instances of the mother's perishing in the snow, while
the infant has been found alive beside her. However, if we ex-
amine the internal structure of infants, we shall find an obvious
reason for both these advantages. Their blood-vessels are known
to be much larger than in adults ; and their nerves much thicker
and softer : thus being furnished with a more copious quantity
of juices, both of the nervous and sanguinary kinds, the infant
finds a temporary sustenance in this superfluity, and does not ex-
pire till both are exhausted. The circulation also being larger
and quicker, supplies it with proportionable warmth, so that it is
more capable of resisting the accidental rigours of the weather.

The first nourishment of infants is well known to be the mo-
ther's milk; and what is remarkable, the infant has milk in its"
own breasts, which may be squeezed out by compression ; this

2c2

304

HISTORY OF

nourishment becomes less grateful as the child gathers strength ;
and perhaps, also, more unwholesome. However, in cold coun-
tries, which are unfavourable to propagation, and where the fe-
male has seldom above three or four children at the most, during
her life, she continues to suckle the child for four or five years
together. In this manner the mothers of Canada and Greenland
are often seen suckling two or three children, of different ages,
at a time.

The life of infants is very precarious till the age of three or
four, from which time it becomes more secure ; and when a
child arrives at its seventh year, it is then considered as a more
certain life, as Mr Buffon asserts, than at any other age what-
ever. It appears, from Simpson's Tables, that of a certain num-
ber of children born at the same time, a fourth part are found
dead at the end of the first year ; more than one-third at the end
of the second : and, at least, half at the end of the third ; so that
those who live to be above three years old, are indulged a longer
term than half the rest of their fellow-creatures. Nevertheless,
life, at that period, may be considered as mere animal existence ;
and rather a preparation for, than an enjoyment of, those satis-
factions, both of mind and body, that make life of real value :
and hence it is more natural for mankind to deplore a fellow-
creature, cut off in the bloom of life, than one dying in early in-
fancy. The one, by living up to youth, and thus wading through
the disadvantageous parts of existence, seems to have earned a
short continuance of its enjoyments : the infant, on the con-
trary, has served but a short apprenticeship to pain ; and when
taken away, may be considered as rescued from a long continuance
of misery.

There is something very remarkable in the growth of the
numan body.' The embryo in the womb continues to increase
still more and more till it is born. On the other hand, the
child's growth is less every year, till the time of puberty, when
it seems to start up of a sudden. Thus, for instance, the em-
bryo, which is an inch long in the first month, grows but one
inch and a quarter in the second; it then grows one and a half
■n the third ; two and a half in the fourth j and in this manner
it keeps increasing till in the last month of its continuance it is

1 Biiftoii, vol. iv. p. 173.

ANIMALS. 305

acrually found to grow four inches ; and in the whole about
eighteen inches long. But it is otherwise with the child when
born : if we suppose it eighteen inches at that time, it grows in
the first year six or seven inches ; in the second year, it grows
but four inches ; in the third year about three ; and so on, at
the rate of about an inch and a half, or two inches each year,
till the time of puberty, when nature seems to make one great
last effort, to complete her work, and unfold the whole animal
machine.

The growth of the mind in children seems to correspond with
that of the body. The comparative progress of the understand-
ng is greater in infants than in children of three or four years
old. If we oidy reflect a moment on the amazing acquisicions
that an infant makes in the first and second years of life, we
shall have much cause for wonder. Being sent into a world
where every thing is new and unknown, the first months of life
are spent in a kind of torpid amazement ; an attention distracted
by the multiplicity of objects that press to be known. The first
labour, therefore, of the little learner is, to correct the illusions
of the senses, to distinguish one object from another, and to
exert the memory, so as tv know them again. In this manner
a child of a year old has already made a thousand experiments ;
all which it has properly ranged, and distinctly remembers.
Light, heat, fire, sweets, and bitters, sounds soft or terrible,
are all distinguished at the end of a very few months. Besides
this, every person the child knows, every individual object it
becomes fond of, its rattles, or its bells, may be all considered
as so many new lessons to the yoimg mind, with which it has
not become acquainted, without repeated exertions of the under
standing. At this period of life, the knowledge of every indi.
vidutJ object cannot be acquired without the same effort which,
when grown up, is employed upon the most abstract idea ; every
thing the child hears or sees, all the marks and characters of na-
ture, are as much unknown, and require the same attention lo
attain, as if the reader were set to understand the characters ot
an Ethiopic manuscript; and yet we see in how shoit a time
the little student begins to understand them all, and to give evi-
dent marks of early industry.

It is very amusing to pursue the young mind, while employed
in its first attainments. At about a year old the same necessi-

2c 3

306 msaxJKf op

ties that first engaged its faculties, increase as its acquaintance
with nature enlarges. Its studies, therefore, if I may use the
expression, are no way relaxed ; for having experienced what
gave pleasure at one time, it desires a repetition of it from the
same object ; and in order to obtain this, that object must be
pointed out ; here therefore, a new necessity arises, which, very
often, neither its little arts nor importimities can remove ; so
that the child is at last obliged to set about naming the objects
it desires to possess or avoid. In beginning to speak, which
is usually about a year old, children find a thousand difficulties.
It is not without repeated trials that they come to pronounce
any one of the letters ; nor without an effort of the memory,
that they can retain them. For this reason, we frequently see
them attempting a sound which they had learned, but forgot ;
and when they have failed, I have often seen their attempt at-
tended with apparent confusion. The letters soonest learned,
are those which are most easily formed ; thus A and B require
an obvious disposition of the organs, and their pronunciation is
consequently soon attained. Z and R, which require a more
complicated position, are learned with greater difficulty. And
this may, perhaps, be the reason why the children m some coun-
tries speak sooner than in others ; for the letters mostly occur-
ring in the language of one country, being such as are of easy
pronunciation, that language is of course more easily attained.
In this manner the children of the Italians are said to speak
sooner than those of the Germans, the language of the one
being smooth and open ; that of the other, crowded with con-
sonants, and extremely guttural.

But be this as it will, in all countries children are found able
to express the greatest part of their wants by the time they ar-
rive at two years old ; and from the moment the necessity of
learning new words ceases, they relax their industry. It is then
that the mind like the body, seems every year to make slow ad-
vances ; and, in order to spur up attention, many systems of
education have been contrived.

Almost every philosopher, who has written on the education ,
of children, has been willing to point out a method of his own,
chiefly professing to advance the health, and improve the intel-
lects at the same time. These are usually found to begin with
nothing right in the common practice ; and by urging a total

ANIMALS 307

reformation. In consequence of this, nothing can be more wild
or imaginary than their various systems of improvement. Some
will have the children every day plunged in cold water, in order
to strengthen their bodies ; they will have them converse with
the servants in nothing but the Latin language, m order to
strengthen their minds ; every hour of the day must be appoint
ed for its own studies, and the child must learn to make these
very studies an amusement ; till about the age of ten or eleven
it becomes a prodigy of premature improvement. Quite oppo-
site to this, we have others, whom the courtesy of mankind also
calls philosophers; and they will have the child learn nothing
till the age of ten or eleven, at which the former has attained so
much perfection ; with them the mind is to be kept empty, until
it has a proper distinction of some metaphysical ideas about
truth ; and the promising pupil is debarred the use of even his
own faculties, lest they should conduct him into prejudice and
error. In this manner, some men, whom fashion has celebrated
for profound and fine thinkers, have given their hazarded and
untried conjectures, upon one of the most important subjects in
the world, and the most interesting to humanity. AVhen men
speculate at liberty upon innate ideas, or the abstracted distinc-
tions between will and power, they may be permitted to enjoy their
systems at pjeasure, as they are harmless, although they may be
wrong •, but when they allege that children are to be every day
plunged in cold water, and, whatever be their constitutions, in.
discriminately inured to cold and moisture ; that they are to be
kept wet in the feet, to prevent their catching cold ; and never
to be corrected when young, for fear of breaking their spirits
when old ; these are such noxious errors, that all reasonable men
should endeavour to oppose them. Many have been the chil-
dren whom these opinions, begun in speculation, have injurea
or destroyed in practice ; and I have seen many a little philoso-
phical martyr, whom I wished, but was unable to relieve.

If any system be therefore necessary, it is one that would
serve to show a very plain point ; that very little system is ne-
cessary. The natural and common course of education is in
every respect the best ; I mean that in which the child is per-
mitted to i)lay among its little equals, from whose similar in
s: ructions it often gains the most useful stores of knowledge. A
child is not idle because it is playing about the fields, or pursu-

308 HISTORY or

iiig a butterfly ; it is all this time storing its mind with objects,
upon tlie nature, the properties, and the relations of which, fu-
ture curiosity may speculate.

I have ever found it a vain task to try to make a cliild's learn-
ing its amusement; nor do I see what good end it would an-
swer, were it actually attained. The child, as was said, ought
no have its share of play, and it will be benefited thereby , and
for every reason also it ought to have its share of labour. Thp
mind, by early labour, will be thus accustomed to fatigues and
subordination ; and whatever be the person's future employment
in life, he will be better fitted to endure it : he will be thus
enabled to support the drudgeries of office with content ; or to
fill up the vacancies ot life with variety. The child, therefore,
should by times be put to its duty ; and be taught to know,
that the task is to be done, or the punishment to be endured. I
do not object against alluring it to duty by reward ; but we well
know, that the mind will be more strongly stimulated by pain ;
and both may, upon some occasions, take their turn to operate.
In this manner, a child, by playing with its equals abroad, and
labouring with them at school, will acquire more health and
knowledge, than by being bred up under the wing of any specu-
lative system-maker ; and will be thus qualified for a life of
activity and obedience. It is true, indeed, that when educated
in this manner, the boy may not be so seemingly sensible and
forward as one bred u]) under solitaiy instruction ; and, perhaps,
this early forwardness is more engaging than useful. It is well
known, that many of those children who have been such prodi-
gies of literature before ten, have not made an adequate pro-
gress to twenty. It should seem, that they only began learning
manly things before their time ; and, while others were busied
in picking up that knowledge adapted to their age and curiosity,
these were forced upon subjects unsuited to their years ; and,
upon that account alone, appearing extraordinary. The stock of
knowledge in both may be equal ; but with this difference, that
each is yet to learn what the other knov\'s.

But whatever may have been the acquisitions of children at
ten or twelve, their greatest, and most rapid progress, is made
when they arrive near the age of puberty. It is then that all the
powers of nature seem at work in strengthening the mind and
completing the body ; the youth acquires courage, and the virgin

ANIMALS. 309

modesty ; the mind, with new sensations, assumes new powers ;
it conceives with greater force, and remembers with gi-eater ten-
acity. About this time, therefore, which is various in different
countries, more is learned in one year than in any two of the
lireceding ; and on this age, in particulai', the greatest weight of
instruction ought to be thrown.

CHAP. IV.

OF PUBERTY.

[t has been often said, that the season of youth is the season
CI pleasures : but this can only be true in savage countries,
where but little preparation is made for the perfection of human
nature ; and where the mind has but a very small part in the
enjoyment. It is otherwise in those pLices where nature is car-
ried to the highest pitch of refinement, in -which this season of
the greatest sensual delight is wisely maae subservient to the
succeeding and more rational one of manhood. Youth with us
is but a scene of preparation ; a drama, upon the right
conduct of which all future happiness is to depend. The
youth who follows his appetites too soon seizes the cup, before
it has received its best ingredients ; and, by anticipating his plea-
sures, robs the remaining parts of life of their share ; so that
his eagerness only produces a manhood of imbecility, and an age
of pain.

The time of puberty is different in various countries, and al-
ways more late in men than in women. In the warm countries
of India, the v/omen are marriageable at nine or ten, and the
men at twelve or thirteen. It is also different in cities where
the inhabitants lead a more soft luxurious life, from the country,
where they work harder, and fare less delicately. Its symj)toms
an," seldom alike in different persons, but it is usually known
by a swelling of the breasts in one sex, and a roughness of
the voice in the other. At this season, also, the women seem
to acquire new beauty, while the men lose all that delicate effe-
minacy of countenance which they had when boys.

All countries, in proportion as they are civilized or barbarous,

310 HISTORY OF

improve or degrade the nuptial satisfaction. In those miserable
regions, where strength makes the only law, the stronger sex
exerts its power, and becomes the tyrant over the weaker : while
the inhabitant of Negroland is indolently taking his pleasure in
the fields, his wife is obliged to till the ground that serves for
their mutual support. It is thus in idl barbarous countries,
where the men throw all the laborious duties of life upon the
women ; and, regardless of beauty, put the softer sex to those
employments that must efTectually destroy it.

But, in countries that are half barbarous, particularly wher-
ever Mahometanism prevails, the men run into the very opposite
extreme. Equally brutal with the former, they exert their ty-
ranny over the weaker sex, and consider that half of the human
creation as merely made to be subservient to the depraved desires
of the other. The chief, and, indeed, the only aim of an Asia-
tic, is to be possessed of many women ; and to be able to fur-
nish a seraglio is the only tendency of his ambition. As the
savage was totally regardless of beauty, he on the contrary prizes
it too highly ; he excludes the person who is possessed of such
personal attractions from any shai'e in the duties or employments
of life ; and, as if willing to engross all beauty to himself, in-
creases the number of his captives in proportion to the progress
of his fortune. In this manner he vainly expects to augment
his satisfactions, by seeking from many that happiness which he
ought to look for in the society of one alone. He lives a gloomy
tyrant amidst wretches of his own making ; he feels none of
those endeaimedts which spring from afftction, none of those deli,
cacies which arise from knowledge. His mistresses, being shut
out from the world, and totally ignorant of all that passes there,
have no arts to entertain his mind, or calm his anxieties ; the
day passes with them in sullen silence, or languid repose ; appe-
tite can furnish but few opportunities of varying the scene ;
and all that falls beyond it must be irksome expectation.

From this avarice of women, if I may be allowed to express if
so, has proceeded that jealousy and suspicion which ever attends
the miser : hence those low and barbarous methods of keeping
the women of those countries guarded, and of making and pro.
curing eunuchs to attend them. These unhappy creatures are
of two kinds, the white and the black. The white are generally
made in the country where they reside, being but partly deprived

ANIMALS. 311

of the marks of virility ; the black are generally brought from
the interior parts of Africa, and are made entirely bare. These
are chiefly chosen for their deformity ; the thicker the lips, the
flatter the nose, and the more black the teeth, the more valuable
the eunuch ; so that the vile jealousy of mankind here inverts
the order of nature, and the poor wretch finds himself valued in
proportion to his deficiencies. In Italy, where this baibarous
custom is still retained, and eunuchs are made in order to im-
prove the voice, the laws are severely aimed against such prac-
tice J so that being entirely prohibited, none but the poorest and
most abandoned of the people, still secretly practise it upon their
cliildren. Of those served in this manner, not one in ten is
found to become a singer ; but such is the luxurious folly of the
times, that the success of one amply compensates for the failure
of the rest. It is very diflicult to account for the alterations
which castration makes in the voice, and the other parts of the
body. The eunuch is shaped difl^erently from others. His legs
are of an equal thickness above and below ; his knees weak ; his
shoulders naiTow, and his beard thin and downy. In this man-
ner his person is rendered more deformed ; but his desires, as
I am told, still continue the same ; and actually, in Asia, some
of them are found to have their seraglios, as well as their mas-
ters. Even in our country, we have an instance of a very
fine woman being married to one of them whose appearance was
the most unpromising ; and what is more extraordinary still,
I am told, that this couple contiiuie perfectly happy in each other's
society.

The mere necessities of life seem the only aim of the savages
the sensual pleasures are the only study of the semi-barbarian ;
but the refinement of sensuality by reason, is the boast of real
politeness. Among the merely barbarous nations, such as the
natives of Madagascar, or the inhabitants of Congo, nothing is
desired so ardently as to prostitute their wives or daughters to
strangers, for the most trifling advantages ; they will account it a
dishonour not to be among the foremost who are thus received
into favour : on the other hand, the Mahometan keeps his wife
faithful, by confining her person ; and would instantly put her to
death, if he but suspected her chastity. With the politer inhabitants
of Europe both these barbarous extremes are avoided ; the wo-
man's person is left free, and no constraint is imposed but upon

312 HISTORY OF

lier affections. The passion of love, which may be considered
as the nice conduct of ruder desire, is only known and prac-
tised in this part of the world ; so that what other nations
guard as their right, the more delicate European is contented to
ask as a favour. In this manner the concurrence of mutual ap-
petite contributes to increase mutual satisfaction ; and the power
on one side of refusmg makes every blessing more grateful when
obtained by the other. In barbarous countries woman is con-
sidered merely as a useful slave ; in such as are somewhat more
refined she is regarded as a desirable toy ; in countries entirely
polished she enjoys juster privileges, the wife being considered
as a useful friend and an agreeable mistress. Her mind is still
more prized than her person ; and without the improvement of
both, she can never expect to become truly agreeable ; for her
good sense alone can preserve what she has gained by her
beauty.

Female beauty, as was said, is always seen to improve about
the age of puberty : but if we should attempt to define in what
this beauty consists, or what constitutes its perfection, we should
find nothing more difficult to determine. Every country has
its peculiar way of thinking, in this respect ; and even
the same country thinks differently at different times. The
ancients had a different taste from what prevails at present.
The eyebrows joining in the middle was considered as a very
peculiar grace by TibuUus, in the enumeration of the charms of
his mistress. Narrow foreheads were approved of and scarce
any of the Roman ladies, that are celebrated for their other per
fections, but are also praised for the redness of their hair. The
nose of the Grecian Venus, was such as would appear at present
an actual deformity ; as it fell in a straight line from the fore-
head without the smallest sinking between the eyes, without
which we never see a face at present. '

Among the modems, every country seems to have peculiai
ideas of beauty.' The Persians admire large eyebrows, joining
in the middle ; the edges and corners of the eyes are tinctured
with black, and the size of the head is increased by a great vari-
ety of bandages, formed into a turban. In some parts of India
black teeth and white hair are desired with ardour ; and one of

1 Biiffnn.

ANIMALS. 313

the principal employments of the women of Thibet, is to redden
the teeth with herbs, and to make their hair white by a certain
preparation. The passion for coloured teeth obtains also in
China and Japan ; where, to complete their idea of beauty, the ob-
ject of desire must have little eyes, nearly closed, feet extremely
small, and a waist far from being shapely. There are nations of
the American Indians that flatten the heads of their children,
by keeping them while yoimg squeezed between two boards, so
as to make the visage much larger than it would naturally be
Others flatten the head at top ; and others make it as round as
they possibly can. The inhabitants along the western coasts of
Africa have s very extraordinary taste for beauty. A flat nose,
thick lips, and a jet black complexion, are there the most indul-
gent gifts of Nature. Such, indeed, they are all, in some degree,
found to possess. However, they take care by art to increase
their natural deformities, as they should seem to us ; and they
have many additional methods of rendering their persons still
more frightfully pleasing. The whole body and visage is often
scarred with a variety of monstrous figiu-es ; which is not done
without a great pain, and repeated incision : and even sometimes
parts of the body are cut away. But it would be endless to re-
mark the various arts which caprice or custom has employed
to distort and disfigure the body, in order to render it more
pleasing; in fact, every nation, how barbarous soever, seems
unsatisfied with the human figure, as Nature has left it, and
has its peculiar arts of heightening beauty. Painting, pow~
dering, cutting, boring the nose and the ears, lengthening the
one and depressing the other, are arts practised in many
countries; and, in some degree, admired in all. These arts
might have been at first introduced to hide epidemic deformities :
custom, by degrees, reconciles them to the view ; till, from look-
ing upon them with indifference, the eye at length begins to
gaze with pleasure.

'm HISTORY OF

CHAP. V.

OF THE AGE OF MANHOOD.*

The human body attains to its full height during the age of
puberty ; or, at least, a short time after. Some young people
are found to cease growing at fourteen or fifteen ; others con-
tinue their growth till two or three and twenty. During this
period they are all of a slender make ; their thighs and legs small,
and the muscular parts are yet unfilled. But by degrees the
fleshy fibres augment ; the muscles swell, and assume their
figure ; the limbs become proportioned, and rounder ; and be-
fore the age of thirty, the body in men has acquired the most
perfect symmetry. In women, the body arrives at perfection
much sooner, as they arrive at the age of maturity more early ;
the muscles, and all the other parts, being weaker, less compact
and solid, than those of man, they require less time in coming
to perfection : and as they are less in size, that size is sooner
completed. Hence the persons of women are found to be as
complete at twenty, as those of men are found to be at thirty.

The body of a well shaped man ought to be square ; the muscles
should be expressed with boldness, and the lines of the face
strongly marked. In the woman, all the muscles should be rounder,
the lines softer, and the features more delicate. Strength and
majesty belong to the man ; grace and softness are the peculiar
embellishments of the other sex. In both every part of their
form declares their sovereignty over other creatures. Man sup-
ports his body erect ; his attitude is that of command ; and his
face, which is turned towards the heavens, displays the dignity
of his station. The image of his soul is painted in his visage ;
and the excellence of his nature penetrates through the material
form in which it is inclosed. His majestic port, his sedate
and resolute step, announce tlie nobleness of his rank. He
touches the earth only with his extremity ; and beholds it as if

* This chapter is translatpd frnm Mr Buffon, whose description is very
excellent. VVliatevor I Iiare added is marked by inverted commas, "thus."
And in whatever trifling points 1 liave differed, the notes will seryeto show.

AXIMAL3. 313

at a disdainful distance. His arms are not given him, as to
other creatures, for pillars of support ; nor does he lo?e, by ren-
dering them callous against the ground, that delicacy of touch
which furnishes him with so many of his enjoyments. His hands
are made for very dWerent purposes ; to second every intention
o f his will, and to perfect the gifts of Nature.

AVhen the soul is at rest, all the features of the visage seem
settled in a state of profound tranquillity. Their proportion,
their union, and their harmony, seem to mark the sweet serenity
of the mind, and give a true information of what passes within.
But when the soul is excited, the human visage becomes a liv-
ing picture ; where the passions are expressed with as much deli-
cacy as energy, where every motion is designed by some corre-
spondent feature, where every impression anticipates the will,
and betrays those hidden agitations, that he would often wish to
conceal.

It is particularly in the eyes that the passions are painted ;
and in which we may most readily discover their beginning. The
eye seems to belong to the soul more than any other organ ; it
seems to participate of all its emotions ; as well the most soft
and tender as the most tumultuous and forceful. It not only
receives, but transmits them by sympathy ; the observing eye of
one catches the secret fire from another ; and the passion thus
often becomes general.

Such persons as are short-sighted, labour under a particular
disadvantage in this respect. They are, in a manner, entirely
cut off from the language of the eyes ; and this gives an air of
stupidity to the face, which often produces very unfavourable
prepossessions. However intelligent we find such persons to
be, we can scarcely be brought back from our first prejudice, and
often continue in the first erroneous opinion. In this manner
we are too much induced to judge of men by their physiognomy ;
and having perhaps, at first, caught up our judgments prema-
turely, they mechanically influence us all our lives after. This
extends even to the very colour or the cut of people's clothes -,
and we should for this reason be careful, even in such trifling
[larticulars, since they go to make up a part of the total judg-
ment which those we converse with m;iy form to our advantage.

The vivacity, or the languid motion of the eyes, give the
strongest marks of phvsiognomy ; and their colour contri-

2 T» 2

316 HISTORY OF

butes still more to enforce the expression. The different
colours of the eye are the dark hazel, the light hazel, the green,
the blue and gray, the whitish gray, "and also the red." These
different colours arise from the different colours of the little
muscles that serve to contract the pupil ; " and they are very
often found to change colour vv'ith disorder, and with age."

The most ordinary colours are the hazel and the blue, and
very often both these colours are found in the eyes of the
same ])erson. Those eyes which are called black, are only of
the dark hazel, which may be easily seen upon close inspection ;
however, those eyes are reckoned the most beautiful where the
shade is deepest ; and either in these, or the blue eyes, the fire
which gives its finest expression to the eye is more distinguish-
able in proportion to the darkness of the tint. For this reason,
the black eyes, as they are called, have the greatest vivacity ;
but probably the blue have the most powerful effect in beauty, as
they reflect a greater variety of lights, being composed of more
various colours.

This variety, which is found in the coloiu- of the eyes is pe-
culiar to man, and one or two other khids of animals •, but, iji
general, the colour in any one individual is the same in all the
rest. The eyes of oxen are brown ; those of sheep of a water
colour ; those of goats are gray ; " and it may also be, in general,
remarked that the eyes of most white animals are red ; thus
the rabbit, the ferret, and, even in the human race, the white
Moor, all have their eyes of a red colour."

Although the eye, when put into motion, seems to be drawn
on one side, yet it only moves round the centre ; by which its
coloured part moves nearer or farther from the angle of the eye-
lids, or is elevated or depressed. The distance between the
eyes is less in man than in any other animal ; and in some of
Vhera it is so great, that it is impossible that they should ever
view the same object with both eyes at once, unless it be very
far off. •' This, however, in them is rather an advantage than
an inconvenience, as they are thus able to watch round them,
and guard against the dangers of their precarious situation."

Next to the eyes, the features, which must give a character to
the face, are the eye-brows ; which being, in some measure, more
apparent than the other features, are most readily distinguished
lit a distance. " Le Brun, in giving a painter directions, with

ANIMALS. 317

regard to the passions, places the principal expression of the
face in the eye-brows." From their elevation or depression,
most of the furioug passions are characterized ; and such as have
this feature extremely moveable, are usually known to have an
expressive face. By means of these we can imitate all the other
passions, as they are raised or depressed at command ; the rest
of the features are generally fixed ; or, when put into motion,
they do not obey the will : the mouth and eyes, in an actor, for
instance, may, by being violently distorted, give a very different
expression from what he would intend ; but the eye-brows can
scarcely be exerted improperly ; their being raised denotes all
tliose passions which pride or pleasure inspire ; and their de-
pression marks those which are the effects of contemplation and
pain ; and such who have this feature, therefore, most at com-
mand, are often found to excel as actors."

The eye-lashes have an effect, in giving expression to the eye,
particularly when long and close : they soften its glances, and
improve its sweetness. Man and apes are the only animals that
have eye-lashes both upon the upper and lower lids ; all other
animals want them on the lid below.

The eye-lids serve to guard the ball of the eye, and to furnish
it with a proper moisture. Tue upper lid rises and falls ; the
lower has scarcely any motion ; and although their being moved
depends on the will, yet it often happens that the will is unable
to keep them open, when sleep, or fatigue, oppresses the mind.
In birds and amphibious quadrupeds, the lower lid alone has mo-
tion ; fishes and insects have no eye-lids whatsoever.

The forehead makes a large part of the face, and a part which
chiefly contributes to its beauty. It ought to be justly propor-
tioned ■, neither too round nor too flat ; neither too narrow nor
too low ; and the hair should come thick upon its extremities.
It is known to every body how much the hair tends to improve
the face ; and how much the being bald serves to take away
from beauty. The highest part of the head is that which be-
comes bald the soonest, as well as that part which lies imme-
diately above the temples. The hair unrler the temples, and at
the back of the head, is very seldom known to fail, " and wo-
men ai-e much less apt to become bald than men -. Mr Buifou
seems to think they never become bald at all ; but we have too
many instances of the contrary among us, not to contradict very

2d3

3] 8 HISTORY OF

tasily the assertion. Of all parts or appendages of the body,
the hair is that which is found most different, in different cli-
mates; and often not only contributes to mark the country, but
also the disposition of the man. It is in general thickest where
the constitution is strongest ; and more glossy and beautiful,
where the health is most permanent. The ancients held the
hair to be a sort of excrement, produced like the nails ; the part
next the root pushing out that immediately contiguous. But
the moderns have found that every hair may be truly said to live,
to receive nutriment, to fill and distend itself, like the other parts
of the body. The roots, they observe, do not turn gray sooner
than the extremities, but the whole hair changes colour at once ;
and we have many instances of persons who have grown gray
in one night's time.' Each hair, if viewed with a microscope,
is found to consist of five or six lesser ones, all wrapped up in
one common covering ; it appears knotted, like some sorts of
grass, and sends forth branches at the joints. It is bulbous at
the root, by which it imbibes its moistiu-e from the body:
and it is split at the points ; so that a single hair, at its end,
resembles a brush. Whatever be the size or the shape of
the pore, through which the hair issues, it accommodates itself
to the same ; being either thick, as they are large ; small, as
they are less ; round, triangular, and variously formed, as the
pores happen to be various. The hair takes its colour from the
juices flowing through it, and it is found that this colour differs
in different tribes and races of people. The Americans, and
the Asiatics, have their hair black, thick, straight, and shining.
The inhabitants of the torrid climates of Africa have it black,
short, and woolly. The people of Scandinavia have it red, long,
and curled ; and those of our own and the neighbouring coun-
tries, are found with hair of various colours. However, it is
supposed by many, that every man resembles in his disposition
the inhabitants of those countries whom he resembles in the
colour and the nature of his hair : so that the black are said, like
the Asiatics, to be grave and acute ; the red, like the Gothic
nations, to be choleric and bold. However this may be, the
length and the strength of the hair is a general mark of a good

1 Blr Buffon says, that tlic hair bi'j,'in8 to grow gray at the points ; but tlie
(act is otherwise.

ANIMALS, 319

constitution ; and as that hair which is strongest is most com
monly curled, so curled hair is generally regarded among us as
a beauty. The Greeks, however, had a very different idea of
beauty in this respect ; and seem to have taken one of their pe-
culiar national distinctions from the length and the straightness
of the hair."

The nose is the most prominent feature in the face; but,
as it has scarcely any motion, and that only in the strongest pas-
sions, it rather adds to the beauty than to the expression of the
countenance. However, I am told, by the skilful in this branch
of knowledge, that wide nostrils add a gxeat deal to the bold and
resolute air of the countenance ; and where they are narrow,
though it may constitute beauty, it seldom improves expression."
The form of the nose, and its advanced position, are peculiar
to the human visage alone. Other animals, for the most part,
have nostrUs, with a partition between them ; but none of them
have an elevated nose. Apes themselves have scarcely any
thing else of this feature but the nostrils ; the rest of the feature
lying flat upon the visage, and scarcely higher than the cheek-
bones. " Among all the tribes of savage men, also, the nose is
very flat ; and I have seen a Tartar who had scarcely any thing
else but two holes through which to breathe."

The mouth and lips, next to the eyes, are found to have the
greatest expression. The passions have great power over this
part of the face ; and the mouth marks its different degrees by
its different forms. The organ of speech still more animates
this part, and gives it more life than any other feature in the
countenance. The ruby colour of the lips, and the white enamel
of the teeth, give it such a superiority over every other feature,
that it seems to make the principal object of our regards. In
fact, the whole attention is fixed upon the lips of the speaker ;
however rapid his discourse, however various the subject, the
mouth takes correspondent situations ; and deaf men have been
often found to see the force of those reasonings which they could
not hear, understanding every word as it was spoken.

" The under jaw in man possesses a great variety of motions ;
while the upper has been thought, by many, to be quite im-
uioveable.^ However, that it moves in man, a very easy experi-

2 Mr Buflun i'< of this >pinion. He s;ijv.i that the upper jaw is iuunonalils

•320 HISTORY OF

merit will suffice to convince us. If we keep the head fixed,
with any thing between our teeth, the edge of a table for
instance, and then open our mouths, we shall find that both jaws
recede from it at the same time ; the upper jaw rises, the lower
falls, and the table remains untouched between them. The
upper jaw has motion as well as the under; and, what is remark-
able, it has its proper muscles behind the head for thus raising
and depressing it. Whenever, therefore, we eat, both jaws
move at the same time, though very unequally ; for the whole
head moving with the upper jaw, of which it makes a part, its
motions are thus less observable." In the human embryo, the
under jaw is very much advanced before the upper. " In the
adult, it hangs a good deal more backward ; and those whose
upper and under row of teeth are equally prominent, and strike
directly against each other, are what the painters call under-
hung; and they consider this as a great defect in beauty.' The
under jaw in a Chinese face falls greatly more backward than
with us ; and I am told the difference is half an inch, when the
mouth is shut naturally." In instances of the most violent pas-
sion, the under jaw has often an involuntary quivering motion ;
and often also, a state of languor produces another, which is that
of yawning. " Every one knows how very sympathetic this kind
of languid motion is ; and that for one person to yawn, is suffi-
cient to set all the rest of the company a-yawning. A ridiculous
instance of this was commonly practised upon the famous
M'Laurin, one of the professors at Edinburgh. He was very
subject to have his jaw dislocated ; so that when he opened his
mouth wdder than ordinary, or when he yawned, he could not
shut it again. In the midst of his harangues, therefore, if any
of his pupils began to be tired of his lecture, he had only to
gape or yawn, and the professor instantly caught the sympathe-
tic affection ; so that he thus continued to stand speechless, with
his mouth wide open, till his servant, from the next room, was
called in to set his jaw again. "-

In all animals. However, the parrot is an obvious exception ; and so is inMi
hil^self^ as shown above.

I Mr Buffon says, that both jaws, in a perfect face, should be on a level ;
but this is denied by the best painters.

'i. Since the publication of this work, the editor has been credibly iu.
formed, that the professor had not the defect here mentioned.

ANIMALS. 321

When the raiiid reflects with regret upon some good unattain-
ed or lost, it f6«ls an internal emotion, which acting upon the
diaphragm, and that upon the lungs, produces a sigh ; this, when
the mind is strongly affected, is repeated ; sorrow succeeds these
iirst emotions, and tears are often seen to follow : sobbing is the
sigh still more invigorated ; and lamentation, or crying, proceeds
from the continuance of the plaintive tone of the voice, which
seems to implore pity. " Thei'e is yet a silent agony, in which
the mind appears to disdain all external help, and broods over its
distresses with gloomy reserve. This is the most dangerous state
of mind : accidents or friendship may lessen the louder kinds o.
grief J but all remedies for this, must be bad from within ; and
there despair too often finds the most deadly enemy."

Laughter is a sound of the voice, interrupted and pursued for
some continuance. The muscles of the belly, and the diaphragm,
are employed in the slightest exertions ; but those of the ribs are
strongly agitated in the louder ; and the head sometimes is thrown
backward, in order to raise them with greater ease. The smile
is often an indication of kindness and good will: it is also often
found used as a mark of contempt and ridicule.

Blushing proceeds from different passions ; being produced by
shame, anger, pride, and joy. Paleness is often also the effect
of anger ; and almost ever attendant on fright and fear. These
alterations in the colour of the countenance are entirely involun-
tary : all the other expressions of the passions are, in some small
degree, under control ; but blushing and paleness betray our se-
'.ret purposes ; and we might as well attempt to stop them, as
the circulation of the blood, by which they are caused.

The whole head, as well as the features of the face,
takes peculiar attitudes from its passions : it bends forward,
to express humility, shame, or sorrow ; it is turned to one side,
in languor or in pity ; it is thrown with the chin forward, in
arrogance and pride ; erect in self-conceit and obstinacy : it is
thrown backwards in astonishment ; and combines its motions
to the one side and the other, to express contempt, ridicule, an-
ger, and resentment. " Painters, whose study leads to the con-
templation of external forms, are much more adequate judges of
these than any naturalist can be ; and it is with these a general
remark, that no one passion is regularly expressed on different
countenances in the same manner ; but that grief often sits upon

322 HISTORY OF

the face like joy, and pride assumes the air of passion. Jt
would be vain, therefore, in words, to express their general
eifeet, since they are often as various as the countenances they
sit upon ; and in making this distinction nicely, lies all the skill
of the physiognomist. In being able to distinguish what part
of the face is marked by nature, and what by the mind ; what
part has been originally formed, and what is made by habit ; con-
stitutes this science, upon which the ancients so much valued
themselves, and which we at present so little regard. Some,
however, of the most acute men among us have paid great atten-
tion to this art ; and by long practice, have been able to give some
character of every person whose face they examined. Montaigne
is well known to have disliked those men who shut one eye in
looking upon any object ; and Fielding asserts that he never
knew a person with a steady glavering smile, but he found him
a rogue. However, most of these observations, tending to a dis-
covery of the mind by the face, are merely capricious ; and Na-
ture has kindly hid our hearts from each other, to keep us in
good humour with our fellow-creatures."

The parts of the head which give the least expression to
the face, are the ears : and they are generally found hidden un-
der the hair. These, which are immovable, and make so small
an appearance in man, are very distinguishing features in quadru-
peds. These serve in them as the principal marks of the passions ;
the ears discover their joys or their terrors, with tolerable pre-
cision ; and denote all their internal agitations. The smallest
ears in men, are said to be the most beautiful ; but the largest are
found to be the best for hearing. There are some savage na-
tions who bore their ears, and so draw that part down, that the
tips of the ears are seen to rest upon their shoulders.

The strange variety in the different customs of men appears
still more extravagant in their manner of wearing their beards.
Some, and among others the Turks, cut the hair off their heads,
and let their beards grow. The Europeans on the contrary,
shave their beards and wear their hair. The negroes shave their
neads in figures at one time, in stars at another, in the manner
of friars; and still more commonly in alternate stripes; and
their little boys are shaved in the same manner. The Talapoins,
of Siam, shave the heads and the eye-brows of such children as
are committed to their care. Every nation seems to have en-

AVIMAI.S. 323

tertaincd diiTerent prejudices, at different times, in favour ot
one part or another ot the beard. Some have admired the hair
upon the cheeks on each side, as we see with some low-bred
men among ourselves, who want to be fine. Some like the hair
lower down ; some choose it curled ; and others like it straight.
" Some have it- cut into a peak ; and others shave all but the
whisker. This particular part of the beard was highly prized
among the Spaniards ; till of late, a man without whiskers was
considered as unfit for company ; and where Nature had denied
them, Art took care to supply the deficiency. We are told of
a Spanish general, who, when he borrowed a large sum ot
n;oney from the Venetians, pawned his whisker, which he after-
wards took proper care to release. Kingson assures us, that a
considerable part of the religion of the Tartars consists in the
management of their whiskers : and that they waged a long
and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, mere-
ly because they would not give their whiskers the orthodox
cut. — The kings of Persia carried the care of their beards to a
ridiculous excess, when they chose to wear them matted with
gold thread : and even the kings of France, of the first races, had
them knotted and buttoned with gold. But of all nations, the
Americans take the greatest pains in cutting their hair, and
plucking their beards. The under part of the beard, and all
but the whisker, they take care to pluck up by the roots, so that
many have supposed them to have no hair naturally growing on
that part ; and even Linnaeus has fallen into that mistake.
Their hair is also cut into bands ; and no small care employed
in adjusting the whisker. In fact we have a very wrong idea
of savage finery ; and are apt to suppose that, like the beasts of
the forest, they rise and are dressed with a shake, but the reverse
is true ; for no birth-night beauty takes more time or pains in
the adorning her person than they. I remember, when the Che-
rokee kings were over here, that I have waited for three hours
during the time they were dressing. They never would venture
to make their appearance till they had gone through the tedious
ceremonies of the toilet : they had their boxes of oil and ochre,
their fat and their perfumes, like the most effeminate beau, and
generally took up four hours in dressing before they considered
themselves as fit to be seen. We must not, therefore, consider
a delicacy in point of dress, as a mark of refinement, since

324) HISTORY OF

savages are much more difficult in this particular than the most
fashionable or tawdry European. The more barbarous the peo-
ple, the fonder of finery. In Europe, the lustre of jewels, and
the splendour of the most brilliant colours, are generally given up
to women, or to the weakest part of the other sex, who are willing
to be contemptibly fine -. but in Asia, these trifling fineries are
eagerly sought after, by every condition of men, and as the pro-
verb has it, we find the richest jewels in an Ethiop's ear. The
passion for glittering ornaments is still stronger among the ab-
solute barbai'ians, who often exchange their whole stock of pro-
visions, and whatever else they happen to be possessed of, with
our seamen, for a glass-bead, or a looking-glass.

Although fashions have arisen in different countries from
fancy and caprice, these, when they become general, deserve
examination. Mankind have always considered it as a matter of
moment, and they will ever continue desirous of drawing the at-
tention of each other, by such ornaments as mark the riches, the
power, or courage of the wearer. The value of those shining
stones, which have at all times been considered as precious orna-
ments, is entirely founded upon their scarceness or their brilliancy.
It is the same likewise with respect to those shining metals,
the weight of which is so little regarded, when spread over our
clothes. These ornaments are rather designed to draw the at-
tention of others, than to add to any enjoyments of our own ;
and few there are, that these ornaments will not serve to
dazzle, and who can coolly distinguish between the metal and
the man.

All things rare and brilliant will, therefore, ever continue to
be fashionable, while men derive greater advantage from opu-
lence than virtue ; while the means of appearing considerable, are
more easily acquired, than the title to be considered. The
first impression we generally make, arises from our dress ; and
this varies, in conformity to our inclinations, and the manner in
which we desire to be considered. The modest man, or he who
would wish to be thought so, desires to show the simplicity of his
mind by the plainness of his dress ; the vain man, on the con-
trary, takes a pleasure in displaying his superiority, " and is will-
ing to incur the spectator's dislike, so he does but excite his
attention."

Another point of view which men have in dressing, is to in

AN'IMAl.S. 3-5

crease the size of their figure ; and to take up rcore room in
the world than Nature seems to have allotted them. We desire
to swell out our clothes by the stiffness of art, and raise our
heels, while we add to the largeness of our heads. How bulky
soever our dress may be, our vanities are still more bulky. The
largeness of the doctor's wig arises from the same pride with
the smallness of the beau's queue. Both want to have the size
of their understanding measured by the size of their heads.

There are some modes that seem to have a more reasonable
origin, which is to hide or to lessen the defects of nature. To
take men all together, there are many more deformed and plain
than beautiful and shapely. The former, as being the most
numerous, give law to fashion ; and their laws are generally
such as are made in their own favour. The women begin to
colour their cheeks with red, when the natural roses are faded ;
and the younger are obliged to submit, though not compelled by
the same necessity. In all parts of the world, this custom pre-
vails more or less ; and powdering and frizzing the hair, though
not so general, seems to have risen from a similar control.

But leaving the draperies of the human picture, let us return
to the figure, unadorned by art. JMan's ht-ad, whether consi-
dered externally or internally, ir; differently formed from that of
all other animals, the monkey-kind only excepted, in which
there is a striking similitude — There are some differences,
however, which we shall take notice of in another place. The
bodies of all quadruped animals are covered with hair ; but the
head of man seems the part most adorned, and that more abun-
dantly than in any other animal.

There is a very great variety in the teeth of all animals: some
have them above and below j others have them in the under
jaw only; ir»some they stand separate from each other ; while
in some they are continued and imited. The palate of some
fishes is nothing else but a bony plate studded with points, which
perform the offices of teeth. All these substimces, in every
animal, derive their origin from the nerves ; the substance or
the nerves hardens by being exposed to the air ; and the nerves
that terminate in the mouth, being thus exposed, acquire a bony
ftolidity. In this manner the teeth and nails are formed in
man ; and in this manner also, the beak, the hoofs, the hornt,
and the talons, of other animals, are found to bp produced.
2 E

'i26 HISTORY or

The neck supports the head, and unites it to the iiody. I'liis
part is much more considerable in the generality of quadrupeds,
than in man. But iishes, and other animals that want lung
similar to ours, have no neck whatsoever. Birds, in general,
have the neck longer than any other kind of animals ; those of
them which have short claws, have also short necks ; those, on
the contrary, that have them long, are found to have the neck
in proportion. — "In men, there is a lump upon the wind-pipe,
formed by the thyroid cartilage, which is not to be seen in
women : an Arabian fable says, that this is a part of the original
apple, that has stuck in the man's throat by the way, but that the
woman swallowed her part of it down."

The human breast is outwardly formed in a very different
manner from that of other animals. It is larger in proportion
to the size of the body, and none but man, and such animals as
make use of their fore-feet as hands, such as monkeys, bats, and
squirrels, and such quadrupeds as climb trees, are found to have
those bones called the clavicles, or, as we usually term them, the
collar bones. ' The breasts in women are larger than in men ; how-
ever, they seem formed in the same manner ; and, sometimes,
milk is found in the breasts of men, as well as in those of women.
Among animals, there is a great variety in this part of the body.
The teats of some, as in the ape and the elephant, are like those
of men, being but two, and placed on each side of the breast.
The teats of the bear amount to four. The sheep has but two,
placed between the hinder legs. Other animals, such as the
bitch and the sow, have them all along the belly ; and, as they
produce many young, they have a great many teats for their sup-
port. The form also of the teats varies in different animals ;
and in the same animal at different ages. The bosom, in
females, seems to unite all our ideas of beauty, wliere the out-
line is continually changing, and the gradations are soft and regu-
iar.»

1 Mr Bulfoa sayn, that none but monkeys have them, but this is an over,
nifflit

* Darwin supports the curious theory, that our idea of the waving line of
lieauty originates from our early familiarity with the female bosom. " When
the babe," says he, " snon after it is born into tliis folil world, is applied to
its motlier'g bosom, its sense of perceivin;; warmth is first agreeably affected;
acx^ its s>ui9e of sniell is deligtited with the odour of her milk ; then its tasis

ANIMALS. 32V

" Tlie graceful fall of the shoulders, both in man and woman,
constitute no small part of beauty. In apes, tiiougli otherwise
made like us, the shoulders are high, and drawn up on each
side towards the ears. In man they fall by a gentle declivity ;
and the more so, in proportion to the beauty of his form. In
fact, being high -shouldered, is not without reason considered as
a deformity, for we find very sickly persons are always so, and
people when dying are ever seen with their shoulders drawn up
in a surprising manner. The muscles that serve to raise the ribsj
mostly rise near the shoulders ; and the higher we raise the

is gratified by the flavour of it ; afterwards the appetites of hunger and ov
thirst aflbrd pleasure by the possession of their objects, and by the subse.
quent digestion of the aliment; and lastly, the sense of touch is delighted by
the softness and smoothness of the milky fountain, the source of such variety
of happiness. All those various kinds of pleasure at length become associated
with the form of the mother's breast ; which the infant embraces with its
liands, presses with its lips, and watches with its eyes ; and thus acquires
mure accurate ideas of the form of its mother's bosom, than of the odour and
flavour, or warmth, which it perceives by other senses. And hence at our
maturer years, when any object of vision is represented to us, which by its
\vaving or spiral lines bears any similitude to the form of the female bosom,
whether it be found in a landscape, with soft gradations of rising and de-
scending surface, or in the form of some antique vases, or in other works of
the pencil or the chisel, we feel a general glow of delight, which seems to
influence all our senses ; and if the object be not too large, we experience au
attraction to embrace it with our arms, and salute it with our lips, as we did
in our early infancy the bosom of our mothers. And thus we find, accord-
ing to the ingenious idea of Hogarth, that the waving lines of beauty wcro
originally taken from the Temple of Venus.

" If the wide eye the wavy lawns explores.

The bending woodlands, or the winding shores,

Hills, whose green sides with soft protuberance rise,

Or the blue concave of the vaulted skies ; —

Or scans with nicer gaze the pearly swell

Of spiral volutes round the twisted shell :

Or undulating sweep, whose graceful turns

Bound the smooth surface of Etrurian urns.

When on fine forms the waving lines impress 'd

Give the nii^e curves, which swell the ftnialc breast ;

The countless joys tjje tender mother prfcirs.

Hound the soft cradle of our infant hours,

In lively trains of une.xtinct delight

Rise in our bosoms, recognized bt/ sight ;

Fond Fancy's eye recalls the form divine,

And Tasti; sits smiling upon Beauty's shrine."* •

• 'J'eiiiple of Mature, pag:' iOI

2e2

o28 HISTOliV OF

shoulders, we the more easily raise the ribs likewise. It hap-
])ens, therefore, in the sickly and the dying, who do not breathe
without labour, that to raise the ribs, they are obliged to call in
the assistance of the shoulders ; and thus their bodies assume,
from habit, that form which they are so frequently obliged to
assume. Women with child, also, are usually seen to be high-
shouldered ; for the weight of the inferior parts drawing down the
ribs, they are obliged to use every effort to elevate them, and thus
they raise their shoulders of course. During pregnancy, also,
the shape, not only of the shoulders, but also of the breast, and
even the features of the face, are greatly altered ; for the whole
upper fore-part of the body is covered with a broad thin skin,
called the myoides ; which being, at that time, drawn down, it
also draws down with it the skin, and, consequently, the features
of the face. By these means the visage takes a particular form ;
the lower eye-lids and the corners of the mouth, are drawn
downv.'ards ; so that the eyes are enlarged, and the mouth length-
ened : and women in these circumstances, are said by the mid-
wives, to be " all mouth and eyes."

The arms of men but very little resemble the fore-feet or
quadrupeds, and much less the wings of birds. The ape is the
only animal that is possessed of hands and iu'ms; but these are
much more rudely fashioned, and with less exact proportion, than
in men ; " the thumb not being so well opposed to the rest of
the fingers, in their hands, as in ours."

The form of the back is not much different in man from that
of other quadruped animals, only that the reins are more muscu-
lar in him, and stronger. The buttock, however, in man, is dif-
ferent from that of all other animals whatsoever. What goes
by that name in other creatures, is only the upper part of the
thigh ; man being the only animal that supports himself perfect-
ly erect, the largeness of this part is owing to the peculiarity of
his position.

Man's feet, also, are different from those of all other animals,
tliose even of apes not excepted. The foot of the ape is rather
a kind of awkward hand ; its toes, or rather fingers, are long, and
that of the middle longest of all. This foot also wants the heel,
as in man ; the sole is narrov/er, and less adapted to maintain
tiic equilibrium of the body, in walking, dancing, or running.

The nails are less in nuin than in any other animal. If they

AMM.M.S. 320

neio imicli longer than tlu; extremities of tbfi fingers, they would
rutlier be prejudieial tbaii serviceable, and obstruct the manage-
ment of the hand. Such savages as let them grow long mak.t=
u>(i of tliem in llajdng animals, in tearing their flesh, and such
like purposes ; however, though their nails are considerably
larger than ours, they are by no means to be compared to the
hoofs or the claws of other animals. " They may sometimes be
seen longer, indeed, than the claws of any animal whatsoever ;
as we learn that the nails of some of the learned men in China
are longer than their fingers. But these want that solidity which
might give force to their exertions, and could never, in a state
ot nature, have served them for annoyance or defence."

There is little known exactly with regard to the proportion of
tiie human figure; and the beauty of the best statues is better
conceived by observing than by measuring them. The statiics
of antiquity, which were at first copied after tlie human form,
are now become the models of it ; nor is there one man found
whose person approaches to those inimitab'e performances tliat
liave thus, in one figure, united the perfections of many. It is
sufficient to say, that from being at first models, tliey are now
become originals ; and are used to correct the deviations in that
form from whence they were taken. I will not, ho^vever, pre-
tend to give the proportions of the human body as taken f)om
lliese, there being nothing more arbitrary, and which good paint-
ers themselves so much contemn. Some, for instance, who have
studied after these, divide the body into ten times the length of
the face ; and others into eight. Some pretend to tell us, that
there is a similitude of proportion in different parts of the
biidy. Thus, that the hand is the Icigth of the face ; the thumb
the length of the nose ; the space between the eyes is the breadtl
i;f an eye ; that the breadth of the thigh, at thickest, is double
that of tlie thickest part of the leg, and treble the smallest ;
that the arms extended are as long as the figure is high ; that
the legs and thighs are half the length of the figure. i\ll tiii.s,
however, is extremely arbitrary ; and the excellence of a shajjc,
or tlie beauty of a statue, results from the attitude and jjositioi;
()(' the whole, rather than any established mefisurements, begun
w ilhout experience, and adopted by caprice. In general, it may
be reinark'jd, that the pr()))ortions alter in every age, and am
o!iv)uu;.ly ■ 'jfiercnt in the two sexes. In wonieii, the shoulder-*

2 K 3

^30 HISTORY OF

are narrower, and the neck proportionably loiif^er, than in
men. The hips also are considerably larger, and the thighs
much shorter, than in men. These proportions, however, vary
greatly at different ages. In infancy, the upper parts of the body
are much larger than the lower ; the legs and thighs do not con-
stitute any thing like half the height of the whole figure ; in pro-
portion as the child increases in age, the inferior parts are foimd
to lengthen ; so that the body is not equally divided until it has
acquired its full growth.

The size of men varies considerably. Men are said to be tall
who are irom five feet eight inches to six feet high. The mid-
dle stature is from five feet five to five feet eight : and those are
sai^ to be of small stature who fall under these measures.
" However, it ought to be remarked, that the same person is
always taller when he rises in the morning, than upon going to
bed at night ; and sometimes there is an inch difference ; and I
have seen more. Few persons are sensible of this remarkable
variation ; and I am told, it was first perceived in England by a
recruiting officer. He often found that those men whom he had
enlisted for soldiers, and answered to the appointed standard
at one time, fell short of it when they came to be measured be-
fore the colonel at the head-quarters. This diminution in their
size pi'oceeded from the different times of the day, and the dif-
ferent states of the body, when they happened to be measured.
If, as was said, they were measured in the morning, after the
night's refreshment, they were found to be commonly half an inch,
and very often a whole inch, taller than if measured after the
fatigues of the day •, if they were measured when fresh in the
country, and before a long fatiguing march to the regiment, they
were found to be an inch taller than when they arrived at their
jowTicy's end. All this is now well known among those who
recruit for the army, and the reason of this difference of stature
is obvious. Between all the joints of the back-bone, which is
composed of several pieces, there is a glutinous liquor deposited,
which serves, like oil in a machine, to give the parts an easy
play upon each other. This lubricating liquor, or synovia, as
the anatomists call it, is poured in during the season of repose,
and is consumed by exercise and employment ; so that in a body,
after hard labour, there is scarce any of it remaining ; but all
the joints grow stiff, and their motion becomes hard and painful

ANIMALS. 331

It is from hence, therefore, that the body diminislies in stature.
For this moisture being drained away from between the nume-
rous joints of the back-bone, they lie closer upon each other ;
and their whole length is thus very sensibly diminished ; but
sleep, by restoring the fluid again, swells the spaces between the
joints, and the whole is extended to its former dimensions

" As the human body is thus often found to differ from itsel f
in size, so it is found to differ in its weight also ; and the same
person, without any apparent cause, is found to be heavier at one
time than another. If, after having eaten a hearty dinner, or
having drank hard, the person should find himself thus heavier,
it would appear no way extraordinary ; but the fact is, the body
is very often found heavier some hours after eating a hearty meal
tlmn immediately succeeding it. If, for instance, a person, fa-
tigued by a day's hard labour, should eat a plentiful supper, and
then get himself weighed upon going to bed; after sleeping
soundly, if he is again weighed, lie will find himself considerably
heavier than before ; and this difference is often found to amount
to a pound, or sometimes to a pound and a half. From whence
this adventitious weight is derived is not easy to conceive; the
body, during the whole night, appears rather plentifully perspir-
ing than imbibing any fluid, rather losing than gaining moisture :
however, we have no reason to doubt, but that either by the
lungs, or perhaps by a peculiar set of pores, it is all this time
inhaling a quantity of fluid, which thus increases the weight of
the whole body, upon being weighed the next morning.'"

Although the human body is externally more delicate than any
of the quadruped kind, it is, notwithstanding, extremely muscu-
'.ar; and, perhaps, for its size, stronger than that of any other
animal. If we should offer to comjjare the strength of the lion
with that of man, we should consider that the claws of this ani-
mal give us a false idea of its power •, we ascribe to its force
what is only the effect of its arms. Those which man has re-
ceived from Nature are not offensive , happy had art never fur-
nished him with any more terrible than those which arm the
l)!iws of the lion.

Eut there is another maimer- of comparhig the strength of

1 From tliis experimpnt also, the learned may ijathpr upon uliat a w-aU
foiiiuiatiou the whole doolrine of Sanctoriaii perspiration is Imilt : but thil
di-ijuisition more properly heloiiKS lo ini'diciiic than natural history.

vi Mr Bullon calls it a belter lUiUDier ; but this is not the case.

3o2 HisTOiiY or

man with that of otlior animals ; namely, by the weights which
either can carry. We are assured that the porters of Constan-
tinople carry burdens of nine hundred pounds weight. Mr Pe-
saguliers tells us of a man, who by distributing weights in such a
maimer as that every part of his body bore its share, he was thus
able to raise a weight of two thousand pounds. A horse, which
is about seven times our bulk, would be thus able to raise a
weight of fourteen thousand pounds, if its strength were
in the same proportion.' " But the truth is, a horse will not
carry ujjou its back above a weight of two or three hundred
poimds ; while a man of confessedly inferior strength is thus able
to support two thousand. Whence comes this seeming supe-
riority ? The answer is obvious. Because tlie load upon the
man's shoulders is placed to the greatest advantage ; while, upon
the horse's back, it is placed at the greatest disadvantage. Let
us suppose for a moment the man standing as upright as possi-
ble, under the great load above mentioned. It is obvious that
all the bones of his body may be compared to a pillar supporting
a building, and that his muscles have scarce any share in this
dangerous duty. However, they are not entirely inactive ; as
man, let him stand never so upright, will have some bending in
different parts of his body. The muscles, therefore, give the
bones some assistance, and that with the greatest possible advan-
tage. In this manner, a man has been found to support two
thousand weight ; but may be capable of supporting a still greater.
The manner in which this is done, is by strapping the load
round the shoulders of the person who is to bear it, by a machine,
something like that by which milk-vessels or water-buckets are
carried. The load being thus placed on a scaffold, on each side,
contrived for that purpose, and the man standing erect in the
midst, all parts of the scaffold, except that where the man stand:;,
are made to sink ; and thus the man miiiiitaining his position, the
load whatever it is, becomes suspended, and the column of his
bones may be fairly said to support it. If, however, he should
but ever so little give way, he nnist inevitably drop -, and no
power of his can raise the weights again. But the case is very
different with regard to a load laid ujion a horse. The column

1 Mr Ruffiiii carricH lliis Miiijcot no fartlicrj and thus far, without espla-
Datii'.ii, it is erroiioous.

ANIMALS. 333

of the bones there lies a ditfeient way ; and a weight of five
hundred pounds, as I am told, would break the back of the
strongest horse that could be found. The great force of a horse,
and other quadrupeds, is exerted when the load is in such a po-
sition as that the column of the bones can be properly applied,
which is lengthwise. When, therefore, we are to estimate
the comparative strength of a horse, we are not to try what he
<-an carry, but what he can draw ; and in this case, his amazing
superiority over man is easily discerned ; for one horse can draw
a load that ten men cannot move. And in some cases it hap-
pens that a draught horse draws the better for being somewhat
loaded ; for, as the peasants say, the load upon the back keeps
him the better to the ground."

There is still another way of estimating human strength, by
the perseverance and agility of our motions. Men who are
exercised in running, outstrip horses •, or, at least, hold then'
speed for a longer continuance. In a journey, also, a man will
walk down a horse ; and, after they have both continued to pro-
ceed for several days, the horse will be quite tired, and the man
will be fiesher, than in the beginning.* The king's messengers
of IspahtBi, who are runners by profession, go thirty-six leagues
in fourteen hours. Travellers ajsure us, that the Hottentots
outstrip lions in the chase ; and that the savages who hunt the
elk, pursue with such speed, that they at last tire down and take
it. We are told many very surprising things of the great swift-
ness of the savages, and of the long journeys they undertake on
foot, through the most craggy mountains, where there are no
paths to direct, nor houses to entertain them. They are said toper-
form a journey of twelve hundred leagues in less than six weeks.
" But notwithstanding what travellers report of this matter, I have
been assured from many of our officers and soldiers who com-
pared their own swiftness with that of the native Americans
during the last war, that although the savages held out, and as

*Tlii5 maybfi fluttprin? to humanity : butin justiop to the poor horse it may
be ptaled, that a fair trial has never been made of the respective powers o.
man and liorse in regard to pedestrianisiii. If there were, there can be little
doubt but that tlie horse would prove his superiority. Arab horses, for ex.
Binple, are known to carry their riders .ind accoutrements across the desert
for many successive days, at the rate of 70 and HO miles ii day. How far
they might go without weiKlit, may be imagined, but has never been tried.

334i HISTOllY OK

the phrase is, had better bottoms, yet, for a spurt, the English-
men were more nimble and speedy."

Nevertheless, in general, civilized man is ignorant of his own
powers : he is ignorant how much he loses by effeminacy ; and
what might be acquired by habit and exercise. Here and there,
indeed, men are found among us of extraordinary strength ; but
that strength, for want of opportunity, is seldom called into ex-
ertion. " Among the ancients it was a quality of much greater
use than at present ; as in war the same man that had strength
sufficient to carry the heaviest armour, had strength sufficient
also to strike the most fatal blow. In this case, his strength
was at once his protection and his power. We ought not to be
surprised, therefore, when we hear of one man terrible to an
army, and irresistible in his career, as we find some generals
represented in ancient history. But we may be very certain
that this prowess was exaggerated by flattery, and exalted by
terror. An age of ignorance is ever an age of wonder. At
such times, mankind, having no just ideas of the human powers,
ai-e willing rather to represent what they wish, than what they
know ; and exalt human strength, to fill up the whole sphere of
their limited conceptions. Great strength is an accidental thing ;
two or three in a country may possess it; and these may have a
claim to heroism. But what may lead us to doubt of the vera-
cityof these accounts is, that the heroes of antiquity are repre
sented as the sons of heroes ; their amazing strength is deliver-
ed down from father to son ; and this we know to be contiary
to the course of nature. Strength is not hereditary, although
titles are : and I am very much induced to believe, that this
great tribe of heroes, who are all represented as the descendants
of heroes, are more obliged to their titles than to theii
strength, for their characters. With regard to the shining
characters in Homer, they are all rcin-eseiited as princes,
and as the sons of princes ; while we are told of scarce any
share of prowess in the meaner men of the army ; who are only
brought into the field for these to protect, or to slaughter. But
nothing can be more unlikely than that those men, who were bred
in the hixuiy of courts, should be strong ; while the whole body of
the people, who received a plainer and simpler education, should
be comparatively weak. Nothing can be more contrary to tin;
general lav.s of nature, than that all the sous of heroes should thw*

ANIMALS. 335

inherit not only the kingdoms, but the strength of liieir fore-
fathers ; and we may conclude, that they owe the greatest sbaro
of their imputed strength rather to the dignity of their stations
than the force of their arms ; and, like all fortunate princes,
their flatterers happened to be believed. In later ages, indeed,
we have some accounts of amazing strength, which we can have
710 reason to doubt of. But in these, nature is found to pursue
her ordinary course ; and we find their strength accidental. V/e
find these strong men among the lowest of the people, and
gradually rising into notice, as this superiority had more oppor-
tunity of being seen. Of this number was the Roman tribune,
who went by the name of the second Achilles ; who, with his
o>vn hand, is said to have killed, at different times, three hun-
dred of the enemy ; and when treacherously set upon, by twenty-
five of his own countrymen, although then past his sixtieth year,
killed fourteen of them before he was slain. Of this number
was Milo, who, when he stood upright, could not be forced
out of his place. Pliny also tells us of one Athanatus, who
walked across the stage at Rome, loaded with a breastplate
weighing five hundred pounds, and buskins of the same weight.
But of all the prodigies of strength, of whom we have any
accounts in Roman history, Maximin, the emperor, is to be
reckoned the foremost. Whatever we are told relative to him
is well attested; his character was too exalted not to be
thoroughly known ; and that very strength, for which he was
celebrated, at last procured him no less a reward than the empire
of the world. Maximin was above nine feet in height, and the
best proportioned man in the whole empire. He was by birth
a Thracian ; and, from being a simple herdsman, rose through
the gradations of oflSce, untU he came to be emperor of Rome.
The first opportunity he had of exerting his strength, was in the
presence of all the citizens, in the theatre, where he overthrew
twelve of the strongest men in wrestling, and out-stript two of
the fleetest horses in running, all in one day. He could draw
a chariot loaden, that two strong horses could not move j
he could break a horse's jaw with a blow of his fist, and its
thigh with a kick. In war he was always foremost and invin-
cible : happy had it been for him and his subjects if, from being
formidable to his enemies, he had not become still more so to
his subjects ; he reigned, for some time, with all the world his

33f) HISTORY OF

enemy ; all mankind wishing him dead, yet none daring to strike
the blow. As if fortune had resolved that through life he
should continue unconquerable, he was killed at last by his own
soldiers while he was sleeping. We have many other instances,
in later ages, of very great strength, and not fewer of amazing
swiftness ; but these, merely corporeal perfections, are nov?
considered as of small advantage, either in war or in peace.
The invention of gunpowder has, in some measure, levelled all
force to one standard : and has wrought a total change in mar-
tial education through all parts of the world. In peace also the
invention of new machines every day, and the application of the
strength of the lower animals to the purposes of life, have ren-
dered human strength less valuable. The boast of corporeal
force is, therefore, consigned to savage nations, where those arts
not being introduced, it may still be needful ; but in more polite
countries, few will be proud of that strength which other ani-
mals can be taught to exert to as useful purposes as they.

" If we compare the largeness and thickness of our muscles
with those of any other animal, we shall find that, in this respect,
we have the advantage ; and if strength, or swiftness depended
upon the quantity of muscular flesh alone, I believe that, in this
respect, we should be more active and powerful than any
other. But this is not the case ; a great deal more than the
size of the muscles goes to constitute activity or force ; and it
is not he who has the thickest legs that can make the best use
of them. Those therefore who have written elaborate treatises
on muscular force, and have estimated the strength of animals
by the thickness of their muscles, have been employed to very
little purpose. It is in general observed, that thin and raw-
boned men are always stronger and more powerful, than such
as are seemingly more muscular ; as in the former all the parts
have better room i"or their exertions.

Women want much of the strength of men ; and in some
countries the stronger sex have availed themselves of the supe-
riority, in cruelly and tyrannically enslaving those who were
made with equal pretensions to a share in all the advantages life
can bestow. Savage nations oblige their women to a life of
continual labour; upon them rest all the drudgeries of domestic
duty, while the husband, indolently reclined in his hammock, is
lirst served from the fruits of her industry. From this negligent

ANIMALS. 337

situation he is seldom roused, except by the calls of appetite,
when it is necessary, either by fishing or hunting, to make a
variety in his entertainments. A savage has no idea of taking
pleasure in exercise ; he is surprised to see a European walk
forward for his amusement, and then return back again. As for
his part, he could be contented to remain for ever in the same
situation, perfectly satisfied with sensual pleasures and undis-
turbed repose. The women of these countries are the greatest
slaves upon earth : sensible of their weakness, and unable to
resist, they are obliged to suffer those hardships which are na-
turally inflicted by such as have been taught that nothing but
corporeal force ought to give pre-eminence. It is not, therefore,
till after some degree of refinement, that women are treated
with lenity ; and not till the highest degree of politeness, that
they are permitted to share in all the privileges of man. The
first impulse of savage nature is to confirm their slavery ; the
next of half barbarous nations, is to appropriate their beauty ;
and that of the perfectly polite, to engage their affections. In
civilized countries, therefore, women have united the force of
modesty to the power of their natural charms ; and thus obtain
that superiority over the mind, which they are unable to extor*
by their strength.

CHAP. VI.

OF SLF.El" ANO HUNGER.

As man, in all the privileges he enjoys, and the powers he is
invested with, has a superiority over all other animals, so in his
necessities, he seems inferior to the meanest of them iJl. Na-
ture has brought him into life with a greater variety of wants and
infirmities than the rest of her creatures, unarmed in the midst
of enemies. The lion has natural arms ; the bear natural
clothing ; but man is destitute of all such advantages ; and from
the superiority of his mind alone, he is to supply the deficiency.
The number of his wants, however, were merely given, in order
Co multiply the number of his enjoyments ; since the possibility

2 F

338 HisroiiY OF

of being deprived of any good, teaches him the v;ilue of its pos-
t^ession. Were men born with those advantages which he learns
to possess by industry, he would very probably enjoy them with
a blunter relish ; it is by being naked that he knows the value
<jf a covering; it is by being exposed to the weather, that he
learns the comforts of a habitation. Every want thus becomes
a means of pleasure, in the redressing ; and the animal that has
most desires, may be said to be capable of the greatest variety
of happiness.

