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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

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ai,i-:xandp:r agassiz.

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SCANDINAVIAN FISHES

SECOxXD EDITION

SMITT. SOANDIXAVlAxX F18HES

A HISTORY OF

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES

B. FRIES, C. U. EKSTROM, AND i\ SUNDEVALL

WITH COLOURED PLATES

W. VON AVEIGHT

AND TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS

SECOND EDITION

REVISED AND COMPLETED BY

Professor F. A. SMITT

MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

TEXT

PART II

P. A. NORSTEDT & S6NER
STOCKHOLM

BEIILIN LONDON PARIS

FKIEDLAXDER & SOHN SAMPSON LOW, MARSTOX & COilPAXY. Limited LIBRAIKIE (\ REIXWALD & C"

Carlstrasse 11 St. Dunstan's House, Fetter Laxe is, ri'e des SAi.xTs-PfiREs

STOCKHOLM 1895

p. A. N 0 R S T E U T & S 0 N E R
ROYAL PKINTINfi OFFICE

CONTENTS.

Ordo: PISCES Tf:LE()STKl (continued).
Subordn: Teleostei Physoclysti (continued).
Phalanx: Physoclysti Eleutherognathi (continued).
Cohois: Eleutherognathi Malacopterygii (continued).
Series: Ouomorphi (continued).

FaiLiilia: Aiiimodi/tida- V^^- 5()7.

MacrwuUe 580.

VphidikUe > 594.

Lycodidci » 602.

Phalanx: Physoclysti Plectognathi > 618.

Series: Gymiiodontes _.-. - .. 622.

Familia: Ortliw/on'scidfe 622.

Series: Scleroderini » 631.

Familia: Balistidce » 631.

Phalanx: Physoclysti Hemibranchii > 635.

Familia: Gnstevoslehla' » 637.

Phalanx: Physoclysti Lophobranchii.. 661.

Familia: fi^i/injitiitliida > 663.

Subordo: Teleostei Physostomi > 68it.

Series: GUinomorplii * 690.

Familia: iSiluridtv » 692.

Series: Ci/prijwmoi-plii > 702.

Familia: Vobitida > 703.

>' Oyprinidce > 714.

Series: Tkriggomorpld » 826.

Familia: Salmonidx > 827.

> Scopelidir « 920.

» Clupeida' > 946.

Series: Esocifurines 1. Lycomorpdn P^g- 997.

Familia: Esocidw > 997.

Series: Encheb/morphi » 1011.

Familia: Anguillidic » 1022.

Ordo: PISCES CHOXDROSTEl 1043.

Familia: Acipenseridie 1044.

Ordo: PISCES ELASMOBRANCHII.... 10(13.

Subordo: ElasmobrancMi Holocephali. 107«.

Familia: Chima-rkhc 1078.

Subordo: Elasmobranchii Plagiostomi . 10«5.

Phalanx: Plagiostomi Batoidei » 1086.

Familia: MyUobalida; ,> 1093.

Tfnyoiudcc » 1096.

Bajidir.. 1100.

Phalanx: Plagiostomi Selachoidei... > 1127.

Series: Asterospond yli >, 1128.

Familia: OarchariidcE. > 1128.

» LanmidtE 1135.

> iSci/lliidce . 1147.

Series: Cyclospondyli 115(1.

Familia: Spinacida 11.57.

Ordo: PISCES CYCLOSTOMl ... 1172.

Familia: Petromy zonida: ■> 1172.

> Mt/xinidce... >• 1195.

Ordo: PISCES LEPTOCARDII 1210.

Familia: Amphio.ridce > 1211.

■SAND-r.EI.S.

567

I AM. AMMODYTIDiE.

Body elovgated. fusiform, terete or compressed, covered with thin cycloid scales or partly naked. Caudal fin

separated from the other vertical fins. Jaws without teeth". Gill-openings large: hranrhiostegal memhranes more

or less completely free from each other and from the isthmus. I'seudohraiichia' irell-developed and distinct.

Air-bladder iraidiiig. Pyloric appoidages rudimeutary.

The place of this family in tlie svsteiu has long
lieen a debated question. The original oi)ini()ii of mo-
dern systematists, that of Aktedi, was that the Sand-
Eels — with their long dorsal tin occupying the greater
})art of the back — should lie ranged beside the genus
Coryphmni. This opinion, borne out bv the Mackerel-
like coloration of tlie Sand-Eels, still survived in 1839
in Swain.son', wiio pointed out the external resemblances
between these fishes and Lepidopus. Linn.eus had ima-
gined that he had made an improvement by uniting
all tishes witliuut ventral tins into an order (Apodes),
and thus in 1817 — 1821) the Sand-Eels assumed in
Cuvier's works'' the rank of a genus within the family
of the Eels, and in 1832—1841, in Bonaparte'', that
of a subfamily {Ammodytini) of the Ophidiido' among
Malacopterygii apodes. When iltLLER" formed the order
Anacanthini, he did not hesitate to include in this or-
der the familv Ophidiidec, but he declared himself
unable to give a decided opinion as to the place of
Ammodytes, though he positively denied the relationship
between this genus and the Eels. In his later work',
however, Bonaparte ranged the Sand-Eels, as a distinct
family {Ammodytid(e), among the Gadi, and Glnther'
did not hesitate to include these tishes among the
Anacanthini as a subfamily (Animodytina) of tlie Opl/i-
diidce.

This diversity of opinion has been caused by the
absence in the Sand-Eels both of the ventral tins and the

air-bladder. The reduction and eventual disappearance
of the ventral tins is a characteristic -which, as we have
seen above, may occur within several piscine orders.
The absence of the air-bladder may be explained in
the same wa}'. We must, therefore, look to other
characters in order to discover the nearest relations of
the family, and as often happens in such cases, we may
have recourse to ciiaracters apparently of minor im-
portance. The Sand-Eels are approximated bj* their
form and coloration not only to the Mackerels but,
still more closelj', to the Garpikes. To the latter fishes,
which are Pharyngognate Anacanthini, it is impossible
to unite the Sand-Eels, in which the lower pharyngeals
are free from each other. Still, where the lateral line
lies in the Garpikes and Flying-tishes, along the ventral
margin, at the lioundary between the sides and the
belly, and also along the base of the anal tin, here we
find in the Sand-Eels a dermal ridge, somewhat raised
in the same way. The physiological signification of
this ridge is indeed unknown, Init in a morphological
respect it shows at least a trace of resemblance to the
Garpikes and Flying-fishes, such a resemblance as we
have seen above in other Anacanthi)ii, in the Coiichia-
stage of Onos. The Garpike-like coloration of these
last fishes, in its sharp contrast to that of adult Rock-
lings, may also be a trace of their original I'elationship
to the Sand-Eels. Among the osteological peculiarities
which we have above remarked in the Gadoid family,

" Day (Fishes of India, p. 420) observed, Ijowever. ''a few, fine teeth opposite tljo synipliysis in eitlier jaw"
leria) katlolepis.

' yat. Hist. Fish., ,i,„j,h., Repl., vol. II, p. ihi.

■= Rer/iie Animal, tome II, ed. 1, p. 240; cd. 2, p. 3G0.

'' Iconogr. Fn. Ital., toni. Ill, Pesci, Introd., p. 15.

' Abh. Aknd. Wiss. Berl. 1844, p. 177.

•'' Cataloijo Metoilico dei Pesci Europei, Xapoli 1846, pp. G and 40.

» Cat. Brit. Mas., Fish, vol. IV, p. 384.

Ammodytes (Blee-

Scandinarinn FMie.

568

.SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

there recurs in tlie Sanrl-l'lels the chjiracteristic, lo1)ate
process on the intennaxinary bones, though it is re-
raoved farther forward, to nliout the end of the first
third {Ammodytes tobianus) or fourth {Am. hniceolatits)
of the length of the bones. This resemblance maj' be
not without importance in a morphological respect. With
this exception, however, the intermaxillarj- bones of the
Sand-Eels are very unlike those of the Codtishes, not
only in their narrow and terete, almost needle-like
shape, but also in the more or less complete freedom
of the nasal processes, which vary considerably in length
and mobility, and are united to the anterior end of
the bones only by cartilage and ligaments. Tlie ske-
leton of the Sand-Eels is also distinguished from that
of the Codfishes in two other essential respects. Ribs
are attached to the abdominal vertebra? from the very
first of these bones; and in the caudal fin, which is far
more differentiated than in the Codfishes, and the base
of which is composed exclusively of the last two ver-
tebra and the urostyle, the develojiment of tlie hypural
bones is quite as typical as in the rest of the Teleosts.
Still, though we may find in the above-mentioned
points of resemblance to the Codfislies and the Gar-
pikes fully valid reasons of morphological significance
for the opinion advanced l»y GCntiier and other mo-
dern writers, that the Sand-Eels are Anacanthine fishes,
we are not destitute of grounds for a- close comparison
of these fishes with the Eels, though the latter are
assigned to a far distant place in the system by the
arrangement of the jaws and shoulder-girdle, as well
as by their character of Physostomous fishes. This
comparison is suggested by the scales. Their structure
most strongly reminds us partly of tlie Eels and partly
of Enclielyopus. In the Scandinavian Sand-Eels, as in
most fishes, and in a manner that especially calls to
mind the simple scales of our common Flatfislies, the
anterior part of the scale is quite different from the
posterior; l)ut here the difference is so marked that the
former rescinl)les in structure an entire scale of EncJie-
lijojiKS, with dense, concentric stria?, interrupted by

grooves radiating from the nucleus, while the latter
resembles the scales of the Eels, with continuous con-
centric stria% l)ut with tlie grooves broken up into
more or less irregular, round or oblong, small patches.
On the anterior part of the scale too, the concentric
strite are about twice as dense (numerous) as on the
posterior part. The scales of tlie Sand-Eels also vary
considerably in form and development, not only in
different species but even in the same fish. All of
them are compai'utively small and tliin. Tlie most
developed are set on the Itack of the fish, the largest
of them, as usual, on the hind part of the body. These
scales are imbricated, with the posterior part free; and
they vary in shape from rounded to oblong or lingui-
form. ( )n the sides of the body the scales lie in der-
mal folds that run in an oblique transverse direction
downward and Ijackward from the lateral line proper,
which is situated high on the back, to the raised dermal
ridge that coasts each side of the belly, forming a
boundary between the latter and the sides of the liody.
On the belly itself, between these dermal ridges, the
folds are less sharply marked, but the scattered (not
imbricated) scales lie hidden in the skin, in ro\vs that
rfln from each dermal ridge obliquelv forward and in-
ward, towards a similar but lower dermal ridge at the
middle of the belly. The scales which lie in the skin
are of a broad oval (linguiform) shape, with the hind
extremity pointed".

In their manner of life the Sand-Eels remind us
both of the Garpikes and of the Eels: in the open sea
they are active and eager in their pursuit of small
fishes and fry, but now and then they hide themselves
in the sand to escape their numerous enemies, just as
the Eels burrow in the sand and mud or creep into
crevices between the stones.

The fainilv contains remarkablv few forms: among
the 4 or 5 known species'' only two genera can with
reason be distinguished, ilost of the species belong to
the Northern Hemisphere, both to the Atlantic and the
Pacific; but one species occurs in the Indian Ocean.

" In tlie Indian species, wliicli Gl'nther lias ailoptcd as the type of a dislinet genus (Bleekeiia), the scales are said to be larger (of
moderate size), and the said dermal ridges are wanting.

' Five distinct species have been described from .'iinerica. But the Greenland species is undoubtedly identical with our Sand-Launce,
and Jordan and Gilbert (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 10, ]ip. 414 and 009), who have rejected one species ns b.ised merely on a description
of a damaged specimen, advance the opinion that all the others are hardly more than varieties of the Sand-Launce. Brown-Goode, however
{Fisher., Fislier. Industr. U. S., sect. I, p. 244), insists upon maintaining a rigid distinction between the European and American Sand-Eels.

!SAND-r,E[..S.

569

(iKMs AMMODYTES.

B(i(hi more or less terete (out// sti/ihtlij compressed). A Juii/iitndUud dermal ridge ov each side of fite belt//.

BranchiostegaJ rags 7 or s.

Tlie cxtreiuely similar s|)Cfies that tbrin this genus,
have long l)cen i<iiown. At the middle of the fifteenth
century Salvianl's described and figured the 'sandih'
(Sand-Eel) of English ^vaters, and gave an account of
its habits and tlie manner in which it was fallen. The
figure and description rceur in (rEsxEi;", who gave the
genus its Greek name''. Ray'' and Jago'' mention two
species; but aJthougli we can see, from the statement of
the latter as to the lengtli of the fish described and figured
l)y liini (15' .-, in.), tliat lie referred to a. species regarded
as distinct in modern times {Ammodgtes lanceotatus), still
the supposed specific distinction was based merely on
defects in the figure of Salvianus. Artedi described'^
the smaller of our forms both full)' and accurately,
but did not distinguish between it and the larger one.
In his Sgstema Natiira' Linn.eus adopted only one spe-
cies {Am. Tobianus), the name of the species being
clearl}- derived from Artedi's quotation of Schone-
VELDE^; but in his Fauna Sueeica'' he draws attention
to the fact that in his travels through Oland' he had
found more fin-rays in the Sand-Eel than Artedi, to
which fact he probably refers when he remarks, in the

twelfth edition of his Si/stema (1766): "In Sweden there
seem to be two distinct species, as Ray once conjec-
tured was tlie case in England." There is no doubt,
however, that in 1744^ Klein had already distinguished
between Artedi's Tobianus and Jaco's ''Ammodgtes
Angtoriim reras, The Launce, sive 'True Sand-Eel"
though M'ith(jut giving them binomial names. After-
wards, in 1810^, when Rafinesque described his Ammo-
dgtes cicerelus, the three European species now accepted
became known; but the largest of them •was without
any binomial specific name, which it first received in
1824 of Lesauvage'. The natural relations bet\\-een
these three species, as the}' are distinguished at present,
may be expressed as follows:

A: Pectoral fins shorter than the lower jaw:
a: The whole body behind the head
scaly, with the scales on the sides
of the body hidden in transverse

dermal folds even on the forepart AiiniioJgies lanceotatus.
h: Forepart of the body naked, with-
out transverse dermal folds Ammodgtes cicerelus.

B: Pectoral fins longer than the lower

jaw AinmoJytes tobianus.

" Paralipomenn, p. 3.

' From afifiog, sand ami dvirjg, diver.

' Syn. Mctti. Pise, y. 38.

•' Ibid., p. 16.5, fig. 12.

" Spec. Pise., p. 55.

^ Ed. X, torn. I, p. 247; ed. XII, torn. I, p. 430.

' To wliieli form ScHOSEVELDE liiiiiself referred, is a question difficult to decide. Ictitli. Slesv. Hols., p. 70.

'' Ed. I, p. 114; ed. II, p. 109.

'■ It. (El., p. 87.

J Hist. Pise. Nat. Prom. Miss. IV, pp. 55 nnd 5G, tab. XII, figs. 8—10.

* Caratteri d. ale. n. <jen., p. 21, Tab. IX, fig. 4.

' Bull. So.. Soc. Pl.iloni. 1824. p. 140.

570

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE SAND-EEL (f<w. hvittouisen or tobiskungen).
AMMODTTES LAXCEOLATUS.

Plate XXIII,

4 and Fig. 135.

Upper jnw not at aU {or only slit/]ith/) protruslle: nasal processes of the interwa.rillari/ hones short — measuring
about 11 — IS % of the len//tli of the intermaxUlary bones — ((nd more or less firmly united by ligaments to the
ethmoid bone. Pectoral fins short, their tip extending scarcely to the perpendicular from the beginning of tlie dorsal
fin, and their length being less than that of the lower jaw, less than 46 % of tJiat of the head, and at most 33 %
of the distance betiveen the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout. Head of the vomer furnished with two pointed,
crooked teeth, diverging at the tip. Dorsal and anal fins with straight margin. A black spot generally visible

on the middle of the sides of the snout.

Fig. 135. Ammoilytes lunceotatus, with the body in t

erse section, a scale, and a head ivitli open mouth, .^fter Bknecke.

n. l>i: 7; D. 53—59"; .4. 28''— 33; P. 12—14; V. 0;
a. .v+l + in + l+:v; Lin. lat. 172—183''; Vert. C,6—C,7.

Si/n. Enchuluojms No. 7; Klei.n, I. o., p. 5G, tab. XII, fig. 10;
Ammoilytes tobiunus, p. p., Swartz, Sccnstx- Zoologi, H. 11,
No. 04.

Ammodi/tes lanceolatus, Lesauv. 1. c; Sdndev., SIcand. Fish..
ed. 1, p. 209, tab. 54; Gthi;, Cat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol.
IV, p. 384; Malmgb., Finl. Fish: (disp. Hels.) p. 32; Coll.,
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874, Tilla?gsh.. p. 126; ibid. 1879,
No. 1, p. (J9 {corr. N. Mag. Naturv. Christ., Bd. 29 (1884),
p. 94); Malm, Gl,js, Boh. Fn., p. 500; Winth., Naturh.
Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII. p. 35; Bnoke, Fisch.,
Fischer., Fisch:. 0., W. Preuss., p. 99; MoR., Hist. Nat.
Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 217; Day, Fisli. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. I, p. 329, tab. XCII, fig. 1; MOb., Hcke, Fisch. Osts.,
p. 85; LiLLJ., Sl:, Norg. Fisk., vol. II, p. 211.

Ammodytes tobianus, Cuv., Rigne Aniiii., ed. 2, torn. II, p.
360; NiLSs., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 63; Ekstb., Vet.-
Akad. Handl. 1834, p. G7; Kr., Danm. Fiske, vol. Ill, p.
575; NiLss., Ska7id. Fn., Fisl:, p. 653.

The Saiid-Eel i.s the largest Scaiidiiiaviaii species
of this genus, and attains a, comparatively considerable

size: Sundevall met with a specimen 32 cm. long;
Day gives 33 cm., and Jago (in Ray) 394 mm., ;is
tlie maximum length of the species. The ordinary length
on our coasts, however, is only 12 — 20 cm.

The body is elongated, the greatest depth, across
the belly, measuring in ordinary cases onh* about 6 or
7 % of the length of the body to the end of tlie outer-
most caudal rays, though in gravid females the belly
is of course deeper. The body is also of nearly uni-
form depth, with gradually tapering tail and conical,
pointed head, and almo.st terete, the greatest breadtli
being usually at least more than 'V4 (81 — 84 ?») of the
greatest depth. The compression of the tail is confined
to the base of the caudal tin.

The conical head is also onlj" slightly compi'essed,
but tibo^e and on the sides somewhat flattened and
smooth, without scales. The depth across the occiput
is somewhat less than the greatest depth of the body.

" Sonictin]e.s 61, according to Gi'NTHER and Moreau.

'' ,, 26, ,, ,, LlLLJlCBORd.

' „ 169, ,, ,, Malm.

„ 203, „ „ Day.

SAND-EEL.

571

The length tVoiii the tij) of tlie ui>i)cr j;nv to the occi-
put is twice the deptli iit tlie occi|iiit, anil in ;i small
specimen (about 15 cm. loni;) nearl\- ' ^ of tlie total
length (including the whole of the caudal tin). The
length of the head — according to the method of mea-
suring it usually employed in this work, from the tip
of the snout to the hindmost ])oint of the opercular
(here the suboj)ercular) flap — measures in specimens
between 11 and 14 cm. long about 21 % (20-8— 207
%, according to our measurements) of the length of the
body (from the tip of the snout to the end of the
middle caudal rays), and in specimens between 26 and
28 cm. long about 19 % (18'5— 19'6 %) of the same
length. The eye is fairly round, but closely surrounded
by a sharp, soft orbital margin, the opening of which
is usually transversely oblong (the height greater than
the length). Both in large and small specimens the
hind margin of the eye lies half-wa.}' between the tip
of the lower jaw and that of the gill-cover; Ijut in
large specimens the size of the eye is less in proportion
to that of the bodv than in smaller ones, the diameter
of the eye in a specimen 30 cm. long being only twice
as great as in a specimen 7' , cm. in length. During
the growth of the body from 1 1 to 28 cm. the longi-
tudinal diameter of the eje decreases from aljout o' .-,
to 1' 4 % of the length of the body or from 16 to 9 Si
of the length of the head from the tip of the snout.
The length of the snout measures about 60 % (61 'A, —
59\'o %) of the postorbital length of the head, or aliout
Va (32 '/a— 35 %) of the total length of the head from
the tip of the snout, in specimens between 11 and 28
cm. long. The breadth of the interorbital space, on
the other hand, shows even relative inci'ease during
growth, in the said specimens from about 2'/, % to
about 3^ 4 % of the length of the body, or from 12' .,
to IS'/j % of the length of the head.

The nostrils are small, oblong, not raised, and only
slightlv more than twice as large as the small muci-
ferous poi'es which retain their normal position in the
supraorbital, suborbital, and preoperculo-mandibular
branches of the cephalic system of the lateral line. The
anterior nostrils are set on each side somewhat Ijehind
the middle point between the eye and the tip of the
snout, the posterior somewhat higher l)ut much nearer
to the anterior nostrils than to the eye. The tip of the
snout, seen from above, is parabolic, flattened, and flex-
ible; it projects considerably, almost concealing the upper
jaw (the intermaxillaries) when the mouth is closed.

The mouth is rather large, but capaltle of hardly
any protrusion. When the jaws are opened, the njjper
jaw thus assumes a vertical position and Ijcnds the tip
of the snout upwards. In young specimens, however,
the mouth is somewhat protrusile. The intermaxillary
bone is rather narrow, and extends somewhat beiund
the nostrils when the mouth is closed. The maxillary
bone is nnicli more robust; it articulates below the sides
of the tip of the snout and, when the mouth is closed,
lies hidden under a dermal fold of tlie cheek (the lower
pi'eorlntal margin). The total length of the upper jaw,
from the tip of the snout to the hind extremity of the
maxillary bones, increases with age, in the specimens men-
tioned above — between 11 and 28 cm. long — from 6 to
eVs % of the length of the body or from 29 to 34 % of that
of the he;id. The lower jaw is fairly strong and much
longer than the u])per. In the specimens just mentioned
its length measures about ^ ,„ (10'2 — 9'1 %) of that of
the body or about V2 (46'8 — 50 %) of that of the head,
and is greater than the length of the pectoral flns
(113 — 155 % thereof). Its articulation lies vertically
below the eye, and its tomial margin is deeply sinuated.
The conical tip of the lower jaw, which projects beyond
the upper jaw, and thus forms the tip of the head,
measures as nuich as ' :; — '4 of the snout proper, or
even a little more. The lips are well-developed. Trans-
verse palatal folds are present both in the upper jaw
and in the lower. Teeth are entirely wanting in the
jaAvs, on the palatine bones, and on the tongue. On
the head of the vomer alone we tind two teeth, which
are strong, set close together, and curved. The pha-
r}'ngeals, which are small (3 above and 1, elongated in
foi'm, below on each side), are furnished with close-set,
tine, cardiform teeth. The gill-rakers are setiform,
numbering about 25 on the front surface of the first
branchial arch. The tongue is of a shape not so com-
mon among fishes: it is free, broad but thin, and con-
cave at the top, with depressed, rounded tip.

The gill-openings are large, nearly the whole of
the gill-cover being free at the top, M'hile below the
opening is continued down to the articulation of the
lower jaw. The branchiostegal membrane is thus com-
pletely divided, without lieing united to the narrow
front part of the belly (the isthmus) between the gills.
It is furnished with 7 rays, which are, however, diffi-
cult to count, as the outermost ray is rather short and
fine, and is hidden by the extraordinarily strong muscles.
The rays are covered by the margin of the fold and

572

SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

extend nearly tu its extrcniit}-. The opercular appa-
ratus as a wliole is fairly large, but the operculum
proper is the smallest part (about Vs) thereof. The
operculum is smooth, convex, triangular, and almost
equilateral. The greatest part of tiie oi>ercular apparatus
consists of the suboperculum, wliich forms the whole
of the inferior and posterior parts, and with its broadly
rounded point projects somewhat behind and above the
base of the pectoral fin. It is united to the operculum
by an obli(pie, straigiit line; tlie lower margin forms
a large, rounded sinus, to receive tlie base of the pec-
toral fin; and the surface is smooth, with 9 distinct,
radiating lines on tlie lower part. The four branchial
arches are complete, and a well-developed pseudobranchia,
composed of from 12 to 14 threads, occupies tlie inner
surface of each gill-cover.

On the body itself we observe several longitudinal
lines, first the lateral line proper, which lies higii on
the back, the distance between it and the dorsal tin
being about V2 oi' that between it and the median line.
The lateral line is parallel to the dorsal fin, straight,
and depressed in the rather large scales, each of which
contains a branch of the rauciferous canal Avitli its
opening. The line begins above the gill-cover, without
its usual external continuation on the head, and ends
at the termination of the dorsal fin. — Along the middle
of the sides there runs a somewhat depressed median
line along the middle angles formed by the aponeurotic
septa of the large lateral muscles. This line is quite
straight and consists of rather small dots, pricked, as
it were, with a needle, and invisil)le without tlie help
of an ordinary magnifj'ing-glass. They form an irre-
gular double (or multiplex) row, equal in width in half
a scale. The line resembles a lateral line, l)ut is less
marked and destitute of muciferous ducts. — ( )n the
sides of the belly we find a still more remarkable carina
or dermal fold, which begins below the base of the
pectoral fin, follo^vs a perfectly straight course, and gra-
dually disappears half-way between the vent and tiie
caudal fin. Its height is about equal to the greatest
breadth of a scale; it is thin and soft, and does not
seem to contain any muciferous canal; but, in speci-
mens preserved in spirits at least, it lies with the free
margin bent outwards, covered l)y the mucus of the
skin, and thus appears itself to surround a canal. — On
the belly, between the two lateral carina?, three fine
longitudinal lines run from belo'w the pectoral fin to
the vent, the t^vo lateral ones slightly depressed, but

the middle one verv fine, somewhat raised, of clear
colour, and scaleless. In middle-sized specimens the
anal aperture lies at the end of the third fifth of the
length of the body, in the largest specimens a little
farther back, its position thus growing more posterior
with age. It is only slightly, if at all, prominent,
hardly more so tiian the smaller opening for the genital
organs that lies behind it.

The dorsal fin is of almost uniform height, its
height in large specimens being scarcely- half the depth
of the body. It begins at tlie end of the first fourth
of the body, or usually a little farther back, about as
far (in young specimens somewhat less, in old somewhat
more) behind the occiput as the latter from the tij) of
the snout. It ends some way from the caudal fin, the
distance between them being about equal to the least
depth of the tail, or a little greater. The rays are
about 56 in immber, the variations being appai'ently
confined to 2 or 3 more or less; all the rays are fine
and articulated, but perfectly simple and pointed though
not pungent. The membrane is thin and fragile.

Tlie anal fin begins just behind the genital opening
and ends opposite to the termination of the dorsal fin.
It is equal in height to the latter, and contains aliout
30 rays of the same structure as those of the dorsal fin.

The caudal fin is deeply forked; its greatest length
is about equal to the dejith of the body. It contains
15 true (articulated) rays. Thirteen of these are bran-
ched, though not very deeply, the outermost ray above
and below being simple and only slightly shorter than the
corners of the fin. Outside these rays there lie several
small, unarticulated or supporting rays: in a specimen
3 dm. long Sundevall counted 1 1 aliove and !• below.

In middle-sized specimens the pectoral fins do not
extend further liack than to the jierpendicular from the
first ray of the dorsal tin. In the very largest speci-
mens they are relatively much shorter. In the speci-
mens mentioned above, between 1 1 and 28 cm. long,
the length of the jiectoral fins varies with increasing
age between 9 and 6' g % of that of the Ijody, from
33 to 22 % of the distance between the dorsal fin and
the tip of the snout, or between 81 and 56 % of the
postorbital length of the head. They are also invariably
shorter than the lower jaw, tlieir length varying with
increasing age in the .said specimens between 88 and
64 % of that of the latter. They contain 14 rays, all
articulated; the first is simple and measures only slightly
more than half the length of the fin, the second is in-

S.MOdTII SAND-LAUNCE.

573

(listiiu'th- l)raiiclu'(l at tlie extrciiK' tip, tlie otlici's are
(loul)l\- liraiiclicd. anil the tifili (4 — 0) is tiu^ l()ii;;-est.
— Tliu ventral tins are wantinii'.

The small scales c()\'er the entire liu(l\-, hnt not the
head. On the back and belly they are set more closely
and irregularly, on the sides of the liodj^ they lie ar-
ranged in the regular, oblique, simple rows described
abo\c. Tiiese i-o\\s run t'rum the lateral line on the
back, ()bli(|uely l)ack\vards. down to the lateral yentral
carina'. Their number varies considerably: in a large
nuile SuNDEVALL found oidy 172; in another large spe-
cimen we found 17(i, in a middle-sized one 183; Kruyer
has found as many as 19.i. The usual number is pro-
bably about 180. The tirst ones, about 5, above the
gill-cover, and tlie last tJ or 7, at the caudal tin, are
shoi't and int'omplete. Furthermore, on the front and
middle parts of the body these rows are a little way
apart from each other, while on the tail they are set
close together. In each row the scales are set so den-
sely that tiiey overlap each other to a small extent of
their surface. At the middle of the body each row
contains about 46 scales, 18 or lU of which lie lietween
the lateral line and the median line, the other 27 or
28 between the median line and the lateral carina on
the belh-. In the largest specimens (about 3 dm. long)
7 scales in one of these rows occup}- a space 5 nun.
Ion"-.

The coloration is greenish on the back and white
on tlie rest of tlie body, shifting into all the C(j]ours of
the rainbow; hut in the living lish the whole body is
somewhat trans|)arent. All the lins are pale. A large
blackish spot occurs on the sides of the snout, half-way
between the ti]) of the snout and the eye.

No distinct external difference between the sexes
has been disco\ered.

With regard to the internal organs we merely re-
mark that the peritoneum is white with a silvery lustre,
the stomach rather small, firm, and wide, with a long,
narrow continuation in a backward direction, which
when empty resembles a narrow, cylindrical aj)pendage,
but when full of food becomes rather large and extends
back to the anal region. The liver is small and white, and
lies in front of the stomach, round the a'sophagus. The
intestine is narrow, with a sharp bend. Only one short,
conical appendage occurs at the pylorus. The ovaries
are separate in front, but towards the vent completel}'
united into one mass. The eggs are flame-yellow, fairly
numerous, and tine: their diameter is only slightly more
than ' 2 mm., 7 ripe eggs occupying a space 4 mm. long.

As all the Sand-Eels, so far as is known, live in
the same manner, and as the two species that occur in
any abundance in Sweden, are found in company with
each other, we shall shortly return to the habits and
development of the Sand-Eel.

THE SMOOTH SAND-LAUNGE (sw. slattobisen").
AMMODYTES CICERELUS.

Upper jatc profnisiI<\ recforaJ /«.s shart. as in the preceding species. Head of the vomer toothless. Dorsal and
anal lins with andulatinn margin. Xo regular transverse folds across the sides of the hodij.

Fig. 130. A>iiiiiO(li/tes cicerelus, natural size. TaliL'n .it a ilepth of 30 fathoms ofE Grip (Norway), by Lilljeborg.
Specimen in the possession of the Zoological Mnsenni of Upsnla University.

y?. //;•. 7; D. 53—50: .1. 28—30; P. 13—14''; V. 0;
0. .r+1 + 13 + l+.r; Vert. 68^

■S'^H. Cicirellus Messanensis, Boccoxe, Rech., Observ. Xat., .\msfer-
dam 1674, p. 294, fig. in tab. ad p. 287.

" Lilljeborg, 1. c.

' .Vccording to Day, JIore.av, and Lilljeborg.

15 according to Costa.

16 ,, ,, SWAINSOX.

*■ According to Costa.

Ainiiiodjjtes cicerelus, Rafin., Caralt, d. ale. n. gen., p. 21,
tab. IX, tig. 4 ; MOR., Hist. I\"^at. Poiss., Fr., torn. Ill, ]>.
219; Dav, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. I, p. 333, fab. XCII,
fig. 3; Ln-LJ., Sc, Norg. Fish., vol. 2, p. 228.

574

SC'ANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

Ammodytes tobianus. Risso, [chth. Aice, ]>. O.'j; Costa. Fn.

.\'ap., Pesci, Gen. Ammod.. pji. 1 — 10. tub. LI.
Ammodytes Siculus, Swainson, Zoo/, fllit.str.. vol. I, tab. G3;

Bo.vAP., Cat. Met. Pesci Eitr., p. 40; Gtiik, Cat. Brit. Mus.,

Fish., vol. IV, p. 38G; Ann. Mog. Nat. Hist., ser. Ill, vol.

XX, p. 290; Steind.. Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. Naturw.

CI., vol. LVII, I (1868) p. 712, tab. II, fig. 3; Gigl., Espos.

Intern. Pesoa. Bed. 1880, Catal. Sez. Ital., p. 97.

The chief characteri.stic of this species is the weak
development of the scales. Distinct scales occur only
on the hind part of tlie tail, and the sides of the body
are without the oblique, transverse, dermal folds in
which the rest of the scales are hidden in the other t\\o
species. To this we may add the apparently charac-
teristic shape of the dorsal and anal fins". The former
is furnished with two sinuses, one in the front part of
the upper margin and one in the hind part thereof;
while the anal fin contains one sinus, corresponding to
the posterior one in the dorsal fin. In other respects
the Smooth Sand-Launce is an intermediate form be-

tween our utlier two s|.)ecies: tlie |iectoraI tins are sliort
as in the Sand-Eel, but the structure of the mouth and
of the head of the vomer is the same as in the Sand-
Launce. The back is greenish (olive) or bluish. A broad
l)and with a strong, silvery lustre extends along tlie
whole length of the sides. A Ijlue spot often occurs,
according to Mokeac, on the top of the head. The snout
is flesh-coloured, according to Costa. Tlie iris is sil-
very white.

According to Guxtheu, ^Ioreau, and Giglioli the
Smooth Sand-Launce is the only Mediterranean s})ecies
of the genus. Guxthek sttites that in 18G7 Gwyn-
Jeffreys took a specimen 15 cm. long in a dredge, off
the Shetland Islands, in 80 or 90 fathoms of water. In
1858 and with the same tackle Lilljeborg took a spe-
cimen 12 '4 cm. long, on a bottom of shell sand, at
a depth of about 30 fathoms, off Christiansund in Nor-
way. The former specimen had attained the maximum
size assi^'ned to the siiecies by Moreau.

THE SAND-LAUNCE (sw. BL.iioBisEN).
AMMODYTES TOBIAXUS.

Upper jaic protriisUc: nasal jjrocesses of the iittermaxiUarii hones loin/ — )neasitrhi(/ ahout '3 {64 — C>7 %) of the
length of the intermaxiUary bones — ami mohile., irifh a //liilii/t/ motion, in the i/roore in the upper snrfaee of the
ethmoid ho)ie. Pectoral fins comparatirelt/ loni/, their tip vxteuding distinvthj heliind the perpendicular from the
beginning of the dorsal fin, and their Icnr/th being greater than that of tlie loirer jan\ more than 4(! ?« (47 — (lO
%) of that of the head, and (d least 37 % {37 — 43 ?o) of tlie distance between the dorsal fin and the tiji of the
snout. Mead of the vomer toothless. Dorsal and anal fins of uniform height.

Fig. 137. Ammodytes tobiainis, witii the body in transverse section, a scale, and a head with opened mm

After Benecke.

It l>,: 7; //. (-,1) 55 — 02 (t!4); A. (2G) 29—33; P. 12 — 15;
V. 0; C. .r+1 + 13 + l+.r; L. lat. 120 — 145; V<Tt. G2— G3.

Syn. Enclielyopus No. 6, Klein. 1. e., p. 55, lab. XII, fig. 8 et 9 ;
Ammodytes, Art., 1. c; Tlie Launce, Penn., Brit. Zool.
(London, Warrington, 177C) vol. Ill, p. 137.

Ammodytes tobianiis, Lesai'v., 1. c.; Gtue, 1. c, p. 385;
Steind., 1. c; Coll., Forb. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874,
Tilla.'gsh., p. 126; Malm, 6%s, Boh. Fn.. p. 500: Wi.s--
■jher, 1. c; Bnxke, 1. c., p. 100; Mon., 1. c, p. 218;
Day, 1. c. p. 331, tab. XCII, fig. 2: Mon., Hcke, 1. c,
p. 86.

This character is not noticed by Costa, either in his description or figure.

S.\M)-I,ALXCK.

>75

Ammodijtcs hmvcd. Cuv., lit'yuc Anim., cd. 2, lom. II, p. lUiO:
NlLss., Prodi: Iclit/ii/ol. Scind., p. G3; Kn., 1. c, p. 593:
NiLss., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 65G; Mai.mok., 1. c; LiNnsTit..
GoU. L. Hush. SSllsU. ArslxT. ISfiG, p. 24 (sep.); Mki.a,
Vcrl. Feiiii., p. 20t;, liil.. IX; I.ii.u., 1. t-., p. 221.

Tlic Saiid-IjauiK'C never attains so great a size as the
niaxiinuui size of the Sand-Eel. Kkover's largest spe-
I'inu'U wa.s 1^7 iiini. long; a s|iecinu'ii tVoui Cireonland,
l)r()Uglit liDHu' li\' ( >. ToiJici.i,, nicasures 204 ninu fVom
the ti|> of the lower jaw to the end of the longest ra}-s
of the eandal hn, or I'.IT nnu. from the tip of the snout
to the end of tiie miildle ra\s of the same tin.

The l)odA" is generalh' soniewliat deeper and more
eompressed than that of the Sand-Eel, though no constant
eharacter ean he drawn from tins relation. The greatest
depth of the body, aeross tlu' l)i'lly, varies in ordiiiar\'
cases between aliout !l and 10' . % of the lengtii from
the ti]i of tiie lower jaw to the end of the outer ravs
of the caudal iin, and the greatest lireadth between
about 66 and 7.t % of the greatest depth. We have
found tiie dejith at tlie lieginning of the anal tin to vary
lietween 6',-, and '.l' - %" of the length of the body
from the tip of the snout to the end of the middle
caudal rays; and, in the .same specimens, the greatest
breadth varied between 4 and 7' , %'' of the same length.

In speeimeiis of equal size tiie head is of essen-
tially the same shape as in the Sand-Eel; but as a rule
it is shorter. In specimens between 1)5 and 197 mm.
long we have found its length to \ar3- between 19 and
17'' 4 % of that of the body. The longitudinal diameter
of the eye varied in tliese specimens between 20 and
13 /» of the length of the head. The length of the
snout varied between 64 and 56 % of the postorbital
length of the head or between 33 and 30 % of tlie total
length thereof. The least breadth of the interorbital
space varied between 2' ., and 3",,. % of tlie length of
the body or between 12^ .-, and 19 'A, % of the length
of the head.

In the nostrils we tind scarcely any difference from
those of the Sand-Eel; l)ut the structure of the month,
as we have remarked above, affords one of the most
important characters for the Sand-Launce and the forms
akin to it in this res])ect. The mobility of the inter-
maxillary Ijoiies is ]>roduced in the same manner as in
the case of most other tishes, and in striking contrast
to the Sand-Eel. The difference lies partly in the long

nasal processes, wiiieii gli(h' forward and backward in a
groove in the upper surface of the ethmoid lione, partly
in the greater length of the musculai- band tiiat extends
under each of these processes, starting from the inner
(posterior) surface of the front of the intermaxillary
bone and from its articular process (cf. the explaiiatitJii
of tig. US, p. 463, above), and attaeiied to tlii' inward
vomeral process of the maxillary bone, which |)rocess is
closely united by ligaments to the anterior end of the
vomer. These two muscular Ijands serve to draw back
the intermaxillary bones. The protrusion of the inter-
maxillary bones is effected by their union to tlu^ lower
jaw- by skin, muscles, and ligaments, and they thus
follow the lower jaw when it is depressed. The anterior
end of the maxillary l)ones is rendered independent of
this downward motion ])y tiie union of tiie vomeral
processes to the vomer; and on casual examination these
processes, with their sharp, transverse, osseous points,
present a, confusing resemblance to the teeth on the
head of the vomer in the Sand-Eel — they iiave several
times been confounded \vitii those teeth. Tiie length of
the upper jaw shows even relative increase with age
from the earliest stages until the fish is of middle size,
but it subsequently seems to be retrogressive, unless
our observations are based on individual variations. In
a specimen 30 mm. long we find tins length to be 22";.,
?4 of that of the head, and in larger specimens, up to
a lengtii of aI)out 13 cm., this percentage increases to
about 33; but in our largest specimen the proportion
is no more than 28', 2 ?*• Tlit; lower jaw is usiialh-
shorter than in the Sand-Eel, its length being about
8 % (between 8'6 — exceptionally 9"3 — and 7'6 %) of
that of the body, or about 45 % (between 47"8 — in our
smallest specimen 49 — and 42"8 ?o) of the length of
the head, and never so much as 15 % (14'2' — •12'2 %)
of the length of the base of the dorsal fin. The conical
tip in which the lower jaw projects bevond the tij) of
the snout, is also generally less than in the Sand-Eel,
and seems at most not to exceed Vi of tlie length of the
snout proper. The gill-rakers are setiform in this species
too, and number 22 or 23 on tiie first braneliial arch.
The lips, tongue, palatal folds, pliaryngeal bones, and
gill-covers resemble those of tlie Sand-l-]el, l)ut the oper-
culum is more scalene, with the lower side (along tlie
suboperculum) perceptibly greater than the upper. The

" In the S.ind-Ecl between 0- j and 8

from lG-3 \ to 15-3

Scnnrlinaviari Finht;.

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

lateral line contains about 12o scales; and tlio oblique
derina] folds on the sides of tlie body nnnd:)cr about
130, being thus fewer tiian in tlie Sand-Eel. It is also
easy to see, on compai'iiig specimens of equal size, that
the scales of the Sand-Launce are larger. The anal
aperture lies nearer the middle of the body, the distance
between it and tiic tip of tlie lower ja-w measuring,
according to Kroyeh, about 53 — 56 % of the length of
the body to the end of the outermost caudal rays. We
have found the distance between it and tiie tip of tlie
snout, in specimens from 97 to 130 mm. long, to I'ise
from 56'/^ to 58\/^ % of the length of the body t(_)
the end of the middle caudal rays".

The dorsal fin generally begins somewhat further
forward than in tlie Sand-Eel, usually in front of the
end of the first fourtii of tiic length of tlie body, but
sometimes behind it. ( »n the other liand, its extent
is apparently always somewhat greater, sometimes as
much as ^,'3 of the lengtli of the body. Consequently,
the distance between it and the tip of the snout, accord-
ing to our measurements, never exceeds 40 % of the
length of its base''. As a rule too, its length increases
even relatively with age, the length of the head in
specimens about 9 cm. long measuring 28'7 % of the
length of the Ijase of the dorsal fin, in specimens be-
tween 13 and 20 cm. long only 26'7 % thereof. The
anal fin generally begins somewhat further forward and
in most cases is of somewhat greater extent than in
the Sand-Eel; but in both species the length of its
base varies between 48 and 43 % (in the Sand-Launce
exceptionally 41 '3 %). In the caudal fin ^\•e find no
characteristic ])eculiarit}- wortliy of mention, tlie least
de])th of the tail in tiiis species, too, being generally
somewhat more'' than lialf the length of tlie middle
rays of the caudal fin.

In the Sand-Lainice the ]»ectoral fins always extend
distinctly (for '4 — '/g of their own length) behind the

perpendicular frcjiii the beginning of the dorsal fin.
Their length is at least somewhat more than 9 % (ac-
cording to our measurements 9"1 — 10'3 %) of that of
the body, than 37 ?^ (43—37-2 »>) of the distance be-
tween the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout, or than
90 % (113-6— 90-1 %) of the iiostorbital length of the
head. They are also always longer than the lower jaw,
the length of which we have found to vary between
80 and 95 % of that of these fins.

Tiie coloration is the same as that of the Sand-
Eel, but is often more Iduish, olive-green with steel-
blue lustre, on the back. The young specimens in par-
ticular are finely punctated with round, dark brown
spots, one row above the lateral line, one row below
it, and a third ro^v along the base of the dorsal fin
composed of somewhat larger pigmental spots. This
marking is, however, by no means peculiar to the Sand-
Launce. The upper part of the silvery white iris is in
most cases more shaded with black than is usually the
case in the Sand-Eel, where the whole iris is generallj'
silvery. In this species too, the lower part of the sides
has a silvery lustre, but the bellj' is of a duller white.
The youngest specimens have a row of dark In-own,
pigmental spots along each side of the l)ase of the anal
fin. The snout is without the Idack spot on the sides,
or possesses merely a trace of this spot in the form of
scattered pigmental spots, larger and denser than on
the rest of the snout. The ti|> of the lower jaw is also
destitute of the black colour \vhich Ave find there in
most Sand-Eels, at least in old specimens. The caudal
fin is darkened at the base above and below by brown
pigment between the rays. The peritoneum is silverv
white as in the Sand-Eel, but more densel}- punctated
with small, round dots of black pigment, sometimes so
dense that the preponderating colour of the membrane
becomes coal-black.

In order to ascertain the natural relations between
these three species of European Sand-Eels, we shall now
notice some ]ioints in the manner in which the uKjst

significant chai-acteristics appear in these species. In
general Ammodi/tes lanceolafits has a longer head, measur-
ing more than '^ of the length of the body; but

" In specimeus of the Sand-Ecl lielwecn I3y ami 289 luni. long, this pruportioii rises from ,'J9'2 to GO'2 %, the increase thns seeming
to nrlvance with fair regularity.

'■ From 40 to 36 % in the Santl-Launce; from 45 to 44 ". in the Sand-Eel.

' In Sand-Eels between II and 20 cm. long this proportion sinks from 33 to 30'G "o. In a Sand-Lannce 50 mm. long, however,
the percentage was 32" 1.

'' Sometimes perceptilily less, however, according to Kkoyer.

AMMIIDVTID.K.

57;

lliis r('lati\c l('iii;'lli (Iccrcascs with incrcfisin^' age, and
in this respect Am. hincedlutiis thus )'utaiiis a ju\('iiile
character. Nor can tiie ciiaracfer l)e eni]ii()\e(l as a-
specific distinction, tor in a younii' .speciuieii of the Saiid-
Laiince .')() mm. long, taken by Fries in BohusIiVn, the
lengtli of the head is nearly 21 % of that of the body.
Ill tlie same specimen tlie length of tlie lower jaw is
I)'.') "/ of that of the body, while in other I'ases the
b()undar\' between the speties in this respect lies at 9 %.
Tlie length of the pectoral tins, where the line of di-
stinction is the same, but tlie direction of distinction
reversed — X\\v ]}ercentage less in Am. laiicculafKs tiian
in Am. tohkuuts —in a specimen of Am. toliiaiiiis 20
cm. long is only 9'1 % of the length of the body, and
in a specimen of .im. lanceolatiis 11 cm. long 9 ^ of
tlie same length. In this respect, too, the percentages
decrease with increasing age, and in tliis respect Am.
tohianiis thus retains a juvenile character. In his de-
scription of Ammoihites americanus" Stoker says the
dorsal tin liegins just at the end of the pectoral fin,
and that the length of tlie latter tin is only ^Is of that
of tlie heail. It was by this statement that I was in-
duced to refer the Sand-Eols brought home by the Vega
E.xpedition from Pitlekaj, north-west of Behring Strait,
to Am. laiuea, nir. umericana'', for in a specimen 77
mm. long the beginning of the dorsal tin lay at a
distance from the tip of the snout measuring 29"3 % of
the length of the body, and extremely little in front
of the tip of the pectoral tin, though this fin measured
1 1 % of the length of the body. Later investigations,
however, especially those of Jouoax and Giliseht, show
that Stoker's description and figure must have been
based on some exceptional specimen, for, unless this
were so, such a character could not have escaped ob-

serxatioii. Still, this sliows that even the characters
most important in a systematic respect are subject to
variation. According to Stcjukr Am. amcriccnius may
also attain a size of M dm., though from a specimen
which the Royal Museum has received through the
Smithsonian Institution from ^^'oods Hole (Mass.), it
apjiears to be (piite identical with A))i. fdhidiiiis. The
other two American species that have been ranged be-
side Dekav's ^i)iim(i{li/tps (niierirainis', but which are
regarded by Jordan and (iilbekt merely as varieties
of this species, show among their characters a variation
of the transverse dermal folds on the sides of the body
between 130 and 1<S2, thus tilling the gap between the
normal numbers in Am. toJnanus and Am. lanccoJafus,
and showing how the form-differentiation may bring
about a resemblance to Am. Janceohttiis, without altera-
tion in the structure of the mouth and without the
development of teeth on the head of the vomer. The
development of the said dermal folds, the absence of
which is one of the most ini|)ortant cliaracters of Am.
cicerehis, in Am. fubianus is a. character of growth ex-
tremely irregular in its appearance. Y.xen in specimens
7 cm. long it is sometimes impossible to discover them.
Of the other character which should serve to distinguish
Am. cicerehis, the undulating margins of the dorsal and
anal tins, I have found at least a trace in a slight con-
cavity of the margin of the anal tin in a young Sand-
Launce. All this goes to show, not only that all the
species are extremely closely related — so closely that
we may well lie tempted to regard them merely as
varieties of the same species, or as species at the be-
ginning of their differentiation from each other — but also
that this relationship has its origin in a form essentially
resembling Am. tohiaiiits, or perhaps in this very species.

At least one of the species descrihed ab(>^•e, the
Sand-Launce, must be regarded as circumpolar. The
Royal Museum })Ossesses examples of this species from
Norwegian Finmark, the Murman Coast, the White Sea,
North-East Siberia, Greenland, and Iceland. In Spitz-
bergen, however, it is unknown. According to Machado
(([uoted by Steixdachxek) the range of this species
extends southward to Cadiz. Day assumes that it may

occasionally wander into the Mediterranean; but he gives
no observation of its occurrence there. In the Baltic
the Sand-Launce penetrates at least to tlie island-belt
of Stockholm and, according to Mela, to the islands
round Aland and Abo and into the Gulf of Finland
up to the island of Hogland. In the first locality Sux-
DEVALL could iiot tiiid it; but during the investigations
which I caused to be made this summer (August, 1890)

" Mem. Amer. Aeail. Arts, Sc. n. ser., vol. VIII, p. 411, pi. .XXXIII. tig. 2.
*■ Gt. Intern. Fisher. Exliib. Loiidou 1883, Swed. Spec. Catal.. p. ITD.
' Girard's Ammodytes personatus and Cope's Am. alascanus.

578

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

b\- Mr. A. SvENSsoN, witli a Saiid-Eel nrt from llal-
laiid, ii quantity (several huiulreds, if not thousands)
of Sand-Launces about 7 ciii. hmg were taken and ob-
served at lionnklippa off ituumarO. LiNDSTRii.M found
the species off (rothland. In the north and east of the
Baltic, however, it is considered at least rarer than the
Snnd-l-^el, the ran^iic (if wliicli extends, according to
Mela, in tlie (iulf of IJothiiia to tlie neiglibourhood of
BJ5rneborg and in the (iulf of Finland to Cronstadt.
In the Atlantic, on the other hand, the Sand-Eel does
not go so far north, for it is unknown, according to
CoLLETT, north of Trondlijem Fjord. On the English
coast it is common at certain spots, though here and
still more in the Channel on the coast of France the
Sand-Launce is the commoner species. Bonaparte in-
cludes the Sand-Eel among the fishes of Italy, and ac-
cording to Day it occurs, though extremel}' rarely, in
the Mediterranean; but neither Steindaciiner, Moreau,
nor GiGLiOLi assigns it to this locality.

These two species, the most common Scandinavian
forms of the genus, seem to liave exactly the same
habits, and in most places are found together. In ge-
neral the smaller species, the Sand-Launce, seems to
be the more plentiful. This is evidently tlie case in
Scania, where Sundevali, found the Sand-Eel to form
hardly a tenth of the catch. Off the Danish islands
Krdyei; considered the two species to l)e more evenly
distributed, but on the coast of Jutland tlie Sand-Launce
■was said to be the more common. In the Great Belt
and Samsa; Belt Wintheu found the catch to consist al-
most entirely of Sand-Eels. Among some hundred Sand-
Launces forwarded to the Royal Museum from Halinstad
in the month of August, there was only one specimen
of the Sand-Eel. On the coast of Bohuslan, too, ac-
cording to ^Ialji, the Sand-Eel is rarer than the Sand-
Launce, which at suitable spots is common.

The Sand-Eel" generally haunts a sandy bottom, in
which it can Ijury itself. It works itself with wonder-
ful skill and I'apidity into the sand, where it seems to
lie liid, at a depth of 1 \' ., dm. or more, the greater part
of the day, coming up only at intervals. In winter it
lives in deeper water; but in spring, when the water
begins to grow somewhat warmer, both species ascend
together to sandy, shelving spots along the shore and
stay there all the summer. In Scania this takes place
at the end of May, and the fisherj- begins immediately

afterwards. l)uring the course of ()ct(jl)er they again
i-eturn to deep water.

The most productive Sand-Eel fishery in tlie whole
of Sweden is carried on in tlic little inlet just north of
Simrishamii. So much fish is taken here, according to
Nii.ssoN, that the Rector of Gladsax receives as his tithe
of the fishery G barrels (989 litres) of dried Sand-Eels.
The town jirobably owes its origin to this fishery.
During the whole summer and until October the fishery
is pursued there daily, when not interi'upted l^y storms,
with fine-meshed seines, which are shot at a depth of
3 fathoms and hauled U]! on shore. The fishing begins
soon after noon and continues until nearly sunset.
Sand-Eels are also especially jilentiful at the following
places: south of Ahus, at the fishing-villages of Vik
and Baskemolla (north of Simrishanni) — where in 1880,
i according to Mr. Luni)Bicr(;, Inspector of Fisheries, the
catch was about 50 hectolitres, of a value of 302 crowns
(£16 10s.) — at KS,seberga (between Simrishamn and
Ystad), off' Ystad, just east of the town and down to
the mouth of Kopinge River, and at the fishing-village
of Abekas (west of Ystad). At these spots some (juantity
sometimes comes into the market, but in the rest of
Scania, as well as in Halland, Sand-Eels seem to be used
almost exclusively as bait for Cod. At the south-west
corner of Scania (Trelleborg, Skanor) these fi.shes are
quite unknown to the fishermen, according to Sunde-
vall; and in the Sound according to Schagerstrom,
both species are rare, though large quantities were taken
at the fishing-village of Raa in September, 1837. Further
up the Baltic, as even LiXNiEUS tells us, some Sand-
Eels are caught oft' Ottenby, on the south point of
C)land, and used as bait for Cod. This fishery is carried
on with seines the cod-end (sac) of which is composed
of a sheet which is turned towards the sun and thus
attracts the Sand-Eels by its brightness. A similar
seine is used in Ilalland. — • At Simrishamn, it is said,
the fisher}- is carried on in the afternoon. At Ahus
and Ystad the fishermen are out both in the morning
and in the evening, and in dull weather in the middle
of the day as well. It is only at these times that the
Sand-Eels move aliout in the water. In the island-belt
of Stockholm, in summer, Sundevai.l pretty often met
with small Sand-Eels, between 74 'I'^f^ 1 ^^^^- long,
s^\'imming about freely here and there among the is-
lands where there was no sand at the liottom, and also

" From Ibis point to tlic eud of the description Sand-Eel is nsed as a general term for both species, except where otlierwise stated. Tr.

.SAND-KEKS.

o79

out ill deep wiitcr, hut not tar ('i — 14 uicti-cs) from tlii'
surface, at tlic spots where- Hcrrin^-fry were abundant.
As he did not see -Auy large specimens at the same time,
he cont-hi(hMl tliat the young Sand-Kels lead a roving
life, whih' the oltler ones seem to he more tied to oni! spot.

( )u the sliores of Xor\va\' the Sand-lCels are not
rare and are known by the name of .SV(7. When the
liottom is left dr\- h\- the ebb-tide, tiiey bury themselves
lliere, and nio\(' aliout at high water. But tiiev' also
occur far out at sea in water of considerable deptii,
whei'e during summer they are caught in large luunbers
li\- se\cral seabirds {Moiiikdi iircticn.s^ Uria troile). This
can, of course, happen oidy when the tish is swimming
about- — During winter, M'hen the Sand-Eel keeps to
deep water, we may in all probability assume that like
most other fishes at this season, it leads a still more
quiet life than in sunnncr. At this season, too, it pro-
liabl\- haunts a sandy bottom and lies l)uried in the
sand. Professor F. W. Akeschdug informed .'slndkvall
that one winter a tisherraan who was dragging to iind
some Cod-lines that had been lost, took up a Sand-Eel
King (a large Ammoihites lanceoJutiis) on a sandv bottom
at a great depth. It api)ears, however, that even at
this season the Sand-Eel occasionall)' moves about, from
the fact that during winter it is often found in Cod
caught iu deep water.

The food of the Sand-Eel is composed of all kinds
of small marine animals, especially worms, which it is
believed by some to search for in the sand. It is not
for this purpose, however, that it burrows in the ground.
It is impossible for a tish buried in this manner
to seek or seize any prev. The Sand-Eel lies in the
sand to rest and to avoid its many different enemies:
Porpoises — which have been observ^ed even to root up
the bottom to find their victims — Mackerel, Cod-fishes
— especially the Pollack, which has been seen in shoals
chasing the Sand-Eels up towards the sui'face to seize
them from below and devour them — Garpike, and
i)ther tishes-of-prev, as well as seafowl. The principal
food of the Sand-Eel consists, however, of small fishes,
belonging even to its own genus. We have already
mentioned that tiie fry swim ;d)out where young Her-
rings are plentiful. The middle-sized Sand-Eels devour
their smaller congeners and other fry: while the largest

Sand-Eels seem to live almost cxclusivch- on the middle-
sized ones.

The spawning-season of tlie smaller si)ecies, the
Sand-l..aunce, occurs in August. Si'NDKvall was in-
formed, however, b\ Mr. Halck of Sinu'ishamn, that
iu l<S.")(i the spiiwuing of the Sand-I^aunce lasted at
least until the 15th of Septendx-r. — Still the spent
fish remain in the shallows together with the others.
At many spots in lingland and Ireland" the Sand-
Launce is caught between the tide-marks even in win-
ter, though then, after the spawning-season, it is "so thin
as not to be sought after generally for food". It is a
remarkable circumstance that the spawning does not
begin until the fish has l;)een three months at tlie spa wiiing-
place. — Less is known of the spawning-season of the
larger species, the Sand-Eel. Nilsson received informa-
tion from Vstad to the effect that the Sand-Eel spawns
tliere in April; but it is hardlj' probable that the species
ascends to the shallows so early. On the 12t]i of Octo-
ber, 1892, our Museum received througli Mr. i\ A. Lind-
HOTH a newly caught Sand-Eel 25 cm. long, with the
testes just beginning to swell, from Stenvik (Ejusteron)
in the island-belt of Stockholm. Malm gives an ob-
servation of a female 28 cm. long, that had fully de-
veloped roe on the 5th of June; but he does not state
whether the roe was cjuite ready to be deposited. At
St. Ives Day found the generative organs of the Sand-
Eel and the Sand-Launce to be equally developed in
August. In Scandinavia both species ascend into shal-
low water at the same time, in the month of May, and
it seems most probable that tliey also spawn at about
the same time, the larger perhaps, as is common among
fishes (in the Herring, for example), before the smaller.

Of the growth of the fry Sundevall remarks that
the j'oung specimens, 75 or at most 100 mm. long,
which in summer (from Julv to Se])teml)er, or perhaps
still longer) i-ove far and wide in search of prey, pro-
bably belong to the fry of the previous year, and that
the ordinarj- specimens 125 mm. or more in letigth
seem to be a year older. At the end of Jidy, 1880,
oft' Groto among the Lofoden Islands, Cdlleit also
distinguished between three difterent generations of the
Sand-Launce, 75, 125, and 170 mm. long and, iu his
opinion, respectively 2, ?>, and 4 years old'. Whether

" See for example Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ini., vol. IV, p. 238.

'' We arrived at quite different results in a consignment of Sand-Launces from Sondruni, oS. Halmstad, taken at the beginning of
.\ngust. Among these specimens a few measured between 50 and 55 mm. in length, while the others, we may almost say, were of all pos-
sible sizes between 05 and 125 mm.

580

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

tlie S;uul-I-',el (Am. hnircolii/Ks) lias reached iiiaTiirit\-
at the size hist lucnliuncc], is as \ei an open question.
It grows, as ^^e liave nientioiied above, to a length of
30 cm. or uioi-e; and I>oth uialcs and females attain
this size. These largest specimens of the Sand-Eel are
known in Scania by the name of Kttngar (Kings). At
Alms they arc also called Groiiiiifiny ('Jrecntish), a
name whicii is sometimes a|)]ilicd to all specimens of
this species. Some fishermen know that there ai-e two
kinds of Sand-Eels, and that the Kings belong only to
one of them. Nilsson has adopted the names of hr'it-
tohis (White Saiid-Kel) and hhitahis (IJlue Sand-Kcl)
from l>lekinge.

The Kings are rai'c, probalily from a cause easy
of comprehension. It is no doubt difficult for many
specimens to escape for some A'ears the tackle con-
•btantly set for tliem, especially the seine. They are,
therefore, most luunerous in proportion to the entire
catch at spots where the t'wo species are not plentiful
enough to make the use of the seine remunerative.
That some few of tliem do escape, in spite of all, seems
probably to depend on tlie fact that the older speci-
mens btn-y themselves in the sand and lead a much
more sluggish life than the young ones, being thus
nuicii less exposed to the risk of being caught. Thev
are said to be taken only toAvards evening. The fishery
for Sand-Eels is indeed remarkable, for it shows the
extraordinary hardiness of these s]X'cies. ( )ff Simris-
hanin Sand-Eels are still taken in quantities only
slightly, if at all, less tiian in former times, altliough
a war of extermination has been pui'sued against them
yearly for several centuries. This war has been car-
ried on with fine-meshed seines long before, during,
and after tlie spawning-season; and would thus seem
to have been enough entirely to extirpate the spe-
cies in a few years. But it is just tiiis hardiness that
renders the history of the species so much more de-
serving of careful study. The fine and extremely nu-

merous eggs, and periia])S tlie I'oving life of the young
specimens, may perliaps (■onq)ensate to some e.xtent the
numbers destroyed, if only a few large females be
yearly permitted to deposit their roe. Still it is not
unusual to hear the fisherman complain of the decline
of this fishery. Thus we learn now (1890) from Sond-
rum (off llalmstad) that "the Sand-Eel has become
rarer in tiiis neigiiboiu-hood than it used to be. Eor-
merly it was sold and eaten in quantities. Now the
supply is scarcely enough for bait."

The Sand-Eel is eaten fresh, boiled, or fried, and
is regarded by many as a delicacy. ( )thers assert that
it is too lean, and others again find the smell of the
flesh repulsive. At Sirarishamn a great portion of the
catch is dried and preserved for winter use. There is
no distinguishable difference in flavour between tlie two
species. These fishes are, however, very important to
man in another respect as well. The large shoals in
which they live, entice larger and more valuable fishes
to the fishing-grounds. Mr. Lundberg", Inspector of
Fisheries, remarks that the Sand-Eel is important as
food for the Salmon, which at sheh ing spots along the
Scanian coast comes close in shore chiefly to hunt Sand-
Eels, and which during certain years thus becomes the
object of a higlily lucrative seine-fishery. The Sand-
Eel is also considered excellent bait for Cod and other
large fishes-of-prey, and is used for this purpose wher-
ever it I'an be procured.

We have already described the seines used for
Sand-Eels. In tidal waters, as for instance on the
coasts of the North Sea, in England, Ireland, and France,
persons may be seen, when the tide is out, scratching
up Sand-Eels with spades and other implements adapted
to this purpose. Similar irajdements are used in Swe-
den to secure the Sand-Eels that have buried them-
selves in the sand after they ha^e been dra\vn ashore.

(SlXDEVALL, S.MrrT.)

" Lundberg, Meddelanden roraiide Sveriges fiskerier. liiift. 2, p. 151.

ONd.MOKl'IIS.

581

Faih. MACRURlDiE.

Bodij rlaratc {wore or less fndjiole-like). irifli iiion- or less straiylit hark tnid coiicore {arcuate) cnudo-rentral
mari/iii, coiiijircssed, irifli vloi/i;(drd, more or less irhip-like tall; covered irith thhi Imt splnij, carinated or striated
scales. Xo distinct caiid<d fin {the vertical fins confiueiit Ix'liind), lint a ilistiiut anterior dorsal fin or at
least a trace thereof in the eloni/ation of the first dorsal rai/s. 'I'eeth on the /j/tcnna.rillnri/ Itones and in the lower
Jair, Iml the vomer, jndatine hones, and tonr/ne t(nithlcss: nmnllt hi(///li/ /irn/rnsilc. (lill-o/ieninf/s lan/e: hranchio-
stei/(d mcndirancs more or less united to each other, but free from the istlnnus. Branchiostcfjal rat/s (J or 7 .
Pseudohranchice wantinrj. Air-bladder present. Pyloric (tppendaf/es icell-developed.

Here we liiive a t'iiiiii]\- consistiiiii' nlniost exehisixcly
of deep-sea lishes"; and besides the characters given
above we observe in the tirst place those peculiarities
wliicli .generally belong to such fislies, especially in the
loose structure of the head, with its ample space for
luuciferous canals. Two in particular of the cephalic
liimes, the nasal bones, are greatly enlarged, and form
the framework of the highly variable form of the snout in
tlie Grenadiers, as these tishes are called in Italy''. The
suborbital bones, which form the lower margin of tlu;
orbit, also afford an instance of a systematic peculiarity
rare among the Anacanthini. They sometimes develop a

Amei'ican Jlahijiorphi/rns {Aidimora) viola' . In tiie cra-
nium, too, we find an evident sign of tlie relationship
to the Codfishes in the advanced development of tlie
styloid l)(jne (os opisthoticum). and tlie lobate process
erected in an upward and backward direction on the
hind part of the intermaxillary bones is also as well-
developed as in most of the Codfishes. Thus, the most
natui'al place of the; Grenadier- fishes in the system is
beside the Codfishes, as a remarkable variation of the
Anacanthine type, with a characteristic common among
deep-sea fishes in the reversion to or retention of the
original form of tlie tail without separate caudal fin'.

ronnexion with the opercular apparatus similar to that j The primitive (paheichthyic) appearance of the (Trenadier-

we have seen above in the Cotfomorphi and Cyclopteridee.
.\nother systematic exception might also be used as an
argument in favour of the inclusion of these fishes
among the Acauthoptei'ygians. The first large ray in the
anterior dorsal fin (really the second ray in the fin, the
tirst ray being extremely short and rudimentary) is a
irue spinous ray, without joints. These two points of
resemblance to the Acaiithopterygians might well induce
us to range the family Macruridce beside the Gurnards
and the Agonidce, according to Swainson's' proposal.
However, if we trace the form-series back to the least
differentiated Grenadier types', we find in the form of
the head the most distinct approximation to the Fhijcis
group, within which the relationship to the Grenadier-
fishes is also expressed in the form of the snout in the

fishes also depends on the covering of scales. In one
species we find the scales rejilaced by ])rojecting si)ines
scattered in the skin. Oidy in few "species and in the
fry of other species do we meet with thin, f'ulh' t\i)ical
cycloid scales. In the rest of the family the scales are
generally furnished throughout their free surface with
spines or raised carina?, which give the fish a Ganoid
appearance. Bonapakte, therefore, referred the Grena-
dier-fishes to the order Ganoidei, when in 1837 he
established a special family^, Macrouridm, for these forms.
A juvenile form, Krohnius. is described by Cocco''
and Emeky' as reminding us, by the long rays of the
ventral hns and the position of the first dorsal fin far
forward on the head, of the larva' of the Trachiipteroids,
but as most closely resemljlinsr, in the form of the

" One species (Macruronus novcc-zelandia;) is said to live in slmllower water.

'' See Risso, Icltthyologie de Nice, p. 201, where the name is supposed to have originated from the resemblance between a soldier's
helmet and the snout of Macrurus coelorlnjnclms. The same name occurs in Cuvier (Regne Animal, tome II, ed. 1, p. 217; ed. 2, p. 336)
and in Bkown-Goodk (Fisher., Fish. Indnstr. U. S.. Sect. I, p. 244).

' Nat. Hist. Fish., Amph., Rept., vol. II, pp. 170 and 2G1.

'' See for example Macncrns {Nematonuriis) longijilis, GU.nther, Deep Sea Fishes, Chall. Exped., p. 151, jil. XXXV.

' Brown-Goode, The Fisheries and Fisliery Industries of the United States, Sect. I. pi. (54: Gintheb, 1. <■., p. 94, pi. XV.

•''' A separate caudal fin may, however, appear to be present. This is due to cicatrization following upon the breaking off of the tail
in an adult Grenadier-fish. Cf. NiLssoN, SIcand. Fauna, Fislcarne, p. 600.

^ Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vol. XVIII (1838 — 1841), p. 295.

'' Giorn. Gabin. Letter. Messina, anno III, lomo V, fasc. XXV (1844). p. 21: reprinted in II Xaturalista Siciliano, aimo VII, Xo. 4,
l:o Gennajo 1888, p. 101.

' .Mem. .1. R. Acad. d. Lincei, scr. 3. vol. III. p. 395, figs. 7 and 8.

SCANDINAVIAN KIMIKS.

l)och', <iLNTiiEu's MarnirKs rrnsfiiceps" tVoin the duci)-
sea fauna of Australiii.

In 1884 Professor Lkche took a specimen of a Kroliin'iin-lunn at
Uic surfiice off Messina. This specimen (fig. 138) lias advanced so
far in development tliat we need not liesitale in referring it at least
to llie genua Macmrus. Including the very fine tip of the tail the
specimen measures 92 mm., the forepart of the body being 12 mm.
long. 'J mm. deeji, (> mm. broad, clumsy, and almost spherical, while
behind tliis point tlic strongly compressed tail begins with a depth of
4'/.2 nim. and very gradually tapers to a filamentous, narrow but com-
pressed, and menibvanous appendage. This appendage, which is IS'/j
mm. long, forms a slight break at its insertion in the tip of the tail
and .iilvances straight back, marked with dark reddish brown spots of
pigment, small, but dense, and set in two rows at the base of the
appendage, in one row, more scattered, and larger (finally occupying
the entire breadth of the appendage) towards its tip, which is, how-
ever, colourless. The head does not measure even half of the bulky
forepart, though its length, measured as usual from the tip of the
snout to the hind margin of the gill-cover (oldiquely against the lon-
gitudinal axis of the body), is 6-/3 nim. From the same cause the
.length of the snout becomes fairly great, measuring l'-, mm., although
the round eyes, with a longitudinal diameter of 2 mm., and set at a
distance of about 2 mm. from eacli other, evidently lie far forward.
The postorbital part occupies about half the length of the liead, or S'/s

JSSr

Fig. 1?>8. Krolmiiis fikunenlosiis, natural size. From Messina, Feb., 1884,
V. Leche. Original in the possession of the High School of Stockliohii.

mm. The moulh is both terminal and lateral, with sharply ascending
cleft. The maxillary bones end almost below the middle of the eyes.
Below the chin there hangs a barbel about equal in length to the
diameter of tlie eye. The nostrils are set on each side at the upper
.■Ulterior corner of the eye, in a common opening, divided into two
])arts liy a thin partition-wall. The first dorsal fin begins at a distance
of 7 mm. from the tip of the snout, or a little behind the head. It
is high — the longest ray measuring about 7^/2 mm. — and pointed,
almost falciform; but the anterior rays (except the first, which is
rudimentary) are elongated into filaments. Tlie fin contains one rudi-
mentary ray aud nine perfect, but simple rays. The length of its
base is 2'., mm., or somewhat more than the longitudinal diameter of
the eyes. Behind this fin the dorsal edge still retains a low dermal
flap, a remnant of llie enibrj'onic vertical fin, and distinguishable not
(piite to the end of (lie bulky forepart. At this point the flap dis-
appears, but soon returns again, though at first scarcely distinguishable,
at about the end of the swollen forepart of the body, now with true
rays and in the form of a second dorsal fin, which is remarkably low
and follows the dorsal edge back to the base of the caudal filament.
The anal fiu begins at a distance of 11 "5 mm. from the tip of
the snout, on the posterior part of llirit which we have termed the

swollen forejjart of the body, lis base thus follows the ventral margin
backwards and upwards, then passing in a rounded obtuse angle to
the ventral margin of the caudal part, and following the latter to its
termination. The rays of the anal fin, which, like those of the dorsal
fins, are all simple, first increase in length uniformly but sharply, the
length of the rays at the beginning of the tail being about equal to
the depth of the latter. Thus the margin of the anal fin is fairly
straight, in spite of the sinus in the margin of the body at this spot.
From this point the rays gradually decrease in length, until at the
beginning of tlie posterior half of the tail their length increases some-
what, the height of the anal fin being here greater than the depth
of the tail; bnt towards the tip of the tail the length of the rays
again decreases. At the base of each ray of the anal fin we find a
dark-brown, pigmental spot. The pectoral fins are perhaps the most
characteristic peculiarities of this larva. They are almost semicircular
disks, for the greater part free, attached to the shoulder-girdle only
at the top by a narrow shaft, which is inserted on about a level with
the middle of the eye. The outer part of these disks is extremely
thin and membranous, but with rudiments of the future pectoral rays:
the inner piart is somewhat thicker, in the specimen preserved in spi-
rits opaque, and is of an almost regular, but flattened kidney-shape, the
upper corner of which, situated about one-third of the way up the
pectoral fins, forms the point of origin for the said shaft. If we com-
pare this form of tlie pectoral fins with their arrangement in certain
Codfishes, where the internal structure is known', it appears extremely
probable that the shaft corresponds to the rudiments of the proximal
parts of the shoulder-blade and the coracoid bone, wliile the distal parts
of these bones and the basal bones of the pectoral rays are developed
in the kidney-shaped part of the base of the pectoral disk. Shafted
(lobate) pectoral fins are indeed bj- no means rare in the fry of other
species'; but a shaft so long and so narrow as in this larva — remind-
ing us of the elongation of the basn! bones in Lophius — is unparal-
leled within our experience. The ventral fius are set vertically below
the insertion of the pectoral fins, somewhat in front of the middle
]ioint between the tip of the snout and the anal fin — the foremost
point of their insertion lies at a distance of G mm. from the beginning
of the anal fiu — aud are remarkable for the great elongation of the
six middle rays. Tlie first ray is not short, its length being very
nearly as great as that of the head: bnt the next 6 rays attain a length
of as much as 30 mm., are pigmented in the outer part in the same
way as the caudal filament, and are also flattened throughout their
length like this filament. The innermost two rays are short, the inner-
most ray the shortest of all. The anal aperture lies about half-way
between the insertions of the ventral fins and the beginning of the
anal fin; it has a pointed anal papilla behind it. Half-way between
the ventral fins and the isthmus we find a round depression in the
ventral wall, coasted in front by a semicircular, membranous, dermal
swelling, the two ends of which are continued each bj- a dermal ridge
which disappears behind. This structure evidently bears the appearance
of having served as an adhesive apparatus by means of which the larva
has been enabled to attach itself to floating objects, and is probably
of importance as an explanation of the bare (scaleles.s) spot which in
adult examples of some species of the genus occurs on this part of
the body. On the upjicr portion of the abdominal sides the scales have
apparently begun to develop; but the rest of the body is naked.

It is ditiicult as yet with certainty to determine the species of
this larva. Among the four Mediterranean species of the genus given
by GiGLiOLi'', it can hardly be referred to any other than Macrurus
litvi.f. This opinion is borne out botli by the number of rays in the

" Deep Sea Fish., Chall. Exp., p. 143, pi

' See for example Emery, Fierris/er in Fau

' Cf. above, fig. 77, p. 311.

" Espos. Intern, di Pcsca, Berlino 1880, Sez. Ital. Cat., p. 98

XXXVll.

. nnd Flora des Golfes von Neapel, II Monogr., p. 29. taf. IV, fig. 40.

(ii;ENAi)ii;i;-FiMii;s.

583

first ilursnl (10) and (lit- ventral tins ('J) an.l l.y the form of llic
arllicsive ventral disk. Tlic specimen would tlitis seem Ici belong to
a species tliat also occurs within tlie limits of tlie Scandinavian fauna.
But GOnther" lias described a Mediterranean fisli that in anotlier publi-
cation by GiGi.ioi.i'' had been named Macruviis {Hijmenoccphabis,
M;/sli(rniiuriis) ilaliciis, and to this species, which is dislinguislied
from .\/iicriii-tts Icrvis by small, villiform teetli in tlic lower as well
us in tlic upper jaw and by larger (fewer) scales, our larva may be
more properly referred. Tlic nitist inlrresting points in (his larva,
however, arc tlic tadpulc-likc form of the body, a form whiclc is per-
sistent in ^fiicrurus c^•assH•eJ^s, the short snout with thi- umuth set
in tlie iiosition normal ninong the Aiictcanthini, tlio shafted jicctoral
fins, a trace of the oldest period of the piscine type — though con-
siderably altered by the liroad form of the pectoral disks — , the
evanescent adhesive disk on the belly, and the long appendages to
the rays of the \entriil fins and to the tip of the t.'iil. These ap-

pendages certainly pl.iy tlicir |iart in iissisting
itself in the water; but probably serve also t(
resembhinee to the stinging Medui'ir'.

the larva to support
I give it a protective

Siiiiic nf the iiiciiilici's iif this I'lnnih' Iim\c Ihiil;'
been kiKiwii, at lf:isl .■siiiic tlic times ul' S'l'lii'iM'' and
FAiiUKifs' ; liiit tile oreat wiaitli uf forms flint represent
it ill tlie alivsses (if the uee.iii, have lirst lieen diseovei-ed
and (leseribed in recent times by (n'N'riiKi/ and \'.\n.-
LAXT", BK(>\VN-(iiiii|ii: and Hi^.w*. AecdrdiiiL;' 1" ihc first-
mciitiiined writer the faiiiih' contains at least 4(1 spe-
cies, which lie distribntes amonii- 4 a'ciiera. Only one
of these genera is reiiresentcd in the Scandinavian fauna.

Genus MACRURUS.

First hr(nirl//iil arch iiriifcd ahorc aiid hcJoir mi the tnitsidv hii <i iiii'inhrtiiir In the inside (if the iijicrriilar apjxi-

rutiis. IciiriiK/ (I fnriimoi at the middle irh/ch is nnieh smaller than tin' athcr (/ill-slits, nf irhiih ereii the last is

complete, dill-rakers <ni the frst liraiiehial arch ttil>er( iilar. Braiichiostei/al memhranes united In each other. Chin

famished a-ith a harhel. Dnrstd fins a-ell-sepa rated from each other.

Within this oeiins, \\liich recei\-ed tin' name it now ' "With regard t(.i the fm-ni of the snout and [losi-

bciirs of liuK'H', Guxtheu, the most eminent among j tion of the mouth, there exi.sts every gradation, from
those writers who have revised the arrangement of the \ the most siie<'iali7.ed types, such nfi Maerarus /aj)(i)iicHs

genus, in his last treatment of the (question has united
several genera which he formerly regarded as distinct,
but which he has now reduced to the rank of sub-
genera. "The dredge of tlie Challenger," he writes',
"secured more than one hundred and fortv examples,

aiid Macraras jtaridlehis, to JSLicnirus loiiffifilis. which
may be regarded as rei)reseiiting the original type
whence the others were derived. Its head is com-
pressed, well proportioned, formed by firm bones, the
superficial of which ciudosi.' a miiciferous system not

referable to thirty species, and proved that this type ' more enlarged than we tind it in many surface fishes;

of fishes is not onh' one of the most widelv sjiread in its snout is not more tumid or projecting than in the

the depths of all oceans, but also extremely abundant majority of surface Gadoids, and the wide mouth ter-

witli regard to species and individuals. These materials minal and lateral. As the mucifcrons cavities increa.se

afforded the further evidence that the characters on in width, the bones are expanded into thin lamella-

which I had relied for the generic groups of Maerurns, and lose in firmness, those of the infraorbital ring cover

Cori/phcenoidcs, and Malacocephalus, did not possess more or less the side of the head, extend backwards

the tiixonomic value assigned to them, with the ex- to the angle of the pra'operculum, and push the latter

ception of the modifications of the dentition, which. backwards. The snout' becomes the receptacle of large

however, were capable of more precise definition. or even enormously eidarged cavities, suiijiorted by

" Deep Hea Fish, Challeng. Exped.. p. 140.

» GiGLlOLl e ISSEL, Pelagos, p. 228. c. fig. (without description) — eilcd from Gintmep.. 1. o. To this i.ublication we have not had access.

■■ Cf. above, p. 312, note b.

'' Smdmors Beskrivelse (17i;2). vol. I, p. 2G7.

' Fauna Groenlandicn (1780).

' Deep Sea Fishes, Cliall. Exped.

" Exped. Scient. dii Travailleur et dii Talisman, Poissons.

'' Peport oil the Fishes, Dredg. 1880 U. S. Survey Steamer "Blake". Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv. Coll., vol. X, No. :>.

' Nattirg. Atisl. Fisch., Tli. 2, p. 150; fiom ua/.oog, long and olgct tail. The oldest generic name is Con/plianoides (GrNNEP.is,
1765), but was formed contrary to current rules and suggested for one of the Scandinavian species "until it please the great naturalist
LiNN.ECS to give the species its proper name."

■»■ Deep 6Wi Fish., Chall. Exped., p. 122.

'■ Chiefiy by the extension of the nasal bones, as REiXH.MinT has already remarked.
„ , , 74

584

lliiu osseous rid^ires, nnd projects iiKire or less l)eyoud
tlie inontli, wliicli is forced di)\\nw.-inls in ilie lower
surface of tlie head, like tliat of a shark. Tlius, great
as the dissiuiilaritv is hetweeu the extreme forms of
the snout in the species of Macrurus, there is no funda-
mental difference in structure; they merely represent
different degrees of the same line of modification.

"With regard to the scales, tiiere is alsf) every
gradatinn from the small-scaled ]\IaIarocej)Iinli to the
large-scaled Macnirus Umgiharbis. In very young spe-
cimens of all species the scales formed at first are al-
ways thin, witlioiit am- armature, in fact c-scloid. Spines
apj)ear only after some time, generally in the median
line of the scale, simply and not in series; .scales with
fully develope<l armature are generally not found in
specimens under <S inches in length. In some species
• which normally possess strongly spiniferous scales,
individuals may occur (esi)ecially such whose skin is
wanting in pigment), in which the spines are much
more feehle and scarcely visible. And finally, there
are species in which the cycloid structure of the scales
remains normally persistent. Tims, neither the size
nor the structure of the scales can he safely used as
a generic character."

On the other hand, GCntiikk fully recognises the
validitj' of a character first suggested for this piirpose
by LCtken", and derived from the presence or absence
of the spines (set in an upwai'd (backward) direction
on the front surface of the I'ay) that arm the second
(apparently the first) ray of the dorsal fin. Even this
character is subject to changes of groAvth, for, where
these spines are present, in old specimens they may
Ijecome indistinct (tubercular); but they never dis-
a])pear altogether.

The species hitherto disco\ei-ed \\ithiii the limits
of the Scandinavian fauna may be distinguished, ac-
cording to these opinions, in the following manner:
A : Jaw-tccth at least in front cardi-
form (or velvet-like); scales middle-
sized or large.

1 : Snoutpointed;cheekscarinatcd :
a; Second ray of the first dor-

sal fin smooth (unarmed)... J ''^"'•'■"'■"■' ('-'o''lorh>/nrh,„)
I coelorhynchus.

.SC.\NI)1NA\1A\ I-ISIlIiS.

/).- Second rav of the first dor-

sal fin spiny I ^tan-nru, {Macruru,)

■2: .Snout blunt; cheeks almost' Fabncii.

lMa<;ni7->(s {Cort/phmnoides)

B: Jaws furnished with canine teeth ^ rupestris.
set in two rows in the upper jaw.

in one row in the lower I •""'■'•'"■"•^' (Malwo-

I ri'phahis) hrris.

It sometimes happens, however, that the character
derived from the structure and arrangement of the jaw-
teeth, employed in this maimer, firstly brings together
forms extremely dissimilar in otlier respects'', and
secondly is very difficult of employment, for in young
specimens of the (.'orypha?noid group, even when they
are 12 cm. long, it is hardly possibly to discover more
than two rows of teeth in the upper jaw and one row-
in the lower. Again, several s}iecies of Glnthers sub-
genera Chalinurits and OpfointrKS have true canine teeth
in the outermost row of the card in the upper jaw and
only one row of teeth in the lower jaw. The followitig
classification appears easier and, therefore, more trust-
worthy.

A: Least breadth of the intcrorbital
space less than the length of the
snout, than ^j^ of the length of
the head, or than ^,5 of the greatest
bread til of the head at the perpen-
dicular from the centre of the eye:
a: Least breadth of the intcrorbital

space more than or equal to ',,

of the length of the lower jaw,

which is less than 40 % of the

length of the head. ,\fai'rur!i!< coelorliipichus.

b: Least breadth of the intcrorbital

space less than '/o the length

of the lower jaw, which is more

than 40 % (44 %?) of the length

of the head Macnirus Fabricii.

B: Least breadth of the intcrorbital
space greater than the length of the
snout, and greater than orequalto V3
of the length of the head or ",q of
its greatest breadth at the perpen-
dicular from the centre of the eye.
a; Least breadth of the intcrorbital

space more than ''/. of the length

of the lower jaw Macrurus rupestris.

h: Least breadth of the intcrorbital

space less than or equal to ^/j

of the lenoth of the lower iaw Macrurus hecis.

" Vi.l. Medflel. Natnrli. l^c.r. Kblivii 1872. \.. 4.

'' Of., for example, Mucnirus licvis and Macnirus macrochir.

UiiKNADlEK-FISIIES.

585

iMACKlilJUS C(.)EI.<)i;ilV.\Clir>.

Fig. l.'ifi,

Snoitt pointed, flattened, of a hroad triiiiif/nliir shii/ic. ivith sharp sides, irhicli are continaed by the carina of the
sidjorbifal rinr/ {the cheeks) initil thn/ Jain the (uif/le of the preopercidiim ; length of the snout greater than the
trust breadth (f the iiitrrorliiftil sjiarr, irhich is tess than ' ,, (-^ 22"1 — 23'f) % in the s|)cciinens examined h_y us,
wliicli are Ijetwecn 18 ami '25 cm. long) of the leiujtli of tlie head, than '/r, (= G6'4- — 76'8 ?&) of the lone/dud inal
diameter of the orbits, than '/a (^ 66';-5 — (>') %) of the postorbital tength of the head, than '/., (— 19'4 — 2()'4 %)
of the distance between the frst dors(d fin and the tip of the snout, than ^/r, (= 5G'9 — 54'1 %) of the breadth
across the cheeks at the centre of the ei/cs, or than " ., (= Gl'l — 64 %) of the length of the toiver jaic, which is
Jess than or o/nat to '/'s (= 35-7— ;^9-l %) of the length of the head, or about \., (== STO— 33-(J %) of the di-
stance lietn-ren the frst dorsal fin and the ti/i of the snoat. bat greater tlian (in yuiuig specimens e(iual to) flie
postorbital lengtli of the head, ^lonfh set on tlie under surface of the snout, its lireadth at the corners less than
- 3 (= o2'\) — ()0"4 ?6) of the breadth across the cheeks at the centre of the eyes. Length of the head about 23 — 22 %
(or less) of tiiat of the body, 90 — 85 % of the distance between the first dorsal fin and the tip of the snout,
58' J — 57 ?o of the distance of tiie second dorsal fin from tiiat same tip, and 71' ^ — (57 % of tlie distance be-
tween the anal fin and the tip of the snout. Hepth of the body at the beginning of the first dorsal fin about
14 — 12' ^, % of the length of the body, at the beginning of the second dorsal fin about 10 % of the same. Pectoral
fins lobate (with brachiate base). Length of the base of the fii'st dorsal fin about ' ., (= 57 — 51 %) of the
distance between the two dorsal fins, which is about e(|ual to the breadth across the cheeks at the centre of
the eyes. 4 or .5 scales in a roir from the end of the frst dorsal fn to the lateral line. A narrow, ol)long,
bare spot in the median line of the belly between the venti-al fins. Scales densely set with spines throughout
tlie free surface, but n-ithout carinee. Second ray of the frst dorsal fin {spinous ray) smooth: its height about
equal to the deptli of tlie bod\' at its l)ase or somewhat less. Lengtii of the barbel undei' tlie chin about ' .,

of that ot the lower jaw. Jaw-teeth cardiform.

Fig. 139. Macnirtis roelorlii/nclnis, imtural size. From Messina, tlirougli Professor V. Li:i":iii;. Tlie projierly of tlie Musoiitn of

the High Scliool of Sloctiholni.

R.br.^: Dy(l) + ^.: Z)^. 80— 90; ^.83 — 98: />.(!) + ',,.; j &>/»■ Lcpidolepriis Coelorhynclius. Risso, Iditlt. Mi:e, p. 200, tab.
V. 'g; Lin. squ. tramv. 19— -21. | VII. fig. 22 : &<;•. -l/./;-., totii. III. p. 244 ; Bonap. (.l/ac;w(iv/.9).

.')«(;

SCAXIJIN AVIAN FISHES.

Icon. Fii. /tal., torn. Ill iPcsri), hih. 1-2:3, lig. 1; Gthk
(Macrurus), Cat. Brit. J/'is., Fi.<li., vcl. IV, p. 392; Coll.
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chinia 1874, TilL-egsli., p. 129; Mor..,
I/ist. Xat. Poiss. Fr., toin. Ill, p. 278; Ln.u., .Vc., Norj.
Fi.<k:, vdl. II. p. 253; liniR, Deeji .SVa Fi.-ili., C'liall. Kxped.,
p. 128.
Macriirus atlunticus, Lowk, Piuc. ZooI. Soc. LoikI. 1839. ]>.
88; G-rrm, Cat., I. c, p. 392.

Tins s])ec'i('S is one of tliose in wliicii the ihicruroid
t\|ie .-ippcars in its inost developed .stage, ;i point wliicli
we oliserve |irinei[);illy in the sti-iicture and sliiqie of
the liead. Tiie species attains a. lengtii (jf o' o dm.
The coloration, according to Risso, is grayish with a
reddisii violet lustre on the back, silvery with mother-
of-pearl and golden lustre on the sides, bluish black
or , black on the liellv. The ventral fins, the branchio-
stegal membranes, the branchial cavities, the axil of
tlie pertoral, and the margins of the vertical fins are
also l)luish black or black. Tile inside of tiie mouth
and the tongue, on tlie other liand, are light (whitish
yellow). The snout is transparent as if of cartilage.

To tlie above diagnosis we shall add merely that
the anterior nostril — the nostrils are set on eacii side
close to each otlier, as in most of the members of this

genus — is I'ound. the ]iosteri(}r kidne\-sliapcd, on ac-
count of tiie semicircular dermal ti;ip that overlajis it
in front.

Mitcriinis codorhijnchiis really belongs to the Medi-
terranean and the neighbouring part of the .\tlantir",
living in from 200 to oOO fathoms of water. In Mav,
according to liisso, the females repair to rocky shores
to deposit their eggs, which number about ;-),000. The
adult specimens are said to feed on ■■worms and zoo-
])hytes." The dentition tells us distinctlv that they
cannot live on large or hard-shelled animals, but that
their food probably consists chietiy of W(jrnis and tliin-
shelled crustaceans.

C)nly on one single occasion has this species been
met with in Scandinavia. In Feliruary, 1842, the elder
Saks found a specimen that had probably measured
aliout 2It cm., in tiie stomach of a Cod that had been
taken off flerlovivr, north of Bergen. This specimen
was so well preserved — only tlie tip of the tail and
a portion of the scales on one side of the l)ody were
wanting — that ('oi.lett justly concluded that the Cod
must have devoured its victim only a shoi't time liefore
its own ca])ture.

" Still, it comes extremely iieai' — if it be not identieiil willi — Macrnrns ciii-il/hwii.^, wliieh Bruw.n'-Goode ami Bean have dcseribed
(Pioc. U. S: Nat. Mus., v(.l. VIII (188.5), p. o94) from a depth of 210 fatlmms in the north of the Gidf of Mexico, .and which apparently
differs from .1/. coelofliyiichus ehietly in the somewhat smaller lireadth of the infcrorbital space and the longer base of the first dorsal fin.

IKKNADII'K-l'ISIIKS.

587

.MACKIKI'S I'AIIKK'II.
Fiy. 140.

S'lHiiit poiiiti'il (mil deep, pjiramiddl, ivitli the sl/drp sides roiitiinicd iiflri- a hrcak hi/ t/ic ciirii/ic nf the checks
iiidil Ihei/ jiiiii the inifjie of flie preojierciihiii/ : Init/th uf the snout (/re(der than the least lireadth af the inter-
(irliital sjKiee. irhieh Is less thnii ' , (20'8 — 17'4 'i in thv siicciiiieiis cxmiiuikmI 1)\- us, whicli ;irc l)ct\\teii ;il)()ut
72 and 7o eui. louix) of tlie lei/f/th of the liead, than '' - (.")l)-(; — 4!V1 '•'./) of the loi/f/itiidliial d'Nuucter tf the orliits,
thai, '-, (.')4— 4l' %) of the jiosfnrliital leiuitli of Ih,' head, than ', (17-2— l.")-^ ".) (f the distance lieticceii the,
frst dorsal tin and the tip of the snout, than " -, (.')4 '</) (//' the lireadth across the cheeks at the centre of the
ei/es, or than ' ^, (47'2 — iM'i't %) of the lenc/th of the loirer Jair, irhlch is more than '/., (44'I — 4r)'4 %) of the
leni/th of the head, than ' ',, (aH'.S — 4()T) %) of the distance lietireen the frst d/irs>d fn and tlie tip of the snoat,
and i/reater than the /lostorhital leni/th of the head. Month set on the under surface of the snout, hut its lireadth
at the corners more t/ian " ,. (SI — S.") %) of the hreadth across the ihcchs at the centre of the ei/es. l.ciigtli ol
the hcnd ;il)(iut 2;!-— 22 'i. (or less") uf tliat of tlie body, '.10 — 86 % of llie distiiiice of the fust dorsal fin from
the tip of the snout, about " ,. (Gl — (U'.'i ",y) of that distanee of the seeond (h)rsal fin, and ratlici- niorc; than ' \,
(51) — 52 %) of the distanee lietween tlie anal tin and the tiji of tlie snout. Depth of the body at the beginning
of the tir.st dor.sal fin about ' - — ' ,; of the length of the Ixwly, at the l)eginning of the anal fin about ';. of the
same. Base of the pectoral tins only slightly braehiate. Length of the base of the first dorsal fin greater than the
distance between the two dorsal tins, which is considerably less tliaii the breadth across the cheek.s at the centre
of the eyes. •> or (> scales in a roir from the end of the first dorsal tin to tlie lateral line. Xo bare spot (ex-
cept the anal aperture) in the median line of the lielh'. Scales larinidcd anil spinij. Second rai/ of the frst
dorsal fn spinij. or (in old sjiecimeiis) at least (jranidated, on the front surface: its length less than " .. of the
depth of the bod)' at its base. Length of the liarbel under the chin about '/., of that of the lower jaw.

Jair-teeth eardiform.

^mm.

Fig. 140. .l/.;.T-()7(.s Falii

II, of the iKitiiral size, and two scales, ciicli of tlie nntural si/e. From tlie coast of Xew Eiiglaml,
tlirouEfh the SinilhsoEiinii InsfitiUien.

V. ' .; Liii. tnjii. Ii: 26 — 27 (ad piiiii. vciitr.).

6'i/i!. Kii eijen soHe aj fist,-, liig en Brasme, Kcicnii, Onml. Nye
Pertuiitration, p. .5 1 ; [itgmiiinisct, Cr.\xz, Hist. Griint. (cfl.
suec.) pt. I, p. 13!1.

" According to Oillett 21'.'' — IS'O % in specimens lietwoi'
in tlip females than in the niale.s.

38 and 03.') mm. long. Perhaps tlie rule is lliat the head is smaller

588

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Coryphcena rupestris, Faisi!., Fh. Groenl., p. 154 (cxcl. syiion.);

Bi.. (Macrouriis; p. p.), yaturff. Awl. Fisch., pt. II, p. 152,

tab. CLXXVII; Bl., Schn. (Afacninis), Ichthjol, p. 103, tab.

26; Kei.\h., D. Vid. Selsk. Naturv., Math. Afh., vol. V (1832),
.p. XVIII; ibid., v(.l. VII, ],. 129; S^iiL^i , Skand. Fn., Fisk.,

p. 604; Gthr, ('nt. JInt. .Vti.-:, Fish., vol. IV, p. 390; EsM.,

Forb. Naturf. M. Cbrist. 1868, p. 527; Ltkn, Vid. Meddel.

Naturliist. For. Kbbvn 1872, p. 4; Br. Goode, Fisher., Fisher.

Tndustr. U. S., Sect. I, p. 244, tab. 66.
Macrourus Fabricii, Sundev., Vet.-.\kad. Handl. 1840, p. G;

MoBN, Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1867, p. 263; Coll. Foih.

Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874, Tilliegsli., p. 128; GooDE, Bean,

Bull. Essex Inst., vol. XI (1879), p. 7; JoRD., GiLB., Bidl.

U. S. Nat. Mils., No. 16, p. 811; Coll., N. Mag. Natuiv.,

vol. 29 (1884), p. 95; Ln.LJ., Sv., Norg. Fisk., vol. 2, p.

242; Gthr, Deep Sea Fish.. Chall. E.v/ied., p. 130.

]\[<icnint.s Fahririi, wliich .-ittaitis ;i length of at
least nearly a metre (S'/s dm.), is only slightly less
typical of the Macruroids than the preceding species,
•though the snout is shorter and the mouth ])roader.
In this species, too, the snout ends in a hard, wartlike
protuberance, but the horizontal lateral carina' are more
concavely curved; and the front exterior corners of the
nasal bones are more distinctly set off from tlie be-
ginning of the suljorbital carina on eacli side. Besides,
the snout is not so depressed. The carina- on tlie head
are the same as in the preceding species: one in the
middle line of the ujiper side of the snout, ending in
a line ^\•ith the anterior margin of the oiints; one on
each side from the anterior outer corner of the nasal
bones up to the orl)ital margin, and together with the
latter and the anterior suborbital ])one forming a tri-
angular wall round the nasal cavitv; one on each side
of the forehead, wliich is only slightly concave, and
along the side of the occij)ut, Ijack to the beginning of
the lateral line; one on each side along the temples,
from the upper part of tlie hind margin of the orbit
to the upper corner of the gill-opening; and lastly one
at the middle of the occijiut, very short and of a length
no greater than that of 3 or 4 scales. The eyes are
of a considerable size and ol)long, the longitudinal dia-
meter of the orbits occupying more than ''/^ (about
35 %) of the length of the head, and the least breadth
of the interorbital space measuring at most "/j (60 — 49 %)
of the former. The nostrils are set as in the preceding
species. The intermaxillar\- bones form only aliout half
of the margin of the upper jaw, their loliate process
extending as far back as the bones themselves. The
hind extremity of the maxillary bones lies nearly below
the centre of the eye. The lower jaw is longer than
in the preceding species — though the u]iper jaw ]iro-

jects l)eyoiid it in front — but on this head we must
remark that in the preceding species we find a distinct
alteration due to age, bj- which the length of the lower
jaw is increased even relatively during growth, and
young siieciniens of Macnniis Fahririi cin'responding
in size to the adult specimens of Jf. rni-liirhiinchiis are
unknown. The pointed and fairly straight jaw-teeth
are not large, but form broad cards (containing several
rows) both in the lower jaw and on tlie illternla\illar^"
bones. The pharyngeal teeth are thicker, strong, and
of conical shape, with the blunt tip marked off as a
distinct crown. The gill-i-akers are verrucose. The
operculum, as in most of the Macruroids, forms an al-
most right-angled triangle. The right (slight!}- obtuse)
angle is turned backwards, the lower posterior side
slightlj- concave, and the pointed end turned down-
wards, with the ]>oint fitted to the lower posterior
corner of the preoperculum, ^\•lli(•h is elongated in a
back^val•d direction, so that tlie postorliital [);irt of the
side of the head almost forms a square. The branchio-
stegal membranes are united below into a free but not
very liroad fold across the isthmus.

Tlie first dorsal fin, which is set in a deep groove
in the dorsal edge, is high and trapeziform, the last
ray — as in most of the Macruroids — being apparently
destitute of membrane 1)ehind it, and the posterior rays,
from the second braiiclicd ray, decreasing in length
\vith fair uniformity, so that the hind pai't of the upper
margin of the fin is straight or slighth' convex. In a
specimen 725 mm. long the second branched ray is
77 mm. long, the secniid simple (the spinv i"u-) 73 mm.,
and the last ray 18 mm. The first-mentioned ray is
e.xactly as long as the lower jaw, the length of the
last-mentioned ray only slightly more than half the
distance between the two dorsal fins and somewhat less
than half the base of the first dorsal fin. In the form
of the second dorsal tin Macyurus Fabricii belongs to
a group of the genus that is characterized by the com-
plete development of this fin even in front, its begin-
ning being also situated in tVont of that of the anal
fin. The first ray is about as long as the last ray of
the first dorsal fin or slightly shorter than it; the next
ravs gradually increase in length, though only slightly;
and the height of the fin then decreases extremely slowly
towards the tip of the tail, where it joins the anal fin.

The anal fin is more than twice as high as the
second dorsal fin tliroughout almost the Avhole of its
length, with a slightly convex margin. Its first ray is

CKF.NADlKU-FISin-.S.

:)8;)

.■il)iiiit as Ioii;l'' ii
and at the miildl
ahniit - ., (if tht
Crdiii lliis pdiiit
All the

i'M\S, ii

the last ray n[' the first di.rsal tin,
iif tlie till (he lelliitli (if the ravs is
onii'itudinal diaineter (if the orliits;
le height nf liiis fin tdd decreases,
raws are articulated, and all, e.\ce|i1 the first
the anal fin as well as in the secend dorsal

isilx

irt(

int(

till are liifid at the tip: all may !i
their t\V(i lateral halves.

'rh(^ pectdral tins are situated sdiiicwliat in fmnt
of (according to .Sitndevali., vertically lielow ) the bc-
giiiiiiiig of the first dorsal hn. 'l'hc\ are dlili(|nely
pointed, and their length is Sdinewiiat greater than the
height df the fii'st dor.sal fin. 'I'he first ra\- is thick, i tail or hind part. 'riie\- are both large an

row of scales in which, in most eases, the middle ca-
rina of the scale is divided (doid)le). In other eases
tile |i(ire lies lieloxv the simple middle carina.

'I'he l)o(l\' is of a graxish silver\- or tin cdldiir;
the fins arc brownish black. The caxity of the iiidiith,
the branchial cavitx', and the peritoneum are black.

Mairiin(>i FaJiricii is b\- lui means a rare fish off
the sdiith df (ircenland and (K'curs along tli<^ east coast
of Ndrth America at least as far Sdutli as the lungh-
Ijourhood of (.'a]ie Cod. So e;ii-l\- a writer as ICgkde
describes it as "like a Tursk, but with sharp |iricklcs
iind spines ovei' the whdle skin, and with a narrow

TIk

but articulated and simjile or imperfecth' branched at
the tip". The third and fdiirth ra\s are e(pial in length
and the longest in the tin'.

The ventral tins are aliout ' ,, as hmg as the jiec-
toral, the first ra^-, simjile but articulated, being elong-
ated to a hairlike tip. Among the branched rays the
4th, ')ih. and 6th are eijual in length and the longest,
thus gi\iiig this part of the fins n rounded f(jrm.

The scales cover the whole liodj', except the under
surface of the head, the branchiostegal membranes, and
the tins. On the head the lateral carina^ of the snout
and cheeks also mark the boundary of the scales: though
scattered scales may be found below the hind part of
the suborbital carina. The scales on different parts of
the body vary both in size and in form; and they are
armed in various ways not only on diffei'ent parts of
the body, but als(j in different individuals. The smallest
scales are set on the head, where they are more firmly
attached to the subjacent bones, especially on the longi-
tudinal carina?. In form the scales are ([uadrangular,
wunded (almost circular), or hexagonal. The anterior
(inserted) part of each scale is smooth, the outer part
is furnished with a high and dentated, longitudinal
carina at the middle and, in most cases, with several
(•") — .1 above and below) small carina', radiating in a
backward direction and sometimes dentated like the
middle carina. The te.xture of the scale shows nume-
rous, dense and undulating, concentric striix', but no
radiating ones. The lateral line does not pierce any
scales; but its opening pores lie on the outside of a

that

scpuniaiix sa\' that XUe\ ai'c of good flavour." Ci;.\NZ
mentions a "species of hsh that has a large head and
eyes' like an dwi, and which the Esquimaux call Irifj-
miiniisef, Ijecause it liellows'' when dying. ( )n the coast
of Norwegian Finmark, north of Tromsi'i, the sjjecies
has been taken dccasioiially in recent times on long-
lines, at depths \arying between 100 and MOO fathoms.
It was unkiidwn there, however, imtil fifty years ago
(is;^)!)), when Professor S. Loven brought home to the
Royal Museum a specimen, which has been described
by SuxDEVAi.L, from Hammcrfest.

The food is probably composed chiefly of small
fishes, e. g. the Capelin, and crustaceans, even those
with hard shells, to judge by th(^ strength and form
of the pharyngeal teeth. But in this case, as in the
case of other deep-sea iishes, the stomach is generally
turned inside out when the fish is drawn u]) to the
surface, so that it has been impossil)le to ascertain its
contents. The fish takes a liait freely, and is a nuis-
ance, says Bkowx-Goode, to the American fisherman,
who hauls in his line in the hope of a better catch
than an Onion-tish.

The spawning-season of ^[acn<ni.'i Fahricii occurs
on the coast of Finmark ;it the end of winter or
soon afterwards, for in May Collett has met with
at least two females full of roe. In Greenland Fabri-
CiL's found that the ovaries of the females were ex-
tremely small in the month of May, and he therefore
assumed that at this season they had generally finished
siiawning.

" On tlie other hand, it p.irts e.isily into its two lateral halves.

* GL'nther remarks a difference between the Norwegian and American forms of this species, consisting, according to his specimens,
in the nmch shorter pectoral fins of the former. In one of our specimens (stuffed) from Finmark, however, the length of the pectoral fins
in 54 "o of that of the head.

' On account of tlie eyes the American fishermen of the present day call this species Onion-tish.

'' When the air-bladder bursts(?)

590

SCANDINAVIAN IISIIKS.

MACliriM'S liUrESTlMS (sw. SKOLASTEX").

VU\r XXVII A. fi-. 2,

Siioiit blunt {of (I liraad jijirintihlal slmjii') diiil likr the rest of the licdd irill/uiit sliorji (nil// onli/ hhint) carina':
its length less thim the least hn-diltli of tlif ii(ti-r<irhital space, irhicli is f/reati-r than of c/jnal to ',',; (o8':^ — i'>?>'2 %
in speciniciis cxMiniiied by iis, which mi'c between 121 and 885 luni. h^ng) of tin- Iciif/th of the head and areater
than the loni/iladinal diaineti'r of thr orltits (i;!;! — 144 %) or more thai/ " .j (Sl'lj — 7IV'.l ''/) of the ]iosforliif/d Ivnqth
of the head, than ' ., (37"5 — 33"8 %) of the distance l>etween the first dorsal fin and the tip of the snout, than '/u,
(72—93 %) of the breadth across the cheeks at the centre of the ei/es, or than "*/- (8;)-6— 88-4 %) of the length of
the hnrer Jan:, n-hich is less than ^Z, (42"6 — 37 %) of the length of the head, or ationt " . (42"2 — 37'5 %) of the
distance lictn-i'en the first dorsal fin and the tiji of the snunt, and less than the jiosforbifal length of the head.
Month nearlfi terminal and hderal : its breadth at the corners more tiian ''.. (70 — 8()'.j "./) of the breadth across
the cheeks at the (cntrc of the eges. I.en.i^tli of the head aliuut ' ,. — ' , (IN — 2() %) of that of the body, about
equal to (10.") — 1)5 % of) tiie distance of the iirst dorsal tin fnjiu the tip of the snout, about '/a (^4 — 45 %) of that
between the second dorsal and tlie same point, and about ' ,, (73"2 — (jr7 %) of the distance lietween tlie anal fin
^and the tip of the snout. Depth of the body (in adult specimens) at tlie beginning of the tirst dorsal fin about '/„ of
the length, at the beginning of the second dorsal tin about ' j„ or ', ,, of the same. Pectoral tins without brachiate
base. Lengtii of the base of tlie tirst dorsal fin about ^,.^ (28 — 37 ?i) of the distance between the two dorsal
tins, \vhich is nearly twice tlie breadth across tlie cheeks at the centre of the eves. <> or 7 scales in a rtnr
from the end of the first dorsal fin to the lateral line. No bare spot (except the anal aperture) in the median
line of the l)elly. Scales densely corercd irith spines throughout their free sarface. but vithout carina'. Second
rag of the first dorsal fin sping or (in old specimens) at least granulated on tlie front surface: its length in
young specimens greater, in old generally less, than " ., of the depth of the Ijody at its base. Length of the
barbel uudei' the c\\\u less than {civ almiit e(pial to) '/,; "f tliat of flic lower jaw. Jan--teefh cardifortn. of uni-
form size or with the teeth in the outer roir jierceptibhi larger than the others.

-2.S; V.

8—10 -
Lin. f:j)i. traiisv. 20 — 27 (otl |jii

172 (190); /I. 104-193;
cijfr.);

in front, while behind the fin rises somewhat higher
than usual, so that a little in front of the tip of the
tail it is only slightly lower than the anal fin at tiie
same ])oint. The eyes are rather small, the longitudinal
diameter of the orbits being less than ", j,, (=27 — 23 %)
of the length of tiie head, a sign that the deep-.sea
character is not so jjronounced as in the preceding
species. The eariiue on the head are blunt, though
they occupy tlie same position as in the preceding
species and in dried s]jecimens or those which have
long been preserved in si)irits, are distinctly prominent.
Tliese three characteristics are enough always to render
this S]iecies easily recognisable among its congeners in
our fauna. However, the interspinal bones (the sup-
ports of the dorsal rays) are jierfectly developed lie-
tween the muscles (.)f file back even in the space be-
tween the two dorsal fins, where no rays are present;
and in a young specimen, 121 mm. in length, we ob-
serve not only that the second dursid fin begins with
Mairurus rujiestris is one of the Macruroids tliat I distinct rays considerably further forward than in old
have the second dorsal fin extremely little developed | si)ecimens and only slightly behind the first third of

" = Shoemaker's last.

/,'. In: G: />,. (1) +

1

6 — 7
Vert, fi.3— 89.

Sijn. Bcrijla.v (CorypliaMia dorso clipterygio, inniia dorsi prima retro), 1
Strom, iSondmevs BesJcriv., vol. I, p. 2(57 — 2(J9, not.

Voi'ijphcenoides rnpestris, Gunn. Trondlij, Selsk. Skr.. vol. Ill
(17G5), p. 50, tab. Ill, figg. 1 et 2; Coll., Fcrh. Vid. Selsk.
Cl.rist. 1874, Tilla-gsli., p. 131; ibid. 1879, No. 1. p. 70;
N. Mag. Katm-v. Christ., Bd. 29 (1884), p. 95; Malm, G%,
Boll. Fn.. p. 502; Wintii., Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvii, ser. 3,
vol. XII. ]). 36; JoitD., GiLB., Bnll. U. S. Nat. Mus., No.
16, p. 812; GooDE, Bean, I'mll. .Mns. Comp. ZooL, Harv.
Coll.. vol. X, p. 197; Day, Fi.<!i. CI. Brit.. IrcL. vol. I,
p. 335, tab. XCIII; Stokji. N. Vid. 8elsk. Skr. Trondhj.
1883, p. 57; Lillj., ^c, Nonj. Fisk., vol. II. p. 259;
Gthr, Deep Sea Fish., Cliall. E.rped., p. 138.

Macrouriis Stroemii, Heinu., D. Vid. Selsk. Natnrv., Math. At'li.,
vol. v. p. XIX; Su.VDEV., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1840, p. 11;
Kii., T'oy. .Scaiiil.. Liipp., celt., Gaim., Zool., Poi/^s., tab. 11.

Bepidoleprns norvegictis!, Nn.ss., Prndr. Irtilli. Si-and., p. 51;
Id. (Macrounis), H-nn/l. Fn., F/.s-/-., |i. 60(1; Gniic {Cory-
plianoides), du. JSrit. Mns., Fi.fli., vol. IV, ]i. 396; Ltkx,
Vid. Meddel. Naii.rliisl. For. Kbhvn 1872, p. 5 (sep.).

(:i!i:NAi>ii;i!-nsiii;s.

r)9i

tla' liiiih, liitt ;ils() tli;it in llir (lui-s;il iii;ir,L:iii, in IVunr
(if the lii'st (listincl r,-i\- of tlie sccduil (i(irs;il lin, tlicrc
lies ,-i I'ow (if sdfl. wliitisii, (Icrni.-il |ifiituii('i'anccs, wliiic
frdUi cMcli (if till' |)ostcri()V anidii^' these |irdtul)(_'ran(:c'S,
fdrwaril td a [mint ' ,,, of tlic \\a\- aloni;' the hoch' fnini
the tip df the sniint, there prdjeets tlie tiji of a ray.
e\ti'euiel\' small an(_l scai'ceh' |ieree|itilile. There can
lie nd other explanatidn of this than that the secdiid
ihirsal iiu oriijinalh' extended inneh further foi'ward
even than it does in adult speciiueiis, lint that its aii-
teridi' part undergoes a reduction. Still, it is a rule
— though with eonsideralile indi\idiial Nariations —
as ('iii.i.KTT has pdinted dut, that the nunilier of rays
in this fin as well as in the anal ha increases with age
tluring the latter ]jeriod of growth, even while the length
of the body increases fi-oui half a metre to a metre.
This inci'ease — from aliout KM) to ahout 200 in the
former fin" — is in its magnitude an extremely uii-
connudu phenonienun in the idass of fishes. Cotxett
also coiineets it with another great ahnormitv, the in-
crease in the number of tiie vertebra' — 13 — 14 ab-
dominal and 49 — 75 caudal \ertebrw — wliieli proceeds
according to the same rule and with the same excep)tions''.

The first dorsal fin is set further forward than in
the rest of the Scandinavian Macruroids, its beginning
Iving in front of the end of the first fifth of the body.
It moves somewhat further back, howe\er, with age.
The length of its base is less than ■* - (79 — 58 ?») of
the least breadth of the interorbital space. The first
rav is as usual rudimentarA', the second ray Ijoth the
longest and the thickest, unarticulated, and measuring
rather more tlian half (50 — 55 ?«) the length of the
head. The other rays — except the last, which is also
simple — decrease in length uniformly, but shar])lv,
the till thus ac(juiring a more triangular form than in
Macnniis Fabricii.

The anal fin begins at a distance from the tip of
the snout \\hich in voting specimens measures about ' j
of the length of the bodj', in older ones about ' ., thereof.
It is of fairly uniform height, with slightly concave
margin: the first ray is slightly shorter than the next
ones, the length of the rays increases or decreases ac-
cording to the curxature of the belly, and beliind the
middle of its lena:th the heiuht of the fin is greater than

the depth of the bodx' at the same point. Kdiiiid the
tip of the tail the anal fin coalesces with the second
doi'sal tin into a s\inmetrieal tip. The vent is situated
just in front of the begiiuiing of the anal lin.

The ]ieetdi-al fins are set just in front of the per-
pendiculai' tVdm the beginning of the first dorsal fin.
Tlie\' are excnh' rounded at the tip, and tlieir length
is perceptibh more than ' ., (58 — ()!',_, "o) oi' that of
the head. The first raA' is extremely short, and the
ninth (8 — 10) is the longest.

'l"he ventral fins are situated in old specimens in
front of the iierpendicular from the begiiuiing of the
first ddfsal lin; but during \-otith tliex' lit! considerably
behind it. The usual remo\al in a forward direction of
these fins thus takes yjlace in this species too, the distance
between the foremost point in the insertion of the venti'al
fins and the beginning of the anal fin in young speci-
mens (12 cm. long) being only slighth' moi'c than ' -
(22'8 ?») of tlic distance between tlie anal fin and the
tip of the snout, but in old specimens nearly '/.; (30 or
31 %) thereof. The first ray is elongated to a long tip,
hairlike at the extreme end, which extends to the be-
ginning of the anal fin; the second ray is about "3 as
long; and the length of the other rays is such that the
margin tjf the fin is somewhat convex.

The jaw-teeth form a kind of transition from the
preceding species to the folhjwing one. On the inter-
maxillary bones (in adult specimens) they are set in a
card containing 5 or fi rows, but behind this card, for
tlie greater part of the length of the l)ones, they are set
in onh- 2 rows. In the lower jaw the case is similar,
but here there is onlv one row behind. In front tlie two
intermaxillary cards have an empty space between them.
The pharyngeal teeth — 2 or 3 I'ows on the two anterior
up[>er ])hafyngeals, 4 rows on the posterior up])er pha-
ryngeal; 6 rows on the oblong, curved lower pharyngeals,
with the largest teeth in the innermost (hindmost) row-
— are straight and conical, without the sharp break at
the apex which characterizes them in JfacrKnis Fabricii.

The anterior nostrils are as usual round, the posterior
oblong and set transversely ju.st in front of the orbital
margin; but the latter are generally remarkably narrow,
this being due to the projeetiou tlirougliout the whole
of their lensth of the marsinal membrane in front.

" Still, it is not a superfluous reumrk that mistakes may easily be made in the counting, partly on account of the magnitude of tbe
numbers, and partlj- because the two lateral halves of the otherwise simple rays easily fall apart, and the rays are thus counted twice over.

'■ Butli the rule and the exceptions should be kept in mind, when one has to judge of the systematic significance of the varieties or
laces whiili. especially among the Salmonidii; and Uliipeidie, have liccn based upon the variations in the number of the vertebra;.

592

SCAN'DIXAVIAN l-ISIIKS.

Ill this species tiie scales extend o\er tlie whole of
the head, even below the suhorhital ring, on the branches
of the lower jaw, and in a large patch on the; sjjacc
between llie branches of the lower jaw {iiii'i/tinii); (Hiiv
the branchiostegal nienibrane and the isthmus are as
usual bari'. The scales" arc; of essentiallv the same form
as in the preceding species, lait show no longitudinal
carina- or curves, and are deiiseh" c(nered throughout
their free surface with short s|)ines, which are arranged
in a (piincunx of oblique, curved rows. These spines
give the surface of the body a velvety ap])earance. The
lateral line does not |)ierce any scales in this species
either, its o|K'iiing pores lying in the form of grooves
witliout spines on each scale.

Among the internal organs the liver and the pyloric
appendages are especially remarkable for their advanced
^ development. The abdominal cavit^•, witii the peritoneum
coloured lilack in front and chocolate behind, extends to
a line with about the ninth ray of the anal fin, and
the li\er extends equally far b;ick on the left side.
The ovary is simple and triangular, whli the oviduct in
the lower, blunt corner.

The body is plain grayish violet shading into yel-
low. The tins arc of a dark brownish violet, with a
dash of the lilue tinge of dew. The iris is whitish
yellow, shading into silver and rose-pink. The mouth,
the pharynx, and the branchial cavity are black.

Macrurus rupestris, which attains a length of at least
a metre, has been found not so very seldom — for a deep-
sea, fish — on the south coast of Norway, up to Helge-
land, at dejiths between 1.50 and 500 fathoms. Accord-
ing to Stokm it is t:ikeii very often on long-lines in
Trondhjeni Fjord, even at the very head of the fjord,
but seldom in less than 1.50 fothoms of water. In a
single da}' in 1880, according to CoLi.ET'r, 20 specimens
of this species were caught oft' BjOrnor (in the south
of the Government of Trondhjem, lat. 64°10'N.). Off
the extreme south of Norway, young specimens between
10 and 12 cm. long vceve taken oft' Arendal during the
expedition of the Swedish gunboat Gunhild in July, 1879,
at a depth of iSo.") — 870 fathoms and on a bottom of fine,
i)rown ckiy. It is thus ipiite at home in these regions.
It also i)Ciietrates into (.'hristiania Fjord, at least to the
latitude of Horten. On the coast of Bohusliin it was
fir.st found by Fries, who has left in the Royal Museum

a specimen 78 cm. long, taken in May, 1888. ^Ialm
found a stuft'ed specimen in Uddevalla Museum that had
been purchased in the fishmarket there in March, 1872.
Ill reccait years Mr. ('. A. IIaxsson has forwarded to the
Royal Museum two specimens. The first, which has
been aliout 8.'; cm. long, but is now bri.ikcn oft' short
40 cm. from the snout (tin- caudal part is lost), \vas
found fi(_)atiiig d(.'ad at the surface, between the Koster
and Weatlier Islands, on the 20th of June, 1882. The
second specimen, the original of our figure, is a female
88.5 mm. long, and was taken on a long-line in about
80 fathcjins of water, oft'Svangen in S(juth Hamso Fjord,
twelve miles south-\vest of StrOnistad, on the .5th of
November, 1889. In M;irch, 1 877, according to WixTiiEii,
two specimens were cast ashore near the Skaw and
forwarded to Copenhagen Museum. This is all that is
kn(jwn of the occurrence of the species in the Skager Rack.
In the ("attegat (south of the line from the Ska-\v to Mar-
strand) it has not yet been found. To the west, according
to GuNTHER, it has been met with by the English I'or-
cupirip. and Knight Errant expeditions in 200 — .5r»0 fa-
thoms of water between the Shetland and Faroe Islands.
In 1880, during the Blake expedition, aeeording to
Brown-Goode and Bean, A. Agassiz obtained a specimen
804 mm. long, at a depth of .524 fathoms, in lat. 4r38' N.
and long. (i,5° .5,5' \A'. It is included among the fishes
of (ireenland by the younger Reinhardt'' and Lltken".
Macrurus rupestris in all probability leads the same
life as other deep-sea fishes, though it seems not to be
of so pronounced character as our other Jlacriiri, for,
as we have mentioned above, it has been taken in 80
fathoms of water. Its food seems to be composed chiefly
of crustaceans: Decapods, at least as large as shrimps,
and Hyperioids have been found in its stomach. The
spawning-season seems to occur in winter, perhaps even
in autumn. On the 12th of November Collett met
with a, gravid female oft" Langesund. The female secured
by Mr. ('. A. IIaxsson from Svangeu and the original
of our figure had eggs 1 millimetre in diameter in its
ovary on the 5th of No\ember; and as, according to
Collett, the diameter of the ripe eggs is 2 millimetres,
it had still some time to \vait before depositing its
spawn. According to Collett the number of the ripe
eggs wdien the roe is deposited is al.)oat 12,000 or hardly
more than that number.

" See Kroykr's plate in Gai.mard's voyage.

' Rink, Griinlaiul, Bd. 2, Naturli. Till.Tg, p. 2.').

'• ArrtU: Mdiiiial an.l r,isl,-actiui,s, 187.5, ji. 120.

J

GUENADlKIi-FISIlKH.

^[)::

•MACKl

L.IONIS.

Siidiif lilinit Init li'nili. diih/ sihilillii jiiojortiiif/, ainl like llir rest of the head iritlioiif s/iar/i carbuf: its leuyth less
tlidii the tca^t lii-ciuJtli (if ll/v iiili'idrliilal space, irhiili is iiIkikI ei/iial to ' ,. (33'1 % in tlic s|)('ciiiic'ii exaininccl Ijy
us, whic-li has ])Vnl)alily — when ]iei'tV'cr — liccn aliunt 11 cm. lon^') if the length of the hi-ml, slif/htly less than
('J37 % of) the hiii!/iti((lii/(il (liaiiu'ter of tlie orbits, abont ' -, (4ri "«) of the postorhitiil length <f the head, and
more than either ',/,, ("iS",') %) of the distance betireen the frsf dorsal fin and the tip of the snout or than '/,„
(8(j"5 %) of the breadth across the cheeks at the centre of the ei/es, hut less than Vg (5i)"8 %) of the length of the
hnrcr jair, whieli is more than ' ,, (55"3 %) of the length of the head, nearly \', (477 %) of the distance hetiveen
the first dorsal fin and the tip of the snout, and i/reatcr than the jmstorhital lent/th (f the head. Month almost
termimd and lateral: its breadth (d the corners more than '... ((SO'S %) of the breadth across the cheeks at the
centre of the e//es. Lengtli of the head somewhat less than ',,. of tliat of the body", about ^/,, (8(i"3 %) of tlie
distance of tlie first dorsal tin from the tip of the snout, nearly ' ,, (47"8 %) of that between the second dor.sal fin
and the same point, and nearly " ., (73'1 'i-) of the distance between the anal fin and the tip of the snout. Dejith of
the body at the beginning of the tirst dorsal fin about ' - (15 ?«) of the length of the bodA, at the beginning of
the second dorsal tin about ' ,„ thereof. Pectoral fins with bracliiate base. Length of the ba.se of the tirst dorsal
tin about " - of the distance between the two dorsal tins, \\hicii is nearly twice (185 % of) the breadth across
the cheeks at the centre of the eyes. Abont 14 — 1(1 scales in a r(ur from the end of tlie first dorsal fin to the
lateral line. In the median line of the belly, just in front of the insertions of the ventral fins, we find a trans-
yerse, oblong (kidney-sliajied) patch without scales and just in front of the vent a similar, but round patch.
Scales spinij throughout their free surface, bat n-ithout carina: Second rag of the first dorsal fin smooth {withoKt
spines): its height about ',3 (69 %) of the depth of the body at its base. Length of the barbel under the chin
more than ' ,, ot that of the lower jaw. Jan'-fcefli set in tiro ro»',s- on the interma.rdlarg bones (the outer row
u-ith larger, canine-liJ:e teeth), in one ron' of canine-like teeth in the hnrer jaw.

(1) +

-; /'.,. 200 (c.i); A. 200 (co);

liyii. .Maci'oiinis lti:vis, Lowe, I'roc. Zool. Soc. Lontl. 1843. p. 92;
Gthp. (Malcicoceplialus), Cot. Bril. Miis., Fisli., vul. IV, ji.
397; Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For. KMivn 1872, p. 1
(sep.); Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fu.. p. 503; Winth., Nat. Tidskr.
Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 3G: LiLLJ., Sc, Nonj. Fislc.,
vol. II, p. 273; Gthr {Macninis), Deep Sea Fisli. CVinll.
E.rpecl, p. 148, tab. XXXIX. fig. B.

3lacrnnis heris, -whicli attains a length of about
half a metre, \vith eyes relatively ecjual in size to those
of .1/. Fabricii (35 ?„ of the length of the head) is
e\idently a much more pi'onounced dcc])-sea fish than
M. rupestris: and its more scattered, but sti'onger
(canine-like) jaw-teeth and relatively longer jaws are
signs of its more predatory habits.

The body is remarkabh- elongated, this being due,
according to Gintiii;!;, to the fact that the tail "tapers
to a very long and narrow band." IJut the fort'|)ai't

e.Kternally cori'esjjonds fairly closelv to that of the two
preceding species, the depth at the beginning of the
tirst dorsal tin being about ''/k, (89'7 %) of the length
of the head, and at the begiiming of the second dorsal
fin aljout "3 (64'7 %) of the same. The breadth of
the head straight across the cheeks at the centre of
the eyes is less than ",,- (38"2 %) of its length.

The smooth spinous ra'S' in the first doi'sal tin and
the small scales render tliis species easily recognisable
among our Macruri. We must remark, howevei', some
(5) raised, but only sligiitly marked .stria; (osseous
ridges under the skin) on the operculum and suboj)er-
culum, radiating backwards and downw;irds from the
articulation of the former.

The coloration, according to Glnthki!, is Ijrownish
on the liead, especially on the gill-cover, with a lustre
of sil\er and gold; the a.xil of the ])ectorals, the ventral
tins ;uid the bell\- between them, and the vent are black;
the dorsal and pectoi'al tins are blackish: the anal fin

" .-Vocordiiie to GCXTllER and LCtken.

594

SCANDIN.WIAX I'lSIIK.S.

is lilack at tlic margin. Tiie inside <jf' tlic inoutli is
wliite, the Ijranchial cavity black.

Macnirus kcris has a wide oeognii)hic;il range, l)ut
is still extrenielv i-are in the niuseiuns. It M-as disco-
vered off Madeira liv I>o\vi:, and the iiritisli Museum

at tiie Ix'ginning of JJcccndxT, 1S71. Long before this
time, liowever, tlie Museum (jf Gothenburg had received
a specimen througli Mr. Deyenbekg. This specimen
was dropped on the shore near Lysekil by a seagull on
the l(}tli of Novemlier, 1832; and lias since licen de-

„i.v»w.-MffiV(>ft»SS!>S'SS»>^.'''5('?i

V.

/■

Fig. 141. Maminis la'cis. seen from tlie side, togellier willi (lie fore]),!!-!, seen from below. - .j of llie imtiiral size. Found at Lysekil, on
llie lOtli of November, 1852, by Deyenberg. Tlie [iroperty of (lie Natural History Museum of Gotlienburg.

has acquired another specimen from the same locality j scribed at length by M.\lm in liis Goteborr/s och Bohus-

through JoHXSON. But the species was not recognised , Idns Fauna". Finallv the species has again been found

again until LCtken described a specimen that was cast 1 oft' the coa.st of Pernanibuco, where tlie Challenger Ex-

ashore on the north of.lutlaiid near the Skaw and found ])edition took a specimen at a depth of 350 fathoms''.

Fam OPHIDIIDiE.

Ijodii nf n romprcssrd tadjHjle-like or Ed-like form, ic'itJi cloi/i/ated, more or less tiiiip-Jiki' foil^ ami ctirered irith
thin, cycloid scales or naked. All tlie rertkal Jins confluent (no distinct caudal, no anterior dorsal hn). Teetli as
a rule present hath in tlie jaws and on the vomer and palatine hones. Gill-ojienings lari/e: the hranchiostegal mem-
hranes more or less united to each other, but free from the isfhtnus. Branchiostegal rays usualli/ ■'? or 7'. Pseudo-
branchue and air-Jiladder //encralli/ preseni''. J'l/loric appendaiies oiili/ slif/hfli/ developed or irantiiifj.

This family consists in great part of deep-sea the complete structure of the .\nacanthine type also
fishes; and the reductions characteristic of a life of this ^ aft'ects those tishes of this familv which live in sub-
nature appear here too. Brt the same reductions in j terranean chasms or lead a kind of coinraensual life

" By (lie kindness of Dr. SruxnEKO, tlie Curator of the iluseum, we have been enabled to make use of this specimen as the original
of our figure.

' Whether it occur.s in the Mediterranean, is still somewhat uncertain, tliough probable. In his list of the Mediterranean fishes, how-
ever, GlQLiou gives only a name that might be applied (u it; and it is evidently another species that Moreal' has described under this name.

'■ Exceptionally 6 or even 5.

'' Often wanting, however.

595

within llic li()(l\' of iitlicr .•iiiiinais. l-^cn true surt'aci'-
tislics uv sJKii'c-fisiK's mIso (iccuv within this t';iHiii\-. In
the iiirat niaj(irit\- of cases wc ina\- I'cK' n|i(in tht'
t'aniil\-chai'actcr tiiat the raii(hil lin is not sojiafatcd
IVoin the otlicv \ei'ti<'al tins; hut it \er\' ol'teii aiipears,
at least h\' a closef affanu'cnient of the fa\s, thai hei'e
■we ha\c the laidiinent of a distinet eaildal fin, and in
some exotie species tile caudal fin is fr<>e or united to
the diirsal and anal tins niereh' !n' a sluji't lin-nieni-
hrain'. Ill most cases the ventral tins are reduced,
filamentons, and fcinoNcd to a <>'i'eator or less distance
ill a forward direction, e\eii in front of the shoulder-
girdle and helow the tongue, as if tlu^y were liarl)els.
In other cases these fins are wanting. Some of these
fishes in form eonie very near the JSIacruri, others
remind us of the FJiijcis-type, nnd others again resemble
the r>leiiiiomori)hs and (rohiomortihs.

Ill general these lishes are small and worthless;
but Geiiyptents aipensis, which sometimes attains a
length of a metre, bears among the inhabitants of Cape
Colony the signilicant name of h'oiiin// can Kliprisrheii,
and lirohda miiUih(irli<it(t is a favourite and exi)ensiv(!
dish in Japan.

About 75 species are at present known with
more or less certainty and distributed anujiig 33
genera.

The family as no^v defined and ranged most
nearly corresponds to Mllleu's" family OpliUlini, with
the addition (made by <iL'NTnEii'') of the CrviEiUAN
Gadoid genus Ihotida and its relatives (tlu; sub-
famil)' BrotuUnce), of Ricmardson's genus Machcenum
(subsequently altered for reasons of priority to C'on-
groffadns), and of RuPrELS Haliophis (the subfamily
Cou(ir(i(i(t(Vuuf).

SrOFAMII Y OPHIDIINJE.

FiJ((ii)€ui<iiis rciitnil fi'iis inserted in front of the fihoidder-fjirdle.

The majority of the members <if tliis subfamih'
are shore-tishes; but the oidy one that can Ije of any
faunistic interest to us, is a deep-sea tish.

'i'lie genus Ojdiiiliiini. Avln<'h has given its name
to the famil\- as well as to the subfamily, is fairly
common in the Mediterranean and on the coast of
Brazil. In the former locality it has long been known:
even Pi.ixy probably referred to it when he mentioned
a tish of this name that was employed in the medicine
of the ancients, while in Belox's time' the tish was
much esteemed by the prelates of Rome as an excellent
dish. In more recent times the senus has gained cc-

lel)rit^•, through ]\Il ller's'' and Costa's' researches, for
the singular manner in which the air-bladder is united
in front to the spinal column, in the nearest resem-
blance to the corresponding strnctui-e in Fierasfer.
MuELER imagined that within this genus he could make
use of anatomical differences as specific distinctions be-
tween forms in which no external differences could be
detected; but (,'osta showed that a great proportion of
the former appear as differences dependent on age and
sex. One species has a range extending from the Medi-
teri'anean out into the Atlantic and up to England, but
has not been found in Seandinavian waters.

" Abli. K. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1844, pp. 177 ami 202. Bonaparte liail already eatablislied a family Opiiidiiila' m 18;il, but lie ranged
it among the Apodes and included in it the Sand-Eel.s.
'' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fisli., vol. IV, p. .-570.
•" La nature et diversite des poissoii.t. Paris 155.o, p. 12(5.
•' .\bh. K. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1843, p. 1,50.
•■ Fauna dri regno di Xapoli, Pesci, part. 1. Opliiili'ini. tnv. XX. ter. August, 1843.

596

SCANDINAVIAN KKSHKS.

Gexls rhodichthys.

Body tadp(jle-like, irifJi fairly deep and broad head and Mronghj compressed tail, ivJiicli is increased in depth by
the great median height of the vertical fins, the margins of which evenly but sharpjy converge towards the caudal
fin, tvhich is united at the base to the dorsal (did anal fins, but for Ihc greater part of its length free. Ventral
fins filamentous, bifid in the outer part, and inserted below the posterior jiart of the copular row of the hyoid bone.
Anal aperture situated in fro)it of the pectoral fins, between the lower corners of the gill-openings, at a consider-
able distance from the beginning of the anal fin. Small, cardiform teeth on the intermaxillary bones and in the
lotcer jaw; vomer and pcdatine bones toothless. Branchiostegal rays (>. Pyloric appendages 10. No scales;
the naked skin transparent. No spines on the head.

This genus is one of the most handsome discoveries
made in the depths of tlie sea by the Norwegian Arctic
Expedition. The form of the body reminds us strongly
enough of tlie Great Forked Beard; but the loose, al-
most gelatinous, and naked, almost transparent l)ody
most nearly resembles that of tlu' other true deep-sea
fislies within the Ophidioid faniih'. According to CuL-
i.ETT the ventral tins are "tirndv united ti> the hyoid
bone" — the genus is thus referred to this subfamil}' —
but according to the figui'e these fins are set conijiara-
tively far back, considerably further ])ack than in a true
Ophidium, and Lilljeborg says they are "attached to
the shoulder-sirdle." In the latter case the <xenus ought

rather to be ranged among the subfamily Brotulince.
In the form of the body too, as Lilejeborg has already
remarked, it comes very near Batliyorius, one of the
Brotulince : but tlie opercular spine and the scales are
wanting, and in Bathyonus the vent is situated close
to the beginning of tlie anal tin. The limit l)etween
these subfamilies is, liowever, rathei' uncertain, fixed
as it is according to a character wliich is an expres-
sion for the general rule among the Physoclysts that
the ventral fins move forward ^vith increasing age and
advancing develoi)Uient of form.

( hily one species of the genus is kno\\ii.

THE ROSE FISH (sw. eosenfisken).

iiiioDicnTiiYS i;ei;l\"a.

Fig. 142.

Length of the head {in a male nearly H dm. long) about ' ., of that (f the body. Greatest depth of the body about
'/s of its length and almost equcd to the distance bet/recn the rent and the tip of the snout. Breadth straight
across the cheeks greater than the posforbital length of the head and ((bout ^. r, "/ the entire length of the liead.
Breadth of the interorbital space ((bout "r, "./" Ike entire length of the head (oid about '4 of the postorbital length
thereof. Outer diameter of the iris '/j of the entire length of tlie head and someichat more than. ^,'^ of the piost-
orbital length of the head or than ^j, of the length of the snout. Mouth broad, both terminal and lateral; the
maxillary bones extend somewhat behind the perpendicular from the hind margin of the iris. Lower jaw shorter
in front than the ujipier jaw. Nostrils set far apart, the piosterior pair separated from the eyes by a distance cijual
to the diameter of the latter, the anterior pair ((bout half-way between the jiosterior and the tip of the snout. Height
of the gill-openings e(p((d to tlie breadth across the cheeks. Distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout
slightly greater than the length of the head and about ■* /- of the distance befireen the anal fin and the same point.
Greatest height of the dorscd fin "' ,„ of the depth of the body at the beginniny of the fin: greatest height of the
amd fin ''/]„ of the depth oj the body at the beginning of the fin. Depth of the base of the (a(((lal fin rather
more than V3 ^/ Ike diameter of the iris. Length of flic (■ai(d(d fin eijual to the breadth of the interorbital sjiace.
Length of the pectoral fins about ecpual to the postorbital length of the head. Ijcngth of the ventral fins about e(p(al
to the distance beticeen the anal fin and the tip of the snout. Coloration dark cariKdion. irifh a few lighter, clouded
spots: branchiostegal memhranes deep crimson : peritoneum, branchial carity, and pharynx blacli.

R. hi: G; 1>. GO; A. 57; P. 11 1. 12; C. 10.
S)/>i. ft'limlifhth;/s fcgiiitt, Coi.i,., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1878,
No. 14, p. 99; N. Nord/i. Exped., ZooL, Fiske, p.

154, fab. V, figs. ;
II, p. 238; Gtiir.
121.

I — 39; LiLiJ., ^V., Noyij. Fisl\, vol.
Deep ISeit Fish., Vhall. K.rped.. p.

KOSK FISH.

59 7

TIk' aliuve description miuI tlic .■ippciuled fii^nre nre ] bi^ird, Mltlioiiiili tlic hauliii;^' nl' tlio trawl liad taken se-

(lerived from CoLLKTr's work on the deep-sea hslies | vera! liours; and it was kept ulive for some time, bnt

taken by tlto Norwegian Arctic l']\pedition. Only one ! apijeared to be extremely slnggisli in its movements,

sjiecinicn of tliis species is as yet known. It was takiMi 'llie transparency of the l>ody i'('ndere(l the intei'iial

on tlie l(Uli-lnl\', 187S, at a de])tli of l.i^cSO t'atiionis, 4(i.') (jrjzans \isilile, so that in the iivinir tish one conld see

Fig. 14-2. Rlioilichthijs reijina. 0^,-3 fif tlif natural size. Ficui « iloptli of 1,280 fatlioms. on a dayi'V botloni (i?(7of«/ma-clay witli a tem-
perature of— 1-4 Celsius), 465 kilom. N. E. of Jan Maycn I.. 19tli .July, 1878. After Coli.ett.

kilometres nortli east of dan ^la\en Island, abont mid-
way between this island, Norwegian Finmark, and Bear
Island. The bottom at this depth consisted of Bilocu-
lina-vhiy, and the bottom temperatnre \vas — r4° (,'el-

the spinal colnmn, tlie several divisions of the bi-ain,
the labyrinth, the gills, and most of the \iscera. In
the stomach were found .still determinable remains of
three crustaceans, Bi/fhoraris Icucopis, I'fieudomi/ftis

The tisli was still alive when it was drawn on ahi/ssi, and a Hyperioid

suBAMiLY fierasfinj:".

No ventral fi)is. Body Eel-liki\ iritli po'uttcd tail.

■'Fishermen say that of this sea-cucund)er (Cazzo I red, ribbon-like fishes wdiieh are called Cipolle," wrote
re&\e — Holothuria ti(}iiih}Sii) are generated the oblong, ! Colimxa'' at the beginning of the 17th century. So

" Gthr, Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. IV, p. 370.

' De aqttatilil/ti.i aliisijne iionnullis animalibus, Roiniv lljli). p. XXXVIl.

598

.SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

lung li;is it l)ceii kinnvii tliat a singular and intimate
relation exists between sea-cucumbers and certain fishes
of this suljfaniily which in Cuvieh" formed the sub-
genus Fierasfer of the genus OpJiidiioii. Tliese iishes
ha\(' the habit of seeking shelter and, to some extent,
food inside sea-cucumbers and bivalves, where they lead
a parasitic life, feeding u])on the minute animals drawn bv
the current into the respiratory tree of the sea-cucumber
or towards the mouth of the bivalve. Now and then
they make sallies in search of food, l)ut soon return
to their hiding-place.

whose habits are best known, tlic Jlediteri-anean F. acns,
usually makes its way in the same manner, according
to Mmkuv, tail foremost into tlie resj)iratoi-y tree and
body cavit}- of tlie Holotlmria'. Soft, almost transparent,
and helpless, without weapons of defence, not even with
scales to ])rotect its l)ody, and with ])owers of sight
certainly feeble dui-ing the daytime, as shown ]t\ the
contracted pupils, tlie iisii feels its \\a\-, witii head
turned down, until with its snout and with the svstein
of the lateral line it feels the current that passes into
the hind part of a Holothuria. Now the fish l)ends

Fig. 14.3. Fieraffci' aciis, in the .net of entering a Htilotliuria.

of the nalnral size. After Ejiliny.

How this habit has arisen, we can at least con-
jecture from \'ei!1^ill'.s observation'' of a species of the
preceding subfamily, Ophidium tnarginatum, in Great
Egg Harbour on the coast of New Jersey. "We dug
two specimens," he writes, "out of the sand near low-
water mark, -where they burl•o^ved to the depth of a
foot or more. When placed upon moist sand they
burrowed into it tail foremost Avith surprising rapidity,
disappearing in an instant." That s})ecies of Fierasfer

the tip of its tail downwards and inserts it into the
cloaca of the sea-cucumber. In adult specimens of this
species the tip of the tail is -without fin-rays, but the
last rays of tlie dorsal and anal fins lie close to the
Ijody at this s])ot, so that the end of the tail forms a
comparatively stiff point, which can be inserted without
difficulty into the opening. By the breathing of the
sea-cucumber and the undulating movements of the
fish itself the tail is iww forced farther and farther

" Rigne Animal, ed. 2, tome II, p. 3.5'.). In Ri.sso Pieras/er was the specific name of Fierasfer aais {Opliidiiiin imherbe. Lin., p. p.).
'' American Naturalist, vol. V (1871), p. 399.

into the fesiiiratiii-y Iitc, until (inly the t'nrc|);ii-t i-cin;iins
oiitsiik'. TIk' fish iKiw cntii-i'lN" enters the IhkK' of tlie
se;i-ctieiiiiil)cr by means of a few puweflnl, nnihiiating
Hiovemetits. Now and then it pw'jis out to l)reatiie. to
.seize some small ei'ustaeean that has come too neaf,
or to e\aeinite the contents of its intestine tin'oiijrh
the \ent, wiiieli is sitiuitetl far forwai-ii. The lish must
also, in all prolialiility, leave its place of refnye and
lead an inde|ienilent life during the s|iawninii-season.
After liie lirst fish a second, a third, or even a seventh
ma\' take up its abode in the same sea-cueiind)er. One
Ficroffer seems ^^cnerall}' to ilo no harm to the sea-
ciicumlier; but if several come, it dies after ejecting'
its entrails, and the lish pce|j out from the empty skin.
Thus, the Fierasfer lives originally in the ramified
breathing dnet (resi)iratory tree) of the sea-cucumber;
but b\- the l)ursting of the walls of this duct it easily
gains a passage into the large cavity of the body,
where it is fre([nenth- found. Some species of the ge-
nus lead a similar life in the body cavity of the Indian
trejiangs, and in all |)robabilit\- gain entrance in the
same manner; but the Fierasfers that live within the
boih of the large starfishes (genus Culcifa), must cer-
lainh' pass through the mouth, for in these animals
there is no anal aperture (cloat'a) to admit of the pas-
sage of any fish.

F,\en though these fishes may derive some nonrish-
meiit from the fluids in the l)odv of the sea-encumber
in -which they live, still tiiey are no true parasites, and
seek their food chiefly outside, thus being frequenth"
funid svvimming freely about. The case may be
different in the other genus of this subfamily, Eiiche-
linjiliis. which is a native of the waters round the Phi-
lipjiine Islands, and whose parasitic natiu'e seems to be
more pronounced and to ha\e involved the loss not
oidy of the ventral, but also of the pectoral fins.

From the Gulf of Panama, on the west coast of
Central America", Pitxam has described a species, Fie-
rasfiT duliias, that iiospitates in pearl-mussels, be-
tween the mantle and the shell. Mere it leads a life
so (piiet and inoffensive that the mussel sometimes
succeeds in enveloping it in a layer of nacre.

The weak sight possessed l)^• these fishes, at least
by daylight, is compensated by a special development of
the senses of touch and hearing. The system of the

"IDS. 599

l.'itei'al line (tig. Ill) in<'ludes large passages on the
head, from the snout round th<' eyes (the suborbital
and sujiraorbital branches), along the forehead and the
top of the head on each side to the temples, and from
the under surface of the lower jaw, along the margin
of the preoperculum, to the same spot, where the lateral
line proper begins. The two lateral halves of the sys-
tem ai'c tunted by transNcrse canals between the eyes
and between I hi' temples. The sensory organs lie in
hirge luimbei's along these canals as well as in a row
along each side of the back and in another denser row
along each side of the base of I he anal fin. The laby-
rinth is remarkable for its comparatively large otoliths.
The po\\ ers of hearing are probably strengthened —
and sounds perhaps jiroduced, though we haxe no ob-
servations on this head — ]iriiK-ipall\- by the comiexion

Fig. 144. Ceplinlic system nf (lie lateral line ("muciferous canals")

in Fierasfer dentatus. A. from above; D. from tlie left.

After E>iEriv.

(jiroliably common to all the ( tphidioids) between the
air-bladder, the first vertebra', and the base of the
occijiut. In the Cods we have seen an internal con-
nexion between the air-bladder and the transver.se
processes of the middle and posterior abdonunal verte-
lira'. Here this connexion is removed farther forward;
and the first four (or, as in Firrasfrr deiifahis, only
the first three) vertebra' with their ribs are mollified
aci'ordingh'. The first verteln-a is as usual closely
united to the occipital bone, the second is shortened.
The first two pairs of ribs retain a greater or less amount
of mobility, the third (and in Fierasfer acus even the
fourth) pair coalesces with the body of the vertebra
like ordinar\- transverse processes. In Fierasfer aciis
the third pair is so much enlarged that it coalesces

" According to Put.vam (Proe. Soc. Nat. Hist. Boston, vol. XVI (1874), p. 343) '.lie same species inhabits iloloUmrians on the cast
coast of Central America, in Florida Bav.

Scandinacian Fhlie.

()0()

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

Hot ()nl\' with its OAvn vertelira, but also with the
fourth. The rilis of tiic latter have assumed the form
of disks united to its back. In Ficrasfrr (h'iitiifi(s the
thii'd pair is onh' s]i;:ht]\' extended, the second and
tirst pairs all the more .so, though far less than the
third pair in the former species. To these bones is
attached the anterior part of the air-liladdei' — which
extends along the wiiole dorsal wall of the abdominal
cavity, which is nuieh liroader in acus than in deiifntiis
— and here are extended muscles to draw tlie air-
bladder forward, among which the median are especially
large and powei'ful, originating from and coasting the
)jarasphei|oi<i Itone and attached to the anterior end of
the air-bladder.

The eggs of these tishes are developed floating
in the sea, united \\ithin a slimy mass, like those of
the Angler. (If the spawning (deposition of the eggs)
we know only that it takes place at night. The deve-
lopment advances (|uicklv. i3v the sixth dav the volk
is absorbed, and the larva begins to eat. It is now
(m\y ?> or 4 mm. long, but already Eel-sha])ed, and,
in F'lerasfcr acus, has a singular appendage on the
hack, almost as long as itself. This is the first ray
of the future dorsal fin, •\\diich has early gro^vn into a
long, stiff stem, \vith foliate growths set alternately.
Here we auain meet with an examiile of the long

appendages ^\•hich we have alreadv observed on several
occasions in the larva- of pelagic fishes, and which help
the larva' to supjiort themselves as they float in the
water and di'ift with the current. These appendages
probably give the larva' a protective likeness to small
Medusa", and perhaps, as Emeuy supposes, serve as a
lure to entice the small crustaceans (Entomostraca) on
whieli the larva? live". This evanescent growth does
not ap]iear in the larva oi Fierasfer dentotus, \i\ which,
on the other hand, the body is still more elongated
and resembles a long, narrow riblion''. In the case of
this larva, Emekv has also made the observation that it
possesses a considerably greater luuuber of vertebra?
than the full-grown fish, \vhich generally has only 95
vertebra^ (26 abdominal), while in one larva he found
175 vertebra'. In adult sjjecimens ni' Fierasifcr dcjifafus
too, the tip of the tail is often bi'i;)ken off short, and
bears a secondary growth, corresponding to a caudal
fin, such as we have above seen to be common among
the Macruroids. E.mekv was therefore quite justified
in his suspicion' that Fierasfer dnitafas in later years
discards its shelter within the sea-cucumber, or at all
events cannot gain entrance in the same manner as its
congener, although he subsequently'' met with a small,
but full-grown specimen (with 115 vertebra') in a
IloJofJiiuitt tidiulofia.

Gems fierasfer.

Pcitoral Jiiif! jiresenf. Braiichioster/al rai/s 7 . Pseudohranch'KC irctiifiiif/. BiaiirhidstefiuJ mcttiJiraiivs Knifed laider-

iKjdili, hid free from flie isfhiinis. The upper jmv projects slightly heijond the lower. Cardiform' teeth in the

j'a/rs, (11/ the vomer, and on the puJatine hones. Anal aperture nearly rerticalhj below the insertions <f the

pectoral fns. Pijloric a/ijiendacjes radinientari/.

This genus seems to attain the highest point of its
development in Indo-Australia.n waters, where 5 or (!
species are kn(j\vn. One species has l)een described
from the east coast of Africa, one fi'om Central Ame-
rica, and two from Europe. In 1853, during the voyage

round the world of the frigate Eugenie, Professor H.
KiNBER(i took near the Keeling Islands specimens of
Fierasfer parri/iiiinis 31 cm. in length and with a
depth of 23 mm. just behind the head. Tlie other
species of the genus are considerably smaller.

" lu Kalt (Ann. Mag. Nnt. Hist., ser. ?., vol. VI (IHGO), p. 27'2, tab. Ill, tig'. /)) tliis larva has borne the name of Porobmnchiis
linearis, in Gascu and subsequently in CosTA (.^niiario tlel Museo Znologico ili Napnb', Anno V, tav. I, tig. 1) tliat of \'e.TiUifi'r <le Filippi.

'' .Another characteristic, as yet observed only in the larva of Fients/cr nctis, is that tlie tip of the tail ends, as in the Macrnroid
larviv {Krohnius), in a long, filamentous prolongation.

' Fn., Fl. Golf. Neap. II, Monogr. Fieras/., p. 18.

<* Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. Ill, p. 282.

" Thougli sometimes small.

■' Sometimes set in one row in the jaws.

(iPlllDllilDS.

GOl

FIEl!ASFEi: I)EXTATUS.

Fi.^. 145.

Anunif/ the antry'ior jair-tecili ire tiiid a pa/r ar tiro of riirrcd raiiincs hotli in the iijipcr jair and the loiror.
Length of thr pccfarid fiis ',, t/iaf of tlir livad. /rlihli in adidt spccimevs mt'dsnri's nlioiit 10^ „ % of thnt of the
liodij. (ireatest depth of the body {Just behind the head) somewhat less than ','2 {4C — 4.ti %) of the length of the
head, irhich is less than the distance betireen the rent and the tip of the snout {diirinf/ youth "'s to Vi> '« old
specimens " ,, thereof). Lonqitndinid diameter of' the orbits about '/, of the lenqth of the loirer ,/air, irhiah is
more than half (about .')(,' %) of the length of the head, but less than half (about 4') "«) of the distance betireen
the rent and the tip of the snout. I'ostorbitid leni/th of tlie head abiad 70 % of the entire loigth of the same.
Height of the anal fn, irhich begins just behind the vent and somewhat behind' or ferticulli/ below the beginning
of the dorsal fin, greater at the middle of its length than either the height of the dorsal Jiu or the depth of the
bod;/ at this point, but someirhat less than the greatest deptli of the bmJg. The abdominal cariti/ e.rtends behind
the rent for a distance about half as great again as that betireen the rent and the tip of the snout. Bodif trans-
parent, during life colourless, save for the whitish, brassy iris and the silvery abdominal cavity.

Fig. 145. Fieyasfer deutatiis, natural size. Vrvm 100—200 fllinis. of water r.n the Jutland Reef.
Taken in 1880 by Fislierinan B. Westeiigken.

/.'. /.)■. 7 : 1>.

144 — 180: .4. ca 105 — 180; P. 16; 1". 0;C'. 0.

&I/H. (Jpliidhon de/itatuin, Cuv. (subgen. Fierasfer), R'cgne Aniin.,

ed. 2, tome II, ji. 359; Gtiir (Fierasfer), Cat. Brit. Mits..

Fish., vol. IV, p. 383; Couch, Fish. Brit. IsL, vol. Ill, p.

133, tab. C'LVI; Putnam (Echiodon), Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.

Hist., vol. XVI, p. 34G; GiGU. {Fierasfer), Espos. Intern.

Pesca, Berl. 1880, Sez. Ital., Cat., p. 97; Emery, .\tti Accad.

Line., scr. Ill, Mem. CI. So. Fis., Math., Natur. vol. VII.

p. 183, tab. I, cett.; Ip., Fn., Fl. Golf. Neapel, II, p. lU,

lab. I, cett.; Day, Fisli. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. I, p. 328;

Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1882, No. 19, p. 3 cum tab.;

LiLLJ., Su., Norg. FisL, vol. 11, p. 234.
Ecliiodon Drummondii, Thomps., Trans. Zool. Soc. Lend., vol.

II, p. 207, tab. XXXVIII.
Enclieliopliis tenuis, Putsam (larva) 1. c, p. 347.

Ill Scandiiiavi;i a.s evcrywliere Fierasfer dentatus
is an extremely rare fish; and its habits, at least when
adult, are almost unknown. It was originally described
as a Mediterranean form, but even there it is seldom ob-
served. Emery saw oidy one adult specimen at Naples,
but he mentions at least tiiree larva^ which he procured
from Holotliuriie. (iicLiiii.i assigns this species to Naples,
Messina, and Venice. On the other hand, neither
Caxestkini, Mokeau, nor Steindaciiner mentions its
occurrence in tiie Mediterranean. In the Atlantic it
was first iiiet witli b^• Thomi'son, wiio received through
Drummoxi) a specimen "_'8 cm. (11 in.) long that had

(502

.S( A XDIXAVIAX FISHES.

been foiiiifl on the soutli coast c)t' Ii-clatid lying dead
on the iicMcli at'ter a stnrni. Tlirougli [)rof'essor S.
LovEjs the Tioyal Museum rectiived in 1880 a specimen
tiiat liad been caught by Fislierman H. ^^'KSTEK(iUl•;^"
"at a depth of from 100 to 200 fathoms on the' Jut-
land Reef,' west of the Skaw. This specimen seems
to have been taken from the stomach of some larger
tish (pnibaliU- a Cod or Ling) where it had S(_)me time
undergone the prcjcess of digestion, for the skin together
with all the fins and a great portion of the tail has
been digested, the hindmost of the remaining vertebra?
being (piite bare. In its present condition the specimen
is 188 mm. long, the greatest depth of the body 11
mm., tlie length of the head 23 mm., the length of the
lower jaw 13 nnn., the longitudinal diameter of the
orbit 4"5 mm., the length of the eye-ball 3'6 mm., the
postorbital length of the head 16 mm., and the distance

between tlie tip of the snout and the vent 29 mm.
To judge In' the length of the head tlie specimen, when
perfect, has been only slightly smaller than the one
described bv Collett. The latter specimen was 22.5
una. long: it was found in .March. ISSl, floating at the
surface ofl' Rovasr, outside Stavanger Fjord, and for-
warded by Dr. Jensen to Bergen Museum. These two
specimens are uj) to the ])resent the only finds of the
species within the limits of the Scandinavian fauna.
According to Coucu (I. c.) the distinguished collector
and observer Thomas Edwards found 6 small examples
of this species, between (5 and 7 cm. long, in March,
1863, on a sandy bottom off the coast of Banff. They
moved thi'ough the water, he wrote, like Pipe-fishes, but
never attempted to hide among seaweed or under stones,
preferring to keep to the sand, where they -would lie for
hours Avith the body in an undulating or curved position.

1am LYCODID^.

Body elongated, more or less anguilliform, in front terete, behind, compressed, naked or covered irifh thin cycloid

sc(des. All the vertical fins confluent: no separate caudal fin. Jaws {sometimes the palate as well) armed u-ith

tcctJi. Gill-iipciiinr/s vertical and small, the hratichiostegal membranes coalescing bvhur irith the skin and fonnin/i

a broad isthmus. Pseudobranchice distinct. Air-bladder iranting. Pi/loric appendages usnallg iranting,

but sometimes present in a rudinn'ntar// form.

This family, which Ave here range last among the
Anacanthini, occupies a singular intermediate position
between other types. Aktedi" and Linx-eus' referred
the only species that they knew, the Eelpout or Vivi-
parous Blenny, to the genus Blennius; Gislek'', the
first to discover the occurrence of this species in Scan-
dinavia, regarded it as an intermediate form bet-ween
Blennius and Ojdridion. (Juvier'' adhered to Artedi's
opinion, and Heiniiardt'', the first describer of the
types of the second division of the family, acknowledged
that Lycodes ought to be referred to Cuvier's Mala-
copterygii thoracici, but still ranged the genus beside the
Blennies, on the grounds that it was a link between
Anarrhicha.s and Zoarcceus (Enchelyopus), which latter

" Syii. Pise, p. 4.5.

' Fii. Siiec, ofl. II, p. U.T.

' Vet.-Akad. Haiidl. 1748, p. 42.

'' Rhjne Animal, ed. II, tome II, p. 240.

' Danskc Vid. Selsk. Naturv., Math. Afli., Ucel 7, p. 147

^ Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1844, p. 10.5.

'J Sveriges och Norges fiskar, part II. p. 17.

genus "evidently was an offshoot of the (Jadoid family."
The same reasoning recurs in MuiXEii'', who united the
LycodidfC to the Blenniidcc on account of the pseudo-
branchiu'. LiLL.jEBuiio' has grouped together the osteo-
logical characters that separate the Lycodidce from the
Gadidce. We notice in particular the absence in the
former (jf the two characteristics of the latter that we
have mentioned above, namely the great extent of the
styloid bone (a character which is also wanting, how-
e^ er, in the Sand-Eels) and the lobate process on the
hind part of the upper margin of the intermaxillarj'
bones (which is also wanting in the Ophidioids). By
the majority of their characters, however, the Lycodoids
are joined to the other Onomorphi as Malacoptei-ygian

LYCilDOins.

tislies (cf. alxnc, \k '2\]): tlicy seem to he ('S|)C'ei;illy
closely allied to ;iii Aiistr.-iliaii genus aiiic)iif;- tiie()]iln-
dioids" that lias recei\ed of (it ni'IIKk'' the name of
<'()iii/ni(/ii(liis and resendiles the ij\co(h)ids in liie form

«U8
and the al)8enee of

of the hod}', the form of the
the air-bladder.

(in, I,' was the first to give the family its ])resent
delinilion. About 20 or 30 species are recognised and
distril)uled among 8 genera.

Cems enchelyopus.

Dorsiil tin fitniislivd bvliiiiiJ iritli n dejiresfiidii, the nii/x wUh'ni iiiiich arr short (tiid sj)a/()iis. ]'rnhtil Jii/s jiii/iilxi
and nidimeiifdri/, irifli H or 4 rai/s. ralatiiic and ronierine teeth n-(intini/.

The genus of the Eelpouts, known in its European
species since tiie time of Schonevklde (1624), first
excited attention on account of its reproducing itself
l)y the birth of living, vial)le young. It is equally re-
markable, however, for the development of spinous rays
at so unusual a spot, corresponding to the posterior part
of the dorsal fin in the Sea-cat (cf. above, p. 231) or
to the upper margin of the caudal fin in other fishes,
a spot \\here spinous rays also occur.

The oldest post-Linna?an generic name, EncheJij-
opns\ was adopted by Gronovius in 1763'' from Klein,

in whose works it contained a most heterogeneous
medley of fishes. The name given by Gkonovius was
however forgotten, though Valenciennes gave a refe-
rence to it', until it was restored in 1863 by Gill'^.
The genus has been best known l)y the name of Zo-
arces'', wdiich was given it in 1829 l)y Cuvieu', or
Zoarcceus, as Nilsson wrote the word^.

The genus belongs exclusively to the seas of the
Northern Hemisphere and contains only two sjjccies,
which are very closely related to each other, one from
Europe and one from North America.

THE EELPOUT (sw. tanglaken).
ENCHE]>Y()PUS VIVIPARUS.

PI. XII, fig. 1.

Bnijn of the anal tin less than lOO. Body slimy and covered witli thin, oblong, rounded, cycloid scales, de-
pressed in the skin. Coloration greenish yellow or yellowish In-own (lighter on the belly and the under surface
of the head) marked across the dorsal fin and the liack with dark brown transverse bands, which are more or less
ili-itinctlv branched below and meet or alternate with a row of similarly Cfdoured spots on the lower part of the sides.

B. br. G; D. (72— 80) + (0—10) + (10— 21); A. 80—88';
P. 19; r. 3; Vert. 108—111.

Sijn. Tenia Miisli'larttm species, Schonev., Iclitiujol. 6'lesv. Hols.,
p. 49; Mustela Lumpen Antverpice dicta, Willuqb., Hist.
Pise, p. 120; Akt., (Mustela), Gen. Pise, Append., p. 83;
(Bleniiius), Syn. Pise, p. 45; Gronov., J. F. (Blennius),
Act. Upsal. 1742, p. 87; Lin., It. Wgotli., p. 182; Gisl.. !
1. c; Gronov., L. T., Mus. Iclitliyol., p. 05.

'lennius vioipartis, Lin., Mns. Ad. Frid., p. 09, tab. 32, fig.
3; Syst. Nat, e.L X, torn. I, p. 258; Fn. Snec, ed. 11, p.
113; Mull., Zool. Dan., tab. LVII; ^etz., Fn., Suec. Lin.,
[>. 325; Cuv. (Zoarces), ]. c. ; NiLSS. (Zoarcceus), 1. c; Ekstr.,
Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1834, p. 48; Flmnq (Gunnellus), Brit.
Anim., p. 207; Cuv., Val. (Zoarces), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vo\.
XI, p. 454 ; Fk., Ekstr., v. Wr. {Zoarcceus), iSkond. Fisk.,
cd. I, p. 36, tab. 8, fig. 1; P.iRN. (Zoarces), Mem. Worn.
Soc, vol. VII, p. 337; Kr., Danm. Fiske, vol. 1, p. 355;

" Machoeriiim, Richardson, Voy. Ereb.. Terr., Iclitliyology, p. 72, tal). 44, figs. 1 — 0.
' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. IV, p. 388; Intr. iStud. Fisli., p. 550.
' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1802, p. 501 and 1803, p. 254.
'' Eel-like, fruin fj'/e^i'g and cui/'.

' Zoopliyl.. p. 77. As early as 1760 (Act. Helvet., IV", p. 259) Gronovius applitil it to tlie Eclpcmt, but tlicn witliout cliaraeterizing
the species.

/ Cov., Val., Hist. .\at. Poi.^s., vol. XI, p. 452.

» Proc. .Vcad. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1803, p. 250.

'' Zwag/.»[g, li/e-preservinf/.

' Pegne Anim., 1. c.

■' Prodr. Ichtli. Scand. (1832), p. 104.

* Sometimes 89, according to Moreau.

604

SCA.\DI.NA\1A.V KISllES.

Nii,ss. (Zoaraeus), Sk;ind. F//., Fislc, p. 20:!: Sr.sn., SlotUli.
L. Husli. Sallsk. Hamll., H. <; (1855) p. 80; Gniii (Zoarces),
Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. Ill, p. 295; Morn, Finl. Fisk-fn.
(disp. Helsingf. 18(i3), p. 21; Lindstr. (Zoarc(Fiis), Gotl.
Fisk., Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 18G6, p. 15 (sep.);
Steinii.. Slzber. Aknd. Wiss. Wien. Nalurw. Math. CI. LVII, i
(1808) p. 676; Coi.i,. {Zoarce.-<), Forli. Vid. Selsk. Christ.
1874, Tilla>g.?h., p. 78; M.alm, Ghgs, Boh. Fn., p. 473;
WiNTH., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. .-!, vol. XII. p. 23;
Bnoke, Fiscli., Fischer.. Fischz. ().. \V. Pretiss., p. 80;
Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.. Irel., vol. I. p. 211, tub. LXI, fig. 2;
MoR., Hist. Nat. Poi.%s. Fr., vol. II, p. 156; Mela, Vert.
Feni>., p. 292, tab. IX; MOn., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 61;
Lii.L.r., Ac, Nor;/. Fifk., vol. I, p. 552; Hansen, Zool. Dan.,
Fiske, p. 49. tab VllI, lig. 2; B.scke, HaiiiUi. Fisch:.,
Fischer. (M. v. ii. Borne) p. 92.
Bleiiniiis Luiniterin.f. Lix., .Si/.'^t. Nat., 1. c, — e.i AuT. el

Wn,H!GIIB.

Obs. The only constant character \vc liavc been able to discover,
to distinguish between tlie European and American Eelpouts, lies in

the number of flie fin-raj's. Tliis cliaracter is evidently connected with
a greater elongation of the hind part of the body in the American
form {Enchelyojms anguillaris), especially as this form appears in a
specimen 40 cm. long which the Koyal Museum lias received through
the Smithsonian Institution. Todd's figure in Brown-Goode {The Fishe-
ries and Fishery Industries of the United >S,'ales, Section I, Plate 67)
shows, however, that in this respect the variations may be great in
both forms. Even among our Scandinavian Eelpouts it seems to be
possible to distinguish between two forms. The first of tliese forms
by the more slender form of the body represents the most advanced
development of tlie male characters, like the American species, has the
beginning of the dorsal fin situated further forward (its distance from
the tip of the snout less than 16 '« of the length of the body), and
in several other respects shows traces of the persistency of llie juve-
nile characters. This form occurs, according to the collections of the
Royal Museum, on tlie coast of Finmark and off Kola Peninsula. In the
second form, a southern one, which the Museum possesses both from
Bohuslan and the Baltic, the region of the anal fin is generally shor-
ter, the head larger, and the beginning of the dorsal fin situated
further back. For the sake of brevity we refer the reader to the
following table of averages.

Length of Ihc body c\pri-.ssi'd in inilliinetrcs

Distance between Ihe d.iraal liii nnd tlie tip of the

t in J« 0

the length of the body

g

|ij

1 1^

A v

e r a g c

in

i'.g

3 ff

5 ^
_ S 3

i ^?

H = ?

qq «

ill'

'ili
„ ? ^

3 or *

14.1
21.1

14.2

67.0

99

14.2

21.8
9 3

14.4

G4 9

164
1.0.1

24.4

9.G

15.5

62.3

16.7

26.6

10.3
16.3

6:r„

226

17.2

29,0
10.0

18.4

.09 1

349

17.0

2S.9

10.8

18.4

5S.7

,, distance between the beginning of the

Postorbitiil length of the heiid in % of the length o

., ,, ., .. ,, „ „ ,, ., distance
the euiidiil fin

the
betv

body

een the

beginning of the annl Hn and the tip of

Distanee belvveen (he beginning of Ihe nnnl (ill :ind

the

ti|i (if th

e eaiidal tin in % of the length of the body

The (irdinary lenutli of our coniiiioii Eclpniit is l)eing aljout IS or lil % of that of the both". Uuder-
iibout o() cm., l)ut we liave received specimens from the | neath it is flat, above rounded, with tumid cheeks and
island-belt of Stockholm that were nearly 40 cm. long. with forehead somewhat compressed laterally and slop-
Further south the Eelpout seems to attain a greater j ing in a steep curve towards the snout. The mouth is
size; Paknell mentions specimens taken off lk'r\vick of moderate size, witii rounded jaws and very tumid
(at tlie moutli of the Tweed) that were nearly 2 ft. lips, which are wrapped round the jaw-bones and entirely
(()1 em.) in length". The females attain a greater size ' cover them. Tlie upper jaw is protnisile to some ex-
than tlie mitles. I tent, though only slightly. Both the jaws are of the

In tlie form of the liody tiie Eelpout is mo.st like | same length and furnished with conical, small Init strong

the common Burbot. The de|)th of the body at the
beginning of the anal tin in young specimens (less than
1 dm. long) measures about 8V2 — Q'/a '* of the length
of the bod}-, in older specimens about 9V2 — 11\^2 ^
thereof. The head is small, its length in adult Eelpouts

teeth, with rather blunt tiji''. In the ujiper ja\v tiiese
teeth are set in t\\'o rows, the anterior (outer) fairlv
regular and containing about 12 teeth on each of the
interma.xiilary bones, the posterior (inner) less regidar,
with shorter teeth, and ending usually at the root of

" The American form sometimes attains a length of 3',o ft. (107 cm.) and a weight of 12 ]bs. (5 kgm.), according to Si'ORER (Mem.
Amcr. Aead. Arts, Sc, N. Ser., vol. V, p. 264).

'' 'J'lie teetii of the .American Eiicheli/opus are gieeu, coarser, and still blunter, reminding us strongly of those of tlie Sea-cat.

fiOo

the 7tli or Mil (<icilli in tlie aiitorinr i-nw. In ihc lower
jaw the form ot' tlic teeth is tlie same, .-ukI tlie\-
are set in almost the same miinner; lint the ]iosterior
row is somewhat hniLiCi- and ends onl\' a little sooner
lliaii the anterior row. There arc no teeth on the pa-
late or the tonsi'iie, which is Hut, rounded, and llesliy,
hut scarcely free at all. 'Ihc palatal folds within the
jaws are wcll-de\( loped, lint not at all deep. In the
phar\nx we find aliox'e on ea<'h side tliive small, traiis-
\-erscl\-set pharyngeals, .set with slioii, conical teeth in
more or less curved rows, con\ ex in fi'ont, the middle
pair of phai'vnc-cals \\illi two rows of teeth, the anterior"
and the posterior pair.s with only one. The lower pha-
r\iig'eals are longer, pointed at both ends, and furnished
witii three longitudinal rows of short and lilunt teeth.
Tlie gill-rakei's are scattered — 16 on each of the first
pail' of liranchial arches — and resemble short, pointed
liajiilla', each with a small, sharp, osseous spine within
it. The bi'anchiostegal membrane is united underneath
to the corresponding membrane on the other side, but
coalesces entirely with the skin of the isthmus (the
breast), leaving no free margin behind, though the
margin may be distinguished. The gill-openings extend
<lownward somewhat beyond the lower end of the in-
sertions of the pectoral fins and are separated from it
by a distance about e(|ual to the length of tlic snout;
whiji' above thev reach over a part of the up|)er margin
of the operculum, the skin of which is jirolonged behind
into a blunt point. The eves are comparatively small,
rather jiromineiit, and set in front of the middle of the
head and high up, the distance between them being
about equal to the breadth of either vye. Thej' lie in
planes that con\erge somewhat in a forward and upward
direction. Th(> nostrils, one on each side, are set as in
the Sea-eat at about the middle of the length of the
snout, and resemble fairly high, flexible, dermal tubes
with even margin. The eye is surrounded as usual by
a ring of muciferous pores, belonging to the cephalic
.system of the lateral line. One of these pores, the
second in the frontorostral branch of this system of
du<-ts, has been regarded as a posterior nostril. Tlie
first pore of this branch lies just in front of the nostril.

'^riic bod\- jiroper (the trunk) is c\lindrical, with
]ieiident belly, espccialh' in gravid females. The Eel-
like tail, which ends in a point, is strongh- compressed
laterally. During life the fish is coated with a thick
layer of miicns, pai'tly concealing the thin, scattered
scales, which lie depressed in the skin without touching
each other. These scales are almost circular oi- oblong,
and smooth-margined, with line, concentric stria?, in
the outer part dense, in tiic inner part (nearer the
inicleus) scattered, and groo\es radiating in all direc-
tions. The lateral line is not verj' distinct. The head
is scaleless.

The vent lies just in front of the beginning of the
anal fin, a little in front of the middle of the body
(cf. the above table), and further forward in young
specimens, as in the American form, than in old. Be-
hind it is furnished with a papilla, most distinct in
the males, similar to that we have above remarked in
the Cottoids.

The dorsal fin is ]o\v, begins just behind the occi-
put (cf. the above table), and extends, inqierceptibly
diminishing in height, back to the extreme end of the
tail; but a little in front of this point it shows a more
or less broad depression or incision, which is sujijiorted
by spinous rays, an extremely singular variation of the
other soft rays, and characteristic of this genus. The
number of these spinous rays varies between 6 and lO*.
In front of the depression the dorsal fin contains aljout
ISO ra^s, all weak and articulated, and all, with the
exception of the first rays, branched at the tip. These
rays are united by a fairh- thick, slimy skin, which
is strewn at the base of the fin with scales similar to
those which clothe the bodj\ These scales extend
liigher up in the posterior part of the fin than in the
anterior. The anal fin is of exactly the same structure,
form, and extent in a backward direction as the dorsal;
but is without any incision, coalescing completely and
without the least break with the caudal fin. At the
base the anal fin is strewn with scales in the same
maimer as the dorsal. From 70 to 80 rays may be
counted with tolerable ease; but behind these the re-
maining rays lie so close to each other that their num-

Through both these pores a fine liair may be passed ber can hardly be fi.xed w'ith certainty.

into the duct beneath the skin, far back and above the

The pectoral fins are fairly' large — their length

eyes. The lower jaw is also coasted by a row of si- ' from the upper angle of the fin varying between 11
milar and distinct pores.

and 13 % of that of the bod \

nd broad, with rounde(l

" EkstrSm and FniES liave seen two rows of teetli on tlie anterior pair as well.
' In the .American Eiirh eh/opus anguilhris tlieir number may rise to at least 16

606

SCANDIN.WIAN FISIIKS.

1i|i. Tlicv ;nr iiuidt' n\> of 111 IjivhicIrm! r;iy>s iiiid ;i
fliick iiu-iiiliraiic. Tlic ventral fins are I'ather sinnll
and lie c](^se to eacli othei-, in front of the ])ectoral
tins. They contain 3 rays, w hiiii ai-e i)ranchod at the
ti|) and ver\' difHcnit to distinguish.

Tlie onl\ external diffei'ence lietween the sexes
that we have been able to discover, is that the males
are generally smaller and more slender than the females.

The coloration of the Eelpont is not veiy diver-
sified. The gronnd-rolonr of tlie entii-e fish is yellowish
brown, the nnder snrfaee of the head and belly being
gra\ish yellow. ( )n the sides of tlie bod^•, back to the
depression in the dorsal fin, we find two rows of more
or less distinct transver.se spots, lo — 1.) in each row.
The spots of the lower row altei'nate more or less re-
gularh' with those of the upper and at the npper cor-
ner touch the latter, which advance some way over the
dorsal fin. Behind the incision in this fin the spots
grow graduallv less distinct towards the end of the tail.
The outer rim of the dorsal fin is black. The outer
margin of the anal fin is flame-yellow, like the tips of
the ventral fins. The pectoral fins are darker than the
others and edged with more dirty vellow. Several
blackish spots occur on the upper part of the head,
between the eyes and tiu' ti[) of the snout, and on the
cheeks, growing rather more indistinct on the gill-cover.
The iris is dark brown, with a fine, light yellow ring
round the pupil.

'I'he internal organs remind us more of the Cotti
than of the ("ods. The esophagus and stomach are
short, the biittoni of the latter extending hardly be^'ond
a line \vith the middle of the pectoral fins >\'hen folded,
and bending downwards to form a shoi't pyloric part,
turned in a forward direction, at the end of which we
find tw(j short, saccate bull)S or rudimentary pyloric
appendages, one on each side. At the middle of its
length the intestine forms a winding bend, a curved
double coil. At first sight the liver seems to consist
of one single lobe, which curves upwards and surrounds
the small gall-bladder, the stomach, and the a'.sophagus;
but this lobe is di\ided distincth' enougii into three
parts, with the middle (outermost) lobe shortest and the
right lobe longest. The spleen lies just behind the
bottom of the stomach and is small and fiat, at the
upper (dorsal and also left) end pointed, at the lower
end rounded. The air-bladder is wantinir. The testes

of the male are smooth and ol)long, lie close to each
other, and at the spawning season grow far forward,
close to the kidneys. The most remarkable of the in-
ternal organs of the Eelpout is the ovary of the female.
On opening a female which is not gravid we find the
ovarv, which is simjile and of oval form, lying right
under tiie kidneys and along the s])inal colunni. It is
of thin texture and partly filled with yellow eggs of
the size of a pin's head. On examining the ovarv after
the beginning of the period of gestation, when the tiyary
serves as a utei-us, we find the walls firmer and ])ene-
trated h\ a great number of bloodvessels, while to the
iimer surface are attached small, oblong, transparent
vesicles, which contain a clear fluid and a tiny embryo
floating in the fluid. At the last stage we find the sac
enormously distended and full of closely packed young
specimens lying free within the ovary itself. The ve-
sicles have collapsed, but are still attached to the walls.
During this period we generally find a great number
of the young expelled into the abdominal cavity itself
by the bursting of the ovary. In a female 31 cm. long
we have found altogether 196 young, each 37 nun. in
length. Seventy-five of them lay in the alidominal
cavity, the rest within the ovary. In another female,
322 mm. in length, we have counted 262 young. Other
writei's state the number of the young at over 300.

The Eelpout seems to arrive at maturitv enrly, for
distinct eggs have been found in specimens only 15 cm.
long. Its faculty of giving birth to living young prc-
suppo.ses an actual copulation between the sexes, as well
as the fertilization of the eggs within the bod}- of the
mother. However, no such copulation has yet been ob-
served; nor can any certain time of year positively be
given as the spa^vning-season of the Eelpout, for at
almost all seasons we maj' find gravid and parturient
females and at the same time others that contain only
small eggs. The former are most often met with, Innv-
ever, in December and Januai'y. This agrees with
Bexeckk's statement (1. c.) that during the spring and
summer months — from JIarch to August — the males
have bright orange fins and wear a kind of festal dress.

liiiEUM has observed in a salt-Avater aquarium the
manner in which the Eelpout gives liirth to its young.
"The fish," he says", "which even at otlier times is slug-
gish, seeks a certain spot in the acjuarium several hours
before parturition and stays there motionless, until all

° Bremh's lliierleben, 2:te AuH., Die Fisclie, p. 188.

<JU7

or :it Iciist tiKisI of tlic voini;:' have liccii excluded. The
i'vv creeii foi'tli, head tii'st. one aflep aiiolhei-. ami sink
down to the ri.uht anil left lA' the tail of the mother-
fish, which she keeps in a somewhat ele\ated iiosition.
Now tliat they ha\e reached tiie liottom. they lie tliere
several lK>urs, perhaps a whole da\, without |]erceplilil\-
moNinu' or risiuL:'. If there are several ilelpouts in the
same aipiariuni. one nia\' oliser\'e, to oiicTs surprise,
two or moi'(^ of them swim close up to the motliei--fisli
and jiress her on liolh sides, ap|)arentl\- to assist the
operation. Iiut in realit\- onh' to devour the vouuli' as
soon as tlie\' a[)pear. The mother dm-s not hesitate t(.)
follow their example if she is not sufHcieiitly supplied
with other food. In most eases the Eelpoiit brings forth
all her \ciuiig at a hirth; hut it sonu'times happens
that onh a ])art of them are horn at first and the rest,
or even oid\- some of the rest, one or more days later".
The food of the Eelpout consists chieHy of mol-
lusks, cru.staceans, and worms, but also of small fishes.
It lives in watei- of moderate depth on sliores where it
finds a stonv bottom overgrown with sea\veed. Henee
if is known as Tdiif/hike or Stetilake (fdiu/, tang, /«/re,
Bui'bot), which are its ordinary names on the coast of
the Baltic, where its outward resemblance to the Burbot
has thus attracted most attention. In other localities
its slight likeness to the Eel and the long-known fact
that, utdike most of the Teleosts, it brings forth its
voung alive, have given rise to the ancient and popular
belief that the Eelpout is the mother of the Eel, and

hasc bestowed upon it \arious names. Thus, in (ierman
it is still called Aid iKiiUi-r. in Danish AaU'knne, Aolc-
modrr. or Aalvkits, and in liohusliin genei-all\- Alkiissa
oi- simpl\- KifssK. Its manner of life has also conti'i-
buted in a high degi'ee to its comparison with the Eel.
It lives in scattered and solitary specimens, is found
c\er\where, but seldom in numbei's, and c(jnceals itself
undei' stones, among seaweed, and in crevices in the
liotiom. .\11 round the coasts of Scandinavia it is com-
mon, from \ aranger fjord" along Norway and Sweden
into tiie ISaltic and up to the island-belt of Tornea.
( )n the Daidsh coast and on all the coasts and banks
of the North Sea the l^elpout is a common tish; but
west and south of the English Channel it is rare,
though STEixn.\C'HM';i! .states (1. c.) that it has been met
with in the neighljourliood of Cadiz. The Eelpout also
makes its way occasionally iiit(» fresh water. It has
been taken foi' in.stance, according to ISkeiim, in tiie
Havel off Si)andau.

The flesh of the Eeljjout is firm, white, and in
flavour not unlike that of \hv Eel. Still it is not eaten
in many jdaces, a circumstance which seems to be due
entirely or at least most usually to the green colour
of the bones, which becomes deeper and deeper during
the process of lioiling and excites the groundless suspi-
cion that the flesh is poisonous. There is no special
fisher\' for the Eelpout: it is taken onh' h\ accident
and generally while the fisherman is drawing the seine
for other fish. (Ekstrom, Fries, Smitt.)

GicMs LYCODES.

VerticaJ fins siniihir hi stnictiire fJiriiiii/Jioiif tlieir li'iif/fli. VciiiraJ fins Juf/itlar and nidimcnfari/. u-'ith .V — (>'' rai/s.

Jairs, paJatbie hones, and the head of the vomer furnished irith teeth.

This genus, which was founded in 1S;')1 b-v Y. ' sal tin is a readilv perceivable difference from the Eel-

Ki:iNH.\i!DT-, is extremely closely allied to the |ireceding pouts, but botli genera are identical in all other respects,

one in form and the changes of form as well as in the if \\v except the more })ackward Ix'ginning of the dorsal

distribution of colour on the body. Externally the fin in Li/codes, where the distance between the begin-

absence of the depression in the margin of the dor- ning of this tin ,and the tip of the snout is always

" Tlie Royal Museum li.as rc-cciveil from tlie Wliito Son tlinmgli r,i(-'u(cMant H. S.VNiiEBKRc. nn Eeljioiit I '.I cm. long which is rein.nrkable
for the extraordinary height of the anterior part of the dorsal fin.

* The latter number in Li/vodcs maci-ops, according to V.mi.i.ant. who. however, dcscrilies the.sp ray." as simple (K.rjiccJ. Hfient. dii Trn-
vailli'iiv el da Talisman, Poiss.. p. .S07). while in other species they arc known to be branched.

' Overs. Vid. Selsk. Forh. Kbiiuii 1830—31, p. LXXIV. It was not until 183H — Xaturv.. Math. Afh.. Decl VII. p. 147. published
l>y tlie same society — that the genus was completely determined and cliaincterizecl. 'I'he name of f,i/<-odc.< (wolflike. 'ir. Ai'/.oc) is derived
from the resemblance of the fish to Amirrhichas lupus.

608

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIICS.

ovdiiiMi'A' mediolitteral line — in a siiu'lit curve down-
wards to tile middle of tlie side, or even down to tlie
anal region and then along the base of the anal fin.

the othei a dorsal line — iisualh- witli larger Imt

more scattered pores and seldom extending farther than
to a line with the \ent or a little behind it. Sometimes

perceptibly more than half (at le:i>t 't') %) of tlie distance ' from e;ich temporal region, one — corresj)onding to the
l)etweeii the anal tin and the latter.

The changes caused by age in the <()loi'ation of
fjiji'Diles are extraordinarily great. All the fry — with
the exception of one species — are adorned with a hand-
some, regular marking (see for exam])le figs. 14S and
150) of selliform. dark-margined spots across the dorsal
tin and the back. On the hindmost part of the tail \ again a ventral branch starts from the antei"ior part of
these spots are generally prolonged downwards, forming the inediolateral line, its structure being the same as
transvers(! bands across the dorsal tin, the bod\', and that of the latter. I.L'iken, whi) was the first" to draw
the anal tin. The spaces between the spots grow lighter attention to all these differences, based upon them a,
and lighter, being sometimes milk-white on the dorsal I .system of determining the species within the genus;
tin and the back, and the same light colour sometimes | but GCnther has pointed out' the systematic ditticulties
appears in the form of an ocellated spot within one or involved in a strict adherence to characters derived
another of the selliform spots. With age, however, from this relation, characters wliicli at different ages
these selliform spots coalesce below, and the boundary
between them and the coloration of the rest of the
body is effaced, being sometimes replaced by a net-
work of darker colour, starting from the original dark-
coloured inai-gin of the spots. These changes of colo-
ration are also common to other kindi'ed genera within
the family, and strongly remind us of the distribution
of the spots in the l'>el|iouts, in all its irregularity.

The dentition of the palatine bones and of the head

and in different individuals show variations, the cause
of wdiich is as yet ludiuown, and which also in many
cases defy ol).servation. Glxthek jiasses tlie same judg-
ment upon the characters which hav(» been drawn from
the extent of the scales in these fishes.

Ever since Richardson described his Li/codcs nni-
cosKs from Northumberland .Sound', we have known
that scales may be wanting ■within this genus in indi-
viduals u]i to a length of •2<S cm. In 11S74'' Bleekei!
of the vomer in Lijcodes — a character which is wanting founded the genus Li/rai/alc/iis to emphasise this cha-
in the Eelpouts — is here counterbalanced by a nega.- racter, wliich. according to Bean"', may be jiersistent
five t'haracter, the absence of transverse palatal folds I in the sjiecies just mentioned even at a length of 4;^>
behind the rows of teeth in the jaws. Tlie nostrils are ' cm. However, to the best of our judgment and with
simple and tubular in this genus also, but the snout | the knowledge we now possess of the changes of growth
is more elongated and of a looser structure, this being | and sexual differences within the genus, this s])ecies
due to the still greater development of the ca\ities be- I can scarcely be distinguished, except perhaps as a local
longing to the cephalic^ system f)f the lateral line. The i variet^•, from Lifcodes Tunicri, the foi'in descriln'(l by
extension of this system over the body is singular i Bean' and TtHiNEi;" from Alaska, or from the form
enough. No less than three lateral lines may appear i brought home by the \'ega Expedition* from the en-
on each side of the body — but, as fai- as we know, trance of Chatanga Bay (Siberia, E. of Cape Tschelju-
no more than two in the same individual. These lines ' skin). The latter form is in ;dl probaliility identical
are generally wanting in A'oung s])ecimens and are again i with the form subsecjuently described \>\ LitivEN' under
effaced in old. In most cases two lateral lines start I Coei.eit's name of Lycodos Ijltkenii, which (tCntiiek

marked

a..isnl nnd

■ilicilnter.-il lino

" Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For. Kblivn 1879—80, |.. ?.29. Kuoyer, liowever, liad nlready
his Lycodps perspkillnm (Natiirh. Tidskr. Kblivn, ser. Ill, vol. I, (1862), p. 292).

' Deep Sea Fish., Chall. Exped., ]>. 79.

■■ The Last of the Arctic Voyages, vol. II, p. :)(i2.

'' Vcrsl., Med. Akad. Wet. Amster., 2 K., 8 Del. ]>. .309.

' Bnll. U. S. Nat. Miis., No. 15, p. It.",.

/ Proe. U. S. Nat. Miis., vol. I, p. 463.

'-' Cnnti-ih. \nt. Hist. Alaska, Arct. Ser. I'ubl. Sign. Serv. U. S. Army, No. II, p. 9:^. PI.

'' Gr. Intern. Fiaher. E.xliib. London 1883, Swed. Catal., p. 176.

' Kara-Havets Fiske, Dijmphna-Togtets Zool.-bot. Udb., p. 14, Tab. XVI. In tlie lar.t;-
considerably greater nmnber (13 — 15) of palatine teeth than in Lijcoites mttcosns (7, both according to Richardson's figure and in the speci
men from Cliatanga Cay). P>iit the great reserahlanee in otlier respects between these nominal species forces ns (o (lie eoncUision that tlii
difference is individual and may depend on circumstances of age or sex, unless indeed it belongs to a local variety.

nf (he.se specimens LOtke.n remarked a

I.VCdDolDS.

GOil

Ii;h1 uiili<'sil;itiiiul\ I'cfcrrci! tn ilic old Uriiili.-inltiaii
species Li/rodcs rcli( idatiis. 1"liis (nnn. which hclon<i's
III Kara Sea, is Furiiislicd when ^l^l'^ iniii. loiiii', nccord-
ilLii' til 1-1 IKICN, with scnirs ii\ei' the wlmlc tail and the
Ui'cater |iart ut the liack hchind ihc lieiiinnini;' uf the
dorsal tin; lint the alim c-incntiuned s|ieciincn t'nini
Ciiatanwa \\{\\, which wr |ii'ii|)()Sod in l.SSi' to refer I o
Liicodes miirosiis. is cntii-elv scnieless nt a Icniiih of
'24(i Mini. Tlie indi\iiliial \arialions in this respect
seem to III' so ureal thai we nmst aliandon the atteni|it
to liase the detei-niination of the species npon the pi-e-
seni'e or aiisenee of scales. Xo more reliance can he
jilaced on the proposed deternnnation — here as in the
(ioliies — liased on the L;reater or less extent of the
scalv coxerinu' in a forward direction, over the trunk
and head, in those forms which are fniaiished with
scales at an earh' a,i;e and retain them at all snli-
sei|ncnt nu'es.

The differentiation of the species within this ,u'enus
fi'om each othei' is aniore advanced developmi'iit of tlie
S|iecitic difference whit-h seems to be present, lint can
scarcelv lie rei;'arded as tixed, within the precedina'
o'enus. A trace of the most essential diffei'ence lietween
the Euro])ean and the American Eelpmit mav lie found,
as we have seen aliove, in the two forms that can he
distinguished •with tolerahlc ease amono' the European
1-^elpouts, and ma^' he i-educed to a greater or less
elongation of the caudal ]iart of the hodv, in combina-
tion with a greater or less number of xcrtebra'. So
also within the gi'uus Lifcode^ we can distinguish be-
tween two main groups of forms, the first with com-
parati\el\' shortei- bod\", like that of the Eelpout or
e\cn dec]ier than it, the second with exceedingly elong-
ated, more Anguilliform body. Within these groups
the most genrral sjiecihc ditt'erence lies in the same
relation, couioiiii'd with the var\ing size of the head,
oriainalh- a distinction of sex and a,o;e, foi' thi' I'elative

length of the head generalh' increases with age anil is
always greater in the males than in the females.

The genus is composed exclusively of deep-sea
fishes, most of them li\ing al depths of from odd to
51)0 fathoms or more, and at least one speeies taken
in l,;>;-)3 fathoms of water. During youth, howevei',
they are met with nearer land and in shallower water,
sometimes at a de|ith of only ."id oi' 80 fathoms. For
the scieniilir ehicidalion of these forms we have prin-
ei]ially to ihank <'(ii,M"n' and LCtkkx. To the gene-
ralitx- of fishermen the genus is unknown, and it has
no popular name; EiLi-.iKUiiRr, has proposed the Swedish
names of filhni.smar or nlhihliar (Eel-Torsks).

The species that belong to the Scandinavian fauna
)i\!.i\ be distinguished in the following manner:

A: l)cpth of the bodv at ttic beginning of
the anal fin more than 8 % of its length.
Branchiostegal ravs 1^.

a: Body plain, without spots ___ Li/codcs fi-iiihhix.

Ii: Coloration light with dark-edged, sel-
liform spots in tlie 1V\-. in :idult spe-
cimens dark with light transverse
.«]iots or light with dark transverse
spots.

a : Length of the head more than
39 % of that of the tail from the
beginning of the anal fin to the

tip of the last fin-rays I^jicodcs letioilntiix.

ji: Length of the head less than 30
% of that of the tail from the
beginning of the anal fin to the

tip of the last fin-rays Lifnuli-x Vnlilii.

/)'.• l)eptli of the bodv at the beginning of
the anal fin less than 8 ■•» of its length.
Branchiostegal rays .5.
a: Length of the head at least abottt
' 4 (more than 23 °i) of that of the
tail frojn the beginning of the an.al
fin to the tip of the last fin-rays... Li/rutle.f Savaii.
(i: Length of the head at most about
' - (scarcelv more than 20 %) of tliat
of the tail from the beginning of the
anal fin to the tip of the last fin-ravs Lt/nnles iinntrua.

610

.SCAXDINAVIAN FISIIHS.

LVCODKS FRIGIDUS.

FiR. ui;.

ColnratioH jtlii'in, ri'fldish (/rai/-liniiri/. TtixJij in i/idte fiill-f/ro/rit sprciiiiriis I'litirrh/ covcri'd iritli scales fdi/rdi'd
III tlic lii'dd (tnil a llftic iraii on'r the bases of flic rcrfirtil Jins, in i/oio/ijiT specimens nuked on the middle of
the hrll/j, on the tins, nn<l on a strip alon;/ their tioses. Jtepfh of the tiodij iit the tieijinninq nf flic (iniil tin in
tidult specimens lO'/., — Jl % of the tenijtli of the l/od//. One rentro-loferal tine, continnons and irifli dense ])ores;
one dorKO-lateral lim-, n-ith scattered pores (lioth nj'tcn indistinct). Head depressed {fcdtetied) in front: its length
more than '/a ^^'^' distance In'fiveen the anal fn and the tip of the snout, and in quite fntl-rjrou-n specimens {more
than :■', dm. in leiujfh) 4:J — 47 %, in i/oiint/er ones 35 — 42 %, of the lenejtli of the tail from the In-f/inninf/ of

lh<' anal fn to the end of the last fn-rai/s.

-T^-nK;

146. Lijcodes frir/idnx, from the Ndi-wegiiin Arctic Expedition. ' ., tin
The properly of tlie Miiseiiio of Cliristiania University.

R. fn: (1; />. 90 — 104; .1. R.5— '.10; P. '20— 21: V. 2 (4?).

Si/,1. Lurodts Viifdfi, Com,., Forh. Vu\. SelsU. Chri-st. 1878. No. 4.
p. 11.
Li/codcs fritjidus. Id., ibid.. No. 14, p. 45; yorsf: yordli.
Exped.. Fisic,', p. 0(5, tali. Ill, figs;. 23 el 24; Lillj., ^u.,
Norg. Fi'<lc., vol. II, p. Ill; Gniu, J)eeji ,s'm Fish., (Jhalleng.
E.xped., pnrt. LVII, p. 70.

riiis spffies is known ;ilinosT exolusively from the
ciillectioiis of tlie Norwegitui Arctic Expedition and
CoLLE'i'T.s description of tliein. It is said to attain a
lenotli of idniost .")] cm. Its ])riiicipai characteristic
lies in the coloration, for in otlier respects it partly
coincides with J, //codes refi<idatas and partly ranks as
an intermediate form between the latter and Lijcodes
yafilii. To indw from onr knowledge of the other

.species onh' male specimens, sterile or witii the (jrgans
of generation at rest, iiave been found. In the other
forms of this group of the genus the length of the
head in the males is greater, in the females less, than
half the distance between the anal fin and the tip of
the snout. Our knoAvledge of Liicodes frif/idus does
not, therefore, jireclude the possibility that by this
specific name arc designated a number of sterile and
])erhaps hybrid individuals of one or other of tlie two
followii.g species. .\mong the fifteen more or less
adult individuals described by Collett all the younger
ones, with the exception of the youngest (118 mm.
long), are identical, according to the measurements giv-
en, in their most essential chai'acters with Lijcodes
Vahlii: but the older specimens (more than 3 dm, long)

I.VCoDolDS.

t;ii

willi L. H'li'iildlits'. It also si'CMiis IK) ea.sy task In \va\-, licar Island, ami Spii/.her.u'eii. ( 'oi,r,iCTi' ijivc'S a

(listiiigiiish from />. fiii/ldiis the sjX'cinifii ,')() ciu. hm<i list ol' a miinhcr of c-rustaccaiis and some ])arts of a

that (JuxTiiEii (1. ('., ]i. 77 and Plate X ill) has n't'erred ' cuttle-lish as havinii' heen found in the stomach of this

to the last-mentioned speeies. S])eei(.'S, and rennirks that se\'(!i'al of the hjrmer belonged

( )n the coast of Seaiidina\ ia oidv three specimens, ' to snch species as .L;'enerall\- live in the siu'face-i'eii'ioiis

all \<inn,L;', have been fonnd. At livsl two specinuMis. of ilii' open sea, lait ha\e thns Ikmii shown also to in-

resjiectiveh' .')7 and 62 mm. in lenLilh. were taken in habit the dee|)est abysses of the ocean. All the spe-
the month of June b\- the Norweiiian l-xpedition of
18S7, on the banks off liel.n-eland and Lofoden. at de|)ths
of .■).")(» and 4.i7 fathoms and on a cla\c\' bottom. A

tliii'd specimen, 1 4S mm. in leiiiith, which is referred The expedition kept some of them alive fof a time in

by the coloration to this species, but in otlief fespects I a vessel on boafd. These sjiecimeiis were extremely

entirely a.i:i'ees witli the yoiiiii;- of J.i/cikIcs ]'(ihlii, \v;is \ sluggish, preferring to li<^ still at the Ijottoin of the

taken in l(S8'.t by Dr. ('.\i;i, Auiiivii.T.ius, in between 10 vessel and in a bent position, like that usually assumed

and 40 fathoms of water, on a clayey l)ottom at Orsta by the I'^elpottt and the Sea-snails. When thrown

and Horsas in the inner i)art of (xullraar Fjord (Bohuslan). into alcohol, however, thej^ became extremely violent

The other kno\vn specimens have been found in ^fiO — j and pro\ed, like most bottom-fishes, to be extraordi-

l,oo;! fathoms of water, off the extreme north of Nor- i narily tenacious of life.

cimeiis taken by the Norwegian Expedition, except one,
were caiighi in ice-c<il(l water; and it was this circum-
stance that suggested to ('oi.i.i'/i'i' the name of y'/vy/iiV/^.^.

LYCODES EETICULATUS.

Kitis. 147 iiiid 148.

Colondiiiii ill till- t'ri/ more or less Uf/Iit. hniici/islt i/cUoir, iritli sclliftinii spots mi tin- fnnik miiJ tail (iiul a srufi-
form fi()U)x\ coi/t/dii/H// tini l///l/f, frontal spots, mi tlif tup of tlw Iicad, in older sjjeeimens oranye or paler, with
liflht or ereii irhite tnnisrerse hinids hetireen the darker ones mi the trniik and tail and light or even irhitc spots
on the top of the head, in the oldest speeimcns of a more undiversified i/rai/isli hrmni. irith the traces of the dark
fransrerse hands on the sides and also the head crossed bi/ a net/rork of hlaek' streaks. The coverimj of scales
appears at different ai/es and occupies different extents of the body, bat irheii complete extends over the e/reafer
part of the trunk and tail, and of the base of the dorsal fin, leaving the head, the belly, the base of the anal fin,
and the anterior jiait of the base nf tin- dorsal fin naked. One medio-lateral and one dorso-lateral line {both often
indistinct). Depth of the bod;/ id the bei/inninff of the anal fin about '.) — 14 % of its own length. Head depressed
ill front: its lem/th more than :i!> % (as a rule 42 — .3'S' %) of the length of the tail from the beginning of the

anal fin to the tip of the last fin-rags.

It. Or. ti; /). (80) 91—9.'); .4. (63) 70—78; P. (Kj) 19—2;!;
V. 4; Verl. 9.^—97 (= -23— 2.1 +,c).

Hi/n. Lijcodes refiiriUiitiis, Rhut, U. Vid. Selsli. Natiirv., Math. Afli.
Kbhvii, vol. 7, p. 1()7, tab. VI; Gthr, Cut. Brit. .IA».-:., Fhli.,

v(.I. IV. p. 320; Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsl;. Clirist. 1S78. No.
14. p. 59; Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Nalurli. For. Kbhvu 1879 —
1880, pp. 318 et 330; Gthr, Deep S,-a Fisli.. Cliall. Expe<l.,
part. Lyil (Zool., vol. XXII), p. 77. tab. XIU; Ltk.n, Dijiiiplina-
T..gt. Zool. Bot. Udb.. p. 1315, tab. XVII, figs. i—:,.

" -\n estimates of the averages, according to Collett's measiireinents of these .specin

giVL'S til.- folhiwi

e.sidt.s :

A V ,• 1- .1 - <• i n;

Length of the Length of the:
body v.ii ring liodv varying '
hctWeen 118 i between 270
and 238 mm. ' and 570 mm.

1) specimens 9 specimens.

I.en.Ktli ,.( llic hca.l in 'i nt llic ]en..-lli of llic I..Mly

Dcplli of llic liiiilv !it tlie lii-!!inniii!.' of llii- <icirs:il tin „ ., „ ., .,

Distiince lifivMi-ii tlic ilorsnl tin .ami llic tip «( tlic snout „ ,, „ „ ,,

.. vent ,

I.cngtli of tlic head in 'i of the ilisl:incp tictwccn the vent anil the tip of the Inst lin-rriys .__.

•-'•J- 24.S
llU 14.0
2."i.,i ;J0.2
:!9..^ 44..-.
;3,.ii 44.7

(512

SCA Nl )IX A \IA\ FISI I KS.

Lijcodes semintidus, RiinT, 1. c, p. 223; I/rKX. ViJ. Meddel.,
1. c, p. 325: Coll.. X. yorclh. Krj.ed.. Zoal., FiHe. p.
113, tab. IV, fig. 2«.

LycodeK perspicilbim, Kn.. Overs. \"\A. Selsk. Forli. Klilivn
1844, y. 140; Vui/. Scatid., Iaij>. t-ett. (Gaim.) tab. 7:
Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvn. ser. Ill, vol. I. p. 289.

Lycodes miicosus, Richards., LaH, Arc!.. Voy. (Belcher), v(d. 2,
p. 362, tab. XXVI; Bkan, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mu?., vol. I,
p. 465 (c/'?); Id., Bull. U. 8. Nat. Miis., No. 15, p. 112;
Smitt, Gt. Intern. Fisb. Exbib. London, 1883. Swed. C.ital.,
p. 17fi.

Lycodes Roxsi. Morn, Ufvers. Vet. Akiul. Fiirh. 1K(;4. p. 51 C.

liy llic Iviii.iilii Ij-iviiit i;x|i((litinii ;it ;i dejitli of (IdS
t';ithoius ill Farof Cliaimel; and as the other finds extend
all round the world in the extreme nortii. it is (luiic

Fig. 148.
in 18G1,

Lye
, Tn

dcf rcliadatni:, Rossii. twire tlie natnral size. Taken
iiroidierg Bay, Spitzberffen, at a depth of 5 fatlioms.

Lycodei, Turm-n. Bka.n, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. I, p. 463 j pi-yij^bJe that some similar find may once he made in
($?); ibid., vol. IV, p. 244 (Turnerit); Turner, Contrib. \ .. ,. . „,, . "

111^. I Scandinavian waters. Ihe species seems to he capable

of ascending fairly high towards the coast, for the Swed-

.V«/. ///,«/. Alaska.
No. 11. p. i)3. tab.

Ser. Publ. Sign. Serv. U

Fig. 147. Li/codes vrticidatiiK. Tnriicvri.

[if tlie natural size. From the enlraiice of Cliafanga Bay (lat.
24th Aug., 1878: Vega Expedition.

long. 113 :iO' E. Gr.),

Lycodes Liitkemi, Coll., N. Nordh. Kxped., Fi.olce, v. 103,

tab. Ill, fig. 25; Ltkn, Dijmpb.-Togt. Zool. Bet, Udb.. p.

128, tab. XVI.
? Lycodes pallidus. Ltkx, 1. c., y. 134, tab. XVII. figg. 1—3

(nee Coll.).
? Lycodes coccineus. Bean, Proe. U. S. Nat. Miis., vol. 4, p.

144 (= L. scmhmdtis).

From different regions in all parts of the Ai-ctic Ocean
a number of more or less diverging forms of this species
have been desci-ibed under different .specific names. On
the grounds already given, and if we take into account
the grent variations to wliich the luajoritA' <»f lhc specific
chai'acters hitherto adopfi'd iiri' demonstrabh- subject,
these fiirins may well lie cuniprised within one species,
even if it sliould prove in the future that some one
or other of them be constiint. Acctirdiug tn (iiN'riiEK
{Deep Sea Fishes, 1. c), one of these forms was found

ish Spitzbergen I'xpedition of ISfi] took a young
specimen 33 mm. long in .3 fathoms of water in Treu-
renberg Bay, and the Vega Expedition found their
specimen on a liottom of claj' mixed with stones, at a
dejrth of 1.") fathoiiLS in Chatanga Bay, where the bottoni-
tempernture, however, was — 0"8° Cels. (3(l'.T° Fahr.).
The numei-ous s]iecimens found by the Dijmphna Ex-
pedition in Kara Sea were taken at depths of 4(! — l()(i
fathoms. (_)ne of the two specimens which Kkover re-
ceived from (Greenland, and which wei'e taken with a
dredge by Captain Hobisoi.i,, was 1)7 nun. long nnd was
caught in 9(1 fatlioms of water, the other 40 mm. long
and caught in 3(i fathoms of water. Of the older spe-
cimens which ha\c come into the possession of Copen-
hagen Museum at different jteriods since the time of
liEiNHAHDr. KiaivE!! writes: "They are generally found

l,vrnl)i)ins.

61;^,

ill tliL' stoiiiMch 1)1' (irciMilaiHl Shiu-kv ' .■mil ollu-r tislics cuius. ,-m AnncrKl ilial li\cs in llu^ loose; hottoiii of the

tiiat li\c- at li'real di'iitlis. \\\' iiiav I'lMuafk, as an ex- sea. It sct'ins ]ir(ilial)lc that tiic larji'er s|)eciiiiL'ns —

ccption. that niw nf the spcciinciis was acc(iiii|ianit'(l l)\- for ihi; s])eci('s may attain a Icniitli of at least /)(i cm.

tlic int'oiaiiatioii lliai il hail hccii ran.yiit at the snrt'arc, — i)i u'encral li\e on lartrtM- |)n'y ami more sniistantial

where it liail heeii lonnil in an exluiusted state. It had I food. CoLLETP i'onnd in tiie stomaeh of his spoci-

[irohahlv Ik'imi ilri\cn up from the bottom hy some i men, a female .17 cm. lon,u', a jiartly digested Coftun-

aecident or oth(>r. The rontenis of the stomach of these vkIks iiiirraits 11 cm- in length and fragments of

specimens consisted chieH\' of ciaistaceans. In the gape smaller lish. the s])ecies of which conld not he deter-

of the larger of his spi'cimens Kkovek fonnd a Sijinii- mined.

LYiODMS \AliLII.
Figs. 1411 Mini l.">n.

('(ilonitioii, irhirli cjianfjes irifli iif/c essotthdhj us in the jircecdiiK/ spci irs, Jjioimtsli JiJack, irith the lii/ht tidiisrcrse
Ixniils crossed in the older speriiiieiis irith lilac/,' streaks and sjxifs or Hindi i/ disa/i/)eariiit/. The coreririff of scales
ran/iii(/ as in the jireeediiii/ sjiiuies, liift c.iieiidiiiff, irheii coiiijilete, for/rard orer the occiput {sometimes irith scnt-
tered scales on the forehead as irell), on the belli/ to the ventral fins, on the vertical fins out to their marf/in, and
orer a third of the inner sinfaee of the /lecforal fins. One mediolateral and one ventro-lateral line (hoth often
indistinct). Depth of the liodi/ al tin' liei/innim/ of the anal fin aliont <s\., — J'>\ s "'' "f ''■'' ""'" lenijtti. Head
convex even in front: its lenifh less than :','.) "o {as a rule SO — .-IS %) of that of the fail from the heninning

nf 111,' anal fin to the tip of the last fin-rai/s.

Fig. 149. Li/roile.t ViiliUi, Esmarkii, '3 of tlie uatm-al size. Takeu in Varaiiger Fjord on llie .30th of May, 1882.
Tlie properly of llie Museum of Cliristiania University.

R. bi: C: /). (;)(3) 100—118; .4. (82) 90—102: P. 18—23:
V. (3) 4 — .'.; V,rt. 112 — 118 (=2.3-2.0+)-)-
i>i/ii. /.i/cofles Vahlii, Rhpt, D. Vid. Selsk. Xatiirv. Math. .\fli., vol.

V, Overs, p. LXXV; Id., ibid., vol. VII. p. 1.5.3, tab. V;

Gthr, Cat. lint. .Vus.. Fi.sh., vol. IV. p. .319; EsJl., Slxand.

Xatiirf. M. Christ. 18G8, Forh.. p. .o24; Coi.L., Forli. Vid.

Selsk. Christ. 1878, No. 4, p. 11 el No. 14, p. .54; Ltkn.

Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For. Kbhvn 1879-80, pp. 311 et 329;

Bh. G. et Bk.\n, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 2, p. 209; Br.

GooDE, Fishei:, Fislier. ludustr. V. S., Sect. I, pi. 67.
Li/codes ;/racilis, Sabs, Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1866. p. 40,

tab. I, figg. 1 — 3; Coll., N. yordh. E.vped., Zoo!., Fiske,

p. 106.
l.ijcodes Esmarkii, Coll., Fnrh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874, Til-

K-cgsh., p. 95; Ltk.v, 1. i-., p. 316: Coll., .V. Novdh. E.rped.,

Zool., Fiskf. p. 84, tab. II, figg. 19—21, tab. Ill, fig. 22;

N. Mag. Naturv. Clirist., Bd. 29, p. 73; Lh.lj., .iV., i\onj.

Fi^k,ii: vol. II. p. 6; Gthh, Dfeji Si''i Fi.-ili.. Chall. Exped..

part. LVII (Zool.. vol. XXII), p. 77.
? r.ncodrs pallidn.-<. Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1878, No.

14, p. 70; y. Nordh. E.rped., Zool, Fiske, p. 110, tab.

Ill, figg. 26, 27.
? Lifcodes lugubris, Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For. Kbhvn

1879—80, pp. 315 ef 330.

The character that essentially distinguishes Es-
mark's Lijeodes — as this species has been called in re-
cent times — from L. retlculatus, lies in the greater
elongation of the tail. With this character is connected
the greater number of the \ertebra; and also, in general,
of the rays of the vei-tical tins. Here, as in the preced-
ing species, however, the latter mimber is difficult to fix

Lcemargus boreali.'t

614

SCANDINAVIAN riSIIKS.

witli cei-taiiit\ : mikI a laure tnistwortliy cNpressioii of
the fhiiractei' ina\- always he tuiiiul in the iirn|)(>rti(jii
between the length of the head and that of the tail.
In its adult state this speeies is also hetter e(|uipi)ed
with scales, though the variations seem to he (piite as
great as in the preceding species. On the grounds
given above, and as constant characters of form are an
indispensable condition of systematic clearness, we eoiu-
bine under one speciiic name the two forms, Lycodcs
I'dhlii and /.. Es)iiarl,li. which have recently been
distinguisiied on account of the difference in the den-
tition as stated by LCtken.

In form the body resembles that of the Eelpout,
with the characteristics common to all the Lycodcs.
The head, which with its flat under surface presents in
the adult fishes the form of a cone longitudinally bi-
sected and somewhat obtuse at the tip, generally mea-
sures in young specimens and in the females rather less,
in the males rather more, than 22 % of the length of
the body, var3'ing in this manner l)etweeii IS'/, and
23'; J % thereof. The oidy noteworthy irreguliirity in its
conical shape is formed by the more or less tumid
cheeks (the masticatory muscles). In young specimens
the large muciferous cavities along the upjier and lower
jaws are especially distinct, generall}" in the form of
hollow depressions; but in the older specimens these
depressions disajjpear. < )n each side of the snout, at
about the middle of its depth and nearer to the ti[) of
the snout than to the eye, lies a single tubular nostril.
The eye is oblong and not very sharply marked off from
the surrounding skin, Avhich coalesces with the trans-
parent cornea. The length of the eye varies between
about 7 % (in tlie fV)') and 2 % of that of the body
(the latter proportion in the most developed indi%iduals).
Its position is such that in the fry the postorbital length
of tlie head measures about 44 % of its entire length,
in adult si)ecimens about 5.") % thereof, with all the
variations Iving between these two ])erceiitagcs. The
sides of the occiput end each in an obtuseh' pointed
and triangular, opercular fla]), \vhich in old s])eciiuens
lies a little above and liehind the uj^per end of the root
of the pectcjral tin and sometimes measures at the ujiper, !
free margin nearly half the length of the remainder of |
the postorbital part. The lower angle of the gill-opening i
lies on ii level with the lower angle of the pectoral fin I
and in a line with the preo])erculum, the l>rcadth of ,

" According to GooDic and Bean (1. c.) Ujc- Ic-nstli of llic lowi
ill a male C>a2 mm. Ion? 10' o % tliereof.

the isthmus l)et\veen the two gill-openings being about
e(|Uid to the length of the nose between the nostril and
the eve. The length of the loAver jaw varies, according
to our measurements, between about 10 and 11'. '-i. of
that of the bod\", and is generally somewhat less than
in the preceding species. The cleft of the mouth is
horizontal; it extends in voung specimens hardly aiiv
distance, if at all,' behind the perpendicular from the
anterior mai'gin of the eye, but in old specimens di-
stinctly beyond this line. In old specimens the hind
extremity of the maxillary Ijones lies in a line with tlie
posterior part of the e\e, the distance between the tip
of the snout and this exti'emity measuring in the fry
about 7 'i of the length of the body, in old specimens
u\} to at least II '/g % thereof. This elongation of the
labial ])arts involves a more adviuiced de\elopment of the
teeth. The teeth in the jaws and on tlie ])alate are strong,
almost cylindrical, more less curved, and rather scattered.
Thev are largest in the anterior ])art of the interratixil-
lary bones and of the lower jaw, and are here set in
old specimens in three or even four rows, in young in
only two, the number of the rows decreasing behind
until at last there is onh" one row or sometimes, in
the lower jaw, t\vo. The foremost teeth in the jaws
are directed straight ftu'ward. The i-ows of intermaxil-
lary teeth do not extend further back, even in old spe-
cimens, than to about a line with the middle of the
snout, while in the lower jaw the rows extend beyond
the corners of the mouth, (hi the other hand, the fore-
most intermaxillary teeth are set under the projecting
part of the snout, in front of the tip of the lower jaw.
On the head of tlie \oiner we find from 5 to 8 teeth
of more conical form, arranged transversely in a trian-
gular group. On the palatine bones, according to Col-
Lic'iT, Lycodcs Esmarkii always has '• — 11 teeth in a
single or irregularly double i-ow: Avhile in L. ]'(ililii.
according to Lltken, these Ijones are set with 11 — 14
teeth in the fenudes and with somewiiat fewer than 20
in the males, alwavs in a double ro^\•. Such is the
tenour of the proposed s]iecific distinction, or in other
words: "The row of |)alatine teetii is never longer thtin
the intermaxillary row, littt in most cases (especially in
adult specimens) considerably shorter, sometimes sctircely
half as long" (Coll., of Lycodcs Esmarkii), and: "The
row of ptilatine teetli is generallv longer than the in-
termaxillarv row, at least onh' sliiihtly, if at all, shorter

jaw in a female 540 mm. long was 9'.

of that of the bodv and

I.VCODillDS.

615

tliMii it" (Li'TK., (if Ljiiodi's Viihlii). In llic lirsl ])lace,
lio\vc\cr, lliis cliaraoter is subject, according to CoLLETf's
iiieasureiiicnts. to cotisiderahlc variations — e\'cii in the
same si>eciuR'n, a male HS cm. long, wliicli has been
kindh' lent nu' for examination h\- Professor Coi.lictt,
the row ol' palatine (ceth on iiiie side differs from tiiat
on the otiier, the fight containing 8 teeth, the left 12.
in tiie second place, we haxc hei-e to deal with a sexual
ch;iraeter, as both Ia'TKKN and Collictt have pointed
out: the males in general have longer rows of teeth
than the females, both on the intermaxillaries and on the
palatine bones. Thus, when we remend)ei' that in Iji-
cndes Esmtirlcii the four rows of teeth, or at least three
of them, according to Coi. Lett's measurements (Nordh.
Exped., 1. c, p. 90), \w\\ be e(|ual in lengtli to each
other even in specimens ;> dm. long, the character can
scarcely be regarded as a universally valid distinction
bet^^"een the \v;o jiroposed species.

The body, which just behind the head is terete,
about as l)rond as deep, is gradually compressed later-

Fig. 150. Lycoihs Valdii, gracilis, twice flic niitiiral size. Talien

,it Driibak in 1866 by M. Saks. The [.rcperty of the Zoological

Mnseuni (pf Christinnia University.

ally from this point. The depth at the lieginning of
the anal fin is lU — 13'/, % of the length of the body
in old specimens, but only about 8' 3 % thereof in the
fry, assuming tiiat we are right in referring to this
species, the fry of which are otherwise unknown, the
Li/codef! (/racilis of M. Sars (fig. 150). The type-spe-
cimeti of this pi'oposed species has been placed at our
disi)osal for purposes of examination by the kindness of
Professor Collett. In all essential characters of form
the relation of this s])ecimen to Lycodes persplciUtim and
L. Rossi — the assumed fry of the preceding species —
is tlie same as that of L/irodes Vnlilli to L. reficiihifiis
ill their adult state. The distance between the dorsal
fin and the tip of the snout is 23 %", the distance be-
tween the anal fin and the latter some^vhat more than
38 %\ and the length of the tail 61 96' of the length
ot tl;e body. The length of tln' head is only 34 %''
of that of the tail.

In this species as in the; |)receding one, the pectoral
iiiis are broad and rounded, tiie membrane being espe-
cialh' thick below, 'fheir length from tlu; upper angle
of the insertion varies between al)out 14 and 12Vs %
of that of tlie body. The ventral fins are set just behind
tin' line bctwc^en the lower angles of the gill-openings,
iuid so near each other tliat the distance between them
is scarcely (Mjual to tliv lii-eadth oi' their base. They
are of an oblong, triangidar shape, and their length in
the male is about ecjual to the longitudinal diameter of
the eyes, in the female, according to LiLL.iEnoRt;, onl)-
■^3 thereof. The skin is so tliick tiiat it is difficult to
count the rays witliout dissection: Bkowx-Goode and
Beax state the numlier at 3", Reinhahdt and Coi.lett
at 4, LiLLJEBOKG at 5.

The vertical fins ai-e of fairly uniform height, but
ascend anteriorly in a rounded slope and coalesce behind
into a siia.rp (in young specimens) or rather obtuse (in
older ones) point. The anal fin is somewhat lower than
the dorsal, and its length abotit ^ 5 of that of the lattei-.
The longest rays of the dorsal fin, wdiich ai-e situated
above the anterior part of the anal fin, measure about
half the depth of the body at the beginning of the latter.
In the dorsal fin, according to Reinuardt, only the first
ray is sim])le, \vith the exception of the raj's tliat occupy
the extreme tip of the tail; in the anal fin, according
to LiLL.JEROKG, the fii'st thi'ee rays are simple.

The scales resemble those of the Eelpout in form
and structure. The}' are thin, flexible, and in general
elliptical, with extremely thin, central nucleus of the
same form and dense, fine, concentric striaj (ridges),
which are prettily broken by numerous, straight, radiat-
ing grooves over the whole surface. When they are
allowed to dry undei- the thin skin that covers them,
we therefore see, in old specimens, small, fine notches
all round the margin of each scale, the traces of the
ends of tlie grooves at the edge. The scales of the
lateral line are more circular, with the nucleus thickened
and with a canaliculate duct, contracted and almost
closed at the middle liy the growth of the margins
towards each other. Scales of this structure appear even
where the lateral line is externally invisible. The longest
axis of the scale generally lies transversely across the
bodv. In a male 58 cm. Ions' one of the largest scales

" In L. perspidthim and L. Iiossi 26' , — 29 ">.

» „ „ „ , 43V3— 46 %.

c 55' 53 ^i.

'' ,. .. „ 46—40 %.

' S.\RS found the same numlier in his Lycodes gracih

616

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

is o mm. long (flee])) and 2 mm. Ki-oad, one Dt'lhc st-iles

of the lower lateral line 2' ., mm. <lee|) and '2 mm. hroad.

The internal oi'gans, wliirli ai-c described at

lenifth 1)V KioiNiiAUDT, rcsemlile those of tiie Kel-

skin that cf)vers tiiem. Such is tlie a])])earance of tiie
Hsh, accoi'diiig to ("oi.lktt, until it attains a length of
about 4 dm. The l)]ack ground-colour now liegins to
I'licrijacli upon the trans\crse l)auds of whitish yellow,

pout in all essential respects, only that liere the stomach which are thus broken up, on the dorsal tin into narrow
is somewhat longer. The peritoneum, as well as the ] stripes, on the back into confluent, ocellated spots, and
pharynx and palate, is black, in the ])i-eceding species j often joined in pairs in tiieir lower parts .so as to form

it is white. Tiie abdominal cavity occupies ' -, of the
length of the li(xly, and the length of the intestine is
Vs of the latter, 'i'lie pyloric ajipcndagcs of this spe-
cies are very rudimentar\'. in the |irccediug species
they are about as large as in tiie Eelp(nit. The testes,

garland-like tigui'es. In the same way the occipital spots
ma.}' be gatiiered into a tran.sverse band bet\veen the
gill-openings. J^i/rodcfi VahJii, it is said, may tinalh'
assume an almost plain, brownish black tint.

EsMAKKs Li/rnrles seems to be fairlv common in the

are, as usual, two, but the ovjiry is sim])le. In adult \ deep water off the extreme north of Norway, where its

females the ripe eggs are as large as those of the Sal- I presence was first discovered in 1864 by Esmark. Col-

mon, according to Collett, or about (i mm. in diameter, letf enumerates 22 large s|>ecimens, between 58 and

but comparatively few in number, "hardly more tlian 70' , cm. long, as having lieeu taken in recent times,

1,200 in each individual." The spawning-season occurs, principally during the years 1881 — 83, in most cases

according to the same wi-iter, probal)ly during tiie first ' on long-lines in Varanger Fjord and at depths of about

months of spring. In the intestine Keinuaudt found ' 100 — 2.50 fathoms. The species has also been found by

entire shells of digested mussels, Collett crushed sea- the Norwegian Arctic l']xpedition in 260 — 459 fathoms

urchins, starfish, and sea-anemones, as well as frag- ! (jf water, west of tlie nortlu'i'u part of Spitzbergen, and

ments of worms and crustaceans. at a depth of .j.'jO fathoms off Bodo. GrxinEH states

When this species has passed through the early sta- i that it lias lieen met ^vith in Faroe Channel; and the

ges of growth, it is of a dee]) brownish black, with from i small specimen from Drobaksund in Christiania Fjord,

5 to 8 whitish yellow, transverse bands across the dorsal that was taken in 1866 l)y M. Sars in 50 or 60 fatlionis

fin and down the sides, the posterior bands extending j of water, in all probability belongs to this species.

farthest do'wn, and the hindmost ones of all advancing
even over the anal fiiL Two spots of the same light
colour as the transvei'se liands are .set beside each other
on the occiput, just as in th(> preceding species. The
head is grayish brown, with the opercular flaj) sha-diug
into black. The white scales shine through the thin

Brown-Goode and Bean liave descril)ed it from La
Have Bank (42° 43' N. iat.) and the Grand Banks on
the east coast of North America. Keinhakdt's tA'pe-
specimens were from Greerdand. It is tlius an Arctic
deep-sea fish with a fairh' extensive range to the
south.

LYCODES SARSII.
Fig. 151.

Coloration grayish Jiroint, irith rrf/iihir, hroiDiish hhtd;. frdiisrcrse sjwfs on flie hark (did the upper half of the sidef
and also lower doivn on the hind part of the tail. A hiarkish hroiri/, loi/(/ifi(diii(d baitd fonrord along the snnnt
from each of the eyes. Scales scattered, and e.rfending from the dcciput along the dorsal side to the hegimiing of
the last third of the tail. Depth of the body of the hegimiing of the anal fn uhoai (> or 7 % of its oini length.
Tip of the tail blunt. Length of the head more than ^2 % (^-5 — 2i') ">>) of the length of the fail from the
heqinmnq of the anal fin to the tip of flic last fin raip^

Fig. 1.51. Li/codi's ■Sar.iii, t
200 ftliiiis

ti u t nl s 7e T 1 en ofE Be
lie 1 J (t O Sar 11 1 r 1

R. br. 5; /'. 15— 1(5; V. •> (V).
St/H. Lycodes ^arsii. Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. ChrisL 1871, p. 62; ibid.
1874, Tilljegsli., p. 102; i\. Nordli. Kxped., Zool., Fishe, p.

I Ironlli Fjo d n tl t ilst f August, 1882, in betweci. 80 aiiH
f 11 Z 1 g cnl \1 sein f CI iibtiania University.

117; N. Mag. Naturv. Christ., Bd. 29 (1884), p. 78, tub. I, figg.
3—4; Lh.u., Sl'.. Nunj. F/.-7i.. vol. II, p. 23; GTm. Deep
Sea Fuh., Cliall. Exped., part. LVII. (Zool., vol. XXII), p. 80.

I.YCODDins.

fil7

AnijitiUa heneri. Gtimi, Ami., "SUi^. Xi.l. Ui^t.. scr. W . vul.
XIII, (1874), p. I. -ill: 1>AY (Zoaixes), Vtw. Zt.ol. Soc'. Loud.
1882. |i. r,w.

Li/codes Sarsii \\(nil(i .seein to lie the siiiMllcst Scaii-
(lin;nian species of tlic genus, fur the hirgest speciiiieii
among tliose found hy Saks in Xorwav was oiih' (i2
nun. long, and the specimen described I)y (iC n ini:ii IVum
rlic Forciipinc Expedition measured H'y mm. .\s yet.
liowever, it ma\' he doulitfnl whether tiie s|iefies is
really distinct from J.i/radcs Vcnillii, whii'h has been
described bv Buowx-(i(MiiM.: ;ind 1)K.\n" from the deep
water off Nova Scotia and New England, and which
attains a length of at least 18 cm. According to Cor.-
i.KTr, however, the latter foi'm is distinguished b\' the
extension of the scaly covering over the lower part of
the bod\- as well, the collection of the spots into more
regular transverse bands across the sides, the pointed
tail, and the stronger teeth, peculiarities all of which, as
we have seen in the preceding forms of the genus, maj'
appear as differences dependent on age and se.x.

The slender, Anguilliform body distinguishes />//-
(■<i(les Saisii from the preceding forms of the genus.
The greatest depth of the bodv, just behind the head,
is about '/i2 (8'4 — 8'1 %), and its depth at the begin-
ning of the anal tin ' j- <ir \ ^^; (about (3' , %) of its
length. Its lireadth in front is ecpial to. behind only
slightly less than its depth, the terete shape being dis-
tinctly pensistent back to the hindmost part of tiie tail.
The length of the head is about ' j; (l(i or 17 %) of
that of the body. It is of a rounded quadrilatei-al, pa-
rallelopiped form, reminding us of the head of the
common snake, with comparativeh' short and roundish
snout. In a specimen 62 mm. long the length of the
eye is ' ,„, and that of the postorbital part a little

more than ' ^, of the length <>!' tiie head. The large
niuciferous cayities along the u]jper and lower jaws —
the row of the latter being continued back to the inferior
corner of the preopei-culum — suggest that in this spe-
cimen the characters of \'outh have been persistent,
'i'lie beginning of the dor.sal fm lies at the end of tiie
first (piarter of the body, that of the anal tin just in
front of the enti of its llrst thii'd, the length of the tail
thus measuring not (|uite 70 "„ of that of tlie l)od\-.
The length of the pectoral tins is about equal to the
postorbital length of the liead: these fins are blackish
brown at the upper margin. The ventral tins are co-
nical and of about the same IcTigth as the eye. They are
set in front of the line between the lower angles of the
gill-openings. Without dissection it is difficult to de-
termine the luimber of their rays; but they seem to
contain at least three rays each.

Ljiaxles Sarsii was discovered in 18(11) bv Proi'.
(t. (). Sars, and was described in 1871 by Collett
from a young specimen 43 mm. long, taken at a depth
of between 100 and 150 fathoms in Hardanger Fjord.
In 1882 Saks again met ^v\t\\ the species during his
dredging operations at a depth of between 80 and 200
fathoms off Beiaii outside Trondhjem Fjord, where he
took three specimens between 57 and 62 mm. long.
During the Porcupine Expedition of 1869 Wyvillk-
Tiio.Mi'.sdN took a specimen 85 mm. long "in the North
Atlantic at a depth of 180 fathoms." Whether it is
identical in species with Lycodes VerriUii, a form quite
common, according to Brown-Goode and Bean, on
the east coast of North America, may still remain an
open question. In any case it is up to the present
one of the rarest forms in the Scandinavian fauna.

LYCODES MTR.EXA.

Fig. 152.

Body 2}l(ii>i yrayisli hroicii. Sralef: sraffercd and inrgidarly disfiihidcd, bitf extendiuy, irlirti complete, over the
irhole body except the head and _ftns. Depth of the body at the beginiiiny of the anal fin about 4 % of its oivn
leiiyth. Tall pointed. Leiiyth of the head less than :21 % (/.'>' ., — 16 ?i) of that of the tail from the heyinning

of the anal fin to the fiji of the last fin-rays.

R. br. 5; D. 101 — 118: ^1.

-103: P. 13—17: V. 3 (?).

II. p. 2.i: Gtur, 1-hep Sim Fish.. Clialleng. Exped.. part.
j LVII (Zool.. vol. X.XII), p. 7'.), tab. XII. tig. .1.

i>;/it. Lycodes murcena, Coll., Forli. Viil. Selsli. t'lirist. 1878, No. 4,
p. 15 et No. 14, p. 74: N. Nonth. E.vped., Zool., Fislce,
p. 116, tab. IV, Hgg. 29 — 31; Uhu.. Hv., Norg. Fisk., vol. \ ceding one, the caudal part being prolonged to such

° Amer. .Journ. Sc, ArLs. vol. XVI (1877) p. 474: Bull. Ess. Inst., vol. XI (1870) p. 9: Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 3 (1880), p. 477.

This species is still more elongated than the pre-

618

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIKS.

Mil exteni tliat the distance between tlie iinal iiu and
the ti|) (»!' the snout is only about 28 % of the length
of tlic body. The form of the body is otherwise the
same, almost terete throughout, evenly tapering Ijack
from the occiput, and with no distinct lateral compres-
sion before the end of the tail, .\ccording to Collktt,
the depth at the beginning of the dorsal fin is 4^2 —
.") %. and at the beginning of the anal fin 3 — 4 % of
the length of the liody. The head is more dej^ressed
and broader, with longer snout, than in the preceding
species: its length is 14 — 12 % of that of the body.
Half of its length is occupied by the postorbital part;
and in a specimen i dm. long the eye occupies ',5 (in
vounger specimens nearly ' ,) of the length of the head.

to thai of the eve. The same remark ap])lies to the
number of their rays as in the preceding species.
Sometimes, according to Collett, we ma}- trace two
lateral lines, one ventral and one median, though the
pores in the latter are rather scattered.

<_)f L)jv()dcs miirteiui as of L. Sarsii onh' four s[)e-
cimcms are yet known in the North, and only one of
these can lay claim to a place within the Scandinavian
fauna. This specimen was found by the Norwegian
Arctic Expedition in June, 1877, at a depth of 350
fathoms off Helgelaiid. In 1878 the same expedition
took two specimens in 4.")!) fathoms of water, west
of the northern part of Spitzbergen, and one spe-
cimen in 658 fathoms, west of Bear Island. In Faroe

Fig. 1.52. Li/codes mvrccna, natural size, from Uie Norwegian .Arctic Expedilion. Tlie property of the Mnsenni of Cljristiania University.

Even in specimens 2 dm. long the rauciferous cavities
along the jaws and the lower margin of the preoper-
cidum are as distinct as in the preceding sjiccies. The
dorsal fin begins further forward tlian in the preceding
species, the distance between it and the tip of the snout
being at most about ^1^ (less than 21 %) of the length
of the body or ^/j (in the preceding species at. least ''4)
of the distance between the anal fin and the tip of the
snout, which distance here measures about 26 — 28 '^"
of the length of the body. The pectoral fins are ob-
tusely rounded, and their length is about 9 — 8V3 % of
that of the l)od)-. The ventral fins are of the same
form and position as in the preceding species, and their
length too, in a specimen 2 dm. long, is ai)ont etjual

Channel, however, the English Kiii(/Jtf-Erraid Expe-
dition of 1882 took several examples of this spe-
cies at depths of between 540 and 608 fathoms. Li/co-
des murcOHt thus seems to be one of those Arctic species
which in deeji water have a range extending to the
south through the cold layers of the ocean. Its manner
of life is otherwise unknown, Init in all probability
resembles that of the other bott()m-fishes, among which
it passes its time resting on the cold clay or buried
in its shelter. In the stomach Collett has found frag-
ments of crustaceans {Themhto and X(nnioiiif:riifi).

The largest specimens known measure nearly 23
cm. (9 in.), according to Glnther.

PHYSOCLYSTI PLECTO&MTHL

I'h)/sodj/sts ill irhirli tlie iiifcrmcuillari/ bonefi arc usiiallij ^/iniil/i nnifcd to the nia.iitliiries, mid in ichicli the dentid,

and nrtienJnr puiis of the lower jaw are also more or less perfectly confluent. Branchial arches enn/jiJete. and

their lameUce pectinated. No externalh/ visible interclaricles.

We now ap])roach those groups among the Phy-
soclysts that, each in its own manner, remind us in a
higher degree than the fishes we have already examined,
of the piscine types of primeval times, the Ganoids.

" According lo GUnther's figure (I. 0.) SO %.

(_)ne universal feature that strikes us in the folIoAving
Physoclysts, is the marked ossification of the dermal
system as opposed to the weaker ossification of the
endoskeleton. Those ))arts of the endoskeleton that

l'l,i:( TOCiNA'l'ES.

619

linve iiria'iiially started tV((iii the (loriual s\st(_'iu, as tor
i'\aiiii)k' tlie clavicles, here in many cases iiave the
character nf Ganoid scaly or scutate growths in the
sl<in. This l'airi\ iironiiiient touch of resemblance to
the (lanoids has induced scientists long to retain the
majority of the t'oilowing I'Insoclvsts among tiie lowest,
least modern Teleosts, though the characters I)y which
lioth the Plectognates and the LophnJirnitchU have been
distinguished ever since the time of Cuviku, are evi-
dently later modifications (higher metamorphosic degrees)
of the 'i'cieostean ty])e.

riie Plectognates compose an order fairly rich in
forms, varying both in the form of the body and, still
more, in th(! texture of its covering. Some of them,
most of tJK^ Balistoids, are of a fairly regular piscine
form, others of a polygonal form, which has given them
the name of Coffer-tishes, others again, the Gymnodonts,
of an elongated saccate or globular foi'm. Some have

bilid at the top and united to tiie etiuuoid hone by
ligaments. But in other cases, as in tlie geiuis 'I'ctrodon,
it resembles the pterygoid bone in form and is firmly
united to the lower surface of the ethmoid bone. Both
the palatine bones and the vomer are toothless; and the
piiai-yngeals, which are tree, may, it is true, })e armed
with teeth, as in the Balistoids and Tetrodonts, but may
also be destitute of teeth, as in the Coft'er-fishes. The
shoulder-girdle is generally well-developecL The post-
temporal bone is indeed insignificant, lieing confluent
with the mastoid b(jiie, and the supraclavicular bone
shows scarcely anything unusual in its development; but
the clavicular bone proper, though sometimes of ordi-
narj' form, may extend so far in\vards in some of the
Plectognates, as in the Coffer-fisiies, tiiat tlie bone of
one side is contiguous to that of the other throughout
the depth of the median ])lane of the abdominal cavity,
thus forming a kind of diaphragm of bone with only a

hard, granulated scales, densely imiiricated, juxtaposed [ round, more or less tuliular hole in the middle for the

to each other like a mosaic, or firmly united to a ca-
rapace that may cover the greater part of the body,
oliiers small, spiny scales or, in their stead, loose, mo-
bile spines, sometimes of considerable size, which are
erected in self-defence. All the Plectognates have a
comparatively small, but well-armed mouth, with strong,
hut few teeth, the strength of which is increased by
tlie firm support afforded them by the coalescence and
reduction of the component ]iarts of the jaws. The
short jaw bones form the tip of the facial part of the
head, which part is generallj' considerably elongated
and also deejjened. This elongation chiefly affects the
ethmoid bone, the extent of which on the upper sui'face
of the cranium may rival that of the frontal l)ones, and
the parasphenoid bone (the sphenoid bone of fishes),
hut is accompanied by the elongation of the preoper-
culum and interoperculum". The last-mentioned bone
has a narrow, terete shaft, which extends from the hind
inferior angle of the lower jaw along the inside of the
lower anterior prong of the preoperculutn, just as the
latter extends hack from the otiter surface of the pro-
cess with which the lower jaw articulates, on the qua-
drate l)one. The deepening of the facial part depends
chiefly on the great vertical extension of the parasphe-
noid bone and the pterygoid arch. Sometimes, it is
true, as in the Balistoids, the palatine bone on each side
may be a small, terete, and more or less mobile bone,

passage of the cesophagus. The shoulder-girdle of the
Coft'er-fishes is still further extended, below the coracoid
bones, by a pair of large 'interclavicles,' of which in the
prciceding fishes we have found scarcely a trace, but
which we shall again meet in the Sticklebacks in the form
of Ganoid plates. In BaUstes the clavicle extends so
high u]) that with its ujjper extremity it touches the
cranium, at the styloid bone, just within and under the
articular surface of the supraclavicular bone.

In Aktedi the Plectognates formed the framework
of the order which he called BrancMostegi (i. e. ivitk
hidden gills, a reference to the narrow gill-openings just
above or in front of the insertions of the pectoral fins);
and the principal character of the order, according to
its foitnder, lay in the absence of special branchiostegal
membranes. In general, however, the exact opposite is
the case; the opercular apparatus is by no means im-
perfect in these fishes. The operculum and suboper-
culum are small, it is true, in the Balistoids and Coffer-
fishes, but of normal size in the Tetrodonts. The ad-
vanced development of the preoperculum has been
mentioned above. The hyoid arches, to which the
branchiostegal membranes with their 4'' — 6 ra\s are
attached, have gained in breadth what they have lost
in length; and in most cases one of the rays in each
membrane, usually the innermost, is considerably stronger
than the others, sometimes, as in Tefrodon, several times

This elongation and deejicning is most marked in the Scleroderins (see l)clow); in the Gymnodonts it is less prominent.
Sometimes 3, accordina: to Blkekeu.

620

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIICS.

as broad and cxininded like ;i wiiii:. I>iir the hi aiicliio-
stegal lueinbranes ai-c entirely hidden under the eoininon
dermal covering, so that tlie Arlediaii character of the
order iiolds good as an external one. The pelvic hones
are genei'aliy wanting, hut soinetiines ])resetit, as in tiie
Balistoids, in which case they are united into a large,
scythe-shaped hone, inf'eriorly hounding and supporting
the abdominal ca\ it\-, even when the pectoral fins have
disappeared or have been reduced to a spiny, osseous
])rojection at the hind extremity of this bone. The
remaiiid(!r of the skeleton is marked not only I))" its
weak ossification, l)ut als(j by the small number of the
vertebra', which may sometimes (in the Coffer-fishes)
sink to 14 and never exceeds 30. Sometimes, as in the
Tetrodonts, the upper spinous processes (neural spines)
of the first o or 6 vertebra are longitudinally cleft in
two, with the halves laterally extended. Ribs are want-
ing in most cases, but present in the Balistoids. As
the caudal fin is frequently of extraordinary size — though
with few, less than 13, branched rays — , its insertion
in the skeleton has also undergone proportionate increase
in strength and firmness, i)artly by means of large
h)-pural bones, which are firmly united in the Coft'er-

])osttemporal and mastoid bones, and the same length
of the pelvic bones, which in the Acanthuroids, however,
are not confluent. Set side Ijy side with the skeleton of
an AcfiiifliKiKs the skeleton of a liallstes seems at tlie
first glance to claim a position within the same famih'.
The systematic separation between tiie Plectognates and
the other Physsoclysts is thus by no means too great to
admit of their lieing ranged side by side with each other.
.\bout 200 species of Plectognates are known. The
greatest wealth of forms belongs to the tropical seas;
but one or t^vo species penetrate into rivers, or even
pass their Avhole life there. To man these fishes are of
only slight \alue. Their flesh is in general not eaten',
and many of them are even poisonous. They attract
attention, however, both by their extraordinary form
and often by their beauty of colour, as well as by their
singular maimer of life, ^lost of them are shore-fishes,
but some belong to the surface-regions of the ocean;
they do not include any deep-sea forms of pronounced
character, although two species have been met with
below the 100-fathoms line'. Most of them are ren-
dered incapal)le of anv \igorous motion by their hard
and stiff dermal covering or by their clumsy form.

fishes into a compressed tip, hard as ivory, partly by | By the small size of the gape most of them are com-

high and longitudinally extended, neural and haemal
spines on the last caudal vertebrte. Sometimes however,
as in the Sunfishes, the caudal fin is a secondary growth
and finds an extremely feeble suji^iort in the more or
less atrophied tip of the tail.

In spite of tlie considerable differences that occur
both in the form and covering and also in the internal
structure, the Plectognates together form a natural group,
Avith persistent traces of the Ganoid type, which give
them an appearance unusual in the fauna of our day.
The nearest apjiroach to the ])receding forms we find,
as Cope has already pointed out", in a comparison Ije-
tween the Balistoids (especially the genus Trincantlius,
with its free maxillaries) and the Leather-fishes (Acan-
thuridce, a family within the lomjirehensive series of
Mackerel-fishes), with the same form of body, the same
elongation and deepening of the forepart of the head
and shortening of the jawbones, the same union of the

pelled to find subsistence in small animals or in pieces
torn from larger ones. Their food consists chiefly of
corallines, jellv-flshes, worms, or mollusks. The lively
colours that adorn many of them are reminiscences of
their life in the coral-groves, where they associate with
scaly-finned Cluvtodonts of no less varied hues, or among
the seaweeds with their shifting colours. The species of
])lainer dress resemble the sand in colour, or are attired
for a life in the open sea.. Their powerful teeth may
well serve to ]irotect them from attack, but as a rule
they have ([uite otlier weapons of defence. MauA' of
them have been famed from ancient times for their
faculty of filling the oesophagus, which is capable of
extraordinary distension, with air. In this manner the
bod}' is expanded, sometimes to a perfect globe, and
the dermal spines are erected in all directions into a
front of pointed spikes. "One day," wrote Darwin from
Bahia in 1832'', "I was amused by watching the habits

° Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, Philad., vol. XIV, n. ser., p. 458.

' According to Sohlegei. (Sike., Fn. Japan.), Lowever, several of these fishes are eaten by the Japanese: one Tetrodon is even stated
to compose the principal food of the poorer classes (luring winter, while the fisherman is forbidden, under pain of heavy penalties, to expose
for sale other species of the same genus.

' Bofli these finds, however (see GOnther, Deep Hea Fi.ih. Chall. En-peel., p. 26(i). "lav liave entered the (rnwl while it was being-
sunk or hauled in.

■* A Natiifali.<i)' Voi/nge (London, ed. 1884) p. l.T.

I'l.KCTOGNATKS.

(121

ol' I lie I>i(iiliiii (Clii/dDn/ctenis) (ii/trint(ihis, wliicli was
i.iu^ht swiiiiiiiiiig lU'ar tho shore. Tliis tish is well
kiKiwn to possess the singular power of (listeiuliiig itself
inlii a iieai'l\ spherical form. Alter iiaNiiiii' been taken
out of watei' for a siiort time, and then again ininierse<l
ill it. a eonsiderable ipiantity liotii of water and air is
ahs(irl)ed hy the nioiitii, and perhaps likewise by the
branehial oriliees. This process is effected by two meth-
ods; the air is swallowed, and is then fui'ced into tli(> I
cavit\- of the body, its return being prevented by a
niusciilar contraction which is I'xternajly visible; but
ihe water, I iibserved, enters in a gentle stream through
the niiiiitli, which is kept wide open and inotioidess:
this latter action nuist. therefore, depend on suction.
The skin about the abdomen is nuieh looser than that
(III the back; hence during the inflation, the lower sur-
face becomes far more distended than the iijiper; and
the fish, in conse(|uence, floats with its back downwards.
("r\ii;i; doulits whether the Dliuhni in this position, is
able to swim; but not onl\' can it thus move forward
in a straight line, but it can turn round to either side.
This latter movement is effected solely by the aid of
the ))ectorul tins, the tail being collapsed, and not used,
from the bod\ being buoyed U|) with so much air, the
branchial i)]ienings were out of water; but a stream
drawn in b\- the mouth constanth' Hows through them.

"The tish, having remained in this distended state
fill- a short time, generally expelled the air and water
with considerable force from the branchial apertures and
imiiiTh. It could emit, al will, a certain portion of the
water; and it a])]iears. therefore, probable that this
fluid is taken in parth- for the s.-ike of regulating its
specific gravity.

"This Diodoii |)ossessed several means of defence.
It could give a severe bite, and could eject watei' from
its month to some distance, at the same time making a
curious noise bv the movement of it^ jaws. ISv the
inflation of its body, the papilhe. with ^\•hich the skin
is covered, become erect and pointed. But the most
(•nrious circumstance is, that it secretes from the skin
of its belly, when handled, a most beautiful carmine-red
fibrous matter, which stains ivory and paper in so per-
iiiaiieiit a manner, that the tint is retaine<l with all its
lirighiiiess to the jiresent da^'. I am (piite ignorant of
the nature and use of tliis secretion. I have heard

from Dr. Allan of f'orres, that he has fre(|uentl\' I'ouikI
a Diodon, floating alive and distended, in the stomach
of the Shai-k; and that on several occasions he has known
it eat its wa\-, not oiil\- through the coats of the sto-
mach, but througli the sides of the monster, whicli has
thus been killed. Who w<iuld ever ha\e imagined that
a little soft tish could liaxc destroved tiie great and
savage Shark?"

The power here mentioned b\- 1)ai!W1n, that of pro-
ducing sounds, is one of the faculties highly characteristic
of these fishes. The Plectognates have long been known
as the most assiduous musii'iaiis of the ocean. Now it
is the jaws, now the articidar siu-faces of tlie spinous
ravs in tlu; dorsal or ventral fins, where these fins con-
tain such rays, that make a snapping, ringing, grating,
or laughing noise"; now it is the hissing sound of water
and air driven out of the bod\'; now it is the air-
bladder whose vibrations may be distinctly heard like
the beating of a drum*. For this purpose the air-bladder
is attached, in the drumming Balistoids, to the shoulder-
girdle on each side and to s]jecial, large dermal plates
just abo\'e the iijiper angle of the pectoral fin. By the
(|uivering mo\<'meiits that accompan\' the violent con-
traction (cf. above, \). 198) of the venti'al parts of the
lateral muscles, the po.stclavicular bones, which are in-
serted in these muscles, are set in a vibrating motion
which is transferred to the wall of the air-bladder and
to the air contained therein, from which the sound is
transmitted to the said osseous plates in the skin above
the angle of the pectoral fin, and through their medium
to the outer world. All the snapjiing, ringing, grating,
laughing, or hissing sounds are probably intended, here
as in other fishes Avhich have this power, in the fir.st
place to frighten away some approaching foe. The
notes or drumming noises of the air-bladder raa\- also
conduce to the same result, or mav be produced by
the death-throes of the fish. But, as SoREXSEX has
remarked, the sonorous tones that compose the song
of these fishes, undoubtedly serve in other cases, espe-
cially during the si)awning-season, as call-notes.

Cuvier' divided the Plectognates into two families,
the first with free teeth in the jaws and usually with
hard (plate-like) dermal covering — hence the name of
/e.s Srlerodnrmcs, from o^/iipo-, hard and ()*'?'"■'. skin
— the second with the jaw-teeth confluent and forming

" Cf. SiiRE.NSE.N, Oni Ln-lnnjiinn- hos Fixke, Kjobeiiliavn, 1884.

" Cf. MuBius, Baliste." nnileatn.^. eiii trommelnder Fi>si-h, Stzber. kk>x<i. Wiss. BerL 1889, \u 999.

' Regne Animal, e,L 1. tcni. II. pp. 14.0 anii 149; ed. 2. torn. II, pp. .'ifi.^ and 371.

622

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

composite dental growths, one or two in eacli jaw,
which project like a I>eak beyond tlie lips — hence the
name of les Gymnodontcfi, from yvuro^^ naked and od'ovg^
toofJi. Of these families the latter is distinctly more
perfectly Plectogiiate in its chai-acters. At the present

time we generally follow Bonaparte" and di\ide these
fishes into four families, two within each of the Cu-
vierian faujilies''. Only two species, each representing
a distinct family, have lieen found within the limits
of the Scandinavian fauna.

fam 0 r t h a g OB I s c 1 1) j^:.

Gymnodonts with stunted trunk, hodji compressed laterally (round or elliptical) and not distensirc, and continuous
verticcd fins. Dental disks of the jaws undivided. Pseudohranchifc larye. Air-hlaildcr'', pelvic bones.

and ventral fins wantiny.

With an appearance as though they were of the
normal piscine form but with truncate tail, these Lagy-
bukar ( Tmi-bellies) — as Retzius called them together

l.iS. Skeletou of Orthaijorisciis moUi,
After Welleniserc

.., of the naturnl size.

with the rest of the Gymnodonts — deservedly excite
attention even by their external characters. In form
and ai)])earance tiiey remind us somewhat of the Opah;
but merely a casual examination is enougli to show

that they are of an entirely different type. Tlie\- reallv
rank among the most singular piscine forms. The
stunted appearance of the body depends, it is true, on
the comparatively small number of the vertebra; (IG
or 17); but this number may be still smaller in the
Coffer-fishes. The short form of the body is really
caused by its depth posteriorly, this lieing due to a
prominent development of the upper and lower arches
of the vertebriB, with their spinous processes, in the
caudal part of the body, and t)f the interneural spines
of the dorsal fin and the interhu'mal spines of the anal
fin (fig. 153). This de\iation from the other Plecto-
gnates is connected with an extremely unusual course
of development.

In the middle of the last century Kolreuter'' gave
an excellent descri]>tion and a figure of no small merit,
considering the period of its execution, of a fish 16
mm. long and 19^3 mm. deep, "which at a casual
glance might easily be taken for a head cut off from
the trunk, and nothing more." Closer examination
soon showed, ho^\'e\"er, that this specimen was a young
form of Orthayoriscus (Tetrodon) mala, as Linnaeus'
interpreted this find. But the most .singular circum-
stance was that it had no caudal fin whatever. In
another specimen, 40'/, nun. long and 4il\,., mm. dee}),
on the other hand, Kolreuter found a distinct, cre-
luilated caudal lobe along the hind margin of the fish,
uniting the dorsal fin to the anal. Since that time
these small fisiies have been met with on numerous

" Catalogo metodico dei pesci europei, p. 87.

'' Bleeker (Atlas Ichtliyologiqiic, tome V) divided the Plectognates into three orders and these iigaiii iiiln 0 f:uiiilies conespoiiding to
GUnther's suhfaniilies: Ostraciontina ; Triacanthinn, Dalistina; 7'riodontina, Telrodontina, Molina.

' Costa {Fn. <J. Rcijii. i/i NapoU, tav. 6.^ e 04) describes aud Bgures a rudimentary air-bUidder in Ortliagorisciis viola.

<* Nov. Comment. Ae.id. Sc. Petrop., vol. X (1706), p. .337, tab. \'III, Hgs. 2 and 3. Mola aculeata, limho abdomini." prudnrto.
aftenuato, carnoso.

'■ Si/st. iiat.. ed. XII, tonj. 1, part. 2, Add. (in fine).

SUNFISHE.S.

628

occasions, and tlie late developniunt of the caudal fin
has been fully demonstrated (fig. 154). According to
Lltkkn ", however, we have a still earlier developmental

Fig. 154.

Liirv* of Orthaijori/tcns iiiola; A. .it a length of 18 mm.
B. at a lengtli of 'A2 mm. After GCnther.

stage of Orthagoriscus in the form n.amed bj- Richard-
sox Ostraclon hoops (fig. lo.'i), after the larva] speci-
mcn.s taken at the surface of the South Atlantic and

Fig. 155.

/jOOpS, RlCHARPSOX.
After Gf.NTHER.

Ponxrfully iiuignified.

figured l)y Hookeh. These larvie are of a still more
curious form, with their large eves and their equipment
of large spines, such as those we have seen above on the
heads of several Acanthopteiygian larvas, notably within
the great series of the Scombromorphs, and with small
spines besides on the dorsal side. The diffei'ence i)e-
tween them and Kolreuter's larva, however, is not so
great as to prevent us from easily recognising the cor-
ivsponding position of the large spines. As in the
younger of Kolredtek's larviB we here find one large
spine at the middle of the forehead between the eyes;
three at the sharp dorsal margin, the hindmost of which,
just in fi'ont of the dor.sal fin, is the largest; one' on
each side above the eyes, as well as on each side of
the hind part of the body between the dorsal and anal
fins. \\'hether the other spines correspond exactly in
both larva}, is a more difficult point to decide. The

caudal tin is still less developed than in the younger
of Kolreuter's lai'vu'. .\s tiie develo])ment advances,
the large spines are said to bet-ome <om|iaratively
smaller, but the small spines, tiie papilke with radiat-
ing striie, to extend densely and evenly over the whole
body. The transition to the Orfhaf/orisciis form is thus
not far distanf.

If we compare these youngest forms of Orthaqo-
riscKS with the normal forms of piscine larvie, the
greatest difference lies in the fact that here the caudal
fin, which otherwise is the first fin to appear — as it
also is the original organ of motion in all vertebrates — ,
is developed last of all the fins. This difference has
left its mark not only on the structure of the skeleton,
but also on the development of the muscles. Here the
original and, in later life, the most powerful organs of
motion are the dorsal and anal fins. Their supporting
bones (the interneural and interhEemal bones) and their
motory mu.scles exercise a determinant influence on
the development of the whole trunk-

In dissecting an Orthnfforisciis'' we have first to cut
through the enormoush" thick skin, which is lined with
a strong tendinous membrane {apotieuros). Within the
latter, on the sides of the body, we make the i-emark-
able observation (fig. 15(5) that the muscles most highly
developed in other fishes, the large lateral muscles of
the l)odv, are here apparently wanting. Between the
spinal column and the skin runs, as usual, in a hori-
zontal dii'ection, a fibrous membrane (sf), which here
is especially strong, and divides the visible muscular
mass, just as in other cases it divides the large lateral
muscles of the body, into two halves, an upper and a
lower. P>ut b\- far the greater part of this muscular
mass is here composed of the flexors of the dorsal (mpd)
and anal (nqta) fins. The flexors of the dorsal fin,
divided into two layers of different colour and firmness
— a surface-layer and an nnder-layer — run from the
occiput, from the spinal column with its superior pro-
cesses and interneural bones, and from the upper sur-
face of the horizontal fibrous membrane (sf), and are

attached by a special sinew to each side of the basal

" See GCntheb, Aim., Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. VIII (1871), p. .S20, note.

' In KSlheutkr's larva two.

' According to LUtken's opinion of K6lreuter's larvie. Still we shonld observe that the larv;e of Diodon correspond iust as closely
to Richardson's larvae, especially in the position of the large spines; but iu the former the end of the notochord projects between the dorsal
and anal 6n8. A larva of this description, 2 mm. long and of ellipsoidal form, which was taken at the surface "between Java and the Cape of
Good Hope," has been obtained by the Royal Museum through Captain PflHL of Hamburg. In the same jar (and therefore taken probably at
the same time) lay another larva, 4 mm. long and of more distinct Diodon form, but still, like the preceding one, with the dorsal and anal
fins and the tip of the tail between them all situated on the ventral side.

'' Cf. Wahlgren, Nagra anteckningar om en stor klumpjisk, Lunds Univ. Arsskrift. torn. IV.

624

SCAXUINAVIAN FISHES.

l);iTt ()t" each ray in the dorsal tin. The fle.\(n"s of the
anal tin, also divided into a surface-layer and an under-
layer, originate from the bodies of the iiindinost ab-
dominal vertebra', fi-om tlie caudal vertebra- witii tlieir
inferior processes and interhajmal bones, and from the
under surface of the horizontal fibrous membrane, and
are attached to the raj's of the anal tin in the same
manner as we have just describ(!d in the case of the
flexors of the dorsal tin. The flexors of the caudal fin

Kf mpd

Fig. 15G. Position of the iiniscles iiiid viscera in Orthaijoiiscus ruola,
on a reduced scale. After Clelanu.
mpu, the flexors of the anal fin (musciili piiinw ciiiaiis); sf, the
librous dividing membrane {septum Jibrosum); mpd, the flexors of the
dorsal fin {musculi pinncc dorsalis) ; maa, the anterior abdominal muscle
(m. abdomuudis anterior); h, the liver; I, the ligament between the
intestinal sac and the liver; i, the peritoneal investment of the in-
testines (intestinal sac); p, the peritoneum, opened and partly removed;
map, the posterior abdominal muscle (m. abd. posterior); a, the vent;
mpc, the flexors of the caudal fin (m. pinnce caudalis).

(mpc) form no compact muscular mass; each of the rays
in the caudal tin is furnished on each side with a spe-
cial, ventricose muscle, and these muscles start partly
from the bodies of the hindmost vertebra^, partly from
the supporting bones of the caudal tin (the hindmost
interneural and interhtemal bones), partly from the
superior and inferior folds of the liorizontal, inter-

muscular, tibrous membrane (sf). (.)f the system of the
large lateral muscles there remain only two abdominal
muscles, belonging to the under-layer of the system,
the first (map) starting from the top of the clavicle, the
second {maa) from the coracoid bone, and both attached
to the outer surface of the strong peritoneum {p). So
great is the UKjdification both of the skeleton and of
the musculature that has accompanied the late develop-
ment of the caudal fin, and rendered the dorsal and anal
tins the principal organs of locomotion. These two tins
have attached to themselves, from the very beginning,
the great mass of muscles and supjiorting bones; while
the caudal fin has become a secondary organ, ^vhich has
been forced to adapt its development to pre-exist ent
circumstances, and which has thus sunk almost to an
adipose fin, though thin osseous rods have been deve-
loped to rays within it. The influences of this revolu-
tion in the development of the oi'gans of motion have
also affected the central nervous system. The family
is remarkable, from an anatomical point of view, not
only for the insignificant size of the brain", which is
extraordinarily small, even within tlie class of fishes,
but also for the fact that the spinal marrow, soon after
its passage through the occipital foramen, ramifies in
the well-known '"horsetail form" {cnnda eijtthia), without
being continued any further in tlie form of a continuous
chord within the spinal canal''.

Whether more than two species may be distinguished
with certainty witliin this family, must still be regarded
as a doubtful (luestion. Ranzaxi's attempt' to establish
16 species, distributed among 6 genera, has long ago
been abandoned as futile; and Putnam's evidence in
favour of the opinion that the young specimens described
by KoLREUTEK, Pallas, and others belong to a distinct
species of a separate genus'', seems to require fui'ther
confirmation. It has also been proposed' to i-efer the
two established species to two distinct genera, one of
which, Banzama, with more elongated body and with
the dermal covering smooth but divided into hexagonal
plates, has been met with on the English coast, but
never, up to the present time, within the limits of the
Scandinavian fauna.

" In large specimens of Ortbai/oriscns mola, according to HARTiNr., the brain may weigli no more than ' 'jis'mh '• ^- '^"t quite 0'000014,
of the total weight of the body.

' Arsaky, De piscium cerebro et medulla spinali, Halle 1813, p. 4, tali. Ill, fig. 10.

' Nov. Comm. Acad. Scient. Inst. Bonon. Ill (1839).

■' Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc, 19th Meeting (1870), p. 255.

' Steenstrup and LtJTKBN, Overs. Vid. Selsk. Forh. Kbhvn 18G3, p. 42.

G25

Gems ORTHAGORISCUS.

JUid)i rotDid or of a aliorf eU'iptirol fanii. Skin roii(/h with dense, fine spiries and papilla: Distance between the
dorsal fin and the tip of thv sniuit {in adult specimens) less than '/., of the length of the body.

Tlie iinine oi' tliis genus", nccordini;- to lidNDici.irr's''
iiitcr|)r('t;itioii of I^i.inv, is of classical (iriuiu and dciMNcd
tVciiii its jii)W(M- lit' |ir<)ducina- aTuiitinj;' sounds. Tlic
name \\as introduced by Scuneidki!'' into tlie post-
LiniiiViin nomenclature. Rondelet's contemporary Sal-
vi.vNus did not approve of his interjiretation, and gave
tlic Suntishes auotiicr name, Jlola (millstone), with re-
ference to the round form of the body and derived from
tin' po|iular language of Marseilles. This generic name
was adopted by Johnston'' and Wielugiiby', but in
LiXN^us it passed into a specific designation'^.

Orthat/orisciis is distinguished from the other genus

ti\ely considerable extent in the region of the caudal
tin, and iuxohes an elongation of the body that caiises
the apparent removal in a forward direction with age
of the dorsal and anal tins. The above-mentioned un-
certainty with regard to the distinction of the species
within this genus depends partly on our imjjerfect know-
ledge of the eai'lier stages of the development, partly
on a singular form of the caudal fin, with a ijointed
upper lobe, which has been observed both in younger
individuals (fig. 154, 11) and in older ones'', without
enabling us as jet to decide -ivhether it is of incidental
(individual) description or of some other signification.

of the family not only by the different covering of the I In the Scandinavian fauna, however, this uncertainty

Itody, but also by a special direction of development,
which brings about a secondary increase of compara-

is of no importance.

THE SHORT SUNFISH (stv. klumpfisken).
ORTHAGORISCUS MOLA.

I'latc XXVII, fig. 4.

Pectoral fins rounded in old specimens: their length at most about '/, (14 or 15 %) of that of the body. Colo-
ration bluish gray, on the back darker and brownish, growing lighter with a silvery lustre down the sides,

on the hellii whitish. Fins brownish.

-18'

A. 15— n

P. 11 — 13*: t". 0; U.

n. /»: 6; D. 17-
11 — 14; rert. 16 /. 17.
■St/ii. Ostracion catlietoplateus subrotundns inermis asper, pinnis pec-

toralibus liorizontalibus, foraniinibus quatuor in capite, Art.,

Gen., p. 61; ,S,jn.. p. 83.
Tetraodou Mold. Lix., Syst. Nat., ed. X, Um. I. p. 334;

Pall. {Diodoii), Spicil. Zool.. torn. I, fasc. VIII, p. 39, lab.

IV, fig. 7; Retz. (Tetrodon),\e.X. Akad. Handl. 1785, p. 115,

tab. IV; Bl. {Dindon), Naturg. Ausl. Fisch., pt. I, p. 75,

tab. CXXVIII; Ketz. (Teirodon), Fit. Suec, Lin., p. 310;

ScHN. (Orthagorisciis), I. c; NiLSS., Prodr. Iclith. Scand.. p.

Ill: Wellenbergh, Observ. Anat. de 0. mola, disp. Lugd.
Bat. 1840; ScHLEG., Fn. Japan., Poiss., p. 288, tab. CXXVII;
Costa, Fii. Regn. Nap., Pesci, pt. 2, Plettogn. Gymnod., tab.
LXIII et LXIV; Ekstr., Gbgs. Vet., Vitt. Samh. Handl. 1850,
p. 40; Kr.. Damn. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 732-, NiLSS., Sicand.
Fn.. Fisk:, p. 697; Cleland, Nat. Hist. Review 1862, p.
170, tab. V et VI; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIU,
p. 317; Coll., Vid. Selsk. Forb. Christ. 1874, Tilliegsli.,
p. 203; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 101; N. Mag. Naturv. Christ.,
Bd. 29 (1884), p. 114; Malm, Gbgs, Bofi. Fn., p. 599;
Winth., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 54; MOR.,

Gill; thu
rotunda)

OQ&aYOQia/.og, sucking-pig .
De Piscibus, lib. XV, cap. VII, p. 425.
iSyst. Icttthyol. Bloohii, posth., pp. LVII and 510.

Uistoria naturalis de piscibus et cetis, lib. 1, tit. 1, cap. Ill, art. II, punct. VIII.
Historia Piscitim. lib. 4, sect. Ill, cap. VI, p. 151.

CnviER is stated, it is true, in his anatomical lectures — in 1798, according to Steenstrup and LOtken, in tSOO, according to
s prior to the appearances of Schneider's work quoted above — to have advocated the resumption of .Mola as a generic name (Mola

but in his systematic works he recognised Orthagoriscus.

Monaco, Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., tome XIV (1889), p. 17.

Sometimes 16, according to KRevER and Moreau; sometimes as many as 20, according to Lilueborg.

Sometimes 14, according to Steenstrup and LUtken; sometimes 18, according to Lilljeborg.

Sometimes 14, according to Retzius.

626

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Hist. Xnt. Poiss. Fc, torn. II, p. 74: MOb., Hcke, Fisch.

Osts.. p. 101; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.. Ivd., vol. II, p. 272,

tab. CXLVIII; Br. Goo^y., Fisher., Fisher Industr. U.S., sect.

I, p. 169, tab. 35; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fish:, vol. 3, p. 425.
Orthagoriscus hispidus, Schn., I. c, p. 511 (juv., ex Pali.., 1. c);

Cuv., R. anim., ed. I, torn. 2, p. 149 = 0. spinosus, Id.,

ed. 2, torn. 2, p. 870; Rich., Voy Sulph., ZooL, vol. I,

p. 125, tab. LXII, figg. 10—12.
Cephalus brevis, Shaw, Gen. ZooL, vol. V. p. 437, lali. 175.
Diplanchias nastts, Rafin., Caratt. Ale. X. Gen., p. 17; Srr,

Ltkn {Mola), Overs. Vid. Selsk. Forh. Kbbvn 1863, p. 36;

Ltkn, Forb. Skand. Naturf. M. Stblm 1863, p. 378; Wahlgb.

N. Ant. Mola ?iasus, Lunds Univ. Ar.sskr., torn. IV (1867)

cum tab.
Ozodura orsini, O;. ursini, l^ympanoviium planci, Diplanchias

nasus, Trematopsis WHliighbii, Orthagoriscus Retzii, Ort.

ghini, Ort. Rondeletii, Ortli. Blochii, Ort. redi, Ort. aculeatus,

Ranzani, 1. c.
Ostracion boops. Rich., Ichthyol. Voy. Ereb., Terr., png. 52,

tab. XXX, figg. 18 — 21; juv. bujus specie! sec. Ltkn, Gthr,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. VIII (1871), p. 320, not.
Orthagoriscus ozodura, Harting, Notices Zool. etc., Verb. Akad.

Wet. Amsterdam, D. XI (1868).

This Sunfish attains a length of at least 8 feet
(2 v., metres). The largest specimen of which, to tiie
best of our knowledge, we can speak with ])ositive
certainty, was exhibited from New South Wales at the
Fisheries Exhibition of 1883 in London, and measured
8 feet in length and 12 feet in depth from the tip of
the dorsal tin to that of the anal". In young specimens
the form of the body is almost circular. At a length
of 4V2 — 5V2 •^^"1- t'le depth of the body is about ^/j
(69" — 64 %) of the length, at a length of about 2 m.,
about V2 or 48 % thei-eof. Thus, the body is elongated
with age to an elliptical form, with the deptli fairly
uniform at the middle, while the hind part ends more
abruptl)', but the forepart is somewhat prolonged, form-
ing a short muzzle. The thickness is fairly constant,
being greatest above and liehind the eyes, Avhere it
measures about V4 of the greatest de[)th, and decreasing
without a break, slowly behind and more suddenl}' in
front. In old specimens, however, on each side above
the eye and back to the perpendicular from the begin-
ning of the insertions of the pectoral tins, we find a
longitudinal, blunt ridge; and a similar ridge may ap-
pear below the gill-opening and the pectoral fin. In
this manner the section of the body at the gill-openings

is rendered more or less distinctly hexagonal, with the
upper and lower angles acute, the latter more so. Both
the dorsal and the ventral edges are sharp and carinated,
the former from the forehead behind the eyes back to
a point a little in front of the beginning of the dorsal
fin, the latter from a p(jint a little behind the lower
jaw back to the vent. The forehead, on the other hand,
is convex; and the tip of the snout is furnished in old
.specimens with a rough and sclerous, mobile, round pad,
which projects some distance above and in front of the
mouth. At the ventral margin, a little below and be-
hind the lower jaw, we find in old specimens a similar
osseous growth in tlie skin, consisting of two, or even
three, fusiform, bony jilates, set in a row one after an-
other. In old specimens, too, the ventral profile is
distinctly more arcuate than the dorsal. The base of
the caudal fin passes evenly into the body, so that the
fin projects like an attenuated dermal margin at the
end of the sharpl)' rounded (convex) hind edge of the
body. In young specimens the caudal fin is united
above and below to the lo^ver ])osterior angle of the
dorsal fin and the upper jiosterior angle of the anal fin:
but in old specimens it is distinctly separated from
these fins. Its form, though, as we have mentioned
aliove, it may sometimes present a singular abnorinitj'
— perhaps a malformation or the cicatrice of a
wound — in general corresponds to that of the hind
margin of the body; but at the margin, opposite the
tip of each ray, we find a round incision, which is
more or less completely filled by a compressed, osseous
growth. The dorsal and anal fins rise in the form of
acute-angled triangles — though usually ^\ith tlie ajjex
rounded — with the anterior margin thick but in profile
concave, the posterior sharp (attenuated) and convex.
These two fins cannot lie depressed like normal fins in
their longitudinal direction (the second dorsal and the
anal fins of the Tunnies, for example, are also stiff
when pressed in this direction); but they are highly
flexible laterally, and their movement in this direction*"
is assisted by the texture of the skin. Tiiis last or-
gan, which is covered with numbers of stiff wrinkles
and ridges, crossing one another in irregular squares,

" KoNDELET stales, it is true (1. c), that tbe Sunfisb may attain a lengtb of 6 cubits (2',', m.) or more; but this assertion has not
been confirmed, to the best of our knowledge, in modern times, unless we accept LAOEPfeDE's statement that in 1735, on the Irish coast, a
Sunfisb 25 feet long was found, "which consequently appeared at niglit like a shining disk move thau 400 square feet in area" (Hist. Nat.
Poiss., torn. I, p. 511).

' Sometimes 72, according to Kroyer.

' With respect to the musculature see above.

62r

is extriiordiiKirily tliick over the jj^i'oater iwrt of the
l)0(h'. Ill ;i Suntisli 9(!5 luiu. loiiii' the skin on tlic
trunk, according to {'lelaxp, was ahout 25 nun. thick".
'I'lie rigidity of tlie skin is increased by the spiny and
nodose, small, osseous tubercles'' which are densely spread
over its surface, and wiiich give tlic skin both on the
I)odv and tlie tins a shagn^ened appearance. lUit a
rather broad band of thinner and looser skin, with more
granulated or even smooth surface, runs on each side,
along tlie vcrv margin of the body, from the vent along
tlie bases of the anal, caudal, and dorsal tins. This
band of flexible and movable skin, which is folded
round the bases of the dorsal and anal fins, admits of
tlie bending of these two fins at right angles to the
sides of tlie body. Tlie first six rajs in these fins are
thick and stiff, neither articulated nor branched, and
suddenly increase in length, thus forming the greater
part of the anterior margin of the fin — only the apex
belongs to tlie seventh ray, which is branclied. Tiie
jiosterior rays, again, suddenly decrease in length be-
liind, are branched, and expand backwards at the tip
like a fan. Thus, the whole of this apparatus forms, to-
gether with the caudal fin, a swimming-blade, elastic
behind, wiiich by alternate movements to right and
left of the dorsal and anal fins drives the fish forward,
just as a boat is propelled by sculling. The compara-
tivelv shoi't pet'toral fins, which, as well as the other
fins, are rough witli small osseous tubercles on both
sides, are of rounded form, with the first and last rays
simple, the others multifid at the tip, and the middle
ones (the fifth and sixth) longest. They are set half-
way up the body and just behind the middle ]>oint
between the tip (jf the snout and tlie Iieginning of the
dorsal or the anal fin. Tiiej- are inserted horizontally,
as in the Opah, and move up and down, their true

function thus being proliably to maintain the equi-
librium of tile bod\-. dust in front of the insertion of
tlie jicctoral fin, with iieight about equal to the Icngtii
of this insertion, lies the traiisvei-sely set gill-ojiening
on eacli side of the body, elliptical in shape, but pointed
at both ends, and with tlie anterior liaif covered with
a thin skin', wdiicli is a continuation of the true branch-
iostegal membrane, while the anterior margin is formed
by the skin itself, which eovei'S the 0})erculum. These
small openings are the only external boundaries between
the head and tlie body. This circumstance has caused
the comparison of the whole fish to a swimming head''.
The head of the Sunfish (from the tip of the snout
to the gill-openings) measures in young specimens
(',2 — 1 metre long) between Vs ''»d ^/m of the length
of the body. In older specimens, which acquire a more
elongated form of body, it becomes comparatively some-
what smaller, sinking to at least 29 % of the length of
the body'. In old specimens, which have their short
snout tipiied with the hard osseous disk, this disk forms
the extreme end of the snout. In }'oung specimens
the mouth is set exactly at the tip of the snout, and
shows between the thin lips, whicli only partially hide
them, its two white dental disks, that of the upper jaw
hooked at the tip, that of the lower jaw even. Behind
(within) these disks we find in young specimens 4 or 5
similar disks or rows of divided, transverse disks, close
behind each otlier, which are gradually worn awa}' in
course of time, until they disappear. The gape is small, as
in all the Plectognates; in a Sunfish 47 cm. long it can be
opened to a height of only 33 mm. and measures 24 ram.
in breadth, or rather less than the longitudinal diameter
of the eye. The ejes are set very low, in comparison with
their position in the rest of the Plectognates, but much
nearer to the dorsal margin than to the ventral'; their

" 111 a large Snntish dissected by Turner and Goodsir (Nat. Hist. Review 1862, p. 185) the skin varied in thickness on different
parts of the body between 6 and 100-127 mm. In another specimen, whicli was unusually large, GooDSlR found the thickness of the skin
at certain spots to be 152 mm.

' The osseous tubercles vary in size, large and small being interspersed with each other; but even the largest ones in large Sunfish
are scarcely of the size of small pins' heads. At the base tlicy bear radiating stri.-p, and arc irregularly incised and dentatcd at the margin, the
teeth of one tubercle fitting into the incisions in the next.

' When this membrane lies in folds, or when it bursts — as often happens in stuffed specimens — it may appear as though there
were two gill-openings on each side; and this is perhaps the explanation of the character of two gill-openings on each side that was given
by Rafinesque to his genus Diplanchias.

■' "Der schwimmende Kopf": Blocii, 1. c. From the form of the snout and the small size of the mouth the fish also acquires a
singular resemblance, which has struck many, to the human head.

' According to Campbell's measurements of a specimen 236 cm. long (Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasg.. vol. V, 1881 — 82, p. 178) this
percentage may sink to 24'7.

•'■ In the specimen which Hasting examined, he found (1. c.) an asymmetry in the position of the eye (the right eye — like the right
pectoral fin — situated perceptibly higher than the left), which he proposed to explain by the habit possessed by these fishes, of lying at the
surface and swimming on one side. Cf. above, on Trachi/pterus, p. 319.

628

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

itit'crinr inargin lies in the line lietwecn tlie iiiuutli and ; which opens into the stoniMch (r). The hitter, wliich is

the upper corner of the gill-opening, and the distance i scarcely divided externally from the short (esophagus,

between them and the tip of the snont is somewhat extends along the greater part of the dorsal wall of the

greater tiiaii tiiat between them and tlie gill-o])euings. alidominal cavity, and under the end of this wall passes,

Externally they are rather small, somewhat oblong (el- ; without external boundary but with an internal con-

liptical) ill form, witii a longitudinal diameter of about i traction, into the intestine, which first runs straight for-

11) or 17 % of the length of the head or ^3 of the I ward and then, with several bends within its sjiecial

breadth of the interorltital space. The eyeballs them- peritoneal (mesenteric) sac (fig. 156, 0, coils Ijackwards

selves, however, are remarkable for their great size; in
Hastixg's specimen, which was nearly l^/^ m. long, the
transverse diameter of the eyes was 6V2 cm. A most
remarkable point in the eyes of the Sunfish is the inner
eyelid, the mol)ile, nictitating membrane, pierced in the

and forwards, until it passes straight down into the
rectum (/) and pierces the thick wall of the abdominal
cavity at the vent (fig. 1.56, a). The entire intestinal
canal is about S^;^ — .5 times as long as the body, and
is especially remarkable for its thick wall. The spleen

middle, with whicii this fish is fui-nished according to 1 is of a flat, rounded shape, dark reddish blue in colour.

('uviER and Owkx". A similar nictitating raemlirane is
common, it is true, among the Sharks and finds its ana-
logue, to a certain extent, in the motionless, adipose
membrane of the Mackerels, the Gray Mullets, and other
Teleosts. Ikit iiere tiiis niend)rane is furnished with a
special closing muscle (sphincter) and five radiating
opening muscles, the latter of whicli oi-iginate from
the bottom of the orbit. The nostrils are very small,
the anterior in each pair elliptical and transversely-set,
the posterior i-ound. They are set on about a level
with the centre of the eyes and rather near each other,
the anterior one at a distance from the tip of the snout
that measures about ^/^ — ^/\ of the length of the latter.

The tongue, according to Khoyer, is very large and
fleshy, rather like the human tongue, but with very short
and flat papilla'. Both the tongue and the palate are
sharp as a rasp, almost as sharp as the skin of the liody.
In front of the tongue we find in the lower jaw (but
not in the upper) a large, transverse fold (velum). The
gill-rakers are onlj' slightly de\eloped and not dentated.
The fourth branchial arch coalesces with the clavicular
arcli''. The ui^per jjharyngeals form on each side an
almond-shaped disk, set with three transverse rows of
5 — 8 pointed, scattered and narrow, Ijut fairly large,
curved teeth; the lower pharyngeals are toothless.

The abdominal cavity is lined with a firm, hard, and
white peritoneum (fig. 156, jn). The liver (h), which is
of a rounded, oval shape, occupies about half, or even
nearly the whole, of the abdominal cavity on the left
side, but has onlj' a small lobe to the right. The gall-
bladder (fig. 157, rf) is large and has a long duct,

and lies between the liver and the stomach. The urin-
ary bladder (fig. 157, ri() is large and of an elongated

vj i r

Fig. 157. Intestinal uniinl of Orthagoriscns mold, on a reduced scale.

After Cleland.

c, tlie stomiicli; «, tlic ureter; an, the fissure-like mouth of the

urethra in the wall of the urinary bladder; vu, the urinary bladder:

or, the ovary; r. the rectum; ;', the intestine; c/, the gall-bladder.

pear-shape. Its ujjper wall is pierced by the ureters
(ti), subsequent to their union. In front of this bladder
lies the simple' o\nry (or), with the oviduct following
the front side of the urethra down to the common uro-
genital a]5erture behind the vent. The rudimentary air-
bladder, which was discovered by Costa, occupiies an
oblique position, high up at about the middle of the
length of the abdominal cavity.

In the leading features of its coloration the Sunfish
shows itself to be a strictly pelagic fish, von Wright's
figure tells us better than words the appearance of a
Sunfish about half a metre long; but if we compare
this figure with Costa's figure of a somewhat older fish,
we find that quite a considerable variation may occur
in the colour. The ground-colour is bluish gray.

" CnviER, Leqons d'Auat. Comp. (ed. Dumekil) tome 11, ji. 434; (ed. Meckbi.) tome II, p. 437; Owen, Comp., Anat., Phi/sioL, vol. I, p. 336.

' According to Kr0YER. According to Cleland it is free.

' According to Clelanp and Wahlgren. According to Costa there are two distinct ovaries.

(129

sliiuliiii!' oil till' l>:ii'l< iiil<i slate-ii'r.-iA' or hrowii, down the
sides and on the licUy into white, and with a silvery
histre, l)i'igiit('st in ulil specimens. On tiie sides of the
liead. in trout of and l)clo\v ihe cxx's, as well as on the
cjiin anil throat, we see irre^inlar, elonded spots (if i-ed-
(iish l)i-o\vn or i^v.w. Tlie dorsal and anal Hns art' brown,
hlackish at the tips. The pectoral fins are also Ijrown,
lint, nccordiiiii' to CosrA, crossed by transverse bands of
i;ra\ish white. The |inpil is bluish, the iris, according
to most descrij)tions, silvery with yellow or red inner
margin and with a spot of the same colour above and
below.

Both in the internal organs of the .Suntish and on
its gills and skin there live an extraordinary number of
parasites, (juite justifying, in the case of old specimens
at least, the appellation of living "hotels garnis" which
has been bestowed ujKin them". The skin of large spe-
cimens is coated with a laver of tough slime, two-
fifths of an inch thick, in which there crawl lice of the
family Cdlii/iila', and to which parasitic crustaceans of the
genus Poiella — on which ("irrhipeds of the genus Coiiclio-
deniKi may be found — and Trematods of the families
Tiistomkhp and Monostonikhc attach themselves. The
gills an' infested with (^aligoids of tlic genus Lcemargus
and Trematods of the family Distomida, the eyes with
FUuike. In the muscles and, in still greater immbers,
in the liver we find roundworms of the order Acautho-
cephali, and in the intestine, which is generally full of
a fetid, tough, grayish white mucus, roundworms of
the genus Ascarls and Hatworms of the genera Disfoma,
Tt'trarJii/ncliKS, a nd Botlirioccplialus.

Of the daily life of the Snntish we have but little
information. All \ve know with certainty, is that it is
strictly a pelagic fish. It has been most often met with
lying on one side at the surface of the sea — we have
already made the same observation in the case of several
deep-sea lishes — to which the tish has been supposed
to ascend in fine weather in order to bask in the sun'.
Its lethargy on most of these occasions, however, may
well be due to its having wandered from its proper
home. Still, it has sometimes appeared nearer land and
swimming forward, with the dorsal tin above the water,
as Gosse" relates of a Suntish, 137 cm. long, that was

taken in the liristdl t'hanncl iii'\' IHVaconibc. "It was
slowh' moving at the time of its disc(ner\', with a wav-
ing motion from side to side, "like a man sculling a
lioat," to use the comiiarison of the sailor who helped
to tak(^ it; the back-lin ajipearing abo\e water, 'flic tish
permitted the boat to come close uji without cxhiliiting
alarm, nor was he even distui'bed wdien her side came
into contact with his bulky person. The fellows made
a bowline-knot, and slipijed it over his head, tightening
it before his dorsal and anal, so that the knot came in
the middle of his side. Thus they hauled him in, not
without a wetting, for \vith a flapping action of his
ample fins (again a sort of sculling) he scooped up the
water and threw it over them and into the boat. He
survived his introduction to the public about an hour."
One of the largest specimens that have been found on
the English coast, II) dm. in length, was caught off
Chesil Bank (Dorset) in June, 184(i''. This specimen
was n)ore active from the very first, and swam .straight
into the middle of tlie Mackerel-nets. The tirst net bur.st;
but in the outer net the progress of the tish was checked;
and with the help of 40 jiei'sons the catch was hauled
ashore. "Here it dashed about the pebbles, accoi'ding
to the fishermen's account, like a shower of grape. It
expired in about three hours, after uttering "hideous
groans," like those of a horse dying of the staggers."
During the summer and autumn of IS.'iO the Sun-
fish \\-as observed in the English Channel more often
than usual; and from a comparison of these observations
Newman' came to the conclusion that these fishes had
migrated thither from the west. The first find was re-
corded on the Cornish coast on the 9th of June, the
last off Dover on the 8th of Sei^tember. During his
expedition with the HirondeUc in 188B the Prince of
Monaco in the month of September fell in with a num-
ber of Sunfish in comjjany, not far south of Great Sole
Bank, outside the entrance of the Channel. All of them
were of insignificant size. The larger Sunfish he found
in more scattered companies, but nearly always several
not far from each other, in the open Atlantic east and
north of the Azores. The Sunfish thus seems to be to a
certain degree gregarious, at least during youth. Though it
is usually sluggish and helpless, as it lies at the surface,

" Malard, Le Naturaliste, •2<' serie, No. 4t'i (1" fevr. 1889).
' Hence, perliaps. the name of Sunfisli.
' Zoologist, 1852, p. 3579.
•' Proc. Zoo). Soc. 1849, p. 6.
' Zoologist 1850, preface, p. XI.

630

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

glittering in the sunshine or, in the darkness of night,
shining with ))!ios])horescent lustre, motionless und drift-
ing witli wind ;ind tide — perliaps dazed or senseless
after a too sudden ascent from deejj water, as is the
case with the true deep-sea fishes — , still it sometimes
shows considerable activity in its movements. On such
occasions it may be seen leaiting high out of the water,
as Day tells us on the authorit}' of Couch's notes and
of the verbal statement of Dunn. A large Sunfish that
had been harpooned in the open Atlantic by the crew
of the H'tronddle, had such ])Owcr in its tins that, wlien
it took to flight on feeling the blow of the harpoon, it
almost succeeded in drawing boat and all witli it down
to the depths.

That the .Sunfish also visits com])aratively shallow
water off sandbanks, islands, or the coast of the main-
land, appears from the fact that its intestine-like stomach
has fi'equently been found to contain Zostem and alga^,
even those that oidy grow at a depth of a fe\v fa-
thoms. Still, its proper food is probably animal, though
varied by these vegetable sul)stauces. Among the frag-
ments of these plants Kroyer found in its stomach and
intestine the scales of some fish, which he supposed
ti) have l>een the Sole, togetiier with Serfiilar'ue and
OphiunB. WAHUiKEN enumerates, besides the vegetable
substances, fragments both of crustaceans and shellfish
among the contents of the specimen he examined. Koiien
and CoLLETi' found numerous Medusas in the stomach
of the Sunfish; and this slimy food mav perhajis ex])lain
tlie composition of the fetid fluid, like tliin gruel, of
which the intestine is generally full. ( )n some occasions
the Sunfish has taken a hook baited with ordinary
Mackerel-bait or even with worms.

The Sunfish has long been known in the Medi-
terranean and was found on the coast of England (Corn-
wall) by ^^'ILLUGIIBY and Ray. Blcjch includes it among
the fishes of the Ca])e of (rood Hope. Schlkgel gives
an excellent figure of the species from Ja])an; and Ram-
say exhibited in London, as we have mentioned above,
an unusually large specimen of the Sunfish from Port
Jackson" (Australia). Its range is, therefore, extensive,
probably embracing all the tropical and temperate seas.
In Scandinavia it must be regarded as rather rare. In
Sweden and Denmark it has most often been found dead,
floating at the surface or cast ashore, during late au-
tumn or winter. Under these circumstances it has been
met with not oidj' in the Cattegat, but also in the Sound
(a specimen .57 cm. long, in November, 1784, according
to Retzius), the Great Belt (a specimen about IS dm.
long, secured by Fiedler in November, 1862), and
Flensburg Bay (MoBius and Hkincke, soon after 1860).
The Royal Museum has received from Bohuslan two
specimens about 43 cm. long, the first taken by Pro-
fessor F. SuNDEVALL in October, 1834, the .second by
Prof. S. LovBN in 1856. Gothenburg Museum, accord-
ing to Malm, possesses 4 sj)ecimens fi-oin this locality,
between 40 and .t;j cm. long and taken from October to
December inclusive. The specimen 11 dm. long described
by Wahlbeeg, stranded in November, 1866 off the fish-
ing-village of Triislof, just south of Varlierg. On the coast
of Norway, according to Collett, the Sunfish is more fre-
quent in its occurrence and has been found alive, even near
the Swedish frontier, off Fredrikshald, in October, 1870.
Se\eral large specimens have been taken off Bergen and
in Trondhjem Fjord. Even off the extreme north of Nor-
way, in Alten Fjord, a Sunfish 1 1 dm. long has been found''.

" Gt. Intern. Fish. Exhib., London 1883, Cat. Exhib. N. S. Wales, p. 4G.

' While this slieet was in the press, I received tlirough Mr. C. A. Hansson a fresh specimen, 40 cm. in length, caught off Lesund, at

the entrance of Dynekil, a fjord in the northernmost part of Bohuslan, on the 6th September, 1892. I here give tlie priucipal measurements

of this specimen:

Lengtb of the body from the tip of the snout to the middle of the m^irgin of the caudal tin 492 mm.

„ „ „ head „ „ ., ,, ., ., „ .. ,. „ ,, front margin of the gill-opening, in % of the length of the body _ 29.9 „

Greate3t depth of the body (at the anal aperture), in % of the length of the body _ 66. T „

„ thickness ,, „ head (at the temples) „ „ ,, „ „ ,, „ „ 18.9 „

Distance from the tip of the snout to the beginning of the dorsal fin, in % of the length of the body 67.1 „

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ ., anal „ ., „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 70.7 „

Lnngth of the base of the dor.'ial tin, in % of the length of the body ^ 19.8,,

,, „ „ „ „ ,, anal „ ,, ., ., „ ., ., ., „ 19.8 „

„ ,, ,, longest ray „ „ dorsal „ „ ,, ,, ,, ,, ., ., „ 42.2,,

„ ., „ ,. „ „ „ anal „ ,. „ „ „ ., „ „ „ _ 40.8 „

„ „ middle „ „ ,, caudal „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 12.G „

Distance between the anal aperture and the beginning of the anal tin. in % of the length of the body , _. 6.5 ,.

Length of the pectoral fins, in % of the length of the body _ 12.6 „

,, „ „ snout, in % of the length of the head _ 49.3 „

,, ,, „ orbit, „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 17.1 „

„ „ ,, postorbital part of the head, in % of the length of the head - - 3^.4 ,,

Height of the orbit, in % of the length of the head _.. 14.3 „

LongitudinJil diameter of the cornea, in % of the length of the head _ _.. 13.2,.

Vertical „ „ , „ „ „ „ „ 12.9 „

Breadth of the interorbital space, in % of the length of the head _ .^)5.8 „

The iris was blue, with white inner and outer margins of a faint golden Justre. The left eye (but not the right) had a white spot

in the lower part tliereof. The pupil was of a little deeper blue than the iris.

SCLKliODKIiMS.

631

TIr' Suiitisli is sclddiii, if c'xcr, used as t'ond. Ail its and in Tin- I-'icltl (4tii I'el)., 1S82) we arc told liow a

various parasites and tlie siiuiv coat of its liod\- rciider I person was cheated into tlie belief that he was eating

it re])ulsivc to the ordinary tisiu'rniiin: and the phos- tlu^ most delicious turtle sou]), which was really made

phorescent lii^'iit tliat i-adiatcs from it in the dark, has of the ficsii of the Suntisii. 'Die oidy economical value

caused it to he suspected of injurious properties. Ac- of tin' Suidisii lies in tlie oil into which tiie tlesii and

cording to Itisso", howesn-, th^' li\ci' is eaten in tlie liver are l)oiled down, or tlie glue extracted from the

nortii of Italw though nu great vahie is set u|ion it; | Ixines and gristle.

1am balistidj:.

Sclrrodcniis irith hard se(ih'i< or sculc-like plates (iinl on/fhiiKnts (■(irfij)((ri's) diid iritli tiro dorsal fi)is, the first {more
or less fiiUji derdoped) iritli sj)itioiis rai/s. Caudal Jin icitli Id tiraiiched rai/s, and one siinjde raij at each martjin.

Tliis famih' is composed of fishes of far less sin-
gular appearance tlian the preceding one. Its members
are tlie least abnormal of the Plectoguates; and their
primexal cliaracters are veiled in a great luimber of
them by an undeniable beauty of colour — several of the
IJalistoids belong to the most handsomely coloured tishes
of the modern period. The dermal covering, however,
varies considerably not only Ijetween genus and genus,
but also in several forms during the changes of growth.
Sometimes the scales are extremely small and hardlj-
visible to the naked e\e; and tlie juvenile forms may
be armed with spines, especially on the sides of the tail,
which remind us of tlie equipment of the Acanfhuri,
but in many forms disajipear with age. The dermal
covering is not the only character that distinguishes
these tishes from the other Scleroderms, the famih' of

the Coffer-fishes {Ostraciontida;): they are also marked
by the ])resence of an anterior, spinou.s-rayed dorsal fin
— though this tin may sometimes consist of a single
spinous ray — , by the compressed form of the body,
and by their stronger, rodent-like jaw-teeth.

The family belongs properly to the tropical seas —
JoiiDAN and GiLi^EHT have estimated the number of the
species at aliout 100 — and may be divided into three
subfamilies: the Triacanthlno', furnished with ventral
tins and with the jaw-bones oidy loosely united; the
Monavanthince, without ventral tins, or with only one
rudimentary ventral ray, w\X\\ extremely small scales,
Avith at most two rays in the first dorsal fin, the mem-
brane of which is also rudimentary, and with only 6
teeth in tiie lower jaw; and the Balistin<e.

Subfamily BALISTINJE.

Ventral fins wanting or represented merely hi/ one fixed or mohile spine on the end of the pelvic hones, icIiicJi are
confiuent. First dorsal fin with three spinous rays. Caudal fin rounded or with S-shaj)ed hind marc/in. Scales
middle-sized or larye, more or less plate-like. Cpper Jair irith s teeth in an outer row and (> in a dense row
within {behind) the former. Lower Jaw irith 6' teeth in a sinyle roir. JJofh the upper ami tlie loirer phary)i-
yeals furnished irith teeth. Brancliiostegal rays (i or .'). VertehrfC 17.

LiXN^rs called these tishes Fitare'' (Filers), a Swe- ture of the tirst dorsal fin it ranks between them: in

dish expression for the later name of Sclerodermi. the absence of ventral tins and in the rounding (at

In English they are called File-fishes, from the rough i least at the middle of the margin) of the caudal fin it

front surface of the first ray of the anterior dorsal fin. i has characters in common with the Monacanthime, which

Even liy the external characters this subfamily is i have fewer jaw-teeth, and in which we find either one

easily distinguished from the other lialistoids. The com- ' single row of teeth on the lower pharyngeals or no teeth

])aratively large scales of the body separate it both from , at all on the pharyngeal bones. In a MeUchthys {Ba-

the Triacanthina' and the Monacanthin/e: in the struc- listes) huniva from Ascension we find the lower pha-

111. ,

lOlll.

» Eur

Mh'.. (om
Ail. Frid..

. 17
I. P

632

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

ryngeals like l)ranchial arches, only shorter and thicker
than the ccratoliraiichial hones, and furnished with
three rows of teetli, the outermost consisting of caHii-
drical teeth, the middle row of pointed ones, l)Ut all
these teeth considerably shorter than those of the inner-
most row, which are larger, compressed, and ela^v-shaped.
Two of the three ujjper pharyngeals are thick and united
into one hone, which hears two I'ows of claw-sliapcd
teeth, at the l)ase hroad hut compressed, at tlie tip
sharply pointed. The skeleton of this species contaiits
7 abdominal and 10 cnudaj \ertebi'a', including the
urostyle.

Within the subfamily of tlie BaJisthia-, <if wliich
about 30 species have been described, Bleekek esta-
blished 4 genera, differing in the form of the base
of tlie caudal tin and in tlie form and t'olour of the
jaw-teetli. Tlie foi'ms are so closely allied, however,
that a division into genera can lie defended onlv as an
expedient to facilitate a general survey of tlie subfamily.

Among the peculiarities of the skeleton, besides
tliose mentioned above, the strong supporting apparatus
of tlie first dorsal tin, with the articulation of the first
spinous ray, which is the principal defensive weapon of
these fishes, is especially remarkable. The supporting
apparatus, which is evidently formed by the coalescence
and more advanced development of the elements of the
first interspinal bones, consists of three bones", the hind-
most of which is wand-like and lies in a backward and
downward direction, so that its hind extremity rests
against the lower part of the first interspinal bone of
the second dorsal fin — which bone is here supported
on the front of the ujiper spinous process (neural spine)
of the fifth abdominal vertebra — while the anterior
(uplier) extremit)' articulates firmly with the lower
end of tlie middle bone in the supporting apparatus.
This lione is triangular, with one angle directed down-
wards, but longitudinally cloven, its two wing-like
halves forming an angle open above and being firmly

united in front and below to the first and largest bone
in the supporting ajjparatus. This last bone is canali-
c'ulate, but its long bottom is sliar])l\ i-irinated, thus
forming together with the middle bone w kind of boat,
with the bows pointing backwards and split (open) and
with a large, elliptical hole — crossed, however, by a
narrow, transverse bridge of bone — in the posterior
part of each side, l>ut with the middle of its stern
(turned forward in the fish) touching the middle ridge
of the cranium {sjiii/n oiii/iitalis) abo\c the liind part
of the orbits. The hind part of the gunwale (in the
fish the fore part) is furnished witli articular cavities,
one on each side, for the lateral articular processes of
the tii'st spinous ray, and from the middle of the bottom,
in tlie stern, rises a tap-like [irocess with rounded
head, over which glides the base of this rav, with
its concave centre. In front of this |irocess (i. e.
behind it in the longitudinal direction <jf the fish) rises
from the keel of tlie ho:it nnotlier taj)-like and round-
topj)ed process, o\er the head of which the cloven base
of the second s])inous rav glides to and tVo. The l)ack
of the first spinous ray is concave (canaliculate). The
front of the second spinous ray is tumid at the base,
and this swelling dro](s into the groove of the first spi-
nous vnv, when the ravs are erected. In this maimer
the first ra\- is locked fast, and am* attempt to force it
back mereh" exerts a pressure on the second rav, which
is thus kejit all the moi'c tirmh' fixed to its tap-like
articular process, and eft'ectualh- hinders anv liackwanl
curvature of the first rav. In order to attain this result
the second spiin)us ra\- must be drawn back, an opera-
tion which is jicrformed parth' by means of special
muscles, [lartly by a ligament which unites this ray
within the tin-meinl)rane to tlie third s])inous rav''. In
the MiiiKK <tntli'n}a\ which are without the third s])inous
ray, the supporting apparatus is also less developed;
and in the ']'ri(K-<iiitli'iii(f the first intt'rsjiinal bones are
only slighth' metamcn'|)liosed.

" Cf. HoLi.AKD, .\nn. Sc. Natur., troisieme .serie, Zfiulug., toni. XX, p. 102; Sorensen, Om Li/dovgaiiev hos Fiske, p. 50.

'' Hence, aecordirg to .Iounston {l)e Piscibus, p. 110), the generic name of Bnlistes (catapult). The Italians, he says, called one of
tliese fishes pesre balestra, because a slight pull at the third spinous ray was enough to overcome the rigidity of the first ray and to depress
it, just as a liglit touch of the hammer or trigger in the loclc of a cross-bow sufllced to discharge the weapon. This name reappears in tlie
English name of 7'riggcr-fishes as applied to these forms. Bah'stes was introduced into zoological nomenclature, without any special explana-
tion, by Artedi, first in Srba's Thesaurus, torn. 3, p. 63 and again iu Gen. Piscium, p. 53.

KII.K-KISIIKS. 633

Gknis balistes.

PedKiich' of fhe caudal fin lateraUi/ comjyn'ssciL Jaic-teeth ichite, those in the lower jaw and in the outer row in
the upper Jinr obli()i(etf/ incised or claic-shaped : no prominent canines. Lips fieshi/ and naked. First dorsal fin

(■(iniplefel// separated from the second, its niemhrane faltiiif/ short of the first roji of the second dorsal fin.

I)(ii/s (if the seciDid dorsal Jin les.'< than ■'>(>.

Siii'li Mi-c till' clia rafters by wli'u'h Blekkkk" lias j bladdei' has been pointed out, as we liiive iiieutioiied

detiiied tlic true File-tishes, wliicli are distiii<i;uished
from all the other members of the family by their
comparatively thick and also naked lips'. The greater
iiund)c'i- of these forms are furnished behind tlie gill-
opeiiings, on cacli side above the angle of the ])ectoral
till, witli tlie plates whose connexion witli tlie air-

al)ove, b^' ]\I<jJ!ius. One or perliaps two species are,
however, known, which are without tliese special axillary
plates, and on this account Bleekeu proposed to estab-
lish a subgenus Canthidermis, borrowing the natne,
])ut not its application, from Swainson'. To tliis sub-
iieinis we should tlien refer

THE SPOTTED FILE-FISH (t!^Y. sfattiialisten'' ou klackiilaken ').
BALISTES MACULATUS.

A"o special ajillari/ plates. Scahj covering of the cheeks even, unbroken by any lonr/itudinal, naked strips. A lon-
gitudinal hollow in front of each eye just below the naked, oblong depression in which the two small, oral nostrils
are situated'. Tail unarmed, but the scales on the sides of the body furnished during youth on the free part of
their surface u-ith rows of pointed spines and at the middle {at the tip if the next scale in front) with one rather
more jirominent sjiiiie: in older specimens all the scales granulated on tlie free part of their surface, and the scales
on the sides of tlie body retaining only blunt stumps of the spines, among tvhich those at tlie middle of each scale
are larger and somewhat elongated, together .teeming to form longitudinal rows of low carina!. About 32 scales
in an ohlique transverse row from the vent to the first dorsal fin. 2'he quadrangular, elongated scales of the ventral
side proper lie in about 14 obliquely longitudinal rous, the upper ones containing about 17 scales between the
base of the pectoral fin and the ana.l region. Length of the head in adult specimens ^/^, breadth of the interorbital
space about ' ,„, length of the snout about 15 %, distance between the first dorsal fin and the tip of the snout 28
or 2!l %, distance between the second dorsal fin and the tip of tlie snout 49 or 'jO %, distance between the anal
fin and the same })oint 55 or 56 % of the length of the body. Second dorsal and anal fins in front high'' with the
posterior outer (resji. upper or lower) margin concave. Length of the caudal fin at the middle equal to that of the
snout''. Length of the pectoral fins ' i, of that of the body. Pelvic spine short, sometimes firmly united to the pelvis.
Greatest depth of the body in young specimens ratlicr more than ',21 *'" ^^^^ rather less than V3 of H^ length.
Least depth of the body equal in adult specimens to the length of tlie pectoral fins. Greatest thickness equal to the
length of the snout. Coloration brown or blue, with light blue spots, somewhat smaller than the eyes, scattered over
the whole body, the second dorsal fin, the caudal fin, and the anal fin. In young specimens the spots are smaller,
indistinct, and interspersed with darker spots. The fish is sometimes plain brown or black.

" All. Iclith. Ind. Or. Xeirl.. toin. V, p. 98.

' Linna:us's Biilisles ringeuK is tlins exclmled frciii t)iis genus; in its case tlic lips are extremely tliin and lie williin tlie sealy dermal

fold tlint extends outside the roots of tlie teeth in both jawp.

' Nat. Hist. Fish., Am/'l,., Repl.. vol. II, p. lOt.

'' Malm. Obys, Boh. Fii.

' Lii.LJEDOUG, ^v., A'ori/. F/.sA-.

•^ The anterior larger than the posterior: between llieni a longitudinal dermal Hup. whiili partly covers the posterior nostril.

' The length of the longest ray (the Gtli or 7th) in the former lin about 17' ., % of that of the body, in the latter fin (the 5tli or

(ith ray) 16 or 17 % thereof, or respectively 73 ?» of the base of the second di.rsal fin and 84 % of the base of the anal fin — in each ease
in specimens between 27 and 30 cm. in length. In younger specimens these fins are more rounded.

'' In young siieciinens the <-audal fin is sharply rounded; in older ones the outer corners arc prolongeii into pointed, but short lobes.

634

>('AN1)IXAVIAN FISHES.

R. br. G; D. 3 24—26: .1. 21-24: P. 15: (V.) \: I'. \ +
10+ 1 ; L. lat. 46 — 5G.
■Si/ii. Giiaperua longa. Lister in App. :iil Wii.i.riiiii!., llisl. Pi.'c,

p. 21, tab. I, 20.
Balistes maculatus, Bl., Natunj. Aiisl. Fisch., pt. II, p. 25,

tab. CLI; Blkr, Atl. Ichtli. Ind. Or. AVcW., lom. V, p. 122,

tab. CCXVUI, fig. 4; Gthr, Unt. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. VIII,

p. 21.3; Malm, Olvers. Vet. AUaii. Forli. 1875, No. 7, p. 8 ;

Obijs.. Boh. Fn., p. 5!)9; D.w, Fisli. Iml, p. 687, tab.

CLXXV, fig. .3; Fish. (it. lirit., In-I., vol. II, p. 267, tab.

CXLV; LiLLJ., Sv., Xory. Fish-., vol. Ill, p. 420.
Balistes brevissimiis + Bid. aiujulosus {.') + Bat. maculatus +

Bat. longissimus, Holi,abd, Ann. Sc. Nat., 4 ser., Zool.,

toni. r. pp. 56—62, fab. 3, figg. 1 — 4.

The Spotted File-tisli attain.s a lengtli of ;it least 4
(Int., and is distiiigtiislied, when adult, among its con-

as a rarity, iiaving wandered to our waters probably
in the same manner as Aiifei/iKtrhts lii.^frin, merely a
casual vi.sitor to Scandinayian regions.

In Scandinayia the File-fish, of course, possesses no
ecoiH)niical imiiortance: tind it is not used in any maimer, to
the best of our knowledge, in its true haliitat. Tho other
European species of the genus, Balistes caprisctis, a bjrni
belonging to the warmer regions of the Atlantic and ti:e
Pacific, not very rare in the Mediterranean, and once
or twice met with on the coasts of Great Britain and
Ireland, is also one of the least useful fishes. According
to Caxestrini" it is not eaten in Italy. The flesh of the
whole genus, as we have mentioned abovi', is also sns-

■%ft».

'*%«.

Batisti'.'! iiiariilatiis. ' ., Ilie natinol size. Valiiaraisd; the Kiii/eiiii' Expedition.

geners by its elongatetl form and by the coniparatively
great height and almost falfiform shaiic of the second
dorsal and the anal tins. It is one of the first-
discovered species of the genus, and its range ex-
tends over the tropical and subtropical seas of both
hemispheres. In the \¥est Indies it has long lieen known,
together with another species, under the name of Sa-
hiico: and from these regions it sometimes strays to
the coasts of North-western Kuro|)e. It has once been
found, according to GDnthek, off Pol])erro in Cornwall;
and in Uddevalla Museum is preserved a stuffed speci-
men, 272 mm. long, which is said to have been taken
during the autumn of 18.57 off "SaltkiSllan, at the head
of (Tidlmai- Fjord, whence it was forwarded fresh to the
said museum". Of its habits we have no special infor-
mation. In the Scandinavian fauna it is interesting only

pected of possessing poisonous properties. In those
tro])ical regions where the species are most plentiful,
the natives suppose that these poisonous properties are
due to the food of the fishes and are especially dangerous
when the fishes live on coralline animals. Day describes'',
according to Meuniers obseryations at Mauritius, the
.symptoms caused by the eating of File-fi.shes. The
poison operates immediateh' upon the nerves of the
stomach and causes violent spasmodic convulsions in its
walls. Soon afterwards, these convulsions spread to the
muscles of the wliole body. The tongue swells, the
eyes stare, the breath grows difiictilt, and the patient
dies in the most acute agony. Powerful emetics, fol-
lowed by oleaginous substances and emulsions, are the
best antidotes. (Jther species of the genus, however,
enjoy a good rej)utation.

" Fauna Italica, pt. Ill, Pr.
* Fishes of India, p. 68G.

p. 147.

lIEMIBKAXrilS.

6;^,5

PHYSOCLYSTI HEMIBEANCHII.

r/n/siii'liisfs iritit free jiiii'lxnics and pcrfiiiafed (jillf, but irith the liraiicl/ial arrlies more or less imperfect and

iritJi J(ir<ie and erfernalli/ rinUtlc iutcrrlarieles.

Here, as in the case of tlie Plectogiiates, the sy-
stematic difference fVoiu the other Physoclysts is not at
all too i.n-eat to admit of the arrangement of these fishes
in a series of families corresponding to the series already
iidopted among the Physoclysts and ranged beside these
series. This was also the approximate rank assigned to
them by the writer who first treated of the combination
of these fishes into a systematic whole: in 1861, in his
arrangement of the Acanthopterygians", GOnther adopted
a twelfth di\ision, Acantliopterygii gasterosteiformes, in-
clnding the Sticklebacks and Flute-mouths with their
nearest relatives, and a thirteenth division, Acaidhopte-
ri/f/ii cenfristiforiiies, t-ontaiuing the family of the Trum-
pet-fishes. After Parkkr's* deraonsti-ation in 1868 of
the morphological significance of the interclavicles of
the Sticklebacks as traces of the (ianoid t\'iie, (Jope"
united GrNTHEu's two divisi<_)ns into nn order Ifemi-
hraiuliii, ■■connecting the Lojdiohraiicliil with ordinary
fishes. '

All these fishes have abdominnl ventral tins, and
are thus ranged comparatively low in the scale of deve-
lopment of the Phvsoclysts. Theii- ])rincipal character
also lies, as we have shown ahove, in the circumstaTice
that several of the bones which in more typical Phy-
soclysts entirely partake in the structure of the endo-
skeleton, are here wholly or ]),-irtlv dermal, appearing
in the form of growths Ijelonging to the exoskeleton.
This structural feature is fairly common among fishes.
Scales, differing usually in size, shape, or thickness from
the other scales of the body, are in one fish the pre-
cui'sors of ;i still further alteration in a kindred form,
a difference which, during the development of the form-
series, leads to the result that the modified scales creep,
so to speak, into the body and join themselves to parts
of the endoskeleton, and finally, when the transforma-
tion has reached its highest point, lie like covering
(membrane) l)ones outside other bones, oi- even enter in

the form of independent bones into the endoskeleton.
A great portion of the skeleton of the Vertebrates has
originated in this manner. The most beautiful and most
perfect example of tins is given by the luiniaii clavicles,
the development of which has l)een traced b^- Pahker
(1. c.) from their first origin, at which period they are
mor|jhologically analogous to two lateral plates in the
Sturgeons or the Cuirassed Siluroids''. The intercla-
vicles which we have above remarked in certain Plecto-
gnates, are of similar origin. They occur, it is true,
in several other Physoclysts as well, but in an extre-
mely reduced form and as parts of the endoskeleton.

Hei"e, in the Henilhrandiii, as well as in the Lopho-
hranchii, they still preserve distinctly the character of
dermal plates. Thus, in the Three-spined Stickleback
(fig. 1.5(5, (') for example, they have the form of two
parallel, ventral scutes, contiguous in front, separated
l)ehind, on the outside gi'anulated and striated, like the
other dermal plates of the body, on the inside support-
ing, in front, the lower ends of the clavicles, and be-
hind, the lower margins of the coracoid bones or more
correctly, according to Parker, of their covering bones,
the procoracoids, which are also said to be of dermal
origin.

The same relative position to the rest of the
skeleton is here occupied by the pelvic bones or rather,
according to the same interpretation, by the covering
bones of the pelvic liones proper. These bones lie in
the Sticklebacks immediately behind the interclavicles,
or even project some distance between them; and in the
Three-spined Stickleback (fig. l.')7, A. rs) they are
marked by the large, ascending process that meets the
lateral plates of the body in the skin. The character
which in (Joi'e has been chosen to g^ive the Hemihranclm
their name, lies in the absence or persistent cartilagi-
nous structure of one or more of the upper parts of
the branchial arches (the epil>r;inchial and upper pha-

" iSnstcm. Synops. Fam. Acaidhopt. Fisli., Cat. Brit. Mns.. Fish., p. VIII.

* Uay. Soc, Shoulder Girdle and Sternum, p. 40.

' Ichthi/ologi/ of the Lesser Antilles, Trans, .\iner. Pliil. Soc, Pliilarl., ii. ser., vol. XIV. pp. 45t; ct 457.

'' Cf. Smitt, rjr lie hdr/rr djurens utvecklingsliistoria, p. 218.

68(5

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

i-yiio-eal bones) on eacli side. Anotlier charactei' of moi'e
^ener;il validity — which indiciiTes th(^ low rank of these
fishes among the Teleosts — is tlie imperfect ramifica-
tion and, in some cases, the defective transver.se divi-
sion (articnlation) of th(! soft fin-rays.

The foi'in of tile body is very \ariiihle in the Hemi-
hraiich'ii. The Sticklebaclcs, wiiicii possess the ordinary,
most typically piscine form, are so like the Horse-
Mackerels that they have been ranged beside the latter
i)y mam' svstematists. All tiie others are of more
singnlar form, elongated like tlie Garpikes or laterally
compressed, and all witli the head prolonged into a long,
tubular or conical siKjut, at flie end of wiiicii the small
mouth is situated. Tliis ])roloiigation, however, does
not depend here, as in tlie Garpikes, on tlie elongation
of tlie jaws, but corresponds more exactly to the struc-
ture we have remarked above in certain Pleetognates,
here affecting tlie ctlinioid bone, tlie tiiree pairs of
pterygoid bones, the preoperculum, and tlie interoper-
culum, which together form the greatei' part of the
long rostral tube, special suborbital Ijones, on the other

ds/. c^s_Z_

\. '^^^^■

.4,!?^

S*i. vi at

Fig. 1.57. Gasteivsleiis nri:leatiis, Iracliiirus. naliiral si
f'ckeniforde Bay. A: from tlie side; B: from above; V:
anal rcgioiKs; r/.«, dorsal plates; j)s, plate of tlie ventral
bone), in A its ascending lateral process; </, vent; at,
ft, ventral spine, .\fter Heincke.

ze. From
ventral and
fin (pelvic
anal spine ;

Fig. l.'ilj. Slionlder-girdle of Ganlcrosleiii' aciileatux; niagn. 9 or 1 0 diam.: after TAnKER.

A: Bones of the left side, seen from witliont. pt, posttemporal bone (Ganoid plate of tlie first dermal ring); 1.1.2, first lateral plate (Ganoid
plate of the second dermal ring): LI..'), fourth lateral plate; ct, clavicles; kc, scapula; sc.f, scapular fenestra; b./, first basal bone of
the pectoral fin; 0.4, fourth basal bone; ji.cr, ossilied jiart of the coracoid bone (priceoracoideuni, according to Pakkeh); /.(7, inter-
clavicles.

fi: Section of the lower part of the clavicular arch, to show tlie cartilaginous part of the coracoid liones (e.ci: epicoracoidenm, according to
Parker) between the clavicles.

U: Interclaviclcs, seen from the ventral side, with the anterior end up.

STICKI.EHACKS.

(537

liMiid, ln'iiii!; WMiirin::'. W v liml ;i Ii-mcc of tliis eloiiuiitioii 1 has Ix'cii conipiircd, iiui witliout i-ciisoii, to tlic cai'apace

ill one of our Sticklebacks, tlu' Fift('eii-s|)iiK'cl species. of the turtles.

The other families of the //'e»H7;>'rt /«■/»'/ (the Flute-mouths, | The Ilcuiiliriinchiaii ,tirou]i is not particulai'lN rich
Fisfuliiriiihr, and the Trumpet-fishes, ('cntriscidcc) arc in forms. It contains only a scoi'c of known and
also distinguished from tlie Sticklebacks by the elouga- described species. Some of tlicm .-ire so like each other
tion and, in some cases, the coalescence of the tirst thiit tlu'ir I'ight to s|)ecitic rank nuisl still be regarded
four or even the tirst six vertebne. In this maimer ! as rather dubious; others, again, are so different that
the forc])art of the body receives an increase of strength , a comparatively great number of genera have been
which is still further advanced in the Trumpet-fishes established. According to (Jill the gi-oup cont.-iins 11
h\ the e\tr:iordinarA- development of the .'interior inter- gcnerM, <listribute(l among (i families. Most of the fa-
spinal bones and bv their dorsal expansion into a more milies li\e in tlie tropical seas; the Scandinavian fauna
or less perfect shield, which in the Chinese Amphisile possesses only one.

I AM gasterosteidj:.

The (itiferior rertebne of iioniidl xfynrtiin'. Ve)ifral fi/.s irifli one s/i/hoks <ntd ane or tiva saff rai/s. In front of
the soft-rai/ed {second) dorsal fin 3 — Jo free spinous rays {not united hy a fin-memhrane) : in front of tlie anal
fin one spinous ray. Slnlmrbitcd ring united to the preoperculum, hut without rigid connexion. Teeth on the infer-
maxiUary hones and in the hnrer jaw: palate and tongue unarmed. Xo scales proper. Base of the caudal fin
narrou-, hut depressed. Jiranchiosteyal rays .3 on each side. Air-hladdcr simpilc. I'seudohranchifc more or less
ireJl-dereloped : pyloric appendages wanting or riidinieutary.

Within this famih', wliich was founded by GuN-
tiiek" and originallv ranged by him at the head of the
system of the Teleosts, are collected the Hemihranchii
in the exterior of which the ordinary piscine form is
most typically persistent. Still these tishes show ten-
dencies of transition to the carapaced Trumpet-fishes and
also to the elongated I'lute-mouths. An expression of
this inav be found in the proposed generic division of
the famih'. ( hie species, our common Three-spined
Stickleback, with its well-developed dorsal plates and
shortei- form of body, espeeiallj' of the snout, has been
employed as the ty])e of a distinct genus, the true
Stickleback genus {(jasterosteas), while another species,
the Fifteen-spined Stickleback, with its more elongated
form and, in particular, its longer snout, is the .single
representative of a second genus, Sjiinachia or (iastrrea.
The latter getuis is approximated to the Flute-mouths
not only by the form of the body, but also by the
structure of the pelvic apparatus, which in the Fifteen-

spined Stickleback is broken up into its two halves,
which merely meet each other by means of foliate
processes in the median line of the belly.

All these fishes are of small size, but iiave long
been famous both for theii' lieaut^' and for the high
degree of instinct that guides them in the propagation
of their si)ecies. In spite of their insignificant size
thev are not destitute of import;nice. The gregarious
habits of some species collect them in such enormous
masses that they may easilj- be applied to industrial
purposes. On the other hand, they are destructive
enougli, for their fatness is gained to a gi'eat extent
at the expense of the fry and eggs of other tishes.

The range of the family embraces the northern parts
of both hemispheres. Some of these fishes occur both
in fresh water and in the sea or, at least, in brackish
water; ])ut the tirst genus we shall here describe, is
exclusiveh" marine.

Vat. Bnt. yfui., Fish., vol. I. p. 1.

638

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Gencs GASTR^A".

Body ehiiitjafed {grcaivsi ilepth less ihau ',., tlie lengtli of tlir licad), in the alidniiih/dl rri/ioii pciitdfianal and only
slightly deeper than broad; the forepart {in front of the anal sjnne) shorter than the hind part, including the
caudal fin. Number of free spinous rays in front of the soft-rayed dorsal fin at least 13. Ventral fins inserted
at the middle of the Jong jielvic hones, tvhich lie at the hurer lateral edges of the belly and are irithout any firm
osseous connexion irith each other. Jan-teeth compressed.

As we havt' mentiniiprl alxne, tliis germs contains only one sj)ecies:

THE FIFTEEN-SPINED STICKLEBACK (s\v. tAngspiggen).
GASTILEA SPlXAClllA.

Plate XXVIII, fig. 5.

Distance beticecii the central sjrines and the anal sjiine less thcni ^ ^ of the length of the head or than °;5 of the

distance between the former spines and the tip of the s)tonf. irhich distance is more tlian 72 % of tliat betircen

the anal spine and the tip of the snout. Free dorsal spines of uniform si^e, except the hindmost, uhich is also

the largest. Branchiostegal membranes united underneath into a broad, free dermal fold across the isthmus.

B. bv. 3; /'. XIV''— XViB"-— 7: A. 15—7; V. 1|2; P. 9—
lO''; C. ,r+ 1 + 10+ 1 +.r; L. lat. 40; Vi-rt. 40—42.
Syn. Aculeatiis vel I'ungitius marinus longus, Schonev., Ichtli. ^'Ie.ii\
Hotf!., [J. 10: Aculeatus marimis intijor, Id., ibid., tub. IV,
fig. .3 ; Qastero.'itens acnlcifs in dorso qnindecim, Art., Ichth.
Gen., p. .'j2; i>)jn., p. 81; Ccntriscii.-i, A, \, {&\w Spinodiia)
Klein, Hist. Pise, Miss. IV, p. 48; Stkum, Hdndm. Beskr.,
part. I, p. .310.
Gasterosteus Spinaohia, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 296;
Fii. Suec, ed. II, p. 119; Bl., Fiscli. Deutschl, part. II,
p. 84, tab. LIII, fig. 1; Retz.. Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 339;
Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. IV, p. 509; Ekstr., Vet.
Akad. Handl. 1831, p. 305; NiLSS.. Prodr. Iclith. Sra7id.,
p. 87; Ekstr., v. Wr., SIcand. Fislc., ed. I, p. 21, tab. IV,
fig. 3; SUNDEV., Stookl). L. Hush. Sallsk. Handl., H. VI
(1855), p. 79; NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., f. 112; Lindstr.,
Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 15 (sep.); Gthb,
Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. I, p. 7; Sauv. {Gastraia) Nouv.
Archiv. Mus. Par., toiii. X (1874), p. 36; Bnoke (Gasterosteus),
Fiscli., Fischer., Fisch:. H'., 0. Preuss., p. 76; Huidb.
Fiscliz., Fisclier. (M. v. d. Borne), p. 99: Day, Fisli. Gl.
Bnt., Irel., vol. I, p. 246, tab. LXVIII, fig. 5: Mela, Vert.
Fen,)., p. 280, tab. IX.
ISpiiiactiia vulgaris, Flhng, Biit. Anim.. p. 219; Kr., Damn.
Fiske, vol. I, p. 193; Mgrn, Finl. Fiskf. (disp. Helsingf.
1863), p. 16; Coll.. Forb. Vid. Sel.sk. Christ. 1874, Tilla?gsb.,

p. 14; WiNTU., Naturh. Tidskr. Kblivn, ..^or. 3, vol. XII, p.
5; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 171; Hansen,
Zool. Dan., Fiske, p. 31, tab. V, fig. 4; MOb., Bcke., Fiscli.
Osts., p. 64; Storm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr. (Trondhj.) 1883,
p. 15; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fn.. Fisk., vol. I, p. 370.
apinacliia Linnei, Malm, Gbgs, Boli. Fii., p. 373.

Oi.>\ The name of Kipinacliia or, as Klein writes it, fSpinocliia
is, according to CrviER and Valenciennes, a Latinized form, dating
from the Middle Ages, of the French epinoche.

The Fifteon-spined Sticklebiick is distinguished from
its relatives by the elongated form of the body, with
the greatest depth, at the base of the ventral tins, about
10'/., — 8'/, % of the length. From the head to the
vent the body is pentagonal, then (juadrangular, but
more and more depressed behind, until at the base of
the caudal tin it suddenly becomes laterall)' compressed.
The length of the body may rise, at least in the fe-
males, to 18' „ cm., lint is usually between 13 ;ind
15 cm.

The ehingated hend measures between '^ and 'j'
of the length of the body, and in old specimens the

" In order to enable us without tautology to retain the Linna;an specific name of spinacliia, we here adopt the generic name proposed
by Sauvage in 1874, a Latinized form of Cuvier's Les Gastres, in spite of the fact that, even in the first edition of his Regne Animal (1817),
the latter author adopted Spinaohia as the name of the subgenus which Fleming (British Animals, 1828) raised to a generic rank.

'■ Sometimes 13, according to Heinoke; sometimes 17, according to Day.

^ Sometimes 5, according to Lilljbborg.

'' Sometimes 11, according to Krby'er.

' 25'6 — 2 1 '5 % of the length of the body, according to our measurements of specimens between 53 and 172 mm. long.

KIKTKEN-Sl'INEl) STICKI.KHACK.

fi89

Icii^U'tli i)t' the stidiit i-i exMctly ot|iial to tlic distimcc
lii'twecn the liiiiil margin of tlie eye and that of
tlic ojiLTcuhiiii. This elongation of the snout is, Imw-
ever, a eiuiraeter of growth, foi- in fr\- "_M mm. long
the length of tiie snout is aliout tiu % of the [jost-
orbitnl length of tiie head, in young specimens between
50 and 7.') mm. long about ilO % thereof. The elonga-
tion is jirodueed, as we ha\e mentioned abo\c, by the
growtii in a forward dii'cetion of the ethmoidal region
and the palatine parts as well as of tlie preoperculum
and interopereulum. At the same time the quadrate
bone with the articular knob tVir the lower jaw moves
forward, and the eleft of the mouth, which up to the
present has been i-omi)arati\<'h' larger and almost hori-
zontal, becomes relatively smaller and rather more
ascending. \\ ith this elongation is also connected the
relative diminution of the eyes; in a specimen 21
mm. long their longitudinal diameter is equal to
tlie length of the snout, in specimens 25 mm. long
about ^ ,, in specimens 50 mm. long about ' ,, and in
•A female 172 mm. long only slightly more than '3
of the same length.

The head is quadrangular, tapering in a forward
dii-ection, \vith per]3endicular sides and only slightly
convex occiput. The snout is depressed and blunt,
with the upper profile slightly concave. The eyes are
round, and their superior margin lies on a level with
the flat or somewhat hollow forehead, or rises a very
little above the latter, the breadth of which, at the
anterior margin of the eyes, is equal to their diameter.
The small, round nostrils, only one on each side, lie
half-way along the snout. The edges of the mouth are
furnished \\ith fleshv lips, lobate on the sides of the
upper jaw; the lower jaw projects beyond the upper,
which nun, however, be protruded bv means of the
long nasal processes of the intermaxillary bones. The
length of the lower jaw is al)ont '/j that of the snout.
When the moutii is closed, the small maxillaries, the
length of which is about ',2 that of the intermaxillaries,
drop under the projecting preorbital bones. The jaw-
teeth are of equal size, chisel-shaped, and most of them
notched at the margin; they are set in front Iti several
(3 or 4) fairly regular rows, behind in a single row.
The pharyngeal teeth are pointed, and above they form
on each side an almond-shaped card, obliquely divided
into an anterior, smaller patch and a po.sterior, larger
one. The gill-rakers are setiform, 10 or 11 in number
on the first branchial arch. The jjseudobranchia^ lie

Scandinov'um Fishes.

high, on each side within the articulation of the liyo-
maiidii)ular bone; each of them is nuule up of five,
digitiform lanielhe. set in a transverse row. Tiie ])ala-
tine fold of the iip|)er jaw is fairh' large, the corres-
ponding dermal fold in the lower jaw less developed.
The external bones of the head ai'e gi'anulated and
striated. The o|(erculuni is triangular, witli the hind
inferioi' side somewhat cimincx, the upper sidi' smue-
what concave. Ihe suboperculum lias a short, anterior
brancii in a vertical direction and a longer, posterior
one, broader below, tapei'ing behind, and curvtid like
a sai)re: the hitter forms the whole opercular mai'gin
along the lo\\(n' |)osterior side of the true ojierculum.
The preoperculum forms a right angle, with the an-
terior, horizontal arm, which is coasted by the subjacent
interoj^erculum, considerabl)- elongated, as we have
mentioned abo\e. The two posterior suborbital bones
are attached to the u]>iier (inner) margin of this arm,
the posterior firmly, the anterioi- very loosely, thus
forming a cuirass for the cheeks, but only under the
eyes. The hind part of the cheek (lietween the eye
and the vertical arm of the preoiierculum) and the space
between the long preorbital (first suborbital) bone and
the anterior part of the horizontal arm of the preoper-
culum (a strip along the side of the snout, behind the
corner of the mouth) are covered by the glossy skin
alone. The gill-openings extend above the operculum
for a distance measuring about ^3 of its length. Under-
neath the branchiostegal membranes are imited into a
broad, free fold, the hind margin of which coincides
with the anterior end of the interclavicles.

The form of the trunk is determined principally
by the granulated plates that follow the dorsal margin,
the lateral line, and the ventral margins. The dorsal
margin is occupied bv the plates that have been deve-
loped in the skin on the tops of the interspinal bones.
Nearest to the occiput there lie two flat plates, one
behind the other, followed h\ a row of concave plates,
generalh' 15 in numlier, each of which is furnished
with a free spinous i-ay with a small, triangular mem-
brane behind it. Next follow seven plates, which
support the true, soft-rayed dorsal fin. On the dorsal
margin of the (ail this row is continued by fastigiated
and carinated plates, growing more and more flattened,
and finally smoothed out and indistinct. The ventral
edges are formed in the fore])art of the bodj- by the
interclavicles, which are coinjiaratively small in this
species, and which bv their arcuate union in front

81

640

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

togethei' form an elongaterl liorse-shoe, ecjual in It'iigth
to the sjjace between 'J of tlie free spinous rays on the
back. Within each arm of this horse-shoe projects a
small portion of tlie anterior extremity of one of the
pelvic bones. Tiic two pelvic l)ones are also elongated
and narrow in this species, their length being about
e(jual, in adult specimens, to the space between 10 or
even 11 of the free dorsal rays. Tiiey are thin and
almost flat, tlie inner sui-face alone being slightly hol-
low(;d into a l)road channel; and tliey are strengthened
along the middle by two ridges, an outer and strong
one and an inner and weaker, which is interrupted
at the middle. Above, towards the side of the body,
their thin margin is only slightly broadened at the
middle, and tliey do not send out any special branch
in this direction. Inwards, on the other hand, at the
lower ventral edge, at the middle of their length and
a little furtlier back, the)' send out a flat and thin
process, somewhat wider towards the tip, which meets
the corresponding process of the pelvic bone from
the other side of the body, though without entering into
any Arm osseous connexion with it. The pelvic bones
extend very nearly to a line with the vent; and here
this angular structure of the ventral edges ends, to be
replaced at the base of the anal fln and on the under
surface of the tail by a row of plates analogous to that
we have just seen on the dorsal side. The plates of
the lateral line, about 40 in numlx'r, fastigiated and
carinated, ^vith the carina; partly covering each other,
form a straight row from the temporal region above
the gill-cover out along the lateral edges of the com-
pressed tail, though here they grow thin and indistinct.
The first free spinous ray on the back is set above
the hind part of the gill-cover, at a distant'c from the
tip of the snout measuring between 24' ^ and 22 %
(generally decreasing with age) of the length of the
body. The last (hindmost) of these spinous rays lies
exactly opposite the vent, and the distance between it
and the tip of the snout varies individually between
45 and 46 % (exceptionally 43 %) of the length of the
body. Thus, during youth, the space occupied \yy these
spinous rays is, as a rule, somewhat less, in old spe-

cimens somcM'hat greater, than the distance between the
first ray and the tip of the .-iiout. The length of the
rays is somewhat greater than the distance between
them; and their articulations lie a little to one side
and in a zigzag, so that, when they are depressed, tlie
ti|i of cacli ray falls beside the base of the next ray
l)(liind it, in the groove formed by the above-mentioned
concave i)lates". Ju.st behind the last spinous ray rises
the true doi'sal fln, triangular, with rounded ajiex, the
flrst ray being somewhat shorter than the second, but
equal in length to the third, the other rays decreasing
in length gradually, but sharply. Sometimes l)oth the
flrst and the second rays are simple, but in most cases
all the rays are more or less deeply branched. The
last ray is united throughout its length bv the fln-
membrane to the dorsal edge. When erected, the rays
are recurved, the anterior (as well as the posterior)
side of the triangle being thus convex. The leiigtli ot
the base of the fln is about Vs (varying lietween .j6
and 47 %) of that of the head. Just in front of the
anal fln we find a free s])inous ray'', equal in size
to the last spinous ray on the dorsal edge, but situated
further back, vertically below the first or even the
second ray of the true dorsal fin. Thus, the anal fin
being almost exactly similar to the dorsal in form,
structure, and size, the termination of the former lies
somewhat further back than that of the latter. The
form of the caudal fin reminds us, to a certain extent,
of a combination of the anal fin with the true dorsal,
in which combination each of these fins would cor-
respond to a half of the caudal fin, which is fan-shaped
when expanded. In this species, as in all the Scandi-
navian Sticklebacks, this fin contains 12 rays, excluding
a few (generally 2 or ?>) small supporting rays at each
margin), among which the 10 middle ones are branched
for about half their length, l)ut the outermost simple.
The middle rays of the caudal fin are alwaj's some-
what, though sometimes oidy slightly, shorter than the
longest rays of the dorsal fin, and measure about 8"
or 9 % of the length of the body.

The jiectoral fins are of the form and structure
common to all the Sticklebacks. As a rule thev consist

" When tlie numbiT of these r.ij-s is less than usual, it is generally the 14th that is wanting, as Kroyicu has leninrked, the distance
between the last ray and the last but one being tlius greater than that between the other pairs. The interspinal plate of the absent ray is
also wanting. In snt'h specimens we have also found the third spinous ray considerably reduced, and its interspinal plate proportionately
smaller than the others. In some cases Heincke found only 13 free spinous rays.

■ In our figure this ray has unfortunately been overlooked.

' Sometimes 7.

l-'IfTKEN-Sl'INEI) STICK LKUACK.

641

(if 10" simple rays ol' CairK iiiiiCorui Icngtli, tlioiigli
the iiiiddlf (UK'S mi'c shiik-w Ii;iI luno-er than the outer,
the ti|i 1)1' tile tii\s, when iUvv are tdlileti, lieiiiL;' thus
e\eiil\-, hut sharply roumh^d. Wheti expanded these
tins are Ian-shaped. Their hase is almost jiei'pendieular,
and hy the i^ri-at expansion of the shouhh'r-lilade and
the eoracoid bone is removed I'arther than usual from
the ( laviclc, leaving an even pattdi, coNcred with glossy
skin, in front of it. The length ot the pectoral fins is
gen(!ralh about ecpial to the base of the soft-rayed
dorsal or the anal (in, ancl is usually somewhat greater
in the males than in tlie females, varying between
about 10 and 12 % of the length of the body.

The ventral tins lie a little liehind the ndddle of
the pelvic bones and a little behind the end of the first
third'' of the bod}-. 'I'liey are made up of one spinous
ray, which is distinctly longer than (sometimes nearly
twice as long as) any of the other spinous i-ays, and
behind this yn\ the\- have a triangular tin-membrane,
set obli(piely inwards and backwards, and containing
in its posterior (inner) part two small, soft rays, the
last of which is in most eases difficult to detect. Like
all the other s])inous rays, that of the ventral tins is
also granulated throughout the greater part of its length,
with smooth tip; but in this species all the sjjinous
rays are without lateral spines and denticles.

The onlv external difference that we have been
able to discover between the sexes of tliis species, is
that pointed out by Lilljebokg, namely that the pec-
toral tins are generally longer in the males than in the
females; and even this is faint. This uniformity is
highl)- remarkable, for in our other Sticklebacks tiie
difference between the sexes is striking enough, even
in the external form.

The peritoneum is white with a silvery lustre, but
dotted with black, \\-hich is often the predominant co-
lour on the dorsal side of the alxlominal cavity. The
intestinal canal is simple and short. Just behind the
diaphragm the oesophagus, which is lined with longi-
tudinal folds, passes into the stomach, tlie inside of
which is reticulate, and which extends scarcely half-way
along the abdominal eavitv, to about a line with the
hind extremity of the interclavicles, where it is bounded
from the intestine bj' a strong and muscular contrac-
tion. The inside of the intestine is thickly lined with

\illi, ai'ranged in obliciue, traiis\erse series. in a
straight diri.'ction, and with a breadth almost e(pial to
that of the stomach, but growing narrower behind, the
intestine extends almost to the end of the abdominal
cavity, where it bends in a sharp curve obli(|Uidy u|>-
wards and forwards, soon to return in a cui'N'e no less
sharp backwards and downwards to the vent. The only
trace of pyloric appendages that we have been able to
discover, is an extremeh' short process, dii'eeted baek
towards the stomach, on the intestine just beiiind the
pylorus.

The li\er lies in the foi-m of an undivided mass
below and along the sides of tlie (esophagus and sto-
mach, with a blunt point in a downward and forward
direction towards tlie union of the interclavicles. On
the left side it has a short lateral lobe, which does not
extend further back than the main lobe; but the lobe
on the right side is longer, and follows the intestine
for aliout half of its anterior, straight part, or a little
further. At the end of the middle lobe, under the ter-
mination of the stomach, a little to the right, lies the
gall-bladder, and on the left side, above the end of the
stomach, the spleen. The air-bladder is situated in the
posterior part of the abdominal cavity, and its anterior
extremity lies above the end of the stomach.

The ovaries and testes are paired ancl saccate. The
former at least, with their comparatively lai-ge and few
eggs — KiiOYER estimated their maximum number at
300 — occupy the greater part of the abdominal cavitj-
during the spawning-season.

In coloration the Fifteen-spined Stickleback is one
of our most beautiful tishes, though under the influence
of mental agitation, of terror for example, it often
suddenly loses its beauty and brightness of colour, and
does not regain them for a long time. The up])er part
of the body is olive green, shading into brown, the
lower yellowish \\ith white, silvery belly. The sides
are, as it were, transparent, sho^ving glimpses of the
spinous processes of the vertebra? in the form of dark,
transverse, i>arallel streaks. Below the lateral line, on
a ground of lustrous silver, lies a row of large, crescent-
shaped and oval, olive green spots, which grow smaller
behind and iinall}' disappear on the tail. A dark brown
liand runs along the side of the head from the cor-
ner of the mouth to the base of the jjectoral tin.

" Sometimes 9: exceptionally 11.

The distance between the ventral spine and tlio lip of tlie snout varies in different individn
length of tlie Iiodv.

Is between about 34 and 37

642

SCANDINAVIAN KISHKS.

The pectoral tins are yellcnv witli a l)rassy lustre. The
true dorsal and the anal fins ai'e graj'ish brown with
yellow rays in front; behind the membrane is trans-
parent. The caudal fin is olive-green, with transparent
outer margin and vellowish brown I'ays. The iris is
gray, above darker with black margin, below whitish
vellow; the jiupil is surrounded l)v a narrow, orange
ring.

The geographical i-aiige of the Fit'teen-spined Stick-
leback is known to extend from North Cape along the
west coast of Europe to the Bay of Biscay. In Iceland
and America it is unknown. The most westerly parts
of its range are the Faroe Islands and Ireland. It pene-
trates into the Baltic as far as the south coast of Fin-
land. Off Hogland, in the Gulf of Fiidand, it is com-
mon, according to Mela; in the island-belt of Stockholm
it is rare. Being distinctly a marine fish, never enter-
ing fresh water, it is commoner on tlie west coast of
Sweden than on the east. It is also common on the
coast of Norway, off the Orkney and Shetland Islands,
and southward at least to the coast of Brittanj-; but
in the Bay of Biscay it is rare.

The Fifteeu-spined Stickleback is a shore-fish and
lives among the seaweed, ascending into half-a-fathom
of water and even up to high-water mark. "Its favourite
haunts," says Malm, "are such spots as possess a sandy
bottom, studded with large or small stones covered
with Fucacece and interspersed with groves of Zosfera.
Among these it gracefully threads its way by short
stages, now hither and now thither." It is not very
active nor very timid; Init when frightened it darts
forward ^vith the speed of an ari-ow. In contradistinc-
tion to the other Sticklebacks it leads a more solitary
life, or at least does not assemble in so dense or large
shoals. It is tenacious of life" and a greedy eater. Its
food consists principally of small crustaceans (especially
of the genera Mi/sis and Idothea) and worms; but it is
also accused of preying upon the roe and fry of othei-
fishes. Couch' once saw a Fifteen-spined Stickleback
seize and partly devour a young Eel 3 inches long,
though it was at last compelled to disgorge its victim.

During the spawning-season, which occurs in
spring and summer, the Fifteen-spined Stickleback

makes its way to shallow water, within a harbour or
in some little inlet sheltered from the waves, often
between the tide-marks. Here it builds a nest for its
eggs and young. This is constructed either on the
bottom or, perhaj)S more frequenth', floating in tiie
water, under a pendent tuft of seaweed or some
other object — Coicii found one of these dwellings be-
tween the loose twists of the end of a rope'. When
the nest hangs free, it is usually pear-shaped and of
the size of one's fist. Buckland'' gives the following
description of the nursery of the Fifteen-spined Stickle-
back: "Tlie main bod^' of the nest is formed of vei'v
soft weed — in fact, as soft as sponge — and, strange
to say, as though for the sake of ornament, our little
architect has placed at the point where the nest is
thickest a bit of brilliant blood-red weed. Nay, more,
it appears as though the builder of the nest, fearing
the risk of discovery, had worked in great broad por-
tions of brown riljbon weed, which should act, firstly,
as a covering, or band, to keep the whole structure
together; and, secondly, to serve the purposes of con-
cealment. So beautifully, indeed, is this nest con-
structed for the concealment of the eggs, that unless
the naturalist to ^\•hom the nest was sent had been
previously aware «hat the structure meant, he might
easily have been pardoned if he had not seen the eggs
at all. After a careful dissection of the outer coatings
of the nest, the eggs themselves came into view. These
eggs are round little bodies about the size and colour
of mustard seed. They are in bunches like grapes, and
we trv whether they are to be separated from the bunch
with ease. Another marvel; the body of eggs are all
sewed into a compact mass by a very thin, delicate
fibre, which in the sun glistens like a cobweb or the
very finest floss silk. The filaments which hold the
eggs are worked through, over and round them, so
as to form a comjdetc network.' Threads of the
same sort also serve to hold the walls of the nest
together, and are secreted by the fish in the form of
a glutinous substance that hardens in the water.

Malm has described (1. c.) his observations of the
spawning of the Fifteen-spined Stickleback on the .']rd
of August, 1854, off Kristineberg (Gullmar Fjord).

" KnoYER, liowever, foimfi it less tenacious of life than the true Sticklebacks.
' Hist. Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. I, p. 183.
' 1. c, pi. XXXVIII.

•' Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 250. For furtlier inforniation on tliis lieail see H.^ncock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., vol. X
(1852), p. 24C.

FIl'TEKN-Sl'lNEl) STICKLKHACK.

643

'it w;is !i female", groenisli in I'olinir, tliat was husv
near tlu^ laiuliiig-staae, in alxnit 7 oy S dm. of water,
huildiii.i:' a dwelliiii!', or a kind of nest, for the eggs
soon to lie d(']M)sit('d. Ill a round iioliow, nhoiit 2' ._,
cm. deep and 1") cm. in diameter, in the S!ind\' bottom,
she placed, several times an hour, small fragments of
dead jilants, which she found during her wanderings
in the neighbourliood and carried in her mouth to the
s|)ot. Now and then she worked herself into the heap
thus collected, turning ipiickh' round and round, and
emerged on the other side of the jiile. in this manner
she carded the Iniilding-materials with the stiff and
shar]) rays of lier tins, and at the same time oiled them
with the slime secreted 1)\' her own body, thus forming
an elastic tube, in which she finally deposited her eggs.
The male in his more bluish dress kept guard, swim-
ming round and round the spot, and now and then
rewarded by a I'riendly greeting from the female, while
the enemies of the roe, the shrimps and shore-crabs
etc., were repulsed by the powerful onslaughts of the
brave sentinel, as soon as they ventured to approach
his post, 'file female was oftt'ii compelled to come to
the rescue, but the fish were alwaj's victorious. l)ut
if another male of the same species came up, he was
at once joined by his host in some fi'iendly sport, which
ended in a regular game of ti{/ among the stones and
seaweed several yards from the spot. But as soon as
the host saw that he had led astray his uninvited guest,
whom he had evidently enticed from the spot by this
stratagem, he returned at full speed, to resume at the
next moment the defence of his home and family. They
paid no attention to fishes of other sjiecies, such as
Gobies etc." From this observation Malm concludes
that the Fifteen-spined Stickleback lives in pairs, at
least during the sjiawning-season, and is not polyga-

mous like the other Sticklebacks; while it would also
seem to lie jiciuliar to this species that the female
should liuild (he nest and take part in its defence.
Other observers, however, an; of fjjiinion that here too
the male is the actual builder, but that the nest is
guarded both b\' the male and the female. The parents
continue their vigilant care of the eggs and the new-
hatched young for at least thi-ee or four weeks. Ene-
mies are repulsed; if the nest is damaged, they repair
it; if they are driven away, they soon I'cturn. If the
nest be built between the tide-marks, they must, of
course, leave it to its fate during the ebb; but the
moisture retained by the walls of the nest suffices to
keep the eggs or young alive until the; tide rises again.

Of the growth of the fry we learn from the col-
lections of the Royal Museum that during the expedi-
tion of the gunboat GunhUd, on the 25th of July, 1878,
a young specimen iV'^ mm. long was taken at a depth
of four fathoms on a stony and weedy bottom, in the
south of the Sound between Malmo and Falsterbo. It
belonged, no doubt, to the fry of the same year. On
the Irish coast Thompson* found young specimens 19
mm. long in June and others, 25 mm. long, in July.
Through Professor Lindstrum the Royal Museum has
acquired some young specimens between 57 and 71
mm. in length and taken on the coast of Gothland in
August, 1852. These last specimens, however, can
hardly have been less than a year old.

The S(jlitary life of the Fifteen-spined Stickleback,
which prevents it from ever being caught in any quan-
tity, deprives it of all special importance to man in an
economical respect. It is taken only by accident among
other fishes in small-meshed nets or the seine; and it is
utilised only in the manufacture of oil and as manure.

(Ekstroj[, Smitt.)

" As the nest was afterwards destroyed by accident and tlie fish were frigliteiied away, Malm was prevented from ascertaining by
closer examination wliether this specimen was really a female, and her companion a male.
"• Nat. Hist. Trel., vol. IV, p. 90.

644

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Genus GASTEROSTEUS '.

Body mackerel-like , compressed {greatest depth more than half the Iciif/th af the head), irltlioat other carince than
the lateral edges of the belly and the elevation of the lateral line on the hind jiarf nf thr tail: forepart of the
hody (in front of the anal spinr) loni/i'r Ihiin thr hind jiart, including the candal fn. Xainber of free spinoas
rays in front of the s(ft-raycd dorsal fn less than lo. ]"entral fins inserted at the outer, front corner of the
pelvic hones, vhich coalesce n-ith each other in the median line of the belly into a triangular ventral jilatc.

tajicring behind. Jair-teeth conical.

The genus of the Sticklebacks contains the most
widely-spread of all the Scandinavian iishes. There is
hardly a single brook in whicli we fail to see these
small and lively creatures swimming merrily about,
often within narrow limits which the heat of summer
reduces more and more each minute. For economical
jjurposes they genei-allv possess far too little importance
to interest the practical fisherman, who usually knows
them merely by name. The zoologist cannot content
himself Avith so slight an acquaintance. To him a
knowledge of the Stickleback is quite as important as
of its far larger and far more useful fellow, the Salmon.
Both are e(iually small fractions in the great series
of natural forms which it is his task to investigate,
and both are equall)- interesting, equally advantageous
subjects of study. When we add to this the wonder-
ful instinct of the Sticklebacks, which guides them to
an architectural skill exceptional among fishes, we have
sufficient grounds for bestowing on them more than
usual attention.

To the sj'steniatist they are also of absorliing in-
terest, for the course of development may be traced
with especial distinctness in their differences of form
and changes of growth. Their relation to the preceding
genus has been expressed in a masterly way by Dr.
Heincke', in an elucidation of the significance of the
variations affecting the dorsal spines in the Three-
spined Stickleback. With this object he had examined
about 10,000 specimens of the species in question.

The Three-spined Stickleback is generally furnished
— and this is one of its most important characters —
with 3 free spinous rays at the dorsal edge in front
of tiie soft-rayed dorsal fin. It had long been known,
however, that the number of these spinous rays might

be increased to 4"; and a variety of this kind, with
the four spinous rajs comparatively short, had been
described l)y CrvU';i; and X'alenciennks'' as a distinct
Italian species, Gasterosteas tetracanthus. Heincke found
about 1 percent of the Three-spined Sticklebacks that
he examined, furnished with four spines; and of this
number he examined 61 specimens in order to locate
the supernumerary ray. Each of the spinous rays is
attached to and articulated, in a singular manner which
^\•e shall describe more fully belo^v, ^vith one of the
interspinal plates on the back. These plates are as a
rule (fig. l.'iZ and fig. 1.58, B) 6 in number and arranged

.X,^i-.

Gastcrosieii^ aculeatus, gymnnriis. Natural size. From
It.nlv. After Heincke.

in a row: 2 small ones just behind tlie head, 2 larger
ones, each with a spinous ray, the posterior usually
the larger, 1 smaller plate with no spinous ray, and
lastly 1 su])porting the iiindinost spinous raj. The
largest two of these plates, however, are evidently due
to the coalescence of at least 2 plates respectively. In
fig. 1.59 we see the anterior one broken up into two
])arts, and in fig. 160 the posterior of them shows the
same division. The anterior also rests on the upper

" The generic name is derived from Artedi, Genera Pisciiiiii, p. 52.

' Ofvers. Vet. Aknd. Furli. 1889, p. 395.

' Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poi.?s., vol. IV, p. 491.

'' 1. c., p. 499.

STICKLKliACKS.

tl45

spinous j.iroccsscs of two \ertclii'a', tlic ])Ost('rior (jii
llidsc (if I'diu'. Tims we have us a rule to deal witli
S iiitoi'spiiiMl plates at the dorsal wlgc in tVuiit of the
sott-rayed dorsal fin. In one single case, however,
Heincke could trace 9 of these interspinal plates, the
last two each with a distinct, well-developed spinous
ray, and tlie tliird, t'ounfinii' from l)eliind, witii a ru-

Fig. 159. Ga.ilerosleiis aculeiitn.'i. traclninis. Natural size. From

the Frisches Haff, off Konigsberg. — ~' tlie posterior, detached part

of the tliiril (lor.^al plate (<is. J). After Heincke.

diineiitary spinous ray "in tlie form of a rigid spine."
The Three-spined Sticklehack has thus shown at least
traces of as many as 5 free spinous rays at the dor-
sal edge.

If we now observe the arrangement of these 5
spinous rays, we shall find that each one of the 9

c/s4 //sf.

Fig. 160. Gaslerostcu.< nculeatus, trachurus, leiracanthiis, with the

supernumerary spinous ray set on the penultimate dorsal plate. Natural

size. From Kiel Bay. — " the posterior, detached part of the fourth

dorsnl plate (df. 4). After Heincke.

dorsal plates, witii the exception of the tirst, may be
furnished with a spiiujus ray, though not simultaneously.
In order to ex])ress the differences that occur in this
respect, we shall denote each of the interspinal plates
by an Arabic figure (1 — !)), the plates which in each
case must be regarded as double, by brackets ( — — ),
the three ordinai-v spinous rays by the Roman num-

erals I — III, tlie most usual supcfntniicrar\' ray by IV,
and till- rudimentary and superniiTnerary ray that has
only once been ol)ser\ed, by \ . The cases (varieties)
observed h\ IIki.nckk are then as follows:

..■1; in Three-spincd Sticklebacks with 'A free spinous rays at
the dorsal edge.

a: with the regular number (fi) of interspinal plates, the
forms most typical in this respect (figs. 157 .and 158).

0 0 I II 0 0 III
\ — -> — o"^^ _,5_J^_0 — « — 9

h: witli 7 interspinal plates (the 3rd and 4tb detached
from eacli other, (ig. 159).

(I 0 10 II 0 0 III

1 2 — 3 — 4 — h^ i; — 0 _ 8 — 9

^,,

- '^i^^liiSiaf— -^?, '-^^

Fig. 161. Gasterosteus aculeatii.t, trachuvus, tetracanthus, with the

supernumerary spinous ray set on the penultimate dorsal plate.

Natural size. From Eckernforde Bay. After Heincke.

B: in Three-spined .Sticklebacks with 4 free spinous rays at
the dorsal edge.

(■; with a supernumerary spinous ray on the penultimate
interspinal plate, otherwise as in variety «. 36 speci-
mens out of (il showed this arrangement (fig. 161).
0 0 I_ _IJ_ 0 IV III

1^2—3^4—5—6—0—8—9
(/; similar to c, but with the 5th and 6th plates detached
from each other (liir- 1(!0). 16 specimens out of 61.

0 (I I ^ II 0 0 IV III

1 _ 2 — 3^^ _5_(5_()_8 — 9

e: with a supernumerary spinous ray on the 6th plate and
with this plate detached from the 5th. 4 specimens
out of 61.

0 0 I II IV 0 0 III

1 __ 2 — 3^ 4 — 5-6-0 — 8-9

/; with only 5 interspinal plates, otherwise similar to c.
i specimens out of 61.

0 0 1 II 0 IV III

0 — 2 — 3^^ — 5^^6 -- 0 — S — 9
ij: with only 6 interspinal plates, otherwise as in d. 1
specimen out of 61.

0 0 I 11 0 0 IV III

0 — 2 — ~— 4 — 5 — 6 — 0-8 — 9
h: with a supernumerary spinous ray on the 4th inter-
spinal iilato. which is detached from the 3rd, the latter,

646

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISHKS.

ou tlie other hand, being continent witli the 2n(i (fig;.
l(i:i). 1 specimen in (il.

0 I IV II 0 (J III

1—2—3—4—5—6—0—8—9
i: uitli n supcrnumerarv spinous vay on the 2nd inter-
spinal plate, otherwise similar to <;. 1 specimen in fil.

0 \\ I _I1_ 0 0 III

1 — 2 — 3 — 4 — 5 — 6 — (I -.s — 9

C: in one Three-spined Stickleback with a rudiment of a fifth
spinous rav and with eight interspinal plates.
O" 0 1__ I^ 0 \ IV III

1—2—3—4—5—6—7—8—9

Now, as at least 7 of the interspinal plates —
though only 3 — 5 at once — may be furnished in the
Three-spined Stickleback with true spinous rays, and
as 7 — 12 free s])inous rays occur at the dorsal margin

t/s.3

ds.^.

Fig. 162. Gastcrosteus actileatns, Iraclntms, tetracanthus (sjiinnlosiiis)
with tlie siiijerniimerary spinous ray (') set on llie posterior, de-
tached part of the third dorsal phite. Natural size. From the Frisuhes
Haif, off Konigsberg. After Heinoke.

of the Ten-spined Stickleback, while in the Fifteeu-
spined Stickleback the limits of the variation in this
respect are 13 and 16, the series, with decrea.siiig num-
bers, is complete from the last species to that first
mentioned. Heincke assumes that the development has
taken this direction, with constantly sinking numbers.
Thus, where more than 3 free spinous rays occur at
the dorsal edge of the Three-spined Stickleback, we
have a retrogression to an older stage of development,
through which the species has already- passed. The
Fifteeii-spined Stickleback, according to this theory, re-
presents the earliest stage of the development of the
whole family, whose descent should thus be traced
from fishes of the Fistularioid family.

The alterations of development, however, lead us
to a different conclusion, namely that the Ten-spined
Stickleback stands nearest the probable origin of the

famil\ . \\ c have already .seen thnt the elongated furni
Avhich is the chief characteristic of the genus (jafitrri'd

— though we meet with it in the youngest forms of
all the Sticklebacks — especially in the character th;it
suggests a transition to the Flute-mouths, nanieh- the
elongation of tlie snout, is a character of age, a cha-
racter which develops during growth from a iu\enile
stage with the typical form of the species perfect in
other respects, but with the length of the snout only
slightly greater than in the true Sticklebacks. Even
during the later (older) stages of growth this general
rule holds good, for the length of the snout shows
increase, c. g. in proportion to the po.storbital length
of the head (see the following taljle), both in the Fifteen-
spined Stickleback and the true Sticklebacks, but is least
in the Ten-spined species. Another relation, in which
the changes of development also follow the same direc-
tion ill all the three species now tuider consideration,
gives the same result. If we endeavour to formulate
an expression for the position of the soft-rayed dor.sal
and the anal fins with respect to each other, we find
that, as a general rule, the anal sjiine lies somewhat behind
the perpendicular from tlie beginning of the former tin

— in the Ten-spined Stickleback alone it may e.xcep-
tionally lie somewhat in front of this line — and that
the percentages for the distance between the former fin
and the tip of the snout compai'ed witli that lietween the
anal sjiine and the same point, run in all three species
in inverse proportion from the earlier stages of growth
to the later. The highest percentages, \vhich are thus
expressions of the lowest stages of develo])ment, occur
in the Ten-spined Stickleback (see the following table).
But this is not all. In the relations in which the Fifteen-
spined Stickleback shows a deviating direction of deve-
lo])ment, it stands nearest to the Ten-spined Stickleback.
For example, if we compare the length of the soft-rayed
dorsal fin with that of the head, we find that this fin
is considerably longer in the true Stickleliacks than in
Gasfro'd, and longest in the Three-spined Stickleback.
The percentage for this relation also increases, as a ge-
neral rule, during the growth of the Sticklebacks, but
decreases with age in Gasfrrea (see the following table).

ia.

Gastcrosteus
pmgitius.

Gasterosteus
nculeatus.

132.2

41.2

56.3

bb.i

*i9.T

96. 3

51.2

56. »

7,^.6

74.8

1)5.4

99.i)

97,8

90.7

86,1

49.1

84.1

88.1

86.2

95.7

Length of the hodv expressed in millimL-tres G4.9

„ ,, Huout in % of the postorbitftl length of the head %.l

Distance between the soft-riiyed dorsal fin and the tip of tlie snout in ?o of the distance between the anal |

Bpine and thf same point I 97.2

Length of the base of the soft-rayed dorsnl tin in % of the length of the head | 52.6

■STH'KLKHACKS.

(;47

TIiiis liotli tlic Fifteeii-spincd and the Three-spiiiod
ISticklcliarks stand nearer to tlio 'reii-s]>ined Stickleliack
diiriii,ii' \iuitli than tliey (h> in latci- life. I )uriiiy' .yi-owtii
they diverge from tliis species, each in a special direc-
tion. The first direction of development tends towards
the Flute-mouths, the second, as we have mentioned
above, towards the Trumpet-iishes.

This conclusion differs essentially, it is true, from
that arrived at by Hkincke, but agrees with the latter in
the most important point, namely that the Three-sjnned
StickJel>ack is descended from a species that was extre-
mely closely allied to the Ten-s|)ined Stickleback, unless
indeed its ancestor be this \ ery species. As evidence
in favour of this Heincke cites Gosterosteus Bussei, the
form described from Amur in 1887 by Herzexstein and
Wari'aciiiiw.ski, with il free s]iinous rays at tht' (kirsal
margin (like the Ten-spined Stickleback), but with a
complete row of scutes along the sides of the liudy (like

the 'J'iiree-spined Stickleback). A similar form had al-
ready been described in 18(j9, from David's Chinese
collections, by Guiciienot" under the name of (hislcrn-
stcKS shiensis, and in 1880, from Dybowski's collections
in the bays of Northern Japan, by Steindachneh'' un-
der the name of Gosferosteus japonkus. ^^'e have an-
other intermediate form in Gasterosteus {EitraHu) ui-
ainsfaiis from North America and Greenland, with the
branchiostegal membranes infcrioi'ly free, at least to
some extent, from the isthmus (as in the Ten-si)ined
Stickleback) and without lateral ]:)lates on the body, but
with only five i'wc spinous ra.\s at the dorsal edge''.
The range of the genus (Tasferosteus embraces both
fresh and salt water in the Arctic and Temperate Zones
of the Northern Hemisphere, both in the Old World and
the New: but the niunber of the species is probably no
more than five, two of which belong to the Scandi-
navian fauna.

THE THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK (sw. stouspicgen).
(tASTEfU »STEUS ACULEATUS.

Plate XXVIII,

1 (?) a„d 2 ((/).

Three {exceptioinillii faiir) five sjiiiHun: rai/s at the (husal VKirii'm. Iliin/(li/(}fife(/(il memhraiies iiiferidii// united

t(i the isthmus thraKt/JioKf its teii(/th.

R. br. .^; D. Ill— IV| 10— 12'': A. i:8— 10; P. 10' — 11;
V. I|l; (.'. .r+ 1 + 10 + 1 +i-: L. Int. ?,~Zi:Vert. 31— .'.2-''.

&jn. Gusterusteus aculeis in ilorso tribiis, AiiT., Gefi. Pise. p. 52;
Syn. Pise, p. 80; Spec. Pise. p. 9(5; LiN., Fii. Kiuec, ed.
I, p. 103; Westbeck, Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1753, p. 2G1;
Strom, Hoyidin. Beskr., vol. I, p. .SI 5; Odmann, Vet.-Akad.
Handl. 1782, p. 167.
Gaslerosteus aculeatus, Lin., Syst. .\at., ed. X, toiii. I, p. 295;
Fabr., Fii. Groenl., p. 169; Retz., Fii., Suec. Lin., p. 338;
Pall. (Gasteracanihiis) Zooi/r. Ross. Asiat., toin. Ill, p. 229;
Cuv. (Gaslerosteus), Pegu. Aiiiiii., ed. I, torn. II, p. 320;
Ekstb., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1831, p. 296; NiLss., Prodi:
Ichlh. Scaiid., p. 85; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. Aiiim., p.
348 ( + G. spiniilosiis, p. 350); Ekstb., v. Wr., Skand. Fisk.,
ed. I, p. 17, tab. 4, fig. 1, a et b; Kr., Damn. Fiske, vol.
1, pp. 169 et 590; Lillj., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1850, p. 309;
Hancock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. X, p. 241;

SuND., Slocldi. h. Hnsli. Sallsk. Handl., H. 6 (1855) pp. 79,
85, 176; NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 103; TnoMrs., J\'a«.
Hist. Ircl., vol. IV, p. 82: Heck., Kn., Siisswasserf. Osterr.
Mon., p. 38 ( + G. bracliycentrus, \>. A\); SiEU, Su.<!Stcasser/.
Miiteleiir., p. 66; Mgrn, Fi7il. Fisk.-Fii. (Diap. Helsingf.)
p. 14: Lindstr., Gotl. L. Husli. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 14
(sep.); Canestrini, Fii. D'ltal., pt. Ill, Pesci, p. 25; Coll.,
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874, TilU-egsh., p. 11; ibid. 1879,
p. 2; N. Mag. Naturv. Clirist., Bd. 29 (1884) p. 48; M.4LM,
Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 371: Seidl., Fn. Bait., p. 128; Winth.,
Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII. p. 4; Feddebs.,
ibid., p. 73; B.ncke, Fiscli., Fischer., Fischz. 0., W. Preuss.,
p. 73: III., Handb. Fischer., Fischz. (M. v. D. BOrne), p.
98; MoR., Hint. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 163; Mela,
Vert. Fenn., p. 277, tab. IX; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. I, p. 238, tab. LXVIII, figg. 1—3; Al. Agass., Proc.
Amer. Acad. Arts, Scienc., vol. XVII (1882), p. 288, tab.
IX; Hansen, Zool. Dan., Fiske. p. 27, tab. V, figg. 1 et 2;

" Noiiv. Arch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, tome V
* Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. Naturw. CI.
■" Cf. Jordan and Gilbert, Bnll. U. S. Nat. M
'' Sometimes 8, according to Krover.

„ 14, „ „ Lilljeborg.

' „ 9, „ ,, Krover.

■^ Exceptionally 30, sometimes 33, according to Fatio

p. 204, pi. 12, fig-. 4.

Bd. LXXXII, I, p. 264, taf. Ill, tig.

., No. 16. p. 394.

Scandinav

FUhe

648

SCAN'DIXAVIAN FISIIKS.

Storm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr., Trondhj. 1883, p. 15; Mun.,
HcKE, Fiscli. Osts., p. 66; LiLU., <S'u., JVorg. Fisk., vul. I,
p. 343; M6b., Nature, vol. XXXIX, No. 9ii8 (Dec. 13, 1888)
HcKE, Ofvcrs. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1889, p. 395.

ddHerosteus biaculeatus, Shaw fex. Pen.n.) Gen. Xool., vol.
IV, p. 608.

Gnxturosteus tracliurus + (! . gyiiinuni/i (leiiinis) + 0. ariji/ropo-
mus+G brachycentrus + G. tetracunthus + G. noveboracensis
+ G. niger, Cuv., Megn. Anim., ed. 2, torn. II, p. 170; + G.
semiarmatus+ G. semiloricahis, Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss.,
vol. IV, pp. 493 ct 494; G. loricatus+ G. dimidiatus, Reinh.,
D. Vid. Selsk. Math. Naturv. Afh., VII (1838), pp. 114 et
119; G. aculeatus + neustrianus + semiloricatus + semiarmatus
+ leinrus + Bailloni + argentatissimus + elegans, Blanch., Pom.
fi. eaux douces Fr., pp. 213 — 236; G. aculeatus + ponticus
+ noveboracensis + .tuppositus + obolarius (:^) + loricatiis + niger
+ serratus + neustrianus + semiarmatus + semiloricatus -^texa-
iius + leiurus + Bailloni + algeriensis + plebeivs + inopinatus +
argeyitatis.mnus + elegans + i.^landicus + biaculeatus + microce-
phalus + argyropomus + brachycentrus + tetracanthus + spinu-
losvs, Sauv., Nouv. Arch, ^fu.^i., torn. X, pp. 9 — 25; (r.
microcephalus + biaculeatus + atkinsii (ex ViEkv') + acideatns,
JoBD., GiLB., Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 10, p. 395.

Ofc. Tlio great miinber of noiuinal species tliat liave been estab-
lished, according to the above list of synonyms, in the endeavour
to elucidate the inconstancy of form among Three-spined Stickle-
backs, is merely a significant token of the lengths to which this in-
constanc}' may run in a species that sometimes occurs in enormous mul-
titudes, is found in far distant localities both in salt water and in fresh,
and botli in form and colour shows marked sexual distinctions.

The Thi-ee-spiiied Sticklel)ack attains a length of
at least aljout 9 cm. Our largest specimen is a female
from Greenland which measures rather more than 91
mm. from the tip of the snout to tlie end of the middle
I'avs of tlie caudal tin, or 93 mm. from the tip of the
lower jaw to the end of the outer caudal rays". The
form of the bod}' reminds us strongly of the Horse-
Mackerel, being fusiform Avith strong lateral compression.
The body is deepest across the pelvis at the articulation
of the ventral spines, ^\•here the depth is aljout ' 5 of
the length of the body, varying individually between
IX'/a fiid 2272 % thereof. Tlie thickness at the same
spot is about half the dcptli, varying individually be-
tween 44 and 57 % thereof. Except during the spawn-
ing-season, when the organs of genei'ation become tumid
and render the bod}' more terete, the thickness is almost
uniform from tlie eyes back to tlie strongly compressed
base of the caudal tin, the sides being flat throughout
the forepart of the bod\', t)ut witii sharji c;iriiuT on

their posterior pai'ts, exce])t in the variety (/i/ini/ttn(s,
\\hicli is without caudal plates, and in which the sides
of the tail are also Hat. The doi'sal profile between the
h(^ad and the soft-rayed dorsal tin and the ventral pro-
tile between the head and the anal tin are usually com-
paratively straight or only slightly convex, M'hile the
upper and lower contours of the head in front and of
the tail behind are more sharply convergent. Some-
times, however, especially in the females, which gene-
rally show a deeper form of body, the entire upper and
lower profiles of the body run in unbroken curves. The
external form is also affected to a, considerable extent
by the more or less advanced development of the co-
vering of plates, this being the origin of most of the
nuinerous different names by which the species has
been known.

Tlie whole covering of plate-armour shows fairly
great individual variations both in extent and in strength.
In its strongest form it consists of comparativeh' thick
osseous growths in the skin, externally resembling Ga-
noid scales, granulated and striated by grooves and
ridges, the latter rough with small granules. But, as
Heincke has remarked, both the thickness and the rough-
ness may be reduced, to the greatest extent, as a rule,
in the Three-spined Sticklebacks that inhabit brackish
or fresh' water, or belong to more southern regions.
Still forms with extremely reduced plate-armour also
occur in the Arctic regions, as for instance in (treen-
Land, whei'c the Sofa Expedition of 1883 took a number
of small specimens of the gi/miiun(^i'orm in a lake near
Ritenbenk (North Greenland). These specimens, like the
Italian arc/i/roponms, have only thrtse jjlates on each side
of the body, namely the three that adjoin the ascending
lateral disk of the j)elvic bones.

The plate-armour of the back \\'e liave already exa-
mined for the most part, and we need only add that
here, as in the Fifteen-spined Stickleback, the soft-rayed
dorsal fin rests on a row of interneural plates (here
about 13, i. e. ■ — excluding the plate of the last spinous
ray — one for each raj' and one more behind the fin).
This statement also applies to the anal fin, which gene-
rally has 11 interhtemal plates at the liase, the first
su])porting the si>inous ray and the last two usually

" Thus almost exactly equal to tlie largest specimen in Copenhagen Museum, according lo Hansen (Zool. Dan., 1. c.). .\ccording to
Pai.las it attains a greater size. His Gasteracanthus cataphractus from Kamchatka seems to be simply tlie typical Three-spined Stickleback,
lint is slated to attain a length of 122 mm. (lougitudine pollicum sesqniquinque). Cf. also Tii.ESius, Mem. Acad. Petersb., torn. Ill (1809
— 10), p. 220.

*■ Already remarked by KitoYEH (1. c, p. 180).

THUKE-Sl'lNEU STICKLKBACK.

(i4;t

witliout rays. Tlii-' Nciitnil iiKU\i;iii in front of tlic ;iii;il
fill tonus M more ur k'ss distiiicl hrciik tor tlie veut;
anil in front of tiie vent, at a greater or less distance
therefroiu, lie the pelvic bones so cliaracteristie of the
Sticklebacks, or rather their covering bones. Here we
see the so-called pelvic bones ijiropclris) distinctly si-
tuated as osseous growths in the skin, in an homologous
series with the interhsvnial plates mentioned above;
while in the other Teleosts the pelvic bones, in their
position and often in their form as well, liave |)roved
quite as distint-tlv homologous with the interlnenial
bones (spines) themselves. This difference is aceomp;i-
nied b^- another: in the Sticklebacks the ventral tins
are attached to the middle (in Gastrtea) or to the an-
terior part (in Gasterosteus") of the so-called pelvic
bones, while in the other Teleosts the}' articulate with
the liind exti'emity of these bones.

In the Three-spined Stickleback, as in the following
species, the ]3elvic bones, with their inner margins unit-
ed bv a suture in the median line of the belly, form
a compact, triangidar plate, pointed behind, \\hieh at
the anterior part of each of its sides sends out a foliate
disk up the sides of the belly. In the Three-spined
Stickleback this disk generally meets three of the lateral
jilates of the body on each side, thus forming a com-
plete pelvic girdle, belonging to the dermoskeleton. The
anterior margin of the pelvic plate is straight or only
slightly concave''. The two anterior corners touch the
interclavicles already mentioned, which in the Three-
spined Stickleback are comparatively broad — their
breadth at the middle about equal to the distance be-
tween them'' — and so long that the pelvic bones lie
entireh' behind the insertions of the pectoral tins.

In the typical Three-spined Stickleback the sides
of the body are almost entirely covered bv a corslet
formed by a I'ow of jjlates belonging to the lateral line,
the only naked parts being the belly itself, up to a level
with the bottom of the insertions of the pectoral fins,
a narroAv strip along the soft-rayed dorsal and the anal
fins, and the patch in front of each of the pectoral tins.

Among these lateral plates the middle ones, below or
just in front of the last s|)inous ra\ on the l)ack, are
the largest (deepest). For\vard and backwai-d the plates
diminish in size; but on the last eight or nine (on the
peduncle of the tail) we find a raised, median carina,
following the longitudinal dii'cction of the bod\-, and
perceptible, though not ver\' distinct, to the twelfth
plate, counting from behind. This median carina ren-
ders the breadth (thickness) of the body no less along
the greater part of the tail than it is in front; but just
in front of the caudal tin the breadth decreases mow or
less rapidly. The lateral line, which pierces these i)lates,
runs from the temporal region parallel to and near the
back. The sixth ])late, counting from in front, is the
most constant in ])osition, and unites the 4th dor.sal
plate to the top of the ascending disk of the pelvic
bones, with which disk the 5th and 7th lateral plates
are also contiguous in most cases. These three lateral
plates (5 — 7) are also the most persistent, while the
others may be I'educed, attenuated, and obliterated, as
we have described above. The first to disappear are
the plates that lie on the posterior jiart of the ventral
sides and the anterior part of the sides of the tail,
between the .seventh plate (from in front) and the ca-
rinated caudal plates : — a form of this description from
Norway has been named hemigymnus by Collett. Later
the fish loses both the foremost plates (in front of the
fifth) and the hindmost, carinated caudal plates, and
the peduncle of the tail undergoes more and moi"e la-
teral compression {gijmnurus). At the same time the
silvery lustre of the body generally disappeai's, and the
back develops more or less distinct, dark spots or trans-
verse bands, suggesting a retrogression to the juvenile
characters.

The head is laterally compressed; the cheeks are
parallel; but the snout is attenuated in front even on
the sides. The upper and lower profiles of the head
meet at fairly equal angles (the upper sloping as much
as the lower rises), with the exception of a break formed
by the articulation of the lower jaw. Tins break is

" In the North American Apeltes quadracus the pelvic houcs are separated from each other hehind, as in the Fifteeu-spincd Stickle-
back; the anterior part of these bones (in front of the ventral spines) is short, broad, and continuous, as in the Three-spined Stickleback,
but without any ascending disk at the lateral margins. The interclavicles are so small that the anterior part of the pelvic bones lies below
the insertion of the pectoral fins, with the ventral spines just behind it.

'' In the variety islandicus (according to Sauvagk, !. c, p. "21. p). 1, fig. 8, '(), as in the above-mentioned (/^mHio-HS form from Green-
land, the pelvic plate is both narrow and deeply incised at the anterior margin, just as in the Tcn-spined Stickleback.

' In some specimens of the above-mentioned f/i/ninuriin form from Greenland, however, the interclavicles are as narrow and as widely
separ.ited at the middle of tlicir lengUi as in the Ten-spined Stickleback.

fi50

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

most distinct in lean specimens, hardly perceptible in
fat and fleshy ones. Thus in the former the lower jaw
i-ises somewhat more I'apidly in a forward direction,
and projects beyond the true tip of the snout. Some-
times too, especially in lean specimens, the said break
renders the inferior profile of the head behind it almost
horizontal. Tiie len>:th of tiie head is greater in the
males than in the females, and %'aries individually be-
tween 23' 2 and 28 % of that of the body". The eyes
are round, and their supei'ior margin lies almost exactly
in the same plane as the interorbital space, which is
flat or very slightly convex and in front narrows regu-
larly, but only slightly; the line from the tip of the snout
to the upper angle of the pectoral fin touches the lower
margin of the pupil. The diameter of the ey(>s is equal
to the breadth of the interorbital space* and in the fry,
as usual, considerably greater than (sometimes 1' .,
times) the length of the snout, in old specimens equal to
this length or at least ^/s thereof. The simple, round
nostrils, only one on each side, lie at the upper edges
of the convex snout, about half as far from the e3'es as
from the tip of the snout. The length of the snout is
in young specimens about \ ^ (or less), in old specimens
(move than '/^ dm. long) as much as 7.i> sometimes "V^,
of the postorbital length of the head, which lengtli
measures in young specimens about Vs (62 or 63 %), in
old about - - (40 — 48 %) of the total length of the head,
or in the former (though not during the earliest stages)
as much as ' \. (.50 — 46 %) in the latter only about '/g
(37 — 32 %) of the distance Ijetween the first spinous
dorsal ray and the tip of the snout. The cleft of the
mouth ascends obliquely and is rather small, the length
of the upper jaw being equal to the diameter of the eyes
or even less than it. Lips are not wanting; but they
are not so tumid as in the Fifteen-spined Stickleback.
Here too, the upper jaw is capable of protrusion l)y
means of the fairly long nasal processes of the inter-
maxillary bones, which processes extend, when drawn
back, up to the groove in the upper surface of the snout,
a little behind the line of union between the two nostrils.
The length of the lower jaw is about equal to that of
the snout, in young specimens considerably greatei' than
the latter. The raaxillar)- bones are narrow, onlj'
slightly widened at the hind extremity, and curved
downwards, but about equal in length to the inter-

maxillaries. When tiie mouth is closed, thev are scarcely
covered by the suborbital bones. Among the latter three
liones the middle one is the smallest, and the hindmost,
wliich is somewhat larger than the foremost (the pre-
orbital bone), more or less com]detely fills the angle of
the preojiei'culum, with its lower margin touching the
horizontal l)ranch of the last-mentioned bone, and some-
times with the inferior part of its hind margin also
touching the front of the vertical branch of the same,
while a triangular process, sharply narrowing upwards,
unites this hindmost suborbital bone to the posterior
frontal bone. Thus, the preorbital bone, whicli forms
the outer margin of the nasal cavity, being also united
to the anterior frontal bone, the orbit is completely
closed; and the naked ])atches on the cheeks, covered
only by a glossy skin, have the same ])Osition as in the
preceding species, though tlie anterior jjatch, behind tiie
corner of the mouth, is much shorter. The jaw-teeth
are of uniform size, set in front in several rows, behind
in one or two, of unifoi-m thickness, cvlindrical, more
or less blunt at the tip, and straight or only slightly
curved. The pharyngeal teeth are of similar form, l)ut
somewhat larger and in general more pointed. The gill-
rakers are pectinated, largest in the outer row on the
front of the first branchial arch, where they are about 16
in number, in the other rows small and scattered. The
palatal folds within the jaws are well-developed both
above and below. The tongue is more developed than
in the preceding species, moderatelj- fleshy, and broad
(blunt at the tip). The structure of the opercular appa-
ratus is the same as in the Fifteen-spined Stickleback,
only that the anterior, horizontal liranch of the preoper-
culum and the interoperculum are shorter, and that the
ascending process of the suboperculuin between the o])er-
culum and the vertical branch of the preoperculum is
larger. In form the operculum resembles a semicircle
set on end and superiorly truncated at the end of the
first third of its length or even a little earlier. Tiie
gill-openings are smaller than those of either the pre-
ceding species or the following one, the branchiostegal
membranes coalescing underneath with the isthmus
throughout its length, back to the anterior extrerait)- of
the iuterclavicles, and thus being separated from each
other. In the typical Three-spin ed Stickleback (the
trachunis form) all the external bones of the head, as

" A conipaiison between 4 males nml 8 females gives the result tliat in the males the lengtli of the head is more, in the females
less, than 27 % of the length of the body.

'' In young specimens and in tlie iji/inuuntft form the breadth of the forehead is comparatively less.

TlIlfKK-Sl'lNKl) STI('K1,E1!ACK.

(;-)i

well as tlu; "tlicr [ilMtcs mikI Ixjucs tli;it Mjipcar ill the
stirt'are of tlic body, arc rouiili witli <;rou\<;s altei'iiatiug'
with i;Taiiuliito(l rulnrfs, coiTcspoiuliiio; to tlie radiating
oTOOVL'S and .stria' iti the structure of an ordinaiy seale.
This marking is most handsome and most regular on
the surface of tlie operculum, where it radiates from the
articulation (the upjier anterior corner) of the bone, with
the grooves, in their even and handsome curves, and the
almost smooth ridges terminating at the hind inferior
margin thereof. In the f/i/iiuinnis form, where the ossified
derma] growtlis are generally more or less reduced, the
external bones of the head may also be covered to a great
extent by the skin, thus losing their Ganoid appearance.
Of the structure of the tins we know alrcadx' how
the sjiinous dorsal ra^s var\' in luunber and position.
The ordinai'N' jilacc of the first s|)inous ra\' lies at about
the end of the lirst third of the length of the body, of
the second spinous ra\' at the end of its second fifth,
and of the last spinous ray a little behind the middle
of tiie body. The most usual supernumerarx' ra\- lies
a little in front of the middle of the body. On this
head we must remark, however, that in later life the
first spinous rav is generally removed distinctly in a
forward direi-tion, its average distance from the tip of
the snout thus sinking from 32"8 to 30'8 % of the length
of the body while this length increases, on an average,
from .").V,S to tJIfl mm. The spinous rays are of a,
more or less broad, triangular form, with concave or
nearly straight sides, and with the front convex and
the back concave. The front is rough and lacunose, like
the above named parts of the dermoskeleton; the lateral
margins are spiniferous for a greater or less distance
from the base out towards the subulate tip. The rough-
ness and the spines partialh- disappear, however, under
the same conditions as the plate-armour of the body,
in the qi/nniurKs forms. These spinous rays also vary
considerabh- in lengtli. As a rule the second is the
longest, tiiough the first may sometimes eipial it in
lengtii; the maximum letigth we have found in the latter
case, is 42' o % of the distance between the lirst spinous
ray and the tip of the snout, while the minimum lengths
(in percent of the same distance) have proved to be
16 in the case of the first ray, 17 in that of the second.
The length of the last spinous ray varies between 7V2
and 17 % of the said distance; and this rav generally

these s])inous I'ays stand straight uji; when depressed,
they lie in a straight line with eaidi other, tlu; tip of
each ra\' sometimes (when the length of tlie rays is so
great) resting on the base of tlie ray behind it. The
interspinal plates on wiiich the i-ays are set, are fur-
nished with a groove in which tiie latter are ])arth' re-
ceived when depressed. Tiiese spinous rays, as well as
tiie others (tho.se of tiie anal and ventral fins), are ar-
ticulated in such a manner that they can be locked fast
by the fish at any angle whatever — though generally
and at most in an upright jiosition — and cannot be
depressed by force, unless they are simultaneously lifted
a little way. This result is attained by the presence
at the middle of tiie base of each spinous ray, in ad-
dition to its true articulation — a trorldm articulati(jn
between each lateral half of the base of the ray and a
transverse hollow in the interspinal plate — of a deep
fissure (articular cavity), into which is fitted a disk-
like, circular process of the interspinal plate. Tlie ])o-
sition of the former articulation is a little eccentric
i-elatively to this disk, and still more so relatively to
the articular pivots of the spinous ray, which bound
the said fissure, and which are more elliptical in out-
line. Thus, when the spinous i-ay is erected, these
pivots with their elliptical friction-siarfaces fall into the
circular articular cavity on each .side of the central
disk of the interspinal plate. The lower lever of each
pivot attains a greater size than the radius of the disk
and of the said articular cavities. Any attempt to bend
the spinous ray results merely in a pressure partly of
the pivots against the walls of the articular cavities,
partly of the bottom of the middle fissure of the spi-
nous ray against the top of the disk. As soon as the
spinous ray is lifted, however, and the said lever thus
shortened, the pressure ceases, and the ray falls. Each
of the spinous rays has a small, triangular fin-mem-
brane behind it. By means of this membrane the last
spinous ray is united to the base of the first raj- of the
soft-rayed dorsal fin, which in this species begins dis-
tinctly in front of the perpendicular from the vent.
This fin is of an elongated triangular form, sloping even-
ly backwards from the first rays, and finally passing
almo.st imperceptibly into the dorsal margin of the pe-
duncle of the tail. Its length (base) is about equal to
the length of the head in old specimens, in young ones
less than the same"; and its height (longest ray) is

forms a sharp, almost geniculate curve. When erected,

■■ The specimens we have received from .-Vrcliangel, are marked in this respect, as in several others, by the persistency of the juvenile

iWi->

SCANDIXAVIA.N FISHES.

about ^ ^ of its lonjztli. All its rays aiv hi'aiiched at
the ti|i. The iicduiicle of the tail (the space between
the dorsal and caudal fins) is twice or three times as
long as deep. The anal fin Ijegins perceptil>ly behind
the perpendicular from the beginning of tlie soft-rayed
dorsal fin, but ends almost exactly opposite the ter-
mination of the latter. Tiie distance between it and
the ti]i of tile snout is generally greater in the females
than in the males, the length of the head in all the
females ^\e ha\c examined, being less than 43 % of
this distance, in the males more than 44 % thereof.
Tlie soft-rayed anal tin is preceded by a spinous ray,
which is usually exactlj^ similar to the last spinous ray
on the back and joined in the same way to the fin.
The length (Itase) of the soft-rayed anal tin varies be-
tween 14 and 17 % of the length (-)f the body, and
measures as a rule about ^j, exceptionally ' i "> of the
length of the soft-rayed dorsal fin. It is otherwise
similar to the latter in structure and form. The ventral
tins contain two rays, the spinous rav and one shorter,
soft ray at the hind mai-gin of the fin-membrane. The
spinous ray is always larger and stronger than any of
the s])inous rays on the back, but otherwise similar to
the latter and varying under the same conditions as they.
Thus, its length may vary Ix'tween uku'c tlian half (54
or 5n %) and about one-third (sometimes 29 %) of the
distance between the tii'st spinous dorsal vaj and the
tip of the snout. Tlie position of the spinous ventral
ray is subject to the following rules: in tlie males the
distance between it and the beginning of the anal tin
is usually perceptibly less than half of that between it
and the tij) of the snout (exceptionally equal to half
of the latter), in the females, on the other liaiid, usually
considerably greater (60 — 68 % of the distance between
the rav and the tip of the snout), though the young
females come nearer the males in this respect, or are
even similar to them. The same distinction of age and
sex may also be observed in the relation to the length
of the head: in old females the distance between the
spinous ventral ray and the anal fin may be even
greater than tlic length of the head, in j'ounger females
(though more than o cm. long) we have found it to be
onl)- V5 of this length, and in the males we have never
found it to be more than '7i thereof. The structure
and position of the pectoral fins are the same as in the
preceding species, with the same thin-skinned, glossy

" In exceptional cases also only 62 %.

' Kroyer found only Ihe 8 middle rays branclicd.

patch in front of their vertical insertion; but their tips
ai'e more sharply truncate. Their length varies between
about 13 and 17 % of that of the body, measuring in
the males, according to our measurements, more than
72 % (73 — 90 %) of the distance between the spinous
ventral ray and the begitining of the anal fin, in the
females less than 72 % (71 — 47 %) of the same distance.
The caudal fin is straight or slightly forked at the hind
margin. In all (^ur specimens the 10'' middle rays are
branched, the others simple. The length of the fin at
the middle is about equal to the postorbital length ot
the head.

The internal organs are similar to those of the
Fifteen-spined Stickleback. The peritoneum is silvei-y,
but punctated with brown. The air-))ladder is com-
paratively large, coasts the whole dorsal side of the
abdominal cavity forward to a line with the fii'st spi-
nous ray on the back, and sends out, according to
Kroyer, "from its under surface a canal to the middle
of the u])per surface of the stomach." This canal (pneu-
matic duct) finally shrinks, however, into a ligament.

"The mo.st remarkable characteristic of the Three-
spined Stickleback," writes Ekstrom, "lies in its varia-
tions of colour. In winter the body is of a yiui'e sil-
very white, with the upper jwrt of the head and the
back blue. In summer the tO]) of the head and the
whole of the back down to the lateral line are blackish
gray. When the spawning-season sets in, the fish ex-
hibits a surprising plav of colours. The back first l>e-
comes brownish, developing darker, transverse banrls,
and the silvery white sides show a dash of brassy
yelhnv. This applies in jjarticular to the females. The
males at the same time accpiire a red spot, which be-
gins under the head at the meeting of the branchio-
stegal nienibranes, and which expands rapidly, the red-
dish tinge usually extending throughout the lower part
of the fish, from the tip of the lower jaw to the vent.
The extent of this red colour varies in different indi-
viduals. In some cases it rises up the sides a little
above the lateral line; in others the whole body is red,
excejit the liigliest part of the back, which is then
reddish brown, and the forehead, which is always of a
deep bluish-green colour. The iris is of a handsome
green. We have represented a male in this attire in
Plate XXVIII, fig. 2, and fig. 1 in the same plate is a
rei)roduction of a female in her winter dress.'

TIIUKK-Sl'lNK.I) SI'ICKr.KI'.AC'K.

653

The geographical range of the Three-spined Stickle-
hack embraces the wliole of Europe, with tlie (exception
of the Daiiulx'", and extends soutli to the fresli watcu-
of Alo^iers; but the species has never been found in
the Mediterranean itself, thougli it occurs in the Black
Sea. In the north of Asia (Siberia) it is common. Both
this sp(>cies and the next one were found on l>ehring
Island bv the \'ega Expedition. In Xortii Anierir;i the
Three-spined Stickleliack lives at least as far soutli as
Southern California and New York. In Greenland and
Iceland it has long been known. In Spitzbergen, on
the other liand, it has not been met with. Tlie Tlu-ec-
spined Stickleback is thus a Boreal-arctic s]icci('s; and
as we have remarked above, it occurs in its most ty-
pical form, with most developed armour, chiefly in the
sea, while the strength of the plate-armour and of
tlu! spines is generally reduced in brackisli and still
more in fresh water.

'flu'oughout Scandinavia the Three-spined Stickle-
back is found not only in all the lakes, large and
small, streams, and brooks, but also in both island-
belts, tiie Eastern and the Western. It is often met
with ill collections of water so small and so isolated
that it apjiears ditHciilt, if not impossible, to explain
the inaiiiier in whicli it has been conveyed thither,
or tlic simrces from whicli it derives its support. It
is fondest of calm \vater, and in summer frequents
siiallow spots close in shore, especially where the sun-
shine lias free play. Here it leads a merry life, and
line may often see it leap several centimetres out of
tlie water; while at other times it keeps still at the
same spot, as though there were nothing in the world
to disturb it. But in a moment it is all life and spirit,
and darts off a few paces with the sjieed of an arrow.
In stormy weather it is tossed on the waves, and has
thus been cast even into a boat. Towards autumn it
retires to deeper spots on the shores of channels, estu-
aries, or larger inlets. In late autumn and at the be-
ginning of winter, however, it roams about in large
companies, which in many parts of our eastern archi-
pelago yield rich harvest to the fisherman. When the
cold is most severe, it probably lies ]iacked in large
shoals at the bottom, at least in the island-belt; for
when, as sometimes happens, it is taken in the seine
at this time of year, it is caught in great numbers.
Sociability is also a characteristic trait of the Three-
spined Stickleback; solitary specimens are seldom met

" "Der Sticlilin? felilt dem Donaubccken ini eiigcren Sinne. "

with, and it generally Vwv.s collected iti large or small
companies.

The Tliree-spined Stickleback devours with avidity
worms, insects, larvie, small mollusks, and small fry.
Tiiough of insignificant size it is a greedy and bold
fish-of-prev, and furiously attacks fishes ;vhich are even
larger than itself. It sometimes do(!S damage by no
means to be despised; and in their internecine l)attles
it happetis often enougii that a Stickleback rips up
the belly of his antagonist with one of his ventral spines.
The spawning-season of the Three-spined Stickle-
back, wiiicli period is attc^iidcd by several remarkable
phenomena, occurs about the end of June or even earlier.
Even in .May ])otii the male and the female begin to
change colour in the mannei" above described. This is
the prelude c>f tlie sjiawning, which begins as soon as
the fish have ac(pnred the proper colour. The shoals
which now ascend to shallow, weedy shores in order
to spawn, distribute themselves in such a manner that
the males and females are separated. Each of the males,
which seem to be nuich fewer than the females, chooses
a certain spot, at some distance from his neighbours,
where he exercises undisputed authority. Here he builds
the nest to which he entices one female after another
to lay her eggs. During this period the males are vio-
lently jealous of each other, and a slight action on the
part of one of them is often all that is required to
goad his fellow to madness and provoke a duel.
These combats are \v'aged as follows: the two rivals
rush with the speed of arrow.s against each other, deal
a powerful side-stroke with their sharp ventral spines,
and hasten with undiminished speed each back to his
own domain. After a few onsets the superiority of the
stronger combatant is demonstrated, his territory is ex-
tended, and he signalises his triumph by a splendour
of colours, while the vanquished lays aside his brilliant
dress as though overcome with shame. While the males
disport them.selves in these chivalrous tournaments, or
rather fight for their nests, the females swim about in
long troops of greater or less strength outside the
battle-ground, and now and then a male selects his
! temporary mate from the coinj)any. The female that
heads the troop, swims forward with rapid darts, fol-
lowed by the others, suddenly stops, and a.ssumes a
vertical position, with head turned towards the bottom.
The others assemble round her and range themselves
in the same manner, as densely packed as possible.

HoKL.. Kn.. Siisswasserf. Oeatfri: p. 41.

654

SCANDINAVIAN I'lMlES.

Wlien she has tlius collected the troop around lier, slie
siiddeidi,' (l(>a!s a blow tliat scatters tlie whole crowd
in an instant, 'i'liis s|)ort is often repeated, but the
I'apiditv witli Avliich they disperse, renders it impossible
to obser\e whether it is always the same female that

water-plants, the male does not Ituild any nest ]iro]jerlv
so called. Tims we iiave to deal with two methods of
spawning, tlie free spawning, in which the eggs are
developed where they fall, among the water-plants, and
the more connubial method, in which the eggs are de-

takes the lead, or whether they change ])laces. These i veloped in a nest built by the male. But in any case
operations are continued, as long as the sun is high the nest-building is oiie of the most interesting parts

of tile life of the Three-spined Stickleback, and one
wliich many iiave l)een in a position to observe (tig. 163).
Tlie earliest account we possess of the nest-I)uilding
of the Sticklebacks is nearly two hundred years old.
Ill 1721 the I'^nglish writer RuniAin) Bkadley tells
us" that one Sergeant Hall had seen a Stickleback
buiiil a nest, and had secured the latter in order to
])resent it to liiiADUcv, wlio gives a figure of it and
says that he "sujiposes it \vas rather composed to lav
the spawn in, than for a lodgment for the fish itself"
Since that date several naturalists have watched tlie
building operations of the male Three-spined Stickle-
back in its nati\e haunts; but the most accurate ol)-
scrvations of its habits have been made in aquaria,
\\ here the Three-spined Stickleback constructs its dwell-
ing in the same way as when at liberty. Bkehji lias
described its method of building in his work on Tlif
Life of AiihiKiIs'' as follows:

"Wakkington", Oostk'', and Im'ehs have observed
tlieir captive specimens at work. During the spawning-
season, as we have mentioned, tlie male wears a dress
of the most gorgeous colours, and he dis])lays his en-
lianced activity and vivacity in other ways as well. As
soon as he has decided on a certain spot at the bottom,
lie first drags together some roots and other ])arts of
several a(|uatic plants. These pieces may be larger than
himself, and are often fetched from considerable distances,
ill the heavens, for 4 — 6 days, according to tlie weather. With great pains he tears off comparatively large bits
It seems more than probable that during these evolu- even from living plants, tests their weight by letting
tions the females lose some roe, which adheres to water- them fall to the bottom, and employs in his work only
plants, and that this is fertilized by the males that, those that sink ipiickly, rejecting all that pi'ove too light,
perhaps only for the time being, have not built any The building-materials are thus carefully selected, piled,
nest for the eggs. Benecke has also ascertained that i and still further adjusted, until the little architect finds
under certain circumstances, as for example when lie tliem arranged according to liis wishes. To attach tlie
finds a suitable crevice or secluded nook among tlie nest to the bottom he employs sand or small pebbles'.

lif G<istnvslciis aciilcitiis
Natural size.

t rif ils nest.

" A Philosophical Acfoiuit of the Works of SnUire. p. 61, (>l. VIII, fig. II. It may be iiuestioncd, however, whether tliis nest be-
hmged to the Three spined Stickleback or to the following species.

' Tliierleben. 2:te Aiifl., 3:te Ablh., 2:te Bd., p. 88.

'■ Ann., Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd scr., vol. X, p. 27G.

'' Mem. Sav. Etrang. Inst. Fr., tome X (1848), p. 575.

'' The Three-spined Stickleback may also build its nest above the bottom and among the branches of the water-plants, though
this method of building seems to be more characteristic of the next species.

TIlHKK-Sl'INKl) S'l'I(KI,KIiA(K.

(;.').")

The tuliul;ir cliniiiher is cHJiistrurtcd. and the I'onii .-iiid
diiniliilil\ 'it' tlic wiiole nest iittaiiied, liy the Siicklc-
baek swiiiiiniii^i;' slciwly oyvv the; parts already in po-
sition, and at the same time gluing them tugetiier
and ceinenting them. Evers distinetly observed how
tiie liuiitler, when he had added new la\ers, sliunk his
tins, raised liis head, lient his hi)d\' np\\:ir(ls. and slid
iiis bellv over the struetiire, emittinL:' at the same time
a drop of a viscid snhstanee. \\hieh eonld he <dear]y
distinunished in the water, and the eH'ecIs of which
mi'dit immediatch he [>erceived in the no\v cemented

building-materials'. At times he si k the building

and then pressed it together again; at times he kept
swimming ovei- it. With his tins, «hicli he ke]it in
continual and rapid motion, he |)roduced a current,
and thus washed away from the nest the pieces that
jvere too light and the loose stalks, which he then
took up again and tried to fit in more durabh. It
took about tour hours to procure the \arious building-
materials; but at the expiration of this time tlie out-
lines of the nest were readw Its completion, the re-
moval of the parts that are too light, the arrangement
of the separate stalks, the plaiting of their ends, and the
addition- of the sand to weigh them down, require several
da\s. While the Sticd^lebaek is building his nest, he
thinks ()id\ of his work and endeavours mereh to pro-
vide against any interruption in its progress or hind-
rance to its completion. He labours indefatigably and
watches with suspicion everv creature that approaches
the nest with or without evil intentions, whether it lie
another Stickleback, a newt, a water-beetle, or a lar\a.
A water-.scorpion {Xejja) in one of Evers' aquaria was
seized bv the cautious builder thirty times or more, and
carried in his mouth over to the opposite .side of the
aquarium.

The size of the nest varies prettv considerabh-, de-
pending both on its situation and on the materials of
which it is composed. As a rule it seems to be of the
size of one's tist. It is generally ellipsoidal and entirely
closed above, but furnished at the ends with an en-
trance and an exit. At first oidy the entrance is
visible, but subse(|uentlv, exactlv opposite it, \ve <lis-
cover the exit. \Mien the Stickleback has finished his

building-cjperations, he endeavours to attract a female
to the nest. \VAi!i(iN(;'rox sa^■s that a comjdeted nest
excites the attention of the female; but C'h.ste asserts
that the male sallies forth to guide her thither, and
that he ushers her into the nest with a shower of ca-
resses. The last statement, howe\ci', is also accepted by
WAi{i.'iN(;roN. The inale distincth' sliows his delight at
the arrival of the fennde, swims round hei' in all di-
rections, enters the nest, sweeps it out, returns in a
moment, and tries to dl'i^•e the female in by thrusting
at her from behind with his snout. If she will not
obe\' of lu'r own accord, he also employs his s])ines,
or at least his caudal tin, to overcome her reluc-
tance; but in case of need another female is fetched.
If tlie male succeeds in ]iei-suading a female to enter
the nest, she la\s a few eggs within it, according to
( '(isiE only two or three, and then l)ores a hole through
the vvall of the nest on the side opposite to the eii-
ti'ance, and departs. The second opening in the nest
does not exist until it is formed in this manner. The
current that now flows through the openings, is of
beneiit to the eggs. i)n the following day the male
sets out again in (piest of a new female, whom he com-
pels bv kindness or force to \;i\ eggs, and repeats this
process until a sufficient number of ova is procured.
During or inunediately after the la\ing of the spawn
he enters the nest, rubs his side against that of the fe-
male, and then glides over the eggs in order to ferti-
lize them.

From this hour his zeal and watchfulness are re-
doubled. He has to guard and defend the eggs against
every aggressor. Ever)- Stickleback that approaches is
furiousl}' attacked and put to flight, whether it be a
male or a female, for both are equally dangerous ene-
mies of the eggs, and the latter is perhaps even more
greedy of the ova or the new-hatched h'j than the
former. Until the \oung have emerged from the eggs,
the male shows his cai'e in other ways as well. With
his mouth he repairs every damage to the nest, and
often stations himself in front of or within the cham-
ber, keeping his pectoral fins in vibration and thus
renewing the water in tlie nest, as though he knew
that the eggs require fresh oxvgen.

" MuBiiis (.\'atiire. vol. XXXIX, No. 998, Dec. \A. 1888, p. 108) saw the male Stickleback keep spinning round the nest new threads,
which originated from tlie urinary bladder. The eheniical reactions showed that these threads consist of mucin, which is secreted, however,
not by the urinary bladder, but by the kidneys. The section of a kidney, treated with osfnic acid and coloured with hematoxylin, showed
that only a few of the cells lining the tubtili nrini/eri partake in t\\c development of the mucin, while most of them do not undergo any
chauge of this description. After the end of the spawningseasou. no mucinous cells can be found in (lie kidneys, which are now less tumid.

(;.')(; SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES

At Inst tlie time for I lie ripening of tiie eggs ap

jjroaches, and new troutjles come. He has now to pro-
tect and defend tlie helpless young. In Warkixgtun's
aquarium a female laid her eggs at night on the 8th
of May, and on the very next day the mother was
driyen away b\- the male. The latter continued his
guardianship until tlie IStii of the same month, and
then began suddenly to destroy the nest, leaving oidy
a few stalks at the foundation. All tlie mud and
.sand that covered the eggs was removed in his mouth,
and a space about 8 centimetres in diameter carefully
cleared. Astonished at such conduct on the part of the
nest's protector, Warrinoton took a maguitying glass to
ascertain the cause, and discovered the new-hatched fry.
Henceforth the male Stickleback never ceased swimming
in evei-v direction over the cleared space, redoubling his
vigilance, and di-iving away every other tish that came
too near. As the young gained in size and strength,
they seemed anxious to leave the nest, but the father
intercepted them time after time, carefully taking the
truants in his mouth, and returning them to their
cjuarters. Not until the\' were strong enough to swim
■with ease, did the father's \vatchful care gradually begin
to slacken, but at last, when they were quite capable
of procuring their own food, he left them entirely to
shift for themselves."

When the spawning is over, the handsome colours
of the tish gradually disapi)ear, and its normal tem-
perament returns.

From the gi-eat numbers in which this species oc-
curs, especially during certain years, we might suppose
it to be verj' prolific: but this is not the case. The
female has no more than 110 — 150 eggs in both ova-
ries; and as the restricted number of tlie males leads us
to assume that not all the eggs are fertilized, the fe-
cundity of the species cannot be set very high. In
spite of this, as we have already mentioned, in certain
years enormous shoals of Three-spined Sticklebacks are
met with. Several reasons have been suggested to ex-
plain this fact. The most probable explanation of these
cases in general is ("uvier's, that the years in which
these lai-ge shoals appear have been more than usually
favourable to the process of reproduction; ])ut Sunijevall
ex])lains a portion of these variations b}- the ftict that,
during the years in which the Herring-fry are plentiful
in the outer part of the island-belt, the Stickleback re-

tires Tiiither and is comparatively scarce nearer to the
mainland; while the largest catches of Sticklebacks on
the coast of the mainland seem to be made during
periods when the opposite is the case.

The Thi'ee-spined Stickleback, which is surpassed in
voracity- by few predatory fishes, becomes -very fat, and
is probabh- rapid of growth, soon attaining its (idl size.
But the statement of certain authors, that it does not
]i\e nnn'e than ."! vears, seems to require corroboration.

Tliis fish is hardly used at all as human food —
tlioiigh ill I'",ngland, together with Herring-fry, it of-
ten tempts consumers undei' the name of \\'liiteljait.
Steei-ei! and Tilesius state that the Stickleback which
occurs on the coast of Kamchatka, is delicious when
boiled and an excellent ingredient in soiqi. Still, even
the Kamchatkans themselves reject it for their own use,
but keep it to feed their dogs in winter. The single
specimens which in Scandinavia are caught at almost
every haul of the seine for other fish, are generally
thro\\ii among the offal and used as food for swine. Pre-
datory fishes and seafowl, however, eagerly devour the
Stickleliack, and it is the principal food of the Garpike.

When the Three-spined Stickleback is taken in
(piantities, which happens only in certain years, it is
boiled down into oil, a manufacture to which so early
a writer as Westbeck (1753) directed the attention of
his countrymen. A barrel (i'/o bushels) of fresh Stickle-
backs yields more than one gallon of clear oil. The foot
(jr sediment that settles at the bottom of the cauldron
is an excellent manure, two liarrels (9 bushels) of this
sediment, mixed with a sufficient quantitv of Avater,
being reckoned equal to 10 lasts" of dung.

The only method of fishing employed exclusively
for this fish is simple enough. The fishery commences
at the beginning of November — some fishermen state
that the Stickleback does not come in before the ground
has lieen covered with snow — and continues until the
inlets and channels have begun to freeze. Towards
evening, when it has been observed that the Stickle-
backs are collected in a shoal, the presence of which is
betrayed at sunset in calm weather \)\ the surface of
the water being rippled as if by fine rain or a shower
of sand, two fishermen repair to the si)ot in a boat. In
the bo\v of the boat is erected a kind of fire-i«in (fig.
104), on which dry wood is laid and kindled. When
the boat has reached that side of the shoal towards

" Sw. parlass = a kind ilrawn by two liorses

rilUKK-Sl'lNKD S TH Kl.r.lSACK.

657

wliicli tlic lu'iids of 1 lie lisli aiv- tiirinMl, niir of tli:' I wcj :i]i])r():irlics tlicin, tlii'V generally remain i|uitc still :\i
tislicriiirii keeps the Knat still li\ means t>( a slake. tirst lor a few inomcnts, apiiareiitl y uncouceiaied; Init
which is thi'iist into the Ixitfom, wiiile his e<}ni|)aiiion ' siidilenly a iish starts ii]i, easts itself to one side, and
scoops the fish ont of tlie watei- into tli<' lioat with a 1 joins some eomrade disturhed in the same manner, or
fine hand-net (Wis. 1(1.')). In this \va\ se\ ci-al hoat-loads takes its plaee in an army airead-y formed and advaiie-
niav be taken in a niii'ht. In l)eeend)er, 1SS7 a cor- in.u' in the immediate nei,i;iil>onrhood. an army which
respondent writes from tlu^ island-belt of ( )stei-,u-othland : like a lon,L;'. nio\in,u' wall i-oves alon^u' the bottom, at
"The violent storms of this antnmn have (lri\cn into first, as a rnle, in a cinde ronnd the light. Gradually
our creeks and i)a\s a nudtitiide of "pri/ifi" or -v//// the advancing wall increases in height, length, and
(Sticklebacks), fen' whicdi a lisherv has now been carried bi'eadth, while it circles hither and thither, as if to col-
on for some time. The Stit'klcbacks must have fed extra- lect more and more .stragglers, in cur\-es of greater or
ordinarih- w(dl this \('ar. fir thev are so fat that 2' ,. less extent, until at last, wdieii the army appears to be
o-ailons of oil ma\ easily be extracted tVom a barrel of sufHciently strong, it suddenly dashes up and assembles
fish. The owners of the strctclies of siiore w here the : beneath the light. Here the cru.sh that now follows is
Stickleba(d;s swim in shoals, esteem tliemsclves especial- ' tremendous, and the movements of the fish culminate
ly fortunate, for the Stickleba(d<-tisher\- takes the jialm in a strange confusion, exactly as though they intended
of all the fisheries among our islands. On the strip of with their immense inimbers to overpower and xampiish

Fi^. lilt. IlirtVrciil kinds of tire-pans used in tisliiiii;- \>y Icrcldiirlit.

shore belonging to a small crofter, for example, tlic \alue
of the i-atch has pro\ ed to be (jUO crowns (f;;."!), and
on the coast-line of a farm -2,000 crowns (tllO). The

Fig. 165. SUcl<lebacl5-iiet.

tiie lire. In spite of the hand-nets now plied, they
still rusli on, undaunted as before. When their num-
bers are so few that tlie fisherman does not think it

shoals press on without a pause to their destinati<jn, so worth while to use the net there any longei-, he moves
that the fisherman may keep seining the whole day at ; to another spot between 50 and 200 yards off, or some-
the same place, and the catch in spite of this be quite ; times even nearei' his former station; and here the same

occurrences ai'c repeated.

The Stickleback bears different names in different
parts of Sweden. On account of its s])inous tin-rays it
is called jriijg, spigrj, and Magy, in Scania hornstagg, in
the eastern archipelago skof.y)igg\ Jionitagg, and hornfi'^k.
On account of its brielit and tin-like colour it is known

as great in the last draught as it was in the first"."
In his annual report for 1869 Baron G. ('. Gedeh-
STitoM, the pisciculturist, describes the singular behavi-
our of the Sticklebacks during this fishei'v as follows:
"In autumn the Sticklebacks generally repair towards
evenin'j- to the shidlow water near the shores, whei'e thev

keep still, resting on the bottom as though the spinous j in winter as tennfisk, feiinfisk med spjiif (Speared Tinfish)

rays of the ventral fins now served as feet. In the I etc. In Gothland, according to Lisdstuo.m, it is coupled

morning thev again return to somewhat deeper water. with the following species luider the name of haiiigi/l

It is highly interesting to watch the efl'cct of the torch- or Jiunikgl.
light on them, wdiile they are at rest. When the light ! (EKSTRO^r, Smitt.)

" See tlie Daijens Nyheler for the loth of Deceinlier, 1887.

'' Qvod nomen "paullo urbanius" quaiu vulgarc Skitspii/g: Rktzius.

' So called because it tlirives in small collections of water {lifiiii = bone, yyl = pool), Tn.

658

.SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE TEN-SPINED STICKLEBACK OR TINKER (.sw. HMAspniOEN).
(;4ASTEK0STEUS Pl'XGITIUS.

Plate XXVIII, figs. 3 and 4.

Froo xp/Doiix rdijft on the hark HsiiaUif '.) (7" — 1:?). Jhdiichiosfefidl mcmhnuies ntiited ini<h'rneittl/ into a fold

posferioiii/ free fnnii the Istlnuiis.

/,'. hi: 3; I). 7"— 12 10 — 12; A.
C. .y+ 1 + 10 + l+.v: Vert. 32—33.

-10; P. 0 — 10; V.

iSyii. Ofislcrostens aculeis in dorso decern, AliT., Iclitli., Geii.. p. .'<2;
Si/n. p. 80; Spec, p. 97; Lin., Fii. Suec, ed. I, p. 104.

Oasterostetts Puiigitiiis, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, Imn. I, p. 2'Ji;;
Fn. Suec, cd. II, p. 119; Rktz., Fii. Stiec. Lin., p. 338;
PM.\^.{Gasteracanthus), Zoogr. Ross. Asiut., toin. Ill, p. 228;
t'uv., V.AL. (Oasterostetts), Hist. Nat. Poi.ss., vul. IV, p. 506;
Eksth., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1831, p. 302; NiLSS., Proilr.
Ichtli. Scand., p. 86; Eksth., Slcand Fisk., ed. I, p. 2(1,
V. Weight, tab. IV, fig. 2; Kb., Damn. Fiske, vol. I, pp. 188
ft 5!)3; SuNDEV., Stockh. L. Husli. Sallsk. Handl., H. 6 (1855),
p. 79; NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk. p. 110; Tuomps., Nat.
IIi.it. Ird., vol. IV, p. 89; Gthb, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fi.iti.,
vol. I, p. 6; SiEB., Hiissir. Mitteleur., p. 72; Mgrn, Finl.
Fisk-Fn. (disp. Helsingf.), p. 15; Lindstr., Gotl. Lans Hush.
Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 15 (sep.); Coll., Forb. Vid. Sel«k.
Clirisl. 1874, Till.-cgsb., p. 13; ibid. 1870. No. 1, p. 4;
X. Mag. Naturv. Clirist., Bd. 29 (1884), p. 49 ; Day. Journ.
Linn. Soe. Lond., vol. Xllt (1876). Zool., p. 110; Malm,
Gbgs, Bull. Fn.. p. 373: Seipl., Fn. Bait., p. 128; Winth.,
Nat. Tidskr. Kblivn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 4: Fkiiders., ibid.,
p. 74: MoK., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.. toni. Ill, p. 160; Day,
Fisli. at. Brit.. Ii-pL, vol. I, p. 244, trib. LXVIII, fig. 4;
Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 279, tab. IX: Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse,
vol. IV, part. I, p. 98; Hansen, Zool. Dan., Fiske, p. 30,
tab. V, fig. 3; Stobm, Norsk. Vid. Selsk. Skr., Trondhj.,
1883. p. 15; Mob., Hoke, Fi.<cli. O.sts., p. 65; Jold., Gilb.,
Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, ].. 393: Lilli.. Sr.. Norg.
Fisk., vol. I, p. 363.

Ga.sterosteus occidentalis. Civ.. Val., 1. o., p. 509. Gast. dekayi
+ G. nebulosns, Ai;., Lake Superior, pp. 310 et 311. Gast.
nonciiiiius. Rich., Fn. Bor. Ainer., p. 57. Gast. mainensis,
Stoker, Best. Journ. Nat. Hist., vol. I, p. 464. Gasterosteus
pungitins+ G. burgundianus + G. Icecis (ex Cuvier, R'egn.
Anim., ed. 2, toni, II, p. 170) + G. lotharingus + G. breviceps,
Blanch., Poiss. d. eau.v douces Fr., pp. 238, cett.; Gasterostea
pungitia + G. burgundiana + G. occidentalis + G. dekaiji+G.
blancliardi + G. mainensis + G. Urns + G. lotharinga + G.
breviceps + G. eoneinna + G. globiceps, Salvage, Nouv. Arch.
Mus. d'Hist. Nat. I'ar., toni X, pji, 29, cett.

Obs. As appears from this list of synonyms, it has also been
proposed to base a number of independent species on the variation.s of
the Ten-spined Stickleback. The lack of constancy is, however, just
as great here as in the preceding species; and to judge by our present
knowledge of the forms, only the East Asiatic variety (Gasterosteus
sinensis, Guicijenot, see above), witli its fully-plated lateral line and
its large, comparatively few spinous rays on the back, which are e(pial

in length to the diameter of the eyes or still longer, deserves to be
especially distinguished as an intermediate form between this species
and the Three-spined Stickleback.

The Ten-.spined Stickleback i.s the .smallest fresh-
water fish of Europe. Its ordinary- length when full-
grown is aliout 5 or (! ciii. Lill.iebouc, howe\er, s))eaks
of specimens 81 mm. long from the moats of Upsala
(^astle. In form it i.s usually shallower (more elongated)
and more terete tlian tlie preceding species, tlie depth
of th(> body at the insertions of the ventral tins lieiiig
on an average'' about IS % of its length (as compared
with 2U % in the preceding s])ecies), and the breadth
straight ;icross the up\vard lateral processes of the pelvic
bones on an average .08 — G2 % of the said depth (as
com]);ired with 52 — 51 % in the ]jreceding species). But
in tiiis res])ect no constant difference can be traced, and
the largest specimens of the Ten-spined Stickleback as
a rule come nearer and nearer the Three-spined species.

The Ten-spined .'^tickleliack is genera]i\- ^vithout
any external trace of [)late-armour on the sides of the
body; but in most cases the lateral line is raised on
the sides nf iIh' tail in the form of a carina, rendei-ing
the breadth of the pcdiuicle of the tail considerably
greater than its deptii, and now and then showing plate-
like ossifications in the skin. But quite as frequently
this carina is really membranous, and sometimes hardly
a trace of it is vi.sible, the base of the caudal tin thus
acquiring a terete appearance. Especially in tiie soutii-
ern parts of the geographical range of the Ten-spined
Stickleback this last form seems to be the commonest
one, and it has been described bv Cuvier under the
name of Gasterosteus Jmv'is. The plates at the dorsal
margin and along the base of the anal fin are hidden
in the skin; l)ut the former are more concav^e on tlie
upper surface than in tlie iireceding species, thus form-
ing a groove both deeper and broader, into which tlie
spinous dorsal rays may be depressed. In number these
spinous rays vary w ithin the limits given above —

" .\bnormal specimens with only 2 or 4 free spinous rays on the back are mentioned by Day (1. e.).
'' In our specimens, which are between 38 and 60 mm. in length.

TKN-S1MM:I) S'llCKI.EliACK

6:)!)

sometimes even the iircitcr nuuilier nt' ilicin iii.iy l)c
w.'iiitin^'. 'riie\' do not stand at riniit aniilcs tci tlic
hack, lull lean alterniitrK- towards the sides. They are
also set, not in a, straight line, hut in a /.\;s/->1'j: ('■'■' ■'■')■
'I'hey are subnlate in form, somewhat cui-Ncd hui only
sli'>'liti\' widened at the base, with siiarp points and
smootii edges. In size tliey arc fairly ciiual. though ih<'
hindmost ra\- is generally sonicwlial laigci' than the
others" and eiiiial in length to the spinous ru\' in front
of the anal tin. All of these spinous ravs are usuallv
shorter than the diameter of the eyes; hut the anal
spine nia\' sometimes eijual this diameter in length.
Each ot them has a small, triangular tin-m<'udirane lie-
hind it. In this sjieeies too, the \entral sjiiues are the
largest, their length \arying between ', ,-, and ' , of the
distance between the first dorsal s])ine and the tip of
the snout. At the outer margins, at least in full-grown
specimens, they are usuallj' gi-aiiulated or even s|)iny
with osseous tubercles ari'anged in se\eral rows. Tlieir
articulations are constructed in the same manner as in
the preceding species.

The pelvic bones are narrower than in the Three-
spined Stickleback, and the sinus in their anterior mar-
gin is deeper but narrower. Their uprigiit lateral jn'o-
cesses are somewhat broader and more obli(iuely cut at
the top. The interclavicles are also narrower than in
the preceding species, but of about the same length,
the pelvic bones lying entirely behind the ])erpendicular
from the insertion of the pectoral fins.

The head as well as, in mo.st cases, the whole body
is more elongated (shallower) than in the Three-spined
Stickleback; but its relative length is about the same,
-being on an average about ^ ^ of that of the body. Its
structure is also the same as in the Three-spined Stickle-
back, with the exception of the character that lies in

the abo\ I'-mentioneil arr.angenient of the branchiostegal
mendii'ant's.

The soft-ra\-ed dorsal and the anal tins are also of
;i low, triangular form. The first ray in each of them
is sim|ile hut distinctly ai-fieulafed. They arc fairly
analogous in |)osition, the beginning of the dorsal tin
never hiiiL;' in front of the perpendicular from the hind
part of the \cnt. 'l"he base of the s(jft-i-uyed dorsal tin
is alwa\s perceptibly shoi-ter than the head, but varies
between l'O and 24' \, ?0 of the length of the body.
The length of the base of the anal tin varies between
about If. and lit' ,_, ". of that of the body.

The hind margin of the caudal tin is straight, some-
times slightly forked m- (nen convex, an indication of
the transition to (l((Mni-(i. Its length at the middle is
always perceptibly less than the jiostorbital length of
the head. The |)ectoi'al 'fins are similar To those of
tlie Three-spined Stickleback lioth in form and rela-
ive size.

The internal (.irgans resemble those of the Three-
spined Stickleback; but the air-bladder is somewhat
narrower. Kroyek found some instances to corroborate
Cuviek's observation to the effect that the intestine runs
from the stomach straight to the vent, instead of pre-
viously forming a circular coil, as it generally does
both in this species and in the two pireceding ones.

The relation between this species and the Three-
spined Stickleback is of especial interest when we con-
.sider the external differences of growth and sex, which
■show that the Ten-sjjined Stickleback represents partly
the eai'lier (lower) stages of development and partly
the male characters. The following table of averages
contains the changes of growth most important in this
respect, together with the sexual differences especially
conspicuous in the Ten-spined Stickleback.

10 speci-
mens of
Gaster-
o,<!teus
piingitus.

14 speci-
mens of
Gaster-
osteus
aculeattis.

8 speci-
mens of
Gastraa
spinachia.

Obs.

48.7

02.7

107.0

_

lU-2.3

91.8

42.7

juv. >sen

49.8

43.2

43.8

jav. > sen.

33 9

24.7

23.3

juv. > sen.

93. G

79.0

100.2

juv. ^sen.

45.9

41.0

49.8

a'>V

4(i.4

34.3

43.9

d'>9

79.3

89.3

44.9

a"<5

5f).i

58.fi

30.0

o"<9

35.9

36.9

22.9

cf <9

Length of the body c.vpressed in HuUimctres

Longitudinal diameter of the eyes in % of the length of the snout

Postorbital length of the head in % of its total length

Length of the base of the anal fin in % of the distance between the anal spine and the tip of the snout

> > > head in % of the distance between the first dor.«al spine and the tip of the snout

„ „ „ ., ., , „ „ anal

Postorbital length of the head in % of the distance between the first dorsal spine and the tip of the snout

Distance between the ventral spines and the anal spine \n % of the length of the head

„ „ „ ,, ., ,, „ .. ,. „ „ „ „ distance between the ventral spines and the tip of the snout

EksthOm (yet. Akad. Handl., 1. c), liowever, fomid tlic second \ay longest and tlie hindmost sliortest.

III

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIKS.

the first tlirci; relations the (level<i|)iiieiit has ad-
\aiice(l ill the same directinii IVom /iiiiii/il/iis liotli to
(iculciiliis and to spiiifir/iid — in eaeii case, exeept tiie
second, furthest in the last species — , Init in the t'onrtii
spiliarhid has vetaiii<-d the most pi'iiuitive eharacter of
the Stickleliacks. In the last five relations sjiiuinl/id
is the nearer to /jiii/i/ifiiis, and stands in eacii case,
except the sixth, on the opposite side to firiileafnfi.
The direction of de\elopmen1 is fixed in (i(nlc(ttiis by
the feiuale, in s/iiiiachia hy the male characters.

rica (Saskatchewan and (jreat Hear Lake) and, Pallas
l<ne\\ the species from Silicria and the Sea of Okhotsk.
'J'he N'eu'a i^xpedition found it to,u'etlier with small Three-
spined Stickleliacks, as we lia\-e mentioned, on Belirinfr
Island. I5lan'' assio'iis it to Alaska; anil it was alread\-
known to ('rviKU froni Newfoundland ((iccidenfalis).

In Scandinavia the Ten-sjiined Stickleljack is com-
nion from the extreme iiortli to the southernmost pro-
\ inces, lioth in most of the Swedisli lakes and streams
and on the llaltic c'oast. In Norwa\-, accordino" to Coi.-

The (-(doratioii of this species is quite as varied as \ i.etv. it>

urrence is onlv sporadic and confined t(

that of the preceding one, and is affected li\' the differ-
ent seasons of the year, the different moods of the fish,
and the different Iwttoms and lishts of the water in
which the fish lixcs. Here too, we find darker (I'latc
X.W'III. fi.ii. 4) anil li,iiiiter forms. In wintci' tljc uiipci
]>art of the head and the hack are of a liliiish dral), and
the sides silvery white, with extremely tine, dark dots.
In summer, on the otlier iiaiid, the head and the upper
part of the ^vhole hody are of a marked olive-green.
The lower part of the ]>n({\ is now light green, with a
dash of lirassA' Aellow, which shades moi'e into red
under the head and at the liases of the pectoral fins.
The whole hody is thickh' strewn with distinct, black
dots. It is this dress which is depicted in Plate XW'IIi,
fig. .'), ]iidnted from a large s|)ecim(>n, a female taken
ill the neighbourhood of Haparanda in dune, lSr!2.
During the spawning-season the males are black on the
sid(^s of the belly.

The Ten-spined Stickleback has the same geogra-
]ihical range as the Three-sjiined species, but in Eumjie
does not penetrate so far south. Moheau sets the south-
ern limit for the range of the Ten-spined Stickleback in
francc at lat. 4.5° X. According to I*"atiii this species
is wanting in Switzerland. Mki'KEl and Kneu do not
include it among the fishes of the Austrian Empire. It
is also unknown in Italy (Canestkini, Giglkili); but it
occurs in the Black Sea, according to Pallas, and NoliD-
.mann" says that it is found in se\eral streams in the
south of Russia. (_)n the other hand, its occurrence in
(Treenland and Iceland is uncertain. Neither REiNtL\iU)T
nor Lltken includes it in their lists of the fishes of Green-
land, though Hansen says that it lives there; and Fabeu
liad never seen it in Iceland. Riciiahdson'.s concinmis
belonged, however, to the extreme north of North Ame-

fresh and brackish water.

The liabits of this Species are essentially the same
as those of the preceding one. It prefers clear, running
water. It is sociable, and therefore li\cs collected in
large shoals during the greater part of the \ear. It also
joins coniiian\- witii the Three-siiined Stickleliack, when
the latter sets out on its autumn wanderings. In tem-
|iei'anicnt it seems to be wvy sluggish, but can move
with great rapiditv. Its food consists of \\-orms, insects,
fish-roe, and bits of grass, wdiich it devoui'S with avi-
dit\'. \\f often find tliis little fish, like its congener,
very fat.

The spawning-season generalh' occurs in June and
.Iul\' — according to Benei'KE even in .\]iril — ^\llen the
fish makes its wav to small l.)rooks and rills, wdiere
during the sjiawiiing we find it packed in nniltitudes.
Males and females arc promiscuously assembled, and try
to crowd as near to the grass^- bank as )x>ssil.)le. The
roe is orange and, in comparison \vith the size of the
tish, coarse, the eggs being about 1 nnn. in diameter.
It is deposited either on the gi-ass or in a nest, for here
as in the ]ireceding species the male bnilds a shelter
for the eggs until the exclusion of the fry". .\s long
as tile s]iawning lasts, and as long as the male has to
defend the eggs, the fish is not at all timid, and suffers
itself to be taken in the hand.

The Ten-spined Stickleback, \\liicli in different lo-
calities liears different names, e. g. benuiige, skindllinfj
etc., is utilised in the .same way as the Three-spined
species. It is said to ^■ieId a finer oil. It is taken
chieflv ill No\eml)er, when it collects in slioals together
with the Three-spined Stickleljack.

(Ekstuom, S.mitt.)

" DEMiDorif's Travels, Umi. III. |p. ,'!S2.

* Cat. dnUect. Fixh. U. S. iVitt. Jhis.. Ot. Intern. Fislu-r

' See Ransom, Ann., Mug. Nat. Hist., scr. ii, vnL XVI, |i.

Exliil.. London 188;!. p.
44:1. ■

LonidlilJANCU.S.

661

PHYSOCLYSTI LOPHOBEANCHIT'

J'/n/sinh/sts iiilh lidlril IniiiiiliHil hliiiiiHf.

This siiiLiic cliarMctcr is ciiuiiLih to divide IVniii the
rest nf the I'hysoclysts a series extremely reiiwirkMlilc
in iiiMiiN ri's]]ei-ts, wliich contains two families, ,ui<l of
which niir i'i|)ctishcs .-iiid tiie Sen-horses i it' wnrnier re-
gions nri' wcil-kiinwn txpes.

The gills uf the Teleosts genei'.-dly cdusist, as is
well kiiiiwii, (if a great niindier uf liranehial lamiiuu —
(in tlie first liran^dual arch df a Cod .'1 dm. long, for
examjile, we can cdinir aliout 100 pairs — w liicli aw.
ai-range(l in a doulile mw (tii the outside (the eonvex
side) (if each lilvineliial ai'dl, like the teetil of a comb
liiii in pairs, each lamina altei'nating with (obliquely
opposite) the other lamina of the pair, thongii thev are
united Id ea(di other for a greater or less distance from
the iiase. Ivich of these lanunu' (tig. 1 fi(i) is furnished
(in each side (above and below) \\ith numerous, (raiis-
verseh-set lanudhe — in tlie Cod we can count as many
as 1,000, but in other Teleosts the\' are much fewer, in
the (hulgeon (dohlo fliirhitU'iA) for example, only oO or
60 — \\hich are honeycombed by the capillary network of
the respiratorx' vessels with a vie^v to the oxygenation of
the lilodd and its transmission from the braneliial ai'teries
to the iiranciiial \ citis. In the Lophobranchs the num-
ber of the bi'aucliial laminae is considerably reduced, in a
Pipefish, for example, being only 5 — 8 pairs on each
arch, the minimum number on the foremost and hindmost
of the four branchial arches, the maximum on the two
middle arches. Ibit to conipen.sate for this tlie com-
parati\el\- few liranehial lamella' are considerably en-
larged, being visible even to the naked eye, or at least
with the hel]) of a weak magnify ing-giass. They are
largest at the middle (jf each lamina, their size decreas-
ing regularly towards the base and the tip thereof; and
the lamina itself is curved, not unlike a peacock's feather.
"By means df this arrangement," says I'e'I'zh's, "the
branchial lamina' (tig. 1 67 ) ac(piire an appearance some-
thing like that of bunches of peacocks' feathers, set
alternateh' and touching each other with the convex
part of their curves. When we see the twd rows of
these bunches from without (tig. 168), the figure also
reminds us somewhat of the foliation of Suhinid."

Fif?- Hit;. A pair of liriiiii-lii.il laiiiinM. altaclied to a sc-c-tidn of ii

braiicliial arcli in tlie Cud. A, llir laiiicllic. Magnified and sclienia-

ti/.cil. After 't'li. Wii.l.iAMS.

Fig. 167. A pair of Ijrancliial laniin;u attaclied to a section of a
braneliial areli in 6'i/ii;/iwl/ii(s. Magnified. After .\. Retzius.

Fig. 108. A braneliial arcli with its alternating lamina; and llieir
lanicdl.T in ^Si/ngiiatliiis. Magnified. After A. Retziis.

" I/ordre des l.opliolirfinclies, Cuv., Regno Aniiii., ed. I, toin. II, p. 155.

662

SCANDINAVIAN FI>Slli;s.

Tliis chnrnctcr is ncci)iii|i:iiiie(l, liii\\('\er, hy several
otliei' i)eculiai-ities, most of whirli call to iiiiiiil tlie Ilcioi-
I)raiiciis. Tlie l(o(h' is scaleiess, Imt in <4('iieral coinpicteh"
(■ov('i'c(l witii (Tanoid-likc plates, tlioiiriii these may
sometimes he thin and coated with skin, so that they
l)e<ome indistinct. rhe\' aiv arranired in longitudinal
and transverse rows. 'I'lii.' numlier ot the transverse
vows is usually equal to tliat of tlie vertebra-, to tlie
proeesses of which they are more or less closeh united;
.and in conse(|uenee tlie\' generally form distinct seg-
mental rings round tiie hod\'. In most of the Lopho-
branclis and especially in the I'ipetislies tlie body is
Inghly elongated, like that of tlie Eels or the Flute-
moutiis, and the snout is produced as in the lattt-r
forms. The branchial arches are incomplete, consisting
in each case of a single cartilaginous l)one: the epi-
branchial and u|)per pharyngeal bones, as well as the
iivpobranciiial bones, are wanting. The interchniclcs
are present, but are not externally \isil)le.

The oi'gans of motion are feelile and the muscula-
ture as a whole is not much developed; but in the motory
muscles of the fins Rollett" has been enabled to observe
a fact tiiat seems calculated to possess tlie greatest ini-
jiortance for tlie ex])lanatiun of the structure and func-
tion of the striated muscles. Each of these muscles
consists, as is well known, of a number of small fibres,
corresponding to large cells, each with its envelo])e, a
thin membrane, and its contents. \Mthin the thin niem-
lirane, the sarcolemma^ that confines the muscular HIire,
we find two essentially distinct substances, the tii'st,
which has been named by KCiiXE rhabdia, the staff-
sidistance, divided into a number of cubical, parallelo-
pi])oid, vii'gulate, or lamella)' parts, ari'anged beside
each otiier in longitudinal or transverse rows, but in
general at very minute intervals, which are filled by
the second sultstance, the sarcopIdfuiKi, a kind of ]iro-
toplasm with nuclei distributed among it. Tlie great
muscles of the bod-c in the tin}- Sea-horse are also of
this structure; but Rollett has pointed out a remark-
able difference in the relative propm-tions (jf these two
substances in the muscles that set the fin-rays in vibra-
tion. Here, where the movements are too rapid for the
eye to follow lliem, the sarcoplasm pi'eponderates greatly
ovei' the rJiahdio. Up to the ])resent time science has
not fully succeeded in elucidating the significance and

co-operation of llii' two sulistiinces in the contraction
of the muscles. But, as oiih' the sarcoplasm together
with the sarcolemma comes in immediate contact with
the end ajiparatus <if tin.' tibi-ilhe of the niotorx' nerves,
we may at least conjecture both that the physiological
significance of the two substances is different, and that
the operation cif the ner\'ous po\ver varies according to
the different (piantity and distribution of the two sub-
stances in a muscular tibre. Roli.ett's observation of
the Sea-liorse — together with several otlier observations,
e. g. of the wing-muscles in insects — entitle us at
le;ist to the assumption that extremeh' rapid muscular
motion may be promoted bv the nnn'e advanced deve-
lopment of the sarcoplasm.

'i'lie Lopholiranchs are characterized, it is true, by
a considerable reduction of the true organs of motion;
but one genus, Soh'ii(}sfmiiiis from the Indian (_)cean and
Australia, tlii' type of a distinct family, is fully equi])-
ped in this res])ect, in |)articular with a high anterior
dorsal fin, a large caudal tin. and Ix.ith long and bi'oad
ventral fins. All the other genera, which together form
the faniih' S'i/iii/jiiiflii(he, are destitute both of the first
dorsal fin and of the venti-al fins: the anal, caudal, and
finalh' c\ en the ])ectoi'al fins are reduced in most of
them, and entirely disa])pear in some forms. When the
caudal fin has disappeared, the tail becomes a prehensile
oi'gan, more or less developed, which fishes of this
description, e. g. the well-known Sea-horses, curl round
the branches of seaweeds or round other suitable objects,
in <ii'(ler to hold tliem.sehes fast.