Besides the thousand imaginary wants peculiar to man, there
are two, which he has in common with all other animals ; and
which he feels in a more necessary manner than they. These
are the wants of sleep and hunger. Every animal that we are
acquainted with, seems to endure the want of these with much
less injury to health than man ; and some are most surprisingly
patient in sustaining both. The little domestic animals that
we keep about us, may often set a lesson of calm resignation, in
Bupportiiig want and watchfulness, to the boasted philosopher.
They receive their pittance at uncertain intervals, and wait its
coming with cheerful expectation. We have instances of the
dog and the cat living in this manner, without food, for several
days ; and yet still preserving their attachment to the tyrant
that oppresses them ; still ready to exert their little services
for his amusement or defence. But the patience of these is no-
thing to what the animals of the forest endure. As these mostly
live upon accidental carnage, so they are often known to re-
main without food for several weeks together. Nature, kindly
solicitous for their support, has also contracted their stomachs, to
suit them for their precarious way of living : and kindly, while
it abridges the banquet, lessens the necessity of providing for it.

But the meaner tribes of animals are made still more capable
of sustaining life without food, many of them remaining in a
state of torpid indifference, till their prey approaches, when
they jump upon and seize it. In this manner, the snake, or
the spider, continue, for several months together, to subsist upon
a single meal ; and some of the butterfly kinds live upon little
or nothing. But it is very differe)it with man : his wants daily
make their importunate demands ; and it is known that he can-
not continue to live many days without eating, drinking, and
sleeping.

ANIMAt-S. 339

Hunger is a much more powerful enemy to man than «atcli-
fulness, and kills him much sooner. It may be coiisideredasa dis
order that food i-emoves ; and that would quickly be fatal, wi*",!!-
out its proper antidote. In fact, it is so terrible to man, that
to avoid it he even encounters certain death •, and, rather than
endure its tortures, he exchanges them for immediate destruction.
However, by what I have been told, it is much more dreadful
in its approaches, than in its continuance ; and the pains of a
famishing wretch decrease, as his strength diminishes. In the
beginning the desire of food is dreadful indeed, as we know
by experience, for there are few who have not, in some degree,
felt Its approaches. But, after the first or second day, its tor-
tures become less terrible, and a total insensibility at length
comes kindly in to the poor wretch's assistance. I have talked
with the captain of a ship, who was one of six that endured it
in its extremities ; and who was the only person that had not
lost his senses, when they received accidental relief. He as-
siu-ed me, his pains at first were so great, as to be often tempt-
ed to cat a part of one of the men who died ; and which the
rest of his crew actually for some time lived upon : he said that
during the continuance of this paroxysm, he found his pains
insupportable ; and was desirous, at one time, of anticipating
that death which he thought inevitable : but his pains, he
said, gradually decreased, after the sixth day, (for they had
water in the ship, which kept them alive so long,) and then
he was in a state rather of languor than desire ; nor did he much
wish for food, except when he saw others eating ; and that for a
while revived his appetite, though with diminished importunity.
The latter part of the time, when his health was almost destroyed,
a thousand strange images rose upon his mind ; and every one
of his senses began to bring him wrong information. The most
fragrant perfumes appeared to him to have a foetid smell ;
and every thing he looked at took a greenish hue, and sometimes
a yellow. When he was presented with food by the ship's com-
pany that took him and his men up, four of whom died shortly
after, he could not help looking upon it with loathing instead of
desire ; and it was not till after four days, that bis stomach was
biought to its natural tone, when the violence of his api)etite re.
turned, with a sort of canine eagerness.

Thus dreadful are the effects of hunger; and yet when wo

2 F 2

oM) IIISTORV Of

come to assign the cause that produces thein, we find the sub-
ject involved in doubt and intricacy. This longing eagerness is,
no doubt, given for a very obvious purpose ; that of replenishing
the body, wasted by fatigue and perspiration. Were not men
stimulated by such a pressing monitor, they might be apt to
pursue other amusements, with a perseverance beyond their
|)o\ver ; and forget the useful hours of refreshment, in those
more tempting ones of pleasure. But hunger makes a demand
that will not be refused ; and, indeed, the generality of mankind
seldom await the call.

Hunger has been supposed by some to arise from the rubbing
of the coats of the stomach against each other, without having
any intervening substance to prevent their painful attrition.
Others have imagined that its juices, wanting their necessary
supply, turn acrid, or, as some say, pungent ; and thus fret its
internal coats, so as to produce a train of the most uneasy sen-
sations. Boerhaave, who established his reputation in physic, by
uniting the conjectures of all those that preceded him, ascribes
hunger to the united effect of both these causes ; and asserts,
that the pungency of the gastric juices, and the attrition of its
coats against each other, cause those pains, which nothing but
food can remove. These juices continuing still to be separated
m the stomach, and every moment becoming more acrid, mix
with the blood, and infect the circulation : the circulation being
thus contaminated, becomes weaker, and more contracted ; and
the whole nervous frame sympathizing, a hectic fever, and some-
times madness, is produced ; in which state the faint wretch
expires. In this manner, the man who dies of hunger may be
said to be poisoned by the juices of his own body ; and is de
stroyed less by the want of nourishment, than by the vitiated
qualities of that which he had already taken.

However this may be, we have but few instances of men dying,
except at sea, of absolute hunger. The decline of those unhaji-
py creatures who are destitute of food, at land, being more slow
and unperceived. These, from often being in need, and as often
receiving an accidental supply, pass their lives between surfeiting
and repining ; and their constitution is impaired by insensible
degrees. Man is unfit for a state of precarious expectation.
Tliat share of provident precaution which incites him to lay up
stores for a distant day, becomes his torment, when totally nn-

AN'MALS. 31]

provided against an immediate call. The lower rafe of animals,
when satisfied, for the instant moment, are perfectly happy -. but
it is otherwise with man ; his mind anticipates distress, and feels
the pangs of want even before it arrests him. Thus the mind,
being continually harassed by the situation, it at length influences
the constitution, and unfits it for all its functions. Some cruel
disorder, but no way like hunger, seizes the unhappy sufferer ; so
that almost all those men who have thus long lived by chance, and
whose every day may be considered as a happy esca])e from
famine, are known at last to die in reality of a disorder caused
by hunger ; but which, in the common language, is often called
a broken heart. Some of these I have known myself, when
very little able to relieve them : and J have been told by a very
active and worthy magistrate, that the number of such as die in
London for want, is much greater than one would imagine — I
think he talked of two thousand in a year !

But how numerous soever those who die of hunger may be,
many times greater, on the other hand, are the number of those
who die by repletion. It is not the province of the present page
to speculate, with the physician, upon the danger of surfeits ; or,
with the moralist, upon the nauseousness of gluttony : it will
only be proper to observe, that ac nothing is so prejudicial to
health as hunger by constraint, so nothing is more beneficial to
the constitution than voluntary abstinence. It was not without
reason that religion enjoined this duty ; since it answered the
double purpose of restoring the health oppressed by luxury, and
diminished the consumption of provisions, so that a part might
come to the poor. It should be the business of the legislature,
therefore, to enfoi'ce this divine precept ; and thus, by restrain
ing one part of mankind in the use of their superfluities, to con-
sult for the benefit of those who want the necessaries of life.
The injunctions for abstinence are strict over the whole Conti-
nent ; and were rigorously observed even among ourselves, for a
long time after the Reformation. Queen Elizabeth, by giving
her commands upon this head the air of a political itijunction,
lessened, in a great measure, and in my opinion very unwisely,
the religious force of the obligation. She enjoined that her sub-
jects should fast from flesh on Fridays and Saturdays ; but at
the same time declared, that this was not commanded frotn mo-
lives of rdigion, as if there were any differences in meats, but

34-2 HiSTOiiv or

merely to favour the consumption of fish, and thus to multiply
thu number of mariners ; and also to spare the stock of sheep,
which might be more beneficial in another way. In this manner
the injunction defeated its own force ; and this most salutary
law become no longer binding, when it was supposed to come
purely from man. How far it may be enjoined in the Scriptures
I will not take upon me to say ; but this may be asserted, that
if the utmost benefit to the individual, and the most extensive
advantage to society, serve to mark any institution as of Heaven
this of abstinence may be reckoned among the foremost.

' Were we to give an history of the various benefits that have
arisen from this command, and how conducive it has been to
long life, the instances would fatigue with their multiplicity*
It is surprising to what a great age the primitive Christians of the
East, who retired from persecution in the deserts of Arabia,
continued to live, in all the bloom of health, and yet all the ri,
gours of abstemious discipline. Their common allowance, as we
are told, for four and twenty hours, was twelve ounces of bread,
and nothing but water. On this shnple beverage, St Anthony
is said to have lived a hundred and five years : James, the her-
mit, a hundred and four ; Arsenius, tutor to the emperor Ar-
cadius, a hundred and twenty ; St Epiphanius, a hundred
and fifteen ; Simeon, a hundred and twelve ; and Rorabald, a
hundred and twenty. In this manner did these holy temperate
men live to an extreme old age, kept cheerful by strong hopes,
and healthful by moderate labour.

Abstinence, which is thus voluntaiy, may be much more easily
supported than constrained hunger. Man is said to live without
food for seven days ; which is the usual limit assigned him ; and
perhaps, in a state of constraint, this is the longest time he can
survive the want of it. But in cases of voluntary abstinence, ot
sickness, or sleeping, he has been known to live much longer.

In the records of the Tower, there is an account of a Scotch-
man imprisoned for felony, who for the space of six weeks took
not the least sustenance, being exactly watched during the whole
time ; and for this he received the king's pardon.*

• It is a pity Goldsmith was not more explicit on this extraordinary and
incredible rase. We do not recollect of ever having^ .seen it adverted to else-
where, and we are inclined to suppose it a frratuitoiis illustration of the old
English creed regarding the huuger-euduring capaLiilities of the .Scotcli. It

THE EAKTH. 343

When the Anicricaii Indians undertake long journeys, and
>.vhen, consequently, a stock of provisions sufficient to support
.liem the whole way, would be more than they could carry; in
oi-der to obviate this inconvenience, instead of carrying the ne-
cessary quantity, they contrivea method of palliating their hunger
by swallowing pills, made of calcined shells and tobacco. These
pills take away all appetite, by producing a temporary disorder
in the stomach ; and, no doubt, the frequent repetition of this
wretched expedient must at last be fatal. IJy these means,
however, they continue several days without eating, cheerfully
bearing such extremes of fatigue and watching, as would quickly
destroy men bred up in a greater state of delicacy. For those
arts by which we learn to obviate our necessities, do not fail to
unfit us for their accidental encounter.

Upon the whole, therefore, man is less able to support hunger
than any other animal; and he is not better qualified to support
a state of watchfulness. Indeed, sleep seems much more ne-
cessary to him, than to any other creature : as, when awake, he
may be said to exhaust a greater propoition of the nervous fluid ;
and, consequently, to stand in need of an adequate supply
Other animals, when most awake, are but little removed from a
state of slumber ; their feeble faculties, imprisoned in matter,
and rather exerted by impulse than deliberation, require sleep,
rather as a cessation from motion, than from thinking. But it is
otherwise with man ; his ideas, fatigued with their various ex-
cursions, demand a cessation, not less than the body, from toil :
and he is the only creature that seems to require sleep from
double motives ; not less for the refreshment of the mental than
of the bodily frame.

There are some lower animals, indeed, that seem to spend
the greatest part of their lives in sleep ; properly speaking,
the sleep of such may be considered as a kind of death ; and
their waking, a resurrection. Flies and insects are said to
be asleep, at a time that all the vital motions have ceased, with-
out respiration, without any circulation of their juices ; if cut in
pieces, they do not awake, nor does any fluid ooze out at the
wound. These may be considered rather as congealed than as sleep-
is not to be denied, however, that niauy wonderful instances of abstinence
fniin food for montlie, and even years, arc on i<Tiiirl, hiit these were nlwavc
oc<Hbioucd or ac«;oinpauitd by fi-'vcr torpor, or oUicr diicuacd states of buiiy.

31'i HISTORY OF

iiig animals ; and their rest, during winter, rather as a cessation
from life, than a necessary refreshment; but in the higher races of
animals, whose blood is not thus congealed, and thawed by heat,
these all bear- want of sleep much better than man ; and some
of them continue a long time without seeming to take any re-
freshment i'fom it whatsoever.

But man is more feeble ; he requires its due return ; and if it
fails to pay the accustomed visit, his whole frame is in a short
time thrown into disorder : his appetite ceases ; his spirits are
dejected ; his pulse becomes quicker and harder ; and his mind,
abiidgedofits slumbering visions, begins to adojjt waking dreams.
A thousand strange phantoms arise, which come and go without
his will : these, which ai'e transient in the beginning, at last take
firm possession of the mind, which yields to their dominion, and
after a long struggle, runs into confirmed madness. In that
horrid state, the mind may be considered as a city without walls,
open to every insult, and paying homage to every invader ;
every idea that then starts \\ ith any force, becomes a reality ; and
the reason, over fatigued with its former importunities, makes
no head against the tyrannical invasion, but submits to it from
mere imbecility.

But it is happy for mankind, that this state of inquietude is
seldom driven to an extreme ; and that there are medicines
which seldom fail to give relief. However, man finds it more
diflicult than any other animal to procure sleep : and some are
obliged to court its approaches for several hours together, before
they incline to rest. It is in vain that all light is excluded ; that all
sounds are removed ; that warmth and softness conspire to in.
vite it ; the restless and busy mind still retains its former ac-
t'n'hy ; and Reason, that wishes to lay down the reins, in spite
of herself is obliged to maintain them. In this disagreeable
state, the mind passes from thought to thought, willing to lose
the distinctness of perception, by increasing the multitude of the
images. At last, when the approaches of sleep are near, every
object of the imagination begins to mix with that next it ; their
outlines become, in a manner, rounder ; a part of their distinc-
tions fades away ; and sleep, that ensues, fashions out a dream
from the remainder.

If then it should be asked, A-om what cause this state of rc-
t'oye proceeds, or in v/bat nuinnLT sleep thus binds us for seve.

THE EARTH. 345

;al liouis together? I must faiily confess my ignorance; al-
though It is easy to tell what philosophers say upon the subject.
Sleep, says one of them, ' consists in a scarcity of spirits, by
which the orifices or pores of the nerves in the brain, through
which the spirits used to flow into the nerves, being no longer
kept open by the frequency of the spirits, shut of themselves ;
thus the nerves, wanting a new supply of spirits, become
lax, and unfit to convey any impression to the brain. All
this, however, is explaining a very great obscurity by some-
what more obcsure ; leaving, therefore, tho&e spirits to open
and shut the entrances to the brain, let us be contented
with simply enumerating the effects of sleep upon the human
constitution.

In sleep, the whole nervous frame is relaxed, while the heart
and the lungs seem more forcibly exerted. This fuller circulation
produces also a swelling of the muscles, as they always find who
sleep with ligatures on any part of their body. This increased
circulation also, may be considered as a kind of exercise, which
is continued through the frame ; and by this, the perspiration
becomes more copious, although the appetite for food is entirely
taken away. Too much sleep dulls the apprehension, weakens
the memory, and unfits the body for labour. On the contrary,
sleep too much abridged, emaciates the frame, produces melan-
choly, and consumes the constitution. It requires some care,
therefore, to regulate the quantity of sleep, and just to take as
much as will completely restore nature, without oppressing it.
The poor, as Otway says, sleep little ; forced by their situation,
to lengthen out their labour to their necessities, they have but a
short interval for this pleasing refreshment ; and I have ever been
of opinion, that bodily labour demands a less quantity of sleep
than mental. Labourers and artizans are generally satisfied with
about seven hours ; but I have known some scholars who usual-
ly slept nine, and perceived their faculties no way impaired by
oversleeping.

The iamous Philip Barrettiere, who was considered as a pro-
digy of learning at the age of fourteen, was known to sleep regu-
larly twelve hours in the twenty-four ; the extreme activity
of his mind, when awake, in some measure called for an ade-

I Ku)iauit.

3U> hiai'OKV or

:niate alternation oi repose : and, I am a|)t to think, that when
istudents stmt themselves in this particular, they lessen the waking
powers of the imagination, and weaken its most strenuous exer-
tions. Animals that seldom think, as was said, can very easily
dispense witn sleep ; and of men, such as think least, will, very
jirobably, be satisfied with th* smallest share. A life of study,
it is well known, unfits the body for receiving this gentle re-
freshment; the a])proaches of sleep are driven off by thinking:
when, therefore, il comes at last, we should not be too ready to
interrupt its continuance.

Sleep is indeed, to some, a very agreeable period of their
existence : and it has been a question in the schools, Which was
most happy, the man who was a beggar by night, and a king by
day; or he who was a beggar by day, and a king by night? It
is given in favour of the nightly monarch, by him who first
started the question ; " For the dream," says he, " gives the
full enjoyment of the dignity, without its attendant inconvenien-
ces ; while, on the other hand, the king, who supposes himself
degraded, feels all the misery of his fallen fortune, without try-
ing to find the comforts of his humble situation. Thus, by day,
both states have their peculiar distresses : but, by night, the ex-
alted beggar is perfectly blessed, and the king completely miser-
able." All this, however, is rather fanciful than just; the plea-
sure dreams can give us, seldom reaches to our waking pitch of
happiness : the mind often, in the midst of its highest visionary
satisfactions, demands of itself, whether it does not owe them
to a dream ; and frequently awakes with the reply.

But it is seldom, except in cases of the highest delight, or the
most extreme uneasiness, that the mind has power thus to dis-
engage itself from the dominion of fancy. In the ordinary course
of its operations, it submits to those numberless fantastic images
that succeed each other, and which, like many of our waking
thoughts, are generally forgotten. Of these, however, if any,
by their oddity, or iheir continuance, aftect us strongly, they are
then remembered ; and there have been some who felt their
imjjressions so strongly, as to mistake them for realities, and to
rank them among the past actions of their lives.

There are others upon whom dreams seem to have a very
diiicrent efFcct; and who, without seeming to remenilscr their
impressions the next morning, have yet shown, by their actions

ANiJIALS. S-l?

(luring sleep, tl'.at tliey were very powertully impelled by their
dominion. We have numberless instances of such persons who,
while asleep, have performed many of the ordinary duties to
which they had been accustomed when waking ; and, with a
ridiculous industry, have completed by night, what they failed
doing by day. We are told, in the German Ephemerides, of a
young student, who being enjoined a severe exercise by his tutoi,
went to bed, despairing of accomplishing it. The next morning
awaking, to his great surprise, he found the task fairly written
out, and finished in his own hand-writing.

He was at first, as the account has it, induced to ascribe this
strange production to the operations of an infernal agent ; but
his tutor, willing to examine the affair to the bottom, set him
another exercise, still more severe than the former, and took
precautions to observe his conduct the whole night. The young
gentleman, upon being so severely tasked, felt the same inquie-
tude that he had done on the former occasion ; went to bed
gloomy and pensive, pondering on the next day's duty, and, after
some time, fell asleep. But shortly after, his tutor, who con-
tinued to observe him from a place that was concealed, was sur-
prised to see him get up, and very deliberately go to the table ;
where he took out pen, ink, and paper, drew himself a chair,
and sat very methodically to thinking : it seems, that his being
asleep, only served to strengthen the powers of his imagination ;
for he very quickly and easily went through the task assigned
him ; put his chair aside, and then returned to bed to take out
the rest of his nap. What credit we are to give to this account,
I will not pretend to determine ; but this may be said, that the
book from whence it was taken, has some good marks of vera-
city ; for it is very learned, and very dull ; and is written in a
country noted, if not for truth, at least for want of invention. *

The ridiculous story of Arlotto is well known, who has had
a volume written, containing a narrative of the actions of his life,
not one of which was performed while he was awake. He was
an Italian Franciscan friar, extremely rigid in his manners, and
remarkably devout and learned in his daily conversation. By
night, however, and during his sleep, he played a very different.

* This admirable hit at the Gcrinaus, it need scarcely be said, does no
now apply to them, as, since Goldsmith's time, they have proved themselvea
by Ihcir literary works, to be a people of the most fertile fancy.

3+8 HISXOKY OF

character from wliat he did by day, and was often detected in
very atrocious crimes. He was at one time detected in actually
attempting a rape, and did not awake till the next morning,
when he was surprised to find himself in the hands of justice.
His brothers of the convent often watched him while he went
very deliberately into the chapel, and there attempted to commit
sacrilege. They sometimes permitted him to carry the chalice
and the vestments away into his own chamber, and the next
morning amused themselves at the poor man's consternation for
what he had done. But of all his sleeping transgressions, that
was the most ridiculous, in which he was called to pray for the
soul of a person departed. Arlotto, after having devoutly per-
formed his duty, retired to a chamber which was shown him, to
rest ; but there he had no sooner fallen asleep, than he began to
reflect that the dead body had got a ring upon one of the fingers,
which might be useful to him : accordingly, with a pious resolu-
tion of stealing it, he went down, undressed as he was, into a
room full of women, and, with great composure, endeavoured to
seize the ring. The consequence was, that he vi^as taken before
the inquisition for witchcraft ; and the poor creature had like
to have been condemned, till his peculiar character accidentally
came to be. known : however, he was ordered to remain for the
rest of life in his own convent, and upon no account what-
soever to stir abroad.

What are we to say to such actions as these ? or how account
for this operation of the mind in dreaming ? It should seem
that the imagination, by day, as well as by night, is always em-
ployed ; and that often against our wills, it intrudes, where it is
least commanded or desired. While awake, and in health, this
busy principle cannot much delude us : it may build castles in
the air, and raise a thousand phantoms before us ; but we have
eveiy one of the senses alive to bear testimony to its falsehood.
Our eyes show us that the prospect is not present ; our hearing
and our touch depose against its reality ; and our taste and smell-
ing are equally vigilant in detecting the imposture. Reason,
therefore, at once gives judgment upon the cause, and the vagrant
intruder, Imagination, is imprisoned, or banished from the mind.
But in sleep it is otherwise ; having, as much as possible, put
our senses from their duty, having closed the eyes from seeing,
and the ears, taste, and smelling, from their peculiar functions.

ANIMALS. Sl'J

and having diminislied even the touch itself, by all the arts oi
softness, the imagination is then left to riot at large, and to lead
the understanding without an opposer. Every incursive idea
then becomes a reality ; and the mind, not having one power that
can prove the illusion, takes them for truths. As in madness,
the senses, from struggling with the imagination, are at length
forced to submit ; so, in sleep, they seem for a while soothed in-
to the like submission : the smallest \dolence exerted upon any
one of them, however, rouses all the rest in their mutual defence ;
and the imagination, that had for a while told its thousand fitlse-
hoods, is totally driven away, or only permitted to pass under
the custody of such as are every moment ready to detect its
imposition.

CHAP. VII.

OF SEEINT,. '

" Having mentioned the sense& as correcting the errors of
the imagination, and, as forcing it, '"n some measure, to bring us
just information, it will naturally follow, that we should examine
the nature of those senses themselves : we shall thus be enabled
to see how far they also impose on us, and how far they contri-
bute to correct each other. Let it be observed, however, that
in this we are neither giving a treatise of optics or phonics, but
a history of our own perceptions : and to those we clitfetly con-
fine ourselves."

The eyes very soon begin to be formed in the human embryo,
and in the chicken also. Of all the parts which the animal has
double, the eyes are produced the soonest, and appear the most
prominent. It is true, indeed, that in viviparous animals, and
particularly in man, they are not so large in proportion, at first,
as in the oviparous kinds ; nevertheless, they are more speedily
developed, when they begin to appear, than any other parts of

1 Tliis chapter is taken Iroiii Mr Buffon. I believe the reader will readily
excuse any apology ; and, perhaps, may wish that I had t;ikcn this liherty
inufh more frequently. What I ;idd is marked, as iu a former instance, with
Inverted commas.

2g

3j0 histohy of

the body. It is the same with the organ of hearing ; tlic Iittla
bones that compose the internal parts of the ear are entirely
formed before the other bones, though much larger, have acquired
any part of their growth or solidity. Hence it appears, that
those parts of the body which are furnished with the greatest
quantity of nerves, are the first in forming. Thus the brain and
the spinal-marrow, are the first seen begun in the embryo ; and,
in general, it may be said, that wherever the nerves go, or send
their branches in great numbers, there the parts are soonest be-
gun, and the most completely finished.

If we examine the eyes of a child some hours, or even some
days after its birth, it will be easily discerned that it as yet makes
no use of them. The humour of the organ not having acquired
a sufficient consistence, the rays of light strike but confusedly
upon the retina, or expansion of nerves at the back of the eye.
It is not till about a month after they are born, that children fix
them upon objects ; for, before that time, they turn them indis-
criminately everywhere, without appeai-ing to be affected by
any. At six or seven weeks old, they plainly discover a choice
in the objects of their attention ; they fix their eyes upon the
most brilliant colours, and seem peculiarly desirous of turning
them towards the light. Hitherto, however, they only seem to
fortify the organ for seeing distinctly ; but they have still many
illusions to correct.

The first great error in vision is, that the eye inverts every
object : and it in reality appears to the child, until the touch
has served to undeceive it, turned upside down. A second eri'or
in vision is, that every object appears double. The same object
forms itself distinctly upon each eye ; and is consequently seen
twice. This error, also, can only be corrected by the touch ;
and although, in reality, every object we see appears inverted
and double, yet the judgment and habit have so often corrected
the sense, that we no longer submit to its imposition, but see
every object in its just position, the very instant it appears.
Were we therefore, deprived of feeling, our eyes would not only
misrepresent the situation, but also the number, of all things
around us.

To convince us that we see objects inverted, we have only to ob-
serve the manner in which images are represented, coming through
A small hole in a darkened room. If such a small hole be made in a

ANIMALS. 3.51

dark room, so that no light can come in, but through it, all the
objects wdthout will be painted on the wall behind, but in an in-
verted position, their heads downwards. For as all the rays
which pass from the different parts of the object \vithout, can-
not enter the hole in the same extent which they had in leaving
the object ; since, if so, they would require the aperture to be
as large as the object ; and, as each part and every point of the
object sends forth the image of itself on every side, and the rays
which form these images pass from all points of the object as
from so many centres, so such only can pass tlu-ough the small
aperture as come in opposite directions. Thus the little aper-
ture becomes a centre for the entire object ; through which the
rays from the upper parts, as well as from the lower parts of it,
pass in converging directions -, and consequently, they must
cross each other, in the central point, and thus paint the ob^k.cts
behind, upon the wall, in an inverted position.

It is in like manner, easy to conceive, that we see all objects
double, whatever our present sensations may seem to tell us to
the contrary. For to convince us of this, we have only to com-
pare the situation of any one object on shutting one eye, and
then compare the same situation by shutting the other. If, for
instance, we hold up a finger and shut the right eye, we shall
find it hide a certain part of the room ; if again re-shutting the
other eye, we shall find that part of the room visible, and the
finger seeming to cover a ])art of the room that had been visible
before. If we open both eyes, however, the part covered will
appear to lie between the two extremes. But the truth is,
we see the object our finger had covered, one image of it to the
right, and the other to the left ; but, from habit, suppose that we
see but one image placed between both ; our sense of feeling
having corrected the errors of sight. And thus, also, if instead of
two eyes, we had two hundred, we should, at first, fancy the ob-
jects increased in proportion, until one sense had corrected another.
" The ha^dng two eyes might thus be said to be rather an in-
convenience than a benefit ; since one eye would answer the
purposes of sight as well, and be less liable to illusion. But it
is otherwise ; two eyes greatly contribute, if not to distinct, at
least to extensive vision.' When an object is placed at a mo

1 l.eniiiirdi) da Viiu-i.

352 HISTOItY OF

derate distance, by the means of both eyes we see a larger share
of it than we ])ossibly could with one, the right eye seeing a
greater portion of its right side, and the left eye of its corres-
ponding side. Thus both eyes, in some measure, see round the
object ; and it is this that gives it, in nature, that bold relievo,
or swelling, with which they appear ; and which no painting,
how exquisite soever, can attain to. The painter must be con-
tented with shading on a flat surface ; but the eyes, in observing
nature, do not behold the shading only, but a part of the figure
also, that lies behind those very shadings which give it that
swelling which painters so ardently desire, but can never fully
imitate.

" There is another defect, which either of the eyes taken
singly would have, but which is corrected, by having the organ
double. In either eye there is a point, which has no vision
whatsoever ; so that if one of them only is employed in seeing,
there is a part of the object to which it is always totally blind
This is that part of the optic nerve where its vein and artery
run ; which being insensible, that point of the object that is
painted there must continue unseen. To be convinced of this
we have only to try a very easy experiment. If we take three
black patches, and stick them upon a white wall, about a foot
distant from each other, each about as high as the eye that is to
observe them ; then retiring six or seven feet back, and shutting
one eye, by trying for some time, we shall find, that while we
distinctly behold the black spots that are to the right and left,
that which is in the middle remains totally unseen. Or, in
other words when we bring that part of the eye, where the op-
tic artery runs, to fall upon the object, it will then become in-
visible. This defect, however, in either eye, is always corrected
Dy both, since the part of the object that is unseen by one, will
be very distinctly perceived by the other."

Beside the former defects, we can have no idea of distances
from the sight without the help of touch. Naturally every ob-
ject we see appears to be within our eyes ; and a child, who has
as yet made but little use of the sense of feeling, must suppose
that every thing it sees makes a part of itself. Such objects are
only seen more or less bulky, as they approach or recede from its
eyes ; so that a fly that is near will appear larger than an ox at
a distance. It is experience alone that can rectify this mistake ;

ANIMALS. ."^^.S

and a long aquaintance with the real size of every object quickly
assures us of the distance at which it is seen. The last man in
a file of soldiers appears in reality much less, perhaps ten times
more diminutive, than the man next to us ; however, we do not
perceive this difference, but continue to think him of equal sta-
ture ; for the numbers we have seen thus lessened by distance,
and have found, by repeated experience, to be of the natural size
when we come closer, instantly correct the sense, and every ob-
ject is perceived with nearly its natural proportion. But it is other -
wise, if we observe objects in such situations as we have not
had sufficient experience to correct the errors of the eye ; if, for
instance, we look at men from the top of a high steeple, they,
in that case, appear very much diminished, as we have not had a
habit of correcting the sense in that position.

Although a small degree of reflection will serve to convince
us of the truth of these positions, it may not be amiss to
strengthen them by an authority which cannot be disputed.
Mr Cheselden having couched a boy of thirteen for a cataract,
who had hitherto been blind, and thus at once having restored
him to sight, curiously marked the progress of his mind upon
chat occasion. This youth, though he had been till then inca-
pable of seeing, yet was not totally blind, but could tell day from
night, as persons in his situation always may. He could also,
with a strong light, distinguish black from white, and either from
the vivid colour of scarlet : however he saw nothing of the form
of bodies ; and without a bright light, not even colours them-
selves. He was at first couched only in one of his eyes ; and
when he saw for the first time, he was so far from judging of
distances, that he supposed his eye touched every object that he
saw, in the same manner as his hands might be said to feel them.
The objects that were most agreeable to him were such as were
of plain surfaces and regular figures : though he could as yet
make no judgment whatever of their different forms, nor give a
reason why one pleased him more than another. Although he
rould form some idea of colours during his state of blindness,
■yet that was not sufficient to direct him at present ; and he
fould scarcely be persuaded that the colours he now saw were
the same with those he had formerly conceived such erroneous
ideas of. He delighted most in green ; but black objects as if
giving him an idea of his lornior blindness, he regarded with

.354 HISTOKY OF

horror. He had, as was said, no idea of I'orms ; and was unable
to distinguish one object from another, tliough never so different.
When those things were shown him, which he had been formerly
familiarized to by his feeling, he beheld them with earnestness,
in order to remember them a second time ; but as he had too
many to recollect at once, he forgot the greatest number ; and
for one he could tell, after seeing, there was a thousand he was
totally unacquainted with. He was veiymuch sui'prised to find,
that those things and persons he loved best, were not the most
beautiful to be seen ; and even testified displeasure in not find-
ing his parents so handsome as he conceived them to be. It
was near two months before he could find that a picture resem-
bled a solid body. Till then he only considered it as a Hat sur-
face variously shadowed ; but uhen he began to perceive that
these kind of shadings actually rei)resented human beings, he
then began to examine, by his touch whether they had not the
usual qualities of such bodies, and was greatly surprised to find,
wliat he expected a very unequal surface, to be smooth and even.
He was then shown a miniature-picture of his father, which was
contained in his mother's watch-case, and he readily perceived
the resemblance; but asked with gi-eat astonishment, how so
large a face could be contained in so small a compass ? It
seemed as strange to him, as if a bushel was contained in a pint
vessel. At first he could bear but a very small quantity of
light, and he saw every object much greater than the life ; but
in proportion as he saw objects that were really large, he
seemed to think the former were diminished ; and although he
knew the chamber where he was contained in the house, yet,
until he saw the latter, he could not be brought to conceive how
a house could be larger than a chamber. Before the operation,
he had no great expectations from the pleasure he should re-
ceive from a new sense; he was only excited by the hopes of
being able to read and write ; he said, for instance, that he could
have no greater pleasure in walking in the garden with liis sight,
than he liad without it, for he walked there at his ease, and was
accjuainted with all the walks. He remarked also, with great
justice, that his former blindness gave him one advantage over
the rest of mankind, which was that of being able to walk in the
night Avith confidence and security. But when he began to make
use of his new sense, he seemed transported beyond meusureb

ANIMALS. 355

He siiid, thiit every object was a new source of delight, and that
his pleasure was so great as to be past expression. About a
year after, he was brought to Epsom, where there is a veiy fine
prospect, with which he seemed greatly charmed ; and he called
the landscape before him a new method of seeing. He was
couched in the other eye, a year after the former, and the opera-
tion succeeded equally well : when he saw with both eyes, he
said that objects appeared to him twice as large as when he saw
but with one ; however, he did not see them doubled, or, at least,
he showed no marks as if he saw them so. Mr Cheselden men
tions instances of many more that were restored to sight in this
manner ; they all seemed to concur in their perceptions with
this youth ; and they all seemed particularly embarrassed in learn-
ing how to direct their eyes to the objects they wished to ob-
serve.

In this manner it is that our feeling corrects the sense of see-
ing, and that objects which appear of very different sizes at dif-
ferent distances, are all reduced, by experience, to their tiattnal
standard. " But not the feeling only, but also the colour and
brightness of the object, contributes, in some measure, to assist
us in forming an idea of the distance at which it apjjcars. ' Those
which we see most strongly marked with light and shade, we
readily know to be nearer than those on which the colours are
more faintly spread, and that, in some measure, take a part ot
their hue from tlie air between us and them. — Bright objects also
are seen at a greater distance than such as are obscure, and, most
probably, for this reason, that being less similar in colour, to the
air which interposes, their impressions are less effaced by it, and
they continue more distinctly visible. I'hus a black and dis-
tant object is not seen so far off as a bright and glittering one,
and a fire by night is seen much I'arther off than by day."

The power of seeing objects at a distance is very rarely equal
in both eyes. When this inequality is in any great degree, the
person so circumstanced then makes use only of one eye, shut-
ting that which sees the least, and employing the other with all
Its j)0\ver. And hence proceeds that awk\\ard look wl)i<:h k
known by the name ot siiabism.

1 Mr Biiffon gives a diffprent theory, for wliicli 1 iiuist rclcr the reader
in the original. 'Ihiit 1 have Riven, 1 talie tu lie eii.y and eatijlaclorv
enuugh.

/}36 HISTORY OF

There are many reasons to induce us to think that such as
are near-sighted see objects larger than other persons; and yet
the contrary is most certainly true, tor they see them less. Mr
Buffon informs us that he himself is short-sighted, and that his
left eye is stronger than his right. He has very frequently ex-
perienced, upon looking at any object, such as the letters of a
book, that they appear less to the weakest eye ; and that when
he places the book, so as that the letters appear double, the
linages of the left eye, which is strongest, are greater than those
of the right, which is the most feeble. He has examined severa'
others, who were in similar circumstances, and has always found
that the best eye saw every object the largest. This he ascribes
to habit ; for near-sighted people being accu&tomed to come
close to the object, and view but a small part of it at a tune, the
habit ensues, when the whole of an object is seen, and it appears
less to them than to others.

Infants having their eyes less than those of adults, must see
objects also smaller in pioportion. For the image formed on
the back of the eye will be lai'ge, as the eye is capacious ; and
infants having it not so great, cannot have so large a picture of
the object. This may be a reason also why they are unable to
see so distinctly, or at such distances, as persons arrived at ma-
turity.

Old men, on the contrary, see bodies close to them very in-
distinctly, but bodies at a great distance from them with more
precision ; and this may happen from an alteration in the coats,
or perhaps, bumom's of the eye ; and not, as is supposed, from
their diminution. The cornea, for instance, may become too
rigid to adapt itself, and take a proper convexity for seeing mi-
nute objects J and its very flatness will be sufficient to fit it for
distant vision.

When we cast our eyes upon an object extrem.ely brilliant, or
when we fix and detain them too long upon the same object, the or.
gan is hurt and fatigued, its vision becomes indistinc^t, and the image
of the body which has thus too violently or perseveringly employed
us, is painted upon eveiy thing we look at, and mixes with every
object that occurs. " And this is an obvious consequence of
the eye taking in too much light, either immediately, or by reflec-
tion. Every body exjiosed to the light, for a time, drinks in a
quantity of its rays, which being brought into darkness, it caimot

ANIMALS. 357

instantly discharge. TLus the hand, if it be exposed to broad
day-light for some time, and then immediately snatched into a
dark room, will appear still luminous : and it will be some time
before it is totally darkened. It is thus with the eye ; which
cither by an instant gaze at the sun, or a steady continuance upon
some less brilliant object, has taken in too much light ; its humours
are, for a while, unfit for vision, until that be discharged, and
room made for rays of a milder nature." How dangerous the
looking upon bright and luminous objects is to the sight may
be easily seen, from such as live in countries covered for most
part of the year with snow, who become generally blind before their
time. Travellers who cross these countries are obliged to wear
a crape before their faces, to save their eyes, which would other-
wise be rendered totally unserviceable ; and it is equally danger-
ous in the sandy plains of Africa. The reflection of the light
is there so strong, that it is impossible to sustain the effect, with-
out incuiTing the danger of losing one's sight entirely. Such
persons, therefore, as read or write for any continuance, should
choose a moderate light, in order to save their eyes ; and all
though it may seem insufficient at first, the eye will accustom
itself to the shade, by degrees, and be less hurt by the want
of light than the excess.

" It is, indeed, suqirising how far the eye can accommodate
itself to darkness, and make the best of a gloomy situation.
When first taken from the light, and brought into a dark room,
all things disappear ; or, if any thing is seen, it is only the re-
maining radiations that still continue in the eye. But, after a
very little time, when these are spent, the eye takes the advan
tiige of the smallest ray that happens to enter ; and this alone
would, in time, serve for many of the purposes of life. There
was a gentleman of great courage and understanding, who was a
major under King Charles I; this unfortunate man, sharing in
his master's misfortunes, and being forced abroad, ventured at
Madrid to do his king a signal service ; but uiduckily failed in
the attempt. In consequence of this, he was instantly ordered to
a dark and dismal dungeon, into which the light never entered, and
into which there was no opening but by a hole at the top, down
which the keeper put his jirovisions, and presently closed it again
on the other side. In this manner the unfortunate loyalist con-
finued for some weeks, distressed and disconsolate ; but ;it hist

3j8 HisroHV OF

he began to thirik he saw some little glimmering of light. This
internal dawn seemed to increase from time to time, so that he
could not only discover the parts of his bed, and such other large
objects, but, at length, he even began to perceive the mice that
frequented his cell ; and saw them as they ran about the floor,
eatin^j the crumbs of bread that happened to fall. After some
months' conlinement he vt^as at last set free ; but such was the
effect of the darkness upon him, that he could not, for some
days venture to leave his dungeon, but was obliged to accustom
bimself by degrees to the light of the day."

CHAP. VIII.

or HEARING.

As the sense of hearing, as well as of sight, gives us notice
cf remote objects, so, like that, it is subject to similar errors,
being capable of imposing on us upon all occasions, where we
cannot rectify it by the sense of feeling. We can have from it
no distinct intelligence of the distance from whence a sounding
body is heard ; a great noise far off, and a small one very near,
produce the same sensation : and unless we receive information
from some other sense, we can never distinctly tell whether the
sound be a great or a small one. It is not till we have learned,
by experience, that the particular sound which is heard, is of a
peculiar kind ; then we can judge of the distance from whence
we hear it. When we know the tone of the bell, we can then
judge how far it is from us.

Every body that strikes against another produces a sound,
«vhich is simple, and but one in bodies which are not elastic,
but which is often repeated in such as are. If we strike a bell,
or a stretched string, for instance, which are both elastic, a
single blow produces a sound, which is repeated by the undula-
tions of the sonorous body, and which is multiplied as often as
it happens to undulate or vibrate. These undulations each strike

1 This chapter is taken from Mr BufFon, except where marked by iiiver
tummas.

ANIMALS. 339

ttieir own peculiar blow : hut they succeed so fast, one behind
the other, that the ear supposes them one continued, sound •
whereas, in reality, they make many. A person who should, foi
the first time, hear the toll of the bell, would, very probably, be
able to distinguish these breaks of sound ; and, in fact, we can readi.
ly ourselves perceive an intention and premission in the sound.

In this manner, sounding bodies are of two kinds ; those un-
elastic ones, which, being struck, return but a single sound ; and
those more elastic, returning a succession of sounds ; which
uniting together, form a tone. This tone may be considered as
a great number of sounds, all produced one after the other, by
the same body, as we find in a bell, or the string of a harpsichord,
which continues to sound for some time after it is sti'uck. A
continuing tone may also be produced from a non-elastic body,
by repeating the blow quick and often, as when we beat a drum,
or when we draw a bow along the string of a fiddle.

Considering the subject in this light, if we should multiply
the number of blows, or repeat them at quicker intervals upon
the sounding body, as upon the drum, for instance, it is evident
that this will have no effect in altering the tone ; it will only
make it either more even, or more distinct. But it is other-
wise, if we increase the force of the blow : if we strike the body
with double weight, this will produce a tone twice as loud as the
former. If, for instance, I strike a table with a switch, this will
be very different from the sound produced by striking it with a
cudgel. Hence, therefore, we may infer, that ;ill bodies give a
louder and graver tone, not in proportion to the number of
times they are struck, but in proportion to the force that strikes
them. And, if this be so, those philosophers who make the
tone of a sonorous body, of a bell, or the string of a harpsichord,
for instance, to depend upon the innnber only of its \ibrations,
and not the force, have mistaken what is only an effect for a cause.
A bell, or an elastic string, can only be considered as a drum beat-
en ; and the frequency of the blows can make no alteration what-
ever in the tone. The largest bells, and the longest and thickest
strings, have the most forceful vibrations ; and, therefore, their
tones are the most loud and the most grave.

To know the manner in which sounds thus produced become
pleasing, it must be observed, no one continuing tone, how loud
and swelling soever, can give ns satisfaction; we must have a

3G0 HISTORY C,F

succession ot tliein, and those in the most pleasing proportion.
The nature of tliis proportion may be thus conceived. If we
strike a body incapable of vibration with a double force, or, what
amounts to the same thing, with a double mass of matter, it will
produce a sound that will be doubly grave. Music has been said
by the ancients to have been first invented from the blows of
different hammers on an anvil. Suppose then we strike an an-
vil with a hammer of one pound weight, and again with a ham-
mer of two pounds, it is plain that the two-pound hammer will
produce a sound twice as grave as the former. But if we strike
with a two-pound hammer, and then with a three-pound, it is
evident that the latter will produce a sound one-third more grave
than the former. If we strike the anvil with a three-pound
hammer, and then with a four-pound, it will likewise follow
that the latter will be a quarter part more grave than the former.
Now, in the comparing between all those sounds, it is obvious
that the difference between one and two is more easily perceived,
than between two and three, three and four, or any numbers suc-
ceeding in the same proportion. The succession of sounds will
be, therefore, pleasing in proportion to the ease with which they
may be distinguished. That sound which is double the former,
or, in other words, the octave to the preceding tone, will, of all
others, be the most pleasing harmony. The next to that, which
is as two or three, or, in other words, the third, will be most
agreeable. And thus, universally, those sounds whose difference
may be most easily compared, are the most agreeable.

" Musicians, therefore, have contented themselves with seven
different proportions of sound, which are called notes, and which
sufficiently answer all the purposes of pleasure. Not but that
they might adopt a greater diversity of proportions ; and some
have actually done so ; but, in these, the differences of the pro-
portion are so imperceptible, that the ear is rather fatigued than
pleased in making the distinction. In order, however, to give
%'ariety, they have admitted half tones ; but in all the countries
where music is yet in its infancy, they have rejected such ; and
they can find music in none but the obvious ones. The Chinese,
for instance, have neither flats nor sharps in their music ; but
the intervals between their other notes, are in the same propor-
tion with ours.

" Many more barbarous nations have tlieir peculiar instru.

AMMALS. 36 1

ments of music ; and, what is remarkable, nie proportion between
their notes is in all the same as in ours. This is not the place
for entering into the nature of these sounds, their effects upon
the air, or their consonances with each other. We are not now
giving a history of sound, but of human perception.

" All countries are pleased with music; and if they have not
skill enough to produce harmony, at least they seem willing to
substitute noise. Without all question, noise alone is sufficient
to operate powerfully on the spirits ; and, if the mind be already
p redisposed to joy, I have seldom found noise fail of increasing
it into rapture. The mind feels a kind of distracted pleasure in
such powerful sounds, braces up every nerve, and riots in the
excess. But, as in the eye, an immediate gaze upon the sun
will disturb the organs, so, in the ear, a loud unexpected noise
disorders the whole frame, and sometimes disturbs the sense
ever after. The mind must have time to prepare for the ex-
pected shock, and to give its organs the proper tension for its
arrival.

" Musical sounds, however, seem of a different kind. Those
are generally most pleasing which are most unexpected. It is
not from bracing up the nerves, but from the grateful succession
of the sounds, that these become so charming. There are few,
how indifferent soever, but have at times felt their pleasing im-
pression ; and, perhaps, even those who have stood out against
the powerful persuasion of sounds, only wanted the proper tune,
or the proper instrument, to allure them.

" The ancients give us a thousand strange instances of the ef-
fects of music, upon men and animals. The story of Arion's
harp, that gathered the dolphins to the ship side, is well known ;
and what is remarkable, Schotteus assures us, ' that he saw a
similar instance of fishes being allured by music. They tell us
of diseases that have been cured, unchastity corrected, seditions
quelled, passions removed, and sometimes excited even to mad-
ness. Dr Wallis has endeavoured to account for these surpris-
ing effects, by ascribing them to the novelty of the art. For my
own part, I can scarcely hesitate to impute them to the exag-
geration of the writers. They ai-e as hyperbolical in the effects
of their oratory ; and yet, we well know, there is nothing in the

i Quod oculis meis spectavi. Scliotti Magic, universalis, pars. ii. lib. 1, p. 26,

2h

36'2 HlSlORY OF

orations wuich they have left us, capable of exciting madness, cr
of raising the mind to that ungovernable degree of fury which
they describe. As they have exaggerated, therefore, in one in-
Btance, we may naturally suppose that they Luve done tlie same
in the other ; and, indeed, from the few remains we have of their
music, collected by Meibomius, one might be apt to suppose
there was nothing very powerful in what is lost. Nor does any
one of the ancient instruments, such as we see them represented
in statues, appear comparable to our fiddle.

" However this be, we have many odd accounts, not only
among them, but the moderns, of the power of music; and it
must not be denied^ but that on some particular occasions, musi-
cal sounds may have a very powerful effect. I have seen all the
horses and cows in a field, where there were above a hundred,
gathered round a person that was blowing a French horn, and
seeming to testify an awkward kind of satisfaction. Dogs are
well known to be very sensible of different tones in music ; and
I have sometimes heard them sustain a very ridiculous part in a
concert, where their assistance was neither expected nor desired.

" We are told of Henry IV. of Denmark,' that being one day
desirous of trying in person whether a musician, who boasted
that he could excite men to madness, was not an impostor, he
submitted to the operation of his skill : but the consequence was
much more terrible than he expected •, for, becoming actually
mad, he killed four of his attendants in the midst of his trans-
ports. A contrary effect of music we have,^ in the cure of a
madman of Alais, in France, by music. This man, who was a
dancing-master, after a fever of five days, grew furious, and so
ungovernable that his hands were obliged to be tied to his sides -.
what at first was rage, in a short time was converted into silent
melancholy, which no arts could exhilarate, nor no medicines re-
move. In this sullen and dejected state, an old acquaintance
accidentally came to inquire after his health ; he found him sit-
ting up in bed, tied, and totally regardless of every external ob-
ject round him. Happening, however, to take up a fiddle that
lay in the room, and touching a favourite air, the poor madman
instantly seemed to brighten up at the sound ; from a recumbent
posture, he began to sit up ; and, as the musician continued

I Olai M-iffni, 1. 15. tiist. c. 28. 2 Hist, de Acad. 1708. p. 22.

ANIMALS. 3')>

playing, the patient seemed desirous of dancing to the sound :
but he was tied, and incapable of leaving his bed, so that he
could only humour the tune with his head, and those parts of his
arms which were at liberty. Thus the other continued playing,
and the dancing-master practised his own art, as far as he was
able, for about a quarter of an hour, when suddenly falling into a
deep sleep, in which his disorder came to a crisis, he awaked
perfectly recovered.

" A thousand other instances might be added, equally true :
let it suffice to add one more, which is not true ; I mean that oi
the tarantula. Every person who has been in Italy now well
knows, that the bite of that animal, and its being cured by music,
is all a deception. When strangers come into that part of the
country, the country people are ready enough to take money for
dancing to the tarantula. A friend of mine had a servant who suf-
fered himself to be bit ; the wound, which was little larger than
the puncture of a pin, was uneasy for a few hours, and then be-
came well without any farther assistance. Some of the country
people, however, still make a tolerable livelihood of the credulity
of strangers, as the musician finds his account in it not less than
the dancer."

Sounds, like light, are not only extensively diffused, but ara
frequently reflected- The laws of this reflection, it is true, are
not as well understood as those of light ; all we know is, that
sound is principally reflected by hard bodies ; and their being
hollow, also, sometimes increases the reverberation. " No art,
however, can make an echo ; and some who have bestowed
great labour and expense upon such a project, have only erected
shapeless buildings, whose silence was a mortifying lecture upon
their presumption."

The internal cavity of the ear seems to be fitted up for thb
purpose of echoing sound with the greatest precision. This
part is fashioned out of the temporal bone, like a cavern cut into
a rock. " In this the sound is repeated and articulated ; and,
as some anatomists tell us, (for we have as yet but very little
knowledge on this subject,) is beaten against the tympanum, or
idrum of the ear, which moves four little bones joined thereto ;
and these move and agitate the internal air which lies on ttij
other side ; and lastly, this air strikes and affects the aiiHitnry
nen-es, which carry the sound to the biaiii."

2 II 2

364 HISTORY OF

One of the most common disorders in old age is deafness ;
which probably proceeds from the rigidity of the nerves in the
labyrinth of the ear. This disorder, also, sometimes proceeds
from a stoppage of the wax, which art may easily remedy. In
order to know whether the defect be an internal, or an external
one, let the deaf person put a repeating watch into his mouth,
and if he hears it strike, he may be assured that bis disorder
proceeds from an external cause, and is, in some measure, ciu"-
able : " for there is a passage from the ears into the mouth, by
what anatomists call the eustachian tube ; and, by this passage,
people often hear sounds, when they are utterly without hear-
ing through the larger channel : and this also is the reason that
we often see persons who listen with great attention, hearken
with their mouths open, in order to catch all the sound at every
aperture."

It often happens, that persons hear differently with one ear
from the other ; and it is generally found that these have what
is called, by musicians, a had ear. Mr Buffon, who has made
many trials upon persons of this kind, always found that their
defect in judging properly of sounds proceeded from the ine-
quality of their ears ; and receiving by both, at the same time,
unequal sensations, they form an unjust idea. In this manner,
as those people hear false, they also, without knowing it, sing
false. Those persons also frequently deceive themselves with
regard to the side from whence the sound comes, generally sup-
posing the noise to come on the part of the best ear.

Such as are hard of hearing, find the same advantage in the
trumpet made for this purpose, that short-sighted persons do
from glasses. These trumpets might be easily improved so as
to increase sounds, in the same manner that the telescope does
obj ects ; however, they could be used to advantage only in a
jilace of solitude and stillness, a« the neighbouring sounds would
mix with the more distant, and the whole would produce in the
ear nothing but tumult and confusion.

Hearing is a much more necessary sense to man than to ani-
mals. With these it is only a warning against danger, or an
encouragement to mutual assistance. In man, it is the source
ot most of his pleasure ; and without which the rest of his senses
would be of little benefit. A man born deaf, must necessarily
be dumb : and his whole sphere of knowledge must be bounded

ANIMALS. 36-5

onl) by sensual objects. We have an instance of a young man,
wbo, being born deaf, was restored at the age of twenty-four to
perfect hearing: the account is given in the Memoirs of tlm
Academy of Sciences, 1703, page 18.

A young man, of the town of Chartres, between the age oi
twenty-three and twenty four, the son of a tradesman, and deaf and
dumb from his birth, began to speak all of a sudden, to the great
astonishment of the whole town. He gave them to understand,
that about three or four months before, he had heard the sounc.
Df the bells for the first time, and was gi-eatly surprised at this
new and unknown sensation. After some time, a kind of water
issued from his left ear, and lie then heard perfectly well with both.
During these three months, he was sedulously employed in lis-
tening, without saying a word, and accustoming himself to speak
softly (so as not to be heard) the words pronoimced by others,
fie laboured hard also in perfecting himself in the pronunciation,
and in the ideas attached to every sound. At length, having
supposed himself qualified to break silence, he declared, that he
could now speak, although as yet but imperfectly. Soon after, _
some able divines questioned him concerning his ideas of his past
state ; and principally with respect to God, his soid, the morality
or turpitude of actions. The young man, however, had not
driven his solitary speculations into that channel. He had gone
to mass indeed with his parents, and learned to sign Jiimself
with the cross, to kneel down and assume all the grimaces of a
man that was praying ; but he did all this without any manner
of knowledge of the intention or the cause ; he saw others do
the like, and that was enough for him ; he knew nothing even of
death, and it never entered into his head ; he led a life of pure
animal instinct ; cntirriy taken up with sensible objects, and
Buch as were present, he did not seem even to make as many re-
tlections upon these, as niight reasonably be expected from his
improving situation : and yet the young man was not in want ot
understanding ; but the understanding of a man deprived of all
commerce with others, is so very confined, that the mind is in
some measure totally under the control of its immediate sensa.
tions.

Notwithstanding, it is veiy possible to communicate ideiis to
deaf men, which they previously wanted, ami even give them
very precise notions of some abstract subjects, by means of signs

2 II 3

3G6 HISTO&V OF

and of letters. A person born deaf, may, by time, and siiflScient
pains, be taught to write and read, to speak, and by the motions
of the lips, to understand what is said to him ;* however, it is
- probable that, as most of the motions of speech are made within
'the mouth by the tongue, the knowledge from the motion of the
lips is but very confined ; " nevertheless, I have conversed with
a gentleman thus taught, and in all tlie commonly occurring
questions, and the usual salutations, he was ready enough, mere-
ly by attending to the motion of the lips alone. When I ven-
tured to speak for a short continuance, he was totally at a loss,
although he understood the subject, when written, extremely
well." Persons taught in this manner, were at first considered
as prodigies ; but there have been so many instances of success
of late, and so many are skilful in the art of instructing in this
way, that though still a matter of some cm'iosity, it ceases to be
an object of wonder.f

* Mr Tliomas Braidwood, late of Edinburgh, was perhaps the first who
ever brought this surprising art to any degree of perfection. He began with
a single pupil in 1764, and after that period taught great numbers of
people bom deaf, to speak distiuctly, to read, to write, to understand figures,
the principles of religion and morality, &c.

t In the Transactions of tlie Royal Society of Edinburgh, Professor Stewart
gives an interesting account of a boy born blind and deaf.

James Mitchell, the son of a clergyman lately deceased, in the county of
Nairn in Scotland, was bom on the llth November, 1795. His mother soon
noticed his blindness, from his discovering no desire to turn his eyes to the
light, or to any bright object; and in early infancy also she ascertained his
deafness, from observing that the loudest noises did not disturb his sleep. The
deafness was from the beginning complete ; but the defect of sight, as in other
cases of cataract, did not amount to a total absence of vision. At the time of
life when this boy began to walk, he seemed to be attracted by bright and
dazzling colours ; and though every thing connected with his history appears
to prove that he derived little information from that organ, yet he received
from it much sensual gratification. He used to hold between his eye and
luminous objects, such bodies as he had found to increase, by their interposi.
tion, the quantity of light ; and it was one of his chief amusements, to con-
centrate the sun's rays by means of pieces of glass, transparent pebbles, or
similar substances, which he held between his eye and the light, and turned
about in various directions

He early showed an extraordinary acuteness of the senses of touch and
smell. When a stranger arrived, his smell immediately and invariably in-
formed him of the circumstance, and directed him to the place where the
stranger was, whom he proceeded to surreij by the sense of touch. In the
remote situation where he resided, male visitors were most frequent- and
lliurefore, the first thing he generally did, was to examine whether or not
the stranger wore boots ; if so he iinmediatoly went to the lobby, felt lor,

ANIMALS. 367

CHAP. IX.

OF SMELLING, FEELING, AND TASTING.

An ajiimal rnay be said to fill up that sphere, which he can
reach by his senses ; and is actually large in proportion to the
sphere to which its organ extends. By sight, man's enjoyments
are difFusea into a wide circle ; that of hearing, though less

and accurately examined Iiis whip ; then proceeded to the stable, and
handled his horse with great care, and with the utmost seeming attention.
It occasionally happened, that visitors arrived in a carriage ; and, on such
occasions, he never failed to go to the place where the carriage stood, ex-
amined the whole of it with much anxiety, and tried innumerable times the
elasticity of the springs. In all this he was undoubtedly guided by the smell
and touch only.

From his childhood he had been accustomed to strike his fore teeth with a
key, or any instrument that gives a sharp sound. His chief pleasures were
obviously derived from taste and smell ; and he often eat with a disagreeable
voracity. He found amusement also in the exercise of touch ; and often em-
ployed himself for hours, in gathering from the bed of a river, round and
smooth stones, which he afterwards arranged in a circular form, seating
himself in the midst of the circle. He explored by touch a space of about
two hundred yards round the parsonage, to every part of which he walked
fearlessly, and without a guide ; and scarcely a day elapsed In which he did
not cautiously feel his way into ground which he had not explored before.
In one of these excursions of discoYery, his father observed him creeping
on his hands and knees, along a narrow wooden bridge which crossed a neigh
bouring river, at a point where the stream was deep and rapid. He was
immediately stopped; and to deter him from the repetition of such perilous
experiments, he was once or twice plunged into the river, which had the
desired effect. The servants were instructed to prevent his visits to the
horses of strangers in the stable ; and after his wishes in this respect had
been repeatedly thwarted, he had the ingenuity to lock the door of the
kitchen on the servants, in the hopes that he might accomplish unmolested his
visits to the stable. The information of his understanding and the guidance of
his conduct, seemed entirely to depend either on touch, or en the organs of smeU
and taste, which, in perfectly formed men, have almost dwindled into mere in.
struraents of sensual gratification. His docility and contrivance often indicat-
ed a degree of understanding which (if due allowance be made for his priva.
tions) was superii)r to that of many in whom every inlet is unobstructed
through which the materials of knowledge enter the mind. He had received a
severe wound in his foot, and during its cure, he usually sat by the fire-side,
with his foot resting on a small foot-stool. More than a year after wards, a ser-
vant boy with whom he used to play, was obliged to confine himself to a chair
from a similar cause. Young Mitchell perceiving that his companion re-
mained longer in one situation than he used to do, examined him attentively

368 HISTORY OF

widely diffused, nevertheless extends his powers ; the sense ol
smelling is more contracted still ; and the taste and touch are the
most confined of all. Thus man enjoys very distant objects but
with one sense only ; more nearly he brings two senses at once to

Rnd seemed quickly to discover by the bandages on liis foot, the reason of
his confinement. He immediately walked up stairs to a garret, sought out,
amidst several other pieces of furniture, the little foot-stool which had for-
merly supported his own wounded limb, brought it down in his hand to the
kitchen, and gently placed the servant-boy's fnot upon it.

Having appeared to distinguish, by feeling, a horse which his mother had
sold a few weeks before, the rider dismounted to put his knowledge to the
test, and Mitchell immediately led the horse to liis mother's stable, took off
his saddle and bridle, put corn before him, and then withdrew, locking the
door, and putting the key in his pocket. He knew the use of most ordi-
nary utensils; and was pleased with every addition which he made to this
sort of knowledge. One of his amusements was, to visit the shops of car.
penters and other mechanics, obviously with a view to understand the na-
ture of their tools and operations. He assisted the farm servants, to whom
he was attached, in their work, particularly in cleaning the stable. He him-
self endeavoured to repair breaches in the farm houses, and even attempted
to build small houses \\ ith turf, leaving little openings like windows. Means
were used to teach him to make baskets ; but he seemed to want the perse-
verance necessary to finish his work.

His sister devised some means for establishing that communication between
liira and other beings, from which nature seemed for ever to have cut hiai
oflF. By various modifications of touch, she conveyed to him her .satisfaction
or displeasure at his conduct. Touching his head with her hand was her
principal method. This she did with various degrees of force, and in various
manners ; and he readily understood the intimation intended to be conveyed.
When she signified her highest approbation, she patted him much, and cor-
dially, on the head, back, or hand. This expression more sparingly used,
signified simple assent ; and she only refused him these signs of her approba-
tion entirely, and repelled him gently, to convey to him in the most efi'ectual
manner the notice of her displeasure. In this manner she contrived a lan-
guage of t<iuch, which was not only the means of communication, but the
iustnunent of some moral discipline. To supply its obvious and great defects
she had recourse to a language of action, representing those ideas which
none of the simple natural sigus cognizable by the sense of touch could con-
vey. When his mother w as from home, his sister allayed his anxiety for
her return, by laying his head gently down on a pillow once for each night
that his mother was to be absent; implying that he would sleep so many
times before her return. It was once signified to him that he must wait two
days for a suit of new clothes, and this also was effectually done by shutting
his eyes and bending down his head twice. In the mode of communicating
his ideas to others, there was a very remarkable peculiarity. When he
wished for meat, he pointed to the place where he knew it to be : and when
he was desirous of informing his friends that he was going to a shoemaker's
Bhop, he imitated the action of making shoes. Hut though no information
was intentionally communicated to him without touching some part of bu

ANIMALS. 369

bear upon them ; his sense of smelling assists the other two, at
its own distance ; and of such objects, as a man, he may be said
to be in perfect possession.

Each sense, however, the more it acts at a distance, the more

body, he did not attempt, in any of these cases, to touch that of others. To
say that he addressed these signs to their sight would be incorreit ; but he
must have been conscii,us tliat they were endowed with some means of inter-
preting signs, without contact, by an incomprehensible faculty which nature
had refused to him.

He seems to have had no conception of any beings superior to human, and
was consequently without any appearance of those religious feelings which
are among the most general characteristics of our species. His only at-
tempts at utterance were the uncouth bellowings by which he sometin es la-
boured to vent that violent anger to which his situation rendered hira prone.
His tears were most commonly shed from disappointment in his wishes ; but
they sometimes flowed from affectionate sorrow. No account of any being,
doomed from birth to a privation so nearly complete both of sight and hear-
ing, has hitherto been discovered iu the records of science. The case of
Mitchell must therefore be regarded as among the most interesting ano-
malies in the natural history of tlie human species.

As the materials of all human thought and reasoning enter the mind, or
arise in it at a period which is prior to the operation of memory, and under
the simultaneous action of all the senses, it is extremely difficult to ascertain
what perceptions belong originally and exclusively to each of the organs of
external sense. Our notion of every object is made up of the impressions
which it makes on ail the organs. Whatever may be thought of tlie mental act
which originally unites these various impressions, it seems evident, that, in
the actual state of every human understanding, the labour is to disunite them.
Every common man thinks of them, and employs them in their compound
state. To analyze them is an operation suggested by philosophy ; and which,
in the usual state of things, must always be most imperfectly performed. A
man who, from the beginning, had all his senses complete, must have had all
these impressions ; and never can banish any of them from his mind. He
can indeed attend to some of them so much more than to others, that he may
eeem to himself to exclude altogether that which he neglects. But to the
perceptions of which he is conscious much will adhere, composed of ingre
dicnts so minute and subtle, as to elude the power of will, and to escape the
grasp of consciousness. He can approach analysis only by efforts of atten-
tion very imperfectly successful, and by suppositions often precarious ; auo
when pressed to their ultimate consequences, often also repugnant and iu.
conceivable. For such purposes some philosophers have imagined intelli-
gent beings with no other sense than that t)f vision ; and otliers have repre-
sented their own hypothesis respecting the origin and progress of perception
under the history of a statue ruccessively endowed with the various organs
of sense- It is evident, however, that such suppositions can do no more
than illustrate the peculiar opinions of the supposer, and cannot prove that
which, in the nature of tilings, they presuppose. But when one inlet of per-
ception is entirely blocked up, we then really see the variation in the state o'
the compound, produced hy the abceuce of part of its ingredients ; and heuoe

370 HisroKf OK

capable it is oi' making comoiiiatioii.- , and is, consequently, the
more improveable. Refined imaginations, and men of strong
minds, take more pleasure, therefore, in improving the delights
of the distant senses, than in enjoying such as are scarce capable
of improvement.

By combining the objects of the extensive senses, all the arts
of poetry, painting, and harmony, have been discovered ; but the
closer senses, if I may so call them, such as smelling, tasting,
and touching, are, in some measm-e, as simple as they are limited,
and admit of little variety. The man of imagination makes a
great and an artificial happiness by the pleasure of altering and
combining ; the sensualist just stops where he began, and culti-
vates only those pleasures which he cannot improve. The sen-
sualist is contented with those enjoyments that are already made
to his hand ; but the man of pleasme is best pleased with grow-
ing happiness.

it has happened, that the cure and education of the deaf and blind, besides
their higher character among the triumphs of civilized benevolence, acquire
a considerable though subordinate value, as almost the only great experi-
ments which metaphysical philosophy can perform. Even these experiments
are incomplete. Knowledge, opinion, and prejudice, are infused into the
blind through the ear ; and wheu they are accustomed to employ the nie-
chanisni of language, they learn the use of words as signs of things unknown,
and speak with coherence and propriety on subjects where they may have
no ideas. To fix the limits of the thoughts of a blind man who hears and
speaks, is a problem beyond the reach of our present attainments in philo-
Bophy. That Sanderson and Biacklock could use words correctly and
consistently, without correspondent ideas, seems to be certain ; but how (ar
their privation of thought extended beyond the province of light and colours
we do not seem yet to possess the means of determining. On the other hand,
the deaf employ the sense of sight, the most rapid and comprehensive of the
Bubordinate faculties, of the highest importance for the direct original inform
ation which it conveys, as well for the great variety of natural signs of which
it takes cognizance, and for the conventional signs which the abbreviation of
its natural language supplies. Miissieu, evidently a mind of a far higher order
than that of the poet or the mathematician whom vi'e have mentioned, la
also exi'luded from less knowledge ; and if he were to reason on the theory
of sound, there appears no ground for expecting that he might not employ
his words with as much exactness as Sanderson displayed In the employment
of algebraic signs- The information conveyed by the ear respecting the con-
dition of outward objects, is comparatively small. But its great importance
consists in being the organ which renders it possible to use a conventional
language on an extensive scale, and under almost all circumstances. The
eye is the grand interpreter of natural signs. A being almost entirely de.
prived of both, was a now object of philosophical examination ; and the case
could not have fallen into better hands tha'' Dugald Stewart,

ANIMALS. 371

Of all the senses, perhaps, there is not one in which man is
more inferior to other animals than in that of smelling. With
man, it is a sense that acts in a narrow sphere, and disgusts al-
most as frequently as it gives him pleasiu'e. With many other
animals it is diffused to a very great extent ; and never seems
to offend them. Dogs not only trace the steps of other animals,
but also discover them by the scent at a very great distance ;
and while they are thus exquisitely sensible of all smells, they
seem no way disgusted by any.