All these fishes are feeble creatures, which depend
for their protection cliieflv on their resemblance to the
surrounding objects. (_)ur small Pipefishes closely re-
.seinble the thread-algtp (ulrcf) to whicdi they often
attach themselves, and several Sea-horses develop foliate
gr(.)wths sometimes of the most fantastic shapes, h\
means of which tlie\- acipiire a deceptive likeness to
the seaweed. The\' must seek tlieir food among the
weakest minute animals, for their toothless mouth is
most like a sucking tube (cf. alK)ve, pp. 263 and 264,
on the internal folds of tlie mouth in the (Jollies).

In the method of their reproduction all the Lopho-
branchs of vvhicli we lia\"e :n\\ information on this
head, sho\\- the peculiarity that they carry the impreg-
nated eggs and, until they can help themselves, the

" Ueber die Flo-tfciniui/ilcein lies Seep/ei-ilclieiis {HipptnainpHs nntiqiioi-nm) viiil iilry Miifkcl.^tnictnr im Allijcmcineii, Arcli. Mikr. Ai)ot.
XXXII (1888), p. 2.33.

I.ol'lloliliANCIIS.

(Hi?,

excluded ciiilirNos on tlieir ventral side. In tiie .ureat
majority of cases it is the males that have to jxM'tbrni
this duty, just as the males of the Pycnogonoid fa-
mily carry the luuiiis of eggs on their feet. IWit in
SoloKistomit.s the \-entral tins of the female coalesce

longitudiiialh with the xcntral side so as to form a
sac, in which the I'ei'tilized eggs arc stoi-ed and de\'e-
loped.

Of the two families of this series there occurs in
the .Scandinavian fauna onh' the

1am s vncjnathid e.

The ijrcatcr part af the murfi'm of Ihr liidiicliioslcf/dl iiiinilndiii- ifiiitcd hi the IkhIii. h'(iriii(/ ii»Ii/ at tlie top, above
and just ln'h'nid the end of flic opcniiliim. ti sukiII, fss/irc-li/if (/ill-ojiciiiii;/ on each side.

This family, as defined" by Kali''', includes
gi'cat majority of the Lophobrauchs, with about
species, distributed among 15 genera.

tlie

lAO

All the Syn-

"•nathoids that occur in the Scandinavian Fauna, ijclong
t(j Gi'NTiiEu's'' subfamily Si/nffiiathii/te, which is dis-
tinguished from the Sea-horses (Hijipocaiiijiiiue) — with
their descending (prone) head, elevated occiput, and
more or less tumid body — liy an eveidv elongated
form of b()(h , with the head prolonged in the same
direction as the trunk and with the latter only slightly
thicker than the caudal jiart. In the Si/i/r/i/afhiiKe. too,
the tail .is never so developed into a prehensile organ
as in tlie Hippocampi ixe.

The above-mentioned rings ftirmed by the plate-
armour of the l)ody are composed (tig. Ifi'.t) on the

Fig. 169. Sclieiiiatic transverse section of a Stjn(jiiatlni.-<. Magnified.

After MoREAU. A, transverse section of the trunk: 1 — 1', 2 — 2',

and 3 — 3' the paired plates; 4, the ventral plate. B, transverse

section of the tail.

trunk (ill front of the vent) of 7, 8, or 9, and on
the tail (beliind the vent) ot (i or 4 pilates, so ar-
ranged that the former make up 3 or, at the end of

jilates are bent at greater or less angles, longitudinal
cariiue are foi'iued on the sides of the body, three on
each side of tiie tiaiiik or even to tlie termination of
the dorsal tin, and two on each side of the tail, where
its section is quadrangular. Hut in many cases the said
angularity is slight or absent, while the skin that covers
the plates grows comparatively thick, rendering the
body smoother, the plates and carinaa more indistinct
or even imperceptible.

As in the i-est of the J.o|»liobranchs and a great
proportion of the Hemibranchs, the snout is elongated
and liears at the tip the gajie, wdiich is almost vertical
when closed, with the ascending under-jaw forming the
extreme margin of the head in front. In the Deep-
nosed Pipefish {Si/iii/iiiithiis ti/phle) the elongation of
the snout is produced in the following manner. The
ethmovomerine part is elongated like a staff, and coasted
below by the long and narrow parasphenoid bone, while
the frontal bones extend forward aliove in the form of
long and narro\v covering-bones over about half of the
said elongation. The hyomandibular bone is an oblong,
(luadrangular but irregular, vertically set disk, which
is united at a right angle lielow with the abnormally
developed os symplecticnm, which is directed forward,
extends below- the eyes, and sends out a branch obli-
quely upward towai'ds the lateral ethmoid (prefrontal)
lione, while a second, still longer, horizontal branch
meets a process in a backward direction from the
quadrate bone. This horizontal branch of the sympilee-

the trunk, 4 pairs and an unpaired ventral plate, which ticum is partly naked (without covering bones) exter-

disappears behind the vent, while either the uppermost \ nally, but is covered behind and below, throughout the

or the lowest pair disappears either behind the end of j greater portion of its extent, by the preoperculum. The

the dorsal fin or even behind the vent. .\s the i)aired I vertical (posterior) branch of the ])reoperculum lies

" The family 6';/ii;/n(itliiit<
exclude the Sea-horses.

'' Cat. Lopliobr. Fi.sli. Brit. Mux. (18.",0), v
' Cat. Brit. M,is., F/W(., vol. VIII, p. 153.

establislicd by BoNAP.MiTii (C<it. Mttoil. Pesc. Eur., 184(;. p. Sit) was diiferently defined, so as to

Scandinnv

Fishe.

664

SCANDI.VAVIAN FISHK:

oiitsidi^ th(t li-\-oiiKiii(libul:u- lioiicj ;iiul is iiiiited above
to tin- interior iiiiirgin of" the siil)()rliit;ii hones. The
obliquely ascending branch of the si/mplecticum, on the
other hand, is separated by a space, occvi])ied by the
masticatory muscles, from the two posterior suborbital
bones, \vliicii bound tiie orbit below, liut is united to
tlie hind su]ieri((r curner of the aiilcrinr sub(.irl)ital (tlie
pi'eorbitaj) bone, where the hitter meets the lateral
etlnuoid iione. The foremost suborbital bone forms the
greater [)art of the side of the snout, l)eing united in
front us a covering bone to the eiito-(meso-)ptery-
goidcum and tlie (piadrate bnuc, but leaving behind the
latter an o|)(_-niug in tliu middle for about a third of
the depth of the snout: the middle suborbital bone is
united bekiw to the symplecticum : tiie hindmost sub-
orliital bone both to the sympJectlcum and, behind, to
the iireoperculum. We refer to the opercidar apparatus
a nafrow, lancet-sha].ted, thin bone which lies along tlie
inside <jf the horizontal, forward branches of the jire-
opei'culum and the ^iynqilcrticuni and the horizontal,
backward liranch of the f|uadrate bone. This lancet-
shaped bone is united by ligaments Ijehind to the up]ier
part of the ceratolivoid bone and in front to tlic an-
gular part of the lower jaw. The latter union clearly
shows that the bone must be an interoperculum", cor-
responding most nearly in form and position to the
intero|)erculuni in Trfrodoii for example, though here
it has jiassed within the sjinipJecticiim and become united
behind to the upper part of the outside of the ceratd-
liyoideum, instead of retaining its union to the sub-
operculum'', which is here reduced to an extremely
thin disk within the lower margin of the operculum.
The hnvcr jaw is remai-kalilc for its extraordinary
de})tli behind and its sharply curved and toothless dental
part. The maxillary bones are comjiaratively well-
developed and their hind (lower) extremity is expanded;
but the toothless intermaxillaries are small, styliform,
and without nasal processes. Tiie palatine bones are
shorter than the niaxillaries and of fnrly uniform
breadth. At the anterior angle of the union of each
palatine bone to the toj) of the ascending branch of the

quadrate bone we tind the narrow pter\'goid bone, which
is Ijent at an obtuse angle, and behind the said union,
el(;se t(i the I'idge of the snout, the entoptcrygoid bone,
which is luiited in the same manner to the quadrate
bone.

The tongue is wanting, and the glossohyoid bone
can liai'illy be discerni'd: Ijut the urohyoid bone is cora-
jjaratively long. When the last bone is drawn back,
the anterior (lower) end of the ceratolivoid bone with
the tip iif the whole branchial apjiaratus is foived down-
wards', the ca\itv of tlie mouth iieing thus widened
and filled with a fresh sup|il\- nf water. In this manner
the Lt)phobranclis puuqi in their food together with the
water needed for tJK'ii' respiration. The method in
which the transverse derinaHblds (ci^a) just behind the
jaws assist to this end, has already been touched upon.
The gill-rakers are small, denticulate, and peetinately
arranged along liotli mai'gins nf the inside of the liranchial
arches. Their function, the prevention of food and fo-
reign substances from penetrating into the gill-cavities
when the fish swallows, has ali-eady been pointed out
by Retzius''.

The intestinal canal (tig. 170) is simple in all the
Lophobranchs, but shortest in the Stjtignatli'uKr. In the
Hippocampina; (the Sea-horses) the intestine forms at
least a few curves, but in the Si/nijiiathiii(e it is straight
or neai'ly so, thus rendering the wliole digestive canal,
from the [iharynx to the vent, e(pial in length to or
only slightly longer than the abdominal cavity. The
lines of demarcation between the oesophagus, the sto-
mach, and the intestine are only internal, and consist
merely in the difference of the mucous membrane,
while the lieginning of the last division is marked as
usual liy the mouth of the gall-duct. Puit the small
intestine is divided from the rectum by an annular
valve. No pyloric aii])endages can be traced. The me-
senterium is wanting or only partly developed, in front
and behind, to bind the stomach and intestine to the
dorsal wall of tlie abdominal cavity. Both the ovaries
and the testes are paired, simple, and elongated. Their

" .J. Playfaik McMuRRicii {lln the Osteoloi/i/ mnl DeceUipmeid of ,Si/ihjii:itiitis Pni-iriiiKS — Qiuirt. .loiirii. Jlirr. Sc. n. scr., No. Xl^II
(Oct. 1883), p. 623), nssiimes tlial tliis bone is a nielapterygoid.

'' See, however, below, on tlie ligamentous connexion.s between us i-p/'lii/nlf. tlie intcropercnlnni, ami tlic .-ingulnr part of llu' lower jaw
in ,SV/„;7/.5.

'■ See for example our lisun- of Si/,i,ju<itliiis acm-. The entire ligiire (.1) shows the eeralohyoiil bones depressed to a pointed pro-
tnbcrance on the throat jnst behind the perpendicular from the eye; and in the lower figure (tlie anterior part of the ventral side of the
body, /)) the nrohj'oid bone extends back from the ceratohyoid bones find between the opcrcula.

■^ Atiatomisk uiidentilcning iifcer na<jva ddiir af Sijngimthus Acus och Ophidion, Vet. Akad. Ilandl. 1833, p. 146.

l.nl'IKiBKANCIlS.

665

Fi.i:-. 1711. Anatomy uf Synrjiuithns li/jihle. Afk-r A. Retzius.

A: Male, witli llic iiljiloininnl wall opened and folded outwards and tlie
niarsiipiiini, in wlnVli appear tlie cavities left by tlje eggs, distended.

/(, liver; vit, air-bladder, with tbe anterior, thin-wallcd part pointed
and obliquely divided from the posterior; t, testes; pa, anal fin: vu.
urinary bladder; /, intestine, opened for a short distance at tbe vent;
ug, nrogenital aperture, behind (below) the vent, which is opened.

JS; Female, with the abdominal wall opened and folded outwards.

A, liver; cf, gall-bladder; yx/, anal fin; ip intestine, at the month of
the galldnct coming from the right side (in the figure the left); !.>,
posterior part of the intestine, opened in order to show tbe valve that
divides the intestine from the rectum, which is also opened as well
as the vent; ov, ovaries; vti, urinary bladder; tig, urogenital aperture.

Opening just lichind (lie \cnt. TIio urinary bladder is
loiifi; and nai'iMw, Tu's on tlic left side, and coasts the
left sc.\ii;il oriiiiii. 'I'lic ;iir-liI;Hl(l<T is large and coasts
tlie iiiijicr \\;dl of tiie alxlomiiial cavity foi' at least
()nc-li;df or Iwo-tliirds of tlie lengtli of the latter.

The I'ilis arc \\;intiiig. Among the otiier pecidiari-
ties of the skeleton the structure of the shoulder-girdle
is es|)eci;dl\' rcinark;il)lc. The postteinporal bone (fig.
171, /)/) (•(i;ilcsccs with the mastoid bone (epoficum) of
the skull and is con ercd in a (Janoid fashion by a plate-
like hi\cr, pointed iiehind. 'i'he sui)raclavieular bones are
\\;uitiiig: hut the id;i\ i(de (il) is all the larger. Tliis
hone is T-sh;iped, with the upper (iKirizoutal) linr united
to the transxerse processes of the first two \ertebr;e.
The first transverse process is directed backwards, and
so long that ;dl the .•luterioi- upper branch of the cla-
vicle iua\ be contiguous with it: while the second of
these processes, which is comparatively sliort, and onh'
slightly expanded at the top, adjoins the angle between
the horizontal and \ ertical branches of the clavicle. The
ofitside of the cdavicle is co\ered by the three plates on
each side of the bod^■ which form the first (foremost)
ring; and in Si/iif/i/dt/ins kciis the inner jjrong of the
vertical shaft, which is forked at the bottom, in the T-
form of the clavicle, is supjiorted on the first abdominal
plate belonging to tlic same ring. This ])late is wanting
in Sijtujiiufhiis ti/j)lili\ where the support is therefore
given by the lower kitcral phite. Onty the anterior
margin, howe\er, of the middle lateral plate in this ring
is united to the middle of the shaft in the T-form of
the clavicle, the rest of this plate lying as a covering over
the muscular mass of the pectoral tin, in the middle of
which mass we find the extremely thin scapulo-coracoid
disk (sr) together witli the four basal bones (fig. 171,
has) of the ])ectoral tin. This disk is not divided here
into its ordinary component jiai-ts (the shoidder-blatk'
and the coracoid bone), and is extended between the
hind part of the upper (horizontal) branch of the clavicle
and the inner pi-ong of the \ertical shaft of the clavicle,
without touching this bone at any other point. At this
lower end of the cla\ icie, howe\cr. witltin the lowei- end
of the scapulo-coracoid disk and above the inner side of
the first two abdominal phites in Si/nffnatliKs acus, lies
one interclavicle (id), which meets both the clavicle and
the s;iid disk (fig. 171,.sr). }\i'ither in Synr/iiafli lis (icKS
nor in S. ti/phlc ha\e we succeeded in finding more
than one such interclavicle, though according to I'ak-
Ki;i! the formei' species possesses two.

(i6()

SCANDINAVIAN l-ISIIKS.

The skeleton is otlierwise extremely simple and onlj' By tar the greater numl)er of the Si/iii/iiiifl/hue are

slightly ossified, with the vertebrie elongated and their marine tislies; they are met with ever\\vliere, wliere
processes straight and (jf uniform l)readth, or slightly i seaweeds cover the bottom. ( )ut at sea they aeeoni-

broader at the top; but in the vertel)riu above ^vhich j>any the tufts of sargasso- weed, or drift about at tlie

the dorsal fin is attached, the upper spinous processes surface with the current and the waves. Some i)f

are divided sagitallv (in the longitudinal direction of the tliem, however, also live in brackish water, and n

body) into three or four divergent branches. Distinct few spet'ies (jccur in fresh water alone. The species

haemal arches appear only at the beginning of tlie tliat occur in Scandinavia may be distinguished as

caudal region, where a few may l)e found. follows:

B'ig. 171. Right scapular aroli of Synijnathiis acus, seen from witliiii, 7 times the natural side. Principallj- after PARKf;R.

pt, posttemporal bone; cl, clavicle; .«//,, lower lateral plate iu the tirst ring (scHt.U7n laterale inferius annuli primi); sli.,, lower lateral plate

in the second ring; «Uj, ventral plate in the first ring; sv^, ventral plate in the second ring; id, interclavicle; slnii, middle, lateral plate in

the fir.st ring; ba.s, basal bones of the pectoral fin: .«. scajmlar disk.

A: The aduh fishes without pectoral
fins. The males carry the impreg-
nated eggs in a layer of mucus on
the ventral side of the trunk.
a: Beginning of the dorsal fin far
in front of the perpendicular
from the vent, its distance from
the tip of the stiout being at
most about '/^ (less than 8.") '.)
of the distance between the

vent and the same point XeropJds wquoreus.

h: Distance between the dorsal fin
and the tip of the snout at least
"/in of that between the vent
and the latter.

aa: Length of the trunk and
head (distance between the
vent and the tip of the snout)
more than 45 ?i of the length
of the body Nerophis ophidian .

hli: Distance between the vent
and the tip of the snout
less than 3.5 % of the length
of the body Nerophis himhriciformis.

The adult fishes furnished with pec-
toral fins. The males" carry the
impregnated eggs in a canaliculate
sac on the ventral side of the tail.

a: Length of the head more than 15

% of that of the body Synanathus iyplde.

b: Length of the head less than 14
% of that of the body.
aa : Length of the head greater

than that of the base of

the dorsal fin Syngnathus aciis.

hh: Length of the head less

than that of the base of

the dorsal fin Syngnatlnin rostcUalus.

In o(ir Scandina

I'li'KrisiiKs.

6(i7

Ever since FiUEs" pointed nnl the reni;irkiil)le fact
thiit tli(^ l;ir\-;i' (if Xeropliix liiiiihiicifiDiiiix are fnrnished
with full}' developed and actively employed peclor.d fitis,
it has been evident that tlie former of tlie two ahoxc
"roups, into which we have aftei- l-'i{ii;s divided the
Scandinavian Sijn(jnathni<(\ has heen developed by a.
retrogressive metamorphosis from forms agreeing more
closely with the liettei' e(|iiipped I \ pes. Tlie Needle-
fishes {S//n(/ii(itl/i Opiiiilii in |-'i;ii;s) are also distinguished
by a considerabh' smaller head, in adult lishes U'ss than
' ,„ (if the length (if the IkhIv, and a snuiother body,
without (ir at least with (inly indistinct longitudinal
cariine. It is als(j a rule among the Ldphdbranchs that
the larv;e and the \(iung fishes have sharjier cai-iiue or
even spines (in the plates (if the bodx, where the older

lishes show fainter traces thereof. 'I'hiis the Needle-
fishes, in this respect too, represent oldei' (more advan-
ced) stages of development. This cannot prexent thcni,
howe\(fr, from being regarded as less full\ cijuipped
e\('n in res]iect to the covering of the bo(l\-. An exotic
genus within this group, Protncampus, which otherwise
comes fairl\- near NeropJiis, also retains the larval ver-
tical tin even in the case of lull-grown specimens, at
the dorsal edge both in front of and behind the true
dorsal tin, and at the \cntrid edge of the trunk. Again,
the maimer in which tlie male Needle-fishes carr\' their
eggs, must siireh' be regarded as more priiiiiti\c than
the corresponding arrangement in the rest oftlKt.SV/w-
flHdtlii. We therefore begin our description with the forms
wliicli FiiiKs called TdngsniiUor {St/iK/imllii Mnisnjildlcs).

(;kms syngnathus'.

Tlie adult flsl/rs fiiniislicd iritli peitorrd. raiidal. diirsal. (nid final fins. The iippeniidsl rmr af jihitcs mi vach
side of till' trunk teniihiatrs jxj.ytcriiirli/ at tlie end of the ilnrsal fin nr Just in front of tJiin jioint. Vi'iit situated
in the anterior half of the tiodij. Tin- males carri/ the inijiri'iiiiated ei/i/s in a eanalieiilate sar iindenieiith the tail.

Some fifty species, known and defined with greater
or les.s certainty, are contained within this genus, which
is spread over all the seas of the Tropical and Tem-
perate Zones, and is represented even in some of the
rivers and lakes of the Tropics.

that close the marsupiani of the male, become swollen,
and the marsupinm is gradually tilled with a white,
clear, and thick mucus, which serves as a bed for tlu^
eggs, and decreases in (piantitv as the voung grow,
until, by the time they are large enough to swim and

The upjier marginal carina on each side of the tail make iude]iendent progress though the water, little or
runs forward in this genus below the posterior part of : none of it remains. One day in the mouth of July I
the upper lateral carina of the body, on each side of the | was present at the hauling of a seine in the island-
dorsal tin, either to meet the middle lateral cai-iiia of the I belt, and secured a male of this species that had fully
trunk or to disappear above its termination. The egg-sac j developed J'oung in the marsupinm. I at once coii-
of the males is formed in this genus in the following structed a dam with .stones from the beach, and the
manner. The anterior part of the lower marginal carina fish was set in the pool soon after it had been taken
of the tail grows obliquely downwards on each side for | from the seine. After it had swum to and fro for a
a gi-eater or less part of its length, and along the un- \ while, it opened the marsupinm by a downward luove-
der surface of the free margin develops a dermal fold, I merit of the tail, whereupon the young crept out one
a continuation of the anal mucous membrane. These I after another and swam under and on both sides of the
dermal folds on each side of the body converge towards male, but always kept close to its body at a little di-
each other, but without coalescing, their free margins I stance from the marsupinm. As soon as I tried to capture
being closely approximated to each other, but leaving a the male, it made a sudden movement, at the same

slit, which the fish can widen or firmly close at pleasure.
"When the spawning-season ap])roaches," says Eicstiu'im

time bending the body in an arch upwards, and the
young at once crept int(j the niarsupiuin, the lids of

of Syngnathus typhle, "the f(iliat(; lids (dermal folds) which were then shut. The same experiment was re-

° Metamoi-phos, anmarkt has Ltlln HafsnaUn, Vd. Akiiii. Ilatidl. 1S37, p. .09.

* Arteui, Iclttliyol., Gen. Pi.ic, p. 1. In his works, however, tliis genus represented the whole of the iiioilern series Lopliol/rancliii.
In Aristotle the genus was called (ief.oyri, a name which Athen.eus 9ubseq[uently transferred to the modern Rhampliistoma. Gaza translated
jSeAoVjj by acus, which was the most general name of the genus during the Middle .\ges; but Belom -called it Ti/plile or Typhline.

66S

SCANDINAVIAN FISUKS.

pc.-itcd s('\cr;il times, hiiT butli the iiuilc .-iiid tlie try loosel\' jiiiii('(l tu eacli utlier at tlie middle of tlir l)fll\-;

iiixMriiilily bidiaved in tlu; same manner. wliile in Si/iif/t/aflnis tlic}' are firmly coalescent, and

As the genus is defined in the abo^e di;i^nosi.s, it their juncture is usually covered by the first ventral

coiitMins six of Kaui's" and nr.Miciiii.'s'' genera, two plate, whicii is always wanting in Siiil/diinstun/ii. this

of whicii, SiphonostijiiHi and Si/)/(/iiiitlnts, are retained j genus thus having an oljlong, I'homboidal patch, cu-

by Gr'XTiiEii'. The distinction between these two genera vered only with skin and without yjlate, at the middle

is stated to consist in the character that in Siphonostoma ; of the belly just behind the shouldei'-girdle. The dif-

the lower (-overiiig plates of the shoulder-girdle (the ' fereuce is of little importance, at least in the Scandi-

lowest i>air of lateral i)lates in the lirst ring) are only na\ian fauna, which contains only three of these species.

THE GREAT PIPEFISH (s\v. stoka tangsnallan'').

SYNGXATHrS ACl'S.

Fig-. 172.

Siioiit coiupurKf/rrli/ iiinrinr and shallo/i-. Lciiiith nf the liau] less fliaii 14 % of that af flic IkkIi/ mul ut must
:J4 % of tJidt of till- tail, irliicli is iiioic tlioii firi<i- tlir Iriii/tli of tlir trttiik. ])ist(nirc licfiri'ci/ the dorsal fill and
the tij, of Ihr siioiit at most :',<.) % of tlir Inii/tli of tlir liodi/, and tlir Iriii/tli of its hasc less flnin ' , of this
distance and also less than the leiii/fh of the lirad. Len/ith of the inarsiipiiini of the male more than firire that
of the head. Hind mari/in of the candid tin ronnded.

I^MMIi

Tf"

■Si/nt/nntlius nciis from tin- Great Fisliiiig-bunk. S. W, of Bergen, wlicrc tlie depth wa.-^ 100 — l.'iO fathoms, taken Ir
.\ndersson of Bohiislan in 1874. A, '„ of the natural size; U, the liead seen from bekiw. natural size.

R. Ijr. 2; /'. 38-42; A. 3—4; P. (10) 11—12 (13); C. (0)
10; Verl. (jfi; Ami. Ii2 - -GG = (20 — 22) + ,r.

Sijn. ■'•<i/ngn(iltiuf corjiorc merlio heptagono, camla piniiata, Am-.,
Irhlln/oL, .Spec. Pi.^c. p. 3, No. 3; LiN., Fii. >Siuv., e.l. I,
p. 12G, No. 33li.
iiyngiiathu.i Aciis (p. p.), Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, tom. I, p.
337; ("Laminse corporis trnnci 20, canda? 43"); Bl., Fisch.
DeiitsM., pt. Ill, p. 113, tab. XCI, f5g. 2: Flwng, Brit.
Am'm., p. 17.5; Jkn., Maji. Biit. V'ert., p. 484; Yakr.,
Nist. lirit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 325; Fr., Vot. Akad.
Handl. 1837, p. 27; Kr. (Sipliostoma), Damn. Fistce, vol.
Ill, I, p. 692; SUND. (^Sijngnatlius), Ofvors. Vet. Akad.
Forh. 1852, p. 85; NiLSS., ^Icand. Fa., Fislc.., p. 684; Kp.,
Cat. Lophobr. FL-ili., Brit. Mtis., p. 41; Gthb (p. p.), Cat.

Brit. Mas., FisI,., vol. VIII, p. 157; Ui:si., ///.v(. .V'l/. /'»/ss.
(Nonv. Suit, a Buft'.), torn. II, p. 552; Coll. (p. p.), Vid.
Selsk. B'urli. Christ. 1874, Till.-egsh., p. 200; ibid. 187'.'.
No. 1, p. 101; WiNTH., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol.
XII, p. 53: HcKK (p. p.), Arcli. f. Natnrg. 4fi (1880), I,
p. 332; MoR., Hist. iVat. Pois.". Fr.. tom. II, p. 42; Day
(p. p.), Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 259, tab. CXLIV,
tig. 1; Storm, Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. 42; Lill.i..
-Si;., Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 454.
.Si/ngnalhus Typlile, Bl., Fi.-nli. Deiitsih/., j.t. Ill, p. 112,
tab. XCI, fig. 1; Malm (p. i).), Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forli.
1852, p. 84.

0/js. Ain'Eurs description U'escr. Spec. Pisc, 1. c.) leaves no
room for doubt tliat he really distinguislicd between tlie two species

" Cat. Lophobr. Fiish., Brit. Mas. 1856.

'' Hist. N'at. Poiss., tome II (Nouv. Suites a Bufion, Paris 1870).

' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, pp. 154 and 155.

■' FBI us.

diiicAi' i'ii'i:fisii.

HCil

that according to his opinion liad alreiuly been represented by lloN-
DELET (De Pise, lib. VIII, cap. Illl, p. 229) in distinct figures, but
combined in one chapter (as one species). The first of tliese figures
evidently represents the species called Ti/plile in Hei.on (iN'a^., Divers.
Poiss., p. 4-t6); the second (lower) figure should thus correspond to
the species called by LinN/KUS Si/nynatliiix urns, assuming that this
species occurs in tlie Mi'ilitcrriiooan, from which locality RoNDEI.KT
hail priicurtd his lish". .Xftcr .ViMKiu's observation: "Nnnicrus iu-
cisuraruni sen crcniiiniu transversaruMi, in hoc genere, oninino alten-
Hendus est", when we employ tlie Linniran name, we must first be
guided by tlu' character which LiNN.Klis gives, and which is drawn
from the number of thi' rings on the body. Ii(.th Fries (I. c.) and
SUNPEVAI.T, (1. c.) have adciiuately shown that Lin'n.hu.S otherwise con-
founded these two species, and cannot be rcgiirdcd as an anihorily on
this question. As Sundkv.m.i, also points out, L)onova.\, in his descrip-
tion of Si/m/ii. Ii/iililf, was the first after .Vktkdi clearly to define the
distinction between the two species, aiitl the first to give to the name
of aciis the employiiiei.t \\hich lias subsiv|uenlly and rightly bi^en
observed by the Kiiglish faunists.

Tlic (ire.'it Pijiofish atttiins a, leiio-ili of tiliout half
a metre (Storm). From DAiiekil (Boliuslan) the Royal
Museum lias received through Mr. C. \. H.w.ssox .spe-
cimens U]) to 14i' 111111. long. 'V\u' eloiigateil, wliiji-like
liodv sliows a distinct lireak, cspecialh' in adult speci-
mens, at the l)oundar\' liet^'een the trunk and tlie tail:
and tlie truid< is thickest, as usual, in the females. The
greatest dej)tli of the Ijody, at the middle of the trunk,
ma\' sometimes rise to nearly 5 % of its length, liut is
usually only ■) or 4 % thereof, or in the females about
13'4 — 1.5 %, in the males about 11 — Ti % of the length
of the trunk''. The greatest breadth is as a rule about
^ ., of the greatest depth. .\t the beginning of the tail
the de|jtli of tlie body in old specimens is at most
about ;> %, sometimes onh' 2^/^ %' of its length, and
from this point it decreases regularh- to the shallow
base of the caudal fin. The length of the trunk Itcliiiid
the gill-cover is ab( ,it 2S — 2G % of that of the liody;
and the length of the tail, including the caudal fin,
varies between about .59 and (jl % of that of the body.

The plate-armour is distributed in such a manner
that :21 or 22, sometimes, in Aoung specimens, 20 rings
(including tlic ring of the shoulder-girdle) belong to
the trunk, and 43 — 4.5 to the tail. Here, as in the
other Si/iif/iiatlii, these plates are striated with trans-
verse ridges and grooves between them, starting from
the middle carina, which is finely dentated. The ujiper-

most plates, which meet at the middle of I he litick, are
almost stpiarc and bent at a .slighth obtuse angle, ren-
dering the dorsid side Hat or slightly concave. In the
middle lateral row on the trunk the plates ai-' more
distinctly hexagonal ov even octagonal, and bent at a
ver\- obtuse angle. In the lowest lateral row on the
trunk the angU; of curvature varies according to llie
gri'ater or less distension of the bellw but the furiu of
the plates is more like that of those in the middle
lateral row. The middle \('iitral row also consists of
hexagoutd or octagouiil plates. The two hindiiiost rings
oil the trunk are without ventral plate, its jdace being
occujiied ]'\ the anal region. On account of tlie lorni
of the plates two rows of diamond-shaped patches, eo-
\cred onh with skin, are left on each side of the trunk
and also on its \entral side; but on the back there is
only one row of these rhomlis, which generally extend
across the whole dorsal plane, but sometimes, especially
in front, are indistinet, the contiguous plates being jjer-
fecth' rectangular. The middle lateral row of the trunk
ends in tlie hindmost ring of this region, as a rule
ol)li(jue]y lielow the beginning of the row that forms
behind the dor.sal fin the upper lateral margin of the
tail, and below the jjosterior part of the tlorsal fin (be-
hind the vent) ti middle lateral row belonging to the
tail. But sometimes the last-mentioned row wedges
itself into the hindmost ring on the trunk, wliicli ring-
may thus contain four plates on each side. The dif-
ference in this respect is, however, so irregular that
we sometimes find the former to be the case on one
side of the body, the latter on the other side. The
four sides of the tail behind the dorsal Hn are con-
structed in the same manner tis the dorsal jdane ot
the trunk; but the ventral side is broader than tlu;
dorsal, which is parallel to it, the difference being
greatest in old specimens. The marsupiiim of the males
extends under 24 — 26 rings.

The length of the head measures 12 — 13'/, % of
that of the body. At the occiput it is only slightly
shallower than the beginning of the trinik and not
very sharply marked off therefrom. Ih^rc as in the
Si/iK/iiafhi in general, the trunk is furnished at the

" Whether the Atlantic .Si/iir/iiatliKs :icus also occurs in the Mediterranean, is not yet decided with certainty. Mohk.u; had no know-
ledge of it from this locality, and Ca.nESTIUNI (Frtanii D'ftnlia. Pesci) does not include it among the fishes ot Italy. On the other hand,
MoREAU gives Si/tignalhiis ethojt, ,and Canestrini >Si/gii. tn-iiionutKS. which seem to stand in the same relation to tlie Mediterranean •Si/iii/n.
rubesceus, as iSyngn. rostellatns to Sijngn. arus.

* In young specimens about l' , dm. long the greatest depth of the body may be only about 2' ., ". of its length and 10 ". of tlie
length of the trunk.

'■ In young specimens still less, sinking at least to 2' . "» of the length of the body.

(wd

SCANDINAVIAN FIMIKS.

oxtroiiK' front uf its dorsal |ilani' with two unpaired
plates, which have been called occipital, because their
middle carina forms a continuation of the occipital
carina. These plates also lie so far forward that the
auteiior one partly covers the crest of the occiput, and
the small gill-openings lie beside the front part of the
posterior plate. Thus the hind part of the head with
the gill-o})enings lies to a gi'cat e.xtent within the limits
of llic trunk. The anterior occipital plate is shorter
tiian the ]>osterior, sometimes only half as long. The
true occi])ital carina is hardly as high as these so-called
occipital plates; but still the occij)ut rises considerably
from the forehead, which in its turn slopes forward
towards tiic snout. Tlie occiput is also convex, and the
sides of the liind part of tlie head are considerably
tumid, on account of the alveated form of the oval
opt'rcula-. Tliese bones are striated with smooth ridges,
radiating upwards and downwards and leaving between
them rcjws of small cavities in the surface; and an hori-
zontal ridge, granulated by a row of small round tu-
bercles and scarcely half as long as the operculum, runs
back from the articulation of this bone. The occiput,
the tfjp of the head, and the temijles are cavernous
in the same manner, but with coarser and more irre-
gular depressions. The snout, on the othei- hand, is
smooth, with the exception of the bars (carinix>) that
follow its dorsal side. One of these bai'S, the dorsal
carina of the snout, runs in a line with the occijiital
carina, which has terminated and been obliterated on
the concave forehead. This bar is coasted on each side
b\- another, an immediate continuation in a for\vard
dii'cctioii of the strongly elevated ui)per orbital margin,
which is continued backwards in the same manner l)y
a ridge that runs oblitjuely up towards the beginning
of the anterior occipital plate. The orbital margin itself
is also continued downwards and sharph' defined in old
specimens, in which the ]>ra'frontal l)one also forms a
prominent knob at the middle of the anterior orbital
margin. All these ridges are granulated at the free
rnai-gin, more or less distinctly and most so in old spe-
cimens, by a row of small round tubercles. In front
of the said pra^'rontal protuberance, ^\'hich is not very
distinct in young s])ecimens, lies a triangular depression,
Avitliin ^vhich an oblicjuely longitudinal elevation of the
skin bears a small round nostril at each end. When
the mouth is closed, the snout is somewhat compressed
from the sides, with the breadth graduallj' decreasing
in front; but when the mouth is open, it is more terete

and, when seen from above, of more unifoi'in breadth.
The tij) of the snout is turned upwards, and rises per-
ceptibly above the ascending ti]i of the lower jaw.

The length of the snout varies considerabh in
different individuals, but esjiecialh- according tij age.
In Adung s}jecimens, up to a length of 2 dm., it may
be oidy slightlv greater or e\en somewhat less than half
the length of the head; but in older specimens it mea-
sures about 56 — o9 % thereof. The variation is as
great, but reversed, in the case of its least depth, which
we have found in ^oung .sjjecimens to measure 20 — 18
% of its lengtli, while the corresponding proportion in
old specimens varies between about 15 and 13 %. As
a rule the least depth of the snout is " ., of the length
of the lower jaw, which is about the same as the dia-
meter of the eyes. The postorbital length of the head,
occupied almost entirely by the gill-cover, measures about
'4 (31 — 34 %, exceptionally 36 %) of its entire length.

As we have mentioned above, the branchiostegal
membranes are entirely coalescent, below and on the
sides, with the front of the shoulder-girdle. The gill-
openings, with their crescent-shajjed lids, are small hori-
zontal ci'evices, about half as long as the diameter of
the e\es, and situated in a line ^vith the latero-dorsal
carina' of the trunk, which begin just behind them.

The only paired tins, the pectorals, occupy an obli-
quel}' vertical position about half-way up the body, and
ari' of almost uniform lireadth, with sharply rounded
ti]). Their rays are simple and unarticulated, somewhat
widened at the tip, and usually 12, exceptional]}- 10 —
13, in number. The lengtli of the longest (middle)
ravs is always less than the depth of the body at the
beginning of the tail.

The dorsal tin begins on the last or the penulti-
mate ring of the trunk, at a distance from the tip of
the snout wliich we have never found to exceed 39 %
(37 — 38',., %) of tlie length of the body, and which is
greatest as a rule in the females. It is of almost uni-
form height, though it rises slightlv in a backward direc-
tion for about three-fourths of its length and then sinks
again. Its rays (usually 35 — 42, exceptionally 43 — 45),
like those of the other tins, are simple and unarticulated;
thcA' are somewhat broader at the tip and compressed
(flattened in the longitudinal direction of the body).
It more or less entirely occupies 10 or 9 rings of
plates, and the length of its base, which is always
shorter than the head, measures 11 or 12 % of that
of the body.

GUKAT I'lrKKISII.

(i71

The a.iKil tin lies jnsl hchiiul the vont, at a
distance from tlie tip ut' llic snout not exceeding
41 % (39—40' , %) of the IcMizth <if tlic ImhIv. It is
extrenieh' small, rescmblini;' a thin and narrow dermal
flap, a little expanded towards llie tip, and consists of
three (according to Mohkai' four) rays, wiiich do not
attain a length of even half that of the longest rays of
the dorsal tin. it is often so entirely enveloped by the
marsupium of the males as to he in\isil)le externalh\

When expanded the caudal tin is fan-shaprd, with
rounded hind margin. As a rule it contains lU rays,
more seldom 9. Its length at the middle is about 3 %
(2"8 — 3"2 %) of that of the body, or at most about '/\,
(26 — "22 %, least in old specimens) of that of the head.

The coloration is reddish or yellowish brown, with
about 12 or 13 broad, dark brown, transverse spots
across the hind part of the head, the back, and the
tail. These spots are intersected, howevei', by longi-
tudinal, oblong, smaller spots of the ground-colour.
The sides of the snout are also marked in a similar
manner. The ventral sick- is vello\\" or red. The lower
|jart of the gill-cover gleams with a silvery lustre. The
caudal tin is dark brown. The anal and [lectoral tins
are transparent, but the edges of the rays are dark
brown. The dorsal tin resembles the last-mentioned
tins, but has several transverse spots arranged in rows
on the rays.

The geograpliical range of the Great Pipefish ex-
tends along the whole west coast of Europe south of
the neighbourhood of Trondhjem, and according to
GiNTiiEi; the British Museum has also received speci-
mens through Sir A. Smith from the Cape of Good
Hope. On the English coast the species is very com-
mon. It seems hardly jirobaljle that it occurs in the
Mediterranean, as Kr(ivi:r has already remarked. It
rather appears to be represented there bj- one or i)er-
haps two very nearly allied species, Syngnatlms rubes-
cens and S. toitiirostris. In the west of the Atlantic
it is unknown. Kkdvek states that it occurs in the
Kattegat; :uid according to \\'iNTiiEit he received two
young specimens from the northern entrance of the
Sound, oft' Hornbffik. In Christiania Fjord it is com-
imratively plentiful, according to Collett; and the
Royal Museum lias received through ^Ir. ('. A. Haxssox
several specimens, between 270 and 442 nun. in length.

from Dj-nekil and Stromstad I'jord. Thus it cannot
lie con.sidered rare on the north coast of Bohiislnn; but
linlhcr sontli it has nc\t'r been nu-t with on the Swe-
dish coast.

Tlie (Jreat Pipefisii generally lives, like other Lopho-
bi'anchs, among the seaweed in comparatively shallow
water, even between the tide-marks. But now and
then we meet with the S/iii(/iuitlii. and with tliis species
among others, at the surface, even far out at sea, when;
they show a high degree of acli\ity in their move-
ments, esijecially at night. During the Atlantic ex-
pedition of the corvette JosepJ/hie in 1869 I stood man\-
a night in the bows, aiul watched the wriggling motion,
in lines of phosphorescent light thi-ough the dark waves,
of Si)iif/n(itJiiis peJdf/iciis, a species which comes very
near the (ireat Pipefish, but is distingui.shed from it
in several respects, for example by a com|)arativelv
larger head and shorter tail and by the much shorter
marsupium of the males. Thompson also tells us of
the Great Pipefish": "A friend who has frequently
watched the movements of pipefishes in Belfast Bay
describes them as skinuning along the surface of the
water, in the summer evenings especially, like a
slate thrown horizontally. — He has seen them skip-
ping for 20 or .SO yards at a time, and also spring-
ing a foot high into the air." Tlie specimen which is
represented in our figure, was taken by ,'i fisherman
from Bohuslau, Anderssox by name, on "the Great
Fishing-bank S.W. of Bergen in 100 — 150 fathoms of
water;" but we have no information whether it was
taken at the bottom, or perhaps found at the surface.
In its daily life, according to Kroyei;, the Great Pipe-
fish "swims slowdy, with singular, .stift', angular, and as
it were contorted movements." At these times, here
as in the Lophobranchs in general, it is the vibrating
dorsal fin that is the real instrument of locomotion, the
pectoral fins, which move in the same manner, seeming
rather to steer the course of the fish. The fish lies in
every possible position, with the head turned downwards
or upwards or forwards at will, as it glides on in (piest
of its food'', which seems to consist principally of cru-
staceans'', usually of minute size, though "not unfre-
({uently," sa)s Couch, "shrimps of comparatively no small
size are swallowed; and there have been foinid in the
stouiach some so larsre as to raise our wonder how tlic\'

" .Vat. Hist. Irel., vol. IV, p. 'i.Blt.

' Cf. Couch, Hist. Fish. Bnt. fsl., vcl. IV, p. 353.

' Cf. Olssok, fakt. fsk. fndu, Lunds Univ. Arsskr.. VIII (1871). p. 10.

672

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

could have l)ecii made to pass between the jaws and
through the gullet," this depending, (»{' coiirse, on the
distensive powers of the snout.

The spawning-season occurs in spring and summer.
Ci>ucii found a male with eggs in the niarsupium in
April. (_)n tlie 7th of May, 1S()9, at the west entrance
of the Channel (Lat. 47° 14' N., Long. 9° 9' W.), the
Josephine Expedition took several young specimens of
this species, swimming freely about at the surface.
These specimens were between 10 and 21 mm. long,
of light colour and transparent, ])ut already marked
with transverse spots. In the smallest of them the
whole of the embryonic vertical tin was still persistent.
The largest ones liad fully develo]K'd tins, except the
anal, of whicii not a trace was yet visible; and their
plates, as is usual in the fry, were tipped with spines.
We found the number of i'in<rs in front of the dorsal

tin to 1)(' IIJ. Malm saw in the possession of Mi-.
(t. Kolthokf a male 440 mm. long, with almost
fully developed embryos, tliat had been taken in
the neighbourhood of SkaftO ((iullmar Fjord) on tlie
1st of August, 1877. In two males whicli were taken
in StrOmstad Fjijrd ]>y Mr. C A. Hanssox in Sep-
tember and ( )ctober, 1888, tlie niarsupium i* i|uite
empty.

It \vas in this sjtecies that John Walcott lirst
discovered, either in 1784 or 1785 according to Yakrell,
that it is realh' the male who carries the impregnated
eggs during their further development, and not the fe-
male, as had previously been supposed ever since the
time of AiiiSTOTLE. Walcott's ol)servation was first
published, however, by Yarrell in 1836, or five years
after Ekstrum had published his account of the Deep-
nosed Pipefish {Si/i!(/iiatJu(s tijjiliJf).

THE LESSER PIPEFISH (sw. lilla tangsxallan")-
SYNGNATHLiS ROSTELLATUS.

Plate XXVIII, figs. G— H.

Siiont terete and shatloir. Le)i(jth of the hedd less tlian 13 % nf tliat of tlie liodij and at iiKist 20 % of that of
the tail, irhlch is more than twiee that of the trunk. Distanee betireen the dorsal fn and the tip of tlte s)ioi(f at
most 37 % of the length of the body, and the length of the base of this fin more than Vs of t^iis distance and
also greater than the length of the head. Length of the marsupinm of the males more than twice the length of

the head. Hind margin of the candal fin r(ninded.

D. 33—39; A. 3''; P. 0—11; V. (9) 10; Ann. 52—50 =
(15 — 17) + X.

Sijn. Synrjualhus pelaginis, Donovan, Brit. Fish., t<'ib. LVIII (nee

Osbeck).
Si/ni/natlnis typhle, Malm (p. p.), Ufvers. Vet. Akad. Furli.

1852, p. 84.
Syngnatlms rostellatus, NiLSS., Skaml. Fn., Fisk., p. (587;

ScuLEQ., Diei: Nederl., Vissch., p. 179, tab. 17. fig. 2;

Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Nalurli. For. Kbhvn 1865, p. 222; Malm,

Gbrjs, Boh. Fn., p. 595; Winth., Natiirb. Tidskr. Kblivn,

ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 53; Petersen, Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For.

Kbhvn 1884, p. 159; Lillj., Sv., Nonj. Fisk., vol. Ill,

p. 459.
myngiialliiis acus (p. p.), Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mits., Fish., vol.

VIII, p. 157; Coll., Forb. Vid. Seisk. Christ. 1874, Tilla?gsh.,

p. 200; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 101; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.,

IreL, vol. II, p. 259, tab. CXLIV, fig. 2.
i^>/ii(jniithas Diimerilii, Di'M., Hist. Nat. Poiss. (Nouv. Suit, ii

Biiil".), toi.i. II, p. 55(5; Mor., Hist. Nut. Poiss. Fr., torn.

II, p. 49.

01/.^. As appears from the title of Plate XXVIII we originally
held the same opinion as GDnther and Day, that this little Pipefish
was merely a juvenile form, singular in certain respects, of the pre-
ceding species. The collections made by Hedenbobg in the Bospho-
rus for the Royal Museum show, however, that St/ngnathus rostellatus
is certainly distinct from the Mediterranean species with which it has
been identified by GUntiier (Syngn. Imcculentus, Rathke; 6'. brevi-
rostris, Hempr. and Ehhenb.). The latter species has a shorter snout
and longer postorbital region etc., the length of the snout in all
Hedenborg's specimens being less than 47 % of that of the head,
the postorbital length of the head equal to or at least more than * -
of the length of the snout, and the least depth of the snout '/, — ','3
of its length, while the depth of the body at the beginning of the
tail is more than V3 (22 — 26 %) of the length of the base of the
dorsal fin. These two species cannot, therefore, be ranged as mutually
complementary forms of transition to Syngnathus acus. Furthermore,
in 1842 the Royal Museum received through Mr. Pontin, Member of
the Swedish Medical Council, a thing previously unknown, to the liest
of our knowledge, namely a young specimen 155 mm. lung of the
Atlantic Syiign. acus, taken "by a Dutch captain, probably in the
North Sea." This specinion has (54 (20 + 44) rings on the body;

" Malm, 1. c.

'' Sometimes 4, accordiii

to Lilljeborg and NiLssoN.

LESSEU IMl'Kl'ISII.

()!?,

leiigtli, thouirli, so tar as we Iia\e been able tu ascertain,
the vai'iations are so restricted tiiat it is always greater
than tiie length of the head. Its iqipcr margin is more
regularly curved than in the (iruat I'ipefish, with the
longest rays nearer the middle.

The anal tin is of insignificant size; but tlie caudal
fin is com])aratively larger than in the ])receding .spe-
cies, its length being at least 3' ., % of that of the
The form of its body so closelj- resembles that of young ! body and 38 — 31 % of that of tlie licad.
specimens of the preceding species that in this respect it The three figures which arc gi\en in Plate XX\T1I,

is difiicult to state any constant distinction between them; | reiiresent three individuals, one fetnale (fig. 8), a young
but the plate-armour confirms the rule already formu- j male with undeveloped marsu])ium (fig. 7), and a spe-
latcd by Ahtkdi, that witiiin this genus we must look I cimen of the fry (fig. 6). These sj)ecimens were taken
for characteristic differences, first of all, in the number of i at the beginning of July, 1887 in Kosler I'jord (Xortti-
rings on the l;od\-. The Lesser Pipefish has only 15 — 17 ; ern IJohuslan) at the surface, where the deptii of water

the lcrij;lli cf llie liead is soiucwlial more llinn 1.3 % (13'2 %) of that
of tlir holly, the length of tlie has-e of the dorsal fin less than ' 3
(31'('> °i>) of the distance between this tin and the tip of the snout or
only 88 °. of the length of the ln-ail, and the temporal carina' — which
iu S>/ngnathtts rostellntiix are never more tlinn rudimentary — are dis-
tinct, starting backwards from the supraorliital margins. Thus, as we
know the true juvenile form of the Great Pipefish, we are compelled to
retain the Lesser Pipefish as a distinct species, however nearly these
two species are allied.

The Lesser Pipefish attains a length of 16 cm."

rings on the trunk and ?)7 — 40 on the tail, or at most
57 in all, thus at least 6 less than the minimum num-
ber in the preceding species. The middle lateral carina
of the trunk is usually coherent in this species with tlie
uii|)cr lateral edge of the tail. It is stated, however,
that this character may also be found in the preceding
species, at least in young specimens thereof; and on the
other hand, the two carin.e may be separated in this
species in the same manner as in the preceding one —
see the largest of the specimens figured in Plate XXVIII
(fig. 8, a: twice the natural size in fig. 8, h). The mar-
supiuni of the males occu[)ics the first 23 — 2G rings
of the tail.

The length of the head measures a])out 10' ,, — 12' ._,
% of that of the body, and its structure is otherwise
the same as in the preceding species; but behind the
eyes, on the to|) and on the temples in front of the
small occipital carina, it is evenly convex, without the
carina^ which in the Great Pipefish run back on each
side from the upper orbital margin, or with only a rudi-
ment of a similar carina immediately behind each orbit.

was al)out 100 fathoms. file}' were forwarded alive
by Mr. G. A. Hansson to the Royal Museum, where
they lived a few days longer. Their coloration was
above greenish, shading into brown; but the dorsal side
itself was lighter, shading into gray. The lower part
of the sides and the belly were silvery, the former Avith
a golden lustre in the male. The darkest colour thus
appeared like a longitudinal band from the sides of the
snout, across the eyes, on the postorbital part of the
head, and on the sides of the body just below the upper-
most lateral carina. But behind the dorsal fin, at the
transition to the tail, it was broken off short, and the
lateral band of the tail o\'erlapped it below. Tlie caudal
fin was brownish violet. The other fins were trans-
parent. The iris was golden. No traces of transverse
bands appeared on the body; but that this is not a
constant character of the species, seems more than pro-
bable, and is easily explained, with the knowledge we
possess of the generic power of changing colour. In
some of the specimens belonging to the Royal Museum,
which have lain in spirits for more than forty years.

The pectoral fins are comparatively larger than in i transverse bands of a darker colour a])pear between the
the Great Pipefish, and are inserted lower down the I rings on the trunk, and in the males the strips be-
sides. The length of their longest rays is greater than tween the marsupial plates are in some cases lighter.

the (leptli of tlie body at the beginning of the tail.

The (lorsid fin is suppoi-ted on 10 or 11 plates,
but sometimes ptirtly occupies as many as 13. It be-
gins at a distance from the tij) of the snout that mea-
sures 34 — 36' ?6 of the length of the body; and the

in others darker. According to Nilssox too, "the co-
loration is above dark gray or brown with darker trans-
verse bands, below yellowish white; the caiuhil fin with
transverse streaks of brown."

The Lesser Pipefish is feirly common in IJohuslan,

length of its base is about 15 — 12' ., % of the same I according to Malm the commonest species of the genus

" According to CoLLKTT. The largest specimen in the Royal Museum is a male 155 mm. long.

' MoREAli's measurements of a female Syiif/nathus Diimerilii, which is probably identical in species with <b'. rostellal((?, show, how-
over, that this percentage may rise to 37.

674

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

except the Deep-uused idi'iii. It was forwarded I))'
V. DuBEN to the Royal Museinn in 1845 from Bergen.
Baron Gyllexstiekna found it in Skelder Bay off Kul-
len, and handed over his speeiineiis to Nilsson, who was
tlic first to describe tins species. In the Sound it has
lieen met with by several Danish zoologists, among
others l)y LCtkex oft' Ilveeii. Hansen lias taken it in the
Cattegat oft' Lajso. It goes southward in the Atlantic
To the Bay of Biscay, according to Mokeau, but is rare
oil tile !'"rench coast.

Tlic iiabits of the Lesser Pipefish probably resemble
ill tile most essential respects those of its larger con-
gener; 1)ut its comparatively larger fins are suggestive
of a more active life, and its insignificant size must

coiujiel it to seek its food among tlie most minute
marine animals. Its spawning-season occurs in spring
and summer; from May to the middle of June Malm
found eggs and young in the inarsupium of the males.
Ill order finally to express, with tiie greatest bre-
vity, tiie dift'erence of form between this species and
its nearest two relatives in the Atlantic region, we give
below the most important proportions in this respect
of tliree specimens of equal size, a male of S. rostcl-
l(iti(,s from Ijoliushin, a female of .S'. (tens from the North
Sea, and a male of .S'. pdaginifi from the Sargasso Sea
(Lat. 82° N., Long. 43° W.), all tliree 1,5,5 mm. long
from tlie tip of the snout to the hind margin of tlic
caudal fin.

Nuinber of rings on the trunk.
t:>ii....

Length of the head in % of that of the body

Distance between the dorsal tin and the tip of the snout in ji of Ihe length of the body

Length of the truul; behind the gill-covers in % of the length of the tail _.

.. .. base of the dorsal tin in % of the distiinee between the dorsal tin and the tip of the snout.

Syjigiiatkns

„ „ , length of the head

niddle ravs of the eandal tin in % of Ihe length of the head .

16

40
10.0
34.fi
35.5
40.0
:i5.4
34.5
1-21. s

31.4

20
44

13.2

86.8
39.0
42.3
31.C
29.7
87.S
24.4

pdagkus.

17
32

13.9

38.7
43.2

51.7

33.3
29.8
93.0

THE DEEP-NOSED PIPEFISH (sw. kant.nAlen or tang.snallan).
SYMi.X.VTHUS TYPHLE.

Plate XXIX, llg. 1.

Siiotd lateraUii compressed ami citriqinratirclii deep. Lei/(/fh af the liead more than 15 % of tliat nf fhe hodij aiul
at least \'^ of that of tlie tail, which in the males is fjeiteralli/ more, in the females less, than tirire the length of
the trunk l>ehind the fjill-corers. Distance hetiveen the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout at least •V.'^Vz ^ of the
leni/fh if the l>odi/, and the leiigfJi if the liase of this fin less than ','., but mure than '/^ of this distance, and
<dso less than the length of the head. Hind margin of the eandal fin more or less obtuselg pointed.

R. h,
Ann. 5

2; /). 35 —
—57 = (17-

iS"; A. 3; P. 13—15: C. (8) 10; Vn-t.
-19;) + .e.

.^'i/iii/natliiis corporc medio lieptagono, caiida piiinata, Art.,
Irhthyol, Spec. Pise, ji. 2; Lin., Fn. ^Sim:.. od. I. ].. 126,
No. 335.

Si/ngnathns Ti/phle, Lin. (p. p.), 6'i/sl. nut., ed. X, torn. I,
p. 336 (xLaininie corporis triinci 18, e.nudse 36»); Donovan,
Brit. Fish., tab. LVI; Flmng, Brit. Anim., p. 175; Jen.,
Man. Brit. Vert., p. 485; Y.arr., Ilisl. Brit. F,sh., od. 1,
vol. II, p. 332; Fr., Vet.-Akad. Hnndl. 1837, p. 28, tab. Ill,

" 34 — 40, according to 5Iore.\u.
'' 38— 4G, ., ., Dav.

fig. 2; BciXAP. (.Siphofloma. e.'; Raf.), Cat. .Uct. I'esc. Enrop.,
p. 89; Kr., Damn. Fisl-e, vol. 3, p. 673; NiLSS. (Si/nyna-
tlnis), Sk-cuul. Fn., Fisl:. p. 689; SuNDEV., Stklduis L. Hush.
Sallsk. Hand!., H. VI, pp. 83 et 165; Mgrn (Siplwstoma).
Fiitl. Fisk/n. (disp. Helsingf.), p. 69; Li}ih>iTn. (Si/ngnat/in.''),
Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsb. 1866, p. 24 (scp.); Gthr
(..Siplionostotna), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fi.^li.. vol. VIII, p. 154;
Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1874, Tilh-egsli., p. 190,
ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 100; Winth., Natiirh. Tidskr. Kblivii,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 52; Bncke (Si/ngnathus), Fiscli., Fischer.,
Fisrhc. 0. ir. PreH.%9., p. 189; Hcke {Siphonostoma), .\icl].

DEKI'-NIISEI) I'lrKl'lSII.

675

r. Xiitnrg., Jiilirg. 4(;, IM. I (1880), p. :!21; MoH., Hist.
Xat. J'oins. Fi:, torn. II, |.>. 55; Mki.a, Vert. Feiin., p. 3C)0,
tall. X; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 257, tab.
(-'XMV, fig. 3; MiJb., Hcke (iSiphonostomiim), Fisch. Osts.,
p. 102; Coi.i.. (Si/ni/nuthiis), N. Mng. Natiirv. CliriBt., Bd. 29
(1884), p. 11.'!; LiLLJ. (Siplionostotna), Sverg., Norcj. Fisk.,
vol. Ill, p. 439.
Si/n.jmdhus acns, Ekstr., Vet. Akad H.-uidl. 1 8.-! 1, p. 271, tnli.
II, figg. 1 et 2; ScH.AGERSTR., Physiogr. Srillsk. Ticlski., )>.
314; Malm (Siphonostoma), Gbgs, Boh. Fii., p. 592.

Tlie lU'c'p-iuj.sed Pi])etisli .-ittiiin.s ;i knigtli of 33
cm., ;ircor(liiiu- to ^'.\r!;ell. The lai-ycst ScimiliiiMviiin
spefiincii ill the |io.ss(_'ssi(.)n of tlie l\o\';il Musniin is ;i
female 27 cm. long (from Norway, through Mauklin);
and according to Ekstroji the size of the species never
exceeds 22'/., cm. in the islnnd-helt of Sriderni;iiil;ind.
In form of body it is much the same as the Great
I'ilietish, the onh" difference being that it generally has
a longer trind< and shorter tail. It thus represents in
"■encral the sexual characters tliat distinguish the fe-
males. As a ride too, the depth of the body is some-
what less; at the beginning of the tail it seldom (and
only in the males and young specimens) exceeds 2'/^
* of the length of the body".

The plates of the body essentially correspond in
form and arrangement to those of the two preceding-
species. As we have mentioned above, however, the
foremost inferior plates, the lowest covering-plates of
the shoulder-girdle, are more loosely attached to each
other at the middle of the ventral side*, and tlie first
ventral jilate is nearly always wanting'. The first of
the \entral plates that are present (corresponding to
the second in the Great Pipefish), is also, as a rule,
considerably reduced, so that a longitudinal, narrow
.strip, covered only with skin, is left behind the junc-
ture on the ventral side of the plates belonging to the
shoulder-girdle. Thus, as the last (and sometimes the
penultimate) ring on the trunk is also without ventral
plate, here as in the Great Pipefish, we find only 17
(sometimes only IG) ventral plates, while tiie numl)er
of i)lates in the lower lateral row of the trunk is usu-
alh' IS. In the cases where the last-mentioned num-
ber is lit. there are only 18 ventral plates; wlien it is
17, we find, as a rule, only 16 of tlie latter. The so-
called occipital plates are only slightly raised, and the

anterior one is slill sninllci' tiiMii in the (jreat Piiielish.
The middle hileral carina of the (ruuk (the middle hi-
teral row of plates) as a rule i'ornis a regular continua-
lioii (if the c-ni'iiia curNiiig downward in front from
the upper latt'fal ni;irgin of the tail, and in this re-
spect the I)ee])-nose(l Pipefish thus represents the eai-ly
stages of the two jjreceding forms. P>ut it is not un-
usual to find betwecni th(! said carina' the same break
here as in the' Gi'eat Pijiefish, the middle lateral carina
of the trunk ending in the last ring of the trunk (see,
for example, Plate XXI.X, lig. 1), and the correspond-
ing lateral carina of tlie tail beginning obli(juely above
this point, in the first caudal ring. We have never
found the last-mentioned carina, intrude within the last
ring of the trunk. The marsupium of the males ex-
tends, when f'ldlv developed, along 24 caudal rings,
and attains a length more than double that of the head.

The length of the head, as a rule greatest in young
siiecimens, measures about 18 — 1,') '% of that of the
body''. The contour of the postorbital part of the head
passes evenly into that of the forepart of the trunk.
The occipital carina is not \ery prominent on the fiat
occiput, which slopes evenly and gradually in front into
the slightly concave forehead, but is sharply marked ofl'
from the steeply sloping temples, this sharp break being
formed on each side by the tempoi-al carina running
back from the upper orbital margin. The sui)erior
profile of the forehead and snout is also even, and tlie
orbital margin rises hardly perceptibh' above it. The
priufroiital knob is elongated in an horizontal direction.
The carina' of the snout are the same as in the Great
Pipefish. The distinguishing chariicter of tiie head of
this species lies in the deep and strongly compressed
form of the snout, when the mouth is closed, and also
in the fact that at the ascending tip of the snout the
lower jaw projects almost as far as the upper. \\'hen
the month is wide open, the snout assumes the terete
shape of a straight, eylindric;d tube, only a little dis-
tended in front.

The length of the snout measures as a rule 60 — 63
% of that of the head; but in young specimens (be-
tween 6 and 7 cm. long) and exceptionally in adult
ones this percentage may sink to .57 or even to .J6.

" 2'8 is tlie highest percentage we have fouiirl in tliis relation, anil this in a male 247 mm. long.

' Now and then these plates are so loosely joined tliat they are not even contigiions, being nnited merely by tlie skin.
' It is present, however, in one of our largest specimens, from Norway.

'' According to A. H. Malm (Om ilen bredntihbade katittiahns utveckling och foi-tptai,t,iiwj, disp. Lund 1874, p. 4) the length of th(
head varies in tlie fry (12 — 43 mm. long) between nbont 'g and ' . of that of the body.

ti7(i

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISIIES.

Its least deptli, just behind tlie iijiward curve of the
tip, is as a I'ule about \/-, liut soiiietiuu'S no more
than 15 % of its length. The length of the lower jaw,
wliicli is as a nde about 74 (varying, however, in dif-
t(;rent individuals between oO and '1\ '^o) of that of the
snout, measures in adult sjiecimens, at least after they
liave attained a size of 12 cm., distinctly more (gene-
rally '/^ more) than the diameter of the eyes", but in
}oung specimens ((> or 7 cm. long) is about equal to
this diameter''. The eyes are also comparatively smaller
tliaii in the (jreat I'ipefish. In young specimens ((j or
7 cm. long) their diameter is about ^'j ^ or even 28 %
of the length of the snout, but M'ith increasing age this
percentage sinks to about 15 or even 14. In the said
young S])eciniens the i>ostorbital length of the head
measures about ?>% — .^6 % of its entire length, or about
"/.^ (at least 64 %) of the length of the snout; but in
(dder s])eciniens this ])ro])ortion sinks to about 30 or
•29 % of the length of the head, or 50—46 % of that
of the snout.

The gill-openings are comparativelj' somewhat
larger than in the Great Pipefish, their length being
about Vs of the diameter of the eyes; Init they are
otherwise of tlie same form and position.

Tiie j)ectoral tins are of the same oljtuse shape as
in the Great Pipefish, or even broader, and generally
contain a greater number of rays.

Tlie dorsal tin is longer and lower than in the
(ireat Pipefish, in the former respect coming nearer the
Lesser Pipefish. It is also set comparativelj' further
liack, this being due to the shortness of the tail. Here,
however, we find a distinct sexual difference in the
Deep-nosed Pipefisli: in the females the truidv is com-
paratively longer than in the males, and the dorsal and
anal fins are consequently situated further back. The
two preceding species represent in this resjiect that di-
rection of development which has been fixed by the
])reponderant influence of the male characters. In the
Deep-nosed Pipefish the distance between the dorsal
fin and the ti]) of the snout, to the best of our kno^v-
ledge, is never less than 39\'2 % of the length of the body,
in the males hardly more than 42 %, in the females
about 44 %, and in young specimens sometimes 47 %.
It generally begins on tiie last i-ing of the trunk (the
anal ring), sometimes on tlie |)enultimate one. The

base of the fin (12—1.^' .. % of the length of the bodv)
occupies in most adult specimens 10 rings, in some 9
or partially H, and in young specimens 8. Its height,
whicli is only sliglitly greater at the middle than at
either end, is generally e(pial tu the lengtli of the
lower jaw.

In the Dee|)-nosed Pi]iefish as in the Great Pipe-
fish, we have not been able to find more than 3 ray.s
in the anal fin. According to Kroyer and Day, how-
ever, it mav contain 4 rays. It is set at a distance
from the tip of tiie snout that measures in the males
about 40' ., — 42' „ %, in the females about 44' \, — 45' ,,
%, and in young specimens as much as 48' , % of the
length of the bodv.

The caudal tin, which is distinguislied b\- tiie
bluntly j)ointed form oC the hind margin, measures as
a rule about ?)'/„ or 4 % of the length of the bodv,
and tims corresponds most nearly in this respect to
the caudal fin of the Lesser Pipefish. But in cou-
sequeiice of the greater lengtii of the head in the
Deep-nosed Pipefish, the length of the caudal fin is
only about '4 of that of the head, though it varies
between 18 and 25 % thereof. In most cases it con-
sists of 10 rays; in one single instance we found 8.

All the fin-ravs are of the same tvpe as in the
two preceding species; but in the caudal fin thev are
sometimes articulated.

Of the coloration of tlie Deep-nosed Pipefisli Fries
remarks: 'Tn both localities, both in the Baltic and
the Cattegat, two colour- varieties occur, the first green
with yellow spots and with the bellv shading decidedh'
into brassy yellow, the second olive-brown strewn with
numerous whitish dots and spots and \\'\\\\ whitish belh'.
These two varieties are not constant, however; wa find
a series of intermediate forms between them. Thej-
do not stand in any fixed relation either to age or
sex." The relation of these two colour-varieties to
eacli other has been explained in recent times 1)\-
Heincke' as follows:

"The power which the Siiiujiiathi i.)Ossess of ad-
apting their colour to their environments, is the most
perfect instance of the kind that we know among
fishes. If we place some Deep-nosed Pipefishes in a
large aquai'ium, together with a quantity of seaweed
{Zostera marina) such as that which grows in the

° lu a female 255 mm. long, from Boliuslaii, tlie longitudinal (liameter of the eyes is only 55 % of the length of the lower jaw.
' In the fry the lower jaw is, of course, considerably shorter — cf. A. H. Malm's figures (1. c).
" Schriften des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins fiir Schleswig-Holsteiu, Band I, p. 257.

DKEP-NOSEI) nrKKISII.

(i77

iiiilixi' liaunts of the fishes, after some time we may
make an extremely interesting observation. The leaves
of the seaweed ha\c |iartl\- risen vertieally or ol)li((Uel\'
throuu'h the water, and stimd motionless, slowlv swa\-
ing to and tro if ilic ;H|uarium be slightlv shaken.
Among them, motionless or swaying with the leaves,
the slender Pipefishes have ehosen their positions, and
we can onl\' just sei; iiow the gill-eovers ex|)aiul and
contract, or how tlie perfccth- transparent dorsal lin
eeaselessh' continues its \il)rating and undulating mo-
tion. The colour of the fishes, often clown to the most
delicate shades, is exactly like that of the seaweed.
( Iften we imagine that we are gazing at a blade of
seaweed, and only on closer inspection do we discover
that it is a Pipefish, and rice reisa. The same light or
dark, green or yellowisli green hue covers both sea-
weed and Pipefishes; the singular, lighter tint of green
which the former sometimes shows in isolated patches,
is faithfullv reproduced in the latter. Among the
green, still living seaweed there lie here and there a
number of partly or entirely dead leaves, in all shades
of colour from green to dirty-brown and brownish
black. At these spots the Pipefishes assume a different
hue, their colour passing gradually, according to their
different surroundings, into I)rown or brownish black,
until, whether their position be vertical or horizontal,
they are scarcely to be distinguished from a dead blade
of seaweed. — The time occupied by this adaptation of
colour varies consideral)ly. Mechanical irritation of the
skin and psychical irritation seem distinctly to ac-
celerate the process. Large Pipefishes, which were
(|uite dark when taken in the hand, at once assume
a i)ale green colour, all the time struggling violently
to get loose; and if they are transferred to a vessel
with darker bottom, their dark coloration returns pretty
soon. Full-grown Pipefishes, if left undisturlied, seem
to require at most an hour to change colour; but in
young specimens, about 2' .-, cm. long, which have just
emerged from the marsupium, the change is effected
with extreme rapidity, in a fraction of a minute. —
The inner layers of the skin contain greenish yellow
chi'omatophores, the ( inter layers darker ones, black
when contracted, brown when expanded. The contrac-
tion of tlie latter, which affoi-ds a beautiful sight under
the microscope, may take place with astonishing ra-
pidity. The handsome, stellate figures of the chromato-
phores, which at man}' spots appear to be united by
their projections, distinctly shrink until they form small

ch)ts, with (ine or two grains of pigment detached from
the central mass of colour. I have not been able to
ubservi' tlic contraction and expsmsion of the greenish
\-ellow chromatdphiires, which ^vould tinis seem to per-
form their alteraticins much more slowly tiian tli(^ d;ii-k
chromatophores. The light cells never expand into
figures of so varied form as the black."

Our figure (Plate XXIX, hg. 1) represents a spe-
cimen of the grcicn variety.

The geograj)iiieal range of the Deejj-nosed Pi])e-
fisli extends along tlie whole west coast of luu'ojie,
from Norwegian Finnnirk to (libraltar. Trcnnso Mu-
seum received it in 1881, according to ('oi.lett, fi'om
Belstad Fjord, a little south of TromsO; and according
to LiLLJEBOKG Upsala Museum has received it through
Professor Th. Fkie.s from ^'adso. On tlie soutii coast
of Scandinavia it is vei'y common, and it |ienetrates into
the Baltic at least to the south of the (Julf of Bothnia
and almost to the head of the Gulf of Finland (Mela).
In the island-belt of Stockholm, according to Sunde-
VALL, it is i)lentiful wherever Fuciis rcsiciilosns grows
luxuriantly. In the island-belt of Morko it is taken
in quantities, according to Ekstuom, when the seine is
drawn for other fish, except during May and June, when
it seldom, if ever, visits the shores or the shallows.
On the coast of (iothland it is eonunon among Znsfern
marina, according to Lixdstrom. It is quite as com-
mon, if not more so, in the south and west of the
Baltic, on the west coast of Sweden, on the Danish
coast, and on tlie south coast of Norway. Further
north and further south it grows less common, and is
said to be rare in the Mediterranean, where its place
is taken to a great extent by another sjjccies, Sijn-
qnafJius Boiideh'tii, with deeper snout (least depth of
the snout greater than the depth of the body at the
beginning of the tail), shorter dorsal fin (length (jf the
base less than 11 'j "a of that of the body), and more
rings on the trunk (20 or 21), or thus related in the
most essential respects to our Deep-nosed Pipefish in
the same way as the Great Pipefish to the Lesser
species.

Except in the spawning-season the Deep-nosed Pipe-
fish generally keeps close to the shore, in a few metres
of water or even less, among grass-wrack {Zostera
marina) and bladder-wrack (Fucus resiculostis), where
it has .shrimps and their young, small crustaceans,
minute mollusks, and worms as its usual comrades and
principal diet. Young fishes and tiny Gobies also fall a

678

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

prey to it. TIidii.u'Ii tlic uioutli is snisill, it is (•a[)al)le
of (|iiite considerable extension, as we have already
remarked of the two preceding species. There is no
douht, liowcscr, that the I)eep-nosed Pipetish niidcr-
takcs roving expeditions at the snrt'ace of deeper wa-
ter: one of the Bohuslilii fishermen who have collected
marine animals for the Royal Museum, has handed
over to Professor S. Loven a specimen taken "in the
North Sea, off l^ergen."

Ekstrum's experience in the island-belt of MorkO
was that, "though the Deep-nosed Pipefish haunts the
shore, in shallow water, it still repairs to deep water
during the wai-iner part of the year". In autumn,
winter, and tlie earlv jiart of sjjriiig it is met with in
the inlets, in water of little depth. From the end of
April to the beginning of November it is less plenti-
ful in these localities, and during the \vliole of May
and a part of .Tune it is taken extremely seldom and
invariably in deep water. In temperament it seems to
be sluggish and not very timid. Its movements in the
water are stiff', and betoken but little activity."

It was the history of the Deep-nosed Pipefish that
gave Ekstkom the clue to the explanation of the hitherto
obscure sexual relations of all the Lophobranchs. "It
has long l)een known,' he writes in 1831, "that the
Deep-nosed Pipefish carries the roe as well as the new-
hatched young under its tail. Even Aristotle' re-
marked in this species the peculiaritj', otherwise rare
among fishes, that the eggs seem to pass, not as in
most fishes througli tlie vent, ))ut througii a slit in tlie
body. He did not pay any attention, ho^vever, to the
organ that envelops the eggs and the young during
tlieir development, l)ut supposed that the eggs were
metamorphosed witiiin the aljdominal cavity, and that
the belly itself was opened b)' the development of the
eggs, at the slit which appears behind the vent. He
thus seems to have been the first to pronnilgate the
long persistent theory that this slit did not belong to
a distinct organ, but was due to the burstinij of the

l)elly Ijy tlie growth of the eggs. .Elian' maintained
the same opinion. Plinv quotes the verj' words of
Aristotle, with the only alteration that the bursting
of the l^elly was due to the number of the eggs.
RoNDELi'.T'' was the first to remark that the eggs are
contained in a special organ." Roxuelet further stated
that the females are distinguished l)y the possession of
this organ from the males, an opinion which survived
until EKSTHriM j)ul)lished his observations at MOrkd.
"The spawning-season of the Deep-nosed Pipefish," says
Ekstkom, "occurs here in the month of May, when the
male is forced to seek his female, or rice versa: and
as a regular copulation Ijetwcen the sexes is necessary,
the spawning takes a longer time than among fishes
in general'. At the end of April the females desert
the .shore and the shallows to begin their sjjawning in
deeper water. As the S|)awning season approaches, the
foliate lids that close the opening of the maTsupium of
the male, become tumid, and the Tnarsupium is gi-adu-
ally filled with a Avhite, eleur, and thick mucus, which
serves as a bed for the eggs. The eggs lie indiedded
in this mucus, which deci-eases in quantity according
to the growth of the young, until little or none of it
remains by the time that the fry are large enough to
swim and independently to move through the water.
— The eggs, which lie in regular, nioniliform rows, are
large'^ in proportion to the fish and, when thev are
deposited, yellow, but gradually turn \vhite and lie-
come ti'anspai"ent with a fine, dark vellow point, the
riuliment of the embryo. — At the middle of June the
fish gradually return to the shore from their spawning-
places. At the end of July, in some cases, the young
are so developed that thev can leave the mai'supium
and follow the movements of their father. In other
eases the roe has been only just deposited. In a fe-
male about 2 dm. long I counted 240 eggs in the
o\'aries. In the marsupium of the male I never found
a quarter of this number''. Many of the eggs must,
therefore, l)e lost during copulation, and we must thus

" KuciYEI! lias reiiiarkeil tlial ,nt this season the .shrimps also retire to ileeii wafer.

' Hist, aniin., lili. VI, enp. XIII. This remark applies rather to the more common Mediterranean species jSi/n^/nitlius Rondeletii.

' Lib. II, cap. XIII.

" De Pise, lib. VIII. p. 'J29.

'■ More recently it has been diseovorcd that the copulation mnst be repeated several times, for a female never discharges all her eggs
nt once into the marsupinm of the male, the anterior end of which is open during copulation, and is penetrated by the oviduct, now pro-
jecting to a length of several millimetres. Cf. L.\i'-o.s'T, Actes de la Soc. Linn, de Bordeaux, 1871, t. 28, p. 251, Heincke, .\rclj. f. Xaturg..
1. c, p. 330, and Lii,i.JEnori<;, 1. c. p. 438.

.'' About 2 mm. in diameter.

'' In (lie ui:ir>upia of the largest males from Kiel Bay, however, Heincke found 150 — 200 eggs.

rin;Fisiii::s.

(579

retrain t'rinii infcrriii,!;' the leciiiidity of this lisli f'rdiii
the nuiiibcr of e^i'gs in tlie tVmiile. To jii(l_i;x' l)y tlic
iiiimhrrs aiii(.)iig thcsf islands, tlic males are so few in
coin])arison to the females that hardly one of the former
can he found among' ten of the latter. "

Ekstuom'.s observation that during the spawning
the Deep-nosed Pipefish retires to deeper water, at least
two fathoms or more in depth, has been corro-
borated in Boliusliln by A. H. Malm (1. c, p. 18),
who supposes that the spawning is most general
th<'re from the middle tif -Tune to tiie beginning of
August.

Besides the ])rotective likeness ^vhich the Deep-
nosed Pipelish attains by means of its changes of colour,
IIkixckk has remarked another, which is given to the
males while their marsuiiium is distended with eggs or
young. The nuirsupium with its long slit at the middle
then presents a striking resemblance to the spathe of
Znsfei'd. and still further iiicrenses the difticultv of

distinguishing these fishes from the flowering grass-
wi-ack.

The young stay in the marsui)ium or take refuge
therein (see above) until they ha-^e attained a length of
about 25 mm. As A. II. Malm and Lill.iebokg have
remarked, they are destitute of the end)ryonic vertical
fin, whic'h is present, however, in the larva" of the
Great Fipeiisli. They grow ra|)idly, according to Hkincke,
attaining a length of at least one decimetre Ijy the end
of the first year; and the marsupium of the males may
sometimes b(! fully develojxnl even at an earlier period.
The number of the caudal rings increases during growth
from 32 to 'M or 38, but even in specimens about 6
cm. long the nund)er of rings on the trunk is complete
or at least 17.

The Deep-nosed Pipe-fish is of no greater econo-
mical value than the rest of the Lopholn-anchs. It may
be employed, however, as food for swine or as bait
for Cod and Bidlheads.

Gems NEROPHIS.

Pectoral (onl aiutl tiiif^ icaiifim/. The males earn/ the impregnated e<i(is in a tat/er of miinis ou the roifral

sii/e iif the trunk.

Fries bestowed upon this genus, wliich he charac-
teri/A'd. but regarded merely as a subdivision of the
genus Sijiu/nathus, the Swedish name oi' Ilafsiidlar {Sen-
Needles)". Rafixesque had indeed established a ge-
nus Xcrophis'' in 181<), but Kaup was the first (in
IBSS*^) to give this name a fixed application. Dume-
rh/ treated this division as a distinct subfamily, iVe-
ropliinl. which he distributed among three genera.

As we have mentioned aljove, this group is dis-
tinguished from tlie i)receding Sijngnathincf not only
by the constant absence of the anal fin and the dis-
appearance of the pectoral fins and, in most cases, of
the caudal tin, but also Ijv the weaker covering of
])lates and the less distinct carinie on the body. The
skin that covers the plates, on the other hand, is more
strongly developed and sometimes elevated at the middle
of the back and the belly in the form of a dermal
carina or even (in Protocamjnis) of an embryonic, but

persistent vertical fin. Another essential difference is
that the upper row of plates on the trunk (the dorsal
row) advances on each side of the body even along the
tail, and that the middle lateral row on the trunk passes
in the same manner into the lower caudal row, the lower
lateral ro^vs of the trurd< and its ventral row being
thus unrepresented in the plate-armour of the tail.

Fries has remarked the significant sexual distinc-
tions that prevail in the species of this group, partly
in the position of the vent (comparatively further back
in the females), parti)' in the form of the trunk (deejier
and narrower, with more distinct dorsal and ventral
carina', in the females). He has also pointed out that
the most trustworthy specific characters must be sought
in the position of the dorsal fin, the number of rings
on the trunk, and the length of the snout in proportion
to its depth and to the length of the head. Guided by
these observations, he arrived at a safe stand-point for

" Syngnathi ophidii as opposed to the preceding group, whicli
* Indice d'ittiologia SiciliWKt. We have not seen this rare
a minor sea-god) .ind Ofpig, snake.

' Arch. Naturg., Jahrg. XIX, Bd. I, p. 234; Vat. Lophobr. Fish. Brit. J/h,
'' Hist. Nat. Poiss. (Suit, a Buff.), torn. II, p. 000.

Scandinarinn Fishes.

he called Syngnathi ynar.iiipiale.i.

work. Tlie name is formed from the Greek I'ljgo'c, wet (or NfQet'g,

680

SCAXIHXAVIAX FISHES.

the eliicid;ili<iii of tlie coiii'iisioii tlial li;i(l previouslv
involved the sj'iionynn' and defiiiitiou t>i' tliese species.
He divided them into two groups:

* Caudal liu ludiinentavy. with 4 (u- .0 (6) short rays; f;rL'atcr
part of the dorsal fin situated in front of the jierpendieular
from the vent.
** Caudal fin entirely wanting; greater part of the dorsal fin
situated behind tiie perpendicular from the vent.

The tbrnier group received in 1<S,')6 of Dlmekii,
the Elder" the generic name of Ptcrunis''. As this name
had already been employed in 1810 by Rafinesque
among the Eels, it was exchanged in 1870 l)y Du.meril
the Younger'' for Entelurns''. As a well-marked stage
of development in the gradual disappearance of the
caudal tin, a genus of this nature miglit well claim a
place within the ICuropeaii fauna, where tlie character

dci-ived from the rudimentary remnant of the caudal
tin coincides with the above-mentioned character drawn
fnjm tlie jiosition of the dorsal tin. But Kafp lias
described a species, Xerojihis Heckelii, ^\■hicil shows
(]>rovidc(l that the description is correct) that the rem-
nant of the caudal tin may be found in conjunction
with the opposite ]>ositiou of the dorsal tin; and the
develojjmental character loses its validity from a syste-
matic point of view, as it is not leased on any actual
divergency.

The genus Ncrojihis contains 7 known species from
the .Atlantic, the Baltic, tiic Mediterranean, the Black
Sea, and the Indian Ocean. They lead the same life
as the species of the preceding genus, but are still
more wliip-like in form, and employ the tail as a more
or less developed preliensile organ.

THE ^QUOREAL PIPEFISH (sw. stoka hafsnalen).
NEROPHIS .EQUOREUS.

Fig. 17.'? and Plate .XXIX, tig. 2.

Tip of the tail (jeneniUii furnished iritli <i rttdimentanj and frariile fin, loiitainint/ 4 — <! rai/s. Vent situated

helow the posterioi- part of the dorsal fin, the distance hetiveen u-hich and tlie tip of the snout is less than So %

{81 %Y) of that hetireen the vent and the same point and less than '> times the leni/th of the head.

Fig. I7.S. Head of a Neyophis iC'/iioreiis 285

F. V. Wkight in B. Fries.

D. (37) ■40—44 (4G); C. (4— G');
(29— 31) + .r.

(100):

^'i/n. AcHS nostras caniia serpentina, SlBB., St'ot. III., pt. 2, torn. 2,
p. 24, tab. 19.

See-Naal, No. 2, StrS.ai, 6'nndm. Beski-., \A. 1, p. 312.

Sijngnathus a'quoreus, Lin., Si/st. A'at., ed. X, torn. I, p. 337;
Mont., Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. I, p. 85, lab. IV,
tig. 1; P.\LL., Zooijf. Ross. A.'<., toni. Ill, ji. 121; Swains.
(Acus) Nat. Hist. Fish. Awpli. cctt., vol. II, p. 333 ; .Jen.
{Syngnatlms) Man. Brit. Vert., p. 48(1 ($); Fb., Vet. Akad.
Handl. 1837, p. 35, tab. Ill, fig: 3; Kr., Damn. Fiske,
vol. 3, p. 705; Kr {Nerophis), Cat. Loph. Fish. Brit. Mas.,
p. 6(1; Nu.ss. (^cyphiiis, ex Risso), Skaitil. Fii., Fisl.,
p. 692: Gthh (Nerophis), Cat. Brit, ^rlls.. Fi.<:h. , w]. \IU.

" Ichthyoloijie Auahjtiipie, p. 109.

'' TXTeqov, fin and ovqa, tail.

' Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. II, p. fi05.

'' h'lslrfi, perfect.

' Sometimes 7, according to KnoYEB.

p. 191; D«M. {Kntelurus) Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. II, p. G05;
(9); Coll. (Nerophis), Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Til-
hegsb., p. 202 ; N. Mag. Natnrv. Cbrnia, Bd. 29, p. 114; Malm,
Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 59G; Winth., Nat. Tidskr. Kbbvn, ser. 3,
vol. XII, p. 53; Mor. {Entelnrus), Hist. Nat. Poiss., Fr.,
torn. II, p. 02; Day (Nerophis), Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II,
p. 261, fab. CXLIV, fig. 4; Stokm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr.
Trondhj. 1883, p. 42 ; Lillj., Si\, Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 465.

Syngnathus aiujuineiis, .Jen., Cat. Brit. Vert., p. 30 ((^);
Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, j.. 445; Kp {Nerophis),
1. c, p. 05; Dii.ii. (Entelunis), 1. c, p. 606; Mor., 1. c.,
p. 63.

Syngnathus ojihidion, Bl. (p. p., nee LrN.), Fisch. Deutschl.,
pt. Ill, p. 115, tab. XCI, fig. 3; Jen.. Man. Brit. Vert.,
p. 487; Yarr., Brit. Fi.ih., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 338.

VEQIOIJKAL I'll'EI'ISM.

681

Till' -l'"i|iiiin-;il I'iix'fisli is tlie largest of all our
Siiii(/ii(itlii)i(i\ it attains a K'liglli ut' at least (i dm."
The teiiiales are largest, th(?ir usual size in Scandinavia,
according to Fries, being 45 — 55 cm., while the length
of the males is usually between 32 and 40 cm. The
form of the trunk also shows a considerable sexual dif-
ference. It geueralh' displays more lateral compression
than in the prece<ling forms, but most in the females,
this being due to the more or less advanced develop-
ment of the dermal carina that runs along the dorsal
and ventral margins of the trunk, but which is want-
ing in the males and young specimens. The tail is
more slender and more terete (its section more circulai")
than in the i>receding forms. A section of the trunk
shows an oval, octagonal form, in the females pointed
at both ends; the section of the tail is a rounded square.
The greatest breadth of the trunk measui'es in the fe-
males about 70 "a, in the males about 90 % of its
greatest depth; the yoimg specimens stand about mid-
way between these two extremes. The greatest depth
of the body in the males is about 2\ ., %, in the females
about 2' J % of the length thereof. At the beginning
of the tail the depth of the body measures in the fe-
males about 60 %, in the males about 70 % of the
greatest depth, or in the former about 11 %, in the
latter alxnit 12 or 13 % of the length of the base of
the dorsal fin.

In addition to the above-mentioned generic cha-
racter that the caudal rows of plates fonn a continuation
of the two up])ermost rows of the trunk on each side
of the body, this species and the following one are
especially remarkable for the great number of rings on
the bodv, a lunnber which, at least in this species, may
rise to 100. The last caudal rings are so small, how-
ever, that they can scarcely be counted with the naked
eye. The so-called occipital plates are without carina;,
but are as usual grooved; the anterior is about half
the size of the pi.isterior.

The head is most like that of the Lesser Pipefish, but
is comparatively smaller, with smaller eyes and with less
prominent carina^ both on the snout and especially on
the gill-cover, where .scarcely a trace of a middle carina
can be found. The snout is terete and strainht, ascend-

ing only slightly. Tiie lorehead is hollowed into a long,
shallow concavity. The length of the head varies in
adult specimens between about 7V3 and 9 % (7.6 — 8.8
%, according to our mcasui-cmcnts) of that of the body.
In young specimens (between 12 and 17 cm. long) the
length of the head measures aliout 27 % of the distance
between the dorsal fin and tlie tip of the snout, in old
specimens 22 — 24' \, % thereof. The length of the snout
varies between about 44 atid 54 % of that of the head,
and generallj- begins to exceed '/a of the latter in spe-
cimens 37 cm. long. The postorbital length of the head
varies between about 43 and 38 % of its entire length,
and this percentage generally begins to sink below 40
in specimens 37 cm. long. The longitudinal diameter
of the eyes may measure about 14 % of the length of the
head even in specimens 35 cm. long; in specimens 44 cm.
long it measures about ', j,, of the same. The least depth
of the snout varies in different individuals and according
to age between about 29 and 18 % of its OAvn length.
The dorsal fin is of fairly uniform height, this
being always distinctly greater than the depth of the
body at the vent. It begins at a distance from the
tip of the snout that in the males does not exceed
35 % (31 ',2 — 34^'^ %, according to our measurements)
of the length of the body, but in the females (at least
the older ones) does not fall below 37 % thereof'. The
length of its base increases with age from about 1 2 %
to 14' 3 % of that of the body. The vent lies below
the posterior part of the fin, at a distance from the
tip of the snout that in the males measures about 39' ^
— 43V2 % (39'6 — 43'6 %, according to our measurements
of specimens between 12 and 37 cm. long), in the older
females 47 — 49 % of the length of the body. One re-
sult of this is that the length of the trunk behind the
gill-covers, in young specimens less than 17 cm. long
(we have never examined any young females), measures
only slightly more than " ^ (about 51 %), in the older
males about ' - (59 — 64 %), and in the older females
about ^U (74—78 %) of the length of the tail. In these
differences, depending on age and sex, lies the most im-
portant character that has been employed as a specific
distinction between Nerojihis (equoretts (?) and Net:
(iiif/iiinciis (d").

" From Ireland we liear o£ still larger specimens. "Last winter." writes Blake-Knox in August, 181)6 (Zoologist, vol. XXIV, p. 508)^
"I met witli an immense fish of this kind: seeing a boy "whacking" a donkej- with a gutta-percha stick, as I thought, I asked him where
he got it. "It is only a stalk of a snot (seaweed), sir; see:" and I did see a fine iequoreal, 3 feet 5 inches long. Of its toughness you
may judge. Is not uncommonly taken in the baskets with whelks and crabs."

* KnovEn, however, mentions a female (sign. B among the specimens mentioned by liini) iu wliicl] this sexual character is absent.

682

SCANDIXAVIAN FISHES.

The caudal fin is extremely small, iiuinted, and so
fragile that it now and then disappears with age.

In tlie living fish, accoi'ding to Fkiks, the colora-
tion is of ii handsome fiame-yellow or l)i'ownish yellow.
Straight across the sides of the trunk and some way
along the tail the body is marked with sonniwhat un-
dulating, parallel, wiiitisii Ijands, framed with lirown.
These bands are arranged in sucli a manner tliat they
lie alternately at the middle of a ring of plates, alter-
nately on the diamond-shaped space between two rings,
the number of the bands thus being double that of the
plates. The dorsal carina of the females is edged with
blackish brown (Lill.j.). The ventral side is as usual
lighter, in the males even whitish. A reddish streak
runs from the tip of the snout to each eye and so on
across the temples to the gill-opening.

The .Equoreal Pipefish was known as a Scandi-
navian species to Strom (Sondm. Beskr., 1762), but
was first introduced into the Swedish fauna by Fries.
It had been described from Scotland by Sibbald in
1684; and the centre of its geographical range seems
to lie on the coast of Great Britain. It is common
among the Orkneys and Shetlands as well as on the
west coast of France. It also occurs in the Mediter-
ranean and tiie Black Sea (Pallas"); Init it does not
penetrate into the Baltic, though from the Cattegat it
enters the Sound, where Nilsson met with it on several
occasions off Landskrona. According to Winther it
also enters Liim Fjord. To the north, according to
Collett, it is a stationary fish "almost u].) to Tromso."

Fries, who has left in the Royal Museum numerous
specimens of the ^Equoreal Pipefish from Bohusliln,
found it to occur sparingly, though not rarely, in that
locality, among the seaweeds that fringe the seaward
side of the island-belt. Kroyer says that it is met
with fairly often in the Cattegat, though in compara-
tively deep water. Mal.m, who oljtained his large spe-
cimens in 6 — 14 fath(jins of water, and found only
small ones at a depth of 2 — 4 fathoms, makes the
same statement of BohusliVn. At Tyl5, off Halmstad,
we have found young specimens 14 cm. long, also in
about 2— 4 fathoms of water.

"Tiiis species," says Couch'', "is more especially an
inhabitant of the open ocean, where in summer our

fishermen repoi-t that they see it near the surface over
a depth of more tlian fifty fathoms, at a distance from
land of ten or fifteen leagues. ' "Sometimes," he says
in anotlier passage', "it abounds in iucalculal)le numbers
from near the shore to several miles in the open sea;
and it is then they appear to jjerform a ])erhaps limited
migration or change of quarters; for they swarm at
the surface in fine weather from tlie early part of sum-
mer to its declension; l)ut after, this time they are not
seen, and probably have gone to the bottom, and into
deeper water. When on our coast their actions are
amusing, as \\\\\\ their slender and prehensile tail they
lay hold of some loose and floating object; with the aid
of which, and the anterior portion of the body free,
they steer their wandering course by the waving action
of the dorsal fin." Their progress thus costs them but
little trouble; but they also run great risk of being
devoured by fishes-of-prey. The stomach of a Pollack
has been found, according to Couch, to be crammed
with /Equoreal Pipefish.

The ^Equoreal Pipefish spawns in summer. The
male and female attach themselves beside each other
to some sprig of sea-iveed or stalk of grass- wrack'', and
the eggs are imbedded in the layer of mucus deve-
lojjed on the ventral side of the male, from the vent
to the isthmus. This layer h;irdens into a solid disk,
Avhich, at least at the beginning of the period of gesta-
tion, may be peeled from tlie Ijelly, though it then
leaves in the skin traces of the honeycombed depres-
sions which have been occupied by the eggs. The eggs
are considerably smaller than those of the Deep-nosed
Pipefish, but also far more numerous. In a female
44 cm. long the ovaries were 84 mm. in lengtli and
the eggs about ' ., mm- in diameter. 0\\ the ventral
side of a male, where at the middle of tlie lengtii of
the belly the eggs were set in 12 or 13 somewhat irre-
gular, longitudinal rows, the largest eggs Avere not
much more than \'o mm. in diameter. The narrow
embryos lie coiled in several rings within the egg;
when 1 1 mm. long they have burst the membrane, but
lie with the head fixed in the cavity where thej' were
developed. The head is far less developed than in the
larva^ described by Fries of Nerophis litmbricifoniiis
(Plate XXIX, fig. 4, a)\ but the form of the body is

" Rathke did not find if, liowever, among tlie fishes cf (lie Black Sen

'' Fish. Brit, hi., vol. IV, p. :i5G.

' ibid., p. 359.

<< Andrews, Zoologist, vol. XVIII (1860), p. 7053.

STHAUillT-No.SEl) I'll'El-ISII.

683

still more donuated, the jieetoral lins are eoiaparatixcly
larf,'er, the still rudimentary dorsal liu is hardly so
advaiieed in dewlopnuMit, and the emhryonie vertical
fin of tlu' tail, though it is distinct in some of those

til

The food <if llie J!i|Uoreal Pi|)etish is jirohahly
same as llmt of the other Symjnathince. Still, to

tile best of our knowledge, we have no other direct
information on this point than that Andrews (1. c.)

embryos preserved in sj>irits, in others is indistinct, \ has seen these fishes stripping the stems of Zostera

because it is (hither shrivelled u]:>, or as yet undeveloped. \ iiitiriiia of the young of AntJiea cereus, which were

I have not sneeeeded in discovering the least trace of attached in a semiglutinous state.
the future caudal tin.

THE STRAIGHT-NOSED PIPEFISH (sw. T.VN(;sxn\vN).

XEROPHIS OPHIDION.

Fig. 174 niul PhUe XXIX, fig. .3.

Cauda] fin ivantiiig. Vent situated beloir the aiiferior part of the dorsal fi)i, the distance between which and the
tip of the siioaf is more than DO % {D.:> %?) oj that lirlireen the rent and the same j^oint and more tha)i 7 {7'^ I J)

times the Icnc/th if the head.

Fig. 174. Head lUuJ forepart of a Xeropliis Ojihidion ($) from Morkfi (C. U. Ekstku.m), twice llje natiual size.

/). 34—40; Ann. 00—100 = (29—3.3) + .;■.

Syn. Si/iignattiiM teres, pinnis pectoralibiis caiida;qiie carens, Art.,
Deicr. A'pec. Pise, p. 1 (excl. syn.); Li.n'., Fn. Suec, ed.
I, p. 126.

iSi/iiijnatlius Ophidion, Li.v., Sy.st. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p.
337; Retz. A. J., Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 312: Ekstr., Vet.
Akad. Handl. 1831, p. 280, tab. II, figg. 3 et 4; NiLSS.,
Prodi: Icltlh. 6'cand., p. 67; Retz. A., Vet. Akad. Handl.
1833, p. 157, tab. V; Fr., ibid. 1837, p. 36, tab. Ill, fig. 4;
Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, Suppl., part. II, p. 47; Kr. (Nei-
opltis). Damn. Fislc., vol. Ill, p. 716; NiLSS. (Scypliiiis),
Skand. Fn., Fislc., p. 694; Sundev. (Syngnatlius), Btockh.
L. Hush. Sallsk. Haudl., H. 6 (1855), p. 164; Mgrn, (Nero-
pliis), Finl. Fislcfn. (disp. Helsingf.), p. 70; Lindstr., iScy-
pliius), Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 24 (sep.);
Gthr (Nerophis), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 192;
DOm., Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. II, p. 602; C.\nestr., Fn.
D'ftal., Pesci, p. 145; Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Clirnia 1874,
TilliBgsh., p. 202; ibid. 1879, Xo. 1, p. 101; X. Mag.
Natiirv. Chrnia, Bd. 29, p. 114; M.\LM (Scyphins), Gbys.,
Boh. Fn., p. 597 : Winth. {Nerophis) Naturh. Tidskr. Klihvn,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 54; Bncke (Syngnatlms), Fisch., Fischer.,
Fisch;. W., 0. Preuss., p. 190; BcKE (Nerophis), Arcli. Na-
tnrg., Jabrg. 46(1880), I, p. 335; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss.
Fr., toni. II, p. 68; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p.
262, tab. CXLIV, fig. 5 ; Storm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr., Trondbj.
1883, p. 42; Mob., Hoke, Fisch. Osts., p. 104; Ulu., Sc,
Norg. Fislc., vol. Ill, p. 470.

Syngnathus lumbriciformis, Jen., Man. Brit. Vert. Anim., p.
488.

The Straight-nosed Pipefish never attains so great
a size as the preceding species; even 3 dm. is quite a
consideral)le length for it, and though the females may
exceed this measurement by soine millimetres, it is im-
probable, on the other hand, that the males ever attain
it. The largest male we have had the opportunity of
examining (from Nor^vay, through Marklin), is 2^2
dm. long".

The form of the body is still more elongated than
in the preceding species, and its greatest depth, even in
the females (excluding their vertical dermal carinae),
does not exceed 2 %'' of its length, while in the males
this percentage is between V/o and 1" .j. At the be-
ginning of the tail (the anal ring), here as in the pre-
ceding species, we find a sharp break, at which the
depth of the body in the young specimens and the fe-
males measures only about l"! % of its length, in the
older males 1'2 % thereof, and from which the tail
gradually tapers backwards almost to a filament. Both
in the females and the males the tail is terete (of cir-
cular section); and in the latter the breadth of the
trunk may be even greater than its depth, though as
a rule the case is the reverse; but in the older females

° The largest male from Morko presented to the Royal Miisemn by Ekstro.m is 197 mni. long.
' The highest percentage we have found is 19.

684

SCAXniNAVIAX FISHKN.

the tiMiiik is flistiiicth' coiiipn'ssed, and its dc|)tli in-
creased b\' two longitudinal dermal folds, one at the
middle of tli(! back and one at the middle of the belly,
botli of inconstant height and occurrence, tlie former
al\va}"S small, but the latter sometimes almost as deep
as the bo(l\-. The depth of the body at the middle of
the trunk, including these dermal folds, may rise in
the females to at least 2"8 % of its length.

In adult specimens the middle carina of the ])lates
on tlie body is extremely indistinct, and the grooves
that otherwise radiate (vertically) from this carina,
are for tlie most part effaced and exclianged for
small, round (H' sfpiare hollows, wiiicli at tlie middle
i.if tlic central ])lates of the body, are arranged in
vertical rows, a distinct trace being thus left of the
original grooves. The hind part of the head, the "fore-
head, and the opercula, which are witliout carina', are
also punctated more or less irregularly with similar
cavities.

Tlie length of tlie liead in proportion to the length
of the liod>' is less here than in any of the other Scan-
dinavian 8tjiujnui]un(C. In specimens about 2 dm. long
the length of the head may still measure rather more
than 6 % (according to Kroyer even 6V2 %) of that
of the I)odv; l)ut in older specimens this percentage
sinks to 5'/o or even a little less. While this change
is taking place, the length of the snout increases from
about 41 % to 4GV2 "^ of that of the head, and the
longitudinal diameter of the eye decreases from about
'/a to about 'Vio of the length of tiie snout. The form
of the snout is also remarkable for its fairl}' prominent
dorsal margin and broad ossa symplectica, the muzzle,
when seen from tlie side, thus showing scarceh' any
break from the rest of the head, and also tapering evenly
forwards and lieing only slightly turned up at the tip.
The least depth of the snout, just behind the articula-
tion of the lower ja\v, measures about ' 3 of its length,
varying, however, between 30 and 38 % thereof. The
tip of the lower jaw falls short of the upper margin
of the tip of the sntiut, and in this species as in the
pi'eceding and the following ones the length of the
lower jaw is about equal to the longitudinal diameter
of the eyes.

The doi'sal tin is of fairh' uniform height, or a
little higher at the middle, and its height in proportion
to the length of the body is about the same as in the
preceding species (al)out 2 %)\ l)ut its base is shorter
(about 10 — ll'/a % of the length of the body"), and
its position entirely different. In the males the distance
between its beginning and tlie tip (jf the snout is about
45' — 48 % of the length of the body, in the females
52 — 53'/2 % thereof. The vent is also situated far liack,
though it lies further forward in relation to the dorsal
fin, generally below tiie beginning of the second third
thereof. In the males tiie distance between the vent
and the tip of the snout is about 48'' — 52 %, in tiie
females 55'' — 58 % of the length of the bod}'. These
proportions bring about a more striking difference be-
tween the sexes, namely that in tiie males of this spe-
cies tlie length of the trunk beliind tiie gill-covers is
less, in tiie females greater than the length of the tail.

The coloration of the living fish, according to Fries.
is olive-green above, with a dash of yellow below. Tiie
sides are inai'ked with rows of numerous, often round,
small, bluisii white spots, and the gill-covers are cross-
ed by fine streaks of a iiandsome azure blue, which
are interrupted by the branchiostegal membrane, but
continued a little way along tlie sides of the body.
The iris is l)ro\\'nisii red according to Malm, silvery
white according to Ekstroii, with tine, gray and coarser,
red spots. In coloration the sexes are hardly dis-
tinguishable; but according to Ekstrom the colours
of the male are darker and dirtier.

In Sweden the Straight-nosed Pipefish is ipiite as
common as the Deep-nosed species, in some localities
even commoner; and both species generally occur to-
gether. In tlie Baltic this species was known even to
AiiTKDi from the coast of Angermanland, and according
to Mela it penetrates to the head of the Gulf of Fin-
land. On the Norwegian coast it is unknown north of
Trondhjem Fjord, luit in tiie south of Norway it is as
common as in Sweden. In Kiel Bay, according to
HEiNCiiE, it is less common than tiie Dee])-nosed Pipe-
fish. On the English coast and the north-west coast
of France it seems to be less common than in Scan-
dina\ia; liut in the Bay of Biscay, according to Moreai',

" In the smallest o£ Kr0YEr's specimens, however, Uiis percentage was 12'3.

'' .\ccording to More.\u, however, 41.

' This percentage may also occur, however, in females <.f the preceding species, and acconliiig to Moueau it may be 45 in this species.

'^ According to KhOYER 54.

STl(Al(;ilT-N<l.sKI) I'll'KMSII.

68")

it is liiirly (•(iiiiiiKHi. It nccurs in llic Mi'diterraiiean ol'f
Nici', accdrdiiii;- to Mokeat, and on tlie coast ol' Alii'icTs,
accor(lin,<;- to (uichknot aiid IH'mkkil. Acroi'diiii;- to
Canes'I'kini it lives round all the coasts of Italy and is
common in the Adriatic — assuuiino' that these ilcdi-
tevranean fishes are really identical in species with our
Straight-nosed Pipe-fish". Like the rest of our Pipe-
fishes this species is unknown in the western region of
the Atlantic.

The most important contributions to our knowledge
of the habits and life of this species have been made by
Ek.stko.m and Fkie.s. As it glides through the grass-
wrack or alga' with its serpentine or Eel-like movements,
it shows greater litheness and also greater timidity than
the Deep-nosed Pipefish, but possesses the same pro-
tective likeness to a stalk of seaweed. From its long,
terete, taj>ering, highly flexible, and tinlcss tail, writes
Fries, it derives little, if any, assistance in its progress
through the water. This organ is generally kept still,
as the fish (piietly swims along, and is to be regarded
rather as a rudder than an oar. When the Deep-nosed
Pipefish is stationary or at rest, it sinks, stretched at
full length, to the bottom, and lies on the belly with
tail extended. The Straight-nosed Pipefish, on the other
liaud, coils its flexible tail with great skill round the
olijeets near at hand, and by the help of this organ
[ireserves an u]>riglit position in the watei'. It may be
seen continually attaching itself in this way, if it can
find anything round which to twine; and when it fails
in this, but has several companions in the same vessel,
one may often see them tM'ist their tails together and
form groups, not unlike tufts of grass-wrack, which
remind us in a manner of tlie old figures we see of
so-called "Katzen-KOnige."

The most striking resemblance of the Straight-
nosed Pipefish, however, is its similarity to Chorda
Jihtm, to which it is often found attached, in those
localities where this seaweed floats about at the surface.
Like the rest of the Pipefishes this species lives on mi-
nute marine animals of various kinds, worms, crustaceans,
and mollusks, of a size suitable for its tiny mouth.

"Towards the end of April," writes Ekstho.m from
the island belt of Morko, "the females desert the shore
and the shallows to join the males in deep water and
to perform the operation of spawning. The eggs, which
are fairly large in comparison with the fish, about 1

mm. in dianuuer, arc attached to tlie surface of the
l>cll\- IVom the head lo the vent in 2, 3, or 4 rows, not
exactly opposite each otlier, but so to s])eak, decussating.
They are somewhat dc]iresscd in tlie skin, united by or
rather packed in tough nuicus, and coated with a mem-
brane so extremely fine that it can scarcely be detected
and cannot bear tlie least touch without breaking. When
this membrane is remo\ed, and the eggs are loosened
from the lielly, they hang tog(!th(>r like the beads of a
necklace. .Vs soon as the fish is dead, the roe falls
from the body, accompanied, however, by the said layer
of mucus in which the roe-strings hav(! been imbedded.
The eggs seem as thougli the}' might easily be detached
from the almost smooth skin of the belly; but they
have a triple fastening, first to the skin, by means of
the glutinous mucus, then to each other, by^ the union
of the poles, and finally, also to each other, by means of
the said membrane. The laying of the eggs begins at
the end of May, but is not simultaneous in all the spe-
cimens, being considerably protracted: I have seen males
with eggs even on the 1 1 th of August. When the eggs
are deposited, they are golden yellow in colour; but they
gradually fade. At the middle of July most of them
are ^vhite, with a yellow spot on the part of the surface
most remote from the body of the male. In some cases
the yellow spot is already furnished with two extre-
mely fine, bhick dots, tiie first signs of the embryo
with its eyes. We can thus state with certainty- that
the spawning-season, which begins during the first
days of May, lasts throughout this month and also
during June and July. — Neither before May nor after
September have I seen a male with roe."

The new-hatched embryos are about 9 mm. long,
according to Lilljeborg, with the snout turned up like a
pug's, the eyes and the postorl)ital part of the head aljont
equally long, the entire length of the head about '<, of
that of the body, the vent situated distinctly in front
of the middle of the body (at a distance from the tip
of the snout equal to about 44 % of the length of the
body), and the sides of the trunk furnished with a num-
ber of prominent protuberances. The embryonic vertical
fin runs along the dorsal edge, back from the middle of
the trunk, round the tip of the tail, and along the
ventral edge forward to the remainder of the vitelline
mass, but with a .sharp break at the vent. The larval
pectoral fins are com]iaratively large. All these fins are

Cf. notes // and c on the preceding page.

686

.SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIK.S.

as usual entirely destitute of tin-rays. According' to
MoBius and IIeincivE young specimens less than 1 dm.
long have longitudinal carina on the body like those
of the Deep-nosed Pipefish, and these carina' are fringed
with spines growing in a backward direction on the
plates of the body, so tliat the bodj% when seen from
the side, presents a serrated appearance. The pectoral
tins do not begin to be reduced until tiie fish is il cm.
long; and according to Collett these fins may still be
persistent, with a length of 1 mm., in specimens 112
mm. long. The Straight-nosed Pipefish thus undergoes
a remarkably complete series of developmental changes,
a retrogressive metamorphosis, with the earlier .stages
possessing the structure and external form of more fully
equipped Si/ii;/)uifhi)i(i'. Tlie history of its development
is the most distinct and complete illustration we possess
of the development (phylogeny) of the wiiole family.

Tlie Straight-nosed Pipefish is (jf no greater iui-
portaucc in ;ui economical respect tlian tlie rest of our
Si/iif/iKitliiiirc. Whether it can do ni[\ iiarm b^- de-
vouring the deposited eggs of other fishes, or by reducing
the supj)ly of food for the fry of more valuable species,
is a point on which we have no information. That it
may be used, at least in its younger days, as humiui
food, is shown, however, by its a]>j)earance amongst
whitebait", for, like the Sticklebacks, it now and then
forms a part of this favdurite English dish, which con-
sists chiefly of Herri ng-frj-. Its common occurrence
renders it well-known to the fisherman, and on the
east coast of Sweden it is this species in particular tiiat
bears the name of hafsnaJ (Needle-fish), which Fhies
adopted for tiie whole genus Nerophis. In Halland it
is called fihif/snijici'', a reminiscence of the Danish siiippp,
whicii Kkdyei! lias transferred to tlie following S])ecies.

THE WORM PIPEFISH.

NEKOPIIIS LrMBHiriFoUMLS.

Fig, 175 nnd Pint,- XXIX. lig. 4.

Caiiddl till iniiifhif/. Vent sifiiafed hrloir the anterior jmrt of tlie dorsal ,/?//, tlie distance lietireen leliieh ami flie
tip of tlie snout is at least 90 % {90 — 92 ?o) of that hetireen flie rent and the same point, hat less than

') times the lenf/th of the head.

Fig. 175. He;i(l and foi'ep.Trt of ,i Neroplii'' lumlnici/ofmis, 9, from the Weatlier Islands (Boluislan). Twice the natural size.

/). 25—2(3; Ann. CO — 7:J = (17 — 10) + .r.

Si/n. Acus iumbriciformis atit ^'erpentinus, 1. Ophidian Iwnbriciforme,
WiLLUGHDY, Hist. Pisc, p. 160; Ray, Synops. Metliod. Piac,
I>. 47. Tlie little Pipe-fish, Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776),
p. 124, t.ib. XXIII, No. 62.

l^ijnrjHutlms Ophidian, Ft.MNG, Brit. Aniiii., p. 176 (nee Lin.).

St/nijiiathus lumhrlci/annis, Yare., Brit. Fixh., ed. 1, vol. II,
p. 340; Fr., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1837, pp. 38 et 59, tab. Ill,
ligg. 5 et 6, tab. IV; Kr. (Nerophis), Damn. Fislc., vol. Ill,
p. 723; NlLSS. (Scyphius) iilcarul. Fn.. Fisl.:. p. 695; GillR
(Nerophis), Oat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 193; D«M.
Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. II, p. 604: Coll., Forb. Vid. Selsk.
Clirnia, 1874, Tillaegsb., p. 203; Malm {Scyphiiis) Gbgs,
Boh. Fn., p. 598; Wintii. (Nerophis), Naturb. Tidskr. Kbbvn,
sei-. 3, vol. XII, ].. 54: Hcke, Arch. Naliirg., .Jahrg. 46, I,
p. 339; MoR., Hi.^t. Naf. Poiss. Fr., toni. II. p. 65: Dav,
Fish. at. Brit., fret., vol. II, p. 263, tali. CXL1\", lig. 6:
LiLL.1., Sv., Nor,/. Fisl,:, v,d. Ill, p. 477.

Ohs. That it was not this species tliat .Jenyns referred to (^fan.
Brit. Vert. Anim., p. 488), appears partly from bis statement that
it may attain a length of 9 inches (228 mm.), partly from his
description, wbicb. as Fries lias already remarked, can apply only to
tbe preceding species.

The \Vorm Pipefi.sh is one of our smallest Sijnf/na-
thinec: its length is seldom more than 15 cm., and the
maximum size which the species is known to attain, is
16.") mm.'' The largest s])ecimens in the Ittiyal ^luscuni
are 141 mm. (o^) and Vl'l mm. (?) long.

Tiie body is of the same serpent-like form as in
the preceding s])ecies. but less elongated and still more
terete. The greatest depth is situated in full-grown
males at the lieginning of the trunk, in tlic females at
tiie middle of the trunk. In tlie former it measures

Cf. BUCKLAND, Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 170.

'Pdni/. tang and .inipa, anything long and pointed, e. g. a boat. Tr.

Collett (in Lilljeboug, 1. c.). Tbe specimen was a female.

WDliM I'lrKI'lSII.

0S7

iiliout 2— 2' .> % of the Icii.uth of the hody, in the \\\\Wv
;it least MS nuieli as .'V', , % tliereof. Tlie tei-ett' (ail
tapers reniilarK' tn its euci. Here, us in tile .]'!(|ii(ireal
Piiielisli, tlie (liffereiiee l)et\\een tlie sexes is most dis-
tiiictlv e\|)resse(l e\teriiall\- \i\ tlie form of the trunk.
Ill the males this part is soniewhat llattelie(l, es|ieeiull\'
;it the mi(l<lle of its lengtli, and the hreadtli of the fiat
ventral side, to which the esfg's are attached, is ureater
tliiin the (h'ptli nf tlie \mm\\ at the s;ime puiiit. In llie
females the trunk is laleralh' eum|iressed, and also fur-
nished, when the lisli is in full dress, with a Imiui-
tildiiial carina at llie middle l»illi of the hack and the
bell\', tlu' latter carina lieiiig here too the mure pro-
minent. Thus the structure of the males in. this respe<'t
coiues \er\' near the fcirni of the body in the Australian
genus SthiniKtitjilmni. which is furnished, ho\ve\er, with
pectoral tins, and in which the males carr\' the eggs
under their tails.

In s])eciineiis from 10 to \'l em. long the length
of the head varies between 8 (7'8) and 7'., %, m older
Sjjeeimeiis lietween 7' .-, and 7 % of the length of the
bod\', or between about L*.j' ., and 2.')' ., % of the distance
from the (hirsal fin to the tip of the snout. The most
characteristic point in the head of this species is the
form of the snout, a reminiscence of the lar\al stage
of all the othi'r Si/i/f/inifhinrc. The snout is coiiqiara-
tivelv short, measuring in voung specimens — between
lU and 12 cm. long — only about ' ,,, in older speci-
mens about ' ., (30—3-2^/2 "«) of the length of the head,
and also liirned up like a pug's nose, \vith a more or
less selliform d<'[iressioii in the superior profile. The tip
of the lower jnw pirojects ujiwards to a level with the
tip of the snout, which is hollowed to receive it. The
longitudinal diameter of the eyes is about half the length
of the snout. The jiostorbital length of the head
measures abcjiit half its entire lengtli.

The dorsal tin is of uniform height. The length
of its base is about 9 or 10 % (8-8— IQ-o ?6) of the
length of the bocU". The distance between it ami the
tip of the snout is about 30 % {i'.)'6 — 30'5 %) of the
length of the liody. The vent lies below its anterior
part, at a distance from the tip) of the snout that mea-
sures about ' , (3i'-.")— 33'3 %) of the length of the
body. The length of tlie tail is thus ahvaws more than
twice that of the trunk behind the opercula.

The coloration is far from uglv. "Its usual ground-
colour," writes Khies, 'is chestnut-bi"ow-n, in some cases

° Xat. Hist. Irel., vol. IV, p. 242.
ScamUnavlnn Fishes.

liglitt'r, ill others darker. Along the back lie large,
irregular spots of whitish gray, wdiicii are broken up
<in the tail inio iinnierous, smaller spots and give this
part of the body a mottle(l appearance.' The head is
also mottled abo\c and below with whitish gray spots,
framed with darker colour, and twu or three of tiie.se
spots are especially c(jnstant and prominent, oblicpudy
in front of, bidow, and obliipud\- liehind the eves, rising
from the isthmus. ( )ii the tail the s|)ots are arranged
more or less distinetix in transverse? rows; and in a fe-
male from the Weather Islands (Bohusliin), which has
lain in spirits for some xcars, but preserved its colora-
tion remarkabh" well, this arrangi'inent is distinct on
the f(.)repart of the bod\' also. The dermal carina on
the belly of this specimen seems to have been edged
with darker colour. 'I'he iris is \'ellow', with a I'ing of
round spots.

This coloration is probabh- connected with the ha-
bits of the fish. The WUrni l'i|ietish seems to ])refei'
deep water, where the brown tint prevails among the
alga'. It has e\en lieen found crawling on a clayey
bottom, where it has been taken in the dredge in eom-
pan\' Avith those marine Anindids, crustaceans, and mol-
lusks -whose voung and lar\;e probably form the chief
[lart of its food. < bi the Irish coast too, according to
Thojipson", this sjiecies has been taken in the dredge
in deep water, though it also lives between the tide-
marks, where it hides under .stones.

The spawning-season seems to be somewhat later
than in the jireceding sjiecies. The eggs are set in
four, more regular rows and less firmly attached
(less deeply imbedded in mucus). Collett estimated
their number in ditt'erent males at 63 and 78; in a
male 135 mm. long we have counted 88 eggs, about
I ' - mm. in diameter.

It was in this species that Fkies made the first
oliservations of the retrogressive metanioriihosis of the
genus Nerophis, observations which ha\e since been ex-
tended, as we have seen, to all the Scandinavian species
of the genus. One of the last days in .September, 1837,
Fries had obtained a male specimen to which the eggs
still adhered. lie placed the specimen in a vessel of
water, and endeavoured to kec]) it ali\e for some time,
in order to observe the hatching of the eggs and the
relations between the young and their father. As the
latter had no raarsupium in which the young might
hide at the approach of danger. Fries expected to see

688

SCAN] )IN A VI AX FISHES.

tlifui nttacli tlieiiiselves in some way witli the t;iil ti)
the parent fish; but in this expectation he was dis-
appointed. After tlie lapse of six days the fish sliowed
signs of weakness, and some of tlie eggs began to
aO(iuire a sickly apjjeaivince. Life endured, however, for
some days more, and on the morning of the ninth day
of the captivitv Fhiks oliser\cd Hu'ee young specimens
at the sui-face. Latei- in the day thc' fourth appeared,
and on the following morning two more; but no moi'e
eggs were hatched. The whole mass of eggs now pre-
sented a half-decomposed appearance, became detached,
together with the adhesive layer of cells, from the body,
and broke up piecemeal. The tish died on the same
dav towards evening. The larva^ lived seven days, and
during this time their size increased from 9 to IS'/o nun.
The first point that sui-prised Fries, was the be-
lia\iour of the young amongst themselves and towards
the parent tish. Thev swam in an upright position,
careless of each other, and paying still less attention to
their father, who la\' at the bottom and was equally
oblivious of them. In order to elucidate this discrepancy
from Ekstkom's account of the young of this genus,
Fries began to examine the fry more minutely, and
found their structure to present the appearance shown
in our figure (Plate XXIX, tig. 4, a). The \vhole liody
is while and transparent, the spinal column and the
intestine within the abdominal cavity shining through.
The head measures about ' ,; of the length of the body.
The length of the snout, M'hich curves upwards, is greater
in ])roportion to that of tlie head than in oldei' speci-
niciis. It is also worthy of remark that, whereas in all
adult S/jngnathino! the margin of the opercula is united
bv a meml)rane and by the general dermal covering to
the shoulder girdle, leaving on each side of the occiput
only a small foramen for the passage of the respirator}'
water, in the young on the other hand this margin is
entirely free, the gill-ojjenings thus being large, as in
the generality of fishes. The lower figure shows this
point with tolerable distinctness. Tht' vent, though it oc-
cupies its right place in relation to the dorsal fin, lies
nearer the tip of the tail than in older specimens, only

a little in fi-ont of the middle of the bodv. The plates
of the body seem as yet undeveloped; but when the
young specimen is examined from above, we see along
each side of the bod\' a projecting row of fine teeth,
which must be the tips of the transverse vertebral pro-
cesses that in older specimens support the dermal rings
of plates. FiiiEs counted, as far as he could judge, 18 of
these points in front of, and at least .50 behind the vent.
The jiectoral fins are small, but distinct, with widened,
somewhat rounded tip. Their motion is extraordinarily
brisk, but the ra^^s are exti'cmeh' rndimentarv. The
true dorsal fin is distinct, but the traces of the inci-
pient rays are only faint. Along the dorsal margin
Ijchiiid tliis fin, round the tip of the tail, and along the
ventral margin forward to the vent, runs the embryonic
vertical fin, the chief organ of locomotion in the fry.
Such is Fries's description of Ins find; and the ecpii])-
nient of the larva» with comparatively well-developed
organs of motion explains, it is true, their capal)ilitv
of independent life. But here this explanation stops,
for the larva- of the preceding geiuis may l)e equally
well equipped in this respect, though thev still take
refuge in the niarsupium of the male.

The geographical range of the Woi-m Pipefish, ns
far as we know at present, does not extend so far north
as that of the preceding species. St(jr:\i never found it
in Trondhjem Fjord; but on the coast of the Govern-
ment of Bergen it has been met with at several spots,
according to Collett. In Christiania Fjord it is not
rare. Ofl' the Weatiier Islands and outside Gullmar
Fjord it has been taken on several occasions. Kroyeu
and Peter MCller have found it on the north coast
of Zealand (}lornl);\>k and Helleba'k), but further south
in the Sound and in the Baltic it is unknown. All
round Great Britain and Ireland it is common enough,
according to Day. This is also the case on the north-
west coast of France, according to Moreau, at- least
at certain spots; and according to the same author it
occurs, though rarely, even in the Bay of Biscay. No
instance is known of its occurrence in the Mediter-
ranean.

I'HVSOSTU.MES.

689

TELBOSTBI PHYSOSTOMI

Osseous fishes with the air-bladder (if present) furnished with pneumatic duct. Ventral fins (if present) ab-
dominal. No spinous rays proper (unarticulated) in the fins".

I'.acli dl' iIr'su tliree cluiracter.s culls to iiiiiid an
era in the liist(ir\- of iclithvologv. Tiic las! was Aiirr.ni s''
ciiarac-tiT cit'tlic urclci' Mahuitpfeijiiiii (iiiuiiis iiici-iiiiliiis):
it was hy the second tliat LixN.i'.rs' detincd the order
Alidoiiiinales (pinna' \'ciitralcs ])one jiinnas pcctorales);
and the first-uicntioncd (■haractci- was MOli.ku's'' ex-
pedient t'oi' the lietter detiniticjn of 3f(il(i(<ij)frri/(j/ci!s
(iliildiiiiiKiii.i \ tile order \vliicli CrviKK*' had adopted in
his system, and for the comhination therewith of Cr-
viiai's Malacnptt'ri/fiieiis apodcs.

to the sti-iicture of the arterial hulli of the heart, a
structure which in this suhorder mux he almost Ganoid.
Tliese resemlilanees to the (ianoids ranae the Flnso-
stoines low<'r in the system, assuming that the sj'stem
sliould l)e an ex|iression of the development. But for all
this we must not I'egard the sti'ucture of tlie I'lnso-
stomes as more |)rimiti\'e; man\- of them on tlie con-
trary possess more hiuhly de\ eloped origans than the
corresponding organs in the Physoclysts. Among these
organs w'e find, for example, the stronger supporting-

Thc order or rather suborder which has thus arisen, apparatus which the jiectoral fins have acipiired in

is hardh more natural than that of the Physoclysts, several Phvsostomes by the addition to the scapular

just as the whole Teleosteous order is merely an ex- I disk of a special bone for this purpose (os j^recora-

])ression of the community' of those characters whicli ((lidcum"). Another example of this is the far more

the fishes belonging to the sever;d directions of deve- fre(|Uent occurrence in the Phvsostomes than in the

lopment of this tvpe have retained or ac(|uii-ed during i Physoclysts of the connexion between the air-l)ladder

their development from a common prototype, the Ga- and the organs of hearing, a connexion which is ef-

noids. Tiie independence of the directions of develop- fected in several of them by a special chain of bones'',

ment asserts itself evervwhere, and the charai'ters cjf the ' The preponderant part of the Physostomes, as op-

system nuist therefore be emploved with discrimination,

The Phvsostomes in general stand nearer the (ia-

nuids, which \vere probably also furnished with a pneu-

posed to the Physoclvsts, is composed of fresh-water
fishes; but the famih' most important among marine
fishes in an economical respect, that of the Herrings,

niatic duct from the air-bladder. This connexion with I is Physostomous. This order also contains the families

the Ganoids ajipcars in the al)dominal position of the of the Salmons, Carps, Pikes, and Eels, all of which

ventral fins, wdiich have besides retained not unfrequently have been of great importance in human economy since

a greater number of ravs, just as the pectoral fins may \ time immemorial.

display more numerous transverse rows of basal bones, I The Physostomes are not so numerous as the Physo-

though the outer (distal) ro\vs are not ossified-'. An- | clysts — we know about 1,9<)0 species of the former, as

other sign of this connexion is given by the exceptions I opposed to 3,;'>00 of the latter — - l)ut the distinction of

whicli occur in certain Physostomes, to the character i form is sufficiently wide to require the establishment

that otherw'ise distinguishes the Teleosts with regard of several independent series which we here give jjrin-

" Tlie rays wliicli in lliese tislies are teniied spines, as being- liard and stiff, sliow Uieir Malncoptcrygian iiatnre in tlieir internal struc.
tiire. being articulated, altlioiigli the joints are coalesced.

* Gen. Pise, p. 1.

' .Si/st. X<il., ed. X, torn. I, p. 241. Ci'vier completed the Linmoan character by tlie addition lliat tlic ventral (ins not only lie be-
hind the pectoral fins, but are also destitute of any immediate connexion with the shoulder-girdle.

'' Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1844, Pliys. Abh., p. 175.

' R'egne Animal, ed. 1, torn. II, p. 159; ed. 2, toiii. II, p. 200.

■' Cf. Gegenbaur, Unters. Vergl. Anat. Wirbelth., 2:te Heft, p. 153. taf. VIII. figg;. 8 et 9.

" Pr.a>coracoiil, Pahker. Slioi'!der-,/ir(/le and Steviiiiin, p. 56, pi. II, fig. 8, p. cr; Knochenspange, Gege.vbaur, 1. c, p. 117. tof. VII.
figg. 1—5, .!•■

'' Sac.kmeiii. (llorphol. .lalirb.. Bd. X. p. 22) gave these fishes the name of 0.-<tan'ophi/.^-ete Teleosts, from oGluytor, a small bone, and
cpiaa, bhiddev.

fi9e>

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

(•ipiilly Jitter ('ori:", hut witli uaiiu'S muiv iidajitcd to
our previous treatment ot the Pliwsoehsts:

I : The sliouldev-irii'dle suspoudcil I'rom the
head.

.1: An internal supporting hone (os pr;e-
eoracoideum) for the eoraeo-scapular disk
rises from the coracoid bone to the in-
side of the claviele or of tlie scapuhi.
<(; Anterior vertebra more or less con-
fluent; air-bladder connected with
the hearina-a|)paratus by a row of
ossicles.

(c Xo distinct os svin])lecticum ; no
suboperculum; nia.xillary bones
rudimentary, forming in most ca-
ses the base of a maxillary bar-
bel on each side (jhinomorjilti''.

(i: Os symplecticum distinct; sub-
operculum present; maxillary

bones normal Ci/prinomorplii'.

b: Anterior vertebrae normal; air-bladder
without osseous connexion with the

hearing-apparatus... Tltriasomorphi'.

B: No os pnecoracoideum lUsociformes' .

II: The shoulder-girdle suspended from the

spinal column Enchdipnorphi'.

GLANOMOKPHI.

TliC sJioiil(/cr-i/irdIe suspended from the liead (as usual in the Teleosts). Coraco-scapidar disk lidenialli/ stroii/fh-
ciied hi/ (III mill formed bij a special hone (os prcBcoracoideum) from the coracoid hone to the clavicle or the upper
(anterior) man/in of tlie scajnda. Jfost of the frsf fintr or five rertehrce more or less altered from the ordiiiari/
form and more or less rompletelij confluent with each other or even ivith the occipital hone. Some of the ribs
helongini/ to these rertehrat metamorphosed into a connectinf/ chain of hones hetireen the air-hladder and the audi-
tory apparatus. Xo os si/mplecticum in the hijomandilndar arch. Each jialatinr arch composed of only two bones,
OS pteri/ffoideum and os palatinum. Opercular apparatus ivitJioiit suboperculum. JIarillari/ bones reduced, generally
formini/, toyethcr icitli their supjilcmentary bones, the mobile base of a ma.iillari/ barbel on each side. Xo true

sriiles. body naked or covered with plates.

V.\LE.\CIEXNES'' raug'ed tlie (_ilaii()Uior]jlis at the head of oidy two bones, os hyomaiidihidare and os ijuadratiiin,

of tlie .Malaeopterygians (nearest to the Aeanthopterv- and lastlv of the palatine areli, whieh is ;dso composed

gians), because they possess the most strongly ossified on each side of oidv two bones, os pteryyoideum and

fin-rays. This character — the possession in the fore- | os pjalatinuin.

most joectoral rays and the first (second) dorsal ray of j The systematic arrangement of the (Tlanoiuorphs

admirable weapons of defence and attack — is indeed ' has always ])resented great difficulty. Bleekeu* based

fairly constant in its appearance, l)nt still variable his division of tliis series into families in the first place

enough to render it useless to the systematist. The j on the singular respiration of certain forms. Apart

(ilanoiiiorphs also var\' so greatly both in the rest of ! from tiie fact tliat some {Plotosus) are fnrnislied behind

their structure and in the form of the boih- tiiat the ' the vent with ramified dermal excrescences', which

distinction between tliem and the next series of fatni- Bleekek explains as respiratory organs, others {Hetero-

lies con.sists principally in the negative characters given
above, the simpler (less complete) structure of the oper-
cular ap])aratus, whicli is without suboperculum, of the
liyomandibular arch (tlie suspensory arch of the lower
jaw and the hyoid IioikOi which is made u]) on each side

hranchus and Clarias) possess similar growths of the

mucous iiiciiibraiic of the branciiial ca\it\', on the se-
cond, third, and fourtii Ijrancliial arches, tiiis apparatus
lieing concealed in a, cavity behind the branchial cavity
proper. (_)tiiers again (Sinrobninchus) arc destitute of

" Trans. Amer. Philos. Sue, vol. .XIV, n. st

' Nematognatin, Copk.

' Pleciospoiidijli, Cope.

'' Isospondyli, Cope.

' Haplomi. Cope.

-'' Apndes, Lin., aiictt.

■" Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. I'oiss., vol. XIV, ]

* All. Mall. Ind. Or. AVer/., tome II, p. 2.

' Of. Valenciennes in Cuv., Val., ///s•^ ynt. Poiss

(1871), p. 452.

.••>09.

i-ol. XV, p. 411.

Gl,ANciMiiKni>

CDl

thc'Si' ,L!r<)\\ ills, liill ;irc fiil'liislicd iiistcail mi t'iicli side of
the lioch witli .-I U'W'j:, ex limli'lc-il duct ]ieiictr:itin,i;' iiiti)
the ilors.'il iiinsi'lcs. a li,ic'l<\\ aid ciuitiiiuafioii (if the
l)riiiicliial ra\itv. I'lintniniiiL;' a i'cs|iiral<ii-\- sac wliicli is
lined with a rdiiliniialimi of the iiuicous inciidiranc
of tiu; said ravit\-. This (•(Hitiiuiatioii (if the iiiciii-
bnine is aiuiiidaiilK' furiiisiicd with fainiticatiniis nt' tiic
branchial arteries (the lifst arlei'\- oii the riglit side, the
last oil the left"), \vhi(di coincx' liithef a great portion
of the Ncnoiis lilood of tin- heart. The l)lood oxyge-
nated ill eacli of the respiratorv sacs 1)\- iidialed air'' is
partlx' carried off li\' arterial ramitieations in the snr-
roiimling imiseles, Imt most of it is collected in a iiiaiii
iirterv, that discharges it into the great doi-sal arter\-.
The whole of tliis arrniigenient, it is true, stands in a
])hvsiologieal respect beside the striieture just described
in JleferolimncliKs and Chirias: but the form of the body
and the structure of the tins range SdVinhiiDichns ini-
iiiediateh" beside Silnnifi. An ampliibious manner of
life has produced a development of special respiratory
organs for the breathing of air; but nevertheless the

to the |irescnt the differences are far too little known
to be einployi'il in the s\stem. Knkk also came to
tii(^ eonclusion' that within the [hiras group the diffe-
rences in ihc I'orm of the aii--l)Iadder ma\- well be cni-
]iloyeil in the distinction of the species, but not in the
delinition of the genera. 1)av' lias, how e\-er, em|ilo\'ed
these relations in the classilicatiou of the genera; but
he renuirks on this head that the niafine Glanomcjrphs
in general lia\(? a thick air-bladder, not enclosed in an
osseous capsule, as well as the majorit\- of the fr(;sh-
water forms; but that the further \\c penetrate int<i the
highlands of India, the oftener we meet with (ilano-
morphs wdiose air-ldadder is cased in this miiniier. It
would thus seem that liere too the amphibious manner
of life e.xerts a determinati\<; influeiu'c.

The incasemc^nt of tlie air-bladdei' is also merelv a
part of the marked ossification that takes place in the
anterior portion of the spinal column. Here, as we have
mentioned, the anti'i-ior xertebra- are more' or less com-
pletely confluent; and their ribs are transformed into so-
called acoustic Ijones (W'eberian ossicles"), which serve to

natural kinship may be most safely expressed by the | connect the air-bladder with the organs of hearing, and

may well deserve their name, though tlu^y do not pos-

form of the l)odv and the structure of those external
organs which otherwise afford the most tenable cha-
racters Avithin this series ol' families.

This is also true of the variations of the air-bladder.
In our Sheattish it is externally simple, luit internally
ilivided in a longitudinal direction. In Bar/rus these
divisions are transverse. In J/alaptenirus' the anterior
part is externally set off, thcnigh not internally divided,
from the jiosterior, wlii(;h is p.-irtitioned intcrnalh-. though
incompleteh'. both in a longitudinal and a transverse
direction; and the anterior part itself is externally di-
vided in a longitudinal direction into two oval chambers,
winch connnunicate, however, with each other internally.
In Bhinolr/iis'' the posterior part of the air-bladder has
disappeared, and the two oval, anterior chambers lie
side by side, each enclosed in an osseous capsule. These
among (jther variations in the structure of the air-
bladder in the different (ilanomor])hous genera, show
that the form df this organ is highly plastic; but up

sess the least homology -with the otosteals ((if:>:ini1(i
aii(Jifiis) of the higher \'ertebrates. Here tiiis ossifica-
tion of the first vei'tebrte — conjoined in many (ilano-
morphs with (jct'ipital plates (interneural growths) —
forms a strong support for the spinous ray of the first
dorsal tin, one of the powerful weapons of these fishes.
Both these structures are also connected, according to
SoHENSEX, with the ]iower possessed 1)\' several Glano-
inorphs of pidducing sounds''. The dorsal s])ines — the

rudimentar\- (first) and the great (second) spinous ra\

pi'oduce noises (like the spinous ray of the pectoral tins)
by means of the friction Ijetween their artictilar surfaces
and those of the interspinal bones; and the air-bladder
utters sounds parth in the same wax as in the (iur-
nards, Fileiishes, and others (see Part 1), partly by
means of the vibration produced b}- the violent contrac-
tion of the special muscles running from the occi|3ital
rei;ioii or the foremost (confluent) vertebra^ to the acous-

" Hyrtl, Stzber. Aliad. Wiss. Wiun, Malli. Xaturw. CI., Hrl. XI (18.0;5), [i. 30.5.

* This according to V.w. Gi'NriiKn states, liowever, (Iiitrod. Stiiili/ Fixli.. p. .oG5) tliat tlie liing-lilje extensions of tlie briincliial
vily receive water.

■" Geoffroy. Descr. de iE;/;/i>le. Po(,«.. pi. XII, fig. 4.

■' Reissner, Arc-h. Anal.. I'liysiol., 18.')0, p. 421, Plate XII.

' Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Malli. Nat. CI., Bd. XI, p. 14.0.

■'' Fishes of Indiu, p. 440.

•J Weber, De aure et aiiditu etc., Lips. 1820, p. 53.

* Sorexsem, Om Lijdorganti- lios Fiske, Khhvn 1884, p. 121 etc.

(i!)-i

SCAXIllNAVIAN risili;:

tic bones, wliich arc altaclicd to the anterior end of
tlic air-l)la(l(lcr. Several cii'cunistances, of wliich we
siiall give an account helow, seem, hoAvever, to assign to
the Weberian apparatus its most important function as
a barometrical apjiaratus for the tish. As in tlie i'^ilc-
lislies, \ve sometimes liiid here that the aii'-bJadder is
connected with tlie skin in the scapular region on each
side of the body; and this is effected either immediately,
by means of lateral ])rocesses from the bladder, or h\
a ligamentous coiniexion between the skin or the first
lateral ])late and the acoustic Ijone that coalesces with
the ail-bladder.

In the same parts of the body, the sides of the
scajjular region Ijehind the clavicles, we find in some
(ilanomorphs {I'lotfisKs. Maldjitrninis") special ca\'ities,
one on each side of the body, more or less completely
closed bulbs of the abdominal cavity (secondary abdo-
minal cavities), in which a part of the liver and (on the
right side) the gall-bladder or a portion of the kidneys
ma\' tind room. In several Glaiiomorphs (Doras, Ariiis,
Asprcdo, Sihinis etc.) we meet with a singular sac be-
neath the skill behind each of tlie clavicles, usually
opening into a ln)lc (panis lofvrnl/s 1. jirctor((]is) at the
upper angle oi the pect(.)ral fin, somewhat above or a
little beliiiid it. W'e have already remarked a similar
cavity in the case of the Batrachoids (Part I, p. 133).
It has been interpreted as a saccate poison-gland; but
in neither case has its signitication been yet explained.
In our Sheatfisli the ]>ore leads upwards to the cavity
under the flat, backward process from the posterior
corner of the angular cla\iclc.

These fishes are known in English as (Aitfishes on
account of their long and sometimes numerous barbels,
sensoi'v threads (corresponding to whiskers) round the
mouth. These barbels, accompanied sometimes by large

labial flajis, are b\- their extraordinary develo])iiK'iit
esiiecialh- characteristic of the (ilanomorphs.

The variety of form among the Glanomorphs (Xe-
matognates) is fairly great. About 6()0 species have
been described, and Ulkkkkk has distril)uted them among
185 genera, arranged in li families. The form of the
Ijod'V' varies from the ordinary piscine form, usually
\vith flatteiied head and well-separated caudal fin, to the
Anguilliform type, with the yertical tins continuous
round the ti]) of the tail. The plated (ilanomorphs, as
C(_iPi: has remarked, jjreseiit in their arninur an obvious
resemblance to the Sturgeons, tn Avhicli the (ilanomorphs
possess another likeness in the barbels on the jaws. That
the reseral)lance between these two groups of fishes is
not merely external, has l)een already shown b\- I'ah-
KKi;'' in his account of the analogy between the different
parts of the scapular arch in the armoured Glanomorph
CaUichtJii/s and in a Sturgeon, with /lostfemporale, sitpra-
cJaricida, clailcitla and iiifeiclariiiihi e(|ually distinct as
dermal growths. Thus the Cilanomorphs — in the ma-
jority of which, however, the structure of the sca}iular
arch reminds us most strongly of the Carps — rank as
the most distinct intermediate fV)rms in this respect
between the Sturgeons and the Teleosts.

Most of the Glanomorphs belong to fresh water,
especially to the lakes and rivers of the Tropics, with
their deltas and brackish water; but many live in the
sea, whei'e the\' keep, however, to the littoral region.
To the natives, especially within the Tropics, these fishes
are in many localities of great economical value; but
they are generally despised by Europeans on account of
their repulsive appearance. ]\lany of them too, especially
in the tropical regions, are dreaded for their formidable
spines, \vliich are said to be poisonous, though as yet
we have no trustworthy evidence on this head.

•I

Fam. silurid^.

Bodii iKilii'd (/ritlidiit pid/fs ou fhr sides): hctid also covered iritJi skin. Oidii one (ifai/i/) dorsal fin furnished iriili raifs.
short and situated on the abdominal part of the l/odi/. Caudal part of the bod// and tlie amd fin long. Branchial
arches simple (irithoiit appendicular branchia'). (HU-openings large: hranchiostegal membranes free from the isthmus.

Thus defined, tlie famih' of the Sheattishes corre- \ — as well as to his Saeeobranehifirmes, with the'iv sm-

sponds to Bleekeu s subfamilies Sihirifornies and Aili/e- gular. tubular, respiratory cavity along each side of

formes — the former without, the latti'r with a small the body, and contains al)out 50 known species from

adipose fin on the posterior part of the dorsal margin the ( >ld World and the Sunda Islands. In Glxthkh

" Cuv., V.M,., ///.s?. Nul. I'iiiff., vol. XV, pj). 415 aiitl 52.5 ami HvnTi., 1. c, p. 302.
' <Sliouldei-i/irdh: and Sternum (Ray Soc. 18G7), p. 2.^..

SIIICAII-ISUK

603

tlu' lliinily is rc|)rcsciil('ci cliielly hy llir sul)t':iiiiily Siln- per thus lies in tlic vcdiirtioii of tlu' dursal iiii (or lins,
ri(l(r /Irlfi-dp/rrn'. with tlic siiiuir cxcriiiiiiii that Blee- i both nC ihc I'.'iycd, ;intcrii)f liii ;iiiil < if the adipose fin),

Ki:ii has rcf'ciTcd the l'ini(ias'ni<(\ with slrmiiicr spinous comliiiicd with tiic cidn^uatinii of the anal tin. Grx-

\\\\ ill till- coiuparativciy longer dorsal fin ami with tiikk's //clcrd/jtcrfu (with diftorcnt (ins) expresses tiiis

eonipai'atively shorter anal fin, to the Bagriform division, eharai'ter fairly well, 'i'lie whole (Tlanonn)rj)hous scries

wliich in eonjunctidii with a more advanced development is so nearly coiitimioiis, however, that up to the pre-

of the dorsal spine possesses a support for this spine in sent tiie limits of the families whirli we are couipcllcd

11 distinct euiruss on the head and the antt'iior part of to establish by the great iiiiniber of the species, are in

the liaeU. The essential character of the Siluroids pr((- a measure arl)itrarv.

(iKNis SILURUS.

X(i (idijinsf fill. Diirsdl fill siiff-idi/ed (iritlmiif sjiiiiaiis lai/). Dciisf ciinls nf pointed trctli in tlie lo/rer jair, on
tlic iiitcniiii.i illini/ lioiifs, (uiil on flic lirud of tlic roincr. Jltnlicls / or (>, tiro of irliivli licloni/ to the ujiper Jdir,
the rest to the loirer. Anal fn united iit the ii(if<c In/ ii ineiiilinuie to the rounded caudal fin, tint at the inari/in

separated f'roin the tatter fin.

'I'hc genus Silnrus, the name of Avhich occurs even .") known sjiecies, ;! from India, 1 from Dauria, (.'hiiia,

in .Ij.iAN and AtheXjEus (in the second century A. 0.). and dapan, and 1 from I'.uroiie. An East Indian ge-

was in Aijikdi" a combination of tlie Burbot and the luis of small fishes, Silarichthi/s, comes extremeh- near

Sheatfish, though the former was also imduded in the Sihints, but is distinguislied therefrom bv the ol)li(pie

genus (iadits. In Linn.eus'' it embraced, together with j shape of the caudal tin, with tiie upper corner con-

the genus Loricaria, the wdiole of that series of families I sirlerably longer than the lower, a character of which

which AV(' ha\e now called (Tlanomorphs. At present, i w^e find at least traces in Silnrus, and by the closer

with th(! definition given it by (tlnthei!, it contains union of tliis fin to the anal fin.

THE SHEATFISH (sw. jialen).
SlbUlil'S (ii.ANIS.

PInte XXX. lig. 1.

Six hartiels. Dorsal fin situated in front of the niiddle of the ahdoiiicn, about lialf-irai/ hetireen the rcrtical lines
from the anterior ends of the insertions of the jtcctond and central fins. Vomerine card of teeth continuous, irith
onhj a sliijht indentation at the middle of the hind mari/in. iMirer jair projcctinii hci/ond the tip of the snout.
Coloration olire-r/reen, alwre dark, almost blackish, beloir pale, fadin/j eren into irhitish, on the sides spotted;
(til the fns rcj)roduce the coloration of the bod// {darker base, lighter manjin), except the dorsal fin, irhieh is plain,

of the same colour as the back.

n. bv
1

1.0 1. llK D.

(83) 87 (89) (14) 1.") (17)

(10) 11 (12)'

2—3

a. .v+n+x: Vert. 20 + 51 (.54)

Syn. Gadiis. Li.\., Fn. Siiec, ed. 1, p. 109, No. 291; Silurns, It.
Sciiii., p. (52. Silunis cirris duobus ad inaxillnni snperiorcm,
quatuor in mento, Groxov., .Vms. Ichtli. (1754), p. 6; Afal,
0:^B., Vet. Aljad. H.iiidl. 1756, p. 34. iVels. Bl,., Fis(^li.
DetdsM., part. I, p. 242. tab. XXXIV.
■Silnrus Glanis, Lin., iSyst. JS'at., ed. X, torn. I, p. 304; Holm.
D. Vid. Selsk. SIfr., XII (1779), p. 133, tab. I et II; Ketz.,

Fn. .b'dfv. Lin., p. :!48; 1'ai.l., Zoogr. Ro.^s. Asiat., torn. III.
[.. S2; Bdt, Rtzb., Medic. /Cool., part. II, p. 31, tab. V,
tig. 2, r, D, E, tab. VI, figg. 1 — 4; NiLSs., Prodi: Icluhi/ol.
•Scand., p. 38 ; Cuv., Vai.., Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. XIV, p.
323, tab. 409; Kr., Damn. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 120; Nn.ss.,
Stcaud. Fn., Fisl:, p. 359; hhow, Ant. 20-dr. vist. Skand.,
p. 40; HCKL., K.N., 6'ussu-asserf. Oestr. .'ifon., p. 308, fig.
105; SiEii, Siisswasserj. Mitteleur., p. 79; '^\r,KS, Finl. Fiskfn.
(disp. Helsingf. 1863) p. 35; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mm., Fish.,
vol. V, p. 32; Seidi,., Fn. Bait., p. 100; BucKi,., Nat. Hist.
Brit. Fisli., p. 357; MoR., HiH. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill,
p. 439; Mel.\, Vert. Fenn., p. 310, tab. X; Bn'Cke, FiwA.,

" In Arteui tlie Sbcattisb is mentioned only in (lie .\ppendi.'c (Gen. Pise, p. 82 and Syn. Pise, p. 110). and lias probably been in-
troduced thitlier by Linn.kus during bis revision of .-Vrteucs Ichttiijoloijij. See Skdnska resan, p. ('i2.
' Si/sl. Nat., ed. X. toni. I. pp. 304 and 307: ed. XII, loni. I. pp. 501 and 508.

694

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Fhchei:, Fi.-rh:. II'., I). I'reiif.<i., p. lO:!. tig. 83; Grimm,
Fish., Hunt. Jiiiss. Witt., pp. 12 et 19: ApdSTOL.. Pt'cAe oi
Grece, p. 31; NoRB.icK, Handl. Fiskei:., Fishafc, p. 373;
Uncke, Ilandb. Fiscli:., Fischer. (M. v. i). Borne), p. 142,
fig. l.'iO: Lii.u., .Vf., .Xoi-c/. Fi.4:, vol. III. p. 358.

'I'lic Shcntfisli i.s tlic liirn'est osseous tisli in tlic t'rcsli
water of iMirope. .Vcrordiug to triist\voi'tli\- \(_'rl)al st;i-
tiMiicnts" it jittiiins in tiie s(jutli of IJussin, in the Oiiir-
|ier, ;i li'iigtii of ;i1 lc;ist 4S dm. .'ind a wt'iuiit of alxait
2t)5 kuni. Kka.mki! (IT.")!!), (|uotc(l li\- Hkckei, and Knki;,
mentions a still larger JSlieattisli from the Danulie, '"so
large that two men could scarcelv join hands round its
liod\'," A\liicli thus might ha\c mi'asurc(l hetween (i and
7 mi'tres in length. The Sheatfish descrihed ji^- ()sI!E('K
(i. c.) was from Lake IJafven in Sodei'inanland and
weighed IOV5 '^g'^^- <'t a lengtii of 11'.. dm. In Swe-
den the species seldom attains a length of more tlian
:.'' ., metres, though we sometimes hear of sjiecimens
half as long again''.

The form of tlie liody reminds us strongly of the
Uurhot. with flattened head, terete trunk, and laterally
compressed tail, though these_ three parts pass e\enly
into each other. Lithe as the Burliot — or even more
so — and still more like the Eel in its movements, ^vith
h^ose and slip|ierv skin, the bodv of the Sheatfish ma\'
assume different forms in different ])osition; lint \vhen
extended and at rest it jiresents the appearance gi\en
in (tur hgure. The dorsal |)rotile is almost straight,
onh slightly elevated at the end of the first cpiartei',
where the dorsal fin is situated, from this jioint sligiitly
curved to\vards the tip of the snout, and \vitli a down-
ward curve just hehind this fin. The \entral profile is
more regularh' curved, more shar]ih- ascending in front
when the mouth is closed. The fl;it snout, tlie convex
forehead, and tlu.' forepart of the hack, Avhieh is also
convex, hut furnished at the middle with a more or less
deep, longitudinal groove all the wav from the occiput,
arc continued behind by the narro\v, but terete dorsal
edge of the tail. The \entral side, on the other h;ind,
is indeed terete in front and idong the lielly itself more
or less tumid; but behind the \ent it is .so sharp that
the interha'inal spines (sui)i)orting bones) of the anal tin
are even externalh' ]>ert-ei)tible beneath the skin. The
greatest depth of the IkmIv, which occurs at the dorsal
fin, measures in voung specimens, "2 oi' ?> dm. long,
about 11) % of its length; while in older specimens •}

metres long this ])ercentage usuall\- sinks to ]?>'. 'J'he
thickness at the same spot is in young specimens usualh-
distincth- less than, in old S])ecimens generallv about
erpial to the depth. The least deptli of tin- bodv, just
in fi-ont of the caudal fin, measures in the said voung
specimens about .") % of its length, in thi' older ones
;ibout 4 — 3' ^ "r, thereof.

The length of the he;id (from the lip of the snout
to the extreme end ot the branchiosteg;il membrane)
measures ' ,, — ' ,,, of tliat of the body (from the ti]) of
the snout); lint in old specimens the lower jaw projects
in front of the tip of the snf)Ut foi- a distance that
sometimes measures at least ' ., of the length of tlie head.
The broad, fiat snout, with its sides sharplv I'ounded
(forming a broad ellipse) in front, [)asses very graduallv
into the terete form of the occiput and the forepart
of the trunk, without -.niv sharp lateral lireak, the
head tlius resembling a broad wedge with rounded sides.
The l)i-eadtli of the head across the oi)ercula is tlie great-
est b]-eadth of the bodv (in (dd specimens <diout 14 %
of the length of the body); but we are most struck bv
the great breadth of the gape, the width of wliicii.
measured straight across the corners of the mouth when
closed, is about ■* - of the greatest breadth of the head,
and occu]jies almost the entire breadth of the snout.
The li]is are fiesliv, the dermal folds at the corners of
the mouth being especialh' thick. In A-oung specimens
the mouth shuts so tightly that the upper and lower
lips are contiguous; but in older ones the lower jaw
projects so far that a consideralde poilion of its card of
teetli is left bare. The e\es are round and small, and
sometimes even difficult to distinguish, as their colour
differs only slightly from that of the head. Their rela-
tive size varies considerabh' according to age. In spe-
cimens between 1 and 2 dm. long the longitudinal dia-
raeter of the eyes measures about 10 % of the length
of the head, 20 — 19 % of the breadth of the interorbital
space, or 30 — 27 % of the distance between them ;uid
the middle of the tip of the snout (the length of the
snout). In s|)t'cimens lietween '/^ and 1 m. long these
percentages have sunk, the first to about (i, the second
to about 13 or 12, and the third to about 18 or 17.
In a Sheatfish 19 dm. long (the original of our figure)
the longitudinal diameter of the eves was r> % of the
length of the head, only sliuhth" more than 9 % of the

" Kesslijr, Bull. Soc. N.ifiir. Mosc, toi.i. .\XIX (1S.5(;), I, p.
'' On the lOlli of August, 1870, n Slie.'itl'ish 12 Sw. ft. (:!'.,
•■ In grMviil foiiiales, or wlioii (Ik- stomach is ilistc-ii.kMl with f(

111.) lung is sniil to h.ive been brought to iniirUct at Eslcilstuui
ml, tlie lielly of course becomes liolli deeper .Ttiil broader.

SHEATFISII.

6!l5

bivadtli lit' llic intei'orhital spare, and also only a little
more than 14 % of the length of the snout. As appears
from thes(> nieasurenients, the; breadth of the low, hut
rounded interoi'liital space measures about ' \, (varying,
lio\ve\er, between .")") and 48 %) of the length of the
head, and the length of the snout usually a little more
than ' :, (varying Ijetweeu 88 and ?i?i %) of tiie same
length. Here, however, as usual, the length of the snout
is measured obliquel)' (from the anterior margin of the
eyes to the middle of the tip of the snout): its real
leno-tli (the distance between its tip and the middle of
the line joining the anterior margins of the eyes) is
in \onng specimens rather more than ' ,, in specimens
1 m. long rather less than \ o, and in our largest spe-
cimen ai)out " - of the Ijreadth of the interorbital s]«ice.
In projiortion to the entire length of the head the real
length of the snout decreases, during the growth of the
fish from a size of 3 dm. to one of 2 m., from '/^ to
onlv ' -, of the said length of the head, and at the same
time from ai)out 41 to 28 % of the postorbital length
of the head. The eyes thus lie invariably in the fore-
most third of the head, just behind the line between the
liiud margins of the corners of the mouth. Just in front
of this line, or exactly in it, lie the posterior pair of
nostrils. Tliese nostrils are small and round, -and are
situated so far inwards that the distance between them,
which is relatively less in old specimens, measui-es only
about (i6 — .')6 ?6 of the breadth of the interorbital space.
The anterior jiair of nostrils lie far out on the snout,
in the line between the maxillary barbels, and at a
somewhat smaller distance from each other. The margin
of all the nostrils is tubular, the posterior pair being
more elevated in a funnel-shape.

Of each of the maxillarj- bones there remains, as
we have indicated above, hardly more than the articular
knob itself, a small, triangular or scaphoid bone, hollow
on the outside and articulating on the inside, which is
button-shaped, with the lateral ethmoid (prefrontal) bone
and the intermaxillar)' bone. But on the lower anterior
side of this bone we find another, still smaller, supple-
mentary bone, forming the base of the maxillary barbel,
which is long and narrow, but compressed, and may be
moved in all directions. The length of this barbel is,
however, extremely variable. Now and then the barbel
on one side of the body differs from that on the other.
As a rule too, these barbels are comparativeh- shorter
in old specimens than in young: in a specimen 1 metre
long the longest barbel measured somewhat more than

Scamlinavinn Fishes.

■',',„ of the lengtii of the bod\', in a specimen 2 metises
long not ([uite '/,. of the same Unigth or, in other words,
a little more tiian the lengtii (jf the head. The two
])airs of barlx'ls on tlie lower jaw ai'e considerably shorter,
the anterior pair being also shorter than the posterior,
which generally extend to aljout a line with the hind
margin of the preopei'culum or with tlH> articulation of
the o[)erculum. These barbels are not set on the lower
jaw itself, but a little farther inwards, on the skin be-
tween the branches of the ja\v, the anterior pair nearly
below the anterior nostrils, the posterior pair below
the anterior uuirgins of the ej'es.

The surface of the head is smooth, and the bones
and cavities which other\vise give many Glanomorphs
one or mori' important diaracters, are perceptible only
to the touch. Within this series of families we rather
constantly find, in the forms that have a more or less
fully armoui'ed head, a longitudinal groove, or an oblong,
naked patch, along the middle of the forehead and snout.
Here, as in the other forms the head of which is des-
titute of dermal ossifications, no groove of this kind is
externally perceptible; but in the skull we find a long
opening (fontanel) between the anterior parts of the
frontal bones proper, and this opening is continued
bet\veen the posterior parts of the ethmoid bone.

In the same way we find no external trace of the
suborbital ring; but in the skeleton it displays some
striking peculiarities. The foi-emost bone in this ring
(the preorbital bone) is comparatively small, flat, tri-
angular, and acute-angled in front. One side of this
bone lies on the outer top of the lateral ethmoid bone,
and the point in front is united by ligaments to the
top of the long lateral process of the ethmoid bone
proper. With its inside this l)one forms the outer mar-
gin of the nasal cavity, the inner margin of which is
formed by the long, but also fairly broad nasal bone with
its somewhat crescent-like shape. Both the nasal bone
and the preorbital bone are furnished on their upper
surface with hollows and grooves for the ramifications
(muciferous ducts) of the lateral line. The second sub-
orbital bone forms the anterior margin of the orbit and
occupies a singular position, straight outwards and down-
wards from the lateral ethmoid bone, while its length
is so great that the tip lies above the lower jaw, though
without coalescing with the latter, just in front of the
articulation thereof. At the distal part of this sub-
orbital bone, with its anterior side united to the pos-
terior side thereof, lies the third suborbital bone, which

696

SfANIJlN AVIAN FISHES.

is angular, and forms with tlie sliortei' (inner) arm a
])art of the outer margin of the orijit. These two sub-
orbital bones thus foi'iii with tlieii' outer parts an osseous
ridge projecting from tlie orbital ring, a structure i"e-
minding us of that which in the Cottoids and the Lump
Suckers unites the orbital ring to the preoperculum.
The foui'tli suborbital bone, which is the longest, is
curved in an S-shape. \\\t\\ its lower curve it forms
a part of the lower (outer) and the whole of the pos-
terior margin of tiie orbit. \Y\i]\ its U])per curve it
bends backwards to be united by ligaments to the out-
side of tlie anterior extremity of the posterior frontal
bone, which at this point, outside the frontal bone pro-
per, meets the hind extremity of the lateral ethmoid
(prefrontal) bone.

The crescent-shaped, obliquely set preopercula are
also externally indistinct, being entirely covered by the
skin; but a distinct dermal fold on each side marks the
position of the margins of the opei'culum and interoper-
culum. Tiie former is triangular, witli tiie up|ier margin
convex and the lower posterior margin slightly concave.
The interoperculum too, which also replaces the suboper-
c'ulum, is triangular in form, but forked behind, •\\itii
the upper posterior corner projecting obliquely under the
openruluin. Tiie anterior extremity of the interoper-
culum is united by a long and strong ligament to the
hind extremity (angular part) of the lower jaw; but this
ligament runs along the inside of the interoperculum as
well, and is attached here and also, no less firmly, to
the outside of the upper part of the cpihyoid bone".
Behind the said dermal fold marking the hind mar-
gin of the opercular apparatus proper, the head is con-
tinued on each side by a broad branchiostegal membrane,
which lies in a rather indistinct flap above the upper
angle of the base of the ]jectoral hn. Both of the
branchiostegal membranes are entirely free from the
isthmus and united to each other only at the extreme
front for a \ery short distance, nearly below the corners
of the mouth; but the left branchiostegal membrane
overlaps the right under the isthmus to a considerable
extent. Tiie branchiostegal rays are luimerous; 13 or
14 of them are set on the ceratohyoid bone and are

fairly unifoi-m in thickness and terete, but nari'ow and
pointed. The last two of these rays are set on the cpi-
hyoid bone, and the last in particular is flat towards
the tip, externall)' grooved (hollowed in a longitudinal
direction), and fairly broad.

The cards of teeth in tlie lo\ver jaw, on the inter-
maxillary bones, and on the head of the vomer are of
similar form and jjarallel, curved like a crescent and of
fairlv unifoi-m breadth, but growing narrower as usual
beliind (distally on the vomer). They are composed of
dense, pointed, and somewhat recurved tcetii of uniform
size, which are coni|>arativeh' small, l)ut in so large a
fish still form a po\\erful weapon. In the lower jaw
and on the intermaxillary bones the halves of the cards
are separate in front; but the vomerine card of teeth
presents an unbroken surface''. Of the three upper pha-
ryngeals on each side only the hindmost is furnished
with teeth, and this bone is also the only one of the
three that is visible in the jiharynx, having extended
under the other two, which are small and serve to sup-
jjort it and to attach it to the under surface of the skull.
The patch of teeth on the first-mentioned pharyngeal is
fairly large, convex and elliptical. I'acli of the two
lower ](hai'yngcals is furnished witli an oblong patch of
tectii, broader in front, narrower l)eliiiKl (above), and
concave on the inside''. All the pharyngeal teeth are
pointed and resemble the jaw-teeth, but are smaller,
smallest on the lower pharyngeals and in the outer pos-
terior corner of the upper cards. The gill-rakers are
scattered and fairly short, but pointed like teeth. On
the first and second branchial arches they are set in a
single row, and on the front of the first arch ^^'e find
9 or 10 on the ceratobranchial bone and 2 on the lower
part of the epibranchial bone. In some cases the lower
pharyngeals are also furnished on their outer margin
with a I'ow of short, similar s]iines. The ])alatal folds
within the cards of jaw-teetli are well-de\elopcd, but
the upper is (piite shallow. The upper jaw is not ca-
pable of the slightest protrusion, for the intermaxillary
bones are firmly united by ligaments not only to the
large anterior process of the ethmoid bone proper, but
also, though at a somewhat greater distance, to the

" Cf. above, p. 1)64, note i, on the singular position of tlie interoperculum in the Synyiuiihinw.

'' In a Slientfish 2 metres long the patcli of teeth on each half of the lower jaw is 29 mm. broad in front and lis mm. long, though
the posterior (outer) part for a distance of 40 mm. is considerably narrower than the anterior part; the patch on each intermaxillary bone is
K5 mm. long and 22 mm. broad, a breadth also attained by the vomerine cord of teeth, which measured across the palate is 90 mm. in length.

' In a Sheatfish 2 metres long each of the cards of teeth on the upper pharyngeals is 47 mm. long and 30 mm. broad, on the lower
jiharyngeals 8;') mm. long and 24 mm. liroad at the broadest |ioint. In a Sheatfish 1 metre long each of the two cards of teeth on the upper
pharyngeals is 30 mm. long and 21 mm. broad, on the lower pharyngeals 47 mm. long and 14 mm. broad at tlie broadest point.

SIIKA TFISII.

()97

lateral etimioid lujiies. Tlie tongue is wanting. The
unilniiiil lione is of a singular t'orni. Its anterior, siior-
ter jiart (curijus) resembles a parallelo|)i[)(!(l. Its posterior
part is e\pan<icil into a rli<>inl>ic, iiorizontaj disk, willi
the two ;uiUTi<ir sides curNed upwards and the two
postei'ior sliar|i, hut deeply eoiica\e. Al)o\e this disk,
and at right angles to it, rises a strong, ele\"ated ridge,
from tiie extreme beginning of the bone.

Tile form of the dorsal fin is especially characteris-
tic of the Sheatfish and reminds us sti-ongly of the
adipose fin in our Salmonoids, resembling an obliquely
linguit'iirm flap on a faii'l\- narrow stalk, snapped, as
it wcu'e, and iient backwards at the middle. The tin
lies at a distance from the tip of the snout that mea-
sures in \ oung specimens about 27 %, in old about 23
% of the length of the body", or in tlie former about
69 %, in the latter about 63 ?» of the distance l)etween
the anal tin and tlie ti[i of the snout. Its four inter-
spinal bones coalesce into one supporting Ikmk', the lower
extremity of which is attached between the tops of the
fifth and sixth neural spines (belonging to the sixth
and seventh vertebra-). Tbe first ray is simple but
distinctly articulated, the posterior two'' or three rays
are branched and articulated.

The anal fin, the length (base) of which usually
measures more than half (about .53 or .'J4 "»'') of tiie
length of the body, is of almost uniform height through-
out its length, though its height increases behind in the
same proportion as the depth of the body decreases.
Its greatest height (longest ray) is as a ride about '/le
— ■' ,3 of the length of the body, but may sometimes
rise to about ' ^ thereof. The fin begins just behind
the vent with its fairly large genital papilla, at a di-
stance from the ti]i of the snout that measures in j'oung
specimens about 40 — 43 %, in old about 36 % of the
length of the body. Its last ray is united by a fin-
meml)rane to the lower margin of the caudal fin, as
tar as tlie black colour extends over its base.

The caudal fin, which during life seems always to
be directed downwards, sometimes almost at a right
angle to the longitudinal axis of the bodv', mav, how-

ever, be raisi'd and brought without \iolence into the
position which it occupies in our figui-c. In this posi-
tion, however, tiie skin forms a protuberance at the
dorsal margin just in front of the fin. The length of
this fin generally measures in j^oung specimens about
11 %, in old about 9 — 8'/o % of that of the body; but
the variations in this respect are quite as great as in
the case of the height of the anal fin, and in a speci-
men 1 metre long we have found the length of the
longest caudal rays to be 14 '/^ % of that of the body.

The pectoral and ventral fins are the only ones in
whose various relations we apparenth- find jierceptible
external differences between tlie sexes. These fins are
relatively larger in the males than in the females, to
judge by our measurements of two males respective!}'
about 1 and 2 metres long and two females respectively
57 Vo <iiid 73'/o cm. long, our only specimens in which
the viscera were sufficiently well preserved to enable
us to decide the sex with certainty.

The pectoral fins are broad, but oblicjuely oval.
Their insertion is partly covered at the upper angle by
the broad branchiostegal membrane. Their first (upper-
most) raj- is strong and spinous, though articulated at
the tip, and forms a weapon which in old specimens
develops a number of spines on the inside of the outer
(distal) part. When this weapon is employed, the spi-
nous rav is erected in an outward direction, a creaking
sound is heard, a sound wdiich the fish probably uses
to inspire terror, and the articulation is locked, so that
the ray cannot lie forced back. This is a faculty espe-
cially common among the fishes of this family, and the
manner in which this result is attained is as follows.
The base of the spinous ray is not only furnished as
usual with two articular knobs — one for each of the two
articular surfaces which lie on the hind margin of the
firm osseous connexion between the scapular and cora-
coid parts of the shoulder-girdle, and of which the outer
(the one nearer to the clavicle) is an obliquely-set and cir-
cularly hollowed groove — it is also furnished on the out-
side with a tumid, pulley-shaped, articular knob, which
fits into a corres])onding ear-shaped groove on the in-

" To judge by these clianges of growth, as well as h\ the vomerine cards of tceUi, which in Ihu Indian Silurus ivynaadensis (Day,
Fish, fiiil., p. 480, pi. CXI, fig. 6) are separated from each other, this Indian form seems to stand nearer the original type common to both
species, though we must not forget that the Indian species is known only in speciinens at most 12 in. {30,5 mm.) long. Besides, external
differences of se.x are unknown in these species.

' In old specimens we have only found two branched rays in the dorsal fin.

' According to Kkoyeu, however, sometimes (in young specimens) 49 or 50 %.

** This downward curvature of the caudal fin and its union to the anal fin are given by Sac.evkhi, (Morphol. Jahrh., X 1884), p. 5)
as one of the proofs of (he close relationship between llie Gyiunotoids (the so-called Electric Eels) and the Sihiroids.

698

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

side of the angle of the clavicle. W'iieii the spinous
ray is erectefl, it is simultaneously twisted in a forward
and downward direction — the result ol the above-
mentioned obli(jue position of one of the two articular
surfaces on the scapulo-coracoid bone — and during this
twisting process the last-mentioned, pulley-shajjed knob
rubs against the wall of the clavicular groo\e — thus
producing the creaking noise — until this articular knob
is so tirmlj' wedged in the lower end of the groove that
the ray cannot be bent without being t^visted back at
the same time. Another consecjuence of tjie erection of
the spinous I'av is that the insertion of the tin, wliicli
previously occupied an oblique position, in a backward
and do\vnward direction, now becomes horizontal. The
other rays of the pectoral tins ;ire repeatedly branched,
tiie tirst being sometimes twice as long as the spinous
ray, the tirst (uppermost) three or four gradually in-
creasing in length, the lower ones from this point very
gradually decreasing in length down to the last two or
three, which grow rapidly shorter, one after another.
The last ray is not even half so long as the spinous ray.
The entire length of the fins, from the upper angle of
the insertion to the tip of the longest ray, is in our
males more, in our females less than "/s of the length
of the head".

The ventral tins are of a broad oval shape. Tiieir
first ray is simple but short. They are inserted at about
tiie end of the first third of the body, so far l)ack that
the distance between the dorsal tin and the tip of the
snout measures only about 7.5 — 70 % (in young speci-
mens 80 %) of the distance between the ventral fins and
the same point. Their length is in the males more, in
the females less than '/^ of the length of the head''.
The pelvic bones are of a shafted spade- shape, with the
outer posterior margin forming an arc. They meet each
other partly in a fairly firm suture between the pos-
terior (extended) parts, partly in a ligamentous con-
nexion between the anterior ends.

The lateral line follows a straight course along the
middle of the sides of the tail (sometimes a little higher,
sometimes lower), but in front it rises in a greatly elong-
ated arch up to the temjjoral region, and may often
be traced distinctly in a straight line across the cheek
below the eye, as shown in our figure. The slimy

surface of the skin, as we have mentioned aliove, is
entireh' scaleless.

The coloration seems to vary considerabh- according
to local circumstances. The ground-colour is above
olive-gi'een, below white. The back is always darker,
sometimes shading even into black. The sides are ir-
regularly spotted (mottled), in light specimens witli
large and distinct spots of the dark colour of the back
on the ground-colour of the belly, which grows lighter
and lighter below. The dorsal fin is of the same dark
colour as the back, olive-greenish or black. The other
fins in common repeat the coloration of the l)od\', the
l)ase bearing the colour of the back, the margin or outer
part that of the bell}'. Such was at least the a])pearance
of tiie large Sheatfish, a male, from which our figure
is taken. It reaehed Stockholm alive, and was kept alive
while the artist ])ainted it. But as its strength began
to fail, the lighter parts, esjjeciall}' of the pectoral, \en-
tral, and anal fins, became more and more suffused with
blood, and finally, when the fish was in a moribund
state, l)lood oozed in drops from the margins of these
fins. The maxillary barl)els are on the upper side of
the same colour as the l)ack, underneath paler or even
of the .same colour as the belh'. During life the outer
parts of the eyes were l;lackisli blue, the inner parts
lighter blue, with the iris yellow but punctated with
dark dots and set off by a sharply-defined, yellow inner
margin from the pupil, which was blaek.

The length of the abdominal cavity measures in
voung Sheatfish about ',.,, in older ones about V4 of
that of the bod)'. The peritoneum is white. The oeso-
phagus is continued straight backwards by the large and
muscular stomach, tlie pointed or I'ounded bottom of
which lies almost above the middle of the length of tlie
pelvic bones. Rather far forward, at about the middle
of the stomach and on its under surface, the pyloric
part projects in a forward direction. This part is bounded
from the intestine by a more or less strong contraction,
and internally divided from the same by a valve". The
duodenum, which is without appendages, is of about
the same tiiickness as the pyloric part, runs first for-
ward nearly to the diaphragm, then bends upwards to
the right of the oesophagus, and curves backwards, de-
creasing in thickness and thus ])assing imjiei-ceptibly

" In the former 72—81 %, in the latter .54—55 °. of the length of the head.
'' ,, V ,. 48—53 "., „ „ ,, .S4— 36 \ „ „ „ ., .,

'■ In a male nearly 2 metres long the total length of the oesophagus and stomach is abont 35 cm., and the distance between the
pylorus and the bottom of the stomach about 1 dm.

SIIKATKISII.

699

into till' siiKill iiitestiiu', often in several small (•ui-vi's,iil)(>\e
and behind the stomach. Here the intestine ai;aiii IhikIs
forwards, below and to the left of the stomacii, to ationt
a line with the |)\'lorns, then returns in a sliarji enr\(,',
and proceeds to the vent. The liver is large, tiioiigh
its length varies: the left lobe is the longer, extends to
about a line with the bottom of the stomach, sometimes
not ([uite so far, sometimes much farther, and is divided
at the tip into two secondary lobes of varying length".
The gall-bladder, which lies between the duodenum and
the anterior part of the left lobe of the liver is saccate
and lai'ge''. The pancreas' lies nearer the duodeinim,
in the shape of a horse-shoe with the prongs directed
forwards and surrounding the gall-duct. The spleen is
situated aliove the stomach, between this organ and the
air-bladder, to the left of the iirst coil of the intestine
and sometimes entirely in fnjnt of, sometimes half in
front of and half behind and above the anterior angle
of the last coil of the intestine. It is rounded (ellip-
tical) and flattened'. The structure of the large air-
bladder is mentioned above''. The under surface of its
postei'ior division is furnished with a longitudinal groove.

and twisted; and wiiliin tiie angle of the Itend the base
of the descending blade forms a free margin, which, when
the bone is in its natur.al position, lies as a continuation
of the upper margin ol' a lateral groove on the body of
the vertebra. .Vs only the third (hindmost) of the coa-
lescent vertebra^ is furnished with ribs, the so-called
mallvKs thus corresponds to a ril) of the middle ver-
tebra (the third al)dominal vertebra), '^fhe malleus co-
heres at its iiuii'r antei'ior corner with the vertical, flat
incus', which should thus correspond (if this homology
with The ribs should I'eeeive the corroboration it still
requires fi-oiii tiie history of d(>velopment) to a rib
of the foremost of the coalescent vertebra' (the second
abdominal vertebra). The first abdominal vertebra, which
in the Sheatflsh is separated both from the following
vertebnu and the occipital bone, is without either trans-
verse process or neural ai'eli, unless these be represented
on each side by the angular stapes, which is united hx
ligaments to the subjacent incus, and In* the flat,
but oblong chiustrum, wiiich lies above this point, is
also united to the stapes, and covers the atrium sinus
impaii>i on this side of the body. This atrium, which

at the anterior end of which the pneumatic duct de- } lies beside the spinal cord, is a lateral extension of the

scends into the cesophagus. The anterior end of the air-
bladder is attached parti}- to the lower surface of the
tip of the foremost ti-ansverse processes (belonging to
the second abdominal vertebra), partly to the anterior
part of the side of the large vertebra which, as we have
mentioned above, is produced by the coalescence of the
original second, third, and fourth vertebi'a?. Within the
latter fastening of the air-bladder lies the descending
blade of tlie hindmost and largest, so-called acoustic
bone (malleus), which is loosely folded in beside the
large, composite vertelira. The second blade of this
acoustic bone lies horizontally, pointing in a forward
direction, at right angles to the descending blade, and
glides along the under surface of the base of the flrst
transverse process. This acoustic bone is tluis both bent

sinus impar situated in the occipital bone, a mem-
branous, saccate extension of the cerebral membrane
that lines the labyi'inth. The anterior end of this sinus
is furnished in the Cai-p-flshes'' — and jjrobably here as
well'' — with a connecting duct between the sacculi of
the labyrinth. The air-bladder is thus connected by
means of the acoustic bones, not indeed immediately
vvith the true hearing-apparatus, but with the 13'mphatic,
subdural chamber that surrounds the latter. ^Modern
scientists have therefore adopted the opinion' flrst main-
tained by Hasse', and regard this conne.xion less as a
conductor of sound than as a barometrical apparatus
which conveys to the consciousness of these flshes a sense
of the varying atmospheric pressure to which their air-
bladder is exposed at different moments.

" In the above-mentioneil specimen the length of the left h'be of the liver is 36' , cm. ami its greatest hrendth nearly 8 cm. The
length of the right lobe is li'/j cm., its breadth nearly 5 cm.

'' In the specimen just mentioned the gall-bladder is about 14 cm. long and, when collapsed, about 6' ., em. broad.

' The length of this gland from the middle of the round posterit.r margin to the end of one of tlie prongs is (in the same speci-
men) about equal to the breadth of the gall-bladder.

'' In the same specimen the spleen is 11 cm. long, 5 em. broad, and about 8' ., mm. thick.

^ In the same specimen the air-bladder is 25' 2 cm. long and rather more than il cm. broad. In a female 575 mm. long it is 89
mm. long and 46 mm. broad.

•^ Cf. Weber, De Aure et Aiidilii Huininis el Aniiaaliuiii. tab. V, fig. 30.

" Cf. NusBAUM, Zoologischcr Anzeiger, 1881, p. 553.

* Cf. Retzius, Das Gehdrorgan tier Wirbtlthiere, I, p. 77. taf. XIII, tig. 1, si.

• Cf. S.\GEMEHL, Morphol. Jahrbuch, X (1884), p. 14.
■' Anatomisclie Studien, No. XIV, p. 596.

700

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The ovaries arc fusiform or cylindrical sacs with
fairly thick walls; the testes are flat, lobate, and thin-
walled. The kidnej'S lie as usual between the air-
bladder and the spinal column, forming' an anterior
division and a larger, posterior one, beside and behind
the iiii'-biadder. The urinary bladder is large, and is
most developed on the right side.

The ])rincipal habitat of the Sheattish lies in tin;
south-east of Europe, the species being commonest in
Russia and Austria. It is there too, in the Caspian and
Black Seas and the rivers that flow into these waters,
that it attains its maximuiu size. According to Pallas
and Ghi.m.m the Sheattish occurs throughout European
Russia, with the exception of the basin of the White Sea
and its rivers. In the Danube too, especially towards
the mouth, the species is plentiful and of great size. In
the Greek Peninsula it is common, according to Aro-
STOLiDES, in the River Peneus, oft' Larissa, and in Li-
vadia. In Italv and tlie Iberian Peninsula it is wanting,
and also in Erance and Belgium, except in the River
Doubs in the extreme east of France, where it has been
caught occasionall)- near the town of Dole. In .Switzer-
land its occurrence is contined to the Lakes of Constance
(the basin of the Rhine) and Morat (Mui-ten), a small
lake east of Neuchatel, where it lives, strange enough,
outside its strict geographical range, which lies on the
other side of the Rhine. In England, as well as in
Scotland and Ireland, it is wanting, though repeated
attempts have been made to plant it there. Before
Haarlem Meer was drained (1836 — .53), the Sheattish,
according to Gronovii's, was very common in this lake,
which was chiefly formed, however, by an inroad of the
sea in the fifteenth century. It is still found in several of
the small lakes of Holland. In the rivers and lakes of
Germany the Sheattish is widely spread, and also in the
Baltic Provinces of Russia, according to Seidlitz. Nor
does it shun the brackish waters of the North, for it
occurs, according to Benecke, in the Haft's of Northern
Germany. In Finland, according to Malmghex, it is
found onh- in tiie lakes near Tavastehus and is very
seldom caught, though, according to Gadd", it attains
so great a size "that a yoke of oxen are required to
move it from the spot". Nor is the Sheattish a common
species in Sweden, though it occurs at many scattered
spots in the south-east of the country, principally in
three separate districts: one to the north, including

Lakes Miilar, Hjelmar, HorsjO, and Bafven in Sdderman-
land and Lake Hunn in (Jstergothland: one more to the
east, the neighbourhood of Oscarshamn, w-here it is known
from Lakes Humel, Nejer, VersjO, Tvinger, Storutter,
Greater and Lesser RamsjO, Goten, Maren', Bodasjd (Fli-
seryd), and the River Emm; and one to the south, the
neighbourhood of Christianstad, where it is found in
Lakes Inimel, Ifosj5, Ousby, and the River Helge. Nils-
son also quotes a doubtful newspaper statement of the
occurrence of the Sheattish in Lake Bolmen, in Smaland.
In Denmark the Sheattish was common at the end of
the last century, according to Holm, in Lake Soro, where
it had probably been introduced from Germany; but it is
now exterminated there. It has also been taken once in
a river near Kjoge, into which Kroyer supposed it had
wandered after some roving excursion in the Baltic.
In Norway the Sheattish has never been found.

The Sheattish is a sluggish but voracious fish-of-
prej'. Its \ery appearance is repulsive. Slimy and slijj-
pery as an Eel, with its broad gape, small, blinking
eyes, and long, warily plied barbels, it looks as though
fashioned especially to lie in wait for the destruction of
others. Its size too has rendered it an object of dread
even to man. An old Bohemian proverb says, "One
fish is another's prey, but the Sheattish eats them all;"
and we have ruimerous accounts of the Sheattish attack-
ing domestic animals and children. Hidden among the
rushes or in the mud, the tints of which are reproduced
in its coloration, it lies motionless the greater part of
its time, only waving its barbels to and fro, until some
victim approaches so near that only a sudden movement
is requisite to seize and devour its prey. Or one of
its senses tells it that a dainty morsel, some decom-
posing bod)' or baited hook, is not far oft', and it wrig-
gles thither. During a part of the 3^ear, the cold sea-
son, it retires to deeper water; in spring and summer,
till the spawning is over, it keeps to shallower spots
and the shore.

The Sheattish generally leads a solitary life, though
not to such a degree that it does not seek company.
One of the authors who have most contributed to our
knowledge of its habits, the Dane Holm, who published
in 1779 his observations of the Sheattish in Lake SorO
in Zealand, even tells us: "The Sheattish is fond of
company and is therefore seldom found alone; l)ut only
three or four, and these always of about the same

" Abo Tidningar, 1772, p. 366.

'' From tliese nine lakes the observations were collected in 1890 b_v Mr

E. SvEDMARK the

SIIKATKISII.

7(11

size, liave cvci- 1)chmi seen too:ethc'r ;it SoWi. ( )i' tht'iii
we are told tliat they pursue and drive tiicir tiA-ing'
victims in eoninion, until, sure of their prey, with one
consent and with open mouth they dart about with in-
credible speed, seizing and devouring their victims. In
order to attain this great velocity the Shentfish chiefly
employs its tail, 1)\' whose serpentine movements and
quick blows it sculls itself along like the Eel. Fortu-
nately for the tishes it pursues, the Sheattish by its
violent mo\ i-ments and rapid pace sets the water in
commotion and thus betrajs itself." When the Sheatfish,
on the other hand, lies lazily at rest and allows small
fishes, frogs, crustaceans, insects, and even worms to
glide do^\■n its ma^v, we may well conjecture that here
too (cf. ali(i\i', pp. 26;] — 2()4) the iiuier transverse cur-
tains of the nmutli act as valves, so to s|ieak, in ]iump-
ing the tiny victims into its gape. Ih.iwcvcr, the
Sheattish is not exclusively carnivonjus; vegetable sub-
stances also enter into its diet.

From older times we have accounts of assaults
made by the Sheattish upon higher animals as well, even
upon man, or at least of its devouring the bodies of
drowned persons. Gesnej; tells us that the stomach of
a Sheatfish was found to contain a human head and a
right hand with two gold rings, and that geese, ducks,
anil animals that were being watered, have been seized
by the same fish. Pali-as says of the Sheatfish in Russia
that it is so voracious that it does not fear to seize
bathers by the legs. VALE^X'IEN^■ES quotes several accounts
from Hungary of its attacking children. Heckel and
KxER state that at Vienna on one occasion a poodle ^vas
found in tlie stomach of a Sheatfish, and that at Press-
Inirg a similar discoverv was made of the remains of a
boy. E. SvEDMAiiK, the geologist, who has collected the
instances of the occurrence of the Sheatfish in the Di-
strict of Calmar, was told there that "long ago" a person
had stood on the shore of Lake VersjO and watched a i
Sheatfish seize a lamb. The Sheatfish is therefore feared,
this being also due in all probability, as Heckel and
Kner have remarked, to the bitter experience that a
few may have had of the ol)stinate wounds caused by
the spines on tlie first pectoral ray of the Sheatfish.
Specimens of large size may also prove no easy booty
to their captors. "On Lake Storutter," writes Sveo.mauk,
"a fisherman speared in the back a monster that di-ew
the punt all round the lake before it finalh" surren-

dered.' J^ir,L.rKii<iii(i fells a similar tale of a Sheatfish
that was caught on a longliiic in Lakc^ Immel.

The Sheattish is eminently sensitive to changes in
the weather, especially to thunder, when it may often
be seen at the surface, as well as at other times on
warm summer days with drizzling rain (Holm). In many
places too the; Sheatfish passes for a weather-fjrophet.
"When it breathes air," says the fisherman — and this is
a necessity to most fishes, but above all to tlie Physo-
stoines — "it raises itself out of the wafer like a big,
black man" (SvEinhMtK). It is extremely tenacious of
life. A male 1 '.) dm. long w:is s(!nt by rail on the ^iUtli
of May, 1889, in a wooden box containing straw and
a little ice, from Lake Bafven to Stockholm. It was still
living on its arrival, and was kept alive for several days in
a vessel where the water \\as just sufficient to cover it.

riie spawning-season occurs in the summer (May —
July), generally about midsummer. "At this .season,"
says Holm, "the Sheatfish is sluggish and lethargic, being
eas}' to surprise and capture. This applies in particular
to the females, which for some time previous to the
spawning lie among the rushes, where, it is said, the
female deposits her roe, after first providing a secure
and convenient receijtacle for it by scooping with her
tail a hole in which the young subsequently stay for
some time." The ancient account of Aristotle, that
the male watches the roe, is now regarded as dubious.
The number of eggs varies as usual according to the
size of the fish. In a female 1'87 kgm. in weight Be-
necke counted more than 60,000 eggs. The eggs are
slightly yellow, 3 mm. in diameter, and are hatched in
8 — 14 days. The fry grow quickly, where food is abun-
dant, attaining in the first year, according to Bkehm",
a weight of ^^ kgm., in the second a weight of l'\,
kgm. A fisherman of Strasburg, Baldner by name.
\vho has left a manuscri])t written in 1666 and con-
taining an account of all the birds, fishes, and other
animals he had taken, tells us that a Sheatfish caught
in the River 111 near Strasburg was kept in captivity
from 1.569 to 1620 and during this period attained a
length of about 1 ' ^ metres.

Young Sheatfish, less than 1 metre in length, are
(piite eatable, though not exactly easy of digestion. The
tail is the l)est part of the body. The flesh is soft,
white, and rather sweetish in taste. Valenciennes com-
pared its flavour most nearly to that of the F.cl. but

" Thierleben, Abtli. Ill, Bd. 2, p. 201.

702

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

found it uuii-li inferior to the latter. Tiie flesh of oldei'
specimens is tougli and rank. "As the Sheatfisli has
no scales, says Holm, "the .lews are not allowed to cat
it — a privation which, in my opinion, they need not
regret. To render the flesh eatable, the fat must first
be boiled away, and the fish then boiled again in wine
and with plenty of spices to remove its nauseous flavour."
In Sweden, liowever, the Sheatfish is so seldom caught
that it is of little economical importance. To the fish-
mongers of Stockholm it seems to be almost unknown.
In Russia the case is different. From Astrachan for
example, according to Grimm, about I"/., million kilo-
grammes of salted Sheatfish are annually exported. In
1881 three-fifths of this quantity was taken in the River

Koora and one-fifth in the Black Sea. The total annual
catch of Sheatfish in the Black and Caspian Seas, in-
cluding the nearest parts of the Russian rivers that flow
into them, is estimated by Guimm at 4^5 million kgm.
of flesh and 16,000 kgm. of fish-glue, the latter manu-
factured from the air-bladder. This is a tough glue, but
inferior to (mcjre impure than) genuine isinglass. The
skin of the Sheatfish is used by the Russians and Tar-
tars to glaze their windo^v•s; and they boil down the
fat into lamp-oil (Pallas).

The usefulness of the Sheatfish is counterbalanced
by the damage caused by its voracity, and Day con-
gratulates his country on the failure of the attempts to
introduce the Sheatfish into England.

CTPEINOMORPHI.

rJii/sostnme.s irith the shonlder-rjirdJe {ns usual lunoufi the Telcosfs) siis2)eiidcd to the head. Coracosedpnlar disk
strengthened internally by an arch formed by a special bone (as prcecnracoideiim) from the coracoid .bone to the
clavicle or the upper (anterior) margin of the scapula. The first four abdominal rertehrce deviating more or less
distinctly from the normal vertebral form, and partly metamorphosed into so-called acoustic bones. Hyomandihular
and pterygo-palatine arches as well as the opercular apparatus complete. Maxillary bones fully developed. No
jair-teeth. Body naked or covered with cycloid scales. Head generally naked, at least on the sides and snout".

This series of families was established, as we have ' to this that the Salmon-Carps, like the Salmons, have

mentioned above, by Cope under the name of Flecto-
spondyli, but according to his definition thereof is far
less natural than the preceding series. On the one hand
it includes in his works the so-called Salmon-Carps
{Characinidce), inhabitants of the tropical regions of
Africa and America,, with the posterior part of the edge
of the mouth formed, as in the Salmonidoi, by the ma-
xillary bones and, in the great majority of the genera,
with an adipose fin on the posterior part of the dorsal
margin, as in the Salmons. On the other hand the series
excludes the so-called Toothed Carps (Cyprinodonfidce),
a tropical and subtropical Carp-like family ^vith range

well-developed pyloric appendages, while the Toothed
Carps, like the Carp-fishes, are destitute thereof, Ave
have sufficient anatomical grounds for bi'eaking up the
series Plectospondyli. The series then accpiires, with the
above characters, the same limitation as Glntheks fa-
mily Cyprinidfe, its members being restricted to the
chiefly Asiatic Loach-fishes [Cobitidce) and Stone Carps
{Homalopterido'), the Carp-fishes {Cyprrinidce) of the
Old World and North America, and the Suckers [Cato-
stomidce), chiefl}' from North America. All these fishes
have the edge of the mouth formed, at least for the
most part, by the intermaxillary bones, Avith the maxil-

extending round the globe, destitute, it is ti'ue, of the I laries lying above and behind them, and «all are with-

osseous connexion between the air-bladder and the sac-
cate extensions of the cranial cavity and also without
prajcoracoid bone, V)ut with the edge of the mouth
formed, as in the Carp-fishes, by the intermaxillaries
alone, though these bones, in contradistinction to those
of the Carp-fishes, are furnished Avith teeth. If we add

out jaw-teeth. Only two of these families are re-
presented in the Scandinavian fauna.

A: Air-bladder entirelv or partly enclosed in

an osseous capsule; at least si.x barbels .. Fam. CohitiJa\
B; Au'-blarlder without osseous capsule; at

most four (or no) barbels Fani. Cyprinidw.

" The genera Lepidocephaliis and Lepidocephalichthys, Cobitidce from India and Further India, are furnished, luiui
the sides of the head. See Bi.eeker, All. Ichth. Ind. Or., tome III, p. 12 and Day, Fish. Iiid., p. flOii.

with scales on

703

Fam. COBlTIDiE.

Air-bl(uhliy more or less rednced, oitirclf/ or jKirth/ enclosed in an osseous capsuJe. 3[oidli fringed ivith six or

more hiirlx-ls. I'sendohraneliiic nrintini/.

This faniily was established under tlie name g\\en
above by Boxai'aktk" in 1S46, but subsequently re-
ceived of Meckel and Kneu'' the name of Acanthopsi-
des, derived from the generic title which Agassiz had
suppiiseil to be deserved by our most common species.
By most authors, however, the family has been regarded
as a snbfamilv among tlie Cyprinoids. Still it possesses
so nianv distinctive cliaractcrs tliat it may well main-
tain its jiosition in the system. The most iirominent
among tliesc cliaractcrs are tliose wliicli suggest an
alliance with the Glanomorph series. Among these we
tind externally the slim)* skin, generally naked, other-
wise witli small scales, and the comparatively numerous
barl)cls niuiid the mouth; while internally the capsule
of the air-bladder reminds us of tlie corresponding
structure in many of the Glanomorphs, and the ossifica-
tion of the head shows a fronto-parietal fontanel simi-
lar to tliat we liave remarked above in the Siluroids.
The intestinal respiration of the Cobitoids may also
be in some degree a trace of tlicir connexion with the
preceding series of forms, ^vhere \ve have seen the
resi)iration of air accomplished in various ways, and
where the respiration of water seems in certain fishes
to be assisted by an apparatus consisting of ramified
appendages in the anal region. In the present series,
on tiie other hand, it has long' been kno\vn tliat under
certain circumstances, where there is scarcity of water
or of the oxygen contained therein, our European Co-
bitoids ascend to the surface and swallow air, which
they audibly eject after a time thi-ough tlie vent, with
the oxygen now changed to carbonic acid gas.

Tlie Coliitoids are distinguished from the following
family not only by the capsulate air-bladder and the
greater number of the barbels, but also bj' the absence
of pseudobrancliia' — this is also the case in the great

braiies being united underneath for the greater portion
of their length to the istlimus. The lower pharyngeals
are destitute of the .strength ^\■hich they possess in the
following family, are more like branchial arches, and
are armed witli a row of weaker, but in general more
numerous teeth.

The air-bladder is partly free, it is true, in several
fishes of this family, a posterior division thereof lying
free within the abdominal cavity. But in others, and
in particular in all our ICuropeaii species, it is com-
pletelj' enclosed in a jwrous or retiform, osseous cap-
sule, or only a small, rounded expansion of the air-
bladder'' juts out at the hind orifice of the capsule,
where otherwise only the pneumatic duct descends to
the a'sophagus. The osseous capsule of one of the
European species, Cohitis {Misgurnus) fossUis, is excel-
lently described and figured by Weber (1. c). Its
morphological explanation consists in a tumidity and
transformation of the osseous structure originally be-
longing to the lower and inner parts of the transverse
processes of the third vertebra and to its pair of ribs.
The upper and outer (dorsal) part of this transverse
process on each side may still lie distinguished in the
wall of the capsule; and in our Spined Loach (Cohitis
tcenia) the top of this process, as well as each of the
ribs behind it, bears a scleral (epipleural, muscular)
bone branched at the top. The osseous point that pro-
jects downwards on each side of the capsule, also pre-
sents an unmistakable resemblance to the ends of the
ribs behind this point. The same explanation is given
of the hollow bone extending from each side of the
body of the second vertebra and from the lower part
of its neural arch, backwards, outwards, and down-
Avards, above the anterior ujiper part of the surface of
the osseous capsule. Within this hollow btme are con-

majority of the (ilanomorphs — and the comparatively , taiiied the so-called acoustic bones. In the Spined Loach
small size of the gill-ojienings, the branchiostegal mem- this hollow l)one — the outcome of the material of the

" Cat. Met. I'esc. Europ. pp. 5 and 26.

' Siisswasserf. Oesterr. Mon., p. 296.

' See Erman i Gilbert's Aiinalen der Physik, Bd. XXX (U

■' See Weber, De Aure etc., tab. VI, fig. 48, sign. 8.

140. Cf. also SiEBOLD, StisKwasserf. Mitteleur., p. 340.

704

SC A N I ) I X A V 1 A N I- 1 S 1 1 1 . S .

lateral parts uf the second vertebra — hears on its top
a scleral bone, the second in order iVoiii in tVont: —
the first (sometimes double) lies on eacli of the lateral
occipital bones.

Such is the osseous capsule in Cohitls fossiUs and
C. tfenia, in form a transversely-set ellipsoid, entire, and
contracted only at the njiddle of its ventral side by a
shallow groove in the longitudinal direction of the body;
but in our second species, the Loach {Cobitis harhutuhi),
this contraction has gone so far that the two lateral
parts of the osseous capsule are separated from each
other, though posteriorly united on the ventral side by
a hollow osseous bi'idge. In this species we also find,
strange to say, a well-developed pair of ribs on the
tirst vertebra.

On each outer (lateral) side of the osseous capsule
(or on the outside of its divisions in the Loach) we
find two holes, one of which leaves room for the union
of the hind extremity of the so-called malleus with the
air-bladder, while the second, posterior, and larger hole
admits into the osseous capsule, to the lymphatic cham-
ber surrounding the air-bladder", a membranous duct
from the subcutaneous connective tissue. A communi-
cation {introitus capsuJce vesica) is thus formed between
the aii'-bladder and the side of the body exactly above
the insertion of the pectoral fin and on a level with
the upper angle of the gill-opening', where this duct
passes between the dorsal and lateral divisions of the
gi'eat lateral muscle. The latter communication has its
analogue, as ^ve have seen above, both in Balistes and
the Glanomorphs; but here we have no evidence to
show that it is connected in any way with the pro-
duction of sound. On the other hand, the signification
which Hasse and Sagemehl have attributed to the con-
nexion between the air-bladder and the apparatus of
hearing, that of a barometrical apparatus, here finds
perhaps its strongest corroboration, for we know that
these fishes are so sensitive to changes of atmospheric
pressure that they have long been ti-usted as weather-

pro])hets. One species (J//.s7/*o-««s /o.s-.s77/.s-) has received
in (iermany the name of Wetterjisch'. "It has been
observed," says Blocu' '"that at the ap])roach of storm
this fish rises from the Ijottom towards the surface and
is particularly restless in its movements. It may there-
fore be used instead of a weather-glass, if set in a glass
vessel containing river-water (jr rainwater and a little
rich soil at the bottom. Twenty-four hours before a
storm of Avind or thunder it invariably grows restless,
disturbs the water till it becomes turbid, and rises and
sinks up and down in the vessel. In settled weather,
on the other hand, it usually lies still at the bottom.
The fish may be kept alive almost a whole year, if
the water and soil are changed only twice throughout
the summer and once a Aveek during the winter. In
winter, however, it must be placed in a warm room
and at a- window."

The Cobitoid family consists exclusively of fresh-
water fishes, the great majority belonging to Asia and
the neighboui'ing islands. According to Bleekei! the
number of species exceeds 80; Day knew 46 from In-
dia. The former distributes these species among 12
genera, Gunther" I'ecognises 11. The three species that
occur in Europe belong, according to these opinions,
each to a distinct genus, the first {MisgiiniHs) with bar-
bels on both jaws — this character is possessed by 3Iis-
ffurniis fossiUs, an inhabitant of the regions south and
east of the Baltic — , the second genus {Nemachilus)
without erectile spine below the eyes (like Misf/iirnus),
but without barbels on the lower jaw — this genus is
represented by the Loach (NemaehUus harhatuhis), which
has been observed in several localities in Scandinavia — ,
and the third (Cobitis) containing our common Spined
Loach {Colli f is fceiiia), without barbels on the lower
jaw, but with an erectile spine (at other times directed
back^vards) below each eye. It has already been re-
marked, however, by Valenciennes-' that on a very
niiiuite examination of Misjiurnus fossiUs we discover
a small crevice in the skin below each eye, and that

" Cf. Hasse, Anatomische UStuiUen, Bd. 1, p. 595.

* See Webeb, 1. e., tab. VI, figg. 45 and 46.

' Heokei, and Kneb. Siisswasserf. Oesterr. Man., p. 300.

■^ Nnturg. Fisch. Deulschl., Th. I, p. 218.

■■ Iittrod. ^ti(d. Fish., p. 604.

■^ Cuv., V.\L., Hist. Nut. Poiss., v«]. XV'III, p. 6. In our spociinens of Misgnrnus fossiUs we easily discover a longitudinal groove helow
the eyes; but tlie crevice in the skin is impossible to detect, and the spine that may be felt at the lower anterior corner of the eye, lies
in front of the said groove. On dissection, however, it appeared that Weber {De Aure etc., figs. 43 and 44) was perfectly correct in re-
presenting in his figure a preorbital spine in Misgurrms fossiUs. This spine lies hidden among the muscles, but is movable as in Cobitis
tania and has the same form, the analogy being so complete that the other spine, whicli is more easily felt externally, corresponds to the
lateral spine on the true preorbital spine of Cobitis tarda.

705

in tliis crevice iiimv he felt tlic tij) of ;i s])iiie, whicli
does not, lio\\('\cr, mliiiil ol' erection. Aiiiiir}, Day ob-
serves of the Inilian species of the ^acmis Xemachili(s
that "sometimes tiic |ireorhit!il is niiscd and with a free
lower edge, wiiile this uiav not oeeiu' in all examples
of the same sjjeeies". Several authors too, ^Mokkau and
LlLLJEBoui; for e\ani])!c, have al)aiidoue(l the attempt to
distinguish the genera within this family exelusively by
the ])resenee or absence of the preorbital spine. On the
other hand, it seems highh" probable, to judge by our
knowledge of tlie remaining genera, and also when we
consider the analogous relations within the (ilanomorph
series, that the presence or absence of barbels on the

lower jaw affoi'ds a constant and more useful generic
character, though in many s])ecies that arc othei'wise
witlKiut them, these barbels are indicated by eontrac-
lions and inter])0sed swellings on the underlip. Whether
we choose on this ground to retain the genus Misgurnus
for the European ]\fisffiinii(S fossiUs and a few other
Sjjecies, or whether we regard tliis group as a subgeiuis
of the genus (hibitis, n. course for which we shall find
strong reasons below, is a matter of no great im-
portance in the Scandinavian fauna, for though Misgitr-
)U(fi fossills has once been ])lanted in Sweden — in ponds
at Ulriksdal, .aceording to LixxyKU.s — it has not spread,
so far as is known, to any extent in this countrj'.

Genus COBITIS.

Six harheh". none on the loiccr jotr. Jindi/ eJongafpd, terete, or eompretised. Head naked (icithoiit scales). Dorsal
fin short and sitaatcd aJiore the ventral _fins. Caudal fin rounded, truncate, or sllghthj concave.

This genus comjjrises the great majority of the fa-
mily. Including the species that have previously been
referred to the genus Xeinachilus, as being without
movable preorbital spine lielow the eyes — by far the
greater number belong to this class — 67 species have
been adopted and described by Guntheu, Day, Herzen-
STEIN, and Bleeker. Day enumerates 31 species from
India. Herzexsteix assigns 17 species to the highlands
of Central Asia (Tibet). From Syria and Palestine 7
species are known, described by Heckel and Guxther.
Bleeker cites only two species from Java and Sumatra,
Castelnau two from Cape Town*. Europe also pos-
sesses two species of the genus. It thus appears that
the genus thrives best in the rivers and brooks of the
Asiatic Highlands; and it is probably thence that it
has spread to the lowlands.

In one of our I-^uropean species {C. tfcnia) Ca-
NESTRim'' remarked in the structure of the pectoral

fins an external difference between the sexes, an ob-
servation which Herzexsteix has subsequentlv verified
with one or two modifications, in the majority of the
sjiecies that inhabit Central Asia. In the males of these
species the second ray of the pectoral fins is more or
less thickened and broad, and furnished during the
spawning-season with tubercles or spines.

The members of this genus are in general of in-
significant size'', though, as Valenciexnes has pointed
out, not to such an extent that we are justified in
assuming that it was to these fishes that Aristotle
referred when he included Ko}/)'tTig among the A2)hi/(e
(cf. above, p. 264). The genus Cohitls of modern
ichthyology dates from Artedi.

In Scandinavia only two species are found:

1: Preorbital bone furnished with a spine... Cohitis tceida.
2: No extensile spine below the eyes Cobitis barbatula.

" In one ludiaii species there are 8 barbels; but all of tbeni belong to the snout and the upper jaw.
' These two species are recognised by GOnther, however, merely as doubtful.
' Fn. Hal, part. III,. Pesci, p. 21.

"* One species, Cohitis )/avtca7idens>s from tlie -Asiatic Highlands, attains, however, a length of at least 3 dm., and is thus only slightly
inferior in size to the European Afisyuniiis fossilis, whicli sometimes measures .3' „ dm.

706

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE SPINED LOACH (sw. .nissogat).
COBITIS T.EXIA.

Plate XXXI. fig. 4.

Body latcraUji coniprcsscd. Breadth (thicknefis) of the head at the ei/es less than ' ,, of its Jengtli : lueadth of
the interoyJiital spare less thait the dianieter of the latter. Below each eye a niorahle preorbital sjiitie

poUd'nt;! in a backirard direction.

7—8 ' ' ■ 5 ' ' 8 '

R. b
(J. .c+1 + 14 + H-,r; Vevt. 45'',

(1)+1

Syn. Uobilcs acideata, Rond.. Pise, part. II, p. 204. Tcenia coi-
nuta, SoHONEV., Iclitliyol. iSlesv. Hols., p. 74. Colitis, aculeo
bifurco infra utrumque oculum, Art., Gen. Pise, p. 2;
Sijn. Pise, p. .3 ; Spec. Pise, p. 4.

Cobilis Twnia, LiN., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 303; Fn.
Suee, ed. II, p. 121; Bl., Naturg. Fisch. Deutschl., I, p.
221, tab. XXXI, fig. 2; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. As., torn. Ill,
p. 166; Flmng (Gobitis), Brit. Anim., p. 189; NiLSS. (C'o-
bitis), Prodr. Ichlli. Scand., p. 35; Jen., Man. Brit. Vert.,
p. 417; Agass. (Acanthopsis), Mem. Soc. Neucli., toiii. I, p.
36; Yaru. (Botia ex Gray), Brit. Fish., ed. I, vol. I, p.
381; Kb., Danm. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 564; Cuv., Val. (_Cobiti.i),
Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVIII, p. 58; NiLSS., Sic'and. Fn.,
Fislc., p. 345; Kessl., Bull. Soc. Natural. Mosc, torn. XXIX
(1856), p. 352; Hckl, Kn., 6'usswasserf. Oesterr. Mon., p.
303; Vosta, Fn. Regn. Nap., Pesci, Abdom. Malacott. Cypr.,
p. 31; SiEB., Siisswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 338; Mgrn, Finl.
Fisk. (disp. Helsingf.), p. 37; Steind., Stzber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, Math. Naturw. CI. LH, i (1865), p. 490; Blanch.,
Poiss. d. eaux. 'donees Fr., p. 285; Canestr., Arch., Zool.,
Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV, fasc. I, p. 146; Gthr, Cat. Brit.
Mus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 362; Canestb., Fn. /toZ., part. Ill,
Pesci, p. 20; Cedeeste., Of vers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1874, No.
9, p. 47, tab. XI; Fedders. (Botia), Natnrh. Tidskr. Kbhvn,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 92; MoR. {Vobitis), Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,
torn. Ill, p. 434; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fischz. 0., W.
Prenss., p. 147; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., /»-eZ., vol. II, p. 201,
tab. CXXXVII, fig. 3; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 314, tab. X;
Norback, Handl. Fiskeu., Fiskafo., p. 444; Lillj., Sv., Norg.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 345; Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol. IV,
tab. V, fig. 2; vol. V, p. 10.

Cobitis caspia, EiOHw., Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1838, II, p. 133.

Cobitis twnia japonictt, ScHL., Fn. ./ajmn., p. 222, tab. CIII,
figg. 3 et 3. a.

Cobitis elongata, Hckl, Kn., I. c, p. 305.

Cobitis larvata, De Fil., Mem. Acoad. Toriii., XIX, p. LXXI,
vide Canestr. Arch. Zool., Anat., Fieiol., vol. IV, fasc. I,
p. 150, tav. VI, fig. 7.

The Spined Loach is in general the smallest of the
European Cobitoids, its oi'dinary length being between
'2 and 1 dm., though according to Mokeau it may
sometimes attain a length of 12 cm. From Krain
(Austria), however, Heckel and Kner have described
examples of this species, under the name of CoJntis
elongata, that measured nearly 16 cm.

The body is shallow and compressed, but of fairly
uniform depth. The greatest depth of the body, which
generally lies about half-way between the head and the
dorsal fin, is about ' ,, of its length' . The thickness at
the same point is about ' jj of the depth in our most
terete specimen; but as a rule the body is still thinner,
the greatest thickness being sometimes no more than
half the greatest depth. The body is of almost uniform
thickness throughout its deptli, with obtusely rounded
dorsal and ventral edges, at the tip of the tail ribbon-
shaped, in front with the snout obtusely rounded at
the sides. This species, like the next one and the
majority of the species within the family, is charac-
terized in general by a slightly marked (comparatively
deep) peduncle of the tail, the least depth thereof vary-
ing between 7 and 8 % of the length of the body. But
in the aforesaid form {Cobitis elongata) described by
Heckel and Kneh, tliis depth seems from their figure
to have been onlv 5 % of the length of the body.

The length of the head measures IG'V' — 14\j %
of that of the body. It gives the fish a singular ap-
pearance on account of its sharply arcuate upper pro-
file, with the deej) snout projecting beyond the mouth
and lo^\■er jaw, which lie on the same plane as the
lower profile, which is generally straight. The sjiccific

'i

" Sometimes 5, according to Heckel and Kner.

* 41, according to Valenciennes. 40 — 42, according to Canestrini. 43 — 44, according to Cederstb(5ji.
' According to Canestrini's measurements of 23 specimens the greatest depth of the body varies between 10 and 16' ,
length, increasing generally with age.

'' In young specimens (less tlian ' „ 'I'"- '° length) even IB'/o "<., according to Canestrini.

of its

Sl'INKI) l.dACII.

707

character also aj)iieai-s with (■(}nsi(l('ral>lt' distinctness in
the compressed t'orni of the head, th(( thickness at tlie
eyes Ijeing less than " -, nt' tiie lengtii of tiie iiead", or
than ^4 of the lengtii of tlie base of tlie chirsal tin''.
The deep form of the snout is due to the mariad de-
velopment of the vertical plate of the ethmoid bone in
front of tlie nari'DW frontal bones, which are arched
above tlu^ orbits. The small round eyes are set liiyh
and turned somewiiat upwards, aliove the more or less
tumid cheeks, the distance between them and the upper
profile of the forehead beting about half their diameter'.
Their position is such that the length of the snout''
(from their anterior inai'gin obliquely downwards to
its tip) is less than the postorbital length of the
head'' (from the posterior margin of the eyes ob-
liquely downwards to the hindmost part of the margin
of the liranchiostegal membi'ane). As in Mi^tiiiiims
fosslUs they are entirely covered with a thin skin
{ocuU rdati, Blkeker), the orbits being externally de-
stitute of any sharp limits. The anterior part of the
orbits is coasted below by a longitudinal slit in the
skin, out of which slit the fish can erect the preorbitid
spine, wliich otherwise points in a backward direction.
This sjiine is formed, as Lill.jebokg has pointed out,
bv the anterior frontal (lateral ethmoid) bone on each
side. This circumstance may be most easily elucidated
by a comj)arison with the folloAving species, where the
anterior frontal bone occupies exactly the same position
as the extended (vertical) base of the spine in this spe-
cies, forming the anterior margin of the orbit in a ver-
tical ])osition betwci'U the frontal and parasphenoid
biiiK's, Init with a firm o.sseous connexion (suture) with
the anterior outer margin of the orbitosjjhaMioideum,
which even sepai-ates the frontal bone proper from the
upper anterior corner of the triangular anterioi- frontal
bone. Here, in the Spined Loach, the said osseous
connexion is loose and transformed into an articulation.
The bone is also of much harder texture, white and
firm as dentine. Its base, wdiich forms the long, ver-
tical articulation with the orbitosphenoid bone, is almost

terete and curved in a rounded obtuse angle, but is set
in a somewhat obliipie position, the lower (shorter) arm
of the angle running oblicpiely inwards and forwards,
while the upper arm is vertical. The tooth projects
backwards in a direction approaching to that of the
lower arm, at least below the middle of the basal part.
It is curved backwards and inwards and is generally
bicuspid, a shorter, but t(pially ])ointed tooth being set
at the middle of the outer surface of the main tocjth-''.
The base of the tooth is united by a strong ligament
to the hind margin of the orbit. The suborbital bones
seem otherwise to be entii-ely wanting both in this spe-
cies and JlLy/uniiis fossilis. In front of the preorbital
spine ;i dentiform protuberance belonging to the palatine
bone may be felt beneath the skin, at the iioint where

Fig. 170. Riglit [ireorliilal spii)C of a Coliitis lania, seen from witliout.
Atioiil 15 times llie natural size.

this bone is elongated in a backward direction to meet
the entopterj'goid bone. The nostrils are set rather high
on the sides of the snout, somewhat nearer to the eyes
than to the tip of the snout. The posterior nostril on
each side is round and somewhat larger than the anterior,
which lies just in front of it, and the hind superior
margin of which is canaliculate or elevated in an obli-
quely-cut, tubular form. The mouth is small and tooth-
less; it lies on the under surface of the head, fringed
by a comparatively thin upper lip, thickened only at
the corners of the mouth, and small bai-bels, which
comprise one pair in front and one on each side at the
middle of the u])per jaw, belonging to the dermal fold
that runs from the cheeks over the mouth and forms
the tip of the snout. The hindmost (largest) pair of
barbels, on the other hand, lie at the corners of the

" 26 — 36 "4, according to mir nieasnrenieiits of speeiniens lietwcen ' n and 1 dm. long. Tlie greatest thickness of the liead measures,
according to Canesteini, 27 — 40 % of its length in the typical Vohiti.i tirnin; but in the form which has received the name of C. larcala,
it is said sometimes to measure 47 '^ »» thereof.

' 48 — 69 %, according to our measurements.

'■ The diameter of the eyes is about 20 — 15 "i of the length of the head.

■' About 38— 4.B % of the length of the head.

' About 49—56 'i of the length of the head.

■' li. C. CedehstrOm (1. c.) has remarked as an external sexual difference that in the males the preorbital spine is furnished with
several lateral denticulatiiins. In the males cxauii7ied by us, however, this character does not hold good.

708

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

mouth and belong to the thick part of the li]_). On the
lower jaw too, the lij) runs back in a dermal fla[) on
each side. This flap, as IvRt^YER" has already pointed
out, may now and then be denticulated or even pro-
duced at some spot so as to resemble a barbel, thus
depriving the above-mentioned generic difference be-
tween Cohitis and Misgurnus to some extent of its
validity. The intermaxillary bones are small and nar-
row, ^vith the main branches only slightly longer than
the straight nasal processes. The maxillaries, on the
other hand, are high and of singular form. Behind the
articular knob they exi)aiid into a s(juare, but again
contract, and at the hind extremity once more expand
into a rounded lobe curved in a downward direction.
In the upper jaw we find a well-developed palatal fold.
There is no free tongue. On the first branchial arch
the gill-rakers are set in a single row (containing 11 —
14) corresponding to the posterior row on the other

Fig. 177. Right lower pliaryngeal of a Cohitis tania, seen from
witliin and abo%-e. About 15 times tlie natural size.

arches, where they are set in a double ro-\v, and on the
lower pharyngeals in one row (containing 7) on the outer
anterior margin of these bones. Thej^ are short and
depressed. The pharyngeal teeth are subulate, pointed,
and curved; they are set in a row (10 or a few moi'e,
3 of wiiich lie on the upper arm) on the inner (posterior)
margin of the lower pharyngeals, which are geniculate,
like branchial arches. Sometimes, however, we find one
or two smaller teetli (suppleinentary teeth?) l)eside the
principal row. The gill-openings are merely vertical
slits, the branchiostegal membrane on each side of the
body coalescing with the skin at the anterior end of
the insertion of tiie pectoral fin. The height of the
opening is about equal to the thickness of the head at
the eyes; but the branchiostegal membrane is loose, the
gill-openings being thus capable of exi)ansion by means
of the three long, sal)re-like brancliiostegal rays on each

side. The preoperculum extremely narrow, the other
opercular bones well-developed. The liind inferior
margin of the operculum proper is cui'ved in an S-shape,
with the anterior lower corner produced in a downward
direction, but the breaks are filled b)' the suboperculuiii.
As we have mentioned above, the head is scaleless; but
the ducts belonging to tjie system of the lateral line
are usually quite distinct on its surface, being marked
by rows of small pores, often raised in a tubular form,
along the temples, straight across the occiput, along the
])reo])erculum and the branches of the lower ja^^•, on
the forehead and at the upper orbital ratirgin on each
side, and along each of the cheeks, below tiie slit con-
taining the preorbital spine and for^vard on the snout
below the nostrils.

The body, on the other hand, is densely covered
with small, round, thin, imbricated, cycloid scales. The
lateral line is distinct onlj- at the very beginning, where
it forms a backward continuation of the temporal canal,
first sloping dowuM'ards and then straight, for a distance
of about twice the longitudinal diameter of the eyes.

The dorsal fin is obliquely rectangular, with the
upper angles rounded, the upper posterior margin being
thus more or less convex. Its base is somewhat elevated
in front, forming a sliglit l)reak in the otherwise straight
contour of the back. Its beginning lies at a distance
from the tip of the snout that measures about 41 — 43
% of the entire length of the body, 47 — 50 % of the
length of the body mimis the caudal fin, or 67 — 6o %
of the distance between the anal fin and the tip of the
snout, and is generally situated somewhat in front of
the perpendicular from the insertions of the ventral fins.
At its origin we find two rudimentary, unarticnlated
rays (supporting rays), the first extremely small, the
second about one-third as long as the third ray. The
third ray is simple (undivided) but articulated, and
only slightlj' shorter than the fourth, which is the
longest ray in the fin and, like the remaining rays,
branched. The last ray is about half as long as the
longest one, and there is no fin-membrane behind it.
The shape of the fin is highly inconstant, the length
of its base (on an average about 8'/ 2 % of the length of
the body*) varying between 64 and 76 % of its heigiit
(the length of the longest ray).

The anal fin is of the same structure and siiajie as
the dorsal, onlv that the branched ravs ai'c fewer and

■■ Damn. Fishe, III, p. 568.

'' Varying, according to Canestrini's measurements, between 7'2 and 10 ". of tlie length of the body.

SI'INKD LOACH.

70i)

the base shorter, on an average aljout 6 % of the length
of the hodv". Its shape varies otlierwiso exactly as tliat
of the dorsal fin. The lips of tlie vent protrude in a
tubular form witliiii a triangular depression, whicli is
situated just in front of the beginning of tlie anal lin,
or at a distance in front of this point hardly as great
as the diameter of tlie eyes.

The pectoral fins consist of 8 or 9', sometimes 10
rays. In the last case we find two simple rays (the
first onh" rudimentary) at the anterior margin of the
fins: while (jtherwise oidy the fii'st ray is simple and
not much shorter than the second, which is Ijranched
and either longest or about equal in length to the third
ray. The remaining rays gradually decrease in length
and are all dei'ply branched, except the last, which is
simple and about ' 3 as long as the longest ray. The
fins are set low down and when expanded occupj' a
horizontal position. Besides the above-mentioned sexual
difference first remarked by Canestuixi in the structure
of the pectoral tins, we also find in the Spined Loach
a second one, which was pointed out by BoNizzi to
Canesthini. At the base of the ])usterior (upper or
inner) side of the pectoral fins we find a cartilaginous
lobe, set in an obliquely transverse position. This lobe
is large and of more general occurrence in the males',
smaller, rudimentary or, most commonly, entirely want-
ing in the females. Cederstrom noted a thii-d external
difference between the sexes, consisting in the fact that
ill the males the pectoral fins are as a rule longer, and
therefore more pointed, than in the females. In 7 males,
between 50 and 73 mm. long, the length of the pectoral
fins varied between 15 and 18 ^ (on an average 16' '3 %)
of that of the body; in h females, between 88 and 9G
mm. long, this percentage varied between 10 and 11' ^
and was on an average 11''.

The ventral fins are of the same structure as the
pectoral, but shorter and more rounded. In the males
their length is about 11 — 13 %, in the females about

9 — 10 % of that of the body. In this relation, however,
we nuisl also take into consideration flu; changes of
growl h, for the relative length of the ventral fins de-
creases with increasing age. At the outer angle of the
insertion of each ventral fin — where in the Teleosts in
general a triangular dermal flap, free at the top and
pointing in a. backward directi(m, is furnished with sin-
gular, generally elongated scales — we find a small, ve-
siculate, oblong and posteriorly blunt, dermal swelling,
which is, h()we\er, without scales of a special type'.
The caudal fin, which in specimens between '2 and

1 dm. long occupies about 13 — 12 % of the length of
the body, is truncate with rounded corners. The middle
14 rays are branched. The small, short, supporting
rays generally number 3 or 4 (sometimes h^) above and

2 or 3 (sometimes 4-') below. The base of the fin ad-
vances, in the form of a thin ridge, forward along tJie
upper and lower margins of the peduncle of the tail.

The digestive canal is extremely simjde, consisting
of a straight tube of almost uniform thickness from the
pharynx to the vent, with only a slight expansion in
the anterior half to indicate the presence of a special
stomach. The peritoneum is silvery white. The liver
is long, ^vith two lobes, the right lobe being generally
the longer". The ovary is simple, but the testicles are
paired. At the spawning-season both the ovarj' and the
testicles extend forward along almost the whole length
of the abdominal cavity''. When the ovary is as full
of eggs as possible, it is deeply forked underneath, thus
appearing double when seen from below.

The ground-colour of the body is yellowish, some-
times even orange, on the back more or less dashed
with gray, on the belly white. The singular markings
consist of dark gray or even blackish spots and streaks.
Large spots are set in a longitudinal row at the middle
of the back, along the dorsal sides, and along the middle
of the sides of the body, where they sometimes coalesce
into bands, especially behind; and between these rows

" Varying, acfiordiiig to Canestiuni's moasiircnieiits, between .5"4 and 7'1 "» of the length of the body.

' Sometimes only 6 or 7, according to Heckel and Kneh, Canestrini, and Benecke.

' Cf. the similar growth in the Branioids and Blennioids; see above, pp. 76 and 219.

'' .According to Canestrini's ineasiiremenls this sexuul difference is less marked.

' In the following species this dermal swelling is equally insignificant, in Misgurnas fossilis we have failed to find it at all.

•' .\ccordiiig to Lilueborg.

' .\s usual, however, varying in length. In a gravid female 108 mm. long the right lobe of the liver extends to a line with the tip
of the pelvic hones, the left to the end of the second third of the distance between the insertions of the pectoral and ventral fins. In a
male almost ready to spawn and 69 mm. lung, the left lobe of the liver is somewhat longer than the right and extends about as far back
as the left lobe in the female just mentioned.

* In the female just mentioned the eggs were about ' , mm. in diameter. In another female, which had partly deposited its spawn,
^ggs •'' 1 mm. in diameter were found.

710

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

lie smaller, somewhat lighter spots arranged in a net- 1 Halsviken (Wetter, N. W. of ]\Iotala; H. Widegrex),
work or scattered. Similar small spots of an oblong i from the River Skeninge (numerous specimens; Dr.
shape or even vermiculated also appear on the top of j Cnattingius), from the River Lida in Wester Gothland

the head and on the cheeks. The most prominent and
most persistent jiarts of this design, even in specimens
preserved in spirits, are two black markings, the one on
the head, the other on the peduncle of the tail. From
the anterior margin of the eye a blackish streak runs
obliquely downwards to the tip of the snout, and a
similar streak often appears behind the eye horizontally

(J. W. Dalmax), from Lake Wener (183G, ^Mr. Goebel'),
from Lake Setter in Nerike (1842, Colonel Axkaksvaud),
from Lake Millar off Flottsund (Mescii), from Helene-
borg (Liljeholmen), and from Hammarby Lake near
Stockholm. Li tlie NorrstrOm (Stockholm) a Spined
Loach was taken on the 16th of April, 1846, among spe-
cimens of the Smelt. Li 1869 Cedehsthom caught a spe-

across the temple. At the upper corner of the base of cimen 42 mm. long in the channel oft' Beatelund in the

the caudal fin (sometimes at the lower corner as well)
we find a black spot, edged during life, like the spots
in the large, inferior row on the sides of the bod)-, with
a lighter colour. These two markings recur, however,
though thej' are generally less sharph' defined, in other
species of the genus. The fins are more or less trans-
parent, with lustrous rays, Avhich in the dorsal and
caudal fins, sometimes in the pectoral and anal fins as
well, are marked ^\'ith dark spots, distinctly arranged,
at least on the first-mentioned fins, in transverse bands.
The iris is yellow.

island-belt of Stockholm, a proof that the Spined Loach
can also live in the brackish water of the Baltic. Ce-
dersteOm found the Spined Loach especially plentiful in
the River Orsunda in Westmanland. Lill.jeborg assigns
it to several other localities in Sweden, and surmises
with reason that the Spined Loach is fairly common in
Scandinavia, though on account of its insignificant size
and its manner of concealing itself it easily escapes notice.
This is probably true of Finland as well, though both
Malmgren and Mela state that the Spined Loach is ex-
tremely rare in that country and is known ^vith certainty

The Spined Loach occurs in the In'ooks, rivers, and i only from the neighbourhood of Viborgand Lake ^'uoxeu.

lakes of almost all Europe, and is probal)ly spread
throughout Northern Asia, except perhaps the colder
regions, for according to Schlegel (1. c.) it lives in
Japan. Pallas also cjuotes special names for this fish
not only from the Ostiacs of Siberia, but also from the
Tungs of the River Katunga and Lake Baikal. The Spi-
ned Loach goes westward at least to England and Scot-
land; but in L-eland, according to Thompson, it is want-
ing. Valenciennes knew it as a Spanish species. Ac-
cording to Canestrini it also occurs in Sicily. In Scan-
dinavia the Spined Loach is common enough in scattered
localities in the south and east of Sweden, at least up
to Lake Wener and the MiVlar Valley. It seems to be
commonest in Oster Gothland and in the basin of Lake
Mslar. To the best of our knowledge it is wanting in
Halland and Bohusliin", as well as in Norway. It is
assigned to the Danish islands of Fiinen, Laaland, and
Zealand hj Feddersen, who states that it is especially
common in Lake Mariebo (Laaland). The Royal Mu-
seum possesses specimens from the River Kopinge in
Scania and from JOnkoping (C Sundevall), from Lilla

The Spined Loach prefers running water, in small
streams with a stonj' bottom, where it can conceal itself
under the stones, or with a bottom of gravel, sand, or
even mud, in whicii it can bury itself with oidy the
head visible and ready, when danger threatens, to hide
itself entirely or even to creep some distance, burrowing
its waj' through the loose ground. The fish also occurs,
however, in still water, as we have seen, in lakes and
meres with a suitable bottom. It is oftenest found in
company, though not in shoals properly so called. It
generally lies still; but when disturbed or when shifting
its position it is rapid in its movements. Cederstkom
saw "tiiese fishes dive into the thick, moist ooze and hide
themselves there as speedily as a Sand- Eel plunges into
wet sand to conceal itself. When they felt themselves
prisoners, they at once bent down the head and pressed
the flat part of the cheek firmlv against the skin of my
fingers, tluis causing in some instances a slight l)ut
disagreeable irritation, most like that of sucking (cupping),
on the part of the skin affected." The fisherman may
sometimes complain with reason' that "when pursuing

" Holmberg's stuteniont (^Boh. Hist., Beskr., p. 30) tluit the Spined Loaeh occurs in Kanitvet Mere (Bullar), lias received no subsequent
confirmation, according to Malm. See Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 569.

' Tlie Spined Loacli has since been taken in Lake Wener (Hanimarovik), according to Dr. S. W. Tenow, Verml., Dais Ri/ygr. Dj., p. 106.

' See Lloyd, Scandinavian Adoentuves, voL I, p. 71. On tlie 11th of June, 1858 I took some specimens of this species in the River
Motala, not far from its outlet in Lake Roxen. There I was told that the Spined Loach was dreaded "for its bite", which was said to be incurable.

.SI'INED LOACH.

711

his M\oc;itioii l)uret()otL'd in the isinmiun- tlic fish not
uni'requeiitlv wuuiuls his feet;" and if the t^pinc he
broken off and left in tlie wonnd, it may well cause
some trouble. i5ut, as Blanchai!])" has already re-
marked, these spines cannot serve as any formidal)le
weapons of defence, even if they are employed in this
capacity in case of need. Cederstrom assumes their
function to be the protection of the eyes, as the fish
burrows along in the sand or gravel. Perhaps they may
also be organs of adhesion, like the opercular and inter-
opcrcn];ir spines of the Stegophilido', those small Brazi-
lian (ilaiKiUKirphs'' which usually take refuge in the
branchial cavity of larger fishes, and retain their posi-
tion there by means of the said spines, but which also
try to force their way into other cavities, or to attach
themselves with the spines to the skin of larger aquatic
animals oi- of persons bathing or wading.

The spawning-season occurs in spring and early
summer, from April to July; but as yet we know no-
thing of its course. It is generally stated that the males
are far rarer than the females; but in a consignment
of some thirty specimens from the River Skeninge there
were as nian\- males as females. The former being.

however, as a rule smaller than females of the same age,
they probably manage more easily to escape observation.

The food of the Spined Loach consists principally
of small crustaceans, Entomostracn {Lynceida;, according
to C'ederstrom); but the fish also preys on all other mi-
nute animals that come in its way. According to Kroyer
it is "fairly voracious and lives on worms, but also on
fish-roe, small fry, and other minute aquatic animals.'
The Spined Loach shows the same propensities in aquaria,
where it is "interesting by reason of the eagerness with
which it roots up the bottom in (piest of food, casting
sand and gravel in pellets out of its gill-openings"
(Benecke).

The Spined Loach is of little use as luunan food,
the flesh lieing dry and tough; but as bait for Eels,
Pike, and other predatory fisiies it may be employed
with advantage ' .

In the Malar Provinces the Spined Loach is known
by several names: tanglake (Tang Burbot), according to
Artedi; onnfisk (Snake-fish), according to Gyllen-
stjerna (in Nilsson); stenlake (Stone Burbot), according
to Iverus (in Lilljeborg). In Scania Lilljeborg heard
it called stciihit (Stone-biter).

THE LOACH (sw. geonlingen).

C0B1T1.S BARBATULA.

Plate XXXI, fig. 5.

Bo(hi raihrr teref''. Head somewhat depressed: its Jireadth (thiekiiess) at the eyes wore than -,,, of its length:
breadth of the interorhital space greater than the tongitadinal diameter of the eges. Xo preorhital spine tielon- the eyes.

(.SI. 2) + i (2 1. i)+i 1 .

R. i,. i, LK — g^-; A. —^^■- P- JYJ.-T2'

; ('. .r + 1 + 10 + 1 + x: Vert. 41 ''.

(6)7 1.8

Spi. Cobilis bavhatala, KoND., Pise, part. II. p. '204. Cobitiit tota
glabra mneiilosa, corpore subteveti, Art., Icht/iyol., Gen. Pise,
p. 2; Syn. Pise, p. 2; Lin., Fit. Suec, ed. I, p. 125.
Cobilis Darhahda, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 303;
Penn., Brit. ZooL, vol. Ill (ed. 1776), p. 247, tab. LVIII,
No. 142; Bl. Natiirrj. Fislt. Deutschl, part. I, p. 224, tab.
XXXI, fig. 3; Pall., Zoogv. Boss. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 164;
NiLSS., Prodi: fchtli. Scartd., p. 35; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat.
Poiss., vol. XVIII, p. 14, tab. 520; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol.
m, p. 539; NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisl., p. 343; Kessl., Bull.
Soc. Natural. Mosc, torn. XXIX, p. 350: Tiiojirs., Nat.

Hist. Irel., vol. IV, p. 130; Sund., v. Wr., Strand. Fislc.,
cd. 1. p. 207, tab. 53; Hckl, Kn., Siissirasserf. Oesterr.
Mon., p. 301; Mgbn, Finl. Fisk. (disp. Helsingf.), p. 36:
Canestr., Arch. Zool., Anat., Fisiol., vol. lY, fasc. I, p. 144;
Steind. Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Nalurw. CI., LIII, i
(1866), p. 203; Blanch., Poiss. d. eaux douces Fr., p. 280;
Gthr (Nemacliiliis'), Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. VII, p. 354;
SCKDSTR., Fn. Sveriij. Rygyradsdj., p. 278; Feddees. (Co-
litis), Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvii, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 92;
MOR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 432; Bncke,
Fisclt., Fisclier., Fisclic. 0., W. Prettss., p. 145; Mela,
Vert. Feiin., p. 313, tab. X; Day (^Nemaclieilus), Fish.
Gt. Brit., Ire!., vol. II, p. 203, tab. CXXXVII, fig. 2;
Mob., Hcke (Colitis), Fisch. Osts., p. 123; Lillj., Sv.,
Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 832; Fatio (Nemachilus) Fn.
Vert. Suisse, vol. V, p. 19.

" Poiss. d. eaux douces Fr., p. 287.

' See Reinbaedt, Vid. Meddel. Naturb. For. Kbbvn, 1858, pp. 83 et seqq. Lt'TKEX, ibid. 1891, p. 55, note.

' BLANOHtRE, La pedie et les poissons, p. 449.

'' Sometimes 39 (LiLUEBOBC), 40 (Krover), or 42 (Valenxiennes).

'12

SCANDINAVIAN nsiIES.

The Loach is generally a little larger than the jire-
cecling species. In Scandinavia and Western and Xortli-
erii Europe it seems never to attain a greater size tiian
10 — 13 cm. In the Crimea, liowcvcr, according to
Pallas, it may sometimes measui'c nearly half a foot
(aliotit ir. cm.); and in the mountain brooks of Persia,
he says, it attains a still greater size. The largest
specimens we have examined were from Finland and
measured 112 mm. in length.

The body is in front more or less terete, behind
more and more compressed. The head is entirely diffe-
rent in form from that of the ])receding species, but
the rest of the Ijody is of almost exactly tiie same shape,
the tail being only slightly shallower than the forepart
of the body. The greatest depth of the body measures
between 13 and 11 % (10''., "») and the least depth of
tile peduncle of the tail between aliout 7 and 8''., %
of the length of the body.

The length of the head is about 20 — 18 %>" of that
of the body. Seen from above it is almost parabolical.
It is also broader than in tiie preceding s])ecies, some-
what depressed, flattened at the top, with sloping facial
line and blunt snout. Underneath it is broad, flat, and
even. The entire head is scaleless; but the skin is liere
tinely granulated, the canals of the system of the lateral
line being marked l)y several rows of small, raised
tubercles, each pierced with a duct. One row, thin and
almost double, runs below tlie eye from the upper
rostral barbel to the lateral line. Another row, con-
taining some few pores, rims above each eye and the
nostrils. A third row coasts tlie margin of the prc-
operculum and tVjllows the under surface of the lower
jaw. A transverse canal across the occiput maj' also be
trace<l in three scattered pores, set in a row. The e3'es
are small and somewhat oblong, their longitudinal dia-
meter in specimens between 87 and 112 mm. long being
about Hi % of the length of tlie head. Tlie orbits are
distinctly b(mnded l:)y a dermal fold {ochVi liberi, 15lee-
liEu). They are set high, at tlie sides of the flat fore-
head, separated by a distance of about three times their
vertical diameter, and at a distance from the tip of the
snout at least (in our specimens) a little greater than
the postorbital length of the head, which length in young
specimens is almost equal to the breadth of the head
at the eyes, in older ones perceptibly less. The cheeks
are soft and fleshy, without spine or hollow depression.

The nostrils lie just in front of the eyes, each lateral
pair being so close together that the anterior nostril
does not extend half-way from the eyes to the tip of
the snout. The posterior is the lai'ger and simple, the
anterior lias a raised, tubular margin, which projects
behind in a point and thus resembles in form a quill
pen. Tiie mouth lies, as in the preceding species, under
the ti]) of the snout and is very small and transversely
set. The lijis are thick, and the upper seems double,
as in so many other flshes, this being due to the for-
mation of an upper fold by the projecting skin of the
snout itself, in addition to the fold starting from the
intermaxillary bones. These two folds send out, as in
the preceding species, <o thick, soft liarbels, so arranged
that tw(j jiairs originate from the under surface of the
upper fold, the smaller pair at the very tij) of the snout
and the other pair just behind this jioint; while the
third pail- stai-ts from the \ery corners of the mouth
and contains the largest barbels, their length being a
little more than 'Ai of that of the head. The underlip
is more fleshy and at the middle — often on the sides
as well — cloven or divided into hjbes. The gill-open-
ings are small, the branchiostegal membrane passing, in
the same waj' as in the Spined Loach, into the skin of
the belly just lielow the base of each pectoral flu, so
that the oiienings are separated by the entire breadth
of the broad, flat breast. This membrane contains 3
long, but not broad rays, which extend almost below
the tip (jf the operculum. The operculum itself as well
as the small, oblong suboperculum is distinct; the other
opercular bones are well covered Ijy the thick skin.
The apparatus of the branchial arches exhibits in the
form of the urohyoid bone a striking reseinlilance to
the t'orresponding bones in the Sheatflsh.

The dorsal fln begins somewhat in front of the middle
of the entire length of the bodj', or about half-way —
sometimes a little farther liack — along the body minus
the caudal fln: the distance lietweeii this fln and the tip
of the snout measures in our specimens about 42— 48 5K
of the entire length of the body, 48 — 55 % of the length
of the body excluding the caudal fln. or (55 — 71 % of the
distance between the anal fln and the tip of the snout.
The length of its longest ray is about ecjual to the
greatest depth of the body or somewhat greatei- than
this depth, and is much greater than the length of the
base of the fln, which seems as a rule to vary between

19 — IC'C %, accorJiiig to Canestiuni's measurements.

71a

about
nys ;
sm.-ill

( ;in(l 11 ",/' of tijr Irll-tll of Uiv IhkIv. 'I'llC

• ;ictiiall\ 11 in mimlK'r, lint tlic first twu arc so
1,1 tine as to l)c (lifticult of ck'tc'ctioii; the tliini
ray is also quite short; tiie fourth ray docs not extend
quite to the top of thi' tin and, lii<e the rays in front
of it, is sini|ile: the tiftii and sixtii rays are tlic ]on,u-
est and, like thr followinu' ones, l)ranelied.

Tlie anal fin is nuieh sinallei' and generally contains
8 or 9 ravs, amoiiii' wiiieli the first branched ray (the
3rd or 4t]i from the befjinning) is the longest. 'l"he
vent occuiiies tlie same ijosition as in the pret'eding
species.

The cauilal tin is truncate at the hind margin, with
ruundcd corners. ( )f its IS articulated raxs the 14
uiiddli' ones are ei|ual in lengtli. Ijut the t^vo u|iiierniost
and the two lowest somewhat shorter. The outermost
of these ra\s above and below is simple, the others are
brnm-lied. IJesides these there are a few (piite short,
unarticulated, supporting rays. The median length of
the fin varies lietwcen aliout ll\/._, and 14 '^^y of that of
the bod\' or between (lU and 7."> % of that of the liead.

The pectoral tins are fairly large — their length
greater than the greatest de])th of the body — broad,
and rounded, with II — 13 rays (usually 12), among
which the first is simple, articulated, and rather short,
the others are multifid and deeply branched, tlie second
and third lieing the longest, the last two very small
and ditiicult to distinguish with accuracy.

The ventral fins are much smaller than the pec-
toral, their length being only slightly greater than the
height of the anal fin. They begin almost vertically
below the beginning of the dorsal fin, are oval in siiajie,
and contain 7 — 9 rays (usually 8), among which the
outermost is simple, articulated, and rather short, the
others are deeply branched, the innermost two closely
united, and the second and third the longest.

The scales are rather small — in spei-imens 12 cm.
long their breadth is less than 1 mm. — and circular,
densely set, but not imbricated, numi)ering aliout 15
from the lateral line to the dorsal edge. (_)n the fore-
part of the bod\-, on the back and Itelly, we find only
a few, scattered here and there; on the hind part of the
body they aix' firmly inserted and set close together. The
lateral line is straight. Neither here nor in the Spined
Loach does it pierce any scales. It starts from tlie u]>per

angle of llie gill-opening and tlien follows the middle
of the side. In front it is furnished with distinct, pro-
minent pores, but liehiiid these pores become indistinct,
being hidden by the scales.

The coloration is of a fairly bright, grayisli brown
with darker, large spots along the back and the latei'al
line: but these sjiots are not so distinct and constant
as in the Spined l.oach; below the\- ai'e Iiroken up into
an inconstant pattern, with \\hich the sides of the body
as well as the cheeks are mottled. As a rule we find
a black streak on the sides of tlie snout as in the Spined
Loach; and an oblong, black spot usually appears at tlie
lower corner of the base of the caudal fin; but even
these markings are less defined than in the Spined Loach.
The dorsal, caudal (soni(!tinies the anal as well), and
pectoral fins bear transverse bands of dark spots. Tlie
ventral tins as well as the anal fin are in most cases
plain, in others marked with a few dark spots.

The internal organs differ from those of the Spined
Loach parth' in the liver being somewhat shorter and
behind not divided into lobes but collected in a mass,
which envelops the stomach lielow and on the sides,
partly in the stomach being furnished with a pyloric part
pointing in a forward direction; the intestine also forms
a coil, which runs forward l>eside tlie posterior part of
the stom;ich. The o\ary is forked in front.

According to observations made in the vicinity of
Kiiopio in Finland and communicated by W. voN Wiught
to SrxDEVALL, the Loach is there common'' in streams
and brooks with fairly clear water, a graxelly bottom,
and a depth uf a foot or twD. It is said to keep close
to the bottom and generally to hide under stones, but
not to burro\c in the bottom, as the Spined Loach does.
In the said localit\' it spawns at tlie beginning of June,
about a fortnight after the breaking up of the ice.
In Germany, according to Bloch and other writers, it
sjiawns ill March and Ajiril, or early in the spring,
there as in Finland. Its hal)its are otlierwise not un-
like those of the Spined Loach.

LiNN.«us tells us in the Fauna Siiecica that this
species was introduced from Germany into Lake MiUar
by King Frekkhiciv I; and tlie lioyal Museum possesses
two specimens with no assigned locality, Init marked
in the same wav as the other fishes from the ^luseiim
of l^rottninaholm, where LiNX.Ki.s examined and de-

" Sometimes about 8 %, accorJing to Caxestkini's nieasuremem?.

' According to Qvensel's catalogue one ppeciineii in the Roy.il Museum was taken in 1800 at Ulealioig. Mela also believes that tlu;
species occurs iu the extreme north of the Gulf of Hothnia.

714

SCANDINAVIAN FISUKS.

scribed them. These specimens may thus be ascribed
with reason to the said transplantation. However, the
Loach does not seem to have continued to multii)]y in
Lake Millar ; Sundevall at all events never succeeded
in (obtaining the slightest evidence of its occurrence
there. On the other hand, it has been found in recent
times both in Scania and the south of Halland. In Scania
it was discovered in 1864 l)y Lector IUltmahk in a
brook at Trolleniis and by Mr. C. Moller at Gisleberga
and Bosarp; in 1809 it was met with by A. Nathorst
in the river at Andrarum. In 1888 the Royal Museum
received through ^Ir. Trybom, Assistant Inspector of
Fisheries, two specimens wliicii had been taken by Mr.
F. SvEXONius in the Laga River at Lahohn. It may
possibly be found on closer investigation to occur in a
few more jiarts of Sweden; but a tish of this small size
may easily escape observation. In Norway it is wanting,
to the best of our knowledge; but in Jutland it was
found in 1878 l)y C E. Vakjiing in tlie River Nebels.

— It has been met with throughout the rest of Europe
as well as the north of Asia. In Germany it is said
to be taken at several places in great numliei-s with
nets constructed for the purpose. Its flesh has always
been praised as highly delicious and so easy of digestion
that even a weak stomacli has nothing to fear from it.
Bloch describes at length the method of constructing
holes or small pools for the cultivation of this tish.

The S\vedish name {GronUng), ^\•hich we have applied
to this species, is given by Linn.eus in his Fauna
Suecica. It is now unknown witii whom the name ori-
ginated — we are also ignorant of the source from which
NiLSSON drew his name of nissdga (Brownie-eye) for the
preceding species — but it is obviouslj^ a corruption
of the German Griindliiir/ (Eng. Groundling), a name
which has lieen given to the lish because it keeps close
to the bottom. There is nothing green in its coloration.
Another Scandinavian name for the Loach is SmdrUng,
from the German Schiiierliiiff.

For the elucidation of tlie naturiil relations be-
tween our two Cohitis species Canestrini's numerous
measurements afford interesting materials of com-

parison. Taking into account the measurements given
by him we obtain the following results:

Cobiiis Ijarhiitida.

Cobitis tcenia.

4 1 3
specimens. | specimens.

'.I

9
specimens.

53..;

18.3
16.G

4.1

7.9
9.9

12.0
9.0

14.3
10.3
12.3
B.2

1(U

.57.5

92
17.3
15.8
3.4

7.7

9.1

12.4
S.5
12.7
14,2

12.:!

5.4

Vi.-i
«0.2

5(j.2

17.1
15.2

3.1

7.3
5.4

13.0

8.5
14.3
13.8

ll.c

(j.3

62.4

85.0
15. s
14.9
2.3

().?

5.2
14.3

8.4

13.0

11.9
10.3
5.9

fU.G

(1) Lotcrnl length of tlie head in }i of the length of the body

(2) Length of the head to the occiput , „ ,, „ „ ,, „ „

(4) Preorbital length of the head „ „ „ „ „ ,, „ „

(5) Breadth of the head „ „ „ ., „ „ „ „

(6) Depth of the body „ „ „ „ „ ., „ „

(7) Length of the dorsal fin „ ., „ „ „ ,, „ „

(8) Height , , „ ., „ „ ., „ „ „

(9) Length of the pcc-tornl fins. . . „ ., ., „ „ „ .,

(10) „ „ „ ventral ., „ „ ., .. .. ,. „

(11) „ „ „ anal iin „ „ ., „ „ „ „ „

(12) „ „ „ caudal „ „ „ „ ., „ „ „ „

(13) „ „ „ head and trunk „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

The correspondence in the changes of development
is here so great — the percentages of the t^vo different
ages in both species rise or fall ^vith so great similarity
— that Me are fully justified in assuming that these two

species belong to a common direction of development;
and in this direction of development Cohitis Uenia
evidentlv occupies the more advanced rank.

(Sundevall, S.mitt.)

CAUl'-FISllES,

"15

Fam. CYPRINID.E.

Air-hhuldcr free {not endowed hi a eapsnle). Mimtli frii/t/ed irith at niofit four (or no) harhels

The family of the Cypi'inoids, the largest in the
whole class of Hshes, contains about 1,UOO described
species, most of them, however, from Asia and North
America, so that onl}' a lumdred species occur in Europe,
and only a score belong to the Scan(lina\ian fauna. 'I'lic
majority of our fresh-water fishes are comprised, how-
ever, in this family. All the Cyprinoids jjrefer fresh water
and are most commonly foinid in lakes, ri\ers, ponds, and
fens. Still most of our species also occur in the l)rackish
water of tiie Baltic. Not a. single niembi'r of i\\r family
is a predatory fisii projierly so called ; most of them live
chiefly, though not exclusively, on vegetable substances.
They mav with every reason be called omnlrorous. In
a certain sense thej' may be regarded as Ruminants:
the Carp, the Tench, and the Bream arc adduced as

18(!9 it was a matter of doubt to what species these
eggs belonged. Before this time Krau.ss (18580, Kess-
LEH (18(;o'), DviiowsKi (1862'), and Siebold (186;30
had described an external ovifei'ous tul)e, sometimes 30
mm. long, which in the female Bitterling is developed
during the spawning-season from the margins of the
urogenital o])ening just behind the vent, and into which
the comparatively large, ellipsoidal eggs — sometimes 3
■mm. long — force their way and arrange themselves in
a single row. Noll'' at last discovered that the .said
eggs in the branchial cavity of the painter's mussel be-
long to the Bitterling. By observations which he has
since completed, he siiowed that, when the eggs are ri]w,
the female Bitterling applies the oviferous tube to the
inspiratory opening of the painter's mussel, into which

examples of this; but as a rule food passes rapidly | the male at the same time emits his seminal fluid. In

through their intestinal canal: a Goldfish fed with wheat-
bread pas.ses after some minutes a white, vermiform mass
of excrement, which hangs from the vent. They are
sensitive in a high degree to atmospheric influences;
but some of them, though they do not properly belong
to an Arctic temperature, can in a torpid state survive
the process of being frozen". Even in a milder climate
they are known in cold weather to collect in dense
shoals, which lie still in the deepest parts of the water;
and Valenciennes'' states of the liarbel (jf Southern
Europe that he once found a company of this species
which during the winter had packed themselves together
in the hollow trunk of a tree.

Among the peculiarities in the reproduction of
these fishes we shall here remark only one, which is of
general interest, but belongs to a species foreign to our
fauna, the little Bitterlnig (Rhodeus nninrus), a form
fairly i-ommon in I'astern and Central Europe and at
most about 1) cm. long. It has long been known that
the eggs of some fish are found among the branchial
lamellae of the painter's mussel {Vnio putorum): but until

III. p. -2118

this way about 40 eggs may be forced one by one into the
bi-anchial cavity of the mussel, where they attach them-
selves to the branchial lamelLe and are developed until
the fry have attained a length of about 11 mm. The
young of this flsli thus lead a kind of parasitic life, a
commensalism fnjm which they liberate themselves,
when capable of an independent existence, bj' making
their w-ay out through the expiratory tube of the mussel.

The spawning-season of the Cyprinoids occurs in
spring and summer, when both sexes assume a brighter
and more handsome dress, and the males develop sharp,
tubercular excrescences on the scales, which excrescences
fall off, however, simultaneously with the fsiding of the
coloration, as soon as the spawning-season is over.

To man these hshes are of no inconsiderable value
and utility. Most of them have a soft, white, and pa-
latable flesh, and in Scandinavia, as on the Continent,
are the objects of lucrative fisheries. This is not the
case in England, \\'here fresh-water fishes in general are
little esteemed", and the Cyprinoids in particular (with
the exception of tiie Carp) have a bad reputation.

" P.\LLA.s (of the Crucian Carp), Zoogr. lloss. Asiat., ton

' Ccv., Val., Hist. Nat. Pois.i., torn. XVI, p. 1.3.

' .Jahreshefte d. Ver. f. vaterl. Xaturk. in Wiirtteniberg, 14 .Jaliig., p. 121.

'' At the Conference of Naturalists at Konigsberg. according to Siebold.

' Cyprinoiden Livlands, p. 87.

■' 6'usswasserrisclie Mitteleuropas, p. 118.

^ Zoologischer Garten 1869, p. 257; 1870, p. 237; 1877, pp. 351—362.

'' Day lays tlie blame of this on the English cook's ignorance of the pro]ier nietliod of dressing fresh-water tish for table.

716

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

The form of the Ixwly is ^'■enerall}- regular, showing
tlie cfjiupresseci, fusiform outline most ty})ical of the
Telcosts, whethei" it extends in ii longitudinal direction,
as in our Gudgeons and Minnow, or rises vertically, as
in our Breams. In tlie great majority of the fishes of
this lauiilv" the l)odv is coNcred with dense and finnly-
attached, mure or less liard, cycloid scales, large or
small. Tiie greatest external ditferences which here, as
in the Glatioinorphs, afford the most useful characters
fill' the subdivision of the family, consist in the position
and dimensions of the tins, especially the dorsal and
anal. Tlie back possesses only one tin (adipose fin
wanting), situated as a rule at the middle of the trunk,
l)ut of a greater or less extent forwards or backwards,
in front of or behind the region of the ventral fins,
and sometimes set on the tail, al)ove the anal tin,
whicli in its turn shows varying dimensions, greater
(ir less than tliose of the dorsal tin.

The Cyprinoids in genei'al iia\e a ratlier small
mouth, tlie position of wliich may vary from the tij) of
the snout to the under surface thereof. The lips of
some (several East Indian) forms are strongly and sin-
gularly developed, sometimes funnel-shaped and fringed,
continuous or divided into loljes; l)ut in our forms they
are smooth and liardl^' more Hesliy tlian usual. In a
West Asiatic genus, ('Ii<i)i(l}-i)sfoiii((, which also occurs in
.Southern and Central Europe, a cartilaginous sheath is
developed on the lower \\\k In a North American ge-
nus, AcrocliUd^, a similar sheath ap})ears both on the
upper jaw and the lower; and in the genus Laheo of
the Old World the sheath ma)- appear on either or both
(if the jaws. In many ('yi)rinoids the mouth is fur-
nislied, as in the preceding family, with liarbels, which
always belong, ho>vever, to the upjier jaw and never
exceed two pairs; the most common and usually most
developed is the barbel at each corner of the mouth.
The margin of the upper jaw is formed by the toothless
intermaxillary Ijones, which are generally at least to
some extent (sometimes highly) protrusile. This does
not depend, however, as usual on any elongation of the

nasal processes, which are here comparatively short —
though often prolonged upwards by a cartilaginous con-
tiiuiation, which, Avlien the mouth is closed (the upper
jaw drawn up), fnlds into a cavitA' between the tip of
the etiininid Imnc and the rostral cartilage'' — l.nit in
most cases only loo.sely united to the rostral cartilage
in front of the ethmoid bone and above the more or less
cartilaginous head of the vomer. The intermaxillaries
are without erect, lobate process (cf. above, p. 463), a
growth ^vhich is all the more developed on the maxillary
bones behind them. The maxillary bones are besides
remarkable in most cases for their detorted form and
the short and generally thick head of their articular
knob. A distortion of the toothless dental part of the
lower ja>\- tliat reminds us of the Mugiloids (see above,
p. 330), occurs in several Cyprinoids (e. g. in the Bream
and Barbel, but not in the Ide), in which the upper
dental margin is thus turned out\vards. \\ e are also
reminded of the Mugiloids by the upright protube-
rance frequently present at the symphyseal tip of the
braiK-hes of the lower jaw. Tlie most striking resem-
Idance to the Mugiloids — dei)ending on a similarity of
diet — belongs, however, to the palate. The palatal
curtains (vela transversa) of the Cyprinoids are well-
deve]o])ed, at least in the upper jaw. The palatal roof
is lined witii a mucous meml)rane. thickly covered with
papilla' and arranged in longitudinal folds, ^vhich is
continued backwards, smooth but with large gustatory
papilhr, on the tumid, soft, cushion-like mass of muscles
and fat — the Carp's tongitp so highl}- prized by the
epicure — situated under the posterior ]>art of the
cranium. Backwards and do^vn^vards from the body of
the occipital bone runs an osseous (pharyngeal) jn'ocess',
pierced at its liase for the passage of a blood-vessel
{aorta nhdominalis), the under surface of which process,
just at the end of the said cushion, is shod in a de-
pression ^\•ith a cartilaginous, more or less hard and
tumid disk, the so-called Corp-Moiir ov pharjiwiecd ciir-
fihii/e {Karpfeiisteiii, la moilc). Against this disk the
lower pharyngeal teeth, Avhich are highly characteristic

" In a SoiitlicTii Eiin.pfim melius. Aaloi>>/ije, however, tlie body is entirely naked. It is also entirely cr jiartially naked in three
Asiatic tjenera.

'' This cavity smiictiines cunduccs in a remarkable way, even externally, to the singular form cf the snont, which in an Indian (Labeo
iiiilcUt. Day, Fi^h. Ind., ji. .'543, pi. CXXVIII, irg. 5) and a Snniatran species {Laheo — Schismatorhyticlnis — lieterorytichiis, Blkr, Atl. Ichth.
fml. Or. Neerl., Ci/jn-., p. 50. tab. IV, tig. 4) acquires a monstrous appearance, owing to the presence of a deep, horizontal, transverse
hollow in front of the nostrils.

' This process was formerly regarded by some as an liypapophysis, by others as an entire haiunal arch; but it arises, as S.\OE-
MEHI, (Morphol. Jahrb., Bd. XVI, ).. 510) has at least shown to be probable, in a totally different way from these parts of the skeleton,
namely by the ossification of connective tissue which Sagemehl regards as a remnant (trace) of the ligament (also pierced by the aorta) which
in the Cliaracinoids unites the occipital and parasphenoid bones to the air-bladder. This same connexion we shall also find in the Clupeoids.

AKI'-KISIIKS.

17

of t lie ( '\iirin(iiils, work in the mastication or dilani.-ition
of fiKHJ. The form of the carp-stone, as well as flu; t'orni,
iiuinhcr, and position of the teeth on the lower pha-
ryngeals, att'oril in most cases the most tennhlc charac-
ters for the definition of the Cyprinoid species and also,
to some extent, of the genera, and lunc heeti .iicnerally
emploved for this object ever since Agassiz" and IIkc-
KEI.' directed attention to this point. We shall often
return to these structures; here we need only remind
tiie reader that the said teeth on the lower ))haryn!ieals,
which latter nKi\- he more or less falciform or more
like hranchi;d :irehes'', are shed or renewed annually,
as .Ii'uiNi;' and (subse(piently) SiEHoi.i)' have jiointed
out. The upper pharyngeals are small, less remarkable,
and toothless. They He above the sides of the aforesaid
cushion in tlie jKisterior part of the roof of the |ili:irynx;
and in front of and outside them we hud, in most
cases, but with great irregularity, distinct or covered
(glandular) pseudobranchiu'.

The short cesophagus is I'ecognisable internally by
the longitudinal folds of the mucous mend)i'ane. The
stomach is also short and shows very little, if any,
expansion. Its mucous membrane lies in zigzag folds
or is dowuA' like velvet. These fishes ha\e no dis-
tinct pN'loric part or jiyloric appendages, and the sto-
mach passes gradually into the intestine, the length of
wliicli is exceedingly variable, for it sometimes forms
only two coils, sometimes five, before it runs back
to the vent. The intestine ends in a more or less
defined rectum, which is marked by longitudinal folds
of the mucous membrane. Often the whole digestive
canal lies imbedded in a more or less lobate ;ind suli-
divided mass of liver and in a thick layer of fat. The
variations in the length of the intestinal canal are con-
nected with the diet: a greater proportion of animal
food is accompanied by a shorter intestinal canal. Hec-
K¥A. divideil the <\prinoids-' on this account into two
groups: Jfticnieiitri, with long intestine — represented
in the .Scandinavian fauna liy Ci/priniis and Carassius
— and Bmchi/cntri, among which we find all the rest
of our ("yprinoids. The gall-bladder lies on the right

side (jf the stiim;irli and sends out a gall-duct into the
sMuie; the spleen lies abo\e or to the left of tlu; be-
ginning of the intestine. The hng'est oi'gan in the ab-
(himinnl ea\it\- under ordinary circumstances (when the
ovaries lire nut extraordinarily swollen) is the air-
i)l;\chler. This organ is extei'nally doul)](!, but intcinallx
continuous, consisting of an anterioi-, shorter ]iart and
a posterior, longer one, tapering lj<diin<l, which usualh-
follows the eur\'e of the uj)i)er wall of the abdominal
eavit\- iiaek to the very end of the cavity, and which
comniunicntes in IVnnt b\' means (jf the pneumatic duct
with the lesopliagus. The ovaries as well as the testes
are paired and closed, their discharging duets sharing
as usual with the urethrii- a eiimmon njierture just be-
hind the mouth of the rectum. Tlie kidneys lie along
the under surface of the s|iinMl column and are genendh'
most developed at the contracted part of the air-bladder.

The most remarkable peculiarities of the skeleton
are the alterations which the first four abdominal ver-
tebra undergo in connexion with the development and
function of the so-called acoustic Itones. The bodies of
these vertebra? coalesce, as we have mentioned abov<!,
more or less firmly with each other, the boundaries
between them being usually marked, however, by distinct
sutures, even if the intervertebral cartilage has dis-
appeared. Thus, in the Ide for exahiple, all four are
divided from each other with almost eipial distinctness;
and the intervertebral cartilage is still present between
the bodies of at least the tliii'd and fourth vertebra',
the neural arches of \vhich, on the other hand, are more
firmly miited by a suture. In the Chub as well as in
the Bream the bodies of the second and third vertebrie
are almost perfectly confluent. In the Barbel the body
of the first vertebra is confluent with that of the se-
cond, and that of the third with that of the fourth.

The body of the first vertebra is always the small-
est. Its transverse [process, which is also considerably
smaller than that of the second vertebra, stands, like
the latter, straight out in a hoi'izontal direction and
originates from the body, also like the latter, without
perceptible suture. The third vertebra is apparently

" Mem. Soc. Sc. Xat. Xftichafel, vol. 1 (1830), p. .06.

' Abbildungeu und Beschreibungen der Fisclie Syrieiis nebs-t ciner iiencn ClassiKcntiou umi Knruklt-ristik siiiiimtlielier Gatlungcn der
Cyprineii, Stuttgart 1843 (reprinted from Russegger's Reisen, B. 1, Tli. 2).

' Cf. above, p. 631, on the lower pharyngeals and teeth of the File-tishes.

'' Mem. Soc. Pliys., d'Hist. Nat., Geneve, Tom. I (1821), p. 20. Bloch (^Fische JDeuUclihuci.i, Th. 1, p. 47) also suggested the
possibility of tliis.

■■ ■S'lsswasserf. Mitletetir., p. 82.

■^ Rtisseggers Reiseri, 1. c, p. 1001.

718

SCAXDINAVIAX FISHES.

without transverse processes; hut the fourth, when its
hody is distinct from that of the third, not only pos-
sesses a rih-likc transverse process on each side, united
by a suture to this side and both set and curved in
the same direction as the ribs, only shorter and more
terete tlian tlicv, Init also bears on its under surface
Mil inner, lamellar process, set transvei'sely and united
to tlie bod^■ of tlie vertebra and to the transverse
])rocesses, pierced at the base (like an hypapophysis),
iind curved backwards and downwards behind the tip of
tlie large pharyngeal jirocess of the occipital bone. To
tiie po.sterior surface of this inner process of the fourth
vertebra is attached the centre of the anterior end of
the air-bladder, and the passage in its Imse receives the
aorta and the anterior end of the kidneys. According
to Sagejieiil" this process also belongs to the fourth
vertebra in Hi/droci/on (a Characinoid) and originates
from the ventral and partly from the lateral sides of
the body of this vertebra''. In tiie Barbel, where, as
we have mentioned, the body of the fourth vertebra
coalesces witii that of the third, we see, however, that
the roots of this process lie on the anterior part of this
composite body, thus within the limits of the third ver-
tebra. A removal in a backward direction thus seems
to have taken place in the rest of our Cyprinoids, an
assumption which tinds further ground in the insertion
of the hindmost so-called acoustic bone {malleus) between
this process and the true transverse process of the fourth
\ertebra to join the wall of the air-bladder. Here, as in
the Sheattish (see above, \>. 699), we explain the malleus
on each side as the transformed rib of the third vertebra.
In the Cyprinoids it is crescent-shaped or, rather, like
the blade of a headsman's axe, and at the inner (con-
cave) margin is set the process whereby it articulates
with the side of the body of the third vertebra. Its
anterior end, which is united by a ligament to the so-
called stapes, ]3rojects abo\e the base of the transverse
process of the second vertebra. This last vertebra sends
out to the ligament just mentioned the bone which has
been called the incus, a l)onelet bitid at the base and
with one branch articulating in a hole in the bodj- of the

second vertebra and the other united by a ligament to the
same bone. The incus on each side is explained as the
transformed rib' and neural arch of the second vertebra.
The two anterior among the so-called acoustic bones,
the stajics and claustrum. wliich lie close to each other
on the covering membrane of the atrium sinus imparis
(see above, p. G99), are partly foliate in form, and are
explained as re])rf'senting on each side the otherwise want-
ing neural arch and spine of the iirst vertebra. The se-
cond vertebra is apparently Avithout neural sjnne (upper
spinous process), l)ut its place is taken by a covering
bone above the spinal canal between the occipital bone
and the large neural spine of the third vertelira, which
spine is usually strengthened by coalescence \vith the
neural spine of the fourth vertebra.

In the structure of the head we shall here remark
only the comparative])- perfect development of the or-
l)ital ring. Not only do the ordinary (here 4 — 8) sub-
orbital bones surround the eye behind, below, and in
front; the ej'e is also protected above by a supraorbital
bone, a covering bone on the frontal bone of each side.

The skeleton of the Cyprinoids, which as a rule
contains a moderate number of vertebra; (40'' — 50), is
further distinguished by the high and upright, anterior
and upper, articular processes (zygapophyses) of the ab- _
dominal vertebra\ especially in the forepart of the trunk, ■
where the top of each of these processes meets the base
of the neural spine of the vertel)ra immediately in front
or the upper part of the neural arch of this vertebra.'
The shoulder- girdle is strong. The incurved anterior mar-
gin of the clavicle ma}' sometimes, as in Laheo', he de-
veloped into a disk so broad that only a narrow passage
is left for the a'sophagus. The coracoid bone is also as a
rule comparatively broad, and the precoracoid bone
ascending from the upper margin thereof, is bifid at the
top, one bi-anch meeting the clavicle, the other the sca-
pula. Tlie iK'lvic bones nvc elongated, in front bitid,
sometimes for the greater part of their length, liehind
united by cartilage or a suture. From a morphological
point of view the articulation of the ventral fins is in-
teresting, as Davidoff has shown', on account of its

" Morphol. JaLrb., Bd. X (1884), p. 55.

*■ Sagemehl explains it as a transformed pair of ribs belonging to this vertebra. Sorexren, wlio calls it os suspetisorium, ascribes it
to an ossification of the wall of the air-bladder. Cf. S.igemehl's explanation of the pliaryngeal process of the occipital bone (see above).

'■ Ligamentous ossification, according to SoEENSEN, Om Forbeninger i Svemmeblaren etc., Dsk. Vid. Selsk. Skr., 6:te Ra>kke, Naturv.,
Matli. Afh., B. 6, No. 2, p. 41 (scp.). Tlie said paper did not reach me, unfortunately, until tliis sheet was in the press.

'' In Barbus inaculattis, according to Gl'nther, 30.

' GtiNTHEE, Cat., VII, p. 47.

/ Morphol. Jahrb., VI (1880), p. 4G4, taf. XXI, fig. 4.

(•AUr-I'ISIIKS.

■1!)

roteiition in ii cartiliif;iiious form of a row of four bii sal
l)i)ii('s" — .1 |)i)int w'liicli rcmiiids iis of more primitive
types (the (iiiiuii(ls) — the innermost of which even pos-
sesses the same form as in Aniiii ami Li-ji/ilosfrKs. lie-
hind, from the sym]>iiysis, each pcl\ ic hone pi'ojeets on
tiie inner side of flu; insertion of tiie ventral fin in a
process, directed straiijht back or curvinir out\var<l to
the side and serxing as a point of attachment IVtr a
niusele coming from the base of the anal hn. The tiiret'
branch iostegal i-ays an; as a rule strong, of a liroad,
ensiform shape; :uk1 the urohyoid bone, a triangular,
horizontal disk with the point turned forward and with
a strong and high osseous ridge, highest behind, on tiic
upper surface, reminds us most strongly of the coi'-
responding l)one in the Siluroids.

The systematic arrangement of the (\prinoids in-
volves main' ditfieulties, partlv on account of the great
wealth of f>rms, partly in eonse(pU'nce of tlie more than
usually strong i)roelivity of these fishes for cross-breed-
ing between different species, even between species be-
longing to genera recognised as distinct. The <'yprinoids
have been named after the island of Cyprus, the ancient
sanctuai-y of Venus'', and this name has arisen from
observations of the fecundity and vivacity of these fishes
when spawning. They cro^\•d together in wild tumult
to spawn and mingle with each other, seeking tlie same
spawning-places and often having the same spawning-
seasons. Cross-breeds between the Caryj and the Crucian
Carp iia\-c long l)een known. Schonevelde (1624) speaks
of such hybrids in the Elbe", Marsigli (172(i) tells us
from the Danube that the fishermen of this river, who
called these forms Siitic]ikar2)fcn, explained them as
hybrids'', and according to Borneu (1781) the fishermen
of Silesia had made the same observation', namely that
these forms are ])roduced by cross-breeding between the
Carp and thr- Crucian Carp, when Crucian Carp are
incautiousl)- allowed to enter the culture-ponds for Carp,
and that for this reason the breeders of Carp carefully

avoided buying fry from such ponds as \vere suspected
also to contain Crucian Carp. These observations were
regai'ded, however, by zoologists in general mereh' as
surmises — ichthyologists described these hybrids as a
distinct sjiecies, and IIecivi:!.' in I8o3 made them the
type of a, distinct genus — until Dybow-ski" in 18(i2 and
SiEiiOLi)'' in 18()o gave the ([uestion a different turn.
SiEiioLi) also showed' that there was gcjod reason to
regard the Letter of (ierman writers (Hlochs Vi/jjriiiiis
Bio/f/eiiliaf/ii) — a fish which was said to lead the wa\'
for the shoals of IJream, and whose capture was there-
fore sup]>(ise(l to be a good omen of an abundant take
— as a Iniirid oC two kinds between tlie Bream genus,
Abramis {brama and hlieed), on the one hand and the
Roach and Rudd genera, Leiiciseus and Scar<liiiii(s, on
tln' other; and also to intcr|)ret thi' lladiette (Albiiniiis
diilahrati(s) of French authors as a h\'brid'' between the
Chub {Leiteiseiis eejilialtis) an<l the Bleak {AUjiirniis hie'i-
dus). Jackei/ has added several forms from Bavaria
to this list of hybrids, one of which, that between the
Roach and the Rudd, mav jiossess a special interest for
our fauna. As Aet, however, to the best of our know-
ledge, oidy the first t)f these hybrids, that between the
Carp and the Crucian Carp, has been proved by breeding
experiments reallv to be of a hybrid nature. A great
field of investigation is still open here to the piscicul-
turist, with \\'hoin it lies to solve these questions; but
we know enough already to prevent any surprise at
the uncertaintA' in tlie svstematie arrangement of the
Cjprinoids.

The Scandina\ian fauna, it is true, contains onh' a
few of the variations that have ranked as types for the
subfamilies and genera hitherto established within the
Cyprinoid family. Still, we possess a sufficient numlier
to enable us to see among them the most important
extremes in the differentiation of the family. From the
most harmonious Roach type the form-series within the
Scandinavian fauna proceed in two directions, on the

" DAVinoFF calls these bones radii.
^ Kt7[Qi^ was alsn a name of Venus.

' h-htliijol. Stfst;. Hols., p. 34: "medii Carasi oh id dicti, /lal/i Km-nss vol A'arpfiiirass, quod e Caraso et Carpa composili videanlur."
'' "Siinilitudine inter Cyprinuni et Carassiuni luediat, nam ex nvis L'yprini, quantum Piscafores asserunt, ct semine, ved lacte Carassi.
aut e contra progeneratur," Danubius Pannonico-mysiciis, torn. VI, p. 61.
' Zoologia: Silesiaccs Prodromus, p. 205.
'' Verb. zool. hot. Ver. Wieu, Bd. II, p. 29.
' Vers. Monogi . Cypriniden Livlands, p. 55.
'' Siisswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 94.
' L. c, pp. 145 — 152.
•' SiKit., 1. c, p. 167.
* Abh. zool. mineral. Ver. Hcgensb. 1864 and 1865; Zool. Garten 1866; Fisdie Bayerns.

Scanilhiarm,! rislie.i^ 91

720

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

one liMud to an elongation of the base of the dorsal tin, but
with this base more and more reduced the nearer the
series approaches to Leucisrns, on the other hand to almost
as great an elongation of the base of the anal fin. By
coinbiniiig the expressions of these changes we find one
division, the subfaniih' of tlie Carps, corresponding to
Klein's" genus CijpriiHis, in all the forms of which the
dorsal fin is at least ' ., (up to 4' '„ times) longer than
the anal, another divisi(ju, within which the base of the
dorsal fill measures at most about i;H) %'', but some-
times no more than 70 % of the length of the base of
the anal fin, and a third division, within which this
])ercentage lies l)etween (10 and "i.'!. The last two di-
\isioiis, which comprise the maiorit\' of our Cvprinoids,
iiuiA' also be defined b\- ;i t'oiuparison between the lengths
of the lower jaw and of the l)as(.' of the anal fin. In
the former group, the subfaniiU' of the Roaches, Klein's''
genus Leiiciscus, the length of tlie lower jaw measures
as a rule perceptibly more than half of the base of the
anal fin; but the proportion is subject to a change of
growth'' which approximates this group to the latter
one, essentially corresponding to Klein's' genus Brama,
the subfamily of the Bleaks and Breams, within \\hieh
division the length of the lower jaw may indeed .sink
to about '/- of the base of the anal fin, but may also
rise at least to 48 % thereof. On tHbse grounds we
therefore distinguish among all the forms that in this
respect have attained a fixed character'' — which is the
case in all the Scandinavian species — three subfamilies:

A : Dorsal iiu considerably longer than

the aniil, length of the base of the

latter at most 75 % (sometimes only

21 fi) of that of the base of the former Subfamily Ci/piiidna'.
B: Dorsal and anal fins of fairly equal

length, minimum length of the base

of the latter at least 77 'i of that of

the base oftho former, minimum length

of the base of the former at least 70 %

of that of the base of the latter Subfamily Lenciscina-.

C: Anal lin considerably longer than the
dorsal, length of the base of the latter
at most ()0 % (sometimes only 23 ?i)
of that of the base of the former.. Subfamily Ahrainidhwe.

The knowledge of the Scandinavian Cyprinoids has
))een of fundamental service in the determination of the
other h^uropean forms of this family, and the first edition
of SanidiiKirian Fifiheft was of great importance from
this point of view. Fkies and 1->k.si'I!(i.\i there jtrefaced
their diagnosis by a general summary of what their pre-
decessors, from AnTEDi, had accomplished to the same
end, and this summarv is even now not witliout interest.

.\ktedi, they wrote, who described with an accuracy
unparalleled in Ids time all the indigenous piscine spe-
cies which he had the opportunity of seeing and ob-
serving in nature, adopted'' sixteen Swedish .species of
the genus (_'i/prinus:

Iden (the "kh;"), in modern times Leuciscus idtts,

Sarfren (the Rnd<\), „

Morfrn (the lioach), „

Sf(h)niirii (the Dace), ,,

Saiidkri/paren (the

Gudgeon), ,,

Aspen (the "Asp"), ,,

Lojan (the Bleak), ,,

Vimhaii (the

"Zilrthe"), „

Tljorkiitin (the

White Bream), ,,

liraxcii (the Bream), „

Flirim (the "Zope"), ,,

Scardinius enjtlir-

iijil/tl/aJmiis,

J.ciicisciis nitihis,
Leuciscus f/rislar/ine,

(johid jfnr/ntilis,
Asj)ius rapax,
Alhuymis lucidus,

Abniiiiis rinibci,

Ahrdm'is hiicca,
Ahramis hrama,
Afnamis haUerus,

Fareii, which has proved to be merely a nominal species,
Karpcii (the Carp), in modern times Ci/piiiuis cfopio,
Sufareii (the Tench), ,, „
jRudan (the Crucian

Elritsaii (til

Mil

0,

Tinea vulqaris,
Cjiprhius carossius,
I'hoxiinis (iphi/a.

" Hist. Pise. Nat., Miss. V, p. 08.

* According to our measurements almost 122%; but Kboyek mentions a Roach in wliifli the base of tlie dorsal fin measured 129% of tliatof theanal.

■^ L. c., p. 64, with the exclusion, however, of the Bleaks.

'' In large Kudd the percentage may siidi to 51.

'■ L. c, p. 61, with the exclusion, however, of the Rndd and Tench.

■' In the above-mentioned hybrid, tlie tierman Leiler, which also occurs in Scandinavia, the length of the lower jaw is sometimes
rather more, sometimes less than half the length of the base of the anal fin.

" In genera whicli presumably stand nearer the original forms of tlie family, this character has not accpiired the same degree of con-
stancy as in those which have advanced further in the differentiation of form. So, for example, the above taxonomic relation seems to give
a sexual diiference in the Bitterling (Rhodens amarus), to judge by the 6 specimens which the Royal Museum has received through Professor
SlEBOLD from the River 111 at Strasburg. In the four females among these specimens the length of the base of the anal fin is at most 75 °i
(70 — 75 K) of that of the base of the dorsal tin, while in the two males this percentage is respectively 77 and 81 °i.

'' Descr. tSpec. Pise, pp. 6 — HI. Together with the excellent descriptions the Swedish names m.iy serve in the first place to deter-
mine these species.

CAKl'-l'imiK.S.

721

All these t'oriiis liad relaiiied llieir pusitioii (iCreeoi;-
nised species until the time wlien the tii's) editiini of
Scaiulinariaii /Vn/zcs- Mppeared. Viuv.s and l"',K,s-n{(iM
then ad\aiiee(l the opinicin that the so-ealleil luircii was
a \(inn,i;' ilreani" to whieli Aktkdi had a|)|ilie(l a Swe-
dish name that is used tiiroughout tiie Suderiuaidand
coast of Lake Millar for the "Zope".

In the second edition of his Fauna Siivcica LiXNMiUS
adopted as Swedish all AirrEOi's species with the excep-
tion of tlie (iudgeon, and added onh' one new, hut very
cliaracteristic species, the Skiirhra.ivti^ (_'ii}ir'nn(s (now
I'ek'ciis) riiltrafiis. We must not suppose, however, tiiat
LiXN.F.rs understood liv his C'l/prhuts Biorkna the same

species as Akikdi:

this Linmean form, as Kinios and

Ekstk(")M ha\(' shown, is a nominal species made up oi
the White lireaiii and the Zope. LiNXiEUS is also the ori-
ginator of a not 111 r nominal species, briefly alluded to in
the Si/f^ffiiiii y til line'' under the name oi' C;ipriiu(s Idhanis,
as occurring in tlie Swedish lakes, and sid)se(|uently
introduced l)y IiETZIL's into the Scandinavian faiuia.
From the short diagnosis given by Linx.eus it is hardly
possible to decide with absolute certainty whether this
nominal sjiccies is identical with the Ide or the Koach,
though it is most probably the same as the former.

In the third edition, begun by Ketzius in 1800,
of the Fauna Saeciea, 20 species of the Carp genus are
adopted, nameh' the same Ki as in the second edition (the
Bjorkna and Farrti thus in their Linna'iin signification,
and not as in Ahtedi), together with Artedi's Sandkri/-
pare {C'iii))iiii(s (joliio), and three new species are added:

Cijprinus Dolndu.
„ Idhayiis,

„ I'hoxinus.

Among these three Fries and Eksthom recognised
the specilic rank of the first alo7ie; of Idharus they had
already declared their opinion, and with regard to Plio-
xinus thev jiointed out that the specific character as-
signed to it did not justify its recognition as a distinct
species from LinXvEUs's (Jyprinus Aiihija.

In 18?>2 NiEssiiN ga\(' in his J'rddrtmuis fcl/tl/i/n-
loi/iff Sraiitlhiavica! a scheme of a Scandina\ian piscine
fauna, which possesses the merit, in addition to several
others, (jf haying established the definitions of the spe-
cies on more trustwortin- diagnostic grounds. Within
the ("arp genus (/'i/jnhias) the said author in(dudcs 20
species, namely the original KJ of Artedi, which we
there find restored to their first signification and more
fully diagnosed tiian before: furthermore ('. ridfrnfas,
Ddhida, I'l/(i.riiu(s, and a sj)cci(>s now introduced for the
first time into the Scandinavian fauna, IjLoch's Cjipri-
nu!-' (jihi'lio. The last-mentioned species was, however,
shown by Ekstrum to he merely a variety of the
('ruciau ("arp.

In the description pul)lished by Fr.stroji of the
pist'ine species of j\f(irko there also occurred a mistake
which he hastened to correct in ScamUnuvian Fishes, as
it had gi\en rise to another nominal species, Cyprimis
ni/croIepidofHS. On contiiuied observation of the growth
of the Cyprinoids he had convinced himself that this
tish, though very different both in form and coloration,
\\'as nothing more than the Ide at an early stage of
growth.

The first edition of Scandbtaviau Fishes thus con-
tained 17 Scandinavian species, determined with cer-
tainty, within the Cyprinoid family. In Krgyer's me-
ritorious IJanmark's Fiske (vol. >!, pp. 289 etc.) and in
Nil.sson's Skandiiiavisk Fauna {Fiskarna, p]). 281 etc.)
the luimber of species is the same. This number was
first increased in 1871 by a new addition to our fauna,
when LiLLjKBoiic' described Swedish specimens of Lei(-
caspias deJineatus, specimens to which his attention had
been called by Mr. Ahlbum, Collector of Customs at
Landskrona. In 1877 Doctor Feddersex found in Jut-
land a species new to Denmark, Ahramis hijiunctafiis.

We thus know at present 19 oi as the Goldfish may

claim a place in the character of a domesticated S])e-
cies — 20 Scandinavian species of Cyprinoids, together
with the above-mentioned hybrids.

Iiall show later on, Artedi (1. c, p. 23) has really flescribeit an Abramis Imlh

" As
of '■'Faren''.

' Ed. X, torn. I. i>. 324.

■■ Ofvers. yet. Akatl. F6rli. 1871

"Zope"

Lcier the Swedish name

tab. XVII, A.

722

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

Si-KFAMii.v CYPRININJE.

horsed fj)i much liD/r/er fhtiu flic (iiiiil (Iciitjtii of flic laffcr i(f mosf ^ .^ of flint of flic former), ifs illsfance from
the tip nf fhc siiniit OS (I rule less than {sometimes about eijiiaf to) twice the leti/jth of the head. Among the
sinipfc riii/s id fhc nnfcrior marffin both of the dorsal fin (S or 4) mid the anal (2 or o) the hindmost is gene-
nifli/ hard as ftoiie mid spinifcrous at the hind margin. Lateral line on the tail oe< ajii/ini/ the middle of the
depth of the hodg. Ventral margin terete. Mouth as a rale furnished u-ith barbels. I'hargngeal cartilage as a
rule triangular, irifh the anterior margin straight or slightlg ronrex. Length of the intestinal canal (including
the stomach ami irsaphagus) as a rule secend times greater than the length of the lindg.

We ha\'e o'iveii thi' tii-st i)l;n'(' iiinoiig these cliarae- its jiresent detiiiition, however, tlie subtMinily includes

ters to the one whicli seems to us to l>e the most dis- all the Seaiidiiiavian Cyprinoids that are fiiniished with

Tiiiet externa] token of the direetion of development ; barbels. The same irregularity affeets another charac-

lullowed b\- the subfamily: a- long dorsal fin, developed ! ter, the sen-ation of the last undivided and osseous ray

especially in front, ;is op|)osed to a short anal tin. In in the dorsal and anal tins: this may be present in

the SeaiKlinaviaii fauna this chai'acter is not im])aired
by a single exception; but in consecjuence of another
developmental change, by which the relative length of
I lie head decreases with age, it sometimes happens that,
in large Crucian Cai'i) for I'xanijtle, the length of the
head is somewhat less than lialf the distance between
the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout, while the Tench
also resemliles, as a rule, in this respect the following
subfamily. The systematic signiticant'C of the barbels
we have already seen M-ithin tlie families both of the
Sheattish and the Loach; init here it sometimes happens
that one species of a genus (Ci/jiriiius) possesses them,
while others are without them: — ;ind yet these species
interbreed with each other so freelv that it seems far
too ai'tihcial to separate them into distinct genera. With

some species of a genus (Barbiis), but wanting in other.'-,
while in the Scandinavian fauna it is wanting in two
genera of this subfamily {Gohin and Tinea), which in
other respects as well (the form of the pharyngeal
cartilage and the length of the intestinal canal) show
signs of a transition to the follo\ving subfamily.

The genera that occur within the limits of the
Scandinavian fauna, may be distinguished ;is follows:

A : Length of the dorsal fin mure than twice

that of the anal Genus (^i/prinus.

B: Length of the dorsiil lin less than twice
that of the anal.
a: Least depth of the tail less than - .

of the length of the liea<l.-- Genus (roliio.

Ii: J^'ast depth of the tail move than - -,

of the length of the heail (ienus Tincn.

Gems CYPRINUS.

Base of the dorsal fin more than tiviee that of the anal fin. Branched rags in the dorsal fin at least 17 (e.r-

ccptionallg lii), in the anal f'n at most 7 {exceptionallg s). Both these fns with one of the anterior rags

stro)igUj osseous and behi)id spiniferous. Scales large — their number in the Intend line less

than 40 — thick and hard.

As GCnthek" has renuirked, we are fully justified I the Carp — , in spite of the fact that neither Artedi
in retaining the generic name of Cgprinus in its ori- nor Linn.kus has always been so exact in his syste-
ginal signification — in th(> first place as a name for | niatic enumeration of the C\priiioids as to range the

" Cat. Jhft. Mu.i., Fish., v„l. Vll, p. 2.5, note.

728

Cai'ii f""'st- I'lkhkkk's (il)jectii)ii to lliis course" — tliut
the Ci/priiiiis of AuTKiii ami Linn.eus was strictly a
synoii_yin of the Lcinisiits of modern writers — lias not
oraiiu'd ;in\' adherents aniony iehtlivolo;ii:ists.

The limits, wliicli is iiLdiucnous to Asia and lMiro])(',
Ijut lias heon traiisjjorted \)x liuman ati'cncy througiiout
the civilised world, is by no means rich in forms —
GC'NTiiKR recognises onlv five species — hut these spe-
cies liave hoeii transformed 1)\- doinesticalion into a
iiuiltitude of varieties and often possess monstrousl\-
develo]>ed oi'^ans. NiLssox established'' tor tiii' Ci-ucian
Carp a suh<;enus, ('araf<sii(.^ (wiTliout l)arhels), formed
im tile principle resorted to ])v ('r\'ii:i! of misusing' for
tiiis purpose the Liniuean specific names, liut tiiis suh-
divisioii of the genus is of far too Httle i ni jiortance
— ill spite of tiie fact that in some aiitliors ('arassiits
lias heeii recognised as a distinct genus — parth' in
consideration of tlie intermediate position in form of
b()d\- occiijiied h\- tile (Joldfish. partly on account of

the ease with which the Crucian C;irp and the C;irp to-
gether beget progeny I'apable themselves of reproduction.
The forms belonging to the Scandinavian fauna may
be distingiiishi'd b\- the following external differences:

A: Four barljels, two on ciich side of the

mouth.

a: Length of the postabdominnl part of
the body uboiit equal to the greatest
deptli of the body — greater than it
or at least more than ^ ^ thereof... Cypriuns carpio.

Ii: j-ength of the postabdominal part of
the body less than or equal to ^ /, of
tlu! greatest depth of the body

(IIyl)rid r,i;y,w Kullarii).
B: i\Ioutli without barbels.

f(.- .') or (i seiiles in an oblique trans-
verse row between the lateral line
and the anterior part of the base of
the dorsal (in C;/)iriiius aiiratus.

b: 7 or 8 scales in an oblique trans-
verse row between the lateral line
and the anterior part of the base of
the dorsal fin Cyprhius curassius.

THE CARP (SW. KARI'EN).

CYPRIXUS CAKPIO.

I'late XXXI, fio

1.

Two pairs of barbels, one (small) at each tipper corner of the suonf, one (lari/cr) just behind each corner of the
mouth. Pharynrjeal teeth blnnt (molars), more ar less ci/Iiiidrical, with a more ar less multistriate grindimj,
surface on the top: 1, 1, S — -5, 1, 1. Greatest depth of the body about ' j of its length: distance between the
foremost poi)it of the insertion of the central fins and the beginning of the anal fin greater than the said depth

or at least than 7., thereof.

Fig. 178. Pljary
sc-eii from

>4%

b

ngeal bones aud pliaryngeal cartilage of Ci/primis cirjiio; natural size; ii, left pliaryngeal seen from above; b. the
outside (the left); c, pharyngeal cartilage seen from in front and bi.-low, llie lower (posterior) end pointing upward.

/?. hr. 3 (4); D.

I -2—3 „ 1 .2

— : .4. ; P. ; V. ;

>2 0 — 6 14—17 G— 8(9)

U.j:+ I -I- 1 7 -1- 1 -I- .r ; IJ,i. lat. (.•!4)3i;— 39 ; Lin. tr. -^-V" 1;

(4).5 — <i(7)

Vert. 3r,— 37.

.yy/i. Kcnoivo^ et Kucoiaiog, Ahistot., Athen., cett. vide Ronde-
i.Er, iCyprimis) Unic. A'jiiiit. Hist., part. II, p. 150.
La carpe, Belom, Nat.. Dicer,'). Poiss., p. 267. Cyprinus,
No. 1, Art. .b'^n. Pise, p. 3; No. 13, Spec. Pisc,
p. 25.

- Atl. h-hth. Imi. Or. Xeerl., toiii. Ill, p. 73.
» Prodr. h-ldh. Scaml.. p. 32.

724

SCANDINAVIAN I'l.sHKS.

Cijprimis Carpio, LiN., Si/st. Nat., cd. X, tnin. I, p. 320; 1!l.,

Naturg. Fi-tcli. Deulschl., part. 1, p. D-^, tab. XVI et XVII;

Kktz., Fn. Snec. Lin., p. 354; Pai.l., Zoogr. Ros.i. Asiat.,

loni. IH, p. 289; Nit.ss., Prodr. h'Mh. Scancl., p. 33;

SciiAnERsrn., Physiogr. S/illsk. Tidskr., p. 2115; Cuv., Vai,.,

Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. XVI, ]>. 23; Hcki., Jiiissegg. Reis.,

part. 11, p. 1013; Kii., Uanm. Fifk:, vol. Ill, p. 290;

XiLss., .s/,;iNr/. Fn.. Fish.., p. 284; HcKL, Kn., Siisswasserf.

Oeiterr. Moii., p. 54; SiEB., Siisswasserf. Milteleur., p. 84;

Canestr., Arcliiv. Zool., Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV (1866), p. 64;

Gthu, Pril. Mns. Out., Fish., vol. VII, p. 25; Coll., Forli.

Viil. Sclsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillnegi'li., p. 179; Hessel, U. S.

Coniin. Fisl.., Hep. 1875—76, p. 865: Fedders., Naturh.

Tiilskr. Kblivn, sit. .",, vol. XII, p. 82; Bncke, Fisch. Fischer.,

F/sch:. 0., II'. J'rcu.s:i., p. 106: Handb. Fischz., Fischer.

(M. v. D. Borne), p. 117; MOR., Hi.':!. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,

torn. Ill, p. 368; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. 11, p. 158,

tab. CXXIX, fig. 2; M6n., HcKE, Fisch. 0.ns., p. 105; LiuJ.,

^c, Norg. Fn., Fish., vol. Ill, p. 129; F.vno. Fu. Vert.

.Sinsfe, vol. IV, part. I, ]). 171.
Re.r Ciiin-iiiorniii + Ci/i,riniis iiiiiliis (iilcjiiilotMs), Bl., 1. c,

part. Ill, pp. 131 L-t 178.
Cyprimis corjiio + C. coriaceiis + C. specnlaris + 6'. riibro-

fiiscus + V. nigroiitiratiis + C. viridi-violaceus, Lacep., Hist.

Nat. Poiss., toiii. V, pp. 504, 528, 530, 547.
Cgprinus carpio + C. regina + C. elatiis, Bonai"., Fn. Ital.,

Peso. tab. 108
Ctjprinus hungariciis, Hckl, Ann. Wioii. Mus. vol. I, part. 2,

p. 222, tab. 19, fig. 1, C. aciiminalus, Hckl, Kr., 1. c,

p. 58.
(Jgpriiins Nordmanni + C flavipinnis (ex KuHL et V. Hass.)

+ C. vittatus, Cuv., Val., 1. c, pp. 66, 71, 72.
Vypriiins hithijnicus, Richards., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, p. 372

(vide Gthr).
Cyprimis atrovirens + C. jtainiiKnis + ('. sculpoiitatiis + C.

hi/biscoides, Eichaeds., Ichtlii/ol. China, Rep. Brit. Assoc.

1845, p. 287, cett.
Ci/priniis hceinatopterits + C. viehiiioltis + (J. conirostris, Schleg.

Fn. Japan., Pi.tc, pp. 189 — 191, tab. XCVI et XCVII.
Ci/priiuis cliinensis + C. uliesns, Basil., Nouv. Mem. Soc.

Nat. Mosc, torn. X, pp. 227 et 228, tab. I, fig. 2, tab. II,

fig. 3.

All these nuinercnis names — and .still more, whicli
we have refrained from giving, as we were unaltle to
verify the (|notations — have been applied in descrip-
tions to tlie C'arp with its many varieties. It has been
treated from time immemorial, we may almost sa}',
as a domestic animal, and this treatment has affected
its external form. Several of the above synonyms
prol)al)ly denote hyln'id forms, though it is difficult to
give a positive opinion on this head, as the dentition
of the plinryngeal bones has not been specially de-
scribed.

In (iermam- and I'L'istern Europe the Carp attains
■A length of about 1'., (Hkckel and Knek) or 1'.,
(1>enkcke) metres and a weight of alxjut 30 — 33 kgiu.
(I'.VLLA.s and Hessel). In Scandinavia it has never
been kmiwii lo attain a size at all apju'oaching tiiis,
and even the account given by AsTiiiiM" of tin-ee Carp
respecti\('l\' 23, 24, and 27 Swedisli ]iounds (lU — II' .,
kgiii.) in weigiit, whicii were said to have been caught
"about" 1850 in the Hoje River at Lorama, is evidently
based on hearsay', though it cannot be considered to
involve any impossibility. These Carp would at that
weight iiave l)een probably 80 — 88 cm. long.

Tile l)ody is fairly elongated and thick, the greatest
depth, which lies at the beginning of the dorsal fin,
measuring (in specimens 4 — A^j., dm. long) about 25 —
27 % of tile length, and the greatest tiiickness (just
behind the head) about half the depth or a little more.
Young specimens are in general somewhat deeper', but
thiiniei': tlie thickness increases with age more than the
depth. The dorsal and ventral profiles are fairly re-
gularly arcuate, the former, however, more so, espe-
cially in front. The dorsal edge is somewhat sharpened
just in front of the beginning of the dorsal fin; the
ventral edge, on the other hand, is more terete or even
somewhat flattened. The contour of the tail shows at
the ventral margin a slight break to receive the base
of the anal fin. The least depth of the tail measures
about 12 — 11 % of the length of the body and is as
a rule more than '/., greater than the length of the
base of the anal fin or about "., (52 — 47 %) of the
length of the head.

The length of the head varies in adult Carp (3 —
5 dm. long) l)etween about 23' ^ and 22"2 % of tiiat
of the body'; in -soung specimens it is comparatively
somewhat greater, and it seems generally to be less in
the females than in the males. The head is of a com-
pressed conical form, with sharply rounded snout, and
quite strongly reminds us of a pig's head. The fore-
head is fairly l)road and soinevvliat convex (tlie Itreadth
of the interorbital space equal to or somewhat greater
than the length of the snout), but sho\vs between the
eyes a depression, lionnded within the convex supra-
orbital regions by two shallow g-rooves, which converge

" Nagra iahttagelser riirande de vertebrerade djnr, som fiirekommo i trahten af Lomma, disp. Lund 1859, p. 26.

' .According to Canestrini's measurements the depth of the body measures 27 — 30 % of its length (including the entire caudal fin),
while tills length increases from 128 to 200 mm.

■■ Wlien the length of the body is measured, as usual in this work, to the end of the middle caudal rays. If we lake into account
the entire length of the caudal fin, (he above percentages become respectively 21' ,, and 20.

ill fVdiit tiiw.'irds tlic siKiut. Tliis (loju-cssidii is most
(li-itiiirt ill ciid s|ieciiiicns, in which tiic cxtci'iialh' li;ire
hind jiMrts lA' (he tVoiital liiiiics too are more distiiictiy
inari<ed witii I'adiatiiig stria'. The eyes are rouiul (with
the lon^ntudinal diaiiietei' slightly <TreMter than the xcr-
tical) Mild aiT set rather hii;li, li\ l';ir the lii'catcr paii
of them Iviiiu' al)(i\(' a liorizonlal line tVuiii the tiji ol'
the simnt lo the middle of the eaiidal tin. In speci-
nieiis Ijetweeii '■'> and ') dm. long their longitudinal dia-
meter measures aliout 15 — 14 % of the length of tlie
head: in Aduiiger ('arp thc\- are as usual e<ini|iarati\'(>i\'
larger, their longitudinal diameter, when tlie h(id\- is
i dm. long, being ahmit ' . of the length of tlie head,
wiien the body is ' 4 dm. long, about ' 4 of the same.
The nasal eavities lie just in front of the upper an-
terior eorners of the orbits. Tlie two nostrils on each
side are fairh" large and round, the diameter of the
posterior iieing about e([ual to its distance from the
orbit. The\' are set close to each other, tiie anterior
obliquely on tlie inner side of the posterior; and the
margin of the anterior nostril is raised liehind in an
obli(|uelv cut, canaliculate form, so as to compose a
lid with which the aperture may be closed. The distance
between the two anterior nostrils is somewhat less than
their distance from the middle of the tip of the snout,
but about e(|ual to half the breadth of the intcrorbital
space above the centre of the eyes. The length of the
snout varies, hoAvever, quite considerably, from '3 of
the length of the head in ^•oung Carp t(^ about o" %
thereof in old. The mouth is fully terminal, the cleft,
when the mouth is closed, slightly ascending, and the
gape, when protruded and wide open, of a rounded
quadrangular form. The lips are fleshv: the upper li])
is double, the maxillary lione being also furnished with
a dermal fold, in which tiie two pairs of barbels have
their origin; the lower lip hangs down along the sides
of the lower jaw in front of the corners of the mouth.
The barbels are flattened at the base and vary con-
siderab]\- in length; the lower (at the corners of the
mouth) may be half as long again, according to Fatio,
as the diameter of the eye, but are usually shorter and
in young Carp nuich shorter than the diameter of the
eye; the U]i]ier (anterior), which are set about iialf wa\-
along the maxillary bones or a little higher, are only
half or one-third as long as the lower; but we nuist
not forget that during life these barbels are capable of
extension and contraction. The length of the uiijier
jaw, measured from the nuddle of tlie tip of the snoiit

to the hind e\treniit\' of the maxillary bones, is in
adult Cai'p about 27 or 28 ?i, and the length of the
lower jaw .31 — 3() ?6 of the length of the head. The
gill-openings extend from the upper posterior corner
of the o])crculum to the isthmus, about to the perpen-
dicular Iroin the artieular knob (njijier anterior corner)
ol (he operculum. The branchiostegal membranes are
below united to the isthmus at a. distance from each
other which in old specimens is equal to the longi-
tudinal diameter of the eyes. The branchiostegal ra^•s
are ."> in niimbiM', in accordance with the general rule
within the faniih-; but l-"A'iin on one occasion funn<l I
rays in each meinbrane. The ojierculum is obliipieh'
quadrangular (rhomboidal), with the lower posterior
angle rounded and obtuse. The anterior margin is the
longest, Ijeing abt)ut ecpial in length t(j the postorbital
]iart of the head, or to about half the entire length of
the head. The hjwer margin is slighth' indented in a yer\'
elongated S-shape or even straight. The surface of the
operculum is striated Ijy granulated ridges with inter-
jacent grooves, radiating backwards and downwards from
the artieular knob. The crescent-shaped suboperculum,
which coasts the inferior margin of the operculum, is
distinctly (about '/j) longer than the lower jaw. The
triangular interoperculum, pointed at the top, tills the
angle between the two bones just mentioned ;\nd the
lower part of the preopereulum, and coasts the inside
of the hoi'izontal (lower) arm of this last bone forward
to the point of union with the articulation of the lower
jaw. The hind angle of the preopereulum is obtuse
and rounded. The cheeks are soft; but the space be-
t^veen the eye and the u]3i)ermost part of the preoper-
eulum is filled by the posterior bones of the orbital
ring. The sul)orliital liones are also thick and tirm,
striated like the operculum. The gill-rakers are short
and rather scattered (18 — 2(1 in the outer row on the
first branchial arch), consisting of pointed triangular
disks \vith dermal papilhe on the inner margin. The
lower piharyngeals (fig. 178), the mucous membrant' of
which is fringed at the outer superior margin with
similar, but smaller gill-rakers, 22 in number, are fur-
nished within this margin as a rule with five teeth each;
but while the teeth are being shed, one or two of these
mnx be wanting or may lie hidden or loose in the
nuicous mendjrane. The largest teeth are 3 in number,
set in an inner row. The first of them is bluntly conical,
with a greater or less degree of lateral compression,
and never shows sisns of wear by grinding, l>ut bears at

726

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

tlie top a small annular protuberance; the luiddle tooth,
the largest one, is transversely (from behind and in
front) compressed and striated in the same direction,
with four bent fui'rows on its worn masticatory surface;
the hindmost tooth, as a ndc tlic smallest one, has the
same transversely compressed form and similar mark-
ings, but is furnished with only three furrows. The
otiier two teeth are set beside each other at right an-
gles to the inner row, in an outward direction from the
middle tooth thereof, and have a more rounded masti-
catorv surface, which at least on the inner (larger) one
is marked with stria'. The pharyngeal cartilage is de-
ciduous and in form resembles a more or less equilateral
triangle, with" the anterior (u|i]ier) side almost straight
or slightly convex.

The dorsal fin begins in old Carp at a distance
from the tip of the snout that measures about 42 % of
the length of the liody; l)ut in young Carp its begin-
inng lies farther liack. Its [)Osterior part is of fairly
uniform height, but in front it is elevated in a some-
what pointed form, the upper margin being thus more
or less concave. The length of its base measures in old
Carp about 38 — ?)5 % of that of the body, and its gi-eat-
est height (the length of the first branched ray) about
13 — 12 % of the length of the body, the length of the
base of the fin being thus about three times its height;
but in young specimens — up to a length of about 2
dm. — the fin is comparative!)' much shorter, its height
sometimes measuring as much as half its length".

The anal tin begins in old Carp at about the end
of the second third of the length of the body, and its
base measures about Via o^' V13 of the same length.
Its height (the length of the first branched ray), on the
other hand, measures about ' ,, — ' '- of the length of
the body and may tluis even exceed the greatest height
of the dorsal fin. The form of the anal fin is an
oblique trapezoid, with the outer (lo^\■er) margin straight
or slightly convex.

The caudal fin is deeply forked, the length of the
middle rays (about '/i^, of the length of the body) be-
ing scarcely half that of the lobes; but the lobes vary
in form, being sometimes somewhat pointed, sometimes
rounded. Here, as in the generality of the Gyprinoids,
the caudal fin consists of 17 branched rays, one long,

simple ray at each margin (above and below), and at '♦■
the base of this ray a varying number of short sup- ^^
porting I'ays.

The |icctoi-al tins, which \vitli their fleshy base are _
set low and oblicpiely, just behind the lower third of I
the gill-openings, are oval and obliquely rounded, the
third branched ray being the longest. The entire length
of the fins is about 16 or 17 % of the length of the
bodv''. and tlic distance l)etween the foremost points in
the insertions of these fins and in those of tlie ventral
tins (the length of the ])reabdoininal region) measures
in old Carp about 21 or 22 % of the length of the body.

The ventral fins are of a more trapezoidal form,
with rounded hind margin. They are also of different
structure, the simple ray at the anterior margin being
furinshed at its liase with a short, simple, sn|)porting
rav, which, though it is often difficult to distinguish,
appears as a rule in the ventral fins of all the Cypri-
noids. The length of these fins is generally greater in
the males than in the females and varies in old Carp
between about 16 and 14 % of that of tiie body. Tlie
distance between the foremost ]ioints in the insertions
of these fins and in that of the anal fin measures aViout
27 % of the length of the body.

The covering of scales is subject in the Cai-]i to
the most singular variations. The whole body (except
the head and fins) may be clothed with scales from the
very occiput, where the boundary of the scales lies at
a distance from the tip of the snout which is compa-
ratively greater in young Carp than in old, measures
about 83 — 7!) % of the length of the head, and generally,
even in old s|)eciinens, is about ecpial to the depth of
the body at the occiput. Throughout their extent over
the \ioA\ the scales are rather large (see above, Iau.
laf. and JJii. fr.). of a rounded (piadrangular shape,
and so closel)' imbricated that each scale co\ers nearly
two-thirds of the adjoining scale behind it. The an-
terior (covered) part of the scale is marked with extre-
me] v fine, numerous, concentric stria' ; Init the radiating
grooves are onh- slightly traced and irregular, and the
anterior margin of the scale is only slightly and lui-
evenly indented. < )n tlie hind (exposed) part of the
scale, however, botli the concentric striie and the ra-
diating grooves are coarser, and the surface is here

° Accurding to Caxestrin'i's ineasurcmciits the leiigUi of tlie ilorsnl fin in 11 Carp 74 mm. long
(including the whole of the caudal fin), and its height i:V5 % of the same lenglh.

^ According to Canesthini's measurements the length of the pectoral fins — whiuli in gencial slid
in Carp 74—354 mm. long (including the whole of the caudal fin) is 14 or 15 % of lliat of the htrdy.

^as only 27 \ of tliat of the lindy
\'s even relative increase with age —

727

rouii'h (.iiraiiul.'ilcd), riiniislied witli a great iiuiuluT of
small, \erriici),so pi'dtubt'ranccs (thickeiit'd parts). The
lateral line deseeiids tVoiii the temporal rcyioii in a
sli'i'ht, bnt reaulai- curve down to the middle of the
depth of the body at about the tip of the pectoral fins,
from wiiicli |H)int it ad\ances, straight and uninter-
rupted, to tile middle of th(> base of the caudal iin.
The duet in eatdi scale is short, and pierces only about
the middle third of the length of the scale. It has long
been known, however, that, in addition to the ordinary
Carp, there occur vai-ieties (see our figure) which are
distinguished by the absence of scales and the greater
thickness of the skin on a greater or less part of the
body, the scales on the other parts being considei-ably,
even monstrously enlarged. One of these varieties is
represented in oui- figui'e. The largest scales lie in the
lateral line, in a continuous or an interrupted row. One
or two rows of rather large scales generally coast the
dorsal margin of this variety. The l)elly is clothed with
ordinary scales. As the large scales on the sides of
th(? body most often possess an iridescent or a vitreous
lustre, this variety has been named apcgelkarp (Mirror
Carp). Another variety, ^vhich is entirely without scales,
but has a still thicker skin, is known as the Leather
Carp (ld(lerkarj)e}i).

There is hardly any external difference between
the sexes, except during the spawning-season, at which
time the males are mai'ked hj a dermal eruption, con-
sisting of small, wliite tubercles, on the cheeks and
gill-covers.

The usual coloration is olive green, on the back
darker, sometimes blackish brown, on the belly lighter,
sometimes yellowish white, on the sides with a coppery
or brass}" lustre. It is, however, subject to consider-
able variations, shading on the back into blue or red,
on the sides still oftener into red, a colour especially
characteristic of the so-called Leather Car]). This
ground-colour is diversified by the Idack edges and
centre of each separate scale. The dorsal and caudal
fins shade most often into graj-, the paired fins and the
anal fin into red. In the reddish varieties, however, all
the fins share in the general tone of colour. The iris
is yellow, with a bright golden margin round the iniyiil.
In captivity albinos sometimes occur.

The natural range of the Carp extends from Japan
and China through Central Asia to Eastern Europe. It

is difficult 111 fix the limit of the Carp's natural range
in (,'entral Europe; but it has been introduced in a
state of domestication tin'oughout the rest of Europe,
except the extreme north, and has also been transported
to the East Indian Archipelago, Australia, and North
America. In India it is uTiknown. Subsetjuent to its in-
troduction it has sjiread to the lakes and rivers of these
regions, where it now lives even in a state of freedom.
Kkoyer assumes, with great prol)ability, that it was
during the Roman Catholic times, when fish was the
Old}' animal food permitted during Lent, that the Carp
was introduced b}- the monks into Denmark and the
south of Sweden, and l^egan to be cultivated in ponds
at the convents. We have no jiositive information,
however, on this point. An old tradition, on the other
hand, c|uoted from Pontoppidax" by Bloch, Kkovek,
and NiLSSOX, but also in need of confirmation, ascribes
the introduction to a later date, when Peder Oxe
(L567 — 1575) was Lord Steward of Denmark and owned
large estates in Scania. In England Carp existed, though
their number was small, in 1496, according to Dame
Juliana Beexer's Boke of St. Albans''; and at the pre-
sent day the Carp is very common in that country.

The Carp, like the other Cj'prinoids, is by nature a
fresh-water fish, i)ut it can also endure salt water. In
the Caspian Sea, according to Pallas, the Car]j lives
in water so salt that hardly any other fish can sustain
life there. In brackish water it occurs, according to
JIoBirs and Heixcke, in the Schlei at Schleswig. In
Sweden it has spread from the ponds to the lakes and
rivers, principally in Scania. It has also been culti-
vated, \vithout doubt, on the estates of Central Sweden,
for it occurs, though extremely rare, in Lake Malar, where
in June, 1888 a fisherman from Sundliyholm (Soder-
manland) caught the female Mirror C'arp represented
in our figure (' g of the natural size). Neither he nor his
acquaintances had ever seen one of these fishes before.

In a state of nature the Carp haunts [)la(!es with
a luxuriant vegetation, being by no means averse to a
muddy bottom, but requiring clear water and free access
to the sunlight. Distinction has long been made be-
tween Biver Carj), Lake Carp, and Pond Carp, which
generally differ not only in their coloration, which
adapts itself to the bottom and the water, but also in
their flavour, which is best in the first-mentioned forms,
worst in the last-mentioned, unless the pond has been

" Den Danske Atlas, p. G53.

' See Yarrell, Brit. Fisli.,.ed. 2.

ol. I, p. 350 and Day. 1. c, p. 103.

728

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

su|)])lied witli a continual flow of fresh water. In
summer, so long as the water is not too warm, Carp
frequent sliallow and sunny spots; in winter they flock
together in deep pools.

The adult Carp is sluggish and peaceable in dispo-
sition, though frecjuently migratory in its habits, espe-
cially during the spawning-season. It is highly sensitive
to heat and cold: during the colder part of the year
it abstains from food. Still it is very tenacious of life,
and may be transported long distances alive. It maj'
also be transferred from its native liaunts to some ar-
tificial receptacle, where it maj' be kept alive for a
long time, and better seen to and fattened. This is an
old custom, resorted to especially for the purpose of
freeing Pond Carp from their muddy flavour. Packed
in damp moss or ice, and with a bit of bread dipped in
spirits in the mouth, the Carp can live at least twenty-
four hours or more. The above-mentioned Mirror Carp
from Sundbyholm was sent to the Royal Museum alive
in a bucket, and was kept alive in a tub for some days.
One morning it was found to have leapt out of the
tub, and lay on its side apparently dead. It was re-
stored to the water, but floated belly upwards and did
not move a limb. It was then given a dessert-spoonful
of spirits, and began after some minutes faintly to move
its pectoral fins. After a quarter of an hour the dose
was repeated, and within an hour tJie fish moved about
with ease, as if nothing had happened. During the warm
season, however, the Carp soon dies of suffocation, if
prevented from coming up to the surface to breathe.
BuCKLAND tells" an amusing anecdote of its habit of
l^reathing air. In an Irish lake fairies were seen danc-
ing on the water during calm, moonlight nights — the
fairies being large Carp that made rings at the surface
by smacking their lips as they breathed.

The food of the Carp is both animal and vegetal )le,
consisting of seeds, fisii-roe, and insects; but it never,
or extremely seldom, Ijites at a fly. Its favourite
nourishment is composed of decomposing vegetable
substances, worms, Entomostraca, and the larvae of in-
sects. The mud swallowed by it can hardly be included

among its food, but seems necessary to its digestion
and general healtli.

The spawning-season occurs in May or June, but
may sometimes be protracted till the month of August,
being often interrupted during unfavourable weather.
At this time the Carp is exceedingly restless and bold,
darting wildly about, jumping out of the wiiter, and
leaping high, if necessary, to reach a suitable spawning
l)lace. Here the eggs, which are small (al)out 1 '.'j inra.
in diameter) and light yellow or yellowish green, are
deposited in shallow water, and attach themselves in
lumps to the water-plants, especially Utriadaria, Nym-
pli(ea, Alisnia, and Gli/ecria''. Tiie males — two or three
to every female — swim at the surface above the fe-
males, as far as the depth of the water permits. Tiie
number of the eggs varies according to the age and
size of the females, but is also different in individuals
of the same size. In a female 3 lbs. (1^/5 kgra.) in
weight Bloch" counted '237,000 eggs, and in a female
16^2 lbs. (7'/2 kgm.) in weight, the ovaries of wliich
weighed 5' , lbs. (^Vo kgm-)> Buckland'' estimated the
number of the eggs at 2,059,750; but another female,
21 Vo lbs. (9% kgm.) in weight, contained only 1,310,750
eggs. Sterile Carp are not uncommon, and have always
been highly esteemed for their fat, delicate flesh. An
English fisherman of the name of Tull discovered' a
method of castrating Carp in order to fatten tliem with
better success.

In a suitable temperature the ova develop so
rapidly that the eyes of the embryo appear on tlie fiftii
or sixth day, and the egg is hatched between tlic twelfth
and sixteenth days, according to Day, or as early as
the eighth day, according to Benecke. Of the growth
of the fish Canestrini-'^ tells us that at the age of one
year it weighs 8 gm., at the age of two 32 gni., at
the age of three 500 gm., at the age of four 1 kgm.,
at the age of five 2—4 kgm., at the age of six 4 — .i
kgm., at the age of seven 7 — 8 kgm., and at the
age of eight 9—10 kgm. These weights vary of
course according to the abundance of food. The Carp
may reach maturity in the third year.

" Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 40.

' The sueds of Gbjceria jtnitnnfi are also an agreeable foofl for the Carp.
' L. 0., p. 97.
'' L. c , p. 38.

' See Watson, An Account of Mr. Arimuel Titll'.^ M'etiiod of ('aatratin;] Fish.. Pliilos. Tr
(Dec. 1754).

/ Fauna D' Italia, part. Ill, Pfstv', p. 10.

Tol, XLVIII, art. CVI, p. 870

729

In Sweden the Carp-fishery is of little importance,
the occiirreiice of this fish in a natural state and in
any tiiiaiitit\- being confinctl to a few lakes in Scania
— VonibsjOn and Ringsjun, according to Nils.son —
with the streams that feed and drain them. The Carp
is taken with the tackle ordinarily employed in fresh-
water fishing. l)ut principally in different kinds of traps.
It is generally too cunning for the net and seine, avoid-
ing the former and swimming under or leaping over
the latter — a ruse which even the ancient Greeks and
Romans knew it to practise. Sometimes it is caught
with rod and line or on nightlines, a method of fishing
extensively enll)lo^•^'d in France both as an amusement
and a source of profit. The bait consists of lobworms,
a piece of old Gruyere, or a bit of dough kneaded with
a little lionet-. The hook must be allowed to sink to
the bottom, and the bait should not be too large, for
the Carp must gulp it down at once — if it begins to
nibble at the bait and feels the hook, it cautiously spits
out both of them. The angler may choose a spot (piite
near land, for the Carp resorts freely to the shore for
food, and may be enticed thither without diificulty by
now and then throwing some breadcrumbs into the
water. The best time for angling is the evening.

Large, or at least middle-sized Carp, 3 — 5 kgra.
in weight, are good eating when well cooked, especially
when boiled in wine or stewed with spices. It was
therefore quite natural that, even in olden times, at-
tempts should be made to utilise this fish in the most
convenient and most profitable manner. Hence the
origin of the cultivation of the Carp, an industry which
has made great strides in some countries, especiall}' in
Germany and Austria, and which even in Sweden has
been carried on witli success. In his Skdnska Besa
LiNK.EUS described the condition of this industry in
Scania in 1749, and his opinion was that "the ground
occupied b\- a fishpond is far more valuable to its pos-
sessor than the finest tilth" (p. 378). In an academical
thesis (Lund, 1766) Cederlof has left us some econo-
mic remarks on the Scanian Carp-ponds. But this in-
terest flagged, and it was not until the present daj'
that the cultivation of the Carp was resumed as an
industry. This has been done by the insti'umeiitality
of !Mr. Wendt, a German landowner who removed

to Sweden, and in 1879, at Gustafsborg near Perstorp,
a. railway station in the District of Christianstad, con-
structed a Carp-breeding establishment. In 1883 he sold
30,0(10 Swedish pounds (12,7.52 kgm.) of fish, and in
1884 half as much again (19,128 kgm.), most of this
quantity being exported to Germany". At Ltlngbans-
hytta in Wermland another establishment for the breed-
ing of Car[) has lately been opened'.

These Carp-jjonds are dug, or still better — if their
site admits of this — formed by damming, beside a
river or brook. Thev should be some feet deep and
at least two in number, so constructed that one or
more of them may be emjjtied at the same time and
thoroughly drained. In a complete establishment the
ponds must be of two kinds, breeding-ponds (Germ.
Strcichteiche, where the Carp maj^ spawn, sich streichen)
and growing-ponds (Germ. Streckteiche, where the Carp
may grow, sich sfrecken, from the beginning of the se-
cond year). In some places a third kind of pond may
be seen, the stew (Germ. Fetteich, Setzteich, Ahivachs-
teich, Kammerteich), where the Carp that have reached
the age of three years or more, are kept ready for use
or sale. The size of the ponds depends on circum-
stances; but the breeding-ponds, which may be most
i-educed in size, should measure at least 10 — 12
arcs (about 1 rood), and to each are 5 females and 3
males maj' be allowed. These ponds, in which the fish
are to spawn, must also contain a. shallow part, wdiere
the water may l)e heated by the sun, as early in the
3'ear as possible, to a temperature of about +17° or
+ 18° C. (about 63° Fahr.), for at a lower temperature
the Carp will not readil)' spawn. The growing-ponds
as w-ell as the stews, on the other hand, must contain
a deeper part, at least about 5 ft. in depth, where the
Carp may assemble in winter without danger of the
bottom freezing. The entrance and outlet must of
course be constructed, in the first place, so as to avoid
the possibility of inundation; and precautions should
be taken by means of suitable filters to prevent the
Carp from escaping and to keep out other fishes and
noxious animals. One or two Pike, to cut off the
weaklings and to keep the older Carp in active motion,
do no harm in the ponds, for the survivors thrive and
grow all the better for their company; and Perch and

" See Trybom, Om karpodling i albnanhet och Mirskildt om den lid Gustafsborij i Krktiaiistads laii, Landtbruks-Akademicns Hand-
lingar och Tidskrift for ar 1885.

' See LiLLEBOBG, Sv., Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 794. WIk'h this sheet was in (lie press, tlic second number of the 'Sveiisk Fiskeri-
Tidskri/t' appeared, containing a paper by H. V. Tibehg on the cultivation of the Carp at Lingbaushytta.

730

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Pike-perch are also of service, though not in exactly
the same degree. But large numbers of other fishes,
especially of the Carp's uwii family, such as Roach,
Rudd, or Crucian Carp, only do mischief. The most
practical method of keeping the ponds clean, a method
which at the same time renders their bottom l)etter ca-
pable of developing food for the Carp, is to drain them
in turn and leave them dry for a year, during which
period they may be plougiied and sown, in most cases
with good results. They must also be emptied to faci-
litate the transfer of the fish from one pond to the
other, an operation which should be performed during
the cool season, in autumn or spring, the heat of sum-
mer being at best disagreeable to tlie Carp on dry land.
It is obvious that the ponds should also be protected
from the inroads of poachers, otters, herons, and other
enemies of the Carp; but ducks do no damage. The
reader who desires fuller information on this head, will
find what he needs either in Norback's Handledning i
Fiskerdrd ocJi Fiskafvel (p. 257) or in the numerous
German manuals on the subject, e. g. Max v. d. Borne,
Haudhuch der Fischzucht nnd Fischerei, Berlin 1886,
p. 261.

Among Carp as among other domesticated fishes
we frequently meet with deformed individuals. One of
these examples, not uncunnnon in its occuri'ence, with
the snout apparently reduced, is described by Valen-
ciennes". The reduction, however, does not really affect
the snout or the jaws, which parts are developed as
usual, or only distorted, the frontal bones, on the other
hand, being anteriorly depressed, and the basisphenoid
and parasphenoid bones reduced.

In the pond the Carp is a victim to all kinds of
diseases. We sometimes hear of Carp being so old that
moss has begun to grow on tlieir bodies, this moss

being reallj^ a mould fungus, Saprohfjiiia, of the same
genus as the scourge of the Salmonoids. The best re-
medy for this is a little salt in the pond or a change
of water. By unsuitable food the whole stock of a pond
may be jjoisoned. Carp may l)e fed and fattened on
ordinary kitchen-refuse, bi'ewer's grains, ])oiled and
mashed potatoes, chopped cabbage, guano, or the dung
of the horse, pig, or sheep. But experience, according
to M. v. D. Borne and others, shows the necessity of
great caution, and the economical results of fattening
have not been satisfactory. Carp are often troubled by
the male frogs, which under the influence of sexual
excitement attach themselves firmly to tlie hesid of the
sluggish Carp, and with their forefeet press the eyes
of the fish so hard as to pi'oduce blindness.

For all this the Carp is an easilj' fed and easily
managed domestic animal; but without expensive pre-
paration for table its culinary value is even less than
that of the Pike. In the south of Europe its roe is
made into caviare, consumed principally by the Jews,
who are , forbidden by law to eat genuine caviare, the
Sturgeon being destitute of ordinary scales.

The age attained by the Carp is not yet ascer-
tained. Buffon mentioned Carp 150 years old as exist-
ing in the moats at Pontchai'train, and Lebel stated
that the ponds at Lausitz'' contained Carp 200 years I
of age. It is difficult, however, to test the truth of '

these old statements, and the same difficulty applies to
Block's account" of the capture in 1711, at Bischof-
hausen near Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, of a Carp 6 feet
long, 2'/5 feet deep, with scales as large as an 8-
groschen piece, and 70 lbs. in weight. In a state
of freedom, according to Heckel and Knek (1. c, p.
57), the Carp only attains the age of about 12 or 15
years.

As we have mentioned above, many cultivators
of the Carp are unfortunate enough to have their
breed of fish spoilt liy crossing with the Crucian Carp.

The liybrid produced by this cross-breeding has gene-
rally been known among modern ichthyologists by the
name of

" Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVI, p. 57.

' See LACEPfeDE, Hist. Nat. Poiss., tome V. p. 510 nnd Bloch, Natiirg. DeutxM. Fish., part. I, p. 95.

' Cited from Beokmanns Gesch. der Clmr., Th. I, p. 574.

IIYBIill) CAIU'.

731

CAKi'lO K(»i,l..\iaJ.

Two pairs of barbels, but these more or less reduced, tlie anterior pair or even one of the posterior barbels {at
the corners of the mouth) beinff often rudimentarij. Jifosf of the 2)harijn(/eal teeth transversely compressed {in front
and behind), with the masticatori/ surface furnished u-ith one groove, usually: 1, 4 — 4^ 1 {sometimes: 3 — S, some-
times: J, I, 4 — 4, I, 1). Greatest depth of the body obout '/,, of its Icnyth: distance from the foremost point
in the insertions of the ventral fns to the beyinniny of the anal Jin less than ^,5 of the said depth.

Fig. 17i). Vtirjiio Kolliiril, natural size, from Ryilgaril (Scania), taken on the 28tli of October, 1858, and its pharyngeal bone
(left) and pharyngeal cartilage niagn. 3 diani. ii, b, and c as in the preceding Hgurc.

3—4

R. hr. 3; D. —^ ^—■, A. ~— \ P. ^ ; V.

lit"— 21' 6'-'— 7 '= ^''"'

C. X + l + 17 + l+,c; Lin. kit. 30—37: L. tr

-7' " 10—16"
(15)7

(0)7

8—9'
1; Vert. 3G.

6'i/n. Ci/primu Kollnrii, Hckl., Ann. Wien Mus., vol. I, p. 223,
tab. 19, fig. 2; Id. (Uarpio), Russeggers Reisen, part. II,
p. 1014; Clv., W.ki.. {Vijprinu.i), Hist. Sat. Poiss.,
vol. XVI, p. 7l!, tab. 458; HcKL, Kn. (Carpio), Siiss-

Soinetinies 17, according to SiEBOLD.
5

732

SCAKDIXAVIAN FISHES.

tvasferf. Oestr. Mon., p. 64; Siee., Hussiaasserf. Mittcdeur.,

p. 91.
Cijprinus striatus, Holandre, Fn. d. I. Moselle, p. 242.
Uarpio Sieholdii, Jaokel, Fish. Bay., Abh. zool. mineral. Ver.

Regensburg, vol. 9 (1864), II, p. 21.
Carasno-Vi/priiius vulgo-Varpio, Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol.

IV, part. I, p. 198.

( '(iriiio Kollarii (Sw. K<irj)ritdan) in its Swedish
forms is even externally an intermediate type between
the Carp and the Crucian Carp. The depth of the body
is greater, and the base of the dorsal fin is shorter
than in the Carp, both measuring on an average V3
(31 — 34 %) of the length of the body. The changes
of growth and the individual variations both in the
Carp and the Crucian Carp, however, render these
characters of little constancy, though they are generally
sufficient to cnal.ilc us to recognise a Carpio Kollarii.
The same may l)e said of the texture of the scales,
which in this hybrid usually show more distinct and
more regular radiating grooves on the anterior (covered)
part of the scale and notches in the anterior margin
thereof. The most important expression of the hybrid
nature of Carpio KoUarii is afforded by the form of
tlie pharyngeal teeth and the inconstancy of their num-
ber, which is often different even on the right and left
pharyngeals.

The first S\vede to describe Carina Kollarii as an
actual hybrid between the Carp and the Crucian Carp,
was ScHAGERSTROM (in the "Physiografiska Sallskapets
Tidskrift" 1838, p. 295), and Lill.teborg has subsequently

described (in Sveriges ocJi Norges Fiskar, vol. Ill, p.
137) at greater length one of the .specimens on which
SchagekstrOm based his opinion, and which were taken
in a Carp-pond on the manor of Krapperup in Scania. _j
This specimen was 3 dm. long. Baron G. C. Cedek- H
.STROM fijund this hybrid to be plentiful among the
Carp and Crucian Carp in a pond at Rydgard. The
largest of the specimens he presented to the Royal
Museum fi'om this locality, has served as the original
of the figure given above in the natural size.

That Carpio Kollarii is really a hybrid, has been
proved by the experiments of Hessel. "In order to
determine this Cjuestion," he writes", "I myself managed
to bring about such crosses by placing (1) female com-
mon carp with male crucian carp, and (2) female cru-
cian carp with male common carp, in small tanks,
constructed with this end in view; (3) I also put to-
gether female Carpio JioUarii with male connnon carp;
this for the sole purpose of testing the capability ot
propagation of the C. kollarii, which had been doubted.
In the two former cases I obtained forms analogous to
Carpio kollarii, sometimes approaching in appearance
the true carp, at others the crucian carp. In the third
case, however, having placed ripe Carpio kollarii to-
gether with Ci/priiuis carpno, I obtained a product with
ditficulty to be distinguished from the genuine Carp.
I took the trouble to feed them for three years, in
order to try their fitness for the table, but their flesh
was exceedingly poor and verj- bony and could not be
compared by an}' means to that of the common carp."

" Rep. U. S. Coinm. Fisli and Fisheries 1875—76, p. 866

733

THE GOLDFISH (.sw. (uaDLisKUN).

CVPJtlNUS AURATUS.

Pliife XXXI, fig. 2.

No barbels. I'tmbdominal length {disfance betireeii the foremost (uppermost) jwiiits in the insertions of the pec-
toral and rentral ^fins) less than '^^ of the length of the base of the dorsal fin. Length of the lower jaw more
than Vj of the preabdominal length. 5 or 6 scales in an oblicjue transverse row between the lateral line and the
anterior part of the base of the dorsal fin. J'haryngeal teeth set in one row, transversely (in front and behind)
compressed^ and irltli one groove in the masticatonj surface: 4 — 4.

Fig. n

Pliarj'ugenl bone (left) aud pharyngeal cartilage of t'uprinus niircitn-i, magn. 3 diam. a, i, and c ai* in tlie preceding figure.

R. br

C. X + \
Vert. 30-
6'yn

+ 17 + 1 + .v; Lin. tat. 29''— 30;

31.

1

■'

V.

(1)2

8" '

7" ;..

ti

r

—6

ij/n.

"7^^-

Lin

\

el.

Akad.

Fn.

6'u

c-c,

ed. I,

Ui/pnnns pinna ani dnplici, caud;e trifiirca
Handl. 1740, p. 403, tab. I, figg. 1 — 8:
p. 125, t.ab. II, fig. ad. num. 331.

Cypriims auratus, Lin., Sy-^t. Nat., ed. X, toni. I, p. 322;
Baster, Opase. subseciva, torn. II, lib. II, p. 78, tab. IX;
Bl., Fisch. Deutsehl., part. Ill, p. 132, tab. XCIII et XCIV
(+ Cypr. macrophthalmus, Aiisl. Fisch., part. IX, p. 51,
tab. CCCCX); Laoep. {Cypr. auratus + C. argenteun -r C.
telescopiis + O. macrophthalmus + C. quadrilobatus) Hist.
Nat. Poiss., torn. V, p. 553; Yarr, Brit. Fish. ed. I, vol.
I, p. 315; Cuv., Val. (Uypr. lineatus — obs. tamen Z): * ,3!
Li». lat. 33; Lin. Ir. 11 — + C thoracatus + C. Langs-
dor/ii + O. auratus) Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVI, p. 06,
celt. : Richards. (Uypr. lineatus + C. carassioides (ex Geay)
+ V. Burtjeri + C. gibelioides (ex Cant.) + C. Cuvieri +
C Langsdorfii + (J. thoracatus + (J. abbreviaius + V. au-
ratus) Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1845, p. 291, cett. : Basil. (Caras-
sius Pekinensis + Oar. coerulens + Car. discolor + Cyprinus
auratus + Cypr. macrophthalmus + Cypr. quadrilobatu.f)
Noiiv. Mem. Soc. Natur. Mosc, tom. X (1855), p. 229, cett.,
tab. Ill, fig. 3, tab. V, figg. 1—5, tab. IX, fig. 2; Blanch.
(Cyprinopsis, ex FiTZ.) Poiss. d. eaux douces Fr., p. 343;
Gthr (Carassius) Brit. .Uus. Cat., Fish., vol. VII, p 32;
Fedders., Naturh. Tidskr. Kblivn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 83:

Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, part. I, p. 205; Day, Fish.

Gt. Brit., IrcL, vol. II, p. 16G,. tab. CXXX, fig. 2; L1LL.1.

(Cyprimm) <S'y., Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 1.58.
I Carassius Langsdorffii + Car. Burgeri + Car. Cuvieri + Car.

I i/randoculis, Sciileq. (Sieb.) Fn. .Japan. Poiss. p. 192, cett.

fab. XCVIII.

Tlie (jroldlish is everywhere .so well known that any
special description of it seems unnecessary. In its nor-
mal type it is an intermediate form between the Carp
and Crucian Carp, with n more .shallow and more terete
body and longer dorsal tin than the latter. During
youth, liowever, the Crucian Carp and the Goldfish may
be almo.st exactly similar in these respects, especially as
the Goldfish undergoes exceedingly great variations in a
domesticated state. The rule is that the latter generally
has comparatively larger fins and shorter preabdominal
region than either the Carp or the Crucian Carp, the
young Goldfish being thus most easily recognised —
where the coloration does not decide the question — by
the fact that the tips of the pectoral fins extend behind
the perpendicular from the insertions of the ventral fins.

The Goldfish, the kin-ju of the Chinese, has its
original home '"in a small lake, Tscliekiang^ near the

" Sometimes 15, according to Fatio and Canestkini.
*■ „ 14, „ ,. F.iTio.

9, „ „ Fatio.

■* ,, 25, ,, „ Fatio and Canestrini.

' In modern maps Tscbekiang is the name given to one of the eastern provinces of China, on the coast, between 27° — 31° N. lat.

734

SCANDINAVIAN FISHKS.

town of Tschangwaliyen in the province of Hiantschewfu,
at the foot of the mountain Tsienking"." From this
locality it was first transported to the northern pro-
vinces of China and to Japan, long before it became a
luxury in Europe at the middle of the last century.
The assumption has indeed been made that it had been
introduced at an eai-lier date into Europe by the Portu-
guese, after they iiad discovered the route to India
round the Cape of Good Hope; and at the present day-
it is said to be a common fish in the streams of Por-
tugal. But it was not until the eighteenth century
tliat the cultivation of the Goldfish was begun in Eu-
rope. The French East Indian Company then presented
some Goldfish to Madame Pompadour, and about 1730
the species was naturalised in England. From that coun-
try it subsequently spread over the whole of Eni'ope;
■•ind at present the breeding of Goldfish is pi'actised on

Fig. 181. The Tolesccpc-fisli, a variety of tlie Goldfish.
After Gt'NTiiEri.

the largest scale in Germany. Tlie neighl)ourhood of
Havre in France also supplies the market Avith con-
siderable quantities of Goldfisli.

In its original state the (Toklfish is olive green,
darker — sometimes blackisli Ijrown — on the liack and
lighter — sometimes whitish • — on the lielly, with a
golden (brassy) or silvery lustre, a-nd lias the form
shown, with only slight deviations from the natural
type, in our figure (Plate XXXI, fig. 2). Cultivation
and selection' are the causes of the well-known altera-
tions botli in colour and form''. The colour shades
1) into blood-red or orange, ending in the lustrous
gold of the typical Goldfish, 2) into paler j'ellow or

white, a ti'ansformation which gives the Silverfish its
name, or 3) into brown, blue, or nearly pure black.
These tints either become predominant both on the
Ijody and the fins, or in the light varieties, leave
patclies and traces of the original colour. The changes
of form tend not only to a more terete shape of body,
but also to the most grotesque modifications of the fins.
The dorsal fin is reduced more and inoi-e, until it
finally disappears, or it may also be divided into an
anterior and a posterior jiart. The caudal and anal
fins are doubled; and when these changes are accom-
panied by tJie protrusion of the eyes, they culminate
in the variety described l)y Linnaeus in 1740, the
Telescope-fish (fig. 181). The internal organs also
undergo monstrous alterations. The development of
tlie air-bladder may suffer such distortion as to leave
the fish a iielpless cripple.

In this manner the Goldfish has been cultivated
and deformed for the amusement of people of rank
('in jMagnatum oblectamentum', LiNNji':us), above all at
the imperial court of China, where officials have been
especially appointed to take charge of the Goldfish, and
where, as Lacepede remarks, the women maj' well re-
c|uire this diversion to break the monotony of their
idle existence. Among these ladies it has been a shift-
ing fashion to keep one variet}' or another, and an
interesting observation of nature to watch the amatory
I>assages of the Goldfish, as the male caresses the gravid
female, rubbing his body against hers. Tlie peaceful
and sociable life of these fish and the ease with which
they may be bred, without the need of ain- troul)le-
some attendance, have rendered thein agreeable and
cheap pets. By ringing a bell — the Chinese alwaj's
have one hanging beside the ponds — each time the
fish are fed, they may be trained even in large pools
to ol.)ey this summons and to come up to the shore,
when the bell is sounded, to show themselves. By
means of warmth and abundant food Goldfish may
be induced, in suitable aquaria or in fish-ponds, to
breed three or four times in the course of the summer.
The Goldfish hatched in spring are 3 — 7 cm. long
by autumn, the largest being now ready for sale, as
they have generally acquired by this time the proper

° According 1o tlie Jesuit missionary Le Comte, who wrote an account of his travels at the end of the seventeenth century. See
Bastee, 1. c, p. 80. At the same period Kampfee, one of Olaus Rudbeck's followers, published a hooli of travels and a history of Japan,
wliere he mentions the Goldfisli, the hhiij-jo of the Japanese.

*■ Land and Water, May 3rd 1S7!) and C. Wagner, Wasser-VuUiir, Bronieii 1881.

' Cf. Basteh, 1. c. tab. IX.

C'lUCIAN CAI!!'

73.5

color:iti<)ii. Ill its earliest yoiitli, tlic (luriitioii of which
may, iiowcwr, be siiortened liy cultivation, the (ioldfish
wears its ori^iiial colour. Traces thereof aj)j)ear in our
fi(r(ii-c on the lips and the pectoral and ventral fins.
in nian\ jiarts of Southern and Central iMirojii'
the (ioldtish has become completely natui'alised. In
Sweden there can hardly be any locality where tlu^
natural tem|ierature is high enough fully to satisfy the
climatic requirements of the Goldfish; but in Denmark
it is kept in ponds at several places, and even in Swe-
den it can li\-e and multiply in tint o])en, as shown
by an experiment made at Helsingborg. In l!S8cS t'wc
handsome Goldtish were put into a fountain in the Park

ol' that town, and left to lind their own support among
the alg;e gi-owing on the bottom of the basin, and
among the insects they might capture at the surface
of the water, llcn-e they survived a severe winter, and
seemed to thrive excellently, having gained both in
weight and size by the following summer. The}' also
considerable increased in mnnber, the parent stock being
now surrounded by a numerous progeny".

The flesh of the (ioldfish was tasted and com-
mended long ago b}' Basteu (1765). It is said to b(;
(excellent, whether boiled or fried, and superior to that
of the Carp. Tiie (ioldfish of eonnnerce yields most pro-
flt, however, by its sale as stock for ornamental waters.

THE CRUCIAN CARP (sw. rudan).
CVPKINUS CARASSIUS.

I'I;ite XXX, figs. 2 and 3.

Mouth iritlidiit Ixirhels. J'realxJdiiiiiial loit/flt iimre tliaii ",,, of the Inisc of tlw dorsal f)i. Length of the lower
jair less than '^ ,, of the preulxlom'niul Iciii/th. 7 or S scales hi an ohliqiic fravsrerse row between the lateral line
and the anterior part of the base of the dorsal Jin. I'hari/ngeal teeth set in one row, for the most part trans-
versely compressed, with simple or one-grooved masticatory surface: 4 — 4.

Fig. 182. Pharyngeal hunes ami pliaryngeal cartilage vf Vi/primis (iiniffnus. Nat. size, a, i, and c as in the preceding figure.

/?. Or. .^: D. ^--; A. — - : P. — '— ; F. ^-;
16—19 6-7 13—16 7—9

-7 g

C..V+1 + 17+1 +.v: Lin. lat. (31)33 — 35: Lin. tr. -~- 1 : Vert. 32.

6

Sijn. Karas (Karass) et Giblichen, Gesn". De Aquat., Paralip., p. 16;
Cyprimis brevis, Schonbv., Ichihyol. Slesv. Hols., p. 33:
Cyprinus pinna dorsi ossiculorum viginti, linea lateral! recta,
Art., Ichihyol., Gen. Pisc, p. 4; ik'i/u. Pise, p. 5; Descr.
Spec. Pisc, p. 29; Lin. Fn. Snec, ed. I, p. 122 (pinna ohz
err.); Cyprinus Hamburger dictus, Gronov., Act. Upsal. 1741,
p. 75; Cyprinus, No. 4, Klein, Hist. Pisc. Natur. Miss. V,
p. 59, tab. XI, figg. 1 et 2.
Cypriyius Carassius, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I. p. 321;
Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), vol. IH, p. 319; V,\.., Fisch.
Deutschl., part. I, p. 69, tab. XI; Retz., Fn. 6'uec. Lin., p.
355; SwARTZ, Sv. Zool., vol. I. tab. No. 10; Ekstu., Vet.-
Akad. Hand]. 1830, p. 192: Pall., Zoor/r. B-o.^is. A.siat.. Unn.

Ill, p. 297; NiLss.. Frodr. Ichlh. ,Scand., p. 32: Ekstr.,

Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 213; Id., Skand. Fisk., ed. 1,

p. 140, V. Wr., tab. 31 et 32; Y.\rr., Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol.

I, p. 355; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVI, p. 82,

tab. 459; NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 290; Blanch. {Vy-

prinopsis) Poiss. d. eaux douces Fr., p. 336; Lindstr. Gotl.

L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 16 (sep.); Mela Vert.

Fenn., p. 317; tab. X; Lillj., {Cyprinus) Sv., Norg. Fn.,

Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 147.
Cypi'iiiiis Gibelio, Bl., 1. c, p. 71, tab. XII; Ekstr. 1830,

1. c. p. 196; Nilss., Prodr., p. 33: Yarr., 1. c, p. .S58;

Cuv., Val., 1. c, p. 90; B.CKL.,K'ei. (fiarassitis) Siiasivasserf.

Oeslr. .^fon., p. 70; Coll., Forb. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874;

Tilla>gsh., p. 180; Blanch. (Cyprinopsis) 1. c, p. 340; Norb.

(Carassius) Handl. Fi.^kev., Fi.<ka/v., p. 417. tab. XLVIII,

fig. 130.
Carassius vulgaris, NoRDM., Vuy. Riiss. Mer. (Dkmiboff), torn.

Ill, p. 479: Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 294: Hckl. Kn.,

" See the Svenska Daghlad for the 22nd of August, 1889.
Scandinavian fishes.

736

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISIIKS.

1. c, p. G7; Dybowski, Vers. Monogr. Cypv. Ltd., p. 41:
KiEii. 6'usswasser/. Milteleur., p. 98; Mgrn, Finl. Fisk/n.
(disp. HelsiDgf. 1863), p. 37; Canestr., Arch. Zoo]., Anat.,
Fisiol., vol. IV, fasc. 1 (186G), p. 66; Gthr, Cat. Brit.
Mus., Fish., Tol. VII, p. -29; Fedders., Nat. Tidskr. Kbhvn,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 82; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fiscli:. O.,
IF. Preuss., p. 109; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill,
p. 374; MOb., Hoke, Fisch. Osts., p. 106; Day, Fish. Gt.
Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 164; Bncke, Handh. Fi-'ichz., Fischer.
(M. V. D. Borne), p. 119.

<Ji//iriiiiis moles, Ar.ASS., Mem, Soi/. Sc. Nat. Neuchat.. toiii. I
(1836), p. 37.

Ui/priiws hiuiiitis +(?)(,'. /jucejihalus, HcKl., Ann. Wien., Mus.
vol. II, pp. 106, 1.".7, tall. 9, 6g. 4.

t'l/printis LiiDuei. Bp., Vat. Mit. Pesc. Fur., \>. 27; Malm
{Cara.isius) Ghgs, Boh. Fii., p. 556.

Ci/prinus oblongns, HcKi,, Kx., •Sii.^sicasser/. Oestr. .Man., p. 73.

A: Tlie Lake ('ntchiii ('arp (('i/priiuis caras-'iius, inu'it.)
— Plate XXX, tig. •>.

The size of tlie Crucian ('ar[) is very variable, being
intluenced by the water in which the ti.sh ]ive.s, and by
the su[)|)ly of food. Most specimens are small, but
S(jnit'tinies the species attains n. length of 4 dm. or
more. Tiie largest specimen KicsriioM saw measured
35 cm. to the base ot the caudal fin, i. e. 42 cm. to
the end of the caudal lobes. Lill.ikbohcj mentions se-
veral specimens 4.5 cm. long from Upland, and he once
saw a still larger Crucian Carp, which was taken in
Lake Hedervik (Upland) and weighed nearlj' SVj kgm.

Tlie body is rather thick, liut couiprc^scd and very
deep, the greatest depth", wliich coincides with the
perpendicular from tlie beginning of the dorsal tin to
the bases of the ventral tins, measuring half the length
of the body to the base of the caudal tin or even to
a point half-way along the said tin. The greatest thick-
ness, which lies almost in the same perpendicular, mea-
sures more than ',3 (about " -) of the greatest depth.
The back is broad and convex at the occiput, gradually
decreasing in lireadth towards the dorsal tin, at the
base of which it is strongly compressed and thin. From
the end of the dorsal tin to the caudal tin the back
resumes its broad, convex shape. Forming a more or
less obtuse angle at the beginning of the dorsal tin,
the entire dorsal profile runs in a high arch to the end
of the said fin, where a depression begins and extends
to the caudal fin. The belly is flat in front of the
ventral fins, Vjetween these fins and the anal fin con-
vex, with a low carina along the median line. The

curve of the ventral ]jrofile, less mai-ked than that of
the dorsal, is regular to the beginning of the anal fin,
fr(jm which point it rises more abruptly to the peduncle
of tiic tail. This finless part of the tail is deep'' and
very siioi't, the distance between the anal and caudal
fins measuring half the depth of tiic tail at the ter-
mination of the former fin.

The head, which is not very large, occui)ies in
adult specimens about "22 % of the length of the body,
or rather more than \ ^ (jf the length to the base ot
the caudal tin, wliile in young specimens its relative
length is somewhat great<'r. The breadth measured
across the gill-covers is about equal in adult specimens
to the distance from the tip of the snout to the hind
margin of the preoperculum, in young specimens to
that of the orbit. The forehead is broad and convex,
its breadth at the middle of the eyes measuring in
adult specimens about .3.S — 41 "a of the length of the
head. The pnjfile is straight from the snout to the
(jccipiit, where a slight break generally interrupts its
continuity. The snout is Idunt. Its length in adult
specimens is aliout ' ., of that of the head. It projects
slightly in front of the mouth, which is small, pro-
trusile, and turned slightly upwards. The lips of young
s])ecimens are fairlv thick, especially the underlip; but
in old si)ecira('iis thev shi-ink, and sometimes leave the
sharp inferior edge of tlie intermaxillary bones to form
the \cry margin of the upper jaw. The upper jaw
projects somewhat, though only slightly, beyond the
lower; but the length of the latter is generally some-
wiiat greater than that of either the snout or the oper-
culum. The eves are circular and middle-sized, being
comparatively larger as usual during youth, and vary-
ing in longitudinal diameter between idiout 70 and 40
% of the breadth of the interorbital sjjace. They are
set so high that an horizontal line drawn from the
middle of the margin of tlic iippi'i' jaw t(.)Ufhes the
lower edge of the iris or of the piii)il. The nostrils
resemble those of the Carp; but the two antcrioi- nostrils
lie at a Somewhat greater distance from each other than
from till' tip of the snout. The operculum is flat,
without -Mw m;irked convexity, and rendered rough to
the touch by rows of tubercles radiating towards the
inferior margin. Its upper margin is united by tiie
skin to the sidi' of the bodv. In this species also the

" About 41 — 43 % of tlie leiistli of Ibe b.itly to tlie end of flie iiiiddlu caudal iiiargiu.
' Least depth of the tail alu'iit 13 °i <if the length of the body.

cm (IAN CAIU'.

r.1/

bviiiicliiusteji'al iiieniliraiics coalesce witli flic sides of tlie
istliinus, at a distance from eacli otlier which is c(|iial
in ol<l s|iccinicns tu the IdUgitlldinal diunietcr of the
eye. The size of the gill-openings is ciiiist'i|iieiitly not
vevx consideralilc, though greater than in the ('arji,
the iicad heing nnich deeper. The hranchidstcgal mem-
brane forms a i)i-oad, membranous rim. usually broader
than in the Carp, along the margins of the operculum
and suboperculum. The gill-raki'i-s are uf the same
soft structure as in the Carp, but more numerous, tiie
outer row on tlic front of tiie first l)ranchial arch con-
taining about 2(! — o(l. Tlie lower pharyngeals are
furnished at tlie outer margin with about 19 si-
milar but shorter spines. At the inner margin the\'
iiavc a short row of four teetli (hg. iSi'), the tirst of
whicli prctt\ closeh' resembles the corresponding tooth
in the Carj), being terete, or even somewhat compressed
at the sides, but ^vith hooked ti]> and obliquely cut
crown. The three posterior teeth, on the other hand,
;irc strongh" compressed in a transversal direction (in
front and behind), and their crowns are bent close to
each other. The phar^^ngeal cartilage has about the
same triangular shape as in the Carp.

The body is covered with large, imbricated, and
striated scales, resembling in essential respects those of
the Carp, but with the radiating grooves on the co-
vered (anterior) part of each scale more distinct and
opening in sharj) sinuses at the anterior nuirgin of the
scale. As a rule six (4 — 8) grooves appear at this
margin. Another groove usually runs straight or ob-
licpiely across the scale, and from the middle of this
groove (the indistinct luicleus of the scale) two or three
similar grooves extend obliquely backwards along the
free (posterior) part of the scale, where the concentric
stria' show undulating breaks. The hind margin of the
scale thus displays numerous and fine, but irregular
notches. The lateral line is straight or slightly sloping,
and lies somewhat nearer to the ventral edge than to
the dorsal. It is covered bv 3.'! (31 — 3.5) scales. It
terminates sometimes at the middle of the body, more
frequently above the \ent; and is seldom complete all
the way to the caudal fin. The perforating ducts of
the lateral line are still shorter than in the Carp. In
most cases we find 7 rows of scales above the lateral
line and t! below it. Sometimes there are <S rows above
and 7 below, in which case the top and bottom rows
consist of smaller scales. The vent lies somewhat be-
hind the beofinnino- of the hindmost third of the bodv.

Tiic dorsal lin is long, but siiorter than in tiie
Carji, tiiougli its length undergoes even relative increase
with age, \ai-yiiig between about "_'(> and 32 % of that
of I he body. Its height, <in tiic otiier hand, is gencnilly
greater than in the Carp, lieiiig apparently subject to
greater indi\i(hial variation (al)(ait 14 — 18 % of the
length of the body). It begins as far from the tip of
the snout as from tiie base of the caudal fin, or a little
near<'r tiic latter, exaetlv abo\e the bases of tiie ventral
fins, ov a little farther forwai'd. and ends in most cases
above the middle or the termination of the anal fin.
Its heiglit is almost uniform, or slightly greater in the
anterior half; and its margin is arcuate in adult s]M'-
cimeiis, straighter in the \<)ung. Tlu; rays vary in
number between 2l> and '2-'>. The first four rays ai-e
simple, the first of all being an almost imperccjitible
spine, most often hidden in the skin, the second some-
what longer, the third more than twice as long as the
second, and the fourth d<-ntated behind on both sides,
soft at tlie tip, and ueai-ly as long as the first branched
ray. The last ra\- is cloven to the base, and ma\'
easily be counted twice over.

The anal fin is short but fairly high, with rounded
margin. Its length is about 10 or 11 ?<6, its height
about 12 oi- 13 % of the length of the body. It con-
tains 9 or 10 rays, the first three simple. The fir.st is
a rather small spine, the second twice as long as the
first, the third thick and hard, with soft and jointed
tip, dentated behind on both sides, and somewhat shorter
than the first branched r,\\. The last branched ray is
cloven to the base.

The pectoral fins are oblicpielv rounded at the tip.
and contain 1 sim])le and (in most cases) 14 branched
rays. Their length may rise from 14 to 18 % of that
of the body. The ventral fins are both broader and
longer, being more obliquely rounded at the tip. Their
length varies between Ki and 19 % of that of the bodv.
Here, as in the preceding forms, the first ray is short
and set very close to the second, which is thick and
hard, vvith soft tip, and nearly as long as the first
bi-anched rays. IJoth pectoral and ventral fins are
generally longer in the males tlian in the fenuiles.

The caudal fin is broad, when folded somewhat
forked, almost truncate when exi)anded. The middle ravs
occupv 13 — 18 % of the length of the body, and in adult
specimens are ",3 as long as the longest lateral rays.

The colouring of the Lake Crucian Carp is very
variable, and is closeh' eoiuiected ■with the nature of

738

SCANDINAVIAN i'lSHES.

the water inhabited by the fish. It is purest and most
handsonu! in lakes with clear water and weedy bottom.
In such cases tlie back is olive green, tlie sides are
lighter and suffused with lirassy yellow, growing still
lighter towards the belly, which is whitish yellow. The
top of the liead is of a dni'kcr n]i\c gi'cen than the
back; its sides are coloured with m liaiidsonie l)rassy
yellow. In muddy lakes witli tiu'bid water the colora-
tion is darker, the back and the top of the head being
dark green, the suffused colour on the sides hardly
visible, and the belly dark yellow. The iris is yellow
in specimens that live in clear water; but the darker
the colour of the body, the greater the density of the
dark dots with which the iris is punctated, and which
in these specimens give it a brownisli or pure brown
appearance. The colour of tlic tins is no less variable.
It conforms to that of the bodj', and thus becomes
darker or lighter. Tlie dorsal and caudal fins are
generally grayish, and in colour closely resemble the
back. Tlie pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are more
reddish brown. During youth, '"up to a length of at least
42 mm.", the Crucian Carp is marked on the peduncle
of the tail with a whitish band and, in front of this,
with a black Itand, sharply defined posteriorly" (Malm).

The common Crucian Carj) may undergo the same
change of colour as its nearest congener, the Goldfish.
Pallas states that the most handsome specimens of this
golden form occur in the desert lakes along the course
of the River Ural and in its salt tributary, the Solai-
naja. v. Siebold observed a similar, but stunted form
(of the following variety) in small, stagnant pieces of
water near Braunsberg and KOnigsberg in East Prussia.
B: The I'oiid Crucian Carp {Ci/2)rinas f/ihelio, Bl.,
auctt.) — Plate XXX, fig. 3.

In Sweden the Pond Crucian Carp is usually of
insignificant size. Its ordinary length is about 7 — 12
cm., while tlie largest specimen EkstrOm saw measured
nearly 2 dm. In 183.5 Fries took a specimen 23 cm.
long at Morlanda (Bohusliin); and Malm mentions the
capture of a female 34 cm. long in tlie pond at tlie
park of the (rothenburg Horticultural Society.

The body of this variety, as compared with that
of the preceding one, is moi-e elongated, less compressed
in front, and shallower. The greatest depth, which lies
somewhat nearer to the head than in the Lake Crucian

Carp, is less than half (about ^ ^) of the length of the
body to the base of the caudal fin, or about ' 3 of the
length to the end of the said fin. The greatest thick-
ness is more than '3 of the greatest depth.

The shape of the back is the same as in the com-
mon Crucian Carp. Tlie dorsal profile runs in a re-
gular and not very higli arch, without any angle at
the beginning of the dorsal fin, and is in general less
sti'ongly depressed between the end of the dorsal fin
and the beginning of the caudal fin than in the pre-
ceding variety. The elevation at the very tip of the
tail (the urostyle), on the other hand, is sometimes
more marked in the Pond Crucian Carp. The belly
from the isthmus to the ventral fins is convex, seldom
flat as in the ])receding variety, and between the ventral
and anal fins compressed, almost carinated. The curve
of the ventral profile is nearly equal to or somewhat
sharper than that of the dorsal, whereas in the common
Crucian Carp the former is more gradual tlian the
latter. From the anal to the caudal fin the dejiression
is more distinct. The tail is deep and short, though
longer than in the preceding variety, the distance be-
tween the anal fin and the caudal fin being there al-
most exactly half the dejith of the body at the end of
the former fin, but here "/g thereof.

The head is apparently lai'ger — whicii is always
the case when the fish acquires a more elongated form
— l)ut its relative length is really the same as in the
Lake Crucian Carp, varjing between about 27 % (in
young specimens) and about 22 % (in old) of the length
of the body. Its breadth, however, measui'ed across
the gill-covers, is greater in proportion to tlie breadth
of the trunk here than in the preceding variety. Seen
in profile, tlie head also appears shoi'ter and more ob-
tuse than in the latter. The forehead is somewhat
I)roader and less convex. The snout is blunter, and
the cleft of tiie mouth ascends more sharply, the lower
jaw closing tlie mouth like a lid, and the angle formed
by the lo^ver jaw at its articulation Ijeing thus rendered
more distinct. The pharyngeal teeth in number and •
form exactly resemble those of the Lake Crucian Carp.
The opercula are distinguished by their being more or
less convex, whereas in the preceding variety they are
almost flat. The branchial arches, the branchiostegal
membranes, and the eyes, both in form and position.

" Eveu at a length of 81 mm. this marking is still present in the specimens preserved in spirits in the Rciyal Museum. That it niaj'
be even longer persistent in the more elongated varieties of this species, appears from figs. 5 and 6 in Siebold's SitssicasserMche M^itteleuropas.

i

CRUCIAN CARl'.

739

reSL'iublc those of tlie Lake Crucian ("arp; iiiid this ap-
plies also to the nostrils, thougli tlicy arc sometiiiies
set a little liiglier.

The scales are like tliose of the preceding variety
in form, number, and distribution. Tin; lateral line
shows some difference, being generally somewhat more
curved, and lying nearer the back. The position of the
vent is the same.

The dorsal fin, which in the number of the rays
resembles that of the Lake Crucian ("arj), is distin-
guished from tlie latter by the <litiiculty wliich often in-
volves the detection of the iirst ray, and which not un-
freipiently causes this ray to be overlooked. In form the
flirt'erence is greater, the dorsal tin of the Pond Crucian
(.'arp being always liigher in front and less arcuate at
the margin. The anal tin may l)e recognised by its
somewhat greater height and less rounded anterior cor-
ner. The caudal tin, even when strongly expanded, and
even in old and large Pond Crucian Carp, is concave at
the hind margin. The pectoral and venti-al tins of the
two varieties are alike in all essential respects. The above

differences in llic form of tlie lins in general range the
Pond Crurian Cai'p uii a ie\cl witii young individuals.

The cciidralioii of tills variety is generally darker
than that of tiie Lake Crucian ('arp. The back is of a
dark olive green, and the top of the head still darker.
The dark tint of tiie back grows somewhat lighter down
tiie sides, the iiuiei- coat of brassy yellow being more
distinct here than (ju the Ijack, where it is often in-
xisiltle. The l)elly is dark yellow. The dorsal iin is
of the same colour as the back; the other fins are gray,
more or less deeply tinged witii i-ed. The iris is brassy
yellow, but often I'endered brown In' the dense dots
with which it is strewn. The pupil, however, always
lias a tine, brassy yellow rim.

In the sti'ucture and arrangement of the internal
organs there is only one difference: in the air-])ladder
of the Pond Crucian Carji the round anterior part is
compai'atively larger, and the posterior part not so
sharply curved, shorter, and nai'rower, a circumstance
which seems to depend on the stronger contraction of
the iiind part of the al)doniinal cavity.

The Crucian Car}), which in Scania and Bf)huslan is
called Karussa (probably from the Danish Karudse), oc-
curs almost everywhere in Sweden, even in the District
of Norrl)otti'n". hi Norway and Finland, according to
CoLi.ETT and Mkla, tiie northern range of the Crucian
Carp is al)out equally great, extending to at least 66°
N. lat.'' The individuals that occur in these northern
regions do not, however, attain any considerable size.
The ajiecies seems also to diminish in size towards the
west, for though even in the District of Gefleborg it
attains a weight of 3',., lbs. (17 hectogrammes), Collett
mentions a sjjecimen 260 ram. long as the largest Cru-
cian Carp from the neighbourhood of Christiania ])re-
served in the University ^luseum of that city; and this
specimen proliably weighed no more than 7 or 8 hecto-
grannnes. In the central and southern })rovinces of
Scandinavia the species is extremely common, and it is
here too tiiat it attains the greatest size. In Wermland
it is rarer and smaller. The Crucian Carp is also spread
over the whole of Europe" and Central Asia, together
with Siberia, eastwards to Amur and China.

Tlie favourite haiuits (»f tiie Crucian Carp are small
lakes with shallow water and weedy and oozy bottom.
When it is found in larger pieces of water, as in the
western island-belt of the Baltic or Lakes Wener, Wetter,
and Hjelmar, its occurrence is confined to shallow, weed}',
and mudd-\- inlets. It also thrives well in small ponds,
peat-haggs, and other collections of stagnant water, and
is the only one of our indigenous fishes, except the
Three-spined Stickleback, that is plentiful and multiplies
freely in such localities, for the Carp cannot be regarded
as an indigenous Scandinavian species. Hence the Cru-
cian Carp, like the Carp, is kept in ponds, almost as a
domestic animal, to supply the wants of the table. It
can even put up with polluted w ater. Pallas also tells
us that the Crucian Carp, which does not even disdain
the salt water of the steppes, is the first fish to make
its appearance in new-formed lakes and fens, of which
fact he saw instances in the basin of the Isset, a tri-
butary of the Toljol (Siberia).

In such small pools, where there is never a suf-
ficiency of food for any considerable number of fishes,

" Cf. Undcrd. Bet. Fiirsl. Xy Fiskeristadga 188.3, Bilaga III, p. 168.

'' Gbimm (Fishing nml Huntituj on Russian Waters 188.-i, p. 13) sets tlic northern limit of the Cnieiai. Carp's range in Russia at
"about 65° N. lat."

' .\rosTOLlDEs (La Peche en Orece, 1883), liowever, does not include tlie Crucian Carp among tlie iislies of Greece.

740

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

the Crucian Carp ;i^radually degenerates, and after some
generations assumes the form descrihed above under the
name of the I'oiid Crucian Cai-]i. 'i'his form never oc-
lairs in lakes or sucli localities as were first mentioned
as the favourite haunts of the species. There only the
Lake Crucian Car)) is met with; but if specimens of this
variety be put in a small tish-))ond, in the course of
some years tlie poii<l will lie found to contain Crucian
Carp of an intermediate form, difficult to refer to either

among the weeds nearer the shore. When it ascends
towards the surface, which seldom happens except when
the heat of the sun entices it forth, it is however shy,
and takes to flight at any noise. It then makes straight
for the bottom, and there seeks a safe refuge, from
which it is not easy to unearth. Its movements in the
water are often active and speedy, though the\ lack
endurance.

The spawning-season occurs in spring and summer.

variety, and at a still later period only Pond Crucian Carp. \ some days earlier or later according to the situation of

These two forms are consequently not distinct spe-
cies, as was long assumed on Block's authority. It is
probable, however, that the Crucian Carp does not de-
generate \vith equal rajjidity ever^'where, but that the
course of degeneration is arrested at an earlier or later
stage, according to the nature of the water and the
su])ply of food. Small |)Ools ai-e, at all events, often
inhabited by the said intermediate forms, which seem
to have lived and multiplied there for a long time
without further transformation.

Tliat the I'ond Crucian Carji resumes its original
form, is shown bj- the fact that if a few small speci-
mens of this variety be placed in a large pond, ^vhere
the supply of food is abundant, they soon acquire the
intermediate form. But when they have been alloAved
to nniltijih to any great extent, so that food is scarce,
and the pond overstocked, they revert to the normal
form of the Pond Crucian Carp. Furthermore, we have
aetual evidence to show that specimens of the Pond

the water where tiie hsh has its home. In Central
Sweden the Crucian Car|j spawns in June, about mid-
summer, when the weather is warm and tine. The lish
then ascend to shallow water near shore. Here they
spawn among the weeds, assembling in dense shoals
and circling rapidly round each other, now and then
raising their snouts abo\e the surface, where each fish
leaves a bubble that bursts with a faint sound. A
murmuring hubbub, like the noise of boiling water, is
thus produced. The roe is deposited at the l)ottom on
the weeds, to which it adheres, and is soon hatched
^v■hen the weather is favourable. The fry do not grow
very rapidly, but soon reach maturity. This faculty
of early reproduction, combined with the comparatively
large size of the ovaries and the smallness of the eggs,
their diameter, when deposited, being only slightly more
than 1 ram., as well as their great number (100,000
— 300,000 in each female), renders the Crucian Carp
extremely jn-olitic. The duration of the spawning-

Crucian Carp, which have been transferred to lakes, season is protracted, in this sjjecies as in others, by
have at length Ijeen restored to the original form of I the older fish spawning first, the younger ones later in

the Lake variet}'. In a small lake in Sodermanland
Ekstrom found large Lake Crucian Carj), the progeny
of Pond Crucian Carp which, according to the state-

the 3ear. But the erroneous supposition that thci Cru-
cian Carp spawns several times a year, has arisen from
the circumstance that during the months of July and

ments of trustworthy persons still living at the time, j August, when the weather is calm and fine, these fishes

had been taken 40 or 50 years previously from a neigh-
bouring pond still inhabited by the latter variety.

Ekstroii elucidated this (|uestion in the Proceedings
of the Swedish Academy of Science for the year 1838;
and at the present time his ojiinion on the subject is
almost universally accepted.

shoal in exactly the same manner as when they are
spawning.

The Crucian Carp is a glutton, and lives on insects,
worms, water-plants, and mud. The flesli ranks as a
delicacy, but its reputation depends principally on the
skill of the cook. Large Crucian Carp, taken in clear

The Crucian Carp is very sluggish in temperament, I water, are best and by no means bad eating: but small
never undertaking any long excursions, and always specimens from muddy lakes always have a more or less
staying near its birthplace, unless compelled by fortui-

tous circumstances to change its abode. This innate
distaste for active motion deprives it of any great ti-

tainted flavour, and their flesh is also bony.

The Crucian Carp is extremely tenacious of life.
In lakes and ponds where the bottom freezes, it can

raidity and renders it oblivious of danger, as it hides survive the winter, and after being kept frozen for a
in the ooze at tiie bottom, Avhere the water is deep, or long time, ma\- l)e restored to life by cautiouslv thawing

IIU'CIAN CAUP.

741

the ice. How great sufferings it is cniiaMe ut' ciKluriii^z',
mav ''c gnthered from 1'Jvstr(")M s ;u'coiiiit of .-i s|icriiii('ii
(lescrilii'd in his "Miirkofiska)" . "Tliis s|ieciiiK'ii w;is pro-
cured from the ishiiid-helt, wduM'c it li;ul licen kept
several days in a caiif. About five oVlock in the mor-
niiv it was taken out of \\w cnuf and carried to tlie
reetor\'. It was tlien laid on a gutting-board and left
there during the wlmle time occupied in describing and
drawing it. About six o'clock p. m., when the tish had
been out nf the water ipiite thirteen hours, it was cut
in two close to the begiutung of the (hirsal fin. Tlie
heart, liver, etc. weiv removed, and th(! surface of
section was drawn. \Mien all this was finished, and
tlie pieces were to be thrown away, the for('])art of the
fish still sliowed signs of life, the gill-co\-ers being
opened and ch)sed, and the mouth protruded and drawn
back. I left tlie |)ieces where they lay, in order to
observe how soon all manifestations of life would cease.

Not until nine o'clock in the escning had all signs of
\italit\ disappeared. 'Ihc lisii liad thus lived sixteen
hours without water, three hours cut in two and with-
out heart."

Of the age attained by the ("rucian ('ar|» Lixx.KU.s
tells us {Skdnska Ri'san, y. 25ti) that a Crucian <'ari>
had lived "certainly more than 70 \cai's' in a spring
at .Ma in the |iai'ish of Svensk<ip. I )uring all this time
it had not grown to a greater length than 0 in. (l.j
cm.), and th(^ colour of the back was very dark. "The
meagre watei' of tin; spring had |irobabl\ (hniied it a
suthciency of fonfl."

The Crucian ('ai'ji is taken chiefly in ti-aps (see
above, p. oo, tig. 7), diu'ing the sjiawning-season in
gill-nets, and oiten in traniniel-nets". In the last case
the water should be thick, for othei'wise tiie tish seldo.m
suffers itself to lie driven into the net, but buries it-
self in the mud. ( Ijv.stko.m, S.viitt.)

'■ Fr. tramail (trois umilles), S\v. sk'vtiiiiit, dalnot, cr piihiiot. In tliis fisliury, wliith is gc-iH-rnlly oi]i|jlo)fil for tlii^ Cypriiioids, and
which is unfortunately very destructive if iirnitisi-d during the spiiwniug-season, the necessary tackle comprises, besides the coble, the net
itself (tig. 183), the 'shoes' (Sw. kabbarni', tig. 1S4). a jhiIc. and a 'heater' (Sw. puis, fork, or lerfvel, fig. 185). The depth of the net is
between 12 and 16 dm., the length 14 — 10 mptres if the net is to be managed by one man, but much greater when there are two fisher-
men. Besiiles the net itself (the inner net — fig. 18:!. G). which resembles an ordinary gill-net, and is made of very fine twine, the size

l-ig. ls:i.

Fiij. 184.

Fir,. IS.-i

Fig. 18:). One end f.f a trammel-net. AB. the head rope: CD. the foot rope; K and F, the two outer nets: (r, the inner net.

Fig. 184. Shoe. Fig. 18o. Beater.

of the meshes depending ou the kind of the fish for which the net is to be used, the trammel should consist of an outer net (Sw. ijrimma)
with very large meshes, and made of coarse and strong twine. The outer net should be ei|ua) in length to the inner net, if it is to extend
along only one side of the trammel, or twice as long, if, as is usually the case, it is to cover both sides (fig. 18:!, /•; and F). When

742 SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

Genus GOBIO.

Bnse of the ilorsal ,tin less f/noi firice as lonf/ as that of the anal. lirancliecl rays in tl/e dorsal fti at most 8,

in the anal at most 7. Neither of these fiis with any spi'iriferons ray. Scales middle-sized — 40 or a fete more

ill the lateral line — and rather thin. Distance hetteeen the anal fin and the rent ahoaf equal in length

to the hase of the fin.

In this uemis .iiiil tlic following one we pass from
the JMacroenteric Cyprinoids and also draw nearer to

established bj- Civikr" as a subgenus of Cyprinm;
but Fleming' was the first to adopt it as the name of

the Leuciscine group, the dorsal fin being reduced both ' a distinct genus. Onl}- two s])ecies, both European,

in tlie nundier of tlic rays and the length of the base, j have hitherto been recognised within this genus. One

The externa] form of the body is also approximated ! of tliein, the smaller, but more elongated of the two

to the Leuciscine type. Still its affinity to the genus \ (Gohio nranoscopiis), belongs exclusively to Austria and

Baiiius, which abounds especially in India, connects Bavaria. The other is
(rohio with the true Carps. The genus Gohio was \

the fish comes in contact with the inner net, it puslies a part thereof in front of it through one of the meshes of the outer net, and is
thus enclosed in a liind of pocket, from which it cannot retreat. The size of the meshes in the outer net varies according to the depth of
the trammel, which should he five meshes deep. In the inner net, which is to form the pockets, the netting should be deeper, a traumiel
12 dm. deep requiring an inner net 16',, flm- i» depth. Tlie art of constructing a trammel-net is difficult enough; but space permits us
only to refer tlie reader to the figure. The head rope (Sw. fianitelnen) should, if possible, be furnished with round floats (Sw. flaru) of pine-
bark, attached at a distance of 17 — 20 cm. from each other. The foot rope (Sw. stentelnen) should be weighted with plummets of lead.
At each end of the head rope a so-called 'shoe' is fastened. The slice is made of wood, in the form of a pointed and hollow cone, and
from its base there projects a wooden disk, pierced at the end with a liole, by means of which the shoe is attached to the head line.

In addition to the net described above the fisherman should have a coble or punt, furnished at the i)row with a ring of iron, rope,
or twisted ruslies, about 15 cm. in diameter. The pole, with wliiili the net is shot, is made of spruce, and i-hould be 7 or 8 metres
long, not too thick to be easily grasped by the hand, and not so thin as to bend beneath the weight of the net. The tackle should be
completed by a so-called 'beater', with shaft 4 or 5 metres long. The shaft .should consist of a thin stake, sharpened like a sword at one
end to enable the fisherman to drive it with ease into the bottom, and furnished at the other end with a lump of wood which varies in shape,
but generally resembles a hemisphere hollowed into the form of a funnel. When this end of the 'beater is thrust into the water, the air
contained in the hollow is forced below the surface, and increases the noise of the blow.

Armeil with these implements, the fisherman betakes himself some fine summer day to a shore overgrown with grass or reeds. When
he has found a suitable spot, he passes the pointed shaft of the beater through the ring at the prow of the coble, and drives it into the
bottom hard enough to moor his boat safely. Then he lets down the net, which should have been properly arranged beforehand, into the
water at the bows, takes the pole, inserts its end into the shoe, and thus shoves out the net in an oblique direction towards the shore. When
he has spread half the net to the full length of the pole, he suddenly plucks the latter out of the shoe, and the net stays in position. He
now inserts the tip of the pole in the same manner into the shoe at the other end of the trammel, and sets this part of the net in a si-
milar way, so that, when both halves of the net are shot, it lies in the form of a snow-plough (V), with the entrance of the angle turned
towards the shore, and its point towards the bows of the coble. The fislieruian next draws up the 'beater', adjusts the middle part of the
net, the part wddch the length of the pole has not eualded him to set before, and with the aid of the 'beater' puslies the coble round om-
end of the net towards the shore. Having got as close in shore as possible, and keeping the net in front of him, he turns the other end
of the 'beater' downwards, and plunges it into the \v-ater in the direction of the net, thus driving the fish before him, and gradually pushing
the coble forward, until he is alile to foueli the net with the 'beater'. With the same implement he then lifts tlie foot rope of the net
above the surface, takes the foot rope and liead rope in his hand, and ilraws up the net into the boat. After arranging the trammel by
taking one of the ropes in each hand and laying the net carefully in the coble, he proceeds to another spot, where he repeats the operation.

When the trammel-net is so large that two men are required to manage it, it is set like a seine in a semicircle, and when they are
ready, one of the fishermen rows the coble from land tow.ards tlie trammel, while the other stands in the boat and with the 'beater' drives
the fish into the net.

" Regn. Anim., ed, 1, tom. II, p. 193.

'' Brit. .!/(/»(., p. 180.

rAlU'-KlSHKS.

743

THE GUDGEON (.mv. sandkhvi'ahkn
GOlllO FI.UNIATIIJS.

I'liite XXXI, titr. 3.

■:l,ATTINr.KN).

Least drpfli of the tail about ' ^ (.-!(> — 3') %") of flic loii/tli of flic head. Dorsal ami anal fins (sometimes the

other fill-'' also) irith sjioffed rai/s. I'haripif/eal teeth set in tiro roirs, the larf/esf ones irith comjiressed, simple,

ohlii/iielii set iiKisticdtiini sarfiiee: the tip hamate: :J{-'>),5 — /'>{4),3{i})''.

6

^*^

Fig. \^*'i. I'liaryngeiil bones ami pharyngeal cartilage nf dohhi /iiviatilit:. Magn. .'! diani. a. h, and

in tlie preceding figure.

H. In: ;!; /'

2—3

7—8'

C. .r + 1 + 17 + 1 +.<•; Lin. bit. 4r— 45: Lin. ti: \\ Vert. ZT

-41.

Syn. Goliiu, Auso.N., Jtfosell., vers. 132; Gobio fluviatilis, Kondei,.,
De Pise, part. II, p. 206. Fundulus, Chari,., Onomast.
Zoic, p. 157; Schonev., Ichthyol. Slesv. IIols., p. 35.
Ui/priniis quincuncialis inaculosus, maxilla superiore longiore,
oirrliis duobus ad os, Art., Ichthyol., Gen., p. 4; Syn., p. 1 1 ;
6'jiec., p. 13. Giuhjeon, Penn., Brit. Zoot. (ed. 1770) toni.
III. p. 3 It).

Cyprinus Gobio, Lin., Syst. Xnt., ed. X, torn. I, p. 320; Bl.,
Fisck. Deutschl., part. I, p. 57, tab. VIII, fig. 2; Retz., Fn.
Suec. Lin., p. 355; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., toni. Ill, p.
295: Agass., his, vol. XXI (1828), p. 1049, tab. XII, Hg.
2: NiLSS., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 33; Schagerstr.,
Pliysiogr. Sallsk. Tidskr. 1837, p. 295; Gthr (Leuciscns),
Jahresli. Ver. Vat. Naturk. Wurttemb., IX (1853), p. 268.

Gobio rliiviatilis, Flmng, Brit. Anim., p. 186: Cuv., Val., Hist.
Nat. Poiss., vol. XVI, p. 300, tab. 481 (+ Gob. nblii.'ii-
rostris, p. 311); Bonap. ( + Gob. venatus) Iconoyr. Fn:: Ftal.,
Peso., tab. 110, figg. 5 et 6; Kr., Danm. Fisk., vol. Ill,
p. 334; NiLSs., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 300; Dybowski, Cy-
prinoid. Livl., p. 72; SiKB. , Siisstvasserf. Mitteleur., yt. 112;
Mr.i;N, Fiid. Fisk/n., p. 40; Canestr., Arcli. Zool., Anat.,
Fisiol.. vol. IV. fasc. 1 (1866), p. 80: Gthr, Cat. Brit.
Miis., Fish., vol. VII, p. 172; Buckl., Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish.,
p. 100; BxcKE, Fisch., Fischer., Fischz. 0.. 11'. Preii.--s.,
p. 115; MOR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.. torn. Ill, p. 386;
Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, p. 280: Mela, Vert. Fenn.,
p. 320, tab. X; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II. ,.. 172:
tab. CXXXI, fig. 2; Mob., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. I(i7; IIeu-
zenst.. Warp., Not. Fisrhf. Ainurb., p. 28: Lili-.l, ^Vc,
Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. III. p. 161.

Gobio vulgaris, HcKL., Kn., Sitssicasserf. Oestr. Mon. p. 90.
Gobio Benacensis, Pollini; Gobio Ititescens, De Fil.: Gobio
I-'ollinii, Dk Betta; vide Fatio, 1. c, p. 294.

Tlie (Tudgeon, according to Blocii, ;tttaiii.s a leiigtli
of S in. (21 cin.), atid Pennant was told of a specimen
that weighed half-a-pound; but in Scandina^■ia it alwavs
belongs to the small fishes, being at most about 15 cin.
long. The body is elongated and fairly thici<, with
broad, convex back, flat belly, and more or less per-
pendicular sides. The greatest depth of the body, which
occurs just in front of the beginning of the dorsal fin,
measures about 16 — ^18' ., % of its length, and the
greatest tliickness, across the opercula, is about % of
the greatest depth. The least depth of the tail is about
8 (sometimes 8' /j) or 7 % of the length of the bod)-.
Tlu- dorsal profile thus forms a very elongated curve,
wiiicii generally shows quito a distinct depression at
tlie occiput. The ventral profile is straighter in front
and ascends, strictly speaking, only beliind, at the be-
ginning of the anal fin.

Tlie form of tlic head, bhintly ]>ointed in front,
otherwise ]«isscs evenlv into that of tiic trunk, but is
diversified in tiie nasal region, just in front of the eyes,
1)V a swelling, which, according to Lilljeuurg, is larger
in the males than in the females — a statement of which
we have failed to find corroboration in our specimens

" Sometimes 39, according to Kroyer.

'■ „ 4, 6 — 5, 3, according to Fatio.

' ., 36, according to Moreau.

Fishes.

744

SCANDINAVIAN 1-ISUES.

- — and which in its most advanced development has | obli(|uely hooked at the tij). The pharyngeal cartilage

given I'ise to thi; estal)lishment of a distinct species, | is soft, scarcely cartilaginous, and triangular, with the

Gobio ohtusirostris. This swelling — e\en when it is I upper (anterior) side slightly curved upwards (convex).

not very prominent — and also the projection beyond j The pseudol)ranchiffi are distinct on the inside of the

the mouth of the blunt tij) of the snout most strongly ] upper part of the hyomandibularbone, though small,

characterize tlie head of tlie (iudge(Mi. Tlic lerigtii of i with about (1 filamentous lamelke. Tiic o])crculum is

the head varies between nl)out '/, and a little more | traitezoidal, its u])per and lower sides being parallel,

than \i'. (-26 — 22 %) of tiiat of the bod\-, being as usual
comparatively greater during youtli. The eyes are ex-
tremely mobile, round, set fairh' high — their upper
margin being almost in a |)lane Avith the slightly con-
vex forehead — and rather large, their longitudinal
diameter varying l)etween about 7 and 472 ^» of ^'^^
length of the body or about 27 and 21 ?«; of the length
of the head. In young specimens this longitudinal dia-
meter is about equal to the In-eadtii of tiie interorbital
space, in old less, sometimes only '/j„ thereof. The posi-
tion of tlie eyes is also such that the length of the snout
— with considerable individual variations" — measures
on an average "'r, of that of the head. The nostrils lie
on tlie rounded margin between the sides and back of
the snout, much nearer to the eyes than to the tip of the
snout. Together they form on each side a round cavity,
divided externally by the obli(pie ])artition \vall l)etween
them, which is raised into a lid. The mouth is small
and lies, as we have mentioned, entirely on the under
sid<' of tlie head, witli the maxillary l)ones extending
back to about a line \\ith tlie anterior nostrils and

but the former only about ^, ., as long as the latter and
throughout united to the dorsal side. The branchiostegal
membrane is extraordinarily narrow along the hind
margin of tlie opei-culum, but all the broader along the
suboperculum and in its lower part, where it is ex-
tended by three, fairly broad, sabre-shaped rays. The
height of the gill-openings is about equal to the post-
orbital length of the head; their upper angle lies hardly
on a level \vith the sujierior margin of the eye, and
their lower angle lies in aliout a line with the hind
margin of the preoperculum, where the branchiostegal
memliranes on the ventral side coalesce with the
isthmus.

The dorsal tin is trajiezoidal, with the upjier mar-
gin straight or slightly concave and the high anterior
margin composed of the first three (simiile) rays. The
first of these rays is extremely short, sometimes scar-
cely possible of external detection, while the second is
nearly half as long as the third. The tin begins at a
distance from the tip of the snout which measures on
an average 42 % (varying between 41 and 43 %) of

with the articulation of the lo\\er jaw in a line with I the length of the body, and its length (base) is 11 or

the anterior margin of the orbit. The lips are fleshy,
and the dermal fold that lies on each maxillary bone
is elimgated behind into a liarbel of moderate length,
which extends when laid back hardlj' any distance, if
at all, behind the perpendicular from the anterior mar-
gin of the eye*. The palatal cui-taiii within the upper
jaw is well-developed. The tongue is fleshy, but hardly
at all free from the bottom of the mouth. The gill-
rakers are short, scattered, blunt, and soft, developed
on the flrst branchial arch only in the inner (posterior)
row, which contains al)out 8. Among the pharyngeal
teeth (flg. 186) only the three posterior in the inner
row have a distinct, obliquely cut masticatory surface.

12 % (in the males sometimes nearly 13 %) of the
same. Its height (the length of the third ray) is always
greater than its length and varies between aliout 16
and 21 % of the length of the body.

The anal fln is of the same form and structure as
the dorsal. Its distance from the tip of the snout is
on an average 62 % (varying between 60 and 63 %),
its length 7'/„ % (varying between 7 and S' ^ ?^), and
its height 13^.; % (varying l)etween 12 and 16 ?») of
the length of the body.

The caudal fln is deejily forked at the hind mar-
gin, most so in old specimens, and thus forms an ob-
tuse aiiirlc with somewhat convex edsres to tlie lobes.

while the others — lioth the two anteri(jr, thicker teeth 1 The length of the middle rays, which occupy about
in the inner row and the two or three teeth in the { 11 — 9 % of the length of the body, is as a rule in
outer row — are of a straighter cylindrical form, though 1 young specimens equal to or a little more than hall.

" Varying between 34 and 46 "„ of tlie lengtli of tlie lieiid.
' Ganestrini, however, inrntions a specimen, a male 74 '\, mm. long
half that of the head.

vhich the length of the barbels was somewliat more than

74r)

in olil

s]i('rlllli'lis

loiig-est
'I'h

oiiti'i' niys.
■ |i;iin'il til

tha

If that of the

IS arr similar io eacii (itlicr in general
form, \\licn tlic \entrals aw not fully expanded. Uotli
i)airs are of an ol)li(|ne o\al sliajK'; hnt the iieetiiral
fins are more pointed and lonuer. The len<i;'th of tiie
latter \aiMes l)etween ahont 'lU and 1.') "o. that of the
ventral tins lietween abont 1') and 1.'! "-^ of the len,uth
of the lio(h. in their position too, these paired tins
resend)le eaih other, the jiectoral fins when ex])aiided
being drawn down to the flat \entra! mai'gin, where
thev project horizontally outwards like the vcMitral fins.
The position of the latter is such that the distance from
the tip iif the snout to the foremost (outermost) j)oint
of their insertion is ahout 43 % of the length of the
hodv, and frcnn the said jioint in the insertion of these
fins to the corresponding point in that of the jjectorals
abont 2o % of the same.

The scales are of moderate size, hut rather thin,
and their form varies considerably, being I'ounded and
quadrangular, semi-elliptical (I'ouncled behind), or round-
ed and triangular. In the anterior (covered) part, which
is the shorter, but deeper, we find only concentric, fine
stria'; the posterior |)art, on the other hand, is marked
with a number (as manj' as 24) of radiating stria;, the ends
of \\hich at the hind margin of the scale form fine and
fairh' regular notches in this margin. The lateral line is
fairly straight, in front slightly curved in a downward di-
rection, and keeps to the middle of the sides of the Ijody.

In coloration the Gudgeon is one of the most sin-
gular of our Cyprinoids, not indeed for any remarkable
beauty of colour — though in this respect it is but
little inferior to our most handsome species, the Min-
now— but for its possession of more varied hues than
most of the Scandinavian forms of this family. The
back is graj'ish green, darker (shading into brown) oi-
lighter according to the colour and light of the envi-
ronments of the fish, and transparent when the light
falls directh' u|ion it. The belly is milky white. The
colour of tlie back extends for\vard on the top of the
head, the snout, and the outside of the barbels. On the
upper jiart of the sides of the snout, just below the
nostrils, appears a dark, fairly broad, longitudinal band,
which is continued across the upper jjart of the eye
more or less distinctly on the temple. Below the eye

too, lies a more or less distinct band, formed by more
i or less denseh' agglomeratetl i-ollections of dark ]jig-
! ment. Similar irregular spots also occur on the oper-
culum and preoiierculum; but the sides of the head are
otiierwise coated with a brassy and silvery lustre finely
punctated with iirowii. The lower jaw and the branch-
[ iostegal memiiraiK! are of thi' same colour as the bell)'.
The iris is below of a silvery lustre, but finely punc-
tated with bi-o\\ n. The silvcny lustre of the sides of
the b()(K shades more or less distinctly into violet, and
this bluish eohiui' collects at certain points intf) a nujre
I or less regular row of undetincHi spots above and along
I the lateral line, now of a lighter blue, now shading
even into blackish bi-o\\n. The scales of the lateral
line are marked, at least in the anterior part there-
of, liy a dense agglomeration of dark brown pigment
on e-M-b side of the canal itself; and more scattered
dots of similar pigment at the margins of the scales
form a network of brown o\ei- the whole body. All
the fins are light ami transparent, of a more or less
jironounced yellowish green. This last colour is most
prominent on the rays, which are also marked — in the
dorsal and caudal fin always, in the other fins some-
times, but with far less density — with brownish, elon-
gated spots, together forming more or less regular trans-
verse bands and most distinct on the caudal fin.

The most trustworthy external distinction between
the sexes during the s]jawning-season is the dermal
eruption, consisting of small, tine, verrucose tubercles
on the head and the forepart of the back, which is
general among the male Cyprinoids. A dark blue s])ot
on the gill-cover, more prominent than in the females,
is also a usual characteristic of this sex during the said
period. Furthermore, according to Fatio, the longest
rays in the pectoral fins of the male are thickened during
the spawning-season; but we have failed to find any evi-
dense of this. The most general difference between the
sexes lies, however, in the longer and higher fins of the
males; but the changes of growth — young specimens
of both sexes being similar in this respect — impair the
validity of the sexual characters drawn from this rela-
tion. We have, however, found one of these characters
to hold good in all our specimens: in all the males
the length of the lower jaw is less, in the females
more, than ").') % of the length of the ventral fins".

" The position of tlie vent, which in other cases gives tlie most easily expressed sexual character, and wliicli has lieeii stated in (lie
Gudgeon to lie in the females behind, in the males in front of, the middle of the body, varies so considerably that in a male 107 mm. long
for example we found tlie distance from the vent to the tip of tlie snout to lie ')H nnn.

746

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

'I'lio internal organs agree with the descri]ition given
above of the strueture of the Brachyeiitei'ic Cvj^rinoids.
Tiie stoin;ich extends back to about a line with the in-
sertions of the ventral tins, from whicii point the in-
testine first runs forward, to the left of and above the
stomach, until at the very front of the abdominal cavity
it bends suddenly back to return straight to the vent.
The entire length of the digestive canal is only about
^/., of the length of the body. The dorsal part of the
musculature contains on each side an ellipsoidal organ
of hitherto unexplained signification, jiroximally and
dorsally attached to the fourth rib (tlic first of the nor-
mal ribs). This organ is wliite and fairly large, being
nearly 3 mm. long in a Gudgeon 110 mm. in length.
It consists of transversely striped muscle fibres, exter-
nally longitudinal, internally transversal, and is attached
by connective tissue to tlie said r\]). As for its mor-
phological signiticance, we can find no better comparison
than witli the above-mentioned (p. 704) iiifroitiis cap-
Ktdir rpsiae in the Cobitoids.

The Gudgeon has a wide geographical range to tiie
east and west, from Anuir and China" to England and
Ireland. To the north and south its range extends in
Europe from Southern Einland (Lat. 62° <3r 6.3° N.), the
extreme south of Sweden, and Liim Ejord, to Central
Italy. In Greece and Spain it is unknown. Its Swedish
range consists principally of Scania, wiiere it is fairly
common in several localities. When Ketzius in 1800
introduced it into tlie fauna of Sweden, it already pos-
sessed at Lake Finja a special Swedish name, SIdffint/
(slat = smooth). The species is also known to occui' in
Scania in Lake Vester and the Ronne River to tlie west,
where according to Scuagekstuom it is called GrnJdn-
nliKj, and in the streams of Helge and Arup to the east.
From the River Morrum in Blekinge Baron G. C. Ce-
DERSTROM in 1856 forwarded several specimens to the
Royal Museum. Tlie Zoological Museum of Upsala,
according to Lilljeborg, has received specimens through
Dr. ScHEUTZ from the neighbourhood of Wexio. Accord-
ing to NiL.ssoN the (xudgeon also occurs in tlie River
Nissa at Halmstad and is there called steiisi((/arc (Stone-
sucker)'. Kr0YER did not know it from the Danish is-
lands; but in recent times it has been found in Zealand
(Feddersen). In Jutland it is common south of Liim
Fjord. In Germany and the Baltic Pi'ovinces of Russia

it is also connnon, as well as in Central and W^estern
Euroj)e. It is one of the inhabitants of the Cavern ot
Adelsbcrg. In the water-courses of Switzerland it ascends,
according to FATnj, to a height of about 800 metres
above the level of the sea; soutli of the Alps it is of
rarer occurrence.

The habits of the (iudgeon arc fairly well expres-
sed bv its Swedish name of Saiiilkri/jiare (Sand-creeper).
As it lies, usually in com]mnies, close to the bottom,
with the paired fins iiorizontally ex])anded, on a bed ot
sand, gravel, stone, or even of mud, it still keeps a
careful watch, and by fits and starts displays great ac-
ti\it\-. It takes a hook freely. It is fairl}- tenacious of
life, but like all the Cypi'inoids, sensitive to changes in
I the weather and inca|)able of enduring bad respiration.
The living specimens in our aquaria kept close to the
bottom and remained still in a packed mass, as long as
the water was fresh; but as soon as it had stood an
hour or so the crowd dispersed, and its members ascended
severally to the upper layers of the water. In spite of
this the Gudgeon can live in muddy or even polluted
streams, and readily haunts the openings of sewers,
provided they are in running water.

Valenciexxes' experimented on this fish in (n'der
to ascei-tain the effect produced on it by atmospheric
rarefaction. The air-bladder became completely empty,
its gas passed into the intestine, the lielly swelled up,
and the fish Hoated on its back, but was alive and
seemed to steer its course in the water. After 24 hours'
continued operation of the air-pump he restored the
fishes to a normal atmospheric pressure; and after the
lapse of 6 hours thev were quite recovered, with the
air-l)ladder full almost exclusively of nitrogen.

As we have remarked above, the com})aratively
short intestinal canal of the (jludgeon indicates that its
food is chiefly animal. It lives principally on insects
and their larvaj, crustaceans, worms, and the roe and
fr}' of various fishes; but it is fond of rooting up its
food in sand and mud, and also devours decomposing
substances, both animal and vegetable.

The spawning-season of the Gudgeon occurs in

Sweden at midsummer or earliei in more southern

countries even at the beginning of Ajiril. Before this
time it has ascended from its winter-quarters to shal-
lowei- sj)ots in rivers or brooks. In the River Hofdala,

" Herzenstein and Warpachowsky, 1. c

' Renewed attempts to procure the Giulgeon from tliis Ideality have, however, failed.

"^ Cuv., Val., 1. c, p. 14.

747

according to Uiiron Cedehstkom, the Gudgeon is ofteii-
est taken in cmtIn- summer in traps {ri/ssjor, see above,
p. :')?>, i\}S. 7), wliicli are set in tlie middle of the ri\('r
against tlie stream. Tlie (iudgeon aseend the river in
the evening to spawn", but in the morning return to
Lake Finja. (hi the 2.")th i if May, 1 S.VS ('kdkkstkom
observ('(l the dudgeon spawning in tiiis h)caHt\-; lie was
t(jld that the spawning liad already lasted a, week iiere
and along the shores of Lake Finja. Riscoxi describes
the spawning of the (gudgeon in Lonibardy as follows'':
"During niv sta\' at Desio, on a most lovely day in
July, I was walking early in the morning along the
shore of the little lake of \illa Tra\ersi. Suddenly a
noise reached my ear. 1 thought at tirst that some
one was Ix-ating tiie watei- with sticks or with the fiat
of an oar. <hi glancing along the shore I soon detected
the s[)ot from which the sound proceeded, as well as
the cause of this disturbance: it was caused by spawn-
ing fishes. Eager to obtain a closer view of this sight,
I stealthih- made my way towards tiieni, and under
cover of the bushes that fringed tiie shore, I got near
enough to observe thera with ease and without betray-
ing nn- own presence. They lay at the mouth of a
small brook, the water of which was cool and clear, but
SO scanty that the pebbles at the bottom were aluKJst
dry. They were Gudgeons. They approached the mouth
(if the brook. Witii rajiid strokes they came swifth' on
and advanced aliout a metre up the brook, not leaping,
but in a manner gliding over the pebbles. After this
first spurt they stopped, bent the trunk and tail alter-
nately to the right and left, and in this way rubbed
the ventral side against the bottom. Whh the excep-

tion of the licll\- and the l<i\\ci- ]iart of the head their
whole bodv now lay out ol tiie water. They i-etained
this |iosition for seven or eight seconds. Then they
dealt a siiarp lilow with the tail on the bottom, splashing
the water in all directions, turned round, and darted
back to the lake, soon to I'cpc.'at the same operation".

The eggs are coni]iarati\cly large when deposited,
aliout 1 ' , mm. in diameter, but also I'athei' few in
number, at most some thousands in each female. They
are transparent, with a dasli of blue or jellow. \'ai,en-
ciENXES supjHised tiiat tile (iiidgeoii spawns several times
a year. The only exideiice of this seems to be that the
female does not deposit her roe all at once, but bit by
bit. That the spawning-season is of long duration,
however, is shown by the fact that Fatiii in Switzerland,
and LiLE.iEBdRG liere in the North, found females full of
roe, but not yet ready to sjiawn, latc' in July .

To the angler the Gudgeon affords excellent sjjort.
It readily takes a bait of flies or worms; and tenacious
of life as it is, it may be used with advantage as live
bait for larger fish. Its greatest value lies, however,
in the flesh, which is of delicious flavour and easj' of
digestion. Bucklaxd writes: "When out gudgeon-fishing
on the Thames, be sure and take a frying-pan, as gud-
geons taken out of the water and immediately fried are
delicious. Clean, wi]ie, and tfour, tlien well fry in
boiling fat, or, better, in oil, till they ai;e crisp and of
a light brown colour. Such a fish dinner is always a
great feature in a pic-nic on a fine day". A somewhat
similar method is employed in Scania in the prepara-
tion of fiskakaga (fish-cake) from Gudgeons and other
small fishes.

Gexus TINCA.

Base of th- dorsal Jin less than twice that of the anal. Branched rays in the dorsal fin at most !J, in the anal

at most 8. Neither of these fins furnished with a spiniferous ray. Scales small and thin — their number in

the lateral line at least almif HO. Distance between the anal fin and th<- vent 'mly \/o or V3

of the base of this fin.

By the deeper form of the body this genus is more comes nearer the Leuciseines, among which the Minnow
closely approximated to the true Carps; but it also wdth its small scales reminds us most of Tinea. Only

" .\ccording to Fatio the Gudgeon spawns in the daytime.
* See Brehm, Thierleben, Aufl. 2, Abth. 3, Bd. 2, p. 275.

"■ V.4LENCIEXNES also states that the spawning lasts from April tu the end of July or tlie middle of August. The Gudgeons we re-
ceived this year (1891) .it tlie beginning of June from the Finja, had just commenced spawning.

748

SCAXDIXAVIAX I'ISHES.

Olio siiecies of this ycnus is known, tor the Sil)criMii genus is the same as that of tlie preceding one. The

species, C'l/priiais percnurufi", which Pallas established, name is derived originally from Ausoxius (in the fifth

and which has otherwise been referred to this genus, { ceiitur}-) and Roxdelet (in the sixteenth century). It

is based merely upon a defecti\-e description in the was ado]ited as a specific name by Lixx^l's, as the

manuscri|)ts left by Srij.LKi! and has been explained , name of a subgenus of ('//y;)/;/^.'-' by ('l'viei;''. and raised

!)}• WAKrAcunwsKi as a I'lio.r/iiiis. The history of the j by Flemixc'" to the rank of a generic name.

THE TENCH (sw. lindakex oi; sctahkn).
TIXCA N'ULGARIS.

Plate XLI, lig. 4.

Barbel at caili corner of flw month small. All the fns rounded. MoiifJi sifmited at the fiji of the snout, be-

fl'mninfi of f/tc dorsal fii just in front of tlir niiddle of the bod if. Miieifcrons /mrcs in the cepJialie si/sfe»i of

till' lideral line cspcrialli/ difitinct in the sn/iraorJ)itid, snhorhitfd. and jireojn/reido-inandihnlur branehes. I'haninr/eal

teeth set in a sinolc r<nr, n-ith norroir, one-f/roorcd inastirafor/i surface: 4(-'i) — 5(4).

" b

Fig. 187. Pharyngeal Icetli and |iliaiTiigeal cartilage of Tincii rnli/uiis. Natural size. a. /■, ami

as in the preceding figure.

3(4)
8(9)'

3(4)
7(8)'

1,5 — 17'

^' (8)9 •

30—33
a. .-■ + 1 + 17 + 1 + .r; /.. lat. (9I))100 — 114(120); L. ir. ^-^3^ 1;

Vert. 37—41.

6'i/ii. Tinea, AUSON., Mos., vers. 12.5; Ronlel., De Pisi:, part. II,
p. 157; Bel., Nat.. Div. Poiss., p. 325; Schosev. , Ichilii/ol.
Slesv. Hoist., p. 76. Cyprinns mncosus totus nigrescens,
e.xtremitate caudw ;cquali, Art. Ichth.. (Jen. Fisc, p. 4 ; Si/».
Pise, p. 5; hescr. Spec. Pise., p. 27. Ci/prinus pinna ani
ossiculis undcciin, caiida Integra, LlN., Fit. Siiec. ed. I,
p. 122.
Ci/prinus Tinea, Lin., Hyst. Nat., ed. X, (om. I, p. 321;
Bi.., Fisch. Deutschl., pari. I, p. 83, tab. XIV ( + /'(•;•
Goldschlei, p. 90, tab. XV); Rktz., Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 3.54;
Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 29C; Kkstr., Vet.-
Alcad. Handl. 1830, p. 200; Nilss., Prodr. Ichtli. Scand.,
p. 34; Ekstr., v. Wr., Stcand. Fisk:, ed. 1, p. 205, tab.
52; Gtiir (Leucisciis) Jalir. Ver. Vat. Naturk. Wiirtenib., IX
(1853), p. 274; RiiUT., Sundm. {Tinea) Finl. Fi.4-., tab. VIII.

" Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. III. ].. 299.
' Rer/n Anim., cd. 1. torn. II, p. 193.
'• Brit. Anim., p. IHC.

Tinea vulgaris Flmng, 1. c: Cuv.. Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss.,
vol. XVI, p. 322, tab. 484; Yarr., Brit. Fisli., ed. I, yo\.\,
p. 328; Kr., Damn. Fislce, voL III, p. 351; Nilss., <Stan</.
Fn., Fisk.. p. 297; Hckl, Kn., Siisstrnssej-/. Oesir. Mou.,
p. 75; Dybowsky, Ci/pr. LivL, p. 66: Siisi)., Siissirasserf.
Mitteleiir., p. 106; Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfn. (disp. Helsingf.
1863), p. 39; Canestr., Arcb. Zool. Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV,
fasc. I (1866), p. 69; Blanch., Poiss. d. eaii.r donees Fr.,
p. 317; LiXDSTR., Gotl. L. Hnsb. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866. p.
17 (Sep.): CiTHi;, Vat. Brit. Miis.. Fish., vol. VII, p. 264;
Coll., Forb. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilla;gsb., p. 183:
MoR., Hi.'it. Nat. Poiss. Fr., toni. III. p. 383; Bncke, Fiseli..
Fischer., Fiseh:. 0., 11'. Preuss., p. Ill; Mela, Vert. Fenn.,
p. 318, tab. X: Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 188,
tab. CXXXIV, tig. 2; MuB.. HcKE, Fisch. Osts., p. 114;
NoKB.. Handl. Fisl'ec, Fiskafv., p. 430, fig. 138; L11.L.1.,
Sc., Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 169.

Tinea Ghri/sitis (+ var. aiiraia), Agass., Mem. Soc. Sc. N.at.
Neucli.. toin. I, p. 37 ; lioNAP. ( + T. italiea), leonogr.
Fna Ital., tom. Ill (Pesei). tab. 93.

Tinea Linnei. Malm. Gbgs. Boh. Fn., p. 564.

•49

Till' avent.sre lenuftli of the 'IVhcIi in Sweden is
about -2 oi- .") dm. 'Ilie lar<;est specimen Ekstroji ever
saw was 4 7 cm. \o\tjS — alreadv an extraordinan' size
— but Nil.ssox iiad a s|K'cinicn neari\' .").") cm. in ien^tli.
According to Blaxcii.vud the tish attains at the aiic
of one year a weight of alxjut I:.'.') gm., at tlie ag(^
of three vears alujut 1 — 1' ., kgm., at the age of six
or seven Aears :^ — 4 kgm. 'i'liis last weight is gener-
ally given, on IJuicii's autliority, as tiu; maximum
weight of the Tencii, and ac(^ording to the reports sent
in to the Swedisii Fislieries Committee of 1881 the
species attains in tlie District of .lOid^i'iping a weigiit
of 8 Swedish pounds (o'l-^ kgm-), but this statement
needs contirmation". According to Fatio 'Pencil 4 dm.
long weigh about 1 ' . kgm., and Tench .') dm. long
2'/'e kgm.

Tlie body is thick, liut laterally compressed and
fairh' deep, the greatest depth, at the beginning of the
dorsal tin. being more tiian '/^ of the length''. The
depth is comparatively greatest, however, in the hind
part of the body, for the Tench is tiie oidv one of our
Cvprinoids in whicii the minimum de])th of the tail, at
least in adult specimens, is about 14 %' (13 '/j — 15\., %)
of the length of the body or 7^ (58— ti5 ?^) of the length
of the head''. The dorsal jirotile ascends only slightl}-,
but in a regular curve. The back is convex througii-
out its whole lengtii, flatter beiiind than in front of
the dorsal tin. The liellv, on the other h;ind, is Hatter
in front of than behind the ventral tins, but in the
males is sometimes concave in the me(lian line between
the ventral tins and the anal tin.

The head, the length of which is about 22 — 24 %
of that of the body, is thick and somewhat compressed.
Its breadth is about e(pial to its vertical depth at the
anterior margin of the orbit. The forehead is broad
and evenly convex, and lies in a line ^vith the snout
and occiput. Its breadth is always somewhat (about
Vio) greater than the lengtii of the blunt snout, which
in adult specimens occupies about JmS % of the length
of the head. The inoutli is small, but turned sharply
upward; the lips are thick. The length of the barbel
at the corner of the mouth is usually less than half

the diameter of tin; eyes. The length of the upjier
jaw is about ' ., (24 — 27 %) and that of tlu; lower jaw
about ' , (30—84 %) of the length of tlie iiead. The
lower jaw is alwavs somewhat shorter tiian tlu; sutui'c
between the suboiicrculum and tlie opermlum, which
suture is as a I'ule erpial in length to ll](' snout. Tlic
e\-es are small, but eotnparatively larger as usual in
young s])ccimens: during the growth of th(^ fish from
1.") to 40 cm. their longitudinal diainetei' (sliglitly greater
than flic vertical) \arics between about 1.") and 13 %
ol' the length of tlie head or 4(» and 34 % of that of
tlic snout. They are set aliout half-way between tlie
occi|iuf and the tip of the snout, and so high that tiie
line from the middle of the margin of the upper jaw
to the middle of the caudal tin touches the inferior
margin of the iris. The nasal cavities, which lie twice
as far from the tip of the snout as from the eyes, an;
furnished, here as in the preceding genera, each with
two closely adjoining nostrils. The anterior nostril is
the smaller and has a projecting dermal flap at the
hind margin. The gill-openings are fairly large, their
height being about eipial to the least depth of the tail.
The opercula are smooth, rounded at the margin, and
furnished with a broad rim, which extends from the
ujipcr angle of the gill-opening to the point where the
branchiostegal membrane is attached to the isthmus, at
a distance of half the diameter of the orbits from the
branchiostegal membrane of the other side. The three
rays in each branchiostegal membrane are bent, broad,
and strong. The gill-rakers are short and scattered,
numbering about 13 in the outer row on the iirst
bi-anchial arch, 16 on the outer margin of the jiiia-
ryngeals. The five, or sometimes only four (more usu-
ally five on one side, four on the other) pharyngeal
teeth (fig. 187) are more or less (the foremost tooth
least) transversely (behind and in front) compressed,
with simple masticatorj' surfaces, depressed in the trans-
verse median line, and with the upper inner corner
more or less (most in the hindmost tooth) hooked. Tlw
pharyngeal cartilage is reddish brown like horn, of a
pointed oval shape (triangular with rounded lateral
corners and arcuate anterior margin), and almost hooked

" Yarrell tells us (from Daniel's Mural A'ports) of n Tpin-h 33 id. long ami 1 1 lbs. 9' 4 oz. in weight, wliicli had Ions lived
closely confined among some roots in a pond choked up uith mud.

' In adult specimens about 27 — 31 % of the length of the Imdy. In young specimens about 7 cm. long this percentage is about
21, according to Casestrisi.

' In young specimens, however, according to Kroyer, about 1 1 ' j °o.

' In exceptional cases, however, these percentages may be found in the Crucian Carp and the Wliite Bream.

7o(>

SPAN DIN A VI AN KISUKS

siJv detaclied

;it tlic inferior extixMuity. It may 1)<
from its place.

The hofh' is cox ered witli vi-vv thin, olilciiii;', ;ind
imliricated scales, which are deeijl}" inserted in tlie skin
and thus appear externally to be \ery small. One of
lhe larger scales above the lateral line in a Tench 4
dm. long is 9 ram. in length and .'> mm. in breadth,
hut onh- the hindmost '2 mm. i^roject out of the follicde.
Tiie nucleus lies far forward in the covei'ed part. A
great luimber of radiating grooves run from the nucleus
in all directions to the margin of the scale (the most
numerous and densest to the hind margin); and the
fine, numerous, concentric stri;e encircle the nucleus,
running parallel to the margin of the scale. The scales
and follicles are clothed with a fairly thick, soft, and
slimv epidermis. The lateral line Ijends down in front,
and the!i runs straight .along the body, aliout e(|uallj'
distant from the back and bell\\ It contains about
100 scales. Above the line there lie about 30 scales,
below it about 20, in an o]jlir{ue row from the be-
ginning of the dorsal tin.

The iieight of the dorsal tin is greater than the
length of its l)ase: the former measures in adult spe-
cimens about 18 '» (17 — 1!) %) nnd the latter about
13'/, % (1-2— 15 %) of tiie length of the body. The
distance between this tin and the tip of the snout is
about 48 % (47 — 49 %) of the length of the body, or
about twice as long as the dorsal margin of the ped-
uncle of tiie tail (l)etween the doi'sal and caudal tins).
Its first four rays are simple; but the tirst ray is al-
ways so short that it does not even project above the
skin; the second ray is also short and in old specimens
ditticult of detection, the third about half as long as
the fourth, which is only slightly shorter than the se-
cond or third among the branched rays. These last
two rays are the longest in the fin. Sometimes, how-
ever, even the fourth ray may be branched; and simple
or branched, l)ut narrow rays may be inserted here
and there between the branched ra)-s, which are other-
wise as a rule 8 in number.

The anal fin is of exactly the same structure as
the dorsal and of essentially the same form; liut its
base is still shorter in ]tro[>ortion to its height. The
latter measures about 14 "y (13 — 15',, ^) of the length
of the body, the formei' about 8 % (7 — 9 %) of the
same. The beginning of the rtn lies at a distance fi"om
the fi]) of the snout of about 63 % (60—64 %) of the
length of the bofly. The vent is usually separated

from the beginning of the anal fin by a distance about
equal to the diameter of the eyes (a little more or less).

The caudal tin is broad and slightly concave at
the end, almost truncate wlien expanded. The length
of its middle rays, measured from the point \vhere the
scales end, is about 14 % (IS'/s — r6\\ %), that of its
longest lateral rays about 16 % (18 — 15'/o %), of the
length of the body.

The jjaii-ed tins are broad and obli(|uel\' oval. The
most distinct external differences between the sexes tind
expression in the dimensions of these tins. In young
Tench and in tiie males the ventral fins are longer than
the pectoral tins, in adult females shorter. Tlie length
of the pectoral tins is about 16' , % (16 — 18 %) of that
of the bod\-: the length of the ventral fins is in the
females less than 17 % (15 — 16 %), in the males moi-e
than 17 % (about 18 %) of the same. It is also a rule
that in the females the ventral tins, wiien laid back, do
not extend to the vent, while in the males their tips
reach beyond it. In the males too, the second ra)- in
these fins is verv thick and broad. The distance be-
tween the ventral fins and the tip of the snout is about
42 % (39' ,—44 ?s) of the length of the body, their
position being generally farther back in the females.

The coloration of the Tench adapts itself to the
water in which the fish lives. In clear water the wliole
bod)' is 3'ellowish green on a golden ground, with tine,
golden dots at the tip of each scale. The top of the
head is darker tiiaii the l)ack, the latter in its turn
darker tiian the sides, whicli fade below into tiie whitish
yellow colour of the liellv. This last colour also ex-
tends to the lower parts of the head and of the gill-
covers. All the fins are light green. The iris is cop-
pery red. — ^^'llen the tisii has been so long out of the
water that life is extinct, the colour is entirely changed.
The body is no^v dai'k green. The back, and in parti-
cular the top of the head, are blackish green. The fine,
golden dots have vanished. The belly is yello\\-. The
fins are dark purplisii red or nearly black. These last
organs are also the first parts of the body to change
colour. ■ — When the Tench lives on a muddy bottom,
it presents the ap])earance siiown in oui' figure. When
it is found in tiie foi-est tarns, wiiere tiie water is ge-
nerallv very dark, tiie entire upper part of the body is
black, as thougii dipped in ink, only the belly being
somewhat lighter. A not uncommon variety is the (jolden
Tencii, of a spotted or plain orange colour. This form
is often kept in tish-jionds Itoth in Germany and England.

751

Tlu' internal organs essentially rcsenible those of
the pi-eceding genus. The liver follows the intestinal
canal backwards in two long, pointed lobes, the right
lobe being the longest and extending back to the vent.
The intestinal canal is short and tiiick, onl}- slightly
lono'cr or even siiortcr than the tish, with only two
coils and without dilatation or special stoniacii. The
air-bladder is large and, as usual, contracted at the
first tliird of its Icngtii. The anterior, snialiei- part is
cvlindrical with rounded ends, tiie posterioi' jiai-t jiointed
beiiind. Thi' ovaries an<l testicles are paii-ed and oc-
cupy the ordinary position.

Tile Tencli is more of a FAii'ope;in tisli than tlie
preceding species, but otherwise has cssentiail\- the same
geograpiiical I'angc. It occurs tlu'ougliout tlic whole of
Europe, Tiorthwards in places to tiie ()2nd degree of
latitude. It is also known in Asia Minor, and in the
extreme south of Europe it is conunon. How far its
range extends in Siljeria, is unknown; but Pallas says
that it is common around the Yenisei. In the west of
Europe it does not seem to go so far north as in the east
of the same continent. Thompson" regarded the Tench
as of foi-eign origin in Great Britain and Ireland. I).\Y
says tliat it is commoner in the east of England than
in tiie west. Kroyei; had no knowledge of its presence
in tlie noi'tli of .Jutland; but according to Feddehsex
it has subsei)uently been found Iti Lake Ravnsti'up, a
little north of the east end of Liim Fjord. In Xoi'way,
according to Collett, the Tench occurs at only two
spots, situated in the coast regions of the extreme
south, namelv Kragero and the park at tlie Niis Iron-
works. To the latter locality it has been transplanted
from Denmark. In the southern tracts of Sweden it is
fairly conunon: but the northern limit of its range lies
in about l)U° X. iat., in Wermland and Westmanland,
according to tlie reports sent in to the Fisheries Com-
niittee of 1881, though it is said to have been jilanted
in the District of Gefleborg. In F'inland, according to
Mela, its range extends to 61° 40' N. Iat. According
to Rei TEi! it occurs even at Archangel; but according
to Gim.mm'' its range to the north is bounded in Russia
by the 62nd degree of latitude. According to F^atio
it a.scends in Switzerland to lakes situated as much as
1,600 in. above the level of the sea.

In Sweden the Tench is most commonl)' found in
small lakes, ponds, and fens, witii a muddy and weedy
bottom. It is woi'thy of remark that this fish also oc-
curs in tlic central part of the western island-belt of
the Baltic, wh<'re it invariably chooses its haunts, how-
ever, in shallow and weedy inlets in the innermost
part of the archijxdago. Sluggish and indolent by na-
ture, it loves (piiet and is destitute of the activity dis-
playi'd ]>\ tiie majority of the following genera of this
faniih'. f'xcept during tiie spawning-season it lives al-
most constantly at the bottom, most often embedded in
mud among the weeds. It is especially prone to this
latter lialiit in winter, at wiiich time it geiuM'ally lies
still in a kind of dormancy; but, according to Siekold.
it is sometimes met witii in this position even in the
hottest summer. Now and then, though seldom, it may
be seen in summer, when the water is calm, at tlie
surface. Being very tenacious of life, it may be trans-
ported considerable distances without dying, and is thus
easily planted in ponds. It was one of the fishes earli-
est selected for this purpose.

The spawning-season generally occurs in Sweden
at the beginning of June or somewhat later, according
to the state of the weather. .The oldest females spawn
fir.st, the younger ones later in the season. The spawn-
ing takes place in shallow and weedy inlets, ponds, and
small lakes, without am' boisterous demonstrations. The
fine, vellowish eggs are deposited on the weeds; they
are generally hatched in a \veek's time. The frj' grov
rather slowl}', though the rate seems to vary according
to the spawning-jilace and the state of the water. The
number of the spawning females is usually less than
that of the males. Yarhell estimates the proportion
of the sexes at two males to one female, or not less
than three to two. This disparity in number might
have a detrimental effect on the propagation of the
species, if the fecundity of the Tench did not com-
pensate the scarcity of females. In a female l' ^ kgm.
in weight Bloch estimated the number of the ova at
297,000. Harmeu, according to Day, found as many
as 38-3,25.3 ova in one female.

The food of the Tench consists of mud, worms,
and insects. It is seldom caught in the seine, generally
in fish-traps (kuff^nr, see fig. 204, p. 816, below, and

" Nat. Hist. IreL, vol. IV, p. 13fl.

*■ Fish., Hunt. Riiss. TI'a(., p. 14.

' In the niODth of Octobei' Lilljeborg took a youug Tencli 70 ui

ScttrKlinavian Fishes.

long.

752

SCANniXAVIAN FISHES.

iijs.yor, see aljovc, ]>. .'^.'i, Wis. 7). It l)ites tVeely ;it a ' Teuc/li. Hut this is not tlic case: both xliv Pike and

bait i)f the coiiniioii cai'tli-wunii. Thc^ (|ualities of tlie Salinon cat Tencii witii avidity, and small Tench are

tlesh as an article of food are extolled by some and , excellent live-bait, especially in trolling for Pike,

(lecried by others". This depends in most cases upon The Tench, which is known in Sweden as Lhi-

liu' inaniici' of dressing it for table, and a Tench may daren, Siiftircii (the Danish Siider), and SkoiiHikaren\

be made into a good disii. The flesh is white, free was regarded by the pojiular belief of ancient times as

from bones, and firm, but is considered indigestible and the physician of the otlici- fishes; and in human medi-

therefore unwholesome. The niuddj- flavour which it cine it was employed in several ways. It was used as

generally [lossesses, disappears if the fish be scalded in j a remedy for ague and a ju'eveutive (jf malaria, by its

hot water before cooking, to remove the thick coat of aid jaundice could be removed from the constitution',

of slime which covers the body. This slime has been I and its lixcr was a cure foi- toothaclie.

supposed to deter predatory fishes from attacking the ; (Eksthikm, S.Mrrr.)

SUBKAM1I.Y LEUCISCIN.E.

IJcif^e of tlic dorsal fin ahout equal in length to that of tin- anal {the latter rari/'mq hetireeii 70 and ISO % of
the former, hut less iJian 10 % of the leni/fh of the liodi/). Distance }iefn-ee)i the dorsal Jin and the tip of the
snmit more than fa-ice the lenf/th of the head. A'o sjiiiKuts ray in the dorsal or the anal Jin''. Lateral line {ichere
present) situated <d the middle of the depth of the tail or hnrer. Alidoniin<d niarcfm in front of the rent uninter-
ruptedly colored with sccdes in the median line. Mouth vitliont harhels. Lenfith of the hnrer jaw more than 47 %
of the base of the anal fin. Pharyngeal cartilage as a rule ohlong (or<d). rounded or pointed in front. Length
of the intestinal canal as a rule less than that of the body.

As we have mentioned above, we have chosen as
tile principal character of the subdivisions of tlie (Jyp-
rinoid family, the correlative size of the dorsal and
anal tins. Within the Scandinavian fauna this distinc-
tion is adequate; but the natural connexion lietween
this subfamily and the following one produces hybrid
foi'uis, which even in our fauna are exceptions to the
I'ule — a Bream form (the so-called Ahramidopsis Leuck-
artii) with Leuciscine characters and Leuciscine forms
(Bliccopsis) with Abramidine characters.

The Scandinavian forms l)elonging to tiie subfamily
Leuciscina are distributed among the following genera :
A : Length of the base of the anal fin loss
than 19 % of the distance between this
fin and the tip of the snout.
a: Distance between the dorsal thi and
the tip of the snout more than S:^ "»
of that between the anal fin and the
same point. Scales small • jcnus Pho.riniis.

/'.- Distance between the dorsal fin and
the tip of the snout less than &2 %
of that between the anal fin and the
same point Scales of moderate size Genus Lenciscus.
B: Length of the base of the anal fin more
than 19 °« of the distance between this
tin and the tip of the snout.
((.• Distance between the dorsal fin and
the tip of the snout less than 86 %
of that between the anal fin and the
same point. Lateral line complete.
«: Beginning of the dorsal (in situated
behind the middle of the body.
Jjcngth of the lower jaw less than

- -, of that of the head Genus Scardinius.

Ij: Beginning of the dorsal fin situated
in front of the middle of the body.
Length of the lower jaw more

than -/- of that of the head Genus Aspiuf:.

b: Distance between the dorsal fin and
the tip of the snout more than 8(5 'i of
that between the anal fin and the
same point. Lateral line incomplete (jcnus Leucaspius.

" All allnsion to tlie contempt witli wliieli the Tencli was regarded survives in tlie well-known lines of .\i:80Nius:

"Ijnis non et virides vulgi solatia tineas

Xcrit" . . .

"Wlio knows not the green Tencli, tlic moh's deliglit?''
'' Sutare and Skomakare both mean slioiimtkrr. a name perliiips derived from the ccdoiir of the fish. Tr.
' Icteri magnes, Linn.kus.
'' In Seanilinavinn forms.

J

CAHP-KISUIvS.

753

Gkms PHOXINUS.

Scales vcni siiictll, af least alxitif SO in <( roir (iIdin/ tl/r sides of the hudi/ mid about :i(i in a transverse voir on

each side of the trunk. Lateral line usualUi incomplete. Jaira e(iuaUij projecting. Lobes of the caudal fin blind

(rounded). Jlase of the atial fin less than 19 % of the distance betn-een this fin and the tip of the snout.

Tlie genus ot llu- Minnows, which \v,-is intrdduceil
into tiifi system liy AcAssiz", is well dctincil in the
Scandinnv ian fauiiM, not only b}' its small scales, hut
also 1>\' the elouijated and terete form of the body.
From Siberia, however, Wakpaiiiowski has described
some forms'' more closely a])pro.\inuited In- the deep
and latci-!ilh" com|)i'essed form of the l)odv to the other
Leuciscinte. In Southern Europe too, the limit between
this genus and the other genera of the subfamily is
difficult to maintain, forms of the geinis Leuciscns'' oc-
curring there, which have as many as 80 scales in the
lateral line, though, to judge by the descriptions, they
differ from I'ho.rinus in having at most 26 scales in a
transverse row. In North America the genus I'ho.rinus,
as defined by .TounAX and (tIlbert'', also contains spe-
cies with larger scales. A chi'omatic character fairly
constant in the Minnow, a more or less prominent,
dark strijic along the sides of the l)odv, and another
fairly characteristic peculiarity, the tumid form of the

snout, reai)iiear in the Leuciseus (Telestes) midicellus
of Southern Europe, a form which also composes a re-
markable connecting-link between the genera of this
subfamily, and which lias sometimes borne the system-
atic name of the Minnow. Valknciexnks' and Gunthek'^
have therefore found it advisable to unite the genus
I'ho.rinus with Lcuciscus. But it cannot be denied that
the Minnow is the most singular of all our Cijprinince,
or that it is well deserving of a distinct rank as a
connecting-link between the dark and small-scaled Tench
of the preceding subfamily and the following White-
tishes with their larger scales.

The name of Phoxinus is derived from Akistotle,
who merely remarks, however, that the fish is a fresh-
water form, c"ipaV)le of re|iroduction at its very birth
and always full of roe. Following Belon and Rondelet,
ichthyologists have assumed that Akistotle here re-
ferred to the Jlinnow.

" Mem. S(u-. Si-. Nat. Neucli.. tome I (1835), p. .'iT.

'' Bull. Acad. St. Petersb., torn. XXXI (1887), p- •''33.

' Lenciscus microlepis. Cf. C.^kestrini, Arch. Zool., .\niit., Fisiol., vol. IV (1866), p. 109.

'' Bull. V. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16. p. 242.

' Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. xyil, p. 363.

■' Oat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. yil, p. 207

754

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISHKS.

THE MINNOW (8\v. eluitzan).
PHOXINUS APHYA.

Plate XXXIII, fig. 3. <^ and ?.

Body elongaUd and terete, its greatest depth beimj less than '/^ (17 — 10\',^ %) of its Jeni/fh", f/rnitest thickness
at least half the greatest depth^ and least depth {least depth of the tail) less than half the greatest depth or than
' '., iif the length of the tail from a line with the end of the base of the anal Jin fa the middle of the base of
the caudal fn- Length of the head ahout 21 — 2:-i'^l^ % of that of the bodg. I'hargngeal teeth pointed, hooked at
the tip, ivith the masticatorg surface sharpened, but smooth or even hardlij distinguish(dile, and set in a double or

single row: 2, 5{4) — 4{5), 2 or 5 — 4.

n.

+

38-

bv.
-40

3
17

+ 1

(2)3
7^(8)

A.
L.

(2)3
(0)7 '

lat. (85

V.

);)0-

(1)2
(ti)7(8)'

-110; L

P.

Ir.

1

( ' v

13—
15-

-1(5''
-20

Vert.

'u~-

'-^'

Fig. 188. Pliaryngeal bones (a and h, as in the preceding figure) and covering of the pliaryngeal process (c) in Pho,ciiius apliya.

>Iagu. 3 diain.

48; D.\Y, Fhl,. Gt. Brit, Irel., vol. II, p. 185, tab. CXXXIV
fig. 1; M(5b., Hoke, Fisch. Osts., p. 113.

Ci/primis Aplii/a, Lin., Si/st., 1. c, p. 323; Bl., 1. c, part. Ill,
p. 143, tab. XCVII, fig. 2, inia:^ fignra tainen pessima potius
forsan ad Leiic. grislaginein referenda; Retz., 1. c; NiLSS.,
Prodr., 1. c. : Kr. (Pho.tiniis), Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 524:
Coll.. Forb. Vid. Selsk. Clirist. 1874, Tilla'gsh., p. 183;
1879, No. 1, p. 9C.; N. Mag. Naturv. Christ., Bd. 29 (1884),
p. Ill; Malm, 6'i./.s, Boh. Fn., p. 504; Feddkks., Naturh.
Tidskr. Kbbvi), ser. 3, vol. XII. p. '.U; Mela, Vert. Fern).,
p. 321, tab. X; Lillj., 6'u., Monj. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 179.

Cyprinus rivularis, Pall., Russ. Jieis., part. II, p. 717.

Pho.vinus Icevis, Agass., 1. c. ; Hckl, Kn., iSusstuasserf. Oeslr.
Mon., p. 210; DynowsKi, Ci/iir. LicL. p. 105; Sieb., Siiss-
ivasserf. Mitteleur., p. 222; Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfn. (disp.
Helsingf. 1803), p. 48; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fis<'Ii:. 0..
W. Preiiss., p. 141; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss., toni. Ill, p.
392; Fatio, Fii. Vert. Smsse, vol. IV, p. 038.

The Minnow is the smallest Scandinavian Cyprinoid,
with the exception of the Oirsiaidia {Leucaspius de-
lincatus), :ind is ^'enerally no lai'ger than tlie latter.
Its ordinary length in Sweden is about li — 9 cm. Our
largest specimen, from Lake Korn in Northern Bohus-
liiu, measures 105 mm. to the end of tlic caudal lobes

-Sy»i. 01 (poilvoi, Aristot., De Anivi., lib. VI, cap. XIII et XIV.
Phoxiims, Veron, Belon, Nat., Div. Poi.M., p. 324. Pisci-
culus varius, Rond., De Pise, part. II, p. 205. Phoxinus
I.CEcis, ScHONEV., Ickthyol. Slesv. Hols. p. 57. Vyprinus tri-
dactylus varius oblongus teretiusculus, pinna ani ossiculorum
octo, Ar'I'., IcIdhjjoL, Syn. Pise, p. 12 + Cyprinus biunci-
alis, iridibus rubris, pinna ani ossiculorum novem. Id., ibid,
(excl. syn. ScHONEV.) et Descr. •Spec. Pise, p. 30. Lin., Fa.
^nec, ed. I, p. 125, No. 331; Id., Alkufira, It. We.'<troij.,
p. 232.
Cyprinus Pho-viiiiis, Lin., .Sy.<!l. Nat., cd. X, toni. 1, p. 322;
Bl. Fisch. Dent-ichl., part. I, p. 00, tab. Vlll, fig. 5; Retz..
Fn. fSnec. Lin., p. 350; Pall. Zooijr. liosi. Asiat., torn.
Ill, p. 330; Flmng {Leuciscus), Brit. Aniia., p. 188; Ekstr.,
(Cyprinus), Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1830, p. 106; Nilss., Prodr.
Ichthyol. Scand., p. 29; Id. (Leuciscu.i), Ukand. Fn., Fisk.,
p. 319; SuNDEV. (Cyprinus), Stkhlms L. Hush. Sails. Handl.,
H. 0 (1855), pp. 82 ct 175; Thomps. (Leuciscus), Nat.
Hist. L-el., vol. IV, p. 138; Li.ndstr., Gotl. L. Hush. Salisk.
Arsber. 1806, p. 18 (sep.); Gthr, 1. c.; Olsson, Ufvers.
Vet.-Akad. FiJrIi. 1876, No. 3, p. 131; 1882, No. 10, p.

" Except in gravid females.

'' Fewest in the males, in whicli, according to Fatio, tlie mimlier is further rednced during llie spawniiig-scason.

or 99 mm. to the tips of the middle caudal rays. From
Ireland, ho\\ever, though the species is supposed lo
have been i)iaiitc(l there, Thomi'son uiciitions a si)eci-
nicii I) ill- (!■''- mill.) in length. The t'eniales attain
a wreatcr size than the males. In shoals of spawning
Minnows Heckkl and Kner found the length of the
females to vary between 92 and 10.5 mm., that of the
males hetweeii .J2 and 79 (exceptionally 92) mm. The
largest specimens in their possession were l."il mm.
long and came from Hungary.

Tiie 1k)(I\- is elongated and of fairly uniform thick-
ness, the anterior part of the trunk showing so little
compression that tlie greatest thickness is at least '' .,
of the depth. Posteriorly the lines of the body con-
verge, as usual, even from the sides, but the tail is
still com])ai'ativclv terete. The depth of the head at
the occij)ut is slightly greater than its breadth. The
back is i)road and dejiressed in the median line into
a, groove, which may be exchanged in front of the
dorsal tin for a low carina. The belly is even and
terete, or, at the istlnnus, flat. The dorsal jirotile shows
a more or less distinct break at the occiput, but is
otherwise regular, like the ventral proiile, which differs
from that of the other Whitefishes in being free from
any perceptible break, even at the vent or along the
anal fin.

The most characteristic point in the form of the
head consists of a swelling (thickening of the ethmoid
bone) on the snout between the nostrils. The occiput
and forehead are slightly convex or (especially the
latter) nearly flat; the gill-covers and cheeks almost
perpendicular. The eyes are middle-sized and set so
high th;it their superior margin lies almost in the same
plane as the forehead. Their longitudinal diameter
measures in young specimens (' ^ dm. long) about 30
%, in average-sized specimens about 28 %, and in spe-
cimens 1 dm. long about 23 %, of the length of the
head; the vertical diameter is ''/\„ — ■* - of the longi-
tudinal. They lie almost entirely in the anterior half
of the head, the postorbital length of the latter being-
only slightly less than the length of the snout and the
eye togetiier. Tiu' breadth of the interorbital space is
always greater than the diameter of the eyes and va-
ries between 40 and 80 % of the length of tiie head.
The horizontal profile of the snout is obtusely (slightly)
rounded, and its tip generally projects a little beyond
that o{' the lower jaw. The cleft of the moutii, with
its flesiiy lips, is small and turned slightly upwards.

The length of the iip]K'i' jaw from the middle of the
ti[) of the snout is, as a rule, erjual to that of the
snout, or about 30 % of that of the iiead. The lengtii
of the lower jaw is about the same as the breadth of
the interorbital space, or on an average ' 3 of the length
of the head. The; nostrils are round and rather large,
but set close together, the posterior nostril being usu-
ally covered to a great (extent by the dermal flaji that
rises from the narrow bridge between them. They lie
much nearer to the eyes thiin to the tip of the snout.
The gill-openings are comparatively large, extending
above along about half the upper margin of the gill-
cover, and separated at the isthnnis l)y a distance some-
times scarcely half the diameter of the e3'es. The
branchiostegal rays as well as the rim outside them are
broad. The gill-rakers are small; in the outer row on
the first branchial arch they are about 8 in number,
scattered, verrucose, and liardh distinguishable. The
pharyngeal teeth show considerable variation in number.
In most cases they are set in t\vo rows, the large roNv
on the inside of the lower arm of the bones generally
containing 5 teeth on th<; left side and 4 on the right,
and the smaller row, outside the former one, consist-
ing of 2 small, almost cylindrical teeth. Sometimes,
however, not a trace of this smaller row can be found.
We have never found the ]iharyngeal cartilage present:
according to Fatio it is of an obtuse heart-shape, with
the posterior part attached like a knob to the anterior.
Our figure (fig. 188, c) shows, on the other hand,
how the mucous memlirane of the pharynx covers the
downward process of the occipital bone at the spot
where the pharyngeal cartilage is otherwise developed.
This figure may also assist in the explanation of the
form possessed by the pharyngeal cartilage in the ma-
jority of the following Leuciscines, at least in the larger
ones. The surface of this cartilage is heart-shaped.
On each side of it the roof of the phar3-nx shows deep
hollows, converging in a forward and upward direction
(downward in the figure, which is drawn from a spe-
cimen laid on its back, with the head turned towards
the artist). But at the middle of the base of this
heart-shape the mucous membrane is continued (u]i-
ward in the figure) in a rounded (convex) coat over
the lower (posterior) part of the said occipital process,
until it leaves this process and passes into the upper
wall of the oesophagus. This convex part forms the
foundation of the callosity which, especially in the
larger Whitefishes (see, for example, the C'huli. fig.

75(5

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

IIU, r; [). 7(i9 below), composes a continuation of the
|iliai'\iigeal fartilage in an inverted canaliculate form,
more or less sharply defined and more or less raised
above the remaining surface of the cartilage.

All the fins are of a somewhat rounded shape, re-
minding us in some degree of the Tench. The dorsal
fin begins at a distance from the ti|) of the snout which
on an average measures very nearly half the lengtli of
the body, but varies between 48 and 52 % thereof.
Its base measures on an average Vio of ^l^e length of
the body, varying l)etween !• and \\ % of the same.
Its height (the length of tlie longest, the first Ijranched
ray) is always greater than tiie length of its jjase and
measures in the females about 13 — 15 %, in the males
nearly as much as 17 %, of the length of the body.
As a rule the first ray is inipercei)tible above the skin.
The same remarks apply to the anal fin, \\hicli is of
tlie same obliquely' quadrilateral form, witli more or
less distineth' rounded corners, and as a rule ot the
same size. The distance between this fin and the tip
of tlie snout is greatest in the females and varies be-
tween about 55 and 61 % oi the length of the body.
The caudal fin is not very deeply forked. Its middle
rays occup^• in average-sized specimens about 9 — 11 %
of the length of the body and measure more than half
(5.3 — 64 ?«i) of the length of its longest rays.