Jiut, although this sense is, in general, so very inferior in man,
it is much stronger in those nations that abstain from animal
food, than among Europeans. The Bramins of Indiahave a power
of smelling, as I am informed, equal to what it is in other crea-
tures. They ean smell the water which they drink, that to us
seems quite inodorous ; and have a word, in their language,
which denotes a country of line water. We are told also, that
the negroes of the Antilles, by the srriell alone, can distinguish
between the footsteps of a Frenchman and a negro. It is pos-
sible, therefore, that we may dull this organ by our luxurious
way of living ; and sacrifice to the pleasures of taste, those
which might be received from perfume.

However, it is a sense that we can, in some measure, dis
pense with ; and I have known many that wanted it entirely,
with but very little inconvenience from its loss In a state of na-
ture it is said to be useful in guiding us to proper nourishment,
and deterring us from that which is unwholesome ; but, in our
present situation, such information is but little wanted j and, in-
deed, but little attended to. In fact, the sense of smelling
gives us very often false intelligence. Many things that have
a disagreeable odour, are, nevertheless, wholesome and pleasant
to the taste ; and such as make eating an art, seldom think a
meal fit to please the appetite, till it begins to offend the nose.
On the other hand, there are many things that smell most
gratefully, and yet are noxious, or fatal to the constitution.
Some j)hysicians think that perfumes in general are unwhole-
some ; that they relax the nerves, produce headaches, and even
retard digestion. The maiichineel apple, which is known to be
deadly poison, is possessed of the most grateful odour. Some
o'' those mineral vapours that are often found fatal in the sto-
mach, smell like the sweetest fiuwers, and continue thus to Hatter

372 ' HISTORY OF

till they destroy. This sense, therefore, as it should seem, was
never meant to direct us in the choice of food, but appeai-s rather
as an attendant than a necessary pleasure.

Indeed, if we examine the natives of different countries, or
even different natives of the same, we shall find no pleasure in
which they differ so widely as that of smelling. Some persons
are pleased with the smell of a rose : while I have known others
that could not abide to have it approach them. The savage na
tions are highly delighted with the smell of assaftetida, which is
to us the most nauseous stink in nature. It would in a manner
seem that our delight in perfumes was made by habit ; and that
a very little industry could bring us totally to invert the percep-
tion of odours.

Thus much is certain, that many bodies which at one distance
are an agreeable perfume, when nearer are a most ungrateful
odour. Musk and ambergrise, in small quantities, are consi-
dered by most persons as highly fragrant ; and yet when in
larger masses, their scent is insufferable. From a mixture of
two bodies, each whereof is, of itself, void of all smell, a verv
powerful smell may be drawn. Thus, by grinding quick-lime
with sal-ammoniac, maybe produced a very fcetid mixture. On
the contrary, from a mixture of two bodies, that are separately
disagreeable, a very pleasant aromatic odour may be gained. A
mixture of aqua-fortis with s])irit of wine produces this effect.
But not only the alterations of bodies by each other, but the
smallest change in us, makes a very great alteration in thi^
sense, and frequently deprives us of it totally. A slight cold
often hinders us from smelling ; and as often changes the na-
iire of odours. Some persons, from dis'order, retain an incurable
aversion to those smells which most pleased them before : and
many have been known to have an antipathy to some animals
whose presence they instantly perceived by the smell. From
all this, therefore, the sense of smelling appears to be an uncer-
tain monitor, easily disordered, and not much missed when to
tally wanting.

The sense most nearly allied to smelling is that of tasting. >
This some have been willing to consider merely as a niser kind'
of touch, and have undertaken to account, in a very mechanical
manner, for the difference of savour. " Such bodies," said they,
" as are pointed, happening to be applied to the papillae of the

ANIMALS. 373

tongue, excite a very powerful sensation, and give us the idea of
saltness. Such, on the contrary, as are of a rounder figure, slide
Buioothly along the papillae, and are perceived to be sweet." In
this manner they have with minute labour, gone through the
variety of imagined forms in bodies, and have given them as ima-
ginary effects. All we can precisely determine upon the nature
of tastes is, that the bodies to be tasted must be either somewhat
moistened, or, in some measure, dissolved by the saliva, before
they can produce a proper sensation : when both the tongue it-
self and the body to be tasted are extremely dry, no taste what-
ever ensues. The sensation is then changed ; and the tongue,
instead of tasting, can only be said, like any other part of the
body, to feel the object.

It is for this reason that children have a stronger relish of
taste than those who are more advanced in life. This organ
with them, from the greater moisture of their bodies, is kept in
greater perfection ; and is, consequently, better adapted to per-
form its functions. Every person remembers how great a plea-
sure he found in sweets, while a child ; but his taste growing
more obtuse with age, he is obliged to use artificial means to
excite it. It is then that he is found to call in the assistance of
poignant sauces, and strong relishes of salts and aromatics ; all
which the delicacy of his tender organ in childhood was unable
to endure. His taste grows callous to the natural relishes, and
is artificially formed to others more unnatural ; so that the high-
est epicui-e may be said to have the most depraved taste ; as it
is owing to the bluntness of his organ, that he is obliged to have
recourse to such a variety of expedients to gratify his appetite.

As smells iu-e often rendered agreeable by habit, so also
tastes may be. Tobacco and coffee, so pleasing to many, are
yet, at first, very disagreeable to all. It is not without persever-
ance that we begin to have a relish for them ; we force nature
so long, that what was constraint in the beginning, at last be-
comes inclination.

The grossest, and yet the most useful of all the senses, is that
of feeling. We are often seen to survive under the loss of the
rest ; but uf tins w c csn never be totally deprived, but with life.
Although this sense is diffused over all parts of the body, yet it
most frequently hapjn ns that those parts which ai-e most exer-
cised in touching, acquire the gieatest degree of accuracy.

2 I

S/4 HISTORY OF

Thus the fingtrs, by long habit, become greater masters in the
art than any other, even where the sensation is more deliciile
and tine.' It is from this habit, therefore, and their peculiar
formation, and not, as is supposed, from their being furnished
with a greater quantity of nerves, that the fingers are thus per-
fectly qualified to judge of forms. Blind men, who are obliged
to use them much oftener, have this sense much finer ; so that
the delicacy of the touch arises rather from the habit of con-
stantly employing the fingers, than from any fancied nervousness
ill their confirmation.

All animals that are furnished with hands' seem to have more
.uiderstanding than others. Monkeys have so many actions
like those of men, that they appear to have similar ideas of the
form of bodies. All other creatures, deprived of hands, can
have no distinct ideas of the shape of the objects by which they
ai'e surrounded, as they want this organ, which serves to examine
and measure their forms, their risings, and depressions. A
quadruped, probably, conceives as erroneous an idea of any thing
near him, as a child would of a rock or a mountain that it be
held at a distance.

It may be for this reason, that we often see them frighted at
things with which they ought to be better acquainted. Fishes,
whose bodies are covered with scales, and who have no organs
for feeling, must be the most stupid of all animals. Serpents,
that are likewise destitute, are yet, by winding round several
bodies, better capable of judging of their form. All these, how-
ever, can have but very imperfect ideas from feeling ; and we
have already seen, when deprived of this sense, how little the
ipst of the senses are to be relied on.

The feeling, therefore, is the guardian, the judge, and the ex-
aminer of all the rest of the senses. It establishes their infor-
niatioii, and detects their errors. All the other senses are
altered by time, and contradict their former evidence ; but the
touch still continues the same ; and, though extremely confined
in its operations, yet it is never found to deceive. The uni-
verse, to a man who had only used the rest of his senses, would
tie but a scene of illusion ; every object misrepresented, and ail
its properties unknown. Mr Buflbn lias imagined a man just

1 i;\ifii.ii, vol. vi. [). so. 2 Ibid. Vdl. vi. p. 82.

ANIMALS. 375

newly brought into existence, describing the illusion of his first
BCiisations, and pointing out the steps by which he arrived at
reality. He considers him as just created, and awaking amidst
the productions of nature ; and, to animate the narrative still
more strongly, has made his philosophical man a speaker. The
reader will no doubt recollect Adam's speech in Milton as being
similar. All that I can say to obviate the imputation of plagiar-
ism is, that the one treats the subject more as a poet, the other
more as a philosopher. The philosopher's man describes his
first sensations in the following manner.^

I well remember that joyful anxious moment when I first be-
came acquainted with my own existence. I was quite ignorant
of what I was, how I was produced, or from whence I came.
I opened my eyes ; what an addition to my surprise ! the light
of the day, the azure vault of heaven, the verdure of the earth,
the crystal of the waters, all employed me at once, and animated
and filled me with inexpressible delight. I at first imagined
that all those objects were within me, and made a part of
myself.

Impressed with this idea, I turned my eyes to the sun ; its
splendour dazzled and overpowered me ; I shut them once more ;
and, to my great concern, I supposed that during this short in.
terval of darkness, I was again returning to nothing.

Afflicted, seized with astonishment, I pondered a moment on
this great change, when I heard a variety of unexpected sounds.
The whistling of the wind, and the melody of the groves,
formed a concert, the soft cadence of which sunk upon my soul.
I listened for some time, and was persuaded tliat all this music
was within me.

Quite occupied with this new kind of existence, I had already
forgotten the light, which was my first inlet into life; wlien I
once more opened my eyes, and found myself again in possession
of my former happiness. The gratification of the two senses
at once, was a pleasure too great for utterance.

I turned my eyes upon a thousand various objects ; I soon
found that I could lose them, and restore them at will ; and
amused myself more at leisure with a repetition of this new-
made power.

3 ni:tt.iii. \-i I vi p. 83

376 HISTORY OF

I now began to gaze without emotion, and to hearken with
tranquillity, when a light breeze, the freshness of which charm-
ed me, wafted its perfumes to my sense of smelling, and gave
me such satisfaction as even increased my self-love.

Agitated, roused by the various pleasures of my new existence,
I instantly arose, and perceived myself moved along, as if by
some unknown and secret power.

I had scarcely proceeded forward, when the novelty of my
situation once more rendered me immoveable. My surprise
returned ; I supposed that every object around me had been
in motion ; I gave to them that agitation which I produced by
changing place ; and the whole creation seemed once more in
disorder.

I lifted my hand to my head ; I touched my forehead ; I felt
my whole frame : I then supposed that my hand was the
principal organ of my existence ; all its informations were dis-
tinct and perfect, and so superior to the senses I had yet expe-
rienced, that I employed myself for some time in repeating its
enjoyments ; every part of my person I touched, seemed
to touch my hand in turn ; and gave back sensation for
sensation.

I soon found that this faculty was expanded over the whole
surface of my body; and I now lirst began to perceive the
limits of my existence, which I had in the beginning supposed
spread over all the objects I saw.

Upon casting my eyes upon my body, and surveying my own
form, I thought it greater than all the objects that surrounded
me. I gazed upon my person with pleasure ; I examined the
formation of my hand, and all its motions ; it seemed to me
large or little in proportion as I approached it to my eyes ; I
brought it very near, and it then hid almost every other object
from my sight. I began soon, however, to find that my sight
gave me uncertain information, and resolved to depend upon my
feeling for redress.

This precaution was of the utmost service ; I renewed my
motions, and walked forward with my face tiu-ned towards the
heavens. I happened to strike lightly against a palm-tree, and
this renewed my surprise : I laid my hand on this strange body ;
it seemed replete with new wonders, for it did not return me
sensation for sensation, as my former feelings had done. I per-

ANIMALS. 377

i-uived that there was something external, and which did not
m^ike a part of my own existence.

I now therefore, resolved to touch whatever I saw, and vainly
attempted to touch the sun ; I stretched forth my arm, and felt
only yielding air : at evei-y effort, I fell from one surprise into
another, for every object appeared equally near me ; and it was
not till after an infinity of trials, that I found some objects far-
ther removed than the rest.

j\ mazed with the illusions, and the uncertainty of my state,
I sat down beneath a tree ; the most beautiful fruits hung upon
it within my reach ; I stretched forth my hand, and they in-
stantly separated from the branch. I was proud of being able
to grasp a substance without me , I held them up, and their
weigi)t appeared to me like an animated power that endeavoured
to draw them to the earth. I found a pleasure in conquering
their resistance.

I held them near to eye •, I considered their form and
beauty, their fragrance still more allured me to bring them
nearer ; I approached them to my lips, and drank in their odours ;
the perfume invited my sense of tasting, and I soon tried a new
sense — How new ! how exquisite ! Hitherto I had tasted only
of pleasiu-e ; but now it was luxury. . The power of tasting gave
me the idea of possession.

Flattered with this new acquisition, I continued its exercise, till
an agreeable languor stealing upon my mind, I felt all my limbs
become heavy, and all my desires suspended. My sensations were
now no longer vivid and distinct ; but seemed to lose every object,
and presented only feeble images, confusedly marked. At that in-
stant I sunk upon the flowery bank, and slumber seized me. All
now seemed once more lost to me. It was then as if I was return-
ing to my former nothing. How long my sleep continued, I cannot
tell ; as I yet had no perception of time. My awaking appeared
like a second birth ; and I then perceived that I had ceased for
a time to exist. This produced a new sen-^ation of fear ; and
from this interruption in life, I began to conclude that I was
not formed to exist for ever.

In this state of doubt and perplexity, I began to harbour new

suspicions ; and to fear that sleep iiad robbed me of some of my

late powers j when turning on one side, to resolve my doubts,

what was my amazement, to behold another being like myself

2 I 3

378 ' HisroKY OF

stretched by my side ! New ideas now began to arise ; new
passions, as yet unperceived, with fears and pleasures, all took
possession of my mind, and prompted my curiosity : love served
to complete that happiness which was begun in the individual ;
and every sense was gratified in all its varieties.

CHAP. X.

Every thing in nature has its improvement and decay. The
human form is no sooner arrived at its state of perfection, than
it begins to decline. The alteration is at first insensible ; and
often several years are elapsed before we find ourselves grown
old. The news of this disagreeable change too generally comes
from without ; and we learn from others that we grow old, be-
fore we are willing to believe the report.

When the body has come to its full height and is extended
into its just dimensions, it then also begins to receive an addi-
tional bulk which rather loads than assists it- This is formed
from fat ; which generally at the age of thirty-five, or forty, covers
all the muscles, and interrupts their activity. Every action is
then performed with greater labour, and the increase of size only
serves as a fore-runner of decay.

The bones also become every day more solid. In the embryo
they are as soft almost as the muscles of the flesh ; but by de-
grees they harden, and acquire their natural vigour ; but still,
howes'ever, the circulation is carried on through them, and how
hard soever the bones may seem, yet the blood holds its current
through them, as through all other parts of the body. Of this
we may be convinced by an experiment, which was first acci-
dentally discovered by our ingenious countryman, Mr Belcher.
Perceiving at a friend's house, that the bones of hogs, which
were fed upon madder, were red, he tried it upon various ani-
mals by mixing this root with their usual food ; and he found

1 This chapter is taken from Mr BiiBbn, except where it is marked by in-
verted commas.

ANIMALS. 370

tbat it tinctured the bones in all ; an evident demonstration
that the juices of the body had a circulation through the bones.
He fed some animals alternately upon madder and their com-
mon food, for some time, and he found their bones tinctured
with alternate layers, in conformity to their manner of living.
From all this be naturally concluded, that the blood circulated
through the bones, as it does through every other part of the
body ; and that, how solid soever they seemed, yet like the soft-
est parts, they were furnished through all their substance, with
their proper canals. Nevertheless, these canals are of very dif-
ferent capacities, during the different stages of life. In infancy
they are capacious ; and the blood flows almost as freely through
the bones as through any other part of the body : in manhood
their size is greatly diminished ; the vessels are almost impercep-
tible ; and the circulation through them is proportionably slow.
But, in the decline of life, the blood which flows through the
bones, no longer contributing to their growth, must necessarily
serve to increase their hardness. The channels that every
where run through the human frame, may be compared to those
pipes that we every where see crusted on the inside, by the water
for a long continuance running through them. Both every day
grow less and less, by the small rigid particles which are deposited
within them. Thus as the vessels are by degrees diminished,
the juices also, which were necessary for the circulation through
them are diminished in proportion ; till at length, in old age,
those props of the human frame are not only more solid, but
more brittle.

The cartilages, or gristles, which may be considered as bones
beginning to be formed, grow also more rigid. The juices cir-
culating through them, for there is a circidation through all
parts of the body, every day contribute to render them harder ;
so that these substances, which in youth are elastic and pliant,
in age become hard and bony. As these cartilages are generally
placed near the joints, the motion of the joints also must of
consequence become more difficult. Thus, in old age, every
action of the body is performed with labour ; and the cartilages,
formerly so supple, will now sooner break than bend.

" As the cartilages acquire hardness, and unfit the joints for
motion, so also that mucous liquor, vvhich is always separated
between the joints, and which serves, like oil to a hinge, to give

."^SO HISTORY OF

them an easy and ready play, is now grown more scanty. It be-
comes thicker and more clammy, more unfit for answering the
purposes of motion ; and from thence, in old age, every joint is
not only stiff, but awkward. At every motion this clamniy
liquor is heard to crack ; and it is not without the greatest effort
of the muscles that its resistance is overcome. I have seen a!j
old person, who never moved a single joint, that did not thus
give notice of the violence done to it."

The membranes that cover the bones, the joints, and the rest
of the body, become as we grow old, more dense and more dry.
Those which surround the bones, soon cease to be ductile.
The fibres, of which the muscles and tlesh is composed, become
every day more rigid ■, and while to the touch the body seems,
as we advance in years, to grow softer, it is in reality, increasing
in hardness. It is the skin, and not the flesh, that we feel upon
such occasions. The fat, and the ilabbiness of that, seems to
give an appearance of softness, which the tlesh itself is very far
from having. There are few can doubt this, after trying the
difference between the flesh of young and old animals. The first
is soft and tender, the last is hard and dry.

The skin is the only part of the body that age does not con-
tribute to harden. That stretches to every degree of tension ;
and we have horrid instances of its pliancy, in many disorders
incident to humanity. In youth, therefore, while the body is
vigorous and increasing, it still gives way to its growth. But,
although it thus adapts itself to our increase ; it does not in the
same manner conform to our decay. The skin, which, in
youth was filled and glossy, when the body begins to decline
has not elasticity enough to shrink entirely with its diminution.
It hangs therefore in wrinkles, which no art can remove. The
wrinkles of the body, in general, proceed from this cause. But
those of the face seem to proceed from another ; namely, from
the many varieties of positions into which it is put by the
speech, the food, or the passions. Every grimace, and every
passion, wrinkles up the visage into different forms. These an*
visible enough in young persons ; but what at first was accidental
or transitory, becomes unalterably fixed in the visage as it grows
older. " From hence we may conclude, that a freedom from
pa^jsions not only adds to the happiness of the mind, but pre-

ANIMALS. 381

seives the beauty of the face ; and the person that has not felt
their influence, is less strongly marked by the decays of nature."

Hence, therefore, as we advance in age, the bones, the carti-
lages, the membranes, the flesh, the skin, and every fibre of the
body, become more solid, more brittle, and more dry. Every
part shrinks, every motion becomes more slow ; the circulation
of the fluids is performed with less freedom ; perspiration di-
minishes ; the secretions alter ; the digestion becomes slow and
laborious ; and the juices no longer serving to convey their ac-
customed nourishment, those parts may be said to live no longer
when the circulation ceases. Thus the body dies by little and
little ; all its functions are diminished by degrees ; life is driven
from one part of the frame to another ; universal rigidity pre-
vails ; and death at last seizes upon the little that is left.

As the bones, the cartilages, the muscles, and all other parts
of the body, are softer in women than in men, these parts must,
of consequence, require a longer time to come to that hardness
which hastens death. Women, therefore, ought to be a longer
time in growing old than men ; and this is actually the case. If
we consult the tables which have been drawn up respecting hu-
man life, we shall find that after a certain age, they are more
long-lived than men, all other circumstances the same. A wo-
man of sixty has a better chance than a man of the same age to
live till eighty. Upon the whole, we may infer, that such per-
sons as have been slow in coming up to maturity, will also be
slow in growing old ; and this holds as well with regard to
other animals as man.

The whole duration of the life of either vegetables or animals,
may be, in some measure, determined from their manner of com-
ing to maturity. The tree or the animal, which takes but a short
tin)e to increase to its utmost pitch, perishes much sooner than
such as are less premature. In both the increase upwards is
first accomplished ; and not till they have acquired their greatest
degree of height do they begin to spread in bulk. Man grows
in stature till about the age of seventeen ; but his body is not
completely developed till about thirty. Dogs on the other
hand, are at their utmost size in a year, and become as bulky as
they usually are in another. However, man, who is so long in
growing, continues to live fourscore or a hundred years ; but
the dog seldom above twelve or thirteen. In general also it

382 HISTORY OF

may be said, that large animals live longer than little ones, as
they usually take a longer time to grow. But in all animals
one thing is equally certain, that they cany the cause of their
own decay about them ; and that their deaths are necessary
and inevitable. The prospects which some visionaries have
formed of perpetuating life by remedies, have been often enough
proved false by their own example. Such unaccountable schemes*
would, therefore, have died with them, had not the love of life
always augmented our credulity.

When the body is naturally well formed, it is possible to
lengthen out the period of life for some years by management.
Temperance in diet is often found conducive to this end. The
famous Cornaro, who lived to above a hundred years, although
his constitution was naturally feeble, is a strong instance of the
benefit of an abstemious life. Moderation in the passions also
may contribute to extend the term of our existence. " Fonte-
nelle, the celebrated writer, was naturally of a very weak anrt
delicate habit of body. He was afl'ected by the smallest irregu-
larities ; and had frequently suffered severe fits of illness from
the slightest causes. But the remarkable equality of his tem-
per, and his seeming want of passion, lengthened out his life to
above a hundred. It was remarkable of him, that nothing could
vex or make him uneasy ; every occurrence seemed equally
pleasing ; and no event, however unfortunate, seemed to come
unexpected." However, the term of life can be prolonged but
for a very little time by any art we can use. We are told of
men who have lived beyond the ordinary duration of human ex-
istence ; such as Parr, who lived to a hundred and forty-four ;
and Jenkins, to a hundred and sixty- five ; yet these men used no
peculiar arts to prolong life ; on the contrary, it appears that
these, as well as others, remarkable for their longevity, were
peasants accustomed to the greatest fatigues, who had no settled
rules of diet, but who often indulged in accidental excesses.
Indeed, if we consider that the European, the Negro, the Chi-
nese, and the American, the civilized man and the savage, the
rich and the poor, the inhabitant of the city and of the country,
though all so different in other respects, .ire yet entirely similar
in the period allotted them for living ; if we consider that neither
the difference of race, of climate, of nourishment, of convenience,
or of soil, makes any difference in the term of life ; if we consider

ANiMALS. 'AHS

that those men who live upon raw flesh, or dried fishes, upon
sago, or rice, upon cassava, or upon roots, nevertheless live as
long as those who are fed upon bread and meat -, we shall readily
De brought to acknowledge, that the duration of life depends
neither upon habit, customs, or the quantity of food ; we shall
confess, that nothing can change the laws of that mechanism which
regulates the number of our years, and which can chiefly be af-
fected only by long fasting, or great excess.

If there be any difference in the different pei'iods of man's
existence, it ought principally to be ascribed to the quality of the
air. It has been observed, that in elevated situations there have
been found more old people than in those that were low. The
mountains of Scotland, Wales, Auvergne, and Switzerland,
Iwve furnished more instances of extreme old age, than the
plains of Holland, Flanders, Germany, or Poland. But, in
general, the duration of life is nearly the same in most countries.
Man, if not cut off by accidental diseases, is often found to live
to ninety or a hundred years. Our ancestors did not live be-
yond that date : and, since the times of David, this term has
undergone little alteration.

If we be asked, how in the beginning men lived so much
longer than at present, and by what means their lives were ex-
tended to nine hundred and thirty, or even nine hundred and
sixty years ; it may be answered, that the productions of the
earth, upon which they fed, might be of a different nature at that
time from what they are at present. " It may be answered, that
the term was abridged by Divine command, in order to keep the
earth from being overstocked with human mhabitants ; since, if
every person were now to live and generate for nine hundred
years, mankind would be increased to such a degiee, that there
would be no room for subsistence ; so that the plan of Provi-
dence would be altered ; which is seen not to produce life with-
out providing a proper supply."

But to whatever extent life may be prolonged, or however
some may have delayed the effects of age, death is the certain
goal to which all are hastening. All the causes of decay which
have been mentioned contribute to bring on this dreaded disso-
lution. However, nature aj)proaches to this awful period by
slow and imperceptible degrees ; life is consumed day after day ;
and some one of our faculties, or vital principles, is everv hour

384 HISTORY OF

dying before the rest; so that death is only the last shade in the
picture ; and it is probable that man suffers a greater change in
going from youth to age, than from age into the grave. When
we first begin to live, our lives may scarcely be said to be our
own ; as the child grows, life increases in the same proportion ;
and is at its height in the prime of manhood. But as soon aa
the body begins to decrease, life decreases also ; for as the hu-
man frame diminishes, and its juices circulate in smaller quantity,
life diminishes and circulates with less vigour ; so that as we
begin to live by degrees, we begin to die in the same manner.

Why then should we fear death, if our lives have been such
as not to make eternity dreadful ? Why should we fear tmat
moment, which is prepared by a thousand other moments of the
same kind ? the first pangs of sickness being probably greater
than the last struggles of departure. Deatli, in most persons, is
as calmly endured as the disorder that brings it on. If we in-
quire from those whose business it is to attend the sick and the
dying, we shall find that, except in a very few acute cases, where
the patient dies in agonies, the greatest number die quietly, and
seemingly without pain : and even the agonies of the former
rather terrify the spectators than torment the patient ; for how
many have we not seen who have been accidentally relieved from
this extremity, and yet had no memory of what they then en-
dured ? In fact, they had ceased to live during that time when
they ceased to have sensation ; and their pains were only those
of which they had an idea.

The greatest number of mankind die, therefore, without sen-
sation ; and of those few that still preserve their faculties entire
to the last moment, there is scarcely one of them that does not
also preserve the hopes of still outliving his disorder. Nature,
for the happiness of man, has rendered this sentiment stronger
than his reason. A person dying of an incurable disorder, which
he must know to be so, by frequent examples of his case ; which
he peiceives to be so, by the inquietude of all around him, by
the tears of his friends, and the departure or the face of the
physician, is, nevertheless, still in hopes of getting over it. His
interest is so great, that he only attends to his own representa-
tions ; the judgment of others is considered as a hasty conclu-
sion ; and while death every moment makes new inroads upon
his constitution, and destroys life in some part, hope still seems

ANIMALS. 385

to escape the universal ruin, and is tlie last that submits to the
blow.

Cast your eyes upon a sick man, who h&s a hundred times
told you that he felt himself dying, that he was convinced he
could not recover, and that he was ready to expire ; examine
what passes on his visage, when through zeal or indiscretion,
any one comes to tell him that his end is at hand. You will
see him change, like one who is told an unexpected piece of
news. He now appears not to have thoroughly believed what
he had been telling you himself : he doubted much ; and his
fears were greater than his hopes ; but he still had some feeble
expeccations of living, and would not have seen the approaches
of death, unless he had been alarmed by the mistaken assiduity
of his attendants.

Death, therefore, is not that terrible thing which we suppose
it to be. It is a spectre which frights us at a distance, but
which disappears when we come to approach it more closely.
Our ideas of its terrors are conceived in prejudice, and dressed
up by fancy : we regard it not only as the greatest misfortune, but
as also an evil accompanied with the most excruciating tortures ;
we have even increased our apprehensions, by reasoning on the
extent of our sufferings. " It must be dreadful," say some,
*' since it is sufficient to separate the soul from the body : it must
be long, since our sufferings are proportioned to the succession
of our ideas ; and these being painful, must succeed each other
with extreme rapidity." In this manner has false philosophy
laboured to augment the miseries of our nature ; and to aggra-
vate that period which Nature has kindly covered with insensi-
bility. Neither the mind nor the body can suffer these calami-
ties : the mind is, at that time, mostly without ideas ; and the
body too much enfeebled to be capable of perceiving its pain.
A very acute pain produces either death or fainting, which is a
state similar to death : the body can suffer but to a certain de-
gree ; if the torture become excessive, it destroys itself; and the
mind ceases to perceive, when the body can no longer endure.

In this manner, excessive pain admits of no reflection ; and
wherever there are any signs of it, we may be sure that the suf-
ferings of the patient are no greater that what wc ourselves may
have remembered to endure.

But, in the article of death, we have many instances in whicli

386 HISTORY OF

the dying person has shown that very reflection which presnp,
poses an absence of the greatest pain ; and, consequently, that
pang which ends life cannot even be so great as those which have
preceded. Thus, when Charles XII. was shot at the siege of
Jt'rederickshall, he was seen to clap his hand on the hilt of his
sword ; and although the blow was great enough to terminate
one of the boldest and bravest lives in the world, yet it was not
painful enough to destroy reflection. He perceived himself at-
tacked ; he reflected that he ought to defend himself : and his
body obeyed the impulse of his mind, even in the last extremity.
Thus it is the prejudice of persons in health, and not the body
in pain, that makes us suffer from the approach of death ; we
have all our lives contracted a habit of making out excessive
pleasures and pains ; and nothing but repeated experience shows
us how seldom the one can be suffered, or the other enjoyed to
the utmost.

If there be any thing necessary to confirm what we have said
concerning the gradual cessation of life, or the insensible ap-
proaches of our end, nothing can more effectually prove it than the
imcertainty of the signs of death. If we consult what Winslow
or Bruhier have said upon this subject, we shall be convinced,
that between life and death the shade is so very undistinguisha-
ble, that even all the powers of art can scarcely determine where
the one ends, and the other begins. The colour of the vis-
age, the warmth of the body, the suppleness of the joints, are
but uncertain signs of life still subsisting ; while on the contrary,
the paleness of the complexion, the coldness of the body, the
stiffness of the extremities, the cessation of all motion, and the
total insensibility of the parts, are but uncertain marks of death
begun. In the same manner, also, with regard to the pulse and
the breathing, these motions are often so kept under, that it is
impossible to perceive them. By approaciiing a looking-glass
to the mouth of the person supposed to be dead, people often
expect to find whether he breathes or not. But this is a very
uncertain experiment ; the glass is frequently sullied by the va-
pour of the dead man's body ; and often the person is still alive
although the glass is no way tarnished. In the same manner,
neither burning nor scarifying, neither noises in the ears nor
pungent spirits applied to the nostrils, give certain signs of the
discontinuance of life ; and there are many instances of persons

AN'ISIALS. 387

who have endured them all, and afterwards recovered without
any external assistance, to the astonishment of the spectators.
How careful, therefore, should we be, before we commit those
who are dearest to us to the grave, to be well assured of their
departure : experience, justice, humanity, all persuade us not to
hasten the funerals of our friends, but to keep their bodies uiv
buiied, until we have certain signs of their real decease.

CHAP. XL

OF THE VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN RACE.*

Hitherto we have compared man with other animals ; we
now come to compare men with each other. We have hitherto
considered him as an individual, endowed with excellencies
above the rest of the creation ; we now come to consider the

« The indiscriminate sexual intercourse among the human race, and the con
Bequent production of an offspring- capable of propagation, seem to prove
mankind to be but a single species. There are, however, certain hereditary
conformations which give rise to peculiar distinctions among them, and con-
stitute what are denominated farieties.

Among these varieties Goldsmith has enumerated six, but there are three
which particularly merit attention, in consequence of the marked difference
existing between them. These are, I, the fair, or Caucasian variety ; 2, the
yellow, or Mongolian; 3, the Negro, or Ethiopian.

The Caucasian, to which Europeans belong, is chiefly distinguished by
the beautiful form of the head, which approximates to a perfect oval. It is
also remarkable. for Viriations in the shade of the complexion, and co-
lour of the hair. From this variety have sprung the most civilized nations,
and such as have most generally exercised dominion over the rest of man-
kind.

The Mongolian variety is recognized by prominent cheek-bones, flat visage,
narrow and oblique eyes, hair straight and black, scanty beard, and olivo
complexion. This race has formed mighty empires in China and Japan,
and occasionally extended its conquests on this side of the Great Desert, but
its civilization has long appeared stationary.

The negro race is confined to the south of Mount Atlas. Its characters are,
black complexion, woolly hair, compressed cranium, and flatfish nose. In
the prominence of the lower part of the face, and the thickness of the lips, it
manifestly approaches to the monkey tribe. The hordes of which this variety
If composed have always remained in a state of complete barbarism.

The Caucasian variety derives its name from the group of mo uitaiii'. be

2 K 2

SS8 HISTORY OF

advantages which men have over men, and the various kinds
with which our earth is inhabited.

If we compare the minute differences of mankind, there is
scarce one nation upon the earth that entirely resembles ano-

tween the Caspian and the Black Sea, because tradition would seem to refer
tlie origin of the people of this race to that part of the world. Thence, as
from a central point, the different branches of this variety shot forth like the
radii of a circle, and even at the present day we find its peculiar characteris-
tics in the highest perfection among the people in the neighbourhood of Cau-
casus, the Georgians and Circassians, who are considered the handsomest
natives of the earth. The principal branches of this race may be distinguished
by the analogies of language. The Syrian division, directing its course south-
ward, gave birth to the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the untameable Arabs,
destined to become for a period nearly masters of the world, the Phenicians,
the Jews, and the Abyssinians, who were Arabian colonies, and the ancient
Egyptians, who, in all probability, owe their origin to the same source.
From this branch, always inclined to mysticism, have sprung those religions,
the influence of which has proved the most widely extended and the most du-
rable. Science and literature have flourished occasionally among these people,
but always clothed in strange and mystic guise, and obscured by a highly
figurative diction.

The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch (for it is one and the same) is
infinitely more extended than the preceding, and was subdivided at an earlier
period. We may, notwithstanding, still recognise very numerous affinities
between its four principal languages : these are the Sanscrit, at present the
sacred language of the Hindoos, and parent of all the dialects of Hindos
tan ; the ancient language of the Pelasgi, the common mother of the Greek,
the Latin, of many tongues now extinct, and of all those spoken in the south
of Europe; the Gothic or Teutonic, from which the languages of the north
and north-west of Europe are derived, the German, Dutch, English, Danish,
Swedish, &c. ; lastly, the Sclavonian, from which come the languages of the
north-east of Europe, as the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, &c.

This extensive and powerful branch of the Caucasian race may be placed
with justice in the foremost rank of the sons of men. The nations which
compose it have carried philosophy, science, and the arts to '.he greatest per.
fection, and for more than thirty ages have been the guardians and deposi.
taries of human knowledge. Previously to its entrance, Europe had been oc.
cupied by the Celtic tribes, who cume from the northward, a'ld by the Can.
tabarians, who passed from Africa into Spain. The former, though once
considerably extended, are confined at present to the most western extre.
mities of Europe, and the latter are now nearly confounded among tlie nu.
merous nations whose posterity are settled in the Spanish peninsula.

The origin of the ancient Persians is the same with that of the Indians, and
their descendants at the present day bear the strongest marks of affinity with
the European nations.

The Scythian or Tartarian branch, at first, extended towards the north and
north-east of Asia. Accustomed to a vagabond and jiredatory life in those
\minense tracts of country, these wandering tribes left them only for the
purpose of devastating the inheritance, and subverting the etitablishments of

ANIMAL3. 389

I her ; and there may be said to be as many different kinds (if
men as there are countries inhabited. One polished nation
does not differ more from another, than the merest savages
(Jo from those savages that lie even contiguous to them ; and

tlieir more fortunate bretliren. The Scythians, who at so remote a peri od i>t
antiquity, made irruptions into upper Asia ; the Parthiaus, who there destr oy.
ed the dominion of the Greeks and Romans ; the Turks, who overturn "^
the Saracen empire in Asia, and subdued in Europe the unhappy remnant
jif the Grecian people, — all sprang from this mighty branch of the Caucasian
race.

The Finlanders and the Hungarians are hordes of the same division, seem,
ingly strayed as it were into the midst of the Sclavonian and Teuto.'iic nations.
The north and the east of the Caspian Sea are still inhabited by people of the
earae origin, and who speak similar languages, but intermixed with a variety
of petty nations of diftercnt descent, and discordant tongues. The Tartar
people have remai-ned unmixed longer than the rest, in the region extending
from the mouth of the Danube to the further branch of the Irtisch, where
they 80 long proved formidable to the Russian empire, though at length sub.
jected to its sway. The Mongoles, however, in their conquests have mingled
their blood with these nations, and we discover many traces of this intermix,
ture more especially among the natives of lesser Tartary.

To the east of this Tartar branch of the Caucasian race, the Mongolian
variety begins to be discovered, from which boundary it extends to the eas-
tern ocean. Its branches the Calmucks, &c., are still wandering shepherds
perpetually traversing the great desert. Thrice did these nations, under
Attila, under Gengis, and under Tamerlane, spread far and wide the terror
of their name. The Chinese belong to this variety, and are thought to have
been the most early civilized, not only of this race, but of all the nations of
the world. The Japanese and the Coreans, and almost all the hordes which
extend to the north-east of Siberia, under the dominion of Russia, are in a
great measure to be ranked under this division of mankind. With the ex.
eeptioii of a few Chinese literati, the Mongolian nations are universally
addicted to the different sects of the superstition of Fo. The origin of this
mighty race seems to have been in the mountains of Altai, as that of ours
was in the Caucasian. We cannot however trace the course and propagation
of the branches of the one so well as those of the other. The history of these
fhepherd nations is as fugitive as their establishments. The records of the
thinese, confined to their own empire, throw but little light (m the traditicms
of their neighbours ; nor ran the affinities of languages so little known lend
much assistance to our researches, or d-irect our steps in this labyrinth Oi
obscurity.

The languages of the north of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, and also
that of Thibet, bear some resemblance to the Chinese, at least in their mono,
tyllabic structure, and the people who speak them are not without traits of
personal snnilarity to the other Mongole nations. But the south of this pen.
insula is inhabited by the Malays, a much handsomer people, whose race and
language are spread over the sea-coast of all the islands of the Indian Arrhi-
pelago, and through almost all the islands of the southern ocean. In the
largeet ot the former, especially in the wild and uurultivatcd tracts, we find

2k3

SX) KISTORV OF

it frequently happens that a river, or a mountain, divides
two barbarous tribes that are unlike each other in manners, cus-
toms, features, and complexion. But these differences, how-
ever perceivable, do not form such distinctions as come within
a general picture of the varieties of mankind. Custom, accident,
or fashion, may produce considerable alterations in neighbouring
nations ; their being derived from ancestors of a different climate,
or complexion, may contribute to make accidental distinctions,
which every day grow less ; and it may be said, that two neigh-
bouring nations, how unlike soever at first, will assimilate by
degrees ; and by long continuance, the difference between them
will at last become almost imperceptible. It is not, therefore,
between contiguous nations we are to look for any strong marked
varieties in the human species ; it is by comparing the inhabi-
tants of opposite climates and distant countries ; those who live
within the polar circles, with those beneath the equator ; those
that live on one side of the globe, with those that occupy
the other.

Of all animals,, the differences between mankind are the
smallest. Of the lower races of creatures, the changes are so
great as often entirely to disguise the natural animal, and to dis-
tort, or to disfigure, its shape. But the chief differences in man
are rather taken from the tincture of his skin than the variety of
his figure : as in all climates he preserves his erect deportment,
and the marked superiority of his form. If we look round the

another race of men, with crisped hair, black complexion, negro countenance,
and barbarous beyond measure. Those that are most known have received
the name of Papuas, and it may be applied as a general denomination to
them all.

It is not very easy to refer either the Malays, or the Papuas, to any one
of the three grand varieties of mankind already Jescribed. It is a question,
however, whether the former people can be accurately distinguished from
their neighbours on either side ; the Caucasian Hindoos on the one, and the
Mongolian Chinese ou the other. We scarcely find in them characteristics
sufficiently striking for this purpose. Again, are the Papuas Negroes, who,
in remote periods, may have lost their way upon tJie Indian ocean ? We
have neither figures nor descriptions sufficiently clear to reply to this
question.

The natives of the nortli of both continents, the Samoiedes, the Laplanders,
and the Esquimaux, spring, according to some authorities, from the Mongo.
lian race. According to others, they are only degenerate off-shoots froi.l
the Scytliian branch of the Caucasian variety-

ANIMALS. 391

ivoild, there seem to be not above six' distinct varieties in the
human species, each of which is strongly marked, and speaks
the kind seldom to have mixed with any other. But there is
nothing in the shape, nothing in the faculties, that shows their
coming from different originals ; and the varieties of climate, of
nourishment, and custom, are sufficient to produce every change.

The first distinct race of men is found round the polar regions.
The Laplanders, the Esquimaux Indians, the Samceid Tartars,
the inhabitants of Nova Zembla, the Borandians, the Green*
landers, and the natives of Kamtschatka, may be considered as
one peculiar race of people, all greatly resembling each other in
their stature, their complexion, their customs, and their igno-
rance. These nations being under a rigorous climate, where the
productions of nature are but few, and the provisions coarse and
unwholesome, their bodies have shrunk to the nature of their
food ; and their complexions have suflfered, from cold, almost a
similar change to what heat is known to produce ; their colour
being a deep brown, in some places inclining to actual blackness.
These, therefore, in general, are found to be a race of short
stature and odd shape, with countenances as savage as their
manners are barbarous. The visage in these countries, is large
and broad, nose flat and short, the eyes of a yellowish brown,
inclining to blackness, the eyelids drawn towards the temples,
the cheek-bones extremely high, the mouth very large, the lips
thick and turned outwards, the voice thin and squeaking, the
head large, the hair black and straight, the colour of the skin of
a dark grayish.^ They are short in stature, the generality not
being above four feet high, and the tallest not above five. Among
all these nations the w-omen are as deformed as the men, and
resemble them so nearly, that one cannot at first distinguish
the sexes among them.

These nations not only resemble each other in their deformity,
their dwarfishness, the colour of their hair and eyes, but they
have, in a great measure, the same inclinations, and the same
manners, being all equally rude, superstitious, and stupid. The
Danish Laplanders have a large black cat, to which they com-
municate their secrets, and consult in all their aflfairs. Among

1 I have taken four of these varieties from Linnaeus ; those of tlie Lap-
landers and Tartars from Mr Buffon.

2 Krantz

392 HISTORY OF

the Swedish Laplanders there isineveryfamilyadiumfor consult-
ing the devil; and although these nations are robust and nimble, yet
they are so cowardly that they never can be brought in to the field.
Gustavus Adolphus attempted to form a regiment of Laplanders,
but he found it in'^possible to accomplish his design •, for it should
seem that they can live only in their own country, and in their ow n
manner. They make use of skates, which are made of fir, o f
near three feet long, and half a foot broad ; these are pointe d
and raised before, and tied to the foot by straps of leather.
With these they skate on the icy snow, and with such velocity,
that they very easily overtake the swiftest animals. Tbey make
use also of a pole, pointed with iron at one end, and rounded at
the other. This pole serves to push them along, to direct their
course, to support them from falling, to stop the impetuosity of
their motion, and to kill that game which they have overtaken.
Upon these skates they descend the steepest mountains, and
scale the most craggy precipices : and in these exercises the wo-
men are not less skilful than the men. They have all the use
of the bow and arrow, which seems to be a contrivance common
to all barbarous nations ; and which, however, at first, required
no small skill to invent. They launch a javelin, also, with
great force, and some say, that they can hit a mark no larger
than a crown, at thirty yards distance, and with such force as would
pierce a man through. They are all hunters ; and particularly
pursue the ermine, the fox, the ounce, and the martin,
for the sake of their skins. These they barter with their south-
em neighbours, for brandy and tobacco ; both which they are
fond of to excess. Their food is principally dried fish, the Hesh
of rein-deers and bears. Their bread is composed of the bones
of fishes, pounded and mixed with the inside tender bark of the
pine-tree. Their di'ink is train-oil or brandy, and when de-
prived of these, water, in which juniper berries have been infus
cd. With regard to their morals, they have all the virtues ol
simplicity, and all the vices of ignorance. They offer their
wives and daughters to strangers ; and seem to think it a parti-
cular honour if their ofl^er be accepted. They have no idea of
religion, or a Supreme Being ; the greatest number of them are
idolaters ; and their superstition is as profound as their worship
is contemptible. Wretched and ignorant as they are, yet they do
not want pride ; they set themselves far above the rest of man

ANIMALS. 393

Kind ; and Crantz assures us, that when the Greenlanders are
got together, nothing is so customary among them as to turn the
Europeans into ridicule. They are obliged, indeed, to yield
them the pre-eminence in understanding and mechanic arts ;
but they do not know how to set any value upon these. They
therefore count themselves the only civilized and well bred
people in the world ; and it is common with them, when they
see a quiet or a modest stranger, to say that he is almost as well
bred as a Greenlander.

From this description, therefore, this whole race of people
may be considered as distinct from any other Their long con-
tinuance in a climate the most inhospitable, their being obliged
to subsist on food the most coarse and ill-prepared, the savage-
ness of their maimers, and their laborious lives, aU have contri-
buted to shorten their stature, and to deform their bodies. In
proportion as we approach towards the north pole, the size of
the natives appears to diminish, gi'owing less and less as we ad-
vance higher, till we come to those latitudes that are destitute
of all inhabitants whatsoever.

The wretched natives of these climates seem fitted by nature
to endure the rigours of their situation. As their food is but
scanty and precarious, their patience in hunger is amazing.' A
man who has eaten nothing for four days can manage his little
canoe in the most furious waves, and calmly subsist in the midst
of a tempest that would quickly dash an European boat to pieces.
Their strength is not less amazing than their patience : a wo-
man among them will carry a piece of timber or a stone, near
double the weight of what an European can lift. Tlieir bodies
are of a dark grey all over ; and their faces brown or olive. The
tincture of their skins partly seems to arise from their dirty man-
ner of living, being generally daubed with train-oil ; and partly
from the rigours of climate, as the sudden alterations of cold
and raw air in winter, and of burning heats in summer, shade
their complexions by degrees, till in a succession of generations,
they at last become almost black. As the countries in which
these reside are the most barren, so the natives seem the most
l)arbarous of any part of the earth. Their more southern neigh-
bours of America^ treat them with the same scorn that a polished

394. HISTORY OF

nation would treat a savage one ; and we may readily judge
of the rudeness of those manners, which even a nation of Ca-
nada can think more barbarous than his own.

But the gradations of nature are imperceptible ; and, while
the north is peopled with such miserable inhabitants, there are
here and there to be found, upon the edges of these regions, peo-
ple of a larger stature, and completer figure. A whole race of
the dwarfish breed is often found to come down from the north,
and settle more to the southward ; and, on the contrary, it some
times happens that southern nations are seen higher up, in the
midst of these diminutive tribes, where they have continued for
time immemorial. Thus the Ostiac Tartars seem to be a race
that have travelled down from the north, and to be originally
sprung from the minute savages vce have been describing.
There are also Noi-wegians and Finlanders, of proper stature,
who are seen to inhabit in latitudes higher even than Lapland.
These, however, are but accidental migrations, and serve as
shades to unite the distinct varieties of mankind.

The second great variety in the human species, seem to be
that of the Tartar race ; from whence, probably, the little men
we have been describing originally proceeded. The Tartar
country, taken in general, comprehends the greatest part of
Asia ; and is, consequently, a general name given to a number
of nations, of various forms and complexions. But, however
they seem to differ from each other, they all agree in being very
unlike the people of any other country. All these nations have
the upper part of the visage very broad, and wrinkled even
while yet in their youth. Their noses are short and flat, their
eyes little, and sunk in their heads ; and, in some of them, they
are seen five or six inches asunder. Their cheek-bones are high,
the lower part of their visage narrow, the chin long and advanced
forward, their teeth of an enormous size, and growing separate
from each other ; their eyebrows thick, large, and covering their
eyes ; their eyelids thick, the face broad and flat, the complex-
ion olive-coloured, and the hair black. They are of a middle
size, extremely strong, and very robust- They have but little
beard, which grows straggling on the chin. They have large
thighs, and short legs. The ugliest of all are the Calmucks, in
whose appearance there seems to be something frightful. They all
lead an erratic life, remaining under tents of hair, or skins.

ANIMALS. 39d

They live upon horse flesh, and that of camels, either raw or a
little sodden between the horse and the saddle. They eat also
fish dried in the sun. Their most usual drink is mares' milk,
fermented with millet ground into meal. They all have the
head shaven, except a lock of hair on the top, which they let
grow sufficiently long to form into tresses, on each side of the
face. The women, who are as ugly as the men, wear their hair,
which they bind up with bits of copper, and other ornaments
of a like nature. The majority of these nations have no religion,
no settled notions of morality, no decency of behaviour. They
are chiefly robbers ; and the natives of Dagestan, who live near
their more polished neighbours, make a traflic of Tartar slaves
who have been stolen, and sell them to the Turks and the Per-
sians. Their chief riches consist in horses, of which perhaps
there are more in Tartary than in any other part of the world.
The natives are taught by custom to live in the same place with
their horses, they are continually employed in managing them,
and at last bring them to such great obedience, that the horse
seems actually to understand the rider's intention.

To this race of men, also, we must refer the Chinese and the
.Japanese, however different they seem in their manners and
ceremonies. It is the form of the body that we are now prin-
cipally considering; and there is, between these countries, a
surprising resemblance. It is in general allowed, that the
Chinese have broad faces, small eyes, flat noses, and scarce any
beard ; that they are broad and square-shouldered, and rather
less in stature than Europeans. These are marks common
to them and the Tartars, and they may, therefore, be considered
as being derived from the same originah " I have ob.served,"
says Chardin, " that in all the people from the east and the
north of the Caspian sea, to the peninsula of Malacca, that the
lines of the face, and the formation of the visage, are the same.
Tills has induced me to believe, that, all these nations are deriv ■
ed from the same original, however different either their com-
plexions, or their manners may appear ; for as to the comidexioii,
that proceeds entirely from the climate and the food ; and as to
the maimers, these are generally the result of their diflferent
degrees of wealth or power." That they come from one stock,
is evident also from this, that the Tartars who settle in China,
(juickly lesemble the Chinese j and, on the contrary, the Chinese

396

HISTORY OF

who settle in Tartary soon assume the figure and the manners
of the Tartars.

The Japanese so much resemble the Chinese, that one can-
not hesitate to rank them in the same class. They only differ
in being rather browner, as they inhabit a more southern cliiu^ite.
They are, in general, described as of a brown complexion, a short
stature, a broad flat face, a very little beard, and black hair.
Their customs and ceremonies are nearly the same ; their ideas
of beauty similar ; and their ai-tificial deformities of blackening
the teeth, and bandaging the feet, entirely alike in both coun-
tries. They both, therefore, proceed from the same stock ; and
although they differ very much from their brutal progenitors,
yet they owe their civilization wholly to the mildness of the
climate in which they reside, and to the peculiar fertility of the
soil. To this tribe, also, we may refer the Cochin Chinese,
the Siamese, the Tonquinese, and the inhabitants of Arracan,
Laos, and Pegu, who, though all differing from the Chinese and
each other, nevertheless have too strong a resemblance not to be-
tray their common original.

Another, which makes the third variety in the human species,
is that of the southern Asiatics ;* the form of whose features

• In the southern A&iatic, or East-Indian islands, there are two very dit.
ferent races of men ; the first have a strong- resemblance to the African Ne.
groes, in the black colour, woolly hair, and general form of the face and skull.
Their language, however, is difl'erent, and they have a copious beard. They
have been considered as the aborigines of those islands, some of which they
occupy altogether, but in others are found only in the mountainous and in.
terior regions. They are met with in Sumatra, in Borneo, in the Moluccas,
and the Philippines. They entirely occupy the Great Andaman Island, which
Colonel Symes visited on his voyage to Ava. He describes the natives as
very short, with slender limbs, large bellies, high shoulders, and large heads
with woolly hair, flat noses, and thick lips. They are in a state of the must
destitute misery and utter barbarism. Their persons, except in regard to
beard, bespeak a descent from central Africa, but even conjecture can scarce-
ly imagine when or how.

The rest of the people of these Indian islands are of a lighter colour, have
the face more oval, the hair long, and superior figures. In their organiza.
tion, language, and manners, they approximate to the natives of Malacca.
They usually occupy the sea-coasts of these islands, but some of the smaller
ones are entirely inhabited by them.

The Continent or Island of New Holland, for it will bear either of those
appellatives with propriety, is certainly inhabited by various sets of people,
as far at least as difl'erencea of general appearance, language, and territory
constitute variety ; but from our hitherto imperfect knowledge of this im.

ANIMALS, 397

and persons may be easily distinguished from those of the Tartar
races. The nations that inhabit the peninsula of India, seem to
be the principal stock from whence the inhabitants of the islands
that lie scattered in the Indian ocean have been peopled. They

mense country, we know not to wliat extent these varieties run, more
especially in the interior. The natives with whom we are best acquainted,
inliabitinf; the vicinity of Botany Bay, Pdrt Jackson, and Broken Bay, are in
general ot raodemte stature, and ill made. Their limbs, almost universally,
are very small and thin. The dwellers near the coast subsist almost exclu.
sively on fish ; those, on the other hand, who live in the woods are almost as
exclusively carnivorous, but depend entirely for a supply to the uncertain
produce of the chase, or rather to the casual surprise of opossums and small
animals in the trees. The latter. Colonel Collins informs us, are observed to
have longer arms than their compatriots of the coast The features of these
people are generally pleasing^, especially of the women, who are less deformed
by the foreign ornament of a bone or reed thrust throui;h the cartilage of the
nose or ears Like the south Africans, and other savages, these people of
both sexes annint their bodies all over with oil or grease ; a practice which
probably originated as a protection against t'le attacks of stinging flies, raus-
quitoes, and even the arid air. They also draw lines all over the face and
body, on particular occasions of combat or ceremony, with coloured clay, in
addition to the more permanent ornaments of scars or seams, the result of
self-inflicted wounds. The males, on attaining the ago of mauhoiid, have one
of the upper incisor teeth punched out, an operation performed on large
numbers at a time and with the most ridiculous ceremonies. The women
have the little finger of the right hand also mutilated by amputation of the
two first phalanges. Their senses, in general, in common with all savages,
are very acute ; that of sight in particular has been observed with admira-
tion by all Europeans who visit them. Parturition is also comparatively easy
among their women, who are generally enabled in a few hours after to pur-
sue their ordinary occupations. The colour of the natives in question is ob-
served to vary, though the more than ordinary filth of some individuals
among them may impart an unnatural blackness of the skin ; generally the
tint of the skin is that of copper when sufliciently cleansed to sl-.ow it. Their
hair is either curling or straight, not woolly like that of the negro. In a few
it has been observed to have a reddish c;ist. In disposition, these savages
evince the quality of general good nature, but occasionally deadly revenge,
inflexible courage in bodily sullering, jealousy, idleness, independence, and
cunning : to their previous had qualities must also unhappily be added some
that seem to result from their intercourse with the outcasts of European
society, especially drunkenness, one of the greatest banes of civilized life.
Their sorrow is evinced in the most poignant manner by tears and piercing
cries ; but the storm soon blows over, and their ordinary tone of miud is re-
itored.

The inhabitants of New Zealand, (says Captain Cruise,) are in general tall,
active, and well made ; their colour is brown, with black hair, sometimes
straiiiht, and sometimes curling ; and they have very fine teeth. There is a
hti iking difference between the Kungateedit*, that is, the chiefj and better
class (if people, in stature and cast, and those who ari' by birth cookies, or

2 L

398 HISTORY OF

are, in general, of a slender shape, with long straight black hair,
and often with Roman noses. Thus they resemble the Euro-
peans in stature and features ; but greatly differ in colour and
liabit of body. The Indians are of an olive colour, and, in the
more southern parts, quite black ; although the word Mogul, in
their language, signifies a white man. The women are extremely
delicate, and bathe very often ; they are of an olive colour, as
well as the men : their legs and thighs are long, and their bodies
short, which is the opposite to what is seen among the women
ot Europe. They are, as I am assured, by no means so fruit-
ful as the European women ; but they feel the pains of child-
birth with much less sensibility, and are generally up and well
the day following. In fact, these pains seem greatest in all
countries where the women are most delicate, or the constitution

slaves. Many of the latter are almost black, and below the middle size. The
New Zealauders exhibit as much variety in features as the Europeans ;
there is little national character in their countenances, which, before they
come to the age for being tattooed, may be called regular and pleasing.

The natives of the Friendly Islands have a general resemblance to the New
Zealanders, but are more civilized; they are of the ordinary European
stature, though some are above six feet ; their colour is a deep brown,
verging in the better classes to a light olive ; their features are various,
and many have the true European cast of countenance ; their hair is
straight, thick, and strong. That they have made some progress in civili-
sation is evident from the fact of their having terms to express numbers to
100,000.

The people of Otaheite, and the Society Islea, are the handsomest of the
South Seas. The complexion of the higher orders is described as white,
tinctured with a brownish yellow ; and, in some of the women a blush is
clearly distinguishable in the cheek. From this, we find among the lower
orders all the intermediate hues down to the deepest brown ; black is the
usual colour of the hair, and of a fine texture, but brown, red, and flaxen
hair has been observed among them ; they are of ihe largest size of Euro-
peans, and well-made ; their features are good in general, but the nose is
usually somewhat flatfish ; corpulence is common among them ; their lan-
guage is more harmonious, and their manners more refined than those of any
other of the South Sea islanders.

Tlie people of the Marquesas are considered the finest in the Southern
Ocean ; and in form are, perhaps, the finest in the world ; their average sta-
lure is from five feet ten to six feet. The practice of tattooing makes the
men appear dark, but the women and children are very fair; their hair, like
ours, is of various colours, but red is not found among them.

■It is said that the Otaheitan skull approximates to the Negro, while the
colour so wiaeiy aiffers ; on the contrary, the natives of the Friendly Islands,
though very dark in colour, liave more rf the European cast of head and
features.

ANIMALS. 399

enfeebled by luxury or indolence. The women of savage nations
seem, in a great measure, exempt from painful labours ; and
even the hard-working wives of the peasants among ourselves,
nave this advantage from a life of industry, that their child-bear-
ing is less painful. Over all India, the children areive sooner
at maturity, than with us of Europe. They often many and
consummate, the husband at ten years old, and the wife at eight ;
and they frequently have children at that age. However, the
women who are mothers so soon, cease bearing before they are
arrived at thirty; and at that time they appear wrinkled, and
seem marked with all the deformities of age. The Indians have
long been remarkable for their cowardice and effeminacy ; every
conqueror that has attempted the invasion of their countiy, hav-
ing succeeded. The warmth of the climate entirely influences
their manners ; they are slothful, submissive, and luxurious ;
satisfied with sensual happiness alone, they find no pleasure in
thinking; and contented with slavery, they are ready to obey
any master. Many tribes among them eat nothing that has life ;
they are fearful ot killing the meanest insect; and have even
erected hospitals for the maintenance of all kinds of vermin.
The Asiatic dress is a loose flowing garment, rather fitted for
tlic purposes of peace and indolence, than of industry or war.
The vigour of the Asiatics is, in general, conformable to their
dress and nourishment; fed upon rice, and clothed in effeminate
silk vestments, their soldiers are unable to oppose the onset of
an European army ; and from the times of Alexander to the
])resent day, we have scarcely any instances of their success in
arms. Upon the whole, therefore, they may be considered as a
feeble race of sensualists, too dull to find rapture in any pleasures,
and too indolent to turn their gravity into wisdom. To this
class we may refer the Persians, and Arabians, and, in general,
the inhabitants of the islands that lie scattered in the Indian
ocean.

The fourth striking variety in the human species, is to ho
found among the negroes of Africa.* This gloomy race of

• In taking a glance at the population of the in3mense peninsula of Africa,
till! attention seems first naturally directed to what was once a most mapni.
lircnt and important, though small, portion of it. The local situation of
iii.cient K;,'ypt, that groat (nulle of Kuropean civiliz itiiin and li'arnintr, ha'<,
pi'okubly, induced the oj/miou, which has lieeii very prevalent, that the eu-

2 L 2

■M)0 lilSTORY OF

mankind is found to blacken all the southern parts of Africa,
from eighteen degrees north of the line, to its extreme termina-
tion at the Cape of Good Hope. I know it is said, that the
Caffres, who inhabit the southern extremity of that large conti-
nent, are not to be ranked among the negro race : however, the
difference between them, in point of colour and features, is so
small, that they may very easily be grouped in this general pic-
ture; and in the one or two that I have seen, I could not per-
ceive the smallest difference. Each of the negro nations, it
must be owned, differ from each other ; they have their peculiar
countries for beauty, like us ; and different nations, as in
Europe, pride themselves upon the regularity of their features.
Those of Guinea, for instance, are extremely ugly, and have an
insujjportable scent ; those of Mosambique are reckoned beauti-
ful, and have no ill smell whatsoever. The negroes, in general,
are of a black colour, with a smooth soft skin. This smoothness
proceeds from the downy softness of the hair which grows upon
it; the strength of which gives a roughness to the feel, in those
of a white complexion. Their skins, therefore, have a velvet
smoothness, and seem less braced upon the muscles than ours.
The hair of their heads differs entirely from what we are accus-
tomed to, being soft, woolly, and short. The beard also partakes of
the same qualities ; but in this it differs, that it soon turns gray,
which the hair is seldom foimd to do ; so that several are seen
with white beards, and black hair, at the same time. Their eyes
are generally of a deep hazel ; their noses Hat and short ; their

liglitcned Egyptians were themselves Negroes, or from a Negro race. Phy-
sioliigy has, however, detected this error, for it is clear, from the examina-
tion and comparison of a great many skulls of Egyptian mummies, that these
people belonged to the Caucasian division, and that tlieir cranium and brain
were very voluminous when compared with the existing African races.
The fact is curious, as a collateral evidence of the position that a contrary
form of head is incompatible, nationally speaking, with an enlarged mind.
'i"he Abyssinians appear to be a colony of tlie Arabians. So much of Africa
R3 is within the torrid zone, is presumed to be in possession partially of tlve
Moors, but very generally of tlie Negroes. Whatever individual instances
may offer against the position, there seems great reason to conclude that it
has pleased the Father of all to assign to these people a lower place in the
intellectual scale, compared with otliers of tlieir fellow men, especially when
we advert to the stationary condition of their minds through so many iiges.
A physical obstacle to their progress seems to be a mure natural solution of
this problem, than any political or local circunistauces we OiUi imagine.

ANIMALS. 401

lips thick and tumid ; and their teeth of an ivory whiteness.
This their only beauty, however, is set off by the colour of their
skin ; the contrast between the black and white being the more
observable. It is false to say that their features are deformed
by art ; since, in the negro children born in European countries
the same deformities are seen to prevail; the same flatness in
tlie nose ; and the same prominence in the lips. They are in
general said to be well shaped ; but of such as I have seen, I
never found one that might be justly called so; their legs being
mostly ill formed, and commoidy bending outward on the shin-
bone. But it is not only in those parts of their bodies that are
obvious, that they are disproportioned ; those parts which among
us are usually concealed by dress, with them are large and lan-
guid. ' The women's breasts, after bearing one child, hang down
below the navel ; and it is customary with them to suckle the
child at their backs, by throwing the breasts over the shoulder.
As their persons are thus naturally deformed, at least to our
imaginations, their minds are equally incapable of strong exertions.
The climate seems to relax their mental powers still more than
those of the body ; they are, therefore, in general, found to be
stupid, indolent, and mischievous. The Arabians themselves,
many colonics of whom have migrated southward into t'je most
inland parts of Africa, seem to have degenerated from .heir an-
cestors ; forgetting their ancient learning, and losing their beauty,
they have become a race scarcely any way distinguishable from
the original natives. Nor does it seem to have fared otherwise
with the Portuguese, who, about two centuries ago, settled
along this coast. They also are become almost as black
as the negroes, and are said by some to be even more
barbarous.

The inhabitants of America make a fifth race, as different
from all the rest in colour, as they are distinct in habitation. •

1 Linnajus, in prima linea sua, foeminas Afriranas dcpinpt siout aliquid
deforme in parte genitali gestantes, quod sinum pudoris nuncupat. Attaim-n
nihil diirenint a nostratibus in liac parte nisi quod labia pudendse siiit aliquan-
tulum tuinidiora. In lidiniiiibus etiam penis est longior et multo laxior.

* The American variety appears to form a link between the Caucasian and
Mongolian, but approximating more to the latter. The slviu is darii, with
more or less of a copper tint. The hair 13 straight and black, tlie beard
small, the forehead low, eyes dark and oblique, face broad and prominent,
and chocks rouudcd. The features in general, particularly the nose, aro

2 L J

402 HlSTORV OF

The natives of America (except izi the northern extremity,
vvliere they resemble the Laphmders) are of a red or copper
colour ; and although, in the old world, different climates pro-
duce a variety of complexions and customs, the natives of the
new continent seem to resemble each other in almost every res-
pect. They are all nearly of one colour ; all have black thick
straight hair, and thin black beards ; which, however, they take
care to pluck out by the roots. They have, in general, flat

more distinct and projecting than in the Mongolian type. The mouth is
large, and the lips are rather thick. Among the Americans, however, are
found many deviations of colour and stature from this general character,
though but few of structure and features. The people of Nootka Sound are
nearly as light as Europeans, but of a dull paleness ; so are some of the Pe-
ruvians. Mr Birkbeck observes that the natives of the western territory of
the United States are various in complexion, some dark, some lighter, but
he met with no examples of the copper colour among them. The Chilians
are of a reddish brown, but clear ; and a tribe of the province of Barva are
red and white like ourselves.

The depressed forehead is a more general characteristic of all the Ameri.
can tribes ; some of them, it is true, increase by art this natural peculiarity ;
but the character is prevalent among those who use no art to exaggerate it.
A depressed forehead is always considered beautiful among them : the Aztec
gods and heroes were thus represented by the Mexicans, who used no arti.
licial means to flatten the cranium. There is strong reason to believe, espe-
cially from the approximation of the two continents, that the American race
originates from the north-eastern Asiatics; traces of resemblance in language,
strong and pliysical similarity, and local facilities of emigration, give counte-
nance to tliis opinion.