In this species too, the jiaired fins afford the most
trustworthy distinctions of form between the sexes.
Both ])airs are rounded and obliquely oval. The pec-
toral fins are set, as in the Gudgeon, so low that when
expanded thev' lie almost in the same plane as the
ventrals. In l)i)t]i sexes the length of the pectoral fins
is as a rule about 13 — 15 % of the length of the body,
but in the males it may rise during the spawning-
season to 1(S % thereof. In the males the upper (an-
terior) rays (5 — 7) are thick and have more markedly
distinguislied articulations than in the females. The
pectoral fins of the Minnow thus supply us with si-
milar sexual characters to those afforded by the vent-
ral fins of the Tench. Here, on the other hand, the
ventral fins of the two sexes differ both in their po-
sition — somewhat further back in the females — and
their length, which in the males is more, in the fe-
males less than 13 % of the length of the body. The
distance between these fins and the tip of the snout
measures during youth and in the males about 40 — 42
%, in the females 42 — 46 % of the length of the body,
and the distance between them and the anterior angle

of the ])ectoral fins (the preabdorainal length) during
youth and in the males 19 — 22 %, in the females 22 — 26
% of the same length. In ccjiisequence hereof the tips
of the pectoral fins, when laid back, may sometimes
extend in the males nearly to the bases of the ventral
fins, while the tips of the latter fins in the same posi-
tion reach in the females scarcely to the vent, in the
males beyond this point or even to the beginning of
the anal fin. The vent, which protrudes considerably
and is fairly wide at its junction with the ui'ogenital
aperture, lies ])erceptibly, though not far, in front of
the beginning of the anal fin. Here, as in the Cobitoids
(see above), \\% find no special scah' appendage at the
outer angle of the ventral fin.

The covering of scales shows (piite a consideral)le
external resemblance to that of the Tench; but the
scales are of exactly opposite form, deeper than long,
of a more or less broad elliptical shape, with the longi-
tudinal axis turned in the transverse direction of the
body. Instead of being inserted in the skin for the
greater part of their length, as in the Tench, they are
chiefly free and hardly imbricated in the longitudinal
direction of the body, though in a transverse row on
the l)ack each scale may slightly overlap the one below
it. The texture is rather coarse, but densely striated
Avith concentric ridges, which are interrupted through-
out the circumference of the scale by radiating grooves
extending to a greater or less distance inward from the
margin. The stria" are thus divided into patches of
oblong triangular shape, crossed by transverse streaks
and with their apex directed towards the central nucleus
of tiie scale. The lielly is naked in front and at the
isthmus, but is furnished on each side in front of the
pectoral fin with a triangular patch of about 8 rows
of scales. The lateral line pierces its scales throughout
the greater part of their breadth (in the longitudinal
direction of the l)ody), but is very often partially or
entirel)- wanting on the sides of the tail. It foi-nis a
do\vnward curve from the temporal region, so sharp
that it reaches the middle of the sides in front of the
perpendicular from the tip of the pectoral fin, when
laid liack, and runs back from this point in a straight
line to the middle of the base of the caudal fin.

The coloration in conjunction with the well-])ro-
portioned form of the body renders the Minno^^■ one of
our most handsome fishes. The colours show considerable
variation, however, according to the locality, the season,
the sex and the mood of the fish. No long description

MINNOWS.

fl-c()loui'('d variety of the

can so clearly delineate the coloration lA' the Minnow cnduiili. " In I'ntrland

as V. Whicht's two tigures: a fenialc and a male in , .Minnow lias liccn fniind".

tiic siiawninu-dress. The back is olive In'own or nearly i The ^linnow has many Swedish names: Ebitza

hlackisii. pnrcr green between the dark transverse bands i ((icrni. FJiitzc), in llallaiid and Bohuslan Allinf/ or

that mil down towards the sides. Tiu' middle of tiie Alli'i)iitt<t (Dan. ]\lhi(t or EUnittc) and Alkiild, in Dals-

sides generally sh(jws a pattern of e(|nally dark shade, j land Alkiifra, in Ostei- (iotidand Alkutta, in Wester

a row of blackish brown spots, partlv or completely | Gothland Hiindfiiiddd and (Hi, in Westerbotten (iliir.

coalescing into a stripe, which rnns from the smmt, in l>alecar]ia (Jridil and I(/t//hif/ (LiNNii'',us), in Jeintland

interrnpted by tiie eyes, to tiie lower part of the candal Jlliiidsill (Oi.sson), in Lapland Salfovfiodfi (I^iNN.Krs),

tin, where it ends in an obliquely set spot, as a rule | among the islands of the llaltic Ucnin/torsk in the Oi-

the most constant and persistent trace of this stripe, j strict of Stockholm (Sundevalf.) and Lortbitk in Soder-

even in specimens jn-eserved in spirits. The ventral ; mankind (Ekstkom), and in (Gothland Laxhddd (Lind-

side is liglit, milkv white or silveiy. Very often the j sthom). Aktedi also gives the names of Jlfiidil and

colonr of the sides is dashed with gold, especially on j Skitspigg, Linn.eus that of liudd (Germ. litdt). This

the gill-cii\(M- and aliove the dark striiie; and the vent- i multitude of names is alone sutKcient to prove the eom-

ral side assumes a reddish tint, punctated more or less I mon occurrence of the Minnow throughout Sweden and

densely with blackish brown dots, the last distribution I in the island-belts of the Baltic and the Gulf of Both-

of colonr being most prominent on the forepart of the nia. The species is also common in Norway both to

hod\' in the males. All the tins are transparent, shad- the extreme north (south to about (ji>° X. lat.) and the

ing into yellow, gray, or green. In the spawning-dress extreme south (north to about 63° N. lat.), but not in

all the coliiiirs are brighter, most so, as usual, in the ^ tlie intermediate districts (Collett, cf. the occurrence

males: the sides become emerald green, tiie lielly red- of the Perch in Norway, see above, ]). 28, note d). Its

dish, the golden lustre comes forth on the suboper-
culum, and on tlie upper part of the operculum, as far
as it is free fi-oni the side of the body and forms the
upper nnirgin of the gill-opening, there appears a lust-

geographical range embraces the whole of Euroiie —
Avith the exception, as far as is known at present, of
the Iberian Peninsula — and Northern Asia, east to the
Amur. In Switzerland, according to Fatuj, it ascends

rous, white spot, especially conspicuous in the males ■ the cold Alpine streams and lakes to a height of nearlA

on the Iilack ground composed of the occiput, the pre-
operculum, a part of the operculum, and the remainder
of the branchiostegal membrane. In the males ready
to sjiawn this lustrous white also extends to the bases
of the paired tins and the inner anterior corner of the
anal tin. The corners of the mouth are carmine red.
The iris glitters with a lustre of silver and gold. In
light environments tlie tish has a lighter dress, and the

2,500 metres above the level of the sea. In Norway, ac-
cording to CoLLETr, it lives high up in the birch region
of the fells, at an altitude of about 900 metres.

The appearance'' and iiabits of the ^linnow have
been compared, not without reason, to those of Salmon-
fry in the stage termed parrs. Thej- are also often
found in company, the Minnow Ijeing generally an in-
habitant of clear streams and brooks with sandy or

body

somewhat transjjarent. The tish is also gravelly bottom. But the Minnow lives, as we have

lighter by day than at night, has a richer dress when
well fed than when starved, and changes colour rapidly
enough under the influence of the passions. "The
coloration varies considerabh' in different individuals,'
writes Ek.sthom; 'it also changes speedily on the death
of the tish. To observe the numerous and bright hues

mentioned, not only in running fresh water and in
lakes, but also in the sea, where it often appears in
shoals oft' the piers among tlie island-belt. Ekstkom
describes its habits in these latter haunts as follows:
"it lives off rocky proiiKinturies and stony shores in
deep water, especially where there is a current, associ-

with which this fish is adorned, it should be seen in 1 ates exclusively with its own kin. and seems to avoid
the water or at the moment of its capture. Though places frequented b}' other sjiecies. Where it occurs,
kept alive in a vessel of water, it changes colour soon it is always found in large numbers. During the greatir

" MA.NLi'.y, see Day, 1. e.

'' '"Facies Tiuttie feu Salinonis". LiN., Fn. Stmc.

758

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

])avt of the dny it lies still, almost motionless, at the
bottom, wliei-e it seeks its food. Now and then, how-
ever, it rises to the surface, (|uick of movement and
voriicious for its size. With greedy eagerness it catches
tlie insects that fall into the water. It dies aliiKjst in-
staiitaneouslv wiicu taken out of its native element."
In tVesii water it is less sensitive to the influence of
tlie air ;ind is sometimes seized with the same wan-
dering spirit as the Salmon, leaping over obstacles with
vigour relative] V tlie same and no less eagerness. It
sometimes forces its \va\ along the tiniest, half-dry
brooks and pools, if unly it feels running watei — and
may subse(|uently be found in ]>uddles, where it is
scarcely possible to explain its presence. In fresh water
it is also more sociable in its relations to other fishes:
in the Nissa River (Halland) I have often caught Min-
nows in companv with Salmon-fr^'.

Its food is chiefly composed of insects, small crus-
taceans and mollusks, and worms. In the island-belt
it often keeps watch at the landing-places, \vhere fish
is gutted and rinsed, and seizes small fragments of
the ofial. Fislr-roe and small fry, even of its o\vn
species, also form a ])art of its diet. It does not dis-
dain a bait of wheat dough, though it bites less rea-
dily at this; and in an aquarium it may be fed on
liread-crumbs. Its voracity entices it forward at the
least cause and gives it an inquisitiveness of which
the fisherman may take advantage. Fatio tells us
that he caught quantities of Minnows in a landing-
net, by holding it still in a stream. As soon as the
leader and tlie van of the shoal had entered to see
what they might discover in the net, the others fol-
lowed without hesitation.

The sjKiwning-season seems to vary according to
the early or late arrival of the summer warmth. In
the tracts bordering on the Rhine the Minnow is taken
in large numbers, together with a multitude of other
small fishes (Salmon-frj' among others), all known by
the common name of Hihnprhen, during the months of
May and June, at which time the ]\Iinnow ascends the
brooks to spawn on a ston}' or gravelly bottom. Ek-

STHOM states that in the island-belt of Sodermanland
it spawns at tiie end of June or beginning of July.
According to Fatio the s|iawiiing may begin in the
Swiss valleys at the middle of A]>ril, but in the higher
Alpine regions is sometimes delayed till August. The
eggs are not very numerous, at most about 1 .i)i")() in
the same female, but co!ni)aratively large, being 1 — 1' ^
mm. in diameter. They are hatched, sooner or later
according to tlie teni])erature of the water, in from fi"
to 15' days. 'It is a mistake,'' writes SArvAUON', "to
suppose that the eggs of the Minnow are strewn about
and carried away b}- the current among the gravel and
stones, as soon as they have been dejjositcd. During
the spawning the fish are so numerous and packed so
close together that their bodies are enough to neutralise
the gentle current that otherwise passes over the
spawning-place. Furthermore, these small, glutinous
ova adhere to eacii other and fill all the interstices be-
tween the stones, on Avhich they may often be found
in layers 1 — 5 cm. thick and 5 — 20 cm. long. All
these eggs stick fast together and form a lajer firm
enough to withstand a current ten times stronger than
that Avhich runs at the spawning-place. On the 30th
of Ma)' I have myself gathered at least .3 kgin. of
ilinnow-eggs." In the first week of August Yarreli.
found young Minnows three-quarters of an inch (111
mm.) long. The Minnow reaches maturity, according
to Fatio, at a length of 35 — 40 mm.

At the approach of autumn the Minnow retires to
deep water, there to pass the winter in company with
other Cj'prinoids. As food the Minnow is not to be
despised, especially if the gall-bladder, which otherwise
gives it a bitter taste, be removed. In Sweden, how-
ever, it is seldom eaten; liere and there in the country
it is fried and made into the so-called fisli-cake. Fur-
ther south, where it is still more plentiful, it is a more
appreciated dish. In England, according to Day, it is
eaten freely, being prepared for table like Whitebaif*.
In Sweden it is most important as l)ait for Salmon
and Perch; but as it is not verj" tenacious of life, it
must not be left long on the hook.

" According to Daw, see Day, 1. c.
' According to Fatio.

<^ Bull. Soc. Zool. D'Acclin.af. Paris, serie 2, jtome IV (1867), p. 721.

'' BucKLAND says that on tin- IGtii of September, 1394 Bishop William of Wykeliam. the founder of Winchester College, gave a
dinner to tlie King and Queen and 210 other guests, the menu including a number of fish courses, among others 7 gallons of Minnows.

CAHP-iaSHES.

r59

Genls LEUCISCUS.

Scales (ix (( I'll!'' nihldle-sized", mtmherinci in all the Scandinavian species about 40 — (!0 in the lateral line, vliirli

is complete, ./airs projecting equally far, or nearlij so. Lobes of the caudal fin pointed. Base of the anal fn

less than 1!> "> of the distance betn-een this fin and the tip of the snout. Distance between the dorsal fin and

the tip of the snout less than SG % of that betKeen the anal fin and the same point.

This genus was already known by its modern
name'', which means Whitefish, in tlie time of (talen
(the second centurA- A. D.). At many places, l)otli in
Sweden and elsewhere, Wiiitefish is a trivial name
common to the Cyprinoids (especiallj' Leuciscus and
Alburnus) and Coregonoids. Belon referred the name
of Leuciscus to the Dace, Rondelet both to the Roach
and the Dace. Klein, as we have mentioned above,
gave tiie genus a definition whicii corresponded in es-
sential respects to that of tiic modern subfamily Leu-
ciscince. Linnaeus did not recognise this genus — he
employed Ljeuciscus as one of his specific names for
the Dace — but Cdviek' adopted it as a subgenus; and
it was subsequently- raised by Fleming' to the rank of
an independent genus. The number of the species is
so gi'eat, about a hundred being known, that attempts
have witli reason been made to subdivide the genus.
But the ground on wliich most autliors, following Hec-
kel's example, have proposed to base this subdivision
— the immber and arrangement of the pharyngeal teeth,
their similarity or dissimilarity on the two pharyngeals

and their distribution in one or two rows — has proved
untenable, as we ha,v(; already been enabled to conclude;
from the Minnow, whei'e the smaller row may some-
times disappear witliout leaving a trace of its presence.
The Scandinavian fauna contains only four recognised
species, which may lie distinguished as follows:

.1 ; Aual iin concave.

a: Least depth of the tail less than
43 'i of the length of the peduncle
of the tail between the perpendi-
culai- from the end of the base of
the anal fin and the middle point
in the line of demarcation between

the scales and the caudal fin Leuciscus ffiislaciine.

b: Least depth of the tail more than
43 % of the length of the peduncle
of the tail measured as above.
aa: Base of the dorsal fin less than
' , of the distance between this
fin and the tip of the snout... Leuciscus iJus.
hi): Base of the dorsal fin more than
'/^ of the distance between this
fin and the tip of the snout... Leuciscus rutilus.
B: Anal fin cnnve.x Leuciscus ceplialus.

" As for the exceptions, see tlje dbservations on the precciling genus.

'■ From the Greek Aei'xog, wliitc-.

' R'egne Animal, ed. I, torn. II, p. 194.

'' Brit. Anim.. p. 187.

760

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

THE DACE (sw. stajimen).
LKrciSCCS GIMSJ.AGIXE.

Plate XSXII, li--. ■>.

Sailcs ill l/ic liitrnil Hill' ahdiii .'):J {'}()" — ■'>4). Ilniiichcd rai/s in the (lorsal tin 7. J. rust dvpiJi of tlie fiiil Ifss
Ill/Ill till- Ifiif/tli (if fhf base (if fha ildisiil Jiii, or tliaii 43 {41) % of the h/iif/tJi (if the jjcdmirlc af the fail l/eticeen
the /icrjicinlicnlor frtiiii the end af the (iikiI Hn and the middle jidiiit in the frnninittidii of the scales at tJie base
(if the caudal fn. (Jater (hnrce jn/sterinr) niaiy/in (if the anal tin (uncarc. I'Jiariint/eal teeth carred at the tip
or straif/ht, irith narra/r and sinnlli or hardli/ jierceptihie masflcatdri/ surface: ,'.-'(6'), ■'> — -v, -(i').

Fig. 180. PliarvDgual bones and iiluiryngeal earlilage of Leuciscu.^ gridagiiic. 3 times the natural size. a. l>, ami c as in fig. l^i

E. Or. 3; H.

+ 1 4- x: L. lat. 50"— 54; L. tv
Vert. 41 — 44'\

V.x + \ + \1

1 (suiira pinn. ventr.) ;

Syn. Leuriscu.'!, Belo.v, Nat., Die. Poiss., p. 313. Leucisci '2:(la
Spec, KoNDEL., Pise, ]iart. II, p. \'M. (hjpriims novem
liigitoriini, rntilo longior et angustior, pinna ani radiorum
decern, Art., Ichthijol , Sijn. Pise, p. 9 (Gallis Vandoise).
Ci/priiius oblongiis, liguia rntili, pinna ani ossiculoruni decern
Aii]., ibid., Gen. Pise, p. 5; Syn. Pise., p. 5; Descr. Spec.,
p. 1'2 (Suecis Stdm). (Jt/prinus pedalis gracilis oblongus
crassiusculus, dorso crasso, pinna ani ossiculonim novem. Am'.,
ibid., Syn., p. 10 (Tigurinis Hasel). Li.n., Fn. Sua'., ed. I,
p. 123 (Angermaunis Stdm).
Oyprinns Grislagine, LiN., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 323;
Ketz., Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 357; Ekstr.C?), Vet.-Akad. Handl.
1830, p. 157, tab. IV; NiLSS., Prodi: Ichtliyot. Scand., p. 27;
Ag.\ss. {Leuciscus (jrislaijine + L. argenteus + L. rostratus
+ L. rodens + L. majalis), Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Neucli.,
torn. I (1836), p. 38; Ekstr., v. WRiam- (Cypriinis), Sl.-and.
Fislc., ed. I, p. (JO. tab. 14: Kit. {Leuciscus), Damn. Fislce,
vol. Ill, p. 472; SuNDEV. (Cyprinus), Stockh. L. Hush.

Handl.. H. VI, lS.-,5. p. 81; Nli.ss. {Lenci.'icns), SIcand.

Fn.. Fi.^k., p. 303: WiiiEdR. (Cyprinus), Fislc/n., Fisker.

Korrb. L., Landtbr. Akad. Handl. 18G1, p. 12 (sep.); COLL.

(LeiiciscN.s), Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillaegsh., p. 181;

Malm. 6'%s Boh. Fn., p. 562; Mel.a, Vcrl. Fenn., p. 326,

tall. X; Id. et SuNDM., Finl. Fist.:, tab. XXVI; Lillj., Sv.,

Sorg. Fish., vol. Ill, p. 198.
Cyprinus Leuciscus, Lin., Syst. Xat., 1. e. ; Bl., Fisrii. DcutscM.,

part. Ill, p. 141, tab. XCVII, fig. 1; Pall., Zoogr. Ross.

Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 318; Hckl, Kn. {Squalius), Siisswasserf.

Oeslr. Mon., p. 101 (+ Squ. lepusculus, p. 186, + <S.

chalybams, p. 188, + S. rodens (e.N Aci,\ss.), p. 180, + S.

rostratus (ex Agass.), p. 192); Dyb., Cyjir. Lid., p. 126;

Sieb., Sii.isira.^':,'!-/. Mittdcur., p. 203; Mf:RX, Finl. Fisk/n.,

p. 47; Blanch, Pais.-:, d. eatu- donees Fr., p. 401 (+ Squ.

liearneiisis, p. 400, + S. Iiurdigaleusis (ex. Val.). p. 403);

Feddeiisen, Natiirh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 88;

B.NCKE, Fisch., Fischer., Fiscli;. 0., IV. Prcuss., p. 130;

MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. III. p. 425: Fatio. Fit.

Vert. 5»?s.se, vol. IV, p. 582.
Cyprinus Dobiila, LlN., Sy.^t. Nat, 1. c.: Bl. I. c, part. 1,

p. 42, tab. V; Yarr. (Leuciscus) Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. I,

p. 34G f+ Leuc. vul/jaris, p. 353, + Lenc. Laiicaslriensis

(ex Shaw), p. 355).

Sometimes 47, according to Siebold.

0, ,,

According to Fatio; 40 — 45 according to Jeitteles.

7(1 1

fycitciscus vnli/'iri!'. Flmno, lirit. Am'm., p. 187; Cuv., \'ai..,
/list. iVfl/. Poifs., vol. XVII, p. 202 (+ Lem: rostratns
(ex. Ag.\ss.) + L. rorhiii' (ex. Agass.) + L. laiicasti-iensis,
(ex. SirAw), p. '21i; + y.. hnrdiiialeiii'is, p. 218, iiec L. ym-
/uji'/ie, p. 220): Gtiu:, Vat. Brit. 3fm.. Fisli.. vol. VII, p.
220; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.. In-!., vol. 11. p. ISO, tab.
CXX.KIII, li,s. 1; Muh.. HcKE. Fi.",?!,. (/.*/,«., p. 10!l.

The 1>;k'c' is oiu' of llie smaller species of the ye-
mis. Its ordin.-irv length is between 1') :nn\ '_'() ciu.,
;uicl ill Sweden |)rol)al)l\' does not exceed "i") em.
Further sonth it .seems to attain a somewhat j^reater
size; Fa'I'io found in the Rhine a gravid female of this
species, "27') mm. long and 300 grammes in weight.
Day .states that in the Thames the l)aee attains a length
of about o dm.

Of all tiie Scandinavian sjiet'ies within the Leueis-
cine subfamih' the Dace is the most elongated in pro-
portion to the dejith of the body, and is easily i-eeog-
nised 1)V this character. The body is deepest a little
in front of the dorsal fin, and the greatest depth mea-
sures in adult specimens, 18 — 21 cm. long, about 21
— 24 % of the length of the body. In younger speci-
mens the greatest depth is even relatively les.s, as else-
where in the family. The least depth of the body (of
the peduncle of the tail) measures in adult specimens
about 8V., — 7' ., "» of its length. The back is terete,
though less so just in front of the dorsal tin, and the
sides are moderately compressed. The back rises in a
gradual curve from the head to a point a little in front
of the dorsal tin, though it is straighter than in the
Scaudina^■ian congeners of the Dace, and the cur\e does
not increase in sliarpness at the occiput. From this
point the dorsal profile slopes gently, almost in a sti-aight
line, to the base of the caudal fin. The ventral profile
forms a similar or even more gradual curve from the
chin to the \'ent. \\-hich iirotrudes slightly, ;in(l then
runs straight to the caudal fin.

The head is of moderate size (in adult specimens
about 21 — 19 % of the length of the body), with broad
and rather fiat forehead, sloping with a slight convexity
towards the broad and very obtuse snout, which pro-

The length of the u])i)er jaw iVom the middle of the
tip of the .snout measures in adult specimens rather
more than ' , (about 2.V,,,— 2« %) of that of the head.
TIk^ length of the lower jaw is e(pial to or somewhat
greater than that of the snout, or about ';., (32—35?^)
of that of the head. The eyes are fairly large, their
longitudinal diameter being only slightly less than ' ,
(about 23 — 24' , '-i-) of the length Of the head. They
iU'e generally s<'t just in tVont of the middle of the
head" and so high that the line drawn from the middle
of the caudal lin to tiie margin of the upper jaw
touches the inferior margin of the eye. The least
breadth of the intemrbital space is about '/a ('^^'/e —
34 %, exceptionally 37 %-,) of the length of tlie head, or
I'/j — 1' .J times the longitudinal diameter of the eyes.
The nostrils are rather large, and lie in a dee|i cavity,
nearer to the eye than to the tip of the snout. Th<'
gill-rakers are small and scattered, Init jiointed, num-
bering 8 in the outer row on the first branchial arch
and 7 on the pharyngeal bones, l^ach pharyngeal is
armed as a rule with 7 teeth (fig. 1810- set in two
rows. The inner row contains .') long and faii'ly straight
teeth, curved upwards at the tij), but usually not much
hooked'', and without incisions or spines on the indi-
stinct masticatory surface. The teeth in the outer row-
are generally 2, sometimes 3, in number, short, straight,
and conical. The pharyngeal cartilage is soft, thin at
the edges, heart-shaped, and deciduous. The gill-
o])enings do not extend at all al)ove the upper margin
of the gill-cover, and lielow they coalesce with the
isthmus at a distance from each other of about half
the diameter of the eyes.

The dorsal fin, the height of which is greater than
its length at the base, has an ol)li<|ueh- truncate mar-
gin \vith somewhat roniuled corners. ISehind it is lialt
as high as in front, a rule which a[iplies to most of the
Li'ticisc'DKC. It begins at a distance from the tij) of the
snout which in adult specimens measures on an average
half the length of the bodv, varying, ho\\-ever, between
4()',2 and 54 % thereof. Its base occupies ', i„ (varying

jects a little in front of the jaws. The mouth is small in our specimens between it' ,, and 10\., %) of the length

and turns slightly upwards, as in the rest of the 7.c«- of the body; and its height (the length of the longest

ciscinre. the upi)er jaw is slightly more prominent than ray), which is as a rule ccpial to the length of the

the lower, and the corners of the mouth extend a little jiectoral fins, varies in our specimens between 1.') and

behind the perpendicular from the posterior nostril. Ki' , ".. f>f the length of the body. The fir.st three rays

in onr speciinens between 48

and

of its entire lenatli, the variations essentially

" The postorbital length of the head varies
depending on the breadth of the opercular rini.

' In specimens from Lake Wener, however, we lind the hooked tij.s well develojied in the two hin<lniosl teeth of this row.

762

SCANDINAVIAX FISHES.

are simple, the tirst t)eing hardly perceptible externally", : small. Tliey are imbricated, and lie in distinct series,

the third the longest ray in the whole fin, or equal in They are uf a rounded (juadrilateral form, but the two

length to the fourth. The last seven rays are repeatedly anterior corners are generally well marked and separ-

branched at the tip, and the last ray is cloven almost ated by sinuses from the middle of the anterior margin,

to the base. which is convex and crenulated by tliree or four small

'I'lie anal fin is of nearly the same shape as the undulating sinuses, into which the grooves'' radiating

dorsnl, and of exactly the same structure, except that forward from the central rnicieus open. The posterior

it has an additional branched ri\y. Its corners, espe- (free) part of the scale contsiins from two to nine such

■ially the posterior, are more pointed, and the margin

grooves, more or less distinct. The lateral line descends

is slightly concave. The fin begins at a distance from I at first, and then runs (fi"om about the middle of the

the tip of the snout that measures on an average some- i abdominal region) parallel to the ventral line and nearer

what less than ^3 (varving in our specimens between t to the belly than to the back. The" iuanl)er of scales

63 and 66'/, ^) of the length of the body, and its base | in the lateral line (ab(jut 52 in Dace from the north)

occupies on an average about ' ^ (vai-ying in our spe-
cimens between 8'9 and 9"8 %) of the same length. Its
iieiglit is on an average about '/^ (varying in our s])e-
cimens between 12 and 13 %) of the length of the Iwdy.

riie pectoral fins are oblicjuely pointed, and con-
sist of 1 simple and 17 or 18 branched rays, of which
the last (lowest) two or three are small and difficult to
distinguish. Tlie ventral fins, on the other hand, nre
broader and more rounded, and are furnished on their
front (outer) side, as usual in this family, with two
simple ravs, so closely united that the first is not al-
ways distinguishable. Their length measui'es in young
specimens about 14 %, m old about 12' 2 ?* of that of
the body. The distance between the foremost (outer-
most) point in their insertions and the corresponding
point in the insertions of the pectoral fins is on an
average about '/'j (varying in our specimens lietween
23V2 and 28 %) of the length of the body. The di-
stance from the former point to the ti]) of the snout
varies between about 44 and 48 % of the length of the
body, and to the beginning of the anal fin lietween
about 20 and 21' . % of the same length. Tiie bases
of these fins are furnished as usual with a ])ointed,
lanceolate appendage.

The caudal fin is foi-ked, with lobes of equal length,
its middle ra}'S occuyjy about 8— 7 "a of the length of
the bod}-, aiul are less than ',.,, sometimes only '/,,, as
long as the longest rays.

The scales which cover the bodv, are of moderate

is the greatest possessed by any Scandinavian Leiicisciis
except the Ide. The said number would thus give us
the most easily api)licable character for the Dace, if it
were not stated from more southern localities that the
species may have only 44 scales in the lateral line'.

The coloration shows great resemblance to that of
the kindred species; but the colours of the Dace are
palei-, less diversified, and not so bright. Tlic top of
the head and the back are dark olive brown, the sides
silvery gray and lustrous, -with a strong tinge of pale
ochreous yellow during the spaw-ning-season. The iris
is silverj' with a dash of yellow and a narrow ring of
deeper vellow next the pujiil; it is finely punctated with
green pigment, and has a dark, curved band at the top.
The sides of the head are silvery \vith a strong tinge
of vellow, and shade into various colours. The dorsal
fin is plain, pale grayisli brown, the caudal tin bright
olive green, and all the lower fins ])ale Avith a dash of
yellow, especially at the base. The rays of the last-
mentioned fins are flame-coloured at the middle, and
the bases of the ventral fins are of the same hue. In
young specimens the lower fins are light and quite
colourless.

In the internal organs, on examining them within
the alidominal cavitv, we found no essential difference
from other species.

The geographical range of the Dace extends over
the whole of Europe north of the Alps, with the ex-
ception of Scotland and Ireland, and over Western

size, but in comparison with those of the Koacii rather , Siberia, where the species has been ft

ordini

" Artedi overlookfil tlic tirst, sliorl ray, but comili'c] tlir last, deeply cloven ray twice over, thus arriving at tlie correct number of
rays in the dorsal fin.

' The number of these grooves is generally about 1 1 ; but on the caudal scales they may be much more numerous, as many as
though only a few, about 9, extend to the nucleus of the scale.

<■ Jeitteles. Fisflie dn- .Vnrrh bei Olmiit:. II Abth., pp. 1.1 and ICi.

to Mki.a, ill till' l^ivcr 01)1". In Scaiuliiiavia it is evi-
deiitiv a norrlici-u and eastern fish, being rare in Deii-
niark. In the north of Sweden if is e(jninion in all
the iai'ue risers and lalies connected with tlie IJaltie,
from the Muonio to tiie Dal elf inclusive. In these
regions it is found especially in the large lakes and
also in the rivers, penetrating into I>apland as far as
the ri\ers afford it a passage. In tlie TorneS. Elf it
is unknown above Keiigis Force; but \Vii)egi!EN says
that it ascends from this river into the Muonio, in (18°
N. hit. In Lvcksele Lappmark it is taken in ipiantities.
Its most common provincial name in the north is the
one given abo\e. In Daleearlia it is known as the
Strdtfii/f/. and in the neighbourhood of Gefle as the
Vdhni. It is also coiiimun in the large rivers and
lakes of W'erndand and in Lake Wener, where it is
called Shifiiiti/. South of the River Gotha we have
personallv no informati(jii of its occurrence in Sweden.
Of the other Swedish names for this species we will
mention SkaU-id, Skalljer, and Achufj. In the island-
belt of Stockholm Sixdevall found the Dace to be
very rare, though, according t(j Ek.stho.m, it occurs,
but is not very common, among the islands off the
coast of Sodermanland''. In Norway, according to CoL-
LETT, the Dace is comuion in the south. It is dispersed
throughout Finland, and in Russian Karelen was taken
by M.\LMr.HEN in the River Keni, near the White Sea.
In Denmark, whei'c it was not known with certainty
by Ki;oVEK, it occurs, according to Feduersen, in the
Nips, a river of south-western Jutland.

The Dace, like tlie Ide and Chul), is partial to
running -water, and in spring ascends from the lakes
and the Baltic island-belts into the rivers to breed. It
is more easily overpowered by the current, however,
than the others, and therefore prefers f]uiet streams''.
It passes the winter in the depths of large lakes, or in

E. 7(;3

deep water among the islands on the Baltic coast.
Early in the spring, soon after the ice has broken up,
the Dace assemble in large shoals, l)egin to ascend the
rixc'i's, and comuKnice spawning in May on a sandy
bottom, as a rule eight or ten days after their arrival.
On tlie completion of tlie spawning, they usually re-
main at most a- fortnight longer, and then desert the
si»awning-plac('. In the Klar Elf, however, the Dace, it
is stated, remains all the \-ear round. It is one of the
less prolific Cyprinoids, the female containing a com-
paratively small number of rather large eggs. F.\tii>
counted about 17,400 o\a, about 2 mm. in diameter,
in a female 27 cm. long.

The Dace is a timid tish, and takes to flight at
the least noise. Its mo\ements in the water are very
rapid and active, and it often leaps over the net. It
is tenacious of life, young Dace being therefore excellent
live bait, especialh- as tlieir skin is bright and lustrous.
The flesh is white, not very bony, and of good flavour.
Still, owing to its insignificant size, the Dace is in little
request, and it is only in localities where it is plenti-
ful, and where for the time being other fish is scarce,
that this species is used as food.

The Dace is taken in the seine during the whole
summer, where this method of fishing is employed for
other species; lint onl\- solitary specimens are caught
in this manner. It is principally taken 1) in gill-nets,
which are set in quiet bends and long windings of the
streams, such places being favourite haunts of the Dace
on bright and warm summer days, 2) with trammel-
nets, which are used at the same time of year in shallow
and weedy inlets of the lakes, 3) in traps (see above,
pp. 32 and 33), which are set during the spawning-
season at places that the tish must pass, the narrowest
channels and those easiest to close being selected for
this purpose. (Ekstrom, S^nTT.)

" Pallas (1. c, p. 314) applies to liis Cijpriims lacustris the Finnish name of Kortsa, which, according to Mela, belongs to the
Dace. Thus, according to Pallas, the Dace is common throughout Western Siberia and especially plentiful in Lake Baikal. The' Cijprinus
Grislagini: of Pallas is, according to Grimm, a variety of Roach.

'' Unless EkstrOm's description of the Dace in the Vet.-Akad. Handl. for 1830 referred principally to the Ide.

■^ LlLLJEBORG was told, however, that ''the Dace can surmount rapids with a fairly strong current".

764

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIKS.

THE IDE (sw. inEN).
LEUCISCUS IDUS

Plate XXXII, fis;. 1 and Piatc- XXXV, tig- l-

Scales ill tlic Idlcriil line (ihoitl ')7 (')■'> — <i()"). Hiiniclied rai/s hi the dursal fin s''. Lcasi (li'j)fh of the jicdioicle

of flic l((il more fliiui 4.! % nf 'lis mciViiiii lencith, intt as a rule snmewliat Jess fjiaii the iciif/fli of flie Ikisc of the

dorsal ^fiii. Outer (loirer jiosfcrinr) mari/iii of the anal tin concave. Phari/iK/cal teeth hooked at the tip or straight,

irlth terete and smooth, indistinct niastieatori/ surface: H, 5'' — .'». r>.

^©[3i,

Fig. 190. Pharyiigc-.il boues aud pliaryngeal cartilage of Leuciscus idus. nalural size. «, b. and c as in the preceding figure;
(/, tlie last (hindmost) toctli in the inner (larger) row, seen froiu behind.

R. br. ."!: D.

8—!)/
C. ,)■ + 1 + 17 + 1 + .«; Lin. hit. .55 — tiO"; L. transit 1;

6';/n. Capilo tinviatilis ille, quem Jesen appelant Germani qiiidam:
nos differentia" eaussa eoeruleuni cognominemus licet, Gesn.,
Hist. Anim., lib. IV, Paralip., p. 9 + Capito fliiviatilis subruber,
quem Germani orfnm appellant, ibid., p. 10. Cyprinus iride
sublutea; pinnis ventralibns anique rubris, Art. Ichthyol.,
Gen., Pise, p. 5; Sijn. Pise., p. 14: Descr. Spec, Pise, p.
G + (jT/primis Orfus dictus, ibid., li'i/n. Pise, p. 6 + Uypr.
cubitalis, pinna ani ossicnlorum quatuordecini, ibid., p. 7.
Cyprinus pinna ani ossiculis tredecim rubra, LiN. Fn. Succ,
cd. I, p. 121.

Cyprinus Idbarus, Lin., Sy.'!t. Nat., ed. X, lorn. I, p. .'i'24;
Retz. Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 356 = Cyprinus microlepidotns.
Ekstr. Fisch. Scheer. Morko, p. 18, tab. II.

Cyprinus Idus, Lin., Syst.., 1. c.: Retz., 1. c, p. 358; Ekstk.,
Vet.-AUad. Handl. 18:!0, p. 146, tab. Ill; Njlss., Prodr.
Ichthyol. 6'rand., p. 27; Eksth.. v. Wiught, SIcand. Fish.,
cd. I, p. 59, tab. XI; Cuv., Y.\L. (Leuciscus), Hist. Nat.
Poiss., vol. XVII, p. 228; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. III. pag.

447; Lit.LJ. (Cyprinus), Vel.-Akad. HandL 1850, p. 305; NiLSS.

(Leuciscus), Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 306; Sundev. (Cyprinus),

Stockh. L. Hush. Sallsk. Handl., H. 6 (1855). pp. 81 et

170; Vet-Akad. Hand). 1855, p. 15, tab. Ill, fig. 7—11;

Lloyd, Scandinavian Adventures, vol. I, p. 55 cum fig. (Ide);

LiNDSTR. (Leuciscus), Gotl. Fisk., Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk.

Arsber. 18G6, p. 17 (sep.); Ntstr., Taktt. fn. Jemtl. Vatt.

(disp. Ups. 1863), p. 4; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vo\.

VII, p. 229; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilh-egsh.,

p. 181; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 96; Olss., Ofvers. Vet.-Akad.

Forh. 1876, No. 3, p. 130; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 562;

Mob., Hoke, Fiscli. Osts., p. 108; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p.-

328, tab. X; Reut. et Sundm. Finl. Fisk., tab. XIII; LiLlJ.,

.6V., Aorg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 207.
Cyprinus Orfus, LiN. Syst., 1. e.; var. hujus speciei, vide

HcKL, Kn., 1. c., p. 150 + [dus miniatus, p. 151.
Cyprinus Jeses, Lin., Syst., 1. c, p. 325; Bl., Fische lieulschh.

pari. I, p. 45, tab. VI; Cuv., Val. (Leuciscus), 1. c, p. IGO;

Moi!. (Idus), Hist. Nut. Poiss. Fr.. torn. Ill, p. 417.
Idus melanotus, Hckl, Kn., Siissivasserf. Oestr. Mon., p. 147:

Uyb., Cypr. Lie, p. 141 ; Sieb., Siisswasserf. Mittelcur.. p.

176; Mgrn, Finl. Fi.tkfn., p. 45; Bnoke, Fisch., Fischer.,

Fischz. 0.. \r. Preuss., p. 133; Grimm., Fish., Hunt. Russ.

Wat., p. 14.

" In exceptional eases 54 or 61.

'' In exceptional cases 7 or 9.

' According to M6bius and Heincke sonieliuies 2, 5 or 4. 5, the latter numbers being also given by Ekstrom.

"* In exceptional cases 9 or 12.

•■ In exceptional cases (young) 16.

•' Sometimes 10, according to Heckel and Kner.

'•' Sometimes 45, according to KuovER, or 48, according lo Lilljeborg.

Tlu' Iilc is "lie iif the lartrcr s]K.H'i('s within <i:is
U'ciuis. Acconliiii;' in llic reports sent in to the Swedisli
Fisiieries Connnittce of ISS], it attains in Sweden a
lengtii ot ahout 11 (ini. and a weight of (!'/■ k<i'ni. These
statC'inents, iiowcNcr. undonhtedly ret'ei' to exeeptions,
unless tiiey are exaggerated, or pej-ha|)S de])end on a
coni'nsion of this species with the Asp (Aspiiis rajia.r).
The oi'dinar\- K'liglh of th<' Me in an adnit state is
about M or 4 dm. At a lengtii of o dm. it weiiiiis
at most from 2 to l>' ., kgni.

Tlie liody is moderately compressed or even ratlier
hu]l<\'. Tiie greatest deptii, whicii lies just iu front of
the Ix'ginning of tlie dorsal tin, usually uu'asures in
vouug specimens rather more than ' j, in old 25 — 30 "i,
of tlie length of tlu' l)od\-, and tlie greatest hreadth or
thickness is not quite half the depth. The latter measure-
ment varies, however, accordin<i- to sex, age, or season,
in voung s))ecimens being sometimes only about " - ot
the depth, and rising in old specimens to about 45 —
51 % thereof. The least depth of the body is in young
specimens about 10 % (9' ., %). in old about 11 %, of
its length. The l)ai'k, which is fairl\- broad and convex,
and which rises more or less abruptly, according to the
fatness of the fish, from the occiput, forms a slight
upward curve. The belly from the istlunus to the vent
is fairh' straight, except during the siiawning-season,
when it forms in the female a down\vard curve, be-
ginning at the chin, lietweeii the pectoral and ventral
fins the l)elly is Hat, but subsequently, between the
latter and the vent, becomes convex and somewhat
carinated.

The length of the head usually occupies in mode-
rate-sized si)ecimens a little more than '4 (SS^', — 21'/.,%)
of that of tlie bod\'. In old specimens this jn'oportioii
is almost exactly '/-, and in voung ones the head is
as usual larger in comparistm with the rest of the body.
The front part of the head is broad and convex, forming
a <,n'adual curve from the snout to a point somewhat
in front of the nostrils, where it is slightly depressed".
The breadth of the interorbital space increases, even
relatively, \\itli ai;e from a little more' than 37 % to
nearly 4(i % of the length of the head, the lattei- in
specimens 4 oi- 5 dm. hnig. As a rule, however, this
breadth is less than ^ ^ of the base of the dorsal fin,
and we have never found it to exceed 85 % thereof.

;. 765

The sides of the head are somewhat compressed and
llatleiicd. The snout is iiliint, liroad, and only slightly
projecting, the margin of the n|iper jaw (middle of the
intcrniaxillari(!s) being the most prominent point. The
mouth is small and turned sli;;htlv upwards. In full-
grown specimens the corners of the mouth do not e.x-
tend behind the pei-jiendicular from the middle point
between the e\e and the nostrils, while in ^•oung spe-
cimens tlie\' i-eacli (•()mparativelv a little further back,
nv to a line with the anti'i'ior margin of the eye. The
length both of the snout and the upjicr jaw increases,
even comparatively, with age, nio>t, however, in the
former cast'; the length of the snout increasing in s])e-
cimens 8 — 42 cm. long from about 27 to ?,A % of the
lengtii of the head, and that of the u|)per jaw from
about 27 to ?>\ % of the same. A retrogression to the
characters of youth may sometimes be found, however,
in old specimens. When the mouth is openeil, the
upper jaw is slightly protruded. The length ot the
lower jaw measures about 36 — 40 % of that of the head.
The longitudinal diameter of the eyes decreases compa-
ratively, during growth, in the above-mentioned speci-
mens, from about 30 t(j 15 % of the length of the head,
i. e. from a little less than the breadth of the inter-
(u-bital space to only '.. thereof. At the same time
the postm-bital length of the lu-a.d increases from some-
what less than ' , to about 511 % of its entire length.
The nostrils are set, as usual in the genus, close to
each other and nearer to the eye than to the tip of the
snout, the narrow partition-wall between them being
elevated into a kind of lobe. The anterior nostril is
round, the posterior crescent-shaped and larger. The
distance between the two anterior nostrils is about half
the breadth of the interorbital space. As usual in the
genus, the head is scaleless, and is covered on the sides
with a thin, transparent skin, through which the oper-
cular and facial bones are distinctly visible. The occiput
and forehead, on the other hand, are clothed with a
thicker, firmer, and richly niuciferous skin, whicli has
a smooth and even surface. The branchiostegal mem-
brane extends behind tlie ;:ill-co\er in a broad rim;
its three rays are fiat, broad, and curved; and below,
as is usually the case in the genus, it is united to the
isthmus, in a line with the hind margin of the ])re-
opercnlum. The |iseudobranchi;e are well-developed.

" Willi regard to tliis depression see above, p. 716. note a.
'' In exoeptionnl cases a little less.

7(i6

SCANDINAVIAN FISHIvS.

The gill-rakers in the outer row on the first branchial
arch are 10 in number, flat at the ti[), and divided into
two or three digitate branches. The pharyngeal teeth
(fig. 190) are set, as mentioned above, in two rows, 5,
as a rule, in the inner row, and 3 smaller tcetli in the
outer one. During tiie shedding of the teeth, however,
these numbers are altered, and we find, on the one
hand, new and more or less undeveloped teeth (at first
cucullate), Iving loose in the gums oi- lieginiiing
to fix themselves, and uu the other hand, old teeth
more or less completely detached from their alveoli.
The masticatory surface of the largest (middle and
posterior) teetli in the inner row does not become quite
distinct until the fish has attained some considerable
size. The front tooth in this row (as well as the first,
the two first, or even all tiirce teeth in the outer and
smaller row) is straigiiter and conical or cylindrical,
the remaining teeth l)eing hooked at tlie tip.

The dorsal fin begins at a distance from the tip
of the snout that in young specimens measures about
48 or 49 % of the length of the liody, in old 50 or
.51 % thereof. Its origin generally lies above the middle
of the insertions of the ventral fins; Ijut on examining
a number of specimens we find a variation even in this
respect. The height of this fin is greater than its length,
the former measuring on an average 18 — 16 % of the
length of the body, and the length of its base 11 or
12 % of the same. The margin is obliquely truncate,
with more or less rounded corners, at least in front;
and the fin leans slightly backwards. The beginning
of the anal fin lies at a, distance from the ti]) of the
snout that in young specimens and the males varies
between 60 and 65 %, in the females between about
67 and 68 % of the lengtli of the body, though this
measurement is also subject to individual variations.
The height of the fin varies between 13 and 15 % of
the length of the body, the length of its base between
10 and 12 * of the same. When it is folded, the mar-
gin is deeply concave; when expanded, almost straight,
though even then the concavity is quite perceptible.
The length of the rays in proportion to each other is
usually such that the tips of the third and fourth rays,
which are the longest, extend to the tip of the last ray,
when the fin is completely folded. The caudal fin is
forked, with pointed cornei's, the lower lobe being
hardly any longer than the u])j)er. The length of the
middle caudal rays occupies in young specimens about
12—10 % of that of the body, in old about 8—7 a,

thereof, and measures in the former about ' .,, in the
latter about ^ -, of that of the longest rays in the fin.

The pectoral fins are of oblong shape, with rounded
tip when laid back; their length varies between about
17\ and 15 96 of that of the body. The ventral fins
are broader and more rounded. The distance between
the latter fins and the tip of the snout measures in old
specimens aljout 45 or 46 %, in -vouiig specimens ali<jut
43 %, of tiie length of the l)ody, the distance between
the foremost point in tiieir insertions and the corre-
sponding point in the insertions of the pectoral fins
(the preabdominal length) in old specimens about 23 or
24 96, in young about 21 or 22 %, of the same length,
and the distance bet\\een the former point and the be-
ginning of the anal fin (the postabdominal length) in
old specimens about 21 — 24 %, in )oung about 18 %,
of the same. The length of the ventral fins themselves
is about 13' ;,— 14'/, % of that of the body.

The scales are of the same shape as in the pi-e-
ceding species, but their texture is somewhat firmer,
with denser and coarser radiating grooves, which render
their hind margin more distinctly crenulated. The la-
teral line, whicli slopes slightly at first, runs almost
parallel to the ventral margin, and lies much nearer to
the belh" than to the back. It contains in most cases
about 57 scales, the greatest number in any Scandi-
navian Leuciscus. Above the lateral line there are 8
or 9 rows of scales, and below it 4 or 5, I'ounting
from the dorsal and ventral fins to the lateral line, and
excluding the scales of the line itself. Ketween the vent
and the lateral line there are 5 or 6 rows of scales*

It is only during the spawning-season that any ex-
ternal difference between the sexes can easily be dis-
tinguisiied. During this period the scales of the male
are furnished with a rim, consisting of a ro^v of clear,
yellowish, ^•errucose tubercles, with dark tip, ■which are
wanting in the female, and disapjiear as soon as the
spawning is over.

The coloration of tiie Ide is subject to considerable
variations; but the most striking alteration in its dress d'
pends on the time of year. In spr'nir/ the Ide weai
its spawning-dress, and the prevailing ground-colour is
brassy veilow, which gleams through the green pigment
wherewith the scales, especially at their insertions, are
coated. This pigment grows darker towards the back,
which is almost plain grayish green, and lighter, gra-
duail)" disai>pearing, towai'ds the bell)-. The head is
above of the same colour as the liack, but somewhat

darker; on the sides yellow, shifting into ;\ numlKT of
bri"'lit lilies. The iris is yelli)\v, with line, dark dots
and M diirk spot above the [jupil. The dorsal and eaudal
fins are dark olive gray, the ibrnicr entirely plain, the
latter more or less reddish at the base of the lower
lobe. The ventral and anal tins are carnation, with
pale base and niariiin. Tiie jieetor;d lins are pale, with
a faint tinge of red. In n/ifiimn the ground-colour is
whiter, with hardly any lirassy lusti-e, and the pig-
ment of the scales lighter, sometimes imperceptil)le. Tlie
iris is silvery white, with a fine, brassy yellow ring
round the jjupil and a dark spot above the latter. The
figure (Plate XXXII, tig. 1) represents a male assuming
the spawning-dress, and is drawn from a specimen
taken in tiie Baltic island-licit.

Tile young Ide (Plate XXX^^ tig. 1), known in the
islands round Morko as idpliif/i/ and lamiare, in other
localities as idhani. skall-id. i/all-id, etc., dift'ers in se-
veral respects from the adult form. It is somewhat
plumper in appearance. The iiead is larger in propor-
tion to the length of the body. The dorsal margin and
the occiput form an almost continuous curve. The snout
is rather prominent, extending almost in front of the
margin of the upper jaw (the intermaxillaries). The
first simple ray in the dorsal and anal tins is generally
imiierceptible. The liody is yellowish wliite, the back
darker witii bright greenish tinge, tiie occiput dark.
The tins are light and somewhat reddish, especially
the ventral and anal, wliich in front shade more or
less distinctly into red.

The Gold Ide, Lixxjeus's Cijpriinis or/us, a product
of Central and Southern (jermany and of Austria, is a
variety often kept in ponds and aquaria.

The range of the Ide extends throughout all the
countries of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe as
well as the west of Silieria". In Great Britain and Ire-
land, in Switzerland and the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, and, according to Grimm, in the Cau-
casus, the Ide is wanting. In Fi'ance it is rare. In
Sweden it is spread almost everywhere, from Tornea
I-.appmark to Scania. It is also common throughout
Finland, and Lill.jeborg found it at Archangel; but in
Norwa)- Lake Mjosen, according to Collett is the
northern limit of its extension. In Denmark the Ide,

•.. 7(;7

wliicii is tliere called Eiiul, has been found onl\' on
tiie islands of Pi'inen and Zealand.

In Sweden the Ide occurs in all the great lakes and
the waters connected with them or with the Baltic and
the Sound. But it is not ei[ually jiliMitifiil everywhere.
In the Muonio VM\ wiiicii river, according to L.i':sTAnnjs
and W. V. W'liiiair, the Ide a.scends to Karesuando
(GS° ;30' N. hit.), it is somewhat rare. This seems to
b(^ i.\u'. case wherever it occurs in Laitpinark. In Jeint-
land it is coinmon, according to ()[.ss(in, at many places
in tlie lowlands, but not in the highland lakes. Th(!
Ide is most plentiful in tiie eastern provinces of Cen-
tral Sweden, especially to the lee of the island-belt and
in the fresh water running seaward from the coast. Off
riuthland it cannot be called rare, esjiecially in th(^
month of April, according to Lixdstkiim, when Ide are
taken in great numbers at the mouths of the rivers.

The favourite haunts of the Ide are large lakes
and the inner part of the island-belt, wliere the ^\•ater
is not too salt. In small lakes it is less frequently met
with. From these haunts, where it passes the winter
in deep water, it ascends early in the spring, soon after
the lireaking up of the ice, towards the shore, and re-
pairs to the mouths of the rivers and brooks where it
intends to spawn. At this season it is known by the
fishermen as the Ice-fish (is/isk).

Tlie spawning generally takes place in Central
Sweden about the end of April. The males, mustered
in large shoals, lead the way to the spawning-place,
which is chosen in very shallow rivers, brooks, and
meres, often where narrow ditches are the only jinth
open to them. During these migrations, which are often
attended with the greatest difficulties, the Ide displays
great strength, surmounting most of the obstacles to its
progress, and skilful in avoiding the traps set in its
way. Like the Salmon, it leaps with ease over stones,
logs, and small cascades, and when the water gro^vs so
shallow that further advance seems impos.sible, to the
surprise of the observer the fish turns on its side, and
thus pursues its course. When such obstacles bar its
progress, it pauses for a while, as though deliberating
what path to adopt. Meanwhile several of its comrades
have come up, and when one of the company has plucked
up courage and darted ahead, the otliers at once follow

" According to Pallas the Ide is common in Silieria east to Lake Baikal and tlie Lena; but wlietUer his statement really applies to
tbis species, is somewbat doubtful, as Pallas refers the fish in question to Block's Plate XXXV'I in Fische Deutschlands. During Norden-
skiold's expedition of 1876, however, an Ide 47 cm. long was taken by Theel and Trybom in the Yenisei off GoroRchinskoje.

SoOBrfinni'wn Fishes. 9"

768

SCANDIXAVIAN FISHES.

this example. Should one of theiu fail in its endeavour,
it then awaits the arrival of a new company before
renewing the attempt. In this maimer the males press
• on as far as possible until they find a spot suitable for
their object, weed}' at the bottom and in shallow run-
ning water. Some days later, when the weather has
become mild and fair, and the water has attained a
temperature of about + 1)° C. (48'2° Fahr.), the females
reach the spav/ning-place in a similar maimer, also col-
lected in shoals, and join the males. The spawning
now liegins, being always accompanied with noisy tu-
mult, and lasting about three days, night and day,
unless interrupted by a cold north wind, rain, or storm,
in which case it is postponed until finer weather sets
in. The roe is deposited on twigs, the weeds at the
b(tttom, stones, or some hard object, where it adheres
firmly. The eggs are numerous" and, when deposited,
about IV2 ™'"- in diameter. When the spawning is
over, the fish return by the same route, male and fe-
male now in company.

The ova are hatched in 14 — 30 days', according
to the weather; and the young, says Sundevall, are
about 7 ','2 mm. long when excluded from the egg.
In -Tuly, according to Cederstrom'', when the fry are
.ibout 12 — 18 mm. long, they sometimes begin their
journey to more open water: but they generally stay
at the spawning-place, unless the water dries up, till
the end of August, when they have attained a length
(if about 40 — 50 mm.'' They now rove in vast, close-
packed shoals to the shores of deeper water, where they
remain some time among the reeds. But they seem
soon to disperse and to lead a more solitary life. At
first their growth is irregular and slow. In its second
summer, however, at the age of a year and a half, the
Ide measures about 80 — 115 mm. in length; at the
age of two years, according to Maklin% its length is
about 180 mm., and at that of three years 215 — 220
mm. According to Suxdevall's estimate the young
Ide, about 175 — 220 mm. long, sometimes to be seen
among larger Ide in the market-places of Stockholm,
are three or four years old; and the species, he says,

does not reach maturity, or a length of 3 dm., before
the age of four or five years.

In summer the older Ide are found in deep water
on stony shores shaded by trees, and in calm evenings
rise in companies to the surface; while the young ap-
pear on fine and warm days at shallow, weedy places
along the shore. Towards the end of autumn the Ide
again resorts to the shallows, and often ascends the
streams and brooks visited by it in the spring during
the spawning-season. As soon as the lakes are frozen,
it retires to its haunts in deep water.

The food of the Ide consists properly of iJants,
insects with tlieir larva?, and crustaceans. Instances
are recorded, ho^vever, of its partiality to small fishes.
The flesh is flabby and bony, but of far from unjilea-
sant taste, and retains its flavour unimpaired for a
considerable time. After somewhat elaborate prepara-
tion it is good eating. According to Bloch it should
be stewed in beer in the same ^vay as Carp, or sent
to table fried, with vinegar and salad-oil or a sauce
of mustard, capers, and wine. It is also di-essed in
numerous ways, either salted or dried in the sun.
When boiled, it accjuires a reddish colour, which may
be further heightened by allowing the fish for some
time to lie in salt. It then resembles Salmon, and in
many places is eaten without further preparation.

In a cauf the Ide ma}' be kept alive for a long
time, especially if set in clear water with a slow cur-
rent. In most parts of Sweden it is known by its
common name of id: Ijut in the southern provinces it
is called ort or civt, and on the coast of Lake Malar,
in the neighbourhood of Eskilstuna, it is honoured by
the name of karp.

The most successful fisheries for Ide are those
carried on at the spawning-place and along the course
folhnved l)y the fish on its way thither. Traps {ri/ssjor,
see p. 33, fig. 7) ai'e set in the small streams and
brooks which it passes, and also at the place whei-e it
spawns. They should be placed so as to close the pas-
sage entirely, for if any opening be left at the sides of
the trap, the Ide avails itself of this way of escape.

" In a female weigliing 1 ' „ lbs. Bloch estimatc-il the ninnber of tlie e.ggs nt 02,720; according lo Reuter a middle-sized female
lays about 70,000 eggs,

' Generally in 14 — 18 days, according to Sundevall.

' Of vers. Vet,-Akad, Forh. 1851, pp, 163 seqq.

'' According to Cederstrom and Sundevall tlie fry which they kept in a pond, had nc^t attained a greater length than 20 — 28 mm.
by the 10th of September.

^ See Reuteb, 1. c.

769

Hand-iK'ts (//«/) are also used, between two weirs or | by accident: it usually steals out of the swcpp of tl

dains built across the stream. The upper weir is kept
shut, the lower being ojx'ued at intervals, until the
iishernian sees that a sntficient miniber of fish have
passed, wlien it is suddenly closed, and the fish are
netted. The Ide is also taken in gill-nets, which are
set in spring along its route to the spawning-place,
and in autunui in shnlluw c(i\es. Tlicy are seldom
used in sunuuer; but wlien tliis is done, tlie}' are shot
in deep water off stony and shady shores. At these
latter places the Ide is caught throughout the summer
with the 'sinking rod' (mnk.'ipo). The hook is baited
with grasshoppers, the shelled tails of crayfish, worms,
and, above all, beetles, the legs and wing-cases being
first removed. The seine is employed, especially during
spring, in shallow inlets near the spawning-place. In
summer the Ide is seldom taken in the seine, and then

.seine, and if no other courfse be open to it, turns on
its side close to the bottom and lets the net pass over
it. T\u'. us(! of tlie ice-seine (eckelnot) is confined to the
ishuid-bch, hill' ill autunui, as soon as the ice on the
sliallow, innca'most coves is strong enough to ])ear the
fisherman's weight. This net is hauled close in shore,
in very shallow water, where the Ide assemble lieforc
withdrawing to their winter-quarters in the (h'])tlis.
Tlie ide miiy also be speared })}• toreldiglit on dark
and calm evenings in autumn. As it never keeps still,
always moving about, considerable skill and practice
arc; recpiired to strike the fish. It is seldom and onl\
by cliance that tli(! Ide is caught on pole lines (sfaiif/-
krok) baited with small fish.

(Ekstrom, Smitt.)

THE CHUB (sw. farnan or haenackan).
LEUCISCUS CEPHALUS.

Plate XXXII, fig. :■,.

Scali'fi ill tlie lateral Vine aliDiit 45 {44 — 4(j"). BraiicJied nii/s in tlie dorsal _fin 8''. Least depth of the jiediiiirle

of the tail more than 43 % {47 ?h) of its length, at the middle, or about equal to the lengfli of the base of the

dorsal fii. Outer {loiver posterior) margin of the anal fin convex. Pharyngeal teeth hooked at the tip, iritli sharp

or irorn, not very marked, and more or less distinctly granulated masticatory surface: 2, ~> — '>, 2.

\>

Fig. 101. Pharyngeal bones and pliaryiigeal cartilage of Leiiciscus ceplidhis, natural size, u, b, and f as in the preceding figure:

(/, the hindmost tooth seen from in frunt.

R. hr. 3: D.

(7)8' ^' 8 — 9

' ■ " nh-.' '■

" 42 — 46, according to GCnther.

43—48, „ „ Day.

39 — 45. ,. „ Steindachner.

' In exceptional cases 7.

' „ „ „ 7, according to Heckel, see Krover.

'' Sometimes IG, according to Ekstrom and Kroyer.
' In exceptional cases 10.
■^ 42, according to Kroyer; 43 — 45, according to Fatio.

770

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Syn. SqiKito Venet. et Rom., Uavedano Milan., Belon, Nat., Divers.
Poiss., p. 315. Cephalus fiuviatilis, Rond., De Pise, part.
2, p. 190 Capita sive Cephalus, Willughb., Hist. Pise,
p. 25y ; Cyprimis oblongiis macrolepidotus, pinua ani ossicu-
lorum undecim, Art., IchlhyoL, Gen. Pise, p. 5; Syn. Pise,
p. 7: + (?) Uyprinus Albo italis dictus, Syn., p. 13. JVaddi
(err. pro Nadd-id.), Lin., Act. Soc. Ups. 1744—50, p. 35,
tab. III.

Cyprinus Cephalus, LiN. (p. p., nee. Cyprinus cylindricus, Mus.
Ad. Fred.), Syst. Nat., ed. X, toin. I, p. .■i22; Flmng (Leu-
ciscus). Brit. Anim., p. 187; Eksth., v. Wr. (Cyprinus),
Skand. Fish:, fcd. I, p. G7, tab. XIII; Kr. (Leaciscus), Damn.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 482; Dybowski (Squalius), Cypr. Livl.,
p. 119; SiEB., ^usswasse?'/. Mitteleur., p. 200; Morn, Finl.
Fisk., p. 46; Steind., Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.
Natiirw. CI. LIV", i (1866), p. 262; Blanch, Poiss. d. eau.v
douce.1 Fr.. p. 392 (+ Sgu. meridionalis, p. 396, + Squ.
clnthratus, p. 398); Gtur (Leuciscus), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish.,
vol VII, p. 220; Coll., Forh. Vid. Sclsk. Christ. 1874,
TilliEgsh., p. 181; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 561; MoR.
(■Squaliiis), Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 422; Bncke,
Fisch., Fischer., Fischz. 0., W. Preuss., ]>. 137; Fatio, Fn.
Vert. Utiisse, vol. IV, p. 557; Mela {Leuciseus), Vert. Fenn.,
p. 325, tab. X; Apostol. (Squalius), Pech. Gr., p. 31; Day
(Leuciseus), Fi.ih. Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 178, tab.
CXXXII, tig. 1; MuB., HcKE, Fisch. Osts. p. 110; Grimm
(Squalius), Fish., Hunt Huss. Wat., p. 14.

Cyprinus Idus, Bl. (syn, err.), Fisch. Dentschi, part. I, p.
253. tab. XXXVI.

Cyprinus Dobida, Retz. (syn. err.), Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 356;
Cuv. (syn. err.), Regn. Anita., ed. 1, torn. II, p. 195; NiLSS.,
Prodr. Ichth. Scand., p. 26; Agass. (Leuciseus), Mem. Soc.
Sc. Nat. Neuch., toui. I, p. 38; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss.,
toni. XVII. p. 172 (+ Leue Albiensis, p. \9i + Letie fri-
ijidns, p. 234); Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 463; Hokl
(Squalius), Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. CI. IX
(1852). p. 80, tab. VIII; Hokl, Kn., Siissivasserf. Oestr.
Mon., p. 180 (+ Squ. svalli:a, p. 197 + Squ. alhus. p.
198, vide Canestrini).

Cyprinus Jeses, Donov. (syn. err.), Brit. Fish., tab. CXV;
Jdr. (excl. syn.) Mem. Soc. Phys., Hist. Nat. Geneve, torn.
Ill, part. I, p. 207, tab. XI.

Leuciseus cavedanus + L. tiberinus (= L. squalius, Val.)
+ L. Pareti + (?) L. albus, Bonap., Iconogr. Fn. Ital., part.
Ill (Pesci), tab. 112 et 113; vide Canestrini, Arch. Zool.,
Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV (1866), p. 103, et Fatio, 1. c.

Leuciseus latifrons, NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 309; Widegr.
(Cyprinus), Landtbr. Akad. Tidskr. 1863, pp. 202 et 208;
LiLLJ, (Leuciseus), Se, Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 223.

Leuciseus cii, Richards., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, p. 375.

The Chub probably attains the same size as the
Ide, and in Sweden seems to be the largest Leuciscine,
though we do not possess such statements of its extra-
ordinary size as those given in the description of the
preceding species. Ekstrom's largest specimen was S'/s
dm. long. Most Chub taken during the spawning-

season are of the same lengtli as the Ide o or 4 dm.
and weigh about 8 — 3' j kgm."

The liody is shallow and thicker than that ot the
Ide, and the Ijack broader and more convex, sometimes
with a slight depression in the median line near the
occiput. The greatest depth of the Iwdy is at most
about ^6 % of its length, and the greatest thickness in
adult specimens is distinctly more than half the depth,
.sometimes 60 % thereof. The least depth of the body
measures in young Chub about 9 %, in old about 10
— lO'/v % of its length. Seen in protile, the dor.sal
margin rises slowly (in old sjiecimens in a .scarcely
perceptible curve) fnnu tiie occiput to the beginning of
the dorsal fin, where the body is deepest, and then
slopes towards the caudal fin nearly in a straight line.
The ventral ])rotile forms a slight curve, almost with-
out a break, from the chin to the vent.

The head, compared with the body, is somewhat
longer than in an Ide of the same size, varying in Chub
16 — 42 cm. long between about 26 and "22 % of tlie
length of the body. Above it is flat, with eves com-
paratively wide apart, for the breadth of the interorbital
space, compared with the length of the head, is indeed
about equal to the corresponding measurement in the
Ide, but compared, for example, with the base of the
dorsal fin, distinctl}' greater, being as a rule greater
than the length of this base, or at least more than 90
% thereof. The great breadth of the forehead is highly
characteristic of the Ciiul) at all ages, and in some
localities has gained for this species the name of Dick-
Kopf. The frontal line is almost straight, slightly
steeper in its anterior j)art; and the .snout is shallower
(more pointed when seen from the sides) than in the
Ide. The sides of the head are flattened and slope to-
wards the snout, \vhich, seen from above, is broad and
more or less obtuse, but generalh- rather more pointed
than in the Ide. In the other structural features of the
head the Chul) almost exactly resembles the Ide; but
the mouth is somewhat larger, as may most readily be'
shown by a comparison of the length of the lower ja
with the suture between tiie operculum and suboper-
culinn. Tiie length of the latter is in the Ide at least
90 % (100 — 91 %, according to our measurements) of
that of the lower jaw, but in the Chub at most 90 %

I

" According to Duhamel (Traite des Peches, pt. II, p. 502) the Chub attains in the Moselle a weight of 10 — 12 lbs.; in the lakes of
Upper Austria, accoriling to Heokel, it sometimes weighs 8 or 9 lbs. Nordmann (Demid. Voy. Puss, mer., p. 484) describes an Abkhasian
variety (?) of this species (hat attains a lengtli of 9"„ dm.

(72 — 89 %, accordiiiij: to our ineasuiTiiicnts) of the same.
The gill-rakers are short and scattered, their number in
the outer row on tlie first branchial arcli being a])out
the same as in the ide (9 — 11), most of them simple,
hut at least the middle ones in old s])eeinu'ns branched
at the tip, as in the Ide. Tlie pharyngeal teeth (5
large ones in tlie inner row, and 2, a little more than
half as large, in tlie outer) are distinguished (fig. 191)
for their strength, tlieir sjiarp, hooked tip, and tlie
tendency to pectination indicated l)y the small, terete
protuberances on the masticatory surface. Tiie pseudo-
i)ranchiffi are well-developed.

The dorsal fin, tiie [losition of wiiich is such that the
anterior margin lies in a line with the termination of the
insertions of the ventral fins, is rather more than twice
as high in front as behind, and its superior margin is
truncate, sligiitly i-ounded. In old specimens its shape
and backward direction are as represented in our figure;
but in young Chub it is quite upright, with pointed
fi'out angle. It begins at a distance from the tip of
the snout measuring about 48 — 50 % of the length of
the body; its height is about 17 — 15 %, and the length
of its base about 9 or 10 %, of the same. Thus its
base is generally equal to or slightly less than the least
depth of the body", a [loint which among our Cypri-
nines is especially characteristic of the Chub, thougji
subject to exceptions, just as in young Ide the least
depth of the body may exceptionally be equal to the
length of the base of the dorsal tin. The structure of
the anal fin is unparalleled among our Cyprinines, and
thus affords a character excluding all possibility of con-
fusion between the Chub and other species. In all the
others there is a considerable difference in the height
of the fin behind and in front, the last ray being often
not half as long as the fourth or the longest anterior
ray. But in the Chub the difference is not so great,
the length of the last ray being at least about 56 — 60
* of that of the fourth. Nor is this all: the margin
of this tin in the Chub is convex, when expanded, the
middle rays too being comparatively longer than in the
rest of our Cyprinines, sometimes, in old specimens,
the longest in tlie whole fin. This is the case in our
figure, and we will only add that the tin mav be still
more strongly expanded than it is tliere, and that the

IB. 771

margin tlieii forms a com])lete curve, the greater the
old(>r the fisli. Tlie anal llii l)egiiis at a distance from the
tip of the snout measuring about 64 — 07 %, its length
is about 8 — 11 %, and its height about 12 or \?> % (in
exceiitional cases 14 %), of the lengtii of the body. The
caudal fin resembles that of the Ide, but is generally
not so deeply forked, its middle rays occupying between
aliout 9 ''„ and a little o\er 8 % of tiie lengtii of the
bod}', and measuring in young Cliub about half <jr rather
more tiian lialf, in old about 48 or 47 %, of the length
of the longest caudal rays.

Tlu! [lectoral and ventral tins resemble those of tiie
Ide. Tiie length of the former is about 17 — K! % of
the length of the body, that of the latter about 15 — 14
% (in the females exceptionally 13 %) of the same. The
distance between the ventral fins and the tip of the
snout is about 46 % (in exceptional cases 47 or 48 %)
— 44 %, that between these fins and the pectorals (the
preabdominal length) about 23 — 26 % (sometimes 27 %),
and that between them and the beginning of the anal
tin (the postabdominal length) about 19 — 22 %, of the
length of the body.

The scales are comparatively large and thick, but
otherwise resemble in form and texture those of the
Ide. The lateral line, which first descends in a curve
and then runs nearer to the belly than to the back, is
generally covered by 45 scales, a number which in the
Scandinavian Chub examined by us varies only between
44 and 46, in exceptional cases 47. According to other
writers, however, the variation extends, as mentioned
above, between 39 and 48. The lateral line is generally
separated from the anterior part of the base of the
dorsal fin by 7 rows of scales, and from the ventral
fins by 4 rows.

Full-grown Chub display a handsome and varied
coloration on a silveiy gray ground, most like the colours
of the Koach. The back is dark olive green, the scales
are tipped with a metallic lustre. On the sides above
the lateral line the bases of the scales are dark olive
green, thus forming as it were dark frames within which
their lustrous tips are still more prominent. Relow the
lateral line this dark setting fades and gradually dis-
appears, the scales acquiring a more yellowish tinge,
which grows more distinct on the liellv. Behind the

"In 11 specimens 17 — 42 cm. long the average lengtii of the base of the dorsal fin in % of tlie length of the body is 9'3, and
the average for the least depth of the tail 94. In 5 specimens 37 — 89 mm. long, on the other hand, the corresponding averages are re-
spectively 99 iind 91, so that the character is not distinct until the fish has attained a length of about 1 ' ^ dm.

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

gill-opening the margin of the clavicle is dyed almost
black, though this dark stripe is generally concealed hy
tlie Iiroad rim of tiie branchiostegal membrane. The
top of tlic head is dark olive brown, its sides and under
surface have a silvery lustre, shading into yellow with
a play of various colours. Tlie iris is light yellow,
below silvery, above marked with a dark band. The
pectoral, dorsal, and caudal fins are nearl}' ])lain olive
brown; the ventral and anal tins, on the other hand,
of a beautiful, bright I'ed colour, both with yellowish
base, and the latter fin with rose-coloured rays. The
coloration of the fins is, however, subject to variation.
Our figure is coloured from a specimen taken shortly
before the spawning-season. Younger Chub are paler
in hue, with the inferior fins light and colourless.

In Scandinavia the range of the Chub is confined
to the south of S\veden and the south-east of Norway.
In Denmark the Chub has not been found. In Finland
too it is a southern species, common, according to Mela,
only to the extreme south. It is one of the I'arest
Scandinavian Cyprinoids, and in contradistinction to
most of liiem, it is taken only in small numbers and
never in an^ (juantity, even during the spawning-season.
Retzil's knew that it occurred in the Nissa, a stream
in Sma-land, where it was called Bjelke. Towards the
mouth of this stream, near Halmstad, in llalland, it is
often hooked, in company with the Ide, and is here
known as Mruacka. It beai's the same name, according
to Lloyd", at Falkenberg on tiie Atra. To Ekstrom
it was known from onlj' three localities in Sweden,
namely, Norrkoping River, where the fishermen called
it Fdrna, the River Gotha off Gothenburg, where it
^vas entitled Dick-kopp, and Lake Hjelmar, ^\'ith its af-
fluent the Stor river, where tlie name of the species
was Arannaren. But he remarked that its occurrence
in waters so far ajjart sho^ved that these could not be
its oidy haunts in Sweden. It has subsequently been
found by Schagerstr6m and others, according to Lillje-
BORG, in the Helge in Scania; by Malm and others at
a few places in Wester Gothland and Bohuslihi, e. g.
in Lake Stenstoi'p 20 miles east of Gothenliurg, and in
the ( )rekil at Krokstad and Qvistrum, where it is called
Ahuk; by I^loyd and others in the south part of Lake
Wener; and by Hakdin and Widegren in the north of
Lake Wener and in the Klar VAL In Norwa\-, acct)rd-

ing to CoLLETT, the occurrence of the Chub is confined
to Lake MjSsen, the south part of the Glomnien with
its tributaries, and the brackish water at the mouth
of the Tistedal Elf off Fredrikshald. In Central and
Soutlierii Europe, on the other hand, the range of the
Chub is very extensive, and in England, Scotland, and
the countries bordering on the Mediterranean this spe-
cies replaces the Ide. According to Grimm tlie Chub
occurs throughout Russia-in-Europe, with the exception
of Transcaucasia. Richardson described it (Leuciscus
on) from Anatolia in Asia Minor. In mountainous
regions, according to Benecke'', it ascends the rivers
and brooks to a height of about 1,000 m. above the
level of the sea.

In all these southern countries the Ciiul) has long
been better known than in Sweden. It has the repu-
tation of a strong, but timid swimmer, eagerlj- hiding
in the shade of any object or behind a stone, and is
accused of comparatively great voracity, not only snap-
ping up insects at the surface or such fruit as may
fall into the water, but also preying on small fishes,
frogs, and water-shrews. It possesses great cunning,
and will not l)ite i-eadily, if the line be visible. From
its habit of frequenting the eddies below mill-wheels,
it has received in France the name of Meiinkr (miller).
According to information supplied to EkstrO.m by Mr.
Lenning and Dr. Hanssen of Norrkoping and Mr.
Hamnstrom of Orebro, the Chub lives in Sweden during
the greater part of the year in lakes and extensive
pieces of water, but keeps to comparativel)' shallow
places, where the bottom consists of mud or weeds. In
the month of May it begins to ascend the river at
Norrkoping, and being a powerful swimmer, is met
with where the current is strongest, endeavouring with
all its might to stem the stream. About the end of
June — in more southern countries in May or even
April — the spawning-season begins, as shoAvn by the
presence, in specimens caught in the middle of June,
of roe and milt ready to be deposited. But here as in
the case of the other Cyprinoids, this season varies, no
doubt, according to the state of the weather; and Malm
quotes a- statement t(j the effect that in tiie River Gotha
the Chul) s])awns at the end of April. The fish as-
semble in large shoals, according to Fatio, with tu-
multuous uproar, not far from land and by preference

" Scandinav. Adcentiires, I, p. l!4.

'■ Handh. Fi.«clu-, mid F/sclieni (Max v. p. Borne), p. 134.

in slowly running water. Here the eggs attach them-
selves to the gravel and stones. According to Benecke
each female deposits about 100,000 ova. In a Chub
weighing 3 lbs. Bloch found 07,(500 yellowish eggs of
the size of poppy seed.

Till the month of October tlie ("Iml) stays in the
rivers, and then returns to its wiii1cr-(|uarters.

In Norrkoping River the Chub was taken, according
to the authorities cited above, in strong nets stretched
across the stream and in traps. As a rule, however,
this fish is caught by angling, the bait consisting of
a worm, the shelled tail of a craylish, a fly, a cater-

;ii. 773

pillar, a bit of cheese, or, we may almost say, any
eatable substance, for the Chub is not hard to please,
though the sight of the rod, the line, or the angler
frightens it away in a moment". Tiie best time of daj*
is tlie moiMiing or evening, and in tlic lakes tlie lisher-
man should choose a stony Ijottcjm, in tiie rivers a
rapid part or race.

The flesh of tiie Cliub, tliougli palatable and
not unlike that of the 'Asp' (Aspiiis lapa.i), contains
numerous loose bones, and is tlierefoi-e not mucii
esteemed.

(Ekstkom, S.Mrrx.)

THE ROACH (sw. mokten).

LEUCISCUS eUTlLUS.

Plate XXXIII, fijr. 1.

Scales in the lateral line ahaut 43 {40 — 40). Branched rays in the dorsal fin !> — 11. Least depth of tlie pe-
duncle of the tail more than 43 % of its length at the middle, hut miieh less than the length of the hase of the
dorsal fin. Outer margin of the anal fin concave. Pharyngeal teeth hooked at the tip or blunt, ivith smooth
masticatory surface, very faintly granulated, slightly pectinated, or worn into a single deep groove;

set in one row. (){5) — {■j)(>.

Fig. 192. Pharyngeal bones and pliaryngcal cartilage of Leucisciis riitilu.i, natural size, a, b. and c as in the preceding figure.

C. .c + 1 + 17 + 1 + ,r;
Vert. 40'— 42.

.3

lo'— IT'

L. lat. (40)43— 4e; L. tr

14 — 17' ' 8'
8(7)
4(3) '

Syn. Leucisciis, Rondel., I)e Pise, part. II, p. 131. Rutilus sive
Rubellus jiuviatilis, Gesn., Hist. Aiiim., lib. IV, p. 820.
Ci/prinus iride, pinnis ventralibus ac ani plervinique rubenti-
bus, Art., Ichthjolog., Gen. Pise, p. 3; S>/n. Pise, p. 10;
Descr. Spec. Pise, p. 10; Cyprinus pinnK ani radiis duo-
decim rnbicuudis, LiN. Fii. Suee, ed. I, p. 124.

Cyprinus Rutilus, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 324;
C)DM.ANN, Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1782, p. 163; Bl., Fisch.,
Deutschl., part. I, p. 32, tab. 2; Retz., Fn. Suee, Lin.,
p. 357; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 317; Flmng
(Leucisctis), Brit. Aiiim., p. 188; Ekstr. (,Cyprinus), Vet.-
Akad. Haudl. 1830, p. 158; ^ILSS. , Prodr. Tchlliyol. Scand.,
p. 27; Agass. (^Leucisciis rutilus + L. prasiniis + L. de-
cipiens), Mem. Sec. Sc. Nat. Neucli., toni. I, p. 38; Ekstr.,
V. Wr. (Cyprinus), Skand. Fisk., ed. 1, p. 72, tab. 15;
Cuv., Val. (Leucisciis), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVII, p. 130
(+ L.rutiloide.<i (ex Selts), p. 149 + L. prasinus (ex Agass.),
p. 153 + L. Selysii (ex Selys), p. 198); Kk., Damn. Fiske.

" Cf. Blanchere, Nouv. Diet. d. Pi-che.^, p. 174.

' Sometimes 9, according to Mobeai;.

' Sometimes 39, according to Fatio. 44. according to Artedi.

774

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

vol. Ill, p. 435: NiLss., Ukand Fn., Fisk., p. 316; Suxuev.
(Cyprmus), Stockh. L. Hush. Sallsk. Handl., H. 6 (1855),
pp. 81 et 174; Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1855, p. 13; Hckl, Kn.
(Leuciscus), 6'ussivasser/. Oestr. Mon., p. 169 (,+ L. Pau-
singeri, p. 172); Dyh., Cypr. Liv., p. 36; Sieb., Susswasserf.
Mitteleur., p. 184; MoBN, Finl. Fiskfn., p. 46; Wiuegr.
{Cyprinus), Landtbr. Akad. Tidskr. 1863, pp. 201, 202, 207;
LlSDSTR. (Leuciscus), Gotl. Fisk., Gotl. L. Hush. Arsber.
1866, p. 17 (sep.); Bl.^.nch., Poiss. d. eav.r douces Fr., p.
382 (+ Leuc. pallens, p. 386); Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus.,
Fish., vol. VII, p. 212; Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Christ.
1874, Tilla.gsli., p. 180; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 96; Olss.,
Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1876, No. 3, p. 130; 1882, No,
10, p. 48; Malm, Gbys, Boh. Fn., p. 557; Bncke, Fisch.,
Fischer., Fischz., 0., W. Preuss., p. 136; Mob., Hist. Nat.
Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 413; Fatio, Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol.
IV, p. 479; Mela, Vert. Fnui., p. 323, tab. X; Grimm,
Fish., Hunt. Russ. Wat., p. 14; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., IreL,
vol. II. p. 175, tab. CXXXII, fig. 2; M6b., Hcke, Fisch.
Osts., p. Ill; Reut., Sundm., Finl. Fish., tab. XX; Lill.i.,
Sv., Norg. Fn., Fisk:, vol. Ill, p. 189.
Leuciscus Heckelii, Nordm., Voy. Russ. Mi'rid. (Demid.), torn.
Ill, p. 491, \nh. 23, fig. 1; vide Gbimm, 1. o.

The Roach does not gl•o^v to any great size. Most
of the specimens caught during the spaAvning-season
are 1.5 — 20 cm. long, l)ut iiianj- attain a length of 3
dm. The largest specimen in the Royal Museum is
from Lake Wetter, and measured 3 '/a dm. Nilsson
once saw a Roach 371 mm. long". At a length of
"230 — 248 dm., according to Fatio, the Roach weighs
120— UiO grammes''.

The body is rather thick, but compressed, and
generally thinner than that of the Ide. The greatest
depth varies between about 24 and 28' U ?i, of the length
of the body, the percentage being highe.st in old spe-
cimens and the females; while the greatest thickness
usually measures only 36 — 41 % of this depth, though
in gravid females it may rise to 54 % of the same.
The back ascends without forming any abrupt curve
from the occiput to the beginning of the dorsal fin,
from which point it slopes almost in a .straight line to
the caudal tin. Throughout the greater part of its length
it is convex, but a little in front of the dorsal tin more
or less distinctlv compressed or even carinated. In front
the downward curve of the ventral margin is similar
to the upward curve of the dorsal; but between the
\entral tins and the anal apei'ture the lielly is almost

straight and slightly but distinctly carinated, and at the
beginning of the anal fin it rises at an obtuse angle.
The head resembles in form tliat of the Ide, save
that here the forehead is narrower' and straighter, and
the snout more pointed, with a similar faint depression
in front of the nostrils. The length of the head is
also somewhat less, varying between about 21' ,, and
20 % of that of the body. Tlie mouth is still smaller
than in tlie Ide, the length of the upper jaw from the
tip of the snout being always less than that of the
latter and varying with age'' between about 27 and 24
or 25 % of the length of the head. The length of the
lower jaw varies simultaneously between aljotit 36 and
32 % of that of the head, and is always less than (about
95 — 84 % of) that of the suboperculum along the suture
at the lower margin of the 0]>ereulum. The longitu-
dinal diameter of the eves varies in the same speci-
mens between about 27 and 18 % of the length of the
head, or between about 75 and 48 % of the breadth ot
the interorbital space. The postorbital part of the head
alwavs measures somewhat less than half the entire
length of the same, unless the rim of the branchiostegal
membrane be taken into account, in which case it
slightly e.xceeds half the said length. The position of
the eyes is also such that the lower margin of the pu-
])il touches the line from the middle of the caudal fin
to the margin of the upper jaw. The nostrils resemble
those of the Ide. The gill-openings are separated be-
low, here as in the preceding forms, by the isthmus,
which is rather narrow, and to \\hich the l^ranchiostegal
meinl)ranes are united. The pseudobranchiaj are free
and comparatively large in young Roach, in older spe-
cimens less distinct. The gill-rakers are short and
scattered, numljcring 10—14 in the outer row on the
first branchial arch, 10 on the outer margin of the
pharyngeal bones. In contradistinction to the three
preceding species, the Koach (fig. 192) has only one
row of teeth on each of the jiharyngeals, generally 6
on the left and 5 on the right, though these numbers
may vary, being sometimes only 5 on each side, some-
times 6. The first two teeth, here as in the preceding
forms, are almost straight, blunt, conical, and without

" MCbius and Hein'CKE give 5 dm. as the maximum length of the Ro.nch.

'' According to ISAAK WALTON the Roach may attain a weight of 2 lbs. (907 grammes); and in 'The Field' (2 Nov., 1881) wc read
of a Roach weighing 3 lbs. 12' ., oz. (949 grammes), taken by Mr. Stead in Bedfordshire.

<■ The breadth of the interorbital spiice is less tlian 38 '. (35—37-8 \) of the length of the he.^d. or than 73 (52 — 04 ',) of the
length of the base of the dorsal nn.

'' In our specimens, which are between 100 and .'S30 nun. long.

i

77r)

hooked tip, tlie others .stroiiol}' our\ed at flic ti]), iiuirc
or less compressed in a transverse direetiim (hack and
front), and lidore thev arc woi-n. nnirc or Ics.s distincth'
crenulated (|i<H-tinatcd), tltv hindnm.st tooth, whidi is
the least worn, most distinrtJx'. Sometimes ()id\ a trace
of this crenulation remains, in tiie form of small pro-
tuberances on tlie masticatory surface, which is eventn-
ally hollowed into a smooth, simple furrow. A strik-
ino' difl'erence between tlie pharyngeal.s of the lloach
and tliose ot the jireceding Leuciscines, and a jioint that
calls to niinil the Tench, is the prolongation common to
the bases of tlie posterior teeth, the last two or tlu'ce
being set on a jirocess jutting from the pharyngeal
bone into tlie [jharynx. The heart-shaped jiharyngeal
cartilage of the three preceding species is modified here,
this organ being elongated into a tongue-like form, with
the anterior (upper) end obtusely rounded, and the
posterior, tapering extremity only slightly folded and
elevated, scarcely marked off from the other part.

The dorsal tin, which is particularly remarkable
for its height, is oblicpiely truncate at tlie margin, with
pointed corners, especially behind. It begins at a di-
stance from the tip of the snout that increases with
age and measui-es about 44' ^ — 48',;, % of the length
of the body, or half the length to the base of tlie caudal
tin. 'fhis distance is on an average less tiian in any
of the three preceding species. In this respect the Koach
comes nearest to the Cyprinine group; and the other
Leuciscines have evidently followed a special direction
of development from that group, reaching different
stages. The Dace has advanced furthest, as shown by
the table gi\en below". The base of the dorsal fin
measures about 14 — Ti %, its height about 20' ., — 17
%, of the length of tlie body. The anal tin. tlie di-
stance between whicii and the tip of the snout is about
63 — 68 ?o of the length of the body, resembles in form
that of tlie Ide. The length of its base is about 12 —
10' , %, its height about 13' „— 10',,. %, of the length
of the bod\'. The caudal tin is rather deeply forked.

it.s middle rays occupjing about 9 — 8 % of the length
of the body and measuring about .''(i — 4(t % of that ot
the longest caudal ra\.s.

The pectoivil and \eiilral litis lia\f the same form
as in the Ide. but differ only slightly in length, that
of the former \arying between about 17 and 14' „ %.
Ih.it of the latter between 17 and 14 %, of the length
of the bod\-. The distance between the \-entral fins and
the tip of the snout measui'cs about 4;) — 47 ?«/, the pre-
abdoniinal length about '2i — 2.5 %, and the postabdo-
minal length about 2U — 22 %, of the length of the body.

The scales resendde those of the three preceding s]>e-
cies, but are com])arati\el\' niueh larger than the Ide's,
and as a rule larger even tlian the ("hull's, a point which
is shown b\- the abo\e estimates tif their number in the
lateral line and in a transverse row between the dorsal
and ventral fins. During the spawning-season they arc
destitute of the rim then present round the scales of
the Ide, but are strewn in the mali' with the usual,
pointed, \errucose tnbeirles.

The sexes are distinguished only by tlie more
slender body of the male and the said spiniferous tu-
bercles, whicli are scattered during the spawning-.season
on the skin of tiie head, the opercula, the scales co-
vering the forepart of the body, and the first ray of
the pectoral tins. According to a note on v. Wright's
original, our figure represents a male without this ex-
ternal sexual character.

The up])ei- part of the head and back is of a dark,
blackish given, which rapidly passes below into brighter
green, and then gradualh' into the lustrous silvery gray
of the sides, which at the middle are faintly tinged
with bronze and towards the belly shade into yelUnv.
Each of the scales is marked at the base with a green-
ish spot, darker on the u])iierinost scales, gradually fad-
ing and at last disappearing on the lower ones. In the
lateral line the scales are furnished with two similar,
but smaller spots, lying one on each side of the dnct.
which is yellowish. In some specimens the iris is of

A V .• r n 2

Leuciscvs nitilus.

Leucisciis cephahig.

Leuciscus idus.

1 Leuciscus
1 grhhffine.

S specimens ^5 speiiiucns
l(C'-l.-.;)nmi. ir,7-:!i7unu.

i> specimens G specimens ( <y specimens
r,7-«l mm. 170-lil(; mm. 244-424 mm.

lo„^.. l,.n<;. InuL-

4 specimens 1 4 specimens
84-148 mm.l81-416mm

I,.uu'. Ion-;.

it specimens
17.S-314mm.

length of the limly expressed in

UistuDcc between the ilorsal fin
snout in f, of the lenirth ot

milliinetrea

ind the tip of the
the bo.Iy

127 1 224.;
45.8 47.7

Cut

l,s:j,4 2117. »
4S.4 411.0

124

Ills

;!tir.

.'illo

111(1.2

.')(l.4

7(;

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

a haiidsoiiK! bright red, but tliis tint is not constant,
seeming, on tiie contrary, to have some fixed relation
to age, proljably to tiie seasons, and al)nvc all to the
nature of the water inhabited })y the tish. In some of
the great lakes, and also in the island-licit, the iris is
usuallv ]iale orange, with a sj)ot of darker red above
the |)U])il. In young s])ecimens it is very ]jale with a
faint dash of red; but in old Koach that li\e in small
lakes with thick water, tiie iris is often of so bright a
red that it has given rise to the saying "rodogd som
I'H nn'irf" (red-eyed as a Roach). The dorsal and caudal
fins are of a plain, light olive brown. The other tins
are yellowish, more or less tinged with red, especially
the ventral and anal, whose rays are of a still brighter
red between the middle and the tip. The colour of the
fins is, however, highly varial)le, and seems to be sub-
ject to the same influences as that of the eyes.

The geographical range of the Roach embraces the
whole of Europe north of the Alps and the Pyrenees,
except Ireland and the west and north of Norway.
The species is extremely common, according to Grimm,
in the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea. It is also spread
throughout Siberia, from the east of which region spe-
cimens ^\■ere secured by HuMBiiLor aiul Ehrenbekg.
LiLLJEHoRG found it at Archangel, where it was also
met with bv Lieutenant SANniCBEKO. Still it is want-
ing, according to Reuter, in the White Sea as well as
in the Arctic Ocean. The Roach is one of the com-
monest and most jtlentiful fislies not only in the lakes,
rivers, and streams of Sweden, from Tornea Lap])mark
to Scania, but also in the island-belt of the IJalfie, as
well as in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. In Swe-
den its range is roughly co-extensive with that of the
Perch, and it ascends high among the mountains. Ek-
STROM found the species in a small tarn on Akkalis-
pudive, a mountain in PiteA, Lappniark".

In summer the Roach frequents weedy shallows
near shore. It passes the winter in deep >vater, but as
soon as the great lakes are o])en in spring, it ascends
in large shoals to the shores, ■where it spawns at the
beginning of May. In their upward course the shoals
are so distributed that tlie males lead the way, and
consequently are the first to arrive at the sj)awning-

place, being hence called Ismort'' (Ice Roach). The
females, which are known as Lehnort (Spawning Koach)
or Ijifmort (Leaf Roach), arrive about a fortnight later.
Tliey now join the males and commence spawning
among twigs and weeds, often "in water so shallow,"
says SuNDEVAEL, "that it seems hardly sufficient to
cover the spawning fish." The spawning lasts from ?>
to !) davs, according ro tiic weather. Ouring the ope-
ration the tish pack themselves in a dense mass, and
move towards the surface with such rapidity as to pro-
duce a quick hissing noise, interrupted and repeated at
brief intervals. In Lakes Sominen and Wetter the older
Roach often spawn, accoi'ding to \\'ii)egi!EN, on a stony
bottom some distance from land. The roe is tine, con-
taining numerous eggs: in a gravid female 18 cm. long
the eggs, Avheii almost ri]ie, were about 1'., mm. in
diameter; and in a female 275 grammes in weight,
with ovaries weighing 60 grammes, Lind'' counted
nearly 72,000 eggs. The ova are deposited on the
twigs and the weeds at the bottom, "often so near the
surface," says Sundevall, "tliat they are now and then
left drv, but are none the worse for this." They are
hatched in 10 — 14 days. "The fry generally lie still
at the bottom, resting on their side, or supported by
and as it were sus|)ended from plants, straws, and the
like, (xradually tiiey begin to move and to swim a
little better, and after the yolk has disappeared, which
apparently happens in 8 — 10 days, they keep swimming
about in dense shoals among the reeds. At the age of
two months they are 1.') — 20 mm. long and fully de-
veloped in external form." (Sundev.). When three
years old, they have attained a length of about 100 —
125" mm.

The Roach leads a sociable life, and roves along
the shores all the summer in large and small troops.
It seems as though companionship insi)ires it with con-
fidence, for it is not very shy. It is indeed afraid ot
noise, but soon returns to the spot from which it ha.s
been frightened away. The composition of tlie water
in which it lives, exercises great influence not onlj' on
its appearance, as we have mentioned above, but also
on its flavour. \\'hen tlie lloach has its home in jiurc
water, the flesh is white and free from taint; in fish

" In Switzerland, nccordiug to Fatio, the Roiicli in a nufnrul statu liardly ascends liiglier thai
level iif the sen; hut it lias been planted there in lakes 1,1(111 metres ahove the same level.
' Also Bailfisk (Bather), see Lund, Vet.-Akad. Han.ll. 1761, p. 18(5.
■■ L. e., p. 1114.
'' 1.35 ram., according to Reuteb.

the lakes ahoiit 7(1(1 metres abov

777

from iiiiiiurc miuI muddy w.itcr it turn.s red iiftc>r boil-
iii'i- ;nid a<'i|uir('s ;i strouu'. iiiiplcasniit taste of mud.
On attaining a length oi' "-'0 — '2') cm. the Uoaeli genor-
ally unnvs fat, and is tlicn i^nown as Kartmiiit or
Gnifiiiort. Its I'atTicss dcjtcnds, iiowcvcr, on tlic fond-
suppl}'. \vliicli con.sists of vegetable sul).stances, insects,
larva', and mollusks. It seldom lives long in a cauf,
unless taken during the spawning-season.

The lioaeli is one of our most useful fishes, l)oth
as a \velct)me addition to tlie coarse fare of the poor",
and as a \alu:d>le bait for larger and more esteemed
fisiies, in wiiich respect it is inferior to none of our
indigenous piscine forms. Tiiough it is most often
taken, in great or small nundjers, with .se/«e.s of .several
kinds, other tackle is also u.sed, consisting of trapf^,
which are set during tlie spawning-season in weirs
{verke, see abo\e, j). 32), or ftoarli-ncfs, which are em-
ployed either in summer, when they are shot off weedy
shores, or during the spawning-season, round the weirs
in whicli the traps are placed. At the latter season
thc\' nnn' also be set round the reeds or beds of weeds
where the Roach spawns, in which case the fish are
driven towards the net with the fork (see above, p.
741, lig. IS.')). Lastly, the Roach is taken with I'od
and line, and bites during the whole summer. Winter-
angling on the ice is practised only to procure Roach
for bait. But few fish are caught in this manner.

The above characters seem quite sufficient to ren-
der the Roath easily recognisal)le; but both in form
and coloration it sometimes varies beyond comprehen-
sion, and several nominal species have thus originated.
Fatio has arranged these varieties in three groups:

1) Leiicisriis yi(fih(s^ var. data, with body of extra-
ordinary depth, closely resembling that of the Rudd —
to this group belong the Lenciscns niflJoides oi SEL\ii-
I.oN(;cHA.Mi's'' and Xordmaxn's (1. c.) Leuciscus Heckelii:

2) L. nttihis. var. cloiif/afa, with body extraordinarily
elongated (shallow) and only slightly compressed, more

like that (jf the Dace — comprising IIi;f'Ki;r,'s Leariscas
Si'li/sii and .\(iAssiz' L. prashnix : and ;>) A. ratilas,
rar. crassa, with body of extraordinary thickness, in
ap|iearunce not unlike the Chub, but most nearly allied
to tlu^ Italian Leuciseas atila. IIkckki. found in Lake
Egel (Upper Austria) a form wliich he called Jjcnciseits
Faasivf/cri, with comparatively high dor-sal and low
anal iins. This form was again met with b\' Mai.m in
Lake liolmen (Sweden), and lience was named \i\ him
Lcur'i^caf: riitihis, farma bolme)isis. L.vriii discovered
a remarkable malformation of the Roach in Lake Bru-
nig, an Alpine lake now almost dry, and situated 1,160
m. above the level of tiie .sea. Roai-h and Perch were
introduced into this lake at al»out the middle of the
last century. ,\s the lake gradually dried up and
shrank into a smidl, deep pool of veiy clear water, the
Roach, which he never found to measure more than
1() cm., and whose eyes, as usual in tishes of stunted
growth, were comparatively large, had suffered an
albinotic change; of colour. The back was pale green,
the sides were ])ure silvery white, the tins almost colour-
less, but the ejes deep red. In most of them too —
perhaps because they were compelled, like Bleak, to
seek their food at the surface — the mouth was more
oblique than usual, resembling that of the Rudd, with
more projecting chin. In other localities, in Northern
Germany (Danzig and the Frische Haff', according to
Siebold), in France (the Seille, a tributary of the Mo-
selle), and in Switzerland (the Lake of Geneva), the
said albinism has produced the (ifilil Hoarh, a form
analogous to the frohi Ide already mentioned. To con-
clude, the sociable propensities of the Roach, in Sweden
and in manv other places, have induced it to join com-
pany with other Cyprinoids engaged in sp.awning.
Hence hybrids — or at least forms reasonably capable
of this interpretation — have been found between the
Roach and the Rudd, Bleak, Bream, and White Bream.

(Eksth()M, Smitt.)

" Tlie lioncli is t-qiially iuiporUiiit in Soiitli-eiisteni Russia, wliere. according to Grimm, three ur four luinilreil millions are annually
taken in the Caspian Sea, and ahout a hundred millions in tlie Black Sea with the Rivers Kuban and Tlon.
'' Fwwe Behif. p. 212.

778

SCANniNAVIAN FISHES.

Gem s SCARDINIUS.

Sidles middle-sized. J.ntrral line complete. Loni-r jaic slii/litlij projectinf). Caudal lohes pointed. Loii/th of
the base of the aind fin more than 19 % of the distance between this fin and the tip of the snout. Distance
Itef/reen thi- dorsal fin and tin- li/i of the snout h'ss tluui Sfi % of tlud betircen the an>d fin and the same point.

Ill tliis genus we dr.-nv still nearer to the Ahra-
niidines, a circunistaiiee most clearly shown by the
elongation of the base of the anal tin, as remarked in
the above diagnosis. In all our specimens of the pre-
ceding Leuciscines the base of the anal tin measured
less than '/„ of the length of tiie body; henceforward
it is always at least somewhat longer, except where
cross-breeding impairs the natural form of the species.
When BiiXAPAHTiv first established this genus (merely
as a subgenus of Leuciscus"), adopting its title from the
Italian name {Scaidola or Seardintt) of a species iden-
tified by (Janesthini with the Rudd'', he laid most
stress on the deep form of the l)ody, the position of
the dor.sal fiu over the space? between the ventral and

anal tins, and the cariiiation of the ventral margin
between the last-mentioned tins, characters all of which
we have seen indicated in the Roach. When Heckel
at a later period reformed the generic classitication ot
the Cyprinoids, he characterized the genus Scardinius'
chiefly by the pectination of tlie phaiyngeal teeth as
in the RIeaks; but we have also seen traces of this
character in the Roach. The genus, as we understand
it from our knowledge of a single species'*, comes so
near Leueisras that it can claim systematic recogni-
tion onlv as a remarkable stage of transition, in the
external form to Ahramis. and in the ol)liiiue
mouth and the ]>ectinated pliaryngeal teeth To Al-
burn us.

" Iconoijr. Fii. Itat., P'gci. in lln^ ilosL-riiitiun of Leiiciscun Si/iialus.

'' To judge by tlie measLirements given liy Canestrini (Arcli. Zool., Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV, p. 89) of tlio Italinn scardola, these spe-
cies seem, however, to be distinct.

' Russeggers Reise, II Th., p. 10:!7.

'' All the five species established by Bonaparte and Heckel, which would otherwise belong to this genns, are combined into one spe-
cies by Canestrini and Fatio; but it is qnite possible that hybrid forms are thus contained within the limits of this species.

LKUC^ISCINES.

THE RUDD (sw. sarfven).

SCARDINIIJS EllYTllROl'llTHAI.MlJS.

rinti- XXXIII, Hg. 2.

Scales in the laieral Hue (iboiit 4:i". Dorsal tin sifiiafed orcr the space hetireen the ventral and anal jins, and

at a dififancc from the tip nf the snout qreater than half the lenffth of the liodi/. Ventral inarijin hetireen the

rentral fns and the anal <iperturc (iiroiati'd. J'hari/nf/eul teeth set in tiro roirs, hooked at the tip,

and jirctinated: ■'!, '> — ••>, .'>'.

Fig. 10.'!. Pliaryugeal bones and pliaryngeal cartilage of Scdrilhiiii.'! crytlivophlliiiliiiii.-i, natnrnl size. ", /', and r as in the jirei-eding tig

''■ si'

7(8),

C. .f + 1 + 17 + 1 + x; L. ha. 41—43"; L. tvami-. '-^\\ Vert.

(3)4

Si/n. R<u)tnii(j id est, Erijthrophthalmus Germanis dictus, Bramis
attiiiis. WiLLUGHB., Hist. Pi-ic, ed. Raii, p. 249. Cypritms
iride. pinnis omnibus, caudaque rubris, Art. Ichtlii/ol., Gen.
Pi^c, p. 3; Syn. Pise, p. 4: Spec. Pi.'ir., p. il. Utjprinus
piniiie ani radiis iiuatuoidecim, pinnis omnibus rubris, LiN.,
Fa. .Sue,:, ed. I, p. 123.
Cypriiiii.<: Eri/throphtliidmus, LiN., Si/.^'t. Sat., ed. X, torn. I,
p. 324; OsB., Vet.-Akad. Haudl. 1771, p. 1.52, tali. IV,
fig. 4; Bl., Fisch. DeutschL, part. I, p. 28, tab. I; Rktz.,
Fn. Siiec. Lilt., p. 358; DoNOV., Brit. Fish., tab. XL; Ascan.
(Rathke), Icon. Per. Nat., cah. V, p. 4, tab. XLII; Fi.mng
(.Leiiciscus), Brit. Aium.. p. 188; Ekstr. (Ui/prinus), Vet.-
Akad. Hand]. 1830, p. 162; T^fihss. , Prodr. Iclithyol. 6'cand.,
p. 28; Ekstr., v. Wr., Skand. Fisk., ed. I, p. 74, tab. 10;
Ctv., Val. (Leiiciscus), Hist. Nat. Pois.?., vol. XVII, p. 107;
Kr. Daiim. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 421; NiLss., Skaud. Fn., Fisk.,
p. 313; SuNPEV. (Ct/i>riuus), Stockh. L. Hush. Siillsk. Handl.
18,'),"), pp. 81 et 174; IlcKL, Km. (Scardiiiiu.<), Siisswasserf.
Ostr. Moil., p. 153 (+ Scard. dergle, p. 156 + (?) Scard.
scardafa (ex Bo.NAr.), p. 157 + (?) Scard. ploti::a p. 159

+ Scai'd. nia.croplithabitn.i, p. 100); Dyi;., Cypr. Lid., )i.

134; SiEB., Silssivasserj. Mitteleur., p. 180; Wideor. (6'y-

priiius), Landtbr. Akad. Tidskr. 1863, p. 202; Mor.n (Scai-

diiiius), Finl. Fiskfii., p. 45; Li.ndstr. (Leuciscus), Gotl.

Fisk., Gotl. L. Hush. Siillsk. Arsber. 1866, p, 17 (sep.);

Canesth. (Scardiniiis), Arch. Zool., Anat., Fisiol., vol. IV

(1866), p. 89; Blanch., Poi.fs. d. eaiuv douce.'i Fr., p. 377;

Gthr (Leuciscus), Vat. Brit. Mus., Fi.sli., vol. VII, p. 231;

Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, TiUa-gsh., p. 182; N.

Mag. Xaturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. Ill; Malm. Gbgs,

Boll. Fit., p. 563; Fedders. (Scardinius), Naturh. Tidskr.

Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 88; MoR. Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,

torn. Ill, i>. 410; Bncke, Fisch., Fi.icher., Fischz. 0., W.

Prcuss., p. 134: Mfxa (Leuciscus), Vert. Fenn., p. S24, tab.

X; Day, Fi.^/i. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 183. tab. CXXXIII,

fig. 2; Fatio (Scardinius), Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, p. 457;

Mob., Hoke (Leuciscus), Fi.'^cli. O.^ta., p. 112; Reut., Sundm..

Finl. Fi.sk.. tall. II; Lillj., Sc, Nonj. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill,

p. 233.
Cyprinnx compressus, Holle., Be-^kr. Boh. Fisk., H. Ill, p. 66

enin tab. (cfr Ekstr., Gbgs Vet., Vitt. Samli. Handl., N.

Tidsf., H. 1 (1850), p. 24).
Cyj'rimis rrythrops, Pall., Zuoijr. Bofs. Asiat.. torn. Ill, p. 317.

Tlie liudd, wliiili is usu;illv nt' no coiisidL'fiilile
size, meH.surino' in most lusi's l.i — 20 cm., seldom

Sometimes 39, according to EkstrOm ; sometimes 44 or even 45, according to Moreau.
Sometimes 10, according (o Fatio.
11, according to Kroyer.
Someliiues 7, according to Fatio.

780

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

80 — 36 i-in., still Mttiiins ;i wciirht of ahoiit 1 ko'in."
In external i'nytn it seenis to occup\' an iiiteriiii'diate
position between the Leu<is(_ines and the Crucian ("arp,
which it so closely resembles in this respect that in
some localities it bears the name of Sjormla (Lake
Crucian Carp). In Halland and Blekiiige it is also
callcil lliidd (llu(i), and on the Scanian coast of the
Sound it is kiio\Mi \)\ its Danish name of liiid^knUe
(I);ui. skallc. lioacli). The body is deeper and, in pro-
portion to the depth, more compressed than in the pre-
cediui;- Lcuciscines, the Greatest dejith being about V:/
of the length to the middle fif the caudal tin in young
specimens, in old somewhat less than "4" of the same.
In tliis respect, however, the Kudd undergoes a change
of growth \\hich during }'outh ranges it close beside
the Koach in a more developed state''. The greatest
thickness is about 32—42 % of the greatest depth.
The least dei^th of the peduncle of the tail measures
about ' i„ (8—11 %) of the length of the body. The
back rises somewhat abru]Jt]^■ from the occiput, form-
ing a regular cur\ e to the beginning of the dorsal tin,
where it bends at an obtuse angle, and then descends
in ail elongated S-shaped curve, or sometimes almost
in a straight line, towards the base of the caudal tin.
It is convex throughout the greater part of its length,
but in front of the dorsal fin compressed at the mar-
gin, as in the Roach. The belly is rather strongly
compressed, but flat to the ventral fins, then carinated
to the anal aperture. It runs in an unl)rok(>n curve
from the chin to the vent, where it forms an angular
bend, and then rises almost in a straight line to the
peduncle of the tail.

The head is of moderate size, measuring about '/s
of the length of the body', and compressed, with broad

and almost straight forehead' and small, blunt, flattened
snout". The mouth is small* and turned upwards, the
lower jaw being somewhat longer than tlie upper, so that
the tip of the chin is the most prominent jwint. The
eyes are somewhat larger than in the Roach, their
longitudinal diameter measuring in middle-.sized Rudd
about 23 %' of the length of the head. Their ])ositiori
is such that the line from tlie middle of the caudal fin
to the margin of the upper jaw cuts the centre of the
pupil; and in adult specimens tiie postorbital length of
the head is equal to or a little greater than half the
entire length thereof, but in the fry sometimes only
about 43 % of the same. The nostrils are similar to
those of the Roach. The gill-rakers also resemble those
of the Roach; but the pharyngeal teeth (tig. 193) are
.set in two rows, ■^ in the inner and 3 in the outer,
their masticatory surface is coursed by transverse grooves
on the sides and granulated (pectinated) at the margin,
and the pharyngeal cartilage is furnished on the sides
with oblique, transverse grooves.

The dorsal tin occujiies the same backward posi-
tion as in the Minnow, the Owsianka, the 'Asp', and
some s[iecimeiis of the Dace, l3'ing opposite, not to the
ventral tins, as in the other Leueiscines, but to the
space between the ventral and anal tins, as in the
Abramidines. It begins at a distance from the tip of
the snout measuring about 52 — 56 % of the length of
the body; and the distance between the ventral tins
and the same point is only about 79 % (78 ?») — 84 %
(85 %) of the former distance. The form of the tin,
on the other hand, is the same as in the rest of our
Leueiscines, the length of its base measuring about
11 — 13 % (13';, %), and its height about 20— 17 % of
the length of the body. The anal fin is distinguished

i

" According to tin- reports sent in to tlie Swotlisli Fislieries Coniniiltee of 1881 — 83 the KiiddCO m.iy iittain !i length of l' ., Sw. feet
(45 cm.) and a weight of 4 Sw. pounds (1,700 grammes). D,\y tells ns of a specimen from Norfolk 3 Ihs. I oz. (l,38'.l grammes j in
weight. According to Fatio the Rudd weighs at a length of 15' ^ cm. 45 grammes, at a length (if 2ii6 mm. 230 grammes, and at a
length of 3 dm. more than ' ., '^'1"-

' 26—36 %.

' 86 — 39',., °i, according to our measurements.

'' In a Roach IfiT mm. long the greatest depth was 26'3 'i, and the greatest thickness lO'S \, of the length of the body. Iti n
liudd Ij3' „ mm. long these percentages were respectively 26'8 and ll'O.

'■ About 23 — 20 % (19-8 %) of the length of the body in Rudd 03 — 277 mm. long.

■' The breadth of the inlerorbital space increases with age in the specimens just mentioned from .ibout 40 to 47 °. of the length of
the head.

" In the same specimens the length of the snout varies individually, though generally increasing, from about 28 % (in e.xception.il

cases 2i; %) to 33V2 ''■' "^ ^''^^ "^ ^'"^ '"^"''•

'' The length of the upper jaw from the middle of the tij) of the snout varies in the same specimens between about 28 li (exceptionally
27 »=) and 32 % of that of Uie head, and the length of the lower jaw between 39 and 36 °i (34 °.) of the same, being in young specimens
often cipial to. in old ahvays less than, that of the suboperculum.

' In our smallest specimen, 03 mm. long, the longitudinal diameter of the eye measures 32 % of the length of the lie.ad, in our
argest specimen, 277 mm. long, 21 % of the same.

"81

by its great length, its base measuring about \?, — l.V .
% of tlie length of the body, its heiglit about Id "«
(sonietiuK's 17 «i-) — 13' a ''/ of the same. It begins at
a distance fi'oui the tip of the snout measuring about
59 — (ii; % (in exceptional cases 69 %) of tlie lengtli of
the bo(h'. Tiie caudal tin is similar to tliat of tiie
Roiicli. its middle rays occupying about II'., — T/., %
of tlie length of tiic bodv, and measm'ing in ciui- young-
est specimen aliout o3 %, in the oldest ones al)out 40 —
36 "u ol tliat <if tiie longest caudal rays.

The pectoral and ventral fins reseralde in form
those of tlie Hoach, liut the former are always per-
ceptiblv longer tiian tlie latter, the lengtli of tiie former
being about 20 — IS ?o, of the latter about 18— Kl '</.
of that of the bodv. The distance Ijetween tlie ventral
tins and the ti|) of the snout measures aliout 43 (42"2)
— 4<'i "(/, the preabdoiniual length about 22 — 2.5 (25'8) %,
and the postabdomiiial length about 19 — 2.") (27) ?«-, of
the length of the bodv.

found in Sweden, has not yet been ascertained; but
there are no positive instances of its occurrence in
Westernorrland, Jenitland, or Westerbf^tten, though Ek-
STKoM was told thai it occurred still farther north, in
the Kalix I'^lf. < »f its extension in Norway Katuke
states (in Asc.wiis) that it is taken in several of the
Norwegian lakes, among others in iMjOsen and Ojereti;
liut according to Collkti' its occurrence is confined to
the south-east of the countr\-, and its range scarceh'
extends north of Christiania (60° X. lat.). In Ireland
the Rudd and the .Minimw are the oiih- indigenous
Cyprinines known.

In Southern and Central Sweden th(; Rudd is met
with in most of the lakes and i'i\ers, as well as in
the Baltic island-lielt, bnt nowhere in any great aliuiid-
ance. It is known in different localities by diffei'ent
names, most often by those of Harf" or Sarfrel, some-
times ROdfemt (Red-tin) or Uvdmort (Red Roach). Its
favourite haunts lie in thick and weedy water. In

The scales are also of the same tyjie as in the 1 spring and summer it frequents shallow, swampy coves

Roach, but larger and coarser, more distinctly striated,
and still more closely imliricated.

To the external sexual characters the same re-
marks ajijilv as in the case of the Roach.

In coloration the Rudd is one of the most haiid-
soiiie Leuciscines. The sides are of a silvery lustre,
strongly tinged with golden yellow, a bright play of
colours being thus produced. The back is dark green-
ish, gradually jiassing first into greenish yello^v and
then into the colour of the sides. The iris is golden
yellow, shading more or less distinctl)' into red. The
dorsal and caudal fins are of a light olive green, tij)-
ped more or less distinctly \vith red, especially the

with weedv or muddy bottom. In winter, like the
other Cyprinoids, it withdraws to deep water.

The Rudd is not very active, and makes long so-
journs at its chosen haunts. Except on very warm
and fine summer days, it seldom rises in the water,
but lies at the liottom, buried in weeds and mud. It
is more cautious than timid, for though afraid of noise,
it does not retire to an\- distance, liut hides, when
frightened, in the ooze and weeds, whence no din can
dislodge it. Being a greedy eater, and living on plants,
insects, worms, and mud, it indeed becomes fat towards
autumn, but in the Swedish lakes never attains any
consideralde size. It is very sociable and cannot en-

latter. The pectoral fins are light and transparent, with dure solitude, intruding itself, when it cannot find any
reddish tip. The ventral and anal fins, grayish yellow large company of its own species, on the society of

at the biis(\ are of a bright red hue, of varying in-
tensity and distribution in different specimens. In young
specimens, as usual, the colours are less rich.

other fishes, generally those of the preceding genus,
especially during their spawning festivities. Hence the
origin of the Swedish proverb: Sarfreu i lirar lek".

The range of the Itudd extends throughout Europe, From this habit, and from the fact that large shoals

except the Iberian Peninsula, and also to Asia Minor
and the interior of Siberia, where Humboldt and Eiike.x-
BEiu; traced it to the Obi and Tobolsk. But both in
Siberia and Europe the species is wanting in the ex-
treme north. In Finland, according to Mel.v, it penet-
rates to lat. ti3° 20' N. How far north tlie Rudd is

are seldom found lireeding at tlie same jilace, it has
been supposed that the Kudd holds no spawning
assemblies of its own. This opinion is, however,
groundless.

The siiawning-season of the Rudd occurs in Central
Sweden at the end of Mav or beginning of June, in

" In Finland Sorvo, iu Norway Sero or Flaxroi/e (Uathke).

'' Lit. "the Rii.iil at evi-ry spawning," i. (-. a finger in every pie.

rs2

SCANDINAVIAN I-'ISIIES.

more soutlicrii cuuntries earlier, sometiiiu's even in Ajiril.
'I'lic males iiiul females then join company and gather
in siiailow, weedy inlets, where the spawning taises
place, accompanied l)y a hahbling or smacking noise.
This sound is produced by the tish |)utting tiieir snouts
to the sui'face, oyjening the mouth, and emitting an
air-l)uhble, wliich floats on the water and bursts. The
rue is fleposited on the weeds, and is liatched in S — 10
days, the length of time i'e(|uired depending on the
weather. In a female weighing 293 grammes Bloch
estimate<l tlic ninnber of the eggs at 91,720.

The Iiiidd is used as food only bv the poor. Tlie
flesh is flaljby, l)ony, and always more or less tainted
^vith nuid. Furthermore, as the fish is hardly ever
found, even during the spawning-season, in large shoals,
it is only stddom tliat the fisherman pays any special
attention to it. Traps (riis.y'nr, see ]>. ;-)3, fig. 7) are
set at the spawning-place, in which case care should
i>e taken to lay them close to the bottom. Wicler-
liiiskets {mjardar, see p. .")2, fig. (i) may also be em-
]il()yed at the sjiawning-place, but are less useful. In
the tri(iini/i'/-iicf the Rudd is taken all the summer on
warm and fine dnys and at ]ilaces thickly overgrinxn
with weeds. The trammel should be shot amona' tlie

weeds, for if it he set outside them, the Rudd refuses
to be driven into tlie meshes. By <inf/li)ig it may also
be caught throughout the summer, for it bites eagerlv
at a worm. It is almost alwa\s taken in com|)any
with other fishes.

The Rudd's fondness for joining, as an interlo])er,
in the spawning of other fishes has produced several
hybrids, one of which, jACKiiLs" Scardiniopsis ancops,
is a cross l)et\\een this species and the preceding one.
In this form the position of the dor-sal fin is the same
as in the Roach: but the size of the scales and the
pectination of the pharyngeal teeth remind us of the
the Rudd. The dorsal fin contains 10 branched rays,
the anal 11 or 12. The nund)er and distribution of
the pharyngeal teeth vary, being, according to Jackel,
.") — .); 0 — .5, 1; 1, ."j — .'); or 1, .") — b, 2. This hybrid
occurs in Bavaria, but has not yet been found in
Sweden. Another hybrid form, a cross between the
Rudd and the Bleak, is also unknown in Sweden;
but a third, the result of cross-breeding lietween the
Rudd and the Wldte r>rcam, has been met with in
this counti'y, and a brief notice of this variety will he
found below.

(EkSTHoM, S.MITT.)

Genvs ASPIUS".

Scales mi(l(Ur-si.-:ed. Lateral line eowplele. Lo/rer jair distiiietli/ iiromUienI, irith the pohit titt'oKj iida an iii-
dentathiu in the tip of the snout. Caudal lobes pointed. Length of the base of the anal fin more than I'J % of
the distance betn-ecn this fin and the tip of the snout. L'ef/inninc/ of the dorsal fn situated in fro)/t of the
middle of the bodij, (did the disfauce between it and the tip of the snout less than S(! % of that betwecit the

anal fin and the same point.

Thus defined, the genus contains only one spe- i midines. The character by which GCNTHEii distin-

cies', and is ranged by its flatly convex belly (oidy | guished this genus from Alhurnus, the short and

slightly carinated between the ventivd and anal tins) j scattered gill-rakers, as well as the wide gajie, is an

beside the most t}'pical Leuciscines, but owing to i expression of its moi-e predatory natui-e, a ])oint in

the comparatively great length of the anal fin forms which this genus is unet[ualled by any of our other

a distinct link between the Leuciscines and the Al>i'a- , C'yprinoids.

" Die Fisclie Baijerus, Ablj. Zool. Miner. Vfr. Resensluirg, '.i:tes Hcfl (1S(J4), p. 64.

'' Agassiz, Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Neucli., toiii. I (183G), \>. as.

' The Syrian Asjnus vorax (Heckel, Russef/g. Reii^e. Tli. II, \>. 1081, tub. X, fig. ;!) lias small scales and a slmrt anal Hn. Tlic
Chinese Anpins spilurus (Gunth.. Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. \II, |i. .jll) lias large scales and an elongated body, more closely resembling
Albiirnv^. Kessler has described an Aspiwf evytiirostonms from the Caspian and the Sea of Aral, and Jacowlev an Aspius liyliridus from
the ninntli of the Volga; but these forms are otlicrwise nnUnown to ns.

LELX'ISI'IMCS.

783

THE ASP (s\v. Asi'KN).

ASPllS KAl-AX.

Plate XXXVI, tigs. 1 (rf) ami 2 (?).

Scales ill the lateral line aliout Cd (6:? — 7';!). Lciii/tli af the loirer jair alwiif ' j„ (10 or 11 %) of that of the
body, (ircater than the least dejith af th' tail, and at least ' ,„ {70 — S,\f %) of the length of the base of the anal
fin. Leiii/th of the apjier j'air at least ' ,2 {O'.-l — S'.'l %) of that af the liodi/ and greater than either the hreadth
of the iiiter(o'l)it(d sjiaee or the length of the sahopereahoii, irhiiii ineasirrements are ahont equal to eaeh other.
Phari/iigcal teeth set in tiro roics {3, 5 — 5, 5), hooked af the tiji. irith siiKiotli, more or less sharp, and not reri/

distinct masticatorii surface.

Fig. 194. Pliaryngeal boues and pliaryiigeal cartilage of Aspius rcipiia; natural size. o. b, ami c as in the preceding figure.

R. br. 3; D.

(12)13—14(15)

11 — 12
6'. J' + 1 + 17 + 1 + ,r; L. lat. (62)66—73: L. tr. -ttz = 1:

(4)5-

Vert. 48 1. 49.

Syn. Capita fuvkitilis rapax, Gesn., Hitit. Anim.. lib. IV. Paralip..
p. 9; SCHO.NEV., Iclithi/ol. Slesc. Hoist., p. 30; M.arsigl.,
Damih. Pant,. Miik., ton.. IV, p. 20. tab. VII, fig. 2; Cij-
]>rinu.9 magnus crassus argenteus; longitudine ad latitudiuem
ipiintupla, Art., Ichtlojol., Syn. Pise, p. 8. Ci/priiius
ina.xilla inferiore longiore cum apice elevato, pinna ani ossicu-
lorum quindeciiu, Art., ibid.. Gen. Pise, p. G ; «S'.y«. Pise,
p. 14; Descr. 6'j'er. Pitic. p. 14; Lix.. Fii. i:iiec., ed. I,
p. 121.

Ci/]>riints Aspius, LiN., 6'yst. Xat., ed. X, toni. I, p. 325; Bi,.,
Fiscli. Deutschl., part. I, p. 48, tab. VII; Retz., Fii. Siiec.
Lin., p. 359; Nilss., Prodi: Ichthyol. Scand., p. 28; Cuv.,
Val. (Leuciscus), Hist. A'at. Poiss., torn. XVII, p. 265;
Nii.ss. (Abramis), SIcand. Fn.. Fish., p. 334; Widegr. (6'y-
priniis), Lnndtbr. Akad. Tidskr. 18()3, p. 203; Reut., Sundm.
(A.'tpins), Finl. Fisk., tab. XIX.

Vypriiius rapax, Leske, Ichthyol. Lips, spec, p. 56; Pall.,
Zooyv. Hoss. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 811; Agass. (Aspiiis), 1. c. ;
Kr., Damn. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 500; Hckl., Kn., HUsswasserf.
Oitv. Mon., p. 142; Dyeowski, Cypr. Livl., p. 173; Sieb.,

" See Uiid. Betiink: m. Foi-sl. Fiskeristadga J8S.3. p. 154.
Scnndinarwn Fishes.

Siisswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 169; Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfn.. p. 44.
Gthr, Cat. Brit, Mus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 310; Coll., Forh.
Vid. Selsk. Clirnia 1874, Tilla?gsh., p. 184; 1879, No. 1,
p. 96; BxCKE, Fisch. Fischer., Fischz. 0., W. Preiiss., p.
130; MOb., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 120; Lill.i., Sv.. A'org.
Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 261.
Aspius Linne'i, Malm, Gbys, Buh. Fit., p. 567.

The Asp is the hirirest European ("ypi-iuoid; and
though it cannot rival the giants of the family in In-
dia, where Catia Buchanan i, for example, may attain
a length of at lea.st 18 dm., still it sometimes reaches
in Sweden, according to several corroborative state-
ments", a weight of about 8 or 9 kgm. and a length
of about 1 m. (9 — 12 dm.). Its ordinaiy size, as it is
exposed for sale at Stockholm, is, however, about 4 or
5 dm., and its weiglit aljout 2 or .3 kgm. An As]) of
5 kgm., wliich may sometimes be seen, is about 8 dm.
long. An Asp weighing 1 kgm. measures about 45
cm. to the end of the lower caudal lobe.

The bodv is ratiier elongated and compressed. In
ordinary cases the greatest depth is less than ' ,

784

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

(varying between 23 and 2.5 ?a), and the greatest thick-
ness at most about ' ,, (varying between 8 and 11' o
%), of the length of the body to the end of the middle
caudal rays; but in gravid females (.see the figure) the
former ratio may rise to 27V\, %. The least deptli of
the tail is about Vu, (varying between 9 and 10'/^ %)
of the length of the body.

The l^ack is arched at the occiput, but elsewhere
slopes almost in a straight line, })oth backwards and
forwards from its apex at the begiiuiing of tlie dorsal
fin. Just in front of this fin it is very slightly
compressed at the margin, but with this exception it
is convex or even (behind the doi-sal fin) flat. The
belly descends from the cliin in a regular curve, rather
sharp in gravid females; and the ventral margin is
broad and flatly convex, but furnished between the
ventral fins and the anal aperture 1) in the median
line with a distinct, but low cai-ina, composed of curved
scales of a special type, and 2) at the boundary be-
tween it and the sides with a similar carina, usually
less prominent, but sometimes quite distinct, which runs
back on each side from the outer angle of the insertion
of the ventral fin.

The head is middle-sized, but laterally compressed,
its length being in young specimens somewhat gi-eater,
in old less, than the greatest depth of the body, and
varying between 24 and 22 % of the length of the
latter. The clieeks are flat and perpendicular; the up-
per surface is straight and slightly convex or almost
flat with a gentle slope in a forward direction; and
the breadth of the interorbital space measures in young
specimens 31 % of the length of the head, but rises in
old to at least 35 ?6 of the same. The eyes are set
high on the sides of the head, and are comparatively
small, being about equal in size to those of the Tench.
They invariably lie in tlie anterior lialf of the head,
for the postorbital length tliereof measures in young-
specimens about 56 %, in old about 63 % of its entire
length from the tip of the snout. In young specimens
about 16 cm. long the length of the eyes, which is al-
ways somewhat greater than their vei'tical diameter, is
about 21 — 20 % of that of the head. In specimens
18 — 22 cm. long this proportion has sunk to 18 or
17 %, and in specimens 44 — 66 cm. long the length
of the eyes is oidy about 14 — 12'/^, % of that of the
head. The lengtli of the snout, whicli is shallow and

wedge-shaped, tapering to a sharp edge in front, mea-
sures about 28 % (27—29 %) of that of the head. The
lines of the mouth are characterized principalh- by the
sinus at the tip of the snout, into which the more or less
knub-sliaped point of the lower jaw fits when the mouth
is closed. On each side of this sinus the labial mar-
gin forms a somewhat arcuate projection, thus giving
to the margin of the upper jaw on each side the elong-
ated S-shape pointed out by Nilsson. The lower jaw
expands in a similar manner on the sides in front;
and the fleshy lips, especially the lower, are tumid at
the corners of the mouth. The intermaxillaries cannot
be protruded beyond the tip of the snout; yet the gape
is large in consequence of the length of the jaws, which
is greater, com})ared witii the size of the head, tlian
in any other Scandinavian Cyprinoid", the length of
the up])er jaw from the tip of the snout being about
38 % (36—39 %) of that of the head, and tlie length
of the lower jaw about 48 ?& (45 — 51 %) of the same.
There is no free tongue; but the middle part of the
hyoid apparatus in front (the glossohyoid region) is
flesliy and soft. The nostrils are set on a level with
the upper orbital margins, aljout twice as near to the
eye as to the tip of the snout. The gill-openings are
large, the broad branchiostegal membranes not coalesc-
ing with the isthmus until they reach the perpendicular
from the hind margin of the eyes. Nine or ten short
and scattered gill-rakers, compressed at the ti]) or with
faint signs of digitation (cf. the Ide), compose the outer
row on the front of the first branchial arch. The outer
margin of the ])]iMryugeals is fui'uished witli 7 or 6
pointed and still shorter gill-rakers. The long pha-
ryngeals (fig. 194) are armed, as mentioned above, with
two ro^vs of simple, but strong teeth, hooked at the
tip. The pseudobranchiffi lie high on the inner surface
of tlie hvomaudibular bone, in the hollow on each side
above the 'carp-tongue', and in some cases are there-
fore difficult of detection, though well-developed.

All the fins save, in some degree, the ventrals are
distinguished by a more or less incised, pointed form.
The dorsal fin begins at a distance from the tip of the
snout measuring on an average 4772 ^ ("^'^Va — 48 '/g %)
of the length of the bodj'. Its base occupies about Vio
(9'3 — iri %) of the same length, and its height is in
young specimens about 18' ., %, in old about 16 "», of
the same. Tlie anal fin, which lies further back in the

" Comjiared with (lie length of tlie body, liowever, tlie jaws of the Gokitieh are equally loug.

785

females tliaii in the males, begins at ii distanee from
the tip of the snout ineasurin": 62 — ()7 % of the length
of the l)o(h-. The length of its base is about 13'/... —
14V« % of that of the body, and its height about !(> —
13'A> * "^ ''^"^ same, the biise being as a I'ule in the
young less than, in old sj)eciniens equal \o or greater
than, the height. The base is also as a rule about ec|ual
to the length of the ventral fins, whieli measures about
14 % of that of the body. The distance between the
ventral fins and the tip of the snout is about 43 — 46
* of the length of the body, being greatest in the fe-
males, where tfie preabdominal length is thus about ' ^
of the length of the body, M'hile in the males it is only
about " ,, thereof. The postabdominal length, which is
also greater in tlie females, varies with age between
about '20 and 2o % of the length of the body. The
outer posterior corner of the ventral tins is indeed
pointed, the second simple or the first branched ray
being the longest; but the succeeding rays are only
slighth' shorter, and sometimes, especially in the young,
the outer posterior margin of these fins, when expanded,
is somewhat rounded. The pectoral fins are pointed,
with a distinct contraction at the hind margin within
the tip, calling to mind the genus Felecus: their length
is about 17 or IH % of that of the body. The caudal
fin with its pointed lobes, the lower somewhat longer
than the upper, is deeply forked, the length of the
middle rays being in young specimens about 9 %, in
old about 7 or 6 %, of that of the body, or in the
former about 38 %, in the latter about 31 ?a, of that
of the longest caudal rays.

The scales are of moderate size and of the same
type as in Leuciscus both in form and texture, save that
the concentric stria; on the free (hind) part are more
distinct, coarser, and more scattered; and as in Leu-
ciscus, their mndeus is fairly central. Their munber in
an oblique transverse i-ow lietween the ventral tins and
the lateral line is 7; but on counting vertically up-
wards we find only 6 longitudinal rows"..

The coloration as a whole conforms to the Leu-
eiscine type, varying according to age, season, and en-
vironments. The colours of the young are lighter, of
old specimens darker. The olive green back with its

steely lustre passes towards the sides into a silvery
or brassy hue, and the belly is white. Especially pretty
is the brassy oi" golden and silvery lustre on the sides of
the head, which are finely j)unctated with dark green.
'i'iie iris is mostly silver white, but the pupil is encircled
by an ;dmost golden yellow (sometimes paler) ring, and
the upper part of the iris displays a brassy tinge with
a shading of dark dots. The dorsal and caudal fins are
of the same colour as the back, though with a stronger
dash of blue (violet) and red, and Avith dark margins.
The other fins usually shade into red and yellow; but
in the female our iigure represents in her spawning-
dress, they were darker. In this dress might also be
traced • — though they became more prominent under
the action of the spirits in which the specimen was
preserved — the 8 dark stripes along the sides above
the lateral line, formed by a dark streak along the
middle of each scale's free surface, and shown in the
above-quoted figure by Marsigli.

The Asp belongs properlj- to South-eastern Europe,
liut is also common in the centi-al parts of this con-
tinent. In Switzerland and Western Europe, even in
Denmark, it is wanting. It is most frequently found,
however, only in large lakes and rivers, but does not
shun the brackish water on the coast, e. g. in the Haft's
of Northern Germany and Lake Dassower (the mouth of
the Trave). In Sweden its range is almost confined to
the ^Millar valle^• and the liasin of Lake Wener. It
also occurs, however, in the Dal Elf (at least in Lake
By, a broad on this river in the south-east of Dale-
carlia''), in the Em (Calmar), and, according to Malm',
in the Helge (Christianstad). In Lake Wetter and the
neighbouring waters it has never been found. That it
also inhabits the Baltic island-belts, is more than pro-
bable, for the large female represented in our figure
was taken at SjStullen outside Stockholm. MCller''
assigned it to the Norwegian fauna under the name of
Blaa-spol: but, according to Colle'it, the only Nor-
wegian \\'aters inhabited bj- this species are Lake Ojeren,
from which it ascends in spring the Lersundselv and
Nitelv, and that part of the Gloramenelv which is below
Lake Ojeren. In Finland the Asp is known with cer-
tainty only from the extreme south-west, but according

° Sometimes only 4, according to Dvbowski.

' According to information received from Dr. STEFFENBlRr, by Liluebokg. See also the above-cited report of the Swedish Fisheries
Commission.

'' See also Retzius, Fii. Suec. Lin.
■* Zool. Dan. Prodr., p. 51.

786

SCANDIXAVIAX FiSIIES.

to Mela, occurs, tliough seldom, in tlie vicinity of
Kuopio.

The Asp, as we have mentioned, is a tish of marked
predatory habits, resorting to vegetable food oidy by
accident, or when reduced by necessity. It is thei-e-
fore lacking in the sociability of our otiier ( 'yjjrinoids,
a feeling it evinces only in the spawning-season and
perhaps during its winter sleep. "His name" (Germ.
Proppe, Lat. rapax'), writes Gesxer, "is derived from
his voracity, for he ranges the waters like a formidable
pirate, to other fishes a no less dangerous, but rather a
more flestructive foe than the Sheattish or the Pike.
In headlong chase of his flying victims, which in terror
leap on dry land, he sometimes runs ashore himself."
Bleak and Smelt are its commonest prey; but it does
not slirink from assailing larger fish or even water-
rats, nor does it disdain smaller and lower animals,
such as worms, niollusks, and the like. It is not very
tenacious of life, dying soon on dry land. Its favourite
iiaunts are clear lakes or gentle streams with clean,
sandy or gravelly bottom. As long as the water is
clear, it cunningly avoids all snares, and is difficult to
take with net or seine; but a ^linnow set on a trolling
hook and cast enticingly before its nose is too tempting
a bait to be resisted. When the water is thick, it may
be more easily netted. Such are its habits in summer;
but they assume a different aspect under the influence
of sexual excitement.

The spawning-season of the Asp begins early in
spring, soon after the breaking up of the ice, in Swe-
<len in April or ^lay. Tiie males are tlien marked by
the usual dermal eruption of small round tubercles on

the head, the pectoral tins, and tlie dorsal scales back
to the tail. The fish assemble in shoals, which ascend
the rivers, or proceed to shallow parts of the lakes,
where the roe is attached to stones or weeds, or simply
deposited on the bottom. A middle-sized female con-
tains, according to Benecke, 80,000 — 100,000 eggs.
The large gravid female of which we give a figure,
measured 75 cm. from the tip of the snout to the end
of the caudal lobes, and when taken off Stockholm on
the 22nd of April, 1886, iiad nearly the whole of the
abdominal cavitv under the air-bladder and forward to
the diaphragm filled ])y the two ovaries with their three
or four lobes. The eggs were about 1" ^ mm. in dia-
meter, and their number was computed to be about
300,000. ()f the growth of the fry NdUBACK states"
that during the first year the}' attain a length of 9 cm.,
and LiLLJEROKG assumes specimens 15 cm. long, taken
at the beginning of May, to be one year old.

The flesh of t!ie Asp is white and fat, but Iiony
and difficult of digestion. It shows a tendency in \)vo-
cess of boiling to separate into flakes (the muscular
sections, myomeres), which may be obviated, however,
by putting it on the fire in cold water. Large and
fleshy as the fish is, it is one of the niost important
Cyprinoids, and the head is considered a delicacy by
many. Except during the spawning-season, however,
no large catches of Asp are made in Sweden. Solitary
specimens appear in the fishmarkets of Stockholm about
Christmas; but the true season for Asp is from Febru-
ary to June. The Asp is taken chiefly in nets or traps.
Still it affords good sport to the angler, who should pre-
fer a l)ait of live fish, thouah worms may also be used.

Genus LEUCASPIUS'.

Scales middle-sized and deciduous. Lateral Uhc iiicoiiiplrfe. Lotrcr jaic distincthi projecting, with the point fittinm
into a shallow indentation at the tip of the snout. Lobes of the caudal Jin pointed. Length of the base of the
ancd Jin more tha)i. l!) % of the distance between this fn and the tip of the snout, and more than V j^ times the
least depth of the tail. Beginning of the dorsal fin situated at the middle of the body or farther back, and the
distance bettveen it and the tip of the snout more than 86 % of that between the anal fin and the same point.

An intrn-mediate form between Asjiius and Albur-
nus, Leucaspius is nearly allied to the following sub-
family. One of the most uinnistakable signs of this is

the relative position of the dorsal fin to tlie anal. In
none of the preceding Leuciscines — except in young ■
males of I'hoxinus — have we found the distance between ;■

" Handl. Fiskev., Figkafc. p. 43!
' HcKL, Kn., 1. c. p. 145.

787

the tlorsiil tin antl the tij) of the snout to nicasmv more of (leiiiiireiitioii very elosely; l)ut /^e«''rt.S'^J<«.s is easily dis-

thaii 86 "o of tliat l)etweeii tiie ana! fiii ami the sanu? tiiiguished from uU tiie Leucisciiies tliat have scales of

point, as is generally the ease in tlie IMeak, llreani, nioflerate or some considerable size, by its incomplete

White Bream, and "Ziege". The fry of the Htidd and a ' lateral line, which seldom extends behind the tip of the

few males of the same species, howe\'er, approach the line pectoral fins. < hdy one species of the genus is known.

THE OWSIANKA (sw. groplojan").

LEUCASPU'S DELLXE.VrUS.

FiR. 105.

Coloration silri'i-fi like that of the Bleak, iritli a stivl-lilae IjoikI alaiii/ the sides of the Ijodi/. J'hari/nfjcal teeth
slender, hooked at the tip, peetiixtted, and set in our or tivo roa-s: 5 — 4{')) or 1{:J), 5 — 4, 1{2).

FiK. 195. Leucasphis delineatus, natural size, taki-ii at Laiidskrona on tlie 4th August, 1871 by LlLLJEUoKii, tcgetlier witli the left
pharyngeals magu. 5 rliani. n and h as in the preceding figure.

U. .r + 1 + (16)17 + 1 +,r
L. ti: 12 — 13: Vert. S6'.

. -'—: P. -i-: V. i^;
11 — IS' 12 — 14 7—8

L. lat. s.jii. 44—50 (7—13 perfor.);

Syii. Aphi/a {Mutterloselcen), Schonev., Ichthi/ol. Slesv. Hoist., p. 16.
Sgtialin.i delineatus, HoKi, Uusseggers Reisen, vol. I, pt. 2,

p. 1041; HcKL, Kn., Susswasserf. Ostr. Mon., p. 193; Sieb.

(Leucasphis), Siissivasserf. Mittelenr., p. 171; Gthr, Cat.

Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 319; Lilu , Ofverfs. Vet.-

Akad. F6rh. 1871, p. 815, tab XVII, A; M.4LM, Ghrjs, Boh.

Fn., p. 568, not.; Fedders., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3,

vol. XII, p. 90; Bncke, Fisch., Fisrlwr., Fisr},:. 0., W.

Prettss., p. 131.
Leaciscus stymphaliciis, Cuv., Val., Hist. A'ai. Poiss.. vol.

XVU, p. 295, tab. 498.
Aspitis olosianka, Czernat, Bull. Soc. Natur. Mosc, toni.

XXIV, part. 1, p. 281, tab. VII; pt. 2, p. 259; Maslow.,

ibid., torn. XXVII, pt. 1. p. 442.

Leucaspius abraptus, HcKL, Kn., 1. c., p. 145; Dvb., Vypr.,
Livl., p. 147 + Owsianha Ccernai/i, ibid, et p. 140.

The Owsianka is one of the smallest Cyjn'i-
noids. Its usual lengtJi is about 6 — 8 cm., measured
to the tip of the caudal lobes, the former in the males,
the latter in the females. Sometimes, however, ac-
cording to Beneckk, it may attain a length of 12 cm.
Its size is thus e(]ual as a rule to that of the Minnow,
but the form of its body is quite different, being more
compressed, like that of the Bleak, which it also re-
sembles in coloration.

The ])ody is well proportioned, with regular dorsal
and ventral curves, the latter being the sharper. The
greatest depth of the body is about 20 — 22 % of its

" LiLLJEBOKG, 1. C.

' Sometimes 14, according to Dybowski.
"■ According to M.\slowskt.

788

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

length to the end ot tlie initklle caudal rays, and the
greatest thickness is abuut half the greatest depth. Tlie
least depth is about S % (7'8 — 8"2 %) of the length.
The back is broad and convex, the belly more com-
pressed, forniii;g lietween the ventral tins and the anal
aperture a sharj) carina, covered witli a row of curved
scales.

Tlie length of tlic head is about 23 — 21 % of that
(if tlie body. It is apparently a general rule that in
the young and the males the length of the head is
greater, in adult females less, than the greatest depth
of the body. In form the head is almost exactly si-
milar to that of the Bleak, but in old specimens its
upper surface, along the middle of the forehead and
the crown, is depressed and plane. The eyes are ver-
tically set, rather large, and situated almost entirely in
tiie anterior half of the head, the postorbital part mea-
suring about 48 or 44 % of tlie entire length of the
head. In s|)ecimens h — 8 cm. long the longitudinal
diameter of the eyes, which is sliglitly greater than or
equal to the vertical diameter, measures about 33 — 31
% of the length of the head, and is always perceptibly
greater than the length of the snout. The tip of the
snout is sharp (shallow), but broad (truncate), with a
shallow sinus to receive the point of the lower jaw.
The cleft of the mouth is turned sharply upwards and
rather large; but in consequence of its obliquity the
hind extremity of the maxillaries scarcely extends, when
the mouth is closed, to the perpendicular from the an-
terior margin of the eyes. The lips are thin. The
length of the upper jaw from the middle of the tip of
the snout is about 7 % (6'6— 7'2 %) of that of the body,
or about 30 % (29-2— 32-2 %) of that of the head. The
length of the lower jaw, which is generally about equal
both to the breadth of the interorbital space and the
length of the suture between tlie suboperculum and tiie
operculum, measures about 8"/g % (8'5 — 8'7 %) of the
length of the body, or about 38'/2 % (37-5— 40 %) of
that of the head. The nostrils lie rather near the up-
per anterior corner of the orliits. The gill-openings
are fairly large, the branchiostegal membranes coalesc-
ing with the isthmus in about a line with the hind
margin of the preoperculum. The outer row on the
front of the first branchial arch contains 11 — 13 pointed
gill-rakers, small and close-set below, larger and more
scattered above. The pharyngeal teeth are slender and
almost straight, with hooked tip and pectinated masti-
catory surface. They are sometimes set, according to

Heckel, Maslowsky, and Sieuold, in two rows: but
in all the specimens examined by us they formed a
single row. The pharyngeal cartilage is elliptical, but
its hind (lowei') extremity is raised, as in the preceding
Leuciscines, in an inverted canaliculate form.

The fins are of the normal Leuciscine type. The
dorsal Hn begins at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring about half (49 — 52 %) of the length of the
body. The length of its base is about Vg (12—11 %\
and its height about V7 (16 — 13^ 4 %), of the same length.
The anal fin is perceptibly longer and, especially in
old specimens, lower, and begins further back in the
females than in the males. The distance between it
and the tip of the snout measures in the males about
55 or 56 %, in the females aliout 57' , — 59', 2 %, of the
length of tiie body. Its base is about 16 — 14 % (in
exceptional cases 13 %), and its height in young spe-
cimens about 14 %, in old 13 — 12 %, of the same length.
Its length marks the approximation to the Abramidines,
for whereas in all the preceding Cyprinoids the least
depth of the tail is more than "/a of the length of the
base of the anal tin — though exceptions may occur
among young Minnows — in Lei(ca.sj)ii(s deliiieatus the
said ratio is less than "3 (about 50 — 61 %). The cau-
dal fin undergoes a similar change of growth, the length
of the middle caudal rays being in young specimens
about 12 %, in old about 10 — OV., %, of that of the
body. The longest caudal rays (in the inferior lobe)
measure about 22 or 23 % of the length of the body.
This fin is also subject to individual variation, an ex-
ceptional circumstance among the Cyprinoids, the num-
ber of the branched rays being either 16 or 17. The
pectoral fins are obliquely pointed and comparatively
short (16 or 15 % of the length of the body). The
ventral fins are almost triangular, and their length is
about 14 or 13 % (in exceptional cases 11 %), of that
of the body. The distance between the ventral fins
and the tip of the snout measures about 41 — 45 %, the
preabdominal length about 20 — 22 V2 ^> and the post-
abdominal length about 14 or 15 % (d") — 17 or 18 %
(?), of the length of the body.

The anal aperture calls to mind the corresponding
organ in the Minnow and the 'Bitterling' (see above). "
It is more prominent and tubiform than in the Minnow,
especially in the females, and is furnished on each side
with an oblong, compressed papilla.

The scales are thin, deciduous, and rather large,
their number in an oblique transverse row above the

J

• WSIANKA.

789

ventr;il tins lieinji' only 11 — 13. In tbrin and stnicturc
they sliow most resemblance to those of the common
Bleak, heini;' deeper than long (of broad elliptical shape,
with longitudinal axis set across the body), with few
and indistinct radiating grooves, and with the nucleus
nearer to the anterior margin than to tlie postei-ior.
In young specimens only few scales (o — 4 or even none)
are pierced by the lateral line as it descends in a curve
from the temjjoral region, while in old specimens this
nundiei- is generally between 7 and I."..

The coloration too is maiidy that of Albuniiis. The
dorsal side is olive green, more or less dark (brownisli).
The sides of the body are of a silvery lustre, with a
steel-blue band, over which the silvery lustre extends,
from the u[iper part of the gill-openings to the middle
of the base of the caudal fin, towards which point it
grows more distinct. The scales are dotted with brown,
especially on the up]ier part of the sides in front.
The fins are transparent and almost colourless, the
dorsal and anal shading into grayish green, tlie pec--
torals into grayish white, the ventrals and anal into
faint yello\v.

Tlie Owsianka, as we have mentioned, is one
of Lill.jeborg's discoveries in the Scandinavian fauna.
In 1871 his attention was directed by Mr. Ahlbom, late
Collector in the Customs' Department, to a "variety of
Bleak" that inhabited a small, but deep pond with peaty
bottom, in a field near Landskrona. The fish would
occasionally seem to have vanished from the pool, but
usually re-appeared in great numbers during the spring,
in the month of May. Lilljeborg recognised this Bleak
as LcHcaspiiis {Squcdius) delineatus, a form described
first by Hkckel; and since then it has been met with
in many other peat-haggs in Southern Scania between
Landskrona and Ystad. But in Sweden, as in its true
habitat, the species has been found in running water,
even before Lilljeborg's discovery, though it was not
correctly determined until then. Malji states in (rbf/s,
Boh. Fn. that in September, 18(38 he found it in the
Kjeflinge near the railway-station of Urtofta, where

it ke]it to siiallow watei' near the grassy bank of the
river; and according to Tkybo.m it occurs both in
broads along tlu^ courses of the same stream and in Lake
Vomb, the waters of which are discharged by this
rivei', l)eing so plentiful that it is often used as bait.
In Deinnark I'ikdi.kk and I'lCDDEiisKX have taken the
species in small pools on the island of Zealand.

In Germany, as Siebold has pointed out, the
Owsianka has long been known under the names
of Jfiitferlo.tckcii (motherless), ModerHeskeii, etc. Its
sudden appearance in peat-haggs and other small col-
lections of water, which excited Ahlbom's attention in
Sweden, had given rise in Schonevelde's time to the
belief that it came into being without parents {aphya).
In Germany too it lias been found both in peat-haggs
and small streams. Blasuis met with numerous spe-
cimens at Brunswick; Benecke states that it occurs in
the Kurische Haff. The French Expedition to the ilo-
rea found the species in Lake Zaraco, the famed Stym-
phalian Lake of Greek mythology. It seems to be most
common, however, in Southern Russia, where it bears
the name of owsianlia, and according to Czernay, is
used as food, in s])ite of its small size, and considered
fairly good eating.

The Owsianka, like the great majoiity of our
Cyprinoids, spawns in spring, the usual month in
Sweden being May, in Germany April. It is a lively
tish, in temperament resembling the Bleak, and also
feeding on small insects. It dies soon after it is taken
out of the water. Its apparently periodical disappear-
ance from the peat-haggs — in Southern Russia too,
according to Maslowsky, it is caught in the small
streams only from September to April — may proljably
be explained either by some migration after the spawn-
ing-season, should any egress be open to the fish, or
on the assumption that at certain seasons it keeps to
the liottom of the deep pools, appearing at the surface
when the water is disturbed. In Sweden it is some-
times fried and made into 'fish-cake* like other small
fishes, but this is the only form in which it is eaten.

790

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

SrBFAMii.v A BR AMI DIN J:.

Dorsal _tin much slmrtrr tliax flic <nial, tin- base af the former medsiiriuf/ as a rule less tluni ^,,3" of lliaf of the
latter, nhicli is more than Id % of the lein/fh of the ImhIi/. Leiii/th of the head less than half the distaiiee he-
ttveen the dorsal fn and the fiji of the siioaf. No spinous ray in the dorsal or the anal fn. Ventral marf/iv be-
tween the ventral fins and the anal aperture sliarp, hut generally naked {not covered u'ith eurved scales) in the
median line. Mouth irithout harhels. Length of the lower jaw as a rule less than 47' % of that of the base of the
anal fin. Pharyngeal cartilage oral or cllijjtical, with the anterior {npper) extremity more or less ohtitscly jminted.

These chiirMcters are accompanied by the well-
kii(j\\n Abraiuidine form, a deep and compressed body
with strongly compressed or even sharp margins, along
which the scales are shed at certain parts of the me-
dian line, the two ontermost rows of scales being thns
juxtaposed edge to edge, or leaving the skin at these
parts naked. This is always the case, even in Albiirnus
and, at least jxirtially, in Spirlinus, along the ventral
margin between the ventral tins and the anal aperture;
and in the true Breams the dei nidation extends, tliough
with varjdng distinctness, to the anterior part of the
dorsal margin behind the occiput.

It was not without reason tliat Nils^on proj)Osed
to unite all the Scandinavian Abramidines into one
genus. Great as the difference may appear between a
Bleak and a Bream, we find intermediate forms be-
tween them composing an almost unbroken series. A
species found in Denmark and further south, Spirlinus
hipunctatus, has also been referred by some, for ex-
ample by GuNTHEK, to the genus Abramis, by others, for
example Heckel and Siebold, to Allniriiiis. The near
relationship of this subfamily to the preceding one, a re-
lationship which in its intermediate forms and hybrids
defies every attempt by fixed characters to define the li-
mits between these two groups, has caused a like diver-
sity of opinion, the Bleak being referred by Aijassiz,
Kroyer, Nilsson, and Lilljeborg to the same genus as
the Asp. If the systematic classification of forms so

closely allied is to be based on natural grounds, we are
compelled for the sake of consistency to employ as ge-
neric characters relations which elsewhere seem to be of
comparatively little weight. Hence Fatio established his
new genus Spirlinus, and for the same reason we are
obliged to divide the germs Abramis, with a view to
obtaining an expression for the points of resemblance
between the 'ZiVrthe' and preceding forms and the
respects in which it differs widely from the true
Breams.

The genera belonging to the Scandinavian fauna
may be distinguished as follows:

I: Length of the head more than ' ., of

the distance between the dorsal tin and

the ti]) of the snout.

A: Base of the anal fin less than ' - of

the length of the body and shorter

than the head.

u: Lower jaw most prominent. Pec-
toral fins longer than the longest

ray in the dorsal fin _ Genus Alburnus.

Ir. Jaws about equally prominent.

Pectoral fins shorter than the

longest ray in the dorsal fin ... Genus i<]iirliiuis.

c: Tip of the snout most prominent.

Pectoral fins shorter than the

longest ray in the dorsal fin ... Genus T^eiicahramis.
B: Base of the anal fin more than ',5
of the length of the body and as

a rule longer than'' the head.. Genus Ahramu.

II: Length of the head less than '3 of the
distance between the dorsal fin and the
tip of the snout Genus I'eleciis.

" Invariably less than 72 % in all the specimens nie.isured liy us.

'' In White Bream and young Bream exceptionally equal in length to the he.id.

ABKA.MIDINICS.

791

Genus ALBURNUS.

Begitininn af the dorsal ,tiii situated at a distance from the tip of the snmtt less thai) three times the length of
' the head. Leiiiith of the hase of the anal fin less than \',-, {between IC and is %) of that of the hody, and also
1 less than that of the head. Pectoral fins loiiffer than the hnigest ray in the dorsal fin. Point of the lower jaw
i projecti)i(i distinctl/i hei/ond the tip <fi the snout. Scales thin and deciduous: nucleus situated in

the anterior Ixdf of the scale.

Tho genus uf the Bleaks, according to (jruXTiiEKis
Catalogue, contains 15 recognised species from Europe
and Soutlnvestern Asia, most of them described by
Hi'.CKEL from the latter region, which thus seems to
lie the true home of the genus. They are small, but
li\elv tishes, readily attracting attention in rivers and
lakes, where they si)ort at the surface in chase of in-
sects, or in eager contest for every breadcrumb thrown
to them.

They are distinguished from the other genera of
the subfamily, with the exception of the "Ziege", by
their comparativelj' low dorsal lin, generally lower even
than in the preceding subfamilj^, excluding the Minnow.
But cm comparing the height of the dorsal fin \vith
the length of the pectorals — a relation which is not
without importance in preserving the e(|uilibrium of

the l)ody — we find that in this respect the Bleaks and
the Ziege i-ank with the adult Leuciscines, except the
Roach, where, as in young specimens of the Scandi-
navian Leuciscines in general, the length of the pec-
toral fins is less than that of the longest ray in the
dorsal fin. The majority of the Scandinavian Abrami-
dines, on the other hand, thus retain, Jike the Roach,
in this respect one of the characters of youth among
the Leuciscines.

The name of the genus dates even from the time
of AusoNius". LiSN^us employed it in a specific sig-
nification; but Heckel restored it to the generic rank
it had occupied in Rondelet'', and separated'' the
Bleaks under this name from the other Cyijrinoid
genera. Rondelet's Alburnus, however, was evident!)'
distinct from this genus.

" Tlic toutinuation of the lines quoted above (p. 751) from the Mosella of AcsONius runs:
"Et Alburnos prsedam puerilibus harais?"
"And Bleak, an easy catcli for angling boys."

'' De Pise, part. II, p. 208.

■■ Riisscijgers Beiseii, 1 Bd., 2 Th., p. 1036.

792

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

THE BLEAK (sw. lojan;.
ALBURXUS LLX'IDUS.

Plate XXXVI, fig. 3.

Scales hi the lateral line ahout .'>0 (4<i — o4), hraticJicd rai/s hi the anal tin ahoiit 17 {1(1 — :^<». Sides of the
1)0(1// of a plain, lustrous, .silrer// n-Jiit(\ Phar//n//eal teeth slender, hooked at the tip, pectinated, and set in two

^^^^tfit' ■-..

Fig. 190. Loft luwer pharyngeals of AUmrnus liccidiui. a, seen from abuve, ?/, from without, both figures twice the natural size;
f, the niiddle tooth in the inner row tliree times the natural size.

It hr. 3; D.

8 — 9"
C. ,;• + 1 + 17 + 1 +.(■; Lin. Int. 46—54; L. tt

16— ■20'-'' ' 14—15''

3(4)

1; 7r.cf.42'

^ijn. Albula iihiwi; Schonev., Ichlhi/ol. ^leao. Hols., i^. 11. Vypriims
quincuncialis, pinna ani ossiculorum %'iginti, Art., Ichtlu/ol.,
Gen. Pise, p. 6; >S//n. Pise, p. 10; Desrr. Spec. Pise., p.
17; Lin., Fn. Siiec, ed. 1, p. 124.
Vypvinus Alburnus, Lin., S/ist. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 325;
Bl., Fisch. Deutschl., pt. I, p. 54, tab. VIII, fig. 4; Retz.,
Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 359 ; Pali.., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill,
p. 321; Ekstb. (subg. Abramis, ex. Cuv.), Vet.-Akad. Handl.
1830, p. 187; Nilss., Prodr. Ichthjnl. Seand., p. 31; Agass.
(Aspius), Mem. Soc. So. Nat. Xeucli., tom. I, p. 38; Soha-
GERSTB. {C/zprinus}, Physiogr. Sallsk. Tidskr. 1837, p. 295;
Cuv., Val. (Leuciscus), Hist. Nat. Poiss., tom. XVII, p. 272
(+ Luetic, ochrodon (ex. Agass.), p. 249 + iC. alburnoides
(ex Selys), p. 250); Fr., Ekstr., v. Wr. {Ci/prinus, subg.
Aspiiis), Skand. Fisk., ed. I, pp. 58 et 203, tab. 51; Kr.
(Aspius), Danm. Fisk., vol. 3, p. 485; Nilss. (^Abramis,
subg. Aspius), Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 337; StJNDEv. (Ci/primts),
Stockh. L. Hush. Sallsk. Handl. 1855, p. 81; Widegr., Fisk/n.,
Fisker. Norrb. Ij. (1860), pp. 7 et 13; Lindstr. {Abramis),
Ootl. Fisk., Gotl. L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 18 (sep.);
Olss. (Abramis), Ofver.s. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1876, No. 3, p.
131; Fedders. (Aspiits), Naturh. Tidskr., Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol.
XII, p. 90: Redt., Sdndm., Finl. Fisk., tab. XIV; Lill,i.,
Sv., Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 253.
Alburmis lucidus, Hokl ( + Alb. obtusus + A. acutns), Russegij.
Reis., 1. c; Hokl, Kn., Susswasserf. Ostr. Mon., p. 131
(+ Alb. breciceps, p. 134); Dybowski, Ci/pr. LivL, p. 105;

SiEB., Siisstvasserf. Milteleur., ]>. 154; Blanch., Poiss. d.
eaux donees Fr., p. 364 (+ Alb. mirandella, p. 369 + A.
Fiibrwi, p. 370); Gthr, Cat. Brit. Miis., Ftsb., vol. VII,
p. 312; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk., Chrnia 1874, TilL-egsh.,
p. 184; MOR., Hist. Nat. Pniss. Fr., tom. Ill, p. 403;
Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fischz. 0., W. Preiiss., p. 127;
Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 336, tab. X; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.,
Irel., vol. II, p. 198, tab. CXXXVII, fig. 1; MOb., Hcke,
Fi.^ch. Osts., p. 119; Fat., Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, p. 414.
Alburnus Linnei, Malm, (?i;/.«, Boh. Fn., p. 568.

The Bleak is one of the smaller Cyprinoids. Its
ordinary length, including the caudal tin, is 13 — 15
cm. In Sweden it seldom measures 18 cm.; hut Be-
NECKE states that in Prussia it attains a length of 20 cm.'

The bodj' is rather elongated and laterally com-
pressed, the greatest depth being occasionally ^ ^, lint
generally between ISV, and 23 %, of the length to tlie
end of tlie middle caudal rays, and the greatest thick-
ness at most about '/^ the greatest depth. The least
depth of the tail measures on an average about 8 *
(7-4— 8'2 %) of the length of the body. The dorsal
margin is convex throughout its length. The belly is
flat in front, carinated from the ventral fins to the
anal apei'ture. The dorsal line is "ften nearly straight,
being, at least in front, much less curved than the
ventral.

" 7 — 9, according to Fatio.
' Sometimes 15, according to Fatio.
18, ,. „ „

- "^'^^
3^^

■'' Sometimes 41, according to Fatio.

" According to Block the Prussian Bleak may attain a length of 8 — 10 in. (20 — 26 cm.).

according to Fatio.

793

Tlic Icnytli of tlie liead varies bc'twccn 11) iind 21
% of that of tlic ]HK\y, its size beirio' thus soinewliat
below the average among the Scandinavian Cj'prinoids.
It is rather pointed, of uniform thickness, and com-
pressed, at the to]) convex, witii fairly parallel cheeks.
The facial line is straigiit from tiie occiput to tlie tip
of (lie snout. The breadth of tiie interorbital space
measures about ^,\^ of the head, and is generally some-
what greater than the longitudinal diameter of the eyes,
but sometimes e(|ual to this diameter, wiiich also differs
onh' sliglith- from tlie length of the snout. Tlie nostrils
he on a le\el ^\■itil the upjier margin of the eyes,
nearer to tiie ej'es than to the tip of the snout; and
the distance between the anterior nostrils is ecjual to
that between either of them and the middle of the tip
of the snout. As usual in this family, the two nosti-ils
of eacli side are sejjarated by a nari'OAv dermal ridge,
raised in a lobate form, and the shape of the nostrils
varies with the position of this ridge: when it is thrown
back, the anterior is round, the posterior crescent-
shaped. The situation of the eyes is such that the
postorbital length of the head is as a rule somewhat
less, but sometimes rather more, than half (44 — 52 '-h)
of its entire length. The mouth is turned sharply up-
wards, its entire cleft lying in front of tiie perpendi-
cular from the nostrils, which line, when the mouth
is closed, touches the hind extremity of the maxillary
bones. A small notch in the sharp tip of the snout,
which is formed by the intermaxillaries (the margin
of the upper lip), receives the blunt and rather pro-
minent point of the lower jaw. The length of the
upper ja^v from the middle of the tip of the snout is
often almost equal to the length of the snout, measur-
ing 29—26 % of that of the head. The length of the
lower jaw is 35 — 40 % of that of the head. The gill-
openings are fairly large, the branchiostegal membranes
coalescing with the isthmus almost beside each other,
a little in front of the perpendicular from the hind
margin of the preoperculum. The gill-rakers are close-
set: in the outer ro^v on the front of the branchial
arch (16 or 17 in number) they are slender and waud-

siia|ied, wiiile in the inner row on this arch and in
both rows on the other arclies and on the outer an-
terior margin of the pharyngeals they are short and
of a [)ointed triangular form. The pseudobranchia^ are
\\v\\ developed. Tiie piiaryngeal teeth are distinguished,
liere ;ls in tlie liudd, by the pectination of the masti-
Ciitory surface, at least before it is worn smooth, in
the case of the three or four posterior teeth in the
inner row. Tiie two anterior teeth or at least the first
tooth in this row, are as usual more conical, the se-
cond witli or witiioiit pectinated ma.sticatory surface,
or with this surl'act' worn smooth. Such is also the
form of the two small teeth in- the outer row. Tiie
jiharyngeal cartilage is oval, with grooves obliquely
crossing the masticatory surface, as in the majority of
the Leuciscines described above, and with the hind
(lower) extremity somewhat raised, a trace of the in-
verted canaliculate form more highly developed in the
larger Leuciscines.

The dorsal fin begins at about the middle of the
length of the body" or a little further back. It is of
almost the same trapezoidal form as in the Leuciscines,
with the length of the last ray at least rather more
tlian '/3 of that of the longest ray, wdiich here seems
hardly to exceed 15 %'' of the length of the body.
The base of the dorsal fin measures about Vn" of the
length of the body. The anal fin begins below the
posterior part of the dorsal''. It is long', low behind,
and forms a slight arch at the concave inferior mar-
gin. The first ray is hardly perceptible, the second
half as long as the third, the fourth the longest^ and,
like the following rays, bi'anched at the tip. The
caudal fin is deeply forked, the lower lobe being some-
what longer than the upper, and measuring somewhat
more than V5 of ^he length of the body.

The pectoral fins are obliquelj' and bluntly pointed.
Tlieir length is about ' ,, (16'/,,— 17' , %) of that of
the body. The ventral fins are inucli shorter, measur-
ing about 12 — 13 % of the length of the body. Their
position is such that the distance from the tip of the
snout to their insertion' does not seem to exceed

" .\t a distance from tlie tip of flie snout measuring 50 — 52' ., of the lengtli of llie liody; tlie Litter percentage in our oldest fe-
male specimens.

' Varying, according to our measurements, between 13' , and 14'' j %.

' According to our measurements 87 — 9'7 %.

'' At a distance from the tip of the snout measuring about 59 % (57'4 — 59'3 %) of the length of the body.

' The base of the anal fin measures about 17 % (16"4 — 17G %) of the length of the body.

-'' About 11 »i (11-8 — 10-5 %) of the length of the body.

!' 40 — 43 ?, of the length of the body.

794

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

82V'o" of that tVoia the same ])oint to tlie dorsal tin.
The j)real)doininal length measures on an average 22',A,
%, and the postabdominal length 18'o ?», of the length
of the Ijody.

The texture of the thin scales has already been
remarked. It is fairly eiiaract eristic of the Bleaks and
their nearest relatives, in the dense, concentric striae,
most dense in the anterior (covered) part of the scale,
around the eccentric nucleus, which also lies in the
covered part. Towards the nucleus run a few (on the
scales of the sides commonly 4, on tiie dorsal scales
as many as 10) scattered grooves, extending forward
for a greater or less distance from the hind margin
(if the scale. The scales are generally of a broad
elliptical sha])e (those of the lateral line more quadri-
lateral, with the posterior part rounded), the longi-
tudinal axis of the ellipse pointing up and down. They
are rather large, but deciduous. The inner surface of
their posterior part is lined with a dense layer of long,
almost filiform crystals, which give them their silvery
lustre.

The colour of the back and the upper part of tlie
Iiead is greenish gray. The rest of the body is silvery.
The iris is also silver}', Init above the pupil yellowish,
with dense, confluent spots of gray. The pectoral,
ventral, and anal fins are white, the first pair faintly
tinged with green at the anterior margin. The dorsal
and caudal fins are gray.

The Bleak is spread over the whole of Europe
north of the Alps, with the exception of Scotland and
Ireland*. In Sweden it is common enough, under the
names of hoja, Lofia, Bpnloja, Pjiln, Pijn, etc., up to
the neighbourliood of Quickjock'' (lat. 67° N.). It does
not seem to thrive, however, in the highlands, for it
is rare in Lapland, and in Western Jemtland, according
to Olsson, it is wanting''. In Finland, where it is
called Salakka, a name which at Tornea is altered,
says WiDEGREN, to Salk, its range extends, according
to Mela, to 68° 20' N. lat. In Norway, a country
not very rich in Cyprinoids, the Bleak is found
(jiily in the south-east, no further north, accord-
ing to CoLLETT, than Lake Mjosen. It lives in the
great lakes, in clear rivers and streams, and also in

the iiuier part of tlie Baltic island-belt, as ^\•e]l as in
Gothland and round the coasts of that island. Accord-
ing to ScHAGERSTKuji it also occurs in the Sound, at
least off Landskrona.

The Bleak lives in shoals, solitary specimens being
never met with, and prefers clear, running water with
a stony or sandy bottom. It is consequently found
but seldom in small lakes \vith a bottom of weeds or
raud. Sportive and lively in temi)erainent, it always
kee])S to the surface from spring to autunui, and
catches the insects tJiat drop into the water. It loves
sunshine and calm, and in rainy and stormy weather
makes for sheltered shores. At such times it probably
descends some way below the surface, but it does not
stay there long, and is never found at the l)ottom,
except in autumn, when, like the other Cyprinoids, it
retires to its winter-quarters in the depths. Less shy
than timid, it soon returns to the spot whence it has
been driven away by some noise. On the other hand,
it is voracious, and instantly seizes any small sub-
stance thi'own into the water. If it finds the morsel
unfit for food, it again disgorges its prize. Its food
consists principallj' of insects, small crustaceans, and
worms.

At the end of May or begiiniing of June the
Bleak assembles in large shoals to spawn in shallow
water with a stony or sandy bottom. The shoal ])resses
in serried array close to the shore, and seems like a
dark cloud in the water. The spawning now begins;
the fish leap time after time, at brief intervals, above
the surface, and meanwhile deal frequent and rapid
bloAvs with the tail on the water, thus producing a
hissing sound like that heard wlien a piece of cloth is
suddenly torn in two. The roe attaches itself to stones
or Uv'igs at the bottom. How soon the eggs are hatclied
under ordinary circumstances, we cannot state with
certainty, the time allotted by different statements to
this j)rocess varying l)et\\'een 24 hours and as many
daj's; but it undoul)tedly varies according to the tem-
jjerature of the ^vater. Of the growth of the fry we
learn from Malm tliat in tlie middle of September he
caught young Bleak IB — 23 mm. long in tlie H5je
(a stream in S('ania); and in Lake Millar Lill.ieborg

" Accordiug to our measurements 79 — 8'2"2 %.
* Day, 1. c.

" According to LOwenhjelm, Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1843, p. 411. Tlje statement is, liowever, somewhat dubious, for tlie spawning-
season is said to occur in September.

'' According to Fatio it ascends in the Swiss lakes to a liuight of about 700 ni. above the level of the sea.

795

took specimens 2*1 — 25 mm. liin<;' at tlir lieuiniiiiii,' nf
October. Fislienueu in general believe tli.'it the l>le;il<
spawns three times a year at short intervals; and from
Lorama (Scania) we are told by AsTUOii" that at Whit-
suntide three slujals of Bleak generally enter the stream
from the Sound, and spawn one after the other at
intervals of about a week. But the true explanation
of this fact is tliat the difference in the spawning-season
depends on the different ages of the fish, for the Bleak
that spawn first are always larger tiiaii tliosc wliidi
spawn latei'. Bleak are taken in numbers only iluring
the sjiawning-season. The tackle most employed con-
sists of a small and fine-meshed seine, constructed
especially lor this purpose, and called lojnot or lor/skote
(I'jlcak-seine or Bleak-net), or a large circle-net (Sw.
(iriji). which is cast over the shoal while spawning.
In suuuner the Bleak may also be taken in small-
nieshed nets and in traps; but the catch is seldom
large. After the s[)awning-seasou it takes a bait freely,
a fly being an especially tempting morsel.

As the Bleak is small, and is only seldom taken
in large nnml)ers, it cannot possess any great impor-
tance as an article of food. It is generally eaten fresh,
its flavour, when fried, being not unlike that of the
Baltic Herring. When salted or dried it entirely loses
its flavour. It is most useful to the fisherman as bait,
for which purpose it is excellent, though not as live
bait, its tenacity of life being small. It is eagerly
sought after by terns and gulls, which generally flock
to the places where Bleak are to be found, and it is
one of the most important foods of our best and most
valuable predatory fishes. When pursued by them,
it may often be seen leaping in companies out of the
water. In an aquarium it is a lively, j)layful, and
amusing jiet.

In France the Bleak has been much in request
since the year 1680", when a manufacturer of beads,
Jacquix by name, discovered a method of a])plying

the silver}- pigment from its scales to practical use.
With tliis sul)stance, the so-called essence d'orient, he
coloured the inner surface of hollow glass beads, which
were then filled with wax, an excellent imitation of
the genuine pearl being thus produced. Millions of
Bleak were used in this way, and great (jtiantities of
Bleak scales imported to Paris, the chief seat of this
manufacture. It is estimated, according to Bl.vnchard,
that about 4,000 Bleak yield half a kilogramme of
scales, and that the proportion of the C(jlouririg matter
to the total weight of the scales is as 1 to 7.

(,'entral Europe is inhabited by three forms whose
signification was difficult to explain, until Siebold's
suggestion that they \vere hybrids between the Bleak
and other species, was generally accepted. One of
them is the form described by Holandre' in 18.36
from the Moselle under the name of Leticiscns dola-
bratus, and by GCntuer from the Neckar, first'' under
the same name, subsequently" under that of AJburnus
dohuloides. This variety was elucidated by Siebold-^
as a hybrid between the Chub and the Bleak, and be-
longs to the basins of the Maas, Rhine and Danube.
It is usually as small as a Bleak and also of the same
appearance, though with less ascending mouth, less
prominent lower ja\v, and shorter anal fin with straight
or rounded (convex) margin. But it sometimes attains
a length of at least 31 cm., and is then more like a
Chub, with the scales pigmented at the hind margin
with black. The pharyngeal teeth resemble those of
the Bleak.

Another similar form has been described by Jac-
kel' from Bavaria under the name of Alhurnus Bosen-
Jtaiteri, and by Benecke'' from Deutsch-Eylau (Prussia)
under that of Scardiniopsis alhurniformis. Both these
authors interpret it as a cross between the Rudd and
the Bleak. Its body, according to Benecke, is deeper'
than that of the Bleak, its scales are coarser and gen-
erally fewer (45 — 47 in the lateral line), the anal fin

" Ndgra iakttaijeUer riirande de vertebre.rade djur, som /urekomma i trakten af Lomjiia, disp. Lund 1859, p. 27.

* See Blanchard, 1. c. In Reacmup. — Hist, de I'Acad. Roy. d. Sciences, An. 1716, p. 229 — the discovery is said to have been
made in 1656.

' F'luiia dn Dt'partement de la Moselle, p. 248.

•' .lahresb. Ver. Vat. Xaturk. Wurtemb., .Jahrg. IX (1853), p. 314.

Xm (1857), p. 51, laf. II.
■' Siisswasserf. Mitteleur.. p. 164.
^ Zoo!. Garten 1866, p. 20.

* Zool. Anzeiger 1884, p. 228.

' 22 °i of the length of the body to the end of the lower caudal lobe corresponds to 24 % of the length to the tip of the middle
caudal rays, and is a measurement by uo means uncommon, at least in gravid females of the common Bleak.

7!»(5

SCANDIX AV I A N FISHES.

is shorter witli fewer rays", the caudal less deeply
forked, the silvery lustre not so bri<;lit, and the pec-
toral, ventral, and anal fins souietimes show a reddish
tinge. But the most convincing proof of its hybrid
nature lies, it is stated, in the outer row of pharyngeal
teeth, which is frequently coinjwsed of 3 teeth, the regular
number in the Kudd, and in the sharp median line of
the ventral edge between the venti'al tins and the anal
a])erture, which is generally covered by a row of bent
scales, but sometimes scaleless as in the Bleak. In the
last respect this form consequently resembles the follow-

ing species (Spirliiiiis hipuiuiatiis); and in the common
Bleak too we sometimes find that the scales at the
sharj) ventral edge behind the \eiitral tins bend at an
angle over the median line. In Scandinavian Bleak,
however, three teeth have nevei- i)eeii found in the
outer pharyngeal row.

Tiie third of these forms was seen by Siebold'
in the fishmarket at Konigsberg. ( )n the assumption
that it is a hybrid between the White Bream and the
Bleak, he gave it the name of BUccopsis alhurniformis.

(EicsTROM, Smitt.)

Genus SPIRLINUS.

Beginnhiff of the dorsal fn situated at a itistanee from the tip of the snout less than 3 times the lene/th of the
head. Length of the l>ase of the anal fin less than ' ^ (hefiveen 16 and 18 %) of that of the body, and also
less than that of the head. Pectoral fins shorter than the lonflesf ray in the dorsal fin. Point of the lower jaw
situated in a line with the the tip of the snout when the mouth is closed. Scales thin and deciduous; nucleus

situated in the anterior half of the sccde.

These characters apply to onl)- one kno^vn species,
which is also so nearly allied to the preceding genus
that it was not separated therefrom until 1882 (by Fatio).
But this resemblance is coupled -with so close an ap-
proximation to forms treated of below that Gunther

referred the species to the genus Ahramis. The generic
limitation is in many cases hardly more than a matter
of taste: its object here is among the genera to mark
the different stages in the gradual transition from the
Leuciscines to the Abramidines.

15 branched rays. This number falls, however, according to Fatio, between the limits vi variatio
/. Mitteleiir., p. 168.

in the Bleak (see above).

ABHA.MIDINICS.

797

THE SPERLIN-BLEAK (sw. braxenlo.ian).

SIM IILLN US BIPUN'CTATUS.

Fig. 197.

Scaler ill fill' hitcnd line ahoiit 50 {44 — ');J). Ilramlicd nii/s in tlic anal fin ahout 15 {14 — i6'). Lateral line

tncluilfd hctu-een two black streaks: sides also marked, with scattered black sjjots. Pharyngeal teeth compressed,

/looked at the tip, with smooth masticator!/ surface, and set in two rows; 2, 5{4) — 4{5), 2.

Fig. 197. Hpirliniis bipunctatiis, uatiiral size. From the Lake of Zurich, n. left inferior pharyngeal seen from above, b, same bone seen
from witliont, both figures twice tlie natural size; f, the midrlle tooth in the inner row, tlirce times the natural size.

3 3

B. br. 3; D. - — -; A.

7—8 14—16"

Syn. Vijpi-iiiu.t bipiinctatus, Bl., Fisck. Deutschl., pt. I, p. 50, tab.
VIII, tig. 1 ; Agass. (Aspius), Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Neuch.,
torn. I, p. 38; Cuv., Vai.. (Lenciscus), Hist. Nat. Poiss.,
tc.m. XVII, p. 259 (+Lenc. Baldneri, p. 262); BoNAr.
(A/bui-nus), Cat. Met. Peso. Eur., p. 33; Gthr {Abramis),
Jahresb. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. Wiirtemb., Jahrg. IX, p. 307 ;
HcKL, Kn. {Albiirmis), SUsswasserf. Oestr. Man., p. 135;
Dyb., Cypr. Livl., p. 161; Sieb., .Siisswasserf. MitteUur., p.
163; Blanch., Poiss. d. eau.v douces Fr., p. 371; Feddersen
{A.<spius), Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 91;
Bncke {Alburnus), Fiscli., Fischer., Fischz. 0., IF. Preuss.,
p. 128; Fatio {Spirlinus), Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, p. 392:
LiLU. (Abramis), Sv., Xorg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 322.

The Sperliii-Bleak never exceeds the average size
of the common Bleak. According to Fatio it may
attain in Switzerland a length of lo cm.; but the
ordinary length of adult specimens, including the whole
caudal fin, lies between 10 and 13 cm.

In form this species is deeper than the preceding
one, and consequently shows greater lateral compres-
sion, the greatest depth being at least about '1^'', the
least depth about '/,i'', of the length of the body to
the end of the middle caudal rays, and the greatest
thickness (across the opercula) at most about ^4, on
an average 3(5 ?4, of the greatest depth.

In most other respects it resembles the Bleak;
but the mouth does not ascend so sharply, and the

according to F.vno.

" Sometimes 17, according to Fatio;
, 8-10

3-

■■ According to GL'NTBEB and Fatio.
■* 24'7 % — 26'7 % according to our measurements.
' 8"8 % — 9'4 % according to our measurements.

cording to Gi'XTHEK.

798

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

])oint uf the lower jaw, tli(juy'h it tits iiitu a shallow in-
dentation at the ti]) of tlie snout, and projects distinctly
beyond the latter when the inoiitii is open, is not pro-
minent when the mouth is closed. The jaws are some-
what larger, the length t)l' tlic upper jaw from the tip
of the snout measuriiifr about ol — i^fy % of that of the
head, and the length of tlie lower jaw al)Oiit 41 — 45 %
of the same. The dorsal tin is situated as a rule some-
what fartiier forward, its beginning lying at a distance
from the tip of tlie snout of about .50 — 47 % of the
length of the body, and the distance between the tip
of tlie snout and the \entral tins Ijeing about 85 — DO
% of that between the same point and the dorsal tin.
This fin is also both higher — its longest ray measures
about lit or 20 % of the length of the body — and
longer, the length of its base being about ' <, (ir8 —
H'o "<A of that of tlie body. The anal tin is also
higher; its longest ray measures about 15 — 14 % of
the lengtii of the body.

The most striking difference from the Bleak ap-
pears, however, in the coloration. Tiie ground-colour

is indeed tlie same; but the lateral line, which during
life is itself more or less red, is included between two
black streaks running along and close to it. These
streaks are formed by two small, elongated, black spots
on each scale in the lateral line, one above and one
below the opening duct. At the base of the scales on
the sides of the body too, at least for 3 or 4 rows
above and sometimes also below the lateral line, there
appear somewhat larger, triangular spots, one on each
scale, apparently forming longitudinal streaks along
the sides.

The continental range of the Sperlin-Bleak in
Central Europe is about the same as that of the
Bleak, and the species occurs in similar localities, but
not in sucli numbers. The Germans call it Alaynl-
blecke, Schiisslaiibe, ScJuwider, etc.; in France it is most
commonly known as the SpirJin {EiwrJan de Seine).
It has only once been found within the limits of the
Scandinavian fauna: Feddeksen records (1. c.) the tak-
ing of a specimen in Lake Scanderborg (.Intland) in
July, 1877.

Genus LEUCABRAMIS.

Bc'/iiuiiufi of the dorsiil fin sifiiafcd at a dtstinue from the tip of the s)ioi(t less than three times the huf/th of

tlie head. Leuf/th of the Jnise of the anal fii less than \ -^ (17^ ., — IH "o) of that of the hodij. and also less than

that of the head. J'ectoral fns shorter than the lonr/est raij in the ilorsal fn. 'rip of the snout projeetini/ in

front of the month. Scales frinli/ attached, Lenciscine in texture.

Among the Abramidiiie species hitherto described
from Europe there are two — probably, ho\vever, varie-
ties of the same species — Ahramis rimha and Ahramis
elonfjafiis {melanops), which seem to lie assigned by the
development of the anal tin to a place beside Alhurrms.
The form of tlie dorsal fin — comparatively long and
low — also divides them from the true Breams; but the
most impoi'tant difference consists in a carina, formed

by the bent scales of the median line, at the dorsal
edge of the tail behind the dorsal tin. One of these
two species, if it is still to be regarded as such —
SiEBOLD suggests that it should be interpreted as a
variety due to a constant life in rivers, without mi-
gration to lakes or the sea — belongs to Russia and
Germany (S. E. and X.). The second is our well-
known

AHUAMIDINES.

7!) 9

THE ZARTHE (^w. vimman).

LEUCABUAMJS \JMI!A.

I'hUi- XXXV, fig. 3.

Scales hi the lateral line ahant (><) (.j.s'" — (il). Tlte darsal Jin hei/iiis at least a little in friDit <>/ tlii' niidille of
the bodi/, and the distance between it and the ti/i af the snout {ahoat 4s — nearh/ 50 % of tlie lenejth of the hod i/)
is less tha)i ' -, if that between the anal fn and the same point. Height of the dorsal fin less than ' ^ of the
length of the hodi/. I'hariint/eal teeth n<d hooked, compressed, leith smooth (terete or one-e/roored) and almost
terminal masti( atom siirfacr. and srt in one roir: ') — '>.

Pliaryngeiil Imnes ami pharyngeal cartilage of Leucabramis vimba, natural size; a, left ]iUar_viigeal Reen from above; b, llie same
seen from without (the left); c, pharyngeal cartilage.

n. h:

3: D. -,:

8'

A.

; P.

17— 20''

15—17" ■ 9''

C. ,r + 1 +

17 + 1 + .!•;

L.

al. 58"— t;i;

10—11 ,

L. tr. — ^ 1

5— C

Vert. 46.

Si/n. Capita anadroinus, Gesx., Hist. Aiiiiit., lih. IV, Paralip., \>. 11.
Nasus, ScHONEV., Idithyol. Slesv. Hols., p. 52. Vj/prinus
Capito anadromus dictus. Art., Ichthyol., 'Syn. Pise. p. 8.
Cypriniis rostro nasiformi, dorso acuminato. ))inna ani ossi-
ciilorum viginti quatuor, Anr., ibid., Gen. Pise, p. 0: Siju.
Pise, p. 14; Descr. Spec. Pise, p. 18; Li.s., Fii. ,Snee,
ed. I, p. 123.
Cyprinus Vimba, Li.N., Syst. Nat., ed. X, toui. I. p. 325; Bi..,
Fisch. iJeutsclil., pt. I, p. 38, tab. IV; Retz.. Fii. ,S„ee
Lin., p. 359; Pall., Zo'ogr. Boss. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 322
(+ Oypr. carinatus, p. 323); Ekstb. (subg. Abramis). Vet.-
Akad. Hand!. 1830, p. 184; Nilss., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand.,
p. 31; Civ., Val. (Abramis), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVII,
p. 65: Kb., Danm. Fisk., vol. HI, p. 400; Nilss., Skand.
Fn.. Fisl.. p. 322; Scndev. {Cyprinus), Stockh. L. Hush.
SSllsk. Hnndl. 1855, p. 82; Hckl., Kn. {Abramis), Siiss-
wasserf. I Istr. Man., p. 109; Widegh. {Cyprimis), Fiskfn.,
Fisker. Norrb. L.. Lamltbr. Akad. Handl. 1861, p. 7 (sep.);
Dyb. {Abramis). Cypr. Lid., p. 183; Sieb., Siiaswasserf.
Jfitleleur., p. 125; Mqrx, Finl. Fiskfn. (disp. Helsingf.
1863), p. 41; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Shis., Fish., vol. VII, p.
303; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 566; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer.,
Fisch;. 0., W. Preuss., p. 120; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 329,
tab. X; MOb., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 117: Rect.. Sundm.,
Finl. Fisk.. tab. I; LiLLJ., ,Sc., Norf,. Fn., F,sk., vol. Ill,
p. 304.

In Sweden the 'Ziirtlie' attains a length of at least
37 cm., including the whole of the caudal fin. Spe-
cimen.s of this size have Ijeen forwarded to the Royal
Museum from NorrkOping on the ^lotala River.

The body is deeper than in Alhurnus, but shal-
lower than ill Abramis, the greatest depth, at the be-
ginning of the dorsal fin, varying between about 26
and 32 % of the length to the end of the middle cau-
dal rays, and the least depth (least depth of the tail)
between about 9 and 10^ , % of the same. It is rather
strongly compressed, with almost vei'tical sides; tlie
greatest thickness of the head is about ' - of the gi'eat-
est depth of the body, ^^'llich is generally not much
thicker, though in gravid females the thickness of the
abdominal region may be half as great as its depth,
or a little more. The dorsal profile shows a more or
less distinct break at the occiput, and at this point
rises in a faint curve which soon passes into an almost
straight line, interrupted only by a .slight elevation at
the beginning of the doi-sal fin. The upper and lower
profiles of the liead converge in front with fair regu-
larity at an angle of about 60°. The ventral profile
is more curved in front and behind than the dorsal:
but at the middle, in front of and Ix-liind the ventral

" Sometimes 54, according to MoBius and Heixcke.

'' 7 — 9, according to Krover.

' Sometimes 21, according to Kroyer.

•^ Sometimes 8, according to Dtbowski; sometimes 10, according to Siebold.

Scandinavian Fishes.

800

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

fins, to the beginniiijr of the anal tin, it is straight.
The forepart of the back, as well as the top of the
iiead, is transversely convex; l)ut towards the beginning
of tiie dorsal fin it grows more and more compressed,
while behind this tin the dorsal margin is again con-
vex or even flat. Along the median line of the dorsal
margin there runs, however, interrupted only by the
dorsal tin, "a thin keel, with the appearance of a coarse
thread laid under the skin. This keel begins on the
liead verticallv al)ove the anterior margin of the eyes,
and ends at the caudal tin" (Ekstrom). The anterior
part of the keel, almost to the dorsal tin, is naked;
but at this point one or two scales generally begin to
overlap the margin with their lateral part. Behind the
dorsal fin, on the other hand, the keel itself consists
of curved scales. The belly in front of the ventral tins
is convex or Hat underneath, but between these tins
and the anal aperture sharp, with the median line scale-
less. At the sides of the straight base of the anal tin
the lowest scales project, forming a groove in which
this fin may be partially concealed.

The length of the head measures in adult speci-
mens (19—34 cm. long) about 22'/:..— 21' ., "'''' of tliat
of the body. Just in front of the eyes it is more or
less tumid; but the most chai-acteristic point in its ap-
pearance is the prolongation of the snout, as in the
Haddock or the Houting. The projecting tip of the
snout is obtusely rounded, and the length of the snout
measures in young specimens about 29 % of that of
the head, in old as much as 35 % of the same, being
less ill the former than the breadth of the interorbital
space, but in the latter at least equal to or, generally,
somewhat greater than this breadth. In the former
too the length of the snout is somewhat less, but in
the latter perceptibly greater, than that of the upper
jaw from the middle of the ti)) of the snout. The
mouth thus acquires a position (|uite ventral and al-
uKJSt horizontal, but is fairly large, so large, according
to Artedi, that the middle finger may be inserted with
ease into the mouth of large specimens, the upper jaw
being then protruded as if from a thumb-stall. The
lower jaw, which articulates below the centre of the eyes,
measures about 36 — 33 % of the length of the head.
The lips are rather thick. The eyes are of moderate
size, their longitudinal diameter varying in the above-
mentioned adult specimens between 23 '/j and 18 ?^ of
the length of the head, or between '2 and ^/'j of the
postorbital length of the same. The postorbital part

occupies lietween 44 and .lO % of the entire length of
the head, the eyes being thus situated sometimes en-
tirely, and always principally, in the anterior half of
the head. The nostrils, set almost on a level with the
u])per orbital margin, are farther from the eyes than
in the preceding forms; but the distance between the
posterior nostril and the eye is never more than half
of that between the anterior and the tip of the snout.
The gill-openings are large, the branchiostegal mem-
branes coalescing with the isthmus close beside each
other and' in about a line with the posterior margin
of the eyes. The gill-rakers in the outer row on the
first liranchial arch are not very close-set (15 or 16)
and triangular in shape, the upper and lower ones
pointed, the middle ones blunter and with a tendency
to ramification at the tip. The o.uter anterior margin
of the pharyngeals is set with 10 — 12 small spines.
The pharyngeals are comparatively short, and their an-
terior (lower) arm is deeply grooved (bilobate) at the
inferior margin. The pharyngeal teeth, which have
been described above, are in other respects, both in
form and arrangement, not unlike those of the Roach.

The shape of the dorsal fin also reminds us most
of the Roach, l)ut it is somewhat moi-e pointed, as in
Ahramis, and the base is comparatively sliorter. Its
position is given above. The base measures about Vio
(10— 10-6 %), and the height about 19 — I6V2 ^. of the
length of the body. The distance between the anal fin
and the tip of the snout occupies in young specimens
about 62 ?6, in old sometimes nearly 66 %, of the length
of the body. The base of this fin measures in all our
specimens 18 — 19 % (according to Dybowski sometimes
onl}' 17*2 %) of the length of the body, and its great-
est height in the males about \^, in the females about
'/j„, of the same. The caudal fin is deeply forked, its
middle ravs measuring about T'A — 6' o % of the length
of the body, and about '3 of that of the longer (the
inferior) caudal lolje.

The pectoral fins are obtusely pointed, the second
or third ray being the longest. Their greatest length
is about 15 or 16 % (in a few males nearly 17 %) of
the length of the body. The preabdominal length is
about 22 — 24 % (in a few females 24'/2 ^')» ^^^^ ^^^
postabdominal length about 20 — 20'/2 % (in a few fe-
males 21 ?6), of the length of the body. In percentage
of the same length the distance between tlie ventral
fins and the tip of the snout is about 43 — 45 (in a
few females nearly 46), and the length of these fins in

801

tlie females between 14 and 1"), in the innles between
1.") anil 1 <i ". in relation to tiie doi'sal fin tlie\- lie so
till' li.irk that the distanee between their insertion and

eo!nnion to both sexes, the males are distinguished at this
season by tiie nsual dermal eruption, consisting of small
round tubercles on the occiput, the opercula, the margins

tlie tip of the snout is as a rule ])erceptil)ly more than i of the scales, and the inner surface of the paired fins.

87 % (87' 3 — H4' o %) of tliat between the dorsal tin The Ziirtlie is pro|)erlv a marine fish, but also lives

and the same point. j in the great lakes, and ascends i-ivers in order to spawn,

The scales are niiildle-sized, deeply embedded in j being thus a so-called anadromous species. Its geo-

the skin, and indirieated. Tliey are of an irreguiai' graphical range comprises Eastern Eurojie from Finland,

(|uadrilateral siiape and rounded, with almost central , Sweden, North-western Germany, and the watershed of

nucleus, dense concentric stri;e, and numerous and well-
defined radiating grooves, the latter alternating, both
in front (finer) and behind (coarser and more regular),
in their greater or less extent towai-ds the nucleus.

In coloration two varieties are distinguished'', hlrk-
rimma (Pale Ziirthe) and srartriiiiiiia (Black Ziirtlie),
the latter being probablj- no more than the spawning
dress. Both on the head and the back the coloration

the Danube to the Black Sea with its Itussian river
systems and the Sea of Azov. It makes its way up
the Elbe and Weser from the North Sea, but is want-
ing in the Ithine. In Finland, where it is common
among the southern islands and, to the east, in Lake
Ladoga, it does not go farther nortii, according to ]\1ela,
than the sixty-third degree, being very rare even in
that latitude. From the Swedish coast of the Gulf of

is above blue or greenish brown, at the top of the sides j Bothnia we are told by Wide(;i!EN (1. c), though his

of the body silvery ^\•ith a dash of blue, fading below
into the pure silvery white of the i)elly. On the sides
t)f the head the dark blue tint extends down to the
upper part of the gill-cover, and the silvery lustre
shows stronger or fainter traces of a brassA- colour. In
Germany its dark snout has gained for the Ziirthe the
name of Blaiinase or Bi(ssnase. All the fins are light,
gray or grayish blue, more or less tinged, especially
the caudal, with orange at the base. The iris is of a
pale brassy yellow, shading into greenish above the
pupil. (_)ur figure, -which is coloured from a sketch by
W. v. ^VRIG^T, represents the Ziirthe in this dress of
almost pure silver. On weedy bottoms or in dark
water the colours of the fish are greener with a more
powerful brass}- lustre. Siebold has described the dark
spawning dress, in which the sides of the body, even
below the lateral line and close to the ventral and anal
fins, acquire a singular silky lustre, this being caused
by a deep black pigment from ^vhich the ventral side
itself, from tiie lips to a narrow strip at the margin
behind the anal fin, stands off shnr[)lv -with its deep
orange hue. The latter colour also extends to the
paired fins and the base of the anal fin: the dorsal and
caudal fins, the upper margin of the pectoi'als, and the
lower margin of the anal fin being, on the other hand,
blackish. In addition to this spawning dress, which is

statement is pei'haps questionable, that the Ziirthe oc-
curs in the lower course of the Lulea Elf (nearly 66°
N. lat.). The northernmost locality in Sweden to \\hich
we can with certainty assign this species, is the neigli-
bourhood of Hudiksvall (about 62° N.), from which
region Mr. WistkOm has sent to the Royal ^luseum a
specimen 24 cm. long, taken in the fjord of Lingaro
on one of the last days in September, 1882. In the
same neighbourhood, we are told, it sometimes, though
seldom, ascends tlie River Dekanger in spring. Ever
since NiLssos's time the Ziirthe has been known in
Blekinge; but in Scania it has never been found. It is
commonest in the 'Slnhv A'alley and tlie Baltic island-
l)elt with the streams that fail into this part of the
l>altic. In Lake Wener it is also found, and is some-
times caught, "especially in the months of May and
June" (Malm) in the River Gotha at Gothenburg. In
Norway, Denmark, and the west of th(! Baltic the spe-
cies is unknown; but from the Elbe it was described
even by Gesner and Schonevelde. From the Baltic
it enters the German Haffs to spawn. According to
Dybowski (1. c.) and Seidlitz'' it occurs in all the riv-
ers of the Baltic Provinces of Russia. Its Baltic range
being of such extent, we might well expect to find it
both oft" Gothland and Bornholm; but is has not yet
been observed in either of these localities.

" Aci/orilinj; to Dyeowski tlie same sexual distinction was present in his specimens: but tlie percentages are somewliat lower, this
being probably due to a different manner of measurement.

' According to Mr. Arosexius, who forwanled to the Eoyal Museum specimens of these varieties from the Motala River (Norrktiping) in 1834.
■■ Fauna baltica, p. 101.

802

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

Ekstro.m has described the habits of the Ziirtlie in
the neighbourhood of MSrkO. At the approach of spring
it ascends the rivers, where it remains during the sum-
mer. Towards autumn it returns to the sea, where it
passes the winter, in so deej) water tliat it has never
been caught at this time of yeai-. It probably chooses
its winter-quarters outside the ishtnd-l)elt. In tlic hikes
too it retires to their deepest parts".

Tunning and shy, like most of tlie ( '\prinoids, says
Kk'sthoii, it is difiicult to catcii, except during the
spawning-season, and dies soon after it has been taken
out of the water. It seldom attains any considerable
size. The fiesli is wliite, but flabby and of poor flavour.
In a female .">! cm. long and ' j„ kilo, in weight Block
estimated the number of the ova at 28,800, whence it
appears that the Zlirthe multiplies c^uickly enough; but
according to EkstrOm its growth is slow, and it thrives
OTdy in clear or running water witii a stony or sandy
bottom.

In the stomach of tlie Zarthe Ekstrom seldom found
traces of other food than crustaceans, insects, worms.

and, most often, the crushed sliells of mollusks {Neri-
fina); hardly ever of vegetable substances.

At the end of May — still according to Ekstkom
— the spawning-season begins, and the Ziirthe ascends
such streams and rivers with stony bottom as fall into
the sea or the great lake where it has passed the winter.
The roe is deposited on and adheres to the stones,
against which the spawning fish eagerly rubs itself in
order to get rid of its burden.

In spring and autumn, as it roves to and from
the spawning-place, small numbers of Ziirthe are taken
among other fishes with net and seine in Sodermanland.
During the spawning-season it is caught in a special
kind of large hand-net.

In the localities affected by the Zarthe for the pur-
pose of spawning, continues EkstkOm, whei-e it may
consecjuently be taken in numbers, it always appears
on the labourer's humble board. It is generally but
little esteemed, and indeed requires skilful preparation
to suit a more delicate palate. Ekstro.m found it best
when fried.

Genus ABRAMIS.

Bt'f/iuiihiff of the dorsal lin sltuafed at a distaiice from the tip of the snout less than three times the length of
the head. Length of the base of the anal Jin more than ' ^ {21 — So %) of that of the Iwdi/, and greater as a
rule than that of the head. Pectoral fins shorter than the longest rag of the dorsal fin. Tip of the snout pro-
jecting onlg slightlg, if at (dl. in front of the mouth. Scales firmlg attached, Leuciscine in structure.

This genus too is mainly European, and contains
only a few species (4 determined and recognised with
certainty, excluding hybrids). Still Meckel'' divided
it into 3 genera: AI)ramis, Blicca, and Ballerus, the
first with phar}-ngeal teeth set in a single row and the
base of the anal fin comparatively little elongated, the
second with two rows of pharyngeal teeth, the third
with pharyngeal teeth set in one row and the base of
the anal fin greatly elongated. The first two genera,
however, so closely resemble eacli other in all other
respects tiiat their division even into separate sub-
genera nmst appear unnatural. The character drawn
from the arrangement of tlie ])haryngeal teeth in one
or two rows has also been regarded by more recent
authors as insuflicient for the estaljlishment of distinct

genera. The great elongation of the anal fin should
rather be employed for this purpose; but the species
are so few that the division is destitute of practical
impoi'tance.

The three Scandinavian species may be distin-
guished as follows:

A: Lengtli of the base of the anal fin less
than 3 ,„ of that of the body.
((.- Length of the lower jaw less than ■' 4

of the least depth of the tail Aliraiiiis blicca.

t>: Length of the lower jaw more than

•* 4 of the least depth of the tail Ahramis Ijrama.

B: Length of the base of the anal fin more

than ^ ,„ of that of the body _ .Ahvainis Imllerus.

Besides these species, however, we must not forget
three hvbrids, which occur in Scandinavia as well as

" In .\tter See (Austria) according to Heckel and Kner, it keeps at a deptli of 10 ftliins., in winter even '20; and the slioals in
wliich it is collected at this season betray their presence by rooting up tlie muddy liottom and iliscolonring the water.
'> Russeggers Reise, p. 10.S2.

wiiiTK ri;ea:m.

803

elsewhere, between the ]')reains and tlie Lencisoines.
Instances of a Itoaeli or a Rmhl with nuii'e thaTi 14
branclied rays in th(> anal fin, of a Hoacli with pha-
ryngeal teeth set in two rows, or of a White Bream
with less than IS hraiicjied rays in the anal hn, have
been explained on the assumption that these (ornis are
hybrids between the White Bream and tlii' IJoach or

the liudd. This explanation is indeed eorrect to all
appearanee; but its demonstration, which can be at-
tained only by experimental methods, has still to be
made by pisciculturists. These remarks also apply to
the assumed hybrid between the Bream and the Roach.
The last form is usually most like a 15reani, Init has
oidy l.J — IS branched rays in the anal tin.

THE WHITE BREAM OR BREAMFLAT (sw. ujorkxan).

AIUiAMIS KLICCA.

Plate XXXy, tig. 2.

Scales ill the hiteml line ahoiit 4(> {4'> — 50). Anal fin irifh :21 — ^^.V hranched nii/K. Iletircen tlie lateral line

and the ihirfnil fin .V or 10, in exceptional cases 11, rows of seales. I'ectoral and ventral fins red or ijeUoic at

tlie base. Fharijnfieal teeth set in two rows: {1):2(H), 5(6) — 5Xi)^{3).

Fig. 199. Pharyngeal bones and pliaryngeal cartilage of Abramis hlircn, natural size: n. h, and <; as in the jireceding figure.

S. h: 3: D.

gi 21'— 23(24)

C. ,);+ 1 + 17 + 1 +.f; L. kit. (43)45— .50;
Vert. 38- 40.

14—16(17)

9—10(11)

V. -;

L. tr.

Syn. Ballerus, Rondel., De pise, lacustr., p. 155. Blicea, Gesn.,
Hist. Anim., lib. IV (Francof. 1620), p. 24 (+ (?) Plestt/a,
p. 25, ex Belon.). Vyprinus quincuncialis, pinna ani ossi-
oulorum viginti quinque, Art., Gen., p. 3; Syn., p. 13;
Spec, p. 20. Cypvimis pinnse ani radiis viginti quinque,
Lin., Fn. Suec, ed. I, p. 124 (syn. nee descr.) = Cyprinus
Bjoerkna, Syst. \at., ed. X, torn. I, p. 326 (syn. nee. descr.).

Cyprinus Plestya, Leske, Ichthyol. Lips. Spec, p. (>'^.

Cyprinus Blicea, Bl., Fische Deutschl., part. I, p. 65, tab. X;
Ekstk. (subg. Abramis), Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1830, p. 179;
NiLSS., Prodr. Ichthyol. Seand., p. 31; Fb., Ekstr., v. Wr.,
Skand. Fisk., ed. 1, p. 64, tab. 12; Kr. (Abramis), Damn.
Fisk., vol. m, p. 389; Sundev. (Cyprinus), Stockh. L. Hush.
Sallsk. Handl. 1855, p. 82; Gthr. (Abramis subg. Blicea),
Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 306 ; Feddersen, Naturh.
Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 86; Day, Fish. Gl. Brit.,
Ircl., vol. II, p. 196, tab. CXXXVI; M6b., Hcke, Fisch.
Osts., p. 118; LiLLJ., Sv., Xory. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 318.

Cypriiius Laskyr, GCldenst. apud Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat.,
torn. Ill, p. 326; — vide Nordm., Voy. Russ. Mer. (Demidoff),

" Sometimes 24.

* 7 — 9, according to Krover.

' Sometimes 19, according to Fatio.

torn. Ill, p. 504, tab. 22, tig. 1; — Hckl., Kn. (Blicea),

6'usswasser/. Ostr. Man., p. 123.
Abramis micropteryx et Abr. erythropterus, Agass., Mem. Soc

Sc not. Nexich., vol. I, p. 39 (ef. Cnv., Val., Hist. Nat.

Poiss., vol. XVII, pp. 44 et 58).
Abramis Bjoerkna, NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 328; Sieb.

(Blicea), Silsswasserf. Mitteleur.. p. 138; ilGRN, Finl. Fiskjn.,

disp. Helsiugf. 1863, p. 42; Blanch. (Abramis, subg. Blicea),

Poi.^s. eaux douces Fr., p. 359; Mal.m (Abramis), Gbgs, Boh.

Fn., p. 565; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 398;

Bncke (lilicca), Fisch.. Fischer., Fische. 0., W. Preuss.,

p. 123; Fat., Fn. Vert. Suisse, vol. IV, p. 358; Mela

(Abramis), Vert. Fenii., p. 333, tab. X; Reut., Sundm.,

Fi:d. Fisk., tab. IV.
Blicea argyroleuea, Hckl. Kn., 1. c, p. 120; Dveowski, Cypr.

Lid., p. 202.

Obs. .-Vrteim described this species with fair accuracy in De-
script. Spec /'(.«(■. (p. 20, Xo. 9), under its Upland name of Bjnrkna,
and also included it in Synonymia Piscium (p. 13, No. 27) and Gen.
Pise. (p. 3, No. 3). But he failed to perceive that it was the spe-
cies called Ballerus asid Blicea by former ichthyologists, referring
these names instead to his own Blicea (Descr. Pise., No. 11), to
which Linn.eus, on his authority applied the specific name of Ballerus,
which it has since retained. Artedi's Bjorkna remained unknown to
I.in'N.el'S, though the name is given both in the Fauna Sueciea and

804

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

the Stjslntia Naturae. This is eviiicnt from the appended note in tlie
Fauna, where LlNN/EUS expressly states that he had counted 35 rays
in the anal fin of the Bjorkna — a nnnibei- which, among the species
indigenous to Sweden, is to be found in Abraiiiis hallevus alone. In
Retzics's edition of the Fauna Suecica the error was not corrected,
altlioiigh Bloch had already given a lucid description and a good
figure, considering the date at which it was executed, of Abtedi's
species, under the name of Ci/printts Blicca, which it still retains.
NiLSSON was the first Scandinavian writer to restore the name of
Bjorkna to its original signification, and to recognise Bloch's nomen-
clature (see Prodi: Ichtli. Scand.)\ but Ekstrom had previously (Vet.-
Akad. Handl. 1830) expressed the same opinion on the strength of
iiiforrnatioii privately sii|>plied to him by NiLSSON.

Tlie \\'hite Breain is the smnllest Scaudiiiaviaii
member of the genus Abram'is. It never attains any
consideralile .size. Its ordinary length is between 1.")
and 23 em., rising, however, sometimes to 30 or, in
exceptional cases, 35 cm., including the whole of the
caudal fin.

In most respects the \\ liite Bream comes nearest
our common Bream, and in apiiearance so closely re-
seml)les J'oung Bream that it is frequently confounded
with thera, under the common name of Braxenpan'ka.
In our description we shall therefore lay special stress
on the differences brought ti) light by a comparison
l)etween them.

In the form of the body it is hardly possible to
detect any constant difference bet^veen the ^^'hite Bream
and the Bream. The bod}- of both is compressed and
deep, though generally a little less so in the former.
In White Bream preserved in the Royal Museum, and
measuring between 106 and 239 mm. in length to
the end of the middle rays of the caudal tin, the great-
est depth of the body is between 31 ?o (in young spe-
cimens) and nearly 40 % (in old) of its length, and the
greatest thickness (with more individual variations) be-
tween Vs and V4 of the greatest depth. The least depth
of the tail increases during these changes of growth
from 9-4 to 11-3 %. of the length of the body. The
back, which rises somewhat abruptly from the occiput,
tlien ascends in a regular curve to the beginning of
the dorsal fin, where it forms an ol)tuse angle, and
afterwards slopes almost in a straight line to the caudal
tin. Though (marinated from the occiput to the dorsal
tin, it is thicker and more conve.x than in the Bream.
The belly is flat from the jiectoral region to the vent-
ral tins. From this point to tlie \ent it is sharply
carinated. The ventral proiile is almost straight from
the pectoral region to the anal a])erture, where it forms
an obtuse angle, more acute, however, than the dorsal

angle, and advances in a somewliat incurved line to
the caudal fin. ■

The head, the length of which is about ' , (21'/.,— ^
20 %) of that of the body, tapers uniforndy forwards
from abo^■e and below, but the snout is fairly thick and
obtuse, projecting a little beyond the mouth. The fore-
head is broad and convex, the breadth of the inter-
orbital space being abotit 7' ., — 8 % of the length of
the body, or 35', ,—38', % of the length of the head.
The fi-ontal profile is straight from the occiput to the
nostrils, where it descends abruptly, and slopes towards
the snout. The sides of the head are moderately com-
pressed, the thickness being ecjual to the deijth, mea-
sured at the anterior orbital margin. The mouth is
small and ascends only slightly, but may be i)roiected
to some distance in a tubidar form. The corner of the
mouth falls short of the perpendicular from the anterior
orbital margin. The length of the snout, which mea-
sures about 5 — 6 % of that of the body or about 23 —
31 % of that of the head, is as a rule equal in young
specimens to the length of the upper jaw (from the tip
of the snout), in old a little greater. The length of
the lower jaw measures about 6' ^ — 7 ?» of that of the
body, or about 32 — 34 % of that of the head, is less
than that of the suture between the sul)operculum and
operculum, and also than 11 % (in the said specimens
70—57 %) of the least depth of the tail. The eyes,
on the other hand, are comparatively larger than in
the Bream, their longitudinal diameter varying in our
specimens between about 34 and 27 % of the length of
the head, while in young specimens it is perceptildy
greater, in old slightly less, than the length of the snout.
Their size is often so considerable tliat the \\'hite Bream
may be at once distinguished thereby from the young
Bream in its company. The position of the eye is such
that the postorbital length of the liead in young sjie-
cimens is less, in old somewhat more, than half its
entire length. The nostrils are set nuirh as in tiie
Zarthe, the distance lietweeii the posterior nostril and
the ui)i)er anterior part of the orbital margin l)eing
about " r, of that l^etween the anterior nostril and the
tip of the snout. The anterior nostril is smaller than
the posterior, but circular; while the latter is obliquely
set and elliptical or crescent-shaped. The gill-openings
are smaller than in the Ziirthe, the branchiostegal mem-
branes coalescing below with the isthmus at a greater
distance from each other and farther back, in a line
\\\i\\ the hind (vertical) margin of the preoperculiun.

WIiriE IJliEAM.

805

The uill-raki'i's are sliort and scattered, tlu- (inter row
oil tlie front of tlie tirst brancliial arch contaiiiin<i 14
or 15, iiiid the outer anterior margin of the pharyngeals
being furnished with almost as many (13). The pha-
ryngeals are armed as a rule witii two rows of teeth
(fig. 19!'). tlie inner row l)eing always composed of .">
comiiressed and nearly straight teeth, with distinctly
hooked tips in most cases only in the hindmost (u]iper-
most) tooth and the middle one, the outer generally of
two (in e\cei>tional eases one or three) smaller, more
cylindrical teeth. According to EkStrom the outer row
is often wanting, which probably dej)eiids on tiie shed-
ding of the teeth, Avlien the pharyngeal teeth readily
dro}) out, or lie loose in the gums".

The dorsal tin lies on the hind arm of the angle
formed by the dorsal profile, so higli that the first rays
occupies the apex of the back. The distance between
it and tlie tij) of the snout measures more than half
(about .")1 — .")4 ",j) of the length of the body, but less
than SN "'J (XI — H7 %) of the distance between the tip
of the snout and the anal fin. Its height is about twice
its length, the longest ray measuring about 22 — 26 ?4
of the lengtli of the body, and the base about 11 — 12
% of tile same. The fin is pointed in front, with the
up[icr [losterior margin obliquely truncate, the height
behind being only '/<, of that in front. The anal tin, in
consequence of its length, is not so obliquely truncate,
but more deeply concaye at the margin. The distance
between it and the tip of the snout is about 58 — 64 %,
the length of the longest ray about 15 (exceptionally
14) — 18 %, and its base about 23 (exceptionally 21) —
26' ., %, of the length of the body. The caudal tin is
deeply forked, with the lower lobe somewhat longer
than the upper. Its middle rays measure about 9 or
10 % (exceptionally 8' ., or 11 %) of the length of the
body, or rather less than '"'- of that of the longest ray
in the lower lobe.

Tin; pectoral tins arc normal in form, but com-
paratiyely short, always shorter than the preabdominal
length. Their length is about 17 (16' J— 18 (18'/..) %
of that of tlie bod}'. The yentral fins are inserted at
a distance from the tip of the snout measuring about
40 — 45 ?6 of the length of the body, and less than 87 %
(77' , — 86' 2 %) of the distance between the dorsal fin
and the same point. Their length is about 15 (14' 2)

— 18 % of tiiat of the bod\-. ISotli tile preabdominal
length and the poslalidoiiiinal, the lattcjr as a rule rather
less than the former, measure about ','5 (20 — 23 or
24 %) of the length of the body.

The body is covered with large, striated, and im-
bricated scales, very like those of the Roach, and with
more distinct stri;c tlian those of the Dream. This
peculiarity combined with their relative size, is especi-
ally characteristic of the White Bream, and renders it
easily recognisable, if only attention be paid hereto.
The most trustwortiiy standard of tlie size of the scales,
however, is their number, in the lateral line, which
lies rather low, nearer to the belly than to the back,
we generally tiiid only 46 scales — the ordinary varia-
tions lie between 45 and 48 — and above the lateral
line only 8 or !> large rows and one smaller row, the
latter at the very base of the dorsal fin (the Bream
has at least 12 such rows). Between the lateral line;
and the insertion of the ventral fin we usually rind 6
rows of scales. The distribution of the scales on the
anterior part of the dorsal margin and on the ventral
margin behind the ventral fins has already been described.

The coloration of the White Bream changes some-
wiiat with age and according to the season of year.
The young are of a lighter colour and have paler fins.
In spring during the spawning-season, or as shown in
our rigure, the ground colour of old specimens is sil-
very -white ^vith a strong dash of yellow, dai'ker above
and gradually passing into the olive gray of the back.
The sides of the head are bright with a play of many
handsome colours. The iris is of a faint golden yellow,
densely punctated with rine, dark green dots, collected,
especially above, into a broad, dark band. The dorsal
and caudal fins are of a plain olive gray. The pec-
toral, ventral, and anal fins are pale, with more or less
ruddy rays and a reddish tinge at the base. By this
red or orange hue of the inferior fins it is always easy
to distinguish the White Bream from young Bream, in
which these fins are pale and colourless. On the con-
clusion of the spawning the sides of the body resume
their dress of silvery white.

In the White Bream, says Fatio, the back and the
sides of the body are often strewn with some roundish,
black spots. In normal Scandinavian specimens we have
never found such spots; but in a variety (hybrid) which

" Unless it be the case that Ekstrom met with hybrids betweoii the ^Vhite BriMin ar.d tlie Br
the former and tlie dentition of the latter.

with (be external characters of

806

SCAMiINAVIAN FISHKS.

occurs ill tlie River Helge, and of wliich wtt sliall iiave
more to say below, these spots, according Mr. Svens-
sox, Preparator at tlie Royal Museum, are rerj' com-
mon. To judge by their appearance in one stuffed
specimen, however, they seem to be morbid symptoms,
concretions of pigment on abraded scales or more or
less injured fin-raj's.

Tiie White Bream — the German Blicke or Glister,
tlie Daiiisli Flire, Blege, or Blaafinne, and the French
Bonldif-re" — has an extensive range in fresh water
iiortii of the Alps, from Ireland eastwards throughout
Russia-in-Europe''. In Finland, according to ^Iela, it
goes north to lat. 63^ 40'. In Nor^vay it has not been
found. It is common in most of the lakes of South-
ern Sweden and in tiie inner part of the Baltic island-
belt. As it is a species generally despised, and while
confounded by most fishermen with young Bream, goes
bv different names in most of the localities where it
occurs and is known to be a distinct form, we are as
yet unable to fix the limits of its range in Sweden,
especially to the nortli. \A'e know that it is common
in tlie ^Miliar Valley, Lake Wener, and the southern
provinces. Nilsson found it in the Dal Elf at Soder-
fors in 1829. Wisteom supplied Lilljeborg with in-
formation of its occurrence in the fjords near Hudiks-
vall (about 62° N. lat.), and Steffexburg of its pre-
sence in the basin of the Dal Elf up to Lake Uje in
Dalecarlia (61° N. lat.). According to Malm it is pretty
common in Bohusliin, according to Nilsson common in
Scania. It is known by many names, e. g. BJdIke,
Blecka, BJorkfisk, Bjorkare, Kjarta, Paiika, Blapanka,
■with several different dialectic pronunciations of these
words.

The White Bream thrives best in lakes and rivers
with a- clayey and sandy bottom overgrown with weeds.
F^arly in spring it repairs to shallow and weedy shores,
where it spawns periodically in June or even at the

middle of May. In favourable weather each spawning
lasts about three daj's, at longer or shorter intervals.
The old fish spawn first, the young some time later.
The roe is deposited on the weeds, to which it adheres.
During the operation of spawning the fish plunge and
splash about at the surface, where they are seldom seen
on other occasions. The White Bi-eam usually keeps
to the bottom, sometimes swimming in mid M-ater.
Though shy and greatlv afraid of noise at other times,
it is tame and fearless during the s})awiiing, when it
may be caught with ease.

It passes the whole summer in shallow water, and
does not retire to the depths until autumn, when it de-
scends to its winter-cjuarters. It is one of the most
voracious Cyprinoids, feeding on weeds, insects, and
worms, and biting so freely that it is a nuisance to the
fisherman, for it often secures the bait without being
hooked. It has therefore received the nickname of dtare
(glutton).

Though it thieves so greedily, and is always on
the alert where there is anything to be got, it is al-
ways lean. As it is also of small size, and the flesh
very bony, it is never in request, being eaten only for
want of better fish or bj' the poor. Like most of the
Cyprinoids, it is very prolific — Block estimated the
number of the eggs in a female weighing 117 grra. at
about 108,000 — and thus yields quite a considerable
supply of food to the larger and better flavoured fishes-
of-pre}".

No special fishery is carried on for the ^A'hite Bream
to the best of our knowledge; but as it is, so to speak,
omnipresent, it is taken with most of the tackle em-
ployed for other fishes. The greatest quantity is caught
in spring, at the approach of the spawning-season, in
the baskets (Sw. Janor) set for Eel in rivers and large
streams.

(Ekstkom, Smfft.)

As we have mentioned above, the difficulties of the
systematist are increased by the occurrence in this fa-
mily of forms Avhose characters incapacitate them for a
place either within the Leuciscine or the Abramidine
subfamily, though their whole nature distinctly indicates

"Because it always keeps to the shore" (Rondelet).
Grimm, Fishing and Hunting in Russian Waters, p. 15.

their near relationship to one or other of the species
already described. These forms have been explained as
hjbrids; and in Southern Sweden (Scania and Blekinge)
M'e find two of them, descended probably on one side
from the White Bream and on the other from the Rudd

AUKAMn-Ll'.rcisriNK IIVBRIDS.

m'l

or till' lli>;ii.'li. TiiL'se forms were tii'st discuvcrcd in | the systctniitic noiiiriirliitiirc; iiiid I-'atki'' tlifret'orc coined
Gerni;in\, ;inil IIkckki,, wlio did not re.u'ard tlieni as the con\\)i>u\id luiim's Sciirdd-Jiliccd Eriithro-Bjorki/ti luid

\'l)rids, bestowed upon them the special generic mime
t' Blivco}i^i><". Much may be urged against this name

as co-ordinating h\'brids \\ith true species and gi

Leiicisco-Blicca RutUo-Bjorkna. But the forms have
been most aecurateh' defined in Bavaria by Siebold and

I I Ja('Ki;i., wlio lia\(' retained the Ileckelian gen(>ric nam<

BLICCOPSIS ERYTHROPHTHALMOIDES.

(HYB1UI> IIETWEKN the white HREAM ANll THE liinl).)
FiK. -20(1.

lUiihi ih-i'p IIS ill file deepest Bitdd. the i/renti'st depth tieiiiq :14 — H!) % uf the leiii/th, iritli tin- forepart of the
liiiik roiire.v and mrered iritli seales in the median line. l)orf<al fii irith ■*>"' or !> Iirinielied rai/s, anat irith 1')''
or 111. Distaiiie from the tip of the snout to the dorsit fn more than half the lenf/fh of the Jmdi/, and per-
veptilili/ fireater than that to the foremost point in the insertion of the rentral fiis. At most It) sealcs in a
transrerse roir ahore the lateral line. I'han/nf/eal teetli set in tiro roirs and wore or less distiiietli/ jiectinafed.

Fig. 200. Blicco/isis eri/tliroptithalmoides. taken iu a Horriiig-seine off Karlskrona. in May, 1876, by Mr. Lundbebg, Inspector of Fisheries.
Natural size, o, left pharyngeal, seen from above, natural size; i, the same, seen from without, natural size; c, the last tooth

in the inner row, twice the natural size.

" liussei/gers Beisen, BrI. 2, p. 1032.

'' Faune des Vertebre's de la Suisse, vol. IV, pp. 376, 387

' Sometimes 7, according to Fatio.

'' Sometimes 12 — 15, according to Fatio.

Sca7Mmn-ian fiilies.

808

SCANDINAVIAN FISHKS.

R. Ir. 3; 11. — ^; A. — ,; P. ^~ : F

S"— 9 14— 16' 16—17

9 — 10

C. X + 1 + 17 + 1 + x; L. lat. 42—46; L. tv. 1.

4 — 5

8—9'

S'jn. Bliccopst's Bugijenhagii, p. p. Heckel, 1. c. (uec Bi,och);
QvEXNERSTEDT (Ci/priiius), Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forli. 1877,
No. 7, p. 13, tab. VII et VIII; Maui {Abramidopsis), Gbgs
Xaturh. Mus. Arsskrift, III (1881), p. 25.

Abramis abramo-rutihis, p. p., Holandbe, Fne Mos., vide Sied.
(Bliccopsis), Susswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 142.

Bliccopsis erijlhrophthalmoides, Jackel, Fisch. Bai/., Abli. Zool.
Miner. Ver. Regensburg, H. 9 (1864), 11, p. 49. Hybrid
between LeuciseiiR erytlirophthalinus and Aliraniis blicca,
Gthh, Cat. Brit. Mtis., Fi.s!,., vol. VII, p. 233.

The hybrid assumed on the above grounds to exist
between the White Bream and the Rudd attains in
.Sweden a length of at least '27 cm., including the whole
caudal tin. It has the convex dorsal margin of the
Rudd — though the dorsal in'otilc, as in the White
Bream, forms a sharper break at tlie occiput — the
broad forehead of tlie Rudd — the breadth of the inter-
orbital space sometimes about 45 % of the length of
the head — and the comparatively low dorsal fin of the
same species — the length of the longest ray less than
'4 of that of the body. But the length of the anal
fin, which at least exceeds l(i % of that of the body,
at once shows, apart from the number of the rays, that
the fish cannot be referred to this species. The pha-
ryngeal bones and teeth are also most like those of the

Rudd; but the only essential difference in this respect
between the Rudd and the White Bream lies in the
more elongated form of the teeth, with longer and more
lateral masticatory surface, and their more distinct
pectination in the former. In the only specimen of
this hybrid whose pharyngeal apparatus we have been
abl(! to examine, the teeth numbered 3, 5 — 5, 3.

In Sweden, as far as we know, this hybrid has
been found only at two localities in Scania and one in
Blekinge. It was iirst taken in 1864 l)y Prof. Berg-
GREN in Lake Ring; but Prof. Qvenneu.stedt was the
first (1876) to notice and determine this find, describing
at the same time two other specimens from the same
locality, one procured through Berggren, the other
taken liy Prof. Naumann, who has also presented a
specimen to the Museum of (jothenburg. In the mean-
time (1869) a specimen denoted by Qvennersteot (1. c,
p. 21) as 'Ex. r, had been caught in the River Helge,
and stuffed by Mv. Svensson for the Museum of Kristian-
stad. The original of our figure was taken at the be-
ginning of May, 1876, by Mr. Lundberg, Inspector of
Fisheries, among a haul of Herrings caught in a seine
off Lagervik at Karlskrona. According to (^vennerstedt
two more specimens have been found in Lake Ring, but
not preserved, so that in all 8 examples have hitherto
been met with in Sweden, most of them in fresh water,
but one in the brackish water of the Baltic island-belt.

Sometiines 7, according to Fatio.
Sometimes 12 — 15, according to Fatio.

AHUAMO-LEl'CISCINE HYBRIDS.

809

BLICCOPSIS ABRAMO-RUTILUS.

(IIYIIIMIP HKTWEEN THE WHITE DIIEAM AND THE lUIACH).
Fig. -2111.

liody )ii(ire cloiii/dfcd. deep as in the Itadd or .Roach — ;/rc(ilcst deptli ahiutt :il % of the Iciif/tli. DarsaJ iniirr/in
more compri'ssed, Jntt con-red iritli scales, thoaf/h vof rec/Nlarli/ arrai/(/ed, in flic median line. J)orsal tin villi !>"
branched rai/s, anal irith 1(>''. Distance from the tip of the s)ioiit to the dorsal fin about half the loif/th of the
bodi/, and onli/ slit/htli/ f/reater than that to tlie foremost point in the iiiscrtiitn of the roitral tins. At most lit
scales in a transverse rmr ahore the lateral line. Pharyntjccd teeth set in one or tiro rows ami n-ith smooth or

onli/ fainthj pectinated masticatory surface.

■^aJ^t-s^

Fig. 201. Bliccopstf abramo-nitilus, o^, talicn at Kristianstad. 4tli May 1872. •' ^ i^f tin- natural size. From a stiitt'ed speeinicti.

10''

L. lat. il': L. Ir. 1.

5—6

Hyn. Abramis (Bliccopsis) abramo-rulilus, p. p., Holandre, Siebold —
vide supra.
Abramis Buggenhagii, Sel.-Loxgch., F)ie Beige, p. 216.
Bliccopsis abramo-rutilns, Jackel, 1. c, p. 53.
Hybrid between Abramis blicca and Leucisciis rutilus. Gthr.
Vat. Brit. .Viis., Fi."/,., vol. VII, p. 215.

" According to Fatio 8, or more seldom 7.

' According to Fatio 11 — -15, more seldom 10.

' 41 — 46, according to F.\Tio.

In its most pronounced form, the form with the
influence of the Leuciscine type most distinct, this
hybrid most resemljles a Roach witli tlie anal fin con-
siderably elongated and the fore])art of the back extra-
ordinarily compressed (carinated). It thus differs at
the first glance from the preceding hybrid partly in
the more elongated body, partly in the api)arently
greater size of the scales. These are not so densely

4—5

, according to Fatio.

810

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHKS.

iiiil)ricatfcl, iiiid a greater ]iart of tlieir surface is tliiis
left bare, the rule being that in this h\brid most of
the scales, at least those on the middle of the sides of
tlie body, have the free (hind), cxternalh- \isilile [)or-
tion lialf (or more) as long as deep, while in tiie pre-
ceding hybrid, as in th(! Rudd and the White Bream,
the length of tiie said part of t'ach scale is less than
half its deptli. Tlie same difference in the position
of the dorsal tin as appeal's l)et\\een the Roach on one
hand, the Rudd and ^\'hite J>ream on the other, is
also maintained hen;, the distance between the tip of
the snout and tlie Ijeginning of the said tin being less
in tliis hyln-id than lialf the length of the bod-\-. In
the specimen examined, it is true, the dorsal tin con-
tains 9 branched rays; l)ut the last of them is slender
and branched oidv at the tij), not, as is generally the
case in the Cyprinoids, divided almost to the base.
The pharyngeal teeth we liave not been able to exa-
mine; the above remark on tliis iiead is taken from
.Tackkl, wlio found tliem to number: 0(1 or 2), 6(5)
—5(6), Ud or -2).

Tliis form, aceording to Mr. Svexs.son, is the most
common hy]>rid in the River Helge and the lakes
thi'ough whicii this river tlows as it approaches the
sea. Kristianstad Museum p(jssesses three stuffed spe-
cimens, one of which we liave been enabled to examine
by the kindness of Lecturer \\'AnLSTEDT. It is a male,
caught on the 4th of May, 1S72, with the small, ver-
rucose tubercles characteristic of the spawning season,
on the sides of the head (thickest on tiie gill-covers),
the lateral scales on the forepart of the body, and the
inner surface of the pectoral tins. The coloration seems
to iiave lieeii that typical of the Roach, tlie front part
of tile anal tin, iio\\ever, being of the lilack colour
frequenth" present in the White Bream. The entire
length to the tip of the lower caudal lobe is 29 cm.,
but to the end of the middle caudal rays — the measure-
ment constantly tei'iued in tliis work, unless otiier-
Mise specitied, the length of the body — only 256 mm.
The greatest depth is .3(l'7 ^, and the least depth 10 %,
of the length of the b<Kly. The greatest thickness —
in the stuffed specimen just in front of the dorsal tin

— measures .37'6 % of the greatest depth. The length
of the head is 2U"7 % of that of the body, and the
postorbital length of tlie same part half the entire
length of the same. The distance from the tip of the
snuut t(i tiie beginning of the dorsal tin is sliglitly less
than half the length of the bodj'. The base of the
dorsal tin measures 12'5 %, its longest rav 20'.3 %, of
the length of the body, and its last rav rather more
than ''3 (34\2 %) of the length of the longest ray.
The beginning of the anal fin lies at a distance from
the tip of the snout equal to 65'6 % of the length of
the body; its base measures 1()'S %, its longest ray
15 ?6, of the same length. The lengtli of the pectoral
tins is 16 % of that of the liody. Tlie ventral tins
are only slightly shoi'ter tlian the pectoral, and the
distance between them and the tip of the snout is 93
% of that l)et\veen the dorsal tin and the same point.
The length of the middle caudal rays occupies 9 ^ of
that of the body. Apart from all the other resem-
blances to the Roach, the jiosition of the ventral tins
in relation to the beginning of the dorsal tin shows
that one (jf the parent species of this hybrid must have
been the Roach; while the length of the pectoral tins
and the number of the scales admit of the assumption
that the White Bream was the other parent species,
but exclude the Bream from tlie possible progeiiitoi's
of this hybrid.

Friiiii the same locality the Museum <if Kristian-
stad has I'eceived two other hylirids, similar to each
other, one of which is mentioned by Qvenxerstedt
(1. c.) under the head of "Ex. 2". The other (tig. 202)
was caught on the 17th of March, 1869, and has been
lent to me for the purpose of examination In' Mr. Wahl-
STEDT. It has the coloration of the ^^'llite Bream, in
particular tiie aliove-mentioned lilack spots" on the
sides of the bod}', the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, and
the right ventral tin. Two similar spots of somewhat
larger size, with the same s\iiiptoms of skin-disease,
are situated on the right side of the head, the lower
on the hind margin of the preoperculum, the upper
on the front margin of the operculum. Tlie s])e(inien
evidentl}' has more White Bi'eam blood in it, a cir-

" Tliese spots, wliicli are reiirodnced in our figure, cannot be minutely examined in a dried specimen, but are probably caused by
Holoatomnm cnticola (Nordmann, Mikrographische Beitruge zur Naturgescldchte der uirbMosen Tliiere. Heft. I, p. 40, taf. IV. fis. 1 — 4), a
Hatworni occurring in the skin and eyes of many fishes, and belonging to the Trematod order — cf. ftir exnmple tij;. 211, ji. 20!) in Max
VON DEM Borne, Handhiuli der Fisduuclit unci Fischerei. The spots themselves are pure black; and llie scales over wliich they extend are
partially abraded. At the centre of some spots is a blister, concealing a cavity which was ]irobably inhabited by tlie parasitic worm.

ABKA.Md-LEUCMSCINK IIVlililDS.

811

cuinstance L'spcciallv (listiiict iti tlic form of tlie liud}'
and tlu' situation of the dorsal fin. Tlic Hiis are soiuc-
what damaged; l)ut the length to the tip of the lower
caudal lobe was probably almost 23 em. The length
of the body (to the end of the middle eaudal rays is
199 mm. Greatest depth 32-2 % of the length of the
body, least depth 9'.t % of the same. Greatest thick-

fin 17-1 %, of the length of the body. I'eetoral fins
ecpial in length to the base of the anal tin, ventral
tins 15' 2 "" "' '^be length of the bod\'. Distance be-
tween the latter lins and tlu^ ti]) of the snout 87'2 %
of that between the dorsal tin and the same point.
Length of the middle ean(hd rays 7'5 % of that of
the body. Aliove the lateral line 10 scales, below

•;i„"i-i; i^vuhi'si'-aSiSSi!^***" '

Fig. 202. Bliccopsis vutilo-blicca from the E. Hclgc at Kristiftiistsid, taken April 17, 1869. Xatnral size, .\mong tlie stuffed

specimens in the Museum of Kristianstad School.

ness 39 % of the greatest depth. Length of the head | it H, in an oblique transverse row from the inser-
2ri % of that of the body, postorbital length of the | tion of the ventral fin. Scales in the lateral line 47.
head 47'() % of its entire length. Distance from the Fin-formula identical witji that of tlie preceding

tip of the snout to the beginning of the dorsal fin
5r3 %, base of the dorsal fin 12'3 %, of the length
of the budw Distance from the tip of the snout to
the beginning of the anal fin (i2'2 %, base of the said

hybrid.

This latter hybrid is thus distinguished from the
White Bream niainl\- by a tliicker body and a shorter
anal fin.

812

SCAN])1NAVIAN FISHES.

THE BREAM (sw. braxe.n).
AI'.KAMIS BHAMA.
Plate XXXIV, fig. 2.

Scales in the Idfrral Ih>e nhunt '>■'! ('j1 — oG"). Anal p'li irith 2'> — 27'' hyuuthed nn/s. Jh'tiveen the lateral line

a))<J the dorsal fin 12 — 14 (in exceptional cases 11) rows of scales. Pectoral and ventral fins (jrai/ish /rhite at

the base. Fharynyeal teeth set in a single row: 5{6) — .5.

203. Pliaryngeal bones df Ahvantis braiiia, a and li natural size; a, left pharyngeal, seen from aljove; li, the same, seen from without
(the left); c, tlie last (uppermost) tooth, seen from beliiml, twice tlie natural size.

II. Or. 3: 11.

i__ . p _!!_
—27''' ■ IG— U

C. .r + 1 + 17 + 1 + ,(•; L. tut. 51—56"; L.
Vert. 43—45.

12—14

iS'yji. Abrumis, Belon, Nat., Div. I'oiss., p. 318. Vyprinus latus
sive Brama, EoNDEL., De Pise. Laciisti:, p. 154; Schonev,,
Ichlhyol. Slesv. Hols. p. 33. Vijprinus pinnis omnibus ni-
grescentibus, pinna ani ossiculorum viginti septem, Art.,
Ichlhyol., Gen. Pise, p. G; Syn. Pise, p. 4; Descr. Spec.
Pise, p. 20; Lin., Fn. Siiec, eil. I, p. 121.
Cyprinus Brama, Lin., iSyst. Nat., od. X, torn. 1, p. 32*5 ;Bl.,
Fisch. Deutschl., part. I, p. 75, tab. XIII; Retz.. Fii. Siiec.
Lin., p. 360; Pall. Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., tom. Ill, p. 325;
Ekstr. (subg. Abramis), Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1830, p. 169;
NiLSS., Prodr. Ichth. Scand., p. 30; Ekstr., v. \Vr., Skand.
Fisk., ed. I, p. 175, tab, 42; Cuv., Val, (Leuciscus), Hist.
Nat., Poiss., tom. XVII, p 9; Kr, (Abramis), Danm. Fisk.,
vol. Ill, p. 369; SuNDEV, (Cyprinus), Stkhlms L. Hush. Sallsk.
Haudl. 1855, pp. 81 et 173; NiLss, (Abramis), Ukayid. Fn.,
Fisk., p. 324; Hckl, Kn., Ausswasserf. Ustr. Man., p, 104;
WiDEGR. (Cyprinus), Fiskfn., Fisker. Norrb. L., 1860, pp.
7 et 13; Dye. (Abramis), Uypr. Lid., p. 190; Sieb., Suss-
wasserf. Mitteleur., p. 121; Morn, Finl. Fiskfn., disp.

Helsingf., p. 40; WiDEon. (Cyprinus). Landtbr. Akad, Tidskr,
1863. pp. 201, 203, 207; Gim (Abramis), Vat. Brit. Mns.,
Fish., vol. VII, p. 300; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia
1874, TilUegsh., p. 183; Malm, Obgs, Boh. Fn., p. 565;
MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., tom. Ill, p. 395; Bncke, Fisch.,
Fischer., Fisclu. 0., Tl'. Preiiss., p. 118; Day, Fish. Gt.
Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 193, tab. CXXXV; Mela, Vert. Fenn.,
p. 332, tab. X; M6b., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 115; NorbAck,
Handl. Fiskev., Fiskafv., p. 433; Eeut., Sundm., Finl. Fisk..
tab. VII; LiLLJ., Sv., Nory. Fisk., vol. III, p, 274,

Cyprinus Farcnns, Ekstr., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1830, p. 175;
NiLSS,, Prodr., 1, c. : — juvenem hujus specie! judicaruut
Fries el Ekstr., Skand. Fisk., ed. I, p. 57 (anno 1837).

Abraniis vetula, Heckel; Abramis microlepidotus + Abr. aryy-
reus, Agassiz; Abramis Gehini. Blanchard, vide Siebolp, 1. c.

Ctbs. After the determination given by Fries and Ekstrom of
Artedi's Faren, later writers — Nordmann (Voyage of JJemidof, 3,
p. 503), Valenciennes, Nilsson, Siebold, etc. — have adopted this
designation as a synonym of Abramis brama. Here as elsewhere,
however, the Swedish name proves the safest guide to the correct
interpretation of Artedi's species, though a slip of the pen (27 rays
in tlie anal tin, instead of 37) has been overlooked both in Syn. Pise.
and the short diagnosis in Descr. Spec. Pise. See the note to the
following species.

" Sometimes 49, according to Lill.iedorg, or even 45 (in specimens 16 cm. long), according to Valenciennes; sometimes 63, ac-
cording to Day,

'' 23 — 28, according to Siebold. Sometimes 29, according to Czebnay,

' Sonietimea 7, according to Kroyer, Sometimes (in our largest specimen) 10, tliougli here the last ray is not divided, in accordance
with the general rule, to the base, and is besides slender, being thus best reckoned as a part separated from the ray in front of it,

'' — . according to Ekstrom,
15'

' Sometimes 7, according to Kroyer,

§13

Tlic Hream is one of tliu lavjirust Swedish Cypri-
noicls. The ordinary leiiirth, intdudin^ the whole cau-
dal fin, is ■2:] — ,'!.") cm.: Imt it is not vei\y unusual to
meet with Ureani o ilni. \i>u;ji, and according to the
reports sent in to tlie Swedish Fisheries ('ommission
of ISSl — 80 the species attains in many parts of Swe-
den a length of about ")9 cm. and in ScaniiX even of
74 cm. The weight, on the same authorit\', is some-
times 18' 2 Sw. lbs. (nearly 8 kilo).

The Ijod}' is compressed, thin, and deep, tlie
greatest dcptii, whicii occurs at tlie beginning of tiie
dorsal tin, Ixdng al)out .'!4 — ;iS % of the length, and
the greatest thickness about 27 — .'>(! "» of the gi-eatest
depth. The least depth, just in front of the caudal
fin, is about SV , (in young sijeciniens sometimes !)' 3)
— 1"' ;, % of the length of tlie body. The dorsal pro-
tile, which rises more or less shar])ly from the occiput,
most abrujitly if tiie fish be fat, from this point forms
a regular curve to tlie first ra\- of tiie dorsal tin, where
it makes an obtuse angle, afterwards descending almost
in a straight line to tiie base of tlie caudal tin. The
back is compressed and thin, but not carinated, all the
way to the dorsal tin; from tliis tin to tlie caudal it
is somewhat plumper and convex. The belh', as usual,
is flat to the ventral fins and carinated from this point
to the anal aperture. From the isthmus to the ventral
fins the ventral line is almost straight, but slopes a
little towards the anal aperture, wdiere it forms an angle
more obtuse than the dorsal; from the vent it rises al-
most in a straight line to the end of the anal fin, be-
tween whicli point and the caudal tin it curves inwards.
Tlie head is as a rule e(jual in size to that of the
White Dream, measuring 2[\'.j — 20 % of the length of
the body; but in young specimens, even those about 2
dm. long, its length may be 23 or 24 :^ of that of the
body. It is so much compressed tliat tlie greatest thick-
ness, across the opercula, is about equal to the post-
orliital length, which in young Bream is somewhat less,
in old rather more, than half of its entire length. The
forehead from the occiput to the nostrils is straight,
broad, and convex, the breadth of the interorbital space
lieing about 8 — 9 % of the length of the body or Stj — 41
% of the length of the head. Both on the forehead and
the sides of the head the [)ores belonging to the system
ot the lateral line are quite distinct. From the occiput
two parallel rows of pores (the frontorostral branches
of the sj-stem, cf. fig. 104, p. 3(38) run along the fore-
head to a point almost vertically above the eyes: these

pores are N or !l in numbei', and the first two or three
lie somewhat within the line, as if they composed an
independent row. Another row of similar pores (the
suborbital branch of the system), the number of which
is still greater, also begins at the occiput, a little be-
low the former. This row bends up towards the fore-
head above th(! cheek, then desc(Mids below^ the eye,
and ends half-way between the tip of the snout and
the nostrils. Similar pores also occur at the posterior
and inferior mai'gins of the preopercula and on the
under surface of the lower jaw (the mandibular branch
of the system). Aliove the nostrils lies the depression
usually present in tlie Cyprinoids, terminating the mo-
bile portion of the snout (see above), which is obtuse
and projects only slightly beyond the mouth. The
mouth is small and turned slightly upwards, but when
it is opened, may be protruded to a considerable di-
stance in a tubular form. When the mouth is closed,
the upper jaw projects some waj- beyond the lower.
The cornel- of the mouth lies in the perpendicular from
the anterior margin of the nostrils. In this species too
the length of the snout, wdiich varies between about (5
and 7'/, or nearly 8 % of the length t)f the body, or
between 28 and 38 % of that of the head, is as a rule
in young specimens aliout e(|ual to, in old somewdiat
greater than, the length of the upper jaw from the
middle of the tip of the snout. The length of the lower
jaw varies between about S and nearly 10 % of that
of the body, or between about 35 and 45 % of that of
the head, and is greater than that of the suture be-
tween the suljoj)ercnluni and the operculum, and also
more than 75 % of the least depth of the tail (7G —
95 % in our specimens, which are between 17 and 47
cm. long). The eyes are as a rule comparatively smaller
than in tlie White Bream, their longitudinal diameter
varying in our specimens between about 2.S and 19 %
of the length of the head. But this great reduction
depends to a considerable extent on the fact that our
largest Bream are more than t\\ice the size of our
largest White Bream. The ]iosition of the eyes, on the
other liand, is essentially the same as in the White
P)ream. The nostrils, which in form are exactly like
those of the White Bream, occup}' in young Bream the
same position as in the ^\ hite Bream, but in old spe-
cimens are removed bv the prolongation of the snout
comparatively nearer to the eyes. The gills, the oper-
cula, the branchiostegal membrane and rays, resemble
those of the White Bream. The gill-rakers are more

814

SCANDLN.WIAN l-l.MlE.s.

iiunieroiis tluiii in tlie said spfcies, tlieir mniihci' in tiic
outer row on the front of the first hranciiial ardi l)eing
22 or 23, on the outer anterior margin of the pha-
ryngeals 15 or 16. The pharyngeal teeth (fig. 203)
are always set in one row, cxceiit during the shedding
of the teeth, when one or iwn ni;iy he found in the
gums within the main row, wliicli usually consists of
.') compressed teeth, obliquely truncate at the crown,
with hollowed masticatory surface and slightly hooked
tip. Tlie pseudobranchiu' are distinct in )oung Bream,
in old ct)ncea]ed.

The dorsal fin begins at tiie ajiex of the angle
formed by the dorsal profile, almost vertically above
the middle point in the postabdominal part, and at a
distance from tlie tip of the snout wliich inrreases with
age, measuring about .^2 — 58 % of the length of tlie
bod}', or (in our specimens) about 88 — 94 % of the
distance between the tip of the snout and the anal tin.
In this species too its height is about twice its length
— longest (first branched) ray al)out 21 — 26 ?4 (some-
times 27 %) of the length of the body, and the base
about IIV2 (sometimes 11) — 12' ^ ?^ of the same. The
upper posterior margin of the fin is so obliquely trun-
cate that in front the height is more than three times
as great as behind. The anal fin is of about the same
form, and occupies about the same position as in the
White Bream; but is generally somewhat longer. In
proportion to the length of the body the distance be-
tween this fin and the tip of the snout is a))out 59 —
62 %, its base about 247;. (sometimes 24) — 27 %, and
its height in front about 20 — 17 ?» (in our largest s})e-
eimen 15\'2 ?»). The caudal fin is deeply forked, tlie
lower lobe being longer than the upjier. Tlie uuddle
rays measure about 10 — 7V2 % of the length of the
body, or about ',3 of that of the longest ray in the
lower lobe of the fin.

The tips of the pectoral fins extend (in the males
and sometimes in the females) to the insertions of the
^•entrals or a little farther, the length of the former
pair being about 20 — 21'/^ % of that of the body. The
ventral fins are set at a distance from the tip of the
snout measuring about 44 — 42 '/j % of the length of
the body, or less than 83 % (82—74 %) of the distance
between the ti]) of the snout and the dorsal fin. Their
length is about 17 % (16 — 17'„ %) of that of the body.
The postabdominal length is always less than the pre-

° Cf. Underd. Bel. m. Forshtij till Ny Fiskeristadija, Stkhlin
* Sw. Braxengvds, Bream-grass.

abdomiiiMl, the former varying between about 17 ami
20 %, the latter between about 23 and 20 %, of the
length of the body.

The scales are large, finely striated, broader than
long, and of a rounded quadrangular shape, with the
free (hind) part more than twice as deep as long, and
the anterior (inserted) margin irregular! v undulating or
even smoothly rounded. They are denselj- imbricated
in regular rows, and the lateral line runs much nearer
to tlie belly than to the l)ack.

The coloration, which varies greath' according to
the age of the fish and the water in which it lives, is
darker in old and fat specimens than in young and
lean. In a full-gro\vn fat Bream the upper parts of
the head and the back are yellowish gray, suffused
with a brassy lustre most distinct on the sides, which
are lighter and become yellower towards the belly.
The belly is of a more or less whitish j^ellow. The
opercula and cheeks are yellowish white with a brassv
lusti'e. The lips are white. During the spawning-
season the scales of the milters are studded on the front
part of the sides and the head with whitish tubercles.
All the fins are blackish gray. The pectoral and ventral
fins have lighter, almost white bases; but these parts,
as well as the 1;elly, become suffused with blood on the
death of the fish (cf. above, on the Sheatfish). The
iris is yellow, strewn with extremely fine, dark dots,
and is divided from the pupil b\' a ring of still deeper
3'ellow.

North of the Alps the Bream is more or less com-
mon in most of the great European lakes, in places
where the water is clear, and where at least a few
shelving, weedy shores are to be found. It also lives
in large rivers where the current is not too strong.
In such waters it occurs in all the provinces of Sweden
save Gothland". In Finland it is equally common, and
according to Mela goes north to lat. 67° 25'. It does
not thrive in the highlands, and in Lapland and even
in Jemtland it is rare. In Norway, according to Col-
LETT, it occurs only in the south-eastern tracts of the
country, hardly going north of lat. 61°. Though it
does not attain the same size in salt Avater, it is found
in the inner parts of the Baltic island-belts.

Tile favourite haunts of the Bream invariably lie
in clear and moderately deep water with a weedy
bottom, especially where it can find' Merlin's-grass'

1883, |j. int.

815

{[soeti'-'< laciisfris), ^^•hi(•l] it iMuts iiji like the |iig. l-'iuat-
iiio- |)its of tliis weed hetray to the tislieriimii the re-
sorts of tlie Bream. Tliouorli during suininer the Bream
stays in water of a moderate deptii, adult indi\idiials
never aseend to tiie siiores exee]it in tlie s])awniiii;'-
seasoii. (>m1\' small Bream I'ejiair to the shallows in
early spring,'' and remain thei'e all the sunimei'. I>ate
in autumn, when the weather is very stormy, the Bream
is sometimes dri\cn into shallow iidets, and is then
known Ijv tlie tishernien as Orddcrshra.rcii (Storm
liream)- 'i"li<^ iiuli\iduals that aseend rivers during the
spring spawning and in summer are generally young.
Their liahits also differ from those of their felhnvs in
genei'al, for the shoals of Bream do not nio\e against
the stream, but alwavs swim with the current. As the
autumn draws to a close, the Bream retires to deep
water, and chooses its winter-quarters in the deepest
place it can find. Hei'c it lies packed in countless
multitudes, and such jilaces are called Bra.ieiisfdiid
(Bream-stands). A famous pool of this description lies
in Lake Hallho in Soderraanland, and has annually
yielded a take, at the same spot and at a single haul,
of 4,250—17,000 kgrm".

The Bream is cautious, cunning, gregarious, and
very titnid. It is seldom found alone, but almost
always in large or small companies. The best proof
of its cunning is its habit of burrowing in the mud
or lying on one side that the seine may pass over
it. Loud noises, thunder, the sound of bells, the re-
port of firearms, etc., ahvays drive it into deep water,
from ^vhich it does not return for several days. Its
tenacity of life is such that, embedded in grass, it may
be conveyed alive for considerable distances. A method
long employed in order to keep the fish alive during
as long a transportation as possible, is to place in its
mouth a bit of liread previously dipped in spirits.

The Bream ma^" l)e planted in ponds, where it
thrives well and grows fat if not stinted in food. In
a state of nature the fish lives on weeds, mud, worms,
and insects. In the stew it may be fed and fattened
on brewers' grains, pellets of dough, and the like.

Like the other Swedish Cyprinoids the Bream is
subject to great variations of form and colour, these
depending on the age of the fish, the season of the
year, the nature of the water, etc. The difierence is
often so great that some ichthvologists — as shown by

our list ot s\iion\nis — ha\e Ijeen in doubt whether
these foi'ms did not constitute distinct species, if the
su|)ply of food is plentiful, and the tish becomes fat,
the body is always deeper in relation to its length than
in .sjiecimeiis which are Ic^an for lack of f()(jd. In the
latter case the body is more elongated, with more
|iointed head, and the back usually rises in a less shar])
curve. Young specimens are always much shallower
than old, and more elongated in form. At this age
they are I'egarded by the tisherinen in certain localities
as a distinct sjjccies, and are called I'anka, Blapanka,
FIha, Srartspnlirif/, etc. The colouring too, as we have
mentiouetl above, is nun-h darker in fat Brcanj than in
lean or young specimens.

At the end of Ma\- or beginning of -June the l>reani
repairs to the shores in order to spawn. The spawning
always takes place when the juniper is in flower, a
circumstance which is duh (jbserved by the fishermen.
The first shoal to arri\e at the spawning place, which
is never changed, being the same from year to year,
consists of males alone. The females come later to
join their mates, and the spawning now begins, the
silent hours of night l^eing preferred for this purpose.
The operation is accompanied with great noise, for the
fish rove to and fro at the surface in dense shoals,
lashing the water with their tails and displaj'ing their
activity in many ways. The roe is deposited on rushes
and weeds, against which the female rubs her body
while spawning. The ova are small and yellowish.
The spawning last 3 or 4 days, according to the wea-
ther. The eggs are hatched in three weeks, and the
fry grow quickly. When the old Bream have tinished
spawning, the young fish commence. If no convenient
spawning-place can be found in a lake, the shoal ascends
some large stream in quest of a suitable spot. In the
latter case the choice always falls on some weedy bight
at the side of the channel.

The Bream is very prolific. Block counted 1.37,000
eggs in a female weighing 6 lbs. (2,811 grammes), and
BenecivE estimates the number at 200,000—300,000
ova about 1' „ mm. in longitudinal diameter.

The flesh of the Bream, though bony, being of
good flavour, the fisherman has many different methods
of taking this species. During the spawning-season gill-
nets are generally used, the seine being less suitable,
as the fish are frightened by its use, and often disturbed

° Cf. Lloyd, Scandinav. Advent., vol. I, p. 45.
Scandinavian Fisliei.

816

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

in their spawning o|)crati()ns. The l,-iit<(i (tig. 204), a
fish trap set at tiie spawning-p]a<'e (}r in tiie eliannels
which the lireani must ])ass on its way tiiither, is a

often cauglit, as we have mentioned, in ice-seines, when
tlie winter-quarters of the fish have been discovered.
In August and September tiie IJreani is taken by ang-

Fig. 204. Kntm, i\ tish Imp in general uso in Central Sweden, ami chielly employed in the taking of Cypriiioids. Seen oldiqiiely from
the side with llie shore-arm to the right, and in the plan with the shore-arm tnrned downwards.

better kind of tackle, tlie tish being tlius afforded an ' ling in C — I'i fathoms of water, the bait used being

o])portiniitv of de]iositing their roc on the shore-arm I the common earthworm.

of the trap. In winter great numbers of Bream are I (Eiv.strom, Smitt.)

A form which has long been known, but was first
recognised in scientific nomenclature h\ IjLoch, the
German Leifer and Yakkell's Pomeranian Bream, has
been explained by SiEiiOLn and other later writers as
a hvln-id between tlie Ibetuii and the Roach. For the
sake . of uniformity and on the analogy of Bliccopsis,
however, Siebold gave this form the generic name of

Ahrainid(q)sis. The most striking character — a com-
paratively short anal fin in conjunction with a Bream-
like bod-\- — is common to Ahraiiiidopsis and Bliccopsis,
and we therefore consider it most appropriate to com-
pare this form in our diagnosis thereof with the stiid
hybrids of the White Bream.

AliKAMiniNES.

817

THE POMERANIAN BREAM.
AUKAMIDol'SIS r.r(i(;RXHAGII.

(nVlllilD IlKTWEEN THE IIHEA.M AM) THE llOACll.)

Fig. 205.

liodij shalloirer than in the Bream, the r/reatest depth be'nig about 31 — S3 % of the lenf/th. Dorsal marriin in
front of the dorsa} fii coi»2)ressed, hut covered iritli scales /w the median line. Dorsal fin irith 10 branched
roj/s. anal irith l'> — IS. I)istauce from the tip af the snant to the dorsal fin sliqhth/ less than half the lenf/th
of the biidif, bat jierceiitibli/ (/reafer than tliat In the foremost paint in the insertion of the central fins. At least
10 scales in an ohlii/ae trai/srcrse roa- betn-een the bri/lnnini/ of tlie dorsal fin and the lateral line. I'hari/nf/eal
teelh set in a sinqle ron\ Inndicd at Ihr lip. tail o'ilb snidolli nnisHcntnrji sarfuce: (> or 5 — 5.

'"'^'^^^^iSSd.

■^>^

I'ig. 20a. Abramidopsis Dtiffjenliaijii. - 3 of tlie natural size, from Dalecarlia, Stekfenbcrg. The property of llie Zoological Jlu.seniii of

Upsala Univer.sity. a. the left lower pharyngeal, seen from above, natural size; b, the same, seen from without, natural size;

c, the liindniost tooth, twice the natural size, a, b, and c from a somewhat smaller s]H-cimcn in the lioyal JIuscuni.

li. br. 3: D.

3 „ 1 ,,2

: P- ; r. - :

15—18 IG— 18 8

Hyn. Vypvinus Duggciilmgii, Bl., Fisdi. Deutscld., part. Ill, p. 13",
tal). XC\'; Civ., Val. (Leuciscus), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol,
XVII, ].. 53: — (?) Thomps. (Abramis), Nat. Hist. Irel.,

vol. IV, p. 137: Vai!I:., Hist. Brit. F<sh.. ed. 2, vol. I, p.
391; CoLCH, Fist,. Brit. Isl., vol. IV, p. 42. tab. CLXXXIX;
— MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss., Fr.. Unu. Ill, p. 400.
Abramis Leiiclcartii , Hckl, Aim. Wien. Mus. Nattir/j.. Bd. I,
p. 22!), tab. XX, fig. 5; Noedm., Voi/. Russ. Mer. (Demid.),
torn. Ill, p. 508; Cuv, Val., 1. c, p. 59; Hckl, Kk., Siiss-
irasser/. Ostr. Mon., p. 117; SiEli., (Abramidopsis), Siiss-
u-asserf. Afitteleur., p. 134.

" 45 — 54, according to Siebold.

818

SCAXniN AVIAN FI.SIIES.

Abrainis Heckelii, Sei.. Longcii., Fne Beige, p. 217.

Hybrid between Abraniis briuna and Leuciscus rutilus, Gthr,

Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. VII, p. 214: LiLU. (p. p.), Sv.,

.Xoiy. Fit., Fish., vol. Ill, p. 287.

Oi this t'oriii, wliicli according to Siebold attains
a length of al)out 31 cm. (to the extreme tips of the
caudal lobes), we have heen in a position to examine

three specimens 17 — 22 cm. lung (t(j tlie end of tlie
middle caudal rays), all three taken in Dalecarlia by
Dr. Stkffexburg, and two others, resp- 20 and 32
cm. long, from the Helge River (Scania). Instead of a
description at length we shall here give those average
measurements of the first-mentioned three specimens
which express the most important relations of form.

Length of the hody expressed in mi Hi metres

Length of the heiiil in % of the length of the body

Gre.itest depth of the hody „„:, „ „ !> ,i ..

Greatest thickness of the body „ „ „ „ „ ?, m ^,

Least depth of the tnil „„„ „ „ „ „ „

Distance between the dors.il tin ami the tip of the snout „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Length of the base of the dorsal tin , „ „ „ „ „ „ „

,, „ „ longest ray of the dorsal tin ,, „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Distance between the anal tin and the tip of the snout „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Length of the base of the anal tin „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

„ ,, „ longest ray of the anal tin ,, „ „ „ „ „ „ „

„ „ „ middle rays of the caudal tin „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

„ ., „ longest ray ,, „ ,, „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

„ „ „ pectoral fins „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

„ „ „ ventral „ , „ ,, „ ., ., ., „ „

Distance between the ventral tins and the tip of the snout ,, „ „ „ „ ., „ ,",

Preabdoininal length „ „ „ „ „ -, ., „

Postabdoininal ,, „ „ „ ,, „ ,, „ „

Length of the peduncle of the tail behind the perpendicular from the termination of the base of the anal tin „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Diameter of the eyes „ „ „ „ „ „ „ liead

Length of the snout — - „ „ „ „ ,, „ „ „

Breadth of the interorbital space „ „ ,, ,, ,, „ „ „

Length of the upper jaw from the tip of the snout „ „ „ ,, „ „ „ „

., „ ., suboperculuTn at the upper margin - „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

193

21.9
31.8

(9.3)
lO.i
49.7

13.5

(23.0)
r,2.8

17.2

(15.5)

9.4

(20.4)

(18.1)

(16.5)

42.8
20.9

(20.5)
l.i.9
23.9

(30.3)
37.5
29.5
35.2
35.6

The characters of the Roach here find expression
in the comparatively short lower jaw and pectoral fins,
in the forward position of the dorsal fin and its com-
jjaratively long base, and in the comparatively great
postabdominal length. The influence of the Bream type
may be traced, on the other hand, not onlv in the
great depth of the body and, relatively, of the pe-
duncle of the tnil, but also in the height of the dor.sa.l
and anal fins and in the comparatively great preab-
ilominal length.

Blocii described this form from Swedish Pomerania,
Meckel and Siebold from Central Germany and Austria,
NouDMANN from the Lower Danube, Valenc;iennes from
France, Selys-Longchamp.s from Belgiiun, Yaerell and
GuNTHEU from England. According to THo.Mr.soN it
also occurs in Ireland; but this statement seems to re-
quire further corroboration, for, as Day" has remarked,

the Roach does not belong to the Irish fauna. In Swe-
den this hj'ltrid had as yet l)een found, to the best of
our knowledge, only in Dalecarlia and, according to
LiLLJEBORG, in the Klar Elf, until we received very re-
cently (May, 1893), through Fisherman Billing of Kris-
tianstad, two splendid specimens from the broad below
that town on the lower course of the River Helge.

The German name of Leiter (Leader) has been con-
ferred on this hybrid as well as on several other more
or less singular fishes that occur in .solitary specimens
among a shoal of some common species, and are there-
fore supposed to pilot their comrades. A catch of this
kind is enough to give the fisherman hope of a plenti-
ful take of Bream.

Like the Cvprinoid hyltrids in general this form
too is prolific, the spawning-season occurring in Ger-
many, according to Siebold, at the end of April.

" Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 196.

ABRAMIDINES.

819

THE ZOPE (SW. FLIRAJJ OK faeen).

ABRAMIS BALLERUS.
Plate XXXIV, tig. 1.

Scales ill till' lateral line almd 70 {(',9" — 7S). Anal Hn irith S4 — 4:2 braiiclied ra>/s. Beticeen the lateral line
and the dorsal Hn 14 — 1(! rows of seales. Moatli asrendinf/, a-itli the tip of the lower Jaw sUyhthj projectlnij.

J'liarjinfienl teeth set in a sinf/le row: 5 — 5.

Fig. 200. Left lower pharyngeal of A/>minis balltnix, natiirul size.

R. br. .3; D.

V. .r + 1 + 17 + 1 -t
Vert. 47—48.

A.

: P.
34—42

; V.
15—18 7—8

L.

at. 69"— 73:

14—16
L. tr. - — -— -— 1

8—10(11)

liiyii. Vi/prinus admodum latus et tenuis; pinna ani ossiculorura
quadraginta, Art., Ichthyol., Gen. Pise, p. 3; Syn. Pise,
p. 12; Descr. Spec. Pise, p. 23 + Cyprinus iride flava:
pinna ani ossiculorum triginta (viginti) septem, ibid., Gen.,
p. 3; Syn., p. 13; Spec, p. 23; Cyprinus pinna ani ossicu-
lorum quadraginta, LiN., Fn. Suec, ed. I, p. 122 -I- Cypri-
nus pinna; ani radiis triginta septem, ibid,, p. 123 + Cypri-
nus pinnse ani radiis viginti quinque (p.p.), ibid., p. 124, obs.

Cyprinus Farenus, Li.\., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 326;
Retz., Fn. Suec. Lin., p. 361.

Cyprinus Ballerus, Lin., Syst., 1. c.; Retz., 1. c., p. .TGI: Bl.,
Fisch. Deutschl., part. I, p. 62, tab. IX; Pall., Zooijr. Ross.
Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 327; NiLSS., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand.,
p. 30; Ekstr., v. Wr., Slcand. Fish, ed. I, p. 112, tab.
26; Civ., Val. (Leuciscus), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XVII,
p. 45; Lillj. (Cyprinus'), Vet. Akad. Handl. 1850, p. 305;
Kr. (Abraynis), Danm. Fisk., vol III, p. 411; Sondev.
{Cyprinus), Stockh. L. Hush. Sallsk. H.indl. 1855, p. 81;
Nilss. {Abramis), Skand. Fn.. Fisk-., p. 331; Lloyd
(Cyprinus), Scand. Adv., vol. I, p. 51: Kessl. (Abra-
mis). Bull. Soc. Natur. .Vosc, torn. XXIX: 1 (1856), p.
377; Hckl, Kn., Siisswasserf. Oestr. Man., p. 113; Dyb.,
Cypr. Livl., p. 196; Siee., Siisswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 130;

WiDEGR. (Cyprinus), Landtbr. Akad. Tidskr. 1863, p. 203;
Gthr (Abramis), Cat. Brit, ^fus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 302;
Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 566; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer.,
Fischz. 0., \V. Preuss., p. 122; MOb., Hcke, Fisch. Osts.,
p. 116; Grimm, Fish., Hunt. Riiss. Wat., pp. 15 et 22;
Lillj., Sv., Nory. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 294.
(Cyprinus Biorkna (nee synon.), LiN., Fn. Suec, ed. II, p.
130; Retz,, 1. c,, p. 3G0.

Obs. When EKSTBtiM wrote his Morkii Fiskar and Nilsson his
Prodromus, they had both received from Lake Malar young Bream
under the name of farnar (Zope); and the parenthetic remark in
Artf.di's diagnosis of the Faren (Gen. Pise) that in Syn. Pise (as
well as in tlie diagnosis of Faren in Descr. Spec. Pise) a misprint
had escaped observation (27 anal rays instead of 37), was supposed
to be an insertion of no importance made by LlJlN.EliS. Up to the
present day Ekstrom's followers have therefore regarded the Cyprinus
Farenns of Artepi and Linn.f.us as a young Bream, But Artedi's
minute description of this fish plainly shows that he really referred
to the form still known by most of the Malar fishermen as the Faren.
Not only do we read in Clause 12 of this description "pinna ani . . .
ossiculorum triginta septem"; the measurements given by Artedi
(Longitude tola ad iiiitium caudae unc. 8. lin. 8; ad pinnam dorsi
unu. 4, lin. 8; ad pinnam ani uno. 5, lin. 3') demonstrate beyond
doubt that his specimen was a Faren. The following table contains
our measurements of Bream and Zope preserved in spirits — the di-
mensions given by Artedi were probably those of fresh specimens —
ranged in parallel columns with Artedi's measurements of the Bream
and Zope in Descr. Spec Pise, pp. 22 and 25.

" Sometimes 65, according to Valenciennes.

'' 7 — 9, according to Kroyer.

' Whether these measurements are duodecimal (12 lines to the inch) or decimal (10 lines to the inch), I am unable to determine;
but the difference is of no importance to the solution of the question. For the sake of completeness I have included in the table (in paren-
theses) the percentages which the decimal system would involve.

H-20

SCANUIN'AVIAX FISIIE.S.

Roval Muscnm spctiniens of
Abramii brama.

Aktedl's Royal Museum speeiuicns of
Abramis oalUriis.

II

itllLiLiiE

Average

Average

^~

vr

?|

lll?^i^"4^ "sT-:^

in the
preceding

;

J

iu the
following

-g

-<
ft

== -f

I,fii2th of the body from

the tip of the snou

to the Iwse of the

eaudal fin, ex-

S^

X? S?

liS

'1 |i

,pe-mens.

tour
specimens.

SI

tW\

10-2

1)3.4

166 1G9

59.4 eo.o

180
59.4

391 |-.'4
63.0 (iri.fi

-'il 330 216
61.H>59) 60.0(59.5)154.3(54.0)

189

52.9(<55)

92 199
53.2 52 8

203 Ugi!

52.2 53,

Distance bctni-L-n the ilorsnl lii

:in.lthctiiiofthfsn

mt in ;^ of the above 1

ngthofthebody

.. ventnilli

4G.7

48.2 47.9

51.7

46.5 47.0

48.o(>46) 48.7(4^.5) 42.8(42.3)J40.9(< 43)

42.9 40.4 39.»|4li

.. :iiinl fin

. .. ,. ,. ,1 „

., „ ., V

G4.5

65.5 66.2

65.8

66.7 67.9

66.1(^64)

67.5(67.2)' 60.0(59.7): 57. o(< 61)

59.8

56.8

57.11 58 1

No further evidence seems necessary to sViow that Artedi's and
LiNN.tus's Faren and Braxnofficka (Blicka, which they erroneously
identified with Kondelet's Balkrus) and Linn^us's (not Artedi's)
BJorkiia, all belong to the same species. The specific name of fare-
mis has consequently as great claims to recognition as ballerus, and
lias the advantage, as compared willi the latter, of not being based
(HI a fal.se c.xplauation of names already in use.

TIk' ordinary length of the 'Zope' \s between 20
aiul 2.) rm., luit may rise, according to Lilljeborg, to
4.") cm., iiickiding the whole caudal tin.

The body is strongly comjjressed and deep, but
more elongated th;in tliat of the Bream, the greatest
depth, which occurs at the beginning of the dorsal fin,
being about 29 % (27'/,,— 31 %) of the length of the
both", measiu'cd to tlie end of the middle caudal rays.
Tlie greatest thickness, which lies as a rule across the
opercula, is less than \ „, of the greatest depth, and at
most half of the length of the head. The least depth
of the tail is about 8'., — 8 % of the length of the body.
The back, which has only :i faint break at the occiput,
then forms a regular curve to the beginning of the dor-
sal fin, where it makes a very obtuse angle, and from
this |iiiiiit slopes almost in a straiglit line to tlie liase
of the I'audal fin. It is moderately compressed, with
a faint, convex, longitudinal ridge, esiiecially near tlie
dorsal fin. The part between the dorsal and caudal fins
is somewhat plumper. The bell}' is of a broad convex
shape or flat from the isthmus to the \eiitral fins, from
this point to the vent sharjily carinatcd (\\itli the very
edge, as in the other ti'ue Aliramidincs, naked, i. e.
not co\-ered, although concealed, by the scales at its
sides), and then very strongly compressed and thin
throughout the length of the base of the anal fin. The
ventral profile forms an unbroken curve from the chin
to the anal aperture, then runs in a straight line to
the end of tlic anal fin. and finally bends slightly in-
\vards to the base of the caudal fin.

Tlie Iiead, the length of which is about 2n — 19 %
of that of the body, is comparatively smaller tlian in
the jirecediiig .\bramidines. It is pointed, but tlie snout
is thick iind liliint, and does not project beyond the
tip of the lower jaw. The forehead is broad and con-
vex, with straight frontal line and a sliglit slope from
the nostrils to the tip of the snout. Tlie breadth of
the interorbital space measures about " -, (o9 — a little
more than 40 %) of the length of the head. The sides
of the liead are so compressed that its greatest thick-
ness is equal to the perpendicular drawn through the
anterioi' orbital margin. The moutli is not large, but
turned sharply upwards and protruded, when the mouth
is opened, in a- tubular form. The tinterior margin of
the upper jaw is somewhat less prominent than that of
the lower, and the length of the upper jaw from the-
tip of the snout to the hind extremity of the maxil-
laries is in young specimens somewhat greater than
that of the snout to the anterior margin of the eyes,
in old eijual to, or somewhat less than, the latter, and
measures about 28 — 29 % of the length of the head.
The lower ja^v is valvular in sliajie, contracted at the
liasc, ex|ianded in front; it jioints upwards, and is ar-
ticulated in the ]ierpen(licular from the anterior margin
of tlie eyes. Its length is as a rule equal to the breadth
of the interorbital space. The eyes are rather large,
tlieir longitudinal diameter varying in specimens 10 —
29 em. long between about 32 and 2(i' „ % of the lengtli
of the head. They are set fairly low. the upper mar-
gin of the pupil (sometimes of the iris) being toucheil
by the line joining the margin of the upper jaw at the
ti]i of the snout to the middle of the tail at the base
of the caudal fin. The postorbital length of the head
measures in young specimens somewhat less than halt
its entire length; in old specimens these two measure-
ments are equal to each other, and the postorbital part

i

821

is twice as lon<r ;is the snout. The iinstrils are similnr
U) those of the [ifeceding forms, lint lie a litth^ hiiihei-
in relation to the e3'es. Tiie gill-openings are large,
the braiichiostegal nieml)raiies coalescing with the isth-
mus ratlier near each othei', jusi licliiiid the periienili-
eular from tlir hinil margin of the exes. Tlie gill-
rakers are hmg. thirk-sct, anil [iccliiiated, with nioi'e
or less distinct scrivitions. The outer I'ow on the tirsi
branchial arch contains almut oO — '.'>7 , that on the outer
anterior margin of tlu' phar\ngeals 24 — 2ti. The pha-
ryngeals, wliich are remarkably thin, are each furnished
with a Y0^^• of five teeth, these being compressed,
obliquely cut, and hooked at the tiji, with concave
(one-grooved) masticatory surface.

The dorsal fin begins at a distance from the tip
of tlie snout measuring 47 — 49 "«, of the length of the
body. It is very obli(|uely truncate, with straight, or
even slightly convex margin, and its height in front is
more than Twice its length, the longest ray measuring
about 20— 21 % of the length of the body, the base
about 9 % (.)f the same. The anal hn is very long,
highest in front, then siid<ing in a small hollow, and
afterwards proceeding with tlie margin almost straiglit.
Its beginning lies at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring about 51 — 53 ?i of the length of the body;
the length of its base is al)out * 3 (32', ., — nearly 35 %),
and that of its longest ray about 13' „ — 15 "«, of the
same. The caudal tin is deeply forked, the lower lolie
being the longer; its middle rays measure about ',j„
of the length of the body and about '5 of that of the
longest caudal rays.

The pectoral tins are long and pointed, and their
tips extend, when the tins are at rest, sometimes
scarcely to the perpendicular from the insertion of the
ventral fins, sometimes a little further back. The fins
are longest as a rule in the males; but this rule is
subject to exceptions which render it useless as a sexual
character. Their length is about ',',; (16' 2 — nearly
19 %) of that of the body. The ti[)S of the ventral fins
commonly extend, at least in the males, cpiite to the
anal aperture. The length of these fins is generally
greatest in the males, and measures about 13 — 15 ?6 of
of that of the body. The distance between the tip of
the snout and tlieir insertion is greatest as a ride in
the females, and occupies about 36 — 37 % of the length
of the body. Both the preabdominal length and the
postabdoininal measure Ifi (15' J — 18 % of the length
of the body.

The body is covered with com])aratively small and
thin scales, set in vrvy obli(pie rows and densidy im-
bricated. They are in general more roiuided tlian the
scales of the Bream; but the true distinction lies in
their still finer concentric striation and tJK? smaller
number of radiating grooves.

The coloration is indeed subject, as usual, to great
Nariations dependent on tlie agi; of the fish and the
season of the year; but it closely resembles that of young
Bream. The sid(!S of the head dis])lav many colours,
shot with silver and brassy yellow. The silveiy white
iris is dashed with yellow above the pupil, ■where the
fine, green dots with which it is strewn are collected
in a, dark spot. The foreiiead is olive gray, and a
somewhat lighter shade of the same colour extends to
the back and the uppjer part of the sides, gradually
fading below and [jassing, somewhat above the lateral
line, into sih'ery >^v:\\. This last colour grows lighter
and lighter towards the I)elly, which is almost white.
The dorsal, caudal, and anal fins are of a plain olive
gray, though the outer margin, especially of the last-
mentioned fin, is dark. The pectoral and ventral fins
are light gray \\ith a dash of brown, red, or yellow
at the base.

In its h.abits the Zope seems nearly allied to the
Bream. It occurs in our largest lakes, Malar and W'e-
ner, but is common only in the former, which ap[iears
to be its true habitat in SAveden. Sometimes it descends
the River Got ha from Lake Wener (Malm), and it, no
doubt, wanders from Lake ^lalar, as Lill.teboi!g has
remarked, out into the island-belt of Stockholm (SfXDK-
VALiJ. But in Sweden it does not seem to belong to
the common fishes of the island-belt. Tlie case is the
same in Finland, tliough to the south of this countrj'
the Zo})e is common, according to ^Iela, in the interior.
In the south of the Baltic, however, in the German
Haft's and in the Gulf of Riga oft' the mouth of the
Diina, it seems to l)e a stationary fish (Mun., Hiki;).
According to Lixx.F.rs it occurs in Snialand, being there
known by the name of Braxcntlhhn : but no trust-
worthy information on this h(^ad has ^ince Ijeen pro-
cured, and the name may easih" be due t(j a confusion.
In the River Helge at Kristianstad, on the other hand,
two specimens about 3 dm. long were taken in 1869,
the first in March, the second in ^lav; and they are
now preserved among the stuffed collections in the mu-
seum of the said town. Lill.jebohg assumes that these
examples were stray visitors from the south or east of

8-22

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

the Baltic; Init tlieir occurrence in the lower course of
the Helge. which there widens into broads, tiiids a pa-
rallel in many places, the Zope often ascending rivers
l)oth from the Baltic and the Black Seas. The Zope is
further known from the lower jiarts of the Rhine, We-
ser, and Elbe (Sieboi.d), from the aljove-mentioned
German rivers and Haffs connected with the 15altic, from
the Danube, u]) to Hungary and the Hungarian lakes
(HcKL., Kn.), from upper Austria (Sikb.), from the whole
of Russia-in-Europe, with tlie excejjtion of the river ba-
sins sloping to the Arctic (_)cean, and from the ISlack
and Caspian Seas (Pallas, Kesslek, and Guimm).

The temperament of the Zope seems in the main
to resemble that of the Iiream. Its diet, however, in-
cludes less vegetable substances, and consists more of
insects and ^vorms. The spa^vning-season occurs in
April and May, much earlier than that of the Bream,
and sometimes, according to Baron Gyllenstjerna as
(pioted l)_y Nil,s.son, even before the ice has melted in
tlie inlets of Lake Millar. The spawning-place is chosen
in shallow water with a weedy bottom. At this season
the Zo])e often ventures even upon flooded meadow-
land. The operation of spawning is performed as we
have described in the case of the Bream, but is said
to last no more than 1 — 3 days, during which time the
Zope is no less afraid of noise than the said species.
The course of its development and its growth are little
known; but of its fecundity Blocii states that in a fe-
male weighing 468'., grm., with ovaries 164'7 grm. in
weight, the number of the ova, which were of the size
of a poppy seed, was about (37,500.

When the spawning is over, tiie Zope retires to
deeper water, and is seldom found near shore through-
out the i-est of the 3-ear, but only in the depths. In

autumn and winter it assembles in large shoals, like
tlie Bream, where it can find a deep pool.

The flesh of the Zope, is flabby, white, bony, and
of sweetish, indifferent flavour, being poorer in summer
than in winter, and fattest previous to the spawning in
April. Still tlie fish is eaten fresh, in which case it is
boiled, and is also salted and dried for future con-
sumption.

During the si)awning-season, at which time the
Zope, as we have mentioned, approaches the shore and
ascends into the shallows, it is taken in traps {ri/ssjor,
see p. r>'d, fig. 7), nets, and seines hauled from the shore,
where the bottom admits of this operation. It is occa-
sionally speared by accident. Late in autumn it is
sometimes caught in a kind of seine shot in deep water,
the hauls being always large, if made at the right
place, as the fish have no^v assembled in their winter-
quarters. The Zope ma}" also be taken with rod and
line baited with a common earthworm.

On the south coast of Lake Malar throughout its
length the Zope is called Fame or Fana, in the central
and western parts of the lake Faren, and in the neigh-
bourhood of Upsala, according to Lilljeborg, Vimma.
In Lake Wener, according to Lloyd, it bears the name
of Langstjert (Longtail) or, according to Widegeen,
Langhala (Norw. Hale = sfjert). But it is often con-
founded by the fishermen with White Bream and young
Bream, being included witli these under the names
quoted by Artedi and Linx^us, Blecka {BJiclai), Bra-
xenpanlia, Braxenflia (Braxenflira). In order to pre-
clude the ei'ror into whicli he had himself been be-
trayed by tiie name of Faren, Ekstrom preferred to
use Flira.

(Ekstrom, Smtit.)

Gems PELECUS.

Beginning of the short dorsaJ fin situated rcrticall/i above that of the long anal fin, and the base ofi the former
less than '/^ of that of the latter. Dorsal mascnlature extending for nurd across tin- interorbital space. Lateral
line hent sharply downwards behind the pectoral fins, and in the posterior part of its course undulating, or erm
externallg interrupted. Scales like those of the Bleak, but with the nucleus situated in the posterior half. Mouth
sharphj ascending, and the tip of the lower jaw projecting.

Among the Cyprinoids to which tiie Scandinavian
fauna can lay claim, this genus is in several respects
tiie most remarkable. With a form of body reminding
us of the Herrings, it has several characters that range
it beside the Bleaks, others again being Abramidine

characters at their highest point of development. The
characters of Alburnus may Ije seen in the form of the
moutii, with the point of tlie lower jaw fitting into a
sinus at the tip of the snout, the slender and prolong-
ated pharyngeals, and the thin, comparatively deciduous

ZIKGK. 823

scales. Tlic Aluvniiidiiic Ivpe, on tlic utlirr IimikI. iii;i\- ^LMiislicd hy its Imm- .-iimI iiuintiMl, ulinost srytlie-shiiped

be trnceil not onlv in the loni:' ;in;il tin and tlic nnk<>(l- |ircror;d (ins, which recur, however, in some other ge-

iiess of the median (h)rsa] line thron.uiiout a consider- ] m^'a, notahly Cl/cln. a Ljenus lielonning to Indian and

ahle nart of its length in front, hut also in the similar i the East Indian Archi|Mdago, fairly rich in foi'ms, and

apiJearunee of the median Neutral line, which is sharply \cry nearly appro.ximated to I'elecuH. This latter

carinated and naked all tin' wav from the isthmus t(i genus \\as estahlishcd by Aga.skiz" in l8o5, and eon-

the \ent, the latter being situated, as usual, just in tains onh' one species, essentially ditt'ei'ing from C'lirJa

front of the anal tin. The most natural course is there- I merely in the irregular, undulating lateral line.

fore to regai'd the genus as the type of an offshoot | Fiiii;s and Ek.stuom adopted the genus — though as

from the common stock of the Uleaks and I'.reams. I a subgenus entitleil Chvlii — in the previous edition of

But in the structure of the mouth, the phai-yngeals. and ' "SrainhiiKrim/ I^'ishcs" (JS^T), under the Swedish name

the scales the Zope shows signs of ti-ansifion from the of Shih-Jlrd.riKir : but for the species they retained the

true Ib'eams to tins genus. I'elcciis is further distin- '■ Linnu'an name of Ski'ii-kii'ifnni (Carving-knife).

THE ZIEGE (sw. skArkmfven).
PELECrs CULTRATUS.

Fi,S. 207.

PhariDifieiil teeth sleiider, cnmprc-'isefL liaalceiJ at the tip. ir'ith pectiuafal iii/i.^tirafori/ Kurfare. and set

ill tiro roirs: .:.'. '> — .7, 'J.

-i--ij5T;' ' vr ^FXi i : ",:

'':^i^SJ^,''^-Cfi\.

Fig. 207. I'dectis cidtratiis. from Finlaud. Nylandkr, 18,50. ' ., of the natural size, a, tlie left lower I'ljaryiigeal, seen from above, uatural
size: b, the same seen from williout, natural size: c. llie liindniost tooth in the inner row, twite the natural size.

/?. ic. 3: D. -,:

A. : P. ; T'

25—28 14— IG

14—1.5

C. x -t 1 + 17 + 1 + .)•; L. lot. c:a 100: L. tr. — — 1;

Virt. 48'— .^l"

" Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Neuclu, torn. I. p. 30.
' 6 — 7, according to GCnther.
■■ According to Gi'XTBER.
■* ,. „ Krover.

.Icanrlinavhn Fishes.

Si/ii. Harachi congener, Marsigl., Damib. Pann. Mys., torn.
IV, p. 21. tab. VIII. Lucius, sp. 2 et 3, Klein, Hist.
Pise. Xat. Mi.'>s., V, p. 74, tab. XX, fig. 3. Cyprinus pinnae
ani radiis XXX. linea laterali declinata. ventre acutissimo,
Lix., /(. .SVdH., p. 82, tab. II, fig. 1.

104

824

SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

Ci/primis cultnittis, Li::., Si/sl. .Xat., c-d. X, torn. I, p. 32G;
Bl., Fi.sch. DeutfM., |.t I, p. 2.05, lab. XXXVII; Ketz.,
Fn. Siiec, Lin., p. 3C0; Pai.i.., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn.
Ill, p. 331; XiLSS., Prodi: Ichtliyol. Scand., p. 32; Abass.
{Pelecus), 1. c; Cuv., Val. (Leucisciis), Hist. IVat. Poiss.,
vol. XVII, p. 330; Kr. (Pelecus), Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p.
511; Xir.ss. {Abramis, siibg. Oliela ex. Buchax.), Skand.
Fn., Fisk., p. 340; Kessl. {Pelecus), Bull. Soc. Natur. Mosc,
vol. XXIX, I (1856), p. 376; Hckl, Kn., Sunswasserf.
Osir. Mon., p. 126; Dyk., Uypi: LivL, p. 153; Sieb.,
Siisswasserf. Mittelear., p. 152; Mgrn, Finl., Fiskjn. (disp.
Hclsingf.), p. 43; Gthu, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VII,
p. 330; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fisch;. 0., W. Preuss.,
p. 125; Mkla, Vert. Fenn., p. 337, tab. X; Mub., Hcke,
Fisch. Osts., p. 121; GRI.MM, Fish., Hunt. Buss. Wat., pp.
10 et 22; Mela, Sundm., Fi7il. Fisk., tab. XXVII; Lillj.,
Si:, yorg. Fn., Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 324,

The 'Ziege' attains even in the North a length of
4 dm.; hnt in Southern Russia, where it apparently
lias its true home, it sometimes measures, according to
Kesslek, as much as (3 dm. Tlie elongated and com-
pressed form of the body is most suggestive of a lean
Herring, but the most characteristic external features
are the almost straight dorsal margin and regularly
arcuate belly, without tiie more or less sharp angles
which we have seen in the profiles of most of the pre-
ceding Cyprinoids. Furthermore the form differs from
that of our other (['yprinoids in the strong elongation
of the forepart of tlie trunk, for in no other Scandi-
navian member of the family is the preabdominal length
more than ^/i„ of the length of the body. The greatest
depth in adult specimens is somewhat less than ' 5 of
the length of the body (about 19 % in our specimens,
which are 22 — 36 cm. long); the greatest thickness
about '3 — " ,j, and the least depth of the tail about ''3,
of the greatest depth of the body.

The head also measures somewhat less than ^'5 of
the length of the body, and is characterized principally
by the above-mentioned relation to the dorsal muscles,
the origin of which extends forwai-d over the forehead.
The eyes are large and set rather low, almost as in
the Zope. Their longitudinal diameter, which even in
adult specimens is somewhat, tiiough only slightly,
greater than the length of the snout, measures a little
more than V4 (28—26 %) of the length of the head.
The postorbital length of the head is about half its
entire length. The position of the nostrils is normal.
The sides of the smmt (the preorljital bones) are re-
nuirkable for the distinct ducts belonging to the sub-
orlntal branch of the cephalic system of the lateral
line. The shape and position of the mouth we have
already described. The length of the upper jaw from

the ti]) of the snout is somewhat less than the least
depth of the tail, but the length of the lower jaw is
perceptiblv greater than the latter, measuring aljoiit
42 % of the length of the head, lioth the opercuhnn
and tlie jn-eoperculum are comparatively large, and the
latter is distinguished by the rectangular form of its
hind inferior corner. The gill-openings are large, the
branchiostegal membranes coalescing with the isthmus
rather near each other and in a line ^vith the posterior
orbital margin. The gill-rakers are strong and rather
scattered. The outer row on the first branchial arch
contains about 17 or 18, the inferior ])ointed, the su-
perior flat and branched or lobulate at tlie tip.

The dorsal tin is remarkable botli fur its small
size and its Ijackward position. It begins almost ver-
ticalh' aliove the origin of the anal tin, at a distance
from tile U\> of the snout measuring about 64 "o of the
length of the bodv. Its base is equal to the longi-
tudinal diameter of the eye (in our specimens .")'3 — 5 %
of the length of the l)ody) and measures aliout half of
its height in front, which is nearly 11 — 9^2 % of the
length of the body. It is sharply and obliquely trun-
cate, with the upper posterior margin somewhat con-
cave. The anal tin is more deeply concave, reminding
us of the Garpike, with the anterior part prolongated
to a lobe, but with the posterior part of almost uni-
form height. Its base measures about 21^ U — 22 %, and
its height in front about 12 — 11 **, of the length of
the bodA-. The c;uulal tin is deeply forked, with pointed
lobes, the lower somewhat longer tiian the upper. Its
middle ravs occupv about 7 % of tlie length of the
body, and measure a little more than ' 3 of that of
the longest caudal rays.

The shape of the pectoral fins too — expanded at
the base and incised at the lower margin — calls to
mind the Garpike or, still more, the Horse ^lackerel;
and they are remarkable, as in tlie hitter of these two
species, for their great length, 29 — 28 % of that of
the bodv and only slightly less than the preabdominal
length. The ventral fins, which are inserted half-way
along the bodv, are also more pointed th;iii in the rest
of the Scandinavian Cyprinoids. Their length, which
measures about 12 — 12' „ 96 of that of the Ijody, is less
than the postabdominal length, though the latter is
remarkalily small, being only about 16' '2 — 15 % of the
length of the body.

The scales are thin and deciduous; they vary
greatly in size and shape on different parts of the

825

bo(l\', l>i-'iii,U' small (111 the l.iack and lielly, liii\ii'cst at tlic
middle (if the sides. The large scales are of a rounded
(luadi-ilatcral shape or almost circular; the small ellip-
tical, v'ith the longitudinal axis set across the hody.
The cdiicentric stria; are extreiiieh' Hue and dense; the
radiating grooves fe\v and faint on the hind part (tf
the .scale, hardh' \isiMe on the inserted part, though
the latter, at least in the large scales, is usual!}' si-
nuate at the margin.

The coloration resembles that of Jlljiinuis and
Chipea. According to Hkckel and Knku "the occi]iut
is steel-hlue or liluish green, the hack grayish lirowii,
the cheeks of a nacreous lustre, the sides of a light
silvery lustre; the dorsal and caudal fins grayish, the
others with a dash of red; the iris silvery."

The Ziege, like the Ziirthe and, in some localities,
the Zope, is an anadronious fish, ascending rivers from
the sea or the great lakes in order to spawn. Its best
known haunts, where it is taken in millions, are the
Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, the ('aspiaii. and the Sea
of Aral, with all the large rivers flowing into these
Avaters. l>ut the species also occurs in the Baltic,
chiefly to the south and east, west to Greifswald, and
in Lake Ladoga. From these localities it makes its \vay
into the North German Haffs and estuaries and into
most Russian and some Finnish rivers. Within the
basin of the Danube it is common in Hungary, and in
summer some Hungarian lakes yield large catches of
Ziege; but in Bavarian waters it is rare. At the middle
of the last century, according to Linx.eis, it frequented
the River Helge off Kristianstad, in spring, till the end
of May. The sjiecimen taken in this river and de-
scribed by I^ixx.Kfs (length 22 cm.) is still preserved
in the Zoological iluseum of Upsala University. The
species has never since been caught in the Helge, but

off ihc moufli of this ri\-er it is well known to some of
the lishernicii of .\hus, according to their own asser-
tion, being fre(nieiitl\- taken in the Herring-nets. In
I)eiiniark it has never been found.

The Ziege is an active and roving lisli, not unlike
the Herring. It lives on miscellaneous small animals,
siK'h as crustaceans, insects, the fry of other piscine
species, and small fishes. It seeks its food, as indicated
by the jujsition of the mouth, in the same manner as
the Bleak, niosth' at the surface of the water. In spring
and earh' summer, from May to July, it spawns
in shalhiw water on a weeih' bottom. In a female
weighing 117 gnn. and \villi o\'aries weighing 77
grm., Bloch estimated the nuniber of the eggs at
105,740.

Bony, lean, and thin — lience, it is said, the Ger-
man name of Zii-iic (goat) — the species is held in
little esteem where other fish is to be had; liut where;
this is not the case, or where the Ziege is taken in
enormous quantities, as in Southern liussia, it is used
as human food. Its scales are employed, like those of
the Bleak, in the manufacture of the so-called essence
(Torieiit, the colouring matter of imitation pearls. The
nearest fishing-stations to Scandinavia where the Ziege
is taken in any consideralile (|uantity, lie on the
Prussian coast and in the (Terman Haffs, the tackle
used consisting of gill-nets, which are set at the sur-
face, or drift-nets. "It has numerous foes," saj^s
Bloch, ''in predator)" fishes and waterfowl, to which
it often falls a prey, its silvery colour rendei'ing it
easy of oljservation." Thus the Ziege shares the fate
of the Herring, and where these two species live in
com)iany, the former has as good means of escape
as the latter, if not better, its sharp fins being well
adapted for rapid flight and speedy doubling.

826

SCAXDIX AVIAN FISHES.

THRISSOMOKPHI.

I'lii/scsfdiiis icitli the sliimlder-i/irdle suspended from the head (as usual in tlie Teleosts). Seapular disk Inter-

iiidlji streiii/theiied Inj an (irch formed hi/ a special liane {os jjra-'oraenidenm) from the coracoid hone to the claricle

The frst four ahdominal rertehra: of normal form and derelopment. Hyomandilndar and pteryfjopalatine archei

complete, as irell as {in most eases) the operealar ajijiaraliis. MaxiUartj hones fullii dereloped.

That Tlie Salmons and Hen'ings have much in
common, was declared l)y Agassiz in 184M", when he
united them iiitti one I'amil}-, Halecoides; and Cope
followed up this opinion in ISTl' by the establishment
of the order Isospondyli, answering to the series of the
Thrissoinorphs, and distinguished from the preceding
series mainly by a negative eliaracter, the absence of
tlie so-called acoustic bones. The connexion between
the organs of hearing and the air-bladder, however, is
not foreign to this series. In tlie Clujieoids Weber'
discoverefl that the aii-bladder, which tapers forward
for some length, is divided in front into two branches,
one to the right and one to the left, which pass through
the occipital bone into the cranium, and there, as Hasse''
has shown, touch with their tips the (juter wall of tlie
lymphatic chamber surrounding the auditory apparatus.
.Sace.mehl has given good reason'' for his assumption
tliat this mode of communication is the more primitive,
from which the UKjre complicated connexion of the
preceding series has been evolved, and which has been
persistent not only in the Clupeoids and some other
Physostoms, but also in some Physoclysts of ancient
type, as for instance the Berycoids (cf. aliove, p. (3G),
the Macruroids, some Gadoids and Balistoids. We have
also seen a reminiscence of this connexion in the two
tubular processes which ascend from the anterior ex-
tremity of the air-bladder of the Gadoids (cf. above,
]). 470) in vermicular curves towards the head, one
on each side of the anterior renal mass. The absence
of the so-called acoustic bones is thus explained as an

■hes

earlier stage of development; and a negative character
of this signiiicatioii can hardly be sufficient to deline
a natural evolutionary series. \\'c also find that a great
number of tlie Thrissomorphs are witJKjut the character
adduced by Agassiz as one of the most important in
his definition of Halecoides, namely the jiarticipation
of the maxillai'v bones in the formation of the margin
of the upper jaw. Thus we might reasonably treat
these forms as a distinct series of families {Scopelo-
morphi): but the resemblances in otiier respects are
sufficientlv great to render the Tlirissomorphs a natural
whole, with the same limitations as Cope's Isospondyli,
although the said resemblances do not constitute cha-
ractei's applicable to the whole series. Within this
series too the variation of form and structure is great
and affects most of the organs. Scales and a distinct
lateral line ma}' l)e present or ^vanting. The maxil-
laries may be simple, as in the I'est of the Teleosts,
or composite, furnished with so-called supplementary
bones answering to the cheek-bones {ossa jiiiialia) of
the higher vertebrates. The teeth may be numerous
and well developed or wanting. A so-called adipose
iin is present on the hind part of the liack in many
forms, but wanting in others. Luminous organs, so-
called phosphorescent spots, may lie present or absent.
The ovaries may be furnished with an oviduct or with-
out a complete tube of this description. The air-bladder
mav be present or wanting. Such great differences in
forms which nevertheless sho\v their natural affinity
in some wa^• or other', render the chai'acterization ot

" Reck. Poiss. Foss., tmii. V, pp. 3 ami !)l).

' Iclit!i>/ol. Less. Ant, Tnins. Anier. Philos. Srjc. Pliilad. X. ser., vol. XIV, pp. 452 and 454.

" De mire cett., p. 73, cett.; figg. 03, celt.

'' Anat. Stud., Bd. I, p. 599, cell.

•■ Morphol. .Jahrb., Bd. X, p. 51.

' Thus for example tlie llaplorjutoiilil.n — a family of fresh-water fishes from South America and Australia — are almost typical
Salmons, lint have tlie margin of the upper jaw formed by the intermaxillaries nlone; and similarly the Sternopti/cliiila' and ScpeluUv are
families so like each other that they ought hardly fo be kept .apart, though in the former the osseous framework of the mouth follows the
Halecoid type, while the latter preserve in this respect the ordinary Teleosteous character.

■riiiiis.soMtiiii'iis.

827

the series extreuu-K- ditticult. \\ itliiii the Scuiidiiiaviaii
fauna the series coiitaiiis tlio lulluw iiiii' t'ainilies.

I: Hinil i)art of the hack I'urnished witli an iKlipose tin.

.l.' Ovaries without special oviduct com-
municating directly with their cavity:
the ripe egj/s fad into the ulidondnal

cavity an<i pass thence throuLdi a geni-
tal pore. No phosphorescent spots on

the sides of the hody Fam. Sdlinoiiiilir.

B: Ovaries furnished with a complete ovi-
duct. Sides of the body furnished in
all Scandinavian forms with phosphore-
scent spots" .._ Fam. SropeluUr.

II: Xo adipose fin .. Fam. < lnj>n<ia\

1am. salmonid.e.

BoiJij of the fi/pl((il SdJmoii form nr more cniiipres.teih (ipproxinuited to the Roach or the Herriit;/ form. Scales
middle-shed or stmoll, rather frmli/ attached''. Xo phosphorescent spots on the sides of the hodi/. Dorsal margin
of tJie tail fariiishril a-itlt an adipose fii. 3fari/in of tin' appi'r Jaa- for and ia front In/ the internia.iillaries
and behind hi/ the ina.rillaries. Xo barbels. Air-bladder simple anil not connected a'ith the cranial cariti/.
Branchial earitij famished a-ith pseadrdtranchice. Ovaries open on the outside, n'ithout oridncts or u'ith oviducts

openin;/ iiurards (into the abdominal cariti/).

The fainilj' of the Salmons and Gwyniads is well-
known everywhere in the frigid and temperate regions
of the northern licniis|ilierc. In ihc southern iiemi-
spiiere, on the other iiand, only two genera occur, a
Capelin form (Befrnpinna Bichardsonii) belonging to the
fresh water of New Zealand, and two {':') Argentine
species, marine tishes of the same locality. The family
possesses more than ordinary interest l)oth from an eco-
nomical and a scientific point of view, to the economist
hecause the flesh of these fishes is one of the most
highly esteemed and most remunerative foods, to tlie
scientist because there is hardly any (jther' jiart (jf tiie
system where he is confronted \vith such ditticulties in
defining the limits of the species. This is due in most
cases to a plasticit\- and inconstancy of form, caused
beyond doubt bv the periodic migrations of the Saltno-
noids from the sea or the great lakes to running fresh
water. The economical value of these fishes has also
contriltuted to the said ditficulties. Wdiere they appeared
at certain seasons and certain places in enormous mass-
es, with one or other of their various dresses predomi-
nant, the fishermen gave these dresses different names
which the systematist had to explain, often merely after
examining solitary sjiecimens that were supposed to
represent distinct species. "Kart barn liar manga nainn'%

" An extremely rare f(priii, Sudis atUuitivini, is an e.\ception.

*" The genus Siilaiix (Albula c/iineiisis, Osbeck, Ostiml. Resa,
liuous scfiles (GtNTHER).

' "A dear cliild has iniuiy names."

•' Rech. Poiss. Foss.. vcl. V, p. lu:5.

' Gl'NTHER. however, ciiiisidcrs tb.it this genus perhaps he!<
Mtlii/ol., p. 417.

.says the Swedish proverb; and this rule has repeatedly
asserted itself in the nomenclature of the Salmonoids.
Tlie investigations of recent years, however, have elu-
cidated the significance of the variation of foi-in within
this family and the relationship to each other of the
more or less constant forms, and have thereby thrown
light upon the comprehensive question of the origin of
the species.

The geological researches of Aoassiz'' have traced
the Salmonoid family back to the Cretaceous Period. At
that time there li\ed, where the green sand now lies in
modern \Vest[)halia, and \vhere the chalk subsided over
Southern England, several forms, which Aoa.ssiz referred
to the genera Osmerus and Osmeroides', the latter fur-
nished with scales resembling those of the modern ge-
nus Ari/entina. The evolution of the Salmonoid familw
we might hence conclude, began with marine fishes ot
the Smelt and Capelin type, with few pyloric appen-
dages or none at all, and its development advanced in
t\vo directions, 1) towards the Salmon and Charr, fur-
nished with teeth and with com})arativcly small scales,
2) towards the toothless and comparatively large-scaled
genus Coregonus. In both these directions of evolution
tlie pyloric appendages were more and more developed,
to assist these fishes in storing up a reserve supjily of

p. 2.')7), however, is scaleless or has small, extremely thin, and deci-

■d to the Scopelc.id family, liitrod. St'iil;/ Fish., p. 582: Hnndb.

828

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIE.S.

Sal,,

Genus Osuierus.
Genus MallotH-^.

Genus T/n/uicilliis.

f;it for tilt' time when tliey must resort to fresh water
for tlie rejiroduetioii (A' tlieir species.

Tiie Seiuidinaviaii .ireiiera of tliis family are the
followiii^U':

A: Dentition strong, even tlie tongue fui-
nislied with teetli. Length of the maxil-
larics more than 53 %" of that of the head
reduced (from the hind extremity of the
intermaxillary bone to the posterior mar-
gin of the preoperculum). Base of the
dorsal fin proper shorter tlum the head
reduced. (Salmoinun')
1 : Branched rays in the anal finlessthanlT.
a: Transverse rows of scales on the
sides of the body more than 100.
/'.• Transverse rows of scales on th(

sides of the body less than 80

2: Branched ravs in the anal fin at least 17
B: Dentition weak or teeth w-anting, at least
the tongue toothless''. Length of the ma-
.xillaries less than 53 'o of that of the
head reduced. {Coregoniiur)
1: Base of the dorsal fin proper more
than 15 % of the length of the body
and longer than the head reduced .
2: Base of the dorsal fin proper less than
15 % of the length of the body.
a: Base of the dorsal fin ]iroper more
than half the length of the head

reduced ■ -- Genus Coregonus.

h: Base of the dorsal fin less than half

(<45<) the length ofthe head reduced Genus Arqentina.

In this manner we liaAe endeavoured to find an
expression for the said two directions of development.
The development, however, has not been so regular that
a sharp and fi.xed line can be drawn between two di-
stinct subfamilies; and the intermediate position occupied
by the Graylings (genus TlnjmaUus) may perhaps justify
the establishment of a third subfamily, characterized
principally by the advanced development of the dorsal
fin. The comnuinity of origin in the case of all these
genera affords an explanation of tlie fact that the fry
of the most differentiated forms in one group show
jioints of resemblance to tlie other group.

In order rightly to comprehend the relations be-
tween the genera, it is indeed necessary to have a
knowledge of the exotic forms as well. But two of the
Scandinavian genera are so rich in forms, even within
the limits of our fauna, that in them we maj- trace the
development of form in its ])ast course and, seemingly,
in its present continuation.

\

Fig. 208. A gravid female Smelt, taken at Stockholm on the 19th
of April, 1892. Natural size, ois, left ovary, with eggs arranged in
transverse rows; ovd, lower (posterior) part of the right ovary; m,
margin of the mesoariuin, which envelops the ovary both above (in
front) and below (behind) even on the left (outer) side, but below,
owing to the coalescence of the margin with the wall of the abdomi-
nal cavity, forms a funnel-shaped duct, open above at a; r, rectum;
an, vent; gu, situation of the genital and nrefliral apertures, the for-
mer in front of the latter, drawn as a common opening because the
wall between them could not be distinguished externally.

" Exceptions occur amc^ng Sahnou fry.
' ,1 ,) 11 Grayling ,,

SAI.MiiNilIlis.

829

In tlic structure (if tlu' o\arir,s the Salincmoiij fam-
ily stands almost alone among' tlie Telcosts. Only
among the Eels, in a New Zealand taiuilj' {Ualaxiidce)
and an East Indian and West African family (Notopter-
i(l(f), are the eiiii's deposited in tlie same manner. "^ et
tlie Salnionoids cannot be said to l)e eiitii'eiv destitute
of oviducts. Tlie true diti'erenee lictween the osaries
of tiiis famih' and those of most other Teleosts is that,
while in the latter the said organ is a closed .sac, open
oidv lit'liind (througli the oviduct), tlu^ outer wall of
whicli is I'ormc'd \)\ a fold of the iieritoneum (ineso-
ariina), and round the inner surface of which the ovi-
ferous la\cr is .set in transverse or longitudinal folds
(lamelhe), in the Salnionoid family this layer extends
oid\' o\er the outer side (the side facing the lateral wall
of the abdominal cavity) of the simple, pendent meso-
arium (peritoneal fold). Or in other words, we may
imagine the otherwise closed ovary (ttigetiier with the
oviduct) to he split throughout the length of the outer
side (the side facing the lateral wall of the alidoininal
cavity). Botli at the anterior e.xtremity of the ovary

and :it the lowci- (\cntral) margin, iiowever, the meso-
arium liends towards the outer side, and liehind the ovary
the mesoarium is continued in the form of a simple
lamella, either hanging l)etween tlu; intestine and the
wall of the alidominal ca\ity, with the lower (ventral)
margin tree, or with the said margin curved upwards
and outwards and coalescent with the wall of the ab-
dominal cavity, tluis foiiuing an oviduct (abdominal
funnel) open even in front. These oviducts (tig. 208)
— one on each side; in front, but united at the extreme
end into a common passage behind the intestine — which
occur in the Smelts and Caiielins, are indeed im[ierfect
in comparison with those of the other Teleosts. But
in their anterior opening they show a remarkable ana-
tomical resemblance" to the correspotiding structure Ijoth
in the (ranoids (with the exception of Lepidosteus),
Sturgeons, and Cartilaginous fishes and in the higher
vertebrates, where the oviducts (^Miillerian ducts) are
separate from the ovaries and open into the abdominal
cavity, receiving in this orifice the ripe eggs when de-
tached fr(nn the ovaries.

r.ENis SALMO.

Mouth aniicd ivith sfroiif/ and pointed, ratJicr scattered teeth, set in ane rair on the tairer Jair, the intennaxiUaries,
the maxiUaries^ and the pedatine Ijones, in one or two roirs {Jnd decidiious and sometimes leanting) on the shaft of
the vomer, in an irregular group on the head of the vomer, in two roirs on tlie tongue. Length of the maxUlaries
behind the intermaxillaries as a rule 58 — 6'.3 %'', and of the lower Jan: as a rule 75 — 95 %', of that of the head
from the hind extremity of the intermaxiUari/ hone to the posterior margin of the preopercuhim. Xumher of rags
in the anal fin as a rule less than in the dorsal' and (d most 14, of whirli 7 — Id are liranehed, and the base
of thr anal fin shorter than that of the dorsal. Pglorie appendages well-dereloped and numerous {about 25 — dO).
Scales small, more than lOO in the later(d line, ndiieh is eomplete.

In the Tertiary Pei'iod, when the Rocky Moutitains
rose and divided the arctic and temperate waters of
North .America into two regions, an eastern and a west-
ern, the genus Salmo was diffei'entiated in two distinct
direction.s of development, of which in the above dia-
gnosis we have taken into account only one, the Sal-
mons and Charr of the eastern region. The other course
of development ran side bv side with this — branched

like it into Salmon and ( "h.ari but acquired a cha-
racter peculiar to itself in the long anal fin, with a
greater number of raj-s, (ISV) 17 — 19, of which 14 —
10 may be branched. This direction of development,
whether we choose to regard its forms as a genus or
subgenus, has received in recent times* the name of
Onrorhgnchus. To the European faunist it is not with-
out interest, for its best representative, the Quinnat

" Cf. Rathke, Beilr. z. Gescli. 'I. Thierw., Ahth. 3. Cl/ir den Darmk-amd u»d die Zewjungsonjaiie der Fisclie, pp. 12.3 and l.OO;
Hi;xi.EY, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1883, p. 132; Webrr, Morpliol. Jalirb., XII, p. 360. Oviducts of the same description occur iu the Cape-
lin; but there only one (the left) ovary is fully developed. In Stdmo and Coreijoiutit the mesoarium passes over the rectum, forming on
each side thereof a short abdominal funnel (peritoneal duct).

* In Parr and individual exceptions 43 — 53 °i or, on the otlicr hand, up to 78 'i.

' „ „ „ „ „ 65—75 „ „ „ „ ., Ill %.

'' Sometimes the number is the same.

' Slxkley, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York 18(U, p. 312.

830

SCANDINAVIAN 1-ISIIES.

SnliiiDU (0)i<(irli. fschairi/fsritd). lins Ijecii iiiti'ci(liicL'(l
\\itli sufce.s.s ll^• jjiscieultural iiietliods not ()iil\- iiitu tlie
iLastern States of North America, but also into Australia
and Europe, though not yet, to the best of our knowledge,
into Scandinax ia. The Scandinavian fauna has, how-
ever, l)een enriclied in very recent \'ears, according to
a iicxvspaper paragraph at the beginning of 1892, })y
the introduction from Germany of a form planted in
the latt(!r countrv, the Californian Rainbow Salmon
{SaliiKi /r/th'iis). Tlie said form, together with a (_'harr
form — or ivitlicr an intermediate form between the
Salmon and Chai'r — has its original home west of the
Ivockv Mountains and in the Pacific Ocean, although
they both belong to the course of develoi)ment other-
wise represented only to the east of this mountain
range. A closer examination of these forms leads us,
however, to the result" that in them we have a blending
of characters most naturally to be explained, if not on
the assumption of tndjridism, as a reminiscence of the
time when the Salmon and ('liai'r, in their common de-
\elopment, \vere not fully differentiated from each other.
Another American form, a Charr from the Eastern
.States {Salmn foi/fiiialis), has been cultivated Avith suc-
cess in England, Wales, and Scotland. Salmo fouthialh
is also an intermediate form between the Salmon and tlic
Charr, the oidy character — though not of great vali-
dity — in which it differs from the Greeidand Charr,
the absence of teeth on the l)asibraiichial bones (ir\oid
teeth), being a character of the Salmon''. The lirook-
Trout {S. fontinalis) has been crossed both here and
in America xvith the Salmon as well as xvith Euro|iean
Charr; and these experiments have tanglit us, among
other things, that tlie charai-tcr which otherwise com-
poses a constant distinction between Salmon and Charr,
the feeble ossification and toothlessness of the vomer in
the latter, loses its validity in these livl)rids'. Conse-
quently, in elucidating the relations of the forms to each
other, here as in the ])receding family, we have to
reckon with hybridism as an important factor in the
modifications of the types. To all appearances the ge-
nus has its original home in the American seas, wiiere
Salmon and Charr still occur in masses almost incon-
ceivable to the European.

From tlie preceding family we have li-ai'iit tliat
cross-l)ree(ling ma\' take place not only between differ-
ent species, but also between different genera. Hybri-
dism alone cannot, therefore, prevent the distinguishing
of the species. lUit tiie variabi]it\- of form \vithin the
genus S(iI))>o has liitherto I'endcred it impossible to de-
fine with certainty the luimerous sjiecies that have been
adopted; and we doubt wliether the observer who con-
sistently requires trustworth\- and distinct characters can
recognise more than three luiropean species of the ge-
nus: the Salmon, the Huch, and the Ciiarr. As yet,
however, to the Ijest of our kiKjwJedge, onh' Nilssox
and SuNDEVALL — the latter in the titles of the figures
in PI. 58 and 59 in the former edition of "Scandinavian
Fishes" — have ventured to advance this simple ojiinion.
Still, both from a scientific and an economical point
of \iew, it is of importance to know the conditions that
involve the said inconstancy; and to this end it has
Ijeen necessarA' to denote by special names the moi'e
or less constant forms that appear under different cir-
cumstances and in different localities. As regards the
Salmon, general credence has been given in recent times
to the opinion first advanced by Lilljebokg and after-
wards by Wii>F,(;r,EX, namel'S" that we can distinguish
between txvo "species", The Trout'' (Sdhi/n fnifta, Sw.
ffrdhi.reii) and the Sahnon' (iS'. salar, Sw. Iilditkhi.reii).
The same ajijilies in essential points to tlie Scandinavian
Charr, among which we can generally distinguish with
ease Uvo forms, the Northern Charr {Sdlnio alpinus, Sw.
Lap2)Jands-r6clingen) and the Sa^Uiling (.S'. Hah-eVtnus,
Sw. Yettcnis-rod'nHje)!). ( )f the Fluch, which, at least
U]) to the present, cannot be claimed for the Scandina-
vian fiuna, there are also two forms, the Siberian Ilncli
(Salmo j!Hriatili.s) and the Danube Huch {S. Imclio).

The Scandinavian forms of the genus Salmo max
in general lie distinguished most readih' in the fallow-
ing manner:

A: Xumbcr of scales in a longitudiual row
above the anal (in, for an extent of ' ,„
of the length of the body, at least 23
(23—30). Salmo iimbla.
a; Distance between the ventral iins and

the tip of tbe snout more tlian lialf

the length of tbe body Salmo ^alcelums.

" Smitt, Bikstmiseets Salmoiiider, Vc-t.-AUnd. Handl., Bd. 21, No. 8, ]>. 14;!.
'' Cf., however, Smitt, 1. c, t:d). mctr. V and VI, Nos. 371, 38C and 4.'i8.
' Cf. Day, Britisli and Irish .Sahnoniihr. p|.. '201 and 270, ng. 52, 2 ,ind 2a
" D.\y, British and Irinh Salmonida; )i. 14:!.
' D.«-, ibid., p. 51.

831

b: Distance between the ventrul iins and
tlie tip of the snout less than half the

length of the body Sahno aljiiim^-.

B: Number of scales in a longitudinal row

above the anal (in, for an extent of ' ,o

of till' length of the body, as a rule at

most 1!) (15—19, exceptionally 13 or 21).

Saliiio salar.

a: Least dejith of the tail less than 27 %
of the preabdominal length (the di-
stance between the first rays of the
pectoral and ventral fins) Salmo salar.

h: Least depth of the tail more than 27

% of the preabdominal length Saluio trnlta.

Tlu' ii;itiir;il rehition lietweeii these forms asserts
itself hotli in tiieir cliiiiiges of growth and their external
differences of sex. These differences are most distinctly
reflected in tlu' characters here given for tlie said forms.

AuTEDi, the father of modern ichthyology, on whose
opinions and method Linx.i-;us, his contemporary and
friend, in great part hased Iiis system, was born in An-
germanland. As a native of Northern Sweden, he was
uudoul)tedly well acquainted with the opinions that pre-
vailed at his time in this part of the country, where
the Salmon forius are most abundant, as to the diffe-
rences between them and as to their nomenclature.
Where he ajjplies to the Swedish Salmon forms their
current Swedish names, we have in the latter, beyond
doubt, the best possible clue to a correct under-
standing of his scientific views on this head.

In Aktedi's Genera Pisciiim we find the following
Salmons enumerated.

1 ; Salmo rostro ultra inferiorem maxillam ssepe prominente, in Swe-
dish, Lax and Blankla.r.

2: Salmo maculis ciiiereis, caudit extreme sequali, in Swedish,
, Gralnx.

3: Salmo Intus; maculis rubris nigrisque. cauda a>r|nali, in Swedisli,
Laxoring^ Boriing etc.

4: Salmo Cauda bifurca; maculis solum nigris, sulcu longiUidinali in
ventre = Salmo lacustiis, auctt., from the Lakes of Geneva and
Garda.

5: Salmo maxilla inferiore paullo longiore, maculis rubris, in Swe-
dish, Forell, Slenbit, Rofisk, Backro etc.

6: Salmo oblongns duabus dentium lineis in palato. maculis tan-
tummodo nigris ^ the Hacli of the Danube.

7: Salmo pede minor, quinque dentium ordiuibus in palato = a con-
fusion, originating with Wili.ughby, of Salmo carpio. auctt., from
Lake Garda, with the Gilt Chan; an English form.

8: Salmo vix pedalis; pinnis ventris rubris, maxilla inferiore paullo
longiore = Lapplands-Rodingen.

9: Salmo lineis lateralibus sursum recurvis, cauda bifurca = Salmo
umbla, auctt., from the Lake of Geneva.
10: Salmo jiedalis; maxilla superiore longiore = Salmo salvelinus,
auctt., from the Lake of Geneva.

In Aktedi's Si/iiomjmia Nonimmn Fisciitm the Sal-
mons are given in the following order:

1 ^ 1 in Genera Piscium

2 = 2,

3 = ."j „ „ „ , =: Trutta, auctt.

4 == 7 „ „ „

5 = 3 „ „ „

6: Salmo dorso fulvo: maculis luteis, cauda bifurcata = <S'a/mo sal-
marhms, auctt., from Trent (the Tyrol)

7 = 0 in Genera Piscium

8 = 6 „

9 = 4 „ „ „

10 = 8 „ „ „ . here with the Swedish names of liotele

and R.nling.

11 = io„

12, Salmo minor, vulgari (1) similis.

In the Descriptiones Specientrn I'iscium, ijkos rii-os
pr(vsertim disseeult et examinarit etc., from which title, as
well as from Lixx.kus's preface, it appears that Artedi
there included all the species which he had personally been
able to examine, we find only five sjjecies of the genus:

1 =^ 1 in Genera Piscinm.

2=12 in Sijnonymia Nominnm Piscium, is here explained as a young
Salmon, though often more than 12 inches (i. e. about 30 cm.)
long, bearing the name of Laxunge at Elfkarleby, and differing
from the Blanhlax only in tlie comparatively larger and blunter
head, the denser black spots, and the slight bifurcation of tlie
caudal fin.

3 ^ 3 in Genera Piscium.

^^'llcn LiNNyEUs framed on this foundation his

scheme of the Swedish Salmons, he adopted in his

Fauna Suecica (1746) the following:

Sp. 300 = No. 1 in Art., Gen. Piscium.

„ 307 = ., 2 „ „ „ „ , with the remark: ''It oc-

curs in company with tlie preceding form, and I should
scarcely consider it to be speciiically distinct therefrom".

,, 308 = No. 3 in Art., Gen. Pise, according to the synonymy, but
with a new diagnosis: Salmo maculis nigris brunneo cin-
ctis: pinna pectorali punctis sex, and with the Swedish
name of Laxiiring altered to Orlax.

,, 309 = No. 5 in Art., Gen. Pine, but with tlie word paullo
omitted from the diagnosis, and with tlie addition of tlie
Swedish name of Laxoring.

„ 310 = No. 8 in Art.. Gen. Pise.

Now GisLEK tells us in a series of papers (in the
Transactions of the Swedish Academy of Science for
17.51 and 1752) which are well worth reading even at
the present day, that the BlatiMa.t was called Grdla.v in
Norrland, "when it had spent itself in the rivers and had
become quite lean and gray, with a long hook at the
tip of the lower jaw, especially in the males, after the
flesh had wasted away", (tisleu, it is true, recognised
only three Norrland species, namely

1 Spec. Lax,

2 ,, Laxorhif),

3 ,, Stoihit etc.

105

83-2

SCANDINAVIAN KISHES.

But as varieties of Laxoring he adopted 1) from Lin-
N^KUS's Fauna Spec. 807, which he calls Laxoring, Lax-
orkcl, Fjml-lax, or Eriksmuss-lax, and Spec. 308, which
he calls Jioftiiiq, Sikmatk, Tajmeri, or iJidjor, and 2)
from Artedi the above-mentioned No. M in Geii. Pise,
which he calls Tvdrspol, and No. 12 in Syn. Norn. Fisc.
which he calls Laxtinge, Smdiax, or Padrifvare. Gis-
ler's third species, Sfndut etc., is indeed ecpiivalent,
according to his synonymy, to \o. ."i in Aktedi, (tCH.
Pise. : lint all tliat he says of it is that it "has its con-
stant haunts in sninll streams, tarns, and lakes, and is
quite rare furtlier down the country in the gi'eat cas-
cades. Deposits tiie roe in small streams at the middle
of Septeml)er. In clear water with a stony or sandy
bottom its colour is light, but on a bottom of ooze or
nuid ([uite blackish"'. It is not iinproba])le that Gisler
meant the Charr, which was of less interest to him and
l)erhaps, in consecjuence, less known, for lioth the Swe-
dish name of Boding and the Lapp Maud (according
to LinnyEus) might easily be confounded with Bofisk.
If this be the case, we find in (iIslek the opinion now
held l)y most ichthyologists, that within the Scandina-
vian fauna there are only three species of the genus
Salmo, namely the Lax (Salmon), (hiiig (Trout), and
Boding (Charr).

This o]_)inion was subsequently advanced first by
LiLLJEBOEG in (Jfvers. Vet.-Akad. Forhandlingar for the
year 1849, where he points out that "the characters
which divide Sidmo sahnuhis and Salmo fario have much
in conunon with those which distinguish Salmo salar
and Sahno erinx. That S. sahnidits is tiie young of
the Blanklax (S. S(dar), and S. fario that of the Okia
or aS*. eriox, is therefore almost unquestionable, especially
as they occur in the same waters, and connecting links
between them are known". A more explicit statement
of this opinion was Widegken's principal object in
his "Bidrag fill kdnnedomen om Sveriges Sahnonider"
(Ofrers. Vd.-Akad. Fdrh. 18fi3).

But another, still more radical reduction uf tiie
species had been proposed, conditionally so to s])eak,
by NiLSsoN in Of vers. Vet.-Akad. Fdrh. for 1848.
"Under such circumstances, and seeing tiiat all the cha-
racters prove variable in so liigh a degree, we are
almost tempted to ask whether there are here more than
two species of Salmons: Trutta and Sahelinus; or the
very two which I have designated in my Frodromus as
the representatives of distinct groups". Nevertheless he
retains tiie Blanklax, Grdlax, Laxdring, and two Charr

forms as "the most differentiated" or "least intercom-
municating" species. In his Skandinavisk Fauna he
remarks, however (p. 395), that the (irdlax "is most
probably nothing more than an old outgrown form of
Salmo Trutta m' Odd' : and we may tlius trace even
in Nilsson's writings the opinion "that in the division
of tlie true Salmons we have only two species certainly
distinct from each other" (Lilej.). While Niessun, how-
ever, in his last-mentioned work, di\ided tlie Trouts
(Oringarne), including the (iralax. into six (conditio-
nally seven) species, Sundevall adopted the above opi-
nion, that the true Salmons of Scandinavia belong to
one single species. This appears from the titles given
by him to the figures in PI. 58 and 59 in the first
edition of "Scandinavian Fishes". The male Salmon
represented in I'l. 58 is evidently a Blanklax, probably
from Norrko|)ing; fig. a in PI. 59 is a Laxdring (Bdr-
ting) from tiie Ljusne Elf, and fig. h in the same plate
a Grdlax from Lake Wetter; yet all three bear the
specific name of S(dar.

All that different views as to sj)ecific determination
has been able to accomplish, has thus been devoted to
the elucidation of the Scandinavian Salmon forms. But
here as elsewhere the point seems to be, not so much
the establishment of a certain number of species, as the
explanation of the natural relationship between the
forms selected as distinct types. Before these forms
can rank as distinct directions of development, it is ot
course necessary to show that the characters employed
do not coincide with those Avliich mark the common
variations of the whole genus undei' the infiuence ot
different developmental, sexual, and other circumstances.?

We begin with the investigation of these circum-
stances in the true Salmons, assuming at first the di-
stinction between Salmon and Trout, as separate spe-
cies, to be true.

In order to find an expression for those common
variations of the Salmons which depend on their growth
(their developmental circumstances), we have divided
our Scandinavian material, 31(3 specimens, into five
groups, arranged accoi'ding to age (the length of the
body). These five groups represent different stages of
development which are in general well defined both by
form and coloration, though the rule is often infringed
owing to a cause long known, especially as a result of
Widegren's observatiims, namely the fact that the de-
velopment is not uniform, one or other of the stages
being often persistent in an individual sjiecimen longer

833

than ill its IV-llijws (if tlu' saiiii' ;ii;c. In ;i\(.'r;i;ii' enl-
culatiiJiis, liowever, sucii imlixidiial c'xcf|iti(iiis may he
regarded as eliininated, and iUv said classification is
observed, generally speaking, cxcn in ])oi)uIar ])hras('0-
logy, the first groiqi containing the La.rijiif/el, Salnion-
fry (lengtli under 7U mm.), the second groiij) the Sfi.r-

70 mm.

30

rar, I'arr (length

the third irroui) the Fo-

rcller or Sfriihit (length ^ .,'.', j, tlie fourth group

the OriiHiar or Borfii/ri lenii'tli ^ ~.l,. ' , the fiftli

■ \ ' < 4o0 ,, /

group tile full-grown Ld.rar or Salmon (length > 4oO
mm.). Tiie average percentages calculated as expres-
sions of the different relations of form in these groups,
lead us to very singular results". Out of 59 distinct
relations of form 41 follow a fixed course in their
changes of growth, i. e. they either decrease with in-

er(^ising age (as for exami>le the a\erage length of the
iiead in propdrtion to tiiat of tiie l)ody), or increase
with age (as for example tiie average postabdominal
length in ])roiiortion to the length of the l)ody).

In order to ol)tain an exjiression tor tliose common
variations of the Salmons whicli are due to external
sexual differences, we iia\'e cumpared 17 males of the
different stages of growth with 1 7 females of about the
same size as the males and with the sexual organs about
e(|uall\- ri])e. The result is that 111 of tiie said 11 changes
of growth run in the same direction as the sexual
difl'erence lietween male and female, i. e. a change of
growth that shows decreasing percentages with increas-
ing ;ige answers to a sexual difference witii greater
percentages in the males than in the females, and via;
rrrsd. The two examples cited above appear in the
following percentages:

A V [• r !L L- .■

I'n

I'iirr

Fort!l.

"'■'"•J-

L,,.,:

0-^

I.euitth of llu- hralv cxpR-sscil in milliiiii'tr

hc-ad in ", of tlic- Icnslli <

Po.^lnb.lomiii.il length

f Ihc budv

48

108

179

318

59,^)

218

218

•25.0

16.9

23..'i

I'.I.T

I 22.. 1

19.7

21.9
2U.4

20,9

21.2

23.4
19.C

21.8
20.9

The jiarallelism between the numerical alterations
1) in the first five columns and '2) in tlie last two
columns, may evidently be expressed as follows: the
j'ounger Salmon are to the older as the males to the
females.

If we now examine the difference of form between
tiie two Scandinavian Salmon species that have received

most general recognition, Sahim tiiitta and iV. sahir we
arri\e at exactly the same result: the difference between
the averages for the said characters runs from the Gra-
la.r (S. fnitfa) to the Bhiriklax (S. salrir) in the same
direction as the a.\'erages for the changes of growth and
also for the external sexual differences. Some of the most
imp(n-tant of these characters may here be tal)ulated.

Average Fry. Parr. ' forell. Oring. Lax. o' ?

Length of the Ijudv expressed in millimelres • """" '"'""

1 Salmo mlnr

head in % of the length of the body Salmo truUa

,, , - „ ,, „ .. , Salmo salar

Postabdominal length „ „ ,, ,, „ „ „ „ Salmo trutta

47 lUb
.'iO 109

isii
161

313
403

6091 1 "^^

218

25.2
24. n
16.5
17.7
9.8

8.1

9.6
8.4
11.4

8.8

36..'i
30.4

23..'i
23.5

19.8
19.5
9.2

8.0
9.1
8.0
9.0
7.1
32.4
27.8

226
22.2

19.7

19.5

9.1
7.6
9.4

8.2

8.0

6.7

32.7

28.1

22.0
20.1
20.3

21.3

9.0
7.0

8.7

7.1

5.5
30. n
23.0

22.0)
20.21
21.21
21.1 1

8.G1

7.0 (

8.7.
6.9l

7.71
5.8 1
30.1]
23.2 1

23.4

19.6

9.C

8.7
8.1

;w.o

21.8

20.9

8.6

8.1

7.4

29.4

Length of the niaxillaries „ ., ,, ,. ,. ,, ,, „ Salmo trutta

„ .. .. .. „ „ „ ,. ,. „ ,. „ Salmo solar

, ,. ,, .. „ ., „ „ „ Salmo salar

Length of the middle eaudal rays ,, „ „ ,. ., ,. ,, ,, Salmo trutta
), ,' „ .. „ „ „ „ ,. ,, ,. .. .. .. Salmo salar

Leost depth of tlie tail ,, „ ,, .. preabdominal length Salmo trutta

„ ,. „ „ „ ,, ,, „ „ ,, „ Salmo salar

" As we cannot give here all Ihe particulars of nur investigations, we refer tlie reader to our Kritish Fortechiimj 0/ver de >' Riks
mu$eum befinlliga Salmonidei; Vet.-Akad. Handl., Bd. 21, No. 8.

834

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

Many other such relations iniglit here l)e cited to
prove the statement that ilie rclutlmi between Salmo
trutta and Sahno salar is the same as that between young
Salmon and old and between the males and the females.
'J'o judge by all analogous cases there must be some
causal connexion between the dift'erence of species, the
difference of age, and the difference of sex.

We find, however, among the changes of age cer-
tain peculiarities which indicate that another factor has

also asserted its influence in the differentiation of the
species. We see something of the kind even among
the above averages, for example in the average least
depth of the tail: — a comparatively large gap appears
in the numerical series, usuallv after the ForcU stage,
and this gap is greatest in Sahno salar. The most
striking example, however, is perhaps the relation be-
tween the height of the anal tin (the length of its
longest ray) and the length of the body:

Average Fry.

Purr. Forell. Oring.

Lax.

Length i,f IliL buJ.\ i-xi>nsst.l in millimetres Siilmo tnuta

., ,. .. .. ., Salmo snliir

Height, of the imal tin in % of the length of the body Snlmo trutta

„ „ „ „ ., „ ., „ ., „ „ „ Sahno salar

50 109 161 1 403 ; 609

12.9

1.3.2 13.1 12.1

11.8 11.2 8.7

11.5

9.0

Now it is a well-known rule that after the Forell
stage the Salmons change their habitual place of abode.
The Gralax (Salmo trutta) leaves the brooks for meres
and large lakes, sometimes directly for the sea; but the
Blanklax {S. salar) must necessarily repair at this pe-
I'iod to the sea, else its development is arrested, and it
persistently retains a greater or less similarity to the
Gralax. Thus the wide gap in the averages is probably
connected in some way with an alteration in the abode
and habits of the Salmons. Here we have assumably a
third factor in the differentiation of the species.

A fourth cause of difference in form undoubt-
edly lies, here as among the preceding family, in hy-
bridism, of which we have just given instances.

The relation of the Charrs to the Salmons leads
us in most characters to the conclusion that the former
should be regarded as more advanced stages of deve-
lopment of the Salmon type. To exemplify this, we
shall only refer the reader to the above-mentioned
characters, which afford the following averages:

,S16 Salmon. 108 Charr.

Length of the boily exjiressed in luilliiuelres

., ., head in % of the length of the body

Postabdominal length „ „ „ ,, „ „ „ „

Length of the maxillaries ,, ,, ,, ,, ., ., „ ,,

Least depth of the tail • „ „ „ „ ,, „ „ ,,

Length of the middle eaudal rays „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Height of the anal Hn „ „ „ „ „ ,, ., „

Least depth of the tail „ ,, „ ,, preabdominal length

279

■.v.a

22.5

21..^

19.9

20.9

8.S

8.5

8.8

7.S

7.9

6.9

12.3

10.5

;!0.7

24.9

In every case whei'e the jiercentage decreases dur-
ing growth in the Salmons, it is less in the Charrs,
and vice versa. This applies also to an internal cha-
racter which usually possesses great validity, the num-
ber of the gill-rakers. In the outer row on the front
of the first branchial arch Salmo trutta has on an
average 14-10, Stdmo stdar 17 — 20, Salimi unilila
•23 or 24.

Hence it is clear that, in the great majority ot
cases, the Blanklax must come nearer the Charrs; but
that the latter have not been developed directly from
the former, appears from other relations, in which they
stand nearer the Gralax. One of these relations is
afforded by the character which, to the best of our
knowledge, gives the only tenable distinction between
the Salmons and the Charrs, namely the size of the

835

scales, ex])res.st'd in tlicir nuinlicr. Tlu' scales are gene-
rally lai'ger in Sulmo siiUir tlian in .V. triilld, hnt larger
even in the lattci' llian in .V. iimhlii. In a longitudinal
vow extending along '/,,, of tlic lengtii of tiie l)ody, we
find 1) on the anterior part of the be]l_y above the la-
teral line in S. saliir on an average 18 scales, in iS'.
tnittd 18 — 21. and in S. taiihla :W, 2) on the tail in
iV. .sY(/((/' 1") or 1(), in .v. fridta I(! or 17, in S. iniiOla
20. Thus the Charrs ha\e proltahh' been developed
from a I'ace nearer to the Grnlax than to the Blankla.v;
but the development has followed the same course and
produced the same results in the differentiation of form.

The natural relation between the Charrs is indeed
more complex, but all the more instructive. In Scan-
dinavia wc have two forms, the Northern (_'harr (Salmo
alpiiiKs) and tlie Sa'lbling (S. salrvliinist), whose right to
a specitie i'aid< is almost as certain as tlie difference
between the Grahi.r and the BlnnkJa.r, and which occupy
the same developmental relation to each other, S. alpi-
)ii(S representing the younger stages of growth, S. -ml-
vclinKfi the older ones. Besides these forms however
— in order to gain a correct understanding of the re-
lation between them — we mu.st take into consideration
a third form which strictly belongs to Greenland ;uid
the northern regions of North America, and for which
we may employ the specific name given it by Fabhi-
ciirs", Sabiio stagnaJis''.

On closer examination of these three Charr forms,
we see that in many respects' the averages run in an
uninterrupted series from alpinus through stagnalis to
salreliiiKS, i. e. alpintis represents the youngest stages,
salveJiniis the oldest. Here, for the sake of brevity,
we can only give one example.

The least depth of the tail in proportion to the
length of the head diminishes as a rule in the Charrs
with increasing age. In order more carefully to test
the particulars of this relation and others, I have di-
vided the material possessed by the Royal Museum
into six groups according to age. As we have no cor-
responding terms in popular phraseology, I have denoted
these groups by Roman numbers. The first group (I)
contains the specimens under 228 mm. in length.
Among all these specimens (of all forms and interme-
diate forms) the average length of the body is 18S mm.

The second group (II) contains tlie Chai-r l)etween 228
and about ;555 mm. long. The average length of body
in this group is ?>(.)?> mm. In the tliird group (III)
the maximum length of \hh\\ is about ^.')!S mm. and
the average length .387 mm. In the fourth group (I\')
these measurements are respectively about ").38 nnn.
and 494 mm. Tiic fifth group (\') contains otd\' three
specimens, all about (i.')() mm. long. Tlie sixth group
(VT) consists of (jnly one specimen, a male from Spitz-
bergen, measuring 7.57 mm.

The alterations caused 1>\' growth in the relation
between the least depth of the tail and the length ot
the head, are most regular in our s})ecimens of stag-
tialis, being in this form:

Av.r.iHi- in

u.

III.

IV

V

(f

34.0

.-!a.9
;i;!c,

;')0.4

9

32.6

The averages in the second group (II) are:

aljjtnus. I staynalis. salvtUnus.

I 37.1

;34.o
:35.9

"J! I 4
2i).9

The form scries, expressed in averages for all our
specimens, is as follows:

Avira-i-

alinnus.

stagnalis.

salvelinus.

Least depth «t' the tail in % nf the length
ot the head

36.7

33.2

29.2

All these averages follow a regular course, con-
stantly decreasing. Such is the case where the form
series has retained its original type, and in the rela-
tions where the males evidently represent the highest
.stage of development. In several relations, however,
the females have a special representative in stagnalis,
and the original form series has thus been modified
in a singular manner. We have an example of this
in the proportion Ijetween the length (jf the ma.xillaries

" Fauna Groenlandica, p. 175.

^ In order to simplify the qneslioii, we here umil some intermediate forms, the significance of which wc may disreganl for the
time heing.

' In the work quoted above (Rilcunus. Salmon.) I have adduced 18 such points.

s;^,(;

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISIIES.

and lliat oi' tliu bodv. The irt'iieral t'onn series in this
relation is the foUowini::

Avi-rage alpinus.

stagnalis. salvelinus.

Length of thi- in;ixillnrii-s iu ',■:, uf that i.f

the hody 7.9

7.6 9.8

AveraKc dist

the tip c

le

uce of the ventr
r the snout iu ?
igth of the hod.\

!.l fins from
of the

1

11

111

iv

V,

Salmo siilve
Salmo stagi
Salmo al/iin

inm

i"

51.7
51.4

47.5
4G.1

51.4
51. B

48.7
46.1
48.2
47.2

52.G

51.9

49.1
47.9
4S.1
47.7

54.3

52.2
50.8
49.4

47.0

alU

{9
K

u

Here tiie series is irre.u'ular: idphiits occupies an \ Tiie ciianges uf growth liere follow a regular

intermediate place in the averages, stfif/tiaUs having a course with increasing averages, at least in the females
lower average, and salrcJiiiKS the highest of all. We i of scdvdintts and alpinus and in the males of stag-
arrive at the same result, if we examine the several ' nnJis. Nearly all the males have greater averages than
stages of growth; e. g. the third (III): females of the same form and age. The form series,

expressed in averages for all our specimens, is as

follows:

.\vera<!C

stngnalis.

alpinus.

salvelmus.

Length o
of the

■ the
hody.

™asill,.ries

in % of that

l.S
7.3

9.9
8.1

9.9
9.6

Ranged in this manner the form series ascends
with fair regularity, at least in the females, towards
salvdiiiKs: and the changes ot growth are also in di-
rect proportion to age. Thus, for example, we find

The average length
% of that of

of the niaxillari
the body iu

sin

I.

11.

III.

IV.

V.

stttijudits .

■1^

7.9
7.3

(1.9

8.8
7.6

7.8
7.3
9.9

8.1

8.6
7.8

8.5

In this relation, as in many others — we will
not give more examples here ~ the influence of a
marked sexual difference on the development of form
has ranged siar/nalis, with the female characters, on
one side of alpinus, and salrcli/ius, Avitli the male cha-
racters, on tiie other. If al]iiiius were omitted from
the comparison, or if we were ignorant of its existence,
the relation between salreliints and stai/nalis would
seem almost exactly similar to that between frufta
and salar.

The character, derived from the situation of the
ventral flns, which as a rule — not entirely fi-ee from
exceptions — separates alpinus from salrcliniis, is mere-
ly an expression of the extremes in an evolution of
form still proceeding. Its signification appears without
difficulty from the following table of averages:

Average j alpinus. siagnalis.

salvelmus.

Distauee of the ventral tins from the lip of

the snout in f» of the lensth of the body 47.4

48.5

52.0

Not only the form f>f the Salmonrs, but also their
manner of life indicates their common descent. It
seems most probable that the Salmons Avere originally
marine fishes of an arctic or subarctic (boreal) region,
that for procreative purposes they made their Avay
into arms of the sea and the mouths of rivers, and
that by a stronger and stronger development of this
rovins: disposition they were transformed to fresh-water
fislies for a great part of their life, or finally changed
their abodes for all time. Among the Scandinavian
Salmons the Blaukla.r (Sabno .'<ctlar) represents the most
migratory type, the Sa?lbling (iS'. salrclinu.'<) is most
completely a fresh-water fish. As there is nothing in
the form characters to indicate an evolution of true
Salmon from ('h;u-r, but everything seems to favour
the converse opinion, it is most natural to assume that
the primitive forms were marine fishes.

During their life in fresh Avater the Salmons ac-
quire a coloration quite different from their sea dress:
the epidermis becomes tumid, conceals the scales in a
greater or less degree, and assumes a darker colour,
gray, grayish or greenish brown, partly black and red
or yellowish, developing at the same time spots of black
and red. But this coloration appears, in general cases,
only as the generative organs approach maturity; and
at times the Salmons remain long enough in fresh
water before these organs are fully ripe for spawning.

837

In parent rivers, such as the liliine" mikI Loire'', at least
some Salmon have lieen ohserveil to pass a wlioie year
in fresh water under these cireumstanees. Neither the
spawning dress nor any of the otiier external cliaracters
of sex — the most remarl<al)i(' of them licinfi: a carti-
lagiiions projeetion, turned upwards and recurved, which
npi)ears at the point of the lower jaw in tiie males
reach- to spawn, and tits into a ea\ity in tiic upper
jaw — is developed in sucli specimens, 'liie Salmon
whicii oliservers have traced in tiiis condition tor two
spawning-seasons are consequently incapable of spawn-
ing until two, or perhaps three years have intervened.
In Sweden, to the best of our knowledge, no direct
observations on tiiis Jiead iiave been recorded; but in
the Dai EIF, especially at ]-dfl<arlel)y, siiecimens called
Oklor, with bright {blank) dress and undeveloped gene-
rative organs, have long been known. These specimens
arc bright (irala.r, resembling in coloration tiie Itlai/k-
la.r, and in other parts of Xorrland, where they are
also found in tiie Gulf of Bothnia, they bear the names
of Burthifi and Tajmcn. In Lake Wetter the)- are re-
jjresented b}' the so-called SUfrerUtx. From Lake We-
ner Widegkex'' records the occurrence of "adult indi-
viduals of Salmo salar which in autumn had neither
matured roe nor ripe milt". Thus we possess trust-
worthy evidence from se\eral ]iarts of Sweden as well,
to the effect that tlie Salmons do not invariably spawn
every year, even if thev remain in fresli water the
whole time. VVidegrex remarks the same circumstance''
in the reproductive operations of the Charrs.

Quite natural is the consequence tiiat the Salmons
require a long time to recover the losses which their
frame has suffered in propagating their kind. These
losses are so great that maiiv, perhaps most, of the
older specimens, especially the males, die of exhaustion.
All their fat and the greater portion of their flesh have
been consumed, partly as a source of nourishment dur-
ing the period when the fish entirely abstains from

Rrivscil lias shown* how tiie great lateral muscles of
tile bodv ami the (h-nnai niusch's undergo a fatt\- de-
generation and yield the greater part of their volume
to develop tlie ovaries; and a comj)arison (fig. 209)
between the conditions of the intestinal canal of a
male salmon before and after the spawning, is a strik-
ing illustration of the great changes which take place
in the body, while the spawning-dress is in course of
development.

Fig. 209. Intestinal canal and testes of a Salmo salar before (a)
and after (b) tlie latter liave swollen to maturity. After Bdckland.
Both figures red\iced. a from a clean run fish weighing 3.5 lbs. and
taken in the Avon on the 14th of March, 1871; b from an unclean
(breeding) Salmon weighing 13 lbs. and taken on the 19th of Janu-
ary, 1871. ce, oesophagus; !, intestine; p, pyloric appendages; m,
testes. In a both the pyloric appendages and the intestine are em-
bedded in fat, and the testes thin; in b the testes are distended, and
both the pyloric appendages and the intestine are without adipose layers.

Statements have been made, it is true, which appa-
rently show that in the sea, at least under favourable
circumstances, Salmon may gain in strengtli and fatness
with astonishing rapiidity. From experiments made in
1855 at Storraonttield (a Salmon-breeding establishment
on the Tay in Scotland) — as well as from still earlier

food, jiartlv in the ripening of the sexual organs. In ' experiments (1795') in the River Berridale (Caithness)
Enghmd these tish are known as KcUs, on the River | — it was concluded that Salmon-fry which left the
Nissa in Hahand they are called pej.sor. Mieschei:- | Tay at the end of May, weighing at most 57 grammes,

" See MiESCHER-RfESCH, Stati.-itische u/ul binloyische Bcitrdge :ur Kentniss com Leben de/! Rheinlachses im Sii.isicnssci; Intern. I-"ischerei-
Ausstellung in Berlin 1880: Catal. Schweiz, p. 170.

* See KOnstler, Becli. s. la reproduction du Saumon de la Dordogne, Congr. Intern, de Zoologie, Paris 1889, Compte-Rendu des
Seances, p. 83.

•■ nfvers. Vet.-Akad. Fiirh. ISIU, p. 294.

<' ibid., p. 295.

' ]. c. pp. 186 etc.

•' Dav, British and Irish ■Sahuonida, p. 93.

888

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

i-eturned in the Ix^-giiiniiig of July, about six weeks
after theii- departure, having attained in the sea a weight
of 1',, kilo; and at the end of -luly others caine back
which had grown to a weight of nearly 4^/^ kilo".
These expei'iinents, liowever. wei'e not carried out with
sufficient precautions tcj ren(k'r the results convincing''.
The growth of older S.alnion is better known, and,
though not so rapid, is still considerable. In 1859 the
Duke of Athol marked three Salmon, weighing respec-
tively lU, 11",, and 12'/, lbs. (4' ,— 5% kilo), then
on their way to the sea, and took them again six months
afterwards, as they Avere returning to fresh ^\•ater, \vhen
their weights were respectivclv 17, 18, and 19 lbs.
(7^/j — 8" 3 kilo.)'. Even if these Salmon could haxe
attained a In-eeding condition the same year, we have
other observations and circumstances which indicate that,
as a rule, their stay in the sea is longer. In February
and March Sckope marked several Kelts, weighing 4
lbs., from the River Shin in Sutlierland. and on taking
them again in June and .Tuly of the following year,
found them to weigh 9 — 14 lbs.' The Salmon which
descend into the Gulf of P>othnia from the rivers of
Xorrland and Finland, r(j\e from the said gulf down
to the south of the Baltic. As Gisler observed in
17.52'', as Stecksen remarked a century later^ and as
Malmgren quite recently ascertained', in the i-ivers of
Norrland and Finland Salmon are often caught which
iuive hooks in the jaws or stomach that they have torn
loose from long-lines in the south of the Baltic, even
on the Pomeranian coast. Journeys of such length pre-
sumably demand too long a time for a Salmon to de-
.scend early in spring into the lialtic, exhausted by the
exertions of the spawning, and to return the same year,
even at so late a season as June— August, and ascend
one of the rivers in breeding condition. To this we
should add that in the south of the Baltic line-tishing
for Salmon is practised chiefly, if not exclusivelj', in
autumn and winter, so that we have all reason to be-
lieve that these Salmon nuist have wintered in the
south. It is also cjuite jiossible that a sojourn in the

brackish water of the Gulf of Botiuiia — as in the fresh
water of Lake Wener — can replace the year's stay in
fresh -water jjrevious to the spa^vning, required by the
so-called Winter Salmon of the Rhine. This is all the
more ])i'obable now that ]\Ir. Andeusson's experiments
ha\e shown (see Lonnbeko, Bih. Vet.-Akad. Handl.,
Bd. 18 (1892), Afd. IV, No. 2, p. 10) that the gene-
rative organs can ripen, even if the tish be detained
in the Gulf of Bothnia while its fellows are preparing
to spawn in the rivers.

The JilanMaxur thus pass the greater part of their
marine life and, at least in certain cases, a considerable
])ortion of their life in fresh water, without the deve-
lopment necessary for breeding and without the cha-
racters that mark their spawning-dress. This is also
true of the Gidlaxar, with the single exception that,
for the most part, the}' live between the spawning pe-
riods in lakes. Yet it is no very simple task to ex-
plain all the names which these iishes have received
in different dresses and at different stages of sexual
maturity.

SiEBOLi) advanced the opinion'' that the "Silver
Salmon" {SehwehforeUe, MaiforeUe) which are found in
the alpine regions of Central Europe, are persistently
sterile Grdlaxar (GnmdforeUe, LachsforeUe); and that
such individuals do occur, is also maintained by Fatio
in Switzerland. But Widegren showed that the cha-
racters of the former are inconstant, being more and
more approximated to the GraJax type as their sexual
organs are developed, and that they probably do attain
maturity, "though* several years may possibly elapse
before a sterile individual liecomes fertile and acquires
the characters typical of the generative power." On
closer examination of this so-called sterility, however,
we find' that it is attended with characters which are
a combination of />7««/.7ff.r and 6'ra/fl.i' characters — the
alleged difference between "fertile" and "sterile" Grd-
laxar is really the same as that between Grdlaxar and
Blanklaxar — and the same combination of characters
occurs, as is natural, in hybrids between Salmo salar

" Brown, The Natural History of the Habiion etc., pp. 49 and 62.
* RnssEL, The Salmon, p. 54.
' Day, 1. c, p. 95.
'' Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1752, p. 100.
■■ In NiLssoN, Skand. Fii., Fisk-., p. 381.

^ BoliuslSnsk Fiskeritidskrifl, H. 1 — .3, p. 50. In the Great Belt Fiedler (Nordisk Aarsskrift for Fiskeri, 1884. p. 24) found a
similar brass hook in the month of a Salmon caught in April south of Oorsoer.
■' iSiisswasserfiiiche Mitteleuropas, p. 301.
'' Of vers. Vet.-Akad. Ffirh. 1864, p. 292.
' Smitt, Riksm. Salmon, 1. c., pp. 83 etc.

SALMONS AND CIIAUUS.

839

and N. tnittd. Now hyliridisiu duos not iic'ci'ssaril)- in-
volve sterility; and \\itli regard to the Silver Salmon
and similar forms, it may well he difficult to determine
in each case whetliei- it is an altered manner of life —
a longer stay in the sea or large lakes — or h\l)ridisiii
that has brought about the said ciianges of form. But
it appears to be demonstrated that these changes attend
either or l)oth of the above conditions.

In Sweden and, generally speaking, in all temperate
countries, the Cliarrs are true fresh-water tishes; but
such is not the case in the arctic parts of their geo-
graphical range. There the\' live like the Salmon; Es-
mark" and Hethng'' found them in the Arctic Ocean
off Nor^vegian Fiiuimark, and off Spitzbergen they are
the favourite food of the Beluga {Iklphmapterus lettcas),
which follows them to the head of the gulfs and bays.
Ill the sea thej- wear the colours of Silver Salmon,
and do not ac(|uire their ])i'oper Oharr drQSS before
entering the rivers.

Characters both of form and colour indicate in
their variations a close relationship between the Sal-
mons. Their differentiation seems to be of late origin,
and they should perhaps be regarded as species which
are still developing constancy of characters ^

The skeleton of the Salmons is feebly ossified in
sharp contrast to that of the preceding family. The
cranium is for tiie most part persistently cartilaginous,
and most of its bones lie as separate covering-bones
on the almost continuous capsule of cartilage. The
occipital ridge is merel}' a short terete process, extend-
ing about as far back as the ordinary processes from
the mastoid (epiotic) and squamose (pterotic) bones.
The posterior oculo-muscular canal is large, and pe-
netrates the occipital region behind, being covered
below by the parasphenoid bone, which is strongly
bent in the sphenoidal region, and centrally divided
in front by the Y-shaped basisphenoid bone, which is
wanting in the preceding family. Here, on the otiier
hand, as in the following genera, there is no pha-
ryngeal process. The orbits ai'e separated internally
by a thick wall, composed of cartilage and the orbito-
sphenoid bones. The osseous framework of the upper
jaw, as we have mentioned above, is quite different
from the corresponding structure in the Cyiirinoids.

Tlie niaxillaries ai'ticulatc in frcjrit, like the intermaxil-
laries and the palatine l)ones, and dose l)etween these
two pairs; with the cartilaginous rostral part of the
cranium (the rostro-ethmoidal cartilage). But they
Innc iiiidi'i-gone considei'able elongation — the inter-
maxillaries, on the other hand, are comparatively short
— and arc furnished with teetii, as well as the inter-
maxillaries and the palatine bones. Their anterior part
is, however, covered below by the intermaxillaries, so
that their externall)' \'isible length — as it is given in
the above definition of the genus — is measured from
the hind extremity of the latter bones. Above their
posterior part lies the covering-bone {os siippJementare)
which ans\vers to the cheek-bone {os jufjale) of the
higher vertebrates. The vomer is set as a covering-
bone on the middle of the under surface of the rostro-
ethmoidal cartilage and on the anterior extremity of
the parasphenoid bone. In the Salmons its shaft (body)
is fairl}' long and broad, carinated on the under (outer)
surface, but thin; in the Scandinavian Charrs, on the
other hand, ossified hardly at all or only on the sides.
The dentition of the vomer is also confined, as a rule,
in the latter to the anterior part, the so-called head;
while in the Salmons it extends, at least during youth,
to the shaft as well, but is generally more and more
reduced with age. The other bones of the palate, ex-
cept the palatine bones proper, are toothless in this
genus. The pterygoid bones are slender and curved in
the ordinary manner to unite the palatine and quadrate
bones. Within them lie the raesopterj^goid bones, which
are thin, Imt broad behind, and form the gi-eater part
of the roof of the mouth. According to Lilljeborg
these t^vo bones afford a constant distinction between
Trout and Salmon. In the former, he says, their breadth
decreases from their middle point even in a backward
direction, whereas in the latter they grow broader all
the way from the anterior to the posterior extremity.
A great difference from the preceding family appears
in the branchiostegal membranes, which are fur-
nished with a far greater number of rays (9 — 12, in
exceptional cases 8 or as many as 14, in Oncorhyn-
chiis sometimes 16). These rays are, however, of the
same broad, blunt, sabre-like form as in the Cj-
prinoids.

" Sk-and. Xaturf. Mode, Chrnia 1868, Forh.. p. .527.
' Smut, 1. c, tab. metr. VI, No. 399.

"■ "In numerous cases cue is much tempted to ask whether we have not to deal with a family which, being one of tlie most recent
creation, is composed of forms not yet specifically differentiated": GIInther, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. V (preface).

Scatidinavian Fiahes. 10^

840

SCAXDINAVIAX FISHES.

The spina] column is also marked b}^ its weak
ossification. The neural arches proper (Owen's neurapo-
physps) are persistently cartilaginous in most of the
abdominal vertebra}, and the bases of their neural
spines are united to the bodies of the vertebraj only by
a suture or, in young specimens and in the anterior
part of the column, by a mobile articulation. In the
forepart of the skeleton these spines are also but loosely
united to each other, the right to the left in each ver-
tebra, and with the hind surface of each base articulates
a rib-like muscular bone, directed outwards, backwards,
and upwards (Owen's diapophysis). In the posterior
part of the abdominal region the cartilaginous neural
arches disappear, the bases of the neural spines take
tiieir place and develop a firmer osseous connexion with
the bodies of the vertebra?, the neural arches thus
formed being strengthened at the same time by the
coalescence of the spines on each vertebra. The diapo-
physes decrease in length, and disappear near the caudal
region; but simultaneously there appear, though with
only slight development, the knob-shaped articular pro-
cesses {zyfiapophyses) that in the Cyprinoids are gene-
rally so prominent on the anterior abdominal vertebne,
(me pair in front of and one pair behind the neural
arches, \vhich are here most constant in the caudal
region, though even there they may be wanting. The
development of the hiBmal arches proper (Owen's hcem-
apophyses) takes the reverse direction. It advances from
the front of the body to the posterior part thereof: on
the first vertebra they are scarcely distinguishable ex-
ternally from the body of the vertebra; on the second
vertebra they are distinct protuberances, one on each
side of the lower part; on the third each of them is
furnished with a rib; and they thus continue to in-
crease until, near the caudal region, a succession of
haemal spines appears, each bearing a pair of ribs on
the hind surface of its top, while the hiemal spines of
each vertebra approach each other at the top, forming
(usually on the last six abdominal, as well as on the
caudal vertebra;) a closed ha?mal arch. On the same
vertebra? as the ha?mal spines, there also appear lower

articular processes similar to the upper. The ribs are
.slender, in sharp contrast to those of the Cyprinoids.

In the shoulder-girdle, the structure of which is
else the same as in the preceding family, the clavicle
is tliiii and liroad, with the upper arm comparatively
short, and the postclavicle consists of three, sometimes
four parts, namely two (sometimes three) upper, thin
and flat, and one lower, pointed and rib-like. This
division of the postclavicle recurs in the Herrings.

The pelvic bones are simple and triangular, with-
out the indentation in front, and with only a rudiment
of the process behind, which we have seen in the Cy-
prinoids. But remnants of the older piscine types'
radialia (mobile basal bones of the ventral rays) and also
of the true pelvis of the said types, have been detected
in the Forell stage by Davidoff".

The intestinal canal is rather simjde and short, as
in most predatory fishes, its entire length, when ex-
tended, being about equal to the length of the body or
somewiiat less than the latter. The stomach is only
faintly marked oft" from the rest of the canal; but a
remarkable point is the thickening of its walls which
attends a diet of mollusks or other testaceans''. This
thickening has been most frecjuently observed in the
so-called Gillaroo Trout of Ireland, a form which has
hence been named by Gunthek Salmo stomachicus ; but
it may also be observed in common Lake Trout". The
pyloric part is directed forwards, as well as the be-
ginning of the true intestine (duodenum), which is ex-
ceedingly well furnished with cffical diverticula. These
appendages, however, vary considerably both in size
and number, from about 30 to nearly 100. They are
generally most numerous in the Salmon proper, where
Kroyer'' has counted 96, though the usual number in
this form is between 50 and 70. In the Trout that
migrate to salt water, the usual number is al)out the
same; but in those that live exclusively in fresh water,
it is generally less, about 30 — 50. Thus in dift'erent
specimens of Trout 29 — 69 pyloric appendages have
been counted'. After the duodenum has advanced al-
most to the diaphragm, the intestine abruptly bends

" Morph. Jahrb., XVI (1880), p. 464, faf. XXI, fig. 5.

' According to Day a seagull at Hunter's Museum was fed for some time on corn, and the muscular layers of its stomach were
thereby thickened as in a crop; and from Holmgren's experiments on pigeons at U])sala it appeared that the muscular layers in their crop
were reduced by a flesh diet.

° It is further known that a nmlhiscous diet gives the body of the Salmons a singular, orange ground-colour.

* Danm. Fiske, BH. 2, p. 558.

^ Day, British Salmonichv, p. 188.

SALMONS AM) CIlAKliS.

^!41

straiiiht l);ick tu the vciit; and in tlie iiiistci'iur jiart of
the intostiiic nr the reclum, wliich is usiuilh' sdmcwiiMt
wider than the anterior part tiiereof, the mucous nieni-
hrane is raised on the inner surface, at least in old
snecinu'iis, in the shape of transN'erse rings, iiere and
tiiere united like tlie thread of a screw, instead of the
longitudinal folds wiiieii it forms in tlie antei'ior part
of the intestinal canal from the lesophagus. The li\er
is almost one-lobed, the riglit iol)e being extremely
little developed. Tlie place of the latter is occupied
by a rather large gall-l)ladder. the discharging duct of
which ojiens into tlie duodenum at the beginning of
tlie pyloric ap]jendages. Before the spawning the spleen
is rather large and sometimes extends from the bottom
of the stomach lieyond the insertions of the ventral tins;
but aftei- tiie maturation of the generati\e organs it
shrinks considerabl}', and does not begin again to in-
crease, until its functions are laid under contribution
at the commencement of the above-mentioned trans-
formation of fat and flesh into material for tlie deve-
lopment of the sexual organs (cf. Miescher-Ruusch,
1. c). flic ovaries, as mentioned above, show the pe-
culiarit\" that tlle^• are witiunit special oviducts, the ripe

eggs failing into the aiidimiinal ca\ity, whence tliey are
expressed through the genital ajierture behind the vent.
The testes, on the contrary, are furnisiied as usual
with vasa deferentia. The air-bladder, wdiich is simple
and long, extends throughout the length of the al)-
dominal cavity, and the pneumatic duct opens on the
dorsal side of the (esophagus. Still more elongated are
the kidne\s. which ])enetrate behind into the Ineinal
canal of the tail.

The ancient Greeks ha\'e not l)e((ueatlie(l to us any
name for the LSalmon, which does not occur as a ma-
rine form in Mediterranean regions; Init according to
Apostolides" the Ti'out inhabits most of the rivers in
Greece, and bears among the modern Greeks the name
of niaTQOifii''. Salmo'' is of classical Latin origin and
occurs in Pliny''. Among the fishes of the Moselle
AusoNius enumerates Salar (the Parr), Salnio, and
"the form that ranks between them", Fario' (the Trout).
Such is the explanation given by Figulus (1540) of
these names. Trutta belongs to medieval Latin'. Umhla
is a Latinized form of the French Ombre or Umble.
Salvehntfs has arisen in the same manner from the
German SaliiiHiif/ or SdlJtUiK/.

THE CHARR (sw, uOdingenj.
SALMO UMBLA.

Plnte XXXVII, tig. 1 (d^) and 2 (?).

Scales exceedingly small, their number in a longitudinal row above the lateral line just in front of the ])erpendi-
cular from the beginning of the dorsal fin and extending along '/j,, of the length of the body at least 25 {as a
rule 27 — 34^), and in a row of similar length above the lateral line behind the perpendicular from the beginning
of the anal p'n at least 21 {as a rule 23 — 30, sometimes 33). Sides of the body marked with more or less
disti)irf and light, red sjiots on the darker ground-colour, but no black spots behind' the head.

R. br. (9)10-12(13—14); D.
1 ,. 1(2)

:; A.

11— U 7—8(9)

Crt 190—240: Vert. 62—63'

8—10(11—12)' "■ 7—9(10)'
• + 1 + 17 + 1 +.r; ::>ev. squ. lat.''

Si/n. Umbre ct Umble, Belon, Nat., Die. Poiss., pp. 280 et 281 :
Salmo Lemani lacns sive Umbla, Rondel., Pise. Lacustr.,
p. 160. Salmo liueis lateralibus sursum recurvis, Cauda
bifurea. Art., Ichthyol., Gen., p. 18; Sy7i.. p. 25; Salmo
vix pcdalis, pinnis ventris riibris. maxilla hiferioro pniill<'

" Ia> Peche en Grece, p. 33.

* 7titQ0(fttQ) — phps. answenug to tlic- Scand. stenbit and riir, wlikh denote tlie preference of tlie Trout and Cliarr for stony bottoms.

' From salire, to leap.

'' Hist. Nat., lib. IX, cap. 18.

' Another, perhaps better reading is Sario, a derivative from the same root as salai' and sabno.

■' Derived from the Latin trudere, to thrust, force; a fish which forces its way against the stream.

■' 18 — 20 scales on an extent answering to ", of the length of the head, as NiLSSON expresses this character; 16 — 20, according
to LiLLJEBORG.

'' Counted above the lateral line; in the lateral line itself about 12.5 — 145 (Day).

' Sometimes 65, according to F.4TI0, sometimes 59 (in the Windermere Charr), according to D.\\, or 58 (in var. //iioiatilis), accord-
ing to Fatio.

842

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

longiore, Id., ibid., ct Spec, p. 52. Salmo doreo nigro,
lateribus cferuleis, ventre fulvo, LiN., Fn. Suec, ed. I, p.
117. Rodimj, Lin., /(. Wgoth., p. 257.

Salmo umbla, LiN., Sijst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 310; Penn.,
Brit. Zool. (1776), vol. Ill, p. 267; .\gass., Rep. Brit.
Assoc. Edinb. 1834, p. 617; Yakr, Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol.
II, p. 121; Agass., Poiss. d'eau douce, tab. IX — XI; Thomps.,
Nat. Hist. Irel, vol. IV, p. 160; White, Cat. Brit. Fish.,
p. 78; Smitt, Riksm. Salmon., Vet.-Akad. Handl., Bd. 21
(1885), No. 8, p. 163; Fatio (Salvelinus), Fn. Vert. Suisse,
vol. V, p. 395.

Salmo eri/tlir(Eus, Pall., Zooijr. Ross, Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 349.

Salmones salvelini, (= Salmo ventricosiis + S. carbonariiis (ex
Str6m) + S. alpinus (ex Lin.) + S. pallidas + S. salvelinus
(ex Lln.) + S. rutilus), Nilss., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p.
7 ; — unam specieni omnes bas varietates censuit in Skand.
Fn., Fisk., p. 422.

Salmo alpinus, Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfn., (disp. Helsingf. 1863),
p. 56: WiDEGR., Landbr. Aknd. Tidskr. 1863, pp. 201 et
209; Morn, 6fvers. Vet.-Akad. Forb. 1864, p. 534; Coll.,
Forb. Vid. Selsk., Cbrnia 1874, Tillsegsh., p. 160; ibid.
1879, No. 1, p. 86; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fn., p. 540; Smitt,
Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forb. 1882, No. 8, p. 33; Mela, Vert.
Fenn., p. 343; Day, Fish. Ot. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 112;
Brit. Salm., p. 237; Trybom, laktt. Fisk. Ume-Lappm.,
Nord. Aarsskr. Fisk. 1883, p. 300; Reuter, Sundm., Finl.
Fisk., tab. V; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fn., Fisk., vol. II, p. 598.
a: Var. Salmo salvelinus (Vetterns Roding, NiLSs. — Storrodingen,
Lillj.), cujvs pinn;e ventrales pone mediam longitudinem
corporis sitiE sunt.

Syn. Salvelin Gerraanis, Ray, Syn. Meth. Pise, p. 64; Salmo
pedalis maxilla superiore longiore. Art., Ichthyol., Gen., p.
13; Syn., p. 26.

Salmo Salvelinus, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 309;
(-1- S. Salmarinus, p. 310); Bl., Fisch. Deutschl., pt. Ill,
p. 149, tab. XCIX (+ S. umbla, p. 154, tab. CI); Cuv.,
Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss. torn. XXI, p. 246 (-1- <S. umbla,
p. 233); Nilss., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 422; Hokl, Kr,
Siissicasserf. Ostr. Mon., p. 280 {+ S. umbla, p. 285);
SiEB., Sussrvasserf. Mitteleur., p. 280; Canestr., Fna D''Ital.,
pt. Ill, Pesci, p. 23; Lillj., 1. c, p. 599.

Salmo umbla, JuR., Hist. Poiss. L. Lem., Mem. Soc. Pliys.,
D'Hist. Nat. Geneve, torn. Ill, pt. 1, p. 179, tab. V; Rapp,
Fisch. Bodens., p. 32, tab. V; JIor., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,
tom. Ill, p. 530.
b: Var. Salmo alpinus {Vermlands och Lapplands Roding, NiLSS.
— Smdrodingen, Lillj.), cujus pinnae ventrales ante mediam
longitudinem corporis sita; sunt.

Syn. Salmo alpinus, Lm., Syst., 1. c.; Asoan., Icon. Rer.
Nat., cab. 2, p. 7, tab. XVIII; LiESTADius, Journ. Lappm.,
Forts., p. 75; Cuv., Val., 1. c, p. 249; Nilss., Skand.
Fn., Fisk., p. 426 (-1- S. carbonarius, p. 429 -I- «S'. rutilus,
p. 430); NystrOm, laktt. Fn. Jemtl. Vattendr. (disp. Up-
sala 1863), p. 11; Olsson, Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1876,
No. 3, p. 14; ibid. 1882, No. 10, p. 50; Lillj., 1. r,
p. 609.

The Charr, which is, gfiierally speaking, the siiiiill-
est Scandinavian Sdlmo, still attains a fair size even in
our fauna. It sometimes reaches, at least in Lake
Wetter, a length of nearly 7\., dm. and a weight of
about 8'., kilo". Trybom was told at Lake Stor-Uman
in Urae Lappmark that in 1878 a Charr had been
taken there which weighed TVa kilo., and that it often
runs to 4 kilo, in the same lake, though its usual
weight is 1 ',3 — 2 kilo. In many parts of Sweden a
Charr 1 foot long (3 dm.) or 1' , lbs. in weight (()"7
kilo.) is considered quite an average-sized fish, and in
many lakes it does not attain even these dimensions.

The body shows in young and middle-.sized Charr
the most handsome and be.st proportion{>d piscine type,
a terete and regular fusiform shape, so little compressed
that the greatest thickness is about half the greatest
height, which lies a little in front of the dorsal fin
proper, and is contained about 5 times, or in young
specimens even more than 6 times, in the length of
the body. With age, however, both the relative depth
and the lateral compression as a rule increase — the
former most, as usual, in gravid females, the latter in
spent fish — and in our largest Charr the depth some-
times rises to 29 % of the entire length or 31 % of
the length to the base of the caudal fin\ while the
greatest thickness of such specimens is only "/^ of the
said depth'. During these modifications the .sides of
the body become almost flat and parallel, converging
gradually and in a very elongated curve towards the
base of the caudal fin. The differences, however, seem
sometimes to depend on local circumstances: "We find
the species," says Thompson (Yarrell, 1. c, p. 123),
"to be in one lake herring-like, and in another approx-
imating the roundness of an eel". But both forms
sometimes occur in the same lake (see Nystkom, 1. c).
The least depth measures about 7 or 8 ^ — in the Sadb-
ling sometimes nearly 6 %, in the Northern Charr
sometimes nearly 9 % — of the length of the body, or
in the former about 28 — 30 %, in the latter about
34—39 %, of the length of the head.

The head shares in the above alteration of tlie
body, growing more compressed in old specimens, and
actiuiriiig a longer, more pointed snout; but above it

" In tbe East States of Nortb America tliere lives a Cbarr, Salmo Niimnycush, wbicb according to Brown-Goode {Fisherii
Fishery-Industries of the Un. States, sect. 1, p. 486) attains a weigbt of 120 lbs. (54-43 kilo.).

' According to Fatio the greatest deptb may rise to 46'/2 % of tlie length to the base of the caudal fin.
'■ .\ccording to Fatio tbe greatest thickness may sink in very old specimens to '/, of the greatest depth.

843

is always convex, never tttit as in tlie llucli. Its length,
whicii is generally greater in the males tliaii in the
females, varies in the Northern Charr between about

20 and 22 % of that of the body, in the Siclbling be-
tween about 23 and 24 % of the; same. The eyes are
middle-sized or rather, in old specimens, small; they
are always set in the anterior half of the head and
fairlv low, near the maxillary bones. They are nearly
round, the longitudinal diameter being only slightly
greater than tlie vertical, and varying between about

21 and 12 % (exceptionally 8^/4 *) of the length of
the head; hut the outer orbital margin is prolongated
in front to a point, and the anterior canthus formed
in this manner is filled by an adipose membrane. The
breadth of the convex forehead above the centre of the
eyes is about '/g (30 — 35 %") of the length of the head.
The nostrils of each side are set close to each other, on
about a level with the upper orbital margin and half as
far from the eyes as from the tip of the snout. The
anterior nostril on each side is round, with the margin
raised in a fuiniel; the posterior is obliquely placed and
oblong. The length of the snout, which in young spe-
cimens is shorter and blunter than in old, and in adult
males longer and more pointed than in females of the
same size, varies between 26 and 36 % of that of the
head. The mouth is large, o\ving to the elongation of
the snout even relatively larger in old specimens than
in young. The cleft of the mouth ascends somewhat,
though only a little. The teeth, the extent of which
we have above considered, are rather small, but strong
and pointed, with the tip recurved. The small teeth
on the copular parts of ihe hyoid bone are indeed ir-
regular in occurrence, but rarely wanting. The niaxil-
laries, which are generally straight, but in old males
curved downwards behind, extend in the young hardly
behind the perpendicular from the posterior orbital
margin, but in old specimens some way beyond it.
Their length is greatest in the males, and varies in
Scandinavian Charr from about 35 to 46 % of that of
the head; and their greatest breadth, which thus be-
comes comparatively less as a rule in the males than
in the females and in old specimens than in young,
varies between about 25 and 18 * (exceptionally 15 %)

of their length. Tlie lower jaw, which in most old
specimens ]jrojects a little beyond tlie tij) of tiie u]jper
jaw, and has a small protuberance at the end that fits
into an indentation in the latter, measures in the males
about 60 — 75 %, in the females about 57 — 65 %, of
the length of the iiead. The preoperculum is crescent-
shaped. Tiie operculum and suboperculum together
form a parallelogram, usually somewhat wider below,
and with the lower posterior angle rounded. The suture
between them, the length of which may serve as an
expression for the breadth of the opercular apparatus,
is comparatively shorter in old Charr than in young
and also as a rule, in the males than in the females,
its length varying between about 26 and 20 or even
17 % of that of the head. The branchiostegal mem-
branes coalesce with the isthmus in a line with the
anterior part of the eyes, or even in front of the per-
pendicular therefrom. The gill-rakers are fairly nu-
merous in comparison with those of the Huch and
Salmon, numbering 23 (exceptionally 20) — 27 in the
outer row on the front of the first branchial arch, about
15 (13 — 16) of these being situated on the lower, pro-
jecting part of the arch. The inner row of spines on
this arch, of \vhich spines at least rudiments are pre-
sent in the Salmons, is entirely wanting in the Scan-
dinavian Charrs. The pseud obranchia; are distinct in
young specimens, concealed in old.

The true dorsal fin is obliquely quadrilateral (tra-
pezoidal), the length of the last ray being as a rule
less than half, Ijut sometimes (in a form \vhich has
been named alijies'') as much as %, of that of the first
branched ray. The latter is as a rule the longest ray
in the fin, but in young Charr is sometimes a little
shorter than the second branched ray. The distance
between the fin and the tip of the snout increases even
relatively with age, this depending principally on the
prolongation of the snout, and is as a rule greater in
the males than in the females, varying between about
42 and 46 % of the length of the body. Its base mea-
sures about 10 — 11 %, and its height about 11 (ex-
ceptionally 10) — 15 (exceptionally 17) %, of the length
of the body. The adipose (second dorsal) fin, which
lies above the posterior part of the anal, is rather small

" In the Charr reared at the hatchery of Ostaiibiick this percentage was lower, sinking oven to 27. In .\rctic Cliarr (var. stagnalu)
it may rise even to 39.

' Salmo alipes, Richardson, Fn. Bor. Amer., pt. Ill, p. 169, tab. 81 et 86 fig. 1. Cf. Smitt. Hiksin. Sabnonid., lab. III. fig. 50,
a similar form, a male with strongly developed fins, taken in Torne& Trsesk.

844

SCANI)IXAVlz\N KISllES.

ill comparison with tlial of tlie llucli — though not so
small as in the Arctic sfai/nnlis — lieing usually of the
same curved form and about the same size as in the
Scandinavian Salmons. The anal fin is similar in form
to the true dorsal, luit always shorter and lower. The
distance between it and tiu; tip of the snout is about
()7 (excei)tionally 6.5) — 71 % of the length of the body,
and as a rule this percentage is less than 70 in the
Northern Charr, more than 70 in the Sselbling. The
caudal fin consists, here as in the preceding family, of

17 branched rays and an inconstant number of sup-
porting rays, of which the hindmost at each margin
extends (piite or nearly to the end of the fin-lobe. This
fin is as a rule more or less deeply forked in the young;
l)nt in old specimens, especially when in breeding con-
dition, tlie liiiid margin is truncate or slightly concave
\\ lien tlie tin is expanded. The middle caudal rays,
wiiich occupy about 1) — (i % of the length of the body,
generally measure less than lialf the length of the
outermost rays, except in old Charr, especially males,
where their length may rise to at least .56 % of that
of the latter.

The pectoral fins are pointed in old specimens,
even approaching to the scythe-shape of the Mackerel
type; but in the young they are blunter at the tip.
Their length varies considerably, from about 14 — 19 %
(in alipes, <f, up to 21 V^ %) of that of the body, and
is greater in the males than in the females. The pre-
abdominal lengtli (the distance between the foremost
points in the insertions of the pectoral and ventral fins),
on the contrary, is as a ride less in the males than in
the females, varying between about "27 (exceptionally
25) and 32 %" of the length of the body. The ventral
fins are obliquely triangular, with the truncate top as
base. They are also longer as a rule in the males
than in the females, their lengtii varying between about
14 and 11 % (exceptionally 10 or, in alipes, cf, as
much as 16 %) of that of the liody. The postabdomi-
nal length (the distance between the beginning of the
anal fin and the foremost (outermost) point in the in-
sertions of the ventral fins), which is less as a rule in
the males than in the females, varies between about

18 (exceptionally 17) and 22 (exceptionally 26) % of
tlie length of the body.

The scales are both small and thin, \\'ithout radi-
ating grooves, but ^vith dense c-oncentric striiv. The

dorsal scales are oblong, elliptical or oval; those of the
lateral line of a more quadrangular shape but with
rounded corners; the ventral scales broader (deeper).
From the beginning of the dorsal fin obliquely back-
wards and downwards to the lateral line 34 scales, if
not more, maj' be counted in a transverse row, and
from the beginning of the adipose fin a similar row
contains about 21 — 24 scales. The lateral line runs
straight, or with a faint downward curve in front,
from the upper angle of the gill-opening to the middle
of the base of the caudal fin.

In its festal dress, just before the spawning, the
Charr is one of our most beautiful fishes. The back
is liluish or greenish black — the former jiredoininant
in the Northern Charr, the latter in the Sadbling — ,
the belly flame red or paler — the latter in the fe-
males— , and the sides of the body bluish gray or green,
with scattered, red or paler spots, varying in dimen-
sions but of about the same size as the pupils. The
dorsal and caudal fins are of the same colour as the
back, but distally they gro\v paler. In male Northern
Charr wearing this dress, the caudal fin is commonly
edged with red, and the lower margin (sometimes the
u]>j)er as -well, at least in part) generally has the same
white or yellowish white hue as the anterior margin
of all the inferior fins. The rest of these fins gene-
rally partake, in the spawning-dress, of the same red
tint as the belly, but sometimes the posterior (the anal
and ventral) have a more or less predominant, grayish
blue colour, which occurs on the pectoral fins only in
a fainter tone, but has there a still more handsome,
ash-gray shade. The forejiart of the belly and the
throat, as well as the branchiostegal membranes and
the lo^ver jaw, are generally of a light, yellow or
\vhitish yelloAv ground-colour, more or less spotted \vith
bluish black. The head is commonly coloured above
like the back, below like the bellj', with cheeks and
opercula of the same ground-colour as the sides of the
body; but it is often more or less spotted with bluish
or sooty black, and sometimes entirely, though faintly,
coated with one of these tints, which in the Northern
Charr generally extend to the mouth and pharynx as
well. The iris is brassj- yellow, with an irregular,
ring-shaped shading of black.

These sharply defined hues of the spawning-dress
are exchanged during the intervening periods for a

" When the belly is abnormally distended, this percentage may rise to 35.

845

lio-hter coloration, pale ,y'i'ay on the siik's, light orange;
on the bt'lly; and when the Charr go out to sea, as
mentioned above, their sides adopt the silvery lustre
of the .Salmon, on which ground the red spots are
hardly discernible, and sometimes, at least in tlie great
lakes, the ventral side is ahiKJst wiiite.

These forms, as well as the Salmons, wear a Parr
dress during youth, most nearly resembling the pali;
coloration just mentioned, but distinguished on the
sides of the body by about 13 — 15 transverse bands
of the darker dorsiU e-olour, rounded below.

In coloration European Charr generally differ from
American, which are most often, but by no means
constantly, marked on the back and the dorsal and
caudal fins with vermiculate transverse spots and stripes.

In Scandinavia and the rest of Europe to the south,
the Charr strictly belong to the mountain lakes, and
hardh' ever take up tlieir abode in running water".
Ill the .Vrctic regions — south to Xortiiern Helgeland
in Norway'' — they are marine fishes which, like the
Salmons, ascend the rivers to spawn. In Lapland they
rank among the most common and most important
fishes, and the form wiiich occurs there goes south in
the interior to Dalsland, Bohuslan, and Wester Goth-
land"'. But their range does not extend so high in the
moinitain tracts as that of the Trout**, with which they
are often confounded, and they are probably not found
above the birch-region". Whether the above-mentioned
large Charr that are met with in the greatest lakes of
Lapland, preserve the form-characters of the Northern
Charr, is unkncjwn to us. The (jther large Scandina-
vian form lias its true and best known haunts in Lake
Wetter, but is also met with to the north at least in
Lakes Storsjo and Hemsjo (Jemtland). East of Lake
Wetter Boheman found the Charr in 1836 in Lake
()ren. According to Nilsson and Wideoren the Chan-
inhabits Lake Soraraen in Oster Gothland, but further
south in Sweden it is unknown. Strange to say, it is
wanting in Lake Wener, as well as in Lakes Millar

and lljelniar. It evidently ])ref'ers clear lakes with
water of a low temperature — tlumgii as yet we have
not sufficient observations on this head to state a fixed
mimber of degrees — , and the singular features in its
geographical range — for instance, its occurrence in
certain lakes, and absence in others situated near them
and ap|iarently of the same nature — cannot be ex-
plained uiitil we Jiave trustworthy information as to the
temperature of our lakes and the food which they offer
the Charr. That its aversion to turbid water is not
unconquei-able, we see on the coast of Spitzbergen,
where Charr are most plentiful off the mouths oH clayey
glacial rivers. But it is undeniable that water of a
high temperature, wiiether it be in the sea into which
the river inhabited by the Charr flows, or in lakes on
the lower course of the stream, stops tht; progress of
the ("harr like a dam'.

.\ccording to the reports sent in to the Swedish
Fisheries Commission of 1881 — 83 the Charr is want-
ing in the (Tovernments of Stockholm, Upsala, Soder-
manland, Kronoberg, Kalmar, Gothland, Blekinge, Kri-
stianstad, Malmohus, and Halland. In addition to Lake
Wener, the lower and southern districts of Sweden,
generally speaking, are thus without its geographical
range. It does not enter the Baltic, and is at least
rare in the lowlands on the Gulf of Bothnia. In the
valley of the Tornea Elf, for example, it does not de-
scend below Juckasjai'vi.

In Norway the Charr is common, according to
CoLLETT, in the lakes within the Government of Bergen,
less common in the Government of Trondhjem, and
occurs only in a few lakes within the (iovernment of
Christiania. Lilljeborg found it often" in the moun-
tain lakes of Central Norway, where it is commonly
called Ede. The pale-bellied individuals are known as
Blekroe. Its manner of life in the north of Norway
and off the coast has already been noticed. Its habits
are similar on the Murman Coast and in Finnish Lapp-
mark; but its strict range in Fiidand is confined, ac-

" In this respect llie European Cbarr is soniewliat different from the true Salmons; but in Nortli America a distinction is drawn be-
tween two varieties of Charr, the Lake Trout (Sabno namai/cush), which attains a greater size than our Charr, but 1ms the same habits, and
the firook or Speckled Trout (S. fontinalis), which does indeed occur in lakes, but commonly spawns in streams.

* COLLETT, 1879, 1. C.

■-' Lake Nedsjo in Bollebygd Huudred, sec Malm. 1. c.
'' Olsson, 1. c.
' Nilsson, Skand. Fn., 1. c.

•'■ "South of New York they are effectually land-locked by the prevailing high temperature of the lowland streams, and are never able
to gain access to salt or brackish water". Brown-Goode, The Fisherien and Fishery Industries o/ the United States, Sect. I, p. 502.
^ dfvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1844, p. 213.

846

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

cording to Mela, to the inland (eastern) tracts and
Lake Ladoga, while it is also found in the basin of
Lake Onega.

In Denmark the Charr is wanting; but in tlic
alpine regions of Southern Europe and in Great Britain
and Ireland it leads the same lacustrine life as in Swe-
den. In Switzerland it has been found, according to
TscHUDi, at a height of 1,900 m.", in Bavaria, accord-
ing to SiEBOLD, about 600 — 800 m., and in Austria
about 400 — 700 ra.'', above the level of the sea. It
has there maintained its existence since the period when
a great part of Europe was covered with ice, and when
it could make its way in the cold seas to its present
abodes. In the hnvlands between the Alpine Regions
and the North it is now wanting.

The Charr is a powerful and voracious fish-of-
prey, in proportion to its size not inferior to the true
Salmons. Its favourite hunting-grounds lie in deep
water, where it leads a sociable life; but it also ascends
to tiie surfac'C to secure the flies and gnats that come
within its reach. Its food consists mainly, however,
of crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes, both large and
small; and it sometimes gorges itself on fish-roe, even
that of its own species. In the mountain lakes it has
generally to content itself with Entomostraca, which
are, however, plentiful enough, as a rule, to yield it
an abundant supply of food. Lynceus (Eurycercus) la-
mellatus, a small crustacean of the group Cladocem, is
of particular importance in this respect, according to
Nystrom. In the lowland lakes and those of greater
dimensions the Charr finds more anijde store of Cam-
maroids, mollusks, and fish, chiefly Gwyniads and Cy-
prinoids. But not even fishes armed with spines escape
its maw: in the stomach of a female Charr from Lake
Wetter no less than five Bullheads (Coitus quadrkor-
nis) were found. In Lake Wetter, according to Wide-
GREN, the Charr ])asses the greater part of the year in

the depths, and during spring and earl)- summer is
seldom met with in less than 30 fathoms of water, but
after midsummer ascends towards evening into shal-
lower places, where its lustrous body strikes the ej'e as
it swims at the surface. During this season it also
makes its way into various inlets with a sandy bottom.
Towards autumn it retires to the shallows in the middle
of the lake, or visits some of the reefs and rocky pools
near shore.

The Cliarr spawns late in autumn and in winter',
in Sweden most commonly in October, the month dur-
ing which almost all the breeding Charr received bj'
the Royal Museum have been taken. In the fish-ponds
at Ostanbiick, however, Mr. Lundberg caught a male
with running milt on the 10th of September; and in
the Jemtland lakes, according to Nystrom, the general
spawning begins during that month. At Stor-Uman
in Lycksele Lappmark Trybom was told that there the
Light Cliarr (the Greater Charr) commences to spawn
at the beginning of October, the breeding-season last-
ing 1^ — iVs weeks; but that the Black Charr (the Lesser
Charr) does not commence before the end of Novemljer,
and takes three weeks to spawn.

The Scandinavian Charr always select their spawn-
ing-places in a lake — according to all authenticated
observations'' — by preference on a gravelly or stony
bottom in 2 — 4 ra. of water, or sometimes, according
to NoRBACK, in water so shallow that the dorsal fin of
the breeding fish projects above the surface. But they
frequently resort for this purpose to places near the
mouth of a stream. Nor do the Swiss Charr ascend
the rivers to spawn, according to Fatio; but thej^ choose
water 20 — 60 m. (sometimes 80 m.) deep in the great
lakes''. In England, however, according to Yarrell',
the Charr of Lake Winandermere generallj^ make their
way u\) one of its affluents to breed, onl}- a few of
them spawning in the lake itself.

° Fatio believes, however, that in Switzerhind the Charr never ascends voluntarily to lakes more tlian 800 nj. above the level of the
sea; but that it has, no doubt, been introduced by pisciculturists into lakes of greater elevation.

' According to Heokel and Kner up to 1,900 ra.

' In Bavaria breeding Charr are said to have been found at the end of June, and in Scotland the spawning-season is said to extend
from November to February or March (Day, Brit. Salmon., p. 244). Fatio gives instances from Switzerland (1. c, p. 409) of the Charr's
spawning in the Lakes of Geneva and NeuchStel both as early as June and as late as April, the usual months being November and December.

'' According to NystrSm "it seemed in some places (for example Lake Holder) as if the ror (Charr) also resorted to running water
for tlie purpose of spawning".

"' The Deepu-ater Charr which the Royal Museum received from Lake Wetter though Sergeant-major Hall (1830, without specified
date) were in breeding condition, a circumstance which perhaps indicates that in Lake Wetter too the Charr may spawn at a considerable
depth. NiLSSON also states that the so-called blankroding (Bright Charr) spawns in 30 — 40 fathoms of water on a clayey or muddy bipttom.

/ L. c, p. 125.

84(

From Sweden we liiue no ol)ser\ations of the
lUiUiiier in wliicli i\\v s\K\\\u'n\;j: is jiertornied; l)ut in
Land ami Wiilrr tor tlie 1 4tl: of August, KS84, Jack-
son (lescril)e(l tlie actions of a female specimen in Soutii-
por^ Aquariuui \\ lien eonstructing a nest for her eggs.
"We obtained a line shoal of char from Windermere at
the opening of the season this year. Soon after thc'S'
came, I saw one of them had not sjjawned, and was
busv making its nest. Its modita operandi was exactly
as described by Mr. IkCKi.AM). It swam slowl\- down
towards the selected place as though concentrating its
energies; when it arri\ed over the spot, it thre\v itself
|);irtially on its side, and dropping the hind part of
the body, it gave several violent blows (three or four)
with its tail, scattering the gravel right and left. The
impetus of the blows not only scattered the gravel,
but drove the fish upwards in a slanting direction.
Quietl)- allowing the force to expend itself, it then
turned round, swam slowly, and repeated the process
time after time, until it had made quite a large hole."
This observation inclines us to the opinion that in
essential respects the spawning of the Charr resembles
that of the Salmon.

The ova are comparatively large — from 4 to S'/o
mm. in diameter when ri|)e. Davy counted 1,230 eggs
in a female weighing ' 4 kilo.", and Luxel 4,108 in a.
female weighing 4 kilo''. Their hatching requires a
longer or shorter time according to the temperature of
the water. In a temperature of 4';2° C. (40° Fahr.)
Reynolds found the period of incubation to vary be-
tween GO and 70 days for most of his Charr ova, 75
days for some, and 90 days in a few instances; and
in a temperature of \i^i° C. (5j° Fahr.) most of the
eggs were hatched in 41 days. From the eggs which
Malm impregnated by artificial means at Baldersnas in
Dalsland at the end of October, the fry commenced to
appear in the beginning of the following ilarch, lieing
then about 17 mm. long. After living 19 days in an
aiiuarium in his room, they were 27 mm. long, and
had begun to develop the characteristic Pary markings.
At Ostanback, accoi'ding to IIvstkuji'", the eggs taken
in September from the ncighlicjuring sjjawning-places
were hatched in January, but the fry at first grew
slowly in the cold spring-water of the fish-ponds, and

were only a little over an inch long in August. The
broods of Charr fry sent from ()stanb;ick to the Royal
Museum show that at the end of the first year the
length is 117 mm., at the end of the second year 12.B
nun., at tlii' end of the tiiird \'ear 137 — 21(1 nun., and
in Charr li\e yeai's old 2.')0 mm. The growth is de-
pendent, however, in tht; highest degree on the more
or less plentiful sniii)ly oi' food.

The Charr is not onh- one of the most beautiful
fresh-water fishes in Scandina\ia, but also one of the
Itest — for good digestions the best of all. In summer,
however, it keeps out of the tisherman's way, living,
as we have mentioned, in tlui depths of the lakes, and
being taken almost exclusively by angling, as a rule
the least destructive fishery. The Charr is in good
condition at this time of year, best towards the end
of summer, if cooked and eaten at once; but its flavour
rapidly deteriorates, especially in summer. The fisher-
man changes his tactics when the Charr begin to ap-
])roach their sjjawning-places. Where the bottom is
not too rough, the seine is used; else the place is
surrounded with nets. In either case an abundant
take may reward the fisherman; lint the s|)awning-
season is never the best time of year, either in the
condition of the fish or with a view to the maintenance
of the tishery.

In Lake Wetter Charr are taken during summer on
long-lines baited with Smelt or bits of (.iwyniad or \eu-
dace, and where tlie shores are steep, the line may be
set close to land in a semicircle, .so that both ends touch
the shore. In other places the line must be taken
farther out into the lake, and set in at least 20 — 30
fathoms of water. The spawning fishery for Charr in
the shallows of Lake Wetter begins, according to Wi-
DEGREX, about the Itlth of October and does not close
in some parts until the 20th of Xovemlx-r. The annual
take, according to his computation, is about 3,000 kilo.
In the south of Lake Wetter distinctions were drawn
about 1830, according to Sergeant-major Hall, between
three kinds of Charr; the Shore Charr (Landrodbui),
which attained a length of !) dm. and a weight of
5Vi„ kilo-- back green, belly iiame-red, fins of the latter
colour with white margin; the Deepwater Charr ( />/«;<-
rt'idiii/j), which attained a length of oidy li dm, and a

" See Dav, Fish. Gt. Brit, and Irel., voL II, p. 117.

' See Fatio, 1. c, p. 4 In.

' See Xystruh, I. c p. lo.

Scandinncian Fislits.

848

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISIIKS.

weight of at most '■'>' - kilo., body sliorter, liead smaller,
coloration lightei-, than in the former variety; and the
Salmon Charr (Laxruding), of the same size as the Deep-
water Charr and also similar in other respects to the
latter, hut with white lielly. At the same time, accord-
ing to Dr. Marin, in the north part of Lake Wetter
the following kinds of Charr were named: the Fwd,
with red back, belly and sides of lighter red, yellow
tins, and red flesh; the Spotted, sides and back spotted
with white on a gray ground, belly whitisli, flesh white,
whitish yellow, or gra}-; and tiie Gray, with grayish
green back and sides, belly and flesh as in the Spotted
Charr. All these names simply indicate the great va-
riableness of the Charr in different haunts, even within
the limits of a single lake. Especially worthy of re-
mark from a culinary point of view is the great dif-
ference in the colour of the liesh, wliich varies from
liright red to whitish. The pronounced red tint is due
to a diet consisting chiefly of crustaceans.

In Lakes Stor-Uman and ^lalgomaj (Lycksele Lapp-
mark) a distinction is drawn between Light and Black
('Itarr. There the Charr fishery is best, according to
TKYiiii-M, during the spawning-season and immediately
afterwards. Stationary nets are used, and thej' must
be set, at least towards the close of the tishing, under
the ice. After the breaking up of the ice, and until
the Charr retires to deep writer, a ])roductive fishery
is cai'ried on with long-lines. In a few Lapland lakes
the Ijottom is smooth enough for the employment of
seines, but this is seldom the case at the spawning-
places. In the Lajsan lakes, towards tlie cud of sum-
mer and in autumn, the take includes not only breed-
ing Charr, but also numerous tish that are "//«//" (bar-
ren, i. e. not ready to spawn the same year) and very fat.

In many places the Charr is caught with hand-
lines, and voracious feeder as it is, it takes any kind
of bright bait, if otdy this l)e kept moving. Day"
describes a sort of irhifniif for (.'harr practised on Lake
Winandermere: "By far the most important and in-
teresting means of taking char there is by means of
the phoiiJi-Iiiie. Tliis line is made of strong cord, and

varies in lengtii according to the number of Ijaits which
ai'e to be put on it; but it is usually between forty
and fifty yards long, and this is sufticieiit to carry five
baits. The baits usualh' used are artificial, pieces of
metal silvered on one side, copper, red, green, or brown
on the other, spinning from either the head or tail.
Minnows can be used in the same way, spoon baits too,
and both the blue Phantom and Garnet-quill minnows
have been tried successfully. Still the natives prefer
the metal baits, and the sizes used for ordinary trout
are of course the correct ones. Usually two such lines
as the above are worked by each boat, and the fisher-
man shows considerable skill in his manipulation of
them and rowing his craft along at a proper speed at
the same time ■ — the latter is just sufficient to keep
the liaits spinning and the tackle taut. The boatman
knows the ground char frequent, and the nature of the
bottom too, for should he come upon rocks and weeds
his tackle gets entangled, and a big smash must almost
inevitably result. This fishing usually commences about
the beginning of March, and at that time the fish are
got about thirty yards from the surface and in the
deepest parts of the lake. As the weather gets warmer
they gradually approach the top." The Charr is also
taken at the surface of the water during summer with
the ntter-Une'' and the casting-rod.

"The Charr is very easy to l)reed", says iLvx von
DEM Borne'', "and best adapted of all the Salmon-fishes
for fattening. But it must without fail be supplied
with pure spring-^vater of a fairly uniform tempera-
ture, which should never exceed + 1.5 to 17^ 2° C. {od
to BS'/o" Fahr.). It is especially to be recommended
to the pisciculturists who have a plentiful diet of in-
sects to offer it, as well as to those who desire to keep
their fish in small ponds, and to fatten them for mar-
ket from their earliest youth on a diet consisting
maiidy of meat and tish. It is very sociable and
tame, l)eing perfectly at its ease among fishes of dif-
ferent genera and sizes, while the Trout, on the con-
trary, is always shy and especially intolerant of smaller
companions."

" L. c, p. Ill; Bn't., Ir. ^almonidce, pp. 235 and 243.

' A line with flies or spinning baits, natural or artificial, and constructed, for surface-fishing, partly on the same principle as llie
otter-trawl for ground-fishing. An otter-board at the end of the line is arranged vertically floating at the surface, but ohlirjuely to the di-
rection of the rowboat, thus leaping ont from this and stretching the line, trolling the baits ou the water.

' Handbuch der Fischzttcht itnd Fischerei, p. 284.

.SALM(IM1)-K.

849

THE SALMON (sw. laxen).
SALMO SALAi;,

Plate XXXVII, tigs. :! ,in,l 4; plutes XXXVIII^XI..

Scales smnll, hut t/ieir nutnber in a Idiir/ifinliiKil roir ((hare the hiferul Vine jiiM in fraiil cf the pcrpendlcithir from

the her/iiniiiif/ of the dorsal Jin innt e.i tending (don;! ' ,„ (f the IriK/tli of the l/odi/ at most 24" (as a rale l(i —

20''), (Did in a similar ran- above the lateral line behind thr j)i'rpfndi<id((r from the be(/innin(j of the anal fin at

most 19' (as a rule 14 — 18). Sides of the bodi/ mure or less distincthi spotted ivith black.

R. Ill: (9)10—1-2(13)''; /).

(2)3-4
(7— 8)9— li

7-9(10)

C. ,r + 1 + 17 + 1 + ,r;

(10—11)12 — 14' ■ (6)7—8(9)'
Ser. S'jii. lat.' c« 120—140; Vert. 57-00'.

Si/n. Triitta 1. fSatiuo [iroprie, NiLss., 6'kand. Fn., Fisk\, p. 3(58.

Salmo .lalar, Suxdev., v. Wr., Skand. Fisk:, ed. I, tab. 58 et

59; Smitt, Vet.-Aliad. Hnndl., Bd. 21 (ISSri), No. 8,
p. 162.

Vnr. Salmo salav sens. etr. 1. nohiUs: S]>iiia- brniichinles laleri
nnteriori arcus prinii paiis aflixiu miineri suut niiniiiii 18—
vulgo 19 — 21(22). Longitudd ossis maxillaris ina.xiriiaiii

parleni

1 ,36

longitudiiiis corporis vel -^-^ longitudinis capitis

1000 """ '"'" 100

<Tqiiat. Distontia inter pinnam adiposam et pinnaiD candalem
longitiidiiie superat altitiulinem pinn;p aiialis. Altitude iniuiina

Cauda

parteii

Ijaud a-'iiiat. Macula- iiigra> sub lint-a latcrali nulla; vel pauca)
s<iluni adsiint.

Fig. 210. Two young Salmon, the upper figure a female 2 years old fr..i,. the Hatchery of HofsnioUa on the R. Laga in Halland, the
lower a mature male, hooked in the R. Nissa otf Halmstad in April. 1803. Natural size.

" Extremely seldom 25, in which case tl]e number of scales on the tail may lie employed as a character.

» 10—12 scales on an extent = ' , of the length of the head, as XiLSSON expressed this character; 9 — 13. according to Lilljeborq.

' Extremely seldom 21, in which case the number of scales on the forepart of the body may be employed as a character.

'' Extremely seldom 8 or 14.

' Couiited above the lateral line; in the lateral line itself 115 — 130. according to Day.

f Sometimes 61, according to Nilssos.

850

SCANDIXAVIAN FISHES.

.S'yH. Salmo. nobilis. ScHOSEV. Ichthyol. Slcsv. Hoist., p. 64
(nomen priflinneauiim nee inorlo systcmaticu propositimi);
Olafsen. Reise gm Ishnid, vol. I, p. G5; Pall., Zoogr.
Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. .542.

Salinulus, Willdghby, Hist. Pise, p. 192, tab. .Y, 2, fig. 2;
Ray, Syn. Meth. Pise, p. 63; Salmo salmidus, Tcrt., Brit.
Fna, p. 104; Jen., Man. Brit. Vert., p. 426; Fr., Vet.-
Akad. Handl. 1837, p. 3, tab. I.

Salmo rostro ultra iuferiorein niaxillani sfepe proininente, Art.,
Ichthi/ol., Gen. Pise. p. 11; Sy»., p. 22 (ubi Erio.v ex
Alberto Magno et e Cuba citatur); Descr. Spec, p. 48;
Lin., Fa. Suec, ed. I, p. 11.5.

Salmo Salar, LiN., Syst. Nat., r-d. X, toiii. I, p. 308 ( + .V.
Eriox, p.p.); Nilss., Prodr. Ichthyol. Seaiid.. p. 2; Yarr.,
Brit. Fish., ed. I, vol. 2, p. 1; Suppl. vol. 2, p. 1;
Ag.\ss., Hist. Nat. Poiss. d'eau dome, tab. 1 et 2; Jard.,
Bvit. Salmon., tab. 1, 2, 7, 8; Kr., Damn. Fi.ik., vol. 2,
p. .040; Nu.ss., Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1848, p. 62; Lill.i.,
ibid. 1849, p. 36; Nilss., Si-and. Fn., Fi.ik., p. 370; Hckl,
Kn., Stissivasserf. Oestr. Mon., p. 273; Storer, Mem. Amer.
Acad. Arts., Sc, vol. VI, pt. II, p. 320, tab. XXV, fig. 2;
Wgrn, dfvers. Vet.-Akad. F5rh. 1862, p. 541 , tab. IV, figg.
3 et 4, tab. XXII; Sieb., (7>«(te), Siissiva-fserf. Mitteleur.,
p. 292; Morn, Fi)d. Fishfn., (disp. Helsingf.), p. 58;
Gthr (Salmo), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. 11;
Steind. (Tnitia), Stzber. Akad. Wise. Wien., LIV, I (1866),
p. 23; Coll. (Salmo), Forb. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Til-
laigsb. p. 155; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 85; N. Mag. Natur-
vid. Chrnia, Bd. 29, p. 106; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fa., p.
534; Feddersen, Natiirh. Tiilskr. Kblivn, ser. 3, vol. XII,
p. 76; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., toiii. Ill, p. 625;
Smitt, UfveiK. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1882, No 8, p. 32; M6b.,
HcKE, Fisch. Osts., p. 124; Reut., Sunmi., Finl. Fisl-fn.,
tab. XVIH; Day, Brit. Salmon., p. 51, tab. Ill et IV;

LiLU., Si\, Norg. Fisk:, vol. II, p. 511; Fatio, Fn. Vei't.

Suisse; vol. V. p. 298.
Salmo hamatiis, Cuv., Regne Anim.. ed. 11. toni. II, p. 303;

Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., loin. XXI, p. 212, tab. 615.
Salmo Salmo, Cuv., Val., 1. c. p. 169, tab. 614.
Forniie iiitennediie:
Salmo Cauda bifurca; maculis solum nigris, sulco lougitudinali

in ventre. Art., Gen. Pise, p. 12; Syn. Pise, p. 25.
Salmo lacristris, LiN., Sy.tt. Nat., ed. X. tom. I, p. 309;

Agass., 1. c, tab. XIV et XV; Sieh. (Trtitta), I. c, p. 301;

Nilss., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p. 404.
Siilmo Schiefei-miilleri, Bl., Fisch. Deutschl., pt. Ill, p. 157,

tab. CIII; Retz., Fn. Suec, Lin., p. 348.
Salmo se/iago, GiR., Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. 1853, p. 380

+ S. gloveri, ibid. 1854, p. 85.
Salmo ocla, Nii.ss., Skatid. Fn., Fisk., p. 397.
Salmo salar, var. lacustris, Hardin, Ufvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh.

1861, p. 38-2 = Salmo Hardinii, Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus.,

Fish., vol. VI, p. 107.
Var. Salmo trutta 1. fario: Spiuic brancbiales lateri aDteriori

arcus primi paris affixa; numeri sunt maximi 17 (vulgo

14 — 16, rarius usque ad 18 unius lateris). Lougitudo ossis

maxillaris miiiimam partem

86 37

loiigitudinis corporis 1.

1000 100

longitudinis capitis superat. Altitudo pinnfe analis distantiam inter
pinnani adiposam et pinnam cnudalem mensura superat. Altitudo
27
100

superat. Color corporis inaculas nigras etiam sub linea laterali
crebras prsebet.
Syn. Trutta salmonata, Belon, Nat., Divers. Poiss., p. 274;
Trutta flnoiatilis. Rondel., De pise jluriat., p. 169. Salmo
u:h. 2 (p.p.), 3, 5, Art., Gen. Pise, p. 12.

Fig. 211. Two young Trout, immature females, booked in tbe R. Nissa off Halmstad in April, 1863. Natural size.

«.51

.Saliiio Eriii.c (p.p.), Li.N., .Si/.-<t. .\ut., ed. X, toiii. I, p. 308;
Tl-RT., JSril. FiM, p. 103; Jen., .\[itn. ISrit. Vert. Anim.,
p. 422; Kii., Daiim. Fi.ik., vol. II, p. (;02; Xass., Ufvers.
Vet.-Aknd. Fiirli. 1848, p. C3; LiLU., ibid., 1849, pp. 36—
37: NiLss., Sk-and. Fii., Fisk., p. 395; Coll., Forh. Vid.
Selsk. Chinia 1874, Tilliogsli., p. 157; ibid. 1879, Xo. 1,
p. 85; Olss., Clfvers. Vet.-Akad. FOrli. 1870, No. 3, p. 132;
ibid. 1882, No. 10, p. 4H; FEDPiiKs., 1. c, p. 77; Reut.,
Sr.\r>M., Fhd. F,.sk., tab. XVI el XVII.

Salmo Ti-iitia, Us., 1. c: Ul., Fiscli. Deud'cld., pt. I, p. 143,
(!ib. XXI (+ S. Ooedeiiii, pt. Ill, p. 155, tab. CII); NiLSS.,
Prudr. Irhthi/ol. Scand., p. 5 ( + .6'. 'yra^itfo, ibid.); Agass.,
1. c, tab. VI— VIII; Kr., 1. c, p. 582; NiLSS., Ofvers.,
1. c; iikand. Fn., Fisk., p. 40(5; Widon, Ofvers. Vet.-Akad.
Fiirli. lKt;2, p. .'ii;0, tub. IV, iigg. 1 et 2; tab. V; tab. VI,
fig. 1; tab. VII; tab. VIII: ibid. 1K(;4. p. 279, tab. VIII—
XIV; Nystbom, lakit. .feintl., (disp. Ups. 1863), p. 7; SlEB.
(Trntta), 1. c, p. 314; Mcnx, 1. c, p. (il; Stkind., 1. c,
p. 22; (iTHB {Salmo), 1. c, )). 22 (+ .b'. brachi/poma, -p. 87
4- .y. ijcdliuensis, p. 88 + iV. ;/!/V/o/).v, p. 105 + <S. vener-
iiciisi.'', p. 110 + S. poli/o.ifcns, p. Ill + ...); Malm, 1. c,
p. 538; Smitt, Ufvers., 1. c, p. 31; Hub., Hcke, Fisch.
Osts.. p. 126; LiLLJ., .Sc, Xoiy. Fi.«k., vol. II, p. 565.

.b\diiio Fario. LiN., 1. c, p. 309 (+ S. carpio, ibid.); Bl.,
1. c, pt. I, p. 148, tab. XXII ct XXIII: NiLSS., Prodi:,
p. 6; AiiAss., 1. c. lab. Ill — V: Kr., 1. c, p. 625; NiLSS.,
::>kn>id. Fn., Fi.sk., p. 415; Sieb. (7™Ha), 1. c, p. 319;
Stei.sd., 1. e., p. 24; Gthb (^Sabno), 1. c., p. 59 (+ S.
•ircadeii.ti.s. p. 91 + S. fero.v, p. 92 (ex Jard.) + .s'. sio-
i/uieliiiyi.s, p. 95 + <?>'. nii/rijiiiiiiis, p. 96 + S. levenensi.^;, p.
101 (e.\ Walker) + ...); Canestrini (Truttn), Fiia d'ltal.,
pt. Ill (Pesci), p. 24; .^postol., Peclie en Grece, p. 33;
Mr.B., Hcke, 1. o., p. 127.

.Sahno in,tnca, Wartmaxn, Sclir. Berl. Ges. Nalurf. Fr. 1783,
p. 55.

.Sahno aljunus, Bl., 1. c., pt. Ill, p.
tab. CIV.

Sdlnto candiricns, Doxov., Brit. Fish.
p. 34.

Salnio spimiLs, Pall., Zooijr., 1. c.,
LiN.N.Ei) + S. Iiiicho, p. 344 (nee. Lix.).

Snhno lemanw:, Cuv., B. Anim.. ed. 2, torn. II, p. 303 (+ -S'.
tndtn + 6'. ftirio + S. jiit?ictiitus + ■S. marmoi'attis, p. 304
+ .^aimlet, p. 305).

S<dino ferox, Jabp., N. Pliil. Journ. Edinb., vol. XVIII, p.
55: lirit. Salmon., tab. IV; NiLSS., Shind. Fn., Fisk.,
p. 412.

Fario argenieus, Cfv., Val., Hist. Nat. Pom.n'., toni. XXI. p.
300, tab.. 616 ( + F. lemamis, p. 300, tab. 617 + Salur
Ausvnii, p. 319, tab. 618 + S. BaiUoni, p. 342, tab.
619).

Genera Salar et Fario apnd Hckl., Kn., Sussicas-^erf. Oestr.
Man., p. 247 et cett.

■Halmo microps, Hardix, 1. e., p. 383.

158 (nee synon.),
tab. XCI; Gthr, 1. c.,
p. 343 {= fS. Eriox

Trutta i-iirialiilis, Lixel, ///.«(. .Xat. Poi.ir!. du basnin du Leman,

p. 140, tab. XVI— XVIII.
Sidmo lacn.stri:', Fatio, Fne Vert. .SV/.v-se, vol. V, p. 323.

The S;ilni()ii, with it.s imiltitii(K' <if naiiR'S, occurs
witliin the S<';iii(liii;i\ i;ui hiiimi in iiuiuerous varieties,
both (if I'orm iiiid cohnir, the extremes being very easy
to (listiiigiiisli liy well-marked cliaraeters, but connected
by intermediate forms in a manner that compels us,
after a comparative study, to comprehend them under
one specific designation. The most clearly distinct
varieties lKi\'e long been known by different names in
popiihir [i;irlaiiee, ;iii(l are now recognised even in
scientific nomenclature, the first as the Trout (Sw.
Gralax, Stilmo tnitta), the second as the Salmon (Sw.
Blankhi.i-, SnJmn miUh). Tht; Sidmon is generally the
larger: it attains, according to l>i;cKi,Axn°, a length of
14 dm. and a weight of il^U kilo.'', and Fatid' men-
tions specimens as much as IB dm. long; but even the
Trout (if the determination be correct) sometimes mea-
sures nearly 1-1 dm.'

The chief external distinction between these two
varieties consists in the more elongated form, the short-
er maxillaries, and the more scattered .spots of the
Salmon. In 1848 a fisherman from Elfl^arleby showed
LiLL.iEBoiiG a practical method of telling a Trout from
a Salmon merely by taking it in the hand. If you
grasp a Salmon round the tail, you have no difficulty
in holding it fast; but a Trout held in this manner
easily slips out of the hand. This is due to the greater
contraction of the peduncle of the tail in the Salmon,
a character \vhich also affords the safest expression of
the greater elongation of the body in this form. The
least depth of the tail in the Salmon is less than 28 %
(as a rule less than 25 %), in the Trout about 30 %,
of the preabdoininal length (the distance between the
foremost }iaints in the insertions of the pectoral and
ventral fins), fkit this character liolds good only in
adidt and typical specimens. The case is the same
with another character expressing the same difference
in the form of the body: the length of the dorsal
margin of the peduncle of tlie t;iil (behind the adipose
fin) is greater in the Salmon, less in the Trout, than

- .V(((. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 292.

' According to information received by tbe Swedish Fisheries < 'nniinission of 1881 — 83, tlie Salmon in Sweden attains a length of
at least 1' 3 m. and a weight of at least 25' \ kilo.

' Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. V, p. 305.

•' Day, Brit., Ir. Salm., p. 181. The above-mentioned Commission was informed that in Sweden tlie Trout attains a length of 9
dm. and a weiglit of 7-'^ kilo.

852

SCAXDIX AVIAN l-'ISHi::

tlie height of the iuiul fin. Uiit in liie young this elia-
racter loses its validity, as well as in very old male
Salmon during the spawning-season. Tlie length of
tlie maxillaries is, as a rule, less in tlie Salmon, greater
in the Trout, than 8 % of that of the body or 3(5 %
of that of tlie head; hut the ciianicter, whieh was ori-
ginally sexual, ajiplies only to typieal specimens. Sal,-
mon, as mentioned above, in general have comparatively
larger scales than Trout. Glnther and Day have ex-
])ressed this b^- the statement that, in an oblique trans-
verse row tbrward from the posterior extremity of the

Fig. 212. Vomer of a Salmon {A) aiirl a Tronl (B), seen from
below (f/) ami from the left {h). Natural size. After v. Siebolp.

adipose fin to tlie lateral line, the Salmon has 11 or
12 scales, the Trout 13 — 15. lUit even tliis charai'ter
holds good only in tj-pical specimens", and sometimes
the two sides of the body differ in this respect'.

Among the internal characters that may be used
to distinguish Trout from Salmon, Ave have al)ove
mentioned the number of tlie gill-rakers, which in the
outer ro^v on the front of the lirst bi'anchial arch is,
as a rule, under 17 in the Trcnit, over 17 in the Sal-
mon, or, if it be greater in the former, made up in
front and at the anterior upper corner of verrucose,
spiniferous protuberances. Another character, derived
from the shape and dentition of the vomer, has receiNcd

special attention of v. Siiciioi.n. In tvjtical Salmon the
head of the vomer has a inure or less distinct pent-
agonal or hexagonal shape, in Trout it is triangular.
In the former the vomerine teeth disappear earlier, and
in old Salmon are sometimes almost entirely wanting:
whereas even the oldest Trout commonly have several
teeth not only in a transverse row on the liase of the
head of the vomer, but also in a double or single row-
along the carina on its shaft.

But these internal characters are no more trust-
worthy than the external: the naturalist \vho examines
hundreds of specimens will find them too often merged
in each other.

i^ole. One of tlie best examples to show the relation of the
two varieties to each other, as regards the last-mentioned characters,
seems to be afforded by the attempts to introduce the typical Salmon
into the Lake of Geneva''. These experiments were commenced by
flie hatching of Salmon cffgs from the Rhine and from the hatchery
of Hiiningen; but the fry excluded from these ova escaped into
the Rlione, and none of tliem was ever regained and identified with
certainty. From 1857 to 1860, according to Chavannes, about 7,000
fry were placed in the feeders of the lake, and during 1863 about
4,600; and in 1882 a pisciculturist, LUGRIN by name, is said to
have deposited nearly 100,000 Salmon fry in the Rhone near Geneva.
Hardly any results, according to both Lunel and Fatio, are known
to have been attained by these experiments: the 'Salmon' which liave
been caught from time to time in the Lake of Geneva, have proved
on closer examination to be Trout. The latter author, however, is
still dubious with regard to at least three finds. In these specimens
Trout and Salmon characters were blended, and especially in two of
them the vomer was most nearly approximated to its Salmon type.
Though it is indeed possible that all the Salmon fry have been de-
stroyed, it seems more probable that during growth the fry have
passed to the Trout form, as this appears in its normal development
where the water offers to the fish no practicable means of commu-
nication with the sea.

The Salmon is so well known that a minute de-
scription would be here superfluous, especiall}- as it
differs but slightly from the Charr, which we have
just described, ^^'e may instead refer the reader to
our figures and to the following comparative table of
tlie mo.st important external characters, expressed in
averages which have been computed 1) in the first
two columns, from our measurements of Trout in the
Forell, Ori)ir/, and Salmon stages and of t}-piral Sal-
mon at the same periods of growth^ 2) in the third
column fi'om all these measurements combined for each
character, and 3) in the fourth column from the cor-
responding measurements of Scandinavian Cliarr.

triitUi _riin-uifilis (the Freshwater Trout) Day assigns in his last work {Brit., h: SiibnonuUr, p. 109) 12 — 15 scales

RihsHiuseets Salmonidev.

" To Sal
in the said row.

'' See, for example, specimens Kos. 284, 285 and 306 in Tabula nictrica W in Smitt'
' See LuNEL, 1. c, pp. 128 — 130, and Fatio, 1. c, pp. 308—313.

So?,

Length of the hody I'xpiesseil in millimetres

Lenslh of the hcnd

„ „ ,, .. rcdueed (from the hind extremity of the iutermnxillnri

gia of the preopcrculum)

Hravdth of the inlLToi-bitiil space

Length of the snout

% of the length of the boJ>

to the hind mnr-

id the tin of the snout..

„ ,. lower jnw

Longitlldinnl diiimeler of the ey

Vertieal

Length of the suboperculnm

Distance between the dorsal lin

Base of the dorsal tin

Height ,

Length of the pectoral tins...;

Prcabdominal length

Distance between the veutral tias and the tip of the snout

Length of the ventral tins

Postabdoniiual length

Base of the anal fin

Height.. ., ,. „

Dorsal margin of the peduncle of the tail

Ventral ,, ., „ ,,

Least depth of the tail

Length of the middle caudal rays

., ., ., longest ,, ,,

Breadth of the maxillarics in % of the length of the head rcdi

„ ., ., ., „ „ „ ,. ., „ mnxillarii

Number of gill-rakers in the outer row on the first branchial

Xumbe

of scales

longitudinal ro

f the right side

„ „ „ „ ,, „ left „ ._..

', ,, of the length of the body just above the lateral 1!)

aud in front of the dorsal tin
., .ibove the anal fin

S.9
13.0
3.1
;5.i

5.4

42.3

11.8
IS.ii
15.1
29.0
49.2

11.8

■20.4

8.5
12.2
11.3
12.1

14.4

14.S

24.7

15

15

20

17

I'rue
ImoM.

•Salmons.

Charr.

91

3U4

333

20.8

21.4

21.5

13.5

14.fi

14.4

i;.9

7.2

(;.9

0.7

ii.a

(ic

7.2

S.i;

8.5

11.7

13.3

13.4

3.2

3.4

3.3

2.9

3.1

3.0

5.2

5.4

4.9

41.3

42.1

43.7

11.5

11.8

10.3

11.0

12.3

11.9

14.C

15.0

14.9

29.7

29.1

28.9

49.1

49.1

49.2

10.8

11.7

ll.G

20.0

20.4

20.9

7.9

8.4

8.4

9.(5

11.8

10.5

12.1

11.3

12.0

13.3

12.4

13.0

7.4

8.0

7.2

(i.o

7.5

6.9

14.5

14.4

15.1

13.4

14.5

12.4

25.1

24.7

21.0

18

—

23

18

—

24

IS

—

■30

15

_

26

The first two columns of this table show 1 ) the
differences between typical Trout and Salmon, 2) the
developmental alterations of Salmons during the more
advanced stages of growth, the latter partly I)ecause
the Trout, as we have proved above, in most of their
characters represent the earlier stages of growth, parti}-
because the specimens measured were on an average
shorter than the typical Salmon included in the table.
The last two columns, on the otiier hand, sliow the
relation of the Salmons to the Charr; and although the
Charr measured were tjn an average shorter than the
Salmons, still we see that in the great majority of
cases the percentages of the former Ijetoken a more
advanced development, in the direction indicated by
the changes of growth in the tirsr columns of the
table. Where the relation is the contrary, and cannot

lie explained liy the difference of age, as in the case
of the distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of
the snout in proportion to the length of the bodj-, or
the breadth of the raaxillaries in proportion to tlieir
length, another factor, the difference of sex, has as-
serted itself. In the males the dorsal tin is, as a rule,
situated further back, and the maxillaries are longer,
than in the females; and here the Charr repre.sents the
male characters.

The Salmon, like otiier fishes, is subject to va-
rious malformation.s. Tiiese are especially prevalent
and have received most attention at hatcheries", where
the fry live under more or less unnatural conditions,
and wliere there is bc^tter opportunity for observation
than in nature. One of these deformities, that may
often be seen, is the so-called pug-nose (reduction of

" See, for example, Day, British and Irish ^almonidic, \>\. XII.

854

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

the rostral region), Avhich may be persistent in Salmon
normal in all other respects, and admits of quite a
considerable development (fig. 213).

The Salmon leads a life full of changes, and it
ada])ts itself to tiiiini botii in form and colouring. The
form undergoes the same variations as in the Charr,
but is never so terete as it may sometimes be in the
latter. Most terete, most nearly fusitorin, though always
laterally compressed, is the true Salmon in its sea-
dress, with broad, convex liack and sometimes with
the greatest thickness of the body equal to two-thirds
of its greatest depth, which is then aliout one-fifth of
the length to the middle of the base of the caudal fin.
The difference from the Trout in the same dress is,
however, inconstant and sometimes absent; and in the

Trout is, as a rule, more evident in the above respect:
it is generally easy to distinguish by the form young

Salmun (lihnikla.r-forelh-y) from young Trout { fnrcJler),
the liod^' (jf the former being shallower, with tlie
greatest depth less than one-fiftli of the length. At
this stage, however, the difference is most marked in
the more or less forked shape of the caudal fin: in
young Salmon the length of the middle caudal rays is
less, in "\oung Trout move, than half that of the long-
est raj-s in the fin. As apjiears from the tal)le ot
averages on the preceding page, this character is in-
deed persistent, in typical specimens of the two varie-
ties, even in later life: l)ut it disappears in old Sal-
mon ^\•earing tlie spawning-dress, and sterile Trout
have a caudal fin most like that of typical Salmon.

■■- ^'i^^'\~ f^ ,4^j^^.^i^^^

Fig. 2l?>. Moustrnus head (siiiioiis nialforniatiou) of a Salmo salar veiteviiensis, taken by Mr. Daiilgrkn' in If
((, from the left; h. from in front. The specimen probably nieasnred 7 — 8 dm.

■ ., of the natural size;

Spawning-dress they both assume a deeper and thinner
form of body. This is especially prominent in old
males; which dui'ing the spawning- season develop, be-
sides the singular jaw-hook, to which we shall return
below, a high and more or less sharp dorsal projection
in front, supported internally by an indurated connec-
tive tissue. This hump, however, in no instance attains
the same development in the Salmons as in Charr of
the OnchorJii/nchiis group". Where tlie true Salmon
lives confined in fresh water, as in Lake Wener, it
also acquires as a general rule a deeper, more com-
pressed form; and that the Kelts (sjjcnt Salmon) have
a thinner body, we have already remarked. During
the earlier stai;'es the distinction between Salmon and

Among the changes of growth tiiat most contri-
bute to modify the appearance of the Salmons, the
most striking are those which affect the form of the
snout. In j'oung Salmon the snout is comparatively
short and blunt; but its length sometimes increases
with age from about .S ?a'' to about 13 %' of that of
the body, or from aliout '21 %'' to 47 %'' of that of
the head reduced. Tiiis prolongation mainly affects
the anterior, prixMiasal part, the nostrils remaining at
a di.stance from the anterior orbital margin which in
young specimens is less, in old only slightly greater,
than the diameter of the eyes. The elongation pro-
ceeds uniformly in the females and the middle-sized
males, wliere the snout ac<|uires a moi-e or less point-

" See Smitt, liiksvniseets iSalmonider, tafl. Ill, fig. 28.

'' In Parrs.

' lu the largest breeding niahs of the typical Salmon which we have been enabled to examine.

Hi-

ed, coiiical sliM|ie: hut in old iiiides this |irof(_'ss is
;icci)in|iiuii('d ])y ;i depression iti fVunt, tlic iiitcniiMxil-
);ir\" hones heini;' ])artpd from each othcT, and the inr-
dian I'egion (if tlie jiru'nasa! ]>art lieini;' liollnwccl un(h'r-
neath or even perforated, to reecivc the tip of tiie
ln)(il< simnltaneouslj' formed 1)V an upward growth nf
indurated connective tissue from tile point of tiie lower
JMw. Tlicse old males are known in popular language
h\ the name of krakhixar (Hook Salmon, the French
hiiard, Sdlmo //diiialKs, see aI)ove).

Not onl\- have these males with their singular
snout — the function of \vhich is not yet known" —
Keen regarded as a distinct species, but the same rank
1 1 IS also l)een conferred, for their short snout and pe-
culiar coloration, on the two stages of growth follow-
ing next after the frv, the Parrs (Salmo salmidus) and
the Foreller or so-called Common Trout (Salmo fiirio).

Even in early youth the ground-colour of the
Salmons varies according to the colour and light of
their environments. v. Wkigut's iigure (Plate XL,
fig. 1 ) represents a young specimen some months old
as it appears during the assumption of the dress \\hich
is more fully developed in the Parr stage.

The dress of the Parrs is described at length liy
Fries (1. c), from the coloration of the Salmon fry in
NorrkSping River: "The top of the head and the back
are olive-green, with dark, round, stellate spots and
patches along the back. These small, dark spots ex-
tend in front down to the lateral line; but from the
neighbourhood of the dorsal tin to the caudal they
terminate half-way between the dorsal edge and the
lateral line. The belly is white with a dash of yellow.
The sides are of a handsome light yellow shading
into red. Along the lateral line lie N or 9 small,
round orange spots and the same numljcr'' of large
and oval, bluish patches, set transversely and crossed
half-way up by the lateral line. These patches (the

so-called Parr markings) alternate witii the orange
spots'. .'Miove each eye is an arch of 4 round, dark
spots, and further back, Ijetween these arelies, are 3
similar spots, set in a triangle; but all these markings
may be more or less distinct, and they show some
variation. N'ery constant, on the other hand, are the
two round, black s])ots that adoi'n the gill-c(jvers,
though their size and position vai-y. In most cases
one of them is situated at the centre of the operculum,
the other in front of the preoperculum, just behind
the eye. Sometimes traces of a third spot may bc^
detected at the very margin of the operculum. The
dorsal fin is of a light olive green, with one distinct
and one less prominent and irregular row of dark spots,
the former at the bottom, rpiite near the ])as(! and
parallel to the back, the latter along the middle of the
tin. The anterior corner shades into flame-yellow,
marked off by a dark gray band, which starts from
the tip of the second simple raj' and runs in a straight
line to that of the fourth branched ray''. The adipose
fin wears the olive-green colour of the back, with yel-
lowish tip. The caudal fin is olive-green, tinged with
yellow, edged witli flame-yellow above, below, and,
less distinctly, behind. The anal fin is of a dirty yel-
low, with the outer part of the anterior margin lighter,
and with an indistinct gra}- band obliquely across the
anterior corner. The pectoral fins are olive-green Avith
a darker band across the middle. The ventrals are
similar in colour and markings to the anal fin. The
pupil is rounded and very large in the living fish, but
after some exposure to the atmosphere it assumes a
triangular shape. The flesh is white, without red
tinge."

During the Forell stage the two varieties differ
more widely from each other, for the young Salmon
make their way to the sea as early as possible, and
when this instinct begins to awaken, thej' gradually

" Many coDJecturcs liave been made cm tliis lieait. Some liave supposed tliat the liook is a kind of spade or tlirusting apparatus to
bo used in working holes to receive the eggs. But, so far as is known, the female is at least more active tlian the male in this operation.
Others have thought it to be a hook with which the male holds the female fast while spawning. But the most trustworthy observers have
seen the spawning performed witliout its assistance. Others, again, have suggested that it is n protective organ, to prevent the males from
inflicting too severe injuries on their rivals in the breeding-season. But such means of protection seem far from natural. The least violent
explanation appears to be that the hook is an essentially pathological appearance, characteristic of age, but produced bj- the irritation caused
by blows on the snout, both during combats and in leaping over obstacles.

' Sometimes, however, as many as 1.5.

'■ The ground-colour of the sides generally grows lighter round the I'arr markings, at least along their lower m^irgin, thus rendering
llicin still more prominent.

■* Cf. the analogous marking (the corner pure white and the stripe black) on the dorsal fin of Trout Parrs, according to .Jakpink,
British Salmo/iida, pi. XI.

ficondinaeinn Fishes. 108

856

SCANIJINAVIAX FISHES.

adopt tlieir briglit dress. The Parr markings and the
red spots slowly disappear, and the sides of the body
at tiie same time exchange their orange ground-colour
for a brighter and brighter silvery lustre, caused by
the depositing of a silvery pigment on the inner sur-
face of the scales and opercula. Now, and not until
now, do tlie scales begin to be quite distinct. Young
Salmon of this age are known in England as Smolts.
Great irregularity, ho'wever, may be observed in the
growth of these Parrs and the consequent alteration of
colour. At Stormontfield, among a brood excluded from
eggs impregnated at the end of December, 1861, and
hatched in April, 18()!2, were found on the 1st of April,
1863", some specimens 54 mm. long and V'^ grammes
in weight, others 92 mm. long and 3'., grin, in weight,
and others 165 mm. long and 37'/^ grm. in weight.
Only tiie last were Smolts, and these would probably
have migrated to the sea the same season, the others
not until the following year or even the year after
that.

Tlie alteration in the colouring of young Trout
after the Parr stage is genei'ally not great, provided
tiiat they belong to a race wliich is either unal)le or
has no inclination to enter salt water. They assume
a dress in which they are known as Foreller (Eng.
River Ti'out, Common Trout), and which they may
retain in small, land-locked waters almost unchanged
tlu'ougiiout their life. Under these conditions their
growth too is inconsiderable, v. Wkights iigure (Plate
XL, fig. 2) represents a common Scandinavian Forell.
The orange ground-colour of the sides and the red
spots on the lateral line — each surrounded here by a
more distinct, liglit ring — are persistent; and both
above and below the lateral line there appear similar
spots, scattered over the sides of the body'. At the
same time the number and extent of the dark (Ijlack)
spots on the back and head are generally increased,
these spots now occurring even down the sides, while
the Parr markings disappear. The dorsal fin also shows
an increased number of black spots, and in this fin
— but more commonly in the ventral and anal fins
alone — the anterior margin sometimes becomes red or
white, which colour is usually marked off sharply be-
hind, as in the Charrs, by a black streak. The young
Trout which are to repair to the sea or the great lakes

assume, like the Salmon Parrs, a ligliter, more and
more sihery dress.

In salt water, as well as in the great lakes, the
main alteration in the colouring of the Salmons after
the Forell (Smolt) stage affects the black spots, which
pass from a round or irregularly angular shape to a
stellate form (X-spots). As a rule, however, though
by no means always, the two varieties may be distin-
guished even in the sea by their coloration, the Sea
Trout being usually more thickly spotted than the true
Salmon, and bearing numerous black spots even below
the lateral line and on the greater part of the Ijody,
even behind. Such is the case with the Tabncn from
Tornea figured by v. Wright (Plate XXXVIII, fig. 3).
Under certain conditions, however, especially in the
sterile individuals mentioned above and in the speci-
mens which should probably be explained as hybrids
(mongrels), this difference vanishes. Nor is there any
constant distinction in colouring between the marine
form kno\vn in England as the Sewin {Salmo camhri-
cus) and a true Salmon. How this distinction asserts
itself in Scandinavian waters, may be gathered from
a comparison between v. Wright's figures of a Salmon
(Plate XXXVm, fig. 1) and a Silver Salmon (Plate
XXXVIII, fig. 2).

The Salmon ^vhich have no access to the sea or
to any large, deep, and clear lake — whose Oriiig and
Lax stages are thus moi-e immediate progressions from
the Forell stage — are remarkable for the exceeding
inconstancy of their colours, whence Lunel proposed
to unite them under a distinct specific name, Tniita
raruiltilis. In Scandinavia, as elsewhere, they occur in
brooks, rivers, and lakes. They are usually' small, '/j
— 1 lb. in weight, but frequently weigh 10 lbs., some-
times up to 18 lbs. Their coloration — lighter (redder)
or darker (sometimes nearly black), with denser or
more scattered red and black spots — is determined,
as in most fishes, primarily by the colour and light
of their surroundings, but also, in a high degree, by
their food. Of this as clear evidence as one could
desire was afforded by a visit in 1883 to Sir James
Maitlanu's hatcheries at Howietown (near Stirling).
Two of the ponds contained, among other fishes, a
variety of Trout from Loch Leven (Salmo lerenensis).
In one pond, where they were fed on horseflesh, the

" See TAe Field for the 25th of April, 1863.

' Red spots above the lateral line are not uncommon in young

857

silver^' oolouv proNailerl on the sides of the liody, while
in the otiier, where their diet consisted of eriislied
seaiio])s (I'ecfeii), the ground-colour was orange, not
unlike that of an (Jriiiff from Bohuslan figured by v.
\^''l!Iclll•^ (i'late XL, tig. 3). One of these Trout varie-
ties, the darkest and most thickly covered with l)]ack
s])ots, sometimes spotted with black even on the pale
ventral side, but often — where it has attained a suffi-
cient size — without red spots, has been named by
Jai!1)ink SdJnio ferox. The same variet\- is ct)nimonly
the largest fresh-water Trout in Scandinavia, and the
males are furnished during the spawning-season with
a hook almost as large as in old males of the true
Salmon.