There seems no just reason for separating the Esquimaux from the Ameri.
can variety, and classing them more particularly under the Mongolian;
at least, no reason that would not justify a similar classification of the na-
tions of the whole American continent. They resemble the Americans in
general characteristic traits; and, in Terra del Fuego, and on the Mosquito
shore, we find people exactly like them. With the physical characters of this
arctic race, the late voyages to the Pole have made us tolerably acquainted.
They have high cheek-bones, broad foreheads, and small eyes far apart.
Their complexion is a dusky yellow, and some individuals are lighter than
others, and exhibit some symptoms of red in the cheeks. Their stature is
short, the average height of the males not being more than five feet five or
six inches. The women are still le.ss ; their proportions are by no means
robust, and they are remarkable for the smallness of their hands and feet.
The Esquimaux are not very stupid, nor much distinguished for inteliigenca
They have very imperfect notions, if any, of a Supreme Being, and some rude
ideas of a future state. They exhibit considerable ingenuity in the construc-
tion of their houses, their canoes, their clothes, and various implements.
They appear remarkable, notwithataudiug the severity of their climate, fol
loDgerity.

ANIMALS. 403

noses, with high cheek-bones, and small eyes ; and these det'or.
inities of nature they endeavour to increase by art : they flatten
the nose, and often the whole head of their children, while the
bones are yet susceptible of every impression. They paint the
body and face of various colours, and consider the hair upon any
part of it, except the head, as a deformity which they are careful
to eradicate. Their limbs are generally slighter made than those
of the Europeans ; and, I am assured, they are far from being
so strong. All these savages seem to be cowardly ; they seldom
are known to face their enemies in the field, but fall upon them
at €in advantage ; and the greatness of their fears serves to increase
the rigours of their cruelty. The wants which they often sustain,
make them surprisingly patient in adversity : distress, by being
grown familiar, becomes less terrible ; so that their patience is less
the result of fortitude than of custom. They have all a serious air,
although they seldom think ; and, however cruel to their enemies,
are kind and just to each other. In short, the customs of savage
nations in every country are almost the same ; a wild, indepen-
dent, and precarious life, produces a peculiar train of virtues and
vices : and patience and hospitality, indolence and rapacity, con-
tent and sincerity, are found not less among the natives of
America, than all the barbarous nations of the globe.

The sixth and last variety of the human species, is that of the
Europeans, and the nations bordering on them. In this class
we may reckon the Georgians, Circassians, and Mingrelians, the
inhaljitants of Asia Minor, and the northeni parts of Africa,
together with a part of those countries which lie north-west of
the Caspian sea. The inhabitants of these countries differ a
good deal from each other ; but they generally agree in the co-
lour of their bodies, the beauty of their complexions, the large-
Tiess of their limbs, and the vigour of their understandings.
Those arts which might have had their invention among the
other races of mankind, have come to perfection there. In bar-
liarous countries the inhabitants go either naked, or are awk-
wardly clothed in furs or feathers ; in countries semi-barbarous,
the robes are loose and flowing; but here the clothing is less
made for show than expedition, and unites, as much as possible,
the extremes of ornament and desjjatch.

To one or other of these classes we may refer the people of
every country : and as each nation has been less visited by

404 HISTORY or

strangers, or has had less commerce with the rest of mankind,
We find their persons and their manners more strongly impress-
ed with one or other of the characters mentioned above. On
the contrary, in those places where trade has long flourished, or
where enemies have made many incm'sions, the races are usually
found blended, and properly fall beneath no one character.
Thus, in the islands of the Indian ocean, where a trade has been
carried on for time immemorial, the inhabitants appear to be a
mixture of all the nations upon the earth ; white, olive, brown,
and black men, are all seen living together in the same city, and
propagating a mixed breed, that can be referred to none of the
classes into which naturalists have thought proper to divide
mankind.

Of all the colours by which mankind is diversified, it is easy
to perceive, that ours is not only the most beautiful to the eye,
but the most advantageous. The fair complexion seems, if I
may so exj)ress it, as a transparent covering to the soul ; all the
variations of the passions, every expression of joy or sorrow,
flows to the cheek, and, without language, marks the mind. In
the slightest change of health also the colour of the European
face is the most exact index, and often teaches us to prevent those
disorders that we do not as yet perceive ; not but that the Afri-
can black, and the Asiatic olive complexions, admit of their
alterations also ; but these are neither so distinct, nor so visible,
as with us ; and in some countries the colour of the visage is
never found to change ; but the face continues in the same set-
tled shade in shame and in sickness, in anger and despair.

The colour, therefore, most natural to man, ought to be that
which is most becoming ; and it is found, that, in all regions,
the children are born fair, or at least red, and that they grow
more black, or tawny, as they advance in age. It should seem,
consequently, that man is naturally white ; since the same causes
that darken the complexion in infants, may have originally oper-
ated, in slower degrees, in blackening whole nations. We could,
therefore, readily account for the blackness of different nations,
did we not see the Americans, who live under the line, as well
as the natives of Negroland, of a red colour, and but a very small
shade daiker than the natives of the northern latitudes, in the
same continent. For this reason, some have sought for other
causes of blackness than the climate ; and have endeavoured to

ANIMALS. 4t'5

prove that the blacks aie a race of people bred from one man,
who was marked with accidental blackness. This, however, is
but mere ungrounded conjecture : and, although the Americans
are not so dark as the negroes, yet we must still continue in the
ancient opinion, that the deepness of the colour proceeds
from the excessive heat of the climate. For, if we compare the
beats of Africa with those of America, we shall find they bear
no proportion to each other. In America, all that part of the
continent, which lies under the line, is cool and pleasant, either
shaded by mountains, or refreshed by breezes from the sea.
But in Africa, the wide tract of country that lies under the line
is very extensive, and the soil sandy ; the reflexion of the sun,
therefore, from so large a surface of earth, is almost intolerable ;
and it is not to be wondered at, that the inhabitants should bear,
m their looks, the marks of the inhospitable climate. In
America, the country is but thinly inhabited ; and the more
torrid tracts are generally left desert by the inhabitants ; for
which reason they are not so deeply tinged by the beams of the
sun. But in Africa the whole face of the country is fully
peopled ; and the natives are obliged to endure their situation,
without a power of migration. It is there, consequently, that
they are in a manner tied do«n to feel all the severity of the
heat ; and their complexions take the darkest hue they are capa-
able of receiving. We need not, therefore, have recourse to any
imaginary propagation, from persons accidentally black, since
the climate is a cause obvious and sufficient to prodirce the
effect.

In fact, if we examine the complexion of different countries,
we shall find them dai'ken in proportion to the heat of their
climate ; and the shades gradually to deepen as they approach
the line. Some nations, indeed, may be found not so much
tinged by the sun as others, although they lie nearer the line.
But this ever proceeds from some accidental causes ; either
from the country lying higher, and consequently being colder ;
or from the natives bathing oftener, and leading a more civilized
life. In general, it may be asserted, that as we approach the
line, we find the inhabitants of each country grow browner,
until the colour deepens into perfect blackness. Thus, taking
our standard from the whitest race of people, and beginning
with our own country, which. I believe, bids fairest for the pre-

406 HISTOR* OF

eminence, we shall find the French, who are more southern, a
slight shade deeper than we ; going farther down, the Spaniards
are browner than the French ; the inhabitants of Fez darkei
than they ; and the natives of Negroland the darkest of all. In
what manner the sun produces this effect, and how the same
luminary which whitens wax and linen, should darken the human
complexion, is not easy to conceive. Sir Thomas Brown first
supposed, that a mucous substance, which had something of a
vitriolic quality, settled under the reticular membrane, and grew
darker with heat. Others have supposed that the blackness lay
in the epidermis, or scarf-skin, which was burnt up like leather.
But nothing has been satisfactorily discovered upon the subject ;
it is sufficient that we are assured of the fact ; and that we have
no doubt of the sun's tinging the complexion in proportion to its
vicinity. *

* The colouring matter is understood to reside in a membranous network of
greater or less density exteudingover the surface of tliebody, called the rete
mueosiim. This is situated between the chorion or true skin and the cuticle.
The rete mucosura, or, as it is sometimes called, the cutaneous reticle, consists
of a fine texture of vessels, containing fluids of different shades iu the black and
tawny races. It seems, however, doubtful whether any such membrane for
the deposition of colouring fluid exists in white men, though the varieties of
fair and dark which we observe among them would seem to require some
organization of this kind ; nor does this theory sufficiently illustrate the occi-
sioTial instances of pied or spotted men.

The human skin exhibits various shades of white, yellow, red, brown, and
black. There is every possible intermediate shade between the fairest white
and the deepest black, but no one gradatiou of colour is found iu all the indi.
viduals of any nation. Generally speaking, however, we may refer all the
national varieties of colour to the five following classes : —

1. White, accompanied with redness of cheeks.* TMs characterizes all
the Europeans except the Laplanders, the Western Asiatics, and the
Northern Africans. Considerable variety will be found to exist in the colour
generally called white. The albino possesses a skin of a reddish or a dead
white colour, with yellowish white or milk-white hair, and red or very light
coloured eyes. The hair over the whole body is unusually soft and white,
not of the hoary colour of age, nor the light yellow or flaxen tint of the f;iir.
haired races. It is rather that sort of colour peculiar to a white horse.
These pecuUarities evidently arise from a deficiency iu the colouring prin-
cii)le, which is much the same iu the skin, hair, and eyes. The latter organs
ure iu the albinos peculiarly sensible to tlie stimulus of light, iu consequence

• Ruddy complexions have been occasionally observed among some of the
otIiiT varieties. Among tin- mountaineers of boutau by t'apt. Turuur, and
the I'iSguiniaux by Lieut. Chiipell.

A.VIMALS. 407

But we are not to suppose that the sun is tbe only cause of
darkening tbe skin ; the wind, extreme cold, hard labour, or
coarse and sparing nourishment, are all found to contribute to
this effect. We find tbe peasants of every country, who are

of the want of a black pigment, the office of which is to absorb its superflu-
ous portions. Hence we find the eyelids of these people generally closed,
and the eyes usually exhibiting some appearances of morbid phenomem.
But in twilight, dusk, or even a close approach to darkness, they see re
markably well. This ptculiarity exists from birth, never changes, and
may be propagated by generation. Some would refer the albino variety to
disease, but this notion appears incorrect, inasmuch as most of the indivi.
duals thus characterized are ob.<erved to be perfectly strong and healthy.
This variety was first observed in the Africans, but it is far from being pecu-
liar to that race. It has, however, never occurred except in detached in-
stances, for though it is observed to be more prevalent in some parts of the
world than others, the notion of entire albino tribes has been exploded.
There is another race of men, with a remarkably fair complexion, yellow,
flaxen, or red hair, and blue or gray eyes. In these persons the cutaneous
capillaries are easily filled, and consequently they exhibit a general san-
guineous tint, deeper and more florid in the face. The ancient and modern
Germans belong to this variety, and generally the Danes, Dutch, Swedes,
English, &C- Lastly, a race very extensive is found with skin of a brownish
white, and dark brown or black liair. Tlie Southern Europeans and Western
Asiatics are of this character.

2. The second grand variety in haman colour is yellow or olive. This
characterizes all the Mongolian tribes, and, generally speaking, most of the
natives of Upper Asia.

3. Is the red or copper colour, which in various shades is prevalent over
the entire American continent, and chiefly confined to it.

4. Brown or tawny. This in lighter or darker variations belongs to the
inhabitants of the peninsula of Malacca, and is extended through most of the
islands of the Pacific Ocean.

5. Black, in an amazing variety of shades, characterizes all the African
continent, the northern and southern parts excepted. New Holland, Van
Uieman's Land, New Guinea, New Hebrides, and some other islands of the
South Sea. It is mingled with the ordinary colour of the natives in Brazil,
California, and India.

It is not to be supposed that these different colours, thtis generally describ-
ed, prevail each of them uniformly in all the individuals of the race ; on the
contrary, there are considerable gradations, and even tribes have been foiuad
among the Americans, and individuals are constantly produced in each res.
pective race with characteristics approaching to those of some other Chil.
dren born from an intermixture of different races hold generally a middle
station between tlie two. Thus the Mulatto forms a medium between the
African and European. The colour will be more or less dark according to
the complexion of the European father or mother. The cheeks are not
ruddy, and the hair is black and curled, but less short than the negroes
1 he iris is al» ays dark.

••'rom the Europeans and Mulattoes proceed what are railed Tercerons.

408 HISTORY OF

most exposed to tl.e weather, a shade darker tlian the hjgh^M-
ranks of people. The savage inhabitants of all places are ex-
posed still more, and therefore contract a still deeper hue ; and
this will account for the tawny colour of the North American

These generally resemble Europeans. The hair has notliing of the woolly
curl, the skin lias a slight lirown tint, and the cheeks are red. The offspring
of these last and the Europeans are not to be distinguished from our own
race. An opposite course will reduce the Mulatto oft'spring to the charac-
ters of the negro, and by intermixture with the latter, the fourth generation
will be perfectly black. From the native Indians and the Europeans are
bom Mestizos. They are nmoh lighter than the Mulattoes, and often notdis-
tinguishable in colour from Europeans. The small beard, hands, and feet,
and the obliquity of the eyes, mark their Indian blood. The clftspring from
thera and European fathers are in all respects like the Europeans. From
Negroes and Americans spring Zambos, resembling Mulattoes, but darker.
Among the dark races are sometimes found persons spotted with white.

Under this head of colour we shall briefly notice the varieties in the hair,
beard, and iris.

The structure and properties of the liair are closely allied to those of the
skin, and it derives the means of its growth, and probably its colouring mat-
ter, from the cutaneous vessels. Each hair may be traced through the cuti-
cle and surface of the cutis to a bulb partly in the chorion and partly in the
cellular i.nembrane. This bulb consists of a thick outer covering, in which
the root of the hair and a vascular pulp by which the root is secreted, are
contained. There is a close analogy between the skin and hair. The latter,
in the albino, as before observed, is soft and white. A light complexion and
thin skin are usually accompanied with fair or red hair, and darker hair
usually belongs to a dark colour and thick skin. In the coloured varieties of
the human race, the hair is black and always coarser than that of Europeans.
In the spotted negroes the hair growing out of a white patch on the head, ia
white, a presumptive proof that the colouring matter of the skin and hair ia
the same. The principal differences iu the hair are four. 1. Brownish,
deviating into yellow or red, or into black. It is copious, long and soft, and
characterizes the natives of the temperate climates of Europe, and somewhat
stronger and darker belongs to the eastern Asiatics and northern Africans,
and the Celtic and Slavonic races in Europe. 2. Black, strong, straight, and
thin. This character of hair belongs to the American and Mongolian varie-
ties. 3. A softer black, thick and curled, is found among the South-Ses
Islanders. 4. Black and crisp, in all the negro tribes. It may be proper to
notice here that the hair of the African has been ascertaitied to bear no
resemblance to wool except in appearance, and that it has all the characters
of true hair.

The above divisions hold good generally, but we find, as in colour so in hair,
fcany individual exceptions in the different races. As great differences are
observable in the various races in point of beard, as of hair generally. Most
individuaJs of the dark races are remarkably deficient in this particular.
The Mongolians have much less beard th;m the Europeans, and it grows
after. The Calmucks have small and poor mustachios, and very little hair
on the body The Burats are nearly beardless, so are the Tungooses and

ANr.viAi.s. 409

Indians. Although they live in a climate the same, or even more
northerly than ours, yet they are found to be of complexions very
diiferent from those of Europe. But it must be considered, that
they live continually exposed to the sun ; that they use many
methods to darken their skins by art, painting them with red ochre,
and anointing them with the fat of bears. Had they taken, for a
succession of several generations, the same precautions to bright-
en their colour that an European does, it is very pi-obable that
they would in time come to have similar complexions, and per-
haps, dispute the prize of beauty.

The extremity of cold is not less productive of a tawny com-
plexion than that of heat. The Tiatives of the arctic circle, as
was observed, are all brown ; and those that lie most to the

other hordes of Eastern Siberia. The Chinese resemble the Mongolian tribes
in this particular; but contrary to their practice the latter encourage the
ffrowth of beard. The custom of exterminating- the beard and hair on the
body is common among many of the dark nations, but this would not have
been attempted and could not be executed if nature had furnished them in
this article so plentifully as she has done the Europeans.

There has been much controversy whether the native Americans have
beards or not; it is now completely ascertained that they have beards, but
weak and imperfect, and that the practice of exterminating them is general.
The genuine Negroes have very little beard or growth of hair over the body.
But the Sonth-Sea islanders are by no means deficient in these excrescences.

An analogy similar to that between the hair and skin exists between the
latter and the iris of the eye. New born children in Europe have generally
lighi. eyes and Imir, and both gradually darken in those of dark complexion.
In old persons as the hair turns grey the eye loses a portion of its colour. In
the albino there is an entire deficiency of proper colouring matter, so that
the iris has a reddish hue from the colour of the blood ni the capillaiies.
The same sympathetic variations in the skirj, hair, and eyes are also obser.
vable in other animals.

The principal colours of the human eye are blue, passing to greyish in the
lighter tints, a sort of obscure orange, a kind of middle tint between blue and
orange, sometimes very green in red-haired persons ; and lastly, brown, verg.
ing to hazel on the one side, and black on the other. To these the reddish eye
of the albino may be added. These varieties occur constantly in individuals of
the same race and family. Sometimes they are confined to particular tribes
of the same nation. The Gothlanders of Sweden are described with light
hair and greyish eyes. The Finlanders with yellow hair and brown eyes,
and the Laplanders with both black. Blue eyes with yellow hair have
always marked the Germanic tribes. Blue eyes with black or dark hair form
a combination nf)t uncommon among the tribes of Koordistan, and others of
the Caucasian race, who inhabit elevated situations in Asia. The iris is dark
in all the coloured varietitis, but in the Negro it is so black as to be distill,
finished with ditficulty from the pupil.

2 M

410 HISTORY OF

north are almost entirely black. In this manner both extremes
are unfavonrable to the human form and colour, and the same
effects are produced under the poles that are found at the line.
With regard to the stature of different countries, that seems
chiefly to result from the nature of the food, and the quantity
of the supply. Not but that the severity of heat or cold, may,
in some measure, diminish the growth, and produce a dwarfish-
ness of make. But, in general, the food is the great agent in
producing this effect ; where that is supplied in large quantities,
and where its quality is wholesome and nutrimental, the in-
habitants are generally seen above the ordinary stature. On the
contrary, where it is afforded in a sparing quantity, or very
coarse, and void of nourishment in its kind, the inhabitants de-
generate, and sink below the ordinary size of mankind. In this
respect they resemble other animals, whose bodies, by proper
feeding, may be greatly augmented. An ox, on the fertile plains
of India, grows to a size four times as large as the diminutive
animal of the same kind bred in the Alps. The horses bred in
the plains are larger than those of the mountain. So it is with
man ; the inhabitants of the valley are usually found taller than
those of the hill : the natives of the Highlands of Scotland, for
instance, are short, broad, and hardy ; those of the Lowlands are
tall and shapely. The inhabitants of Greenland, who live upon
dried fish and seals, are less than those of Gambia, or Senegal,
where nature supplies them with vegetable and animal abun-
dance.*

* In Europe the human stature varies from four feet and a half to six feet.
Individuals of six feet and some inches are not uncommon. In various parts
of the world, men have reached to the height of seven, eight, or nine feet;
beyond this, the accounts seem fabulous : the large bones on whicli such
stories have been founded, modern science has ascertained to belong to other
animals. Among individual instances of diminutiveness in the human species,
authentic accounts go as low as twenty-one inches. In the Caucasian va-
riety there are no strongly marked national deviations from the ordinary sta-
ture. In some parts of Switzerland and Sweden, the natives are rather dis.
tingiiished for height. The Finlanders are rather short. The Latin writers
have remarked the stature of the ancient Germans ; it is probable that they
did not exceed the modern Germans in this particular. The Americana ex.
hibit greater varifties in stature than the Europeans. The Peruvians are
generally low, but well proportioned. The people Of Terra del Fuego are
small and ugly ; so are the tribes of Nookta Sound. The Chaymas of SoaUi
America are short, while the Payaguas, the Guayquilits, and the Caribeea
are almost gigantic. Many of the Canadian tribes are very tall. The ao.

ANIMALS.

■Ill

The form of the face seems rather to be the result of custom.
Nations who have long considered some artificial deformity as
beautiful, who have industriously lessened the feet or flattened
the nose, by degrees begin to receive the impression they ai'e
taught to assume ; and Nature, in a course of ages, shapes itself
to the constraint, and assumes hereditary deformity. We find
nothing more common in births, than for children to inherit
sometimes even the accidental deformities of their parents. We
have many instances of squinting in the father, which he received
from fright or habit, communicated to the ofl^'spring ; and 1 my-
self have seen a child distinctly marked with a scar, similar to
one the father had received in battle. In this manner, acci-
dental deformities may become natural ones ; and by assiduity
may be continued, and even increased, through successive gene-
rations. From this, therefore, may have arisen the small eyes
and long ears of the Tartar and Chinese nations. From hence
originally may have come the flat noses of the blacks, and the
flat heads of the American Indians.*

counts of travellers respecting the Patagonians have been various and cod-
tradictory ; from a careful comparison of statements, we conclude the aver-
age height of this nation to be from ftve feet ten inches to six feet and a half.
Similar differences occur in the Ethiopian variety. The Negroes generally
correspond in stature «itli Europeans ; the Hottentots are usually smaller
than other Africans, and the Bushmen are remarkably short The Katfers
are distinguished for their stature, and the muscularity and symmetry of
their figures. The Mongolians are generally shorter in stature than our.
selves ; but considerable varieties are found among them. The Chinese and
Japanese are about our own size. The Calmucks, Burats, &c. are shorter;
the people of Loo Choo are a diminutive race, five feet two being the limit
of their average height. The Laplanders, Samoiedes, Greenlanders, and
Esquimaux are all short ; Captain Parry found no individual among the last
above five feet ten ; the average was five feet four, five, and six inches. H
has been reported that a naticm of white long-armed dwarfs existed in the
island of Madagascar, but there appears t)o foundation in truth for suclij
story.

* No two persons are ever met with possesping precisely the same sort of
features ; yet there are certain generally characteristic countenances belong-
ing to the different races of mankind, and even to particular nations. To
enter into all the minute variations would be endless, but they have been
reduced by Blumenbach to the five following, which include all the leading
traits :

1. An oval countenance, with the features moderately intrr-distinguished •
high and broad forehead ; nose aquihne, or slightly convex or prominent •
check. bones not prominent ; small mouth and Lips slightly curved ; chin full

2 M 2

41 2 HlSTOiiY OF

In this slight survey, therefoie, I think we may see that all
the variations in the human figure, as far as they differ from our
own, are produced either by the rigour of the climate, the bad
quality or the scantiness of the provisions, or by the savage cus-

and well rounded. This face is most consonant with our ideas of beauty, and
is characteristic in greater or less degrees of perfection of the Caucasian tribes.

2. Broad and flattish face ; parts ill-distinguished from each otiier ; space
between the eyes flat and broad, flat nose ; projecting cheeks ; narrow and
oblique eyelids, and chin rather prominent. This is the Mongolian face.

3. Broad, but not flat visage ; prominent cheek-bones ; short forehead ;
eyes deeply fixed j nose flattish, but prominent. Such is the American face.

4. Narrow face, projecting below; narrow, retreating and arched fore-
head ; prominent eyes ; thick nose and lips, &c. Negro face.

5. Face not so narrow as the last, rather projecting downwards ; bottled
nose, and large mouth. Malay countenance. — See Plate V. for specimens of
the above varieties.

Placing these variations of the human countenance thus beside each ether,
the difference appears very striking. But we must repeat of the characters
of countenance above described, as of those of colour, that they are by no
means to be found the same in all the individuals of each respective race ; on
the contrary, individual deviations from the given type are numerous.
Among the African and American nations, many persons are found with
features as regular and as handsome as any Europeans. The same is more
especially true of the South-Sea Islanders. Among ourselves how many
have tlie characteristic features of other races. It may be observed, however,
that rather less deviation from the characteristic model is observable in the
Mongolian than in the other varieties. Though even there there is consider,
able diflerence, if not in form, at least in expression of features. As for ex-
ample, between the Calm\ick aud the Chinese.

From the features we naturally proceed to the skull. This, in the Cau-
casian variety, is more fully developed in the upper and front parts, these
forming a large and smooth convexity, a little flattened towards the temples.
There is a general softness, harmony, ai;d proportion in the entire coutour
of the head. Some differences iu the formation of the skull have been observ.
ed in different nations of the Caucasian race : in the Turks, for instance, a
singular globularity of this part has been remarked ; and in the Poles and
Russians a considerable contraction of the orbits. But wehave notsufllcient
information on this subject to lead us to any definite conclusions.

In the Mongolian variety the head is of a square form, with the forehead
low and slanting. The orbits are large and open, and the superciliary
arches elevated.

In the Ethiopian variety the front of the head is laterally compressed and
considerably elongated, so that the length of the whole skiiU from the teeth
to the occiput is great. It forms a complete contrast to the globular head
of some Europeans, and to the square head of the Calmucks. The forehead
is wonderfully narrowed off, and the face widened below ; the frontal bone
is shorter, and it and the parietal less excavated than m the European. The
temporal ridge is higher ; the compression of the front of the skull arises
from the strength of the temporal muscles ; the foramen magnum is larger

AM!MA>.S.

4,13

toins of the country. They are actual marks of the degeneracy
in the human form ; and we may consider the European figure
and colour as standards to which to refer all other varieties, and
with which to compare them. In proportion as the Tartar or
American approaches nearer to European beauty, we consider
the race as less degenerated ; in proportion as he differs more
widely, he has made greater deviations from his original form.

That we have all sprung from one common parent, we are
taught both by reason and religion, to believe; and we have
good reason also to think that the Europeans resemble him
more then any of the rest of his children. However, it must
not be concealed that the olive-coloured Asiatic, and even the
jet-black negio, claim this honoyir of hereditary resemblance ;

and farther back, and the apertures for the nerves are larger ; the hiiny f iili.
stHnco is hard, and the whole weight of the skull more ••onsider;ible ; the
organs of sense are more developed, and the narrow forehead, and protrud-
ed muzzle give to the negro head the appearance of a decidedly anima
character.

Some of the South African tribes vary a little from the negro conformation
of skulL In the head of a Bushman, given by Blumenbach, the cranium is
less compressed, the orbits and cheek-bones are wide, and the jaws not pro-
minent. There are other differences, but we scarcely know sufficient of
these tribes to class them under any given variety. The origin of the Hot-
tentots, Caffres, Bushmen, and their subdivisions, found at the extremity of
South Africa is quite unknown. They exhibit characters strongly approxi-
mating to, and discrepancies equally deviating from, their negro neighbours.
The American head is thus characterized : broad cheek-bones, depressed
forehead, deep orbits, and the nasal cavity generally large.

The Esquimaux and Greenlanders, who seem to form a link between the
Americans and Mongolians, have broad cheek-bones, large jaws and face,
flattened nose, the cranium sufficiently ample, but distinguished by a poste-
rior elongation.

The Carib tribes are conspicuous for a most remarkable depression of the
fi)rehead, which defect, like others of the Americans, they increase by arti-
fii-ial means. The hinder parts of the skull greatly preponderate ; the face is
large and muscular ; the nasal bone neither small nor flat ; the cavity is large,
anil the jaws and teeth exhibit manifestations of great strength.

The general characters in this respect attributed to the Malay variety are,
a moderately.narrovved cranium slanting at the interior .ind upper part ;
face large, and jaws prominent. But, indeed, the numerous nations com-
prehended, with not much philosophical precision, under this variety, exhibit
very various and opposing characters ; some are not distinguishable in the
formation of this part from Europeans, some partake of the Mongole, and
many of the Negro type. In trutii, the above division of skulls is somewhat
Brbitrary, and though sufficient for general purposes, is, by no meau«, uni.
versally applicable.

2m3

il-l HIST-Oaf OF

and assert that white men are mere deviations from original ];er.
Cection. Odd as this opinion may seem, they have Linnteus,
the celebrated naturalist, on their side ; who supposes man a
native of the tropical climates, and only a sojourner mure to the
north. But not to enter into a controversy upon a matter of a
very remote speculation, I think one argument alone will sulhce
to prove the contrary, and show that the white man is the origi-
nal source from whence the other varieties have sprang. We
have frequently seen white children produced from black parents,
but have never seen a black offspring the production of two
whites. From hence we may conclude, that whiteness is the
colour to which mankind naturally tends : for, as in the tulip,
the parent stock is known by all the artificial varieties breaking
into it ; so in man, that colour must be original which never al-
ters, and to which all the rest are accidentally seen to change.
I have seen in London, at different times, two white negroes
the issue of black parents, that served to convince me of the
truth of this theory. I had before been taught to believe that
the whiteness of the negro's skin was a disease, a kind of milky
whiteness, that might be called rather a leprous crust than a
natural complexion. I was taught to suppose that the number-
less white negroes found in various parts of Africa, the white
men that go by the name of Chacrelas, in the East Indies, and
the white Americans, near the Isthmus of Darien, in the West
Indies, were all as so many diseased persons, and even more
deformed than the blackest of the natives. But, upon examin-
ing that negro which was last shown in London, I found the
colo\ir to be exactly like that of an European -. the visage white
and ruddy, and the lips of the proper redness. However,
there were sufficient marks to convince me of its descent. The
Hair was white and woolly, and very unlike any thing I had seen
before. The iris of the eye was yellow, inclining to red ; the
nose was fiat, exactly resembling that of a negro ; and the lips
thick and prominent. No doubt, therefore, remained of the
child's having been born of negro parents . and the person who
showed it had attestations to convince the most incredulous.
From this, then, we see that the variations of the negro colour
is into whiteness, whereas the white are never found to have a
race of negro children. Upon the whole, therefore, all those
changes which the African, the Asiatic, or the American, uu-

ANIMALS. 4.15

dergo, are but accidental deformities, which a kinder climate,
better nourishment, or more civilized manners, would in a
course of centmies, very probably remove.

CHAP. XII.

OF JIONSTERS.

Hitherto I have only spoken of those varieties in the h.i-
nian species, that are common to whole nations ; but there are
varieties of another kind, which are only found in the individual,
and being more rarely seen, are therefore called monstrous. If
we examine into the varieties of distorted nature, there is scarce-
ly a limb of the body, or a feature in the face, that has not suf-
fered some reprobation, either from art or nature ; being enlai-ged
or diminished, lengthened or wrested, from its due proportion.
Liimseus, after having given a catalogue of monsters, particularly
adds, the flat heads of Canada, the long heads of the Chinese,
and the slender waists of the women of Europe, who, by strait lac-
ing, take such pains to destroy their health, through a mistaken
desire to improve their beauty.' It belongs more to the physi-
cian than the naturalist to attend to these minute deformities;
and indeed it is a melancholy contemplation to speculate upon a
catalogue of calamities, inflicted by unpitying Nature, or brought
upon us by our own caprice. Some, however, are fond of such
accounts ; and there have been books filled with nothing else.
To these, therefore, I refer the reader ; who may be better
pleased with accounts of men with two heads, or without any
head, of children joined in the middle, of bones turned into flesh,
or flesh converted into bones, than I am.^ It is sufiicient here

1 Linnjei .Syst. vol. i. p. 2!). Mnnorcliidea ut minus fertiles.
2 Vide Phil. Trans, passim. IMiscelian. Curioss. Joliaii. Haptist. Wenck.
Dissertatio Pliysica an i>x virills liumani serainis rum brutali per nofarium
coitum commi.xtiono, ant vicissiin ex bruti maris cum muliebri liuniauo sonii-
nis comniixticme possit vcrus iKimo generari. Vide etlam, Jolinstoni
riinumatographia Naturali?. Vide Adalbert! Disquisitio I'hysica ostenti du.
orum pueronim uiius qimrum dente aureo, alter cum capite gifjanteo BiluM
gpoj-Uibantnr. A man witliout Wwgi and Bti>mai-li, Journal de Scavans, ICai,
p,301; ancthcr without any braiu, Andreas Caroli Memorabilia, p. 166, an.

416 HISTORY OF

to observe, that evei^ day's experience must have shown us mi-
serable instances of this kind produced by nature or affectation ;
calamities that no pity can soften, or assiduity relieve.

Passing over, therefore, every other account, I shall only
mention the famous instance quoted by Father Malbranche
iipon which he founds his beautiful theory of monstrous pro-
ductions. A woman of Paris, the wife of a tradesman, went to
see a criminal broke alive upon the wheel, at the place of public
execution. She was at that time two months advanced in her
pregnancy, and no way subject to any disorders to affect the
child in her womb. She was, however, of a tender habit of body ;
and, though led by curiosity to this horrid spectacle, very easily
moved to pity and compassion. She felt, therefore, all those
strong emotions which so terrible a sight must naturally inspire ;
shuddered at every blow the criminal received, and almost
swooned at his cries. Upon returning from this scene of Wood,
she continued for some days pensive, and her imagination still
wrought upon the spectacle she had lately seen. After some
time, however, she seemed perfectly recovered from her fright,
and had almost forgotten her former uneasiness. When the
time of her delivery approached, she seemed no ways mindful of
Iier former terrors, nor were her pains in labour more than usu-
al in such circumstances. But what was the amazement of her
friends and assistants when the child came into the world ! It
was found that every limb in its body was broken like those of the
malefactor, and just in the same place. This poor infant that had
suffered the pains of life even before its coming into the world, did
not die, but lived in an hospital in Paris, for twenty years after
a wretched instance of the supposed powers of imagination in
the mother, of altering and distorting the infant in the womb.
The manner in which Malbranche reasons upon this fact, is as
follows ; the Creator has established such a sympathy between
t he several parts of nature, that we are led not only to imitate
each other, but also to partake in the same affections and desires.
The animal spirits are thus carried to the respective parts of the
body, to perform the same actions which we see others perform,

1676 ; another without any head, Giornale di Roma, anno 1075, p. 26 j a■n^\
ather without any arms, New Memoirs of Literature, vol. iv. p. 446i j^
short, the variety of those accounts is almost infinite; aud perhaps, their
UGe is as much circumscribed as their variety is exteusive.

ANIMALS. 4! 7

to receive in some measure their wounds, and take part in their
sufferings. Experience tells us, that if we look attentively on
any person severely beaten, or sorely wounded, the spirits im-
mediately flow into those parts of the body which correspond to
those we see in pain. The more delicate the constitution,
the more it is thus affected ; the spirits making a stronger im-
pression on the fibres of a weakly habit than of a robust one.
Strong vigorous men see an execution without much concern,
while women of nicer texture are struck witii horror and con-
cern. This sensibility in them must, of consequence, be com-
miuiicated to all parts of their body ; and as the fibres of the
child in the womb are incomparably finer than those of the
mother, the course of the animal spirits must consequently
produce greater alterations. Hence every stroke given to
the criminal forcibly struck the imagination of the woman ;
and by a kind of counter-stroke, the delicate tender frame of the
child.

Such is the reasoning of an ingenious man upon a fact, the
veracity of which many have since called in question.' They
have allowed, indeed, that such a child might have been pro-
duced, but have denied the cause of its deformity. " How could
the imagination of the mother," say they, " produce such dreadful
effects upon her child ? She has no communication with the in-
fant; she scarcely touches it in any part; quite unaffected with
her concerns, it sleeps in security, in a manner secluded by a
fluid in which it swims, from her that bears it. With what a
variety of deformities," say they, " would all mankind be mark-
ed, if all the vain and capricious desires of the mother were thus
readily WTitten upon the body of the child !" Yet notwithstand-
ing this plausible way of reasoning, I cannot avoid giving some
credit to the variety of instances I have either read or seen upon
this subject. If it be a prejudice, it is as old as the days of
Aristotle, and to this day as strongly believed by the generality of
mankind as ever. It does not admit of a reason ; and, indeed,
I can give none, even why the child should, in any respect, re-
semble the father or the mother. The fact we generally find
to be so. But why it should take the particuhu- print of the
father's features in the womb is as hard to conceive, as whv it

1 Uultim, vol iv. 0. 3

418 HSSTOM OF

should be effected by the mother's imagination. We all know
what a strong effect the imagination has on these parts in parti-
eular, without being able to assign a cause how this effect is pro-
duced; and why the imagination may not produce the same ef-
fect in marking the child that it does in forming it, I see no
reason. Those persons whose employment it is to rear up
pigeons of different colours, can breed them, as their expression
is, to a feather. In fact, by properly pairing them, they can
give what colour they will to any feather, in any part of the
body. Were we to reason upon this fact, what could we say ?
Might it not be asserted, that the egg, being distinct from the
body of the female cannot be influenced by it ? Might it not
be plausibly said, that there is no similitude between any part
of the egg and any particular feather which we expect to propa-
gate ; and yet for all this the fact is known to be true, and
what no speculation can invalidate. In the same manner, a
thousand various instances assure us that the child in the womb
is sometimes marked by the strong affections of the mother :
how this is performed we know not; we only see the effect,
without any connection between it and the cause. The best
physicians have allowed it ; and have been satisfied to submit
to the experience of a number of ages ; but many disbelieve it,
because they expect a reason for every effect. This, however,
is very hard to be given, while it is very easy to appear v\ise by
pretending incredulity.

Among the number of monsters, dwarfs and giants are
usually reckoned ; though not, perhaps, with the sUictest pro-
priety, since they are no way different from the rest of mankind,
except in stature. It is a dispute, however, about words ; and
therefore scarcely worth contending about. But there is a dis-
pute, of a more curious nature, on this subject ; namely, whether
there are races of people thus very dimiimtive, or vastly large •,
or whether they be merely accidental varieties, that now and
then are seen in a country, in a few persons, whose bodies some
external cause has contributed to lessen or enlarge.

With regard to men of diminutive stature, all antiquity has
been unanimous in asserting their national existence. Homer
was the first who has given us an account of the pigmy nation
contending with the cranes ; and what poeticd license might bo
Bupjiosed to exiiggerate, Athenteus has attempted seriously to

ANTMALS. 4. JO

confirm by historical assertion.' If we attend to these, we musf
believe that, in the internal parts of Africa, there are whole na.
tions of pigKiy beings, not more than a foot in stature, who con-
tinually wage an unequal war with the birds and beasts that in-
habit the plains in which they reside. Some of the ancients,
however, and Strabo in particular, have supposed all these ac-
counts to be fabulous ; and have been more inclined to think
tliis supposed nation of pigmies nothing more than a species of
apes, well known to be numerous in that part of the world.
With this opinion the moderns have all concurred ; and that dimi-
nutive race, which was described as human, has been long degrad-
ed into a class of animals that resemble us but very imperfectly.
The existence, therefore, of a pigmy race of mankind being
founded in error, or in fable, we can expect to find men of dimi-
nutive stature only by accident, among men of the ordinary size.
Of these accidental dwarfs, every country, and almost every vil-
lage, can produce numerous instances. There was a time when
these unfavoured children of Nature were the peculiar favourites
of the great ; and no prince or nobleman thought himself com
pletely attended unless he had a dwarf among the number of his
domestics. These poor little men were kept to be laughed at ; or
to raise the barbarous pleasure of their masters, by their contrasted
inferiority. Even in England, as late as the times of King
James I. the court was at one time furnished with a dwarf, a
giant, and a jester ; these the king often took a pleasure in op-
posing to each other, and often fomented quarrels among them,
in order to be a concealed spectator of their animosity. It was
a particular entertainment of the courtiers at that time f o see little
.Jeffrey, for so the dwarf was called, ride round the lists, expect-
ing his antagonist ; and discovering in his actions, all the marks
of contemptible resolution.

It was in the same spirit, that Peter of Russia, in the year
1710, celebrated a marriage of dwarfs. This monarch, though
raised by his native genius far above a barbarian, was, neverthe-
ess, still many degrees removed from actual refinement. His
pleasures, therefore, were of the vulgar kind ; and this was
among the number. Upon a certain day, which he had ordered
10 be proclaimed several months before, he invited the whole

I Atlienacus, ix. 390.

4'20 historV or

body of his courtiers, and all the foreign ambassadors, to be pre-
sent at the marriage of a pigmy man and womnn. The prepara-
tions for this wedding were not only very grand, but executed
in a style of barbarous ridicule. He ordered that all the dwai-f
men and women, within two hundred miles, should repair to
the capital ; and also insisted that they should be present at the
ceremony. For this purpose he supplied them with proper
vehicles ; but so contrived it, that one horse was seen carrying
in a dozen of them into the city at once, while the mob follow
ed, shouting and laughing, from behind. Some of them were
at first imwilling to obey an order which they knew was calcu-
lated to turn them into ridicule, and did not come ; but he soon
obliged them to obey : and, as a punishment, enjoined, that they
should wait upon the rest at dinner. The whole company of
dwarfs amounted to seventy, besides the bride and bridegroom,
who were richly adorned, and in the extremity of the fashion.
For this little company in miniature, every thing was suitably
provided ; a low table, small plates, little glasses, and, in short,
every thing was so fitted as if all things had been dwindled to
their own standard. It was his great pleasure to see their gra-
vity and their pride ; the contention of the women for places and
the men for superiority. This point he attempted to adjust, by
ordering that the most diminutive should take the lead ; but this
bred disputes, for none would then consent to sit foremost.
All this, however, being at last settled, dancing followed the
dinner, and the ball was opened with a minuet by the bridegroom,
who measured exactly three feet two inches high. In the end,
matters w:ere so contrived, that this little company, who met
together in gloomy pride, and unwilling to be pleased, being at
last familiarized to laughter, joined in the diversion, and became,
as the journalist has it, extremely sprightly and entertaining.

But whatever may be the entertainment such guests might
afford when imited, I never found a dwarf capable of affording
atiy when alone. I have sometimes conversed with some of
these that were exhibited at our fairs about Town, and have
ever found their intellects as contracted as their persons. They
in getieral, seemed to me to have faculties very much resembling
those of children, and their desires likewise of the same kind ;

1 Die dench wurdige. Iwerg. Hockweit, &c, Lip^aj, l?!."!, vol. viii. p.
102. acq.

ANIMALS. 421

being diverted witli the same sports, and best pleased with such
companions. Of all those I have seen, which may amount to
five or six, the little man, whose name was Coan, that died
lately at Chelsea, was the most intelligent and sprightly. I
have heard him and the giant, who sung at the theatres, sustain
a very ridiculous duet, to which they were taught to give great
spirit. But this mirth, and seeming sagacity, were but assumed.
He had, by long habit, been taught to look cheerful upon the
approach of company ; and his conversation was but the mere
etiquette of a person that had been used to receive visitors.
When driven out of his walk, nothing could be more stupid or
ignorant, nothing more dejected or forlorn. But we have a
complete history of a dwarf, very accurately related by Mr Dau -
benton, in his part of the Histoire Naturelle ; which I will here
take leave to translate.

This dwarf, whose name was Baby, was well known, having
spent the greatest part of his life at Lunenville in the palace of
Stanislaus, the titular king of Poland. He was born near the
village of Plaisne, in France, in the year IT-l-l. His father and
mother were peasants, both of good constitutions, and inured to
a life of husbandry and labour. Baby, when bom, weighed but
a pound and a quarter. We iU'e not informed of the dimensions
of his body at that time ; but we may conjecture they were very
small, as he was presented on a plate to be baptized, and for a
long time lay in a slipper. His mouth, although proportioned
to the rest of his body, was not, at that time, large enough to
take in the nipple ; and he was, therefore, obliged to be suckled
by a she-goat that was in the liouse ; and that served as a nurse,
attending to his cries with a kind of maternal fondness. He
began to articulate some words when eighteen months old ; and
at two years he was able to walk alone. He was then fitted
with shoes that were about an inch and a half long. He was
attacked with several acute disorders ; but the small-pox was
the only one which left any maiks behind it. Until he was six
years old, he eat no other food but pulse, potatoes, and bacon.
His father and mother were, from their poverty, incapable of
affording him any better nourishment ; and his education was
little better than his food, being bred up among the rustics of
the place. At six years old he was about fifteen inches high ;
and his whole body weighed but thirteen pounds. Notwitli-

4.22 HISTORY OF

Standing this, he was well-proportioned and handsome ; his health
was good, but his understanding scarcely passed the bounds of
instinct. It was at that time that the king of Poland, having
heard of such a curiosity, had him conveyed to Lunenville, gave
him the name of Baby, and kept him in his palace.

Baby, having thus quitted the hard condition of a peasant,
to enjoy all the comforts and conveniences of life, seemed to
receive no alteration from his new way of living, either in mind
or person. He preserved the goodness of his constitution till
about the age of sixteen, but his body seemed to increase very
slowly during the whole time; and his stupidity was such, that
all instructions were lost in improving his understanding. He
could never be brought to have any sense of religion, nor even
to show the least signs of a reasoning faculty. They attempted
to teach him dancing and music, but in vain ; he never could
make any thing of music ; and as for dancing, although he beat
time tolerably exact, yet he could never remember the figure, but
while his dancing-master stood by to direct his motions. Not-
withstanding, a mind thus destitute of understanding was not
without its passions ; anger and jealousy harassed it at times : nor
was he without desires of another nature.

At the age of sixteen, Baby was twenty-nine inches tall ; at
this he rested ; but having thus arrived at his acme, the alter-
ations of puberty, or rather, perhaps, of old age, came fast upon
him. From being very beautiful, the poor little creature now
became quite deformed ; his strength quite forsook him ; his
back-bone began to bend ; his head hung forward ; his legs grew
weak ; one of his shoulders turned awry ; and his nose grew dispro-
portionably large. With his strength, his natural spirits also for-
sook him ; and, by the time he was twenty, he was grown feeble,
decrepit, and marked with the strongest impressions of old age.
It had been before remarked by some, that he would die of old
age before he arrived at thirty ; and, in fact, by the time he was
twenty-two, he could scarcely walk a hundred paces, being worn
out with the multiplicity of his years, and bent under the burden
of protracted life. In this year he died ; a cold, attended with
a slight fever, threw him into a kind of lethargy, which had a few
momentary intervals ; but he could scarcely be brought to
speak. However, it is asserted, that in the five last years in
his life, he showed a dearer understanding than in his times

ANIMALS. 4-SS

of best hedth : but at length he died, after enduring great
agonies, in the twenty-second year of his age.

Opposite to this accidental diminution of the human race, is
that ,of its extraordinary magnitude. Concerning the reality of a
ration of giants, there have been many disputes among the
learned. Some have affirmed the probability of such a race;
und others, as warmly have denied the possibility of their exis-
tence. But it is not from any speculative reasonings, upon a
subject of this kind, that information is to be obtained ; it is
not from the disputes of the scholar, but the labours of the en-
terprising, that we are to be instructed in this inquiry. Indeed,
nothing can be more absurd, than what some learned men have
advanced upon this subject. It is very unlikely, says Grew, that
there should either be dwarfs or giants ; or if such, they cannot
be fitted for the usual enjoyment of life and reason. Had man
been born a dwarf, he could not have been a reasonable crea-
ture : for to that end, he must have a jolt head, and then he
would not have body and blood enough to supply his brain with
spirits ; or if he had a small head, proportionable to his body,
there would not be brain enough for conducting life. But it is
still worse with giants j and there could never have been a na-
tion of such, for there would, not be food enough found in any
country to sustain them ; or if there were beasts sufficient for
this purpose, there would not be grass enough for their mainten-
ance. But what is still more, add others, giants could never be
able to support the weight of their own bodies ; since a man of
ten feet high, must be eight times as heavy as one of the ordi-
nary stature ; whereas he has but twice the size of muscles to
support such a burden : and, consequently, would be overloaded
with the weight of his own body. Such are the theories upon
this subject; and they require no other answer, but that ex-
perience proves them both to be false r dwarfs are found capable
of life and reason ; and giants are seen to carry their own
bodies. We have seen several accounts from mariners, that a
nation of giants actually exists ; and mere speculation should
never induce us to doubt their veracity.

Ferdinand Magellan was the first who discovered this race of
people along the coast towards the extremity of South America.
Magellan was a Portuguese, of noble extraction ; who havii'g
long behaved with great bravery, under Albuquerque, the con-

2 N 2

42V HISTORY OF

queror of India, he was treated with neglect by the court, upon
his return. Applying, therefore, to the king of Spain, he \va»
intrusted with the command of five ships, to subdue the Molucca
islands ; upon one of which he was slain. It was in liis voyage
thither, that he happened to winter in St Julian's Bay, an
American harbour, forty-nine degrees south of the line. In this
desolate region, where nothing was seen but objects of terror,
where neither trees nor verdure dressed the face of the country,
they remained for some months without seeing any human crea-
ture. They had judged the country to be utterly uninhabitable •,
when one day they saw approaching, as if he had been dropped
from the clouds, a man of enormous stature, dancing and snig-
ing, and putting dust upon his head, as they supposed, in token
of peace. This overture for friendship was, by Magellan's com-
mand, quickly answered by the rest of his men ; and the giant
approaching, testified every mark of astonishment and surprise.
He was so tall, that the Spaniards only reached his waist ; his
face was broad, his colour brown, and painted over with a variety
of tints ; each cheek had the resemblance of a heart drawn upon it ;
his hair was approaching to whiteness ? he was clothed in skins,
and armed with a bow. Being treated with kindness, and dis-
missed with some triiiing presents, he soon returned with many
more of the same stature -, two of whom the mariners decoyed on
ship-board : nothing could be more gentle than they were in the
beginning ; they considered the fetters that were preparing for
them as ornaments, and played with them like children with their
toys ; but when they found for what purpose they were intended,
they instantly exerted their amazing strength, and broke them in
pieces wuth a very easy effort. This account, with a variety of
other circumstances, has been confirmed by succeeding travellers.
Herrara, Sebald Wert, Oliver Van Noort, and James le Maire,
all correspond in affirming the fact, although they differ in many
particulars of their respective descriptions. The last voyager
we have had, that has seen this enormous race, is Commodore
Byron. I have talked with the person who first gave the rela-
tion of that voyage, and who was the carpenter of the commo-
dore's ship ; he was a sensible, understanding man, and I be-
lieve extremely fiiithful. By him, therefore, I was assured, in
the most solenni manner, of the truth of his relation ; and this
account has since been confirmed by one or two jmblicatioiis ; in

' ANIMALS. 425

all which the particulars are pretty nearly the same. One of the
circumstances which most puzzled me to reconcile to probability
was that of the horses, on which they are described as riding
down to the shore. We know the American horse to be of the
European breed ; and, in some measure, to be degenerated from
the original. I was at a loss, therefore, to account how a horse
of not more than fourteen hands high, was capable of carrying a
man of nine feet; or, in other words, an animal almost as large
as Itself. But the wonder will cease, when we consider, that so
small a beast as an ass, will carry a man of ordinary size toler-
ably well ; and the proportion between this and the former in.
stance is nearly exact. We can no longer, therefore, refuse our
assent to the existence of this gigantic race of mankind : in
what manner they are propagated, or under what regulations they
live, is a subject that remains for future investigation. It should
appear, however, that they are a wandering nation, changing their
abode with the course of the sun, and shifting their situation,
for the convenience of food, climate, or pasture. '

This race of giants are described as possessed of great
strength ; and, no doubt, they must be very different from those
accidental giants that are to be seen in different parts of Eu-
rope. Stature, with these, seems rather their infirmity than
their pride ; and adds to their burden, without increasing their
strength. Of those I have seen, the generality were ill formed
and unhealthful ; weak in their persons, or incapable of exerting
what strength they were possessed of. The same defects of
understanding that attended those of suppressed stature, were
found in those who were thus overgrown -. they were heavy,
phlegmatic, stupid, and inclined to sadness. Their numbers,
however, are but few ; and it is thus kindly ordered by Provi-
dence, that as the middle stature is the best fitted for happi-
ness, so the middle ranks of mankind are produced in the gieat-
esl variety.

However, mankind seems naturally to have a respect for men
of extraordinary stature ; and it has been a supposition of long
standing, that our ancestors were much taller, as well as much
more beautiful, than we. This has been, indeed, a theme of
poetical declamation from the beginning ; and man was scarcely

1 Later voyagers have uut confirmed this account, in some paniculara.

2n2

4'2() HISTORY OF

formed, wlien he began to deplon; ;iii imaginaiy decay. Nothing
is more natural than this progress of the mind, in looljing up to
unciquity with reverential wonder. Having been accustomed to
compare the wisdom of our fathers with our own, in early imbe-
cility, the impression of their superiority remains when they
no longer exist, and when we cease to be inferior. Thus the
men of every age consider the past as wiser than the present ;
and the reverence seems to accumulate as our imaginations ascend.
For this reason, we allow remote antiquity many advantages,
without disputing their title ; the inhabitants of unci\ilized
countries represent them as taller and stronger ; and the people of
a more polished nation, as more healthy and more wise. Never-
theless, these attributes seem to be only the prejudices of ingen-
uous minds ; a kind of gi'atitude, which we hope in turn to re-
ceive from posterity. The ordinary stature of men, Mr Derham
observes, is, in all probability, the same now as at the beginning.
The oldest measure we have of the human figure, is in the
monument of Cheops, in the first pyramid of Egypt. This
must have subsisted many hundred years before the times of
Homer, who is the first that deplores the decay. This monument,
however, scarcely exceeds the measure of our ordinary coffins : the
cavity is no more than six feet long, two feet wide, and deep in
about the same proportion. Several mummies also, of a very
early age, are found to be only of the ordinary stature ; and show
that, for these three thousand years at least, men have not suffer-
ed the least diminution. We have many corroborating proof:^
of this, in the ancient pieces of armour which are dug up in dif
ferent parts of Europe. The brass helmet dug up at Medauro
fits one of our men, and yet is allowed to have been left there
at the overthrow of Asdrubal. Some of our finest antique sta-
tues, which we learn from Pliny and others to be exactly as big
Ls the life, still continue to this day, remaining monuments of
the superior excellence of their workmen indeed, but not of the
superiority of their stature. We may conclude, therefore, that
men have been in all ages j)retty much of the same size they are
at present ; and that the only difference must have been acci-
dental, or perhaps national.

As to the superior beauty of our ancestors, it is not easy to
make the com|)arison : beauty seems a very uncertain charm ;
and frequently is less in the object, than in the eye of the be-

ANIMALS. 427

holder. Were a modem lady's face formed exactly like the
Venus of Medicis, or the Sleeping Vestal, she would scarcely
be considered beautiful, except by the lovers of antiquity, whom
of all her admirers perhaps she would be least desirous of pleas-
ing. It is true, that we have some disorders among us that dis-
figure the features, and from which the ancients were exempt ,
hut it is equally true, that we want some which were common
among them, and which were equally deforming. As for their
intellectual powers, these also were probably the same as ours :
we excel them in the sciences, which may be considered as a
liistory of accumulated experience ; and they excel us in the
poetic arts, as they had the first rifling of all the striking images
of Nature.

CHAP. XIII.

OF MUMMIES, WAX-WORK, ETC.

" Man ' is not content with the usual term of life, but he is
willing to lengthen out his existence by art ; and although he
cannot prevent death, he tries to obviate his dissolution. It is
natural to attempt to preserve even the most trifling relics of
what has long given us pleasure ; nor does the mind separate
from the body, without a wish, that even the wretched heap of
dust it leaves behind may yet be remembered. The embalming
practised in various nations, probably had its rise in this fond
desire : an urn filled with ashes, among the Romans, served as a
pledge of continuing affection ; and even the grassy graves in
our owii church-yards are raised above the surface, with the de-
sire that the body below should not be wholly forgotten. The
soul, ardent after eternity for itself, is willing to procure, even
for the body, a prolonged duration."

Hut of all nations, the Egyptians carried this art to the high,
est perfection .- as it was a principle of their religion, to suppose
the soul continued only coeval to the duration of the body, they

1 lliis chapter I liavp, in a RToat measure, translated from Mr Daubcntorv
Whatever is lulded fr(im others, is marked with inverted cominaa.

4'28 HISTOKY OF

trier] every art to extend the life of the one by preventing the
dissolution of the other. In this practice they were exercised
from the earliest ages ; and the mummies they have embalmed
in this manner, continue in great numbers to the present day.
We are told, in Genesis, that Joseph, seeing his father expire,
gave orders to his physicians to embalm the body, which they
executed in the compass of forty days, the usual time of embalm-
ing. Herodotus also, the most ancient of the profane historians,
gives us a copious detail of this art, as it was practised, in his
time, among the Egyptians. There are certain men among
them, says he, who practise embalming as a trade ; which they
perform with all expedition possible. In the first place, they
draw out the brain through the nostrils, with irons adapted to
this purpose ; and in proportion as they evacuate it in this man-
ner, they fill up the cavity with aromatics : they next cut open
the belly near the sides with a sharpened stone, and take out
the entrails, which they cleanse, and wash in palm oil ; having
performed this operation, they roll them in aromatic powder,
fill them with myrrh, cassia, and other perfumes, except incense ;
and replace them, sewing up the body again. After these pre
cautions, they salt the body with nitre, and keep it in the salt-
ing place for seventy days, it not being permitted to preserve it
so any longer. When the seventy days are accomplished, and
the body washed once more, they swathe it in bands made of
linen, which have been dipt in a gum the Egyptians use instead
of salt. When the friends have taken back the body, they make
a hollow trough, something hke the shape of a man, in which
they place the body ; and this they inclose in a box, preserving
the whole as a most precious relic, placed against the wall.
Such are the ceremonies used with regard to the rich. As foi
those who are contented with an humbler preparation, they trea
them as follows : they fill a syringe with an odoriferous liquor
extracted from the cedar-tree, and, without making any incision,
inject it up the body of the deceased, and then keep it in nitre, as
long as in the former case. When the time is expired, they
evacuate the body of the cedar liquor which had been injected ;
and such is the effect of this operation, that the liquor dissolves
the intestines, and brings them away : the nitre also serves to
eat away the flesh, and leaves only the skin and the bones re-
maining. This done, the body is returned to the friends, and

AiriMALS. 429

the embalmer takes no farther trouble about it. The third
method of embalming those of the meanest condition is merely
by piu-ging and cleansing the intestines by frequent injections,
and preserving the body for a similar term in nitre, at the end
of which it is restored to the relations.

Diodorus Siculus also makes mention of the manner in which
these embalmings are performed. According to him there were
several officers appointed for this purpose ; the first of them, who
was called the scribe, marked those parts of the body on the left side
which were to be opened ; the cutter made the incision ; and one
of those that were to salt it drew out all the bowels, except the
heart, and the kidneys ; another washed them in palm wine and
odoriferous liquors ; afterwards they anointed for above thirty
days with cedar, gum, myrrh, cinnamon, and other perfumes.
These aromatics ^jeserved the body entire for a long time, and
gave a very agreeable odour. It was not in the least disfigured
by this preparation ; after which it was returned to the relations,
who kept it in a coffin, placed upright against a wall.

Most of the modern writers who have treated on this subject,
have merely repeated what has been said by Herodotus ; and if
they add any thing of their own, it is but merely from conjec-
ture. Dumont observes that it is very probable, that aloes, bit-
umen, and cinnamon, make a principal part of the composition
which is used on this occasion : he adds, that, after embalming,
the body is put into a coffin, made of the sycamore tree, which
is almost incorruptible. Mr Grew remarks, that in an Egyp-
tian mummy, in the possession of the Royal Society, the pre-
paration was so penetrating as to enter into the very substance
of the bones, and rendered them so black that they seemed to
have been burned. From this he is induced to believe tliat the
Egyptians had a custom of embalming their dead, by boiling
them in a kind of liquid preparation, until all the aqueous parts
of the body were exhaled away ; and until the oily or gummy
matter had penetrated throughout. He proposes, in consequence
of this, a method of macerating, and afterwards of boiling the
dead body in oil of walnut.

I am, for my own part, of opinion, that there were several
ways of preserving dead bodies from putrefaction ; and that this
ivould be no difficult matter, since different nations have all suc-
rceded in the attempt. We have an example of this kind

"ISO mSTOKV OK

among the Guanches, the ancient inhahitants of the island ot
Teneriffe. Those who survived the general destruction of this
people by the Spaniards, when they conquered this island, in-
formed them, that the art of embalming was still preserved
there ; and that there was a tribe of priests among them pos-
sessed of the secret, which they kept concealed as a sacred mys-
tery. As the greatest part of the nation was destroyed, the
Spaniards could not arrive at a complete knowledge of this art ;
they only found out a few of the particulars. Having taken out the
bowels, they washed the body several times in a lee made of the
dried bark of the pine-tree, warmed, during the summer, by the
sun, or by a stove in the winter. They afterwards anointed it
with butter, or the fat of bears, which they had previously boiled
with odoriferous herbs, such as sage and lavender. After this
unction they suffered the body to dry ; and then repeated the
operation as often as it was necessary, until the whole substance
was impregnated with the preparation. When it was become
very light, it was then a certain sign that it was fit and properly
prepared. They then rolled it up in the dried skins of goats ; which
when they had a mind to save expense, they suffered to remain
with the hair still growing upon them. Purchas assures us,
that he has seen mummies of this kind in London ; and men-
tions the name of a gentleman who had seen several of them in
the island of TenerifTe, which were supposed to have been two
thousand years old ; but without any certain proofs of such
great antiquity. This people, who probably came first from the
coasts of Africa, might have learned this art from the Egyptians,
as there was a traffic carried on from thence into the most inter-
nal parts of Africa.

Father Acosta and Garcilasso de la Vega make no doubt but
that the Peruvians understood the art of preserving their dead
for a very long space of time. They assert their having seen the
bodies of several incas, that were perfectly preserved. They still
preserved their hair and their eye-brows ; but they had eyes made of
gold, put in the places of those taken out. They were clothed in their
usual habits, and seated in the manner of the Indians, their arms
placed on their breasts. Garcilasso touched one of their fingers,
and found it apparently as hard as wood ; and the whole body was
not heavy enough to overburden a weak man, who should attempt
to carry it away. Acosta presumes that these bodies were embalmed

ANTMALS. iSl

willi a bitumen of wliich the Indians knew (lie properties.
Garcilasso, however, is of a ditferent opinion, as he saw nothing
bituminous about them ; but be confesses that he did not
examine them very particularly ; and he regrets his not have
ing inquired into the methods used for that purpose. He
adds, that being a Peruvian his countrymen would not have
scrupled to inform him of the secret, if they really Iiad it still
among them.

Gareilasso, thus being ignorant of the secret, makes use of
some inductions to throw light upon the subject ; he asserts,
that the air is so dry and so cold at Cusco, that flesh dries
there like wood, without corrupting; and he is of opinion,
that they dried the body in snow before they applied the bitumen :
he adds, that in the times of the incas, they usually dried the flesh
which was designed for the use of the army ; and that, when ii
had lost its humidity, it might be kept without salt, or any
other preparation.

It is said, that at Spitzbergen, which lies within the arctic
circle, and consequently in the coldest climate, bodies never cor-
rupt nor suffer any apparent alteration, even though buried for
thirty years. Nothing corrupts or putrefies in that climate ; the
wood which has been employed in building those houses where
the train-oil is separated, appears as fresh as the day it was
first cut.

If excessive cold, therefore, be thus capable of preserving
hodies from corruption, it is not less certain that a great degree
of dryness produced by heat, produces the same effect. It is
well known that the men and animals that are buried in the
sands of Arabia quickly dry up and continue in preservation
I'or several ages, as if they had been actually embalmed.
It has often happened, that whole caravans have perished in
crossing those deserts, either by the burning winds that in-
fest them, or by the sands wliicb are raised by the tempest,
and overwhelm every creature in certain ruin. The bodies
of those ])ersons are preserved entire ; and they are often
foiuid in this condition by some accidental passenger. Many
authors, both ancient and modern, make mention of such
nnnnmies as these ; and Shaw says, that he has been as-
sured that numbers of men, as well as other animals, have
I (!eu thus preserved, for times immemorial, in tlie burning

432 HISTORY or

sands of Saibah, vvhicli is a place, he supposes, i,ituate between
Rasem and Egypt.

The corruption of dead bodies being entirely caused by the
fermentation of the humours, whatever is capable of hindering
or retarding this fermentation will contribute to their preserva-
tion. Both heat and cold, though so contrary in themselves,
produce similar effects in this particular, by drying up the hu-
mours : the cold in condensing and thickening them, and the
neat in evaporating them before they have time to act upon the
solids. But it is necessary that these extremes should be con-
stant ; for if they succeed each other so that cold shall follow
heat, or dryness humidity, it must then necessarily happen that
corruption must ensue. — However, in temperate climates there
are natural causes capable of preserving dead bodies ; among
which we may reckon the quality of the earth in which they are
buried. If the earth be drying and astringent, it will imbibe the
humidity of the body ; and it may probably be for this reason
that the bodies biuied in the monastery of the Cordeliers, at
Thoulouse, do not putrefy, but dry in such a manner that they
may be lifted up by one arm.

The gums, resins, and bitumens, with which dead bodies are
embalmed, keep off the impressions which they would else re-
ceive from the alteration of the temperature of the air ; and still
more, if a body thus prepared be placed in a dry or burning
sand, the most powerful means will be united for its preservation.
We are not to be surprised, therefore, at what we are told by
Chardin of the country of Chorosan, in Persia. The bodies
which have been previously embalmed and buried in the sands
of that country, as he assures us, are found to petrify, or, in other
words, to become extremely hard, and are preserved for seve-
ral ages. It is asserted that some of tliem have continued for
a thousand years.

The Egyptians, as has been mentioned above, swathed the
body with linen bands, and inclosed it in a coffin -. however, it is
probable that with all these precautions, they would not have
continued till now, if the tombs, or pits, in which they were
placed, had not been dug in a dry chalky soil, which was not
susceptible of humidity ; and which was besides covered over
with a dry sand of several feet thickness.

The sepulchres of the ancient Egyptians subsist to this Jay»

ANIJIALS. i^>i

Most travellers who have been in Egypt have described those
of ancient mummies, and have seen the mummies interred there.
These catacombs are within two leagues of the ruins of the city,
nine leagues from Grand Cairo, and about two miles from the
village of Zaccara. They extend from thence to the Pyramids
of Pharaoh, which are about eight miles distant. These se-
pulchres lie in a fiehl, covered with a fine running sand, of a
yellowish colour. The country is dry and hilly; the entrance
of the tombs is choke;l up with sand ; there are many open ;
but several more that are still concealed. The inhabitants of
the neighbouring village have no other commerce or method of
subsisting, but by seeking out mummies, and selling them to
such strangers as happen to be at Grand Cairo. This commerce,
some years ago, was not only a very common, but a very gainful
one. A complete mummy was often sold for twenty pounds :
but it must not be supposed that it was bought at such a higii
price from a mere passion for antiquity ; there were nnich more
powerful motives for this traffic. Munmiy, at that time, made
a considerable article in medicine ; and a thousand imaginary
virtues were ascribed to it, for the cure of most disorders, par-
ticularly of the paralytic kind. There was no shop, therefore,
without mummy in it ; and no physician thought he had proper-
ly treated his patient, without adding this to his prescription.
Induced hy the general repute in which this supposed drug was
at that time, several Jews, both of Italy and France, found out
the art of imitating mummy so exactly, tiiat they, for a long
time, deceived all Europe. This they did by drying dead
bodies in ovens, after having prepared them with myrrh, aloes,
and bitumen. Still, however, the request for mummies con-
tinued, and a variety of cures were daily ascribed to them. At
length, Paraeus wrote a treatise on their total inefficacy in phy-
sic ; and showed their abuse in loading the stomach, to the ex-
clusion of more efficacious medicines. From that time, there-
fore, their reputation began to decline ; the Jews discontinued
their counterfeits, and the trade returned entire to the Egyp-
tians, when it was no longer of value. The industry of seeking
after mummies is now totally relaxed, their price merely arbi-
trary, and just what the curious are willing to give.

In seeking for mummies, they first clear away the sand, which
they may d<> for weeks touether, without finding what is wanted.

4^1- HISTOKY OK

Upon coming to a little square opening, of about eijlitpon fcrt
in depth, they descend into it by holes for the feet, placed at
proper intervals, and there they are sure of finding what th^y
seek for. These caves, or wells, as tlicy c;ill them, nre liol-
Jowe.i out of a white free- stone, which is found in all this conn-
try, a few feet below the covering of sand. When one j.i-pts to
t!ie bottom of these, which are sometimes forty feet below the
surface, there are several square openings on each side, into
passages of ten or fifteen feet wide, and these lead to chambers
of fifteen or twenty feet square. These are all hewn out of the
rock ; and in each of the catacombs are to be found several of
these apartments, communicating with e.ach other. They ex-
tend a great way under ground, so as to be under the city of
Memphis, and in a manner to undermine its environs.