The Salmon in all its stages of growth is a pre-
datory tish of great voracity. Where it ro\es in the
sea — as along the greater part of the ■west coast of
Europe, in the White Sea, and in the Baltic — it lives
on all kinds of animals, principally crustaceans (shrimps),
Herrings (Baltic Herring) and Sand-Eels. To the last
it seems to be especially partial, and in quest of them
it resorts in large shoals to the sandy shallows off the
coasts of Scania and Pomerania. In these waters a
seine-fishery has been instituted, the seine being shot
in the sea, we may almost say, at hazard, and drawn
ashore freipieiith' with a good haul of Salmon. Tliis
fishery is carried on during spring, in I\larch, April,
and ^lay. Another fishery, based on the well-known
voracity of the Salmon, is pursued, as mentioned above,
with long-lines (Salmon-lines) in the south of the Bal-
tic by Swedish, German, and Danish fishermen". During
the roving excursions of the Salmon in the south of
the Baltic at the season specified above, drift-nets are
also used. As the spring advances, however, and the
North Baltic with the Gulf of Bothnia becomes open,
the marine Salmon begin their journey thither. They
are taken here and there on the way' with gill-nets
and long-lines, at least up to the island-belt of Stock-
holm. Farther north thev come to the shoi'e-traps
(so-called stake-nets and mockor), to which have been
added in recent times the so-called Finnish stor-ryssjor,
where many of the Salmon making for the rivers meet
their fate. In the rivers the marine Salmon eats hardly
any food, at all events after it has been there some

time, (hough the eagerness with which it takes the
fly-fisher's bait in th(> lower courses of the Scandina-
vian rivers, shows that it has not j'et laid aside its
voi'acity. Different are the habits of the River Trout
an<l the large Salmon of the lakes. Hardly any other
fish can l)e said to be more voracious or a more greedy
eater in proportion to its size. Brehm has described
the life of the IJivei- Trout''. "In quickness and dex-
terity of movement," he says, "hardly any river fish
sur]iasses the Trout. It is probably to be included
among the fishes that are nocturnal in their hal)its;
all observations indicate, at least, that the Trout does
nut display its full activity until evening, and prefers
to perform its priiii'i]ial task, the procuring of food,
by night. In the daytime they mostly take shelter
under projecting stones in the bank or in any hollow
or cranny of the rocks to be found in the wafer which
they inhabit. But when everj'thing around them is
perfectly still, they move about in the open even by
day, always \\ith the head pointing up the stream.
Here they either remain apparently motionless at the
same spot for a (piarter of an hour or more, though
their fins really move with sufficient i-apidity to coun-
teract the current, or dart like arrows through the
Avater, following the main channel with surprising
adroitness, and in this manner finding their way along
shallow brooks, where you would think it impossible
for them to advance. When disturbed, they retreat,
if possible, to some hiding-place, for they are among
the most timid and cautious of all fishes. Streams
with a swift current they descend by two different
devices, either by turning their heads up the river and
letting themselves slowly drift with the stream, or bj-
summoning up all their powers and shooting so rapidly
through the wafer as far to exceed the rate of the
current. While the Trout is at rest, it carefully sur-
veys its preserves, the water beside and before it and
the surface or the air over its head. If an insect,
whether great or small, approaches the post occupied
by the Trout, if keeps anxious watch until the insect
has come within reach, and then, with a powerful
blow or two of the caudal fin, rushes upon its victim,
or leaps out of the water to .secure its prey. While
the Trout is younir, it feeds mostly on insects, worms.

" See Bexecke, Fische, Fischerei itnd Fisrhzncht in Ost- nnd Westpreusscn. p. 401, and Lu.ndbeko, Meddelanden rorande Sveriges
Fiskerier, l:sta haftet, p. 78, tab., fig. 18.

' Thierleben, Grosse Ausg., Abth. Ill, Bd. II, p. 227; De kallblodiga ryggradsdjurens lif (Sw. transl. 2nd ed.), p. 358.

«58

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

leeches, mollusks, small fishes, and frogs. IJut as soon
as it has attained a weight of 1 — l'^ kilo., it rivals
in voracity all other predatory fishes of the same size,
being hardly surpassed by the Pike, and boldly attacks
any living tiling which it believes it can overcome,
not excepting its own progeny, though the peaceful
Bleaks and Gwyniads are perhaps its most frequent
victims. Even in later life, however, its diet is com-
posed mainly of all insects that live in the water in a
larval or a perfect state, and small crustaceans. Its
partiality to the former is so great that it seems to
suffer from want of food, if other insectivorous fishes
— even those which it readily preys upon itself —
multiply too extensively in the same waters." When
the lemmings migrate from the mountain tracts of
Lappmark, and endeavour, as they often do, to swim
the rivers in their path, they are devoured in numbers
by the large Trout {GraJaxar).

Such is the life led by the true fresh-water Sal-
mons from the extreme nortli of Europe to the south-
ernmost parts of Spain, in Algiers, Asia Minor, and
probably, to the north of the Hindu Kush. In those
southern regions they are reminiscences of the time
when their present abodes were connected with seas
cold enough for the Salmon to thrive and rove about
in their waters. Their occurrence in Africa is no so-
litary phenomenon; the range of the Sticklebacks shows
the same memories of primeval times. Since the Me-
diterranean has become too warm and perhaps too salt
for the Salmons, they have succeeded in adapting them-
selves to their environments in some scattered rivers
and lakes, and in there maintaining their existence at
the Forell stage. In Scandinavia these are the fishes
that ascend to the greatest heights among the moun-
tains, as high as a fish can well advance in the moun-
tain lakes and lirooks. Clear and oxygenated waters,
freshened by rushing fixlls, are the favourite haunts of
tiie Kiver Trout. On the plains and to sluggish, clayey
rivers it is a. stranger. In Switzerland, according to
Fatio", it ascends to a height of 2,680 m. above the
sea-level. In salt water, on the other hand, the range
of the Salmon is terminated to tiie south by Cape

Finisterre, in al)out 4o° X. lat., and it thus does not
enter the Mediterranean. On the west side of the
Atlantic its southward range extends to about 41° N.
lat., but there its northward extension is not so great.
It occurs, it is true, up to the middle of Labrador,
but is ]irobal)lv ^vanting in Greenland and on the west
coast of North America. It has, however, been intro-
duced, after several unsuccessful attempts, both about
18t)0 and in more recent years, into Australia' and
New Zealand, where Trout, originally hatched from
ova of the English River Trout, are said to have
adopted the habits ;ind dress of the migratory Sal-
mons'. From these regions Day'' received, among
other specimens, a male and a female, the former mea-
suring 825 mm., the latter 800 mm., whose characters
he found most closely to resemble those of the English
Sdlmo ferox.

The Salmon spawns, like the (Jharr, in iiutumii
and winter. As a general rule it is, no doubt, true
that the Salmon is bound by its love of home to re-
turn from the sea to spawn in the watercourse and
the place where it was itself born and bred. Herein
it is guided liy instinct so unerring that in many lo-
calities the fishermen declare they can distinguish with-
out fail bet\veen Salmon belonging to different rivers,
even if the mouths of two or more of these rivers lie
close besides each other. Marked fish have often been
retaken in the river where they had been marked and
set at liberty. But exceptions also occur; according
to Day', for example, Salmon have been seen making
their way up the Thames, a river which had long
been deserted by the true Salmon. From the results of
the fishery in the rivers which fall into the Gulf of
Bothnia, it is also known that the run of the Salmon
in these rivers — more plentiful one year in one stream,
less plentiful in another — is greatly affected by diffe-
rent states of wind and weather, which ^vould ]:)robably
exert a less appreciable influence if the same Salmon
always repaired to the same river.

Early in spring, soon after the breaking up of
the ice, the Salmon begin to appear at the mouths ot
the rivers which they are to ascend. The Salmon is

" Fne Suisse, vol. V, p. 373.

' See NicoLS, The Acclmatisat/on of tJie Salmonidcv at the Antipodes, London 1882.
' Day, British tSalmoytidw, p. 145.
'' L. c, p. 198.
' L. c, p. 66.

859

then in its bust (■(HKlitioii, tliough infested with a lumi-
])(']• (if iiiirasitcs, wliicli it ijets rid of in fresh water,
where tlie\' di(>. I'nr a time it nives to and fro in
tiie lirackish water: hut wiien the s[irinoj Hoods come,
it coinnienees tlie ascent in earnest. ISnt not all the
Salmon arrive at the same time; the companies seom
o-enci'allv to (-(intain some 80 — 100 fish, and tiie ascent
nia\- last the wIhiIc summer. ThrouLihiiut the season
for the ujiNvard j(iurne\', the Salnum mav be seen
throng'ing at the surface and Icapin^^' into the air huth
in the sea off the months of the rivers and in the
lower l>art of tlieir course; hut hi,i;hcr u|i the stream
the\' nnister in an angular fdrmatiun, like that observenl
bv liirds iif passage, with one of the strongest fish at
their head, and the others tailing off gradually on each
witig. In this array they sometimes advance "with
such vigour," savs Gisler, "that the din thereof has
been heard on shore like a storm or subdued thunder,
the tish now and then swinnning with the back half
above water or aiipearing like waves on the surface."
In stormy weather or oppressive heat, however, the}'
keep nearer to the bottom. The females usually lead
the way, the smallest males bringing up tlie rear; and
when the tisherman takes one of the latter, he may
conclude that the main body of the shoal has passed
hy. When obstacles bar their progress, they disperse;
but the ranks are again closed when by strength or
cunning the impediment has been surmounted. If they
come to a fall, tliey pass it by leaping, perhaps after
many unsuccessful attempts and only by springing
from one resting-place to another, found behind some
stone or jutting rock with slack water under its lee.
In this manner the Salmon leap to a height of 1 —
1' ,, m. and a distance of 2 — 3 m., if necessary; and
from the brink of the fall they advance seemingly
none the worse for their exertions. But many of them
fail in the endeavour, and pay the penalty with their
lives. Natural obstacles are, however, less destructive
to the Salmon than the contrivances of man. In the
sea it is intercepted, as we have mentioned above, by
apparatus of ordinary design, nets hung on stakes
driven into the bottom, st'nuulsdtt in Halland, xtakandt
{mockor) in Norrland (fig. 214), and kihiotar (mostly
in Norway), with a long arm straight out from the
shore and a bend {kil) at the outer end, or Finnish
storryssjor, in which the bend is replaced by a huge
ryssja (p. 33, tig. 7) and its short arm. In the lower
parts of the rivers too similar nets are used, tor in

214. PliiM of a stiikc-nut willi tlie so-called mocha or juta
(the angle at (lie outer end), .\fter Lundberg.

the R. Laga. Salmon-pens (huf/drdar) are also con-
structed, these consisting, according to law, of upright
stakes at a fixed distance from each other; within these
the larger Salmon are detained for a time also ap-
pointed bv law and taken in seines, into which they
are driven -with 'beaters', or (Miticed into so-called kar,
constructed in the same manner, where they may be
caught with greater ease. Baskets are also hung in
the falls, for the Salmon to drop into if they miss the
leap. The rivers are lined too with more expensive
engines, patur, minor, tbihyggnader, and vrakhus. The
first are built on the same principle as the Salmon-
pens, of npriglit stakes, but the shore arm and the
interior of the court itself are covered with nets, and

\

Fig. 215. Plan of a pala in the Ume Elf, built out from the right

bank. The arrows indicate the direction of the current.

.\ftcr Lundberg.

within the court, the entrance of which is first closed
with a net, seines are hauled. The minor (fig. 216)

Fig. 216. Plan of a Salmon mina at Baggbolc (Ume Elf). The
arrows indicate the direction of the current. After Lundeero.

860

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

jirc regular lock-weirs, with sluices abov<! and below, tlie
fbi'iner in two rows. The u})])eruiost row (a) is merely
a grating, which continually lets the water through,
as well as the gates (c) at the lower end. TJie latter are
let (Inwii only when tiie watertight gates in the second
row at tiie upper end (/>) are shut, the water now running
out, l)ut the fish being left behind. In tlie fiiihi/fff/iiadcr
large Salmon-traps {thtor) are set. wliich ari' lifted witii
a hoist when they are to be examined". Tlie n-((l,-JNis
are, strictly speaking, large kar (see above, Salinon-
jjens), constructed lieside a race. So manifold are these

Fig. 217. A Sahiiou

contrivances that Sweden, to her cost, can boast of
her \\'ealth of devices for the taking of Salmon.

In order to counterbalance the destruction M^rought
by these engines, and to extend the run of the Sal-
mon by enabling them to surmount falls otherwise
im|)assal)le, SdlnHDi stairs are built. In these the force
of the water is diminished by transverse walls pro-
jecting alternately from the sides, and extending across
more than half the -width of the staircase but not
reaching to the opj)osite side. The stairs may be erected
beside a fall in many different modes, according to

the nature of the locality; but care should Ise taken
to avoid ])lacing the lower opening of the stair in the
same direction as the fall, and to turn it obliquclv
across the stream or, .still better, straight against the
current.

The River Trout too — even those which pass
their whole life in brooks and small streams — rove
to the spawning-place. "In a valley not far from my
native place," says 1>kehm'', "there rise co])ious springs,
AN'hich together form a brook that has power enough
to drive a mill-wheel. This brook falls into the Roda
and clears the water of the latter, which is sometimes
rather thick. As long as can be i-emembered. Trout
have lived here, but oidy for an extent of at most
eight kilometres. Above and below this ]iart of the
brook they do not occur, as a general rule; and oiih-
during the spawning-season does it happen that thev
abandon their true home and rove to rocky parts of
the Roda in quest of breeding-places, though they have
equally good sjtots in their usual haunts." The spawn-
ing-dress of the River Trout sometimes includes a l)lack
coating on the forepart of the bodj*, such as that we
have above remarked in the ("hari's.

The longer marine Salmon remain in the rivers,
the more tumid are their generative organs, and the
darker their dress. Our tigiu'es show the a]i])earance
both of the true Salmon (Plate XXXVII, figs. 3 and 4)
and the Sea Trout (Plate XXXIX, figs. 1 and 2) at the
beginning of these alterations; but at the end of their
wanderings, when the spawning-season commences, they
have assumed (|uite a different colour, of much darker
tone, as depicted by v. Whight in his figure (Plate
XXXIX, fig. 3) of a female Sea Trout {(Jrinff) in fresh-
water dress. The belly of the males becomes entirely
red. In old males of the true Salmon the margin of
the caudal fin is also straightened, without a trace of
indentation, or even, like the margin of the anal fin,
convex. By a retrogression to the characters of j'outh,
they are besides approximated to the Sea Trout in the
characters relating to the least depth of the tail and
the height of the anal fin, otherwise the most constant
distinctions between the two varieties.

In September the spawning-season begins. The
old fish commence fii'st. The young sometimes wait
even till the followinsr March. And among the latter

" See GiSLER, Vet.-Ak.ad. Hr.iull. 1752, tab. I.
' Thierleben, 1. c, p. 227.

801

tlu' in.-ilos sunicliiiies nttaiii a hrccdiii.ii' stat(.' in the
Pnrr stage, Init this is i)rol)al)l\' never tiie case witii
tlie t'einaies. The aecounts of tlie spawniiii;' iliil'er sonie-
wiiat in certain |iarticiilavs: hnt in ueiieral terms we
may say that the eggs are deposited in a iiole on a
sandy or gravelly, loose bottom and covered, after ini-
ijregiiation. witii sand or gravel. Eaeii female is at-
tended 1)V one or more large males and usually by
several smaller ones. When she has found a suital»le

spot in sliallow watei often so shallow that siie can

only just keep lier body submerged — she turns to right
and left and lashes witli her tail — according to others
she also roots with the snout — until a hole one or
more decimetres deep is formed. She then sheds a
portion of her roe and quits the place, the male at
once coming up to impregnate the eggs, unless he be
engaged for the moment in combat with some rival.
Tliese conflicts are sanguinary enough, often one of the
antagonists leaves the other to die on the field, or at
least tears away great pieces of his flesh. 15ut the
female continues to deposit her roe, portion after por-
tion, returning from her excursions to the spawning-
bed, and lashes up showers of sand, gravel or pebbles,
so long as she has a male to hasten to her side when
the eggs are laid. Yoing observed Iiow a single fe-
male Salmon conducted nine males, which were all
taken, one after the other to her spawning-bed ; and
when even the last male was caught, she returned
witii a large Trout in her train. Among the smaller
Trout, several of which usually keep at a respectful
distance below the spawning-place, the greater number
are most probablj- on the look-out for the eggs that
are carried away by the current; but no^v and then a
male seizes his opportunity of joining in the spawning,
wjien the female Salmon's partner is battling with a
rival. In this manner the spawning proceeds, with in-
cessant pauses, a fullgrown female taking 3 or 4 days,
according to some observers up to 8 or 10 daj's, to
empty her ovaries. We have mentioned above the con-
dition of the Salmon after the spawning: some die of
exhaustion, the greater number repair to some calm
haven for rest, afterwards prepared to rove or drift
with the current down the path along which they have
ascended. When they let themselves drift, the descent

is made backwards, tail first; and the\- may tiien be
speared with a leister, as tliey stand in a race before
a stii!R', resting liie caudal fin against the hittei'.

The eggs are of an orange colour and vary in size
according to the dimensions of the motiier fish; when
ripe, their diameter is about r> — 7^!^ mm. in the Salmon
and Sea Tnmt, 4' ,, — 6 mm. in mature liiver Trout.
Their inimber \aries in tlie same manner. In England
it is customarx' to I'cckon SOU — 1)00 ova to eacli ])ound
in the ii\ing tisii; Imt Day" comimted the luimber of
eggs in a female Salmon weighing "JO lbs. at 27,8.tO.
According to NoiiiiAcK'' a P>rook Trout 1 lb. in weigiit
contains only about 1.50 — 200 eggs. The period of
incubation varies greatly, but as a rule depends on the
temperature of tlie water, .\ccording to Day" it proved
in a constant temperature of 45° Fahr. (+ 7'2° C.) to
last !)0 days, in 43° Fain-. (+ 6-1° C.) 101 days, in
41° Fain-. (+ .)° C.) 97 days, and in 36° Fahr. (+ 2-2°
C.) 1 1 1 (hiv's. By keeping them all the time in a low
tem])ei-ature, their liatching lias been delayed until the
148th day after impregnation; but if frozen hard, thej'
generally die.

Tiie new-hatched fry are about 1.5 — 18 mm. in
lengtli, witii a vitelline sac about half as long hanging
from the forepart of the liody, and lie still at tlie
bottom, keeping the pectoral fins, however, in continual
motion to renew the water in the gills, or flounder to
and fro in the water, soon to sink again to their siiclter
behind a stone or in some other hiding-place- In about
4 — 6 weeks, at a length of 2.5 or 2G mm., the yolk is
absorbed, and the fry grow more lively. They now
begin to eat, seeking their food chiefly in small crus-
taceans (Enfomostraca), but not disdaining otlier small
portions of animal food tiiat come in their way. At
the age of 2 months Salmon-try are about 32 mm.
long, at the age of 4 months on an avei-age 63 mm.,
and xvhen 6 months old, on an average 95 mm. But
the growtli is extremely variable, of whicii we have
above adduced evidence.

The Salmon has always lieen one of the most
highly esteemed fishes for table; and to the sportsman
the River Trout has given most amusement of all
fishes, even if his passion — the enjo3'raent of over-
coming a powerful resistance, of mastering a strong.

" British Satmonidce, p. 78.

' Handbok i Fiskevdrd och Fiska/i-el, p. 284.

' 1. c, p. 82.

862

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

a stubborn, and a funninjz' lord of tlic waters- — be
more tickled wiicn a liuuc Salmon has gorged the fly
oil his line, and been Ijrought ashore after desperate
struggles to escape. In delicacy of flavour too, the
River Trout is preferred to the Salmon; but its smaller
size renders it of less economical importance.

The annual value of tlie Swedish Salmon fisheries
may be estimated at a minimum of between 600,000
and 700,000 crowns (t'(;(;,000— 77,000)°. In Norway
the corresponding figures are half as great, or even
more*. Young'" estimated the value of the Salmon
fisheries for 1877 in England at £100,000, in Ireland
at f400.000, and in Scotland at i:250,000. On the
Lower Rhine, including the whole of its course in
Holland, the average annual take for 1878 — 79 was
44,302 fish'' of an average weight of 8'28 kilo.; and
the average weight per annum of the whole catch was
tiius 364,320 kilo., each kilogramme of Salmon fetching
in the Rhine countries, according to Bkehm', between
3 and 9 reichsmarks. The value of the Salmon is in-
fluenced, however, in an essential degree bv tlie depth
of red colour shown bj' the flesh, a tint ^\■hich seems
most, though not entirely, to depend on the proportion
in the Salmon's diet of crustaceans. The flesh is also
paler as a rule in the Sea Trout than in the true
Salmon. The spent fish (Kelts) are of but very little
alimentary value, and should never appear in the mar-
ket, from which Salmon in the spawning-dress should
also be excluded. By the legislation of most coun-
tries all Salmon fishing during the Spawning-season
is, as a rule, forbidden. The fry and the Parrs too
must be protected bj' law if the fisheries are to retain
their value.

The great importance everj^where possessed by
the Salmon fishery has induced efforts not only to
preserve, but also to extend its bounds, and a special
means to this end has been discovered in Salmon cul-
ture. Hardlj' any other European fish — the Carp
perhaps excepted — has lent itself more readily to cul-
tivation; and the Salmon was also the first European

fisli to attract the attention of pisciculturists. In the
fifteenth (•cntu!'\- a monk, Doji Pinciion bv name, is
said to have successfully hatched ova in a trough filled
witii running ^\■ater; but not until long afterwards were
more elaborate experiments instituted. In 1763'^ S.
L. Jacobi, a Westphalian farmer from HohenhaUsen-,
published in a letter to the editor of the Hannover.
Magaz. (No. 23) his observations on the artificial
breeding of Salmon. The English Government found
the question so important that they rewarded Jacobi
with a pension. About 18.50 the French Government
established at Iliiningen in Alsace, not far from Basel
and near the Rhine and Rhone Canal, an extensive
hatchery, which in 1871 passed into the hands of the
Germans. During the present century many i)ersons
have gained a reputation by efforts in this direction.
First we may mention the Englishmen Shaw, Buck-
land, and Sir James Maitland, and the German Max
VON DEM Bokne; but all Europeans were eclipsed by
the American Spencer Bah!!) [d. 18S7), who prevailed
upon the Government and Congress of the United States
to make grants at that time unprecedented, for the
advancement of pisciculture. Doubts have indeed been
raised, \vhether the results, especially as regards Sal-
mon breeding, have really repaid this lavishing of
money and exertion. But America, with jiractical dis-
cernment, has not been disheartened by these more
or less well-meant warnings from foreign quarters'.
Salmon culture has also gained an undeniable victory
in the above-mentioned introduction of the genus Salmo
into Australia and New Zealand.

The cause of the success won l)y Salmon culture
and of its importance, is to be found simply in two cir-
cumstances. First the mass of ova can be more com-
pletely impregnated than in nature, the discovery having
been made that the fecundation can Ije accomplished
by the so-called dry method, by pouring the undiluted
milt on the eggs in a dry vessel, in which manner its
fertilising properties are not dispersed or weakened
by water previous to the impregnation. Second it is

" Underdanigt Betankamle vied For.ilaij till Nij Fiskeristadya, Stockholm 1883, p. 148.

' Average annual value 1877 — 81 380,000 kr. (£42,460), according to Norges officiella statistik, Xy Ra>kke. Udgiv. 1884, C. No. 9.
' See D. MiLNE Home, Salmon mid Salmon-Fisheries, Gt. Intern. Fish. Exhib. London 1883, p. 55.

'' According to Miescher-Ruesch, Statislische imd biologische Beitrdge ztir Keniniss vom Lel/en des Rheinlaches im Siisswasser, Intern.
Fischer. Ausst. Berlin 1880, Cat. Schwciz, p. 157.
' Thierleben, 1. c, p. 200.

■'' Four years before the publication of Alderman Lund's method of cultivating fishes that spawn in spring (Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1707).
" See Nordisk Aarskrift for Fiskeri 1883, p. 324, and Brown-Goode and Wilmot in U. Milne Home, 1. c, p. 27.

8G3

easier in tlie i'i'r('|itar!('s of a iiatclierx' and in well-
oonstrnctcd [loiids than in nature to protect tlie e^'gs
and the defenceless fry from their numerous enemies.
As soon as the voracity characteristic of tiie genus
begins to awaken in tlie voung lirood, it is not ditK-
cult to sui)])lv tiieui witli suitable food, eitiier Kiito-
tnostnicd, wiiere tiiese can l)e iirociired in Mitlicient
quantity — no doubt a rare occurrence — or lean beef
or liorseflesh, mixed with hard-boiled eggs and chopped
fine. r>ut important conditions of success are to have
ji constant sujiply of pure running water at a proper
temperature, and to remove every diseased egg. The
latter end is most convenienth" attained In" admitting

tlie current of water at the bottom of the liatcliing-
vessel and allowing it to I'uii ovei' at the top, tin' dis-
eased eggs, which become wiiite and rise to tlie sur-
face, being thus carried away with the overflow.

Here we !ia\(' no s|(ace, liowever, for a full de-
scription of Salmon culture in its details. The reader
wlio desires more information on this head may con-
sult either the Handhitch dfr FischzKchf loid Fischcrci
by ^l.\x VON DEM Borne, a Avork whicii we have often
(pioted, or Sir -Tames ^Iaitlaxd's Jlisfori/ of Jloirie-
foini. In Swedish these (juestions are handled with
ability by O. (1. Nohback in his HandJedning i Fiske-
rard nch Fiskafrel.

Genls OSMERUS".

Canine teeth on the romer and tongne: tiro roirs of smatl teeth in thr anterior part of the Joirer jau\ one rote
of larger teeth- in its posterior p>art, and on the palatine hones; snudl tcvth of uniform size, set in one rov, on
the intermaxiUaries, the maxillaries, and the mesopterygoid hones. Le)iiith of the maxillaries as a rule 60 — 60
*', of the hirer Jair as a rule 85 — 100 9a'', of that of the head rediieed. Xamtter of rags in the anal fin greater
than in the dorsal, hut at most 17, 12 — 14 of which are hranehed : and the base of the anal fin longer than that
of the dorsal. I'gloric appendages feir {at most about 7) and short. Scales middle-sized, about 60- — 70 in a
roir alo)ig the sides of the bodij. milii the anterior (10 — 33) tteing pierced hi/ the lateral line.

According to the above limitation of the genus,
based on the most generalh' adopted opinions, it con-
tains onl}- three sjiecies, very nearly related to each
other, one from the basin of the Atlantic, the second
from the Arctic Ocean, and the third from the basin
of the Pacific. Its most prominent character consists
in the dentition of the mouth and palate. The vomer
is especially remarkable, its development having been
arrested so tliat it is made up of the anterior part
(the head) alone, and officiates merely as a point of
attachment for two' large and widely separated, canine
teeth. Another dental character, shared, however, bv
the following genus, is the presence of inner jialatine
teeth. On opening the mouth of a Smelt, we see a
deep and narrow, longitudinal groove at tlie middle
of the palate, furnished at the sharp edges with a row

of small liut keen teeth, whieli are set on the inner
margin of the bi-oad mesopterygoid bone, the largest
bone on each side of the palatine arch. The pterygoid
bone proper is toothless, consisting simply of a nai-ro\\-
osseous disk, which lies close to the outer margin of
the mesopterygoid bone and unites the ])a]atine and
quadrate bones. All the palatine teeth are canines,
but their development as such differs considerably,
being most ad\anced in the foremost and hindmost
teeth. The largest teeth in the whole mouth, however,
are as a rule the outermost in the transverse row
belonging to the liead of the vomer. The teeth in the
lower jaw are also canines, the posterior larger and
set in one row, the anterior set in two rows, with the
smallest teeth in the outer row. The intermaxillary
teeth are about equal in size to the last, and show at

" From llie Greek o(T,«»|'g»jc or 6a((»jgOfc', odorous.

' 59'4 — Gt)7 %, ftccording to our ineasurenients of specimens in tlie possession of tlie Royal Museum.

■" 85—102-4 %.

'' Or three, or two pairs — one in front of and witliin tlic other — or five, in which case the inner (eetli are smaller than the outer.

Scamlinavinn Fhhfs. 109

864

SCASDINAVIAX FISIIKfS.

least ;i trace of canine tbrniation; Ijut the maxillarj-
teeth are still smaller, set closer together, at least in
places, and rather blunt. The tongue is boat-shaped,
with fleshy lateral margins and bears at the tip one or
two large canines and on each side of the true hyoid
bone (os linguale), within tlie said margins, a row of
somewhat smaller, similar teeth or only one or two,
in the latter case large canines. The copular part of
the hyoid bone is armed with smaller teeth, of about
the same size as the intermaxillav}- teeth, the largest
in a row along each of the edges, the others (the inner
ones) irregularly distributed in two rows. The pharyn-
geal teeth are about equal in size to those on the co-
pular part. Among the upper pharyngeals of the Scan-
dinavian Smelt only the two hind pairs are furnished
with teeth, the hindmost with several (3 — 4) rows,
the penultimate with one row. On the elongated lower
pharyngeals the teeth are set in two rows. These
numerous teeth of different form show that the Smelt,
in proportion to its size, is a voracious iish-of-prey.
The intestinal canal is short. The a?sophagus
with its longitudinal inner folds passes uniformly into
the thick-walled stomach, which resemliles a ctecum,
and the bottom of which sometimes does not even
extend to a line with the tips of the pectoral tins, but
sometimes reaches to the anterior extremity of the
pelvic bones. On its under surface and in about a
line with the middle of the pectoral tins, the pyloric
part originates, running forwards at an acute angle,
and extending almost to the diaplu-agm, where it bends
abrupt!)" back at the transition to the intestine, \\hich
is here furnished with a few" comparatively short, but
thick pyloric appendages. The intestine runs straight
back to the vent. The liver is short and lies almost
entirely to the left of the oesophagus and stomach; it
extends back to about a line \vitli tlie pyloric angle.
On the right, Ijetween tlie uesophagus and the small
lobe which the li\'er sends out on this side, lie the
gall-bladder and, a. little further liack, the spleen, which
in a healthy state is ver\' dark, nearly black, and
elli})soidal, more or less flattened''. In the structure
of the generative organs we have above remarked a
pecidiarity characteristic of the Smelts: behind the
ovaries or, when they are fully ripe (in the spawning-

season), beside their posterior part, tlie mesoarium joins
its ventral margin, which in the preceding genus hangs H
free in the abdominal cavity, to the lateral wall of the
said cavity, thus forming an oviduct open in front
(fig. I'ns, p. 828). The left ovary is the larger and
lies uKjre to the front. In the sp.iwning-season it
occupies almost the whole length of the alxlominal
cavity, all the way from the diaphragm. The right
ovary lies in the posterior part of the abdominal ca-
vity, and extends forward only a little beyond the in-
sertion of the ventral tins. The testes occupj' the same
position with relation to each other, and the left testis
is also the larger; but the difference in their size is
not so great as in the case of the ovaries. The air-
bladder is simple, long, and united throughout its length
to the dorsal side of the abdominal cavity, l)ut does
not extend forward to the diaphragm or back quite to
the end of the cavity. Fr(_im the lower part of its
anterior extremity the pneumatic duct runs to the
oesophagus.

The skull is weakly ossifled, more elongated and
shallower than in the Salmons, and without the cur-
vature characteristic of the latter in the sphenoid re-
gion. Nor does the parasphenoid bone extend so far
back as in the preceding genus: its hind extremity
lies outside (under) the front portion of the basilar
part of the occipital bone, which jiart behind this point
is tumid on each side, whereas the Salmons here have
only a longitudinal, terete carina. This swelling, the
anterior part of which belongs to the temporal region,
includes the saccuJus of the labyrinth, with the flat,
but long, heart-shaped otolith, which in a Smelt mea-
suring 177 nnn. is 5 mm. long. The posterior oculo-
muscular canal extends about as far back as the para-
sj)henoid lioiie, and thus belongs to the sphenoid and
temporal regions. The basisphenoid bone is wanting,
and the \vall between the orl)its is reduced to a car-
tilaginous ridge, ascending in front and belonging to
the hind part of the ethmoidal cartilage. The maxil-
laries with their os supplcmenfarc {Jut/ale), the inter-
inaxillaries, the palatines, the vomer, and the pterygoid
bones, are arranged as in the Salmons; but the reduc-
tion of the vomer and the dentition of the mesopte-
rygoid bones we have already noticed. The Ijran-

" According to Kroyeii 3, 1o Day sometimes as many as 7; we Iiave most often found 5.

'' In a male Smelt 133 mm. long tlie spleen was 0 mm. long dining the spawning-season, in two females measuring 139 and 177
mm. the spleen was respectively 5 and 7*8 mm. in length.

chiosti'ii'al a]i|i:ir;itiis differs from that of llii' SnliuDiis in
its f'rwcr ra\s, 7 or at most 8, the anterior needie-
sliiuieil, the hist three I)roa(l and ensiform. The ojiei-
cular annaratiis is distinn'uished i'roin that of the Sai-
nious iirinei|iall\' li\' the fact that tiie iireoyiercidum is
nttaclied tu the uiiper part of the ludmaiidihular l)()ne
(wiiieh is iiere elongated in tlie form of a l)acl;\\ard
nroeess) iin]\- at tlie very top, in common with the ar-
ticular knol) of the operculum. IJelow the said process

A

Fig. 218. A, Scale from the lateral line o£ Osmenis cperlaniis with
imperfectly closed duct, magn. 8 diani. For the further elucidation
of its structure are added a scale (B) from the lateral line of a
Salmo triitta (9 338 mm. long, from Norrkoping), also magnified
8 diameters, and a section (6^) of 2'/, scales (magn. 10 diam.) from
the lateral line of a large Salmon, t, duct of the lateral lino; asq,
anterior part of the scale; psq, posterior part thereof; ji, pore in tlie
scale (answering to the deep incision in the scale from the lateral
line of tlie Smell), through which the nerve of the lateral line passes
from one scale to the next, after sending out a ramification with
a sensory organ into the duct on the outer surface of the posterior
part of the scale.

is a large opening l)etween the jireopereultmi and the
hyomandibular l)one, which in front, on the other hand,
expands into a disk, forming a stronger support for
the j)alatine arch, and is itself strengthened by a down-
ward ridge at the middle of its inner surface. The
spinal column is similar to that of the Salmons; but
the hiemal arciies are not completely closed until they
reach the beginning of the caudal part. The .series of
bones wiiieji in the Salmons forms the postclavieular

Ts. 805

ap|)aratus, is iici'e re]iresented Ijy a small, round and
thin, disi<-shaped Imne ;i1 the jiiiid inferior e.Ktrcmity
of tiu> ejavich', with its upper pai't attaciied inside the
lower angle nf the posteriorly expanded disk of the
latter. Tlie pehic bones are weak and resemble those
of tlie Sidmons.

Tlie scales of tiie Smelts are thin, on the sides of
the body elliptical, with longitudinal axis set crosswise
(up and down), on the belly more rounded or of broad
oval sliajie. In texture tliey resemble the scales of the
Salmons, without radiating grooves, but with more or
less niuiieroiis and dense concentric; strife. The indi-
stinct nucleus is eccentric and lies in the anterior (in-
serted) part of the scale. The lateral line is distinct
onh' on the ;interior part of the sides. Its scales are
deeply cloven lieliind, where the canal of the lateral
line has its course, and the duct belonging to each
scale, and surrounding the canal, in front of this cleft,
and on the outside of the scale, is open or at least
imperfecth' closed — as in the earlier developmental
stages of more com])lete lateral lines — the margins of
the primitive canaliculate duct not coalescing, even
where one of them overlaps the other (fig. 218, A).
The scales of the Smelt are further distinguished by
the absence of the layer of silvery pigment which else-
where lines the scales where this colour appears. The
silvery lustre is indeed present in a longitudinal band
along the sides of the Smelt; but on removing the
.scales ^ve distineth" see that the coat of pigment lies
in the skin under the scales.

The relation to the Salmons has already been ex-
pressed in the above generic characters. But this re-
lation, as paleontology seems to indicate, is probably
one of development as ^vell, Osmerus standing nearer
to the common ancestors of the genera. This appears
most clearh' on a comparison of the average figures
expressing the corresponding relations of form in the
two genera.

From tlie above table of averages (p. 8.53) we
easil\- see that the position of the dorsal fin, expressed
in the distance from the tip of tiie snout to the l)e-
ginning of the base of this fin, becomes more forward
with age — and the averages for the several ages show"
that this alteration of growth is greatest during the
earlier and earliest stages. The said distance decreases
botii in iiroiiiirtiun to the lenyth of the body and to

Cf. Smitt, Siksinuseets Salmoiiider, pp. 11 and 25.

866

the (lisfaiice between the ventral tins and the tip of
tlie snout. Accordingly too Osmenis, as a representa-
tive of one of the earlier stages of the family, has
greater averages in these respects than the Salmons.
This is also the ease with the length of the base of
the anal tin". A general rule for the whole life of the
Salmonoids is that the lengtli uf the niaxillaries is re-
duced with age in proportion to that of the body',
and the same rule applies to the length of the sub-
opei'culum in proportion to that of the head or of the
head reduced'', with a slight exception in the last case.
The breadtii of the interorbital space, on the contrary,
increases with age in proportion to the length of the

SCAXDINAVI.VX I'lSUES.

head or of the head reduced

The length of the pe-
duncle of .the tail at the ventral margin', and the least
depth of the tail', in proportion to the length of the
head or of the head reduced, undergo alterations of
growth which at the modification in the life of the
Salmons — from fresh water to the sea — change di-
rection: their averages increase as a rule in the earlier
and earliest stages, but subsequently decrease, after
attaining their maximum at the end of the life in
fresh water. Here too Osmerus represents the earliest
stages.

Arithmetically expressed, this developmental rela-
tion appears as follows:

Di^taa^■c■ lietween the dorsal tin ami the tip of the snout in fS of the length of the body

„ ., „ ,, ,, „ „ ,, distanee between the ventral tins and the tip of the snout.

Base of the anal fin in ?» of the length of the body...

,, ., „ „ ,, .. ,, ,, ,, ,. ., „ head rediieed

Length of the maxillarics in ". of the length of the body :

„ „ „ suboperculum ,, ,, „ „ ,, ,, „ head -

,, ., ., „ „ „ ,, „ ,, „ „ head reduced

Breadth of the interorbital spaee in % of the length of the head

,, ,, ,, ., ,, „ ,, .. ., ,, ,, ,, head reduced

Length of the peduncle of the tail at the ventral margin in % of the length of the body

Lcost depth of the tail in % of the lenglh of the head

„ ,, „ head reduced

47-S

42. t

9(5.s

80. 1

11.7

8.4

7'J.2

5."). 6

!)..•!

8.8

2.S..i

2o.-i

41.0

37.7

2.').!

31.8

37.7

47.2

8.4

12.0

23.2

39.1

34. 3

58.0

In other ].>oints, agtiiii, it tippears that the Smelts
and tlie Salmons have each taken their own path
of evolution, and that the Smelts in several respects
— in some like the Charrs — occupy the higher rank
in the scale of development. (.)n continuing our search

for the most different averages in the Smelts and Sal-
mons, and on comparing the signification thereof with
the alterations of growth to which the Salmons are
subject, we find the following relations most deserving
of notice:

" Cf. Smitt, 1. c, p. 14.

'' „ ., ,. „ P- If-

' ,, ,, „ „ PP- 1^ iin'l ■^-■

'' „ „ „ „ PP- 17 aii'l ■•20.

' „ „ ., ., p. l.'^.

'' Cf. above, p. 833, the lower table, where these proportions iiiiiy ea>ily be calculated from the av

Riksmus. 'Salnionider, pp. 19 and 23.

there given, and Smitt,

867

Changes of growth in
the true Salmons.

Leiljilli uf 111.- Iu';ul r.-,liicLHl in "i »i Ihi- Ini-I

Base of the duvsal lin „ „ „ „ „

Length of the pecloral lins „ „ „ „ „

PostabiJoininal length t, <« i, .* t>

Height of the anal tin „ „ „ „

Least (lcl)lh of the tail , ., .,

Length of the middle caudal rays

Length of the maxillaries in % of the length c,f the

Breadth ., „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ ,,

h Mt' llie h.»lv

head re.l
mnxilliir;

Us

.s.o

14.3

11.3

IS.o

ir),3
i-.'.i

lti.3
19.9
l-.>.3
8.8
7.9

o8.i

15.4

•2(!.7

14.9

20.9

r)'j.4

12.4

21.0

Nil iimiiediate descent of the Snliiinns from the
Smelts rail tliu.s be assumed.

<)ii examining the relations l)et\veeii tlie three
forms liitherto distin;i-uisiied in tiie genus of the Smelts,
we tinil tliat tlie Atlantic Smelt {Osmerus epcrlantts)
(listiiietl\- a|)|)ears in some respects to have adopted its
own course of development, and that in these respects
it has remained nearer to tlie jiresumable oriijin of the
genus. But in most points the development seems to
have been common to the three forms, and the Pacific
Smelt {OsiiL (Iciifex) is apparently the nearest repre-
sentative of the original type in the modern fauna.
We are besides struck by the analogy in the relations
of development to those between the three above-men-
tioned Charr forms, Salmo alpinus, S. stagnalis, and
S. salcelinus, for we tind witliin the genus of the Smelts
too a defined natural series of three forms,

Osmerus deiitex — 0. spirinchus — 0. eperlaiius,
as the most general expression of the course of evt)lu-
tion. Several deviations, however, meet us, which may
here too be explained as manifestations of the influence
of sex on the development, the most Arctic form —

Osincriis splrinchus\ known from Alaska, Siberia, and
the White Sea — being differentiated in most respects
from the other two forms by the predominant in-
fluence of the female characters, while Osinenis cpcr-
lanus, generally speaking, bears the stamp of the male
characters.

Ill order to find an expression for the general
alterations of growth within the genus, we have dis-
tributed our specimens among four classes according
to age, three of these classes fixed by comparatively
wide gaps in the decrease or increase of the percen-
tages during growth, the fourth (the oldest) marked !))•
a reversion to the earliest characters, best explained,
perhaps, as the result of a growth exceeding the most
natural limits of the forms. In certain parts of Swe-
den a distinction is made in popular language' between
n<ir>< (the smaller Smelts) and slum (the larger ones),
and at a length of 200 mm. there intervenes in the
Scandinavian Smelt one of the said gaps, for example
in the decrease of the percentage for the relative di-
mensions of the eyes. At a length of about l.jQ mm.
we observe a similar li-ai), and at a length of aljout

" Cf. Smitt, Riks

Sab)

p. '.).

p. 12.

' 1. c, p. 12.
'' 1.

p. 14.
' I. L-., p. 14.

/ 1. ... p. ir,.

'J 1. I-., p. 16.

* 1. c, p. 21.
' 1. c, p. 21.
J 1. c, p. 23.

* The name of spirincliKs was applied by LiLUEBoitr, (Vet.-.\kad. Handl. 1850, p. 304) to the White Sea Smelt, and although Pallas,
who first coined the name, by no means restricted it to that form, we have refrained from giving the said form a new name, as spirinclms
in its old signification cannot be employed for the fnture as a specific name. In our first classification of the Salraonoids in the Koyal
Museum (Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Fiirh. 1882, No. 8, p. 34 and Gt. Intern. Fish. Exhib. Lond. 1883, Swed. Cat., p. 184), we called this species
Osmerus dvinensis.

' See Arteui, Descr. Spec. Pise, p. 47 and Xilsson, Shaiid. Fiia, Fish., p. 433.

8(58

.SCANDINAVIAN I'ISHES.

260 — 270 111111. tlic abin-e-inontioncd rctrogri'ssioii lie-
giri.s to assert itself in tlie clumgos of growth. The
four age-classes max tliercfore be named: iiors, Mor-
vors, f^lo»i, and stdrsloiii. < hily in tiie tliird of these
cla.sses have we been able to examine fully comparable
specimens of all the forms, in order to obtain an ex-
pression for the se.xual differences within the genus.
One of the most distinct examples of the general
tendency shown by the development of form M'ithin
the genus — among the many that migiit be adduced" —
we find in the averages for the alterations caused by
growth in tlie relative length of tlie suboperculum.
The said length, expressed in percent of that of the
head, and reduced to an average for the whole genus
OsDierns, is 28'5. The several averages, as expressions
of the form-series and the changes of growth, are the
tollowinn-:

.\verage in

Osmerus
dentex.

Osmerus
spirinchus.

eperlaniis.

At the age of

•JUs

2.S.1

Nors

—

—

30,7

Stornors

2;i.8

(27.11)

27.G

S!om d"

„ 9

1^9.2 1

■29.8
mil

l>'

i>-

Slorslom

—

27.9

•i:xe

Here the averages decrease with increasing age,
and the form-series also shows uniformly sinking aver-
ages. No constant sexual difference can be discovered,
for the male averages in 0. dentex and 0. spirinchus
are less, in 0. ei')erJanus greater, than the female.

Tiie case is different, M'hen a constant sexual cha-
racter exercises its intluence on the development. This
appears, for example, in the relative dimensions of the
eyes. The vertical diameter of the ej'es, calculated on
an average for the whole genus Osmerus, is 41 '5 % of
the length of the inaxillaries. The se\eral averages
ex])ressing the difference between tiie forms and the
changes of growth, are the following:

Average ia

Osmerus

rlentcr.

Osmerus
spirinchus.

Osmerus
eperlnnus.

At the a,i;e of
Nnrs

4i;.i

37.5

4U.8

4.S.4

(3IJ.8)
38.0) ,

3/.o|
3G.3

48.4

41.G

3!l.7|

V^8.2
36.8)

33.9

Stortiors ...

Slom (f

„ 9

Storshm

Here too the changes of growth show sinking aver-
ages; Init in the form-series Osmerus spiriiiclii/s occu-
pies the most advanced rank, as the representative of
a fairly distinct female character. Should we desire
to see how the relation appears when this form breaks
the series b}' too high an average, ^\■e have a clear
example in the relative length of the lo^\■er jaw. This
length, expressed in percent of the length of the head
reduced, and calculated on an average for tlie whole
genus Osmerus, is 91 '9. The averages for the form-
series and for the several ages are the followina':

Average in

Osmerus
dentex.

Osmerus
spirinchus.

Osmerus
eperlanus.

At the age of
.\ors

.S9.7

96.1

90.0

89.3

89.81

J89.8
89.8

(93.1)

96.3 1
98.8

86.4
90.1
91, s),

92.7 r'-*

96.7

Slom cf

„ 9

Storshm

Here we observe a still more prominent sexual
difference both in Osmerus spirinchus and 0. eperlcnitis
— and the former together with the females has tlie
highest averages — but Osmerus iJeiite.r. the least dif-
ferentiated form, shows no sign of a sexual ciiaracter
in this respect.

Again, should we wish to see how specific cha-
racters, manifest themselves dui'ing the course of de-
velopment, we can Iiardly find a better example tiian
among the Smelts. Tlie only characters not infringed
by exceptions, i. e. the only constant specific charac-
ters— so far as we can gather from our specimens —
are the following:

A: 19 — 20 gill-nikcfs ou the lower part of
the first branchial arch, and at most 29
on the whole front surface thereof.
Height (longest ray) of the anal fin at
most 7-() 'o of the length of the body Osmerus dented-.

B: 23 — 25 gill-rakers on the lower part of
the first branchial arch, and at least
33 on the whole front surface thereof.
a: Height of the anal fin at most 7-6

°o of the length of the bodv Osmerus spiriiirhus.

h: Height of the anal fin at least 8-4

% of the length of the bodv Osmerus epeiiunus.

The manner in Avhich the height of the anal fin
passes through its changes of growth, and affords one

" Cf. Smitt, Riksmuseets Sulmonidei; pp. 168 — 189.

869

of tlic cxtcriKil s<'.\u;tl cluiractcu's, ia;iy be expressed iu
the following: tiilile of averages:

Avcrazc heii;ht of the
of Mr- ItiiiTth of tlu

niuil tin

l)..ay, i

n fi

Osinerus

de„le.r.

Os
spi,

iieritu
hu'funi.

eper

<rnm.

At thi- nsjc of

H.i)

7.0

9.2

7.1

G.sl .

6.9J

6.

(7.1)

8.9
i),3

!).C
8.0

Slom cf

, 9

Slonlom

The average in tliis relation for the wiiole geiiu.s

Os)«''/'«.v is 7"7, so that in the first U\u furius tlic

average falls short of this amount — both of them

showing' almost the same average — but exeeeds it in

the last I'urni. in llie first two the [lereentages .sink
iinit'ornd\- with increasing age. This is also the case
during youth in Osincrus ejierlanus; but after the stor-
iiors stage its course of development is reversed — the
female characters gain the ascendency in the basin of
the Atlantic. Here, as in .several other res])ects, it
appears that the course of develojiment was originally
common, but has diverged in connexion with a geogra-
phical se})aration, which in the Smelts, as well as in
the Salmons, i)robablv dates from the Tertiary Period,
from the elevation of the liocky Mountains in North
America".

The genus Osmmts was established by Artedi'',
who included within its limits, however, the modern
Saunis, a Scopeloid genus.

THE SMELT (sw. .norsen).

OSMERUS EPERLAXUS'.

Plate XLl, fi.s:. 1.

Xiiiiihvr of f/iU-nikcrs on the front of the fr.^f Iu-kiicIiuiI arch 3S—S7', :>S—;2(J of them Jielng sitnutexl on the

loii-er part of the arch. Height of the anal fn (length of its longest rag) more than s % of the length of the

hodg or than :U'> % of the length of the head. Length of the middle eaitd^d rags less than, '/j of that of the

longest an(d rag.

R. hi: 7(8); D.

(2)3

i2)3_. _^ .

■2— U' ■ 10—11(12)'

C. ,c + 1 + 17 + 1 + .r; L. lat. (58)62—64(68); L. tr. (supra
pinn. ventr.) 13; Vcrl. 60 — 62.

S\jn. EpeUm de mer et Epelan de riviere, Belox., Nat., Div. Poiss.
p. 282 et 284; Kperlanus, Rondel., Pise. Fluv., p. 196;
^ipirinchus et Stinciis, Gesn., Paralip. p. 29; Spirinchtis,
ScHONEV., Ichthyol. Slesv. Hols., p. 70; Oamerus rndiis
pinn.a> ani eeptendecim, Art., Ichtlnjol., Syn. Pise, p. 21,
Descr. Spec. Pise, p. 45; Lin., Fnu Siiec, ed. 1, p. 118.
Stdino Eperla7ius, Lin., 6'i/sl. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 310;
FiHi Siiec ed. II, p. 124; Bl.. Fisch. Deutschl., part. I,
p. 179, tab. XXVIII, tig. 2 (+ var. S. eperlano-nmrinns,
11. 182, tab. cit., fig. 1); Retz., Fiia ^uec. Lin., p. 348;
L.\CEP. {Osmerus), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. V, p. 2.'!1; I'all.
{■i'almo), Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 386; Mrrcu.,
Trans. Lit., Phil. Soc. N. Y., vol. I, p. 435; Nass. (Osmc-
rus), Prodr. Iclithyol. Scand., p. 12; Ekstr., Vet.-Akad.
Handl. 1834, p. 7; Yarr., Hist. Brit. Fish., ed. I, vol. II,
p. 75; Kr., Danm. Fisk., vol. Ill, pp. 1 et 1215; Clv.,
Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXI, p. 371, tab. 620; Lloyd,
Scandiii. Adventures, vol. I, p. 121; Nilss., SIcand. Fna,
Fisk., p. 433; Wideor., Fiskjn, Fisker. Norrb. L., Lai.dlbr.

Akad. llandl. 1861, p. 9 (scp.); Sieb., .Sitsswasserf. .Mit-
leleiir., p. 271; Mgrn, Fint. Fiskfna (disp. Helsingf. 1863),
p. 65; Gthr, Vat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. 166; Fed-
DER.-i., Tidskr. Fisk. Kbhvii, IV (1870), p. 100; Coll., Forh.
Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, TilUvgsl.. p. 162; Malm, Gbgs,
Bch. Fna. p. 549; Seidl., Fna Bait., p. 95; AVinth., Naturh.
Tidskr., Kblivii, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 44; Fedders., ibid.,
p. 78; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer., Fischs. 0., \V. Preiiss., p.
155; Mela. Vert. Fc„n.. p. 344; tab. X; Day, Fish. Gt.
Brit. Irel. vol. II, i.. 121, tali. CXXI, fig. 1; MOb.. Hcke.
Fisch. Osts., p. 128; Norback, Handl. Fiskev., Fiskafv., p.
306; Reut., Su.ndm., Fird. Fisk., tab. XV; Sm. Riksm. Salm.,
1. c; LiLLJ., So., Norg. Fna, Fisk., p. 630.

Alheriiia mordax, MrrcH., Trans. Lit., Phil. Soc. N. Y., vol. I,
p. 446; Gill. (Osmerus), Smilhson. Misc. Coll., No. 283,
p. 32; J.jRD., (iiLi!., Bnll. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 16, p. 298;
Br. Gooue, Fisher., Fish. Iiidustr. U. S., sect. I, p. 543,
tab. 199.

Salmo (Osmerus) spirinchtis, Pall., Zoogr., vol. Ill, p. 387;
Cuv., Val., 1. c., p. 387. — nee Lillj., nee Sm.

Osmerus viridescens, Lesueuh, .Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad.,
vol. I, p. 230; Dek., N. Y. Fna, part. IV, Fish., p. 243,
tab. 39, fig. 124; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXI,
p. 388; Stou.. Mem. Ainer. .-Vcad. Arts, Sc, vol. VI, p.

" Cf. Smitt, Riksmuseets Salinonider, p. 171, § (5).

»■ Ichthyol^, Gen. Pise, p. 10.

' A Latinized form of the French e'perlan, which according to Rondelet refers to the pearly lustre of the coloration.

870

SCAXDIXAVIAN TISIIES.

327, tal). XXV. fig. 4; Gthi;, (',(/. lirit. .Vits., Fisli., vol.
VI, p. 1G7.
Eperlanns vuh/aris, G.mm., Co//. /,<!/., Groenl., tab. 18, fig. 2.

In the larf;e.st Swcdisli 1,'ikc, W euci', tlie Smelt
frequently attains a length of ;i l'i»it or aliout ;! dm."
to the exti'eme tip of the eaudal fin. In Lake i\I;ilai-
too it i.s frec|uently of a fair .size, aljout 27 cm. in
length'; but in the smaller lakes it seldom exceeds a
length of 10 — 20 cm. As we have mentioned above,
the Scandinavian fishermen distinguish by size and
odour between two kinds of Smelt, calling the lai-ger
kind sJom. The line between tiiese two kinds is drawn
at a length of about 2 dm. According to Nokback
the Smelt

at a length df abuut Ci cm. weighs about 13 — 17 granmies,

., „ „ ., „ 0 — 12 ., „ ,, 34 — 43

„ „ „ „ „ 18—20 „ „ „ 85—127

♦ „ „ „ ,. V 30 „ ,, ,. 300

Pennant' .s largest specimen was SM cm. long and weighed
227 grammes''.

The body is rather elongated and of a compressed,
fusiform shape, the upper and lower contours being
slightly and similarly arched. According to the ri]jeness
or emptiness of the sexual organs the greatest depth of
the liody, \vhicli is situated at the beginning of the
dorsal fin, varies between 14 and 18 % of the length
of the body. The greatest thickness, which lies nearer
to tlie back than to tlie Iiellv, and is fairly uniform
from the opercular region to the dorsal fin, varies be-
tween 8 ''2 and 11 % of the length of the body or
between 48 and 70 % of the greatest depth. The least
depth of the body (of the peduncle of the tail) varies
between G (or a little more) and 4' „ ^ of the lengtii.
The form of the body is thus subject to considerable
variations, and is as a rule deeper in the females than
in the males''. The back, including tlie forehead, is
broadly rounded, as well as the liclly, \vhicli at the
ventral fins even a|)proaches to fiatness.

The head resembles a compressed cone, the point
being formed by the ii\> of tlie lower jaw; and its
length from the articular knob of the maxillaries' is

somewhat less than '^ (21 — 24 %) of tiie length of the
body. The convex snout resembles an obliquely cut
cone, and consequently the sharp margin of the upper
jaw f'oniis an ellijjse. Its length is about 2() — .30 % of
thai of the head', the percentage rising \\'ith fair uni-
formity' during growth, and its breadth across the
articulation of the maxillaries is oidy slightly less.
The longitudinal diameter of the eyes is somewhat
greater than the vertical, measuring in young Smelts
about ' J, in old about ' ,., of tlie length of the head,
or in the former nearly '/-, in tlie latter about ' j, ot
the lengtii of the head reduced (from tlie articular knob
of the maxillaries to the hind margin of the preoper-
culum). In the former their longitudinal diameter
sometimes is more than \\ greater than their distance
from the articular knoli of the maxillaries, in the latter
it sometimes sinks to ^/^ of this distance. Tiie least
lireadth of the interorbital space increases even rela-
tiveh- with age from about 22 to about 28 % of the
length of the head, or from about ' 3 to '/. of the
length of the head reduced. The nasal cavities lie just
behind the articular knob of the maxillaries, the di-
stance from the middle of the tip of the snout to the
front margin of the anterior nostril l)eing, however,
nearly t^vice that from the hind margin of the jwsterior
nostril to the front margin of the eye. The two nostrils
on each .side of the snout are small, the posterior
somewhat larger than the anterior, luit usually covered
to a great extent by the backward dermal fold con-
taining the thin ridge that divides the nostrils. The
intermaxillary bones are about equal in length to the
eyes; and the length of the maxillaries, which increases
even relativelj' with age, varies between about 9 (8',,)
and 11 ® of that of the body, between 42 (40'/.,) and
50 % of that of the head, or between 62 (60) and 67
?i. of that of the head reduced. The supplementary
(jugal) ])one of the maxillaries is behind lancet-shaped,
in front elongated to a point. Its anterior [lart lies
loose in the dermal fold uniting the maxillary l)one to
the cheek. The lower jaw is of a flat, boat-like shape,
in front curved uniformly, l)ut rather slightly upwards.

" Tenow gives even 4 dm. (See Vermlamh och Dais Ryggradsdjur, p. 108).

'' Underd. Bet. in. Ftirsl. t. Fiskeristadga 1883, p. 158; Lilljeborg, 1. 0., p. 031.

' Brit. Zoo\. (London 177G), p. 274.

'' In Osmerus dentex and 0. spirinclins the sexual difference seems to be reversed. Cf. Smitt, 1. c., p. 171).

"■ For the sake of uniformity in a comparison with Coregomis we have measured the length of the body etc., licre as in Rtlsmiiseets
Sahnonider (1. c), from the articular knob of tlie maxillaries, and not from the middle of the tip of the snout.

f In Riksmuseets Sahnonider tlie length of tlie snout in the Smelt is measured from the articular laiob of ilie maxillaries, and there-
fore less.

K7'

Its len;L(tli, wliicli sliows with f;iir tiniturniilx' even re-
lative increase with aue, Nai'ies hctweeii I'i' ., and Ki'/j
% of that (if the licidy, Ix'twccii about GO and 76 % of
that of ilie head, or between about 86 and 98 ?i of
that of tile liead reduced. Tlie nmutii and jiliarynx
witii tlieir dentitinn lia\e ali'ead\- ijeen destTibeci. Tlie
gili-i'id'iei's ai'e set in one I'ow of ;!4 — -Ti on tlie lirst
branchial arch, and are setif'ovni, fine, dense, and long.
The pseudol)ranclii:e compose a narrow, longitudinal
band on each side, made up of aliout Id short, trans-
verseh' set threads, just behind the boundary between
the jialatine arcli and the branchial cavity, and running
straight back from the upper insertion of the tirst
branchial arch. The operculum is (|uadi'ilateral, trape-
zoidal, with the upper margin shortest, the posterior
slightly concave at the top, and the inferior straight.
The length of the last-mentioned margin, which is di-
rected obliquely backwards and upwards as in the Sal-
raons. varies in different individuals between about 32
and 24 % of that of the head. The sidioperculum also
resembles that of the Salmons, being rather narrow but
of uniform breadth, and rounded at the lower posterior
corner. The interoperculum is triangular, most pointed
in front. The preoperculuni is rounded at an obtuse
angle. The gill-openings are large, extending up above
the middle of the superior opercular margin and down
to a level Avith the centre of the eyes. The branchio-
stegal membranes are broad and thick, free both from
each other and the isthmus; but at the extreme front
they cross, the left overlapping the right. The first
two (three) braiichiostegal ravs are slender, setiform;
the other five sabre-shaped, gradually increasing in
breadth liackwards (upwards).

The dorsal fin begins at a distance from the arti-
cular knob of the maxillaries that inci'eases with age
from about 4t; to .")0 % of the length of the body. Its
base varies between about 7' .-, and (S7.., ?», and its
greatest height (the length of the 3rd or 4th ray) be-
tween about 14 and IJ %, of the length of the body.
Above it is obli(|uelv truncate, with the upper posterior
margin straight or somewhat convex. The adipose tin
is of the same shape as in the Salmons, but of a di-
stinctly fibrous texture. It is situated above the poste-
rior part of the anal tin, at a distance from the caudal
fin measuring about ' ,„ — ^^ (9' „ — 12' ^ %) of the
length of the l)od}'. The anal tin begins at a distance
from the articular knob of the maxillaries equal to about
70 % (69';.,— 72' , ?«<) of the length of the body, the

ScauiUnnvmn fi.ihe!.

percentage being generalh' greatest in the females. TIjc
length of its base \a.rics between 14 and 1 1 "*, and its
greatest height (the length of the 3rd — 5th ray) between
10 and 8' ., %, of the length of the body. Its inferior
margin is somewhat conca\'e. The caudal tin is deeph'
forked, the length of the middle rays being only slightK'
greater tiian (sometimes (!(pial to) the least depth of the
tail, oi' abuiit ■ ., (\arying between 35 and 43 %) of
the length of the longest caudal ravs, which varies be-
tween about 17 and 15 "„ (if that of the bodw

The pectoral tins are set as in the Salmons, rather
low. ^\'hen folded, they are of an oblicjuely jiointed
shape; when exjiaiidcHl, oval. Their length \aries be-
tween 16 and 14 S. of that of the body. Tlie third
(second branched) ray is commonly the longest. The
ventral tins are of a, broader shape, and are always
shorter. Their length ^•arics during growth between
14' , and 12 % of that of the body. Their distance
from the tip of the snout (i. e. from the .articular knobs
of the maxillaries) is generally tlu> same as that of the
dorsal fin. The preabdominal length is as a rule more,
the jjostabdominal length less, than ' /, of the length of
the body, the former varying between about 29 and
26 %. the latter between about 22 and 23 ?6 thereof.

The structure of the scales we have already de-
scribed. Below we shall see how the scales of the lateral
line indicate the origin of those of Argentina and Sco-
lielus, as a transition stage in this respect between the
said genera and the Capelin. During the spawning-
season both the males and females are covered with a
granulate dermal eruption, which varies, however, con-
siderably both in prominence and extent.

The internal organs and the most important ])eeu-
liai-ities of the skeleton have also been described in
the ])receding jjages.

The coloration is ])rincipally characterized, here as
in the following genus, by the thinness and transpa-
rency of the scales; and this transparency is commu-
nicated in some degree both to the dorsal musculature
and the head, the vertebra;' as well as the cerebral
parts being visible in the living fish. The back and
the upper portion of the head are pale green or some-
times dashed Avith bluish gray, and dow-n the sides,
especially in the breeding males, this colour passes into
a lustrous violet. Along tin- middle of the sides runs
a silvery band, and this silver\' lustre extends to the
shoulder-girdle, the opercula, and the cheeks. Under
the scales the skin is strewn on the upper parts of the

11(1

K72

SCAMMNAVIAN KISHES.

hodv with fine spiUs ot hluisli Ijlack piji'iiieiit, more
scattered liut Jar<rer in tlie silvery hand. Down the
sides tiiese spots become still more dispersed, until they
disappear on the belly. The snout, which is otherwise
transparent, and tlie tip of the lower jaw bear the
densest and largest spots of ijignieiit. The silvery
peritoneum gleams through the venti'al sides. The lower
part of the tail is transparent, of the same colour as
the back, only paler (yellower), and the median line of
the l)elly is partly transparent, partly more or less
milk-white. The iris is of a silvery lustre, but the
upper part of the e\el)all is coated witli a thick, bluish
black pigment, which sometimes advances over the top
of the iris. In the tins the membrane is transparent.
Mild tlie rays are of a lightei- (ji- darker gray, darkest
in the caudal and pectoral hus, and, after these, in the
anterior part of the dorsal hn.

()ne of the most noticeable characteristics of the
.Smelt — which it possesses, however, in common with
the Capelin — is its peculiar odt)ur. Tliis is most
powerful in young specimens, and comes nearest to the
smell of the cucumber, though not without a trace of
violet perfume. It is at all events far from pleasant
to the ordinarj' individual, and its seat being the dermal
mucus of the iish, it comrauiricates itself to everything
with which the Smelt comes in contact.

The Smelt has an extensive range in the North
Atlantic from east to west, for Osmenis morda.r (riri-
(lescens), the form belonging to the east coast of North
America, can hardly be regarded as a species distinct
from our common Smelt. < )n the Atlantic coasts and
in the rivers that fall into the Atlantic ( )cean, its oc-
currence is, however, confined, generally speaking, to
the zone bounded by the 40th and 60th degrees of
latitude", though in the Baltic it is found further north,
up to the head of tile (nilf of Bothnia. South of France
it is unkno\vn, and it is not common south of the
north-west of tiiat countr\'; liiit from this region, in-
cluding the British Isles and the Continent, up to the
south-east of Norway, throughout the greater part of
Sweden, in Finland, and in Russia, it (iccurs, and in
suitable localities is common, within the basins of the
North Sea and the Baltic. In Russia, according to

(tRimm'', it has also spread to the basin of the Volga.
It is really an anadroinous fish, ascending the rivers in
order to spawn, and in the southern part of its range
its occurrence is alinost exclusively restricted to tidal
waters. 15ut in many places it has lieconie a stationary
fresh-water fish. In the lakes of Jutland it is fairly
common, according to Kroyek, who had also procured
specimens from Roskilde Fjord, and records a statement
as to its occurrence in Lake Fur (Zealand); but with
these exceptions the Smelt is said to be wanting on the
Danish islands. In Norway, according to Collett, it
is touiid oiilv in Christiania Fjord and in fresh water
south of the Dovre Fjeld, though not west of Lake Nord
in Telemark; and on the west coast it is said to be
wanting''. Accoi-ding to the re[)Orts sent in to the
Fisheries Commission of 1881 — 83 the Smelt is wanting
in Sweden only within the Governments of Jonkoping'',
Kronoberg, Gothland, Blekinge, and Ilalland. Through-
out Finland the Smelt is common, up to lat. 66 N.
(M.\lm(;i!En); but in the White Sea it is replaced, as
we have mentioned, by Osmerus spiiinchus. A singular
gap in its geographical range appears in the Baltic
within tlie Sound, where it is wanting or at least ex-
tremely rare on the Scanian coast, oft' Bornholm, and
on the coast of Blekinge. The gap reminds us of a
similar lireak in the range of tlie Common Sea-Snail',
though the Smelt is by no means an Arctic species.
It is especially common in Russia, North Gernianv
— particularly in the Haft's — and the Netherlands;
and the Smelt fisheries of the Seine and Thames are
to Paris and London what the fisherv in the Norr-
strom is to Stockholm. In Irish waters tlie Smelt
seems to be wanting.

"The Smelt is of a stupid and sluggish tempera-
ment", wrote Eksthum, and this opinion has afterwards
been reitei'ated by other writers — "sillv as a, Smelt,"
is a common Swedish saying. But whv it is thus stig-
matized more than other fishes, we cannot say. Gathered
in shoals during the spawning, when it is ruled by
sexual instincts alone, it is easv to catch like many
other fishes: and this is probably the origin of its re-
puted stupidity. It is a voracious fish-of-prev — which
may easily be seen by its teeth — and its form of body

" .\ccording to G.MiMard (). c.) the Smell occurs on the coasts of Icehind; but Fabep. liad no information on tliis head.

' Fishing and Hunting in Russian Waters, p. 20.

'■ Olsen (Piscatorial Atlas) states, however, that the Smelt occurs in Bucke Fjord oft" Slavanger.

■' Yet it is found in Lake Wetter.

<■ Cf. ahove, p. 289.

87;^

indicates at lesist no lack of aijilitv. Pint out of the
water it soon dies, no more tcuiicious of lite than tlic
llci'i'in^'. it is a niii;rator\- iisii iilvc tiie Salmons, though
not in so liiuii a degree, roving sit the spmvning-season
from salt water to fresh, or, in the lakes, from ilee|>
water to tiie sh:illo\vs. As the spawning-season a])-
|ii'o!iches, it assembles in large and dense shoals; hut at
other times it leads a more solitary life, being fre-
(|ueMtl\ taken in the Ilerriiig-nets used in the IJaltie,
hut not in an\' great number. It feeds ]irinci|)all\' on
fisli. small or large — at least up to half of its own
size — and especially on Herring-fry and thi' \(miigof
its own species. Other kinds of food, howe\'er, such
as crustaceans (shriuq)S and (.Tammai-oids), worms, and
larva', do not come amiss.

According to Yarkell the marine Smelt of the
English coasts repairs to fresh or brackish water, and
remains tliere from August to Mav. In the Xorrstrc'nn
otf Stockholm a female 19(j mm. long and a male 188
anil, long, both ipiite ready to spawn, were taken on
tile 1th of November, 1S92: but as a rule the Smelt
does not muster in Sweden for its breeding exjieditions
imtil the end of March or even later. From the island-
belt of Sodermanlaud EivSTROm wrote, "In Marcli or
April, according to the earlier or later breaking up of
the ice, the Smelt ascends to rivers, straits, or shores
where there is some current, always choosing, however,
water of some depth with a clean, sand\- bottom. It
generalh- rises towards evening and continues its jour-
ney the whole night, but at daybreak again retires for
the most part to deep water. A remarkable circum-
stance is that, whereas all other lishes prefer to s])awn
in fiuf: weatlier, in the Smelt the case is just the re-
verse. In s(|ualh' and snowy weather it is most eager
in its aseent, the violent gusts of wind and snow that
occur during the said months Ijeing hence known as
nors-il (Smelt squalls). Males and females swim in
corajiany during the spawning, and are so densely
massed that they seem merely to rub their bodies to-
gether in order to rid themselves of the roe, which is
deposited on the bottom beneath." The young start
first, but do not ascend so far u]) the rivers as the
older tisli, and often spawn in the lakes on shallow-
shores. Each siioal completes its spawning operations
in a few days; but one shoal follows in the wake of

" F.4ITH in Kroyer (1. c.) and Feddersex in the Tidfki

'• Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1886, p. 292, tab. XXX.

"■ Sonderlieil. Mittheil. Sclcl. Kiist.. Hochs. Fisch., Jalus

another, and thus tlie spawning continues as a rule
from the latter part of March to the first weeks of May.
The greater part of the shoal is composed of females,
and after the s|)a\\ning the shore and the bottom are
strewn \\ith nund)ers of dead Smelts which have strug-
gled in vain to disburden themselves of the roe". The
ova are light yellow; their dianu^ter was estimated l)y
Bknecke at ()■() — (I'.S mm., and their number in a i'e-
niale 18 — I'O em. long liy NoiiiiAcK at 50,000, by Oi.sen
at about 8(),00(). The\- attach themselves iti a singular
manner to the objects on which they fall after impreg-
nation. According to Cunnixgham', the outer membrane
of the o\um, the so-called zona radlata, "is differen-
tiated into two layers, the outer of which is somewhat
thinner tlian the internal. In the zona radiata extei-na
the pores are larger and farther a])art than in tlie in-
terna. But the important fact, which I believe no one
has jireviously observed, is tliat the external zona sepa-
rates \ery readily from the internal, and, rupturing at
one portion of the ovum, peels off", becoming turned
inside out in the ]>roeess, and, remaining attached over
a small circulai' area, forms the suspensory membrane",
liy means of which the ovum is attached to any ex-
ternal object.

The eggs are hatched, ax-cording to Blaxcherk, in
8 — 10 days, according to Feddeuskx in 12 daj-s, and
according to SrNi)i:vAr.L in IJS days, a discrepancy of
observation whieh in all |)rol>ability depends on the dif-
ferent temperature of the water during the period of
incubation. On their first exclusion the fry are elongated,
according to SuNi)E\-ALi. .") mm. long, and perfecth' ti-aiis-
parent; they are characterized by the unusually back-
ward position of the vitelline sac, the distance between
it and the insertion of the pectoral fins being more than
half of that l)etween these tins and the tip of the snout.
Eiirexbaum" gives some personal observations on the
growth of the larval Smelts. In the first month after
the hatching, according to him, they grew to a length
of 14 — IS mm.; in tlu' second he found them to be
27 — 34 mm. long, in the tliird '.V2 — .■)7 mm., in the
fourth O.I — 44 mm., in the fifth 44 — (iO mm. Still,
in .4ugust, according to Yakhell, they already measure
as much as about 7\, cm. The Smelt attains maturity
in the following s])ring, or, according to Norb.uk,
even at a length of 4;-) — 60 mm.

/. Fiskeri. vol. IV (187(1). p. 102.

1892, p. 12.

S74

SI'ANDIN.WIAX KISIIKS

'I'iic' rank odour emitted 1)\ the Smelt offends the
tasti^ of many; but the flesh is good, and the belly
between the spawning-seasons full of fat. Among epi-
cures it is esteemed as a delieat^y, after the disagreeable
smell has been remo\ed 1>a" very simple culinary me-
tliods. Tlie tish must also be carefulh' gutted, espeei-
aii\ if in breeding condition, to rid it of the numerous
intestinal worms, which penetrate even into the air-
bladdei-. It is best fried and served with lemon-juice
or \inegar, l)ut is often l)i)iled or stewed in sauces,
it is also split and dried for future consumption, and
in this st;ite may be eaten without further preparation".
Another method is to soak tlie dried fish in lye, and
afterwards dress it foi' tal)le like otlier stockfish. In
addition to its utility as JHiman food, the Smelt also
]>ossesses importaiice as one of the best baits for pre-

readiness. When the Smelt spawns on shores or off
headlands, it is taken with di-ag-nets, which differ from
an ordinary seine only in the comparative fineness of
the meshes. This fishery is pursued only at night, bon-
fires being not unfrequently lit on slioi'e by the fisher-
men, in the lielief tliat the fish, enticed b^' the glare,
come nearer land." The well-known Smelt-fishery in
the Norrstr5m oft' Stockholm is carried on with large
hoop-nets (fig. 219), such as are in general use at many
places among the island-belt of Stockholm, to secure
all kinds of small fishes for bait. These hoop-nets,
usually about y> — 3' ^ m. in diameter, are let down and
hoisted up from a boat, with the aid of a long pole erected
obliquely ujMvards in the stern; and a hand-net is em-
ployed to scoop the fish out of the large net. The Smelt
is also caught on the liook with a bait of shrimps.

SinelMisliiiis "itli hni^p-nft from a lioat.

da.tor\' fishes of a greater size; and in several localities
where it is taken in too great a. ([uantity for imme-
diate use, it is even made into guano.

< >f the Smelt-fishei-\- EKsTiiibi writes, ""It is during
the spawning-season that the Smelt is taken in any
i]uantit\-, the fishery being c(nnmonl3- conducted in the
following manner. Across the straits or the rivers to
which the Smelt ascends in order to spawn, fences are
built of green spruce branches, arranged so as to leave
gaps at the deepest parts of the chainiel. At these gaps
the fisherman stations himself witii a scoop-net large
enough to fill the opening and breaded of meshes so
fine that the Smelts cannot slip through. This net,
which is distended on staves, he lets down into the
opening, and takes up after a longer or shorter interval
according to the numbers of fish that come up, the take
being then turned out of tiie net into a coble held in

" "It used to lie splil ami ilricil anil was tlius considered to

sand-hoppers ((iammaroids), worms, or bits of tish: Init
this method is successful only when used for the large
Smelts, the slom or iiorskiiiirj as they are called in
some ]>;irts of Sweden wlu-n thev occur in solitary
specimens among the smaller Smelts.

Man is not the only enemy which the Smelt has
to fear; it often falls a victim to predatory fishes and
waterfowl. Although its great fecundity can, no doubt,
compensate in most cases the losses inflicted by an ac-
tive fishery, still it is advisable to protect the young fisii.

In lakes where the Smelt is wanting, it may easily
be introduced, and is very useful, especiallj^ as food
for othei- fishes, in particular for the Pike-perch, as
Nii.ssoN has pointed out. The im])regnated eggs may
be transpoi'ted from one lake to another, or with a little
care the spawning Smelt may be conveyed alive during
the cool season in vessels filled with pure watei'.

iidd a peculiar relish to the morning dram of spirits". Day.

S.\I.M(IN11).K,

87.-)

Gknis MALLOTUS".

jVb ra)iini'>^: sinull. fine feetli, iKin/li/ (listiiK/insl/iililf io llic uaked eife, f'cl in- one roir in tin; anterior part of the
i(nrt'ij(iii\ iin the inteiind.iilhiries, the ina.iilliirirs, the head of fl/c lonici-, tl/r anterior extremity of the jjalafines^
the inesojiteri/i/i>i(i hones, and the toni/ne. Len(/fh of the ina.iillaries as a rati' ■'>/'' — ti'l %, and that of the lower
jaw as a rale 7')' — !)() %, of the lenr/th of the head redaeed. Xandn'r of rai/s in the amd fin 20 — 24, 17'' — 20
Iteinii liraneheil: anil the Itase of the anal fii longer than that of the dorsal. Creeal direrlicula at the pijlorns
short and feir [ahoat 4 — tl). Scales small, al/oat 200 in a nnr (doni/ the sides of the liodij, and the lateral line
complete, at least to the perpendi( alar from the end of the an<d fn.

Between Mallot as ami Osincras stMiuls tlio Arctic
AraericMii Ealachon ( Thaleichthys pacificus), witli scales
unly slighth' smaller than those of the Smelt and den-
tition feeble as in the ("apelin". Tims we cannot ex-
|)ect tl) ti'ace the descent of the ("apelin immediately
from the Smelt t)r the reverse. In several resjiects, it
is true, we tind that the Smelts represent an earlier
stage of development, more nearh" approximated to the
presumable original form. (_)ne of the most prominent
differences between the two genera lies, for example,
in the shape of the anal tin, the height of which is
al\va\'s more in the Smelts, less in the Capeliiis, than
half its base. Xcjw in the former' we find in the aver-
ages a difference both of age — the voung have a rela-
tivelv higher anal tin than the old — and of sex — the
females have a relativelv higher anal tin than the
males — both of which relations point to the transition
from Osnieras to Mallotus. In most other respects,
however, Mallotiis comes nearer to the original form,
such as we may assiune this form to have been, jud-
ging by the manner in which the characters aiipeai'.
Thus, for example, Mallotns has a narrower snout than

Osmeras, ihe lircsidtli (if the snout across the articular
knobs of the maxillaries bcsing less in ^[allotus, more
in Osmeras, than ' ^ of the length of the head or ' ,,
of the length of the iiead reduced. In Mallotas as in
Osm. eperlanus the percentages for these relations also
rise with increasing age. The sexual distinction is.
however, different here: in the ("apelins (as in Osni.
dente.r and ()s)n. siiirinehas) the snout is as a rule
narrowest in the females, in Osm. eperlanus in the
males. Another character wherein Mallotns also repre-
sents a lower grade of development, may be found in
its adipose tin, Avliich is of uniform height, long and
lo\v, and which, like the embryonic tins that we ha\e
remarked in several preceding genera, is furnished
with a countless number of tine supporting fibrils.
The feeble dentition approximates Mallotns more close-
1\- to the following subdivision of the Salmonoid
famih', althougli the immediate transition from Osme-
ras to the said subdivision passes through other
genera, as for instance Xelma (Stenodas) and ili/p"-
mesns.

< )nly one species of the genus is known''.

" Greek fiai.Xcordg = Lat. villosiis, hairy.
'' In exceptional cases on.

' Eiiliichoii is besides reinarliable for its fatness. In a ilried form it is a food of good tlavoiir and, when lit. burns like a lamp.
■' Most distinctly, judging by the Royal Museum succiniens, in Osmen:s ilentex and Osm. i>pir>nchus.

■■' The difference given in Riksmuseets Salmonider between the Capolins of the Old and New Worlds has proved, on examination of
a greater number of specimens from Greenland, fo be untenable.

876

SCA.NDIXAVIAN FISHE.S.

THE CAPELIN (mv. luiii>an).
MAI.LUTI'S \-ILLOSUS.

Plalr- Xr,I, Hgs. 2 (o^) mid ?, (?).

Milters mid spmvners n-idely differevt, the former iritli the Inn/f/i ,,/ flu- i^ectorat fitis iimre than ].', % of that
of the hodi/, irith the aii(d Jxise, ivhich is elevated ih ai/ (irciiate riirre liei/orid the ventral line, more than 1(1 %
of the length of the liodi/ ai/d jiericjtfililii f/re(der than the /ei/(/th of the head reduced, ai/d also iritli the scales
in a loai/ifadiiial roa- ahore the lateral line aad in another (dong each side of the helli/ jirnlongated and pointed
or at least distinetli/ larger tlian the scales on the rest of the hodg.

R. br. 8 — 10"; D.

(2)3

10—13'

(16)17—20' ' 15-19(20)'

V.

7

siipn
Sun.

pillTI.

+ 1 + 17 + 1 + :e: L. Int. ca 200; L.
vc-iilr.; Verl. (57—70''.

Anchovas et Capelinas, Parkhurst in Hakluyts Voyage.^ 1598
—1600, vol. Ill, p. 133; Egede, Gronl N. Perlustr., p.
50; Str6m, Sondm. Beskriv., part. I, p. 293; Leem,
Besk-r. Fiiim. Lapp., p. 323; Olaks., Reis. hi., part. I,
p. 358, tab. XXVm. Aiiiimarset. Cranz, Hi.«t. Gronl.
(ed. suec. 1769), part. I, p. 124. Capehin de I'Amerique
septentrionale. Dun., Pectie.'<, part. II, p. 149, tab. XXVI,
figg. 1—8.

Salmo Eperlanus, Mull., Zool. Dan. Prodr., p. 48 (e.x StrOm).

Uliipea villosa, Mijll., ibid., p. 50 (ex Olafs.); Vahl, Rathke
(tSahno) in MOll., Zool. Dan., part. IV, p. 45, tab. CLX;
Faber, Fisch. hi., p. 174; Richards. \_Salmo (Mallotns) ex
Cuv.] Fna Bor. Amer., part. Ill, p. 187; Gaim. (Mallotus),
Vol/, hi., Groenh, tab. 18, fig. 1; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat.
Poiss., vol. XXI, p. 392, tab. 622 et 623; Mgrn, Finl.
Fiskfna (disp. Helsingf.), p. 66; Gthr, Vat. Brit. Miis., Fish.,
vol. VI, p. 170; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Cliri.ia 1874, Til-
Isegsh., p. 163; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 86; N. Mag. Naturv.
Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. 106; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 345,
tab. X; Joed., Gilb., Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, p.
291; Storm, Norsk. Vid. Selsk. Skr., Trondhj. 1883, p. 28;
Br. Goode, Fischer., Fischer. -Industr. U. S., sect. I, p. 544,
tab. 201; Smitt, Riksm. Salmonid., p. 189; Lill.i., Sv.,
Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. II, p. 646.

Salmo arctictis, Fabr., Fn. Gronl. p. 177; Nilss. (Osmerns),
Prodr. Ichthyol. S'cand., p. 11; Kr. (Alallotus) in Gaim.,
Voy. Scand., Lappon., cett., tab. 16, tig. 1; Id., Damn.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 23 ; Nilss. (,Osmeriis), Skand. Fna. Fisk.,
p. 441.

Salmo groenlandicus, Bl., Katnrg. Ausland. Fiscli., pt. VIII,
p. 99, tab. CCCLXXXI, lig. 1 ; t:uv. (Mallotn.9), Rigne
Anim.. ed. 2, torn. II, p. 306.

Salmo socialis, Pall., Zoogr. Ross. A.yiat., toni. Ill, p. 389,

Osmervs microdon, Cuv., Val., Hist. \at. Poiss., vol. XXI.
p. 385, tab. 621.

The male Capelin i.s as a rule not more than 19
in length to the end of the caudiil lohes, and the

female not more than 17 cm.; Init LiLL.jEiima: mentions
male.s of a length of '2'2 cm., and female.s of a lemrtli
of IS cm. According to the method in which our
measurements are here taken, frcjm tlie articular knohs
of the maxillaries to tiie end of the middle caudal
rays, the lengtli of tlie body in our specimens does
not exceed 17\o cm. for tlie mnles or 16 cm. for the
females.

Tile gi'eat difference lietween the sexes, wliidi i.s
so characteristic of the genus that we haxc included it
in the aliove diagnosis — no other character is neces-
sary, only one species of the genus being kno^vn —
appears in the very form of the body. The Capelin is
elongated and, in contradistinction to the Smelt, as a
rule of nioi'e uniform deptli and more comjiressecL In
the aelult males we have found tlie greatest deptli, at
the beginning of the dorsal fin, to \ary l)etween about
14 and 15% of the length of tlie body, and tlie great-
est thickness, which is fairly uniform above the lateral
line from the shoulder-girdle to the end of tiie true
dorsal tin, between 7\l.-, and 8^4 % of the same. In
the adult females the corresponding percentages have
varied from 11 to IH and from .") to 8 respectively.
In the males the greatest thickness has varied between
53 and (1O %, in the females lietween 43 and 62 %, of
the greatest depth. The least depth of the body shows
on an average the same .sexual difference, being in the
females about ii %. in the males about 5' ., %, of the
lengtli of tlie body. The dorsal edge is broadlv con-
vex, and the dorsal profile almost straight from the
very occiput', not beginning to descend toAvards the
base of the caudal fin until past the dorsal fin proper.
Below the lateral line the sides gradually converge

" Sometimes up to 11, according to Keoyer.

'' Sometimes 65, according to Keoyek.

.' In all our frcsb, Imt dead specimens there appeared in the median line of the back, just behind tlie bead, a conifircssed swelling

to a callosity of the central sinew in the nuisciilns gracilis, whore the latter broadens towards its point of attachment on the occiput.

I

877

towards tlic \fiiti';il iiiariiiii, wliich is iiari'uWL'r, l)iil
terete. TIh' ventral |ir(itile in front rnns alnidst jia-
rallel to tlu; dorsal, hegimiin^' to rise towards the pe-
duncle of the tail at the origin of the anal tin, in the
females nnifornilv. bnt in the males with a lii-c^ak
caused 1>\' till.' arenate ex|)ansion of the liase of the
said tin.

The shape of the head reminds us most of a threc!-
sided pArnniiil, two sides of the pyramid heing formed
!)y the cheeks, whit-h apjiroacii each other i)el(_)w, and
the third by the fiat forehead antl occiput. Its length,
wliich is greatest in the females and the young, varies
hetwcen i';5 and IS) % of that of the body, and the
length of the head reduced, from the articular kuoljs
of the maxillarii'S to the hind margin of the preoper-
cnluni, similarly Ijetween 1-V , and V^ % of the length
of The body. The horizontal profile of the tip of the
snout is broadh' rounded, but its Ijreadth at the arti-
culation of the maxillai'ies is considerablv less than in
the Smelt, measuring only K! — 20 % (in exceptional
cases '1\ %) of the length of the head. The length of
the snout, on the other hand, is gi-eater than in the
Smelt, being about 33 — 30 % of that of the head. The
eyes are also comparatively larger than in the Smelt:
in adult Capelins their longitudinal diameter, which is
somewhat greater than the vertical, is about 24 — 23 %
of the length of the head. The postorbital length of
the head is consequently always less in the t'apelin
(about 44 — 48 ?4) than half the length of the head,
while in the Smelt it is more than half of the same.
The forehead is flatter, but its breadth, like that of
the snout, is on an average less than in the Smelt,
being onlv about 24 — 22 ?>■, of the length of the head,
and in exception to the general rule in the family, it
is the males that here represent the earlier stages of
development. In the opercular apparatus the operculum
itself is of the .same shape as that of the Smelt, but
the siiuis at the hind margin is indistinct or wanting.
The subo|)erculum is somewhat larger than in the Smelt,
and more nearly resembles the quadrant of an ellipse.
The lower posterior angle of the preoperculum is al-
most a right angle. That portion of the margin of the
upper jaw which is formed by the intermaxillaries
measures onl}- aljout V» — "" 7 (''3 — 74 %) of the longi-
tudinal diameter of the eyes; but the length of the
maxillaries is about the same as in the Smelt, on an
average about 41 %, varying between 38 and 44 %, of
that of the head. The length of the lower jaw, on an

average less than in the Smelt, is about o7 "», \arving
bet\\een .")") (exce])tionally .53) and (iO (exce|)tionall\-
62) %, of that of the head; but the more essential
difference in the shape of the lowei- jaw between these
two genei'a is due parth' to the downward (^onvctrgency
of the sides of the head in the ('a]ielin, the halves of
the htwei' jaw being thus l)rought neai'er to each othei',
partly to the less marked cui'vature in an upward di-
rection of the point of the lower jaw, which, howev<n',
projects, (^ven in the Capelin, beyond the tip of the snout.
As regards the distribution of the teeth in the mouth,
palate, and pharynx the Capelin in all essential respects
resembles the Smelt; but all the teeth of the Capelin
are of uniform size and small, about equal in size to
the maxillary teeth of the Smelt. On the true hyoid
bone (os linfjuaJe or (/lossoliijnle) lies an elliptical row
of teeth within the fleshy margins of the tongue, with
one or two teeth set inside tlie ellipse, and on each
mesopterygoid bone the row of teeth is not situated,
as in the Smelt, at the very inner margin, the l)one
having grown further inwards to form a more com-
plete bottom for the orbit. The gill-rakers resemble
those of the Smelt, but are as a rule somewhat more
numerous, 35 — 39 on the front of the first branchial
arch, and 25 — -30 of these on the lower part of the
same. The pseudobranchiiK lie just behind the orbits
and above the dermal fold that bounds the |)alate be-
hind. They consist of 15 or 16 short lameike, set in
an oblique transverse row. The gill-openings are large,
extending from about half the upper edge of the oper-
culum t(j a line with the anterior margin of the eyes,
and the two branchiostegal membranes are entirely free
from each other, crossing only to an extremely small
extent in front, where the left membrane overlaps the
right, but where each is covered by an outer fold of
the skin, the right foki lying outside tlie left. The first
(lower) four branchiostegal rays are slender and subu-
late, the last (upper) 4 — 6 gradually become flatter
and broader (sword-shaped) behind (upwards).

The dorsal flu begins at a distance from the arti-
cular knobs of the maxillaries that measures alxjut 50
— 55 % of the length of the body, farthest back as a
rule in the females. Its base measures about ' j„ (9
— 12 %) of the length of the body, and is generally
somewhat less (but sometimes, especially in the males,
somewhat greater) than its height as expressed by the
length of the longest (3rd and 4th, i. e. first branch-
ed) rays. When erected, the fin is of an obliquely

878

SCANDINAVIAN KISHES.

(|ii;i(lraiigtilai- s1im]io, witli .soiiu'whiit (mjiivl'X upiier nuir-
,iiiii, and witii the liimliiiost ray iiieasuriiig about " .,
of the longest ray. The shape and structure of the
adipose tin have already been noticed. It is situated
above tlie posterior tlnve-fiftlis of tiie base of the anal
tin, but tlie distance Ijetween it and tlie caudal fin
(about 7 — 11 % of tiie lengtli of the body) is in ge-
neral perceptibly greater than tiiat between the anal
fin and the latter. Tiie anal tin begins at a distance
fi-oni tiie articular Icnolis of tiie inaxillaries in the males
equal to about " ,. (IKi — <-i8'/2 -^*)' '" ^'ic^ females nearly
'/, (71—72' , %). of the lengtli of tlic Ijody. The
sexual difference in the base of this tin we have al-
ready remarked. The length of its base is in the males
about 17 — lil %, in the females aliout 13 — 15 %, of
the length of the body. Its lower margin is arcuate,
and its height (the length of the longest, the 5th or
nth ray) is always less than half" (8S-47 %, exeep-
tionalh- 49 %) of its length (base). The caudal tin is
as a rule somewhat less deeply forked than in the
Smelt, the length of the middle rays being aljout 43
— 53 % of that of the longest ones and usually greater
fh;in the least depth of the tail, only exceptionally,
and then in the males, ecjual to the latter. The length
of the middle rays varies between about h^',., and 6 '/a
% (exceptionally 7 %), and the lengtli of the longest
rays lietween about 12 and 14 %, of that of the liod)'.
The pectoral tins are set low, as in the Smelt,
and the great sexual difference lies not oid}% as we
have mentioned above, in the length of the tins, but
also in their breadth. In the males, when the tins are
folded, one of them overlaps the other under the Ijelly
to a considerable extent. When expanded, the two
fins together form in the males almost a semicii-cle.
In the females they are of a broad oval shape. Their
length varies in the males between about 15'' iind
IG'/s %i in the females between about 10 and 13' ^j %,
of that of the body. As a rule even their relative
length increases with age, the females thus representing
the lower grades of development. The ventral fins
resemble the ])ectoral Itoth in shape and sexual dif-
ference, though the latter is less marked, and the
ventral fins of the males together compose, more cor-
rectly speaking, a half-ellipse. Their length is also on
an average equal to that of the pectoral. Thev are

inserted almost \ertically below tlie beginning of the
true dorsal fin, comjwratively further back in Aoung
Capelins than in old and in the females than in the
males, the average preabdominal length being in young
females 31 V'^ %, in old females 32'/2 %, in the males
30' ., %, of the length of the bodv, and the average
postabdominal length in the females 18' ^ "&, in voung
males 18'/., %, in old males 17' ., %, of the length of
the body.

The scales are thin and small, as we ha\e men-
tioned above, but in essential respects (fig. 220, u) re-
semble those of the Smelt, both as regards shape and

m

mJ

Fig. 220. Scales from the loft side of a Mallotiis villosiis, I2V2
times tlie natura] size. (/, one of the ordinary scales below the lateral
line in a female; i, a scale from the lateral line of a female: c, one
of the larger scales at the base of the anal fiii in a male; (/. one
of the villiform scales in the lateral band of a male, with the epi-
dermal coverine^ preserved, and witlt lobes of the lorn dermal follicle
(coriiim) or eacli side.

texture, onlj- that the concentric striix- are fe^v and
scattered (usuallv no more than 5 or 6 l)ehind the
indistinct nucleus of the scale, 3 in front of the same),
and interrupted at the top and bottom of the scale.
The scales of the lateral line (&) have the same open
incision in the hind part, and the duct is simply cana-
liculate, nowhere closed by the elevated margins. The
rule for the growth of the scales in the lateral line
being that the duct is at first canaliculate, these .scales
accordingly occupv in the Capelin a lower develop-
mental rank than in the Smelt. In the males, as we
have mentioned above, scales of a special shape appear

" In the Smelts always greater, 68 — S4 'i, in Osmeriis epcrlamw.

'' In exceptional cases wc have foiuid the pectoral fins of a male to measure only 14'7 '„ of tlie length of the body.

879

ill four loti,i;itu<liiial bands", one on CMcli side of llic
l)()d\- ;dio\<' tlic lateral line, and (jne alon.i;' each side
of the lii'lh', at the boundary between tlie ventral side
and the side of the liodv, beiiinnin^' below the [josterior
part of tlie jieetoral tins, when these tins are at rest,
interrupted at the \cntriil tins, but recommencing at
about the middle of their length and extending along
the base of the anal tin. ( >n the ele\ated base of this
fin, as \v(>ll as on the lower margin of the peduncle
of the tail, tlie remaining scales (r) are larger liian on
the rest of tlu' bod\- and more or less oblii|ue, with
one corner more or less elongated. In (he aboxe-
iiientioned longitudinal bands tlie scales are elongated
to a villiforni shape, but covered to the very tip with
skin, ill wiiicli lie scattered pigment-cells, most iiu-
merous and most constant at the tip of each scale,
rare and most scattered on the proximal part thereof.
Coiiiparativeh- large scales form a lobe on each side of the
vent, and this lobe is distinguishable even in the female.

The coloration in essential respects resembles that
of the Smelt. In the Cajjelin too the ui)per [larts of
the head and Ijody and the hind part of the tail ai'e
transparent. The back is green; the sides are silvery
with black dots, but the operculum and suboperculum
yellowish (with a golden or brassy lustre); the belly
is white. Our figures, however, depict the spawning-
dress, in which the back is darker, and the head some-
times entireh- covered with a sooty black pigment.
Below the above-mentioned villous bands of the males
runs a more or less pi'ominent, yellowish streak. The
fins are transparent, of a light grayish colour; the
caudal fin is darkest, especially at the base, the pe-
duncle of the tail being also more or less blackish.

The internal organs too are similar to those of
the Smelt. The liver is small, only the middle and
the left lobes lieing present. It extends back to aliout
a line with the middle of the pectoral fins. The ctccum-
like stomach extends almost back to the anterior ex-
tremitv of the pelvic bones. The pylorus is furnished
with 6 or 7 rather large appendages, four directed
forwards and three backwards, two of the latter on
the right side of the intestine. The pyloric coil and
the intestine are as in the Smelt. The spleen is nar-

row and ribbon-shaped, hing to the right, at about
the middle ol' the stoiiiaeli, between t he forepart of the
intestine and the air-bladder, which is comparatively
short and occupies a littk; more than the middle third
of the dorsal margin of the abdominal cavity. The
testes are double, but the i-ight is considerably smaller
than the left, and iinl\- the left ovary is present, its
inward (i\idiiet ri'sembling that of the Smelt. The
pc-ritoneuiii is sooty black inside, but its outer coat is
silver\' white.

The Caiielin is a borco-arctic species from the
northern n'gions both of the Atlantic and the Pacific.
Off Spitzliergen none of the numerous Swedish expe-
ditions has met with the Caiieliu; but at certain times
it is extremeU' eomiuon on the coasts of Norwegian
Fiinuark, Iceland, Newfoundland, Greenland, Alaska,
the Aleutian Islands, and Kamchatka. From the White
Sea the Fioval IMuseum of Stockholm has received the
species through Lieutenant H. Saxdeberg. Its occur-
rence in shoals on the Norwegian coast does not really
extend bevond Trondhjein Fjord; farther south it is
more and more scattered, and the Capelins from Chris-
tiania Fjord sent to the Fioyal Museum in 1842 by
Professor Esmakk must rank as a rare find. On the
other side of the Atlantic the Capelin goes farther
south, one of the consequences of the Arctic current
which follows the coast of North America. According
to JoKDAX and (tIlheut its range extends to Cape Cod;
but Bean states that it does not occur much south of
Halifax in Nova Scotia, and is never met with on the
coast of the United States. Richakdsox found the spe-
cies in Coronation Gulf, whence it appears that in this
quarter the range of the Capelin extends between the
Atlantic and the Pacific; Init off the extreme north of
Asia it has never yet been seen.

To all the above-mentioned points in which the
Capelin resembles the Smelt, we should add its rank
odour, which calls to mind that of stale cucumbers.
In its manner of life too the Gapelin is very like the
Smelt. But it is of a. more jielagic nature, and never
enters quite fresh waters. Its haunts and its life be-
tween the spawning-seasons are little known; but ac-
cording to JuEr/ it is frequently met with in summer

« According to FABRlcits tliese bands are sometimes wanting, even during tlie spawning-season, and tlie Esquimaux of Greenland have
« special name (Setmerstiilsut) for such males. That the scales in these bands only gradually develop the villiforni shape, being at first tri-
angular, appears from the remark on Capelin No. 22 in my Riksmuseets Salmonider .
» Norsk Fiskeritidende, 1892, p. 4.
Scandinavian Fislies. ^^^

880

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

by whalers out at sea in the Arctic Ocean. Fabricils
states that at this time it is less rash than during the
spawning-season, and seeks to evade its pursuers by
lea|)ing out of the water. In some fjords it loiters
long after the spawning is over. Tliis has been ob-
served in the upper ])art of Varanger Fjord", and also
in St. Mary Baj' (Newfoundland), where, during the
wlutci'-tishery under the ice, Capelin just devoured
liave been found in the stomach of Cod taken in Janu-
ary''. It attracts all the more attention during the
spawning-season, when it gathers in immense shoals
and I'epairs to shallow water. This takes place gene-
rally late in winter and early in summer, off Norwe-
gian Finmark, according to Saks, in April, May, and
June, on the coast of Greenland, according to Fabki-
cius, in May, June, and July. But this rule is subject
to many irregularities, which are of importance not
only for the fishery, but also to slied light upon similar
variations in the appearance of the Herring. For se-
veral years, seemingly at periodic intex'vals, the Capelin
deserts its usual spawning-places; in other years it
comes at an unusual season, seemingly, as in the case
of tlie Herring, earlier at the beginning of a period.
Thus Sheriff Sommerfelt (1799) writes of the Capelin'',
"that else they have the experience here that it has
abandoned the coasts of F"inmark for many years, up
to 16 or 20, in succession"; and to the quintennial
reports of the sheriff' (1830 — 1840), according to which
the 'Capelin-fishery' (i. e. the Cod-fisliery with a bait
of Capelin) had not been practised on the coast of
Finmark, Juel appends the remark'': "As old fisher-
men state, hoAvever, the Capelin did appear off the
coast in one of these periods of five years, but came
early (in Decemljer) and departed in March, so that
no fisherman seized the opportunity. Sul:)secjuently the
Capelin came later and later in the year. ' Similar
irregularities meet us in the Herrings approach to the
coast. They very probably depend in an eminent
degree, as Sars assumed, on variations in the "])hysio-
meteorological conditions," perhaps too on variations in

the supply of food and in the numbers of the Capelin's
enemies. P)ut as yet we can only record them among
the lessons of experience; their explanation we must
leave to future research. How important it would be
to Norway to ascertain the causes of these irregula-
rities, we may easily gather from the results of the
so-called Capelin-fishery, which depend on the said
irregularities, and wliicli in 187.3, according to Sars,
were estimated at nearly twenty million Cod, but in
some of the ])receding and the following years at only
five or six million.

During its wanderings the shoal is incessantly
harassed by all kinds of enemies in searcli of food.
In their efforts to escape tlie Capelins crowd so close
together that tlie fish in the middle of the shoal are
even lifted above the surface, where they wildly lash J
about on the backs of those beneath them. When the il
weather is calm, the Capelin shoal looks like a tum-
bling, glittering wave on the surfiice. Above it hover
flocks of kittiwakes {Larus fridactj/lus), which time
after time swoop down and seize a tish; and round the
shoal blow whales (the common rorcpial, Balanoptera
museiihis, and the lesser rorqual, Balcenoptera rosfrafu').
But the Capelin's most eager pursuers are Cod and
Coaltish'. Meanwhile the shoal makes for the coast,
which it follows till it finds a suitable S]ja.wning-place.
Often enough it comes so near land that the fish may
be scooped up in a hand-net from the beach, or even
leap ashore to escape their pursuers. As a rule they
swim against the wind, a sea-wind keeping them from
the coast, and a land-ln'eeze alluring them thither.
Enormous are the numbers in which the Capelin ap-
pears during these migrations, and many are the ac-
counts thereof. Thus Collett states that the Capelins
often spread in shoals many miles long, touching the J
coast almost simultaneously at the extreme end of I
Western Finmark and in Varanger Fjord. "The females
go first in a separate shoal," writes Fabkicius, "and seek
out places suital)le for their progenj'; the males follow and .
seek out the eggs, to impregnate them with their milt''.

" Saus, Loildi-fiskcl ced Ftiimarken, liidbtT. Depart, f. li. Iiidre, 1879, p. 11.
'' Hind in Bean, I. c.

' The quotation is tnkeii from -JuEi,, 1. c, p. 9.
"* L. c, p. 11.

' These two according to Sars. According to Collett the Capelin is also eaten by tlie humpbacked whale {Megapti'va boops).
t Besides these, according to Collett, Anarrhichas minor and lupus, Hippogtossiis vulijaiis, and several more.

^ According to Atwood (Proc. Bost. Soc. XIV (1872), ]>. 134) the males lead the way, and the females follow them to the spawning-
place, but in comparatively small numbers, one female to ten males.

When tlie fcin.-ilcs li.-nc left the place, the bottom is
SO entirely eovereil with tiieir eiigs tliat it gleams witii
a yellow colour; l)ut \\hen tlie males have shed their
milt on the o\a, tlie water is milky white, and the
bottom HO longer visible." Pali.as mentions "as a
curious tact" that several tisii, two, three, or e\-en ten,
cling so fast together with tiie aid of (he \ illous lateral
line that, if one of them be taken up, the others fol-
low with it, as if they were glued to each other, lie
adds, "l^ven in tiie sea tlie\' are seen swimming together
in this manner, and tiiis union between tlie sexes is
perhaps necessary for the fertilization of the S|)awn."
As we have seen, the males alone are furnished with
the villous bands; and Pallas' observation can there-
fore refer only to the emission of the milt by the
nuitual jjressure of the companion fishes, a supposition
wiiich bears out the statement that the males and fe-
males swim in separate shoals. Lanal\n, however,
gives an account" that points to a different conclusion.
"The female," he writes, "on approaching the beach to
deposit its spawn, is attended by two male fishes, who
huddle the female between them, nntil the whole body
is concealed under the projecting ridges, and iier head
only is visilile. In tiiis j^osition all tlu'ee run together,
with great swiftness, ujton the sands, wlien the males,
by some inherent imperceptible power compress the
body of the female, between their own, so as to expel
the spawn from the orifice at the tail. Having tluis
accomplished its deliver\', the three capelins separate,
and paddling with their whole force through the shal-
low water of the beach, generally succeed in regaining
once more the bosom of the deep; although man)' fail
to do so, and are cast upon the shore, especially if the
surf be at all heavy." If the observation be correct,
the spawning may thus be performed in two essentialh*
different manners.

On the coast of Fiinnai'k the s]ia\\'ning, says Saks,
"commonh' takes place at a depth of 4 — 20 fathoms,
though it may possibly be performed on rocky bottoms
and in deeper water as well, on which head, however,
we have as yet no trustworthy observations'." "In
Varanger Fjord," writes Collett, "there is a good
and sure sjiawning-place off' the mouth of the Jakob
I'-lf. At tlie flood the Caiielins ascend high up the

LIN. 881

river, as far as the water is brackish enough." After
the breeding nund)ers of ("apelins, especialh' old males,
float in a dying state at the surface, or are cast ashore
in great hoajjs. We have above seen a similar mor-
tality, tlunigh not so great, attend the spawning of
the Smelt.

In 187!t Capelin fry were first observed b}' Saks
on the 17th of June off' \'adso, after a fresh east wind
with a strong landward current. They were then, he
says, evidently just hatched, none of the s|K'cimens
collected measuring more than 8 — 10 mm.; but the
hatching-place certainly lay further east, no Capelin
roe having been obsened during the said year, either
off" \^adso or at the other two places in Varanger Fjord
examined by Saks. At this stage the fr\' were trans-
parent as water, with a very thin body, edged witli
a transparent vertical fin, and with a shapeless, broad
head, furnished with large, silvery eyes. They were
found in very great numbers, swimming about at the
surface. They were extremely sensitive, and died verj'
soon after leaving the water, however carefully they
were handled. Afterwards C'apelin fry were repeatedly
observed by Sak.s, even fir uj) Varanger Fjord: and
at the beginning of July thcv proved to compose the
principal food of the Coalfish. The Cod has also been
found by Collett to have its stomach full of Capelin
fry. When one 3-ear old, according to Colletf, the
Cajjelin is al>out 1 dm. long.

Capelins large and small have thus to serve as
food for the fishes which give rise to the greatest
fisheries of the world, l)otli in X(jrway and Newfound-
land. The Capelin allures them in its train to the
fishing-grounds; but when it has spawned and again
returns to sea, it entices them away. It is the best
bait that can be used for Codfish in general. As hu-
man food it does not find favoui' with fastidious pa-
lates, on account of its unpleasant smell; but the Green-
landers dry it, and in this condition it is one of their
most important foods. It is taken with hoop-nets and
seines. In Finmark, according to Jcel, the Capelin
seine has 38 meshes to the iilii ("2 ft.), i. e. a mesh
It)'/ 2 mm- ill diameter.

The food of the Ca]ielin consists mainly of small
crustaceans. It finds a plentiful diet in the Arctic

" U. S. Comm. Fisli. and Fisheries, Kep. II (1872 and 1873). p. 225.

' The above-mentioned obseivations of Pallas, however, point to this conclusion: and in consideration of the great density of the
Capelin shoals even out at sea, JUEL remarks (1. c, p. 4), "The greater number of the Capelins thus spawn probably in deep water."

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIRS.

seas, with llicir wimIiIi of St hh/i/xnid. Iliiprrhhi', and
(!o))(_'li()d(t, the iiiultitiuliiKJiis inimitc iiniiiials collectively
known liy the Norwegians as Kiil. It often seems,
however, as Fabiucius remarked, to live on its own
'roe as soon as deposited; even in the females we have
found the stomach crammed with e^^gs similar to those
dropped from the oviduct and still left in the aljdo-
minal cavity".

In the (Glacial cla\- the t'apelin occurs'' in the
same way as Gadns saidd (see abo\e); but the ma-
trices are usually still more characteristic, folloAving in
their outer contours the shape of the Capelin, and still
commoner. The}' are found in scattered localities
throughout Norway, from the e.Ktreme north to the

neighliourhood of (,'hristiania, sometimes 20U feet, if
not more, alcove the level of tlie sea.

A tish of such economical importance has, of course,
received many names from the fishermen, who in their
undiscriminating interest imagine that they increase
our knowledge of the species by distinguishing between
a number of forms. From Finmark Sparre-Schneider'
(Numerates the Lodde, Vaslodde, Harlodde, Fjordlodde,
BlankJodde, etc. From olden times different names have
been given to the sexes; and even in 1882 Sparre-
ScHNEiDEK found it impossible to convince the fisher-
men that the male and the female belong to the same
species. The male has been known as the Jernlodde" and
Facksdodde' , the female most commonly as the Sildelodde.

Genus THYMALLUS.

Teeth 'in fl/c month scattered ami snudt, set in a sin(/le roir on the internia.rillaries, the inaritlaries, and in the
Iniver Jaw, in a smalt card on the head nf the vomer, in two rows on the anterior part of the palatines, disappearimj
with atjp. on the tonijne, cardiform on the phanjnueats. Length of the ma.rillaries .-18 — 4S %, and of the lower
Jan- <Hi — 7'} %-\ of that of the head reduced. Length of the base of the dorsal fin more than 1.5 % of that of
the liodji and greater than that of the head reduced. Pyloric appendages well-developed and numerous (about
^0 — .5^'). Scales middle-sized, less than lOO" {75 — !>■'!} in the lateral line, irhich is complete.

The (jrayling gemis, Thi/niallus, occupies, as we
hclxe already mentioned, in many respects a remark-

stronger teeth, persistent on the tongue, smaller (more
numerous) scales, and a shorter dorsal fin (with at

able intermediate position between the Salmons and j most 14 rays). Apart from this genus, and also cx-

the (n\'3'niatls. But in the transition to the Salmons
there is another connecting-link, the genus Brachi/-
mystax'', which in comparison with llii/mallus, has

eluding Oncorhynchus from the comparison, the said
intermediate position of the (Jraylings is best expressed
bv the followins: relations:

" Poaitivel}' to deteniiiiif tlie species uf eggs cuDtainfil in tlie stomachs of specimens tliat liave lain for years in spirits, is a task
we will not nriilertake; but the resemblance to the eggs of tlie Capelin itself is striking.

'' M. Sars: Fos.<. Dyrd. Qvartierpcr. Univ. Progr. Chrnia 1864, p. 25. Collett, Olar. Mergelb. frn Bejeren, Troniso Mus.
Aarsb. III.

■•■ Zool. lagtta;/. fr. Varda, Thomso Mns. Aarsb. 1882, p. 23.

'' Really Jaiiodde or Jadrlodde, i. c. Edged Capelin, from Jadar, .Jar, or .Jar (e. g. in .J,Trleren), Engl, edder, Sw. gjcirde.

' Old Norwegian Fax, mane, fringe.

.'' Exceptionally (in young specimens) Tti %.'

» Thijmallus grubei, var. baicaUnsis, according to DviiOWSKi (Verb. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, Bd. .XXIV (1874), p. 301), bas 92—108
scales in the lateral line.

'' Gthr, Cat. Brit. .)/((.v., Fish., vol. VI, p. 162. To this genus should probably be referred both the Siberian Snlmo coregonoides,
Pall, and the Dalmatian Thi/malliis mirrolepi.x, Stei.nd. (= .Salmo ohtmiroi^tris. var. oxyrtiijnchu.x, Steind.). Both these species, however,
instinctively suggest the possibility of hybridism — the former = 'J'hipnallus + trutta, the Uiier = Tliytnnlhis + Jiiwi'ifitis. Cf. Smitt: Rihm.
Salmon., p. 199, not. 4.

GKAYl.lXGS.

HH:i

A V c.

.Snillinn.

firnylin^^

(Iwynind.

„r the i.Hixill..

r till- 1

•iiKih

(.f thr hr.i.l
„ ., lu-iul

rcMlii
red II

■I'd
■ed

.■!i»
f)ll
:>!!
110
47

31
4-2
52
(iO
44

.■!7

lower •

12

" ' ''

fii;

bitnl brmiltli iit

the 1

)rchend _

„ .^

II

Tlu! (iraylinirs" closest ;i[)i)r()ach to the Saluious appears in tlie foliowing relations:

A V e V a g;

Gwynind.

Salmon.

Grayling.

NUIUIHT ..r lU

Base of Ihc «
Distance helw

s iu the
lal Kn

anal

11

<)

11
8
11
12

12
11
11
11

in ■« 0

f the

lensth of the body

•en the a

lipos
nal

e liu

and the

eaudal tin

To tile (iwA-niads tlie (;ra\lini>-s eome nearest m the followini;' relations:

A \ .- r

n .r e

,SaI,„o„.

Gwyniad.

Grayling.

Postabdomiual leujith - -

in ;. nf the

ength 0

f the body
„ head

2(1
18
12

25

67

15
14

29
74

2i;

15
.14

29
7:!

Length of the ventral tins

., ., middle eaudal rays.. .—

., .. .. subopcrtuluni

•' " " "

„ ., .. head reduced

,, „ .. ..

In tlic size and texture of the scales tlie Gniylings
also stand nearer to the Gw\niads, and ])artake, to-
gether with the latter f^enus, in the approximation of
the Salmonoid type to the Cyprinoid.

The development of the dorsal tin in the (iray-
lings, their most distinctive character, has the result
that the average distance between this tin and the
snout is only about 35 % of the length of the body.
In this respect Thymallus stands alone in the Sal-
monoid family. The ojjposite extreme we iind in Mal-
lotiis, where the said average is more than -lO % of
the length of the body.

The name of Tlii/ni/illus {&vuu/./.og) dates from
-Elian — about 120 A. 1). — and has reference to the
thymy smell which some have supposed the tish to
(!mit. In Lixx.EUs it was a specitic name: Cuvikk
raised it to a generic rank".

Excluding the two nominal species TIiijdi. oiituri-
ci/sis and TInjm. 2fciieusii, which have l)een recognised
by \'alenciennE!s'' alone, and which have already been
repudiated by Gunther', and also excluding the ob-
scure Tltym. Gnihei, Dyb. and Thym. brevirostris, Kessl.
fi'om Southern Sib<n-ia and Central Asia, there hardly
remain more than two species of the genus TJ/yiiialliis
that can la}' claim to recognition. (.)f these two the
North Siberian Thjiui. aret/cus {PaUasii)'' is especially
remai'kal)le as re])resenting in by far the most respects
the characters of jouth and of the females, while in
others — even in tlie most distinctive character of the
genus, the length of the base of the dorsal tin — it
has attained a more advanced development than our
common species,

° R'egne Animal, eil. 2, toine 2, p. 306.

' Cdv., Val., Hist. Nal. Poiss., vol. XXI, pp. 452 and 4.'i3.
' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. 200.

'' Thymallus signifer, Richardson, from North America, is probably iilentical witli this species, though for the present we must leav(
this tiuestion open. See Siirrr, Riksm. Salmon., p. 206.

884

SCANDIXAVIAN FISHES.

THE GRAYLING (sw. harren;.
TIIYMALLUS VULGARIS.

Plate XLII, fig. 1.

Nmnher of (jill-rakeys on fJw ir/iole of flic first liranchial arch more than ^/", on the lower purt of the arch
more than 13''. Leuf/th of the head more tlian (>l % of the preahdominal tenf/fh. Length of the snout more than
24 % of that of the head or than 32 % of that of the head reduced, and the breadth of the snout more than
74 % of the li'iifith of the mnxlUaries. Least depth of the tail less than 42 % of the length of the head or than

57 % of the length of the head reduced.

-16
(1)1

(= 1^

(11)13 — 10(16)

(9)10—11

10-

+ 1 + 17 + 1

Lhi. lat. (65)74 — 93; Lin. tr. -1 (supra pinn. ventr.); Vert. 61''.

^'i/7i. Qiftallog, vElian., De nat. anim., lib. XIV, cap. XXII; Tlnj-
malliis, Belon, Nat., Divers. Poiss., p. 276; + TJmhre de
riviere, ibid., p. 280; T'hi/mus, Rondel., De pise, fliiv., p. 187
+ Umbra flumatilis, ibid., p. 172; Gesn., De Aquat., pp.
978 et 1032; Willughe., Hist. Pise., pp. 187 et 188. Core-
ijonns maxilla superiore longiore, pinna dorsi ossiciilorum vi-
ginti friiim, Art., lelithi/ol., Gen. Pise., p. 10; S'l/n. Pisi\.
p. 20; Descr. Spec. Pise., p. 41; Lin., Fna Siiec., ed. I,
p. 119. Triitta, No. 15, Ki.eix, Hist. J'i.n-. A'at., Miss. V,
p. 21, tab. IV, fig. 5.

Siihno {Uoregonns) Tliymallus, Lin., .'Syst. Nat., ed. X, toin. I,
p. 311; Bl., Fisch. Deutschl, part. I, p. 158, tab. XXIV;
Retz., Fna Snee. Lin., p. 349; Coucii. (Coret/oniis), Hist.
Fisfi. Brit. Is!., vol. IV, p. 280.

Tliymallus vulgaris, NlLSS.. Prodr. lehtliyol. iScand., p. 13;
Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 136; Kr., Damn.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 35; Lloyd, Seandinav. Advent, p. 127;
NiLSS., Shand. Fna, Fisk., p. 447 ; Wdgrn, Landtbr.-Akad.
Handl. 1858, pp. 180 et 207; Sieb., Susswasserf. Mitteleur.,
p. 267; Mgbn, Finl. Fisk/na, (disp. Helsingf.), p. 64; Nystr.,
laktt. Fnan Jemtl. vattendr. (disp. Ups. 1863), p. 15; Wdgrn,
Landtbr.-Akad. Tiiiskr. 1863, pp. 202 et 203; Gthr, Cat.
Brit. Mus., Fish.,, vol. VI, p. 200; Canestr., Fna Ital.,
Pesci, p. 23; Lunel, ///.s-^ Nat. Poiss. Bass. Le'm., p. 120,
tab. XIII; Coll., Vid.-Selsk. Forh., Climia 1874, Tillsgsh.,
p. 171; ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 91; Olss., Vet.-Akad. Ofvers.
1876, No. 3, p. 135; 1882, No. 10, p. 50; Fedders., Nat.
Tidskr., Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 78; MoR., Hi.9t. A'oi.
Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 543; Bncke, Fiseh., Fischer., Fischz.
0., W. Preuss., p. 153; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 345, tab. X;
MflR., HcKE, Fiseh. Osts., p. 129; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. II, p. 131, tab. CXXIV; Norb., ffandl. Fiskev., Fiskafv.,
p. 400, fig. 120; Smitt, Riksm. Salmon., Vet.-Akad. Handl.,

Bd. 21, No. 8, p. 198; LiLi.J., Sc, Norg. Fisk., vol. U.

p. 664; Mela, Sundm., Fint. Fisk., tab. XXV.
Thymallus vexillifer, Agass., Poiss. d'eau douce, tab. XVI,

XVII, XVII '; Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXI, p.

438; Hckl., Kn., Siisswasserf. Oesterr. Mon., p. 242; Fatio,

Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. V, p. 286.
Thymallus gymnothnrax, Cuv., Val., I. c, p. 445, tab. 625;

Gthr, Jahresb. Ver. Vaterl. Naturk. Wiirlernb., Jalirg. IX

(1853), p. 341; Rapp, ibid., Jalirg. X, p. 161.
Thymallus gymnogaster, Cuv., Val., 1. c. p. 446, tab. 626

+ Thym. ^liani, p. 447.

The (Trayliiig attains in Sweden a length of o or
t) dm. and a weight, at least in ordinary cases, of at
most 2 kilo." The form of the body is fairly elongated
and compressed. The greatest depth, which occurs at
the beginning of the true dorsal tin, is about ^'j (18
— 21 ?a), but sometimes more than '/^ (2(5 %), of the
length of the Ijodj', and the greatest thickness in old
specimens is about 46 % of the said depth; but during
youth, at a length of ^/^ dm., when the dark transverse
bands are still present, tjie liody is more terete, the
greatest thickness being about 56 ?& of the greatest
depth. The least depth, just in front of the caudal tin,
is about 6 — T'/- % (seldom 8 %) of the length of tlie
body. The dorsal and ventral profiles are as a rule
fairly similar to each other, the back rising from the shal-
low (seen from the side, pointed) snout to the beginning
of the dorsal fin in a curve e(iual to that in which the
ventral profile descends for the same distance, and be-
hind tliis point the depth of the body decreases with
fair uniformity. But when the ventral muscles are
powerfully contracted, it often happens that the anterior

" In young specimens 21 or 20.

^ In young ppecimens 12.

' 9 — 11, according to Lilljeboeu.

'^ 60, according to Kroyee.

* From the Governments of Westernorrland, Jemtland, and Westerbottcn it was indeed reported to the Fislieries Commission of 1881 —
83 that the Grayling there attains a weight of 8 — 10 Sw. lbs. (3' , — 4*/, kilo.); but the greatest lengtli adduced at the same time. V'l Sw
ft. (5 dm.), seems hardly to admit of such a weight, except perhaps in the case of gravid females.

curve of tlie back becomes more elevated, wliile tlie
ventral ijrolilc is rendered morc^ or less straight. In
front tiic doi'sal margin is broadly convex or, on the
head, even flat; but towards the beginning of the dorsal
fin it graduaih" bei-omes more or less compressed; be-
hind the dorsal fin it is again flattened. The ventral
niariiin in front of the anal fin is broadly convex, at
the ventral tins even flat; behind the anal fin it is fiat,
like the dorsal margin of the peduncle of the tail. The
sides of tlie body are slightly convex.

The length of the head from the articular knobs
of the maxillaries is about equal to the greatest depth
of the l)od\', but vai'ies conversely to tile latter, from
about 21 to 20 % of the length of the body in young
Grayling, and from 20 to 18' ., % thereof in old. The
head is wedge-shaped, with compi-essed or only slightly
terete cheeks. The most characteristic feature in its '
appearance consists in the shallow (sometimes even sharp)
and broad tip of the snout, which in a horizontal di-
rection is truncate or slightly curved, but is occasionally
somewhat prolongated like a beak, if only to a short
distance, and which, when the mouth is closed, always
projects beyond the point of the lower jaw. The eyes
show the ])eculiarity that the pupil, as in the G\vyniads,
is anteriorly somewhat pointed, at an angle. Their size
varies with age, the longitudinal diameter being in
young specimens about 29 %, in old about 16 %, of
the length of the head. The nostrils are set somewhat
nearer to the eyes than to the tip of the snout, the
anterior on each side being raised in a tubular form,
the posterior, which lies just liehiiid, resemliling a trans-
verse slit, covered by a dermal fold from in front. The
lips are quite fleshy, especially on the intermaxillai'ies;
and the form of the broad, but short gape is essentially
determined l)v the said bones. These bones are reduced
each to a thin, triangular disk, transversely set and
consisting principally of the articular process, only the
lower, toothed margin, which is also the true corpus
of the bone, being somewliat thickened. The maxil-
laries are terete in the anterior, inward [)art (the ar-
ticular process); but behind this point they are disk-
shaped, curved like a sword, but of fairly uniform
breadth. The teeth extend along about the middle
third of their inferior margin. The oblong jugal bone
is about "/s as long and ',2 as broad as the maxillarj'.
The length of the maxillaries is less than in any pre-
ceding Salmonoid genus, varying between 35 and 27 %
of that of the head, or between 48 and 38 % of that

of tlu! head reduced. Togetiier with tlie jugal bone
the uiaxillar\- bone varies in l)rcadlli between about
',', (in the voung) and ^ ^ (in old specimens) of its
leiigtii. Thc^ lower jaw is deep at the middle, but at
tlie broad anterior margin shaiiow, almost sharp. Its
length is about 54 — 48 % of that of the head or 76
— 66 % of that of the head reduced. The disti-ibution
of tlie teeth ill tlie iiioutii and jiliarynx we liave al-
read\- touched upon. The teeth are ail alike, of a
blunt conical or e\lindrical shape, in contradistinction
to the pointed and more or less curved teeth of the
])r<!ceding genera. The characteristic features of the
gill-rakers we have also noticed. In the upper jaw
we find a well-develoj)ed transverse fold (palatal cur-
tain), ]iartially concealing the vomerine teeth, behind
the intermaxillary teeth. The lower jaw is not with-
out a similar fold, but this is very low. The pseudo-
branchiae are rather large, the length of their longest
lamella (at the middle) being about equal to the vei'-
tical diameter of the pupil. Tiie gill-openings are
large, extending from tlie middle of the ui)per oper-
cular margin down to the istlimus in about a line with
the anterior margin of the eye, where they cross each
other for a little distance, the left fitting into the
double fold of the right, as we have observed in Mal-
lotus. All the branchiostegal rays are flat, the anterior
(lower) curved in an ensiforin shape. Behind they
gradually increase both in length and breadth. The
operculum is obliquely quadrangular, wath the upper
posterior corner rounded, the posterior margin more
or less concave, and the inferior margin oblicpiely
ascending in a backward direction along the suboper-
culum, the length of which measures at this margin
about 26 — 31 ?» of that of the head, and the breadth
(height) of which is about half that of the operculum.
The lower posterior corner of the suboperculum is
shai-ply rounded. The hind margin of the preoper-
culum is broad, and its lower posterior corner almost
rectangular.

The dorsal tin begins at a distance from the tip
of the snout (the articular knobs of the maxillaries)
that measures on an average 36 — 34 % (exceptionally
38 or 33 %) of the length of the body. The average
length of its liase, which increases even relatively with
age and is greater as a rule in the males than in the
females, varies between about 18 and 28'/2 % (in old
males exceptionally 25 %) of that of the body. Its
shape shows great variations. Sometimes (especially

880

SCANDIX.WIAX FISHES.

ill young speciineiis and tlu' feniales) it is of fairly
uniform height or highest in the anterior part (the
t)th — 8th ray), the height l)eing about 11^ — 14 % of tlie
length of the body. Sometiines again (at least in old
males) the posterior ])art of the fin (tlic Ifitli — 21st ray)
rises to a height of as much as ' ., of tlie length of
the l)(i(lv. The adipose fin is of the sume shape as in
tlie Salmons, forming a eurved lobe of fairly uniform
breadth. It lies nearly \ertically above the end of the
anal fin, the distance between it and the first upper
sujiporting ray of the caudal fin being about ' , — ' ,
of the length of the body. The anal fin also resembles
that of the Salmons. It begins at a distance from the
ti]) of the snout (the articular knobs of the maxillaries)
which measures on an average about 71 % of the length
of the bodj'. The length of its base is 8 — 9 % (ex-
ceptionally 7 or 11 %), and its greatest height (the
length of the first or second branched ray) during youth
about 8 — 10 %, in old females about 10—11 %, and in
old males sometimes 1372 ^) of the length of the body.
Its hind infei-ior margin is convex. The caudal fin is
deeply forked, with pointed lobes. Its middle ra)s,
the relative length of which decreases with age from
a1)out 7 to 4 % of the length of the bod)', alwaj's
measure less than half, sometimes only one-third, of
the length of its longest rays.

The pectoral fins are set low, witli almost hori-
zontal base. They ai'e obliquely pointed, and their
length is about 14 — 17 % of that of the body. The
ventral fins are as a rule somewhat shorter, but some-
times even longer, than the pectoral. They are also
broader and more obtuse. The distance between them
and the tip of the snout (the articular knobs of the
maxillaries) is about 46 — 48 % of the length of the
body. The preabdoininal length is on an average 28 %,
the postabdominal length 26 %, of the length of the bod)'.

The scales are most like those of the Cyprinoids,
both in texture and shape. The}' are not onl}' larger
(fewei-), but also tlncker than tiiose of the Salmons,
and are furnished with radiating grooves. These are
especially deep in the anterior (inserted) part of the
scale, to which part they give an undulating appearance,
and the truncate margin of -which they render sinuate,
forming 3 — 5 indentations. The)' are very short at the

])osterior, rounded margin of tlie scak', where they leave
only slight notches. The lateral line follows a fairly
median course, in front somewhat nearer to the back
than to the belly. The middle part of its scales pro-
ject at the inserted margin in a rounded form. The
ordinarv scales cover the whole body, but leave most
of the fins, the head, and a greater or less portion of
the breast naked". The base of the caudal fin is, how-
ever, clothed with smaller and thinner scales, and this
covering follows the caudal rays, especial!}' the longest
ones, the scales here growing gradually smaller outwards
and being of a linguiform shape, calling to mind in their
structure the scales we have seen above in JllnUofus.

Its varied and shifting colours render the Gray-
ling a. handsome fish. Dark and light phases of colour
follow with different environments, and the Grayling,
like so many other fishes, has a particular festal dress.
The ground-colour of the back is brown or grayish,
shading into blue, green, or a purplish lusti-e in dif-
fei-eut lights. The sides are lighter, those of tlie head
witli a metallic lustre, those of the body with a .silvery
lustre or a tinge of yellow. The belly is of a more
or less pronounced silvery white. Along the sides of
the body, between the back and belly, run a number (up
to 16) of dark, parallel stripes, marking the limits l)c-
tween the regularly arranged r(_)ws of scales; and be-
sides there lie sharply defined, dark spots, reminding
us of the coloration of the Salmons, irregularly scat-
tered on the sides of the head and varying in occur-
rence, but sometimes distributed in longitudinal rows,
es])ecially on the forepart of the sides. The fins of the
ventral side are }ellowish or ashy gray at the base
(sometimes throughout), towards the top (especially the
posterior ones) violet. The caudal fin, as ^vell as the
adipose fin, is Iduish gra}', violet, or even of the same
dai-k hue as the back. Most prominent is the coloration
of the large dorsal fin, which is of an iridescent violet
or lake, with three or four rows of dark, quadrangular
spots, generally ocellated in lake, on the fin-membrane
between the light rays. In the spawning-dress all these
colours are heightened, ajid the body gleams with a
golden lustre.

The peritoneum is white. The short esophagus
passes into a very thick-walled stomach'', which extends

" At the median line the lielly is usually covered with scales (even if these are only small) forward to a line with tlie insertion of
the pectoral fins; but on each side and in front throughout the whole ventral side the skin is naked. The variations in the extent of thiii
scaleless part led Valenciennes to establish the species gymnothora.v and gymnogastcr.

^ In a male 55 cm. long the wall of the stomach is 6 mm. thick.

CKAVI.INi;.

8K7

to alnmt :i lino with llic ;iiiteriui- cxtrciiiitx- of tin' pel-
vic hones, wlieiv it lieiids aliniiitiy t'orwMi-d, so tliat tiie
end i>t' the ]>yloriis lies in almiit .i line with the ter-
mination iif the first third of tlie pectoral fins when at
rest. TIh' anterior liend of the intestine with its nunie-
rnns ]i\loi'ir a|)|iendaL;es rnns npwards and sliiihth' to
the riiiiit, lint tnrns with eipial alii'n|itness just liehind
the diaphragm, whence the intestine proceeds \\'ithout
t'ui'ther curvature to the \ent. Almost exactl)' in a line
with the insertions of the ventral fins, the intestine
passes into th<' rectum, ^vhi(•h is lined, as in the Sal-
HUins, with larue, annular, trans\erse folds. The liver
is coniparati\el\" small, and lies onh' in the left side of
the hodv. It extends hack hardly to a line with the
tips of the pectoral fins when folded. The spleen lies
obliquelv to the right of the stomachic hend and hehind
thi.s ])oint, directed toward.s the left. Its size varies, as
in the Salmons, according to the greater or less deve-
lojinient of the generative organs". The air-hladder is
thin-walled, liut large, extending along the whole dor-
sal margin of the ahdominal cavit^'.

The ilrayling is strictly a mountain fisii, and pre-
fers clear, rapid streams and their dead water, with a
hottoiu of sand or gravel. The hest |)lacc to look for
it is, therefore, in waters \vliere falls altei'uate \\'ith
deep i)ools or hroads. But it also roves into lakes, and
is found even in the sea, where the water is brackish
and of a temperature suited to its re(]uirenients. As a
general rule we may say that, where the common Trout
ran thrive, the Grayling is also at home; but they are
seldom met with in company. The geographical range
of the (iravling also endiraces the greater part of Europe.
\\ hether it occurs in Asia, and how far its range ex-
tends there, is as yet uncertain, for the (iraylings brought
home from the Yenisei by Xokdknskioli)'.s expedition
in lS7(i, proved to belong to the closely related species
which Pallas once named Saltno Krcticus, and which is
jirobably identical with the North American Grayling.

In Europe the Grayling is most plentiful in Lap-
land, the alpine tracts of Central Europe, and England.
According to L^stadiis' manuscript (1831) it is fairly
common in all the rivers and lakes of Tornea Lapp-
mark, up to the extreme north of Sweden (Kilpisjarvi,
(J9° X.). According to F.iellneij (MS in the Roval Mu-

seum) it is plentiful in duc'kasj.'irxi. It seems to occur
moi-e spai-ingh' in the lower parts of the Lapland rivers.
In 'lemtland, according to (,)lssox, it goes up to the
Norwegian frontier. In Lake Fla and in Stroms Vattudal
it is an im|iortaiit food-lish. The Ilarr Lakes (liarr ^
(il■a^■ling) on the Eulafjiill in Northern haleearlia derive
their name from its abundance in their waters: an<l
throughout tiie Hal k.lf it is fairly common. It also
occurs in tiie K'lar L.lf, most plentifully in its upper
(northern) jiarts and in the lakes on its course. Accord-
ing to Hn(;i!i:i:(;'s notes in 1S3.") (MS in the Iio\al Mu-
seum), a certain form is here known as SuinUtayr, which
appears to be a small Gra\'ling al)out 'li cm. long.
Accoi'ding to Xoi;iiA("K a distinction is drawn between
the F/(i(lli(iir (I>i\ei' (JraNling), whicli is short and thick,
with convex back and of dark coloration, and which
jn-efers comparativel)' still water, and the Sfrcimhorr
(Sti'cam (irajding), which is longer and more slender, of
mor(> slender frame and lighter coloration, and which
fretpients falls and the water beside them. \\'ii)i:gi{EN as-
signs the Grayling to Lake Wener. From Lake \\'etfei'
the Royal Museum receiyed this fish through Hall in
IS.'Vi, and Aiio.sKNius forwarded s])eciinens in 1834 from
the ^lotala River oft' Norrkoping''. Further south the
Grayling is rarer in Sweden; l)ut it occurs in Smaland
and in llalland', at least in the Laga River, where it
is known, according to Tkybom, as the Haspo.

In Norway its range is no less extensive, but ap-
parently still more sporadic. South of the Dovre Fjeld
it is found, according to Collett, oidy in the waters
of the Oster Valley and the Gudbrand Valley, but there
is rather ])lentiful. Along the west coast it is wanting,
but finds its way through the Lesjeverks-water on the
Rauma Elf almost to the mouth of this river in Runs-
dal Fjord. From this point north to Finmark the Gray-
ling is known only from some waters in the parish of
Lierne (North Trondhjcm), in the \'efsen Elf (Nordland),
and in the valle\- of the Maal F.lf. It is common, how-
evei-. in manv, though not in all, of the rivers in Fin-
mark. According to Mela it is common throughout
the greater ])art of Finland, Init \\-anting in the south-
ern districts, where it occurs but sparingly in Nyland
alone. Towards the head of the Gulf of Bothnia it is
common, both inside ancl outside the island-belt: but

iinle

L'ln. long, witli testes liardlv lipi

" Knoviii; fi.iiiul it small .iml roiiiul. In
frout, and 58 mm. long.

' Smitt, Riksm. Halmoiiid., lab. inetr. VIII.

"■ Umlerd. Bel. Ny Fiskeristaclsa, 1883, p. 155. See also LiLUEBOiiG, 1. c., p. G74.

oblong, ratlier blunt bcliind. pointed in

888

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

ill the central and southern parts of this gulf it is
rarer, occurring clown to Aland and the islands oft'
Al)ci. In Denmark, where tlie (Irayling is called Sfal-
liiijl. it iiccurs in a nuinher of rivers from tlu; south
to the middle tA' -lutland. According to Ficddkhsen,
however, its numbers are there rapidly decreasing, an
observation whicli has also been made in other coun-
tries, for example in North Germanv.

In European IJussia, according to t.iRiMM", tlie
( irayling is met with in the small rivers, and the up]ier
parts of the large rivers, that flow into the Arctic Ocean,
the White Sea, the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Cas-
pian. In Central Europe, where the (iravling has the
centre of its geographical extension in the Alps, it oc-
curs, according to E. Sciiultze'', in the basins of the
Dannlie, Hliine, Weser, Elbe, (Jder, Vistula, and Pregel.
Westward its true range extends over Switzerland to
TJie mountainous tracts of Eastern and South-eastern
France. Ausonius (about 400 A. D.) knew the Gray-
ling from the Moselle"; and according to Selys-Lono-
CHAMPS'' it is common, at least in some of the small
streams, in the mountainous interior of Belgium. On
one or two occasions it is said td have been found in
Holland'". Southward the (irayling goes to Londiardy,
\'enetia. Piedmont, and Isti'ia (Canestrtni, 1. c.). In
England the (jrayling ])roiiablv lias its original home
to the west/ and nortii and in Wales; but at the pre-
sent time, according to 1»av, it is commonest in the
more southern rivers, tlie Avon, Itchen, and Test. It
has been introduced in recent times into several Scotch
waters. In Ireland it is wanting.

Even old writei's, at least from Gesner's time, were
fairlv well acquainted with the habits of the Grayling,
and liad learnt to compare them to those (jf the Trout.
At most times it lies stationary and alone, in the shelter
of some jutting stone or in the shade of an overhanging
tree; but it darts off liki' an arrow, when friglitened,
and is as Sjieedy to seize aii\- \ictini that cumes its
way, often leaping out of tiie water to capture an in-
sect. But sometimes it shows sociable tendencies, and
in -luckasjiirvi, according to F.jellner, it assembles in

" Fishing and Hunting on Russian Waters, p. \2.

'' Geogr. Verbr. Hiissirasscr/scli. Mittrlmv., Slnllgarl 18'JO, p. 4 (sep.).

"^ Moselia, 1. 90.

■' Fimni; Beige, p. 22.

' In ihu little river Geiil. accor.liiig lo v. ij. ExDE, Versl. Werkz. Vereenig. Becurd. Int. hldhijoL, Deel. I, p. ;oO.

' "Tlie very best stream in tlie world for C4rnylint;- is the Teme" (a tributary of the Severn), according to Blli.ock. see Bicki.axd,
Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 3'M.

'J Nordisk Aaraskrift for Fiskeri, l:ste .\arg. (1883), p. .'iOS.

'' Accordins: to Day the frv arc excluHed in 12 — 25 days.

siioals during June and duly. Small cascades it easily
surmounts by leaping, but it is deticient in the Salmons'
])Ower of ])assing high falls. Lai-ge (iravling keep to tlie
deepest ])art of the water, the smaller ones stav nearer
shore.

The spawning-season usually occurs soon after the
breaking up of the ice, and may thus vary in Sweden
between April and June. In tlie lakes of Lapland, how-
ever, it sometimes happens, according to Trybom'', that
the breeding Graylings repair to the mouths of brooks,
where there is open water some time before the ice
breaks n\). In southern countries the spawning liegiiis
earlier: in Italy, according to Canestrini, from January
to April. V. SiEBOLD describes in the breeding fish a
firm, but smooth, dermal eruption on the scales, whose
limits, ho\ve\er, remain distinct. This ernjition is want-
ing in the sterile individuals, which are further di-
stinguished by a paler coloration. The Grayling too
discards its ordinary caution during the spawning-season.
According to Heckei, and Kxer the fish swim in pairs
to the spawning-place, wiiere x\\c\ scoop a hollow for
the eggs with their caudal fin, the eggs being covered
after impregnation with gravel or pebbles; and where
the spawning lias taken place in March, the ova are
hatched in June''. According to F.tei.lner live roe is
found between the stones in the rapids of the Torne
Elf in July, and in August the fry swim about in the
river. The diameter of ripe eggs, lying loose in the
al)dominal cavity, ready to be deposited, we have found
to be 2' 4 — 2' ., mm. But Benk.cke assigns to theiu a
size of about 4 mm., iiresumalily when they have swell-
ed after impregnation. According to Xokback the living
female contains 5,000 — (i,000 ova to every pound of
her own weight. The frv grow rapidiv; in England,
according to Day, they are 4 or b inches long at the
end of July or the beginning of August. But the
(Ti-ayling, it is stated, does not attain maturity until
three or four years old.

In sjiite of its feeble dentition the Grayling is di-
stinctly a fish-of-prey; and it is no dainty feeder.
Worms and the larviB of insects, inollusks, crustaceans,

i

WIiriK-SALMON.

8811

;in(l siii.'ill lislic's, in sliort iiciu-l\- all llic animal liiV ort'ered
it li\ till' water when' it lives, enter into its diet : and
ill its greedy haste it swallows leaves and lir-coiies that
fall into the water, inistn-kiiif;' them for insects. It seems
to he esiiei'ialh' ]iartia,l to eaddis-worms (the lar\':e ot
Stone-flies), the euxeriniis of which are liciierallv to he
found in its stomach. ISiit moUusks ;ire .also one of its
favourite foods: in ;i male ."i,5 cm. h^ng the stomaeh was
full of entire shells, an inch long, of pond-snails (Limtuva).
Fishes of the Minnow's size fall a |)re\' to the full-grown
Grayling. <!ra\ling large and small are besides roe-
eaters. When the ."salmons siiawn, they keep watch,
and feed on the o\ a : hnt in re(piilal thc\' are h.arassed
bv the .Salmons, in whose maw man\- a (ir.-nling has
perished, 'fhis proliai)l\ exjilains how, where food is
plentiful, <!ra\liiig and Trout can thrive in com|)aiiv,
hut where food is scari'c, the former must gi\(' wav.
As till' habits of the Graxliiig in essential i-espects
resemble those of the Trout, the same fishing methods
are used for them both. The (iraAling, like the Trout,
readily takes a fl\', and in many jjlaces gives the flv-tisher
good sport; but owing to its weak jaws a certain amount
of care is necessar\- not to tear the hook out and lose
the tish. Less fastidious anglers use a bait of worms
and small fishes, for example Minnows. But the (jrav-

ling is taken most commonU' and in the greatest quan-
tity with net and seine.

The flesh of the Grayling has always been held in
esteem. It is white, of good flavour, and easy of di-
gestion, suitable for evcni weak sttjuiachs. il is there-
fore set higher even than that of the .'^.•ilmon. "FJii
Acscli ist ciii /iheiii(/r(if\ c'lii Snlm isl c'ni JJfir," is an
old s;i\ing to be fiund in (Jksn'kk. The Grayling is
l)est in anttuiin .and winter, worst, of course, just after
the S|)awning. Not only its flesh has enjoyed a, good
reputation; in ancient medicine its fit {dh-iini Acsrhi(r)
was widelv employc(l. When the fish is in good con-
dition, the whole intestinal caii.al is endieddeil in rich
fit, and the oil extracted from this has been used espe-
ciallv in eve and ear diseases and to cure cutaneous
di-seases and burns. Linnjou.s states that the Lapps
em|)loy the gastric juice of the Grayling in the prepara-
tion of cheese, to curdle the reindeer milk, simi>lv laying
the whole intestinal canal in the milk.

15esides Haspa, a name which ma\' perhaps be
explained b\ the use of Asj) ;imong the Swedish fisher-
men both h)r large (-vprinoids and large Gwyniad-
fishes, Xii.ssON and Lili-jkboui; mention from Lake
Wetter Val. and from Xorrkoping (Jrcral, as names
applied to the common Grayling.

Before pi'oceediug to the (iwxniads. we ma\ brieflv ] near to tlic limits of our fiuna,
mention a genus \vliose geogra])liical range a])proaches been f luuil in .'^candina\ia.

ouuh it has not \et

Gems STENODUS.

Teeth sDKill 11)1(1 disappearing rlitri)/// i/yoirfh, hut at first set i)i tiro <tr three roirs on the i)tferma.iillaries and in
the (inti-ri(n- part of the prominent lon-er j'air, in a <(trd on the tonf/ne, and in a dense, eontinnoas, fn-o-arnied card
on the anterior jxirt of the pa tide (the head of the romer and the front of the p(d<dine }n)nes). Length of tlir
maxillaries about 50 — 43 %, and of the lower jaa- about 7S — 70 %, of that of the head reduced. Breadtli of tin-
snout across the articular knobs of the maxillaries about e//ual to that of the interorbital space, which is about ' .,
{less than :23 %) (f the length of the head. Ilase of the dors(d fin as a rale somen-lnd shorter than that of the
anal and less than 13 % of the length of the body, hut more tliati ' ,, of fhr length of the head reduced. Pglori<
appendages vell-dereloped. Scales middle-sized, cd>ouf tXl — III) in the later<d line, n-hich is complete.

This genus occaipies an especialh' I'cmarkable in- nions, does not correspond in its characters to the Scan-

leruiediate ])osition between the .^melt and \'endace dina\ ian \ endaecs until it has attained a size tar

grou|>s. in external ajipearance it so closeh' I'csembles greater th;in th.at reached by them. In the structure

the laltei- th.-it the confusion between tliem which has of the \entral tins Stenodus is ;ii)i)roximated to Argen-

inade its ^\a^■ into litt'rature is easily explainable. But tina, the outermost ray, wliieh in the rest of the fa-

Stenodus. wliich becomes as lari^e as the largest Sn\- u\\\v appears mereh as a more or less rudimentary

890

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

supporting rav, being iiere so devi'loped tiiat two so in tiie liasins of tiit- Volga and Inil tliere lives a

vinii)le rays may with ease be counted in these fins. Ste)iodus hardly to be distinguished in species from

The genus is strictly Arctic, belonging both to i the Siberian form, which in its turn seems to be

Asia and America; but just as the Huch, a species in- | identical with tlie American. However this question

habiting the Danube, has its nearest relation, not to of species be delermincd, we are here interested

say identical species, in the Siljerian Sahi/o tiiiriatilis, only in

THE NELMA OR SIBERIAN WHITE SALMON.
STEXODUS NKl.MA.

Fig. •221.

Fig. 221. ^lenodiis nelnni, $, from tlie lower part of the Dwina. Taken by Lienttiiant H. Sandeberg on llie 29tli Sept., 1877.

V . of the naturiil size.

/?.^r.(!))10;Z).A^^^U^U;]; A -^^^^^^[(15)16-18(19)];

14—16(17)
/,. /</^ K8— 109.

10-
V.

(9)10—11

+ 1 + 17+1

.%/i. (V) iSalmo leiicifhllii/s. Gvldenst-^dt, Nov. Coiiini. Ac-ail. Sc. Petrop.,

toni. XVI (1771—72), p. 5.33; cett. vide S.mitt, Riksm.

^iilmoiiid., p. 207; adde Giiimm, Fish., Hunt. Riiss. Wat.,

pp. 12 et 20.
Saimo Nelma, P.4LL., Rnis. Rcis., p(. II, p. 716; cett. vide

Smitt, 1. c. ; adde Grimji, 1. c. ; Lii.i.j. {SU'iiodus), jSc, SVorff.

Fisk., vol. II, p. G98.
(y) .sVi/mo .Markeii:ii, Rich , Xan: Voy., Fkankl. 1819—22,

App., p. 707; cett. vide Smiii, 1. c.
Coreyomis clupeoides, Lii.u., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1850, p. 304;

cett. vide Smitt, 1. c.

The Xelma is a tish highly esteemed and much
emploAcd in Russia. As we iiave already mentioned,
it probably belongs to the same species in South-eastern
liussia as in the .\rctic parts of that empire. The
southern form — wliich is perhaps distinguished l)y a
somewhat smaller head, less than ' - of the length of
the body — was named by Gyi.denstadt Leitcirhfhf/s,
a translation of the Russian Bjelaja Bi/him or IJcJari-
hitza, the white fish, referring to its coloration. In the

" See Smiit, RikfM. .Salmon. , (ah. metr. VIII.

Arctic Ocean it lives like the Salmons, and at the end
of wintci-, a.cc(_irdiiig to Pallas, ascends the rivers in
multitudes. Pallas supposed it to be wanting in the
Yenisei; but Nouden.skiuld'k E.xpedition of 187G brought
home fine specimens from that river. But most of the
Royal ^luseuni specimens are from the Dwina. where
they were taken at Archangel by Lieutenant H. San-
deblhg; and to judge by these specimens it ajipears as
if the spiiwning took jdace in s])ring or summer, for
in those caught at the end of Se])tcml)er" the genera-
tive organs were extremeh' litth.' developed. That it
is as mai-ked a predatory fish as the (jrayling, was
shown by one of these specimens, the stomach of which
contained five but partially digested Kotich.

As Xii.s.sux has remarked, it is by no means im-
possible that tlic Nclma may sometimes rove from the
Arctic (»cean to the fjords or rivers of Norwegian Fin-
mark; but it has never vet Ijcen found there. Accord-
ing to (inniM the ;iimual take of in-hiid and Jeiicichthjis
in European Russia amounts to about 100,000 pud
(1,63S,050 kilo.) and has a value of more than 1,200,000
roubles (t'l 90,000)-

SAl.MONID.K.

891

Cknus coregonus.

All till' ti'iili iif tin- miiKtIi, cxce/if those on the Ioik/iii-, (!■•< a nilr soon (lis(i/)/>riniiii/ <li(iiiiii i/iiiiiili. or soon con-
cealed ill fill' !/ii»is, or jx-rsisfeiif as srottercil, Jiiic, rilliforiii, moliilf tcctli, or ciit/rrli/ iraiitiiii/. Leiujth of the
maxUliiries .'>() {exceptionally 52) — S2 %, and of the loa-er jair 7 0 {except lotiall if 74) — 4!) %, uf tJiaf of the lif((d
reduced, lireadth of the snout across llic artiodar kiiahs uf the maxillaries perceptibli/ less than that of the i)i-
tennliital s/iair. a-hich is at least ' , ((■xcciit/niiidlji :> } "„) of the Innitli if thf hiiiil. Ilasc if the dorsal Jin less
than I') "« of the Icnijth of tlw IkhIi/, tint more than Indf the lcn(/th if the head rcdarcd. J'l/loric appendages
a-ell-dereloped. Scales middle-sizeil, alioiit s(l — <.)() {exceptinnall/i ahnat Id — 111)) in the laterrd line,

a-hiih is loin/defe.

Till- dental rcdurtiun wliit'h we have svvu in tlie
preceding _u'enera — in the strength of the teeth in
Mallotus, and hoth in tlieir strength and nuniher in
Thijmallus — has advanced still further in the I i\\ yniad
genus {('oreqonas) towards the Cvjjrinoid t\[)e. The
direction of the reduction is indeed not the same as
in Thijmallus, the teeth on the tongue being persistent,
and sometimes even more developed than in ^fallotus.
But else the rediictiijn is a continuation of that which
we have seen in Thi/niallas, and in tlii'ii' form, the
jaw-teeth, where they are present, come nearest to
those of the Graylings. The maxillaries and the vomer
are alwavs toothless in Coregonus ; but on the inner
(hind) surface of the intermaxillaries and on the an-
terioi- |)art of the palatines the Gwvniads proper are
usunli\' furnislied with teeth, on the former liones set in
a thin transverse row and mobile as in JIagil, on the
latter firm and pointed, but small. Among the true
Gwvniads we find onlv dermal papiihe instead of teetli
in the lower jaw; but among the \ endaces small teeth
sometimes occur in the anterior part of the lower jaw,
as well as on the intermaxillaries". In tlie i)liar\nx,
however, we find teeth, numerous thougii small, not
onlv on the so-called pharyngeals, but also on the
upper parts of the posterior branchial arches''.

The reduction of the teeth is partly compensated,
as u>ual, \i\ the apparatus composed of the gill-rakers
(fig. 222), wiiich are subject in Coregonus to gr<'at
variations, ])robabh- connected with variations in tlie
diet of these fishes. The rule is apparently that, where
the diet consists of large objects, ])rincipally fish, the

i;^"

,#5*.-^-

. On^N'S^'^T^^

,;5^^;2^^*'^

XA*»^^iiSj^

^

Fig. 'i'J-i. A, gill-rakers (46) ami Lirancliial laiiiell* on tlie first left

branchial arch in a Vendace {Core-

ijonus albula).
B. ., (60) on the first left branchial arch in a

Pelei (Coregonus cyprinoides).
('. (4.'i) on the first left branchial arch in an

.\.<p-Gwymad {Coregonus aspius).
/I. ., CJTJlon the first left branchial arch in a

E. ., fi,'!)! fiwyniad {Coregonus liiviiretiis).

F. .. ("20) on the first left branchial arch in a

Polcnr {Coregonus polcur).
Figs. B — F .ifter WinF.niiKX.

Smit'I'. 1. c., t;ib. loetr. VIII. (Jongoni, note to S|ieiMnicii No. 5.
See above, p. 5'2:i, note a.

8D2

■SCAXniX.WIAN I'lSHES.

r;iker!< itru scnttiTcd and slioi't, hut that, wlicrc tlic diet
is composed of siiiidl objefts, princip;tll\- KittiniKishdra,
they are finer, denser, and longer, thus forining a more
perfect filtering-apparatus. No\v as tiic diet is com-
Hionh' altered witii the age of the (Jwvniads, -we n\;\\
as a rule expect to tind a corresponding change in the
gill-rakers". But Gwyniad forms occur, for example
tiie Sil)eriaii pelct (among the \'endaces) and iiiitksiiii
(among the true (iwyniads) or the so-called asp (jf Lap-
land, wliich attain a considerable size, but have per-
sistently dense and numerous gill-rakers. Some forms,
again, show an increase with age in the number of the
gill-rakers''. The variations do not therefore follo^^■ in
absolute succession the changes of growth. They rather
shoAvs a certain independence in their appearance, an
independence which in some forms has rendered them
available as characters, at least in their extremes, espe-
cialh' as thev are accompanied in most eases bv an
external character, a difference in the shape of the snout.
By the last-mentioned character tAvo groups have
long been distinguished within the genus Coiti/oiiiis,
one of them having its liest-l^nown representative in
our Vendace, the otjier in dur <i\vyniad. Td the for-
mer group Agassiz' gave the name of Argi/rosomus,
iharacterized essentially by the projection of the point
of tiie lower jaw ])evond the ti]i of tiie snout, \vhereas
tiie form-series of tiie true Gwyniads advances to a
greater development and i)rotrusion of the tip of the
snout, culminating in the form henee known as the
)t('ilihsik (Beaked Giriix'iad, ('(iref/oiuis (i.ri/rlii/iicl/iis). The
limit between the two groups it is indeed inipussible
sharply to define, on account of the transition forms;
but in its two extremes the altered shape of the snout
is due to a ver\- considerable difference in tlie form
and position of tiie intermaxillaries. We liave already
remarked in the case of 7'lii/iii((Ui(s a eonsidei'al)le re-
duction of tiie intermaxillaries, to small, flat and tliiii,
triangular disks, set transverseh' in fi'ont of the tip of
the snout and tiie incurved articular processes of the
maxillaries, slightly thickened at the lower margin
alone, where lie the alveoli of the single row of teeth,
which are dii'ected inwards (baekwarcls), more or less
\'erticall_y to the plane of the disk. In the \'endaces
tliis structure recurs, onh' that tiie teeth are as a
rule wanting, the disk is still thinner and rests more

entirely on tlie front of the inward, terete tip of the
maxillary iione. This part of tlie maxillary bone some-
times, as in the Scandinavian ^'endace, bears outside
tiie jn-otuberance which articulates with the ethmoidal
cartilage, a separate process, directed downwards (for-
wards), with which the inner (iiind) surface of the inter-
maxillary bone articulates, and b^- means of which the
said bone is raised when tlie mouth is opened. The
lireadtii (height) of the interiiiaxillar\ lione does not
exceed "/r, of tlie breadtii of the snout across the ar-
ticular knobs of the maxillaries, and its sharp inferior
margin then forms the osseous framework in the sharj),
transverse margin of the tip of the snout. In tlie true
Gwyniads the internlaxillar^" bone on each side of tiie
snout is highei-, tiie de|ith of tlie snout being al\va\s
more than ^/,. of its breadtii atn-oss the iirticidar knobs
of the maxillaries, and more roliust, witli teeth or ru-
diments tiiereof in the above-mentioned position. It is
also more firmly articulated witli the under surface of
the tip (articular process) of the nlaxilial•^• lione. This
articulation is formed in tlie following manner: the
ujiper margin of tlie iiiteriiiaxillar\" lioiie is hollowed
into a groove which surrounds the said lower margin
of the maxillar\' not onlv in front, Ijut also more or
less far back (outwai'ds) on tiiat jinrt of the latter bone
whieii forms tlie upper lateral margin of the mouth.
The intermaxillar'\- l>one thus assumes a more vr less
vertical position wlien the mouth is closed; and when
the tip of the snout is jirolongated — which often ap-
]iears as a change of growth — the under margin of this
bone is turned more and more in a backward direction.

The scales of Coregonus are thin and cycloid, as
a rule thinner than those of the Grayling, with not very
distinct radiating grooves, though both the anterior and
posterior margins of the scales are generally corrugated
and notched thereby. The scales of the lateral line,
here as in the Grayling, commonly have the anterior
margin elongated to a triangle at the middle.

The internal organs resemble those of the Salmons;
but the pyloric appendages are shorter and still mora
numerous (Kroyer counted about 200). The jierito-
neum is silver\- white.

The genus has the same geographical extension a
the Graylings. It is most iiiuuerous, and apjiears i
its most developed forms, in the Siberian rivers, whic,

" See for e.xttinple llie four Gwyniiul.*, 206 — 350 iniii. Icmg, wliicli nre incliuled in Smitt. lulfiii. Sahin
' See for example Smitt, 1. c ji. 278, tlie .iverages for Coregonus Nihsonii and Cor. Wai-tniniuu.
<■ Lal-e S'ljienoi; y. 3.39.

olr. X. Xi.s. 1711—173

I

VKNDAci;. 89;^.

most lit' the tnriiis Mscfiid from the Arctic Ocean, and I ability of the foi'ins is as great here as among the

in the i^rcai hikes of North America. But even in Scan- | Salmons, and lias given rise to the establishment of

(iiiiavia it ranks among tlic hshes most important fi'nm numci'ons, nici-ciy nominal species.

an economical point of \icw. The number of the spc- Tlic name of Curpf/oniis was coined by AKri;i)i"

cies it is as \ct impossible to dcternnnc for ihe\ari- and lias reference to the anterior angle of the pujiil.

THE VENDACE (sw. sna-oj.vN <ui u.vhhoxen).
(OIIKGONUS ALBULA.

I'liitL- XLIl, lii;. i-

Ltiirrr ,/iiir /iraj'crfiiK/ heiioiid flu- shdUair {s/i/irj>) tip iif the .^iioi(t, at irl/irli the Itrcddth (Iwii/ht) of the hitefDiaxil-
laries w less than ' - "/' the Itreadth of tl/r snout mross the articular knobs of the niaxlllarks. Length of the base
(if the anal fin less than 14 % of tlie len//th of the hodij. Least depth of the tail less than S % of the length of
thi' biidji or 4') % of the lenr/th of the head, hat more than 47 % of the lni(/fh of thr base of the anal fin. Ver-
tiial diameter of the ei/rs more than 71 "„ of tlie breadth of the inferorbital spa<i\ adiieh is less than HO % of
the length of the head and asnallg /c.v.v than the length of the ajiper jaa\ a-hich is more than \ ., of the length

of the head or " 5 of that of the head reduced,
a: True Sikhija (var. albnla): distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snoat usnallg more than 42 %
of the length of the bodg, and the postabdomiiad length less than (12 % of that distance. Gill-rakers on the
first branchial arch more than 40. Least depth of the tail at most 71 % of the length of the base of the
anal fin. Length of the head, eren in fidl-groaii specimens, ax a rale mure than 1!) %, and of the head
redaieil m<oc than 15 %, of tliat of the bodi/.
b: Sikrimma (var. vimlia): as above, but: lengt]) of the head as a rale less than I'.l %, and of the head reduced
less than !■') %, of that of the hodg.

Fig. 2-2:!. Vurejomw. citnbn, '" ^^ of the iianiral .size, o^. frmn Stnra Nyckelvikii) (Lilla Viirlan) in tlie islaml-belt <.f Stockholm

Caught on the 12th .\iig., IST!).

Philos. Ichikyol., p. 72. zopij, pupil, and ywvitt, angle.

894

SCANDINAVIAN l-ISHKS.

^''•■■'-'■' '^nXW-''-'''-- ^■To^3)t=^^^^«(^^«^

(1)1

(12)13 — 15(17)

C. I + 1 + 17 + 1 +

8('.'),

f.in. hit. (70)75- 9n(<)4); L. tr. --_ \\ Vevl. 58».

.S//». Miiri-iiii, ScHONEV., khih. Slesv. IfoU:, p. 41) (vide Kr., Daiim.
Fisk., v<il. Ill, p. 93). Vaiuleshis, Sibb., Scot. III., pt. 2,
lib. Ill, p. 26. Corefjomis edentulus, maxilla inferiore lon-
giore, Art.. Iclitlii/ul., (ii'ii.. p. !1. .S////., p. 18 (excl. synoD.),
Spec, p. 40: Lin., Fii. Succ, etl. I, p. 110. Anims-vimma,
LiN., //. (!'</««/(. , ]i. -'31. Coi-er/. spec. II. Gisi.ER, Vct.-
Akad. Haiidl. 17.53. p. IHO.

Salmo Alhiihi, LiN., S;/H. Xat.. ed. X. turn. 1, p. 310; Ketz.,
Fn. Suei:. Lin., p. 34i); Bi.., ScHN., Sijst. Ichtliyol., p. ill ;
Pali.., Zooyr. Ro.ss. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 413; NiLSS. {Core-
goniis), Prodf. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 17; Ekstr., Vet.-Akad.
Handl. 1834, p. 16; Cuv., V.4L., HiH. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXI,
p. 520, tab. 633; Lloyd, Scand. Advent., vol. I, p. 135;
NiLSS., Skaiid. Fn.. FiA., p. 465; Sundev., Stockli. L. Husii.-
SSUsk. Haiidl.. H. C. (1855), p. 81; Wgbx, Landtbr.-Akad.
Hand]., vol. 18 (1858J, pp. 180 et 200; Ip., 6fvers. Vet.-
Akad. Forh. 1862, p. 591, tab. IX. fig. 1 ; Id., Landtbr.-Akad.
Tidskr. 1863, pp. 201, 203, 211: Sieb., Susswasserf. Mittel-
em:, p. 265; MoRN, Finl. Fiskfn., p. 54; Gthe, Cat. Brit.
Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. 192; Coll., Vid. Selsk. Forb. Chrnia
1874, Tillfegsh., p. 170: ibid., 1879. No. 1, p. 91; Olss.,
Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forli. 1876, No. 3, \k 138; Malm (Argy-
rosomus), Gbgs, Boh. Fn.. p. 547; Fedders. {Coregonus),
Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvn. ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 80; Bncke, Fisch.,
Fischer., Finchz. 0., W. Preuss., p. 152; Mela, Vert. Fenn.,
p. 352, tab. X; M6b., Hcke, Fisch. Oils., p. 133; Tryb,,
Nord. Aarsskr. Fisk., 1 Aarg. (1883), p. 295; Norb., Handl.
Fiskev., Fiskafo., p. 407; Reut., Sundm., Finl. Fisk., tab.
VI; Smitt, Vet.-Akad. Handl., Bd. 21 (1886), No. 8, p. 212,
cett.; Lillj., So., Norg. Fi.<'k.. vol. II, p. 706.

Salmo Vimba, Lin., Syst. \. c, p. 311; Ketz., 1. c., p. 350;
ASCAN., Icon. Rer. Nat., cab. IV, tab. XXIX; NiLSS. {Core-
gonus), Prodr.. 1. c.; Cuv.. Val., 1. c, p. 514, tab. 632; NiLSS.,
Skand. Fn., F,sk., p. 462; Gthk, I.e., p. 193; SaiTT, I. c.

Salmo Manrmilii. Bl., Fi.<clu' Deiitgchl.. pi. I. p. 176, tab.
XXVIII, fig. 3; Jard., Edinb. Journ. Nat., Geog. Sc., vol. Ill,
p. 4, tab. 1; .Jen., Man. Brit. Vert. Anim., p. 432.

Coregonus chipeoides, Nilss., Prodr.. p. 18; Skand. Fn., Fisk.,
p. 467.

Coregonus vandesivs. Rich., Fh. Bor. .Avur., pt. Ill, p. 213;
Gthr, Cat., 1. c., p. 194.

Coregonus Willughbii, Jaud., IHnstr. Scot, ^ulm., tab. 6: Yabr.,
Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 146.

Coregonus brevis, Maklin, Ofvers. Finsk. Vet.-Soc. Forli., vol. XI
(1868—69), p. 19.

The Scandinavian Vendace is usually a small fish,
in most cases of the Bleak's or the Baltic Herring's .size,
seldom as large as the oceanic Herring, and attaining a
maximum length of about 3 dm. But in other places, as
in some of the North (iermaii lakes, it grows to a length
of at least S^', dm. In form and in coloration it re-
minds us both of tlie lileak and the Herring. The body

is fusif(jrni but conqiresscd, in tlie ti'iie ^'endace — and
among our forms most in the Wetter form — elongated
as in a Bleak, witli the greatest depth, at the beginning
of the dorsal fin, about 19 % of the length, but in the
slkr'imma'' as a rule deeper, witli the greatest depth
sometimes 24 "</ of tlie length, in the fi inner the great-
est thickness of tlie body is alinut " .,, in the latter
alioiit ^ ;, of the greatest de])tli; but gravid females of
the former approach the proportions of the latter. The
dorsal and ventral margins arc bi'ii;idly convex or even
flat, the former being the l)roader, hut for some dis-
tance immediately in front of the dorsal fin somewhat
sharpened to a failltl^• marked cariiKi. The upjier and
lower contours are similarly arched, excejit in gravid
females, where the ventral profile, as usual, is more
sharply cur\e(l in the abdominal region. The average
least depth of the tail in tlie true N'endace is al)oiit
6'., % of the length of the body, 31 % of that of tlie
head, 42 % of that of the head reduced, or 60 % of that
of tlie lower jaw. In the .•^ikriniiiiii tliese averages are
respectively 7' ., %, :>7 %, 41) %, and Ih %.

The head is pointed, soinewliat more compressed
than tlie abdominal region, especially below, across the
lower jaw, the cheeks thus converging distinctly in a
downward direction. The frontal profile at first forms
an unln-oken continuation of the dorsal arch, Init be-
comes straighter, owing to a slight depression above
the eves. The inferior ]irofile of the head is somewhat
more sharplv curved. The length of the head is about
V-, of that of the body, but varies partly with age,
the oldest specimens having, as usual, comparatively
the smallest head, partly in inverse proportion to the
depth of the body, the sikvimma, ^vhich has the deepest
l)od\-, having the smallest head. The variations run
between 2o and 18 % of the length of the body. The
same rule applies to the variations in the length of
the head reduced, which run lietweeii 17' o and 13 %
of the length of the body. The decrease in the aver-
ages during gro\vth, a decrease Avhich is generally
uniform, is also expressed in the difi'erenc-e of form
given ;ib(ive Itetween aUnilii and r'lmha: and though
this difference is not tpiite constant, it may still be
emploved as a character in the great majority of cases,
if attention be paid to the age of t!ie fish. The eyes
are furnished, as in most of the Thrissomorphs, with a
well-developed, adipose membrane, suri'ounding the

" 56 — 58, according to GCnther.

'' Sikvimma = Gwyniad-Z.'irtlie, Siktnja

rnci' (iC the

,vh<ilr ii'i^. I'liI l)r(i;Hlcst ;it tlic aiilci'lcir
eve. 'I'lir |Hi|iil is t'aii'h' circul;!!', will

I an"'l<' '" li'diit. In ;idult \ eiidiU'c the eves (iccu|n' \\itli
fair extU'tiu'ss the second (luarli'r of llie Icnixdi of tlic

I head, ihonuli tlic unterior corner of tlic eye encfoachcs
niidii tlic first i|nartcr thereof, the average long'itudin;il
(liriiiietcr of tlic e\c lieing thus about 2') '^i/' of the
k'liii'th of the head, lint the length of the siioiit oiih'

i about 'iV ., ''/ of the same. The Acrtical dianielcr is

\ soiuc\vliat less, in uUmUt on an aNcrage .■iliont 2M '»'', in
r\mha 'I'l^ ., "», of the length of the head. The hrcidth
of the intcrorhital Sj)ace, which rises only a little alioxc
the uji|icr margin of the eves, is in (ilhula idioni ci|nal
to till' longitudinal diameter of the c^■es', in r'niilia
somewhat greater'. The ax'erage hi'cadth of the snout
across the articular kiiohs of the maxillaries is 111 '-'-v of
the length oi' tlie head. Tlic two nostrils on each side
of the snout arc situated as in the jircceding s])ecies,
somewhat nearer to the orbit than to the tip of tlie
snout. The hind margin of the anterior nostril is raised
in the form of an oblicjueh- cut tulie; the |)ostcrior
nosti'il. ^^■hicll is larger, mar be closed from in front
by means of a semicircular dermal flaii. The maxillaries
— as they appear externally — ai-e of uniform breadth,
curved like a sabre, and bluntly rounded at the hind
extrcmitx'. Their a\crage length from the toji of the
articular processes is in alh/iJa about ;>.') %. in rinihii
about o4 %. of that of tlic licad, or in tlie former about
48 ".., ill till- latter about 4.') %, of that of the head
reduced. Thcii- breadth is on an average ' ., of their
length. Tlieir supplcmentarA" (jugal) bone is similar in
shape to their lateral part and nearly ^i^ of its length,
being elongated to a point in front. The average length
of the lower jaw is in aUiula about hi %, in riinhii
about 411 %. of that of the iiead, or in the former aljoiit
70 %, in the latter about GO "«, of that of the head re-
duced. The dentition of the mouth and the gill-rakers
(41 — 48, exce|)tionally .HVI or even 38) we have already
noticed. The transverse palatal folds (vela) are well-
developed, especially in the lower jaw. The gill-open-
ings extend along about the hist third of the upper
operculai- mai-gin and down to about a line with the

\CK. 895

anterior margin of the eye, to Avhich point the bran-
chiostcgal membranes are free; both from each other and
the isthmus, though tlie\- cross at the extreme fr<int,
in the same manner as in the preceding genera. The
branchiostegal ra\s arc thin and flat, more or less cur-
ved ill a sabre-like form. The operculum is obliquely
ipiadraiigiiiar, with the lower anterior e<)rner incst
pointed and most tdongateil. Mack from the articidar
jirocess runs a ridge, fainth' marked in the bone itself,
but more distinctly indicalcfl bv a darker colour. Within
the right angle of the preoperculura lies a poi'e, marked
b\ a darker colour, and belonging to the inner osseous
ridge of the prc^ipcrcnlum, which ridge it piei'ces, but
eo\-crcd hx I lie adipose membrane that liere. as usual,
coNcrs the ramifications of the lateral line. This jjore
is alwa\s distinct in Scandinavian \ endace and gene-
rally in young Gwynia.ds (as in young Xelmas); but in
adult specimens of the largei' Coreffoni (as in the Nehna)
it Ijecomes more and more indistinct, usually invisible.

The dorsal fin is of the sha])e commonest among
the .^salmonoids, trajie/.oidal, the first branched ray being
the longest in the tin. The distance between it and the
tip of the snout'' is on an average about 43'/., % of the
length of the body, usual!}' somewhat greater than in
the closely allied Siberian form Coregonus MerkiL The
base of the fin measures on an average in aJbtila about
'.( "„, in riiiiha about 10 %. of the length of the body,
and its height (the length of the longest ray) in the
former about 14 %, in the latter about 15 % of the same.
The anal tin differs but little from the dorsal, but is
longer and lower, most so in rimliii. its base measuring
on an average about 11 or \'2 "«, its height about 8' ,,
— -9' 2 %, of the length of the body. Its distance from
the ti]i of the snout is on an average 69' ^, '■'a oi' the
length of the bodw It terminates, like the adipose fin,
at a distance from the caudal tin that is on an average
Vi„ of the length of the body. The caudal fin is deeply
forked, most so in vlmba, the average length of the
middle rays being about 5'\,— 5 %, of the longest rays
about 17 — 19 ?», of the length of the body.

The ]iectoral tins are obliquely pointed, and their
leno'tli is on an averatre 1 (> — 15 % of that of the bod\'.

larv bo

The changes of growth nm between about .T2 .niiil 2i) %.

The changes of growth run between abont 27 iniil '20 %.

On an average 25'7 'i of the length of flic head.

On an average 277 °o of tlie length of the head.

\ye may reiniml the reader that here, as in llie fulhiwing Gwvniods. the snonl is nieasiired from the articular knob of llie inaxil-

iiflintinn,, Fishes. 113

S9fi

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The ventral iins are broader and ti-uncate, and their
average length is about 14Va — 13 % of tliat of the body.
The distance l)et\veen the latter tins and the tip of the
snout is on an average about 47 ?*, tiie preabdoniinal
length a})out 28 %, and the postabdoininal length about
"24 %, of the length of the body.

The scales of the body we ]ia.\e already noticed.
i)\\\\ the liead and tlie tins are naked. The lateral line
runs from the teni])les along the postteraporal bone on
each side, descending at the top of the gill-opening,
but its backward coui'se on the sides of the body is
almost perfectly straight, \vith only a slight downward
curve at tiie extreme front.

Tiie coloration is green, shading into steel-blue, on
the l)ack, silvery white on the sides, of a more or less
]inre milk-wliite on tlu' belly. The back, as Avell as
the occiput and siwut, is slighth' transparent, l)Ut far
less tlian in the Smelt. The tip of the snout and the
point of the lower jaw are usually coloured with a black
pigment, which extends in a thinner coat to the ma.xil-
lai'ies and to the margin of the follicle of each scale
on the body. The gill-covers commoidy gleam with a
brassy lustre, especially at the top. Tlie adipose tin is
of the same colour as the back. The dorsal and caudal
tins are of a more or less dark gray, the other fins
light and transparent. The iris is silvery white, the
eyeball coal-black at the to]).

The Vendace is really a Ikiltic tish. with the centre
of its range in tlie Baltic Sea and the lakes of the
countries — princi])allv the eastern ones — bordering on
the Baltic. But, if modern opinions as to the specitic
determination be correct, it also occurs in Scotland, to
whicli country, says tradition, it has been introduced
from abroad. The Irish lakes (Loughs Neagh, Erne,
Derg, and Corrib) contain a form, Coyegonus polhm, so
closely resembling the Vendace that the specific distinc-
tidiL between them can hardly be maintained. The Pol-
Ian as a, rule has fewer gill-rakers (/54 — S8 on the front
of the first branchial arch) and fewer anal rays (12 —
lo). At an earlier age than the other Vendaces the
Polian approaches in the depth of the snout the pro-
[Mirtions which we have alreadv remarked as most cha-
racteristic of the true (iw\niads". Tlie most distinctive
character of the Pollan, however, is the short l)ase of
the anal fin, which measures at most about ' ,. of the

length of tiie body, and is so short that the least depth
of the tail is at least ' ., thereof. In this respect, as in
many others, the Pollan composes one extreme in the
form-series of the Vendaces (the alhiiJa group), the op-
posite extreme consisting of the Siberian Seldetkaii or
f'orcf/ot/Ks ^[erhli. Strangely enough, this difference in
foi'iu \\itliiu the Vendace group answers to the diffe-
rence we have above oliserved Ijetween the Salmons of
the Atlantic and Pacific basins. Tiie Onrovhjinrhus
grou[) i)f the Pacitic differs from the Saliini groiijj of
the Atlantic mainly in the greater length of its anal
tin; and the nearer the range of the aJhula group ap-
proaches to the Pacitic, the longer is the base of its anal
fin. We find the following average relations between
the length of the base of the anal fin and that of the
head reduced:

A V (

r.g

'•

Pollan.

Alhnla.

Vimba.

I-Scldctknn.

c-d iu

111.. h:,sc
„ of thil

ufthca
of the

head n-il

ckI liO:.

„,,

■o -

] llO,:i

These averages can hardly be the expression of a mere
accident, for they are attended with similar results in
several other relations; and there is thus a distinct
connexion here between the difference in form and the
geographical separation. Even in Sciuidinavia the true
aJbiila and the vimba show some geographical separation,
the former lieing commonest to the extreme north and
in Lake Wetter, tlie lattei- in the JUvlar valley and the
basin of Lake Wener; but our most tyjiical specimens
of rimha are from Finland. These two forms are be-
sides different, as we have seen above, in most of the
average proportions; but the changes of growth and the
se.xual distinctions reduce the differences to such an
extent that constant characters can hardly be adduced.
The \ endace occurs in all the provinces of Sweden,
except Gothland, Blekinge, Halland, and Bohuslaii''.
From Norway it was descrilied and figured even hy
AsCANius, Imt if is found only in Lake .Mjoseii .■md
some of the small lakes to the extreme south-east. In
Finland if is as common as in Sweden, up to about the
(iDfh degree of latitude. In the Arctic Ocean if is
wanting: l)uf from Western Russia and the Baltic Pro-
vinces its ran2:e extends over North firermanv to Hol-

" SsnTT, Rtksinu.'^eets I'^nlmonider, y. '2?>?i.

'' Cf. Underd. Bet. Ford. Ni/ Fi.^keri.^tadga 1883, p. 159.

VKNDACK.

897

steiii. Wlieii Kimvek wrote his Daininnhs /■'/.s/v', lie
knew iiotliiii;;' nt' its i)reseiice in Pcmiiark. Imt in ISCiS
1k' i'frci\ 0(1 it ffiun Fcuissingo So near K'anilei's, and
ill the I'oljowiui;' \eai- F1';i)1)E1!SEN received it li'oin dul
S0, auotlief of the .liithuid iaises. At id)oiit the same
date it is said to lia\e Ijcen met willi in I'lsc So and
Sothofii]) So (Zealand). In Sontli (ierniany, l"i-aiice,
Bol^nuiii, and Holland it is nnknown.

Till- \Ciidace is no time marine tisii, lint it occurs
in tairh' lii'eat niindiei- in the island-belts of the (iiilfs
of IJothnia and Finland, at least to the islands of So-
dermanland, where it cannot be reckoned, however,
accordiiii;- to Fkstkoji, amoiio' the common fishes.

The \ eiiflace is thus found in ver\' different pla-
ces, both in brackish water and in fresh. It li\es in
lakes large and small, deep and comparatively shallow.
At certain times it repairs to ruiniing water. It is a
gregarious fish, and is consequently taken at times in
great i|uantities, while it also supplies food to several
large fishes-of-prev. Out of the water it is not tena-
cious of life, but. if treated -with care and furnished
with co(d water, it may be kept alive long enough in
ai|iiaria". To wind and weather it is very sensitive.
E.xcessive heat or cold drives it to deep water; and in
stormy weather it takes refuge under the lee of the
land. In spring it roves about in more scattei-ed com-
panies. In summer it shoals in the lakes during July
and August, making its way in large armies towards
the surface and into shallow water, to seek its food,
which consists ])rincipally of Entomostraca, insects, and
small niollusks. During autumn and still later in the
year it spawns, its active movements at the surface
rendering it easy of observation. In the Norrstrom at
Stockholm mimbers of small Vendace are taken in
spring with hdop-nets below the bridge of Xorrbro; but
in atitumii the larger Vendace are caught in traps just
above the bridge. The end of September and the be-
ginning of October is the best season for tin' last-
mentioned fishery. Two traps {ri/ssjor) have been
set, one in 2 feet of water, the other iit .">. with the
tail end fastened to a stake, so that the current keeps
the trap straight, witli the mouth down the stream.
The fisherman who has employed these traps for many
years declares tliat the \'endace always follow the same
course, going hardly a foot or tAvo to the right or left.
The Vendace s\vim up the stream only wdien the water

runs from Lake Millar to the sea, especially when there
is rather a strong current; yet it sometimes happens,
though usnall\- oid\- one or two days a year, that a
single da\'s take in these trajis may amount to 190
kik). o( \Cndace, averaging about 5 or G to the kilo-
gramme, \vhich fetches at first hand .')0 — 70 ore' (6V1 —
9' /o d.). The N'endace are then on the way to their
s](awning-plac<'. "Tn the inner island-belt," writes SuN-
i>ic\'.\i,i., "(if! \'a\liiilm for example, the \'eiidace is
taken both in summer and autumn, but does not sec/m
to go far out. ( )n one occasion 90 /Ls^j^Mf/ (765 kilo.)
had been secured at a single haul of the seine off Fors-
vik (Ingaro) in the month of November; otherwise it is
onh" seldom that a few specimens are caught there."
From Sodei'iuanland Ekstkom states that, in the month
of December or about the time \vhen the lakes freeze,
the W'ndace resorts to shallower water, where it spaw^ns
on a stony or sandy bottom, tlie spawning seeming,
iiowever, to be of long duration, for \'endace not (juite
spent are caught with ice-seines in the middle of Ja-
nuar\'. In the Goxernment of Xorrbotten, according
to WiDEGHEN, the spawning-season of the Vendace be-
gins at the middle of October. "It then makes its way
tj — 12 miles uj) the mountain streams, and deposits its
roe on a stony or sandy bottom. Off the town of
Lulea the Vendace enters the bays and creeks at the
middle of (October, and spawns on a muddy bottom in
2 — (5 fathoms of water. Off .Muonioniska Village the
spawning takes place at the end of November." In
Lake Wener W'idegkex found that the Vendace spawns
from the end of (October in 10 fathoms of water, re-
sorting chiefly to the shallows among the islands round
Luro and Kallandso. In Lake Wetter, on the same
authority, it breeds about the 2 4th of October near the
bottom and at a de[)th of (iO fathoms. "The greatest
luimber s])awn," he says, "in deeji water along the east
coast from Greima to the island of Jungfru. The shoals
first met with at the spawning-places con.sist exclusively
of males. This would seem to be the case with tlie
true <;w^•niads as well, for those first taken are ahvays
males. After the spawning, which ends at the middle
of December, no more X'endace are taken in deep water,
though they probably yjass the whole winter in the
depths. Earh in sjiring they seem to have migrated
to the extreme south of the lake, and are never found
in very deep water, but remain throughout the sum-

\Vc iKive kept large VeiMiiioe idivc for a forliiight in n glass jar tilled with the oniiiiary water su|iplie(l by the Stockholm Waterworks

898

SCAXniX AVIAN riSIIES.

iiUT, tVoni M;iy to < )ctol)('r, in nhoiit o') t';itliuins ol'
water off the west coast. 'I'lii' tVy. 4 — (1 iiiches lunu',
also stay during the greater part of the year in dee]i
water, hut in late summer often ascend the inlets on
tlie nortli-east coast, between Hals and llofvaiias Point."
W'hei'e several lakes communicate with cacli other, the
V'endace commonly roves from tiie lower to the upper
in (irder to s|)awii.

The ova are tine and I'athei' numerous, somewhat,
though not iirndy, adiiesi\-e. The ripe eggs which have
already dropped into the abdominal cavity are about
1".2 mm. in diameter. In females 19 — 20 cm. long
their average number was estimated by (.'(jllett at 3,<i(IO
t(j each female". When onlj' 7 cm. long'', probably in
its second year, the Vendace has reached inaturitw

The Vendace is caught only in nets and the like —
as we have mentioned above, in traps and hoop-nets.
It takes a hook e;ctremely seldom, and then tlie bait
must be a tempting flv. Its tlesh is good. "In places

whei-e N'endace are taken in any (•(insideralile (juantitv,"
writes l-jvs-rRuM fmni Mrn-kO, ■"the tlesh is salted and
in this state supplies tlie poorer classes with a great
|iart I if their \vintei' fnod. Here, where only few are
taken, tlie hsh is generally eaten fried, and in this
form its tine and rich flesh is a real dainty." In Swe-
dish restaurants and even in the homes of tlie upper
classes the Vendace is i)etter known for its roe, which is
made in Nt)rrland into a kind of caviare, under the
name of Bleak roe (Jojrom).

Tile \ endace has many Swedish names. The rimma
cannot be regarded as a separate species, and the Ven-
dace is often confounded with yoiuig Herring and goes
by the same names. In Werniland it is also called sil
and sfiiitd, in Westei-botten sllhirk. Its other names
in Northern Sweden are Smdlirif/ {SmurUru)) and liahh-
o.reii, a word M'hich reminds us of Rwputschkn. the
current name for the sp)ecies in Western Russia, the
Livonian Bepf^eti, the l^sthonian Rahits.

THE GWYNIAD (sw. siken).
COREGt )XUS LAV ARETUS'^^.

Phile XLII, fisrs

and 4.

Tip of flic siioitt iiioye or h'ss (h'vji, tniiirafe or conical, the dcjifh (the hreodtli of the iiitermd.iiUarics in a rertkal

ilirection) being more than ^4 of the breadth across the articular knobs of the muxiUaries. Point of the hirer jaw

not projecting beyond the tip of the snout. Length of the ma.riUaries more than tirice their breadth.

(2)3—4 ,

.•I. l.=5

10—13(14)^

C. X + 1
Vert. (52

(7)8—9(10)
16(17)]: P.
17 + 1 +.V

(9)10-
1

-^^[(12)13-16(17)];
(1)1

(12—13)14—16(17)' "(9)10—11(12)'

Lin. lat. (72)75—100(106) ; L. tr. 1 ;

^ " 8—9(10)

Lavaret, Bblon, iVa!., Div. Poiss., p. 278. LavaretU!t + Bezola
+ Farra (1. Ferra 1. Pala), Rondel., Univ. Aquat. Hist.,
part. II, pp. 162 — \&i + Oicyrynchnx {\>. p.), p. 195. .\lbida
nohilis 4- parva, Gesn., Hixt. Anim., lib. IV, pp. 33 et 34.
Albula nobilis, Sohonev., Ichthyol. Ulesv. Hols., p. 12. Gxii-
niad, Willughb., Hist. Pise, p. 183. Coregonus ma.\il]a
snperiore longiore plana, pinna dorsi ossiculorum quatuordecim,
Art., Ichthyol, Gen. Pise, p. 10; Syn. Pis.-., p. 19; Descr.
iSpec. Pise, p. 37; Lin., Fn. ■Sner.. ed. I, p. 118; GiSLEK,
Vet.-Aknd. Handl. 1753, p. 195. dorei/onus niaxilbi suiicrinre
longiore coiiica, Art., Ocn., p. 10; •'Syn., p. 21.

,Salmo Lcwaretns, LiN., 6'yst. \iil., cd. X, toiu. I, p. 310;
AsCAN., Icon. lie,: X,itiii:, oali. III. p. 6, tuB. XX.X; Bl.,
Fisch. Deut.n-hl.. part. I, p. 163. tab. XXV { + Sii!mo Tliy-
miilhis l,(tiis. p. 170. lab. XWl + .Salino Mcmeiia, p. 172,
tab. XXVII + .y-j/mo Wdrtiiianni, part. Ill, p. 161, lab. CV);
Retz., Fn. ,Suec. Lin., p. 348; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. AsiaU,
toiii. Ill, p. 395 (+ .Miiksun, p. 398 + Pohur, p. 400)!
NiLSS. {Coregonus), Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 15; Yarb.,
Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 142: Kr., Damn. Fish., vol. Ill,
p. 55; Cuv., Val., Hist. Xat. Poiss., vol. XXI, p. 466 ( +
Cor. Palea, p. 47 7 + ('ye. Reisingeri, p. 496 +('»/•. Nilsom,
p. 497 + Cor. sikus, p. 500); NiLSS., Skand. Fn., Fisk., p.
458; Wdgrn, Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1862, p. 583 (+ Cor.
megalops, p. 589); Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfn., p. 49 { + Cor. Wide-
.jreni, p. 52); Gthh, Cat. Brit. .U'is.. Fish., vnl. VI, p. 178
(+ Cor. lapponicus, p. 181 + Cor. gracilis, p. 182 + I'or.
richardsonii, p. ISS + Coc. ma.villaris, p. 1S9 + Cur. hiimilis,
p. 190); Coll., Forh. Vid Selsk, Chrni.i 1874, TilbBgsb-.

*■ Benecke reckoned 10,000 lo raoli fi-niale and ostimaled llieir dianu'tor at abniil 2 uii
'' Cf. SwTT, Riksmuseets Sidnioiiider. tab. nielr. \'III, Coreg. No. 46.

'■ Tlie name is Old French from the neighbourhood of Geneva, and is derived liy Ronhelf.t f
sordidus sit, sed bene fiblutns sit, ob mimditiem et eandorem nomen habere videtur."

'■ 58 — 62, .iceording lo GtiNTHEn; 60 — 62, according to KnOYEU; 57 — 64, according to Faiio.

assiimably in large specimens.
l„rer, lo wash: -.nic

(iWYNIAI).

S99

|j. li'ii;; iliiil. 187!), No. 1, p. 89; In.. N. M.ij;-. Nuliirv., B.I.
■2'.K |i. 108; Mai.m, Gi'/,.-, Boll. Fa., p. .T-i6; FKruEus., Naturli.
Tiilskr. Kblivn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 7',); Smitc, Intern. Fiseli.
Ausst. Berlin 1880, Scliwed. Kat., p. 17; Enckb, Fisch.,
/■7.sv/(./'., Fisch:. 0., W. Pi-eiiss., p. loO; Mei..\, Vert. Fenn.,
p. :i47, tall. X ( + C'o)-. Nordmaiiiii. p. 350); Smitt, Ofvers.
Vct.-Akad. Fiirli. 1882. No. 8, p. 37; Gt. Intern. Fish. Exliib.
I.cn.lon 1883, Swed. Cut., p. 188; Nuuii.. fTaiutl. Fiskev.,
F,.^k'in:. p. 404; Mob., Hcke, Fi-<ci,. iht.9.. p. 131; Smitt,
Vft.-Ak.Kl. Ilamll., Bd. 21. Xo. 8 (1885). p. 248; Bnckk
in .M. V. (.. BoHNi;, Ifindti. Fisclu., Fischei:. p. 144: Lu.u.,
:ii\, .Xory. Fisk., vol. II, p. 733.

^almii 0.vijriiicliiis, Lin., ^ijst.. 1. c, p. 311; Bali,., 1. r., p.
403 (V + Salmo miurostomus, p. 405); NiLSS. (('on-i/oii>i.'t).
I'roil,:. p. 14; Ekstr., Vet.-Akad. Hand!. 1834, p. 12; Kr.,
1. c, p 7(5; Cuv., Val. (o.vyrhi/nchus), 1. c. p. 488 ( + C'oc.
coiiorlii/iic/iiis, p. 485); NiLSs., Fn.. 1. c, p. 453; SuNU.,
Stockli, L. Hu.sh.-SSlIsk. Haudl. 1855, pp. 81 el 90: Lloyd,
i'cuitd. Advent., vol. I, p. 129; Wdgbn, 1. c, p. .'■)77; Sinn.,
Susswasserf. Mitteleur., p. 259 {+ C(»\ Manriia. u Bl., p.
2i;:!); t'.THii, 1. c, p. 173 (+Voi: Llnijdii, p. 174); v. Bemm.
in IlEiiKLoTs, Botiirsl. Fn. Sederl., part. III. p. 386; Coll.,
1. L-.. 1874. p. 11)5; Malm, 1. c. p. 544; Winth., Natnrli.
Tidskr. Kl.livn. ser. 3, vol. XII. p. 44; FediiekS., ibid., p.
80; Day, FUIi. Gt. Bi-il.. [rd... vol. II. p. 126, tab. CXXI,
tig. 2; NORE., 1. c, p. 406; lIuB., HcKE. I. c, ]>. 13(1;
BxcKE (M. V. II. Borne), 1. e., p. 143.

CoveijOHii" rliijieoides, Lacep., ffi.it. ^at. Po/.«., vol. V, p.
(597; Gthr, 1. c, p. 188; Day, 1. c, p. 127, tab. CXXII
= C'oi: La Cepedei, Pakn., Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. I (1838),
p. 162 cum fig. (+ Cor. im'crorej'lialu.s, p. 163 enin fig.);
Yaiii;., 1. e., p. 151.

Oori'i/omi.i Fira, .luii. Mem. Soc. Pliys., D'Hist. Nat., Geneve,
toin. Ill, part. I, p. 190, tab. 7 (+ Cor. hiemalis, p. 200,
tall. 8); Kai'I', Jahresb. Ver. Vater. Naturk. Wiirtemb., Jahrg.
X. \>. 134, tab. VI (4- Cor. Wartmanni, c Bl., p. 148.
tab. \ + Cor. ai-roniiis, p. 158); Sieb., 1. c, p. 251 (+Cor.
\\',n-tmainu, e Bl., p. 243 + Co/', hietnalis. e .Ilk., p. 254);
LiNEL. ff/.^t. ym. Poiss. Bus.'!. Ltin., p. 106. tali. XI ( +
Cor. hiemalis, e JuB., p. 114. tab. XII).

Coregonus generosHs, Peters, Monatsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin
1874, p. 790.

Coreyonus macrophllialinn.i, Nussmn, Zool. Anz.. Jahrg. V (1882),
p. 164 ^ Cor. exiguits, Kldnz., Jahresb. Ver. vat. Natnrk.
Wiirltemb., Jahrg. 40 (1884), pp. 110 et 117.

(joreijonus Sidzeri, Nt'sSL., 1. c, p. 253.

Coreyonns dispersus (^ Cor. Wartmanni. e Bl., + Cor. ku-
nixina + Cor. e.vigtins, e Kll'nz.) + Cor. balleuK (= Cor.
A.iperi + Cor. Srhinzii + Cor. acronins, e Rapp + Cor. Iiie-
naitis. e JcR.) + Cor. Suidteri. Fatio, Fn. Vert. .y«?>.<te,
vol. V. p. 67, cett.

Adn. I)e synonymis americanis, qiium speciinina piseium pau-
cioru solum vidi, ha;rco quid dieam. Vix tamen Coregonum
allium (Le Sdeuk, Richardson, vide Fn. Bor. Amer., part. Ill,
p. 195, tab. 89, fig. 2 = Cor. clupeiformem , Mitch., vide
Jordan et Gilbert, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16. p. 299)
a lavareto pycnocentro nostro diversinn credam: ncipie (^orn-

;/„ni(.'< iiiuiilrihifa'alix (Kini.. 1. c. p. 204, tab. 89, fig. 1)
a /lolnin: I. Iirachyiiiystuce nostro diilV-rre videtiir.

'I'lic (!\v\ni;i(! witli its numerous variations has
liruvcil 11(1 less troulilcsoiiic to the svstt^uiatist than the
.Siiliiioii. .\ o'rcat iirn|iorticiii ol' tlic names enumerated
above h;ive ln'cii aiiplifci, we nniv ahnost say, in-
discriminately, tor ihniii^di different forms have, no
doulit, liciii distin_2:uished — and these in many loealities
ver\ well marlsed — tlieir natural relations to each
other have not lieen iinderslood.

The Gwyniad is so like the N'endace in most essen-
tial respects that a detailed description is unnecessary.
The most strikiii"' difference lies in tlie form of the snout,
and tile cause of this ditt'ereiice, tlie shape and position
of the interuiaxillaries. we have ali'eady investigated.
But the Gwyniad attains a much greater size than the
Vendace. In Lake Superior (Twyniad weighing 23 lbs.
(nearly lU' . kilo.) are taken, and in Sweden" the Gwy-
niad attains a length of about 9 dcm. and a weight of
about 6' .; kilo. Specimens of this size are, however,
restricted to the northern ]iroviiices, the Baltic, and
the largest hikes, as for instHUce Wener and Wetter;
in the smaller lakes, where it is more or less entirely
landlocked, it is alwa\s of less considei-able dimen-
sions, hardly larger than the largest Vendace, and
retains more or less of the characters of youth. Merely
from this we cnn giither that the Gwyniad's true home
lies in the north and in s;ilt water, as well as in the
rivers iiowing into the sea.

To gain a correct understanding of the relations
between the numerous forms in which tlie (Twyniad
appears under different conditions in Scandinavian wa-
ters, it is necessary to include in the comparison at
least two of the Siberian forms that belong to the same
series of develojimeut. liotli these forms were suspected
liy Pallas, who tirst descrilied them, to lie identical in
species with our common Gwyniad; but one of them,
the miiksun'', shows the development of the type to the
greatest size of bod\' conjoined with a persistency of the
resemblance to the N'endace, while the other, the polcur%
represents the opposite extreme in the evolution of the
type, being appi-oximated to the .so-called t.schir (Salmo
— f'oiei/oiHt.s'' — na.'iiis. Pall.), which is prineipalh" di-
stinguished liy its short and dee)) (high) maxillaries.

' See Underd. Bet. Forsl. Ny Fiskeristadga 1883, p. 159.
' See SMirr, Rik-^iii. /Salmon., 1. c, tab. IV, fig. 65.
' S.MnT, 1, <•., tab. VI, figg. 98 et 99.
'' Pro.iopiiim, MiLNER.

900

SCANliINAVlAN FlSHKtS.

I^ikc tlu! \ (induct' lurnis tlic iiiiiksini h;is hiwj: and dense
.^'ill-rnkers; hut tlic jiolciir. like llie t.'^rhir, short and
scattered ones. Furtlienuoro the muksun has a compa-
ratively shallo\v snout, the pnJcur a comparatively deep
snout. The two forms as well as the tvpical Gwyniad
live together in the Siberian rivers and the Arctic (_)cean
off tlieii' moutlis; and the difference between them coin-
cides in an eminent degree with the distinction drawn
bv the fishermen in several Swedish lakes between the
different kinds of (iwyniad in thcii- catcli. The jiiiiksidi
tj'pe they call hMs'ik or //rdiisik (in Norrland asj), when
large, or sikloja, when small); while the polcur type
l)eai-s the names of .svVr, fctsik, storsik, hritsik or hoften-
sik. The ty]>ical iiiihiisik (Houting), \vitli its conically
prolongated snout, aJso belongs in fact to the polciiy
group. The shajje of the snout has probably been em-
ployed time out of mind by the Swedish fishing popu-
lation as a character for separate vai-ieties of Gwyniad;
but in 1831 L^stadius directed attention to the gill-
rakcrs of the asp as a distinction from the slk". That
VViDEGREX had also observed the last-mentioned cha-
racter, appears from the dra\vings which he left at his
death in 1878, and \\hich we liave been enabled here
to reproduce (tig. 222, B — F, above, p. 891).

These t^vo groups of the true Scandinavian G\vyn-
iads we distinguished in 18711 liy the names of Core-
f/oiiKs Warfnutiiiii and Cur. hiraretiis'' : and they are
sometimes well marked even where they occur in the
same lake (figs. 224 and 22.5). As an example we njay
adduce the Royal Museum collections from Lake Stor
(Storsjon) in Jemtland. Scxcn hhisikar and six fefsikar
show the followins' constant diffei'ences:

I NuiiilitT cif jiill-rakcrs on the first bi-anchial .irch of

1 e.cl.M,le

! Dqjth of tlu- suout ill »; of the k-iiglh of the head

,. .. ., ,, reduced.

,. ,, „ ,, ,, ,. ,. ,. hrcndth of the snout

I „ „ „ ,. ,, ,. ., ,, length of the maxillaries...

llA-ngth of the lower ja» in ?i of the length of the head

„ .. .. redueed

laxilla

;m - 1:.
«.6— y.s
11,4— i;i.2

riO.o— 62.5
27.3—35.7
47.1 — 44.0'
G2.9 — ay.s<i

■M -n

11.1-12.3
14.R— 16.7

66.C— 87.5
40.0—46.2
40.9 f— 39.3
59.3— 51.5

lilt.i

-(;i;.7 6S.4.''— 73.0

But on examining the Fefsik fry of this lake, we
find that, even at a length of 70 — 80 mm., only the
first tliree characters hold good. Tlius at the outset
of their development the two forms stand nearer to
eacli other, e^•en after the e.\ternal shape of the body
has assumed the character of the group. As is more
distinctly shown by our figures, the blasikar of this
lake belong to the group characterized in (jUNTHer''
bv "snout vertically truncated," the fefsikin\ on the
other hand, belonging to the group'' in which "the
snout is obliqueh- truncated, \\ith the nose protruding".
The same difference appears, howe^■er, between true
blasikar as well, for example in Lake Ring, where, to
the best of our knowledge, only blasikar are found'.
It is still more difficult to maintain the distinction
between the two grou])s where they occur together in
the great Swedish lakes or in the sea. The Royal
Musciun collection of Gwyniads from Lake \\'etter
shows the most varying form of snout-', exemplifying
almost all conceivable transition forms between sliallow-
snoiited (iwvniads (which we have called tajiiiKirhi/iirln^)
— not represented, however, liy fiilh' t\pical speci-

" "Tlie Asji occurs in all the large lakes, ii|. td Kilpisjiirvi in Tornea L;i|)|jiiiark. Spawns in autumn, in llie rivers in (_)ct(dier. Ii^
exactly like the .Sik, but ilift'ers in the gills, whose spines in the As]) are long and line," L. L. L^estapius, MS in the Royal Museum.

'' See the Swedish Special e^atulogue at the Fisheries Exhibition in Berlin 1880. Besides the Gwyniads included in this catalogue, my
tables of ineasiirements (published in 1886 in Vet.-Akad. Handl.) were accessible in manuscript, and in the course of a public discussion I
cited the results of these tables, results which render the specific determination w-i(hin the lavaretus group so untrustworthy that we have
rather to deal with local varieties (See GlGHOLi, Annali deH'industria e del coniinercio 1880 (Roma 1881), num. 29, p. 38).

Subsequently NUssLiN (1882), Klunzinger (1884), and Fatio (1885 — 90) have arrived at the same conclusion, wilh resi.eel te the
connexion between the characters derived from the appearance of the gill-rakers and those drawn from the form of the snout, as I niaintained

the (ddiT oi'iiiioii according tti \\hich
roup.

on the said occasion and published in 1882 in Of vers. Vet.-Akad. Forli. Hut they .■i.lliere
species may be determined with certainty, by means of these characters, within the hiriwi'lii

■■ 43'5 in a single specimen.

"^ 58'8 in a single specimen.

'■ 44'4 in a single specimen.

■' G2'5 in the youngest specimen.

" Vat. Bvil. Mils., Fisl,., vol. VI, p. 187.

* 1. c, p. 178.

' Cf. for example Sjiitt, Jiiksm. iSuhiiuii., tail. \', figg. 78—81, representing four lilii.iitar (Coreg07ius Mls,^oiiii) caught at the same tin:

->■ See Smitt, I. c, tafl. IV, figg. 69-71 and tafl. V. ligg. 73-7.''),

'■ From XttuElvug., Ion-, and {iiyyog, snout.

901

Fig. 224. Blilv/.- (aoreijoiiit.< Wdrtmaniii, foniia yil.i.<:oiiii), ' 2 "f "»■ natunil size, cf. taken in Lal;e Stor (Jemtland) on the 13Ui Sept.,
1877 bv Mr. R. Lu.ndeerg, Inspector of Fislieries. a, liead of tlie same specimen, natural size; l>, snout of the same,

seen from in front, natural size.

^■^^M&^

Fig. 22,'). Fetsik (Coregomi.i lavtireti(s), • „ of 'the natural size, (f, taken in Lake Stor (Jemlland) on the 13th Sept., l.<<77 hy Mr. R. LuND-
BERO, Insiiector of Fisheries, a, head of the same specimen, natural size; /j, snout of the same, seen froin in front, natural size.

9(12

SC A N 1 ) I N A \' I A N V 1 .S 1 1 K S .

mens — and dci^ii-Miuiitcd {li/ipsehirhi/iiflii"), ov I)et\\ccii
narrow-snouted {sfenorlif/i/cli)'') and liroad-snuiited (ciiri/-
rlii/iiclii'), without these diti'ei-eiices being always at-
tended l)v analogous differences between dense gill-
rakers {p>/rnoceiifrl'') and scattei'cd {iimiiofeiitr/'). To
this we must add tliat among the comparatively pyc-
nocentrous Gwvniads of Lake Welter specimens occur
(tig. 22(1) Aviiich dilVci- in hai-(il\- an\' respect from the
form of the nianoeenl imils (iw\iiiads, e. g. in Lake Stor
(tig. 22.")). All examiiiatiun (if (he Lake Wener (iwyn-
iads has yielded the same result: Imr in both the.se
lakes, as well as in tlie sea and in the large rivers
flowing into the sea. there apjiears a still more pro-
minent alteration in the firm of the snout, an alteration
which has given rise to the name of ndhhsik {Beaked
(iiriiii'idil. Houting: hg. 227), the o.ii/iiii/tirhuf: oi' old
writers. This alteration consists partly in the prolonga-
tion and thickening of the ethmoiflal cartilage, but
mainly in an agglomeration of cotuiective tissue and

tiieir \arving degrees of resemblance to one or other
of the above-mentioned extremes, the iiiiih-siui and the
pdlciir.

The shape of tlie snout also affects the length of
the jaAvs, from which we mav dei'i\e important cha-
racters. The appearance of the form-series at once
suggests that the ])ycnocentrous forms should have longer
jaws, and the changes of growth'' sIkjw that during
youlli the relati\e lengtli of the jaws undergoes a re-
duction. Hut in old (Twyniads from Lake W'ener — the
form which in (u'ntheh bears the name of ('(ircr/ovus
ma.riUariii, the German Madiri-Maraiic — \ve observe
a retrogression towards the characters of youth, a re-
trogression which ranges this form, as regards the
length of the maxillaries, even when the tip of the
snout is prolongated to the Houting type {('or. axi/-
r]n/iicliit»), beside the |)vcnoceiitroiis nf<ji from Lajjland.
The other extreme of the series — the jinjciir form,
which, as we have mentioned, really belongs to .Silieria

fat. It is analogous to the elongation of the point of : and Northern Russia, but also occurs in the northern-

tlie lower ja^\• in the Salmons, and cannot in itself
justify any sjiecitic distinction, whether it appears in
the narrow-snouted Gwyniads-^ or in the l)road-snouted".
Its reaches its highest development in old (Iwytiiads
from the depths of Lake Wener, which do not differ,
however, in other resjiects from theii' eompanious, tlie
broad-snouted (Twyniads of tiie same lake. l>iit the
Houting form was first observed in the Nortli Sea on
the lielgian. l*uteli, and (iermaii coasts, whence it ascends
the Khine, Weser, and Fdlie in order to s]iawn, and in
the soutli of the llaltie. wliere it enters tlie Haff's and
the Oder.

However variable the sha| f the snout \\v,\\ a])-

])ear, it is still the most trustworthy guide to the de-
termination of the forms — as the fisherman's experience
has long since taught him — although the characters
eaiuiot be well defined. This indefiniteness of-'character
we can easih' uiidei'staiid, tor we can range the diff'e-

most ri\ers of Sweden — sometimes has the maxillaries
so reduced that we have conferred on this modification
the special name of lir((']ii/iiii/fit(i.r'.

The shape of the body is the same as in the \"en-
dace, Ijiit in general somewhat deeper, dee]iest as a
ruk' in the jKilcur and the forms that come nearest it,
the manocentrous forms as a I'ule having a deeper body
than the pycnocentrous. The greatest depth of the
body varies in adult Gwyniads between about 22 and
25 % (in gravid females as much as 27 %) of its length;
in the polnir tlie percentage is usually 2(3 or 27. In
young (iwyniads measuring 37 — 143 mm. we find the
greatest depth to increase with growth from L5' ^, to
lil'/o of the length. But on account of the temporary
variations due to the periodical tumidity of the gene-
rative organs, the greatest dejith of the body, here as
in most cases, is ill adapted to express its characteristic
form. Far more ini)iortant in this respect is the least

rent forms in an almost unbroken series according to ' depth of the l)ody. This is seldom so small as in the

" rifjriXog, high.

' arevog, narrow.

' etQig, broad.

'' From 7Cl.'X)'oc, dense, and y.iriQOV, s/iine.

' /.lavog, scattered.

f Smitt. 1. c. tafl. IV. tigs- •;'■' and 70.

1 1. c, tig. 67.

'' 1. c, tab. nic-tr. XIII, ''/* and ' ,, in Nos. 36-2—364 and 397—403.

'' Answering in essential respects ti. a form wlncli inliabils tlie depths of tlie Lake of Constance, and whicli lias been named t'ore-
ijoniis aeronhis. But this latter form, judging l.y tlie two specimens we have examined (see Smitt, 1. c., tab. metr. X, Nos. 11)2 and 163),
lias mucli longer pectoral and ventral fins and a shorter snout.

903

w

Fig. •22Q. (We I,

•joiius l,ir,iretiis, pi/ciioccntnts, ' „ of tlie natural size, ,f, taken in Lalic Wetter, Nov., 18G3, by Widegrhn. a, liead of
tlie same specimen, nutiiral size: li, snout of tlie same, seen from in front, natural size.

Fig. 2-27. Coreijoiitis Idrarcliif, o.ri/rlii^iiilius, spawning (f, taken in Lake Wener al Stora Ekcn. ' , of the natural size.

a. head of the same specimen, natural size.

Scandinaficin FUliea.

*)04

SCAM) IN AVIAN FISHES.

Vendace, varying on an average aliout 7 % (in polciir
about 8 %, in tsclvir nearly 9 %) of the lengtli of the
body, between ?>?> and 40 % (in polriir 41 — 4") %, in
tschir 52 %) of tlic Icngtli of the head, or between 44
and ')2 % (in polcKr .")6 — til %, in txehir !'.'> %) of tlie
length of the head reduced. Some Gwyniad forms
may indeed be said to be cliaracterized by a shallow
tail (an elongated bodv); l)ut it sliould be observed
tliat this character is also a cliai-iicter of age. Conse-
(|uently it happens that, in certain lakes, especially in
Lake Bolmen in Smaland, where it has longest l)een
known, but also in many other lakes from Lapland to
Smaland, we meet with a Gwyniad f(jrra (Nilsson's
Coregonits lavaretKs. Malm's forma holmensls) Avhich
differs, so far as we knoM'^xonstantly from the ;illied
forms in the shallow pedu^PI of its tail. But in other
waters, for examjile in the system of small lakes in
Smaland which falls into the Baltic through the River
Morrum, this very form is developed into the form
with deeper tail, \vhich else has its most typical repre-
sentative in the Lake King (-rwyniad (Valenciennes'
Corecfonus NUssouii). The bldsikar in the uppermost
of the said lakes — Helga and Bergunda" — in most
respects afford mii instructive example of the cliaiiges
of growth througli which the Gwyniad passes in the
less advanced stages of its form-series. In particular
they show how the least depth of the body, the most
distinctive character of bolmensis, increases with age so
as to apjjroach the typical Coreffoniis NUssonii. In
Asnen, a Inke of greater size and situated nearer the
outlet of the system, the NUssonii type' is developed
at an eai'lier age (a smallei- length) than in the two
said lakes. In this locality it therefore seems that
Cor. bolmensis should really be regai-ded as a young
stage of Coi: NUssonii, which in other places, for ex-
ample in Lake Bolm, may persist as a separate form.
The deeper form of the bodv is most often accom-
panied by a special arrangement of the scales that
gives the tish a singular appeai'ance. When the skin
is distended, the rows of scales part from each other",
and the exposed portion of each scale becomes hexagonal
instead of semirirculnr. The (j^wyniad then displays a

striking resemblance to the Grayling. In the bldsikar
— but especially in the typical Lake Ring Gwyniad —
we also find a special form of scale, at least in the
rows nearest to the lateral line, the free (hind) margin
of the scale becoming more or less elongated at the
nuddle (forming a rounded obtuse angle instead of a
circular arc). But in all the Gwyniads examined by
us this difference also appears l)etween the scales on
the sides of the tail and those on the forepart of the
body. The cliaracter assigned by Lilljeboiu; to Core-
fjonus NUssonii, that the exposed |);irt of the scale in
the rows nearest to the lateral line is more than half
as long as high, may be found in most Gwvniads, at
least in solitary scales.

While it often happens, esjjeciallv auK.ing the Ijld-
sikar, that the comparatively great size of the eves is
persistent longer than usual — a relation which Wini:-
GREN expressed bj' establishing a separate species, Corc-
(jonns megalops — the fetslkar run to the opposite ex-
treme, the reduction in the relative size of the eves
during growth proceeding more rapidlv and advancing
further than usual. The form produced in this man-
ner we have called microps, less in order to indicate
the importance of the difference as such, than because
it is usually accompanied by an increased fatness which
has rendered the form econon^icallv important. It
occurs, according to the collections of the Royal Mu-
seum, in the Gulf of Bothnia, the rivers of Norrlaud,
Lake Wener, and Boliuslan. Maliicren sent home
specimens of a similar form from Lake Ladoga. The
same importance is shared by ani^thcr form, from the
Angerman and Torne Elfs, wliich is characterized by
a comparatively small head, and which we have there-
fore named microcephnlus.

None of these forms seenus quite to deserve the
rank of an independent variety. They sometimes appear
to occur alone, liut as a rule at least two are found
in the same lake or river — Lake Wener possesses at
least 7 of these forms — and that they intermingle
during the s])awning, is more than probable. But as
a rule a distinction may be drawn between them in
the followini;' manner:

" Smitt, 1. c, tnb. metr. XI, N(is. 210— 215.

'■ 1. c, Nos. 216 and 217.

'" A striking example of this is Siebold"s figure of Corecjonus acronius (Siisswasserf. Mitti^lcur., taf. II), inoiistrously swollen owing
to tlie expansion of the air-bladder when the fish was drawn up from deep water; but the same appearance is almost as marked in gravid
females. We have above seen a similar difference in the appearance of the scales among the Perches for example: — cf. the Carass Perch
(tig. 3, p. 29) with the oommon Porch.

(;\\VM.\i>.

905

; Sludlow-snotiteil, i\s a rule with dense
qill-rakers: depth of the tip of the
snout at the rostral protubcranccs(a3a4,
see fig. 228) less than 15 % of the
length of the head reduced (a(/, see fig.);
o-ill-rakers on the first luanchial arch
(IS a rule more than SO.
a: Length of the maxillaries more
than 30 % of that of the head. Gill-
rakers on the first branchial arch
more than 50. (A Siberian form) Coregomis iniikann.
b: Length of the maxillaries less than
30 ". of tliJit of the head. Gill-
rakers on tlie first branchial arcli

less than 50 _ (Jorei/oniis W'urtmanni.

a: Depth of the tip of the snout
loss than ()1 % of its breadth
(((|0.,, see fig.).

act: Least depth of the peduncle

of the tail less than 36 %

of the length of the head

— Cor. bolmensis.

bb: Least depth of the peduncle

of the tail more than 3(5 ".

of the length of the head.

««; Gill-rakers on the first

branchial arch less than

40 — Cor. Xilssonii.

;S/J.- Gill-rakers on the first

brauehinl arch more

than 40 — Cor. aspius.

/•;.■ Depth of the tip of the snout

more than (11 % oi' its breadth

— Cor. AVartmanui.

/i: l)eeji-sitoHteJ. as a rule with scattered
gill-rakers: depth of the snout at the
rostral protuberances more than 15 %
of the length of the head reduced;
gill-rakers on the first branchial arch
as a rule less than 30.
a: Length of the ma.xillaries more

than 30 % of that ol' the head Coreeiotins inaraiiia.

a: Length of the maxillaries less
than 7() % of that of the lower
jaw — Cor. maxillaris.
li: Length of the maxillaries more
than 80 °i of that of the lower
j aw — Cor. o X V r h y n c h u s .
li: Length of the maxillaries less than
30 •• of that of the head.
a: Length of the lower jaw greatei'

than the least depth of the tail (Joregoims lavaretus.
aa: Length of the head more
than 18 % of that of the
body. . S,

an: \'ertieal diameter of
the eyes more than 24
% of the length of the
head reduced — Cor.
lavaretus.
iiji: Vertical diameter of
the eyes less than 24
% of the length of the
head reduced — Cor.
mi crops.
bb: Length of the head less
than 18 % of that of the body
— Cor. microcephalus.

Fig. 22.'*. Outline drawing- of a Gwyuiad (Coregoiuis Xilssonii), sliowing how the iiieasiiremeuts in flie (able of averages arc taken.

Line ab = length of the body.

«c =: .. ,, ,, head.

ad = ., .. ,. ,, reduced

a^a., = breadtli of the snout.

V4 = '''^Ptli ,

ag = length ,. ,, ,,

op = length of the suboperculum. , ai/ = distance between the annl fin and tlu- tip

aq = distance between the dorsal fin and the I of the snout.

tip of the snoui.
Yr = ba.'^e of the dorsal fin.
St = height .. „
uv = length of the pectoral fins.
gti = longitudinal diameter of the eyes, j uw = preabdoiniual length.
ef = vertical ,. ,, .. ,, me = distance between the ventral tins and the

ai = length of tlie maxillaries.
mil --- breadth ,, ,, ,,

kl = length of the lower jaw.

tip of the snout.
IV.T = length of the ventral fins
7VJ/ = postabdoininal length.

yz = base of the anal fin.
a/S = height ,, ,, ., ,.
yd = dorsal margin of the ]iedimcle of the tail.

l» = length

zE = ventral margin ,, ., ..

C?] = least depth ,. ,. .. .. ,,

^■4 = length of the middle caudal rays.
/■/. = ,, ,, ,, longest rays in the upper
caudal lobe.