In some of the chambers, the walls are adorned with figures
and hieroglyphics; in others, the mummies are found in tombs
round the apartment hollowed out in the rock. These tombs
are upright, and cut into the shape of a man, with his arms
stretched out. There are others found, and these in the grent-
est number, in wooden coffins, or in cloths covered with bitumen.
These coffins, or wrappers, are covered all over with a variety of
ornaments. There are some of them painted, and adorned with
figures, such as that of Death, and the leaden seals, on which
several characters are engraven. Some of these coffins are
carved into the human shape ; but the head alone is distinguish-
able : the rest of the body is all of a piece, and terminated by a
pedestal, while there are some with their arms hanging down ;
and it is by these marks that the bodies of persons of rank are
<iistirignished from those of the meaner order. These are gene-
rally found lying on the floor, without any profusion of orna-
ments ; and in some chambers the mummies are found indis-
mminateiy piled upon each other, and buried in the sand.

Many mummies are found lying on their backs ; their heads
tuined to the north, and their hands placed on the belly. The
baiids of linen, with which these were swathed, are found to
be more than a thousand yards long ; and, of consequence,
the number of circumvolutions they make about the body
must have been amaang. These were performed by beginning
ttt the head, and ending at the feet ; but they contrived it so as
to avoid covering the face. However, when the face is entirely

ANIMALS. 4'3.5

•lucovered, it moulders into dust imiiiediutely upon the admis-
sion of the my. When, therefore, it is preserved entire, a slight
covering of cloth is so disposed over it, that the shape of tlie
eyes, the nose, and the mouth, are seen under it. S^me mum-
mies have been found with a long beard, and hair that reached
down to the mid- leg, nails of a surprising length, and some gilt,
or at least painted of a gold colour. Some are found w itli bands
upon the breast, covered with hieroglypliics, in gold, silver, or in
green ; and some with tutelary idols, and other figures of jasper,
within their body. A piece of gold also has often bfen found
under their tongues, of about two pistoles value ; and, for this
reason the Arabians spoil all the mummies they meet with, in
order to get at the gold.

But although art, or accident, has thus been found to preserve
dead bodies entire, it must by no means be supposed that it is
capable of preserving the exact form and lineaments of the de-
ceased person. Those bodies which are found dried away iji the
deserts, or in some particular church-yards, are totally deformed,
and scarcely any lineaments remain of their external structure.
Nor are the mummies preserved by embalming, in a better con-
dition. The fle.-ih is dried away, hardened and hidden under a
variety of bandages ; the bowels, as we have seen, are totally
removed ; and from hence, in the most perfect of thein, we see
only a shapeless mass of skin discoloured ; and even the fea-
tures scarcely distinguishable. The art is, therefore, an effort
rather of preserving the substance than the likeness of the de-
ceased ; and has, consequently, not been brought to its highest
pitch of perfection. It appears from a mummy not long since
dug up in France, that the art of embalming was more complete-
ly understood in the western world than even in Egypt- This
nmmmy, which was dug up at Auvergne, was an amazing in-
stance of their skill, and is one of the most curious relics in the
art of preservation. As some peasants, in that part of the world,
were digging in a field, near Rion, within about twenty-si.v paces
off the highway, between that and the river Artiers, they dis-
covered a tomb, about a foot and a half beneath the surface. It
was composed only of two stones ; one of which formed the
body of the sepulchre, and the other the cover. Tliis tomb was
of free-stone, seven feet and a half long, three feit and a half

broad, and about three feet high. It was of rude workmanshin ;

2o2

436 HISTORY OF

tlie cover had been polished, but was without figure or inscrip-
tion : within this tomb was placed a leaden coffin, four feet
seven inches long, fourteen inches broad, and fifteen high. It
was not made coffin-fashion, but oblong, like a box, equally broad
at both ends, and covered with a lid that fitted on like a snuff-
box, without a hinge. This cover had two holes in it, each of
about two inches long, and very narrow, filled with a substance
resembling butter ; but for what purpose intended remains un-
known. Within this coffin was a mummy, in the highest and
most perfect preservation. The internal sides of the coffin were
filled with an aromatic substance, mingled with clay. Round
the mummy was wrapped a coarse cloth, in form of a napkin ;
under this were tv/o shirts, or shrouds, of the most exquisite
texture ; beneath these a bandage, which covered all parts of the
body, like an infant in swaddling-clothes ; still under this gene-
ral bandage there was another, which went particularly round
the extremities, the hands, and the legs. Tlie head was covered
M'ith two caps ; the feet and hands were without any particular
bandages ; and the whole body was covered with an aromatic
substance an inch thick. When these were removed, and the
body exposed naked to view, nothing could be more astonishing
than the preservation of the whole, and the exact resemblance it
bore to a body that had been dead a day or two before. It ap-
peared well proportioned, except that the head was rather large,
and the feet small. The skin had all the pliancy and colour of
a body lately dead : the visage, however, was of a brownish hue.
The belly yielded to the touch ; all the joints were flexible, ex-
cept those of the legs and feet ; the fingers stretched forth of
themselves when bent inwards. The nails still continued entire;
and all the marks of the joints, botli in the fingers, the palms of
the hands, and the soles of the feet, remained perfectly visible.
The bones of the arms and legs were soft and pliant ; but, on
the contrary, those of the skull preserved their rigidity ; the hair,
which only covered the back of the head, was of a chesnut
eoldur, and about two inches long. The pericranium at top was
separated from the skull by an incision, in order to open it for
the introducing proper aromatics in the place of the brain, where
they were found mixed with clay. The teeth, the tongue, and
the ears, were all preserved in perfect form. The intestines
were not taken out of the body, but remained pliant and entire,

AMMALS. 437

Rs 111 a fresh subject ; and the breast was made to rise and fall
like a puir of bellows. The embalming prejjaration had a very
Ftroiig and pungent smell, which the body preserved for more
than a month after it was exposed to the air. This odour was
perceived wherever the munnny was laid ; althouijh it remained
there but a very short time, it was even pretended that the pea-
sants of the neighbouring villages were incommoded by it. It
one touched either the mummy, or any part of the preparation, the
hands snielled of it for several hours after, although washed with
water, spirit of wine, or vinegar. This mummy, having remain-
ed exposed for some months to the curiosity of the public, began
to suffer some mutilations. A part of the skin of the forehead
was cut oif. the teeth were drawn out, and some attempts were
made to pull away the tongue. It was, therefore, put into a
glaso-ciise, and shortly after transmitted to the king of fiance's
cabinet at Paris.*

There are many reasons to believe this to be the body of a
person of the highest distinction ; however, no marks remain to
assure us either of the quality of the person, or the time of his
decease. There are only to be seen some irregular figures on
the coffin ; one of which represents a kind of star. There were
also iome singular characters upon the bandages, which were to-
tally defaced by those who had torn them away. Howevtr, it
should seem that it had remained for several ages in this state,
since the first years immediately succeeding the interment, are
usually those in which the body is most liable to decay. It ap-
pears also to be a much more perfect method of embalmhig than
that of the Egyptians ; as in this the flesh continues with iff
natuial elasticity and colour, the bowels remain entire, and thr
joints have almost the pliancy which they had when the perso i

* Tn March IS13, the body of King Charles the First was found embalmed,
aud in a very high state of preservation, in a leaden coilin iii Si Georfje',
rhapel, Windsor, when the men were deanin(» out the vault for the rec.'p-
tiou of the remains of the duchess of Brunswick. — A vault was accidentally
discovered by the sexton, under the old parish church of Kilsyth, in Scotland ;
on descending a flight of steps he discovered a leaden coilin, in which were
embalmed, and in every respect in hiyh pre=iervation, tlie bndies of huly
Kilsyth and her infant son, who were both killed by tlie fall of a house on
the continent, where they were embalmed, and sent home to the l.imily
burying place. This circumstance happened upwards of a hundred and httj
years age.

Jio3

438 HISTORY OF

was alive. Upon the M'hole, it is probable that a nauch less
tedious preparation than that used by the Egyptians would have
sufficed to keep the body from putrefaction ; and that an injee
tion of petreoleum inwardly, and that a layer of asphaltum with-
out, would have sufficed to have made a mummy ; and it is re-
markable that Auvergne, where this was found, affords these
two substances in sufficient plenty. This art, therefore, might
be brought to greater perfection than it has arrived at hitherto,
were the art worth preserving. But mankind have long since
groM'n wiser in this respect ; and think it uimecessary to keep
oy them a deformed carcase, which, instead of aiding their mag-
nificence, must only serve to mortify their pride.

CHAP. XIV.

or ANIMALS.

Leaving nian, we now descend to the lower ranks of animat-
ed nature, and prepare to examine the life, manners, and cha-
racters, of these our humble partners in the creation. But, in
such a wonderful variety as is diffused around us, where shall
we begin ? The number of beings endued with life, as well as
we, seems, at first view, infinite. Not only the forest, the
waters, the air, teems with animals of various kinds ; but
almost every vegetable, every leaf, has millions of minute inha--
bitants, each of which fill up the circle of its allotted life, and
some are found objects of the greatest curiosity. In this seem-
ing exuberance of animals, it is natural for ignorance to lie down
in hopeless uncertainty, and to declare what requires labour to
particularize to be utterly inscrutable. It is otherwise, however,
with the active and searching mind ; no way intimidated with
the immense variety, it begins the task of numbering, grouping,
and classing, all the various, kinds that fall within its notice ; finds
every day new relations between the several parts of the crea-
tion ; acquires the art of considering several at a time under one
point of view ; and, at last, begins to find that the variety is
neither so great nor so inscrutable as was at first imagined. As
in a clear nigbt, the number of the stars seems infinite ; yet, if

ANIMALS. 43'J

we sedulously attend to each in its place, and regularly class
them, they will soon be found to diminish, and come within a
very scanty computation.

Method is one of the principal helps in natural history, and
without it very little progress can be made in this science. It
is by that alone we can hope to dissipate the glare, if I may so
express it, which arises from a multiplicity of objects at once
presenting themselves to the view. It is method that fixes the
attention to one point, and leads it, by slow and certain degrees,
to leave no part of nature unobserved.

All naturalists, therefore, have been very careful in adopting
some method of classing or grouping the several parts of nature ,
and some have written books of natural history with no other
view. These methodical divisions some have treated with con-
tempt,' not considering that books, in general, are written with
opposite views ; some to be read, and some only to be occasion,
ally consulted. The methodists in natural history stem to be
content with the latter advantage ; and have sacrificed to order
alone, all the delights of the subject, all the arts of heightening,
awakening, or continuing curiosity. But they certainly have
the same use in science, that a dictionary has in language ; but
with this difference, that in a dictionary we proceed from the
name to the definition ; in a system of natural history, we pro-
ceed from the definition to find out the thing. Without the aid
of system, nature must still have lain undistinguished, like fur-
niture in a lumber-room : every thing we wish for is there in-
deed, but we know not where to find it. If, for instance, in a
morning excursion, I find a plant, or an insect, the name of
which I desire to learn ; or, perhaps, am curious to know whe-
ther already known ; in this inquiry I can expect information only
from one of these systems, which being couched in a methodi-
cal form, quickly directs me to what I seek for. Thus we will
suppose that our inquirer has met with a spider, and tliat he has
never seen such an insect before. He is taught by the writer of
a system* to examine whether it has wings, and he finds it has
none. He, therefore, is to look for it among the wingless in-
sects, or the Ajjtera, as Linnceus calls them : he then is to see
whether the head and breast make one part of the body, or are

1 Mr Bufiun in Iiis Iiitroductiuu, &c. 2 Liiiiia:ii3.

440 HISlOKY OK

disunited ; he finds tbey make one : he is then to reekon the
number of feet and eyes, and he finds that it has eiglit of each.
The insect, therefore, must be either a scorpion or a spider ;
but he lastly examines its feelers, which he finds clavated, or
clubbed : and, by all these marks, he at last discovers it to be
a spider. Of spiders there are forty seven sorts ; and, by reading
the description of each, the inquirer will learn the name of that
which he desires to know. With the name of the insect, he is
also directed to those authors that have given any account of it,
and the page where that account is to be found ; by this means
he may know at once what has been said of that animal by
others, and what there is of novelty in the result of his own re-
searches.

From hence it will appear how useful those systems in natu-
ral history are to the inquirer; but, having given them all their
merit, it would be wrong not to observe, that tbey have, in ge-
neral, been very much abused. Their authors, in general, seem
to think that they are improvers of natural history, when in
reality they are but guides ; they seem to boast that they are
adding to our knowledge, while they are only arranging it.
These authors, also, seem to think that the reading of their
works and systems is the best method to attain a knowledge of
nature ; but setting aside the impossibility of getting through
whole volumes of a dry long catalogue, the multiplicity of whose
contents is too great for even the strongest memory, such works
rather tell us the names than the history of the creature we de-
sire to inquire after. Jn these dreary pages, every insect or
plant, that has a name, makes as distinguished a figure as the
most wonderful, or the most useful. The true end of studying
nature is to make a just selection, to find those parts of it that
most conduce to our pleasure or convenience, and to leave the
rest in neglect. But these systems, employing the same degree
of attention upon all, give us no opportunities of knowing which
most deserves attention ; and he who has made his knowledge
from such systems only, has his memory crowded with a number
of trifling or minute particulars, which it should be his busine>s
and his labour to forget. These books, as was said befoi'e, are
useful to be consulted, but they are very unnecessary to be read ;
no inquirer into nature should be without one of them; and,
wi til out any doubt, Linnaeus deserves the preference.

ANIMALS. 441

One fault more, in almost all these systematic writers, and
that which leads me to the subject of the present chapter, is,
tliat seeing the necessity of methodical distribution in some jiarts
of nature, tliey have introduced it into all. Finding the utility
of arranging plants, birds, or insects, they have arranged quad-
rupeds also with the same assiduity ; and although the number
of these is so few as not to exceed two hundred,' they have
darkened the subject with distinctions and divisions, which only
serve to puzzle and perplex. All method is only useful in giv-
ing perspicuity, where the subject is either dark or coj)ious ;
but with regard to quadrupeds, the number is but few ; many of
them we are well acquainted with by habit ; and the rest may
very readily be known, without any method. In treating of
Kuch, therefore, it would be useless to confound the reader with
a multiplicity of divisions ; as quadrupeds are conspicuous
enough to obtain the second rank in nature, it becomes us to be
acquainted with, at least, the names of them all. However, as
there are naturalists who have gaitied a name from the excel-
lence of their methods in classing these animals, some readers
may desire to have a knowledge of what has been laboriously
invented for their instruction. I will just take leave, therefore,
to mention the most applauded methods of classing animals, as
adopted by Ray, Klein, and Liimajus ; for it often happens,
that the terms which have been long used in a science, though
frivolous, become, by prescription, a i)art of the science itself.*

Ray, after Aristotle, divides all animals into two kinds ; those
which have blood, and those which are bloodless. In the Ian i
class, he places all the insect tribes. The former he divides
into such as breathe through the lungs, and such as breathe
through gills ; these last comprehend the fishes. In those
which breathe through the lungs, some have the heart composed
of two ventricles, and some have it of one. Of the last are all
animals of the cetaceous kind, all oviparous quadrupeds, and
serpents. Of those that have two ventricles, some are ovipa-

1 III Dr Shaw's Ofnpral Zoolof^y, tho number of quadrupeds, not includinff
the retaccoua and seal tribes, amount to five hundred and twelve, besidse
their varieties.

* In the appendix to tliis work, the reader will find a view of the various
flassifieations of animals, particularly of the Cuvierian or natural system ot
Zoology.

4i2- hrSTORY OF J

rous, whirh are the birds ; and some viviparous, which are quad-
rupeds. The quadrupeds, he divides into such as have a hoof,
and such as are claw-footed. Those with the hoof, he divides
into such as have it undivided, such as have it cloven, and such
as have the hoof divided into more parts, as the rhinoceros, and
nippopotamus. Animals with the cloven hoof, he divides into
such as chew the cud, as the cow and the sl.eep ; and such as
are not ruminant, as the hog. He divides those animals that
chew the cud, into four kinds; the first have hollow horns, which
they never shed, as the cow ; the second is of a less species, and
is of the sheep kind ; the third is of the goat kind ; and the last,
which have solid horns, and shed them annually, are of the deer
kind. Coming to the claw-footed animals, he finds some with
large claws, resembling the fingers of the human hand . and
these he makes the ape kind. Of the others, some have the foot
divided in two, have a claw to each division ; these are the camel
kind. The elephant makes a kind by itself, as its claws are co-
vered over by a skin. The rest of the numerous tribe of claw-
footed animals he divides into two kinds ; the analogous, or such
as resemble each other ; and tlie anomalous, which differ from
the rest. The analogous claw-footed animals, are of two kinds;
they have more than two cutting teeth in each jaw, such as the
lion and the dog, which are carnivorous ; or they have but two
cutting teeth in each jaw, and these are chiefly fed upon vege-
tables. The carnivorous kinds are divided into the great and
the little. The great carnivorous animals are divided into such
a? have a short snout, as the cat and the lion : and such as have
it long and pointed, as the dog and the wolf. The little daw-
footed carnivorous animals, differ from the great, in having a
proportionably smaller head, and a slender body, that fits theni
for creeping into holes, in pursuit of their prey like worms ; and
they are therefore called the vermin kind.

We see, from this sketch of division and subdivision,
how a subject, extremely delightful and amusing in itself,
may be darkened and rendered disgusting. But, notwithstand-
ing, Ray seems to be one of the most simple distributors;
and his method is still, and not without reason, adopted by
many. Such as have been at the trouble to learn this iiethod,
will certainly find it useful: nor would we be thou>;ht, in the
Least, to tidve from its mcrit.s ; all we contend for is, that the

ANIMALS. -J-Wi

saine information nray bf obtaiiit'd by a ple?.saiiter and an easier
meti/od.

It was the great success of Ray's method, that soon after
produced such a variety of attempts in the same manner; but
almost all less simple, and more obscure. Mr Klein's method
is briefly as follows ; he makes the power of changing place, the
characteristic mark of animals in general ; and he takes their
distinctions from their aptitude and fitness for such a change.
Some change piace by means of feet, or some similar contri-
vance ; others have wings and feet : some can change place only
in water, and have only fins : some go upon earth, without any
feet at all : some change place, by moving their shell ; and some
inove only at a certain time of the year. Of such, however, as
do not move at all, he takes no notice. The quadrupeds that
move chiefly by means of four feet upon land he divides into two
orders. The first are the hoofed kind ; and the second, the claw
kind. Each of these orders is divided into four families. The
first family of the hoofed kind, are the single hoofed, such as the
horse, ass, &c. Tlie second family are such as have the hoof
cloven into two parts, such as the cow, &c. The third family
have the hoof divided into three parts, and in this family is found
only the rhinoceros. The fourth family have the hoof divided
into five parts ; and in this is only to be found the elephant.
With respect to the clawed kind, the first family comprehends
those that have but two claws on each foot, as the camel ; the
second family have three claws ; the third, four ; and the fourth,
five. This method of taking the distinctions of animals from
the organs of motion, is ingenious ; but is, at the same time, in-
complete ; and, besides, the divisions into which it must neces-
sarily fall are inadequate ; since, for instance, in his family with
two claws, there is but one animal ; whereas, in his family with
five claws, there are above a hundred.

Brisson, who has laboured this subject with great accuracy,
divides animated nature into nine classes ; namely, quadrupeds ;
cetaceous animals, or those of the whale kind ; birds ; reptiles,
or those of the serpent kind :■ cartilaginous fishes ; sjiinous fishes;
shelled animals ; insects ; and worms. He divides the quadru-
peds into eighteen orders ; and takes their distinctions from the
mnnber and form of their teeth.

JJut of all those whose systems have been adopted and admir-

m HISTOIIV OF

ed, LinriKiis is the foremost; as with a studied brevitv his sys-
tem comprehends the greatest variety in the smallest space.

According to him, the first distinction of animals is to be
taken from their internal structure. Some have the heart with
two ventricles, and hot red blood ; namely, quadrupeds and
birds. The quadrupeds are viviparous, and the birds oviparous.

Some have the heart with but two ventricles, and cold red
blood ; namely, amphibia and fishes. The amphibia are furnish-
ed with lungs ; the fishes with gills.

Some have the heart with one ventricle, and cold white
serum ; namely, insects and worms ; the insects have feelers ;
and the worms, holders.

The distinctions of quadrupeds or animals with paps, as he
calls them, are taken from their teeth. He divides them into
«;ven orders ; to which he gives names that are not easy of
tr.inslation : Primates, or principles, with four cutting teeth in
each jaw ; Bruta, or brutes, with no cutting teeth ; Ferte, or
wild beasts, with generally six cutting teeth in each jaw ; Glires,
or dormice, with two cutting teeth, both above and below ;
Pecora, or cattle, with many cutting teeth ahove, and none be-
low ; Belluse, or beasts, with the fore-teeth blunt ; Cete, or those
of the whale kind, with cartilaginous teeth. I have but just
sketched out this system, as being, in its own nature, the closest
abridgment : it would take volumes to dilate it to its proper
length. The names of the different animals, and tlieir classes,
alone make two thick octavo volumes •, and yet nothing is given
but the slightest description of each. I have omitted all criti-
cism also upon the accuracy of tl;e preceding systems ; this has
been done both by BufTon and Dautienton, net with less truth
than humour ; for they had too much good sense not to see the
absurdity of multiplying the terms of science to no end, and dis-
appointing our curiosity rather with a catalogue of nature's varie-
ties, than a history of nature.

Instead, therefore, of taxing the memoiy and teasing the pa-
tience with such a variety of divisions anil subdivisions, I will
take leave to class the productions of nature in the most obvious,
though not iti the most accurate, manner. In natural history,
of all other sciences, there is the least danger of obscurity. In
morals, or in metaphysics, every definition must be precise, be-
cause those sciences are built ui)oii definitions ; but it is other-

ANIMALS. 44j

Wise ill tliose subjects where the exhibilioii of the object itself is
Hlways capable of correcting tlie error. Thus it may often hap-
pen, that in a lax system of natural history, a creature may be
ranked among quadrupeds that belongs more properly to the fish
or the insect classes. Eut that can produce very little confusion,
and every reader can thus make a system the most agreeable to his
own imagination. It will be of no manner of consequence whe-
ther we call a bird or insect a quadruped, if we are careful \p
marking all its distinctions ; the uncertainty in reasoning, or think-
ing, that these approximations of the different kinds of animals
produce, is but very small, and liappens but very rarely ; where-
as the labour that naturalists have been at to keep the kinds
asunder, has been excessive. This, in general, has given birth
to that variety of systems which we have just mentioned, each
of which seems to be almost as good as the preceding.

Taking, therefore, this latitude, and using method only where
it contributes to conciseness or perspicuity, we shall divide ani-
mated nature into four classes ; namely, Quadrupeds, Eirds,
Fishes, and Insects. All these seem in general pretty well dis-
tinguished from each other by nature; yet there are several in-
stances in which we can scarcely tell whether it is a bird or a
quadruped that we are about to examine ; whether it is a fish or
an insect that offers to our curiosity. Nature is varied by im-
perceptible gradations, so that no line can be drawn between any
two classes of its productions, and no definition made to compre-
hend them all. However, the distinctions between these classes
are sufRcu^ntly marked, and their encroachments upon each other
are so rare, that it will be sufficient particularly to apprise the
reader wheii they happen to be blended.

There are many quadrupeds that we are well acquainted with ;
and of those we do not know, we shall form the most clear
and distinct conceptions, by being told wherein they differ, and
wherein they resemble those with which we are familiar. Each
class of quadrupeds may be ranged under some one of the do-
mestic kinds, that may serve for the model by which we are to
form some kind of idea of the rest. Thus we may say that a
tiger is of the cat kind, a wolf of the dog kind, because there arc
some rude resemblances between each •, and a jieisoii u ho hi-s
never seen the wild aniiiials, will have some iniompltte know-
ledge ot their litjure from the tame ones. On the contrary, I

til'

446 HI3!(-RY OF

will not, as some systematic writers have done,' say that the I at
IS of the human kind, or a hog of the horse kind, merely because
there is some resemblance in their teeth, or their paps. For al-
though this resemblance may be striking enough, yet a person who
lias never seen a bat or a hog, will never form any just concep-
tion of either by being told of this minute similitude. In slioit,
the method in classing quadrupeds should be taken from their
most striking resemblances ; and wiiere these do not offer, we
«hall not force the similitude, but leave the animal to be de-
scribed as a solitaiy species. The number of quadrupeds is so
few, that indeed, without any method whatever, there is no great
danger of confusion.

All quadrupeds, the number of which, according to BufFon,
amounts to but two hundred, may be classed in the following
manner.

First, those of the Horse kind. This class contains the
Horse, the Ass, and the Zebra. Of these none have horns, and
their hoof is of one solid piece.

The second class are those of the Cow kind ; comprehending
the Urus, the Buffalo, the Bison, and the Bonassus. These
have cloven hoofs, and chew the cud.

The third class is that of the Sheep kind; with cloven lioofs,
«nd chewing the cud like the former. In this is comprehended
the Sheep, the Goat, the Ijama, the Vigogne, the GaZtUa, the
Guinea Deer, and all of a similar form.

The fourth class is that of the Deer kind, with cloven liools,
and with solid horns, that are shed every year. This class con-
tians the Elk, the Rein-deer, the Stag, the Buck, the Roe-buck,
and the A.\is.

The fifth class comprehends all those of the Hog kind, tlie
Peecari, and the Babyrouessa.

The sixth class is, that numerous one of the Cat kind. This
conipiehends the Cat, the Lion, the Panther, the Leopard, the
Jaguar, the Cougar, the Jaguarette, the Lynx, the Ounce, and
the Catamountain. These are all carnivorous, and furnished
with crooked claws, which they can sheathe and unsheathe at
pleasure.

The seventh class is that of the Dog kind, carnivorous, and

1 Liiiiiiipi SjsL

ANIMALS. Wt

fitrnisbed with claws like the former, but wliich they cannot
sheathe. This class comprehends the Dog, the Wolf, the Vox,
t'le Jackal, the Isatis, the Hyaena, the Civet, the Gibet, and the
Genet.

The eighth class is that of the Weasel kind, with a long small
body, with five toes, or claws, on each foot ; the first of them
separated from the rest like a thumb. This comprehends the
Weasel, the Martin, the Pole-cat, the J'erret, the Mangoust,
(he Vansire, the Ermine, with all the varieties of the American
Moufettes.

The ninth class is that of the Rabbit kind, with two large
cutting teeth in each jaw. This comprehends the Rabbit, the
Plare, the Guinea-pig, all the various species of the Squirrel,
the Dormouse, the Marmotte, the Rat, the Mouse, the Agouti,
the Paca, the Aperea, and the Tapeti.

The tenth class is that of the Hedge-hog kind, with claw-feet,
and covered with prickles ; comprehending the Hedge-hog and
the Porcupine, the Couando and the Urson.

The eleventh class is that of the Tortoise kind, covered wilh
a shell, or scales. This comprehends the Tortoise, the Pangolin,
and the Phataguin.

The twellth is that of the Otter, or amphibious kind ; com-
prehending the Otter, the Beaver, the Desman, the Morse, and
the Seal.

The thirteenth class is that of the Ape and Monkey kinds,
with hands, and feet resembling hands.

The fourteenth class i-s that of winged quadrupeds, or the Bat
kind ; containing the Bat, the Flying Squirrel, and some other
varieties

The animals which seem to approach no other kind, either in
nature or in form, but to make each a distinct species in itself,
are the following: the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, the Hippopo-
tamus, the Canyr-lopard, the Gamel, the Bear, the Badger, the
Tapir, the Cabrai, the Coati, the Ant-bear, the Tatou, and,
lastly, the Sloth.

All other quadrupeds, whose names are not set down, will be
found among some of the above-mentioned classes, and referred
(.() that which they most resemble. When, therefore, we are at
H loss to know the name of any particular animal, l>y examining
which of the known kinds it most resembles, either in shaj)e, or

2 V 2

448 HISTORY or

in hoofs, or claws, and then examinitij^ the particular description,
we shall be able to discover not only its name, but its history. I
have already said, that all methods of this kind are merely arbitrary,
and that Nature makes no exact distinction between her produc-
tions. It is hard, for instance, to tell whether we ought to refer
the civet to the dog or the cat kind ; but, if we know the exact his-
tory of the civet, it is no great matter to which kind we shall
judge it to bear the greatest resemblance. It is enough, that a
distribution of this kind excites in us some rude outlines of the
make, or some marked similitudes in the nature of these animals ;
but to know them with any precision, no system, or even de-
scription, will sen'e, since the animal itself, or a good print of it,
must be seen, and its history be read at length, before it can be
said to be known. To pretend to say that we have an idea of
a quadruped, because we can tell the number or the make of its
teeth, or its jjaps, is as absurd as if we should pretend to distin-
guish men by the buttons of their clothes. Indeed it often hap-
pens that the quadruped itself can be but seldom seen •, that
many of the more rare kinds do not come into Europe above
once in an age, and some of them have never been able to bear the
removal : in such a case, therefore, there is no other substitute
but a good print of the animal, to give an idea of its figure ; for
no description whatsoever can answer this purpose so well. Rlr
Loctke, with his usual good sense, has observed, that a drawing
of the animal, taken from the life, is one of the best methods of
advancing natural history ; and yet most of our modem system-
atic writers are content rather with describing. Descriptions,
no doubt, will go some way towards giving an idea of the figure
of an animal ; but they are certainly much the longest way about,
and, as they are usually managed, much the most obscure. In a
drawing we can, at a single glance, gather more instruction
than by a day's painful investigation of methodical systems,
where we are told the proportions with great exactness, and yet
remain ignorant of the totality. In fact, this method of describing
all things is a fault that has infected many of our books, that
treat on the meaner arts, for this last age. They attempt to
teach by words, what is only to be learnt by practice and inspec-
tion. Most of our dictionaries, and bodies of arts and sciences,
are guilty of this error. Suppose, for instance, it be requisite to
mention the manner of making shoes, it is plain that all the ver.

ANIMALS.

419

bal instructions in tlie world will never give an adequate idea of
tills humble art, or teach a man to become a shoemaker. A
day or two in a shoemaker's shop will answer the end better than
a whole folio of instruction, which only serves to oppress the
learner with the weight of its pretended importance. We have
lately seen a laborious work carried on at Paris, with this only
intent, of teaching all the trades by description : however, the
design at first blush seems to be ill considered ; and it is pro-
bable that very few advantages will be derived from so laborious
an undertaking. With regard to the descriptions in natural his-
ti»ry, these, without all question, under the direction of gooi?
sense, are necessary ; but still they should be kept within
proper bounds ; and, where a thing may be much more easilj
shown than described, the exhibition should ever precede the
account.

CHAP. XV.

OF QUADRUPEDS IN GENERAL, COMPARED TO MAN.

Upon comparing the various animals of the globe with each
other, we shall find that quadrupeds demand the rank immediate--
ly next ourselves ; and, consequently, come first in consideration.
The similitude between the structure of their bodies and ours,
those instincts which they enjoy in a superior degree to the rest,
their constant services, or their unceasing hostilities, all render
them the foremost objects of our curiosity, the most interesting
parts of animated nature. These, however, although now so
completely subdued, very probably, in the beginning, were nearer
upon an equality with us, and disputed the possession of the
earth. Man, while yet savage himself, was but ill qualified to
civilize the forest. AVhile yet naked, unarmed, and without
slielter, every wild beast was a formidable rival ; and the destruc-
tion of such was the first employment of heroes. But when he
began to multiply, and the arts to accumulate, he soon cleared
the plains of the most noxious of these his rivals :, a part was
taken under his protection and care, while the rest found a pre.
caiious refuge in the burning desert, or the howling wilderness.

w P «>

450 HISTORY or

From being rivals, quadrupeds have now become the assist-
ants of man ; upon them he devolves the most laborious employ-
ments, and finds in them patient and humble coadjutors, ready
to obey, and content with the smallest retribution. It was not,
however, without long and repeated efforts that the independent
spirit of these animals was broken ; for the savage freedom, in
wild animals, is generally found to pass down through several
generations before it is totally subdued. Those cats and dogs
that are taken from a state of natural wildness in the forest, still
transmit their fierceness to their young ; and, however concealed
in general, it breaks out upon several occasions. Thus the as-
siduity and application of man in bringing them up, not only
alters their disposition, but their very forms ; and the difference
between animals in a state of nature and domestic tameness, is
so considerable, that Mr Buffon has taken this as a principal
distinction in classing them.

In taking a cursory view of the form of quadrupeds, we may
easily perceive, that of all the ranks of animated nature, they
bear the nearest resemblance to man. This similitude will be
found more striking when, erecting themselves on their hinder
feet, they are taught to walk forward in an upright posture.
We then see that all their extremities in a manner correspond
with ours, and present us with a rude imitation of our own. In
some of the ape kind the resemblance is so striking, that anato-
mists are puzzled to find in what part of the human body man's
superiority consists ; and scarcely any but the metaphysician
can draw the line that divides them.

But if we compare their intelTial structure with our own, the
likeness will be found still to increase, and we shall perceive
many advantages they enjoy in common with us, above the lower
, I ibes of nature. Like us, they are placed above the class of
birds, by bringing forth their young alive ; like us, they are
placed above the class of fishes, by breathing through the lungs ;
like us, they are placed above the class of insects, by having
red blood circulating through their veins ; and, lastly, like us,
they are different from almost all the other classes of ani-
mated nature, being either wholly or partly covered with hair.
Thus nearly are we represented, in point of conformation,
to the class of animals immediately below us ; and this shows
what little reason we have to be proud of our persons alone.

ANIJiAI.S. 451

to tlie perfection of which quadrupeds make such very near ap-
proaches.

Tlie similitude of quadrupeds to man obtains also in the fix-
edness of their nature, and their being less apt to be changed
by the influence of climate or food, than the lower ranks of na-
ture.' Bii'ds are found very apt to alter both in colour and size ;
fishes likewise still more ; insects may be quickly brought to
change and adapt themselves to the climate ; and if we descend
to plants, which may be allowed to have a kind of living exist-
ence, their kinds may be surprisingly and readily altered, and
taught to assume new forms. The figure of every animal may
be considered as a kind of drapery, which it may be made to put
on or oflfby human assiduity: in man, the drapery is almost in-
variable ; in quadrupeds, it admits of some variation ; and the
variety may be made greater still, as we descend to the inferio!
classes of animal existence.

Quadrupeds, although they are thus strongly marked, and in gene-
ral divided from the various kinds around them, yet some of them are
often of so equivocal a nature, that it is hard to tell whether they ought
to be ranked in the quadruped class, or degraded to those below
them. If, for instance, we were to marshal the whole groupe ol
animals round man, placing the most perfect next him, and those
most equivocal near the classes they most approach, we should
find it difficult after the principal had taken their stations near
him, where to place many that lie at the outskirts of this phalanx.
The bat makes a near approach to the aerial tribe, and might, by
some, be reckoned among the birds. The porcupine has not
less pretensions to that class, being covered with quills, and
showing that birds are not the only part of nature that are fur-
nished with such a defence. The armadillo might be referred
to the tribe of insects or snails, being like them covered with a
sliell ; the seal and the morse might be ranked among the fishes,
like them being furnished with fins and almost constantly reside
ing in the same element. All these, the farther they reced-
from the human figure, become less perfect, and may be consi-
dered as the lowest kinds of that class to which we have referred
them.

13ut although the variety in quadiupeds is thus great, they all
1 BuRon.

4^2 HISTORY OF

seem well adapted to the stations in which they are placed.
There is scarcely one of them, how rudely shaped soever, that
i.s not formed to enjoy a state of happiness fitted to its nature.
A\l its deformities are only relative to us, but all its enjoyments
are peculiarly its own. We may superficially suppose the sloth,
that takes up months in climbing a single tree, or the rnole,
whose eyes are too small for distant vision, are wretched and
helpless creatures : but it is probable that their life, with res-
pect to themselves, is a life of luxury ; the most pleasing food
is easily obtained ; and as they are abridged in one pleasure, it
may be doubled in those which remain. Quadrupeds, and all the
lower kinds of animals, have, at worst, but the torments of im-
mediate evil to encounter, and this is but transient and acciden-
tal : man has two sources of calamity, that which he foresees,
as well as that which he feels ; so that if his reward were to be
in this life alone, then, indeed, would he be of all beings the
most wretched.

The heads of quadrupeds, though differing from each other,
are, in general, adapted to their way of living. In some it is
sharp, the better to fit the animal for turning up the earth in
which its food lies. In some it is long, in order to give a greater
room for the olfactory nerves, as in dogs, who are to lumt and
find out their prey by the scent. In others, it is short and thick,
as in the lion, to increase the strength of the jaw, and to fit it
the better for combat. In quadrupeds that teed upon grass,
they are enabled to hold down their heads to the ground,
by a strong tendinous ligament, that runs from the head to the
middle of the back. This" serves to raise the head, although
it has been held to the ground for several hours, without any la-
Dour or any assistance from the muscles of the neck.

The teeth of all animals are entirely fitted to the nature ot
their food. Those of such as live upon flesh differ in every re-
spect from such as live upon vegetables. In the latter, they
se;'m entirely made for gathering and bruising their simple food,
being edged before, and fitted for cutting ; but broad towards
the back of the jaw, and fitted for pounding. In the cami-
vorous kinds, they are sharp before, and fitted rather for holding
/han dividing. In tiie one, the teeth serve as grindstones ; in
the other, as weapons of defence : in both, however, the sur-
tiice of those teeth which serve for grinding arc unequal : the

ANIMALS. " 453

cavities and risings fitting those of the opposite, so as to tally exactly
Mhen the jaws are brought together. These inequalities better
serve ibr comnunuting the food ; but they become smooth with
age ; and, for this reason, old animals take a longer time to chew
their food than such as are in the vigour of life.

Their legs are not better fitted than their teeth to their re-
spective wants or enjoyments. In some they are made for
strength only, and to support a vast unwieldy frame, without
much flexibility or beautiful proportion. Thus, the legs of
the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the sea-horse, resemble pillars :
were they made smaller, they would be unfit to support the
body ; were they endowed M'ith greater flexibility, or swiftness,
that would be needless, as they do not pursue other animals for
food ; and conscious of their own superior strength, there are
none thnt they deign to avoid. Deer, hares, and other creatures,
that are to find safety only in flight have their legs made en-
tirely for speed ; they are slender, and nervous. Were it not
for this advantage every carnivorous animal would soon make
them a prey, and their races would be entirely extinguished.
Eut, in the present state of nature, the means of safety are ra-
ther superior to those of offence ; and the pursuing animal must
owe success only to patience, perseverance, and industry. The
feet of some that live upon fish alone, are made for swimming.
The toes of these animals are joined together with membranes,
being web-footed like a goose or a duck, by which they swim
with great rapidity. Those animals that lead a life of hostility,
and live upon others, have their feet armed with shaip claws,
which some can sheathe, and unsheathe, at will. Those, on
the contrary, who lead peaceful lives, have generally hoofs,
which serve some as weapons of defence ; and which in all are
better fitted for traversing extensive tracts of rugged country,
than the claw-foot of their pursuers.

The stomach is generally proportioned to the quality of the
smimal's food, or the ease with which it is obtained. In those
that live upon flesh, and such nourishing substances, it is small
and glandular, affording such juices as are best adapted to digest
'ts contents ; their intestines also are short, and without fatness.
On the contrary, such animals as feed entirely u])on vegetables,
have the stomach very large ; and those who chew the cud have no
leas than four stomachs, all which serve as so many laboratories.

4oi HISTORY Of

to prepare and turn tbeir coarse food into proper nourishment.
In Africa, where the plants afford greater nourishment than in
our temperate chmates, several aniaials, that with us have four
stomachs, have there but two.' However, in all animals the
size of the intestines is proportioned to the nature of the food :
where that is furnished in large quantities the stomach dilates to
answer the increase. In domestic animals, that are plentifully
supplied, it is large; in the wild animals, that live precariously,
It is much more contracted, and the intestines are much shorter.

In this manner, all animals are fitted by nature to till up
some peculiar station. The greatest animals are made for an
inoffensive life, to range the plains and the forest without injur-
ing others ; to live upon the productions of the earth, the grass
of the field, or the tender branches of trees. These, secure in
their own strength, neither fly from any other quadrupeds, nor
yet attacK tnem : Nature to the greatest strength has added the
most gentle and harmless dispositions : without this those enor-
mous creatures would be more than a match for all the rest of
the creation •, for what devastation might not ensue, were the ele-
phant, or the rhinoceros, or the buffalo, as fierce and as mischie-
vous as the tiger or the rat ? In order to oppose these larger ani-
mals and in some measure to prevent their exuberance, there is a
species of the carnivorous kind, of inferior strength indeed, but
of greater activity and cunning. The lion and the tiger generully
watch for the larger kinds of i)rcy, attack them at some disad-
vantage, and commonly jump upon them by surprise. None of
the carnivorous kinds, except the dog alone, will make a volun-
tary attack, but with the odds on their side. They are all
cowards by nature, and usually catch their prey by a bound from
some lurking-place, seldom attempting to invade them openly ;
for the larger beasts are too powerful for them, and the smaller
too swift.

A lion does not willingly attack a horse, and then only when
compelled by the keenest hunger. The combats between a
lion and a horse are frequent enough in Italy ; where they are
both enclosed in a kind of amphitheatre, fitted for that purpose.
The lion always approaches wheeling about, while the horse pre-
sents his hinder parts to the enemy. The lion in this manner

1 Buffon.

ANIMALS*. 455

goes round and round, still narrowing his circle, till he conies to
the proper distance to make his spring ; just at the time the lion
springs, the horse lashes with both legs from behind, and, in ge-
neral, the odds are in his favour ; it more often happening that
the lion is stunned, and struck motionless by the blow, than that
he effects his jump between the horse's shoulders. If the lion is
Stunned, and left sprawling, the horse escapes, without attempt-
mg to improve his victory ; but if the lion succeeds, he sticks to
his prey, and tears the horse in pieces, in a very short time.

But it is not among the larger animals of the forest alone,
that these hostilities are carried on ; there is a minuter, and a
still more treacherous contest, between the lower ranks of quad-
rupeds. The panther hunts for the sheep and the goat ; the
catamountain for the hare or the rabbit ; and the wild cat for
the squirrel or the mouse. In proportion as each carnivorous
animal wants strength, it uses all the assistance of patience, as-
siduity, and cunning. However, the arts of these to pursue, are
not so great as the tricks of their prey to escape ; so ttiat the
power of destruction in one class, is inferior to the power of
safety in the other. Were this otherwise, the forest would soon
be dispeopled of the feebler races of animals ; and beasts of prey
themselves would want, at one time, that subsistence which they
lavishly destroyed at another.

Few wild animals seek their prey in the day-time ; they are
then generally deterred by their fears of man in the inhabited
countries, and by the excessive heat of the sun in those exten-
sive forests that lie towards the south, and in which they reign
the undisputed tyrants. As soon as the morning, therefore,
appears, the carnivorous animals retire to their dens ; and the
elephant, the horse, the deer, and all the hare kinds, those inof-
fensive tenants of the plain, make their appearance. But agai:i,
at night-fall, the state of hostility begins ; the whole forest then
echoes to a variety of different bowlings. Nothing can be mor«
terrible than an African landscape at the close of evening ; the
deep- toned roarings of the lion ; the shriller yellings of the tiger;
the jackal, pursuing by the scent, and barking like a dog; the
hjena, with a note peculiarly solitary and dreadful ; but, above
bU, the hissing of the various kinds of serpent.", that then begin
their call, and, as I ann assured, make a much louder symphony
than the birds in our groves in a morning.

456 n;si'oiiv oi'

Beasts of prey selrioin devour each other ; nor can any thing
but the greatest degree of hunger induce them to it. Wliat
they chiefly seek after, is the deer, or the goat •, those harmless
creatures, that seem made to embellish nature. These are either
pursued or surprised, and afford the most agreeable repast to
their destroyers. The most usual method with even the fiercest
animals, is to hide and crouch near some path frequented by
their prey ; or some water where cattle come to diink ; and
seize them at once with a bound. The lion and the tiger leap
twenty feet at a spring ; and this, rather than their swiftness or
strength, is what they have most to depend upon for a supply.
There is scarcely one of the deer or hare kind, that is not very
easily capable of escaping them by its swiftness ; so that when-
ever any of these fall a prey, it must be owing to their own inat-
tention.

But there is another class of the c«'nivorous kind, that hunt
by the scent, and which it is much more difficult to escape. Jt
is remarkable, that all animals of this kind pursue in a pack ;
and encourage each other by their mutual cries. The jackal,
the syagush, the wolf, and the dog, are of this kind ; they pur-
sue with patience rather than swiftness ; their prey flies at first,
and leaves them for miles behind ; but they keep on with a con-
stant steady pace, and excite each other by a general spirit of
industry and emulation, till at last they share the common phui-
dor. But it too often happens, that the larger beasts of prey,
when they hear a cry of this kind begin, pursue the pack, and
when they have hunted down the animal, come in and monopo-
lize the spoil. This his given rise to the report of the jackal'a
being the lion's provider •, when the reality is, that the jacl;:il
hunts for itself, and the lion is an unwelcome intruder upon the
fruit of his toil.

Nevertheless, with all the powers which carnivorous animals
are possessed of, they generally lead a life of famine and fatigue.
Their prey has sucli a variety of methods for escaping, tlmt they
sometimes continue without food for a fortnight together : but
nature has endowed them with a degree of patience equal to the
severity of their state ; so that as their subsistence is precarious,
their appetites are complying. They usually seize their prey
with a roar, either of seeming delight, or perhaps to terrify it
from resistance. They frequently devour it, bones and all, in

ANTMAI.S- 457

tlse most ravenous iniimier ; and then retire to their dens, cor~
tinning inactive, till the calls of hunger again excite their cour-
age and industry. But as all their methods of pursuit are coun-
teracted by the arts of evasiou, they often continue to range
without success, supjiorting a state of famine for several days,
nay, sometimes, weeks together. Of their prey, some find pro-
tection in holes, in which nature has directed them to bury
themselves ; some find safety by swiftness ; and such as are
possessed of neither of these advantages, generally herd together,
and endeavour to repel invasion by united force. The very
sheep, which to us seem so defenceless, are by no means so in a
state of nature ; they are furnished with arms of defence, and a
very great degree of swiftness ; but they are still further assisted
by their spirit of mutual defence : the females fall into the
centre ; and the males, forming a ring round them, oppose their
horns to the assailants. Some animals, that feed upon fruits
which are to be found only at one time of the year, fill their
holes with several sorts of plants, which enable them to lie con-
cealed during the hard frosts of the winter, contented with their
prison, since it affords them plenty and protection. These holes
are dug with so much art, that there seems the design of an
architect in the formation. There are usually two apertures, by
one of which the little inhabitant can always escape, when the
enemy is in possession of the other. Many creatures are equally
careful of avoiding their enemies, by placing a sentinel to warn
them of the aj)proaeh of danger. These generally perform this duty
by turns ; and they know how to punish such as have neglected
their post, or have been unmindful of the common safety. Such
are a part of the eftbrts that the weaker races of quadnipeds exert
to avoid their invaders ; and, in general, they are attended with
success. The arts of instinct are most commonly found an over-
match for the invasions of instinct. Man is the only creature
against whom all their little tricks cannot prevail. Wherever he
has spread his dominions, scarcely any flight can save, or any
retreat harbour ; wherever he comes, terror seems to follow, and
all society ceases among the inferior tenants of the plain ; their
union against him can yield them no protection, and their cun-
ning is but weakness. In their fellow-brutes, they have an
enemy whom they can oi)pose with an equality of advantage;
they can oppose fraud or swiftness to force, or numbers to in-

2(1

i-^8 liisroiir of

vasioii ; but what Ciin be done agitinst such an enemy as man,
who finds them out though unseen ; and though remote, destroys
them ? Wherever he comes, all the conquests among the mean-
er ranks seem to be at an end, or is carried on only by surprise.
Such as he has thought proper to protect, have calmly submitted
to his protection ; such as he has found it convenient to destroy,
carry on an unequal war, and their numbers are every day de-
creasing.

The wild animal is subject to few alterations ; and, m a state
of savage nature, continues for ages the same, in size, shape,
and colour. But it is otliei'wise when subdued, and taken un-
der the protection of man ; its external form, and even its in-
ternal structure, are altered by human assiduity ; and this is one
ot the first and greatest causes of the variety that we see among
the several quadrupeds of the same species. Man appears to
have changed the very nature of domestic animals, by cultivation
and care. A domestic animal is a slave that seems to have few
other desires but such as man is willing to allow it. Humble,
patient, resigned, and attentive, it fills up the duties of its sta-
tion ; ready for labour, and content with subsistence.

Almost all domestic animals seem to bear the marks of servi-
tude strong upon them. All the varieties in their colour, all the
fineness and length of their hair, together with the depending
length of their ears, seem to have arisen from a long continu-
ance of domestic slavery What an immense variety is there to

be found in the ordinary race of dogs find horses ! the principa.
differences of which have been effected by the industry of man,
so adapting the food, the' treatment, the labour, and the climate,
that Nature seems almost to have forgotten her original design ;
and the tame animal no longer bears any resemblance to its an-
cestors in the woods around him.

In this manner, nature is under a kind of constraint, in those
animals we have taught to live in a state cf servitude near us.
The savage animals preserve the marks of their first formation ;
their colours are generally the same ; a rough dusky brown, or a
fawny, seem almost their only varieties. ]3ut it is otherwise in
the tame; their colours are various, and their forms different
from each other. The nature of the climate indeed operates
ujioii all ; but more particularly on those. That nourishment
wiiich is prepared by the hand of man, net adapted to their ap-

AN!.M.\LS. 4,")!)

P 't\U>s, but to suit liis cwu (•nnvenic='iic'e ; that climate, the
rigours of which he can soften ; and that employment to which
they are sometimes assigned ; produce a rmmber of distinctions
that are not to be found among the savage animals. These, at
tirst, were accidental, but in time became hereditary ; and a new
race of artificial monsters are propagated, rather to answer the
purposes of human pleasure than their own convenience. In
short, their very appetites may be changed ; and those that feed
only upon grass may be rendered carnivorous. I have seen a
slieep that would eat tiesh, and a horse that was fond of oysters.

But not their appetites, or their figure alone, but their very
dispositions, and their natural sagacity, are altered by the vicinity
of man. In those countries where men have seldom intruded,
some animals have been found, established in a kind of civil
state of society. Remote from the tyranny of man, they seem
to have a spirit of mutual benevolence, and mutual frienrlsh'p.
The beavers, in those distant solitudes, are known to build like
architects, and rule like citizens. The habitations that these
have been seen to erect, exceed the houses of the human inhabi-
t.Mts of the same country, both in neatness and convenience.
But as soon as man intrudes upon their society, they seem im-
pressed with the terrors of their inferior situation, their spirit of
society ceases, the bond is dissolved, and every animal looks for
safety in solitude, and there tries all its little industry to shift
only for itself.

Next to human influence, the climate seems to have the strong,
est effects both upon the nature and the form of quadrupeds.
As in man we have seen some alterations produced by the variety
of his situation ; so in the lower ranks, that are more subject to
variation, the intluence of climate is more readily perceived.
As these are more nearly attached to the earth, and in a manner
conntctfcd to the soil ; as they have none of the arts of shielding
off the inclemency of the weather, or softening the rigours of
the sun, they are consequently more changed by its variations.
In general it miy be remarked, that the colder the country, the
larger atid the wartner is the fur of each animal ; it being wisely
crovided by Nature, that the iidiabitant sliould be adapted to the
rigours of its situation. Thus the fox and wolf, which in tem-
perate climates have but short hair, have a fine long fur in tie
frozen regions near the pole. Oa the contrnrv, those dogs w'tith

2 y -J

*^^ HISTORY OF

with us have Jong hair, when carried to Guinea or Angola, in a
fcbort time cast their thick covering, and assume a lighter dress,
and one more adapted to the warmth of the country. The bea-
ver, and the ermine, which are found in the greatest plenty in
the cold regions, are remarkable for the warmth and delicacy of
their furs ; while the elephant and the rhinoceros, that are natives
of the line, have scarcely any hair. Not but that human indus-
try can, ip some measure, co-operate with, or repress, the effegts
of climate in this pai'ticular. It is well known what alterations
are produced, by proper care, in the sheep's tleece, in different
parts of our country ; and the same industry is pursued with a
like success in Syria, where many of their animals are clothed
with a long and beautiful hair, which they take care to improve,
as they work it into that stuff called camblet, so well known in
different parts of Europe.

The disposition of the animal seems also not less marked by
the climate than the figure. The same causes that seem to have
rendered the human inhabitants of the rigorous climates savage
and ignorant, have also operated upon their animals. Both at
the line and the pole, the wild quadrupeds are fierce and un-
tameable. In these latitudes, their savage dispositions having
not been quelled by any efforts from man, and being still farther
stimulated by the severity of the weather, they continue fierce
and uiitractable. J\Iost of the attempts which have hitherto
been made to tame the wild beasts brought home from the pole
or the equator, have prove;l ineffectual. They are gentle and
harmless enough while young ; but as they grow up, they acquire
their natural ferocity, ai*<i snap at the hand that feeds them. It
may indeed, in general, be asserted, that in all countries \\here
the men are most barbarous, the beasts are most fierce and cruel ;
and this is but a natural consequence of the stru2:gle between
man and the more savage animals of the forest; for in propor-
tion as he is weak and timid, they must be bold and intrusive ;
in proportion as his dominion is but feebly .supported, their ra-
j)acity must be more obnoxious. In the extensive countries,
therefore, lying round the pole, or beneath the line, the quadru-
peds are fierce and formidable. Africa has ever been remarked
for the brutality of its men, and the fierceness of its animals : its
lions and its loojjards are not less terrible than its crocodiles and its
Kcrpents ; their dispositions seem entirely marked with tlie

AN'IMAi.3. 461

rigours of the climate, and being bred in an extreme of heat
they show a peculiar ferocity, that neither the force of man can
conquer, nor his arts allay. Howeser, it is happy for the wretched
inhabitants of those climates, that its most formidable animals
are all solitary ones ; that they have not learned the art of unit-
ing-, to oppress mankind ; but each depending on its own strength,
invades without any assistant.

The food also is another cause of the variety which we find
among quadrupeds of the same kind. Thus the beasts which
feed in the valley are generally larger than those which glean a
scanty subsistence on the mountain. Such as live in the warm
climates, where the plants are much larger and more succulent
than with us, are equally remarkable for their bulk. The ox
fed in the plains of Indostan, is much larger than that which is
more hardily maintained on the side of the Alps. The deserts
of Africa, where the plants are extremely nourishing, produce
the largest and fiercest animals ; and, perhaps for a contrary rea-
son, America is found not to produce such large animals as are
seen in the ancient continent. Bur, whatever be the reason, the
fact is ceitain, that wliile America exceeds us in the size of its
reptiles of all kinds, it is far inferior in its quadruped produc-
tions. Thus, for instance, the largest animal of that country is
the tapir, « hich can by no means be compared to the elephant
of Africa. Its beasts of prey, also, are divested of that strength
and courage which is so dangerous in this part of the world.
The American lion, tiger, and leopard, if such diminutive crea-
tures deserve these names, are neither so fierce nor so valiant as
those of Africa and Asia. The tiger of Bengal has been seen to
measure twelve feet in length, without including the tail : whereas
the American tiger seldom exceeds tliree. This difference obtains
still more in the other animals of that country, so that some
have been of opinion' that all quadruj/eds in Southern America
are of a different species from those most resembling them in
tiie old world ; and that there are none which are common to
both, but such as have entered America by the north; and
v< hich, being able to bear the rigoins of the frozen pole, have
travelled from the ancient continent, by that passage, into the
new. Thus the bear, the wolf, the elk, the stag, the fox, and

I r.iiflr.in.

4-02 iiisToiiv OF

tlie beaver, are known to the iiiliahitants us well of North
America as of Russia •, while most of the various kinds to the
southward, in both continents, bear no resemblance to each
other. Upon the whole, such as peculiarly belong to the new
continent are without any marks of the quadruped perfection.
They are almost wholly destitute of the power of defence , they
liave neither formidable teeth, horns, or tail ; their figure is awk-
ward, and their limbs ill proportioned. Some among them,
such as the ant-bear and the sloth, appear so miserably formed,
as scarcely to have the power of moving and eating. They,
seemingly, drag out a miserable and languid existence in the
most desert solitude ; and would quickly have been destroyed in
a country where there were inhabitaiits, or powerful beasts to
oppose them.

But if the quadrupeds of the new continent be less, they are
found in much greater abundance ; for it is a rule that obtains
through nature, that the smallest animals multiply the fastest.
The goat, imported from Europe to South America, soon be-
gins to degenerate ; but as its grows less it becomes more proli-
fic ; and, instead of one kid at a time, or two at the most, it ge-
rally produces five, and sometimes niore. What there is in the
food, or the climate, that produces this change, we have not been
able to learn ; we might be apt to asci-ibe it to the heat, but that
on the African coast, where it is still hotter, this rule does not
ol)tain ; for the goat, instead of degenerating there, seems rather
to improve.

However, the rule is general among all quadrupeds, that those
^^ liich are large and 'formidable ]iroduce but few at a time ;
nliiie such as are mean and contemptible are extremely prolific.
'Ihe lion, or tiger, have seldom abo\e two cubs at a litter ; while
the cat, that is of a similar nature, is usually seen to have fi\e
or six. In this manner the lower tribes become extremely
numerous ; and, but for this surprising fecundity, from their na-
tural weakness they would quickly be extirpated. The breed o ;
mice, for instance, would have long since been blotted from th o
earth, were the mouse as slow in production as the elephant.
But it has been wisely provided, that such animals as can make
but little resistance, should at least have a means of repairing
the destruction, which they must often suffer, by their quick re-
production ; that they should increase even among enemies, and

ANIMALS. Ui3

multiply under the hand of the destroyer. On the otner h;iiHl,
it liiis as wisely been ordered by Providence, that the larger kinds
sLouKi produce but slowly ; otherwise, as they require jjropor-
tional supplies from nature, they would quickly consume their
own store ; and, of consequence, many of them would soon per-
ish through want ; so that life would thus be given ^^'ithout the
necessary means of subsistence. In a word, Providence has
most wisely balanced the strength of the great against the weak-
ness of the little. Since it was necessary that some should be
great and others mean, since it was expedient that some should
live upon others, it has assisted the weakness of one by granting
it fruitfulness ; and diminished the number of the other by iii-
fecundity.

In consequence of this provision, the larger creatures, which
bring forth few at a time, seldom begin to generate till they have
nearly acquired their full growth. On the contrary, those which
bring many, reproduce betbre they have arrived at their natural
size. Thus the horse and the bull are nearly at their best before
they begin to breed ; the hog and the rabbit scarcely leave the
teat before they become parents in turn. Almost all animals
likewise continue the time of their pregnancy in proportion to
their size. The mare continues eleven months with foal, the
cow nine, the wolf five, and the bitch nine weeks. In all, the
intermediate litters are the most fruitful ; the first and the last
generally producing the fewest in number, and the worst of the
kind.

Whatever be the natural disposition of animals at other times,
they all acquire new courage when they consider themselves as
defending tlieir young. No terrors can then drive them from
the post of duty ; the mildest begin to exert their little force,
and resist the most formidable enemy. Wiicre resistance is
liopeless, they then incur every danger, in order to rescue their
young by flight, and retard their own expedition by provi<ling
for their little ones. When the female oppossum, an animal of
Anicrica, is pursued, she instantly takes her young into a false
belly, with which nature has supplied her, and carries them off,
or dies in the endeavour. I have been lately assured of a she-fox,
which, when hunted, took her cub in her mouth, and run for
several miles without quitting it, until at last she was forced to
leave it behind, upon the approach of a mastiff, as she ran

4'64 HISTO.IY 111-

tliroiigli a farmer's yard. But, if at this period the mildest aui
mals acquire new fierceness, how formidable must those be that
subsist by rapine ! At such times, no obstacles can stop their
ravage, nor no threats can terrify ; the lioness then seems more
hardy than even the lion himself. She attacks men and beasts
indiscriminately, and carries all she can overcome reeking to her
cubs, whom she thus early accustoms to slaughter. Milk, in the
carnivorous animals, is much more sparing than in others ; and
it may be for this reason that all such carry home their prey
alive, that, in feeding their young, its blood may supply the de-
ficiencies of nature, and serve instead of that milk with which
they are so sparingly supplied.

Nature, that has thus given them courage to defend their
young, has given them instinct to choose the proper times of co-
pulation, so as to bring forth when the provision suited to each
kind is to be found in the greatest plenty. The wolf, for in-
stance, couples in November, so that the time of pregnancy
continuing five months, it may have its young in April. The
mare, who goes eleven months, admits the horse in summer, in
order to foal about the beginning of May. On the contrary,
those animals which lay up provisions for the winter, such as
the beaver and the marmotte, couple in the latter end of auttimn,
so as to have their young about January, against which season
they have provided a very comfortable store. These seasons
for coupling, however, among some of the domestic kinds, are
generally in consequence of the quantity of provisions with
which they are at any time supplied. Thus we may, by feed-
ing any of these anin^als, and keeping off the rigour of the cli-
mate, make them breed whenever we please. In this manner
those contrive who produce lambs all the year round.

The choice of situation in bringing forth is also very remark-
able. In most of the rapacious kinds, the female takes the ut-
most precautions to hide the place of her retreat from the male ;
who otherwise, when pressed by hunger, would be apt to devour
her cubs. She seldom, therefore, strays far from the den, and
never approaches it while he is in view, nor visits him again till
her young are capable of providing for themselves. Such ani-
mals as are of tender constitutions take the utmost care to pro-
vide a place of warmth, as well as safety, for their young ; the
Taj)uciovis kinds bring forth in the thickest woods ; those that

ANIMALS. iiib

chew the cud, with the various tribes of the venuiii kind, choose
some hiding place in the neighbourhood of man. Some dig holes
in the ground; some choose the hollow of a tree ; and all the
amphibious kinds bring up their young near the water, and ac-
custom them betimes to their proper element.

Thus Nature seems kindly careful for the protection of the
meanest of her creatures : but there is one class of quadrupeds
that seems entirely left to chance, that no parent stands forth to
protect, nor no instructor leads, to teach the arts of subsistence.
These are the quadrupeds that are brought forth from the egg,
such as the lizard, the tortoise, and the crocodile. The fecun-
dity of all other animals compared with these is sterility itself.
These bring forth above two Inmdred at a time ; but, as tlie off-
spring is more numerous, the parental care is less exerted.
Thus the numerous brood of eggs are, without farther solicitude,
buried in the warm sands of the shore, and the heat of the sun
alone is left to bring them to perfection. To this perfection
they arrive almost as soon as disengaged from the shell. Most
of them, \\ithout any other guide than instinct, immediately
make to the water. In their passage thither, they have number-
less enemies to fear. The birds of prey that haunt the shore,
the beasts that accidentally come there, and even the animals
that give them birth, are known, with a strange rapacity, to thin
tlieir numbers as well as the rest.

But it is kindly ordered by Providence, that these animals
which are mostly noxious, should thus have many destroyers :
were it not lor this, by their extreme fecundity, they would soon
overrun tlie earth, and cumber all our plains with defcrmily.

A

HISTORY OF ANIMALS.

BOOK I.

ANIMALS OF THE HORSE KIND.

CHAP. I.

OF THE HORSE.'*

Animals of the horse kind deserve a place next to man, in a
history of nature. Their activity, their sti'ength, their useful-
ness, and their beauty, ali contribute to render them the princi-

1 As it may happen, that in a description where it is the aim rather to in-
sert w lint is not usually known, than all tliat is known, some of the more
obvious particulars may be omitted ; I will take leave to subjoin in the notes
tlie eliaraiteristic marks of each animal, as given us by Linnaeus. "The
horse, with six cutting' teetli before, and single-lioofed ; a native of Europe
and tlie East (but I believe rather of Africa) ; a generous, proud, and strong
animal ; fit either for the.draught, the course, or the road ; he is deliglited
with woods; he takes care of his hinder parts ; defends himself from the
flies with his tail ; scratches liis fellow ; defends his young ; calls by neigh,
ing; sleeps after night-fall; tights by kicking, and by biting also ; rolls on
the ground when he sweats ; eats the ^rass closer than the ox ; distributes
the seed by dunging; wants a gall bladder; never vomits; the foal is pro-
duced with the feet stretched out ; he is injured by being struck on the ear;
upon the stiffle ; by being caught by the nose in barnacles; by having his
teeth rubbed with tallow; by the herb padtis ; by the herb phalandria; by
the cruculin ; by the conops. His diseases are ditterent in different countries.
A consumption of the ethmoid bones of the nose, called the glanders, is with
us the most infectious and fatal. He eats hemlock without injury. The
piare goes with foal 290 days. The placenta is not fixed. He acquires not
the canine teeth till the age of five years."

* The horse genus, according to the Cuvierian arrangement, is placed in the
Class Mammalia, which contains tho.se animals that suckle their young, and
forms the ninth genus of his sixth order, called Pavhydermata. The loUow

HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 4.67

pal objects of our curiosity and care ; a race of creatures in whosa
n L'ifare we are interested next to our own.

Of all the quadruped animals, the horse seems the most beau-
tiful ; the noble largeness of his form, the glossy smoothness o{
his skin, the graceful ease of his motions, and the exact symme-
try of his shape, have taught us to regard him as the first, and

insT are his characters of tliis order : — Skin very thick, whence the name ot
the order ; some of the genera are partially without teeth, others with the
tnree snrts of teeth ; qiiadriipHdal, generally with hoofs, and the toes varying
in number ; stomach t^iniple, and they do not ruminate ; without clavicles, or
ooUar-biiues. They are either herbivorous or omnivorous, and their habiUr
are various. They generally inhabit the temperate and torrid zones.

The genus Equus, or Horse, contains six species, agreeing in their essen-
tial characters, which are thus dt-lineil by Cuvier, in his Regiie Aiiimnl : —
Incisory teeth, six in the upper jaw, and six in the under ; two canines, one
above and one below, on each Mde of the cutting or incisory teeth, (the fe-
males of some of the species with no canine teeth,) ai\d six cheek teeth, or
grinders, on each side, on both jaws ; tliey are furmwed on both sides with
Hat crowns and several ridges of enamel. Between the canines and cheek
teeth is a void space; the upper lip is susceptible of considerable motion;
the eyes are large ; the pupil oblong-ovate, placed laterally; their sight ex.
cellent, and altiioin;h not formed for seeing in the night, they can distinguish
objects very ciearly in the dark ; ears rather small, pointed, and erect, hav-
ing great mobility in the external cunch, so that their hearing is very acute,
and is the sense which, in all probrtbility, they possess in the greatest perfec-
tion ; feet, with a single apparent toe, covered with a thick hoof; the tail is
furnished with long hair, or with a tuft at the extremity ; niammse two,
inguinal ; the stomach is simple and membranaceous, and the intestines and
caecum very large.

This genus forms a very natural, though isolated, division in the class
Mammalia. Its characters are so distinct, that it i aiinot be grouped with any
other genus. This is strongly exemplified by the difi'erent places the genus
has occupied in the arrangements of authors, to none of wiiich it bad the
slightest alliance. In the I.inna'an arrangement, it is placed with the hippo,
potamus, as a genus of the order Jiellute. The method of Krxleben, ranks it
between the elephant and dromedary. Storr made a distinct order of it, to
follow the ruminantia, under the name Solipei/es, which was followed by
Baron Cuvier in liis first edition of the liigne Animal^ and has been, subse.
Ijuently, placed by him In the order of Prtchydermata. The feet of all tha
species are inonoilactyloiis, or having but one toe; however, the rudiments
of two other toes are to be seen under the skin From their acute sense it
hearing, their attention is speedily ai rested by any new sound, at which tli ■•■
will instantly halt, and listen with great attention. Their sense of smell ii
also very delicate, and it is 'requently exercised on objects with which they
are unacquainted. The thickness of their liidea must render their sense of
((tl'.iii.' less acute.

The horse is the only quadruped, with a thick and round tiodv, which is
graceful ; and his head, althougli not so elegant as that of some other qudd»

ifiS rriSTOiiV OF

■IS the most pertfttly formed ; and yet, what is extraordinary
enough, if we examine him internally, his structure will be found
the most different from that of man of idl other quadrupeds
whatsoever. As the ape approaches us the nearest ii; internal
conformation, so the horse is the most remote ;' a striking proof
that there may be oppositions of beauty, and that all grace is
not to be referred to one standard.

To have an idea of this noble animal in his native simplicity,
we are not to look for hiiri in the pastures or the stables to
which he has been consigned by man ; but in those wild and
extensive plains where he has been originally produced ; where
he ranges without control, and riots in all the variety of luxu-
rious nature. In this state of happy independence, he disdains
the assistance of man, which only tends to servitude. In those
boundless tracts, whether of Africa or New Spain, where he
runs at liberty, he seems no way incommoded with the incon-
veniences to which he is subject in Europe. The continual ver.
dure of the fields supplies his wants ; and the climate, that never
knows a winter, suits his constitution, which naturally seems
adapted to heat. His enemies of the forest are but few, for
none but the greater kinds will venture to attack him : any one
of these he is singly able to overcome ; while, at the same time,
he is content to find safety in society ; for the wild horses of
tliose countries always herd together.

In these countries, therefore, the horses are often seen feed-
ing in droves of five or six hundred. As they do not carry on war
against any other race of animals, they are satisfied to remain
entirely upon the defeireive. The pastures on which they live
satisfy all their appetites, and all other precautions are purely for

rupeils, is, nevertheless, citpable of manifesting the varied ernotioun of pride,
docility, couratic, and caution.

The ppecios of this genus are six, namely, the horse, ass, common zebra,
zfb.-a of the plains, qiiagga, dziggtai, with the mule, which may be regarded
as a sub-species.

It is not possible to determine whether the fossil bones of horses, which
are found, in strata, associated with the bones of other extinct species of
animals, are really of a distinct species from any that at present exist ; hut,
•.id^ius; from sinnhiffv, we are warranted in supposincr them to be so. ri.ere
( so little difference in the bones of this genus, that the most skilful osteo-
ognsls lire unable, from them, to determine the species, which they can dis.
ijiguish with e;ise and certainty in almost every other aoiinal.
1 Histoire N;iturelle, D;iubcnton, vol. vii. p. S"i

ANIMALS. 469

tlieir security, in case of a surprise. As they arc never attacked
but at a disadvantage, whenever they sleep in the forests, they
have always one among their number that stands as centinel, to
give notice of any approaching danger; and this office they take
by turns.' If a man a])proaches them while they are feeding by
day, their centinel walks up boldly near him, as if to examine his
strength, or to intimidate him from proceeding ; but as the man
approaches ^^•ithin pistol-shot, the centinel then thinks it high
time to alarm his fellows ; this he does by a loud kind of snort-
ing, upon which they all take the signal, and fly off with the
speed of the wind ; their faithful centinel bringing up the I'ear.^
It is not easy to say from what country the horse came origi-
nally.* It should seem that the colder climates do not a^ce

2 Dicfionnaire Universelle des Animaux, p. 10.
3 Labat, torn. vii.

• The period at which the horse was first domesticated is now lost in the
dimd of antiquity. He is mentioned by the oldest writers, and in ali^mba.
bility, his subjugation was nearly coeval with the earliest state of society.
From the Scriptures we learn, that 1702 years before the Christian era,
horses were used ; for, in the ■t7th chapter of Genesis, verse 17, it is said,
" And Joseph gave them (the Egyptians) bread in exchange for horses."
Again, in the 50th chapter of the same book, 1G89 years before Christ, it la
said, " And there went up with him (Joseph) both diariots and horsemen ;
and it was a very great company." These are the first instances of horses
being mentioned in Holy Writ ; and from what we read in the earlier chap-
ters of Genesis, it seems very probable that the horse was unknown to the
Hebrews and Egyptians before that period ; for, in the 12th chapter of that
book, it is said, " And he (Abram) had sheep, and oxen, and men-servants,
and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels," but no mention is made of
horses. This was 1920 years before the birth of our Saviour. It would
therefore, appear, that horses were first introduced into Egypt a short time
before the year 1702 A.c. but whence we are not informed ; and they seem
to have propagated and increased in Canaan with great rapidity ; for, in the
nth chapter of Joshua, and 4th verse, we are told, "They (certain kings
opposed to Jr>sliua) went out, they and all their hosts with them, much
people, even as the sand that is upon the sea-shore in multitude, with horses
and chariots very many." This was ItSO years before the Christian era. I
is mentioned in Deuteronomy, chapter xvii. verse Ifi, " But (whoever shal
be king of Israel) shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people
to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses." Which proves
that Egypt, at that time, was the great place for breeding horses.

Assyria, the most ancient empire, which is highly celebrated in the Ribie
for its horses, seems, from all accounts, to have obtained them from Armenia
Media, and Persia. The natives of Canaan are spoken of, in Judges, as hav.
ing used horses in battle, but no mention is made of the Israelites having
done so. This people, when at war, made their stronghold among the moun-

2£l

470 HISTORY OF

with his constitution : for although he is found almost in then
all, yet his form is altered there, and he is found at once diminu-
tive and ill- shaped. We have the testimony of the ancients that
there were wild horses once in Europe ; at present, however.

tains, 60 that horses could be of little use to them. This was about 1250 years
b°''ore Christ. When Saul was chosen king of Israel, 1095 years a.r. he leii
the armies of that kingdom against the tribes of Ariibia, but they had not at
that time begun to breed horses ; for we find his plunder consisted only of
camels, oxen, sheep, and asses.

David, second king of Israel, 1048 years A.c. justly celebrated for his prow
ess and skill in the art of war, and who was from his youth engaged in per-
petual feuda with the tribes by which Israel was surrounded, had cavalry
under his command ; but in this force his enemies greatly exceeded him : and,
it would appear, he did not consider them of very great consequence ; for, in
his defeat of the Syrians, where all their war.chiiriots, which were drawn by
horses, fell into his hands, and «ith them three hundred of these animals, he
reserved only one hundred for his own use, and hamstrung the rest.

The first breaking of the horse for riding is attributed by some authors to
the Lapithse, and is spoken of by Virgil in his third Georgic. Strabo asserts
that the Medes, Persians, and Armenians, were the first that invented the art
of riding and shooting. Polydorus ascribes it to Bellerophon ; Lysias, the
orator, to the Amazonian women. But be this as it may, it seems indisput^
able, that horses were not used for riding till long after the time they were
harnessed in war.chariots. Sir Gore Ouseley mentions, in his travels through
Persia and various countries of the East, that he examined all the relics of
antiqwty, and amongst others the fine sculptures on the ruins of Persepolis,
from which he drew a conclusion, at once interesting, and in some measure
confirmatory of the opinion above noticed, that the horse has been gradually
subdued. He says, " There are no figures mounted on horseback, although
some travellers have mentioned horsemen among those sculptures. One
would think, that the simple act of mounting on a horse's back would natu-
rally have preceded the use of wheel carriages, and their complicated har.
ness, yet no horsemen are found at Persepolis ; and we know. Homer's
horses are represented in chariots, from which the warriors sometimes de.
Ecended to combat on foot ; but the poet has not described them as fighting
on horseback. The absence of mounted figures might authorize an opinion,
that these sculptures had been executed before the time of Cyrus, whose
precepts and example first inspired the Persians with a love of equestrian
exercises, of which, before his time, they were totally ignorant."

It is a generally received, although ernmeous opinion, that Arabia wa»
the native country of the horse ; but this we find not to be the case, from
what is stated in 2 Chronicles, chap. ix. which informs us that King Solomon
obtained gold and silver from that country ; and in the 28th verse, that " they
brought unio Solomon horses out of Egypt, and out of all lands." Now, had
they originally come from Arabia, it is probable that country would have
been here expressly mentioned. Even so late as the seventh century of the
Christian era, when the prophet Mahomet attacked the Korei.-h, not far
from Blecca, he had only two horses in his train ; and although, iu the plun-
der of tills horrible campaign, he carried with him in his retreat twenty.four

ANIMALS. 471

they arc totally brought under subjection ; and even those which
are found in America are of a Spanish breed, which being sent
thither upon its first discover)'; have since become wild, and have
spread over all the south of that vast continent almost to the
straits of Magellan. These, in general, are a small breed, of
about fourteen hands high. They have thick jaws and clumsy
oints ; their ears and neck also are long ; they are easily tamed ,
for the horse, by nature, is a gentle complying creature, and re-
sists rather from fear than obstinacy. They are caught by
a kind of noose, and then held fast by the legs, and tied to a tree,
where they are left for two days without food or drink. By that
time they begin to grow manageable ; and in some weeks they
become as tame as if they had never been in a state of wildness.
If, by any accident, they are once more set at liberty, they never
become wild again, but know their masters, and come to their
call. Some of the buccaniers have often been agreeably sur-
])rised, after a long absence, to see their faithful horses once
more present themselves, with their usual assiduity ; and come
up, with fond submission to receive the rein.

thousand camels, forty tliou?and fhoep, and twenty-four thousand ounces of
tiilvcr, there is no mention of horses bein^ part of the booty. We are in.
formed that the Arabians had but few horses, and those not at all valued ; so
that Arabia, where are now the most celebrated coursers in the world, is
rorapr.ratively of modern di:te as a breedins country. In the second century,
horses were exported from Eg'ypt to Arabia, as presents to various of their
kings ; and there can be little doubt that their finest horses were originally
the produce of Kffypt, whence they were also exported to Ethiopia, India,
Persia, Parthia, Armenia, Scythia, &c. ■'Solomon is said to have had " four
thousand stalls for horses and chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen." The
price of an Efjyptian horse in those days was one hundred and fifty shelfeU
of silver, which amounts to about .seventeen pounds two shillings sterling- ; a
very large sum at that remote period.

I.pft only to conjecture, we can hut suppose,from a combination of circum.
stances, that Asia was the original country of the he rse ; for there he is iound
to the present day, roving in unrestrained freedom : and we are without any
historical record of his having been introduced by man into those extensive
wilds. One thing is quite certain, that he was not found either in America
or New Holland, at the oiigiiial discovery of these continents. The great
tracts of desert country around the Sea of Arel, and the Caspian Sea, have
been supposed to be the native residence of the horse ; but, if this conjecture
be correct, he must have widely extended his geographical range, for he ia
found in a wild state in Asia, as far iH)rth as the sixtieth degree, and to the
utmost southern extremes of that vast contiiinnt, and also in nuuiy parts
jf Africa ; but wo must suppose, that tlioto of the former country emigrated
ua the species multiplied.

2 11 2

472 riisroiM' Of

These American horses, however, cannot properly be ranked
araong the wild races, since they were originally bred from such
as were tame.* It is not in the new, but the old world, that we
are to look for this animal, in a true state of nature ; in the ex-

* Tlie wild horses which exist in the extensive pljuns of South America,
extending from the shores of La Plata to Patagonia, are descendants of those
carried thither by the Spaniards, after their discovery of the country, and
have increased with such astonisliing rapidity, that they are to be seen in
troops of many thousands. Azara affirms, that they sometimes congregate,
iu squadrons of not less than ten thousand individuals. They are invariably
preceded by a leader, by whom they are governed, and who appears to direct
all their movements ; which are performed in a manner so perfectly syste-
matic, as hardly to be surpassed in regularity by the best trained cavalry. It
is extremely dangerous for travellers to pass through the districts In ivhich
these horses abound ; for, if perceived by the wild lierd, lliey will approach
closely to those wlio are mounted on horseback. After tlieir leader and
videttes, or advanced guard, have reconnoitered the strangers, they will,
at the direction of the leader, make a rapid wheel round the course of the
travellers, and, with a loud and irritating neighing, tempt the tame horses,
which are either saddled or loaded, to join them. If the rider do not use all
liis energies, or the leader of the loaded horse his utmost care, they will either
fling the rider, or throw off their burden, and precipitately unite with the
wild troop, after which they are in general lost for ever.

The steady approach, and menacing appearance, of tliis prodigious column
of horses, are most appalling to those who witness it for the first time, and
will cause the boldest heart to quake ; the trampling sound of the animals'
hoofs, even upon the green sward, may be compared to the loudest thunder,
while it makes all around to vibrate. In this raauner they will frequently
sweep round the astonished traveller, like the whirlwind of the desert, threat,
cning instant destruction ; when of a sudden they will set up the most fear-
ful neigliing, wheel in an opposite course, and disappear in the ueiglibouring
wilderness. These immense troops do not always feed together, but are dis-
persed into smaller herds, when the cause of alarm which congregated them
has passed away.

In the province of Cumana there are great numbers of wild horses in the
torests. They go in companies generally to tlie extent of five or six hun-
dred, and even one thousand. They occupy the great savannas, where it is
dangerous to disturb or try to catch them. In the dry season, they are some-
times obliged to go two or three leagues, and even more, to find water. They
set out in regular ranks, four abreast, and thus form a procession extending
to a quarter of a league. Five or si.x scouts precede the troop by about fifty
paces. If they perceive a man, a puma, or a jaguar, they neigh, and the troop
stops ; if avoided, they continue their march ; but if any one dare to pass
across their squadron, they turn on him, and crush him under their feet. No
foe is capable of withstanding their attack. They liave a chief, who marches
between the scouts and the squadron — a kind of adjutant, whose duty con«
sists in liindering any individual from quitting the ranks. If any one at
tempts to straggle, cither from hunger or fali^'uc, he is bitten till he resumes
his place, and the culprit olieys with his head hanging down. Three or foiir

ANIMALS. 473

feiibive des»Mts of Africa, in Arabia, and those wide-spread cauri-
tries that separate Tartary from the more southern nations.
Vast droves of these animals are seen wild among the Tartars ;
they are of a small breed, extremely swift, and very readily evade
their pursuers. As they go together, they will not admit of any
strange animals among them, though even of their own kind.
Whenever they find a tame horse attempting to associate with
them, they instantly gather round him, and soon oblige him to
seek safety by tlight. There are vast numbers also of wild horses

cliiefs march, as the rear g'uard, at five or six pares from the troop. These
animals are impelled by a natural instinct, which hioks remarkably like rea-
son, to obey their leaders. They are sensible that their safety consists in
united force, and in maintaining subordination, — the first thing to be attend-
ed to, even by man himself.

The wild horses of America are generally chestnut, bay, sorrel, or black
colour. The latter, however, is not very common, and chestnut usually pre-
dominates, from which some authors suppose that to be the original hue of
che horse ; but we do not fiud it to be the prevailing colour of the Asiatic
wild breeds, bay-dun being the most common among these. The general
pace of the American horse is between a gallop and an amble.

When wild horses are feeding, should any stragglers be threatened with
an attack from the puma or jaguar, which are their principal enemies iu
America, by a particular signal, which they all understand, they close into a
dense mass, and trample their assailant to death, if he have the hardihood to
persist in his attack ; or, forming a circle, with the young and females in the
centre, defend themselves with their heels, and strike with such velocity and
force, that the most agile animal is incapable of overcoming them. When an
attack is resolved upon, their leader shows the example, and if he conBid<'r
a retreat necessary, he gives them the signal, which tliey take care to follow.

Captain Hall, in his Journey t> Peru and Mexico, gives the following
description of the manner in which the gaucUo, or native inhabitant of South
America, takes a wild horse : — He first mounts an animal which has beeif
accustomed to the sport, and gallopsovertlie plain, in the direction where thH
wild herd are, and, circling round, by degrees gets near to one of them, and
ai soon as he has approached sufficiently near, the lasso is thrown round the
two hind legs, and as the gaucho rides round a little on one side, the jerk
pulls the entangled horse's feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, with-
out endangering his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the
shock, the rider dismoiuits, and snatching his povc/io, or cloak, from his
shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate animal's head. He then forces into
his mouth one of the ponerful hrldles of the country, straps a saddle on his
back, and, bestriding liim, removes the poncho; upon which, the astonished
horse springs on his legs, and endeavours, by a thousand vain efforts, to dis-
encumber himself of his new master, who sits quite compo.sedly on his back,
and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete
obedience, that he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to
the capture of his companion,s.

2r3

m HISTORY OF

to the north of China, but they are of a weak, timid breed,
small of stature, and useless in war.

At the Cape of Good Hope there are numbers of horses in
a state of nature, but small, vicious, and untameable. They
are found wild also in several other parts of Africa ; but the
wretched inhabitants of that country either want the art to tame
them, or seem ignorant of their uses. It is common with the
negroes, who are carried over from thence to America, when
they fii'st see a horse, to testify both terror and surprise. These
poor men seem not to have any knowledge of such a creature ;
and, though the horse is probably a native of their own country,
they have let all the rest of mankind enjoy the benefit of his
services without turning them to any advantage at home. In
some parts of Africa, therefore, where the horse runs wild, the
natives seem to consider him rather in the light of a dainty for
food, than a useful creature, capable of assisting them either in
war or in labour -. riding seems a refinement that the natives of
Angola or Caffraria have not as yet been able to attend to ;
and whenever they catch a horse, it is only with an intent to eat
him.

But of all countries in the world, where the horse runs wild,
Arabia produces the most beautiful breed, the most generous,
swift, and persevering. They are found, though not in great
numbers, in the deserts of that countiy ; and the natives use
every stratagem to take them. Although they are active and
beautiful, yet they are not so large as those that are bred up
tame ; they are of a brown colour, their mane and tail very short,
and the hair black and tufted.' Their swiftness is incredible ;
the attempt to pursue them in the usual manner of the chase,
with dogs, would be entirely fruitless. Such is the rapidity of
their tiight, that they are instantly out of view, and the dogs
themselves give up the vain pursuit. The only method, there-
fore, of taking them, is by traps hidden in the sand, which en-
tangling their feet, the hunter at length comes up, and either
kills them, or carries them home alive. If the horse be young,
he is considered among the Arabians as a very great delicacy ;
and they feast upon him while any part is found remahiing : but
if, from his shape or vigour, he promises to be serviceable in his

1 Manu. Oosiiiipt. do rAfriqtio, lib. i. p, 51.

ANIMALS. 475

nnore noble capacity, tlicy take the usual methods of taming him,
by fatigue and hunger, and he soon becomes a useful domestic
animal.

The usual manner of trying their swiftness is by hunting the
ostrich : the horse is the only animal whose speed is comparable
to that of this creature, which is found in the sandy plains, with
which those countries abound. The instant the ostrich per
ceives itself aimed at, it makes to the mountains, while the
horseman pursues with all the swiftness possible, and endeavours
to cut off its retreat. The chase then continues along the plain,
while the ostrich makes use of both legs and wings to assist its
motion. However, a horse of the first speed is able to outrun
it ; so that the poor animal is then obliged to have recourse to
art to elude the hunter, by frequently turning : at length, finding
all escape hopeless, it hides its head wherever it can, and suffers
itself tamely to be taken. If the horse, in a trial of this kind,
shows great speed, and is not readily tired, his price becomes pro
jiortionably great, and there are some horses valued at a thousand
ducats.

Eut the horses thus caught, or trained in this manner, are at
present but very few : the value of Arabian horses all over the
world, has, in a great measure, thinned the deserts of the wild
breed ; and there are very few to be found in those countries,
except such as are tame. The Arabians, as we are told by his-
torians, first began the management of horses in the time ol
Shaque Ishmael. Before that, they wandered wild along the
face of the country neglected and useless ; but the natives then
first began to tame their fierceness, and to improve their beauty ;
so that at present they possess a race of the most beautiful horses
in the world, with which they drive a trade, and furnish the
stables of princes at immense prices.

There is scarcely an Arabian, how poor soever, but is pro-
vided with his horse.* They, in general, make use of mares in
their ordinary excursions ; experience having taught them that
they support fatigue, thirst, and hunger, better than the horses
are found to do. They are also less vicious, of a gentler nature,
and are not so apt to neigh. They are more harmless also
among themselves, not so apt to kick or hurt each other, but re»

2 Buffon.

47C HlSTOllY OF

main wliolo (Liys togxtbcr without tha least mischief. The
Turks, on the contrary, are not fond of mares ; and the Arabians
sell them such horses as they do not choose to keep for stallions
at home. They preserve the pedigree of their horses with great
care, and for several ages back. They know their alliances, and
all their genealogy ; they distinguish the races by different names,
and divide them into three classes. The first is that of tlte
nobles, the ancient breed, and unadulterated on either side ; the
second is that of the horses of the ancient racs, but adulter-
ated •, and the third is that of the common and inferior kind : the
last they sell at a low price ; but those of the first class, and even
of the second, amongst which are found horses of equal value to
the fornier, arc sold extremely dear. They know, by long ex-
perience, the race of a horse by his appearance ; they can tell
the name, the surname, the colour, and the marks properly be-
longing to each. When they are not possessed of stallions of
the noble race themselves, for their mares, they borrow from
their neighbours, paying a proper price, as with us, and
receive a written attestation of tlie whole. In this attestation
is contained the name of the horse and the mare, and their re-
spective genealogies. When the mare has produced her foal,
new witnesses are called, and a new attestation signed, in which
are described the marks of the foal, and the day noted wlien it
was brought forth. These attestations increase the value of the
horse ; and they are given to the person who buys him. The
most ordinary mare of this race sells for five hundred crowns ;
there are many that sell for a thousand ; and some of the very
'inest kinds for fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds. As the

"Arabians have no other house but a tent to live in, this also
serves them for a stable ; so that the mare, the foal, the hus-
band, the wife, and the children, lie all together indiscriminately ;
the little children are often seen upon the body or the neck of
the mare, while these continue inoffensive and harmless, permit-
ting them thus to play with and caress them without any injury.
The Arabians never beat their horses : they treat them gently ;
they speak to them, and seem to hold a discourse ; they use them
as friends ; they never attempt to increase their speed by the

whip, nor spur them, but in cases of necessity. However, wlien
this happens, they set off with amazing swiftness ; they leap over
obstacles with as much agility as a buck ; and if the rider hap-

ANIMALS. i??

pens to fall, they are so manageable that they stand still in the
midst of their most rapid career. The Arabian horses are of a
middle size, easy in their motions, and rather inclined to leanness
thaii fat They are regularly dressed every morning and even-
ing, and with such care that the smallest roughness is not left
upon their skins. They wash the legs, the mane, and the tail,
which they never cut ; and which they seldom comb, lest they
should thin the hair. They give them nothing to eat during the
day ; they only give them to drink once or twice ; and at sun-set
they hang a bag to their heads in which there is about half a
bushel of clean barley. They continue eating the whole night, and
the bag is again taken away the next morning. They are tiu-ned
out to pasture in the beginning of March, when the grass is
pretty high, and at which time the mares are given to the stal-
lion. When the spring is past, they take them again from pas-
ture, and they get neither grass nor hay during the rest of the
year; barley is their only food, except now and then a little
straw. The mane of the foal is clipped when about a year or
eighteen months old, in order to make it stronger and thicker.
They begin to break them at two years old, or two years and
a half at farthest ; they never saddle nor bridle them till at that
age ; and then they are always kept ready saddled at the door of
the tent, from morning till sun.set, in order to be prepared against
any surprise. They at present seem sensible of the great advan-
tage their horses are to the country; there is a law, therefore, that
prohibits the exportation of the mares ; and such stallions as are
brought into England are generally purchased on the eastern
shores of Africa, and come round to us by the Cape of Good
Hope. They are in general less in stature than our own, being
not above fourteen, or fourteen hands and a half high : their mo-
tions are much more graceful and swifter than of our own
horses ; but nevertheless, their speed is far from being equal ;
they run higher from the ground ; their stroke is not so long
and close ; and they are far inferior in bottom. Still, however,
they must be considered as the first and finest breed in the world,
and that from which all others have derived their principal quali-
fications. It is even probable that Arabia is the original coun-
try of horses ; since there, instead of crossing the breed, they
take every precaution to keep it entire. In other countries they
must continually change the races, or their horses would soon

478 HISTOXIY OF

degenerate ; but there the same blood has passed down through
a long succession, without any diminution either of force or
beauty.

The race of Arabian horses has spread itself into Barbary,
among the Moors,* and has even extended across that exten-
sive continent to the western shores of Africa. Among the
negroes of Gambia and Senegal, the chiefs of the countrj
are possessed of horses, which, though little, are very beautiful,
and extremely manageable. Instead of barley, they are fed in
those countries with maise bruised and reduced into meal, and
mixed up with milk when they design to fatten them. These
are considered as next to the Arabian horses, both for swiftness
and beauty; but they are still rather smaller than the former. The
Italians have a peculiar sport, in which horses of this breed run
against each ether. They have no riders, but saddles so formed

* The present horses of Morocco are a race nearly allied to the Arabian,
and have been produced by a cross «ith those of Algiers, wliich are supposed
to have had their origin in a south European breed, crossed with the Arabian.
They are somewhat larger than the Arabian, with fine heads and crests, and,
in general, well formed about tlie shoulder, str;iif;ht back*, and droop con-
si<5erably towards tlie haunches. They are exceedingly .-.wift. As none of
them are geldings, tliey are possessed of great spirit, and are naturally fiery
in their dispositions. The forehead of the Barb is generally long and slender,
and his mane rather scanty ; his ears are small, beautifully shaped, and placed
in such a manner as to give him great expression ; his shoulders are light,
Hat, and sloping backwards ; withers fine, and standing high ; loins short
and straight ; flanks and ribs round and full, without giving him too large a
belly; his haunches strong and elastic; the croup i« sometimes long to a
' fault ; the tail is placed high ; thighs well turned and rounded ; legs clean,
beautifully formed, and the hair thin, short, and silky ; the tendons are de.
tached from the bone ; but the pasterns are often too long, and bending ; the
feet rather small, but in general sound. The Moors being still unacquainted
with the use of the ring, are, therefore, obliged to commence breaking their
horses when very young, by taking them long and fatiguing journeys, moro
especially over the mountainous and rocky parts of the country, in which
tliey soim reduce their natural ardour. They next teach them to rear ur>,
stand fire, gallop, and stop short, almost instantaneously; and having ob.
tained these, they are satisfied, without any farther quallRcation. For this
reason, a Barbary horse seldom can perform any other pace than a gallop, or
a walk ; and from being broken in, and worked hard, before they have ar-
rived at their full strength, these horses, in a very few years, become unfit
for service. The Moors seldom ride mares, but keep them in the country for
breeding ; and, like other eastern nations, contrary to the general opinion in
lOuropc, they consiLiei- them so much more valuable thau horses, that they
are never permitted to be exported.

ANIMALS. 479

as to flap against tiie liors.s' sides as they move, and thus to spur
them forward. They are set to run in a kind of railed walk,
about a mile long, out of which they never attempt to escape ;
but when they once set forward, they never stop, although the
walk from one end to the other is covered with a crowd of
spectators, which opens and gives way as the horses approach.
Our horses would scarcely, in this manner, face a crowd, and
continue their speed without a rider, through the midst of a
multitude ; and indeed it is a little surprising how in such a
place the horses find their own way. However, what our Eng-
lish horses may want in sagacity, they make up by their swift-
ness ; and it has been found upon computation, that their speed
is nearly one-fourth greater, even carrying a rider, than that of
the swiftest Barb without one.

The Arabian breed has been diffused into Egypt as well as
Barbary, and into Persia also ; where as we are told by Marcus
Paulus, there are studs of ten thousand white mares all together
very fleet, and with the hoof so hard that shoeing is unnecessary.*
In these countries, they in general give their horses the same treat-
ment that they give in Arabia, except that they litter them upon a bed
of their own dung, dried in the sun, and then reduced to powder.

« Persia, from the remotest 8^63, has been famous for iU horses ; acd at
the present day they are excelled only by the Arabian breed. The former
were, however in high estimation long before the latter existed. They were
the best cavalry in ancient times, amongst all the eastern nations. We are
informed by historians that Alexander the Great considered a Persian horse
as a gift of the highest value ; it was one which he only bestowed on po-
tentates, and favourites of the first class. Sir John Malcolm says,—" A va-
riety of horses are produced in Persia. The inhabitants of the districts
which border on the Gulf, still preserve pure those races of animals, which
their ancestors brought from the opposite shore of Arabfa. In Fars and Irak,
they have a mixed breed from the Arabian, which, though stronger, is still a
small horse, compared with either the Toorkoman or Khorassan breed,
which are most prized by the soldiers of Persia. Both these latter races have
also a great proportion of Arabian blood. The price of horses in Persia varies
extremely. The common horse is always to be purchased for from fifteen to
forty pounds ; fine horses, particul^irly of the Toorkoman or Khorassan
breed, are, in general, very dear ; a hundred pounds is a common price, and
sometimes a much larger sum is paid. They are often valued more from
their breed than their appearance." In some points the Persian horse excels
the Arabian. The head is nearly as beautiful, the crupper superior, and the
whole frame more developed : the neck is beautifully arched ; and the ani.
mat possesses much fire. They are about equal in speed ; but the Arabian
In capable of longer endurance.

480

HISTORY OF

When this, which is spread under the horse about five iiichos
thick, is moistened, they dry it again, and spread it as be-
fore. The horses of these countries a good deal resemble
each other. They are usually of a slender make ; their leg fine,
bony, and far apart ; a thin mane ; a fine crest ; a beautiful head ;
the ear small and ■well pointed j the shoulder thin ; the side
rounded, without any unsightly prominence ; the croup is a
little of the longest, and the tail is generally set high. The race
of horses, however, is much degenerated in Numidia ; the na-
tives having been discouraged from keeping the breed up by
the Turks, who seize upon all the good horses, without paying
the owners the smallest gratuity for their care in bringing them
up. The Tingitanians and Egyptians have now, therefore, the
fame of rearing the finest horses, both for size and beauty. The
smallest of these last are usually sixteen hands high ; and all of
them shaped, as they express it, with the elegance of an ante-
lope.

Next to the Barb, travellers generally rank the Spanish ge-
nette. These horses like the former, are little, but extremely
swift and beautiful. The head is something of the largest ; the
mane thick : the ears long, but well pointed : the eyes filled with
fire ; the shoulder thickish, and the breast full and large. The
croup round and large ; the legs beautiful, and without hair ;
the pastern a little of the longest, as in the Barb, and the hoof
rather too high. Nevertheless, they move with great ease, and
carry themselves extremely well. Their most usual colour is
black, or a dark bay. They seldom or never have white legs,
or white snip. The Spaniards, who have a groundless aversion
to these marks, never breed from such as have them. They are
all branded on the buttock with the owner's name ; and those of
the province of Andalusia pass for the best. These are said to
possess courage, obedience, grace, and spirit, in a greater degre"
than even the Barb ; and for this reason they have been prefer-
red as war-horses to those of any other country. *

• Spain was early celebrated for a breed of fine horses. These took tlieir
rise In the Moorish horse, or Barb, at the time the greater part of the penin-
sula was under the subjection of the Moore. When the Roman empire was
at its height, the horses of Calpe were in higher repute than any otlier Eu.
ropean breed. Calpe, the modern Gibraltar, is situated at nearly the south,
west extremity of Spain; consequently, nearly opposite to Abyla, on the

ANIMALS. 4'81

The Italian horses were once more beautiful than they are at
present, for they have greatly neglected the breed. Nevertheless,
there are still found some beautiful horses among them, particu-
larly among the Neapolitans, who chietly use them for the
draught. In general, they have large heads and thick necks. They
are also restive, and consequently unmanageable. These faidts,
however, are recompensed by the largeness of their size, by
their spirit, and the beauty of their motion. They are excellent
for show, and have a peculiar aptitude to prance.

The Danish horses are of such an excellent size, and so strong
a make, that they are prefeiTed to all others ior the draught.
There are some of them perfectly well shaped ; but this is but
seldom seen, for in general they are found to have a thick neck,
heavy shoulders, long and hollow back, and a narrow croup :
however, they all move well, and are found excellent both for
parade and war. They are of all colours, and often of whimsi-
cal ones, some being streaked like the tiger, or mottled like the
leopard.

The GeiTTian horses are originally from Arabian and Barbary
stocks : nevertheless, they appear to be small and ill-shaped : it
is said also, that they are weak and washy, with tender hoofs.
The Hungarian horses, on the other hand, are excellent for the
draught, as well as the saddle. The Hussars, who use them in
war, usually slit their nostrils ; which is done, as it is said,
to prevent their neighing, but, perhaps, without any real foun-
dation.

The Dutch breed is good for the draught, and is generally
used for that pnrjiose over Europe : the best come from the
province of Friezlaiid. The Flanders' horses are much inferior
to the former ; they have most commonly large heads, flat feet,
and swollen legs ; which are an essential blemish in horses of
this kind.

The French horses are of various kinds ; but they have few
that are good. The best horses of that country come from
Limosiii ; they have a strong resemblance to the Barb, and, like
them, they are excellent for the chase ; but they are slow in com-
ing to perfection ; they are to be carefully treated while young,

Barbary coast, and from tliem-e they received their horses ; hence the orijjio
of tlie gpnette~.

2s

482 HISTORY OF

and must not be backed till they are eight years old. Normandy
furnishes the next best ; which, though not so good for the chase, are
yet better for war. In general, the French horses have the fault
of being heavy- shouldered, which is opposite to the fault of the
Barb, which is too thin in the shoulder, and is consequently ajJt
to be shoulder-slipt.*

Having mentioned the horses most usually known in Europe,
we pass on to those of more distant countries, of whose horses
we can only judge by report We mentioned the wild horses of
America. Such as are tame, if we may credit the latest reports,'
are admirable. Great numbers of these are bred up to the
chase, and are chiefly kept for this pui-pose, particulaily at Quito.
The hunters, as UUoa informs us, are divided into two classes ;
one part on foot, the other on horseback : the business of the
footmen is to rouse the deer ; and that of the horsemen, to hunt
it down. They all, at break of day, repair to the place ap-
pointed, which is generally on the summit of a hill, with every

* France, from its great extent, contains various breeds of horses ; and a!,
thiiugli much attention has been paid to improving the different races, the
I'xpi-rimeut has not been attended with full success. The late Emperor Na-
poleon was extremely anxious that his horses might cope with those of Eng^-
laiid, and used every means to procure some of our best blood ones, as well
as Arabians. Of late years, many steeds of racing blood have been sold to
the French, and some of tne nobility have hired persons from England ac-
quainted with breeding ; but all their eft'orts to produce horses equal to ours
for beauty, tieetness, and strength, have proved abcjrtive. There are various
excellent and serviceable breeds in different provinces; those of Normandy
have long been celebrated as carriage and troop horses. During the late war,
this province was agreat nursery for the cavalry. The Norman horses are tall
and strong boned ; with considerable spirit, and at tiie same time docile in
their habits. After the Norman conquest, William being sensible of the su
periority of this breed, imported many of them into England, and by crossing
ttiem with our native breeds, produced good troop horses and roadsters.
The best hackneys in France are bred in Limousin ; they are closely allied to
the Spanish breed, and have in all probability sprung from them. They are
also, from their spirit, well calculated for hunters, in which capacity they ac-
quit theinselves better than any others of the French stock ; but a great draw-
back is, that they do not arrive at their full strength, till they are eight years
if age. Auvergne, Poitou, and Burgundy, produce good punies, called bidets.
These horses are better adapted than the Norman steeds, for hunting; but
can by no means cope with those of Britain. Oood horses for the draught
are produced at Boulonnois and Tranche Comte. Bretagne, Auot, Navarre,
fiC, produce good saddle horses, though by no means to be compared to
those of Limousin, for speed and action, or to the Norman lor strength.
1 UUoa's Voyage, vol. i. p, 464

ANIMALS. 483

man Lis greyhound. The horsemen place themselves on the
highest pciiks ; whilst those on foot range the precipices, mak-
ing a hideous noise, in order to start the deer. Thus the com-
pany extend themselves three or four leagues, or more, accord-
ing to their numbers. On starting any game, the horse which first
jjtrceives it sets off, and the rider, being unable to guide or
stop him, pursues the chase, sometimes down such a steep slope,
that a man on foot, with the greatest care, could hardly keep his
legs ; from thence he flies up a dangerous ascent, or along the
side of a mountain; so that a person not used to this exercise would
think it much safer to throw himself out of the saddle, than com-
mit hisHfe to the precipitate ardour of his horse. The other horses
which join in the chase do not wait for the riders to animate
them ; they set forward immediately upon seeing another at full
speed ; and it becomes prudence in the rider to give them their
■way, and at the same time to let them feel the spur, to carry him
over the precipices. These horses are backed and exercised to
this method of hunting; and their usual pace is trotting.

There are said to be very good horses in the islands of the
Archipelago. Those of Crete were in great reputation among
the ancients for their swiftness and force ; however, at present
they are but little used, even in the country itself, because of the
unevenness of the ground, which is there very rocky and moun-
tainous. The original horses of Morocco are much smaller than
the Arabian breed ; however, they are very suift and vigorous. In
Turkey there are to be found horses of almost all races : Ara-
bian, Tartars, Hungarians, and those natural to the place. The
latter are very beautiful and elegant ; they have a great deal of
fire, swiftness, and management ; but they are not able to sup-
port fatigue : they eat little ; they are easily heated ; and they
have skins so sensible, that they can scarcely bear the rubbing
of the stirrup. The Persian horses are, in general, the most
beautiful and most valuable of all the East. The pastures in the
plains of Jledia, Persepolis, Ardebil, and Derbent, are excel-
lent for the purpose of rearing them •, and there were bred in
those places vast numbers, by order of the government of Per-
sia, while that country was under any government. Pietro della
Valle prefers the horses of Persia to those of Italy; and in-
forms us, that they are in general of a middle size ; and althou"h
some are found even of the smallest stature, vet that does not

2 s 2

481 HISTOBT OF

impair their beauty or their strength ; yet, in some places, they
are found of a very good size, and as large as the English saddle-
horses are generally found to be : they have all a thin head, a
fine crest, a narrow breast, small ears well placed, the legs fine,
the hoof hard, and the croup beautiful ; they are docile, spirited,
nimble, hardy, courageous, and capable of supporting very great
fatigue ; they run very swiftly, without being easily fatigued ;
they are strong, and easily nourished, being only supplied with
jarley and chopped straw ; they are put to grass only for six
weeks in the spring; they have always the tail at full length,
and there is no such thing as geldings among the number ; they
are defended from the air, as in England, by body-cloths ; they
attend them with the most punctual exactness ; and they are rid
generally in a snaffle, without spurs. Great numbers of these
are every year transported into Turkey, but chiefly into the
East Indies : however, after all, travellers agree that they are
not to be compared to the Arabian horses, either for courage,
force, or beauty ; and that the latter are eagerly sought, even in
Persia.

The horses of India are of a very indifferent kind, being weak
and washy.* Those which are used by the grandees of the
country come from Persia and Arabia; they are fed with a
small quantity of hay during the day ; and at night they have
boiled peas, mixed with sugar and butter, instead of oats or bar-
ley : this nourishment supports them, and gives them strength ;
otherwise they would soon sink and degenerate. Those natu-
rally belonging to the country, are very small and vicious. Some
are so very little, that Taverner reports, that the young Mogul
prince, at the age of seven or eight, rode one of those little
horses, that was not much larger than a greyhound : and it is
not long since one of these was brought over into this country
as a present to our Queen, that measures no more than nine

• The climate of India does not seem favourable to the horse. The breeds
which may be termed native, or such as have been in use from time iramemori-
bI, are weak and deg^enerate. It is found necessary, in order to keep up a good
!>l()ck, to have horses introduced from foreign countries. The breed called
the Tazee is, perhaps, of the older kind ; they are of a slight make, with long
liollow backa, tlieir limbs placed ill below them, and are weak, spiritless ani.
iiials, while they are extremely irritable and stubborn. The only redeeming
quality is the easiness of their paces, wliich, in a country where the heat is
oppressive, 15 matter of uo small consideration.

ANIMALS. 485

hands high ; and is not much larger than a common mastilT. It
would seem, that climates excessively hot are unfavourable to ■
this animal. In this manner, the horses of the Gold- Coast, and
of Guinea, are extremely little, but very manageable. It is a
common exercise with the grandees of that countiy, who are
excellent horsemen, to dart out their lances before them upon
full gallop, and to catch them again before they come to the
ground. They have a sport also on horseback that requires
great dexterity in the rider, and a great share of activity in the
horse ; they strike off a ball, with a battledore, while they are
upon a full gallop, and pursuing it, strike it again before it comes
to the ground ; and this they continue for a mile together, strik-
ing sometimes to the right, and sometimes to the left, with
amazing speed and agility.

The horses of China are as indifferent as those of India -. they
are weak, little, ill-shaped, and cowardly. Those of Corea ai'e
not above three feet high ; almost all the breed there are
made geldings, and are so timorous, that they can be rendered
no way serviceable in war ; so that it may be said, that the Tar-
tar horses were properly the conquerors of China. These, in-
deed, are very serviceable in war, and although but of a middle
size, yet they are surprisingly patient, vigorous, swift, and bold ;
their hoofs are extremely hard, though rather too narrow ; their
heads are fine, but rather too little; the neck is long and stiff;
the legs of the longest ; and yet, with all these faults, they are
foutid to be an excellent breed. The Tartars live with their horses
pretty much in the same manner as the Arabians do ; they begin
to back them at the age of seven or eight months, placing their
children upon them, who manage them even at that early age.
By these means they break them by little and little, till at last
about the age of six or seven years, they are capable of enduring
amazing hardships. Thus they have been known to march two or
three days without once stopping ; to continue five or sLx, with-
out eating any thing except a handful of grass at every eight
hours ; and, besides, to remain without drinking for four and
twenty hours. Those horses, which are so vigorous in their own
country, lose all their strength when they are brought into China
or the Indies ; but they thrive pretty well in Persia, and Turkey.
The race of little Tartars towards the north have also a breed of
little horses, which they set such a value upon, that it is forbid-

iJ 6 3

iSG HISTORY OF

den to sell them to strangers : these horses have the very same
qualities with those of the larger kind ; which they probably de-
rive from a similar treatment. There are also very tine horses
in Circassia and Mingrelia. There are some greatly esteemed
in the Ukraine, in Walachia, Poland, and Sweden ; but we have
no particular accounts of their excellencies or defects.

If we consult the ancients on the nature and qualities of the
horses of different countries, we learn that the Grecian horses,
and particularly those of Thessaly, had the reputation of being
excellent for war ; that those of Achaia were the largest that
were known ; that the most beautiful came from Egypt, which
bred great numbers ; that the horses of Ethiopia were not in
esteem, from the heat of the country ; that Arabia and
Africa furnished very beautiful horses, and very fit for the
course ; that those of Italy, and particularly of Apulia, were
very good; that in Sicily, Cappadocia, Syria, Armenia, Media,
and Persia, there were excellent horses, equally esteemed for
their speed and vigour ; that those of Sardinia and Corsica,
though small, were spirited and courageous ; that those of Spain
resembled the Parthian horses, in being very well adapted for
war; that in Walachia and Transylvania, there were horses
with bushy tails, and manes hanging down to the ground, which,
nevertheless, were extremely swift and active ; that the Danish
horses were good leapers ; those of Scandinavia, though little,
were well shaped, and possessed of great agility ; that the Flan-
ders' breed was strong ; that the Gaulish horses were good
for carrying burdens ; that German breeds were so bad, so
diminutive, and ill-shaped, that no use could be made of them ;
that the Swiss and Hungarian horses were good ; and, lastly,
that those of India were very diminutive and feeble.

Such are the different accounts we have of the various races
of horses in different parts of the world. I have hitherto omitted
making mention of one particular breed more excellent than any
that either the ancients or moderns have produced ; and that is
our own. It is not without great assiduity and unceasing appli-
cation, that the English horses are now become superior to those
of any other part of the world, for size, strength, swiftness, and
beauty. It was not without great attention, and repeated trials
of all the best horses in different parts of the world, that we have
been thus successful in improving the breed of this animal ; sc

ANIMALS.

487

that the English horses are now capable of performing what no
others ever could attain to. By a judicious mixture of the se-
veral kinds, by the happy difference of our soils, and by our su-
perior skill in management, we have brought this animal to its
iiighest perfection. An English horse, therefore, is now known
to excel the Arabian in size and swiftness, to be more durable
than the Barb, and more hardy than the Persian. An ordinary
racer is known to go at the rate of a mile in two minutes -. and
we had one instance, in the admirable Cliilders, of still greater
rapidity. He has been frequently known to move above eight}-
two feet and a half in a second, or almost a mile in a minute •
he has also run round the course of Newmarket, which is very
little less than four miles, in six minutes and forty seconds.
But what is surprising, few horses have been since found that
ever could equal him ; and those of his breed have been remark-
ably deficient.*

However this be, no horses can anyway equal our own, either
in point of swiftness or strength ; and these are the qualifications
our horsemen seem chiefly to value. For this reason, when the

• This norse was well known by the name of the Flying, or Devonshire,
Childers. He was the property of the Duke of Devonshire, and allowed by
sportsmen to be the fleetest horse that ever was bred in the world. He start-
ed repeatedly at Newmarket against the best horses of his time, and was
never beaten. He won in different prizes, to the amount of nearly £iO,000,
and was afterwards reserved for breeding. The sire of Childers was an Ara-
bian, sent by a gentleman as a present to his brother in England. Childers
wa-s somewhat more than fifteen hands in height. He was foaled in 1715,
and was the property of I,eonard Childers, Esq. of Carr House, near Don
(.•aster, and sold when young to the Duke of Devonshire.

It is said that Childers was first used as a hunter, where he evinced high
qualities, and was noted for being very headstrong, as well as vicious. He
had not however any restiveness. It is supposed his racing career com-
menced at five or six, and he beat all competitors at whatever distance. He
was never tried at running a single mile, but his speed must have been almost
a mile in a minute. He ran over the Beacon course, which is four miles, one
fnrlong, and one hundred and thirty.eight yards, in seven minutes and thirty
seconds ; covering at every bound a space of about twenty-five feet. On
one occasion he made a spring or leap, with his rider on his back, on level
ground, of twenty-five feet. Childers died in the Duke of Devonshire's stud
ill I7H, aged twenty-six years. There were various other coursers of the
same name nearly cotemporary with this prince of horses. Bleeding Childers,
Ml named from his having frequent bleedings at the nose, afterwards called
Young Childers, and finally Bartletfa Childers : he was full brother to Fly-
ing Childers, and was never tr^ned.

488 HISTORY OF

PVencb, or other foreigners, describe our breed, they all mention,
as a fault, the awkward and ungainly motion of our horses ;
they allow them to be very good, indeed, but they will not grant
them an easy or an elegant carriage.' But these writers do not
consider that this seeming want of grace is entirely the
result of our manner of breaking them. We consult only
speed and despatch in this animal's motions -. the French and
other nations are more anxious for parade and spirit. For
this reason, we always throw our horses forward, while they
put them upon their haunches : we give them an easy swift
gait of going, that covers a great deal of ground, they on the
contrary, throw them back, giving them a more sho«y appear-
ance indeed, but one infinitely less useful. The fault of our
manner of breaking is, that the horse is sometimes apt to fall
forward ; the French managed-horse never falls before, but more
usually on one side : and for this reason the rider wears stiff
boots to guard his legs against such accidents. However, it
would be a very easy matter to give our horses all that grace
which foreigners are so fond of; but it would certainly take
from their swiftness and durability.

But in what degree of contempt soever, foreigners might
formerly have held our horses, they have for some time perceiv-
ed their error, and our English hunters are considered as the
noblest and the most useful horses in the world. Our geldings
are, therefore, sent over to the continent in great numbers, and
sell at very great prices ; as for our mares and stallions, there is
a law prohibiting their exportation ; and one similar to this is
said to have obtained even as early as the times of Athelstan,
who prohibited their exportation, except where designed as
presents.

Roger de Belegme, created Earl of Shrewsbury by William
the Conqueror,^ is the first who is recorded to have made at-
tempts towards the mending our native breed. He introduced
Spanish stallions into his estate at Powisland in Wales, from
which that part of the country was for many ages after famous
for a swift and generous race of horses : however, at that time

1 See Buffon's account of our horses.
2 British Zoology, vol. i. p. i. To this work I ara indebted for several
particulars with regard tu the native animals of this island.

ANIMALS. 489

Strength and swiftness were more regarded than teaiity; the
horses' shapes, in time of action, being entirely hid by a coat of
armour which the knights then usually put upon them either
by way of ornament or defence.

The number of our horses in London alone, in the time of
king Stephen, is said to have amounted to twenty thousand.
However, long after, in the times of queen Elizabeth, the whole
kingdom could not supply two thousand horses to form our ca-
valry. At present, the former numbers seem revived, so that in
the late war, we furnished out above thirteen thousand horsemen ;
and could, if hard pushed, supply above four times that number.
How far this great increase of horses among us may be benefi-
cial or otherwise, is not the proper business of the present page
to discuss ; but certain it is, that where horses increase in too
great a degree, men must diminish proportionably ; as that food
which goes to supply the one, might very easily be converted in-
to nourishment to serve the other. But, perhaps, it may be
speculating too remotely, to argue for the diminution of their
numbers upon this principle, since every manufacture we export
into other countries, takes up room, and may have occupied that
place, which in a state of greater simplicity, might have given
birth and subsistence to mankind, and have added to popu-
lation.*

* The earliest record of the horse in Great Britain is contained in tlie his-
tory given by Julius Caesar of his invasion of our island. The British army
was accompanied by numerous war chariots, drawn by horses. Short scythes
were fastened to the ends of the axletrees, sweeping- down every thing be-
fore them, and carrying terror and devastation into the ranks of their enemies.
The conqueror gives a most animated description of the dexterity with which
the liorses were managed. What kind of horse the Britons then possessed,
it would be useless to iuquire ; but, from the cumbrous structure of the car,
and the fury with which it was driven, and from tlie badness or nonexistence
of the roads, they must liave been both active and powerful in an extraordi-
nary degree. Caesar deemed them so valuable, that he carried many of them
to Rome, and the British horses were, for a considerable period aftern ards,
■n great request in various parts of the Roman empire. Horses must at that
time liave been exceedingly numerous in Britain, for we are told that when
the British king, Cassibellaunus, dismissed the main body of his .-.rmy. he re-
tained four thousand of his war chariots for the purpose of harrassing the
Romans, when they attempted to forage.

'I'he British horse now received its first cross; bnt whether the breed was
thereby improved cannot be ascertained. The Homana having established
themselves in BriUiin, found it necessary to send over a numerous body of
cavalry to maintain a chain of posts and cluck the frequent insurrections of

490 HISTORY OF

Be this as it will, as we have been at such expense and trouole
to procure an excellent breed of horses, it is not now to be ex-
pected that we should decline the advantages arising from it, just
when in our possession. It may be therefore the most prudent

the natives. The Roman horses would breed with those of the country, and,
to a greater or less extent, change their character ; and from this time,
the English horse would consist of a compound of the native and those from
Gaul, Italy, Spain, and every province from which tlie Roman cavalry was
supplied. Many centuries afterwards passed by, and we have no record of
the character or value, improvement or deterioration, of the animal.

It would appear probable, however, that Athelstan, the natural son of
Alfred the Great, and the second in succession to him, paid some attention to
the improvement of the horse ; for having subdued all the rebellious por-
tions of the heptarchy, he was congratulated on his success by some of the
continental princes, and received from Hugh Capet of France, who solicited
his sister in marriage, various presents doubtless of a nature that would ho
thought most acceptable to him, and among them several German nmning
horses. Hence our breed received another cross, and probably an improve-
merit.

Athelstan seems to have seriously devoted himself to this important ob-
ject, for he soon afterwards decreed (a. d. 930) that no horses should be sent
abroad for sale, or on any account, except as royal presents. This proves his
anxiety to preserve the breed, and likewise renders it probable that that
breed was beginning to be esteemed by our neighbours. In a document
bearing date a.d. 1000, we have an interesting account of the relative value
of the horse. If a horse was destroyed, or negligently lost, the compensation
to be demanded was thirty shillings ; a mare or colt twenty shillings ; a
mule or young ass, twelve shilUngs ; an ox thirty pence ; a cow, twenty-
four pence ; a pig eightpence ; and, it strangely follows, a man one pound.*

In the laws of Howell the Good, Prince of Wales, and passed a little before
this time, there are some curious particulars respecting the value and sale
of horses. The value of a foal not fourteen days old is fixed at fourpence ;
at one year and a day it is estimated at forty-eight pence ; and at three years
sixty pence. It was then to be tamed with the bridle, and brought up either
as a palfrey or & serving horse; when its value became one hundred and
twenty pence ; and that of a wild or unbroken mare, sixty pence.

Even in those early days, the frauds of dealers were too notorious, and the
following singul.ir regulations were established. The buyer was allowed
time to ascertain whether the horse were free from three diseases. He had
three nights to prove him for the staggers ; three months to prove the sound-
ness of his lungs; and one year to ascertain whether he was infected with
glanders. For every blemish discovered after the purchase.one third of the
money wa» to be returned, except it should be a blemish of the ears or tail.

The practise of letting horses for hire was then known, and then, as now,

* According to the Anglo-Saxon computation, fnrty-eight shillings made
a pound, equal in silver to about three pounds of our present money, in
value to tittten or sixteen pounds, and five pence made one slUUing.

ANiaiAi.s. 491

measure in our legislature, to encourage the breed as a useful
branch of commerce, and a natural defence to the country. But
how far this end is answered by the breeding up of racers, is what
most persons, versed in this subject, are very apt to question.

the services of the poor hack were too brutally exacted. The benevolent
Howell disdains not to legislate for the protecSion of this abused, and valu.
able servant. " Whoever shall borrow a horse, and rub the hair so as to
gall the back, shall pay fourpence; if the skin is forced into the flesh, eight-
pence ; if the flesh be forced into the bone, sixteen pence.

One circumstance deserves to be remarked, that in none of the earliest
historical records of the Anglo-Saxons or the^Velsh, is there any allusion to
the use of the horse for the plough. Until a comparatively recent period,
oxen alone were used in England, as in other countries, for this purpose ;
but about this time (the latter part of the tenth century) some innovation on
this point was creeping in, and, therefore, a Welsh law forbids the farmer to
plough with horses, mares, or cows, but with oxen alone. On one of the
pieces of tapestry woven at Bayonne in the time of William the Conqueror,
(a. d. 1066) there is the figure of a man driving a horse attached to a harrow.
This is the earliest notice we have of the use of the horse in tield-labour.

With William the Conqueror came a marked improvement in the British
horse. To his superiority in cavalry this prince was chiefly indebted for the
victory of Hastings. The favourite charger of William was a Spaniard. His
followers, both the banms and the common soldiers, came principally from a
country in which agriculture had made more rapid progress than in Eng-
land. A very considerable portion of the kingdom was divided among these
men ; and it cannot be doubted that, however unjust was the usurpation of
the Norman, England benefited in its husbandry, and particularly in its
horses, by the change of masters. Some of the barons, and particularly Roger
de Boulogne, earl of Shrewsbury, introduced the Spanish horse, on their
newly acquired estates. The historians of these times, however, principally
monks, knowing nothing about horses, give us very little information on tho
Bulyect.

In the reign of Henry I. (a. d. H21) the first Arabian horse, or, at least,
the first on record, was introduced. Alexander I., king of Scotland, pre-
Bented to the church of St Andrews, an Arabian horse, with costly furni-
ture, Turkish armour, many valuable trinkets, and a considerable estate.

Forty years afterwards, in the reign of Henry U., Sinithlield was cele-
brated as a horse-market Fitz-Stephen, who lived at that time, gives the
following animated account of the manner in which the hackneys and chiirg.
ing.steeds were tried there, by racing against one another. " When a race
is to be run by this sort of horses, and perhaps by others, which also in their
kind are strong and fleet, a shout is immediately raised, and the common
horses are ordered to withdraw out of the way. 'i'hree jockeys, or some,
times only two, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest.
The horses on their part are not without emulation ; they tremble and are
impatient, and are continually in motion. At last, the signal once given, they
start, devour the course, and hurry along with unremitting swiftness. The
lockcys, inspired with the thought of applause, and the hope of victory, clap
epiirs to their willing horses, brandish th"ir whins, and cheer thorn witU

4^2 HISTORY OF

They assert, that the running-horse, as the breed has been for
a long time refined, is unfit for any other service than that of the

course, being too slight either for the road, the chase, or the combat ;

and his joints so delicately united, as to render him subject to

their cries." This description reminds us of tlie more lengthened races of the
present day, and proves the blood of the English horse, even before the
Eastern breed was tried.

Close on this followed the Crusades. The champions of the Cross certainly
had it in their power to enrich their native country with some of the choicest
specimens of Eastern horses, but they were completely under the influence
of superstition and fanaticisnf, and common sense and usefulness were for.
gotten.

The war-steed was defended by mail or plate, much on the plan of the
harness of the knight himself. His head was ornamented with a crest. The
head, chest, and flanks, were wholly or partially protected ; and sometimes
he was clad in complete steel, with the arms of his master engraved or era.
bossed on his bardings. The bridle of the liorse vvas always as splendid as
the circumstances of the knight allowed, and thu?a horse was often called
Brigliadore, from briglia d'oro, a bridle of gold. Bells were a very favourite
addition to the equipment of the horse. The old-Troubadour, Arnold of Mar.
son, says, that *^ nothing is so proper to inspire confidence in a knight, and
terror in an enemy."

To King John, hateful as he «'as in all other respects, we are yet much in.
dehted for the attention which he paid to agriculture generally, and particu.
larly to improving the breed of horses. He imported one hundred chosen
stallions of the Flanders kind, and thus mainly contributed to prepare our
noble species of draught horses, as unrivalled as the horses of the turf.

One hundred years afterwards, Edward H. purchased thirty Lombardy
war-horses, and twelve heavy draught-horses. Lombardy, Italy, and Spain,
were the countries whence the greater part of Europe was then supplied
with the most valuable cavalry or parade horses. Horses for agricultural
purposes were chiefly procured from Flanders.

Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty Spanish
horses ; and of such importance did he conceive this addition to the English,
or rather mingled blood, then existing, that formal application was made ti>
the kings of France and Spain to grant safe conduct to the troop. When
they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was computed that they had cost
the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shillings and eightpenca
per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds of our present
money.

This monarch liad many running-horses. The precise meaning of the term
Is not, however, clear. It might be light and speedy horses in opposition to
the war-horse, or thote that were literally used for the purpose of racing.
The average price of these running-horses was twenty marks, or three
pounds six shillings and eightpence. Edward was devoted to the sports of
the turf or the field, or he began to see the propriety of crossing our stately
and heavy breed with those of a lighter structure and greater speed.

There was, however, one impediment to this, which was not for a very
loug period removed. The soldier was cased in heavy armour. The knight

ANIMALS. 4'93

the smallest acci(lents. They, therefore, conclude, that less en-
couragement given to racing would be a means of turning us frontj
breeding rather for swiftness than strength ; and that we should
thus be again famous for our strong hunters, which they say are
wearing out from among us.

with al\ hia accoutrements, often rode more than tn-enty-flve stono. No little
bulk and strength were required iu the animals destined to carry tliis back-
breaking weight When the musket was substituted for the cross-bow and
battle-axe, and this iron defence, cumbrous to the wearer and destructive to
the horse, was useless, and laid side, the improvement of the British horse in
reality commenced.

While Edward was tlius eager to avail himself of foreign blood, with the
too frequent se'ifishness of the sportsman, he would let no neighbour share iu
the advantage. The exportation of horses was forbidden under very heavy pe-
nalties. One case in wliich he relaxed from his severity is mentioned, when
he permitted a German merchant to re-export some Flanders horses which
he had brought on speculation ; but he was strictly forbidden to send them
to Scotland. Nay, so jealous were these sister-kingdoms of each other's pros-
perity, that so late as the time of Elizabeth, it was felony to export liorses
from England to Scotland.

The English horse was advancing, although slowly, to an equality with,
or even superiority over, those of neighbouring countries. His value began
to be more generally and highly estimated, and iiis price rapidly increased — so
much so, that breeders and the dealers, then, as now, skilful in imposing on
the experienced, obtained from many of our young grandees enormous prices
for them. This evil magnified to such an extent, that Richard II. (1386) in-
terfered to regulate and determine the price. The proclamation which he
issued is interesting, not only as proving the increased value of the horse, but
showing what were four hundred and fifty years ago, and what are, still, the
chief breeding districts. It was ordered to be published in the counties of Lin-
coin and Cambridge, and the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire ; and the
pric« of the horse was restricted to that which had been determined by former
sovereigns. A more enlightened policy has at length banished all such absurd
interferences with agriculture and commerce.

We can now collect but little of the history of the horse, until the reign
of Henry VII. at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to prohi-
bit the exportation of stallions, but allowed that of mares when more than
two years old, and under the value of si.x shillings and eight pence. This re-
gulation was, however, easily evaded, for if a mare conld be found worth
more than six shillings and eight pence, she might be freely exported on the
payment of that sum.

Henry VIII., a tyrannical and cruel prince, but fond of show and splendour,
was very anxious to produce a valuable breed of horses ; and the means
which he adopted were both perfectly in unison with his arbitrary disposition,
■4iid very little calculated to otlect his object- He affixed a certain standard
below which no horse should be kept The lowest height for the stallion was
tifteen hands, and for the mare thirteen hands ; and even before they had ar.
rived at their full growth, no stallion above two years old, and uodet

2t

491 HISTORY OF

How far this may be fact, I will not take upon me to deter-
mine, being but little versed in a subject that does not properly
come within the compass of natural history. Instead therefore
of faither expatiating on this well-kiiowu animal's qualiiications,

'ourteen hands and a half, was ptTmitted to run on any forest moor or com-
mon, where there were mares. At " Miehaelmastide " the neighbourina;
magistrates were ordered to " drive" all forests and commons, and not only
destroy such stallions, but all " unlikely tits," whether mares, or geldings, or
foals which they might deem not calculated to produce a valuable breed.
He likewise ordained, that in every deer-park, a certain number of mares
in proportion to its si7.e,and each at least thirteen hands high, should be kept ;
and that all his prelates and nobles, and "all those whose wives wore velvet
bonnets " should keep stallions for the saddle at least fifteen hands high.
These ordinances perished with the tyrant by whom they were promulgated.

The tyrannical edicts of Henry VIII. had the effect which common sense
would have anticipated, — the breed of horses was not materially improved,
and their numbers were sadly diminished. When the bigot, Philip of Spain,
threatened England in the reign of Elizabeth, with his Invincible Armada,
that princess could muster in her whole kingdom only three thousand cavalry
to oppose him ; and Blundeville, who wrote at this time a very pleasant and
excellent book on the art of riding, speaks contemptuously of the qualities
of these horses. The secret of improving the breed had not then been dis-
covered ; it had been attempted by arbitrary power ; and it had extended
only to those crosses from which little good could have been expected : or
rather it had more reference to the actual situation of the country, and the
heavy carriages, and the bad roads, and the tedious travelling which then
prevailed, than to the wonderful change in these which a few centuries were
destined to effect.

Blundeville describes the majority of our horses as consisting af strong
Eturdy beasts, fit only for slow draught, and the few of a lighter structure
being weak and without bottom. There were, however, some exceptions ;
for he relates a case of one of these lighter horses travelling eighty miles in a
day — a task which in later times has been too often and cruelly exacted from
our half-bred nags.

An account has been given of the racing trial of the hirses iu Smitlifield
market. Regular races were now established in various parts of England.
Meetings of this kind were first held at Chester and Stamford ; but there
was no acknowledged system as now ; and no breed of racing horses.
Hunters and Iiackneys mingled together, and no description of horse wai
excluded.

There was at first no course marked out for the race, but the contest gen.
erally consisted in the running of train-scent across the country, and some,
times the most difficult and dangerous part of the country was selected fot
the exhibition. Occasionally our present steeple chase was adopted with all
its dangers, and more than its present barbarity ; for persons were appointed
cruelly to flog along the jaded and exhausted horses.

It should, however, be acknowledged that the races of that period were not
disgraced by the system of gambling and fraud, which seems to have become
almost inseparable from the amusements of the turf. The prize was use.

ANIMALS. VJ5

upon which many volumes might easily be written, I will con-
tent myself with just mentioning the description of Camerarius,
in which he professes to unite all the perfections which a horse
ought to be possessed of: — "It must," says he, "have three

ally a wooden bell adorned with flowers. This was afterwards exchanged
ior a silver bell, and " given to liiin who should run the best and farthest on
horseback on Shrove Tuesday" Heuee the common phrase of "bearing
away the bell."

Horse-raeing became gradually more cultivated ; but it wrvs not until the
last year of the reign of James I., that rules were promulgated andgenerally
subscribed to for their regulation. That prince was fond of field sports. He
had encouraged if he did not establish horse-racing in Scotland, and he brought
with him to England his predilection for it ; but his races were more often
matches against time, or trials of speed and bottom, for absurdly and cruelly
long distances. His favourite courses were at Croydon and on Enfield Chase.

Although the Turkish and Barbary horses had been freely used to produce
with the English mare the breed which was best suited to this exercise,
little improvement had been effected. James, with great judgment, deter-
mined to try the Arab breed. Probably, he had not forgotten the story of
the Arabian which had been presented to one of his Sjcottish churches, five
centuries before. He purchased from a merchant named Markham, a cele-
brated Arabian horse, for which he gave the extravagant sum of five hun-
dred pounds. Kings, however, like their subjects, are often thwarted and
governed by their servants, and the Duke of Newcastle took a dislike to this
foreign animal. He wrote a book, and a very good one, on horsemanship,
and described this Arabian as a little bony horse, of ordinary shape, setting
him down as good for nothing, because, after being' regularly trained, he could
not race. The opinion of the Duke, probably altogether erroneous, had, for
nearly a century, great weight ; and the Arabian horse lost its reputation
among the English turf breeders.

A South-Eastern horse was afterwards brought into England, and pur.
chased by James, of Mr Place, who was afterwards stud-master, or groom,
to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called the White Turk, and
his name and that of his keeper will long be remembered. Shortly after,
wards appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by Villiers, the first duke of
Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco Barb. These horses
speedily effected a considerable change in the character of our breed, so that
Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, complained that the great horse was
fast disappearing, and that horses were now bred light and tine for the sake
of speed only.

Charles I. ardently pursued this favourite object of English gentlemen,
and a little before his rupture with the parliament, established races in Hydu
l';\rk, and at Newmarket. The civil war somcnvliat suspended th(! improve,
ment of the breed ; yet the advantage which was derived by bcitli parties
from a light and active cavalry, sufliciently proved the importance of the
ohange which had been ettected ; and Cromwell perceiving, with his wonted
Bngacity, how mucli these pursuits were connected with the prosperity of
ihe country, had his stud of race-horses.

At tht Restoration a new impulse wa; iiWen to Ihe cultivation of the hors ■

■J.06 HISTORY Of ,

parts like those of a woman ; the breast must be broad, the hip-
round, and the mane long : it must in three things resemble 3
lion ; its countenance must be fierce, its courage must be great,
and its fury irresistible : it must have three things belonging to
the sheep j the nose, gentleness, and patience : it must have
three of a deer ; head, leg, and skin : it must have three of a
wolf; throat, neck, and heai'ing : it must have three of a fox :
ear, tail, and trot : three of a serpent ; memory, sight, and
flexibility : and, lastly, three of a hare ; running, walking, aiwl
perseverance."*

by the inclination of the court to patronize gaiety and dissipation. The races
at Newmarket were restored, and as an additional spur to emulation, royal
plates were now given at each of the principal courses. Charles II. sent his
master of the horse to the Levant, t4> purchase brood mares and stallions.
Those were principally Barbs and Turks.

From that period to the middle of the last century the system of improve-
ment was zealously pursued : every variety of Eastern blood was occasion-
ally cngralted on ours, and the superiority of the engrafted, above the very
best of the original stock, began to be evident

Man is rarely satisfied with any degree of perfection in the object on which he
has set his heart. The sportsman had now beauty of form, and speed and
stoutness, scarcely an approach to which had been observed in the original
breed. Still some imagined that this speed and stoutness might possibly be
increased ; and Mr Darley, in the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne,
had recourse to the discarded and despised Arabian. He had much prejudice
to contend with, and it was some time before the Darley Arabian attracted
notice. At length the value of his produce began to be recognised, and to
him we are greatly indebted for a breed of horses of unequalled beauty, speed,
and strength.

This last improvement now furnishes all that can be desired : nor is this
true only of the thorough-bred or turfhorse ; it is, to a very material degree,
the case with every description of horse. By a judicious admixture and pro-
portion of blood we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys, our coach,
nay even our cart horses, much stronger, more active, and more enduring
than they were before the introduction of the race-horse.

* It is a curious natural fact, that the horse has the singular property of
breathing through the nostril only, and not through the mouth ; for in the
severest exercise, the mouth is never seen open, unless the lower jaw be
brought down violently by the force of the bit. This may account for the
great dilatation of the nostrils after hard running.

Though endowed with v.ast strength, and great powers of body, such is
the disposition of the horse, that it rarely exerts either to its master's pre-
iudice : on the contrary, it will endure fatigues, even to death, for our bene-
fit. Providence seems to have implanted in him a benevolent disposition,
and a fear of the human race, with, at the same time, a certain conscioutiness
of the services we can render him. We have, however, one instance of re
collection of injury, and an attempt to reveng'e it. This is inserted in a work

ANIMALS. 497

CHAP. II.

OF THE ASS.

Although this animal is very easily distinguished from thi
horse at first sight, yet upon a closer inspection, the similitude

of D. Rolle, Esq. of Torriiigton, in Devoushire. A baronet, one of whuse
liririters had never tired in the longest chase, once encouraged the criief
t!:i)ught of attempting completely to fatigue him. After a long chase he
dined, and again mounting, rode him furiously among the hills ; when brought
to the st&ble his strength appeared exhausted, and he nas scarcely able to
walk. The groom, possessed of more feeling than his brutal master, could
not refrain from tears at the sight of so noble an auiinal thus sunk down.
The baronet some time after entered the stable, and the horse made a furious
spring upon him, and had not the groom interfered, would soon have put it
out of his power of ever again misusing his animals.

The barbarous custom of docking the tails and cutting the ears of horses,
is in this country very prevalent. The former, however, principally with
waggon horses, under the pretence that a bushy tail collects the dirt of the
riiads ; and the latter from the notion that they are rendered more eleganj
in their appearance. Thus, from ideal necessity, we deprive them of two
parts of the body principally instrumental, not only to their own ease and
comfort, but in their utility to us. By taking away their cars, the fuunels
are destroyed which they always direct to the place from whence any sound
is heard, and they are thus rendered nearly deaf. And in the loss of their
tail, they find even a still greater inconvenience. During summer they are
perpetually teased with swarms of insects, that either attempt to suck their
blood, or to deposit their eggs in the rectum, which they have nnw no
means of lashing off; and in winter they are deprived of a necessary pro.
tection against the cold.

But of all others, the custom that we have adopted 'for it is found in no
other nation than this) of nicking them, is the most usdess and absurd. It
is a most affecting sight to go into the stable of an eminent horse dealer, and
there behold a range of fine and beautiful steeds with their tails cut and
slashed, tied up by pulleys to give them force, suffering such torture, that
they sometimes never recover the savage gashes they have received. And
for what is all this done ? That they may hold their tails somewhat higher
than they otherwise would, and be for ever after deprived of the power of
moving the .joints of them as a defence against flies !

Another abuse may be noticed, observable in those who shoe horses. Thti
stupid blacksmith, in order to save himself a little trouble, will frequenly
apply the shoe red hot to the horse's foot, in order that it may burn for itself a
bed in the hoof, and fit it for its reception. " 'J'he utmost severity (says Lord

1 Many parts of this account are extracted from Daubenton and Buffoa ;
uhich I mention here, to avoid troubling the reader with a multiplicity of
quotations.

2x3

498 HISTORY OF

between tliem is very striking.f They biive both a similar
outline in the external parts ; the same conformation within.
One would be led, from the great resemblance there is between
them, to suppose them of the same species ; and that the ass

Pembroke) ought to be inflicted on all those who clap shoes on hot. This un.
pardonable laziness of farriers, in making feet thus to fit shoes, instead of shoes
to fit the feet, dries up the hoofs, and utterly destroys tliem." It is of the most
ruinous consequence, hardening and cracking the hoofs, and inducing even
the most fatal disorders. The joints, the wind, and the eyes, are injured by
it ; and the gross humours which naturally descend to the feet, and ought to
be carried oif by insensible perspiration, are detained by the hardness of the
surface they have to penetrate.

The stomach of horses is small, and at the cardia there is a little valve
which renders them incapable of vomiting. Their natural diseases are few;
but our ill usage or neglect, or, which is very frequent, our over care of
them, bring on a numerous train, which are often fatal. They sleep but
little, and this in general on their legs. If properly treated, they will live
forty or fifty years.

There are various ways of judging of the age of a horse. The following
are the most general : — The eye-pits of old horses are commonly hollow : but
that mark is equivocal, young horses begot by old stalliims having them also
hollow. The teeth afford the best criterion of the age of horses. The horse
has in all forty teeth, viz. twenty-four grinders, foxiT canine teeth, or tusks,
and twelve fore-teeth : mares have either no tusks, or very short ones ; five
days after birth four teeth in front begin to shoot ; these are called nippers,
and are cast at the age of two years and a half. — They are soon renewed ;
und the next year he again casts two above and two below, one on each side
of the nippers. At four years and a half, other four fall out, next those last
placed ; these last four foal teeth are succeeded by other four, which grow
much more slowly than the first eight; and it is from these last four corner
teeth, that the age of a horse is distiuguished ; they are somewhat hollow
in the iniddle, and liave a black mark in the cavities. At five years these teeth
scarcely rise above the gtims ; at six, their cavities begin to fill up, and turn
to a brownish spot, like the eye of a garden bean ; and before eight years the
mark generally disappears. The tusks generally indicate the age of a horse.
Those in the under jaw generally shoot at the age of three years and a half;
and the two in the upper jaw at four : till six, they continue sharp at the
points ; but at ten, they appear long and blunt. These are the general rules
for ascertaining the age of a horse ; but there are frequent exceptions, as
jome horses retain the mark two or three years longer.

But the unwary are often taken in with regard to the age of a horse, by a
diabolical practice among many dealers called Bishoping. — It is an operation
performed upon the teeth of a horse, and supposed to have derived its modern
appellation from an emivent and distinguished dealer of the name of Bisliop j
whether from any peculiar neatness in, or reputed celebrity for, a personal
performance of the deception, it is most probably not possible, or necessary,
to ascertain- The purport of the operation is to furnish horses of ten or
twelve years old with a regeneration of teeth, bearing the appearance of five
or six; and is thus performed :— The horse being powerfully twitched by

ANIMALS. 409

was only a Iiurse degenerated : however, they are perfectly dis-
tinct, and there is an inseparable line drawn between them, for
the nude tliey produce is barren. This seems to be the barriei
between every species of animals ; this keeps them asunder, and
preserves the unities of their form. If the mule, or the mon-
ster, bred between two animals, whose form nearly approaches,
is no longer fertile, we may then conclude, that these animals,
however resembling, are of different kinds. Nature has pro-
vidently stopped the fruitfulness of these ill-formed productions
in order to preserve the form of every animal uncontaminated :
were it not for this, the races would quickly be mixed with each
other ; no one kind would preserve its original perfection ; every
creature would quickly degenerate ; and the world would be
stocked with imperfection and deformity.

The horse and the ass, therefore, though so nearly approaching
in form, are of two distinct kinds different in their natures ;
and were there but one of each kind, both races would then be
extinguished. Their shapes and their habits may, indeed, be very
nearly alike ; but there is something in every animal, besides its
conformation or way of life, that determines its specific nature.

lioth the nose and ears, a cushioned roller, large enough to keep the
.'liws extended, is then placed in the mouth ; which done, the teeth of the
under jaiv are somewhat reduced in their length (according to their growth,)
ly the fricUon of a blacksmith's cutting-file : an engraver's tool is then em-
ployed in taking as much from tlie surface of each tooth as will leave a con-
spicuous cavity in the middle : this cavity (or rather every individual cavity)
is then burned black tvith an iron instrument red hot, and adapted to the
purpose ; a composition of cement is then insinuated, so well prepared in
both colour and consistence, that it is frequently not discoverable (at least Uf
blight observers,) for many montlis after its introduction.

f 'J'he head of the ass is large i>nd thick ; the ears very long ; the mane
short and erect, with a dark brown stripe from the shoulders to the inser-
tion of the tail, which is thick, covered with short hairs, and stunted to-
wards its end. A dark stripe extends from the top of the withers to the in.
sertion of the thigh, on each shoulder : the whole animal is covered with
ihickset woolly like hair. His general colour is ash-coloured brown ; some-
times chestnut .: very dark brown, approaching to black ; and sometimes,
though rarely, white.

The ass is three or foiu- years in coming to perfection, but will propagate
when two years old, and will continue to do so till about twenty-five years
of age J jElian says till thirty; alluding, probably, to those in ea.-, tern cli-
mates. The female goes with young above eleven months, and rarely bring.i
forth more than one at a time. This animal seldom lies down to rest, unless
extremely fatigued ; he bleeps standiug, and requires much leas repoae Ihau
the horBl^

500 ' HISTORY OF

Thus there is much greater resemblance between the horse and
the ass, than between the sheep and the goat : and yet the latter
produce an animal that is by no means barren, but which quicklv
reproduces an offsprin;; resembling the sheep ; while the mule of
the former is marked with certain sterility. The goat and the
sheep may be therefore said to be of one kind, although so much
unlike in figure ; while the horse and the ass are perfectly distinct,
though so closely resembling. It has, itideed, been said by Aristo-
tle, that their male is sometimes prolific ; this, however, has not
been confirmed by any other testimony, although there has elapsed
a period of near two thousand years to collect the evidence.

But what tends to put the subject out of dispute, is that the
two animals are found in a state of nature entirely diflTerent.
The onager, or wild ass, is seen in still greater abundance than
the wild horse ; and the peculiarities of its kind are more dis-
tinctly marked than in those of the tame one. Had it been a
horse degenerated, the likeness would be stronger between them,
the higher we went to the original stock from whence both have
been supposed to be sprung. The wild animals of both kinds
would, in such a case, resemble each other, much more than
those of the tame kind, upon whom art has, for a succession of
agef), been exercising all its force, and producing strange habits
and new alterations. The contrary, however, obtains, and the
wild ass is even more assinine, if I may so express it, than that
bred in a state of domestic servitude ; and has even a natural
aversion to the horse, as the reader will shortly learn.

The wild ass has, by some writers, been cenfounded with
the zebra, but very improperly, for they are of a very diflferent
species. The wild ass is not streaked like the zebra, nor is his
shape so beautiful ; his figure is pretty much the same as that
of the common ass, except that he is of a brighter colour, and
has a white list running from his head to his tail. This animal
is found wild in many islands of the Archipelago, particu-
larly in that of Cerigo. There are many wild asses in the deserts
of Libya and Numidia, that run with such amazing swiftness
that scarcely even the coursers of the country can overtake
them. When they see a man, they set up a horrid braying, and
stop short all together, till he approaches near them ; they then,
as if by common consent, fly off with great speed ; and it is
upon such occasions that they generally fall into the traps which

ANIMALS. 501

are previously prepared to catch them. The natives take them
chiefly upon account of their flesh, which they esteem as delici-
ous eating ; and for their skin-, of which that kind of leather is
made which is called shagreen.*

• Wild asses live in herds, each consisting of a chief, and several mares and
colts, soraetimes to the number of twenty— Tliey are excessively timid, and
provident against danger. A male takes upon him the care of the herd, and
is always on the watch. If they observe a hunter who, by crei'piug along
the ground, has got near thorn, tlie centinel takes a great circuit, and goes
round and round him, as if discovering somewhat to be apprehended.— As
soon as the animal is satisfied, he rejdins the herd, which sets otf with great
precipitation. Sometimes his curiosity costs him his life; for he approaches
Bo near as to give the hunter an opportunity of shooting him. The senses of
hearing and smelling in these animals are most exquisite ; so that they are
not in general to be approached without the utmost difficulty. " The wild
asses did stand in the high places," says the prophet Jeremiah ; " they snuff-
ed up the wind like dragons " The Persians catch them, and break them for
the draught. They make pits, which tliey fill about half way up with plants ;
into these the asses fall witliout bruising themselves, and are taken thence
alive. When completely domesticated, they are very valuable, and sell at a
liigh price, being at all times celebrated for their amazing swiftness.

The food of the wild asses is the saltest plants of the desert ; such as the
artriplex, kali, and chenopondium ; and also the bitter musky tribe of herbs.
'I'liey also prefer salt water to fresh.— This is exactly conformable to the his-
tory given of this animal in the book of Job ; for the words " barren land,"
expressive of his dwelling, ought according to the learned Bochart, to be ren-
dered salt places. The hunters generally lie in wait for the asses near the
ponds of brakish water, to which they resort to drink.

In the principal streets of Cairo, asses stand ready bridled and saddled for
hire, and answer the same purpose as the hackney coaches in London. The
person who lets them, accompanies his ass, running behind to goad him on,
and to cry out to those on foot to make way. They are regularly rubbed down
and washed, which render their coat smooth and glossy. Thoir food is the
same as that of the horse, usually consisting of chopped straw, barley, and
beans. They here seem, says M. Denon, to enjoy the plenitude of their ex-
istence : they are healthy, active, cheerful, and the mildest and safest animals
that a person can possibly have. Their natural pace is a canter or gallop ;
and without fatiguing his rider, the a.s8 will carry him rapidly over the large
[ilain.s which lie between ditt'erent parts of this straggling city.

Sudden and unexpected internal impressions produce violent effects upon
tlie animal system. Strong emotions of mind may deprive a man of his in-
tellects, and of his life ; and there are many instances of perg(ms having died
in consequence of having received sudden intelligence either of a jnyful or
distressing nature. The animal resembles man in this respect : any thing
unexpei'ted throws them into astonishment, and as the circulation of the
blood is thereby at first accelerated, and afterwards suddenly stopped, the
animal falls dead to the ground.

Host relates, in hi.H account of IVz and Morocco, that ho once saw at
Mcknes a live aes given to lions to bi- devoured by them.— Aa soon as the ass

50? HISTORY OF

Olearius relates, that the monarch of Persia invited him on a
certain day to be present at an entertainment of a very peruliai
natm'e, which was exhibited in a :^mall building, near the palace,
resembling a theatre. After a collation of fruits and sweetmeats,
more than thirty of these wild asses were driven into the area,
among which the monarch discharged several shot, and some
arrows, and in which he was imitated by some of tlie rest of his
attendants. The asses, finding themselves wounded, and no
way of escaping, instantly began to attack each other, biting with
great fierceness, and braying terribly. In this manner they con-
tinued their mutual animosity, while the arrows were poured in
from above, until they were all killed : upon which they were
ordered to be taken, and sent to the king's kitchen at Ispahan.
The Persians esteem the Hesh of this animal so highly, that its
delicacy is even become a proverb among them. What may be
the taste of wild ass's flesh, sve are unable to say ; but certain
it is, that the flesh of the tame ass is the worst that can be ob-
tained, being drier, more tough, and more disagreeable than
horse-flesh, Galen even says that it is very unwholesome. Yet
we should not judge hastily upon the different tastes of different
people, in the preference they give to certain meats. The cli-
mate produces very great changes in the tenderness and the sa-
vour of several viands : that beef, for instance, which is so juicy
and good in England, is extremely tough and dry when killed

entered the den and saw the lions, he immediately fell down dead. One of
the lions instantly seized upon him, and sucked out his blood ; but life had
previously been extinguished in him, for he did not move a limb.

An ass at Chartres used to go to the chateau of Quarville, to near the mu-
sic that was often performed there. The owner of the chateau was a lady,
who had an excellent voice, and whenever she began to sing, the ass never
failed to draw nearer the window, and listen very attentively. Once when a
piece was performed, which no doubt pleased him better than any he had
ever heard before, he left his ordinary post, walked without ceremony into
the music-room, and, in order to add to the concert what he thought was
alone wanting to render it perfect, began to bray with all his might.

In Egypt and Arabia asses are frequently seen of great size and elegance ;
and in their attitudes and movements they exhibit a degree of gracefulness
unknown even in those of Spain. Their step is liglit and sure, and their
pace is brisk and easy. They are not only in common use for riding in Egypt,
but the Mahometan merchants, the most opulent of the inhabitants, and even
ladies of the highest rank, use them ; and not long since, they were the imly
animals on which Christians of any rank or qjiality were permitted to appear
In the Capita.

ANIMALS. 303

under the line ; on the contrary, that pork, which is with us so
unpalatable in summer, in the warmer latitudes, where it is al-
ways hotter than here, is the finest eating they have, and much
preferable to any hog's flesh in Europe.

The ass, like the horse, was originally imported into America
by the Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations. That coun-
try seems to have been peculiarly favourable to this race of ani.
mals ; and where they have run wild, they have multiplied in
Buch numbers, that in some places they are become a uuisance.
In the kingdom of Quito, the owTiers of the grounds where
they are bred, suffer all persons to take away as many as they
can, on paying a small acknowledgment, in proportion to the
number of days their sport lasts. They catch them in the fol-
lowing manner. A number of persons go on horseback, and
are attended by Indians on foot : when arrived at the proper
places, they form a circle, in order to drive them into some val-
ley ; where, at full speed, they throw the noose, and endeavour
to halter them. Those creatures, finding themselves enclosed,
make very furious efforts to escape ; and, if only one forces his
way through, they all follow with an irresistible impetuosity.
However, when noosed, the hunters throw them down, and secure
them with fetters, and thus leave them till the chase is over.
Then, in order to bring them away with greater facility, they
pair them with tame beasts of the same kind ; but this is not
easily performed, for they are so remarkably fierce that they often
hurt the persons who undertake to manage them. They have
all the swiftness of horses, and neither declivities nor precipices
can retard their career. When attacked, they defend themselves
with their heels and mouth with such activity, that without
slackening their pace, they often n.-aim their pursuers. But
the most remarkable property in these creatures is, that, after
carrying their first load, their celerity leaves them, their dange-
rous ferocity is lost, and they soon contract the stupid look
and dulness peculiar to the assinine species. It is also observa-
ble, that these creatures will not permit a horse to live among
them. They always feed together ; and if a horse happens to
stray into the jdace where they graze, they all full upon him ;
and, without giving him the liberty of flying, they bite and kick
iiini till they leave him for dead upon the spot.'

1 Ulloa, vol. i. p. 310.

50i HISTORY OF

Such is this animal in its natural state, swift, fierce, and foi
midable : but, in the state of tameness, the ass presents a veiy
different picture ; the moment his native liberty is repressed, he
seems entirely to give up all claims to freedom ; and he assumes
a patience and submission even humbler than his situation. He
is, in a state of tameness, the most gentle and quiet of all ani-
mals. He suffers with constancy, and, perhaps, with courage,
all the ill-treatment that cruelty and caprice are pleased to inflict.
He is temperate with regard to the quantity and the quality of
his provision. He is contented with the most neglected weeds ;
and makes his humble repast upon what the horse and other
animals leave behind. If he gives the preference to any vegeta-
ble, it is to the plantain ; for which he is often seen to neglect
every other herb in the pasture : but he is chiefly delicate with
respect to his water ; he drinks only at the clearest brooks, and
chiefly those to which he has been accustomed. He drinks as
soberly as he eats ; and never, like the horse, dips his nose into
the stream. As he is seldom saddled, he frequently rolls him-
self upon the grass ; and lies down, for this purpose, as often as
he has an opportunity, without minding what becomes of his
burden. He never rolls, like the horse, in the mud ; he even
fears to wet his feet ; and turns out of his way to avoid the dirty
parts of a I'oad.

When very young, the ass is sprightly, and even tolerably
handsome ; but he soon loses these qualifications, either by age
or bad treatment, and he becomes slow, stupid, and headstrong.
He seems to show no ardour, except for the female, having been
often known to die after the covering. The she-ass is not less
fond of her young than the male is of her ; and we are assured that
she will cross fire and water to protect or rejoin it. This animal
is sometimes not less attached to his owner ; by whom he is too
often abused. He scents him at a distance, and distinguishes him
from others in a crowd •, he knows the ways he has passed, and
the places where he inhabits.

When overloaded the a&s shows the injustice of his master,
by hanging down his head and lowering his ears ; when he is too
hard pressed, he opens his mouth and draws back his lips, in a
very disagreeable manner. If his eyes are covered he will not
stir a step ; and, if he is laid down in such a manner, that one
is covered with the grass while the other is hidden with a stone.

ANIMALS. 506

or whatever is next at hand, he will continue fixed in the same
situation, and he will not so much as attempt to rise to free
himself from those slight impediments. He walks, trots, and
gallops, like a hor;e ; but although he sets out very freely at first,
yet he is soon tired ; and then no beating will make him mend
his pace. It is in vain that his unmerciful rider exerts his whip
or his cudgel ; the poor little animal bears it all with patience,
and without a groan ; and, conscious of his own imbecility, does
not oifer even to move.

Notwithstanding the stupid heaviness of his air, he may be
educated with as much ease as any other animal ; ana several
have been brought up to perform, and exhibit as a show. In
general, however, the poor animal is entirely neglected. JMan
despises this humble useful creature, whose efforts are exerted
to please him, and whose services are too cheaply purchased.
The horse is the only favourite, and upon him alone all expense
and labour are bestowed. He is fed, attended, and stabled,
while the ass is abandoned to the cruelty of the lowest rustics,
or even to the sport of children ; and instead of gaining by the
lessons he receives, is always a loser. He is conducted along
oy blows ; he is insulted by unnecessary stripes ; he is over-
loaded by the lazy ; and, being generally the property of the
poor, he shares with them in their distresses. Thus this faith-
ful animal, which, were there no horses, would be the first of
the quadruped kind in our esteem, is now considered as nothing :
his properties and qualifications being found in a higher degree
elsewhere, he is entirely disregarded ; and, from being the second,
he is degraded into one of the most useless of the domestic
quadrapeds. *

» In early times, the ass was not, as is now the case with us, considered a
despicable animal ; for we find that he was rode by the rich and noble, in
preference to the horse ; as will appear from the foUouing instances, from
many that are recorded in the Sacred Writini^s : — When Abraham went to
otter his eon Isaac, he rode upon an ass ; Joseph and his brethren rode on
assps when they went down to Kgypt to purchase corn ; and we are told,
that when Moses left Jethro, his father-in-law, he took his wife and his sons,
and set them upon asses, and returned to Eg^'pt. In the enumeration of Job's
property, which appears to have been very great, we find, that he had tivo
hundred she asses ; and, in his prosperity, he is said to have had a thousand
she asses. It is likely that the preference of females arose from the circum.
stance, that the ass can subsist on a scanty and coarse fare ; so that, in thA
patriarchal ages, the she ass would not only bear the rider through the de

1. 2 U

0(S6 HISTOUY' OF

For this reason, very little care has been taken to improve the
breed ; it is suffered to degenerate ; and it is probable, that of
all other animals this alone is rendered feebier and more diminu-
tive, by being in a state of domestic servitude. The horse, the
cow, and the sheep, are rendered larger by the assiduity of man ;
the ass is suffered to dwindle every generation, and particularly
in England, where it is probable that, but for the medicinal
qualities of its milk, the whole species would have ere now been
extinguished. Nevertheless, we have good reasons to believe
that, were the same care bestowed on the ass that is spent upon
the horse, were the same industry used in crossing the breed and
improving it, we should see the ass become, from his present
mean state, a very portly and serviceable animal ; we should find
him rival the horse in some of his perfections, and exceed him
in others. The ass, bulk for bulk, is stronger than the horse ;
is more sure-footed ; and though more slow in his motions, he
is much less apt to start out of the way.

The Spaniards, of all people in Europe, seem alone to be ac-
quainted with the value of the ass. They take all proper pre-
cautions to improve the breed ; and I have seen a jackass, from
that country, above fifteen hands high. This animal, however,
Beams originally a native of Arabia. A warm climate is known
to produce the largest and the best ; their size and spirit decline
in proportion as they advance into colder regions.

sert and barren tracts, but also, with her milk, contribute to the support ol
her master. Jair, tlie Gileadite, one of the judges of Israel, had thirty sons,
who rode on thirty ass colts. Anah, the Horite prince, did not thinlc it de-
rogatory to his rank, to feed the asses of Zibeon, his father. In ancient
times, the ass was used for drawing chariots ; for, when Isaiah predicted the
fall of Babylon, he describes the watchman as seeing " a chariot \vith s
couple of horsemen, a chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels." Herodotus
Bays, the Indians had war chariots drawn by wild asses.

The Jews considered the ass as an unclean animal, because his hoof was
not cloven, and he did not chew the cud ; therefore refrained from eating his
flesh, and ottering him as a sacrifice. But we find that, in cases of want, these
laws were disregarded ; for, when Samaria was besieged by the .Syrians,
■' an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver." '1 he contempt of the
Jews for this beast did not cease with his existence ; for, unlike other ani~
mals, which, when they died, were buried under ground, he was thrown
into the fields or ditches, to be eaten by wild beasts or birds. Such also was
the burial of their criminals, or those they wished to treat with ignominy ;
Jehoiakim, king of Judali, was doomed to be thus treated, — " He shall be
buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates ot
Jerusalem."

ANIMALS. 507

Though now so common in all parts of England, the ass was
entirely lost among us during the reign of queen Elizabeth.
Holingshead informs us that our land did yield no asses.'
However, there are accounts of their being common in England
before that time. In Sweden, they are at present a sort of
rarity ; nor does it appear by the last history of Norway, that
they have yet reached that country. It is in the hotter climates
alone that we are to look for the original of this serviceable
creatuie. In Guinea, they are larger and more beautiful than
even the horses of the same country. In Persia, they have two
kinds ; one of which is used for burdens, being slow and heavy ;
the other, which is kept for the saddle, being smooth, statelv,
and nimble. They are managed as liorses, only that the rider
sits nearer the crupper, and they are taught to amble like them.
They generally cleave their nostrils to give them more room for
breathing, and many of these are sold for forty or fifty jjounds.

The ass Is a much more hardy animal than the horse, and lia-
ble to fewer diseases. Of all animals covered with hair, he is
the least subject to vermin, for he has no lice, probably owing
to the drjTiess and the hardness of his skin. Like the horse, he
is three or four years in coming to perfection ; he lives till
twenty or twenty-five ; sleeps much less than the horse ; and
never lies dowm for that purpose, unless very much tired. The
she-ass goes above eleven months with young, and never brings
forth more than one at a time. The mule may be engendered
either between a horse and a she-ass, or between a jack-ass and
u mare.* The latter breed is every way preferable, being larger,

1 British Zoology, vol. i. p. II.

• Mules have not unfrequently beeo kno^va to bring forth young, espe-
cially in hot countries; and instances have not been wanting, tlioui;h they
are rare, both in England and Scotland. But it would require a succession
of experiments to prove that mules will breed with each other, and produce
an oft:<pring equally capable of continuing the race.

The common mule is very healthy, and will live above thirty years. It is
fi>und very serviceable in carrying burdens, particularly in mountainous and
Blouy places, where liorses are not so sure-footed. The size and strength o(
our breed have lately been much improved by the importation of Spaniih
male asses ; and it were much to lie wished, that the useful qualities of this
animal were more attended to ; for, by proper care in its breaUiog, its natural
obstinacy would, in a great measure, be corrected ; and it might be formed
with success for tlie saddle, the draught, or the burden.

People of the first quality in Spain are drawn by mules, where fifty or sixty
i;oiueas is no uncommon price for one ol them : nor is it sururising wliefi

2 u 2

508 HISTORY OF

Btionger, and better shaped. It is not yet well known whether
the animal called the Gimerro be one of these kinds ; or, as is
asserted, bred between the ass and the bull. While naturalists
affirm the impossibility of this mixture, the natives of the alpine
countries, where this animal is bred, as strongly insist upon its
reality. The common mule is very healthy, and will live above
thirty years, being found very serviceable in carrying burdens,
particularly in mountainous and stony places, where horses are
not so sure-footed. The size and strength of our asses is at
present greatly improved by the importation of Spanish jack-
asses; and it is probable v.e may come in time to equal the
Spaniards in breeding them, where it is not uncommon to give
fifty or sixty guineas for a mule ; and, indeed, in some moun-
tainous countries, the inhabitants cannot well do without them.
Their manner of going down the precipices of the Alps, or the
Andes, is very extraordinary ; and with it we will conclude their
history. In these passages, on one side, are steep eminences,
and, on the other, frightful abysses ; and, as they generally fol-
low the direction of the mountain, the road, instead of lying in
a level, forms at every little distance steep declivities, of several
hundred yards downward. These can only be descended by
mules ; and the animal itself seems sensible of the danger, and
the caution that is to be used in su';h descents. When they
come to the edge of one of these descents, they stop, without
being checked by the rider ; and, if he inadvertently attempts to
spur them on, they continue immoveable. They seem all this
time ruminating on the danger that lies before them, and prepar-
ing themselves for the encounter. They not only attentively
view the road, but tremble and snort at the danger. Having
prepared for the descent, they place their fore-feet in a posture
as if they were stopping themselves ; they then also put their
hinder-feet together, but a little forward, as if they were going
to lie down. In this attitude, having taken as it were a survey
of the road, they slide down with the swiftness of a meteor. In
the meantime, all the rider has to do is to keep himself fast on
the saddle, without checking the rein, for the least motion is
sufficient to disorder the equilibrium of the mide ; in which case

we consider how far they excel the horse in travelling in a mountainous
country, the uiulo being able to tread securely where the former can hardJy
«tand.

ANIMALS. gQg

they both unavoidably perish. But their address in this rapid
descent, is truly wonderful ; for in their swiftest motion when
they seem to have lost all government of themselves, they follow
exactly all the different windings of the road, as if they had pre-
viously settled in their minds the route they were to follow, and
taken every precaution for their safety. In this journey, the
natives, who are placed along the sides of the mountains, and
hold by the roots of the trees, animate the beast with shouts,
and encourage him to perseverance. Some mules, after being
long used to these journeys, acquire a kind of reputation
for their safety and skill ; and their value rises in proportion to
their farae.^

CHAP. III.

OF THE ZEJSaA.

There are but three animals of the horse kind.* The horse,
which is the most stately and courageous ; the ass, which is the
most patient and humble ; and the zebra, which is the most beau-

2 Ulloa, vol. i.

• As mentioned in a former note, there are other two spei-ies of the horso
penus, namely, the Dzig^ai and the Quagga. The mountain zebra, and the
Kebra of the plains, are also different species. The specific characters of
tlie dziggtai ai'e,— liis skio is isabella, or light bay in summer, of a clean and
thriving appearance ; of a redder hue in winter, and the hair very long ; his
mane and dorsal line, which enlarges on the crupper, are generally hl.ick ;
and his tail terminated by a black tuft. He is generally the size of an ordi.
nary wild horse ; and his proportions are intermediate between the horse and
the ass. He is probably the wild mule of the ancients. He lives in troo^js
in the sandy deserts of Central Asia.

Messerschmit was the first who noticed this animal ; but we had no pre-
cise description, till it was given by Pallas. His name in the Mongol lan-
guage signifies l.n-ffa ear. His ears are miu:h longer than those of the horse,
but straightcr .nnd better formed than those of the mule.

His head is strong and rather heavy ; the forehead narrow and flattened,
with a peculiar projection above the nostrils, from whence the nose suddenly
droops ; the bristles or beard numerous, and about two and a half inches in
length ; the mane .short and thick ; the chest capacious ; the back long and
curved ; and the crupper is somewhat thin : the shoulders are narrow, and the
limbs light; pasterns long, with the hoofs like thos(! of the ass; tho
tail resembles that of a bull, very thick at its base, is black, nearly two feet
long, with a thick tuft at its point, reaching nearly three inches bcyoud
his hock.

2 u 3

510 HISTORY OF

tit'ul, but at the same time, the wildest animal in nature. No-
thing can exceed the delicate regularity of this creature's colour,
or the lustrous smoothness of its skin ; but on the other hand,
nothing can be more timid or more untameable.

The dziggtai is a light and nimble animal ; his limbs beautifully fine, with
flat shank bones, the knee joints long and straight, that seem peculiarly
formed for speed, which he possesses in an astonishing degree, as he runs
with the speed of the wind, carrying his head in an erect position, with the
nostrils expanded. His air betrays extreme energy, being wild, fiery, and un-
tameable in his disposition. The flesh of this animal is esteemed a great deli.
cacy by the Mongols, Tungooses, and other hordes, on the borders of the Great
Desert. Like the rest of the genus he is gregarious, and is seen in troops of
from twenty to thirty in number.and some have said even in herds of one hun-
dred. Like the horse, his character is pacific, and he never attacks other
animals. Each troop has a cliief, who watches over its safety, conducts its
general movements, and gives the signal of alarm, in cases of danger. This
signal is said to consist in leaping several timt-s round the object he dreads.
This temerity often occasions his death ; in which event the herd disperses,
in opposite directions, and become more easily a prey to the hunters. It is in
vain to attempt following the dziggtai on horseback, as it would quickly leave
the fleetest courser of the desert fai- behind. It is remarkable, that all means
to domesticate this animal have hitherto proved abortive, and this even when
taken young. They are considered by the natives as untameable ; for the
individuals which have been tried generally killed themselves in their exer.
tions to escape their thraldom. Pallas, however, thinks they might be sub.
dued by proper treatment. Indeed, it has been found, that all animals are
susceptible of some degree of domestication ; and if this were persisted in, tlie
dziggtai might eventually become a useful servant of man. Sonnini is of
opinion, that this species will become extinct, from the circumstance of man
not being able to subjugate them; and from their being aueh a favourite
delicacy with the Asiatics,

The head and neck of the Quagga are dark blackish brown, the rest of a
clear brown growing paler below, and underneath is nearly white, as well as
the legs. The head and neck are striped with grayish white, longitudinal on the
forehead and temples, and transverse on the cheeks ; between the nnrnth
and eyes they form triangles ; there are ten bands on the neck ; the mane
is"blackish, short, much thicker than that of the zebra, commencing on the
forehead, and is, li.ke theirs, striped ; a longitudinal black band runs from
the termination of the mane along the spine, and loses itself in the tail, which
is like that of a cow, with a dark brown or black tuft of hair at its extremity.
The height of the quagga or couagga, is about four feet, or twelve hands,
at the withers. In his form, proportions, lightness of figure, and sniallness
of head and ears, he bears a greater resemblance to the horse than the zebra,
but his tail is like that of a cow.

Quaggas associate in herds, frequently to the number of one hundred, in
the most solitary regions of Southern Africa. Delalando observed great
flocks of them at the mouth of the Grootvis river, which, during the night,
would approach near to his tent ; but they are never to be found in com-
pany with zebras, the species to wliich they aio must nearly allied in senerni

ANIMALS. 511

It is cliiefly a native of the southern parts of Africa ; and
there are whole herds of them often seen feeding in those exten-
sive plains that lie towards the Cape of Good Hope, However,
their watchfulness is such, that they will suifer nothing to come near

conformation. The cry of this auimal bears a strong resemblance to the
barking of a dog, and is particularly sharp in the rutting season. He is very
easily tamed, and rendered obedient to domestic purposes. Of late years
they have freqently been seen in pairs, running in the curricles of the haict-ton
in London ; often forming part of the parade of Hyde Park, and other fashion-
able places of resort. They seem as obedient to the reins and whip as horses.

It is a matter of surprise, that this animal has not long before now been do.
mesticated by man, because his constitution is fitted for the hottest climate ; no
that he would be extremely valuable in those burning regions where the heat
destroys the capabilities of the horse. In a wild state the quagga is possesed
of great natural courage; for, according to the report of travellers, he effectual,
ly repels the attacks of wolves and hyaenas, with which his native country
abounds. The natural pliability of his disposition, his great activity and physical
strength, peculiarly fit him tor the service of man; and when these become
more generally kni)wn, t have no doubt he «ill be added to our domestic ani-
mals. The name of this animal in his native country, expresses the sound of
his voice. The late Earl of Morton succeeded in engendering mules between a
male quagga and a mare. They were not, however, handsome animals. Some
time after this quagga died, tlie mare which had propngated with him
produced a foal, three seasons after having the mule, which had the indistinct
markings of the quagga, although she had not been with that animal from
the time she had the hybrid foal to liini.

The zebra of the plains was first ascertained by Mr Burchell to be different
from the common or mountain zebra. The following is Mr Gray's specific
description of the zehra of the plains : — " Body white ; head with numerous
narrow brown stripes, which gradually unite together and form a bay nose,
the neck and body with alternate broad stripes of black and narrow ones of
brown, the latter of which nearly fill up the interstices between the black
stripes, and only leave a narrow whitish margin. The dorsal line is narrow,
and becomes gradually broader in the hinder part, distinctly margined with
white on each side. The belly, legs, and all, quite white ; the mane alter
nately banded with black and white."

This beautiful animal differs materially from the common zebra ; the ground
colour of his body being entirely white, interrupted by a regular series of
black stripes commencing on the ridge of the back, and terminating at the
bottom of his sides : betwixt these are narrower and fainter ones of a brown-
ish colour. On the shoulders and over the haunches, these stripes assume
somewhat of a bifurcated appearance, between the divisions of which there
are a few transverse lines of the same colour ; but these suddenly and abrupt-
ly disappear, and are not lyntinued on the legs, as in the common zebra, be.
iiig perfectly white. Along the spinal ridge there is a narrow longitudinal
line bordered on each side with white. The mane is long, stiff, and erert, with
»be transverse bands of the neck broadly continued through it, and distinct-
ly tipped with deep black. The lines of the face are narrow, and perfectly
jcgulur ; from the centre of the forehead they radiate down wards over cacU

512 HISTORY OF

them, and their swiftness so great, that they readily leave everj
pursuer far behind. The Zebra in shape rather resembles the
mule, than the horse or the ass. It is rather less than the for-
mer, and yet larger than the latter. Its ears are not so long as
those of the ass, and yet not so small as in the horse kind. Like
the ass, its head is large, its back straight, its legs finely placed^
and its tail tufted at the end •, like the horse its skin is smooth
and close, and its hind quarters round and fleshy. But its great-
est beauty lies in the amazing regularity and elegance of its co-
lours. In the male, they are white and brown ; in the female,
white and black. These colours are disposed in alternate
stripes over the whole body, and with such exactness and sym-
metry, that one would think Nature had employed the rule
and compass to paint them. These stripes which like so many
ribands, are laid all over its body, are narrow, parallel, and exactly
separated from each other. It is not here as in other party
coloured animals, where the tints are blended into each other ;
every stripe here is perfectly distinct, and preserves its cohjur
round the body or the limb, without any diminution. In this
manner are the head, the body, the thighs, the legs, and even
the tail and the ears, beautifully streaked, so that at a little dis-
tance one would be apt to suppose that the animal was dressed
out by art, and not thus admirably adorned by nature.

In the male zebra, the head is striped with fine bands of black
and white, which in a manner centre in the forehead. The ears
are variegated with a white and dusky brown. The neck has
broad stripes of the same dark brown running round it, leaving
narrow white stripes between. The body is striped also
cross the back with broad bands, leaving narrower spaces of
white between them, and ending in points at the sides of tlie
belly, which is white, except a black line pectinated on each side,
reaching from between the fore-legs, along the middle of the

eye ; along the front of the muzzle they are longitudina!, with the outer
ones Blighty curved outwards ; and on the sides they form broader transverse
fillets. From where the bauds unite on the extremity of tlie muzf.le, the
nose, and the upper lip, those parts become nearly of a uniform blackish
brown. The tail is of a yellowish white. Tliere Is no longitudinal ventral
line ; and the back part of the ears are occupied towards the tips by patches
of black. The hoofs are moderately large, deep in front, and shallow behind,
■uid coatiideia'jly expauded at their margin.

ANIMALS. 513

belly, tvvo-lhirds of its length. There is a line of separation
Detween the trunk of the body and the hinder quarters, on each
side : behind which, on the rump, is a plat of narrow stripes,
joined together by a stripe down the middle, to the end of the
tail. The colours are different in the female ; and in none the
stripes seem entirely to agree in form, but in all they are equallj
distinct ; the smooth hair equally and fine ; the white shining and
unmixed ; and the black, or brown, thick and lustrous.

Such is the beauty of this creature, that it seems by nature
fitted to satisfy the pride and the pleasure of man : and formed
to be taken into his service. Hitherto, however, it appears to
iiave disdained servitude ; and neither force nor kindness have
been able to wean it from its native independence and ferocity,
lint this wildness might, perhaps, in time be surmounted : and
It is probable the horse and the ass, when first taken from
the forest, were equally obstinate, fierce, and unmansige-
able. Mr BufFon informs us, that the zebra, from which he
took his description, could never be entirely mastered, notwith-
standing all the efforts which were tried to tame it. They conti-
nued, indeed, to mount it, but then with such precautions as evi-
dently showed its fierceness, for two men were obliged to hold
the reins, while the third ventured upon its back ; and even then
it attempted to kick, whenever it perceived any person approach-
ing. That which is now in the Queen's menagerie at Buck-
ingham-Gate, is even more vicious than the former ; and the
keeper who shows it takes care to inform the spectators of its
ungovernable nature. Upon my attempting to approach it, it
seemed quite tenified, and was preparing to kick, appearing as
wild as if just caught, although taken extremely young, and used
with the utmost indulgence. Yet still it is most probable that
this animal, by time and assiduity, could be brought under sub-
jection. As it resembles the horse in form, without all doubt
it has a similitude of nature, and only requires the efforts of an
industrious and skilful nation, to be added to the number of our
domestics. It is not now known what were the pains and dan-
gers which were first undergone to reclaim the breed of horses
from savage ferocity ; these, no doubt, made an equal opposition ;
but by being opposed by an industrious and enterprising race
of mankind, their spirit was at last subdued, and their freedom
restrained. It is otherwise with regard to the zebra ; it is the na-

51 i HISTORY OF

live of countries where the human inbahitants are but little raise.!
above the quadruped. The natives of Angola, or CaiTraria, have
no other idea of advantage from horses but as they are good for
food ; neither the fine stature of the Arabian courser, nor the
delicate colourings of the zebra, have any allurements to a race
of people, who only consider the quantity of flesh, and not its
conformation. The delicacy of the zebra's shape, or the painted
elegance of its form, are no more regarded by such, than by the
lion that makes it his prey. For this reason, therefore, the ze-
bra may hitherto have continued wild, because it is the native of
a country where there have been no successive efforts made to
reclaim it. All pursuits that have been hitherto instituted
against it, were rather against its life than its liberty : the ani-
mal has thus been long taught to consider man as its most mortal
enemy ; and it is not to be wondered that it refuses to yield obedi-
ence where it has so seldom experienced mercy. There is a
kind of knowledge in all animals, that I have often considered
with amazement ; which is, that tbey seem perfectly to know
their enemies, and to avoid them. Instinct, indeed, may teach
the deer to fly from the lion ; or the mouse to avoid the cat ;
but what is the principle that teaches the dog to attack the dog-
butcher wherever he sees him ? In China, where the killing
and dressing dogs is a trade, whenever one of those people
moves out, all the dogs of the village or the street are sure to be
after him. This I should hardly have believed, but that I have
seen more than one instance of it among ourselves. I have seen
a poor fellow who made a practice of stealing and killing dogs
for their skins, pursued in full cry for three or four streets to-
gether, by all the bolder breed of dogs, while the weaker flew from
his presence with affright. How these animals could thus fin d out
their enemy, and pursue him, appears, I own, unaccountable, but
such is the fact ; and it not only obtains in dogs, but in several other
animals, though perhaps to a less degree. This very probably may
have been in some measure a cause that has hitherto kept the zebra
in its state of natural wildness ; and in which it may continue, till
kinder treatment shall have reconciled it to its pursuers.

It is vt!ry likely, therefore, as a more civilized people are now
iplaceJ at the Cape of Good Hope, which is the chief place
where this animal is found, that we may have them tamed and
rendered serviceable. Nor is its extraordinary beauty the only

ANIMALS. 515

motive we have for wishing this animal among the number of
our dependents : its swiftness is said to surpass that of all others ;
so that the speed of a zebra is become a proverb among the
Spaniards and Portuguese. It stands better upon its legs also
than a horse ; and is consequently stronger in proportion.
Thus, if by proper care we improve the breed, as we have in
other instances, we should probably in time to come have a race
as large as the horse, as iieet, as strong, and much more
beautiful.

The zebra, as was said, is chiefly a native of the Cape of
Good Hope. It is also found in the kingdom of Angola ; and,
as we are assured by Lopez, in several provinces also of Bar-
bary. In those boundless forests it has nothing to restrain its
liberty ; it is too shy to be caught in traps, and therefore seldom
tjiken alive. It would seem, therefore, that none of them have
ever been brought into Europe, that were caught sufficiently
young, so as to be untinctured by their original state of wildness.
The Portuguese, indeed, pretend that they have been able to
tame them, and that they have sent four from Africa to Lisbon,
which were so far brought under, as to draw the king's coach;'
they add, that the person who sent them over, had the office of no-
tary conferred upon him for his reward, which was to remain to
him and his posterity for ever -. but I do not find this confirmed by
any person who says he saw them. Of those which were sent
to Brazil, not one could be tamed ; they would permit one man
only to approach them ; they were tied up very short ; and one
of them, which had by some means got loose, actually killed his
groom, having bitten him to death.' Notwithstanding this, I
believe, were the zebra taken up very young, and properly treat-
ed, it might be rendered as tame as another animal ; and Merolla,
who saw many of them, asserts, that when tamed, which he
speaks of as being common enough, they are not less estimable
for their swiftness than their beauty.

This animal, which is neither to be found in Europe, Asia,
nor America, is nevertheless very easily fed. That which came
over into England some years ago, would eat almost any thing,
6uch as bread, meat, and tobacco ; that which is now among us,
subsists entirely upon hay. As it so nearly resembles the horse

1 Dapper. 2 Pyrard. torn. ii. p. 37&

516 HISTORY OI'

and the ass in stnicture, so it probably brings forth annually as
tney do. The noise they make is neither like that of a horse
nor an ass, but more resembling the confused barking of a mastifl
dog. In the two which I saw, there was a circumstance that
seems to have escaped naturalists ; which is, that the skin hangs
loose below the jaw upon the neck, in a kind of dewlap, which
takes away much from the general beauty. But whether this
be a natural or accidental blemish, I will not take upon me to
determine.

These animals are often sent as presents to the princes of the
East. We are told, that one of the governors of Batavia gave
a zebra, which had been sent to him from Africa, to the emperor
of Japan, for which he received, as an equivalent for the com-
pany, a present, to the value of sixty thousand crowns ' Teller
aiso relates, that the Great Mogul gave two thousand ducats for
one of them. And it is frequent with the African ambassadors
to the court of Constantinople, to bring some of these animals
with them, as presents for the Grand Signior.

I Naveadf-n'

BOOK II.

OF RUMINATING ANIMALS.

CHAP. I.

INTRODUCTION.

Of all animals, those that chew the cud are the most harmless,
and the m.ost easily tamed. As they live entirely upon vegeta-
bles, it is neither then interest nor their pleasure to make war
upon the rest of the brute creation ; content with the pastures
where they are placed, they seldom desire to change, while they
are furnished with a proper supply ; and fearing nothing from
each other, they generally go in herds for their mutual security.
All the fiercest of the carnivorous kinds seek their food in
gloomy solitude ; these, on the contrary, range together ; the
very meanest of them are found to unite in each other's defence ;
and the hare itself is a gregarious animal, in those countries
where it has no other enemies but the beasts of the forest to
guard against.

As the food of ruminant animals is entirely of the vegetable
kind, and as this is very easily procured, so these animals seem
naturally more indolent and less artful than those of the carni-
vorous kinds ; and as their appetites are more simple, their in-
stincts seem to be less capable of variation. The fox or the
wolf are for ever prowling ; their long habits of want give them
a degree of sharpness and cunning; their life is a continued
scene of stratagem and escape : but the patient ox, or the deer,
enjoy the repast that nature has abundantly provided ; certain of
subsistence, and content with security.

As nature has furnished these animals with an appetite for
such coarse and simple nutriment, so she bas enlarged the capa-
city of the intestines, to take in a greater supply. In the carni-
vorous kinds, as their food is nourishing and juicy, their stomachs
1. 2 X

518 HISTORY OF

are but sniall, and tbeir intestines short ; but in these, whose
pasture is coarse, and where much must be accumulated before
any quantity of nourishment can be obtained, their stomachs are
large and numerous, and their intestines long and muscular. The
bowels of a ruminating animal may be considered as an elabora
tory, with vessels in it, fitted for various transmutations. Tt
requires a long and tedious process before grass can be trans-
muted into flesh ; and for this purpose, nature, in general, has
furnished such animals as feed upon grass with four stomachs,
through which the food successively passes and undergoes the
proper separations.'

Of the four stomachs with which ruminant animals are fur-
nished, the first is called the paunch, which receives the food
after it has been slightly chewed ; the second is called the honey-
comb, and is properly nothing more than a continuation of the
former ; these two, which are very capacious, the animal fills as
fast as it can, and then lies down to ruminate ; which msy be
properly considered as a kind of vomiting without effort or pain.
The two stomachs above mentioned being filled with as much as
they can contain, and the grass, which was slightly chewed, be-
ginning to swell with the heat of the situation, it dilates the
stomachs, and these again contract upon their contents. The
aliment, thus squeezed, has but two passages to escape at ; one into
the third stomach, which is very narrow ; and the other back, by
the gullet, into the mouth, which is wider. The greatest quan-
tity, therefore, is driven back, through the largest aperture, into
the mouth to be chewed a second time ; while a small part, and
that only the most liquid, is driven into the third stomach,
through the orifice which is so small. The food which is dri-
ven to the mouth, and chewed a second time, is thus rendered
more soft and moist, and becomes at last liquid enough to pass
into the conduit that goes to the third stomach, where it under-
goes a still farther comminution. In this stomach, which is
called the manifold, from the number of its leaves, all which

1 All quadrupeds that cliew the cud have suet instead of the soft fat of
other animals ; and they have the awkward habit of rising-, when in a re-
cumbent posture, upon their hind legs first. A cow, when she rises from the
ground, places herself on the fore-knees, and then lifts up the whole hinder
parts. A horse springs up first on his fore- legs, and then raises up his hin-
der parts. This may be owing to the dittereut conformation of the stcmach.

ANIMALS. 519

tend to promote digestion, the grass lias the appearance of boiled
s[jiiinage, but not yet sufficiently reduced, so as to make a part ot
the animal's nourishment ; it requires the operation of the fourth
Ktomach for this purpose, where it undergoes a complete mace-
ration, and is separated to be turned into chyle.

But nature has not been less careful in another respect, in
fitting the intestines of these animals for their food. In the
carnivorous kinds they are thin and lean; but in ruminating
animals they are strong, fleshy, and well covered with fat. Every
precaution seems taken that can help their digestion: their
stomach is strong and muscular, the more readily to act upon
its contents ; their intestines are lined with fat, the better to
preserve their warmth ; and they are extended to a much greater
length, so as to extract every part of that nourishment which
their vegetable food so scantily supplies.

In this manner are all quadrupeds of the cow, the sheep, or
the deer kind, seen to ruminate •, being thus furnished with four
stomachs, for the macerating of their food. These, therefore,
may most properly be called the ruminant kinds ,- although there
are many others that have this quality in a less observable de-
gree. The rhinoceros, the camel, the horse, the rabbit, the
marmotte, and the squirrel, all chew the cud by intervals, al-
though they are not furnished with stomachs like the former.
But not these alone, there are numberless other animals that ap-
pear to ruminate ; not only birds but fishes and insects. Among
birds are the pelican, the stork, the heron, the pigeon, and the
turtle ; these have a power of disgorging their food to feed their
young. Among fishes are lobsters, crabs, and that fish called
the dorado. The salmon also is said to be of this number : and,
if we may believe Ovid, the scarus likewise ; of which he says,'

Of all the fish that graze beneath the flood.
He only ruminates his former food.

Of insects, the ruminating tribe is still larger ; the mole, the
cricket, the wasp, the drone, the bee, the grasshopper, and the
beetle. All these animals either actually chew the cud, or seem
ut least to ruminate. They have the stomach composed of mus-

1 At contra herbosa pispps laxantiir arena.
Ut scanis epastus solus qui ruminant escas.

'590 HISTORY OF

cular fibres, by means whereof the food is ground up and down,
in the same manner as in those which are particularly distin-
guished by the appellation of ruminants.

But not these alone ; men themselves have been often known
to ruminate, and some even with pleasure. The accounts of
these calamities, for such I must consider them, incident to our
fellow-creatures, are not very pleasant to read : yet I must
transcribe a short one, as given us by Slare, in the Philosophical
Transactions, as it may, in some measure, show the satisfaction
which the lower tribes of animals enjoy while they ruminate.
The man in question was a citizen of Bristol, of about twenty
years of age, and, what seemed more extraordinaiy still, of a
ruminating family, for his father was frequently subject to the
same infirmity, or amusement, as he himself perhaps would call
it This young man usually began to chew his meat over again
within about a quarter of an hour after eating. His ruminating
after a full meal generally lasted about an hour and a half ; nor
could he sleep until his task was performed. The victuals, upon
the return, tasted even more pleasantly than at first ; and re-
turned as if they had been beaten up in a mortar. If he ate a
variety of things, that which he ate first came up again first ;
and if this return was interrupted for any time, it produced sick-
ness and disorder, and he was never well till it returned. In-
stances of this kind, however, are rare and accidental ; and it is
happy for mankind that they are so. Of all other animals, we
spend the least time in eating ; this is one of the great distinc-
tions between us and the brute creation ; and eating is a plea-
sure of so low a kind, that none but such as are nearly allied to
the quadruped, desire its prolongation.

CHAP. IL

OF QUADRUPEDS OF THE COW KIND.'

Of all ruminant animals, those of the cow kind deserve tha
first rank, both for their size, their beauty, and their services.

I The animals of thie kind have the horns hollow, smooth, turned outwards

ANrJIALfe.

521

The horse is more properly an animal belonging to the richj
the sheep chiefly thrives in a flock, and requires attendance;
but the now is more especially the poor man's pride, his riches,
and his support. There are many of our peasantry that have no
other possession but a cow ; and even of the advantages result-
ing from this most useful creature, the poor are but the nominal
possessors. Its flesh they cannot pretend to taste, since then
their whole riches are at once destroyed; its calf they are oblig-
ed to fatten for sale, since veal is a delicacy they could not make
any pretensions to; its very milk is wrought into butter and
cheese for the tables of their masters ; while they have no share,
even in their own possession, but the choice of their market. I
cannot bear to hear the rich crying out for liberty while they
thus starve their fellow- creatures, and feed them up with an
imaginary good, while they monopolize the real benefits of na-
ture.

In those countries where the men are under better subordina-
tion, this excellent animal is of more general advantage. In
Germany, Poland, and Switzerland, every peasant keeps two or
three cows, not for the benefit of his master, but for himself.
The meanest of the peasants there kills one cow at least for his
owTi table, which he salts and hangs up, and thus preserves as a
delicacy all the year round. There is scarcely a cottage in those
countries that is not hung round with these marks of hospitality ;
and which often make the owner better contented with hunger,
since he has it in his power to be luxurious when he thinks pro-
per. A piece of beef hung up there is considered as an elegant
piece of furniture, which, though seldom touched, at least argues
the possessor's opulence and ease. But it is very different, for
some years past, in this country, where our lower rustics at
least are utterly unable to purchase meat any part of the year,
and by them even butter is considered as an article of extrava-
gance.

The climate and pasture of Great Britain, however, are ex-
cellently adapted to this animal's moderate nature; and tlie ver-
dure and the fertility of our plains are perfectly suited to the
mannev of its feeding; for wanting the upper foreteeth, it loves

and forwHrcIs, in a semicircular form ; in the lower jaw there nre eight front
tte'.li, tut uonc in the upper : and there nre no tUbl<s in pitlier.

<i \ .)

522 HISTORY OF

to graze on a high rich pasture. This animal seems but little
regardful of the quality of its food, provided it be supplied in
sufficient abundance ; it makes no particular distinction in the
choice of its herbage, but indiscriminately and hastily devours
the proper quantity. For this reason, in our pastures, where
the grass is rather high than succulent, more flourishing than
nutritious, the cow thrives admirably ; and there is no part of
Europe where the tame animal grows larger, yields more milk,
or more readily fattens, than with us.

Our pastures supply them with abundance, and they in return
enrich the pasture ; for, of all animals, the cow seems to give
back more than it takes from the soil. The horse and the sheep
are known, in a course of years, to impoverish the ground.
The land where they liave fed becomes weedy, and the vegeta-
bles coarse and unpalatable ; on the contrary, the pasture where
the cow has been bred, acquires a finer, softer surface, and be-
comes everj' year more beautiful and even. The reason is, that
the horse being furnished with fore-teeth in the upper jaw, nips
the grass closely, and therefore only chooses that which is the
most delicate and tender; the sheep also, though, with respect
to its teeth, formed like the cow, only bites the most succulent
parts of the herbage : these animals, therefore, leave all the high
weeds standing ; and while they cut the finer grass too closely,
suffer the ranker herbage to vegetate and overrun the pasture.
But it is otherwise with the cow : as its teeth cannot come so
close to the ground as those of the horse, nor so readily as those
of the sheep, which are less, it is obliged to feed upon the tallest
vegetables that offer •, thus it eats them all down, and in time,
levels the surface of the pasture.

The age of the cow is known by the teeth and horns. This
animal is furnished with eight cutting teeth in the lower jaw ;
at the age of ten months the two middlemost of these fall out,
and are replaced by others that are not so white, but broader;
at the age of sixteen months the two next milk-white teeth fall
out likewise, and others come up in their room ; thus, at the
end of every six months, the creature loses and gains, till at the
age of three years all the cutting-teeth are renewed, and then
they are long, pretty white, and equal ; but in proportion as the
animal advances in years, they become irregular and black, their
inequalities become smoother, and the animal less capable of

ANIMALS. 523

clievving its food. Tims the cow often declines from this single
cause ; for as it is obliged to eat a great deal to support life, and
as the smoothness of the teeth makes the difficulty of chewing
great, a sufficient quantity of food cannot be supplied to the
stomach. Thus the poor animal sinks in the midst of plenty,
and every year grows leaner and leaner, till it dies.

The horns are another and a surer method of determining
this animal's age. At three years old it sheds its horny,* and
new ones arise in their place, which continue as long as it lives ;
at four years of age, the cow has small pointed, neat, smooth
horns, thickest near the head ; at five, the horns become larger,
and are marked round with the former year's growth. Thus,
while the animal contiiuies to live, the horns continue to lengthen ;
and every year a new ring is added at the root ; so that allowing
three years before their appearance, and then reckoning the imm-
ber of rings, we have, in both together, the animal's age exactly.

As we have indisputably the best breed of horned cattle of
any in Europe, so it was not without the same assiduity that we
c:iiiie to excel in these, as in our horses. The breed of cows
has been entirely improved by a foreign mixture, properly adapt-
ed to supply the imperfections of our own. Such as are purely
British are far inferior in size to those on many parts of the
continent ; but those which we have thus improved by far ex.
eel all others. Our Lincolnshire kind derive their size from
the Holstein breed ; and the large hornless cattle that are bred
in some parts of England came originally from Poland. We
were once famous for a wild breed of these animals, but these
have long since been worn out ; and perhaps no kingdom in
Europe can furnish so few wild animals of all kinds as our
own.f Cultivation and agriculture are sure to banish these

* This is a mistake : the horns are not cast ; but at the age of three years,
tlif iiniin;il nitis off a very slight external shell oiatiug from them.

t The White Urus {Urus Scoticus) is a wild breed of the Ox, the pro-
bable remains of the genuine Urua. It is of small size, and ranged formerly
through the woods of southern Scotland and the north of England. When
this breed was exterminated from the open forests is unknown; hut some
time before the reformation, the remnants were already contined in pai ks be-
longing to ecclesiastical establishments, from whence they were transfer-
red at the dissolution to that of Drumlaiig, and other places. Tho-^e in the
park of r.urton Constable were all destroyed in the middle r)f the last cen.
tiiry by a distemper. The race is entirely of a white lolour ; the mnz/.le
invariably black; the iuside of the car, and about oMc-lliird part of the onU

524. HISTORY OF

wherever they are found ; and every additiun a country receives
from art drives away those animals that are only fitted for a
state of nature.

Of all quadrupeds the cow seems most liable to alteration
from its pasture. In the different parts of our own country we
easily perceive the great varieties produced among these animals,
by the richness or poverty of the soil. In some they grow to a
great bulk ; and I have seen an ox sixteen hands high, which
is taller than the general run of our horses. In others they ap-
pear as diminutive ; being not so large as an ass. The breed of
the Isle of Man, and most parts of Scotland, is much less in gen-
eral than in England or Ireland : they are differently shaped
also, the dewlap being much smaller, and, as the expression is, the
beast has more of the ewe neck. This, till some years ago

Bide from the tip downwards, red ; the horns are white with black tips of a
fine texture, and aa in the fossil skull, bent downwards. Bulls wei^h from
tliirty-five to forty-five stone, and cows from twenty-five to thirty-five, four-
fi'en pounds to the stone- Before they were kept in parks, they were pro-
bably larger and more rugged ; old bulls still acquire a kind of mane about
two inches long, and their throat and breast is covered with coarser hair.
Those at Burton Constable difiered from the others, they having the ears and
tips of the tail black.

Their manners ditter from domestic oxen, and may be in part those of the
ancient urus. Upon perceiving a stranger they gullop wildly in a circle
round him, and stop to gaze, tossing their heads, and sliowing signs of deli,
ance : they then set off, and gallop a second time round, but in a contracted
circle, repeating this circular mode of approaching till they are so near that it
beconses prudent to retire from their intended charge. The cow^ conceal their
young calves for eight or ten days, going to suckle them twice or three times in
a day : if a person comes near the calf, it conceals itself by crouching. One
not more than two days old being discovered by Dr Fuller,* was very lean
and weak. On his stroking its head, it got up, pawed the ground, bellowed
very loud, went back a few steps, and bolted at his legs : it then began to paw
ngain, and made another bolt, but missing its aim, fell, and was so weak as
not to be able to rise j but by this time, its bellowing had roused the herd,
which came instantly to its relief, and made the doctor retire. When one of
this breed happens to be wounded, or is enfeebled by age or sickness, the
others set upon it and gore it to death.

These animals were killed to within a few years, by a grand assemblage of
horsemen and country people armed with muskets: the former rode one
from the herd, and the latter took their st.itions on w.ills or in trees. There
was grandeur in the chase, but from the number of accidents which occurred

• This anecdote is elsewhere ascribed to Mr Bailey of Chillingham. We
understand that there is a large breed, not perfectly white, in the Duke ut
Ilaiuiltou's park in Scotland.

ANIMALS. 525

was considered in cattle as a deformity ; and the cow was cho-
Ben according to Virgil's direction, with a large dewlap : how-
ever, at present it is the universal opinion, that the cow wants
in udder, what it has in neck ; and the larger the dewlap, the
smaller is the quantity of its milk. Our graziers now, there-
fore, endeavour to mix the two breeds ; the large Holstein with
the small northern ; and from both results that fine milch breed,
which excels the cattle of any other part of the world.

This difference, arising from pasture, is more observable in
other countries than in our own. The cow kind is to be found
in almost every part of the world, large in proportion to the rich-
ness of the pasture ; and small as the animal is stinted in its
food. Thus Africa is remarkable for the largest and the small-
est cattle of this kind ; as is also India, Poland, Switzerland,
and several other parts of Europe. Among the Eluth Tartars,
where the pastures are remarkably rich and nourishing, the
cow becomes so large that he must be a tall man who can reach
the tip of its shoulder. On the contrary, in France, where the
animal is stinted in its food, and driven from the most flourish-
ing pastures, it greatly degenerates.*

it was laid aside. We believe that at present none remain, excepting at
Cliil.ingham Castle, the property of tlie Earl of Tankerville, near Berwick-
upon-Tweed ; at Wollaton, in Nottingham; at Gisburne, in Craven; at
Limehall, in Chesshire, and at Charily, in Staflordshire.

* 'ihe breeds of the Kisguise and Caimuck Tartars, those of Podolia and
Ukraine, of European Turkey, of Hungary, and of the Roman States, are
among the largest known. They are nearly all distinguished by ample horns
ppreading sideways, then forwards and upwards, with dark points : their
colour is a bluish-ash passing to black. 1 hat in the Papal dominions is not
found represented on the ancient bas-reliefs of Rome, but was introduced
most probably by the Goths, or at the same time with the buffalo. Italy pos-
Besii's another race, presumed to have existed in the Pagan times, valued for
its fine form and white colour : it is not so large, but the horns are similarly
developed. 'I'uscany produces this race, and droves of them were trans-
planted to Cuba and imported into Jamaica.

Ancient Egypt nourished a larsje, white breed, which, however, is not the
most common upon the monuments of that country, where the cattle are
usually represented with large irregular marks of black or bruwn upon a
« liite ground.

Ill Abyssinia there is also a large white breed, but the greater number are
variously coloured. The Caffres and Hottentots rear a fine race, likewise
marked with large brown or black ch)uds : some are of extraordinary size,
with the horns directed forward and upwards. It is from these that their
llakelv, or war oxen, are chosen : they ride them on all occasions, bcinij

526 HisroHV of

But the differences in the size of tins animal are not so re-
markable as those which are found in its form, its hair, and its
horns. The difference is so very extraordinary in many of them,
that they have been even considered as a different kind of crea-

quick, persevering, extremely docile, and governed bj- the voice or a whistle
of the owners with surprising intelligence. They thrive most on the Znnie
Velden or saline pastures, and that kind of food may cause the peculiarly
fetid smell of their breath, noticed by Mr Barrow. 'I'he long horns of some
of this breed are often trained by the Namaguas and other tribes, so as to
twist in spiral curves or other fanciful forms, said to be maniiged by means
of a warm iron.

Denmark rears a breed of large stature, which most likely produced the
tall Dutch race, of which we have seeu one weighing a thousand pounds ;
from this race sprung the Holstein, which was tlie parent of the old uiiim.
proved Englisli breeds ; the Vandals or Goths may have conducted it into
Spain, and left its traces in the large breeds of Salamanca, and transported
from thence to South America, furnished the root of the fine races which
cover the Pampas, near Buenos Ay res, and iu Cuba; while the large English
supplied that of the United States.

Breeds with small and middle-sized horns exist in the Crimea, in a great
part of Germany, Sweden, France, England, Italy, and Spain ; and the Polled
races, or hornless cattle, originally, as it would appear, a German breed,
" ne armentis quidem honor aut gloria frontis," according to Tacitus, have
spread to Iceland and Norway, where they are often fed on dried fish. They are
now abundant in Scotland, exist in France, and about Penaranda, in Spain,
from whence they may have been transported to form the Polled breed of As.
Bomption iu Paraguay. They are also common in Abyssinia and Madagascar.

The following is a short account of the principal British breeds, derived
from the several above-noticed races.

1. Tne Long-horned or Lancaster hreei, distinguished by long horns and
thick firm hides, long close hair, large hoofs, and depth of the fore-quarter, give
in proportion less railk but more cream. They are of various colours, but in
general finched, that is, with a white streak along the spine, and a white
Bpot inside of the houghs. The Improved Leicester is a slight variety origi-
nally bred at Canly near Coventry.

2. The Short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch, includes the varieties
named the Holderriess, Teeswater, Yorkshire, Durham,and Northumberland'
This has been the most improved, produces railk, usually twenty.four
quarts per day, and butter to three firkins per season. Their colours are
much varied, but generally red and white mixed, or what the breeders call
Aeeked. The oxen commonly weigh from sixty to one hundred stone
(foiu-teen pound to the stone) ; they have been fed to one hundred and
twenty, one hundred and thirty, and particular ones to one hundred and fifty
stone, the fore-quarters ouly.

3. The Middle-horned, comprehending the Dei'on, Hereford, and Sussex,
most esteemed for draught, active and hardy, do not milk so well as the for.
iner, but fatten early. The Devons to be pure, must be of a high red colour
without white spots, a light dun ring round tlie eye, and the muzzle of the
tame colour ; tine iu bone, and clear neck ; thin faced, the tail set on higib

ANIMALS. 327

ture, and names have been given them as a distinct species,
when in reality they are all the same.' In this manner the unis
and the bison have been considered, from the vai'iety in their
make, to be distinct in their production ; but they are ail, in fact,

The cows weigh from thirty to forty stone, and the oxen from forty to sixty.
The north Devon is the most esteemed for its flesh. The Sussex and Here-
ford are larger, of a deep red colour, well made, and bone not larger : an
ox weighs from sixty to one hundred stone.

4. The Polled breeds, of which the most esteemed is the Galloway, straight
in the back, well moulded, with soft hair, black or dark brindled ; not large,
weighing generally about forty stone, before they are regularly fattened.
They travel well, and reach the Loudon markets, without deterioration.
The Suffolk Duns are a variety of this race, introduced from Scotland, and
crossed.

5. The Highland race consists of several varieties, of which the West
Highland Argyleshire or Skye form the most valuable : of these the Kyloe
from the Hebrides, so named, because in their progress to the south, they
cross the Kyloes or ferries in the main land and Western Islands. The bulla
are of middle size, of a black dark brown, or reddish-brown colour without
white; head small; muzzle fine; horns rather slender, of a waxy green:
they weigh about fifty stone. The other variety is the Norlands, their hides
are coarse, the make narrow and long legged. The Orkney or Shetland are
of a diminutive size; an ox weighing about sixty pounds a quarter, and a
cow forty. They are of all colours, and their shapes generally bad ; but they
give a quantity of excellent milk, and fatten rapidly.

6. The Fifeshire appears to be an improved breed of the HiglJand crossed
with the Cambridgeshire. They are black, spotted or gray ; the horns small,
white, very erect : the Aberdeenshire are a variety of them.

7. The Welsh have two breeds; one large, dark. brown, with some white,
denoting a cross from the long-horned : they liave long legs, and slender ; the
horns white, and turned upwards, and next to the Devon, the best for the
yoke. The second is lower, well formed, black, with little white, and good
milkers.

8. The Alderney or more properly Guernsey, is small, mostly yelh-w, or
light red, with white about the face and limbs ; they have crumpled horns, and
till lately ill-shaped. The true breed is distinguished by a yellow colour within
the ears, at the root of the tail, and of the tuft at the end of it : they give e.x.
cellent milk and tine beef

The races of France arc principally distinguished into two divisions
among both of which fine breeds are found. The first is commonly designat.
pd as Bwufs de himt cru, or those who are of middle or small stature ; with
a fierce look, thick hide, coarse hair, large dewlap, horns greenish or black ;
living in the mountainous departments formed of the ancient provinces o/
Limousin, Saintonge, Angoumois, Marche, Berri, Gascony, Auvergne,
liourbonois, Charolois, and Burgundy. The others styled Bmufs de Nutitre.
Their stature is large or middle sized, head and body small, ears and miizsile
fine ; horns white, hide thin ; hair soft, and a-^pect kind : they fattt-n easily,

1 Bufi'un, vol. xxiii. p. 73L

528 HISTORY OF

the descendants of one common stock, as they have that certain
mark of unity, they breed and propagate among each other.
Naturalists have, therefore, laboured under an obvious error,
when, because of the extreme bulk of the urus, or because of the

and belong to low or level lands. Such are the Cholets, Nantz, Anjou, Mar
cais, Breton, Mans, Dutch, Cotentin, and Comtois breeds.

The difference between the straight-backed races, and the hunched, are,
beside the huncli on the back, a certain liveliness and activity, also a ditfe-
rent voice, for they groan or produce a sound like the shriller and weak,
er tones of the Gayals ; and in the Chinese, some breeds liave the hums
placed further back, so that the forehead is actually arched. These races oc-
cupy all Southern China, India, and Ceylon. In Persia they appear not to
have existed at an early period, if we may judge by the bas-reliefs of Chel.
minar, where oxen with straight backs and Taurine horns are represented
forming part of the tribute of several Satrapies. They now abound in that
country, and are spread westward to Morocco and Guinea, and through the
Galla states to the Caifres of Madagascar. They have in general small and
crumpled horns, and much white in their colouring.

The large species of India, equal to the bulls of largest stature, have a lump
on tlie back, weighing sometimes fifty pounds ; it is usually red or brown :
the horns are short and bent backwards.

The middle-sized race, Common-Zebu or Deswali of India and Northern
Africa, while or blue-gray and white, brown and even black, breeds com.
monly with the straight backed, and loses the hump on the shoulders in the
fourth generation. This race has horns mostly bent forward and upwards. It
is not unfrequently in England.

The Chinese breed, in size equal to the smaller British race; hump not
very large ; forehead round ; very short horns, bent back ; dewlap loose ;
colour often white. It is often figured on china-ware.

The small Zebu race, with small or no horns, commonly whitish-gray :
size of a hog.

The Abyssinian breed, white and black In clouds, low on the legs, with
the horns hanging loose, forming small horny hooks, nearly of equal thick-
ness to the point ; turning freely either way, and hanging against the cheeks.
This breed transferred to Catfraria, and mixed with the straight-backed, has
lost its hump, retaining the other characters, and is esteemed very valuable.

Besides these varieties, a race remains to be mentioned, reared in Abyssi.
nia, the Galla country, and Northern Central Africa : it is of large size, ge-
nerally white, and armed with immense horns. Travellers agree that they
are hunched; but in some accounts they are considered as buft'uloes, nor does
it appear proved, that the hunch is a simple fatty excrescence ; there is eveu
some probability, that the ridge of the withers is the principal cause, in
which case, the true location of this race would become doubtful. Of this tha
GiillaoT Zanga race, generally white, with small hunch, black muzzle, small
bone, and high legs, is the longest known. The horns turn up vertically,
are of a pale horn colour, extremely bulky, and near four feet in length.
The next is the Bornou race, likewise white, of a very large size, with
bunched back, and very large horns, but not rising vertically ; they are
couched outwards and downwards, like those of the African buffalo, with

ANIMALS. 529

lump upon the back of the bison, they assigned them different
places in the creation, and separated a class of animals which
was really united. It is true, the horse and the ass do not diifei
so much in form, as the cow and the bison ; nevertheless, the
former are distinct animals, as their breed is marked with ster-
ility ; the latter are animals of the same kind, as their breed is
fruitful, and a race of animals is produced, in which the hump
belonging to the bison is soon worn away. The differences,
therefore, between the cow, the urus, and the bison, are merely
accidental. The same caprice in nature that has given horns to
some cows, and denied them to others, may also have given the
bison a hump, or increased the bulk of the urus ; it may have
given the one a mane, or denied a sufficiency of hair to the
other.

But before we proceed farther, it may be proper to describe
these varieties, which have been thus taken for distinct kinds.'
The urus, or wild bull, is chiefly to be met with in the province
of Lithuania ; and grows to a size that scarcely any other animal,
except the elephant, is found to equal. It is quite black, except
a stripe mixed with white, that runs from the neck to the tail, along
the top of the back ; the horns are short, thick, and strong ; the
eyes are fierce and fiery ; the forehead is adorned with a kind of
garland of black curled hair, and some of them are found to have
beards of the same ; the neck is short and strong ; and the skin
has an odour of musk. The female, though not so big as the
male, exceeds the largest of our bulls in size ; nevertheless, her
udder and teats are so small, that they can scarcely be perceived.
Upon the whole, however, this animal resembles the tame one

the tip forming a small spiral revolution. We are indebted to captain Clap.

perton for the knowledge of this species. The corneous external coat is very
soft, distinctly fibrous, and at the base not much thicker than a human nail ;
the osseous core full of vascular grooves, and inside very cellular ; the pair
together, scarcely weighing four pounds. The skin passes iusi-nsibly to the
horny state, so that there is no exact demarcation where the one coramen.
ces or the other ends. The dimensions of a horn, are, length measured on
the curve, three feet seven inches ; circumference at base, two feet ; circum.
ference midway, one foot six inches ; circumference two-thirds up the horn,
one foot; length in a straight line, from base to tip, one foot tive inches and a
half. The species has a small neck, and is the common domestic breed of
Bornou where the buffalo is said to have small horns.

1 This description is chiefly taken from Klein.
L 2 X

530 HISTORY Ot

very exactly, except in some trifling varieties, which his state of
wildness, or the richness of the pastures where he is found, mav
easily have produced.

The bison, which is another variety of the cow kind, differs
from the rest, in havuig a lump between its shoulders. These
animals are of various kinds ; some very large, others as diminu'
lively little. In general, to regard this animal's fore-parts, he
has somewhat the look of a lion, with a long shaggy mane, and a
beard under his chin ; his head is little, his eyes red and fiery,
with a furious look ; the forehead is large, and the horns so big,
and so far asunder, that three men might often sit between them.
On the middle of the back there grows a bunch almost as high
as that of a camel, covered with hair, and which is considered as
a gi'eat delicacy by those that hunt him. There is no pursuing
him with safety, except in forests where there are trees large
enough to hide the hunters. He is generally taken by pitfalls :
the inhabitants of those counti'ies where he is found wild, digg-
ing holes in the ground, and covering them over with boughs of
trees and grass ; then provoking the bison to pursue them, they
get on the opposite side of the pit-fall, while the furious animal,
running head foremost, falls into the pit pi'epared for him, and
is there quickly overcome and slain.

Besides these real distinctions in the cow kind, there have
been many others made, that appear to be in name only. Thus
the bonasus, of which naturalists have given us long descriptions,
is supposed by Klein and Buffon to be no more than another
name for the bison, as the descriptions given of them by the an-
cients coincide. The bubalus also of the ancients, which some
have supposed to belong to the cow kind, Buffon places among
the lower class of ruminant quadrupeds, as it most resembles
them in size, shape, and the figure of its horns. Of all the va-
rieties, therefore, of the cow kind, there are but two that are
really distinct ; namely, the cow and the buffalo : these two are
separated by nature ; they seem to bear an antipathy to each
other; they avoid each other, and maybe considered as much
removed as the horse is from the ass or the zebra When, there-
fore, we have described the varieties of the cow kind, we shall
pass on to the buffalo, which, being a different animal, requires a
separate history.

There is scarcely a part of the world, as was said before, in

ANIMALS. 531

which the cow is not found in some one of its varieties ; either
large, like the uius, or humped, as the bison; with straight
horns, or bending, inverted backwards, or turning sideways to the
cheek, like those of the ram ; and, in many countries, they are
found without any horns whatsoever. But, to be more particu-
lar, beginning at the north, the few kine which subsist in Ice-
land, are without horns, although of the same race originally
with ours. The size of these is rather relative to the goodness
of the pasture, than the warmth or coldness of the climate. The
Dutch frequently bring great quantities of lean cattle from Den-
mark, which they fatten on their own rich grounds. These are
in general of a larger size than their own natural breed ; and
hey fatten very easily. The cattle of the Ukraine, where the
pasture is excellent, become very fat, and are considered as one
of the largest breeds of Europe. In Switzerland, where the
mountains are covered with rich nourishing herbage, which is
entirely reserved for their kine, these animals grow to a very
large size. On the contrary, in France, where they get no other
grass but what is thought unfit for horses, they dwindle and grow
lean. In some parts of Spain the cow grows to a good size :
those wild bulls, however, which they pride themselves so much
in combating, are a very mean despicable little animal, and some-
what shaped like one of our cows, with nothing of that peculiar
stenmess of aspect for which our bulls are remarkable. In Bar-
bary, and the provinces of Africa, where the ground is dry, and
the pasturage short, the cows are of a very small breed, and
give milk in proportion. On the contrary, in Ethiopia, they are
of a prodigious bigness. The same holds in Persia and Tartary ;
where, in some places, they are very small, and, in others, of an
amazing stature. It is thus, in almost every part of the world,
this animal is found to correspond in size to the quantity of its
provision.

If we examine the form of these animals, as they are found
tame, in different regions, we shall find, that the breed of the
urns, or those without a hump, chiefly occupies the cold and the
temperate zones, and is not so much dispersed towards the
south. On the contrary, the breed of the bison, or the animal
with a hump, is found in all the southern parts of the world ,
throughout the vast continent of India; throughout Africa,
from mount Atlas to the Caj)e of (Jood Hope. In all these

532 HISTORY OF

countries, the bison setms chiefly to prevail ; where they are
found to have a smooth soft hair, are very nimble of foot,
and in some measure supply the want of horses. The bison
breed is also more expert and docile than ours ; many of them,
when they carry burdens, bend their knees to take them up,
or set them down : they are treated, therefore, by the natives
of those countries, with a degree of tenderness and care equal
to their utility ; and the respect for them in India has de-
generated even into blind adoration. But it is among tlie
Hottentots where these animals are chiefly esteemed, as being
more than commonly serviceable. They are their fellow-do-
mestics, the companions of their pleasures and fatigues ; the
cow is at once the Hottentot's protector and servant, assists
him in' attending his flocks, and guarding them against every
invader : while the sheep are grazing, the faithful backely, as
this kind of cow is called, stands or grazes beside them ; still,
however, attentive to the looks of its master, the backelj flies
round the field, herds in the sheep that are straying, obliges
them to keep within proper limits, and shows no mercy to
robbers, or even strangers, who attempt to plunder. Eut it is
not the plunderers of the flock alone, but even the enemies of
the nation, that these backelies are taught to combat. Every
army of Hottentots is furnished with a proper herd of these,
which are let loose against the enemy, when the occasion is most
convenient. Being thus sent forward, they overturn all before
them ; they strike every opposer down with their horns, and
trample upon them with their feet •, and thus often procure their
masters an easy victory, even before they have attempted to
strike a blow. An animal so serviceable, it may be supposed,
is not without its reward. The backely lives in the same cottage
with its master, and, by long habit, gains an afl^ection for him ;
and in proportion as the man approaches to the brute, so the
brute seems to attain even to some share of human sagacity.
The Hottentot and his backely thus mutually assist each other j
and when the latter happens to die, a new one is chosen to suc-
ceed him, by a counsel of the old men of the village. The new
backely is then joined with one of the veterans of his own kind,
from whom he learns his art, becomes social and diligent, and is
taken for life into human friendship and protection.

The bisons, or cows with a hump, are found to differ very

ANIMALS. 533

miK'b from each other in the several parts of the world where
they are found.* The wild ones of this kind, as with us, are
much larger than the tame. Some have horns, and some are
without any; some have them depressed, and some raised in

• Among the bisons are found indications of an ancient and colossal species
existing at one time in Europe and Northern Asia, and even in America,
attested by the repeated discovery of enormous skulls in the diluvian strata
of the earth, on the vegetable mould, and even beneath them, among the
remains of the mastadon and rhinoceros. But there seem to be fossil re-
mains of two different epochs ; the first or deepest belonging to the colossal,
and the second perhaps to the existing aurochs, or, to speak more correctly,
bison. In order to establish this group upon a clear foundation, and separate
it from the urus and domestic species with which it has long been con-
founded, it is necessary to give the luminous view which baron Cuvier
furnishes on the subject. He says " the forehead of the ox is tiat and even
slightly concave ; that of the aurochs (bison) is arched, though somewhat
less than in the buffalo : it is in the ox nearly equal in height and breadth,
taking the base between the orbits; in the aurochs, measured iu the same
place, the breadth greatly surpasses the height, in the proportion of three to
two : the horns of the ox are attached to the extremity of the highest salient
line of the head ; that which separates the forehead from the occiput : in the
aurochs this line is two inches behind the root of the horns: the plane of tlie
occiput forms an acute angle with the forehead in the ox; that angle is ob-
tuse in the aurochs : finally, that plane of the occiput quadrangular in the
ox, is semicircular in the aurochs."

These characters are constant in all the varieties deriving from the ox.
including those with hunched backs : besides, the bison has fourteen pair of
ribs, while the ox, in common with most ruminants, numbers only thirteen
pair : the legs are more slender than those of the ox or buffalo, and the
tongue is blue, while the ox has it flesh colour. Mr Gilibert who reared
an individual, naming the species by its true appellation, represents the hair
of the female bison as soft, placed in the skin at an obtuse angle : of two sort*.
one long and the other soft ; while those of the cow are of one kind, hard and
close to the hide. Those of the male bison are very lon^r under the jaw and
throat, and upon the shoulders and upper arms ; also upon the hack, but les9
prominent : the tail descends to the houghs, and is provided with abui>danc«
of long black hair ; the summit of the head is covered with a bushy and
spreading space of long hairs, strongly impregnated with musk; and the
horns are short, lateral, black, and pointed : the eyes large, round, and full
The back part of the body is covered with shorter hair, which also pre.
dominates in summer on the shoulders. The hide i.s double in thickness to
that of-the ox, and the species shows a decided aversion to domestic cattle.

The name aurod-.s, applied to the bison by the Germans, is evidently the
origin of the Latin urus ; but baron Cuvier, fnllowing up with his usual
re.search the observations of Herberstein, establishes beyond a doubt, that
tJie irue urus may still have existed iu some parts of Massovia by the name
ot Thur ill the time of the last-mentioned author, but that it is now extinct
in Europe and Western Asia, and its name transferred to the bison of the
ancients, which the Pules at this dnv ■^till diitinijuiiih by the ai'pcllatioii i>f

534 HISTORY OF

such a mannei tliat they are used as weapons of annoyance or
defence ; some are extremely large, and others among them,
such as the zebu, or Barbary cow, are very small. They are
all, however, equally docile and gentle when tamed ; and, in

Zubr, and the ancient Germans called Wizend and Bisam (Musk.) The
baron explains the causes which have misled naturalists, and caused them to
overlook the bison in the boriasus, bolinthus, monepus, monapus, and the
Poeonian oxen of Aristotle and Pliny, who clearly distinguishes the maned
bison from the rapid iirus, and Seneca still more distinctly says,

Tibi dant variEE pectora tigris
Tibi villosi teiga biqontes
Latisque feri cornibus uri.

Pausanias and Oppian both represent the bison as very hairy about the neck
and breast, place it in Poeonia and Thrace, and repeat almost the very words
which Aristotle uses for the bonasus.

But the bisons of Europe are not the only species of the group : for, beside
the American, Asia, in all probability, contains two more. All appear to
live in small families, which assemble into herds only in certain seasons :
those of the old world prefer woods and mountains. In America, from
causes probably local, they are mostly found on open elevated plains or
savannas. Notwithstanding the hostility between the bison and the ox, it
is asserted that in America, the males often drive the bull from the cows,
and cover them, and that the intermediate animal is prolific. But this is not
fully authenticated.

The animal commonly known by the names of Aurochs and Zubr is, as
before explained, the true bison of the ancients. It is distinguished by an
elevated stature, measuring six feet at the shoulder, and ten feet three inches
from the nose to the tail. In adult specimens the withers are elevated, but
when old they do not appear so, nor are they conspicuous in the females.
The head is broad, and the horns far distant, short, robust, pointed, slightly
turned forwards, aud dark-coloured ; the forehead is arched ; the eye large,
full, and dark ; the body is formed with fourteen pair of ribs ; the mamma
are four, disposed in a square ; the anterior half of the animal, with the ex-
ception of the chaftron, is covered with a heavy coat of mixed woolly and
long harder hair measuring more than a foot in winter; the internal parts of
the woolly, is gray or whitish, as also in general that on the top of the head,
throat, and breast ; the external browner on the throat and breast, abundant
and bearded ; the lower extremities, back, flanks, and croup, short haired,
of a brownish-black colour. The females are smaller, with shorter and less
hair on the shoulders and throat, and the colour paler.

Mr Gilibert, who resided a long time in Poland, and reared a female, ia
the author who dissected and best described this species. As we have oh.
served, it was known to the ancients, and their bones are often found in tlia
superficial strata of temperate Europe. At present they are nearly de,
stroyed in Lithuania, though they were still common in Germany in the
eighth century. They may now be looked upon as residing only in the
forests of Southern Russia in Asia, the Carpathian and Caucasian mountain.
forests, and the Kobi Desert ; but none exist in Siberia. They prefer high

ANIMALS. 5Jj

general, furnished with a fine lustrous soft hair, more beautiful
than that of our own breed ; their humj) is also of different
sizes, in some weighing from forty to fifty pounds, in others
less ; it is not, however, to be considered as a part necessarily

wooded localities to the plain or the low lands, live in small troops, and hava
a groaning voice. The Gaw.Kotiah of the Persians is probably tliis aiiimaL

The Gaur. (B. Gaurus.j The Gaur is a species of bison, which, from al
accounts, appears to be among the largest now living; and although in la.
dian phraseoligy th>; word buffalo his been used, no doubt can exist
respecting its affinity to the bison : indeed the gaur may be no other than
the true bison, though from certain testimonies we are inclined to regard it
as ?n intermediate species.

The head of the gaur exhibits nearly all the characters of the domestic
ox, but the forehead is more arched and raised ; the horns, strong and rough,
are not bent back as in the buffalo ; the top of the forehead is covered with
white woolly hair ; the rest of the hair is smooth, close, and shining, of a
dark. broivn colour, almost black; the eyes are smaller than in the ox; and
pale blue; the muscles of the legs and thighs very prominent and strong.
But the most remarkable character of the gaur, that which should distinguish
it from all other ruminants, consists in a series of spinous processes along
the back, beginning at the last vertebrae of the neck, shortening gradually till
they are lost half way Ao\\ n the spine ; the foremost are at least six inches
higher than the ridge of the back. These gaurs live in families of ten or
twenty, graze on the meadows, and feed on leaves and buds of trees ; the
female bears a twelveminith, and calves in August. Buff.iloes fear their pre-
sence, and never invade their localities. Although the existence of this ani.
mal is more questionable in Africa, yet Pliny's .Ethiopian bull with blue
eyes might refer to this species, and even the white variety, as large as a
camel, known in Madagascar by the name of Bouri, may be the same.

The American Bison. {Bos Americiinus.) This species is commonly
known by the name of Buffalo, and was long confounded with the bison of
Europe, though it is anatomically more remote from it, than the yak, not-
withstanding the great external similarity between them. This species is
distinguished by small horns, round, lateral, black, very distant, turned side,
ways and upwards; theheightattheshoulderisabout five feet, and at the croup
four; length from nose to tail eight feet : but these dimensions must be con,
siderably increased in some individuals, being reported sometimes to weigh
sixteen hundred and even two thousand pounds- I'he structure of the ani-
mal is heavy in front, meagre and weak behind ; the body is long, having fif.
leen pair of ribs and only four coccigian vertebrae ; the eyes round and dark ;
the chaftron short ; the forehead broad, and the muzzle wide. Upon the
Bummitof the head there is a vast quantity of long woolly hair, hanging over
the face, ears, and horns ; the neck is a little arched, and the withers are
greatly elevated ; upon the face the hair is rather curled, but on the cheeks,
throat, neck, shoulders, breast, and upper arms, very long; the back, flanks,
croup, tliifjhs, and legs covered with close short hair ; the tail, about eighteen
inches long, is terminated by a long tuft of coarse hair: the ('olour in winter
is a purplish brown-black, turni'ig rubty by the etfects of the sun and wea-
ther, so as to become lii;ht.bro vn in summer. 'J'he female is smaller, tha
horns still less, and the quantity of hair on the anterior parts much smaller.

JISG HISTORY OF

belonging to the animal ; and probably it might be cut away
without much injury : it resembles a gristly fat ; and, as I am
assured, cuts and tastes somewhat like a dressed udder. The
bisons of Malabar, Abyssinia, and Madagascar, are of the great

These animals are in tlie liabit of standing with the feet mueh more under
them than domestic cattle, and then thuy appear as if their body was shorter.
Tliey reside in winter as much as possible in the woods of temperate
North America, ascending the mountains and penetrating into New Mexico.
'Towards the summer they migrate northwards, and in their passage both in
spring and autumn, occasionally form herds of several thousands. They are
not naturally dangerous, but irritable ; we have seen them leap over fences
four feet high, and defend themselves against the bull-dogs with much spirit
and more activity than the domestic bull : they turn with great quickness,
and being covered by their shaggy hair, dogs seldom seize them firmly.
When a dug thus snaps into the hair, they toss him over the he:id in an in-
stant; and if at length they are, what is termed, pinned by the nose, they
spread the forelegs, bring the hind feet forward, till they tread the dog under
them, and then tear the head loose, regardle.ss of the wound they thus inflict
upon themselves, provided their enemy be crushed by their leet. They de-
fend themselves against troops of wolves by forming a circle with the strong-
est outside ; a practice which is common to most gregarious ruminants of the
northern hemisphere.

About the middle of June the rutting season commences with the most
determined battles among the males : they are then not to be approached
with safety. Young animals acquire a certain temporary docility, and might
be used to the plough ; but the elevation of the shoulders, and their weakness
aliont the loins, "ill never allow such profitable use to be made of them as
of the domestic ox. The females besides do not retain their milk long, yield
a smaller quantity, and it is said to smell musky : they are also very restless,
leaping the fences and enticing the other cattle tostray by following tliem, and
damage the corn-fields. We have seen many of these animals, but none that
were estimated to weigh more than eight hundred pounds, and suspect the
reality of such ponderous individuals as before mentioned, unless they belong
to a larger species, said to be found in the interior, and differing somewhat in
tlieir form, and much more in their size ; though it must be confessed that
old bulls, sometimes concealed singly in good pasture, will fatten so enor.
mously as to run with difficulty, and fall an easy prey.

Formerly the species was known to the eastward of the Apalachian moun-
tains, but they are no longer found in the remote parts of Pennsylvania or
in Kentucky, and only seen beyond the Mississipi ; on the Ohio and Missouri
they are in great numbers. The Indians shoot them or encompass a herd
by filing the grass, when a number are destroyed without diflicully. In
the northern parts tliey drive them into a kind of staked avenues, or keddah,
while the snow is on the ground, and kill them from a tree in the centre of
the recess, and from around it: they make ch.aks, &c , of hides. Tliehuf.
falo dance is one of the principal ceremonies of the year among many tribes.
It takes place before the hunting season of the bison, and has been fully des.
frilicd by I'ennant.

The Yak. {B. Poephagus.) This animal was originally noticed by Elian
ondiT the above name, and since described by Pallas, who preferred sis a

ANIMALS. 537

kind, as the pastures there are plentiful. Those of Arabia Pe-
trsea, and most parts of Africa, are small, and of the zebu or little
kind. In America, especially towards the north, the bison
is well known. The American bison, however, is found to

specific designation grunniens or grunting' : but it should rather be groaning,
as its viiice lias no similarity with the grunt of a hog. The yak bears some
resemblance to a butfalo in tlie form of the head ; but it is shorter, more con.
vex, and thicker about the muzzle ; the ears are wide, horizontal ; the eyes
large; the muzzle itself small, and the nostrils almost transverse; the lips
tumid ; the forehead rather flat, the top of the head convex between the
ears, and covered with frizzled woolly hair ; the neck of the male thick ; the
withers elevated but not hunched ; the mainmse placed in a transverse line,
and the body furnished with fourteen pair of ribs. The hair of the forehead
whirls, and is close ; that on the neck, back, and sides, is long, woolly, pen.
dent in winter and upon high mountains, but shorter on the sides in summer
and in low warm situations. From the shoulders along the spine, there is a
streak of hair generally grayish, and turned forwards ; the tail more furnish,
ed with long and finer hairs than in the horse, reaches to the heels. The tta-
ture of the animal varies, the smaller being only seven feet long, and three
feet ten inches at the shoulder ; but there are larger varieties, the tail of one
in the British Museum measuring six feet in length. The horns are round,
smooth, pointed, lateral, bending forward and upwards, black or white with
black tips, or even pure white, and there are some hornless. The colour
varies greatly, but in general it is black; hut many have their fine tails
pure white, as also the ridge on the shoulders, which is abundantly cover-
ed with light frizzled hair, that it appears like a hunch ; two or four legs
are commonly of the same colour, and the line of the back sometimes extends
in a broad white streak to the tail : a few have locks of rufous among the
white about the shoulders.

Like the rest of the bisontes, the yaks are more fond of mountainnus
woods and valleys, than the open plains, keeping on the south side in winter,
and on the north in summer. They are said to be fond of wallowing in water,
and to swim well : but to take the water, can only be in the summer licats,
and the countries where their fleece drops. The species is both wild and do-
mesticated, but the latter have still much of the sombre menacing, and down as.
pect of wild animals, and all their irascibility at the sight of the gay colours.
They will attack strangers, or at least throw out signals of hostility, stamp.
ing with the feet, whisking their tails aloft, and tossing the head : tliey are
active in running and climbing. The mountains of Bhotan and Thibet ofler
the principal asylum to the wild species, where they appear to enjoy the vici-
nity of the snow ; hut they are also domesticated in that country, spreading
from tlienc« over a great part of China, and even to Central India, where
fhey seem to be without woolly hair, but still marked by the white feet. We
are inclined to consider the while t-pecies of wild cattle in the Itamghur
mountains as a variety of this species; for a country which includes the
course of the Ganges from beyond the Himalaya range to the sea, contains
overy degree of climate, and may therefore, well be supposed to mark also
its various impressions upon animaln, to the two extremes of which the na-
tiire is capable ; and the practice of the lirahminical cast, to give liberty to

538 HISTORY OF

be rather less than that of the ancient continent ; its hair is
longer and thicker, its beard more remarkable, and its hide more
(ustrous and soft. There are many of them brought up tame
in Carolina ; however, their wild dispositions still seem to con-

<rertain cattle at tlieir deaths, may produce great difterences upon animals,
■ivlio are tlius restored to a state of nature. The yak inhabits also the Altaic
mouDtains, and supplies milk to the Calraucks, the Mongolian and Doukta
TiU-tars, and affords materials of trade in the sale of their white tails, of
which the Turks and Persians make standards, commonly named horse-tails,
dyed of various colours, but principally crimson. In India and Persia,
ehoivries or fly-drivers are made of them, and they adoiu the ears of ele.
phants, the throat band and croups of horses, as may he se«n to have con.
stitutedaprailiceof antiquity in the bas-reliefs of Chelininar, (Persepolis)
and Naktchi Roustam, the temple of Salsette, and is still in vogue at this day.
The Tartars lead a wandering life with these cattle, preserving the milk,
which is very good and abundant, in bladders, till they load the animals witU
their own produce, and carry it to market ; they make tents and ropes of
the hair; caps and clothes of the skin. The Chinese name them Si-nyn or
water-OS, and adorn tlieir caps with the fringes of the hair.
The Gm/al. It.appears that the gayal is nearly the size and shape of an English
bull, with a dull lieavy appoaiance ; but at the same time, of a form equal ia
strength and acti\ity with the wild buifalo. It luis short horns, which are dis-
taut at the biises. and rise in a gentle ciu-ve directly out and up. The head
Kt zhe upper part is very broad and flat, and contracted suddenly towards the
jiose, which is naked like that nf the common cow ; from the upper angles of
the forehead, proceed two thick short horizontal processes of bone, which
are covered with a tuft of lighter coloured hair : on these are placed the
hums, shorter than the head, and lying nearly on the plane of the forehead :
at the base they are very thick, and slightly compressed, the flat sides bein^
towards the front and tail ; the edge next the ear is rather the thinnest, so
that a transverse sectiim would somewhat ovate ; towards their tips they
are rounded, and end in a siiarp point. The eyes resemble those of a com-
mon ox, the ears much longer, broader, and blunter than those of that ani-
mal ; the neck is very slender near the head, at some distance from which a
dewlap commences ; but this is not so deep, nor so much undulated as in
the zebu. The dewlap is covered with strong longish hair, so as to join 31
kind of mane on the lower part of the neck ; but is not very conspicuous,
especially when the animal is young.

In the place of the hump, the gayal has a sharp ridge, which commences
nn the hinder part of the neck, slopes gradually up till it comes over tho
shoulder joints, then runs horizontally almost a third part of the back, whero
it terminates with a very sudden slope. The height of this ridge makes tho
neck appear much depressed, and also adds greatly to the clumsiness of the
chest, which although narrow is very deep; the- sternum is covered by a
continuation of the dewlap ; the belly is protuberant, but in its hinder part,
is greatly contracted ; the rump, or os sacrum, has a more considerable de..
clivity than that of the European ox, but less than that of the zebu. The tail
is covered with short hair, except near the end, where it is tufted, but dp.
scends no lovirer than the shins. The legs, especially the fore ones, are thici

ANIMALS. 539

tliiue, for tbey break through all fences to get into the corn-
fields, and lead the whole tame herd after them, wherever they
penetrate. They breed also with the tame kinds originally
brought over from Europe ; and thus produce a race peculiar to
that country.

and clumsy ; tlie false hoofs are much larger than those of the aebu ; tlie
hinder parts are weaker in proportion than the forehead ; and owing to the
construction of the belly, the hinder legs, although, in fact, the shortest,
appear to be the longest.

The whole body is covered with a coat of short hair : from the summit of
the head, there diverges, with a whirl, a bunch of rather long coarse hair,
tvhich lies flat, is usually white or lighter-coloured than the rest, and ex-
tends towards the horns and over the forehead. The genera! colour is brown
in various shades, wliich very often approaclies to black, but sometimes is
rather light; the legs and belly are usually white, as also the tip of the tail.

The head is about one foot eight inches long, and the distance between the
roots of the horns ten inches ; total length from nose to tail about nine feet
six inches ; height at the shoulders, four feet nine or ten inches ; height at
the loins, four feet four or five inches. Circumference of the chest, six feet
seven inches ; circumference of the loins, five feet ten inches ; length of the
norns, one foot two inches ; length of ears, ten inches.

The voice of the gayal has no resemblance to the grunt of the Indian ox ;
it is a kind of lowing, but shriller, and not near so loud as that of the Euro-
pean ox, but resembling it more than the buffalo's. The Cucis or Lunctas,
a people inhabiting the hills to the eastward of Chayaon, (Chitagong) have
herds of the gayal in a domestic state, from time iraraeraorial, and without
any variation in their appearance from the wild stock : no difference what-
ever being observable i- the colour, both having the same variations of the
brown shades; nor in their stature, both being bred in nearly the same
habits of freedom, on the same food, and the domestic not undergoing any
labour. By them it is called Shial, from which, most probably, its name of
Gayal. It is possible that the wild cattle of Siam, who use their terrible horns
with great success against the tiger, noticed by colonel Syms under the name
Catin, are of this species.

Beside the above existing species, it may be proper to mention the fossil
Bisons.

The Broad-headed Fossil Bison (B. Latifrotu) of Dr Harlan, is described
by baron Cuvier. The skull differs little from that of the bison, except in
its greater dimensions ; the forehead is arched, broader than high ; the horns
are attached two inches before the line formed by the union of the facial and
occipital surfai'es, which latter form an obtuse angle ; the plane of the occiput
represents a semicircle ; the horn is twenty-one inches in circumference at
Its base ; a fragment of this size was found in Kentucky, and similar skulls
were discovered near Meliiick in Bohemia, in Italy, and on the Rhine, m
Uussia, .Siberia, and probably over the whole northern hemisphere.

Ihe Bus Bovihifions of the same American author is described by Mr
Wistar from a skull presented by Mr Jefterson to the American Philnso-
phical Society. The top of the head between the horns is strongly arched
and projecting, facial line forming rather an acute angle, with the occipila.'

540 HISTORY or

From all this it appears,' that naturalists have given various
names to animals in reality the same, and only differing in some
tew accidental circumstances. The wild cow and the tame, the
animal belonging to Europe, and that of Asia, Africa, and
America, the bonasus and the urus, the bison and the zebu, are
all one and the same, propagate among each other, and, in the
course of a few generations, the hump wears away, and scarcely
any vestiges of savage fierceness are found to remain. Of all
animals, therefore, except man alone, the cow seems most ex-
tensively propagated. Its nature seems equally capable of the
rigours of heat and cold. It is an inhabitant as well of the
frozen fields of Iceland, as the burning deserts of Libya. It
seems an ancient inmate in every climate, domestic and tame in
those countries which have been civilized, savage and wild in
the countries which are less peopled, but capable of being made
useful in all ; able to defend itself in a state of nature against
the most powerful enemy of the forest ; and only subordinate to
man, whose force it has experienced, and whose aid it at last
seems to require. However wild the calves are, which are
taken from the dam in a savage state, either in Africa or Asia,
they soon become humble, patient, and familiar ; and man may
be considered in those countries, as almost helpless without
their assistance. Other animals preserve their nature or their
form with inflexible perseverance ; but these, in every respect,
suit themselves to the appetites and conveniences of mankind j
and as their shapes are found to alter, so also does their nature ;
in no animal is there seen a greater variety of kinds, and in
none a more humble and pliant disposition.*

surface ; horns first projecting- laterally from the sides of the head, then
curving downwards : they are placed on the skull at a considerable distance
anterior to the union of the facial and occipital surfaces. The specimen,
injured, and wanting the face and jaws, was found in Big.bonelick, near
the falls of Ohio. The affinity seems to be nearest to the Tartaric Yak. — See
the Animal Kingdom of Baron Cuvier. Supplement to the order Ruminan-
tia. By Major Smith.

1 Buffon, vol. xxiii. p. 130.
• There is a musk-bull which inhabits the interior parts of North America,
on the west side of Hudson's Bay. It is in size equal to a Guernsey cow ;
the hair is brownish.black, occasionally marked with large white blots; it
grows to a very great lenptli, and is composed of a long and soft down, io-
termixed with straight hairs ; the summit of the head of the male is covered
oy the horns, which form a kind of scalp, in the female it is covered with

ANIMALS. 54J

THE BUFFALO.

If we should compare the shape of our common cow with
that of the bison, the difference will appear very grea^ The
shaggy mane of the latter, the beard, the curled forehead, the
inverted horns, the broad breast, and the narrow hinder parts,
give it the appearance rather of a lion than a cow ; and fit it
more for a state of war with mankind than a state of servitude.
Yet notwithstanding these appearances, both animals are found
to be the same ; or at least so nearly allied that they breed
among each other, and propagate a race that continues the kind.*

hair : the legs are generally white, and the hair spreads forward under the
heels, so as to cover the greater part of the frog.

These animals live in herds of thirty or forty ; the bulls are few in propor-
tion to the cows, caused as it appears by the mortal conflicts among them fot
the possession of the females ; for it is observed that dead males are often
found, and that in the rutting season the bulls are so jealous, that they run
bellowing at every animal, even ravens, to drive them off. They rut in
August, and the females calve about the end of May, never bearing more
than one ; they prefer mountains and barren grounds, to wooded countries,
climb rocks with agility and secure footing ; they feed principally ou grass,
when in season, but mostly on mosses, the tops of pine shoots, and willows.
The flesh is flavoured like that of the elk; the fat clear white with a tint of
azure ; but the calves and heifers are the best for the table, the meat of old
bulls being so impregnated with amusky smell, as to be very disagreeable food.
The genitals of the male are always lubricated with a musky unctuous secre-
tion, which is so powerful as to retain its smell for several years ; the dung
is in small round kobs like that of the varying hare : several thousai/d weight
of the flesh are usually brought frozen by the Indians for winter store, to
Prince of Wales Fort. Captain Parry met this species as far north as Mel.
ville Island, with the first appearance of the spring ; each carcass furnish-
ing him with from three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds of beef.
It descends as far south and west as the Province of Guivira according to
Lopez Gomara, where the Spaniards found sheep as large as a horse, with
long liair, short tails, and enormous horns. Messrs Hearne, Dobbs, and
Graham, have supplied the fullest information relative to this animal, which
was first described by Mr Pennant.though noticed long before by Mr Jeremie,
a French officer, who was stationed in Canada, during the succession war.

• Buttaloes in general are animals of a large stature, resembling a bull
low in proportion to their bulk, and supported by strong and solid.limbs. The
head is large, the forehead, though narrow, is remarkably strong and convex :
the chaflVon straight, flat, prolonged, and terminated by a broad muzxle ; the
horns being flnt or bending laterally, with a certain direction to the rear,
and therefore not very applicable in goring ; the ears are rather large, never
erect, funnel-shaped; the eyes large ; they have no hunch on the back, but
u, small dewlap ou th* breast. The females bear an udder with four mamma),
1. 2z

S4'2 HISTORY or

On the other hand, if we compare the buffalo with our cona.
mon cow, no two animals can be more nearly alike, either
in their form or their nature ; both equally submissive to
tJie yoke, both often living under the same roof, and employed

two of which are sometimes not developed ; the tail is long and slender; the
back rather straight ; the hide black, more or less covered with hair of au
ashy or blackish colour ; sometimes it is brown or white. They avoid hills,
preferring coarse plants of the forest and such as grovv in swampy regions,
to those of open plains ; they love to wallow and lie for hours sunk deep in
water ; they swim well, or rather float on the surface, and consequently pass
the broadest rivers without hesitation ; their gait is heavy, and unwieldy
and run almost always with the nose horizontal, being principally guided by
their sense of smelling ; but this altitude prevents their seeing beneath thera
and conceals their horns. In tiieir combats, they usually strike or but witli
the forehead, endeavour to lift the opponent on their horns, and when thrown
to crush him with their knees : they trample on the body, and their vindic-
tive fury is so lasting, that they will return again and again to glut their
vengeance upon the same inanimate corpse ; they herd together in small
flocks, or live in pairs, but are never strictly gregarious in a wild state, they
have a tenacious memory, and they low in a deep tone. The females bear
calves two years following, but remain sterile during the third; gestation is
said to last twelve months, but it appears not to exceed ten, they pro-
pagate at four and a half years old, and discontinue after twelve. Partu-
rition (in Europe) takes place in the spring, and never exceeds one calf. Dr
Pallas asserts that they breed with domestic cattle, but that the produce usn.
ally dies : their life may extend to twenty.five years.

Although in a domestic state they are not remarkable for docility or at-
tachment to their keepers, yet a feeling of this kind, mixed no doubt with
instinctive antipathy, is exemplified in an anecdote related by Mr D. Johnson.
"Two biparies, or carriers of grain and merchandise on the backs of bullocks
were driving a loaded string of these animals from Palamow to Chitrah :
when they were come within a few miles of the latter place, a tiger seized
on the man in the rear, which was seen by a guallah (herdsman), as he was
watching his buffaloes grazing : he boldly ran up to the man's assistance, and
cut the tiger very severely with his sword ; upon which he dropped the biparie,
and seized the herdsman. The buii'aloes observing it, attacked the tiger,
and rescued the herdsman ; they tossed him about from one to the other
and, to the best of ray recollection, killed liim. Both the wounded men were
brought to me ; the biparie recovered, and the herdsman died." This anec-
dote reveals, if not attachment, great antipathy and courage ; and it is well
known that neither the tiger or the lion are inclined to prey upon the buf.
falo, whose vengeance is probably kept alive by occasional depredations upon
their young, and Indian herdsmen do not scruple to pass the night in the
most dangerous jungle, seated upon the back of some one favourite aniinaL

Their extreme hostility to red colours is often remarked in India : the
fame antipathy is observed at the Cape and in Europe. A general ollicer,
now living, relates, that while a young man he was employed in surveyiog
in Hungary, and happening to use a small plane table, the back of which
was covered with red morocco : as he walked from one station to anutlier.

ANIMALS. 543

in the same domestic services ; the make and the turn of their
bodies so much alike, that it acquires a close attention to distin-
guish them : and yet after all this, no two animals can be more
distinct, or seem to have greater antipathies to each other.

1 Buffon.
he sometimes carried it with the paper against his breast, and the crimson
colour in front. On a sudden, he perceived at a considerable distance a herd
of grazing buffaloes throw out signs of defiance, and come down in full gal.
lop towards him with their tails up, and evincing the most tumultuous
frenzy. Not suspecting the cause, he paused and dropped his hand, when the
whole troop stopped and looked about, as if at a loss ; he went on, and un-
consciously raising the table again, brought the red colours in sight. They
set off a second time towards him, but guessing the cause, he turned the ob.
noxious colours towards his body, and was suflered to proceed unmolested.

The Cape Buffalo. {Caffer.) This species is designated among the Hot-
tentots by the name of Qu'araho. It is distinguished by dark and rugous
horns spreading horizontally over the summit of the head in the shape of a
scalp, with the beams bent down laterally, and the points turned up. They
are from eight to ten inches broad at the base, and divided only by a slight
groove, dark coloured, extremely ponderous, cellular near the root, and five
feet long, measured from tip to tip along the curves. The incisor teeth are
almost always loose in the gums of the adult animal, whose height is about
five fe€t six inches at the shoulder, and the length from nose to tail about
nine feet ; the legs are short and strongly knit ; the dewlap is rather consi-
derable ; the ears large, hanging open ; on each side of the chin and nether
jaw, there is a beard of stiff hairs ; the hide extremely thick, hard and black,
almost naked in old animals, and quite naked, excepting some distichous
hairs at the end. In younger beasts, a scattered brown hair covers the neck,
back, and belly ; and in the young heifer, the colour is brown, black, the hair
more abundant, and a sort of standing mane four inches long, spreads from
behind the horuH, aluiigtlie neck, down the spine to the tail, darker than the
rest of the hair, almost black. At that age, the horns are only six inches
long, thirteen inches distant from tip to tip, pale in colour, originating at the
eide of the frontal crest, and rising obliquely upwards, with some slight indi-
cation of wrinkles. The forehead and nuccha are covered with loose black
hair, as also the throat, dewlap, and top of the tail, the shin bones and pas.
terns furnished with curling woolly dark hair. The head is one foot long,
and the length of the animal, from nose to tail, five feet seven inches ; the
tail one foot. At that age, there is so great a dissimilarity froio the adult, as
to give it the appearance of a different species, for which, indeed, it was
taken in the specimen of Mr BurcheU, had not a note within the skin es.
tablished the species.

There is some doubt whether Pliny alludes to this species in his description
of the fierce African wild oxen which were caught in pit-fails • : the Araho
is truly a terrible and ferocious beast, possessed of a tremendous billowing

» He gives it blue eyes, and rufous hair. Chap. xxi. I. viii., but it seems
confounded with a species of bison. If Captain Clappertou's notice be refer-
red to Ji. Caj^er, it is found alfio in Borneo, under the name uf Zamouse, the
JiaUc Yumuf.

2 / a

514 HISTORY 01*

Were there but one of each kind remaining, it is probable the
race of both would shortly be extinct. However, such is the
fixed aversion formed between these creatures, that the cow re-
fuses to breed with the buffalo, which it nearly resembles ; while

voice, and moving with considerable swiftness, but so ponderous as to be dis-
inclined to ascend ; its scent is keen, but the breadth of the horns impede its
sight. This species of buBalo lives in families or small herds in brushwood
and open forests of Caffraria, occasionally uniting' in droves upon the plain.
Old bulls are often met alone, but though these are, if possible, still fiercer
than the younger, they are less swift or inclined to exertion. lu the woods,
they make paths for themselves, where it is extremely dangerous to fall in
with them. Professor Thunberg gives an appalling account of the destruction
of two horses by one of thes^^ auiraals, the riders providentially escaping by
climbing trees, and the professor himself driven to the same expedient,
though his horse remained imhurt, owing to the buffalo turning into the wood.
Sparraann, who first fully described this species, is no less animated in the
dangerous hunting exploits he witnessed.

They are excited to madness by the sight of red colour, and swim with
great force. The hide is made into shields, cut into whips and traces, and is
so hard that a musket ball will scarcely penetrate into it, unless the lead he
mixed with tin. If this animal could be reudei-ed tractable, it would make
t!ie most powerful in agriculture existing. Since the increase of tlie settle-
ments about the Cape of Good Hope, the buffalo is become more scarce in
t!ie colony, but they spread along the eastern side of Africa to an unknown
distance in the interior.

The Pagasse. {B. Pegasus.) The names of Pacasse of Gallini and Carli,
F.inpaguessa of MeroUa, Erapacasse of Lopes and Marniol, indicate an ani.
mal, presumed to be a species of buffalo, but not described with sufficient pre-
cisian to be admitted into the catalogues of nomenclators. The word is
evidently of great antiquity and extent, as may be gathered from Pliuy,
although at present banished from the regions where the Arabic has usurped
the ancient language, and confined to the regions of Angola and Congo, wliere
it is coupled with the generic name £m or £71, denoting a Bovine animal.
Thus Engamba a cow, Empalanga, another large ruminant which is conjec-
tured to be the Tackhaitze of Daniell ; and Era-pacasse. Pliny relates that
iEthiopia produces winged horses, armed with horns named Pegasl Fathers
Gallini and Carli observe, that, " On the road to Loando in the kingdom of
Congo, they saw two pacasses, which are animals very similar to buffaloes,
roaring like lions ; the male and female being always together. They are
white with rufous and black spots ; with ears half a yard in length, and the
horns always straight. When they see human beings they do not flee, nor
do they harm, but stand and look on." Lopes describes them as somewhii:
less than an ox, but similar in head and neck. Dapper reports them to Oe
buffaloes of a reddish colour with long horns.

These testimonies are very vague, but still indicate one and the same ani-
mal, partially misrepresented. To these accounts might be added the notice
of Captain Lyons respecting the Wadan, " a fierce buffalo, the size of an ass,
having large tufts of hair on the shoulders, and very long heavy horns "

The Arnee <JS. Arni.) India and China are the native regions of anot! m

ANIMALS. 5'15

it is known to propagate with the bison, to which it has, in point
of form, but a very distant similitude.

The b'offalo is, upon the whole, by no means so beautiful
a creature as the cow ; his figure is more clumsy and awkward ;

group of true buffaloes, both wild and tame, which Baron Cuvier's in-
restigations refer to one species, divided into mere varieties. It appears
that the wild buffalo in the central districts of Bengal, is commonly named
Arnee or Amaa, and distinguished by the lunate form of the horns
and black colour ; while the second sort, usually but not always do.
raestic, is known by the appellation of hhain or byne. Of this sort,
the horns are much shorter, bent back towards the neck with the
points turned upwards: thus constructed, their arms are but indifferent
instruments of attack, and serve only to lift, while in the former they
are invariably used for goring. But neither of these are the gigan.
tic or taurelephant arnee, which appears to be a rare species, only
found single or in small families, in the upper eastern provinces and forests
at the foot of Himalaya, though formerly met in the Raraghur districts. It
is probably the same which the Mugs and Burmas name Phang, and con-
sider next to the tiger the most dangerous and fiercest animals of their
forests. A party of officers of the British cavalry, stationed iu the north of
Bengal, went on a three months' hunting expedition to the eastnard, and
destroyed in that time forty-two tigers, but only one arnee, though nu.
merous wild buffaloes became their quarry. When the head of this specimen
rested perpendicular on the ground, it required the outstretched arms of a
man to hold the points of the horns. These are described as angular, with
Uie broadest side to the rear, the two others anterior and inferior, wrinkled,
brownish, standing outwards, not bent back, straight for near two-thirds of
their length, then curving inwards with the tips rather back ; the face is
nearly straight, and the breadth of the forehead is ciuried down with little
diminution to the foremost grinder. The best figure, we are assured, is in
Captain Williamson's Oriental Field Sports.

Captain Williamson evidently speaks of the true arnee in the anecdote,
where one of those animals pursued a sportsman to his elephant, and ran its
horns under his belly to lift him up. This individual was killed, and was up.
wards of six feet high at the shoulder, nearly three feet in breadth at the
breast, and the horns five feet and a half long.

The other or common arnee is also a very large animal, though nearly a
foot lower at the shoulders than that last mentioned. It is not much less in
weight ; the head is smaller, the body longer, the tail reaching to near the
heels, and the hide more scantily covered with hair. These are much more
common, live gregariously in woody swamps or plains, occasionally floating
in whole droves down the Ganges, seemingly asleep, until the current lands
them on some island, or on the bank : boats are sometimes endangered by
sailing in among them unawares. They are said to plunge under water, and
raise aquatic plants with their horn to the surface, where they feed on them,
while driving with the stream. An animal of this kind drifted down to near
Shaugur Island, in 171)0, and was shot by the crew of the Uawkesbury India-
man, towed alongside, and hoisted in ; the meat weighed three hundred and

2 Z .3

34G HISTORY OF

Lis air is wilder ; and he carries his head lower, and nearer the
ground ; his limbs are less fleshy, and his tail more naked of
Lair ; his body is shorter and thicker than that of the cow kind ;
his legs are higher ; his head smaller ; his horns not so round,

sixty pounds per quarter, exclusive of the head, legs, hide, and entraila, and
the whole could, therefore, be scarcely less than two thousand pound, though
the ship's butcher pronounced it not above two years old.

A herd of these animals was observed by a column of troops, some years
ago, on the n ii'ch to Patna, by the inland road. On discovering the red dres-
ses of the soldiers, they threw out their usual signals of hostility, and gal-
loped off; then suddenly wheeling round, came in a body, as if they intended
to charge, and their horns overtopping the heads, rendered it doubtful whe-
ther they were not mounted by some hostile force ; part of the column,
therefore, halted and formed, and the animals suddenly struck by the glitter-
ing of the arms, stopped, turned tumultuously round, and dashed into cover.*

These anecdotes show the scepticism of some continental naturalists,
respecting the existence of wild buffaloes in India, to be quite misplaced.
Formerly, this race was occasionally reduced to a precarious domesticity, by
order, and for the amusement of, the native princes ; but now they use the
largest of the domestic breeds : these are mounted by their keepers and
brought into the arena to engage in battle with the tiger, who is almost in.
variably defeated. The race of the common arnee is also, it would appear,
domesticated in the eastern states : a wliite variety is found in Tinean, and
other islands of the Indian Archipelago. On the coast of Cochinchina, and
the Malayan peninsula, this race appears to predomiuate : they are of very
great bulk, with the horns, when seen in front, forming a true crescent ;
their skulls are the usual arnees of European museums. Although the skin
of the white variety be rosy, the muzzle and edge of the lips are jet black,
the eyes are large and dark, the snout longer and narrower than ia the
black-skinned buffalo, and their height at the shoulder is not five feet, owing
to the legs being short. Those of S;am, both wild and domesticated, are ashy
gray, larger than an ox, the muzzle much prolonged, and the horns very long
forming a cresent above the head. This variety has a shrill weak voice, and
the domesticated are more easily managed by children than by grown men.

'J'he Domestic Buffalo. {B. Bubalun.) Whether or not the arnee of Bengal
be the stock from which the domestic buffalo is descended, certain it is that
the species now under consideration, is still found in a wild state, as well as
domesticated, and that in all countries, sufficiently uninhabited and afl'ording
the requisite conditions, the black-skinned domestic animal will soon supply
a wild breed. This occurs whenever local circumstances are favourable, even
iu the kingdom of Naples, and we might draw an inference from this fact
alone, that the species with crescent horns, are distinct from the present, al-
though both have breeds which have received the yoke of man ; nor if it
were proved that a prolific intermediate race exist, produced by the inter,
mixture of both, would it fully determine that both form only one original

■* It is not impossible, that more than one species is confounded under the
nrime Arnee, and that even the genuine Urus of the ancients, still exists i i
tiie remote temperate forests of Asia.

ANiMALS. 547

black, and compressed, with a bunch of ended hair hanging
down between them •, his skin is also harder and thicker, mote
black, and less furnished with hair ; his flesh which is hard and
blackish, is not only disagreeable to the taste but likewise to the

species. What forms a species, and what a variety, is, as yet, far from well
understood.

The Bliain of India may be regarded as the true stock of the domestic buf-
faloes of southern and western Asia, north Africa, and eastern Europe
Little doubt can be raised, that in India that animal was Cr.t subdued, per-
haps, by means of the intellitrence and powers of the elephant, who alono
could compel it to subjection ; from thence, commerce or remote military
expeditions seem to have introduced it into Tartary and eastern Persia, till
by either of these means the domestic buffalo was found on the shores of the
Caspian. Here they resided at the time of the Macedonian invasion, though
the Tartars seem to have used their busan as beasts of burden, at least, as
early, and about that period, or soon after, to have led them to the banks of
the Tereck. They were found by the Mahomedan Arabs in Persia, and dur-
ing their wars brought westward into Syria, and Egypt. Baron Cuvier, with
his accustomed research, proves the pilgrims and writers concerning Pales-
tine to have noticed them by the name of Buflus, early in the eighth cen-
tury.

The stature of the buffalo varies according to the circumstances of food
and climate. The Hungarian and Italian are about eight feet and a half long,
by five feet at the shoulders ; the horns are directed sideways, compressed,
with a ridge in front, reclining towards the neck and the tips turned up,
placed at a great distance from each other, with a convex forehead between
them ; the mamm» of the male placed in a transverse line ; the hair scattered,
coarse, and black, and the tail long, terminated by a tuft ; the hide is of a
purplish black, in India almost naked, in Egypt, sometimes totoUy without
hair, and in tlie Indian Archipelago the anterior half is occasicmally covered
with long hair, and the posterior naked ; it varies also to rufous, and white
occurs in some breeds.

It is an animal at all times of very doubtful docility, with a sombre malig-
nant eye, active, daring, swift, and persevering when excited ; dull, slow,
wallowing in his ordinary state ; naturally preferring tiats and swampy soil ;
possessed of great strength for burden and for the plough, t«o being equal iu
power to four horses: but furnishinglittle, and indifferent milk and worse flesh -.
the hide and horns are alone valuable. In India, however, they furnish more
milk from which a kind of liquid butter is made, well known by the name
of ghee. The domestic breed in Bengal, is not more than four feet and a
half high, and used to labour ; but for burden, care must be taken that the
goods tliey carry do not suffer from wet, their propensity to lie down in
water being invincible ; wood and bricks are, therefore, the most common
lead. The largest of the wild breed, are used by the native princes to sup-
ply the place of Arnecs, and fight with tigers iu public shows. With the
natives especially the Guallah.ca-stor herdsmen, they are docile : theylrideon
their favourites, and spend the night with them in the midst of jiuigles and
Jorosts, without fear of wild bciusts. When driveu along the herds kvty

548 HISTORY OF

smell. The milk of the female is by no means so good as that of
the cow ; it is howeverproduced in great abundance. In the warm
countries almost all their cheese is made of the milk of the buf-
falo ; and they supply butter also in large quantities. The veal of
the young buffalo is not better eating than the beef of the old.
The hide of this animal seems to be the most valuable thing he fur-
nishes. The leather made of it is well known for its thickness,
softness, and impenetrability. As these animals are, in general,
larger and stronger than the cow, they are usefully employed
in agriculture. They are used in drawing burdens, and some-
times in carrying them ; being guided by a ring, which is thrust
through their nose. Two buffaloes yoked in a waggon, are said
to draw more than four strong horses ; as their heads and necks
are naturally bent downward, they are thus better fitted for the
draught, and the whole weight of their bodies is applied to the
carriage that is to be drawn forward.

From the size and bulk of the buffalo, we may be easily led
to conclude that he is a native of the warmer climates. The
largest quadrupeds are generally found in the torrid zone ; and
the buffalo is inferior in point of size only to the elephant, the
rhinoceros, or the hippopotamus. The camelopardor the camel
may indeed be taller, but they are neither so long, nor near so
corpulent. Accordingly, we find this animal wild in many parts
of India ; and tamed also wherever the natives have occasion
for his services. The wild buffaloes are very dangerous animals,
and are often found to gore travellers to death, and then tram-
ple them with their feet, until they have entirely mangled the
whole body : however in the woods they are not so much to be

close together, so that the driver, if necessary, walks from the back of ona
to the other, perfectly at liis convenience. The females are dangerous,
while they nurse their calf. In Italy, it L= asserted that butfaloes are again
become wild ; the domestic, however, both there and in Hungary, are man.
nged by means of a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose : iu India
it is a mere rope. The practice is ancient, and it would seem that the Scla-
vonic Wenden, brought buffaloes with them to the shores of the Baltic, if
we may judge from the armorial bearings of provinces and families, iiotun.
frequent in the North of Germany and Switzerland ; unless we prefer to
believe that the urus or parent of the domestic ox, required to be ringed
lor many generations before it became tractable. — See the Animal Kingdom
<if Baron Cuvier. Supplement to the order Rmuinantia, By Major
Smith.

ANIMALS. 549

feared as in the plains, because in the violence of their pursuit
their large horns areaptto be entangled in the branches of the trees,
which gives those who have been surprised by them time to escape
tlie danger. There is scarcely any other method of avoiding their
pursuit ; they run with great swiftness ; they overturn a tree of
moderate growth ; and are such swimmers, as to cross the largest
rivers without any difficulty. In this manner, like all other
large animals of the torrid zone, they are very fond of the water ;
and in the midst of their pursuit, often plunge in, in order to
cool themselves. The negroes of Guinea, and the Indians of
I\Ialabar, where buffaloes are in great abundance, take great de-
light in hunting and destroying them : however, they never at-
tempt to face the buffalo openly ; but generally climbing up ^he
tree, shoot at him from thence, and do not come down till they
find they have effectually despatched him. When they are
tamed, no animal can be more patient or humble ; and though
by no means so docile as the cow kind, yet they go through do-
mestic drudgeries with more strength and perseverance.

Although these animals be chiedy found in the torrid zone,
yet they are bred in several parts of Europe, particularly in Italy,
where they make the food and the riches of the poor. The female
produces but one at a time, in the same manner as the cow ;
Dut they are very different in the times of gestation ; for the
cow, as we know, goes but nine months ; whereas the buffalo
continues pregnant for twelve. They are all afraid of fire ;
and, perhaps, in consequence of this, have an aversion to red
colours that resemble the colour of flame : it is said that in those
countries where they are found in plenty, no person dares to dress
in scarlet. In general they are inoffensive animals, if undisturb-
ed ; as indeed all those which feed upon grass are found to be ;
but when they are wounded, or when even but fired at, then no-
thing can stop their fury ; they then turn up the ground with their
forefeet, bellow much louder and more terribly than the bull, and
make at the object of their resentment with ungovernable rage.
It is happy, in such circumstances, if the person they pursue has
a wall to escape over, or some such obstacle ; otherwise they
soon overtake, and instantly destroy him. It is remarkable,
however, that altliough their horns are so formidable, they in
general make more use of their feet in combat, and rather tread
tiic'.ir enemies to death than gore them.

530 HISTOUY OF

Having thus gone through the history of these animals, it
may be proper to observe, that no names have been more indis-
criminately used than those of the bull, the urus, the bison, and
the buffalo. It therefore becomes such as would have distinct
ideas of each to be careful in separating the kinds, the one from
the other, allowing the cow for the standard of all. The urus,
whether of the large enormous kind of Lithuania, or the smaller
race of Spain, whether with long or short horns, whether with
or without long hair in the forehead, is every way the same with
what our common breed was before they were taken from the
forest, and reduced to a state of servitude. The bison and all
its varieties, which are known by a hump between the shoulders,
is^also to be ranked in the same class. This animal, whether
with crooked or with straight horns, whether they be turned to-
wards the cheek, or totally wanting, whether it be large or di-
minutive, whatever be its colour, or whatever the length of its
hair, whether called the bonasus by some, or the bubalus by
others, is but a variety of the cow kind, with whom it breeds,
and with whom of consequence it has the closest connexion.
Lastly, the buffalo, though shaped much more like the cow, is
a distinct kind by itself, that never mixes with any of the for-
mer; that goes twelve months with young, whereas the cow
goes but nine ; that testities an aversion to the latter ; and,
though bred under the same roof, or feeding in the same pasture,
has always kept separate ; and makes a distinct race in all parts
of the world. These two kinds are supposed to be the only
real varieties in the cow kind, of which naturalists have given so
many varieties. With respect to some circumstances mentioned
by travellers, such as that of many kinds defending themselves,
by voiding their dung against their pursuers ; this is a practice
which they have in common with other timid creatures when
pursued, and arises rather from fear than a desire of defence.
The musky smell also by which some have been distinguished,
is found common to many of these kinds, in a state of nature :
and does not properly make the characteristic marks of any.
The particular kind of noise also, which some of them are known
to make, which rather resembles grunting than bellowing or
lowing, is but a savage variety, which many wild animals have,
and yet lose when brought into a state of tameness. P''or these
reasons, Mr Buifon, whom I have followed in this description,

ANIMALS. 551

is of opinion, that the zebu, or little African cow, and the grunt-
ing, or Siberian cow, are but different races of the bison ; as the
shape of the horns, or the length of the hair, are never properly
characteristic marks of any animal, but are found to vary with
climate, food, and cultivation.

In this manner the number of animals of the cow kind, which
naturalists have extended to eight or ten sorts, are reduced to
two ; and as the utmost deference is paid to the opinion of Mr
Buffon in this particular, I have taken him for my guide.
Nevertheless, there is an animal of the cow kind, which neither
he, nor any other naturalist that I know of, has hitherto describ-
ed, yet which makes a very distinct class, and may be added as
a third species. (

This animal was shown some years ago in London, and seem-
ed to unite many of the characteristics of the cow and the hog ;
having the head, the horns, and the tail, of the former ; with the
bristles, the colour, and the grunting, of the latter. It was about
the size of an ass, but broader and thicker ; the colour resem-
bling that of a hog, and the hair bristly, as in that animal. The
hair upon the body was thin, as in the hog ; and a row of bristles
ran along the spine, rather shorter and softer than in the hog
kind. The head was rather larger than that of a cow ; the
teeth were entirely resembling those of that animal, and the
tongue was rough in like manner. It fed upon hay ; and conse-
quently its internal conformation must have resembled that of
the cow kind more than the hog, whose food is always chosen
of a kind more succulent. The eyes were placed in the head as
with the cow, and were pretty nearly of the same colour ; the
horns were black and flattish, but bent rather backwards to the
neck, as in the goat kind ; the neck was short and thick, and
the back rather rising in the middle ; it was cloven-footed, like
the cow, without those hinder claws that are found in the hog
kinds. But the greatest variety of all in this extraordinary crea-
ture, which was a female, was, that it had but two teats, and
consequently, in that respect, resembled neither of the kinds to
which, in other circumstances, it bore so strong a similitude.
Whetlier this animal was a distinct kind, or a monster, I will
not pretend to say : it was shown under the name of the bona-
sus ; and it was said, by the person who showed it, to have
come from India : but no credit is to be given to interested ig-

532 HISTORY OF

norance ; the person only wanted to make the animal appeal- as
extraordinary as possible ; and I believe wonld scarcely scruple
a lie or two to increase that wonder in us, by which he found
the means of living.

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