906

SCANDINAVIAN KI.SllK.s.

li: Leni;th <if the lower jaw loss
than tho least depth of the
tail

aa: Length of tlie inaxillaries
more than ' , of that of the
head and than 36 % of that
of the head reduced — Cor.
polcur.

Length of the maxillarics
less than ' , of that of the
head and than 36 % of that

Coreyunua polcnr.

hb:

of the head reduced — Cor.
brach ymy ? t a .\.

Iiisti'fid of dt\scriVjiiig these fonns at length we
.shall refer the reader to the two following- tables of
averages, the first intended to show both the difference
of form and sex and the changes of growth in the
three forms, of which we have examined a sufficient
number of male and female specimens of various ages
to enable us to trace the last-mentioned chano;es.

\ V (• r

a g e

1

Nilss

onii

Wartmanni.

1. a T a r e t u 8.

?

-y

. ;i cr-

9

cf

Length of the body pspresscd in millimet
„ ., head (nc)

es (ab in fig. 528)

184

257

161

253

184

314

167

253

147

320

82

163

305

in % of the length of the body

20.7

15.7

19.9
14. G

20.8

1.^1.8

19.7
14.7

20.1

15.3

19.C

14.8

21.6

16.0

18.9
14.3

20.6

15.5

19.6

14.7

21.1

15.8

19.9
14.8

19.5
14.6

,, „ ,. ., reduced {ad)

Distance between the dorsal fin and the

tip of

the snout (otyl

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

43.6

44.0

42.7

43.2

42.8

43.6

44.0

42.6

43.6

44.3

43.6

43.0

43. ^

Base of the dorsal tin (i/r)

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

11.1

10.7

11.0

U.6

11.1

12.3

10.8

10.8

10.6

11.0

11.2

11.9

11.5

Height (si)

15.6
13.8

27 5

15.4

14.2

28.6

15.7

15.1
26.5

15.8
15.2

27.7

15.1

14.4

29.0

15.8
15.2

29.2

1.5.0

15.9

27.0

14.7
15.5

28.9

14.7

13.1

27.9

15.4

15.1
29.6

11.7
12.3

28.2

14.6

13.1

(27.9)

14.8
15.3

28.5

Length of the pectoral fins (uy)

Preabdominal length [uw)

Distanee between the ventral fins and the

tip of

the snout (nic)

47.9
13.8
25.6

47.4
14.S
26.0

47.1

14.6

24.C

46.9

14.6

25.8

47.8
14.1
24.9

48.7

14.3

26.9

47.1
14.1
24.6

46.9

14.4

25.7

48.2

13.3

24.4

49.1

14.3

26.0

48.4

11.4

23.5

47.7
13.1
24.7

44.4

14.2

25.9

Length of the ventral fins (lex)

Postabdominal length (wy)

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

Distance between the nnal fin and the

tip of

the snout (ay)

71.2
11.3

71.4
11.3

70.3
12.1

71.1
12.1

71.6
10.7

73.7

10.7

71.0

10.7

70.6

11.7

71.3
10.8

73.4

11.0

70.7
10.1

71.3
10.7

72.8

11.0

Base of the and tin (yz)

„ .. ,, „ „ „ „ „

Height (dii)

9.8

10.6

10.1

10.7

9.9

10.4

10.0

10.1

8.7

10.1

7.1

8.8

10.1

Dorsal margin of the peduncle of the tail

[yS).. „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

9.9

9.1

10.2

9.1

9.3

8.9

10.0

9.3

10.1

9.0

9.8

. 9.7

8.7

Length ., „ ., ., „ „

(^3-). „ „ „ „ „ ., ., „

14 1

13.6

10.6

13.7

13.2

13.3

13.3

18.3

13.3

13.2

13.0

13.4

13.5

Ventral margin „ ,, „ ,, „ „

(ze).. „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

9.2

8.9

9.5

8.9

9.3

8.6

9.7

9.4

9.C

8.5

9.3

9.6

8.7

Least depth „ „ ., „ „ „

(in)- „ „ „ „ .. „ -. "

6.8

7.4

7.0

7.5

7.0

7.4

6.8

7.2

6.4

7.2

6.1

6.7

7.1

Length of the middle caudal rays [d'b)

_

5.2

6.2

5.5

5.9

5.9

5.4

5.9

5.8

5.6

5.4

6.3

5.5

5.1

., ., longest rays in the upper

caudal

lol)e (ix)

20.3

17.5

19.8

18.9

19.2

19.3

18.5

16.1

18.4

17.5

18.3

Length of the snout (ay)

„ „ ,, „ .. ., ,. head

24.8

25.1

24.8

24.9

24.8

26.0

25.1

25.0

25.6

273

23.8

25.7

22.8

Longitudinal diameter of the eyes [gh) ....

25.3

22.6

26.9

23.1

24.7

21.2

25.2

22.2

25.2

20.8

27.7

24.6

21.1

Vertical (e/)

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

22.3

19.4

22.6

19.9

22.7

18.2

21.3

18.6

21.3

18.1

23.6

21.2

18.5

Breadlh of thu snont at the rnslnil protuberanc

s(r,,„,)„ „ „ „ „ „ „ „

16.6

16.1

17.0

16.5

14.6

16.0

15.3

15.9

16.0

15.9

14.6

16.3

16.2

Depth „

("a"*) „ „ ,. „ „ ,. „ „

9.4

9.1

9.4

9.4

9.4

10.6

9.0

10.3

10.4

12.2

9.2

10.5

11.9

Breadth of the forehead at the middle of th

eeyes ., „ ., „ „ „ „ „

28. B

30.1

27.6

31.2

28.4

30.0

28.3

30.9

27.9

29.7

27.6

29.3

30.0

Length of the maxillaries (nO

25.2

27.5

28.9

27.7

28.2

27.1

27.6

29.0

29.0

27.8

28.9

27.9

27.8

, lower jaw {U)

,, „ „ „ ,, „ ,j ,,

45.2

44.0

45.8

44.6

44.5

42.0

45.8

44.6

43.6

41.3

44.4

42.7

41.8

„ .. .. subopcreulum (op)

„ „ „ „ „ „ „

30.3

29.8

29.7

29.7

29.0

30.2

30.8

29.6

29.6

29.0

30.8

30.1

28.9

Vertical diameter of the eyes

. in % of the length of the head reduced

30.0

26.4

29.9

26.2

29.7

24.1

28.1

24.5

28.3

24.2

31.4

28.4

24.6

Depth of the snout at the rostral prntubernne

8 ,. „ „ „ „ „ „ „

12.G

12.4

12.4

12.7

12.3

14.0

12.1

13.6

13.8

16.3

12.3

14.1

15.8

Length of the maxillaries,

■ .. !7 1< „ ., ., ., „ „

33.8

37.4

38.3

37.3

36.8

35.9

37.0

38.3

38.6

37.3

.38.5

36.8

36.9

Breadth., .. ..

in % of their length

37.9

37,0

36.4

36.6

37.0

37.3

36.9

36.2

37.7

38. c

30.9

38.3

37.7

Length ., .,

in % of the length of the lower jaw

55.7

63.0

63.9

62.2

63.7

64.7

60.3

65.2

66.9

67.4

65.1

64.5

t
66,7

Least depth of the peduncle of the tail ...

72.9

84.5

72.3

85.1

78.8

89.6

69.3

85.2

71.3

89.3

64,4

78.9

87.7

Depth of the snout at the rostral protuberances in % of its br(adth at the same point.

56.8

56.3

55.3

56.3

64.1

66.4

58.9

65.1

64.8

76.6

64.0 65.3

74.0

Number of gill-r;;l;ers on the first left bra

uchial arch

35

36

35

36

29

32

31

33

25

25

23

24 1

25

Not even in the averages do \vc here find any
constant difference, except in the number of the gill-
rakers; and even the form difference which in the
case of adult specimens is the most trustworthy di-
stinction between hlfisikdr and fcts'il'dr, the different

depth of the snout, proves to be a character of age.
But ill the last-mentioned respect, where the percent-
ages rise with age, as well as in other characteristic
features, e. g. the relative length of the lower jaw,
where the percentages sink with increasing age, we

907

1(1 tli;il, wlu'i-o M c-liiiniic nf urowili is clearly dcliui'd i abuvn tal>lc, the hhisikiir, howcvci', often t'ollo\\- a dil

f'erfiit rule froiii the fctsikar. and conso(:|ucntlv, wlieii
the former become maiioceiitrous, or the latter pycno-
ceiitrous. the general rule foi- the sexual difference is
conunoidy reversed, a circumstance whicli most readily

in tclldcnc^^ the fetsik {/.(irdrctiis), at the same size as
ilic lilasik, has attained a more ad\anccd development.
The sexual differences show that in the males the
length of the alidominal |)art is generally less than in
the females, the anal tin thus beginning comijai-atixely i suggests the presence of in'bridism".
farther forward, and the snout broader but longer, the [ Guided l)y the alterations of development and the

males being thus ranged as representatives (jf the i dift'erenees of sex included in the preceding table, we
earliest developmental stages of the type. In the dif- I maA' easily explain the form-series, as it apjiears in
ferences of sex, which may easih' be traced in the | the following talile of averages:

Xunibcr of spefimcns

Length of the botlv expressed in

Number of gill-rnkers on the first left brauehinl p.rch

Ltnath of the head in % uf the len'ilh of the bod

■educed
' -rimee between the dorsal fin and the tip of
'lie snout

of the dorsal fin

Height „

Length of the pectoral fin:

Preubduminal length

Distanee between the ventral tins and the tip nf

the snniit

Length of the ventral fins

Postabdominal length

DiataDce between the anal fin and the tip of

the snont

Itase of the anal fiu

Height „

Dorsal margin of the peduncle of the tail

length ,. ., „ „ ,. .,

Ventral margin .. .. „ ,, ., „

Leist depth ., .. .. ,. .. „

Lerntth uf the middle catidal rays

longest rays in the upper caudal lobe

snout

Longitudinal diameter of the ey

Vertical , ,

Breadth of the snout at the rostral protuberances.. „

Depth , , ., . ,,

Breadth of the forehead at the middle of the eyes.. .,
length of the ma.villaries „

„ ., ,, lower jaw _ „

„ ., „ snboperculu

Vertical diameter of the eyes in % of the length uf the head red

Deptbofthesnout at the rostral protuberances ., .. „ ., ., .. .,
length of the maxillaries..... , ,, „ „ „ „ „

•, „ ,, lower jaw ,, „ ,, „ ,, „ „ „

Uut depth of the peduncle of the tail „ „ „ ,, ., ,, „ „

Breadth of the inajillaries in % of their length

Depth of the snout at the rostral protuberances in % of its breadth at the same point.

" M ,. , ., .. ., ,. the length of the maxillarics.

length of the head reduced in % of the distance between the dorsal fin and the

'ip of the snout

" S.MrrT, 1. c, pp. -281

908

SCANDINAVIAN IISIIKS.

The clearest cxin'csisioii of the evolutional coui'sc
of the form-series we here find in tlie relation lietween
the depth of tlie snout ut the rostral protuberances
and the length of the maxillaries: the former increases
and the latter decreases, so that the averages rise with
great regularity from left to rigiit in tlie last line but
one of the table. Yet tiiese averages, as we have men-
tioned, must be considered with reference to the size
of the specimen: among small specimens both of i\"/?s-
soiiii and lavaretus for example the m;inocentrous show
a smaller average than the pycnocentrous; but the law
of evolution tells us, according to the preceding table,
that if the former had been ]>ermitted to attain a
sutticient size, their jiercentages for this relation would
undoubtedly have risen enough to fill their place in
the series.

Ik'aring this residt in mind, we can easily' deter-
mine the systematic value of the peculiarities which
seem to characterize the flwyniad wliere it lives under
exceptional conditions. In Enare Tra-sk for example
(Finnish Lapland) it sometimes develops the beaked
form" at a length of 14 or 15 cm. and with a depth
of snout persistently answering to the shallow snout
of the typical hlasikar, though it is cjuite manoeentrous,
with no more gill-rakers than a. poJcnr. But to coin
a special name for such a form, is of ([uestionable
utility, for a similar prolongation of the snout, though
not quite so great, may be observed in young hlasikar,
for example from Qvickjock, where they attain matu-
rity at about the same size''.

The relation between the two groups, the one*^
collected round the hlasik type, the other** round the
fetsik type, is evidently the same as that between
fniffa and sular among the Salmons. Thej' come so
near each other that constant characters to distinguish
them cannot be adduced; the one is a more advanced
development of the other, and they intermingle in their
sjiawning operations'. However unlike the differentia-
tion of form may be in localities at a distance from
each other, variations as great may be observed in the
same water, the extremes of the form-series appearing
side by side. No wonder then that ichthyologists have

failed sliar]ily to detiiie local \arieties, though a more
than adecjuate number of names have l)een proposed
to this end.

The coloration of the (nvyniad is essentially the
same as that of the ^ endace, and is subject to the
same variations of light or dark tone. The back is of
a lusti-ous steel-blue, whence the name of blasik, or
black, in wliich case the latter colour also extends to
the up]jer part of the head and forward over the snout,
or, like the top of the liead, of a more greenish gray
tint and more or less transparent, the transparency being
most noticeable in the occiput and the snout, though
the tip of the latter is commonly brownish black. The
sides ut the body have a silvery lustre, l>ut often pass
into a dirty gray, which colour has given rise to the
name of grdsik, and is sometimes uniformly distributed
over the middle of the sides, but generally more pro-
minent at the limits between the longitudinal rows of
scales belo^\■ the lateral line. The ventral side is of a
purer white, at the middle milky white. The sides of
the head partake in the silvery lustre of the sides of
the body: but on the gill-cover this hue frecjuently
passes into a brassy lusti'c: and the articular process
of the operculum is of a brownish black colour, which
is continued back in a longitudinal strijie. The yel-
k)wish colour often extends to tlie cheeks and jaws.
The lower part of the head is of the same colour as
the Ijelly. No less variable is the coloration of the
fins. Sometimes all of them are entirely black; but in
the lighter varieties they may all be light, greenish
gray or transparent. As a rule, however, they are
light (gray or dashed with red) at the base, but the
outer ]Kirt of the tin-membrane is dark, grayish or
brownish blaik, this being due to a rarer or denser
agglomeration of lirownish black pigment, which is
sometimes merely besprinkled on the ti])S of the pec-
toral and ventral fins. The same pigment is frequently
scattered in tine dots over the skin of the whole body',
and usualh' collects on the middle or bottom of the
dorsal tin, on the upper part of the head, on the inner
(hind) surface of the pectoral and ventral tins, and
sometimes here and there on the sides of the l)ody.

" Smitt, ). c. tafl. V, tig. 89.

'' S.MrrT, 1. c, tab. metr. X, No. 1G9.

" Fatio's Coregonus dispersus.

'' Fatio's Coregonus balleus.

' Fatio has recognised a bloiiding oi characters in liis "species coinposita", Coregowis Stiiiiteri {Fiie Vert. Siiifsse, vol. V, p. 270).

■^ They are sometimes entirely wanting in the light varieties.

909

in ii'rt'iiular dark spots. Soinetiincs tlir |)C'ctoral tins
iire of a |ilain uTa^ish red, while all I lie others are
black, niiriiiii' t\\c spiiwiiing-season the scales of the
sides, iniisi coiiiiiioid\- helow the lateral line, are coated
witli dcriuai tuljercles, such as wt' Ikuc noticed in the
Cvprinoids. These tuhercies, of a white or reddish
gray colour, form ionuitudinal rows (see Plate XLII,
jjir. 4), one to each row of scales, hut tiie\- are not
present on all the I'ows of scales, sometimes onh' on
5, sonietinu's (jn as man\" as K), most nf them helow
the lateral line. They are sometimes present both in
males and females, sometimes only in the males; and
many hreedina' Gw\"iiiads, even males, in the same
shoal are without them".

The (iwyniad, as we have already mentioned, is
spread throughout Sweden; and the rule is that the
Udsikar belong to fresh water, the fcffiikar to the sea,
the rivers flowing into the sea, and the great lakes.
So in this respect too the relation between the two
main groups of Gwyniad forms is fully analogous to
that between fnifta and salar among the Salmons. The
range of the (Twvniad iiroliabh- extends over all
northern countries both of the ( )ld and Xe\v Worlds''.
Throughout Finland and Norway the species occurs;
but in the latter country, according to Collett, its
range is interrupted between Trondhjem and 'J'romso,
which is also the case with several other tresh-water
fishes. In Denmark, where it is called ffeelf and Sikc-
hel (the (lerman ScJniapel = Sw. iialibsik), it is common
on the mainland, less so on the islands and round
their coasts. It is also common throughout Germany
north of the Alps — where it Ijeai's man^' names. Jfa-
rune, Bhiiifclrhe)i, Beiike, Kilch, etc. — and in the
Baltic Provinces of Russia. But in South-eastern
Europe it is wanting. In Switzerland it occurs in the
mniierons forms ("24 sub-species) described by F.xtio.
In Savoy it inhabits the Lac du Bourget; and it has
been introduced in recent times into Lakes Maggiore
and ('omo on the southern slope of the Al])s. In
France proper, with the exception of the most eastern
districts, it is wanting; but to the iish-market of Paris,
where it is known b\- the name of 0/ifiI, it is supplied
from Belgium and Holland, where in its iidhbsik form.

called f/(ii(lii/(/ and AdcUixili. it .inhabits the North
Sea and the Zuider Zee and ascends the Rhine. In
Kngland it is common in L'lleswater ;iiid the other
Cumbrian lakes, u[> to a height of 2,()()U feet above
the sea-le\el, being here known as the Schelly, in
Scotland it iidi;d)its Lake Lomond, where it is called
the Powaii, and in the Welsh lakes it bears the name
of the Gw\iiiiHl. The lloutiiig form has been taken
on the east and south coasts of England. The North
American White-lish has its true habitat in the region
of the (ireat Lakes, but its range extends to the Arctic
Ocean. But in Greerdand and Iceland the species is
unknown.

In this wide geograi)hical extension there are three
centres where the Gwyniad attains its most robust
development: Sibeiia, the Baltic countries, and the
basin of the Great Lakes in North .\merica. The lirst
home of the species lay in the north, and to the south-
ern tracts in the interior of Europe where it now oc-
curs, it had free access during the (ilacial Period.
But when the waterways became landlocked, and the
extent of the seas was reduced, it was compelled to
adapt itself to the various environments of its abode,
and it has thus been ditt'erentiated into a number of
forms which cannot, however, be distinguished by con-
stant characters.

"The (iwvniad's habits," writes Ekstrom of the
Baltic form, "differ little from the Salmons. Like
the latter it ascends from deeji water in the spawning-
season, and is said to observe a cei-tain order in its
evolutions." "The roading (xwyniads, ' wrote Gisler
from Norrland, "gather in shoals with such consent
that hardly a single fish can be found on the coast
between the shoals. They mostly repair to the coast
in violent gales from the south and south-east, which
drive them into fjords and estuaries. As soon as the
wind veers to the west, they ascend the rivers with
eager haste, and are then observed to shape their
course in two wings or lines converging to a [loint,
as is related of the Salmon'." "In the island-belt of
Morko," continues Ekstrom, "the Gwyniad ascends from
deej) water, where it has passed the winter, in spring-
time, w'hen the Baltic Herring spawns. It follows the

" According to Gisler they are wanting in the males which first reach the spawning-place.

*• Bean {Cat. Coll. Fish. Exh. hij U. S. Nat. Mus., Gt. Intern. Fish. Exhib. London 1883, p. 8) and Turner (I'ontrib. .\at. Hint.
Alaska, Arct. Ser. Pnbl. Sign. Serv. U. S. Army, No. II. p. 104) mention Coregoiius clupeiformis (albns) from Alaska: and as we have
stated above, we know of no specific difference between this firm and our European Gwyniad.

*■ See above.

910

SCAXniXAVIAX FISHE.-

llerriii'i'-shoals. and ilrvuurs theii' I'oc. Afterwards it
returns to deeper water, and does Tiot re-appear until
the close of summer, at the end of September. lixcept
during the spawning-season the Gwyniad is so cunning
and cautious a lisli that its sagacity lias given rise to
a pi'overbial exiiression, a slv person being called an
arfl sik (a thorougli <TW\-niad). It is also timid, and
so voracious as to de\our not only the roe of other
fishes but also its own. It dies soon after it is taken
out of the water." This greatlv dejiends, however, on
tiie depth at which it is caught. When drawn up from
very deep water, it dies at once, the air-bladder swells,
and the belly is distended, sometinies to monstrous
dimensions.

The lake Gwyniads also assemble in shoals twice
a year. The first period is during suuuner, when in-
sect life is most thriving, gnats and dragonfiies sport
at the SiU-face or drcjp into the watei-, and when tlie
small crustaceans {Entomostrnca and fresh-water Gam-
maroids) are most plentiful. Shoals of Gwyniads then
seek their food at the surface and in the shall(n\'s.
The other period is in autunui and winter, when the
Gwyniads gather to spawn. Similar oljservations have
been made in North America". In Lake Ontario, for
instance, the Gwyniad is taken early in spring far out
in the lake, in about '200 feet of water. At the be-
ginning of June it repairs in siioals to the coast in
quest of food. At the Iteginning of August, when the
heat of the upper layers of water is too oppressi\e, it
speedily retires to the deeper and cooler parts of the
lake, .\bout the middle of (Jctober it again approaches
the coast, but on this occasion in order to spawn, an
operation which lasts from the middle of November
to the beginning of December, and is performed in
water of a temperature of about 40° Fahr. (+ 4^/3 C).
15ut in certain lakes the summer shoals do not ajjpeai',
for example in Lake Erie, according to Milnee, where
the surface temperature sometimes rises to 75^ Fahr.
(+ 24° C), and wdiere the Gwyniad resoi-ts in summer
to the deepest ])arts of the lake. Here, howevei-. it is
1)}' no means condemned to starvation.

The lai'gest and most developed Gwyniad forms,
with their more or less ventral mouth (situated on the
under surface of the snout), are evidently in the first
place bottom-feeders. Thej' seize the larger Ganuua-
roids and the mollusks {Limnaa, PJanorJilx, risidium,
etc.) which live among plants and in the mud, not to
mention, as we have already stated, that thev are vora-
cious roe-eaters. Small iry also enter into their diet.
Young (Twyniads and the smaller forms, with their
more terminal mouth (situated at the tip of tlie snout),
are in general shore and surface fishes, and have to
content themselves with smaller prey. But in many
Scandinavian lakes, especially in Norrland and La|iland,
small crustaceans (Enfnmosfrara) and gnat-wcjrms occur
in such multitudes that even the large Gwyniads grow
fat on them.

The spawning-season occurs, as we have mentioned,
in autumn and winter'', as a I'ule from the middle of
October until after the beginning of Januar\-. The
young spawn in comparatively shallow water, onh 1 — ?.
fathoms in depth, and earliest in the year; oldrr spe-
cimens generally breed later and in the deeper ])arts
of the lakes. The males usuallv come tii'st to the
spawning-place, the females following them. The breed-
ing fishes display eager excitement, especially at night.
The males even cling fast with their teeth to the fe-
males, seizing them under the gills or by the pectoral
tins. Or the pair — sometimes two or more males and
one female — pressed close together, run in sinuous
curves towards the surface or even aljove it, "Ijelh' to
belh', \\ith tlieir sides glenniing bright in the water,
where they strive and wriggle until they are rid of the
roe and milt, which adheres to the bottom, and on
stones or nets" (Gisler). In stormy, snowy, or very
cold weather the spawning is jjcrformed in the same
way, but several metres l)elow the surface. The water
round about is dyed with loose scales, and after the
spawning the exhausted fish seek out resting-places.

The eggs are light yellow, and their dimensions
vary considerably, according to the size of the mother
fish. In hlasikar from Lake Ring the ripe eggs measure

" See Mr. P. Kiel in Br. Goode, Fisher., Fisher. Industr. U. 6'.. sect. I, p. .510.

' .\ccording to Brehm's description of the fishery in the R. Obi, tlje Gwyniuils iisceiid the river from tlie sea ulieii the ice Ijieaks iiji.
spawn at the end of the summer, and return in August, usually at tlie end of the uiunth. to the Arctic Ocean, or n1 least to the Gulf of
Obi (Thierlehen, Bd. VIII, p. 235). The Gwyniads brought home by Theel and Trydoji from the Yenisei in 1876 also show (see Smiii.
Miksm. iSalmo7i., tab. metr. XIII, No. 424, celt.) that the e,5gs were so large at the beginning of July that the spawning might well have
been performed in the course of the summer. In some of the very deep Swiss lakes too. according to F.vno, the Gwyniad spawns in .July
and August.

911

l'/^„-_) nun. ill diameter, in the larger fefsikar as
raucli as .'! mill. At first they are highly sensitive,
especially to warmth: wlieii the einl)ryo is hair-(h'\clo]K'(l,
they !ire easier ot transportation. In water ot a tem-
perature varying from December to April In'twcen
+ 1° and + '^° ('. (04° and 41° Faiik.), the fry are not
hatclicd and capable of swinuning until .") niontlis after
the (lepositiiin of the ova. Just after their liateliing
Gwi,iiiad fV\' are ;i mm. long, when a fortniglit old,
11 or 12 mm., at tlic age of one niontli, 1.') mm., and
when tliree months old, about .".() mm. (Xokback). In
the following ^■(^•ll• the \'oung measure aliout 12 — 17 rin.
From Ills examination of Amerieau (_i\v\iiia(ls Mii.NKu"
deduced the following results:

Weight of tlie
mother lish.

Weight of the
ovaries.

Number of eggs.

Number of egga per lb.
in the living tish.

:.' lbs.

.V.o.

-'I,ii9

10.611

2', „

~ '/ 2 .,

28,500

10,361

4 .,

1« „

48,100

i-j.ax)

7", ,.

~5 ,.

66,606

8.881

In tlie largest Kwvniad this result pretty nearly cor-
respond to Nohback's calculation for Scandinavian Gwy-
niads, that on an average each female Gwyuiad has
7,000 — 8,000 eggs to each Swedisli pound'' of her
own weight.

The (iwvniad does not yield to the Salmon as a
food-fisli. Ill manv [>arts of Sweden, especially in Norr-
land, it is more important to the fisherman. It is
taken principally with net and seine, but also on long-
lines, and at the spawning-places the leister is em-
plu\ed. Tlie small Gwyniads of Lake Wetter that
fre(|uent tlie shallower parts of the lake are netted
with the so-called strdnot {= strewing seine, but really
a net, being without pocket), which is plied in the
same way as the trammel-net'', with a beater, but
without any outer net. One end is made fast by
the shore or on a shoal, and the fisherman rows the
other end of the net in a spiral with manv curves,

one witiiiii another. In the Gulf of Bothnia (>wy-
niads are trapped in large ri/ssjor, with mouths and
hoops a fatliom wide and with a land arm some-
times a tlioiisand feet long, e.Ktending out from the
sliore to deep water e\'en wliere the beach is shelving.
On the Swedish coast these traps are called Finnish
stdrr/fssjor. from the country where they were first
used, and the\' are considered to be the most effective
engines of all, for not oiih Gwyniads, but also everv
other kind of lish, rspeeialK' Salmon — and sometimes
a seal or two — cuter into the catch. But their use
readily becomes ,aii abuse, if tlie\' close ciiannels, or
are set at the moiitlis of rivers to bar the jjassage of
the ascending fish. In Lake Wener the long-line is
also employed: it may be baited with worms, shellfish,
or small Ganimaroids. But in the Lake of Constance
Gwvniads take a hook baited ^vitll nothing but ;i black
horse-hair, which is bent so as to have some slight
resemblance to a fly. When fishing for Gwyniad, how-
ever, the angler should be cautions, for the fish struggles
violentlv to escape, and often tears its mouth loose
from the hook.

In flavfjur the large fefsik may be mistaken for
Salmon, if boiled fresh and served with suitable sauce.
Smoked fctsik too is a dainty food. The large hldsik
is also excellent eating — tlu; miiksKn in particular —
and the Lake Ring Gwyniad, small as it is, is com-
mended for its fine flavour; but it will not bear keeping.
Salted (xwvniad is common in the markets of Xorrland,
and in this form or dried the (xwyniad is an important
winter food among the Lapps.

The Gwyniad fisherman suft'ers greatly from the
depredations of the seal, which appears, says Ekstko.m,
to be highlv partial to the flesh of this fish. "The is-
lander often finds his nets strijiped by the seal, and
considers that he has got oft' cheaply, if the nets are left
whole. When once the seal has found a net, and been
allowed to make a good meal there, it often repeats the
visit, and unless the net lie removed, it comes every
nin-ht without fail for its share of the fisherman's take."

See Biiow.N-GooDE, 1. c, p. 519.
A Sweilish pound is about 15 oz.
See above, p. 741, note a.

Scandinariiin Fishe.

912

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Gexis ARGENTINA'.

Jaws tootlih'ss, but the pfilnfe armed In front ivith a semicircitlar transverse roic of small hut pointed, recurred
teeth, and the tongue furnished within its fleshy rim with a similar, hut sparser roiv of somewhat larger teeth.
Length of the maxillaries at most about SO % {26 — 29^ j., %) of that of the head reduced, and the length of the
lower jaw at most ahout '>() % (4-'l — 4!)\ ., ?i) of the same. lireadth of the snout at the articular knohs of the
maxillaries percejdihlg less than that of the interorhital space, u'hich is more than ' ^ {2(> — 2!) %) of the length
of the head. Base of the dorscd fin less than 8 % of the length of the hodi/^, or than half the length of the
head reduced. Fyloric appendages little or moderately developed. Scales large, for the most part curved., and
armed with small spines. Ahout GO (.56') — 70 scales in the lateral line, rvhich is complete, and the scales of
which are rendered more or less heart-shaped hy an indentation at the hind margin.

In the genus Argcntinii we find reminiscences both
of the Smelts and tlie following f;imily: ;i certiiin de-
gree of transijarency niid cucutnhcr-like smell (not
quite absent, however, in the Gwyiiiads) and a com-
paratively smair number of pyloric appendages point
to the former; the stiff, but fragile tin-rays and the
singular shape of the scales remind us of the latter.
The last-mentioned peculiarity, which is also connected
with the formation of the longitudinal ridges that
appear on the sides of the body in Argentina, and are
each covered by a row of curved scales indented at the
hind margin (similar in this respect to those of the
lateral line), ranges Argentina beside the extinct genus
Osmeroides of tlie (Jretaceous Period'', though in other
respects the latter genus, with its numerous branchio-
stegal rays and its strong, toothed jaw-bones, was
more like the Salmons. In Argentina the jaws are
comparatively weak, and there are no jaw-teeth, while
the maxillaries are without supplementary (jugal) bones.
I5ut tlie most striking among the other characteristics
of Argentina is the reduction of the rostral region
proper, which both in the Salmons and the Gwyniads
is sometimes so considerably elongated. Here, on the
other hand, the ethmoidal region, with its lower covei'-
ing-bone, the vomer, is well-developed and compara-
tively long; but the intermaxillaries are so greatly
reduced that the head of the vomer, in almost the

same manner as in the 1'a'Is, seems to form the tiriii
anterior mai'gin of the mouth. Lastly we will mention
a characteristic which is indeed not quite absent in the
Gwyniads, but is there mtich less developed, almost
rudimentary. Outside (under) the pelvic bones and in
front of the insertions of the pectox'al tins, the large
ventral scales form a flap, free behind, whicii covers a
great pai't of the ventral tins when they are folded.

Argentina belongs to the deep-sea fishes — as the
large eyes indicate — but not to their most character-
istic types. The young are fretpiently met with in the
upper marine zones, and even ascend, according to
NiLssox', to the mouths of rivers. In the depths of
the ocean the genus probably has an extensive range.
It has longest been known, for a long time exclusively,
fi-om the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean; but
in 1878 it was found oft" the coast of New Zealand, and
this in a form that can hardly be distinguished from
one of the Atlantic species. Such a find as this most
naturalh' suggests the possibility of discovering the spe-
cies in intermediate localities as well; but it is remark-
able that New Zealand is also the only region in the
Southern Hemisphere which possesses among its auto-
chthonic fresli-water fishes a member of the Salmon fa-
mily {Retropinna Bichardsonii).

( >nly two species of the genus Argentina are
known with certainty'^.

" Artedi, Ichlhyril., Gen. Pise, p. 8.

' In a damaged specimen Brown-Goode and Bean found the length of tlie base of the dorsal fin to be 8'4 % of tliat of the body.

' According to Nilsson, however, sometimes 20.

'' Agassiz, Rech. Poiss. Foss., tome V, II"ie Partie, p, 105, PI. 00 b.

' Observationes Ichihyologica:, p. 7; iShand. Fna, Fisk., p. 470.

•' Valenciennes' Anjentina leiocjlosf^a (without teeth on the tongue) from the Mediterranean oif Algiers has already been identified by
GiGLiOLi with A. sphiira>.na, and IIutton's Argentina elongata from New Zealand is based on a single young specimen in bad condition (see
GtJNTHER, Deep Sea Fishes, Chall. Exped., p. 218).

!Siii,-is.\u;i/rs.

913

THE GREATER SIIL-SMELT.
ARGENTINA SILUS.

Fi;

>->\).

Base of the aiiaJ Jin, as well as the l(i)if/itii(/iiial dhuiieter of the eyes, less than half the leiiffth of the head re-
duced. Hcijiht of the dorsal fin less than '"' ,, of the preabdominal length. Lower posterior margin of the oper-
culitin straight. Gill-raliers on the first branvliiat arch about 20. Branched rags in the pectorals Id or 17, in

the rcntrals 11 or J J. Scales of a horiig gelloir.

%\

■^

'M^W^mwwwmmsr^,',^

idti!Sl!4j!£atu.-jL&lUi£McLik*ikifiiia*J.!.»^0^^

Kig. -I'lO. Argentina situs, $, '
Is., on llie nth Nov., 1880

V04 of the natunil size. Taken on a Haddock-line at a depth of .50 ffhms., between the Koster and Tieler
; C. A. Hans.son. (I, scale from the base of the dorsal fin: h. scale from the lateral line; c, scale from

the first row below the lateral line.
All the scales from the right side of the body and twice the natural size.

11 — 12'

C. r + 1 + 17 + 1 + .(■: L. lat. 66—70: L. Ii: -1; T>c(. Go''— 68

iSi/n. Salmo Situs, Asc.iN., Icon. Ret: Xat., fasc. Ill, \k 3. tab.
XXIV; Cuv. {Uoregonus), Rign. Aniin., ed. 2, toiu. II, p.
308; Nii.ss., Prodi: Iclithjol. <S'canrf., p. 19: \v. {Argentina),
Observ. Ichthijot., p. 3; Krot. (Acantliole/iis) in Gaim.,
Vo;/. Scand., Lap., cett., Zool., tab. 17; Id., Damn. Fisl^:,

vol. Ill, p. 98; Ctjv., V"AL., Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. XXI,
p. 421; Nii.ss., fSlcanil. Fna, Fislc., p. 469; Gtbk., Cat.
Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. 6, p. 202; Olsson, Limds Univ.
Arsskr., torn. VIII (1871), p. G (sep.); Coll., Forh. Vid.
Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillsegsh., p. 173; 1879, No. 1, p. 93;
N. Mag. Naturv., Bd. 29, p. 109; Winth., Naturh. Tidskr.
Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 45; Storm, Vid. Selsk. Skr.
Trondlij. 1883, p. 29: Sm., Vet.-Akad. Handl., Bd. 21, No.
8, p. 196; Peters., Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For. Kbhvn. 1884
(1886), p. 159; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fisk., vol. 2, p. 679.

" More commonly 10, according to Lilljeboro.
' According to NiLssON; 66 according to Kroyer.
' According to Liluebokg.

914

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

S'llmo irnmacuUitiis {/itaiih-estni). ML'i.i... Zool. Dcin. Proilr.,

p. 270, vide Stkum, Skr. Naturli. Selsk., Bd. 2, H. 2 (17113),

p. 12, tab. I, lig. 1.
.Siliis Ascanii, Helsu., MaaneUskr. Literal. Kblivn 1833, p. 239.
Argentina syrtensium, Bn. GooDE, Be.\n, I'roc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

vol. I (187H), p. 2i;i; viile (!nii;, T)e>'p Sea Fish., Cliall.

ENp..<l., p. 217.

Oils'. In tlie preceding pages (see above, p. o9) we have em-
ployed the name of Blankesten, which Stkom first applied (in Sond-
mores Deslcrivelse) to a fisli of the genus Spams, as a synonym of
Fldckpagell (the Common Sea-Bream), following 0. F. MOlleb and
BrUnnich. But as StrOm has subsequently come to the conclusion
that the former name properly belongs to the species now in point,
it is best omitted in the said passage, especially as its application in
Norway seems to be vague.

Tlu! (greater Siil-Smelt attaiii.s a length of nearly
halt' a metre?. The bod}- is elongated and fairly thick,
the greate.st deptli, whieli occurs at the beginning of
tlie dorsnl tin, being in adult specimens about 18 % of
the leiigtii, and the greatest thickness about ' ./ of the
greatest depth, or slightly greater tlian the po.storbital
length of the liead. The dorsal and ventral contours
form about equal curves. Tliey meet in a point at
the tip of the snout, and converge behind till, in front
of the caudal fin, the least depth of the body measures
idjout 6' ,. % of its length (jr ' .. of the length of tlie
liead reduced. In transverse section the body forms,
according to its degree of distension, a more or less
regulai- rectangle, the l>ack and the belly being broad,
the former more so, and tintly convex or even flat,
and the sides more or less comjjressed. A further
characteristic, which we liave already mentioned, are
several longitudinal, lo^v ridges. Two of these run,
j)arallel in front, converging on tlie tail, on each side
of the dorsal margin and on the uppermost part of the
sides, the lower starting from the upper angle of the
operculum; two corresponding ridges follow each .side
of the ventral margin and the lowest part of the sides,
the upj)cr starting from the pectoral tins, the lower
from tlie vcntrals; one ridge is formed \)\ the lateral
line: and the median line of the d(.irsal maigin between
the dorsal and adipose fins, as ^vell as of the ventral
margin bet^veen the ventral fins and the anal aperture,
rises in a similar ridge.

The head forms a four-sided wedge, but is so
contracted below as strongly to remind us of that of
the Capelin. Its upper and lower surfaces converge for-

wards to the sliallow, but ratlier broad tip (jf tiie snout,
whicli is rounded in an horizontal direction. Its sides
are fiat, even the upper, tiie interurbital jiart of which
is depressed between the somewhat tumid supraorbital
parts; and at the articulations of the lower jaw- a break
is formed when the mouth is closed, the upward .slope
(jf the lower jaw being soinewhnt sharper than the
downward slope of the snout. A thick adipose mem-
brane with numerous duets and pores is spread from
the occiput and forehead down over tiie operculum,
the ]ireoperculum, and the suborbital bones, and for-
ward on the snout, surrounding the large orbits both
in front and beiiind. The eves occupy about ','3 (33
— 30 ?&), the postorl)ital part rather more than "/^
(42— 4(1 %), and the snout about 29—30 %, of the
length of the liead. The nostrils lie about half-way
between tlie ti]) iif tlie snout and tlie eves. The an-
terior is round; the posterior, w-hich is larger and more
oblong, transversely set, is entirely covered by a semi-
circular dermal flap from its antiM-ior margin. The
breadth of the snout at the nostrils is only slightlv
less than the interorbital width; but the breadth across
the rostral protuberances (articular knol)s of the raa-
xillaries) is onlv about ' '^ — ",',, thereof. The rostral
protuberances are indistinct. The preopercidum is di-
stinguished b}' its rectangular shape and its long arm,
which runs in a forward direction, coasted by the nar-
row intero])crcuhim. which is (if the same lengtli. The
operculum is trapezoidal, luit its liind margin is sinuate.
Its lower margin, which forms the fairly straight and
obliquely ascending suture with the suboperculum, is
almost equal in length to the diameter of the eye. The
suboperculum is of uniform lireadth and rounded at
the lower posterior angle. The mouth is most like that
of the Grayling, but the point of the lower jaw projects
a little be\ond the tip uf the snout, and is furnished
with a distinct, though small, symphyseal protuberance
above and a small chin-protuberance below. Tiie liiis
are not very fleshy. The curved anterior margin uf
the upper jaw is entirely formed, right across the mouth,
bv the narrow intermaxillaries, which are without na.sal
process, the upper jaw being thus incapable of protru-
sion. The maxillaries are narrow in front, so far as
thev are covered hv the intermaxillaries, but behind

" Sonietinies 2 Sw. ft. (511 cin.). acorn ding to Nilsson. Stru.m's specimen was 43 cm. long: our largest specimen, wliicli has lain
for several years in spirits, has now shrunk tu a length of about 47 cm., but measured wlien caught 48V2 ''■"■ according to Mr. C. A.
Hansson; and the largest specimen Collktt had seen was 47 '/o cm. long, in eacli case to the extreme tip of the caudal fin.

'' According to Kroyf.r, however, sometimes but slightly more than ','0.

niilCATKK STII.-SMELT.

915

tlie\' cxiiaiiil ill a dDWiiward diriH'lioii so lircatK' that
their lircadth is aliout 2S % of tlicir Iciiylli, which
iiicasiircs about 20 — 2o % of that of the head or 28 —
29 "o "o of tiiat of the head reduced. The lcii<i;tii of
the lower jaw is about S' 3— 8^/,, % of that of tin- liody,
;',2-;;4 ",. of that of the head, or 11—18 "„ of tiial of
the head reduced. The deiitilioii of tlie mouth we
ii.i\e ah'eady described. The nio.st striking characteri.stie
is that, at tlie extreme front of the |)alate, the liead of
die xouii'r and the anterim- extremities of the [lalatine
hones, which touch tlie head of the vomer on each
.side, foi-ni an arch furnished A\itli a row of small, bent,
subulate teelli of uuiforu! size. This arch h.as the aji-
[learanci' of .-in inner upiier jaw, coiii|ii'nsating' the lack
(if teeth on tiie uji[ier jaw [U'oper. In old specimens
these teeth are more scattered, l)ut longer and more
villiform. i'lie teeth on the tongue also seem to become
more si'.-itlered \\ith age: in the semi-elli|itical row we
have counted 10, 8, and (>. There is no [lalatal fold
ill the u>iial ]ilaee, just behind the jaws: lint behind
tlie head of the vomer and the incurved ends of the
]ialatine hones the skin of the palate .lies in a pad-like
transverse fold. The gill-rakers are set in one row,
and resemble pointed, rather long, triangular disks,
which are destitute of the small spine.s that commonly
fringe them in the (iw\'niads. Tlie pharyngeals are
armed with se\'eral rows of subulate teeth. The ijseudo-
branchia' are large. The gill-openings are of consider-
able size, each extending froiu the occiput on a level
with the upper orbital margin and almost in a line
with the hind margin of the preoperculuni down to a
line with the centre of the eye. The two branchiostegal
membranes are free lioth from each other and the
isthmus. The branchiostegal ray.s are six in number,
the last five being sahre-shaped and gradually increas-
ing l.iack wards both in length and breadth, the lirst
narrow and styliforni, but curved like the others.

The dorsal tin is trapezoidal, hut its upper posterior
margin is more or less convex. The first two ravs are
simple: the first branched rav is the longest, being
twice as long as the iirst simple rav, but only slightly
longer than the second. The fin begins at a distance
from the tip of the snout measuring about 41 or 42 %
of the length of the body, and the length of the head
is about (iO or til % of the said distance. Its base is
less in our specimens tlian 8 % (about 7^/., %) of the
length of the body, or about 30 — 32 % of the length
of the head- Among the preceding members of the

.^alniouoid familv the Smelts alone have so short a
dorsal tin. The greatest height of the tin is about
twice the length of its liase. The anal fin is also tra-
pezoidal, but lower and at least somewhat longer than
the dorsal. \\ its anterior margin tliere lie three or
tour simple (undi\ide(l ) ra\s, the hrst quite short, about
half as long as tiie second, the others gradnallv in-
creasing in length to the hindmost, which is about etjual
in length to the first branched (longest) rav, or in other
words to tin; base of the dorsal lin. The tlistance be-
tween the beginning of the anal hn and the tip of the
snout is about 78 "u of the length of the body, and
the length of its base is about '''3 (33 — 31 ?^) of that
of the head. The adijjose fin, which resembles that of
the Salmons, lies abo\e the 4tli — tjth or .")th — 7th
branched rav in the anal. The caudal is deeplv forked,
the length of its middle rays being only about V'3 of
that of the longest ones, or about 4 % of that of the
body.

The pectoral hiis resemble in shape and position
those of the (Jwyniads. Their length is about 14 — 1.3
% of that of the body. The 'first (simjjle) ray does not
reach (juite to their tip: the second or third branched
ray is the longest. The blunt ventrals also remind us
of the Gwj'niiids, ]>ut are distinguished by their nu-
merous rays — a characteristic generally belonging to
the lower (earlier) grades of differentiation among the
Teleosts — and by the covering lobe, formed by large
scales on the ventral side in front of their base, under
which they may be concealed to a great extent. Their
length is aliout ' ,„ — ' ,, of that of the liodv, or '_,
(78 — 74 ?») of that of the ijectorals. They are set half-
way along the Ijodv (at a distance from the tip of the
snout measuring about 49 — 51 % of the length of the
body), exactly below the termination of the dorsal tin
or a little farther liaek. The |)reabdominal length is
less than in most other Salmonoids (24 — 26 % of the
length of the body), but the postabdorainal length is
greater (29 — 27 % of the same).

The shape and texture of the scales, wliit-h are
rather thick but flexible, vary according to their situa-
tion. They are densely imbricated, and inserted so far
into the follicles that most often only ' , of their sur-
face is uncovered bv the next scale in front. Their
exposed part is closely .set with small spines, pointing
in a backward dii'ection. which render the body as
rough to the touch as in many Sharks. On the other
hand, this part of the scale is without concentric strias.

916

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

or, if these are pi'eseiit, they are faint or ut least scat-
tered, while on tiie anterior (inserted) part of the scale
they are .all the more niiinerous. Radiating grooves
there are none; hut the anterior margin of the scale
in particular is often sinuate. The nucleus of some
scales, for exam])ie on the forepart of tlie back and of
tlie l)el]y, is so large as to occupv the greater ])art of
the scale, with only a coni]>arati\el3' small number ("20
— 30) of concentric stria' in front of, above, and below
it. l)Ut in other cases, for example in tlie large scales
on the sides just Ijelow the lateral line (fig. 229, c),
the nucleus is all the more reduced, so that about 80
or 90 concentric stria; may- be counted, about each 8th
— 10th one coarser than the rest, on the inserted part
of tlie scale. Most of the scales are irregularly round,
of a rounded quadrangular or broadly elliptical shape,
witli the longitudinal axis set vertically; and in these
cases the anterior margin as well is arcuate, or elong-
ated in an angular form at the middle. Where they
cover any of the longitudinal ridges on the body, they
are indented, as we have mentioned above, at the
middle of the hind margin. This also applies to the
.scales of the lateral line (fig. 229, b). The large scales
set in a row just belo^v the lateral line, largest on the
forepart of the body (fig. 229, c), are distinguished by
their more rectangular shape, with straight anterior
margin and with the anterior angles i-ight angles. Along
each side of tlie liase of the dorsal fin lies a row
of obliquely linguiform scales, with the exposed part
obliquely triangular (fig. 229, a). We shall meet with
similar scales in tlie following family, as well as a certain
resemblance in tlie cucullate shape characteristic of the
duct in the scales of tlie lateral line (fig. 229, b).

The coloration of the body is determined by the
horn-3'ellow tint of the scales; but the inner surface of
their exposed (ijosterior) part is lined with a thin coat
of silvery lustre, which gives to the sides of the body
an iridescent gleam of silvery, golden, or brassy hue.
The back is darkci', brownisii ; the liellv "sihery white,
with a reddish lustre" (Haxsson). Tiie adipose mem-
brane on the head is -vellowisli, but under it the cheeks
and opercula gleam with a silvery lusti-e. The fins share
in the general coloration, being of a grayish yellow or
paler (whitisli, according to Kuovek). Tiie adipose fin is
yellow, but at tlie liase of the same colour as the back.

The abdominal cavity-, and the pharynx forward to
the root of the tongue, are black; but the black lining
of the peritoneum has a silvery layer underneath. In all

our specimens, liowever, tiie \iscera are so greatly da-
maged that we cainiot describe them with anv minuteness.

The Greater .Siil-Smelt belongs to the deep — though
pr()l)al)l\- not to the deepest — parts of the North At-
lantic. In comjiany with the Norway Haddock (Sehasfcs)
it lives off the Norwegian coast (AscAXirs, Stkom, and
NiLS.Sox) and off the east coast of North America (Sable-
Island Bank off Nova Scotia, Brown-Goode and Bean)
at a depth of al)out 80 — 200 or 300 fathoms. The deep
fjords of Norway afford it a constant abode. In tlie
Skagei' Rack it is occasionally found. Like other deep-
sea fishes it is sometimes suddenly carried in some wa\-
or other to dej)ths where the pressure is inadequate to
its requirements, and it is then borne liel))lessly to the
surface, where it drifts about, unable to regain its home.
Under these circumstances it has been cast ashore on
the west coast of Jutland. It has most frequently been
met with in the neighbourhood of Bergen; bitt its range
extends, according to Collett, from the entrance of
Christiania fjord along the whole coast to TromsO.
According to Stokm it is not rare in Trondhjem Fjord,
and has been found, especially in late "sears, at several
places in the fjord, to the very head thereof. In the
Skager Rack, off Uynekil, between the Koster and Tisler
Islands, a specimen was caught on a long-line in No-
vember, 1890, which was forwarded to the Royal Museum
by Mr. C. A. Haxsson, and which is represented in our
figure. From the Skaw to the extreme south of the
west coast of Jutland three specimens have been found,
according to Wintiier and Petersen, since 1871. The
species conse(|uently seems to have the southern limit
of its range here in the deeper, northern part of the
North Sea, for farther south it has never been met with.

Of the Greater Siil-Smelt's habits we know no more
than of the life led bv most dee])-sea fishes. As a rule
the stomach is forced into the pharvnx when the fish is
.secured, so that nothing can be ascertained as to its food
from the contents of the stomach. But to judge by its
mouth, which calls to mind the Grayling, its dentition,
which is somewhat more powerful than the Graylings's,
and its fairly coarse gill-rakers, its predatory habits are as
marked as those of the said species, and we know that it
takes a hook baited with mussels {Mytilus, according to
NiLssox) or a bit of fish (Herring, according to Olsson).
It is fat, and its flesh is said to be of good flavour. Some-
times a score or so are expcsed for sale in the fish-
market at Bergen; but else it is taken far too seldom
to be of ail)- economical importance to the fisherman.

SALMONOIDS.

917

THE HEBRIDAL SIIL-SMELT (sw. stromsillen).
AUGEXTIXA Sl'IlYILENA.

Kig. 2, 'SO.

Base of tlic (ii/iiJ titi in-rcpptililji (jrcdtcr tlinii the Itnifilliidiitiil (/iamcter of the ei/cs. and more tliaii ', ,, flic Icvijfh
iif the head reduced. Ileif/ht of the dorsal fn more than -, ,, of the preahdominal leiif/fh. Loirer posterior iiiar-
!/iti of the (ipereidiim iiideided in an elonr/ated S-fonn. (iiJJ-raherx on the first liranchiuJ arch alxntt 13 or 14.
Branched rai/s in the pectoral.'^ 1:J or /•->, in the centrals '.). Scales transparent, with a rich coat of silvery

pif/ment on. the inner surface.

~^^^^^^Kfaf?r — ~„^

, -'a- ^„

Kig. 230. Argentina sphyrcena, 9i natural size. Taken on a lotig-line oft" Helso. near Stromstad, on the 12th Dec, 1879. C. .\. H.^nsson.
a, one of the scales in the lateral line, magn. 2 diani.; i, section of the body just in front of the ventral fins, natural size.

/?.ic. il: l>. !'".4. A'; P.

Lin. Int.

10
Lin. trans

(1)1
:; V.^—^\ a. .r+ 1 + 17 + 1

>y«. Sphvni-na parva sive Spliyriuuii? sccnnda species, RONDEL., Di:
Pisi:., lili. VIII, cap. II, p. 227. I'isciculus Ronise Argen-
tina dictus, WiLLUGHP... H/sl. Pisc.y p. 229; R.-»y, Syn.
Metli. Pise, p. 108. Aryeiitiun, Art., IchtliyoL, Gen. Pise,
p. 8; Syn. Pise, p. 17.
.[rgentina Spliyrcena, Lix., Syst. \at., edit. X, toni. I, p. .Sl.O :
BRt'.VN.. /rlithyol. .^rass^l.. p. 79; Cuv., Mem. JIus.. vol. I.
p. 228, tab. 11, Hs. sup.; Risso, Hist. Nat. Eitr. Mir..
toni. Ill, p. 4<!2; Es.M. in NiLSS., Skiual. Fna, Fisk., p.
47(3; iJTiiR.. (',(1. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol. VI, \k 203;
C.4XESTR., Fna I/ltnl.. part. Ill, p. 129; Cou,., Fcvli. Vid.

Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillsegsh., p. 171; 1879, No. 1, p.
92; N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29, p. 109; M.\lm, Gbys,
llnli. Fn., p. 550; H.4NSS0N, Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forli. 1880,
N(i. 4, p. 22; Mon., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.. toni. Ill, p.
554; Day, Fisti. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 13G, tab. CXXV;
SiouM, Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. 29; Sm.. Vet.-
Akad. Handl., Bd. 21. No. 8, p. 190; Lii.u., ^c, Norg.
Fislc., vol. II, p. 692.

Aryeiitina Situs, NiLss. (p. p.). Olis. Ichthyol., p. 7; Edw.,
.lourn. Lin. Soc., Zool., vol. XV (1881), p. 334.

(Isjiierns Hebridicus, Yarr., Hist. Brit. Fisli., ed. 1, Snppl. II,
J). IG; NiLSS. {Argentina), Stcand. Fna, Fi.slc., p. 474;
'JTHR., Cut., I. c.

Argentina Ciivieri, Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. .\X1, p.
41.1 + Arg. leioglossa. p. 417. tab. G24 (vide Gir.LiOLi,

according to Day.

1-

8—9
/, 2—3

9 — 10 "
•■ 52 — 53, accordin.ir to Xi[.ssoN and GCsther.
'' Sometimes 50, according to NlLSSON.

918

SCANJJIXAVIAN FI.SIIES.

Kspos. intern. Pesca, Berlin 1880. Sez. Ital., p. 102) +

Ary. yarrelli, p. 418.
Goniosoma orgenlinum, C'ost.i, Fna Rerjn. JS'ap., Malatdlterigii

Abdoniinali, Genere Goniosoma, tab. XXXVI.
Argentina decagon, Clarke, Trans., Proc. N. Zcjal. lust., vol. XI

(1878), p. 295. tab. XIV, fig. infer, (vide lUy, 1. c).
(?) Argentina elongata, Htjtto.v, Ann., Mag. Xnt. Hist., ser. ."J,

vol. Ill, p. 53; Gthr, Dei'p -Veu Fish., fhull. Exped., p.

218, fab. LV, fig. B.

Tlie lJcbi'i(hil Siil-Smelt attains at most ahoiit lialf
tlie Icngtli (if tlie pi-ecL'ding' s])ecios". It is l)esides, in
must cases, of a more i/longated form, the greate.st
depth in adult specimens — witli tlie exception of gi-a-
\i(l females — heing about l."i % of the length of the
body; l)ut in this i-espeet tiiere is no constant distinc-
tion''. In other respects too l)oth species are so like
each other that the essential differences are but few.
The Hebridal Siil-Smelt has a comparatively longer anal
fin, a higher dorsal fin, smaller eves and less developed
adipose membrane on the head — it is no true deep-
sea fish — fewer rays in the pectoral and \entral fins,
fewer scales, vertebra;, and gill-rakers, but a somewhat
longer peduncle of the tail (behind the adipose and the
anal fins). To these we should add a characteristic
first remarked by Lill.ieborg, the faint S-shaped cur-
vature of the lower posterior margin of the operculum
in the Hebridal Siil-Smelt. But in coloration this spe-
cies differs widely from the Greater Siil-Smelt, o\\'ing
to its thin and more silvery scales, most of them de-
ciduous.

The length of the head in adult specimens is some-
what les.s than '/^ of that of the l)ody, the longitudinal
diameter of the eyes rather more than ', ,, and the
postorbital length about ",'5, of the length of the head.
The forehead is flat, the supraorbital parts being hardly
at all tumid, but their outer margins indented in a
rounded manner above the middle of the eyes. The
nostrils lie rather near to the orbits, and they are of
fairly equal size, or the anterior is even a little larger
than the posterior. They are circular, or oblong in the
longitudinal direction of the body. The breadth of the
snout at the nostrils is perceptibly less than the width of
the interorbital space, and its length is about equal to the
longitudinal diameter of the eyes. The jaws are relati-
vely somewhat shorter than in the Greater Siil-Smelt,

the length of the maxillarie.s being about 19%, that of
the lower jaw about ?,()'., %, of the length of the head.
The tran.sverse row of palatine teeth is sharply defined
at both ends, th<! margin of the palatine bones being
indented just behind them. The gill-rakers are not
only more scattered but also comparativelv shorter
than in the preceding species. The pseudobranchia'
arc rather large here as there.

The height of the dorsal tin is about equal to the
length of the head reduced, or nearly 18 ?» of the
length of the body, and perceptibh- nmre than twice
the length of the base of the fin. Here too the anal
fin begins at the termination of the third ipiarter of
the length af the body, but the length of its l)ase is
nearly "/s of tliat of the head. The adipose fin begins
above the 2nd or 3rd branched ray in the anal.

The pectoral fins, the length of which is aliout
13 '/g % of that of the body, are rather shorter, the
ventrals, on the other hand, somewhat longer, than in
the preceding species, the length of the latter being
only about \/u, less than that of the former.

The form of the scales yaries a.s in the preceding
species, but their sjiines are less developed.

In fresh s])ecimens, according to Edward, the
body is so transparent that on holding it up to the
liglit the \ertebra? can be distinguished. The divisions
of the brain are even more distinctly visible through
the parietal and frontal bones tlian in the preceding
specie.s. The back is of an olive gray, the sides and
opercula are silvery, the former, however, according to
Edw.vkd, with different shades of coloin- between the
several longitudinal ridges. The space between the two
ridges nearest to the back is of a deep amber, the
next strip greenish blue, the third space, just below
the lateral line, silver^' white -with a In-ight metallic
lustre; the lower spaces are similar to the upper, but
their colours are fainter. The belly is then grayish white,
with a dash of greenish blue and purple. The fins are
for the most part transparent, the dorsal ])ale gray, the
anal white, the caudal of a deeper gray, with "a dark
longitudinal mark along either lobe near to its outer
edge" (Day). The paired fins are pale, "of a faint rose
colour" (MoKEAu). "A black spot on the upper edge
of the orliit, and a smaller one on the snout" (L^ay).

" According to Moeeau (lie ordinary length of tliis species in tlie Mediterranean Sea is 14 — 20 cm. Collett's largest specimen
from Norway was 2(i5 mm. long.

' COLLETT states as a change of growth that, in young specimens (with the Irngtli of the body to the end of the caudal lobes less
than 15 cm.), the greatest depth is about '/g, in the oldest specimens (more than 21 cm. long) about '/g, of the said length of the body.

iir.iiKiDAi, siir.-sMKr.T.

919

Tlio a])(loiiiinal cavity of this spcciesi too is l)lack,
liiit till' |)luiryii,u:«il cavity white with a coat of silver.
Till' lil;ick ]>iL;iiicnt of the ahiloiiiiiiMl (■a\it\-, which hci'c
too rests (111 ;i l;i\ci' <if silver\ culoiir, extends to the
Stoiuacli, w'hieli heiids ahru])th- (lowiiwards and l'iir\\ards
ill :ih()ut a line with the tips of the pectoral tins, ('lose
up to the diaphragm the intestine bends no less abniptly
iliiwiiwards and l)ackwards, to the ri,i;ht of the liver,
which is cdiiiparatively small, and it is there furnished
with rather long and thick appendages, varying, as it
appears, in number. Nilsson counted 14 — "20 of these
pvloric appendages, A\e have tumid \'2. and Muk'Kai'
fiiiiiid 111 — 1-: W'lLi.rciinv (Kay) counted (i nv 7, and
Pay diih' .'). The intestine then runs in a straight
line til the vent, just in fi'ont of the anal tin. The
gall-bladder is thin-walled and oblong. The sjileen is
triangular and lies behind the stomach. The air-bladder
is long and fusiform, pointed at both ends, and seems
here, as in the preceding species, to be without con-
nective duct with the oesophagus. It lias lung been
remarked for the ricli. highlv lustrous coat of silverv
pigment both without and within its thick wall.

Ill the North the Hebridal Siil-Sraelt is best known
as an inhabitant df Christiania Fjord, where it was also
first observed, l)v Esmark. From this fjord, savs (.'ol-
LETT, \vliere it is caught in Sprat-seines and nets, some-
times ill liundreds at a single haul, it is brought al-
most d;iilv during autumn to the Christiania market.
In winter solitary sijecimens are hooked on the clavey
bottom. It was in this manner that the specimen re-
presented in our figure was secured, the only authen-
ticated instance of the occurrence of this species on the
Swedish coast. The said specimen was caught on ;i
Haddock-line off Helso, o miles from .Stromstad, alxiut
Christmas, 1S79. Along the Norwegian coast the spe-
cies has been met with at several places, though in no
great nunilier, u|i to Trondhjem Fjord, where it liears,
according to StkOm, the name of Sftirsild. Sframsihl
{Stream Hevrivfi), the name liy which it is known in
Christiania Fjord, is derived, according to Nilsshx.
from the circumstance that "the young at least, like
young Herrings, at certain seasons entei' the mouths
of the rivers, and are found at the outlets of the streams."

On both sides of Scotland and off the Yorkshire coast
solitary specimens have l)een taken; but the species is
most common and has longest been known in the Me-
diterraiieMii. on the coasts of Italy and France. As we
lia\e already niciilioued. it has also been found on the
coast of Algi(!rs; and it apparently belongs to the New
Zealand fauna, fir Irom its l"2uropean home. Its bathy-
metric range extends to a dejith of at least '200 fathoms,
for ^Iai.m r(H('i\ed three specimens which had been
found ill the stomach of a Ling caught at that depth
on the tishing-b.ink of Storegg off the Norwegian coast.

In the stomach of tlie Hel>ridal Siil-Smelt Edwakd
discovered small crustaceMiis and Scrinhtruc, Coi.lett
Anneloids. But as it is also hooked on lines set for
Haddock and the smaller Codfishes, it apparently feeds
like them on mollusks and, probably, on small fishes.
It is a socialile and lively fisli, and in the seine it
wriggles till tlie scales fall off: but after this, savs
CoLLETT, it floats about heliilessly at the surface. ( )f
its spawMiing-season widely different accounts are given.
According to Kisso it breeds in the Jlediterranean in
spring, and appears on a sandy bottom in April. Yau-
RELL mentions a female, 8 inches in length and full of
roe, that was taken on the we.st coast of Scotland in
June. On the east coast of Scotland Edward caught
a male fairly full of milt in (October. Collett received
from the neighboui'hood of Stavanger a gravid female
taken in June; but in Christiania Fjord he found the
females full of roe in ( )ctober. The female caught bj-
Hanssox had extremely small eggs in December, but
did not seem to have spawned in the course of the
autumn, in which case the ovaries would probably
have been still more shrunken".

In Scandinavia the Hebridal Siil-Smelt has never
been put to any pi-actical purpose, except perhaps as
bait on a long-line or hand-line. Its flesh is good,
at'cording to Risso, but its cucumber-like smell per-
iiaps uninviting, (xreater advantage has been taken of
this fish in Italv. There the silvery pigment of its
air-bladder and scales has long been collected to afford
material, under the name of efisence d'orient, for the
manufacture of imitation pearls, as we have above
described when treatiiiij of the Bleaks.

" C'f. Smitt, Rik^museets Salmonkler. tab. iiielr. VIT.

Scnudinnritm Fiifie

920

SCANDINAVIAN FISHp;S.

I AM. S C 0 P E ]. I D JE.

Form of the hodi/ ruriahle, f/fiieiydli/ HeniH(/-l/ke Iml aho Irref/iihir {sfrom/I// compressed and deep). Scales, irhere
l^resent, ih'm, middle-sued or larf/c. Sides of the body {it) all the Scandinavian forms bat one") famished uith
luminous spots. Dorsal margin of the tail furnished irith an adipose fin. Margin of the upper jaw formed
either hji the inteniiarillaries alone or partlg {behind) bi/ the ma.rillaries as u-ell. Xo barbels. Air-bladder, nhere
present, simple and irilJioaf connexion with the cranial laritg. Branchial ciiritg (in all the Scandinarian forms)
furnished with jyseudobraiichiic. Ovaries iritli oviduct.

Most of tlie fislu's Ix'lDiiiiing to this family hfiAe
a coiunion characteristic wiiich is connected with their
raannei' of life, and of which we have seen no instance
ainon^ the preceding' tishes. Nearly all the Scandi-
navian Scopeloids and most of the others possess or-
gans by means of ^vhich they more or less voluntarily
emit a phosphorescent light, and wliich are therefore
known as luminous spots. As a physical reflex or a
chemical phenomenon such phosphorescence is found
in certain plants; as a real manifestation of a vital
function it is not uncommon in the animal kingdom.
Many — if not most — of the lower and the lowest
marine animals are phosphorescent; and among the
higher evertebrata the glow-worm {Lamptiris) is familiar
to us all. In the glow-worm the light extends not
only to the fatty bodies in the abdomen, but also to
the eggs, i. e. the fat of the yolk, and consequently
this phenomenon — in the last case at least — is not
unconditionally an attendant of nervous activity. Nor
is this the case with the light that radiates from the
dermal mucus of certain Batrachians', though the more
copious secretion thereof produced by irritation is sub-
ject to the control of tiie nerves. Among tishes too,
in some of the organs more highly developed for phos-
phorescent purposes, the light seems to be at least par-
tially independent of the immediate action of the will.
But in some tishes special ner\e.s have been found
whose extension in these organs suggests that the light
radiates in the direction chosen by tiie fish and at the
moment when the fish desires its aid.

In their more developed forms the luminous spots
closely resemble the so-called parietal organ of lower
tishes, Batrachians, and reptiles. Together with tlie

said organ they have been included among so-called
ocellate organs; and where it has been declared ^^■ith
certainty' that a, special nerve for such an organ nught
be traced, their function may best be compared \o that
of electric or pseudoelectric organs, i. e. that, as ner-
\ous force by means of tine nerve ramifications upon
a so-called electric plate excites electricity in a tinelv
granular mass (a transformation of the sarcoplasma of
a muscular cell) on each side of an elastic plate (a
transformation of the rhabdia — rod-sul)stance — of a
muscular cell), so the nervous force of the luminous
spots, by its action upon a strongly refractive and co-
agulant mucus (a ti'ansforraation of cells in a slime-
gland of the skin), causes this mucus to burn and shine.
In their simpk'st furm the luminous spots are de-
scribed by Lendenfei,!)'' as depressions or elevations of
the skin, scattered or distributed in rows on the sur-
face of the body, the smaller (0"1 — 0'3 mm. in dia-
meter) without pigment, the larger (0'3 — O'-^ mm. in
diameter) witli a laver of pigment within their ba.se.
They are then covered only by the thin epidermis, and
are furnished with nerves • and fine capillary vessels
from the skin. Internally they are indeed hollow: but
the iinier surface is lined on the outer part (distally)
with a \[\\f>v of closely packed fusiform cells, at right
angles to the skin, and on the inner part (proxinially)
with a layer of gland-tulics, arranged in a similar
concentric manner and closelv ])ackcd. These tul>es
ai'e closed and rounded at the basal (|)roximal) end,
open towards the centre of the organ, and full of gland-
cells, which secrete the granular mass that fills the
hollow in the centre. This mass, a strongly refractive
and coagulant slime, is produced by an immediate

" The obscure and extremely rare ^tidis atlanticus.

'' BoiE, Isis 1827, p. 72G.

' GUNTHER Drep Sea F/.s7j., Hup. Voy. Challeng., Zool., vol. XXII, App. B.

•CKl'KI.OIDS.

921

trimsforination and dissolution of tlie gland-cells, whicli
lire aftei'wards ejected through that end of the tiilic
which ojieiis into the hollow.

l-"roui this coni]iarative]y simple structure, which
as \et reminds us i)f slime-glands of I lie skin, the tirsi
step to higher differentiation is that, as the sac deepens
more and more, its inner (Ixittom) part is separated by
a consti'iction of the wall and liecomes spherical in
shape, while the nuter part remains more or less re-
■■■ularh' cu|)-sliaped. a rotation-paraboloid with cir-
cular mouth, in which case tlic axis is \crtical di the
surface of the bod\- (tig. 281), or elliptical and more
or less elongated", in wliich case the axis is obliipudy
set. Throughout the wall of the organ, within the
layer of jjigment, lies an extremely thin, but power-
t'ullc retractive mendDrane (ni), which even extends over

the mouth of the organ, where we also find a double
membrane, consisting of an inner, cellular leaf (c/) and
an outer, structureless one (r) explained as a kind of
lens, and situated within the thin, structureless epi-
dermis {li), which has been compared to a cornea. The
internal structure is otherwise essentially the same as
in the simjiler luminous spots — though both connective
tissue and nei'vous elements enter more plentifulK- into
its composition — but the shining mass (k) here lies
as a more or less lens-shaped body in the annular
constriction between tlie splierical (irmei') and cup-
shaped jiarts of the organ, forming a, disk Itetween
these two parts but itself di\ided into two parts (Ic
and 1) by a thin nuMubrane, which is distended like
a diaphragm right in the constriction. To this disk
run the exti-eme randhcations of the spinal nei've (ii)

^0^^'-"lf^-^

■.MS&:

^;<- -/•'■=?•

/HS5,ii

:y^T^ira;-

/

Fig. 231. A: Section of n coinpomiil liiininous spot in Antronesthes uiyev, X lOU. After Lendenfeld.
4, cornea-liiie, transparent part of sliin over the organ: c. transparent njcnilirane outside tlie lens-shaped body d; e, gland-tnbes of the sphe-
rical part; /, pigment layers: g and g' , pigment coating of the outer and inner parts of the luminons body; li, gland-tubes in the outer part
of the luminous body; k. granular mass and cells, inner part; /, outer part: m. shining membrane within the pigment layer; n, nervous cells.

Fig 231. B: I'iagrammatic section of the luminous spot represented in fig. A, showing the rellection and refraction of the rays

of light in the luminous spot. After Lendenfelp.

"i — 0, and i] — b^, rays of light emitted from the central part {<■) of the luminous spot and reflected in the lower, spherical part of the

same; c^ — Cj, </, — d^, f, — e,, and /, — f^, rays of light from the same source, emitted in a centrifugal direction, reflected from the sides of

the outer, parabolic portion of the organ, and refracted by passing through the cornea-like layer (j/); ,rj?,, axis of the optical system;

g, cornea; /(, shining tissue of the outer, parabolic part; i, glands of the inner, spherical part.

" See for example the upper spois in our figure of Argyropeleciis Olfersii.

922

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

that innervates the organ; and the rays of light emitted
from the shining mass are reflected, as shown in fig.
2.")1, />', ciillec'ted in n cone and concentrated at their
exit tlirough the dermal lens.

These luminons spots" regularly appear, among
the fishes now under consideration (see for example
our figure of MaiirolicKs MiiUeri), in two rows, an
upper anil a lower, along each side of the bodv. In
tiieir more liighh- developed form, which consists mainly
in the addition of a more powerful reflecting appara-
tus'', it is the rule, iiowever, that the upper row breaks
u|) lull) two or more groups of 3 — 6 spots gathered
in a row, and more or less entirely coalescent inter-
nally (\vith the elsewhere sjjherical parts). Similarly

A B

Fig. 232. .4: The conHuent lower abdominal spots of Sternoptyx

(liiijilmiia, twice the natural size, and seen from below.

fi, ventral fins. After LENDUNFELn.

Fig. 232. />: Section uf the hiiniiKuis spots shown in fig. A.
a, basal canal: b, outer parabolic cups. After Lendenfeld.

the inner parts of the lumiudus spots in the lo^\•er
(ventral) row frequently coalesce; and this confluence
may extend to still more spots, even till the spots on
one side of the body coalesce with those on the other.
This is the case, for example, with the luminous spots
set at the very edge of the belly, in front of the vent-
ral fins, in Arr/i/roj)eh'iiis Olfcrmi. Here the inner
])arts of 12 pairs of luminous sjiots coalesce, forming
a common, longitudinal, basal canal (cf. fig. 2.')2, 7?, a),

while the outer (distal) parts of each spot (cf. fig. 232,
B, h) remain Independent on each side of the sharp
median carina of the ventral margin (ct'. tig. 232, A).
i'x'sides the above-mentioned reflecting apparatus, -which
lies witiiin the pigment layer, and which here consists
of a comparatively thick layer of closely packed and
prismatic, calcai'eous spicules, Lendenfeld has described,
from the outer (cup-shaped) portions of these organs,
cylindrical and ])rismatic structures within the refract-
ing mass (analogous in situation to the above-men-
tioned gland-tubes). In these structures he distin-
guished two kinds of radiating cells, one of them
elongated and club-shajied, with an oval, liighlv re-
fracting body (probably a vesicle) in the thicker, distal
end; and these cells, the proximal peduncles of which
he sup])Oses to be in direct connexion \\\\\\ tJie nervous
fibrils, are in his opinion "the special piiosphorescent
elements".

These more highly developed luminous spots appear
not only on the sides of the body in longitudinal rows,
but also on the halves of the lower jaw and on the
branchiostegal membrane. The largest of them aie
isolated shining spots on the sides of the bodv, on the
dorsal or the ventral niargin of the tail, or on the
head, especially lielow tlie eyes, on the snout, and on
the forehead. The large suborbital spots that occur in
certain species are innervated by a special branch of W
the fifth pair of cranial nerves. That their function
is subordinated to the will of the fish, seems therefore
indul)itable. Lendenfeld explains tlicir purpose as
twofold: 1) the illumination of tiic w;iter round the
fish, whether their possessor be seeking food in the
dark abysses of the ocean or at the surface in the
night-time — possibly too as a signal between the se.xes
during the spawning-season — 2) the intimidation of
a pursuing enemy, when a sudden flash of light may
save the fugitive. The latter interpretation applies in
particular to the luminous spots situated on the hind
part of the body.

The ]);irietal organ of Amphibians and reptiles,
according to our present knowledge of its .structure,
seems also capable of explanation as a luminous spot.
The largest luminous spots known are found in a deep-
sea fish of tlie Scopeloid family, Ipnops Murrayi',, whose

I

" Composite, ocellar, pliosplioreecent organs, without reflector, Lendknfelo.

* Composite, ocellar organs, with special reflector, Lendenfeld.

' fh-iiR, Deep Sea Fish., 1. c, p. l!in, pi. XLIX, fig. B, and MosEi.EY, ibid., App. A, pi. LXVII and LXVIIL

SCol'ELOIDS.

923

eyes and optio iktvcs ai-o entirely aborted, tlie fisli
being (■c)Mse(|iieiitl\' (|uite blind". But under tlic ex-
tronieh' thin and trans|);u'ent roof of tlu^ skull (an-
swerinj;' to the parietal and frontal bones, which are
hardlv distinoniisliable), and forward ovei- the wide pa-
latine areh, thus extending above ni-arh' the A\iiole
surface of the flattened head to the poslerinr limit of
the nasal region, there lie a pair of laiuelliforni lumi-
nous spots, separated from one anotiier b\' a h)ngi-
tudinal median seijtuni rising from tiie root' of the
mouth, .\bove each of these huninnus s]iots run both
the frontoro.stral Iiraneh of the cephalic s\steni of the
lateral line and tlie nasal lu'anch of the fifth jiair of
cranial nerves. The jiosition of these luminous spots
is thus, like that of the parietal organ, intraqranial.
Willi regard td their function Gi'xTHEU remarks: "The
power of |iroducing light, and thcreb^■ attracting other
creatures, must be of great use to a fish, which, de-
prived of organs of sight and touch, would be unable
to procure its food."

As we have mentioned above (p. 826, note/), GCx-
theh' has proposed to range the Scandinavian members
of this family in two families, the Sternoptychhlce and
Scopelidtc. But the difference between these two fa-
milies is hardlv appreciable. Thev occu|)\' an inter-
mediate position between the Salmonoid and ( 'lupeoid
families. In common with the former they possess an
adipose tin behind the true dorsal tin, and their ovaries;
like those of the latter, are furnished with a special
oviduct. The adipose tin is often very small, but in
most cases furnished with fibrillous (cartilaginous) rays.
The distinction adopted l>v Gunther consists merely
in the greater or less length of the intermaxillaries,
the posterior part of the margin of the upper jaw being
formed in his Stcrnopfi/cJiid(e bv the ma.xillarv liones.
Ibit these bones often coalesce so closely with the in-
termaxillaries that the limits lietween them can hardh'
be detected. The utilitv of tlie character is thus con-
siderably reduced. (Jn the other hand it happens, in
GCnther's Scopelidce, that the hind part of each inter-
maxillary bone is firmly applied to the outer surface
of the maxillarv, al>o\e the lower margin of the latter.
Consequently the said margin mav form pai-t of the

margin of the upper jaw in this family as well, though
in such instances it is toothless. We therefore prefer
the older ojiinion, end>raced in r(;cent times by MoKEAU''
and retain the Scopeloid family in its entirety. It
then c<intains about eighty sjiecies of marine fishes,
most of them (lee[)-sea forms or nocturnal surface-fishes
but some belonging to the littoral regions of the; tropic-
seas. The Scopeloids belonging to the Scandinavian
fauna mav be dislinguished as follows:

! : Snout shovtcr than the postorbital
part of the head. Dorsal fin situated
about liftlf-way along the body.
,4; Abdominal part of the body ex-
ceedingly deep and compressed ;
its ventral margin sharp and se-
parated bv an abrupt break from
the under surface of the tail.

(Subfarailv Sternopti/fhinw) Ari/i/)Vjifli'ciis (H/frsii.

B: Abdominal part of the body pass-
ins uniformly (withoiU sharp
break) into the caudal part, and
with more or less tiu-ete ventral
margin.

a: Maxillaries f'urni^lied with
teeth belHn<l. and entering
into the structtne of the mar-
gin of the upper jaw. (Sub-
family CocciiniK). Preabdomi-
nal length greater than the

postabdominal Maurolicus Midleri.

h: Maxillaries toothless, and as
a rule forming no part of the
margin of the upper jaw (Sub-
family Sanrinai). Preabdomi-
nal length less than the post-
abdominal.

a: Length of the base of the
dorsal fin more than ', , of
that of the body. Longi-
tudinal diameter of the eyes
less than ' \ "f t'^c post-
orbital length of the head. Myctophum elongatiim.
(i: Length of the base of the
dorsal fin less than ', g of
that of the body. Longi-
tudinal diameter of the eves
more than ' ', of the post-
orbital length of the head. Myctophimi ahtciale.

2: Snout longer than the postorbital part
of the head. Dorsal fin situated far
back (Subfamily Paralepidina:). No
luminous spots Siidis atlanticus.

" Also without olfactor}- nerves, according to Moskley.
* Cat. Bril. Mus., Fish., vol. V. pp. 384 ami 393.
' Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.. tome III, p. 491.

924

SCANDINAVIAN I'ISIIES.

St-BFAMiLY S T E R N 0 P T Y C H I N iE.

I',nd)i of (I siii(/i(Iar irri'fjtdar fonii, deep and compressed, espec/dl/ii in the (d/domhi<d junf, irliose sharp roifral

iiiarf/hi is ahrujifli/ cat of hij a jiosteriorhi ascending break {posfahdoniiaaJ part) from the ander surface of the

fail. Cleft of the moath sharpli/ ascendinc/. Snoaf shorter than the jiostorliitcd part of the head.

By its singular form of body, deep as that of the
Dory or the thinnest Carangoids, but with an abrupt
break in tlie inferior profile between tiie abdominal
and caudal regions, this subfamily is so well distin-
guished from all other tishes that no detailed diagnosis
can be necessary. The resemblance in the form of the
body to Zeus (see above, p. 305, note «), and the si-
milar structure of the ventral margin in Trachichthys,
a Berycoid form (see F^owe, Fish. Madeir., \>. 64),
have suggested that these fishes should be included
among the Acanthopterygiaiis. But merel}- their lu-

minous spots and tiie distribution thereof ought, at the
first glance, to assign them to their right place, beside
the other Scopeloids. Only four species, distributed
among three genera, are known with certainty. All
are nocturnal surface-fishes, which by day descend to
some depth lielow the surface, but at night ascend to
higher strata. They belong to the basins both of the
Atlantic and the Pacific, strictly to the warmer regions
thereof; but on the Norwegian coast is occasionally
found a species of the

Genus ARGYROPELECUS".

Forepart of the bach sarmnunted by an erect, thin and transparent, osseous structure, resembling a dorsal Jin,
and com.posed of the neural spines of the anterior abdominal rertebrce and their chondrified interspaces.

Jaw-teeth set in one ron\ |

Of this genus, which is known exclusively from
the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Valenciennes''
has indeed adopted four species; but two of them are

known only from his somewhat defective descrip-
tions, and the other two come extremely near to eacl
other.

" Coooo, Giorn. Scieiic, Lett., Art. Sic, No. 77, Palemio 1829. The name signifies, according to Agassiz, with silccr helmet {IxQ-
yi'QOg, sih-er, and 7rr^?.rj§, helmet). To Cooco's paper we have not been able lo refer.
'' Cov., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. XXII, pp. 392, scqq.

Sf'Dl'EI.oiDS.

il-.T)

ARG^ROPEF.I-X'US OLFHIISIl.

FiK. 2:!:!.

LeiH/th of the inaxUhtrics altoiit ei[H<iJ ta lltv horcaiitdl Ici/i/th <>/ the licdd". JlinUiiice bctirccu the doimJ Jin jiropar
and the tip <>f the snout alioid half the leiii/th of the Imd//, hut perceptildn less than the f/reatest depth of the
bodi/, irhich is about ''5 of its length, and mili/ slif/htli/ less than {at least '' ,„ 0/) the distance befu'een the ventral
fns or the anal fin and the tip of the snout. I.eniftii if the base of the dorsal fin proper aboitt equal to the
vertical diameter of the ei/es'\ and the least dejitli of the tail (dxnit ' .^ of the said diameter'. Silrer)/ lustre of

the bodji e.itendini/ <irer the sides of the tail.

Fife- 233. Ariji/ropelecits Ot/e)-sii. nalurnl size. Tal;(
Specimen in tlio [)0.ssessi(

ofE Ha?glioln], near Bergen, on the 28th Jan., 1890.
of the Bergen Mvuseuni.

R. In: 9; 1>. 9; .-1. 12; P. 10; V. 6; C.

1 + 1 8 '' + 1 + ,t-.

Si/n. Stenwpti/x Olfcrsii, Cuv., R'egn. Anim., ed. 2, toin. II, p. 310,
tab. XIII, fig. 2; v. Dub., Koh., Vet.-Ak-ad. Handl. 1844,
p. 80, tab. 3, fig. 6; Lowe (Pleiirothyris), Fish. Madeir.,
p. 64; (Argyropeleciis), Proe. Zool. Soc. London IS.'jO, p.
247; Cdv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXII, p. 4(I8;
XiLSs. (i>ternopii/.T), Skatid. Fna, Fish., p. 48i!; Gthk
{Arijyropelecus), Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. V. p. 386;
Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, TilliBgsh., p. 149;
1879, No. 1. p. 84; N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29, p.
102: Storm, Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. 29; Gthb,
Dc'-j' Sea Fish.. Chall. Exped.. p. 167: Lu.LJ., Sv., Norg.
Fr-k.. vol. III. p. 3.

Argi/rojx'lecus Olfersii attains, according to C(illett,
a length of at least 82 mm.; but most of the speci-
mens known are of smaller size. Cuviek's s])eci!nen
was 68 mm. long. The two specimens that we have
been enabled to examine — kindly lent us by the Mu-
seums of Christiania and Bergen — measure, from the
tip of the snout to the end of the middle caudal rays,
respectively 63 and 64 mm., being thus about equal in
size to the specimen described by v. DCben and Kokex.

The species is one of the most singularlv shaped
fishes, deep and compressed as a Dory, but, like its
congener, with a sharp, posteriorly ascending break in
the inferior profile between the abdominal region and
the tail. In the abdominal region the depth of the
body is about eipial to the entire length of the trunk,
or about .38 — 62 % of the length of the body; whereas
at the vent the depth is only half of the greatest
depth, and about equal to Ihc length of the tail. The
least depth, in front of the suppnrting (spinous) caudal
rays, is only about ' j„ of the length of the bod v.
The thickest part of the bod\- is the head. According
to v. DuBEX and Koken. the thickness is greatest in
the inferior part of the body; but in our specimens
it is fViirlv uniform almost throughout the sides of the
head, measuring across the upper articulations of the
preopercula about '/j of the length of the body or
43_46' ., % of the length of the head. Both the
dorsal and the ventral margins are compressed and,
in ])art, shar|), the latter, however, from different

Somewhat greater or less; in Ari/i/vopelecus lieiniijyiniiiis only abont '' , of the said length.
In Aryyropeleciis hemigymiiiis ahont - 3 thereof.

'' 17, according to v. DOben and Korex. In Argyropelecu.'i hemir/ymnus we have counted 16.

926

SCANDINAVIAN FISHKS.

causes. In front of the dorsal fin the dorsal margin
rises in a transyjarciit, fartilagino-osseous carina, re-
scnihling an anterior, posteriorly ascending dorsal fin,
})ut foi'ined by the |)rodiiced and coalescent tips of 7
iieiira.l spines. The ventral mai'gin, on the other liand,
is sliarpened at the istlinnis, in the abdominal region,
in the region of the anal fin, and just in front of the
caudal fin, by the median I'lirina between the rows of
luminous spots situated at these points, a structure
most nearly corresponding to the \ entral carina of the
Herrings. But between the ventral fins and the anal
fin tbe ventral margin is chann<;lled by a groove open
below. In the rest of their extent the margins of the
body are indeed thin, but blunt. The dorsal profile
follows a fairly regular curve in front of the true
dorsal tin, but from the begimiing of tiiis tin it slopes
almost in a straigiit line, until, at the caudal fin, it
becomes horizontal. Tlie ventral profile is even more
sharply curved in front than the dorsal; but behind
the above-mentioned break it ascends at the same angle
as that formed by the doi'sal profile in its descent,
tliough with a perceptible break at tlie end of the anal fin.
The head is deeper tliaii long. Its singular shape
i due to the short snout, the vertically ascending cleft
of the mouth, and the deep, I)ut short opercular appa-
ratus; and to these we should add the comparatively
deep isthmian region, which extends under the greater
part of the length of the head. At the top the head
is convex from the occiput to the snout, but flat and
wrooved in the middle, with a sharp, longitudinal ca-
rina on each side, and stnmgly constricted between
the eyes. Its length in an horizontal direction from
the middle of the tip of the snout measures in our
specimens about 28 — 21.1 % of the length of the body.
The eyes are rather large and round, the vertical dia-
meter being only a little greater tlinii or equal to the
longitudinal, and varying in our specimens between
4;] and \h % of the length of the liead, or about ^ '.^
of that of the body. They are set high, their upper
margin rising almost to the frontal plane, and so near
to each other that the least interorbital width is only
'/j of their vertical diameter. The postorliitaf length
is only about ^/j (32 — .34 %), and tlie length of the
snout rather more than '/,, (27-28 %), of the length

of tiie head; and the lower margin of the pupil lies
on a level with the tip of the snout or a little higher.
The suborbital ring is represented only by an extremely
thin, oblong, lamelliforra, and vertically set preorbital
bone, which coasts the anterior margin of the eye.
The nasal cavities are oblong, and lie close to the an-
terior upper corners of the orbits and below the knob-
shajied tip (^f the ethmoid bone. Tlie nostrils are di-
vided on each side by a thin, but flat septum of skin,
«itiiout any elevation of the margin.

Tiic miiutli ascends almost vertically, and the tip
of the up|ici- jaw projects slightly beyond the ethmoid
(rostral) tip, but admits of hardly any [irotrusion. The
nasal processes of the intermaxillaries are short, and
the latter bones, each by means of its lateral branch,
are S(j firinh' united to and coalescent with the maxil-
laries tliat tlie limit between them is distinct only in
front, for a distance measuring about ',., of the dia-
meter of the eyes. The motion of the intermaxillaries
is thus reduced to a consiilerable extent: they can only
follow the forward and backward swing of the niaxil-
laries. How far the margin of the upper jaw is formed
by the intermaxillaries, it is impossible to determine
without dissection, an operation of which our materials
have not permitted. But the whole margin of the up-
per jaw is set with a row" of pointed, sulnilate and
curved teeth, rather scattered and small, but of various
sizes. The last four or five teeth' are directed for-
wards, the anterior ones jjointing backwards. The ma-
xillar\- bone, which is extremely thin, reminds us most,
both in shape and structure, of tliat of the Herrings.
Just l)ehind (below) the constricted articular part it is
curved like a sabre at the very margin of the mouth,
but from this point back it is straight and of uniform
breadth, forming an oblong rectangle. Tlie median
space, however, is not ossified, but consists of a. silvery
skin, distended lietween the true maxillary bone and its
supplementary (jugal) part, which coalesces behind with
the maxillary, and which extends, in the form of an
osseous rod, forward to the articular part. The entire
length of the maxillary is somewhat more than 4
(about 2G— 29 ?i) of the length of the body, and its
breadth in the olilong part about '/^ of its own length.
The lower jaw is about equal in length to the maxil-

" Sometimes we fiiul in front, on tlie intermaxillaries, a tooth or two lying inside or outside this row.

'' Situated on that part of llio upper jaw which, when the mouth is wide open, lies outside the branch of the lower jaw, and thus
below the true cleft of the s,n\iv. In Argyropelecus hemigymnus the length of the intermaxillaries may be traced backward to this ponit,
whic-h there answers to alxiut llie niiihlle ])oint in the length of the niaxillaries.

AIUiVROl'ELECl'S OI.FEHSII.

92/

larics. Each of its two brandies resembles iiii aciite-
;iii"ii'il, isosceles triaiifj'le, with the short (hiiul) b;ise
turned (IdWiiwiirds, where the aiiguliir |);irt foriiis a
proiectiiig, spine-like angle. Within (above) and pa-
rallel to the thin lower niai'iiin runs a ridge on the
outer side. The symphysis is sti-aight, and projects
downwards in a chin-protuberance, channelled behind.
Most of the teeth in the lower jaw, which are also set ridge running from the aiitcn-ior ujjper corner down-

\ertical arm of the rectangular jireopercujuin is about
tiiree times as long as the horizontal. The preoper-
lular angle is prolongated to a short, flat (thin), ti'i-
angular spine, pointing downwards. The other oper-
cular bones are cxtremeh' thin and tlexible. The
o]iercidum is rectangidai', but forms an oblique arti-
culation abo\c. its surface is obliquely crossed by a

in a single row, are al)out twice as large as those in
tiie upiter jaw; but one of the anterior teeth on each
side is considerably larger than the rest, and at the
e.vtrcine front, where the teeth are of about the same
size as in the upper jaw, they are more distinctly ar-
ranged in a double row. The tongue is rudimentary,
and the cartilaginous tip of the hyoid bone is smooth,
without teetli. ()nlv the upper jaw is furnished with
a palatal fold, and this is not very broad. The vomer

wards and baekwai-ds. Its lireadth is e((ual to the length
of the snout. .\t its lower margin lies the triangular
suboperculum, witii a more or less deep indentation
behind. Below the latter and below the preoj^ei--
culum lies the interoperculum, wliich is divided into
two parts, the anterior (below the preoperculuni),
elongated and united with the branchiostegal mem-
brane only behind, the posterior quadrangular with
rounded corners or circular, and entirely coalescent

is toothless, but on the anterior part of the palatine ! with the branchiostegal membrane, on which it lies
bones, as well as on the upper jjharyngeals, small teeth
iiia\' be felt. The pseudobranchia" on the inner surface
of the opercular and hyomandibular bones form an oblong
patch, in which about 14 filiform, transversely set la-
mella' may be counted. The gill-slits are large, ex-
tending far forward in the mouth; but the upper parts
of the hind branchial arches coalesce with the fi'ont side
of the scapular arch, the hindmost gill-slit thus being
closed above and rather short. The gill-rakers are long
hut scattered, luimbering about 14 on the first branchial
arch, besides a few small, hardly perceptible spines at
the lower (anterior) end. Where the horns of the hv'oid
bone touch the tij) of the basi-hyoid series (the lingual
bone), the}' are furnished with an erect protuberance.
The outer gill-openings are large, their upper angle
Iviiig on a level with the centre of the eyes, and the
branchiostegal membranes being free from the isthmus
and united to each other not quite to the full length of
the first branchiostegal rays, so that the anterior angle of
the openings lies in about a line with the tip of the snout.
The branchiostegal ravs are slender and rod-like. The
first si.x lie rather near each other, and the first of all is
set close to the corresponding ray on the other side; the
last three ai'e somewhat larger and set further apart.
The opercular apparatus, in accordance with the
shape of the head, is characterized bv its heischt. The

like a scale.

The greater part of the head, as well as the rest
of the body, is covered with a thin, silvery epidermis:
but the upper temporal I'egion, bet^\■een the eyes antl
the occiput, is naked, the surface of the bones being
finely grooved and granulated.

The fins resemble in quite essential respects those
of the Hemibranchs and Lophobranchs. As in the said
fishes, the soft rays, which are thin and transparent,
with the tips strongly compressed in the longitudinal
direction of the body, show but little developed rami-
fication and have only scattered joints". In the sup-
porting apparatus of the paired fins too, we find points
that remind us most of the Sticklebacks.

The true dorsal fin is obliquel}' rounded, the first
rays being the shortest, but gradually increasing in
length to the fifth or sixth, which is the longest in
the fin. It begins at a distance from the tip of the
snout measuring about half (50 — 51 %) of the length
of the body, and the length of its base is about equal
to the vertical diameter of the eye or ii little greater,
about 12';,, — 14 % of the length of the body. A little
in front of this fin ends the fin-like osseous ridge
formed by the projecting tips of 7* neui'al spines be-
longing to the abdominal vertebrtp, together with the
thin and transparent, feebly ossified interneural mem-

" We are indeed ignorant of tlie manner of loconiotion employed by Argyropeleaia Olfersii; but from this strncture of the tin-rav!
we may conclude that the fins perform their function by means of vibrations. Tliis is the case, as we have seen above, not only in th(
Sticklebacks and Pipefishes but also in the Dory, where the second dorsal and the anal fius are furnished with similar rays.
*■ In Argyropdecas hemt'gi/mnus belonging to the 3rd— 9th vertebrae.
Scnndinni^iiin lushes. 117

928

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIF.S.

braiie by which they are comiectccl. Tlie adipose Hn
behind the dorsal fin is l(jng and low.

The anal fin, which begins just behind the vent,
is longer but lower than the dorsal fin pro])er, and the
hind part of its margin is deeply concave. The distance
between it and the tip of tlu; snout is about Gl — 63 %
of the length of the body, and its base measures about
17 — 18 % of the same. In the distribution of the rays
we observe that the first seven and the last four are
set more or less close togetlier at the base, but tliat
the eighth ray is more widel)- separated both from
the seventh and the ninth, and points straight down-
wards, its direction tlnis converging with that of the
seventh ray.

The caudal tin is deeply forked. The length of
the middle rays is 8 % of that of the body, and ap-
pears to be perceptibly less than half (at most about
46 "o) of that of the longest rays. At the upper mar-
gin uf tlie fin lie 9, at tlie lower 6, shoi't but com-
paratively thick and hard su])porting rays, the anterior
directed outwards (respectively upwards or downwards).

In the suspensory apparatus of the pectoral fins, the
iil>perniost bone, probably answering to the suprA-cla-
vicular l)one — in which case the posttemporal bone is
wanting — is bent at a right angle. Its upper, shorter,
horizontal arm is straight and of uniform breadth,
attached to the median line of the occiput — not at
the side, where the posttemporal bone is attached in
other fishes — and its lower, vertical arm, which is
somewhat bi'oader and forms a thin expansion in front,
rests u])on the upper part of tlie clavicle. The angle
between the arms forms a shoi't spine, directed back-
wards, and both arms are coursed on the outside by
a longitudinal groove, bounded by ridges and hollowed
into grooves similar to those in the upper part of the
temporal region (see al)ove). The ridges and grooves
are continued on the outside of the vertical part of the
clavicle in front of the pectoral fins, and below the
latter the clavicle sends out, in the skin, a backward
process, flat and of uniform breadth, but curved up-
wards like a sabre, and with similar grooves on the
outer surface. The inferior part of the clavicle ex-
pands forwards and inwards to a thin, vertical blade,
projecting straight downwards in a pointed spine, which
marks the limit between the sloping istlimian region

and the jiorizontal ventral margin. Tlie pectoral fins
are obliquely set; when at rest, thev point upwards
and backwards. Thej- are rather long, but narrow and
obliquely pointed. The third or the fourth ray is the
longest, liiit only slightly longer tlian tiie second. The
first ray, which is the only simple one, is a little
shorter than the second; the last (10th) occupies about
^/j, of the length of the fin, which measures someAvhat
more than '', (26—27 ^) of that of the body.

The ventral fins are set undei'inost on the ascend-
ing break in the ventral margin, with their insertions
close together and vertically situated, the first ray,
which is simple but, like the others, compressed, being
thus the lowest, and the under side of these fins in
other fishes being here turned inwards". In shape the
ventral fins are oval, and their length is about equal
to the height of the anal fin, 8'/.— O'/o % of the length
of the body. The lowest point in their insertions
lies at a distance from the tip of the snout measuring
nearly Vs (62'/2— 65 %) of the length of the body,
and the distance between this point and the foremost
])oint in the insertions of the pectoral fins (the pre-
abdominal length) is about 29 — ;-5() % of the same
length. The postabdominal length, which ascends but
breaks off at an angle, measures in a straight line
about HVs — 1'> "'o of the length of the body. The
thin pelvic bones, which are vertically set, share in
the structure of the septum between the luminous spots
of the preabdominal margin. But at the lower poste-
rior corner each of the pelvic bones projects in a spine,
and sends out above this spine an ascending process'
Avhich joins the lower part of the hindmost preabdo-
minal rib, while the lower tips of the preceding ribs
touch the squamous growths that enter into the struc-
ture of the sharp ventral margin and bear its lumi-
nous spots.

The greater part of the body — except the black
or grayish brown back — is covered with a thin, sil-
very skin; but according to v. DCben and Koren
scales arc also present, though these are thin and deci-
duous. "These scales are rather large (about 2V2 m™-
long in a specimen 60 mm. in length), smooth with
entire margin, and of a bright silvery lustre like their
underlayer. Under the microscoi)e they gleam with all
the colours of the rainbow, but not even then does

" This is also the case, as we liave seen above (p. 426), in Bolhina, Init is tliere liue to an entirely different slnictnral peculiarity.
' Cf. the analogous stnielnre in the Sticklebacks, see above, p. 035, tig. l.')7, ,-1, vs.

AI{(iYHOriCI,KCU.s (ILKKRSII.

929

tlicir surface show any regular streaks or the like."
Of the lateral line v. Duben and Kouex saw only a
trafc, "in tlic turni of an elevated line hcyiiuiinL;' l)e-
i(i\v tiie origin of the true dorsal tin, iind ruiuiing
alonU' the nuddle of the body tt) tiie base of the
caudal fin."

The luminous spots are distributed as follows.
On the under side of tiie lower jaw — on tlie soft
chin" — below the tij) of the lingual bone, lie two ra-
ther undefined spots, wiiieh ai'e probabh' luminous'',
thonuii ill this si)eeies, to the best of our knowledge,
the\ have not \ci l)een examined. On the eeratohyoid
bones, in the skin between the bases of the Hrst (low-
est) 7 branehiostegal rays, there are ti small luminous
spots on each side of the body. l>eliind these each
side of the isthmus is furnished with 6 larger luminous
spots, gradually increasing in size as the isthmus grows
deeper behind. These are succeeded, on each side of
the sharp prealidominal margin of the belly, by a row
containing 12 luminous spots of fairly uniform size,
somewhat smaller than those on the isthmus and small-
est at the beginning and end of the row. .\bove the
rows on the isthmus and the preabdominal margin each
side of tiie liody bears a row of 10 luminous spots;
hut this row is interrupted and belongs partly to the
head, parth' to the abdominal region. One spot lies
within the anterior (horizontal) arm of the preoper-
ciiluia, but spreads downwards over the anterior part
of the interopereulum. Another, smaller spot occupies
the lower part of the suboperculuin and the hind part
of the interopereulum. Two large spots adjoin to the
hind margin of the clavicle above the insertion of the
pectoral fin, and are indeed vertical in direction, but
set so tliat their tops form a continuation of the curve
followed \i\ the upjier jiarts of the spots on the isth-
mus. Tile remaining six alidominal spots are about
ei|ual in breadth to the last-mentioned pair but shorter
than they, and lie in a continuous, horizontal row, but
lower than the last-mentioned pair. Each of them
occupies the space between two ribs, and lies vertically
or oblicpielv above one of the spots in the lower jire-
abdominal row, the penultimate spot, however, being
situated above t!ie penultimate two in the lower row,
both of wliicli oc(up\" the same intercostal s])ace. The
segmental arrangement of the luminous sjjots is thus

not obser\'ed \\itli complete luiiforinity. Each side of
the jiostabdoniinal mai'gin liears a continuous row of
1 luminous spots. Owing to the singular form of tiic
body these spots are indeed set at the ventral margin,
i. e. tiieir lower pai'ts extend thither, but also on a
level with the two large spots above the insertion of
the in'ctoral tin. In size thej' answer most nearl\' to
the spots in I lie u]i|ier preabdominal row, which the\
also resemble in tiic eirenmstance that the s])ots on
one side of the l>od\' do not coalesce internalh' (supe-
riorh ) with those on the other side, as is the case
witli the lower preabdominal row. The postabdominal
spots on one side of the body are aLso .separated in-
feriorly from tiiose on the other: their defining walls
do not coalesce below, like those of tiie preabdominal
spots, into a median edge. ( )n each side of the bod^■
the walls coalesce into a more or less high, thin rim,
and together form in this manner a groove or deej)
channel, open below, at the hind extremity of which the
vent is situated. The luminous spots on the tail form
two groups, the one, along the posterior two-thirds of
the base of the anal tin, l)eing a row of 6 rather large
spots, the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th smaller than the rest, the
other a row of 4 smaller spots at the inferior margin
of the tail, just in front of the caudal fin. All these
luminous spots thus belong to the lower part of the
body. Higher up we find, however, an isolated lumi-
nous s]iot on each side of the head, on a level with
the tip of the snout. This spot is situated on the
uppermost part of the preoperculum, just below its
articulation.

The above description of the luminous spots in
Arfjj/ropelecKS Olfcrsii applies in every detail to the
analogous organs in Argyropdecus liemigi/mniis, a ]\Ie-
diterranean and Central Atlantic form which in other
respects too so closely resembles A. Olfersii that it
evidently represents a lower stage in the same course
of development.

Arfiiiropehcus Olfersii has been named after a
Prussian diplomatist who, while on a voyage to Brazil,
secured an example of this species that had become
entangled among weeds to a lead-line, "between the
Canary Islands and l^>razil." The specimen figured liy
CrviEU (1. c.) was found by DussiiMiek some kilom.
south-east of the Cape of (iood Hope, among a floating

" Meiititiii, pars inter gnaUiidia mollis (SiJNunvALL).

' Cf. Arffi/ropelectis lienn'i/i/miuis and Sterixrpti/x diaphaixi, LEXiiENFELti in Gi'.N-iUKR, Deep Sea Fish., 1. c, p. 314.

930

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

mass of "zoophytes" (Hydro/oa on seaweed?). It lay of its having been intercepted l)y tlie dredge while the
oil one side at the surface, but was still nVivc Its latter was being drawn nj). It seems most likely that
colour was described as nacreous on the sides of the in the daytime it avoids the light by retiring to depths
h(id\-, reflecting various hues, principally azure blue. wliere the sun exercises no appreciable influence.
Tlu' back was black, with tlic same \)\n\ of coloiu-s; Its geographical range extends from the ('ape of
tlie tins were transparent; tiie eve was of a handsome Good Hope to North Cape, but appears to be restricted
green. bet^veen the limits of the great ocean (currents. It has
Tlie species is tlius kiinwn (jriginally as a surface i thus been carried by the (Tulf Stream on several re-
lisli. By the Challenger Expedition, however, it was corded occasions to the Norwegian coast north of Ber-
taken in a dredge that had been drawn at tiie bottom | gen, but has never been found furtlier south in Scan-
in 1,12.5 fathoms of water, off Cape Finisterre. In dinavia. Collett mentions 8 specimens as having been
most instances, as in the case of deep-sea fishes, the found duinng the last thirty years, cast ashore at dif-
specimens secured have drifted lielplessly at the sur- fereiit points on the Norwegian coast, or taken in the

face and been cast ashore bv the Avaves. Tlie congener
of this species — if they are both entitled to an inde-
pendent specific rank — was taken in 1869 by the Foi-
cuplne expedition, in 540 fathoms of water, between
Scotland and the Faroe Islands", and in 1880 and
1882 by the American expeditions on the Blake and
Fish-Hawk, in 225 and 245 fathoms of water, oft' the
coast of Flol■ida^ Ar<jyropeleciis Olfersii is also fre-
(juently found oft' the Norwegian coast in the stomach
of Cod, a circumstance which seems to indicate that
it keeps near the bottom, as is further suggested b}'

stomachs of Cod or Coalfisli.

Argijropeleciifi Olfersl'i is a voracious tisli-of-prey,
as evidenced liy its dentition. In the stomach of a spe-
cimen 82 mm. long (>)llett found a half-digested
MaKroVicuii JltiUcri that had proliably measured 50 mm.
Small fishes and crustaceans are, no douljt, its principal
diet. Its spawning-season is unknown; but in a fe-
male about 8 cm. long Collett counted about 1.000
eggs ^ .J mm. in diameter, a much greater number and
relatively smaller size than we found in a female
Argyropelecus hcmigymnus, taken in February oft' the

its large eyes. But at night its congener is often met | Sicilian coast. In the latter specimen both ovaries

witli at the sui'face oft' the coast of Sicily; and it is ^ were ratlier tumid but of dift'erent lengths, the right,

highly probable that An/yropelecus Olfersii shares this j which was the longer, measuring hardly (i mm. The

habit. To the true deep-sea fishes it cannot thus be I eggs were V2 mm. in diameter, and lay so loose in

referred; and the above-mentioned instances of its oc- the ovaries tliat they wrvv prol)ab]y almost ready for

currence at great depths do not exclude the possibility , deposition.

Subfamily COCCIIN^.

Body iif a sllyhtly In-cyiihir Jlerrhiy-forni. Ventyal muryln. iimrc or less terete. Cleft of flir iiioiitli more or less

ascending, iclth the iiiuryhi of the upper jair formed hi front liy the hitermn.rlUurles and hvlihul l)y the ma.rll-

laries, which are here armed irifh teeth. Teeth In the inoiilli of fairly nnlform size. I're<ilidomiiial leiiytli yreater

than the jiosfat)domii/al. /'seiidolir<uiehi(e irell dereloped. Siioat shorter than the postorhital jiart of the head.

Tlie known forms of this subfamily are not nume- ' containing one species with the most reduced inter-
rous. GiNTiiEK' enumerates 5 species, distributed among j maxillaries and jaw-teeth, has conferred its name on
two genera, one of which, tlie ^lediterranean Coccia, | the subfamily. In form and coloration, and proliably

" Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.. Irel., vol. II, p. 48.

' BnovvN-GoonE and Bkan, Bull. Miis. Cocnp. Zool., vol. X (1883), p. 250.

' Vat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. V, p. 387. Whether Diplophus (GONTUiiR, Mus. Godefr., Heft. II, p. 101) belongs to this subfamily
is uncertain, so long us we are ignorant whether it possesses or is without pseudobranchia;. The subfamily Ohauliodontinw, to which, accord-
ing to GCnther, it should else be referred, is destitute of pseudobranclii;e, and in general has a larger mouth with a n;ore powerful dentition.

l>E.\lil.-SIl)KS.

iKil

ill tln'ir liMMt.s, these fishes closely resemble the small
Herrings in whose company tlicy are frequently found;
and thc\' sonictinies ajipcar, like the luttci-, in siioals.
Ail (if tiicni arc suiall tislies. Most of tiiem belong to
llic Mediterranean, only mw species being known from
tile Atlantic; and this is so like one of the Mediter-
ranean forms that its rigiit to the rank of a separate
species seems (|uestionable. This same species has also
been claimed, ])robabl\- witli justice, for the fauna of
New Zealand. Tiie subfaniil}- has tiuis an extensive
geographical range, and probably occurs in other in-
termediate regions both of the Atlantic and the Pacilic.

Anotlier sjiccies, MauroUcKS ttipioirtiilatti.s, described
by I'^siiAKK from tiie neigiibourhood of Madagasi'ai-, is
slated li\- Lithkn" to occur in "Denmark Sound" be-
tween Iceland and ( hveidand ((iti" N. lat.; 28° \V. long.).
Tlie same peculiarity, tiie occurrence of a species in
localities so remote as, on the one hand, the North
Atlantic and the ^Mediterranean, on the other, New Zea-
land, witiiout its being known from intermediate regions,
we iia\-c already observed in the case of Argenthia splii;-
neiKi, wliich also associates witli the Herrings. And the
Herring family, as we shall soon see, contains some of
the most widely diffused piscine species.

Genus MAUROLICUS

Snout and forehead foniiim/ <n/ in/hrokrii profJe, sHi/htli/ sloiiiini. Tij) of the loirer Jaie prominent. Breadth of

the maxiUaries less than half their length and less than the tireadtli of the ojieriidum (measured in the lon/jitudinal

direction of the liodii). Jaa'-tectli distinct, thoaf/h snndl. I'seadoliraiiehiie present. Air-Madder vanting'.

This genus is distinguisiied, at tlie first glance,
from (Joceia by the form of tiie snout, which in the
latter genus comes nearest that of tsehir among the
Gwyniads, l)eing sliort and blunt, tumid and truncate.
With this is connected the form of tlie maxillaries.
Coecia, whose gape is thus rendered mucii smaller, is
also without true jaw-teeth, these being merely fine
serrations of the sharp and thin edges of the jaws. In
Coceia. on the otlier iiand, the luminous spots are more

numerous: the upper jireabdominal row is continued,
unbroken and dense, on the postabdominal i-egion, tiie
row thus containing 25 spots; and on the branchiostcgal
membrane, which behind coalesces so completely with
the operculum as to be almost indistinguishable there-
from, Coceia ocata possesses 12 luminous spots. Coecia,
with its large eyes, wliich almost touch at the forehead,
where the interorbital width is extremely small, also
seems to be a still more marked nocturnal fish.

BOREAL PEARL-SIDE.

MAfHOLirrs. .MULLEIil.

Plate XLIV, fig. .O.

Upper row of rentrat luminous spots interrupted at the central fns and containin// !> or 10 spots hetween these
Jins and the pectorals. Length (f the lou-er Jaw less than !'> % of that of the hodg. or than IG % of tlait of the
body minus tJie caudal fn. and the postorhital length of the head more than '' .- "/' the lengtli of the hncer jau\

R. hr. 10'; J>.

: P.

-; V

1 ■^.y"- 'Sahno maxillis cdeutatis, inferiore longiore; ventre pmictato.

(15) 16 — If
C. .r + 1 + 17 + 1 + j;; Lin. tat. 21;— 28; L. ti: 5; Vert. 32-''.

:\It'Li,., ?:ooL Pail. I'rodi:. p. 49.

" Vitl. Meddel. Xaturli. Kr.r. Kblivn 1891, p. 211.

' Cocco, N. Ann. Sc. Nat. (Bologua), Ann. I, torn. II (IKIiK)^ p. 192 (p. ;;2, sep.) — "segnalato col uonie di un celebre Ittteralo
siciliano" (Boxai'.).

' According to GCntheh.

■* 0, according to Nilsso.n. Prodr.; K, according to 0/iserv. lclillii/(jl.; 8 or 9, according to Gl'.ntheI!. 9 or 10(?). according to Kroyer.

' A. 2t; — 33, according to Day.

•'' According to Day.

932

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIKS.

Sheppy Argmtiite, Pexn., Brit. Zool. (ed. Warr. ITTfi). vol.

Ill, p. 280, tab. LXV, Xo. 15G.
.Salmo Miilleri, Gmel., Stjst. Nat. Lin., ed. XIII, lorn. I, ji.

1378; Kr. (Maiiroliciis), Danm. Fid-., vol. 111. p. 113.
Argentina Pennant}, Walb., Ichthgol. Art., pt. Ill (Gen. Pise),

p. 47; Cuv., Val. (•Scopeliis), Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXII,

p. 431; ; Yai'.r. (Richards.), Brit. Fish., ed. 3, vol. I, p.

330; Dav (Manroliciis), Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 411,

tab. CIX, Bg. 2; CoLi,., N. Mug. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29, p.

104; Petersen, Vid. Meddel. Natiirli. For. Kbhvn 1884 (188r)),

p. 158; LiLLi., Sv., Nory. Fmi, Fisk., vol. III. p. 10.
Scopelus borealis, NiLSS., Prodr. Ichthi/ol. Scand., p. 20; Id.,

Observ. Iihthyol., p. 9; Id., ^kand. Fna, Fisk., p. 479;

Gthr (Maitrolictis), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. V, p. 389;

Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillsegsh., p. 150;

1879, No. 1, p. 84; Malm, Giigs, Boh. Fna, p. 533; Winth.,

Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII. p. 42; Storm, Vid.

Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. .'SO; .Tord., Gilb., Bull. U. S.

Nat. Mus., No. 16, p. 284.
Scopelus Humboldtii, Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 04;

ed. 2, vol. II. p. 161 (uec Klsso, nee Olivier); Storer,

MeiM. Amer. Acad. Arts. Sc, n. ser., vol. II, p. 450; vol.

VI, p. 328, tab. XXV, fig. 5.

Forma niediterranea (an species ilistinctaV). ma.xillis et niandibiila

longioribus:
Maurolicus amethystino-jninctatns, Cocco. 1. c.; Gthr, 1. c,

p. 390.
Maurolicus australis, Hector, Trans.. Vmc. N. Zeal. Inst., vol.

VII, p. 250, tab. XI, fig. 90. I), vide GUxther, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. XVII (1876), p. 399.

Obs. In 1766 Strom found on the shore, at Wolden parson-
age in Siindmor, a specimen of this species (see his MS, quoted by
Collett), a drawing and description of which he sent "more than
20 years before 1791" (see Skr. Naturh. Selsk., Bd. 2, H. 2, p. 15)
to 0. F. MtJLLER, who appends to his above-mentioned diagnosis,
"Cl. Str6m misit." Afterwards Str6m confused this species with
Mijctophum glnciule, which he distinctly figured and described in
Skr. Naturh. Selsk. (1. c.) — a circumstance first pointed out by
NiLSSON in his Skand. Fna. But this cannot affect the determination
of Salmo Miilleri in Gmeux, who merely copied Mt'LLER.

The Pearl-side belongs to the small fishes. Our
largest specimen from Bohusliln indeed measures 72
mm. from tlie tip of the lower }xw to the extreme end
of the caudal fin; but the distance from the tip of the
snout to the end of tlie middle caudal rays, tiie mea-
surement termed in the ])rcsent wurk tiic length of the
body, is not quite 68 mm.

The 1)1 )dy is moderately elongated, with terete
bai'k and Ijclly, fiattencd, vertical and parallel sides.
In the forepart of the bod>", in front of the dorsal and
ventral fins, the ventral contour is percej)tibly more
curved than the dorsal; but in the hind part of the
body these contours are straighter and converge with

fair uniforinitv towards tlie base of the caudal fin.
The greatest depth of the body, which occurs at about
the middle of the preabdominal part, is about ' . (18
— 21V, %) of the length of the same"; and the least
depth (jf the tail is about ' ., of the sai<l dcjjth or ' jj
— '/,,; (about 6 '2 %) of the length .if the body''. The
greatest thickness, whicli is fairly uniform througliout
the forepart of the trunk (the preabdominal region),
measures about 8 — 10 % of the length of the body.

The outlines of the iiead run in uninterrupted
continuation of those of the body, its sides being also
flat and parallel; but the lower jaw, which sharply
ascends Mdien the mouth is closed, renders the inferior
contour of the head more curved, while the superior
contour is straighter. The forehead is also grooved
longitudinally, its edges rising in a ridge that runs
along each side, and e.Ktends forward above the margin
of the eye, at the anterior upper angle of which it
divides to enclose the nasal cavity; but the middle of
the forehead is coursed by a lower longitudinal ridge.
The length of the head is about ' ; (26— 22' . %) of
that of the body. The eyes are round, though their
longitudinal diameter is somewhat greater than the
vertical, and measures about 88 — 35 %'' of the length
of the head. They are set high, their upper margin
lying almost in the plane of the forehead, and are only
verj- .slighth' and obliquely upturned. The least inter-
orbital width is about '/r, of their longitudinal diameter,
which is equal to the postorbital length of the head.
The nostrils are set close together, each pair at the
extreme front of the triangular nasal cavity, above the
dark to]) of the preorbital bone and liehind the arti-
cular knoi) — also dark-coloured — of the maxillary.
The anterior nostril on each side is round, the posterior
an obli(piely-set, transverse slit. The suborbital ring,
which forms the silvery cheek, is thin but complete
along the lower half of the orbit, in front of unifonu
breadth, only slightly broader at the penultimate sub-
orbital bone, the hindmost suborbital bone, on the
other hand, being small and triangular. Tlie tip ot
the snout is sharp (shallo\\) but truncate, with a slight
indentation at the middle. The length of the slender
interinaxillaries is equal to the vertical diameter of the
ejes. The maxilhiries are formed as in the preceding

20—23 'i of the length of the body excluding the caudal fin.

About 7 "o (according to Lilljeboro nearer 8 ?») of the length of tlie body excluding the caudal fin.

According to Liljeborg 32 % of the length of the head from the tip of the lower jaw.

BOREAL 1'i;aki,-sii)i:.

93?

species, but arc curved in ii .sabre-lii<e fasiiioii tlirough-
out their length, and their suppieinentary bone, which
is elliptical behind, projects in front in a tip that ex-
tends to a line with the anterior part of the preorbital
bone. Their median Ijrcndtli is ratlier more than Vs
of tiieir length, wiiich is equal to that of the lower
jaw, and less than 15 % of that of tlie bodj' or than
16 % of the Ictigtii to tlic middle (if the base of the
caudal tin. In this last relation we iiave a character,
constant to the best of our knowledge, to distinguish
this form from tiic Mediterranean MauroUcits ame.tlujs-
tino-pi(iict(iiiis, which is otherwise deceptively like 31.
MiiUrii. Tiie liranches of tlie lower jaw are deep, but
have an arcuate U))per margin; and the symphysis is
shallower than in Aiy/ijropeleciis Olfarsii and has a
feeblv developed chin-j)rotuberance, which liowever pro-
jects distinctly, when the mouth is closed, beyond the
tip of tlie snout". As in Arf/i/ropch'cufi Olfersii, a
sharp ridge runs along the outside of each half of the
lower jaw, parallel to the thin inferior margin. The
liraiiches of the lower jaw approach rather near to
uarli other at the inferior margin behind; but in front
(behind the symphysis) the space between them widens
into a clavate mentum (chin-space). The feeble den-
tition of the mouth consists of small, pointed teeth,
set in a single row and of uniform size, on the inter-
maxillaries, on the hind (free) part of the lower edge
of the maxillaries, on the upper edge of the lower jaw,
as far as it is free when the mouth is open, and in
an arcuate transverse row on the head of the vomer.
There is no tongue; Init tlie anterioi' (lower) part of
the basihyoid bones forms a transversely-set rim, rising
within the mouth like a tongue. The upper palatal
fold is extremely narrow, the lower better developed.
The psendobranchia' ai-e rather large, but consist of
only 'J or 10 transversely-set, tilamentous lainelhe.
The gill-rakers are set in one row, pointed, rather
long, and so dense that they number about 30 on the
front of the lirst branchial arch. The tirst gill- slit is
long, the others rapidly decrease in length. The outer
gill-openings are large in this species too, the two
branchiostegal membranes being hardly at all coalescent.
Above they extend to a level with the upper margin
of the eve, below to a line with the anterior extremity

of the pref)rbitMl bones. Tlie branciiiostegal rays are
10, the first <'xtremel)' small, the others slender, ex-
cept the last (uppermost), which is broad and sabre-
shaped. Among the thin bones of the opercular appa-
ratus both tiie operculum and suboperculum ai-e (pia-
drilateral, rectangular, the former being rather more
than twice as large (deep) as the latter, but with the
upper posterior angle rounded. In the lower margin
of the suboperculum there is a rounded indentation.
The interoperculum is more oblong, growing narrower
in front, and lies along the lower arm of the pre-
opercidum. The preoperculum resembles a somewhat
o])en (obtuse-angled) carpenter's stpiare, witii lioth arms
of nearly ecpial length.

The dorsal tin is trapezoidal, with the upper pos-
terior margin rapidly sloping. It begins at a distance
from the tip of the snout measuring about 55 — 48 %
of the length of the body. The length of its base is
al)out 9 — 7^2 %, its height in front about lOVg — 12 %,
of the length of the body. The adipose tin, situated
above the posterior part of the anal tin, is long and
low, as in Argi/ropeleciis Olfersii. The anal fin is much
longer than the dorsal, but so deeply incised at the
margin that its anterior part is almost similar to the
latter fin, though much lower, while its posterior part
is very lo^v and of uniform height, only the last rays
being slightly prolongated. Its distance from the tip
of the snout is about 63 — 60 %, its base about 18',\.
— 20 ?'6, and its greatest height about ' \„ of the length
of the body. The caudal fin is forked, though not so
deeply as in Arciyropelecus Olfersii; its middle rays
occupy about 7 — 8 % of the length of the body'. At
the upper margin we have found 8 supporting rays, at
the lower 5. The pectoral fins ai-e bluntly pointed,
semiov-al. Their length is about 16 — 14 % of that of
the body. The ventral fins are oi' almost the same
shape, but much shorter, their length being about 9 —
10 % of that of the body, and only slighth' greater
than or even ecjual to the diameter of the eye. They
are set at a distance from the tip of the snout measur-
ing about .)2' 2 — oO'/g ?o of the length of the body,
sometimes a little in front of, sometimes behind the
perpendicular from the beginning of the dorsal fin.
The preabdoniinal length is about 30 (31\/,,— 29'/.,) %

" Both the maxillariis and thi- lower jaw are so tlihi and transjiarent that the wh<ilc of tlie former and tin- iippir |uist<-ri(.r part of
tlie latter are invisible in v. Wrights tisfuri'.

' In V. WRinin's ligun-. which evidently represents a fresh and perfect spe<inien, the caudnl fin is much less forked than in our
Bpecimens.

934

SCANDINAVIAN 1-ISIIliS

of the length

tlie i)ost;il)duiiiiii:il al)out lO (11 — 9)
of tlic body.

The whole l)ody, forward to tiic interorhitnl space,
is covered with extremely thin, transparent, rather
liir^c, and rounded scales, somewhat higher than long,
and with scattered, concentric strinB on the posterior
part. There is no special lateral line, the scales of
the median line being without pores.

The luminous spots are distributed in the same
manner as in Armiiopelecus Olfersil, but more regu-
larh'. A comparison witli Cocria orata shows most
cli'arh' of all that tlicy lie in three rows, though the
middle row should probably be regarded as a raniifi-
cation of the lowest, or rice versa. The uppermost
row begins at tiie extreme front of the cliin, and in
Coccia runs back without a break along the l)ranches
of the lower jaw and on the branchiostegal membrane,
one spot being situated between each pair of branchio-
stegal rays, till the membrane coalesces behind -with
the interoperculum and suboperculum so completely
that the luminous spots apparently lie on the inner
surface of these bones. Above the row, on the inside
of the lower preopercular angle, we find one spot,
suggesting an upward ramification of this row. In the
Pearl-side the row is interrupted along the bi-anches
of the lower jaw, only two spots, probably answering
to the second pair in Coccia, appearing on the soft
cliin-space, and further ])ack each of the branchiostegal
membranes is furnished with 6 spots, which shine through
the maxillaries and the horizontal (anterior) arm of the
preoperculum. ( >n the inner surface of the opercular
apparatus the remaining spots are the same as in
Coccia". The lowest row of luminous spots starts from
the anterior extremity of the isthmus, in Coccia quite
at the mental angle, where the two lateral halves of
the first mentioned row meet, and follows the ventral
margin, in this genus without interruption, merely
forming a curve at the beginning of the anal fin, back
to the lower corner of the base of the caudal fin. But
in front of the base of each pectoral fin and above this
I'ow, lies one spot, suggesting an upward I'amification
of the row, and on a level with the last-mentioned
spot runs the upper venti'al row, pair by pair with the
spots of the lower row, and unbroken in Coccia to a
line with the beginnino- of the anal fin. In the Pearl-

side the lowest row l)egins similarly at the anterior
extremity of the isthmus; but this extremity is situated
further back, iiardly in front of the perpendicular from
the ant(M'iiir margin of tiie eye, and the row runs on
each side of the body, in an upward cur\e containing
6 luminous spots, towards the base of the pectoral fin.
At the ventral margin between tlie last pair of these
spots, begins the true (lower) ventral row, which should
thus be regarded here as a downward and backward
ramification of the isthmian row, and runs on each
side of tile body to the lower corner of tiie base of
the caudal fin. This row contains 4.3 spots, the pair
at the base of each ventral fin (the IStii and 14th in
the row) somewhat oblicjueh- arranged, and the remain-
ing 4 on the postabdominal region fVirming a slight
upward curve. A slight break in the row occurs at
the beginning of the anal fin (between the 18th and
19th spots), and a similar break at the end of the same
fin (between the .34th and 35th spots). The upper
ventral roAv of luminous spots, which in the Pearl-side
— to judge, at least, by its direction and the form of
the spots — is a more immediate continuation of the
istliniian row, begins in the upjier |)art of the axilla,
and runs, containing 9 spots, to a line with the base
of the ventral fin, from which point it is interrupted
throughout the postabdominal region, but re-appears
in a single spot above the beginning of the anal fin.
The spots in tiie u])per ventral row, those between the
branchiostegal rays, and most, if not all, of the pos-
terior spots in the isthmian row, are oblicjuely cut and
pi'olongated in a downward direction (see above, p.
921, with note a).

The coloration of the Pearl-side is almost tlie same
as that of the smaller Herrings, a lustrous silver}' white,
but dark, shading into blue on a greeiiisli ground, on
the liack and the top of the head. So long as the
scales adhere, they give the sides of the body a tinge
of yellow. The black rims of the luminous spots stand
out sharply from the pale bluish (in spirit-preserved
specimens yellowish) lustre of their interior; and where
these rims touch, along the base of the anal fin and
the inferior margin of the tail, there appears a coal-
black band. The end of the tail itself is of the same
colour as the back, and outside (behind) the tail a
narrow, black liand crosses the base of the caudal fin.

" Tlie luminous spot wliifli Mokeau (Wat. A'at. Poiss. Fr., tome 3, p. 511) observed in MmiroUcus amethi/stino-punctatus on eacli
side of tlie snout, near the nostrils, we have not been able to detect in our preserved specimens of the Pearl-side; but it is distinctly shown
in V. Wiught's figure, small, but prolongated along the lower margin of tlie anterior part of the preorbital bone.

HdKEAL PKA1!L-Sini;.

935

All the lins are light and traiisparont, with only the
uiitc'ri<ir margin or, in the caudal fin, the two outer
I margins, of fli<' same colour as the liack, or dark.

Ot' the internal organs we shall mereh' remark,
after Uay, that the stomach is cieeal, the dnodeiunn
furnished with 8 rather large pyloric appendages, and
the whole intestinal canal forms only two convolutions.
The testes and ovaries are paired and long.

The Pearl-side is a gregarious fish, and tliough it
1 is most often met with in solitarj- specimens among
small Herrings (Sprats and Herring-fry), it also appears
in shoals of its own, instances of which have been ob-
served on tlie coasts both of Fiiunark and l']nghuid.
Like Ariijifopdccus Olfersii, it is a ])elagic and noc-
turnal iish tif extensive geograi)lucal distribution. It
I has been found on both sides of the North Atlantic,
I and differs but slightly, if indeed it be specifically
distinct, from Mautolicus a))iethi/sfuio-piindafiis, a Me-
diterranean species with which GCnther has combined
MaiirolicKS (iKsfralis, a New Zealand form described
by Hecti Hi.

\\'ithiii the limits of the .Scandinavian fauna the
Pearl-side was first discovered by Strum off SondmOr,
and on the Swedish coast it was first taken by Nilsson,
near Gothenburg, in a seine drawn for small Herrings.
It has since been found at many points, both in Bo-
husliin and Norway, cast ashore by the waves, or in the
stomach of Cod and Herring". South of Bohuslan it is
unknown on the Swedish coast, and only one find has
been recorded on the west coast of Denmark, consisting
of a specimen lying on the shore at Hjorring in the

north of .lullaiid. On the Norwegian coast it is much
commoner, north to llaminerfest, and ascends the fjords,
in the La iig, one of the Finmark fjords, east of Tromso,
there appeared in 18tj6, according to CoLLETr, a whole
shoal of Peai'l-sides. They could be scooped up in
bucketfuls from the surface, and at least 50 .specimens
were pi-eserved. Similar shoals have been seen on the
coasts ol Great I'lritain and Ireland, in the North Sea,
the Channel, and tiie Ii-ish Sea. According to Edwakd'
the Pearl-side is a regular winter visitor off lianff,
never failing to a]j])ear in the; month of January; and
from January to Mai'ch Mr. Sim gathered in two years
nearly 2(J0 specimens on tlie shoi'e near Aberdeen. It
would thus seem to be most conunon to the north; on
the English coast south of \'orkshire only solitai'\' spe-
cimens have been found, and on the west coa.st of
France, as well as in Holland, the species is unknown.
On the east coast of N(jrth America it is stated to
occur but seldom.

The small teeth and fine gill-rakers of the Peai'l-
side show that it lives on minute animals. Tfie.se con-
sist principalh", we may assume, of the small crusta-
ceans (Entomostraca) that are so abundant in high
northern latitudes", and \vhich compose the chief food
of tlie Herring too, though the latter, as we have seen,
also preys, like Argyropelecus Olfersii, on the Pearl-side.

During winter, when the Pearl-side appears in such
numbers oft' the Scotch coast. Day examined its gene-
rative organs, and found the comparatively large eggs
and the milt almost ripe in February. We may hence
conclude that the spawning is performed in spring.

Subfamily S A U R I N JE.

Body of oiilif slii/lifh/ irrei/iilar Herrivg-forni, or more terete and elongated. Ventral margin more or less terete.

Cleft of tlie month large and horizontal or only slightly ascending. Internuuillaries extending to the termination

of the margin of the upper jaw. Teeth in the mouth of fairly uniform size. Preahdominal length less than the

postahdomincd. Snout shorter than the postorhital part of the head.

By the more forward situation of the \eiitral fins ceding ones, so far as regards the general rules for the
and the greater elongation of the intermaxillaries this ! development of the Teleosteous type in these respects,
subfamily is raised to a higher rank than the two pre- But in the first-mentioned character these fishes come

■" Teybom fciund a Pearl-side about 7 cm. long in tlie stomach of a female Herring measuring 311 mm. tliat was taken in a drift-
net off Vinga on the 8th Sept., 1885.
' See Day, 1. c, p. 51.
' CoLLETT also found in the stomach of the Pearl-side Culunus Jinmarchicus.

Scandinamnn Fishes. 118

936

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

nearer to the Herrings, and in Inminonsness they
are generally less developed. Several of them are
destitute of luminous spots, and the spots in the rows
most regularly jjresent, the ventral, are here, as a rule,
smaller and simjiler, whereas tlie spots of more irregular
occurrence are sometimes highly developed. Most of
these fishes have mai'ked predatory habits, but in tiiis
respect they are surpassed by the fourth subfamily,
the ChauHodontincB, which are distinguished l)y the
large canine teeth in the mouth, and which in the
situation of the ventral fins more neaidy approach
to the preceding subfarailv. The situation and deve-
lopment of tiir true dorsal tin separate this subfamily,

as well as the others, from the I'andepidhue, where
the said tin is small and set far back, and from the
Alepisaurhicc, where the dorsal tin extends almost
throughout the dorsal margin.

The name of Saurince has been coined by GuN-
thkk", after Saurus, a genus of extensive range in the
Mediterranean and the tropics. The subfamily is the
richest in forms among the Scopeloids, containing
about 50 species, which are distributed among 12 ge-
nera, M'ith or without luminous sjKjts, most of them
belonging to the deep-sea fauna, and some being pe-
lagic fishes. Within the Scandinavian fauna there
occur only two species of the

Genus MYCTOPHUM.
Bndji Ilcrriuq-shapcd, lateralhi compressed, covered irifh ratlicr Inrfle scales, and furnished irifli luminous spots.

As a generic name need onlj' be a name, and ac-
cording to the rules of the current nomenclature must
be recognised as such, even if it must be condemned
on linguistic principles, the name of Myctoplmm has
the right of priority, though its formation is erro-
neous or the result of a misprint. Nyctophus'', the
name \vhich Cocco afterwards" suggested as the cor-
rect one, was probably the form which Rafinesque''

intended to wi-ite; but an alteration seems hardly ne-
cessary. The genus has been best known under the
name of Scopelus (Cuvier, 1817'')i from \\-hich tlie name
of the \\-iiole family has been coined, though as a ge-
neric name it must be rejected.

The genus contains about t\\'enty species of noc-
turnal surface-fishes from the open seas of tropical and
temperate latitudes.

" Cat. Brit. Mils., Fish., vol. V, p. 394.

' Night-light, Gr. yt'l and (fug.

' N. Ann. Sc. Nat., An. 1. Tom. 11 (Bologna 1838), p. 180.

'' bid. d'ltlinl. ^icil, 1810.

' Rigne Animal, ed. 1, toiii. II, p. 169.

SC()1'EI.0IDS.

937

THE GREATER SCOPELUS.

MYCTOPIIUM ELONGATUiM.

Fig. 234.

Base of the dorsal jiii loiu/er fluni that of the (uial u)ul more titan ', ., of the leiiqth of the body. Length of
the pectoral fins less than that of the ventral, than either the preahdominal length or the postahdominal , and than
half the length of the maxillaries, ichich is about half the distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout
or a little greater. Longitudinal dinnieter of the eges less than half (< '/,,?) of the postorbital length of the
head, which is more than ^\, of the entire length thereof. Least depth of the tail more than 8 % of the length
of the body or than ^i^ of the greatest depth of the latter. Scales of the lateral line slightly, if at all, larger

than those of the Itody in general.

^^...

/

I

^^^„«*-rrr^?'^>

*^'EA;tej;Sulii— -^.^

Fig. 234. Mi/ctophuin elongntum. together with the under side df its lower jaw. Natural size. From Trondlijeni Fjord. Specimen in the

possession of the Zoological Museum of Christiania University, o. b. f, three scales from the left side of the body, X 10. a, from the

row next below the lateral line; b, from the lateral line; e, from the row along the base of (he dorsal fin.

R.br.8;D.— ; A
19"'

L. lat. 43'. L. tr.

-;C. J! + 2 +(1.5— 17) + 2+,;

1.

Syn. Scopelns elongatus, Costa, Fna Regn. Nap., Peso., Malacott.,
Scop., tab. XXXV; Steind., Stzgber. Akad. Wiss. Wien.,
Math. Nalurw. CI.. Bd. LXXXIII, i (1881), p. 397; Storm,
Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondh. 1883, p. 30; Coll. (Myctophim),
N. Mag. Naturv. Clirnia, Bd 29. p. 104; Lillj. (Scopclus),
So., Norg. Fna, FM., vol. Ill, p. 25.
Lampani/ctim (ex Bonap.) resplendens, Richards., Voy. Ereb.,
Terr., Ichtlnjol.. p. 42, tab. XXVII, figg. 16—18; Gthr

(Scopelus), Cat. Brit. Miia., Fish., vol. V, p. 415; Coll.,
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1880, No. 8, p. .3 cum. tab.; Stokm,
1. c. 1879, p. 130; 1880, p. 78.

(?) Scopelus caudispinosus, Johns., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1863,

p. 42; Gthr, 1. c, p. 416; — Adn. tamen (sec. John-

^14 . . , .

sontum) oculos minores (long. diam. long, capitis), pinn.

dors, longiorem (longit. basis = ',q distantia? ex apice rostri;

77-7
long, capitis = longit. basis illius; longit. bas. pinna;

analis ^ -,'3 longit. bas. pinn. dors.; longit. postabdominalis
= '/o longit. bas. pinn. dorsalis).

1 8, according to Collktt.

17,

38(39) — 50, according to Collett.

938

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Scopeltis Kroi/erii, Malm, Forh. Skaud. Naturf. II. Kblivn 180O,
p. G17; Vett., Vitt. Samb. Haudl. Gbg., H. 8 (1863), p.
100; Gbijs, Boh. Fna, p. 534; SundstrOm, Fna Sveriges
Rij(j(jradsdj., p. 2G2 (descr. erron.)-

The Greater Scopeliis, the larger Scandinavian
species, attains a length of aliout 1.5 cm." As the
form of the Pearl-side reminds us of the Sprat, so the
Greater Scopelus resembles an Anchovy with shortened
snout. The body is rather elongated and compressed.
The greatest depth, wliich occurs at the ventral tins,
though the whole abdominal region is of fairly uni-
form depth, measures about ','5 (19 % in the only per-
fect specimen we have been able to examine) of the
length of the body, and the greatest thickness is about
'/5 of the greatest deptli. The dorsal contour descends
forward from the beginning of the dorsal tin in a gra-
dual curve to the tip of the snout; but the ventral
contour is straighter in front. The caudal contours
converge at ecjual angles and to such an extent that
the least depth of the body (in front of tiic caudal
fin) is about * „ (8'9 %) of its length, or about ^j^
(4(V() %) of its greatest depth. In front the dorsal
margin is convex, the ventral rather flat; behind they
are both about equally compressed, neither being sharp,
however, in front of the spine-like supporting rays of
the caudal fin.

The head is middle-sized, its length being '/^ of
that of the body; but the greatest part thereof is oc-
cupied by the temples (po.sterior cheeks) and opercula.
The postorbital part measures about 63 — 66 % of the
length of the head, and is of fairly uniform thickness,
the sides being almost parallel, liut slightly converging
in a downward direction. The forehead is slightly
convex, with a median carina between the anterior
parts of the eyes and on the snout, the sides of which
converge in front almost at a right angle. The eyes,
the length of which is someAvhat greater than their
height, are of moderate size in proportion .to the length
of the body", but large in proportion to that of the
snout, which measures at most about ^,'3 of their longi-
tudinal diameter. There are, we may almost say,
no true cheeks, only a thin and very low suborbital
ring separating the orbit from the upper ja^v; but the
lower margin of this ring is sharply marked both in

front and (very shari)iy) behind, and entirely conceals
the maxillary throughout the greater part of its length,
Avhen the mouth is closed. The orbital margin is also
sharply defined and especially ])rominent above, where
it rises at the anterior angle to the frontal plane. The
slightly convex interorbital space is rather broad, though
it becomes narrower in front; at the middle of the eyes
it is equal to, or even greater than, their longitudinal
diameter. The nostrils on each side of the snout lie
on a level with the centre of the eye, just in front of
and below the projecting margin of the anterior frontal
bone, which forms the anterior orbital margin, and are
separated f)nly by a thin dermal septum. The mouth
is large, as in the Anchovy, and the horizontal cleft
thereof extends throughout the greater ])art of the
length of the head, the length of the upper jaw from
the tip of the snout being 77 — 79 %, the length of the
lower jaw 80 %, of that of the head. The margins of
both jaws are straight and without lips. When the
mouth is closed, onl}' the narrow intermaxillaries are
visible in front, forming the whole margin of the upper
jaw, from the very tip of the snout, where their hardly
perceptible nasal processes meet the rostral tip of the
ethmoid bone. Aljove them lie the maxillaries, which
are thin and show comparatively little, though gradual,
expansion behind. The latter do not extend quite so
far back as the intermaxillaries, a break being thus
formed at the hind extremity of the up])er jaw. The
lower jaw, which projects as far as the upper, resembles,
as a whole, a flat l)oat, when its two branches adjoin
to each other beneath. Their lower margins are in-
curvated, so that they cover the isthnuis underneath
throughout its length, with only a narrow, longitudinal
opening between them. The jaw-teeth are small,
pointed, and of uniform size; they are set in a dense
card, narrow but slightly broader at the anterior ex-
tremitv, throughout the margins both of the up]icr
jaw (the intermaxillaries) and the lower. They also
extend over the outer surface of these mai'gins, rendering
it rough even when the mouth is closed, the inner sur-
face, on the other hand, being smooth. Similar teeth
are set on the long palatine, the entopterygoid, and the
epibranchial bones, the upper and lower pharyngeals,
and the whole series of the cojiular parts of the hyoid

"16 cm., according lo Johnson, assuming tbat it is tlii.s species wliicb be bas described.

* Tbeir longitudinal diameter measures in adult specimens about 6' o % of tbe Icugtb of tlie body, 23 — 26 °i of tbe entire lengtli
of tbe bead, and 37 — 39';'2 % of tbe postorbital length of tbe head.

(JHEATKU SCOPKI.US.

939

Ikiiic. TIhti' is no 1nu! tongue, but tlio cartihiginous
tj|i 1)1' the liiijiu.'il hone is rather high and pi'oinincnt
rjii'lit in till' ;ini;ic lictwccn the braiieiies of tli<' lower
JMW. Here the h\'oi<l arch of each side is nitached,
and just behind it the first branchial arch, the inferior
part of which is so long that it extends behind the
branches of the lower jaw. The anterior gill-slits are
also ver\- large; but the last (fourth) branchinl arch,
with onh' one row of lamelhr, is united throughout
the greater part of its length to the shoulder-girdle,
the hindmost gill-slit thus being quite short and open
only below. The gill-rakers are setiforiu. The outer
row on the first braiiciiial arch contains aliout 25 gill-
rakei's, 17 of them belong to the lower, front part of
the arch. The pseudobranchia? consist of a longitudinal
row containing about 22 transversely set, filamentous
lamella- on the inner, upper surface of the hyomandi-
bular bone. The opercular apparatus is considerably
prolongated in a backward direction. The preoperculum,
which has no lower (forward, horizontal) arm, lies, as
in the Anchovy, in an oblique, back\vard and down-
ward direction. Behind, this bone expands into a thin,
dermatoid, membranous margin, which lies over the an-
terior part both of the operculum and the suboperculum,
and this membranous margin is covered with scales
pierced by a branch of the lateral line. The shape of
the quadrangular operculum is adapted to that of the
jireoperculum, the former Ijeing also oblique, rhombic,
and obliquely set, in the same direction as the preoper-
culum. The hind extremity of the opercular apparatus
is formed by the upper posterior corner of the trian-
gular suboperculum, the lower posterior side of which
is indented, and at the lower angle of which lies the
small, rounded, and scale-shaped interopereulum. The
black branchiostegal membrane of each side is entirely
separate from that of the other side, but is closely ap-
plied and united by connective tissue to the inner sur-
face of the branch of the lower jaw, thus forming, as it
were, a lining thereof, and hardly projecting beyond its
margin. The eight slender branchiostegal rays increase
in length backwards, but are comparatively short. On
the hyoid arch lie the three luminous spots that shine
through the branch of the lower jaw, the first at the
base of the foremost three rays, the second on the space
between the fifth and sixth rays, and the third on the
membrane between the bases of the seventh and eighth
rays. The gill-opening on each side extends upwards
beyond the superior margin of the operculum, and the

distance from the tip of the snout to the upper angle
of each gill-opening is equal to the postorbital length
of the head.

The true dorsal fin is I'ather large and of a quad-
rangular shape, with undulating upper posterior margin.
The tin begins at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring about 38 % of the length of the body. The
length ol' its base is about 28 %, and that of its longest
ray (the fourth or fifth) about 18 ?», of the length of
the body. The first four rays are sinqde — the first
ray, which is very small, also unarticulated. Among
the remaining rays the anterior (13 or 14) are branched
only once and at the tip, the posteu'ior (6 or 5) twice
and more deep]}'. The adipose fin, which is short but
rather high, only slightly lower than the hindmost dorsal
rays, lies about half as far from the dorsal fin as from
the first upper supporting ray of the caudal. The anal
fin is similar in shapes and structure to the true dorsal,
but much shorter, with only three simple ra3s at the
beginning. The first ray is so small that it easily es-
capes attention, and the third is the longest in the whole
fin, or equal in length to the first branched ray. The
distance between the l)eginning of the anal fin and the
tip of the snout is about 54 %, and the base of the fin
measures about 20 %, of the length of the body, the
base thus terminating a little l)ehind the perpendicular
from the adipose fin. The height of the anal fin (the
length of the third or fourth ray) is about 1 6 ?o of the
length of the body. The caudal fin, which is deeply
forked, is remarkable in this species too for the short
but strong supporting ra^■s, true spinous rays, that arm
the dorsal and ventral margins of the tail in front of
the true base of the fin. In the only perfect specimen
within our reach there are both above and below 10
spinous rays, gradually increasing in length behind, and
2 articulated but simple rays, the first about one-third
as long as the second, wdiich extends nearly to the tip
of the fin-lobe. The remaining 16 rays are articulated
and branched, the middle ones about one-third as long
as the outermost, and measuring about 7 % of the length
of the body; but the base of the fin is covered at the
sides, at least half-way along the fin, with elongated
scales, concealing the roots of the rays.

Among the ])aired fins the ])ectorals are jiointed.
shorter and narrower than the ventrals, which are rounded
and of average size. The length of the former is about
9 %, of the latter nearly 12 %, of that of the body.
The first (uppermost) ray in the pectoral fins is simple

940

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

and only a little shorter than the second, which is the
longest in the fin and branched like the remaining 9 or
10 rays, which rapidly and regularly deci-ease in length
towards the bottom of the fin. In the ventral fins the
first (outermost) two rays are simple, the first ray
being, however, extremely small (rudimentarj'). The
second simple ray is but slightly shorter than the third
ray, Avhich is branched and only a little shorter than
the next, the length of which is equal to, or only a little
less than, that of the tliird and fourtii branched rays.
The other branched rays (5th — 7th) gradually decrease
in length. Along the inner margin of the last i-ay runs
a thickened growth of fin-membrane, with the appear-
ance of a defectively developed ray. The utider sur-
face of the ventral fins seems, like the sides of the
caudal fin, to be clothed with elongated scales.

The whole body is densely covered with scales,
which extend forward on the head over the whole intei-
oi'bital space, but are deciduous, the specimens taken
being generally scaleless, or with only a part of the
lateral line left. The scales (fig. 234, «) are thin, trans-
parent, and flexible, rather large and of equal size,
rounded or of a broad elliptical shape, set in the trans-
verse direction of the body (with the vertical diameter
greater than the horizontal); their nucleus is central;
they are furnished with dense concentric stri:v and a
few (4 — G) grooves radiating forwards and backwards.
These grooves, between which the concentric stria? (thick-
ened and elevated lines) are sharply curved, render the
anterior margin of the scale sinuate, the posterior (free)
margin irregularly erose. In the nucleus of the scale and
the immediate neighbourhood of the nucleus, as well as
in an angular patch coinciding with the margin of the
demnal follicle, the concentric striae are joined at right
angles by transverse sti'ia?, and in the hind (free) ]3a,rt of
the scale they are irregularly broken uj) here and there,
crossing each other in a network. The scales of the
lateral line (fig. 234, h) have a short, pear-shaped duct
at the centre of their outer surface, and are indented
in a heart-shaped form, but deeply, at tiie hind (free)
margin, by a narrow sinus, which widens, however, in
front (towards the centre of the scale) in a stilliform
manner. Pointed and elongated scales appear not onlj^,
as we have mentioned above, on the sides of the caudal
fin and the under surface of the ventrals, but also in a
row along the base of the dorsal fin, where they are
more or less deformed (fig. 234, c), as if they were
only half-scales, with laterally set nucleus and an in-

creased number of grooves (about 9) oblitpielv radiatincf
towards the anterior margin.

According to Costa's figure the coloration of the
whole dorsal side (including the upper part of the head)
and the lower posterior part of the tail is brownish red,
of the opercular apparatus shifting gi-een and black, of
the ventral side dark brown, of the sides of the head
silvery. The few scales still adhering to the specimen
kindly lent us from Christiania Museum suggest that the
silvery lustre extended throughout the sides of the body;
but where the scales are wanting, the skin of the sides
(in spirit-preserved specimens) is also brownish red.
Back from the occiput, sometimes to a line with the
adipose fin (according to Storm), there run on each side
one or two rows of orange spots, caused, according to
CoLLETT, by the fact that each scale in the two rows
next above the lateral line bears a similar spot at its
tip. These spots are visible, however, though faint, in
the skin, after the scales have dropped off". Costa
figures some of them, along the base of the dorsal fin,
as luminous spots.

The true luminous spots are here (in spirit-pre-
served s]iecimens) of a greenish lustre. The largest on
each side lies on the lower part of the hind preoper-
cular margin. The three spots belonging to each hyoid
arch we have already mentioned. The remaining spots
are arranged, in the specimen now before us, as follows.
Behind the shoulder-girdle, down to the isthmus, where '
the lowest spot lies just behind the posterior extremity
of the lower jaw, runs a row of spots, the thii-d from
above being situated at the lo^\'er angle of the pectoral
fin. In front of the ventral fins (on the preabdominal
region) we find, on each side of the median line of the
belly, a row of 3 luminous sjjots, and up the side of
the body this row is continued obliquely backwards by
a spot just before the outer angle of the insertion of
the ventral fin and another set halfway up to\vards the
lateral line. Behind the ventral fins (on the postabdo-
minal region) there runs, on each side of the median
line of the belly, from the hind (inner) angle of the
insertion of the ventral fin to a line ^vith the anal aper-
ture, a row of 5 spots, and this row is continued up
the side of the body by 3 spots, the uppermost of which
is set on the lower ])ortion of a scale in the lateral
line. Along each side of the base of the anal fin is a
row of 9 spots, and on the lower part of each scale in
the lateral line above the end of this row there lie 2
spots. After a break measuring twice the distance be-

ARCTIC SCOPELUS.

941

fwccii cacli piiii" of spots in the row at the base of the
;inal tin, there follows, on each side of tin- lower eaiidal
iiiarniii, a niw "f •') spots, l)oth rows a])proaehiiig eaeli
other heliiiKl; and after new interruptions there lie, on
each side of tlie lower eaiidal niar_i;in, one sjiot just in
front of the foremost supporting ray of the caudal tin,
two at the side of the 4th — 7th supporting rays, and
one at tlie middle of the base of tlie lower caudal l()l)e".
The (ireater Seopelus is a rare species, of whicii,
wlicrever it lias apj)eared, only solitary individuals have
hccii found. It has most frec(uent]y been met witii in
Trondiijcm Fjord, most often in two inlets, Orkedal
Fjord and Gnlos, that run south, with a common en-
trance west of 'Frondiijem, from tiie main fjord, where
oniv one si)ccimcn lias lu'cn taken, at Uissen, a little
more to the west. All the five specimens secured by
Stokii in the winter of 1879 — 80 and the summer of
ISiSl measured 14' , cm. in length, and were taken in
Herring-nets. Furtiier sontli, in tlie Skager Hack, two

specimens have been found. Ekstrom received the one
(Malm's Scopeluf< h'nii/ciii) in April, 1856, from a fisher-
man \\1k) iiad f )un<l it in the stomach of a Cod taken
on 11 long-line neai- the Skaw. The other specimen
was procured at Strrnnstad by iiaron Ckdkrstrom in
Api-il, l.S7(), and forwarded by him to the Royal Mu-
seum; it had been taken in the same manner in Koster
Fjui-d. ( »n the Atlantic coast of Europe the Greater
Seopelus has ne\er been met with further south, though
it seems to be one of the Herring's companions, and
might consequently be expected to occur there as well.
South of tile Herring's geographical range, however, it has
been found in the Mediterranean (off Sicily, from whicli
localit)' it was first described, by Costa; and off Nice, as
descrilied by STKiNDAcnxEii), oft' Madeira (according to
.Iohnson), and in the Gulf of Guinea (aeeoi'ding to Gun-
ther); but as yet it must be reckoned everywhere among
the rarest fishes. In its manner of life, which is othei'-
wise unknown, it proliabh' resend)les JlaiiroIicKS MiiUcri.

THE ARCTIC SCOPELUS.

M YCTOPHUM GLACI ALE.

Fig. 235.

Base of tlie dnrsal fin shorter than that of the anal, and less than V- of the leni/th of the body. Length of the
pectoral fins greater than that of tlie ventral, than either the preahdomlnal length or the postahdominal, and more
than ■'/j of tlie length of the maxillarles, irltleh is pereeptihlg less than half of the distance between the dorsal fin
and the tip of the snout. Longitudinal diameter of the eyes more than half (> ^/j.^) of the postorbital length of
the head, which is less than ^/-^ of its entire length. Least depth of the tail less than 8 % of the length of the
body, or than "/^ of the greatest depth of the latter. Scales of the lateral line perceptibly larger than the others.

¥"

Fig. 235. Mtjctoplnim glaciate, fogctlier with tin- under surface of its lower jaw. Xatural size. From Hardaiigcr Fjord.

Specimen in I lie possession of Bergen JIuseum.

R. br. 8 : D.

2 3 1 2

-.A.'' ; P. — ; r. -; C. ,r + 2 + 1 7 + 2 + x;

Lin. lal. 36; Lin. tr. I; Vert. 36^
4

.S'y/i. (?) Labrus e.votetus, Fabk., Fun Groenl., p. 16C (vide Jon-
GENSEN, apud Krov.).
Sropebis glacialis, Reinh., Vid. Selsk. Naturv., Math. Afh., vol.
VI, p. CX; vol. VII, p. 126; Kr. in Gaim., Votj. Scand.,

" Just in front of each eye, within the orbit, lies a light-coloured mass, with black limits, and similar to a luminous spot, though it
18 perhaps simply analogous to the growth of adipose niemhrano common in the Salmons and Herrings. To avoid damaging the specimen,
we have refrained from examining this mass. It calls to minil, however, the large, composite luminous organ that appears on the snout of
Scopelu.<< metopoelampus etc.

'' A. 16, according to Day.

' According to Kroyer.

942

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIKS.

Lap., cett. Poiss.. tali. Ifi, fig. 2; Id., Naturli. Tidskr. Kblivn,
ser. 2, vol. II, p. -I'M); Xii.ss., .'ikatid. Fna, Fish, p. 483;
GtiM!, C>it. Brit. Mi(.^., F/.o//., vol. V, p. 407; Id., Dee]}
Sea Fish., Chall. E.xpod., p. 196; Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Nntiirli.
For. Kbbvn 1891, p. 203".
Scopelus MiilUri, Coll. (nee Gmel.), Forh. Vid. Selsk. Cliniia
1874, Tillsegsli., p. 1,52; 1878, No. 4, p. 23; No. 14, p.
104; 1879, No. 1, p. 84; Id., N. Nordh. Exped., Zool.,
Fiske, p. 158; (?) Br.-Goode, 15ean, J3u11. Mus. Comp. Zool.,
Ilarv. Coll., vol. X, p. 222; Bk.-Goode, Fisher., Fisher.
Industr. U. S., tab. 203; Day, Nature, vol. XXXIV, Oct.
14, 1886, p. 571; (?) A. Agass., Bull. Mus. Comp Zool.,
vol. XV, p. 33, fig. 219; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fish.,
vol. Ill, p. 20.

The Arctii' Scopelus seems never to attain the size
of the pveceding species. Kkdyeii had specimens from
Greenland 46 — 96 mm. in length. The only specimen
we have been able to examine, kindl)' lent us Ijy the
Museum of Bergen, lias probably measured 77 or 78
inm., though its length cannot be stated with certainty,
tlie caudal fin being Ijroken off sliort.

The difference from the Greater Scopelus is mani-
fested in the very form of the body. The body is
deepest at the occiput or just behind this point; and
the depth then decreases almost rectilineally to the base
of the caudal tin, the profile of the head being arcuate
both above and below, with the tip of the snout about
half^vay up. The body is also thickest at the occiput
and shoulders, growing regularly thinner towards the
base of the caudal fin. The sides of the body are flat
and parallel, back from the eyes. The dorsal margin
is convex, as ^vell as the top and bottom of the head,
but the under surface of the abdomen is flat. The
greatest depth of the body, in in-oportion to its length,
is only slightly greater than in tlie preceding species,
in our specimen little more than 21 ?o of the length
of the body excluding the caudal fin'; but the thick-
ness is perceptibl)- greater, nearly 1 3 '/g % of the length
of the body excluding the caudal fin, so that the great-
est thickness is here nearly '"''3 (63' o %) of the great-

est depth'. The least depth of the body, on the other
hand, is less, being only slightly more tlian ' 3 (in our
specimen 35"2 %'') of the greatest depth.

Owing to the short form of the body, the length
of the liead is also relatively greater, in dur specimen
29'2 % of the length of the body excluding the caudal
fin', in spite of tiie fact that the postoi'bital length of
the head is distinguished in this comparison just for
its smallness, measuring only lb % of the length of the
body excluding the caudal fin-', and but slightly more
than half (in our specimen 51'.5 %") of the entire length
of the head. The eye, on the otiier hand, is compara-
tively larger, its longitudinal and vertical diameters,
which are equal to each other, measuring ' ,„ of the
length of the body excluding the caudal fin''. In front,
at the round slope towards the snout, the forehead is
rather deeply concave, but furnished with the same
sharp, longitudinal carina at the middle as in the pre-
ceding species. The gape is smaller and somewhat more
ascending than in the Greater Scopelus. The difference
in size is indeed hai'dly perceptible in proportion to the
length of the body, the length both of the upper jaw
and the lower being V.-, of that of the body excluding
the caudal fin'; but in proportion to the length of the
head this difference is all the greater, the jaws here ex-
tending only a little behind the perpendicular from the
posterior orbital margin. The length of the snout is
more than ^4 (24 %■') of that of the jaws. The lower
jaw projects slightl}' beyond the tip of the snout, where
its point fits, when the mouth is closed, into a cavity.
The maxillary on each side extends a little further back
than the intermaxillary, the narrow hind part of which
lies outside and above the lower margin of the posterior
extremity of the former, which here expands into a
triangle, truncate behind, and thus forms the hindmost
portion of the margin of the upper jaw. The branches
of the lower iaw grow even further in\vards than in

" LuTKEN supposes witb Lilljeboiig that "Collett has shown tliat Strum's coinnuinicaliou to 0. F. MOller was based upon his
(StrOm's) drawing" ; whereas it appears, from Collett's own quotation from Str6m's manuscript, that the said communication must have had
reference to Maarolicus Mulleri. StrOm sent his figure and description (with Maiirolicus characters) to MOller "more than 20 years before
1791" (see Skrivt. Naturh. Selsk. 1793, p. 15); but did not discover his first specimen of Mi/ctophiim (jlaciale until 1774 (according to the
manuscript quoted by Collett).

'' Answering to 20' j % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 57 — 58 % in the preceding species.

'' Answering to about 46 % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 27 — 26 % in the preceding species.

/ Answering to 18 — 16 % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 62 — 66 % in the preceding species.

'' Answering to 7 — 6 % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 21 — 21','., % in the preceding species.

-' Answering to 15 — 18 % in the preceding species.

AHCTIf SriU'ELUS.

943

the preceding species, being almost entirely contiguous
when the mouth jiiid gill-openings are closed, the only
sijiice hetween tlicni then consisting of ;i lanceohitc giij)
at the exti-enu' tV(int. just hcliind the s>-nipl)vsis.

Tlie dentition of tlie mouth iind |)luir\ii.\ is \ve;iker
than in the preceding species, otherwise of similar tyjje.
The preopei'culuin is vertically set, slightly curved, with
the hind uifirgiu cxpnuded hut extremely thin. The
operculum, which is half free at the upper raai'gin, is
quadrangular with rounded coi'iiers and smaller than
the suboperculum, which lies belo\v and inside it; but
these bones, as well as the interoperculum, are so thin
and so densely covered with large scales that it is difti-
cult to determine the limits between them and their
shape without damaging the solitary specimen at our
disposal. The liranchiostegal membranes, with their 8
rays, are united to each other below and in front, but
onh' for a very short distance, to a line with the centre
of the eyes. The pseudobranchire are distinct and re-
gular. The gill-rakers resemble those of the preceding
species, and number 1(1 or 17 in the outer row on the
first branchial arch. The last branchial arch of this
s])ecies too is mostly coalescent with the clavicular arch,
the hindmost gill-slit being consequently very small.

In contradistinction to the preceding species, the
Arctic Scopelus belongs to a, subdivision of the geiuis,
proposed by GcxTHEii, in which the dorsal fin is shorter
than the anal. The former tin begins half-way along
tlie bod\' minus the caudal tin, at a distance from the
tip of the snout measuring about 51 %" of the length
of the body excluding the caudal fin. Its base measures
about 15 %' of the same length. Its first three rays
are simple; the first two unarticulated. According to
Krgyer's figure the fourtli t)r fifth riiy is the longest,
the posterior rays uniformly decreasing in length. The
adipose fin lies alidut half-way between the dorsal and
caudal fins, is broader (longer at the base) than in the
preceding species, and is supported by fine fibrils (flex-
ible, corneous rods) within it. The anal fin begins at
a distance from the tip of the snout measuring about

" Answering to 4 1 % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 30 'o in the preceding species.

' Answering to about 59 °i in the preceding species.

"' Answering to nbont 22 % in the preceding species.

' Answering to 7 — 8 % in the preceding species.

•^ Answering 1o nearly 10 % in the preceding species.

' In the preceding species about twice this breadth.

* .\nswering to nearly 13 ;i in the preceding species.

.\nswering to about 13' ., % in the preceding species.

Answering to nearly 18 °i in the preceding species.

Scnn,/;,iOi-/rin Fishes.

54',., %' of the length of the body excluding the caudal
fin, and its length is about 24 %'' of the same. The
first two rays are simjile and unarticulated, the first
ray being very small. The bi'anched rays, accordingly
to Kki)Yki;"s figure, decre.isc uniformly and slowdj' in
length behind. The shajie of the caudal fin cannot be
ascertained from (jui- specimen; but the fin has certainly
been deeply forked, miuI the length of its middle rays,
here as well as in the preceding species, differs but
little from thi' intei-oi-bital width, being nearly G\/„ %'
of the length of the body excluding the caudal fin. In
oiu- specimen we find 8 supporting (s|)inous) rays at the
upper margin of the caudal fin and fi at the bjwei-.
The pectoral fins, which are set obliquely and rather
high, are narrow, but very long, measuring 18 %■'' of
the length of the body excluding the caudid tin. The
ventral fins, which lie rather near each other, the di-
stance between them l)eing scarcely equal to the breadth
of the base of either fin", are shorter than in the pre-
ceding species. Their length is Vio* of that of the body
excluding the caudal fin. Their distance from the tip
of the snout, here as in the preceding species, is about
'/n, of the length of the body excluding the caudal fin.
The distance between them and the foremost point of
the base of the pectoral fins (the preabdominal length)
is '/j', and that between them and the beginning of
the anal fin (the postabdominal length) about 15 %\
of the length of the bodj^ excluding the caudal fin.
The shortening of the body in this species, as opposed
to the preceding one, thus affects in the most essential
degree the abdominal region.

The scales are t'omparativelj^ larger than in the
preceding species, but equally thin and of essentially
the same shape and texture. The greatest difference
meets us in the scales of the lateral line, which are
considerably higher (broader). A scale from the middle
of the lateral line in our specimen is 2'1 mm. long and
5'8 mm. broad. Its anterior (inserted) margin is rather
evenly rounded (not triangularly pointed at the middle,
as in the jjreceding species), with only faint sinuses, and

944

SCANDINAVIAX FISHES.

its hind margin is witliout the deep, narrow incision,
though according to Kroykk's figure of this species the
incision is sometimes present in tiie lateral scales. On
the head the scales advance over at least the greater
])ai't of the interorbital space, and large scales, as we
have mentioned above, cover the whole opercular appa-
ratus. On the ])Osterior, exjtanded pai't of each maxil-
lar\" lies an ()l)lii|iielv lingiiifdrni scale (triangular with
rounded corners), entirely co\ i-ring this i)art; and the
bases both of the pectoral and ventral fins are covered
with several scales.

The true lumiiions spots are comparatively small
and have a yellowish lustre. The hind margin of the
preoperculum, at the limit between the operculum and
subo])erculuui, is furnished with a luminous spot, and
exactly below this jioint, at the U])[)er anterior angle
of the interoperrulum lies another. Through each branch
of the lower jaw there shine three sjiots. On each of
the clavicles tiiere are two spnts. < hie spot is situated
at the lower angle of tlie insertion of each pectoral fin.
From the istlunus to the ventral fins there runs on each
side of the ventral margin a I'ow of five sjjots. Between
the insertion of tiie -sentral fins and the beginning of
the anal fin this row is continued ]>\ fViur spots, and
along each side of the base of the anal fin b\' seven
more. Between the anal and caudal fins, which part is
damaged in our specimen, both Kkoyer and Collett
found six spots in a I'ow on each side of the ventral
margin. An u|)]>er row on each side of the body, in
the abdominal region and on a level witii tlie spot at
the base of the ])ectoral fin, contains three spots, all
belonging to the row of scales next below the lateral
line, the foremost of them situated at the end of the
prea-bdominal regi(jn, the other two in the posterior ]);irt
of the postabdominal region. On each side of the tail
tliere also runs a row of three spots, but this lies liigher
up, each spot lieing situated on the lower part of a
scale in the lateral line, the first sjiot above the S]>aee
between the first [>air in the row along the base of the
aual fin, the second in a, similar relation to the last
pair in the said row, and the third at the extreme end
of the peduncle of the tail. At the dorsal margin of
the tail, just in front of the upper supi)orting rays of

b2. ami Lendenkelp, Deep A'tn Fixli., CI

the caudal fin, traces appear in our specimen of a large,
composite, luminous spot, Leydig's T'erlfleck or Ferl-
f/idin'r Fleck". At the middle of the interorbital sjiace
lies a spot (an epiphyseal bodv or a parietal organ?),
which in Sropclus JRissol'', a nearly related Mediterranean
form, has even more of the appearance of a luminous spot.

The coloration of the body, accoi'ding to Kroyer,
is of a brownish green or an olive hue on the back, of
a brassy lustre on the sides (with a bright golden lustre,
according to Gray"), of a darker olive-green under the
lielh". The cavity of the mouth and the branchial ca-
vity, as well as the peritoneum, are black.

The internal organs have been descrilied by Kroveh.
The liver is short but thick, with three lobes, the left
one being the largest; the gall-bladder is small. The
oesophagus is short but wide, the stomach small Init
somewhat saccate. Behind the pylorus hang 8 rather
large ciecal appendages. Tiie intestine is straight but
rather wide. The saccate air-bladder extends about half-
way along the abdominal cavity, and is connected by its
pneumatic duct with tlie a'sophagus. The generative
organs lie as usual in the posterior half of the abdo-
minal cavity, and have complete efferent ducts.

The Ai'ctic Scopelus has long been known in the
Scandinavian fauna, but is still rarer than the preceding
.species. In 1774 a specimen was taken by Strom at
Sondmor; but since that occasion only 3 specimens have
been met with, to the best of our knowledge, on the
coast of Norway, and not a single specimen has ever
been found on tlie Swedish or the Danish ciiast. One
of the said 3 specimens — the very specimen which h;is
been kindly lent us from the Museum of Bergen — was
taken by Governor Christie about 1830, probably in
Hardanger Fjord; the second was sent from Haswig,
near Hammerfest, to Christiania Museum by Mr. Bull;
and the third was found by the Norwegian North At-
lantic Expedition in June, 1876, floating at the surface
on the fishing-bank of Storegg off Aalesund. The spe-
cies would seem to be commoner on the coast of Green-
land, from which locality the Museum of Copenhagen
has received several specimens, both from the nortjiern
and flic more southern colonies, and in the Arctic Ocean,
where the Norwegian North Atlantic Fxiiedition took it

Expeit., p. 302, The dcrsMl orgnns

" See Die Augenahnlifhe Onjfvie dcr Fixrlie, p.
or "stern-chasers" of Scopehis.

' Tliis species is siinilnr to Mi/rtnpliiiiii glaciale in most respects; hut tlic form of tlie body is still more slmrtenerl, especially as re-
gards tlie tail, the body thus hein,a: relatively deeper, and the liead larger, wliile the above-mentioned luminous spots belonging to tlie scales
in the caudal part of the lateral line are wanting.

' See Day, 1. c.

SAT,MO\-I,At:NrKS.

945

wliilc Ir.-iwliiii:' ill 1 ,1 00 fathonis of water (71° 59' N. lat.; j tlierc left (o tlic iiicrcy of wind and wave. Uiif this

s])ecies is, no doulil, a nocturii;d surface-fish as well,

1 1" lo' !■]. Ioiil:.), and Captain Ghay found it floatin;^- at
the siirficf, l.iil slid alive (7S°12' N. lat.; iri'S' W.
loiiu'.). W lu'lhfr it was the same sjieeies that was met
with in 1881) — H>'> l>v the United States' Fish Comniis-
sion "off ihe southern shores of New England" unil by
the JUdkc Expedition (34°— 41° N. lat.; fi5°— 75° \V.
idiij;., see Bi!nWN-(i(>oi)E and 1;)1-:ax. 1. e.), is (h)id)lfiil.
No deseriiition is extant of the specimens found on these

Nolunlarily rejiairing in the darkness to tlie u]i|)er strata
of tiie sea, for it has fre(|uently been fcjund off the
coast of (.ireeidand in the stounich of seals, which cnn-
not live in ihr true deep-sea regions. All that is known
besides of its manner of life is that it feeds on small
crustaceans, though not exclusiveh' on tlie most miinite
kinds, for ('oi,i.i"i"i' found in its stomach fragments of

occasions, and llie figures sho-w iniiiortaiit diil'erences ' an Ani|iliipod, 'I'ln'm/std lihclltila, wliich attains a lengtii

fmiii tlie Arctic Scopelus as descriljed above". i of 20 — 60 mm. The remaining food, as far as could

The large eyes of the Arctic Scopelus are iinmis- be determined, consisted of several specimens of an

tnknhle tokens of a life in deej) water; and most of tiie , Ostracod, ('onra'vid horealis, which, according to Saks,

specimens ha\e consisted of unlucky individuiils, liorne lias ne\cr I)een found nt a de])tii of less tlian /itIO

witii too great rapidit^• t<.) the surface of the ocean, and , fatlionis.

Sup.FA Mil V P A R A L E P I D I N JE.

Dorsal Jill sitinitcd considerahh/ beliiiid fJiv middle <>f Ihe Ixidif. Sninit Jmujcr tliaii tin- jiot<toiitital part of the head.
Pseudohranchice present: hut air-tjJadder and pi/Joric appciidafies a-anting, or tlie tatter present onJy in a rudi-

nientarji fann.

^^'ithin this subfamily GCnther'' includes two very
closely related genera of Ammodytes-\\\ie fishes, first
known from the Mediterranean, that were united into
one genus by Cuvier', and ranged among the Acantho-
ptcrygians beside SpliijrcBna, to which they also show
resemblances in form of body. The Salraon-Launces are
elongated and compressed (in general a foot long or less),
silvery, more or less transparent, pelagic fishes, of pre-

datory habits, as testified by the long and pointed
canines, with which their intermaxillaries, lower jaw,
and palatines are generally armed. Ten species have
been described or at least mentioned by name: five from
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic outside, three from
the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean, and two from
the Pacific. All these species, however, mav well be
contained within the limits of a sinjrle jrenus.

Giixus SUDIS'.

Of this genus one species is indeed known from the
high North, from Greenland and Iceland, namelj' Sudis
(Parfdi'jiis) tiorealis% which is described at length by
KiiovEU in the "Naturhistorisk Tidskrift", '2:den Kipkke,

en Scandinavie etc., Poissons, pi. 16, B, fig. 1. But in
Scandinavia this species has not yet been found. On
the other hand, Ku(»yek has given, in Fiedler and
Feddersex's "Tidskrift for Fiskeri", 2:den Aargang

2:det Bind, p. -241, and figured in (iAniAiii)'s T'o//rf//c , (1868), p. 70, a brief aecoinit of the discovery of a

" Both in Todd's figure (Bkown-Goodb) and in Agassiz' tlie dorsal fin begins much further forward than in the Arctic Scopelus, and
the adipose fin is high and short as in the Greater Scopelus. In Todd's figure the base of the anal fin is considerably longer, in Agassiz'
consideiabl}' shorter, than in the Arctic Scopelus. Along the base of the anal fin Todd's figure shows a row of 1.5 luminous spots, Agassiz'
only 6. The lateral line contains in Todd's figure 46 scales, in Agassiz' 35.

' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fisti., vol. V, p. 418.

' Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss.. vol. Ill, p. .35t5.

'' Rafinesqce. Cav. Ale. N. Gen., p. 60. Poralepis. Kisso, Hist. ^at. Eiir. Merid. loin. Ill, p. 472.

' Reinhakdt, D. Vid. Selsk. Naturh., Hath. Afli., veil. V. p. LXXV; vol. VII, p. lih. Prol.alily Vlupea e7icrasicolus, Fabr., Fit.
Groenl, p. 18.3.

946

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

SrDJS ATLAXTICUS,

which was found dead in May, 1865, where it had
been cast ashore near the Skaw. Two specimens are
said to ha\e been observed, after a violent storm from
the west; but only one was secured, and this reached
Kuoyer's hands in a greatly damaged condition. It
was a large fish, half a metre long, with much deeper
body than the other known species of the genus. The
greatest dejjth was contained only 7 times in the length
of the body. A manuscript published in part by LCt-
ken" after Kroyer's death further contains the remarks

that the length of the head was 21 "7 % of that of the
body, that the dentition of the mouth was compara-
tively feeble and uniform, that the articulation of the
lower jaw lay nearer to the perpendicular from the
anterior margin of the eye than in the Greenland form,
Sudis borealis, that the ventral fins were situated below
the true dorsal fin, that the adipose fin was compara-
tively remote from the caudal, that the pectoral fins
contained 15, the anal fin 20 rays, and that the scales
were small, numbering about 20 in a transverse row.

Fam. CLUPEID^.

Body of the well-known Herring form, hut more or less deep or elongated, more or less terete or compressed. Scales
middle-sized or small, thin, and generaUy deciduous. No luminous spots on the sides of the body. No adipose
fin. Margin of the upper jaw formed, hy the intermaxillaries in front and by tlie maxiUaries behind. No bar-
bels. Air-bladder simple or internally cellular; its communication trith the cranial cavity, where such a commu-
nication exists, without mobile osseous connexion. Branchial cavity usually furnished with large pseudobranchia.

Ovaries furnished n-ith oviducts.

No ])iscine familv is so important to man from an
economical point of view as the Herrings; and for the
systematist too this family possesses great interest.
Around it are grouped a number of families, foreign
to the Scandinavian fauna, that combine its characters
not only with preceding ty])es, but also with Ganoid
peculiarities. Soon after Muller, on the strength of
Vogt's investigations, had referred the genus Amia to
the Ganoids', where Agassiz" had previously ranged
Lepidosteus and Polypterus, which forms as M'ell as
Amia Cuvier'' included among the Herrings, Stannius'
sho^ved that the character upon which Muller had laid
special stress, the double row of valvules at the passage
from the ventricle of the heart to the bulbus arteriosus,
also appears in liufirinus {Albula), another of Cuvier's
Herring-fishes, which is still referred by some authors
to that family. Gegenbaur' showed — a thought which

had suggested itself to Mulli:i! — that the most essen-
tial difference in this respect Ijetween the Teleosts and
the Ganoids together with the true cartilaginous fishes
consists in the following circumstance. In the latter
the ventricle of the heart, with the transversely striped
muscles of its wall, is prolongated forward to a tubu-
lar, more or less conical chamber {conns arteriosus),
on the inner surface of which the valvules in their
more or less numerous rows are situated; whereas in
the Teleosts the heart is destitute of this prolongation,
the beginning (base) of the branchial artery that issues
from the ventricle being instead dilated into a bulb
{bulbus arteriosus), without muscles (with only elastic
wall) or with unstriped muscles alone in its wall.
Stohr' completed these observations by pointing out
the structure and disti-ibution of the rows of valvules
in different (Tauoids, Sturgeons, Chimajras, and true

" Vid. Meddel. Natiirh. For. Kbhvn 1891, p. 231.

' Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1844, p. 204.

' Recti. Poiss. Foss., torn. II, part. II, p. 1.

■' Begjie Animal, ed. 2, tom. II, pp. 327 — 329.

"■ Beinerkungen ilber das Verlialtniss der Ganoiden :u den Chipeide

J Jen. Zeitschr., Bd. 2 (1866), p. 365.

1 Morphol. Jalirb., Bd. 2 (1876), p. 197.

Kostoek 1846.

IIKKHINC-KISIIKS.

947

ciirtilajriiious fishes, representing different stages oF re-
(luitiiin. I'xiA.s" followed the same method with tlie
Tek'osts, showing that in l!iitiriiiiis then' is n <iistinct
rudiment of a (cii/iis <irterios/is, with transversely
striped muscles and t\vo rows of valvules, and that in
Osteot/lossiini — now the type of a separate family of
hard-scaled fishes whicii in otlier respects come near to
the Herrings — and X<itoj)tenis — belonging to a family
also nearly r(dated to the Herrings, l)ut with sc-alv
head and without o\iducts — the said rudiment is con-
siderably smaller and possesses only one row of val-
vules, answering to the front row in the ])revious fishes.
In the true Herrings the rudiment has almost entireh'
disappeared, and is replaced merelv by a layer of con-
nective tissue, without striped muscles; and tliis, as
we have already mentioned, is the t^pieal condition
in the Teleosts.

The essential resemblances between the skeleton
of the Herrings and that of the Salmons were remarked
by L. Agassiz. Hut in the former the skeleton is, as
a rule, more firmly ossified, and shows some remark-
able peculiarities in systematic and morphological re-
spects.

From a comparison between the skeleton of a Ven-
dace and that of a common Herring, it appears that
the same looseness prevails in the union of tlie lateral
parts both of tjie neural arches belonging to most of
the antei'ior abdominal vertebra' and the luemal arches
of the posterior abdominal vertebrte. The latter are
indeed closed throughout a considerable part of the
trunk, an osseous bridge joining the right shaft of the
arch to the left; but lower down the shafts again se-
parate, and the I'ibs are attached to each part of these
divided haemal spines. The vertebra? of the Herring
are further marked — as anyone who has eaten a Her-
ring knows — by the number of scleral bones deve-
loped in the tendinous walls (aponeurotic septa) between
the transverse divisions (myocommata) of the great
lateral muscles. A ])erfect abdominal vertebra (fig. 236)
has no less than three pairs of such bones, the first
(«a = epineural bones) attached to the base of the neural
arch or at the limit between that arch and the body
of the vertebra, the second (pa = epicentral bones) to
the body of the vertebra, and the third (phi ^epipjeural
bones) to the base (jf the ribs or at their insertion. In

the Safmonoids we find only one or two pairs of these
scleral bones, the uppei-most alone or in association with
tlie lowest. In most ('lupcoid forms the lower extre-
mities of the I'ilfs in general arc; applied to the innei-
surface of osseous growths from tlie skin, to whicli they
are, however, but loosely united. These growths belong,
as we have seen above in the case of the Sternopty-
I'lioids, to tlie median scak>s of the carinated ventral mar-
gin, the so-calleil \entral plates, with their spiniform
processes in a backwartl dii-ection (dh).

In the Herring too a great part of the chondro-
cranium is continuous. The long frontal bones (fig. 237,
fr) send out obli(|U(!l\' backwards and downwards, on
each side behind the oriiits, a large process, whicli runs
into the squamosal bone (squ and ffos in the figure, oft
■pteroticum), while the frontal bone itself behind touches
the parietal bone (par). Between the said three bones
on each side of the head flic ci'anial wall is pierced bv

N-/--

Fig. 2.S6. Alulmiiiii;]! verlelira of a Herring. After Beandt and Rat-
ZEBURG. ns, upper spinal process (neural spine); n, upper (neural)
arch; c, corpus; p, transverse process; pi, rib; «a, upper extracostnl;
pa, middle extracostal; pla, lower extracostal; dh, spiniferous plale
at the ventral margin.

the large and oblong temporal aperture (ap)'' charac-
teristic of the Herrings. This aperture lies in front of
the mastoid groove (temporal cavity), which is rather
large in these fishes as well as in the Salmons and Carps,
its bottom being composed of the squamosal bone, car-
tilage, and the mastoid bone (mt in the figure, os epio-
ticKiii), while its walls belong ])artlv to these bones,
partly to the lateral portions of the squamosal part of
the occipital bone (ncs). It is besides furnished with a
roof formed bj- a backward process from the parietal
bone (par), meeting a forward process fi'ora the mastoid
bone (mt). The greater part of the roof of the cranial
cavitv has lost its cartiia<!;e in the Herrino-, onh' a lon-

° Vid. Meddel. Natiirh. For. Kblivn, 1879 — 80, p. .^.=S:^.

' The temporal aperture sometimes occurs, it is true, in the Salmou (cf. Bbucii, Osteol. Rheinlachs, tab. IV, tig. .3, between 0 and z/), and
appears in the Smelt as a vestige of the great frontal fontanel in the cartilaginous cranium of young fishes. But it is tlicre covered by the frontal bone.

948

SCAXDIXAVI.W FISHES.

,iritudiiiiil hridgo thereof ruiiaiiig under the frontal suture
from the anterior extremity of the triangular squaniosal
(upper) part of the occipital bone forward to the trans-
verse epiphyseal bridge of cartilage. In front of the
latter bridge too the cartihiginous roof under the frontal
l)ones is wanting above the olfactory lobes; but further
forward, above the orbitosphenoid bone (obsj)), begins
the couipaet ethmoidal cartilage, extending f()r\^ar(l tn
tlie tip of the snout. The last-mentioned cartilage, \\ith
its two terete transverse ])rocesses on each side, one in
front of {^icna) and one behind {pcnp) the nasal cavity,
resembles that of the Salmons; but it rises anteriorly
in a carina, and its covering liones, tlie true ethmoid
bones, tiie vomer, and tlie lateral etinuoid bones (i'tl) are
more developed. The ethmoid bones proper extend over
the anterior transverse process of the cartilage {pcna,
the palatine process, on which the anterior extremities
of tlie palatines and, jiarth", of tiie maxillaries have
tlieir articular surfaces), and each of them sends out
backwards, on the upper surface of the cartilage, below
and between the frontal bones, a long ])rocess, extend-
ing to about a line with tlie middle of the orbits. The
lateral ethmoid lioiies (cfl), covering the hind transverse
process {pcnp) of the ethmoidal cartilage, spread like
wings on either side. The vomer (vom) is narrow and
long, being pointed behind and somewhat longei- than
the upper ethmoid liones. The parasphenoid bone (psp)
is i)riiicipally characterized by its coiuplete division into
two vertical plates behind the orbits, under the jietrosal
bone (the bone round goa, as prooticum) and the basilar
part (och) of the occijiital bone, and liv its great elonga-
tion in a backward direction, where it projects beyond
the last-mentioned bone. In the Salmons we found, it
is true, tliat the hind orbito-muscular canal -was rather
large and open behind; but here the canal is still larger
and entii'ely open, even below, its sides being formed liy
the vertical posterior plates of the parasphenoid bone
and coi'respondent lamelliforin processes descending from
the ])etrosal and occi])ital bones, \vhich in their turn
form the roof of the canal (see tig. 237, C).

As the temporal ajierture is a characteristic of tlie
upper part of the cranium in the Clupeoids, so we find
below a large and characteristic foramen (fen), covered
only by the mucous membrane of the branchial cavity
(upper pharynx). It occupies the point where the pet-
rosal bone and the basilar and lateral {od) parts of the
occipital bone would otherwise meet, and is separated
» Anat. Stud., Bd. I, p. GOO.

by a s]iecial osseous sejjtum (the bone round fiop) from
the foramen behind it (in the lateral jiart of the occi-
pital bone), through which the iierrus vagus passes out
of the cerebral cavity. Hasse" explains this foramen
(fcit) as "tlie tirst ai>pearance in the animal kingdom of
that most inijjortant organ, the vestibular window" (fene-
stra oralis), the communication between the vestibule
and the tvmpanic ca\it\- in the higher animals; and on
tlie inner side thereof lies the sdiridiis, belonging to the
nervous labvrintli, with the large otolith. The difference
from the Salmonoids stands out most sharply on a com-
parison of this part of the Clupeoid cranium with the
analogous ])ai't in the Smelt for example, -where the
foramen is rcjilaced on the under side of the cranium
l)y a large swelling, including the sacciihis. and formed
by the above-mentioned bones.

In the bones surrounding the auditory apparatus of
the Herring we meet, however, with an apjiendage of
which there is no vestige in the Salmonoids, but which
is probably analogous to the several lym])hatic chambers
in the neighbourhood of the ]al)\riiitli tliat have been
noticed in the skull and the front of tlie spinal canal
of the Cyprinoids, and \vliich there communicate ^\•ith
processes of the air-bladder. This appendage consists,
on each side of the skull, of three osseous globules (goa,
gos, and goji), tilled with air and lined with a thin, sil-
verv membrane. Their structure is more comjiact than
that of the neighbouring l)ones, and their white colour
renders them easilj' distinguishable. They all lie in
different planes, one above another; but from the lower
posterior globule {gop) runs an osseous duct, which rami-
fies and sends out a branch to each of the other two.

The foremost and largest of these globules (ijoa) lies in tlie pet-
rosal bone, just behind the passage for the nevviis trigeminus (ftr),
in the lateral part of the cranial floor, where the said bone sends out
its leaf-shaped process, down towards the parasphenoid bone, to share
in the structure of the side-wall bounding the anterior part of the hind
orbito-nuiscular canal. The outer posterior, uppermost globule (i/os),
whicli is skirted by the horizontal (outer), semicircular canal of the'
labyrinth, lies in the squamosal bone, just within the hind part of (htf
articular cavity for the hyomandibular bone and outside the opisthotic
bone {st, os opisthoticum or intercalare). The lower posterior globule Q/op),
the smallest and most elongated (clavate), is situated in the lateral part
of the occipital bone, between the foi-amcn of the nervus vayus (fv)
and the fenestra ovalis (fen), forming the very osseous septum between
these holes that has just been mentioned. The osseous shells of these
globules and its cavity are indeed continuous; but whether the cavity
of the membranous lining (sac) also affords at all times a free com-
munication between them, is a question which we must leave open,
for in one specimen we have succeeded in preparing the sac of the
lower posterior globule whole and, as far as w-e could see, witliout
any opening in front. The anterior globule (ijoa, the petrosal glolmle)

i

HKIililNd-KlSIIES.

94!)

is partly (soiiiewliat more tlian lialf) divided within by an incomiilete,
horizontal septum, only tlie sac of the lower part being thus continuous
with tlicise (if (lie oilier globnles, while the upper part (the part nearest
til the cranial c-avi(y), wliich is pierced behind by a transversely-set,
oblong- a|uTturo with a raised rim at the upper margin, is filled by an
extension of the lymph-space surrounding the nndilory apparatus. In
the anterior part of the globule, however, this extension lies close to
snd above the said sae. The osseous wall of the lower posterior glo-
bule (.gop). on the other hand, forms a tubular prolongation backwards

and downwards to a lino with the middle of the occipital bone, where
its inner sac is coTilinucd by a duct, with a more or less cartilaginous
coating, that joins the anterior extremity of the air-bladder, though
without free communication with the cavity thereof. All our attempts
— like those of Valenciennes" — to inject liquid either from the air-
bladiler to the said globule or in the reverse direction, have failed ;
but a line bristle may be passed with ease from the anterior osseous
globule (</o(>) and through the lower posterior {gop) into the duct and
down to tlie wall of the air-bladder..

T If \

spho

4- ^^

■ fUt^

ohsp alsp

spho

fen goj,

Fig. 2.37. Skull of a Herring X 2. .1 from the left; B from below; C from beh

H, ethmoid bone; com, vomer with its teeth; ell, lateral ethmoitl bone: pimt. anterior nasal process of the ethmoidal cartilage; /)oh/', posterior
nasal process of the same; /;•, ft; frontal bone; psp, psp, parasphenoid bone; obsp, orbitospheuoid bone; alsp, alisphecoid bone; splio, posterior
frontal bone (o.t sphenoticum); ap, temporal aperture in front of the parietal bone; par, parietal bone; mt, mastoid or epiotic bone; ocs,
squamosal part of the occipital bone; ocl, lateral part of the occipital bone; ocb, basilar part of the occipital bone; st, styloid, intercalary,
or opisthotie bone; fv, foramen of the tenth cranial nerve (nerviis vagus); fir, foramen of the fifth cranial nerve (jiervtis trigeminus); fen,
labyrinthine fenestra; jo<i. auditory globule of the petrosal bone (globulus osseus anterior); gos, auditory globule of the squamosal bone (gh-
hiilus osseus superior); gop, auditory globule of the occipital bone {globulus osseus posterior).

" Cuv., Vai,., Hist. Xat. Poiss., tome XX, p. 41.

950

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Bv means of these globules and the ducts between
thoiii tiie wall of the air-bladder (but not its cavity, at
least in full-grown Herrings") is connected with the
perilymphatic spaces surrounding the auditory apparatus,
and variations of pressure may thus be transmitted from
the former to the latter. Tlie connexion is, however,
comparativelj' simple, simjder at all events than in the
Cyprinoids, and, as we have mentioned above (p. 826),
this structure in the Clupeoids has consequently been
regarded from a morphological jioint of view as a pri-
mitive stage of development of the corresponding appa-
ratus in the Carp-tislies. Another characteristic of the
Clupeoids is the connexion of tiie air-bladder not only
Avith the stomach, into whose posterior, pointed extre-
mitv the pneumatic duct opens in the Herring, but also

behind the vent, may help us to explain the circum-
stance that the air-bladder is sometimes found filled to
distension with water^

The structure of the mouth is essentially the same
as in the Gwyniads. The shape and position of the
inlermaxillaries in particular show striking similarities
between the Herring and the Vendace. Here, however,
these bones are not applied so, closely to the maxillaries,
which are distinguished by the accession of a further
supplementar)- bone, situated in front of and (partly)
outside the posterior one, which, as well as the maxillary
itself, resembles in shape and position that of the
Gwyniads.

Among the remaining peculiarities of the skeleton
we will only touch upon the shoulder-girdle, which has

;,( \

Fig. 238. Left scapular arch and pectoral fin of a Herring. Natural size. ^4. from within; /J, from without.
pt, pu.stteinporal bone; sr.l, snpraclavieular bone; cl, clavicle; dp. ascending process from tlie anterior margin of the clavicle; sc, scapula;
ci; coracoid bone; per, pnecoracoid bone; pcli — 3. the several postclavicular bones; /;;•, brachial bones (inner row); lire, outer (distal) row

with the surrounding \vater, tlic hind part of the air-
bladder lieing continued bv a duct wiiicii opens 011 the
posterior side of tiie triangular dermal Hap forming a
prolongation of the hind margin of the anal aperture''.
The coimexions of the air-bladder with the nearest en-
viroiHuents of the labyrintli, and the large temporal
aperture, which interposes only a thin and soft wall be-
tween those environments and the surrounding water,
may well be the cause of the sensitiveness to noise so
highly characteristic of the Clupeoids. The communi-
cation with the surrounding water, through the opening

guided Parker'' to some morphological conclusions
highh- \\oi'tliv of attention. The postclavicle is not only
divided, as in the Salmon, into a row of separate bones
(in the Herring three, fig. 2.S8, B, i)c\, ^, 3), but also
situated outside the clavicle (cI), an arrangement known
only in the Herrings. How closely the shoulder-girdle
of the Herring is connected with the dermal growths,
a, sign of its primitive rank from a morphological point
of view (cf. above, p. 635), further appears both in the
thin, squamoid texture of the upper postclavicular bones
at the hind margin, and in the still more squamoid.

" That the globules and ducts are excrescences of the air-bladder and in an embryonic state freely communicate therewifh, seems more
Ihan prob.able; but we know of no direct observation on this head.

' Cf. Weber, De mire et anditu, p. 73; Bennett, Journ. Anat., Pliysiol., vol. XIV (1879 — 80), p. 405; Day, The Zoologist, ser. 3,
vo\. VI (1883, Jan.), p. 24.

' Cf. Cuv., Val., 1. c, ton.. XX, p. 70.

■^ Shoulder-Oirdle and Sternian, Roy Soc. 1868, p. 57.

IIKRUINCi-FlsllKS.

951

Icaf-shnped extoiisioii of tlie jio.stcrior |i;irt of the supra-
cliivick' (scl). OH wliich too tlie posttuinporal canal oF
the lateral line is sometimes coiiliniied. In the ajipa-
ratus of the pcrtor,-il (ins \\c lind a peenliarity other-
wise unknown amonu' the Teleosts, hut eharaeteristie of
the (ianoids, nauieU' the outer row (lire) of hraehials
(basal hones of the peetoi'al tins) possessed by the
Herring".

The organs of respiration are exceedingly well de-
veloped in the Cliipeoids: and they are protected as a
ride hv numerous am! long gill-i-akers. The pseudo-
hranehia' are large, and in many forms'' we iind t)n each
side a separate, a.ccess(n'y l>ranehial t-a\ity, resting on
the hindmost (fourth) epibranchial bone, \vhit:h is flat-
tened out into a plate for that purpose''.

The digestive organs are as a ride eomparativeh-
simple, as in the Salmons. In all tiie Scandinavian
Herrings the short a-sophagus passes without external
distinction into the stomaeli, which is iirolonged into a
sac and pointed behind; and from the anterior part of
this sac issues in a forward direction the more or less
muscular pvloric portion, bending back quite as sharply
to pass into the intestine, which is fairly straight and
runs without any convolutions to the \ent. In exotic
forms however — as for example in the Brazilian CIk-
pea aiiclioria — the wall of tlie p\ loric portion is some-
times thickened, in the same way as in the Mugiloids
(see above, p. 329), into a sort of ingluvies, and the
prolongated intestine forms several convolutions. Other
Clupeoid forms show no backward prolongation of the
stomach. The pyloric appendages are generally well de-
veloped, liut quite as variable as in the Salmonoids.
Even among the Scandinavian species the variations in
the number of ca-cal apjiendages behind (below) the
pjdorus are very great, the Spi-at for example having
(i — 13, the common Herring 20 — 24, and the Shads
ahout 80. In some exotic Clupeoids'' the anterior por-
tion of the intestine (the duodenum), into wliicli the
pyloric appendages open, is so greatly prolonged that
bunches of these appendages occur almost throughout
the length of the abdominal cavity. The mucous mem-
brane lies, as usual, in longitudinal folds within the
oesophagus and stomach; but in the intestine the folds,

which are most dexclopi'd, among the Seandina\ ian Clii-
|)euids, in the Shads, are transverse. The li\er is gene-
rally sniall, sometimes exceedingly small; the spleen
commonly long and narrow. The saccate organs of
reproduction with their complete excretorj' ducts are
so large during the time of propagation that tliey till
the greater pai't of the abdominal ca\ity; but at (jther
times, as in the generality of fishes, tlie\' are contracted,
sometimes scarcely visible. The connexions of the air-
l)ladder we have already mentioned, and w-e w-ill sini])ly
add that the pneumatic duct sometimes opens into the
posterior end of the stomach, sometimes further forward
or into the (esophagus. In some cases too the wall
of the air-blaflder lies so close to the dorsal side of
the stomach that the said duct is merely a very short
funnel.

The scales are generally thin, deciduous, and cy-
cloid, smooth-margined, or, not unfrequently, notched or
e\en fringed with sharp s|>ines at the hind margin. The
head is always scaleless, as ^vell as the fins in general;
but the scales extend rather often over a great ])art of
the caudal fin and the base of the dorsal, more rarel)'
over that of the anal, and the axillary' scales of the
]jectoral and venti'al tins are in most cases well develojied.
Es])ecially characteristic of most Herring forms are tiie
angular, spiuigerous scales at the abdominal margin,
which send out lateral processes to meet the lower ends
of most of the ribs (tig. 236, dh\ fig. 240, p. 958).

The system of the lateral line shows great deve-
lopment, accompanied by a wide extension of the so-
called adipose membrane, on the head; liut the lateral
line proper is wanting on the sides of the body, wuth
the exception that in the common Herring we some-
times find the first (3 — 5) scales in one of the rows
pierced in the ordinary manner. In certain forms, as
for instance the Shads, the lateral line again crops up in
some scales of singular shape, situated on the caudal fin'.

Tlie fins of the Clupeoids disjday the same wealth
of variations as those of the Carp-fishes, and here too
the variations principally affect the vertical (unpaired)
fins. The dorsal, -which is never very long, sometimes
Slitters reduction to the vanishing ])oint; the anal, on
the other hand, is sometimes exceedinulv long, occa-

" Cf. Davidoff ou tlie vt'ntral fins of tlie Cypriuoiils; see above [j. 7 IS. Tliesc bones appear in a earcilaginoiis form in several otlier Pliysosloins.
' See Hyrtl, Cber die accessorischeu Kiemenonjane der Chipcaceen, DeuUscbr. Akad. Wiss. Wicn. Malb. Xatiirw. Classe, Bd X
(1885), p. 47.

' This spreading of the bone ma_v be seen in the coiiimou Herring, though the accessory branchial cavity is not present.
'' See Hyktl, 1. c, p. 51.

' See Heckel und Kner, Sidisicctsserri.iclie dri- Oftreicliischeii ^fon(ln■hil•, pp. 230, 2.31.
Scandinavian Fisliti. 120

952

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

sionallv so hmg tli;it it joins the caudal fin, as in the
Shcattrsh.

The Herring t;unil_v is ridi in forms. Even after
the sifting to w'nieh tliey have l)een subjected by Valen-
ciennes", Guntiiek'', and Bleekeh', there remain about
200 named species, a large number of which have only
a dubious claim to that rank. The family consists
maiidv of salt-water fishes, l)ut many species are ana-
droinous, and some are true fresh-water forms. It is
in the temperate and frigid seas of the Northern Hemi-
sphere that the family has attracted most attention and
played the most important part in the economy of man;
but gregariousness is a trait common to the whole fa-
mily and shared by its members in the Southern He-
misphere. Great shoals of certain species'' rove in the
South Pacific, along the coasts of New Zealand and
Australia, as the common Herring does in our latitudes.
But owing to the less advanced development of indus-
trial enterprise in those southern regions the fisheries
have not vet attained such dimensions as in the earlier
seats of civilization.

To tlie ancient Greeks and Romans the Clupeoid
family was by no means unknown, though the Herring
itself does not occur in the Mediterranean ; and even in
the time of Aristophanes they had learnt to cure their
take of Herrings (principally Anchovies and Sardines)
bj' salting. Halec originally meant hrine. Which spe-
cies they designated by their names, it is, however,
difficult to determine. Among the modern Greeks Tlnissa
is the name applied to the Mediterranean Clitpea (Alosa)
aiirifa. Cliakls (in Aristotle a fish that roved in shoals)
was, according to Callimachus, the same species as
Trichis, and Aristotle gives' Memhras, Triclns^, and
Trichias as different ages of the same species, probably
tiie Sliad. The Anchovv was known by Aristotle as
Eiikruiihis, by .Elian as Eiif/r(ii(Us, Enkrasicholus, and
Lycostomits. Chtpea was a classical Latin name. Alosa
{(llama, the Germanic Alse) occurs first in Ausonr'S.

(_)f the four sidtfaniilics under wiiich the C'luiieoids,
after tiie above-mentioned reductions in the number of

the species, naturally fall, only two are repi'esented in
the Scandinavian fauna, by the following species of
more or less common occurrence:

I: Length of the upper jaw from the
tip of the snout less than *,,, of
that of the head; intermaxillaries
shorter than the maxillaries^; ven-
tral margin carinated'' — Subfa-
mily (Jliipntur.

A: Postorbital length of the head
less than Y^ of the distance be-
tween the dorsal fin and the tip
ofthe snout. —Subgenus Clupea.
a: Length of the base of the
anal fin less than ' ', of the
distance between the ventral
fins and the tip of the snout Clupea liarengus.
h: Length of the base of the
anal fin more than ', , of the
distance between the ventral
fins and the tip ofthe snout Clupea spraltus.
B: Postorbital length of the head*
more than ' ,, of the distance
between the dorsal fin and the
tip of the snout. — Subgenus
Alosa.

a: Least depth of tlic tail
more than ■*/- of the length

of the maxillaries Clupea pilchanlus.

b: Least depth of the tail less
than Vj of the length of

the maxillaries Clupea alosa.

a: Gill-rakers on the first
branchial arch about40 —
60: var. Clupea finta.
ji: Gill-rakers on the first
branchial arch about 60 —
120: var. Clupea alosa.
II: Length ofthe upper jaw from the
tip of the snout more than '/, of
the length of the head. — Sub-
family Eugraulhur - Stoh'jihorus eiuTasicholus.

Several indications, as for example the more or less
advanced position of the ventral fins and the gradual
prolongation of the anal fin, suggest tliat in the Clupe-
oid family the course of development has been from
the small-mouthed Herrings to the large-mouthed An-
(diovies. But our materials are not sufficient to enable
us to pass a, decisive opinion on this point.

" Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poisn., vol. XIX.

' Cat. Brit. Mns.. Fish., vol. VIL

' Alias Ichtlii/ologiifie des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises, tome VI.

■* Clupea sarjax, Clupea sundaica, Spratelloidef! delicahdus.

' De Anim. Hist., lib. VI, onp. 1.1.

^ From iiQli, hair, an Mllnsion to Xhn li;iir-lil;c bones in the flesh.

? Intermaxillaries longer than the maxillaries in the subfamily Dorosomalina: (Chatoessina;).

* Ventral margin not carinated in the snbfamily TJassumieriiiia'.

' .\t all events when measured obliquely from llic middle of the posterior orbital ninrgin to the lower posterior angle of the operculum.

953

Genis CLUPEA.

Mouth of modernfc size (in comparison with that of the Anchovies small), the Icnr/th of the maxillaries beiiirj less than

half (in Sca)i(]i)i((via)i forms 40 — 4<S ?*) of that of the head. Tip of the hirer jaa- projecting to a greater or less

extent bei/ond that of the siioal. Dentition of the month feeble, more or less radimentarij. Anal Hn not much

loiificr {less than tirice as long) or eren shorter than the dorsal: its rai/s less than oO.

Tlie greater number of tlic ("lupeoids belong to the 1 ferent siieehncns, cNcn cif the same species, the bones

orenus of the trnc Herrings; and the nnmber of species" | which ai'c furnislied with teeth in one specimen being

contained therein is great enougli to have occasioned I toothless in another". But the Shads — whose dentition

several attempts to divide it into subgenera. Valex- is as a rule the feeblest — differ so greatly in other re-

CIEXXES even distributed its members among several S[)ects as well from the n^maining Herrings that tiiey

genera'', whicli he based ])rincipally on the differences may with reason be jilaced in a separate subgenus

in the dentition. But Nilsson arrived long ago "at the j bearing the name of Alosa.
conclusion'' that the teeth are highly variable in dif-

SUBGENUS CLUPEA.

Bodij n'ifhoiit spots. Loirer anterior portion of the ontrr surface of the operculum smooth {without gronres).
Dorsal f'n set so far back that the distance between it and the tip of the snout is more than 4 times the post-
orbital length of the head. No large scales of singular form on the caudal fin.

Of this subgenus tlie Scandinavian fauna possesses
only two species, the Herring and the Sprat, both of
great economical importance, and so like each other
that only a practised eye can distinguish between them,
where the}' (jccur, as thej' often do, in company. In
modern times the most painstaking student of their va-
I'ieties has been the eminent German naturalist. Pro-
fessor F. Heixcke, who has come to tlie conclusion''
that the difference between them is onlj" gradual, in the

sense that the Herring exhibits races differing from one
another in the same manner as, but to a less degree
than, the two species. We have above seen the same
relation obtain between the Salmons and Charrs, and
in tlie present instance too we find that the smaller
species attains its yilace in the form-series of the genus
more rapidly (at a smaller relative size) and more fully
(with more pnnuinent characters). The larger of tli(;
two species is the ■well-known fish.

" About 110 species have been described.

' Cuv., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XX, pp. U, cett.

' Slcand. Fita, Fisk., p. 489.

'' Die Varietaten des Herings, 11. p. .')G (VII Ber. Coinin. Unlers. deutscli. M.).

954

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE HERRING (.s^v. sii.les.)
CLUPEA HAREXGUS.

Plates XLIII, fig. 1 aiKl XLIV, tig. 1.

Len/iili of flic hcifie af flir anal Jin less than ' \ of tlic distance hetireen the ventral fins and the tip of the snout"
Xandier of spines at the ventral marr/in {hettreen the isthmus and the vent) 36 — 48''.

3—5

-(18— 200; A.

-3(4)

-(10—18'');

(13)14—16(17) (12)13—16(17)

; V. ~ — —/, C. ,r -I- 1 -f 1 7 -M +.r\ L.lat. (56)60—66(70);
58^'.

15 — 17«' 7—8
L. tr. 15 — 10; Vert. 51

S>jn. Hareng (Chalcidis species) p. p., Belon., Nat., Divers. Poi'ss.,
p. 168; Jlarengtis, Rondel., De Pise, lib. VII, cap. XVI;
Gesn., Hist. Anim., lib. IV, p. 408; Sohonev., Ichtliyol.
S'lesv. Holsat., p. 36; Neucrantz, De Harengo, Liibecaa
1654; WiLLUGHD., Hist. Pise, p. 219, tab. P. 1, fig. 2.
Cliipea maxilla inferiore longiore, maculis nigris carens. Art.,
Iclithi/ol., Geji., p. 7; Syn. p. 14; Spec, p. 31; Lin., Fna
Siiec, ed. I, png. 120; GlssL., Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1748, p.
107. Dl:h.«i., Tr. Gen. Pe'clies, part. II, sect. Ill, p. 335.
Clnpea Harengus, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 317;
Penn., Brit. Zool., ton). Ill, p. 294, tab. LXVIII, N:r 100
ed. London, (1776) (+ Wliitc-bait., p. 325, tab. LXIX. X:r
176, quail) specicni Vijpriin generis censiiit); Faer., Fna
Groenl., p. 182; Bl., FiscJi. DeutsM., part. I, p. 186,
tab. XXIX, fig. 1; Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 352; Lacbp.,
Hist. Nat. Poi.ss., toni. V, p. 427; Sw., Palmstr,, Sv. Zool.,
Bd. I, N:r 22; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p.
209; NiLSS., Prodr. fchth. Scand., p. 23; Ekstr., Vet.-
Akad. Handl. 1834, p. 20; Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1844.
pp. 82 et 119; Yaer., Brit. Fisli., ed. I, vol. II, p. 110
(+ Clupea Learhii, p. 117 4-67. alha, p. 126); Parn.,
Mem. Wern. Soc., vol. VII, j,. 315, tab. XXXV; Cuv.,
Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XX, p. 30, tab. 591 (+ Olnpea
Leacliii, ex Yarr., ji. 243 -I- Vliipea elongata, ex Lesoeub,
p. 247 + Clupea Pallasii, p. 253 + Rogenia alba, ex
Yarr., p. 341); Kn., Damn. Fish., vol. Ill, p. 138;. Nilss.,
Strand. Fna, Fish., p. 491; Sundev., Stockh. L. Hush.
Sallsk. Handl. 1855, pp. 81, 96, 187; Mant;, Finl. Fiskfna,
p. 67; LiNDSTH., Gotl. Fsk:, Gotl. L. Hnsli. Sallsk. Arsbcr.
1866, p. 19 (sep.); V. Bemsi. in Herkl., Bouwst. Fna Ne-
derl, part. Ill, p. 380; Gtiir, Vat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol.
VII, p. 415; BOECK, Silden, Sildef., I, Clirnia 1871; Sabs,
Indher. Dep. Indre, 1872, p. 5; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk.
Chrnia 1874, Tilliegsh., p. 185; 1879, N:r 1, p. 97; N.
Mag. Naturv. Clirnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. Ill; Malm, Gigs
Boh. Fna, p. 570; Lixur.., Bih. Vet.-Akad. HandL, Bd. 3,
No. 4; HcKE, ]*,„•. Ilrr.. Kiel. Comniiss., IV— VI Jahrg.,

p. 37; VII Jalirg., p. 59; Winth., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 47; Bxcke, Fisch., Fischer., Fischz.
0., W. Prenss.. p. 169; MoR.. Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn.
Ill, p. 443; Smitt, Arch. Biol., vol. Ill (1882), p. 259,
tab. XI; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 353, tab. X; Jord., Gilb.,
Bnll. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 10, p. 265 (+ Clupea mirabilis,
ex GlK., ibid.); Dav, Fi.^h. Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 208,
tab. CXXXVIII, fig. 2; M6b., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 135;
Bb.-Goode, Fisher., Fish. Industr. V. &'., Sect. I, p. 549,
tab. 204 ( + JoRD., CI. mirabilis, p. 568); Smitt, Bih. Vet.-
Akad. Handl., Bd. 14, Afd. IV, No. 12 (1888): Lillj., Sv.,
Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 45; Ljgn, Nord. Familjebok, Bd.
14, col. 1079.

Obs. Pallas (1. c.) united the Atlantic and Pacific forms into
one species. Giraru (Proc. Acad. Nat. So. Philad., 1854, p. 138)
ranged the latter as a distinct species, Clupea mirabilis; but the char-
acters hitherto assigned to it — at most 15 rays in the anal fin
and at most 51 vertebra; — may also be found in the Atlantic
Herring.

The M-ell-knowii Herring comes nearest both in
form nnd coloration to the Vendace, but its body com-
monly shows strong coinpressiou from the terete back
downwards. lint when the Herring is full (i. e. when
the reproductive organs are ripe), the belly is also
coinparativelv terete, though the downward compression
is always marked at the head and isthmus. The fish
attains a size of 43 cm. or more, liut varies consider-
ably in tliis respect, according to the conditions under
wliich it lives. The greatest depth, just in front of
the dorsal fin, measures on an average 18 or 19 ?» of
the length from the tip of the lo\ver jaw to the ex-
treme end of the caudal fin, Ijut sometimes rises, in
gravid females, to 21 % thereof, and, on the other
hand, in young Herrings, even at a length of 125 mm.,
measured as above, sometimes sinks to oidy 15 % there-

" Here, as in the Gwyniads, we have reckoned the tip of the snout from the articular knobs of the maxillaries.

'' The limits of variation according to Heincke.

' In exceptional instances 17 and 21.

'' In exceptional instances 14 and 19: 15 and 20 according to Heincke.

' In exceptional instances 14.

■^ In exceptional instances 9.

" According to Heincke.

955

of". The Ic.'ist depth of the Ixxly (of the tnil) mca-
siiiTS on nil aveiMg-i' (V ., — fi' .^ %' nf the siiid Icnii'tli.
Ac'cordiiii;' to the nu'thud of measuring the leiigtli of
the bod\- eiiiiilo\ed .•ih()\(', in the case of tlic (iwyniads,
i. e. from tiie artieui;ir lumbs of the in:ixill:iries to the
end of the middle caudal rays, the least depth of the
hodv varies between 8 and 7 % of its length. The
\ariatious in our specimens from BohusliVn are such
that the averages regularly decrease from 8"1 % to 7"3 %
as the length of the body increases from 1() to 37 cm.
The body as a whole is of the most beautiful fusiform
shape, the dorsal and ventral contours forming regular
and similar curves; but the lateral compression is so
marked that the greatest thickness, which, as we Ikiac
iiu'iilioncd, lies nearer to the back, measures, in the line
of the greatest depth, about half — in young specimens
and after the spawning about ' ^ — of the latter.

The length of the head varies between 2"2'/o and
19', "</ of that of the body''. It is of the well-known,
three-sided, pAramidal sliajie that we have already seen
in the Flying-fishes, but with narrower upper surface
and w'ith the snout constricted above, in front of the
eyes. The most characteristic points are the prominent
tip of the lower jaw and the coat of adipose membrane
concealing a great portion of the eyes and extending
both over the sides of the snout and the upper part
of the slioulder-girdle. This membrane forms two folds
in front, one composing the anterior limit of the
orbit, and another the anterior eyelid, which passes
above without a break into the posterior, growing
narrower like the latter, but is somewhat broader be-
low, Iving in a fold outside the lower, pointed corner
of the jiosterior eyelid, whicli gradually passes behind
and below into the adipose membrane of the opercular
apparatus and the cheeks (the suborbital ring). In this
latter membi-ane, which is continuous both with the
covering of the sides of the snout (the preorbital bones)
and with the skin of the forehead and occiput, we find
an abundance of the ordinary ramifications of the lateral
line, which also occur on the shoulders, though every-
where less developed than we shall find them in the
Shads. The top of the head, from the nostrils right

to the occipital crest, as far as the frontal bones extend,
is ci)iu'>ed (in each side b\- a wcli-niarkcd lateral ridge,
bounding a depressed, lanceolate area, dotted with mu-
ciferous pores, the ti]) of the area lying at the occipital
crest itself. But at the middle of tiiis area runs an
elevation, in front terete or even mesially depressed,
behind sharper, which is formed anteriorly b^- the above-
mentioned ridge on the ethmoidal cartilage, and dis-
appears posteriorly, behind tlu; interorbital space. The
eves are round, or slightlv longer than high, l>ut tlic
part free of the eyelids is elliptical, with the upper and
lower ends pointed. They are rather large, their longi-
tudinal diameter varying on an a\ crage between '/,, and
' . of the length of the head, and being about equal
in adult specimens to the length of the snout from the
middle of its tip to the anterior corner of the eye, but
measuring only about half the ];ostorbital length of the
head. Thev' are set so high that their upjier nnirgin
approaches close to the frontal plane. The nostrils lie
on a level with the u|:)]ier margin of the puj)il and
about half as far from the anterior corner of the eye
as from the middle of the tip of the snout. The an-
terior nostril of each pair is round and distinct, though
comparatively small; the posterior more crack-like and
usually overhung by the adipose membrane belonging
to the sides of the snout. The two pairs are separated
by a distance measuring on an average about ',,, of
the breadtli of the snout at the articulations of the
maxillaries. The sharp tip of the snout is formed by
the thin-lipped interraaxillaries, which strongly remind
us, lioth in position and form, of those of the ^ endace.
They are fiat but somewhat arched, triangular, with
the posterior (outer) corner elongated to a point and
armed on the inner surface of the inferior margin with
a row of about 6 pointed, incurved (recurved) teeth.
The}' are without nasal processes ^ — the tip of the snout
being consequently not protrusile — and their anterior
lower corners are rounded to such a degree that they
are distinctly parted from each other at the middle of
the tip of the snout. But the sinus thus caused is filled
])y the labial skin, the tij) of the snout being thus en-
tire and truncate, without indentation or groove. In

" 111 the largest Herrings we often find retrogressions to Hie eliaracters of viKilli. In a full feniale, widi tlie lengtli of tlie liody
measuring 42 cm. and with eggs O'S — 1 mm. in diameter, taken in Febniarv, ISH". oif Helso (Northern BoluislaD). tlie greatest depth is
only 16-1 % of the said length.

' Varying, according to Lilljehobg's uieasurements. between 5 and 7 %.

' According to our ordinary method of measurement.

956

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

tlie luaxillaries we liave to distiuguisli, ;is among' the
Vaiidaces, between the more terete, introrse, artieular
shaft, which supports the intermaxilhiries on its up-
turned, grooved, and proximally broader, front surfsiee,
and tlie lateral jjai't, set almost at right angles to the
former, luid indeed terete in front, but soon expanding
into the Hat, sabre-shaped disk that forms the extcr- !
ually visible maxil]ar\'. This pai't is obtusely rounded
Ixdiind and toothed with spines at the thin lower uiar-
gin, and bv the additi(.)ii of the supi)lementary bone is I
retifleied fnrly uniform in breadth throughout the
greater part of its length. The po-sterior supplementary
(jugal) bone is elliptical, and in front pointed, the an-
terior narrower and of uniform breadth. The length
of the lateral maxillary disk, measured from the arti-
cular knob, varies on an average between 10 and 8^/3 %
of that of the body or between 47 and 44'/2 "i of that
of the head, and the lione extends back to a line with
the anterior margin of the jnipil or even -with its centre,
though ahvays so that the length of the cheek (between
the maxillary and the vertical anterior margin of the
preoperculum) is greater than its height exactly beloAV^
the eve. The cheek is covei-ed by the large, third
suborbital bone, which also forms the greater jmrt of
the posterior limit of the orbit, the fourth (hindmost)
suborbital bone being comparatively short. The lower
jaw is characterized bv the rather great heiglit of the
dental part — about twice the breadth of the maxillaries
or "'5 of the length of the lower jaw — and by the ter-
ete ridges on the outside <if this part, which diverge
Ijackwards from each side of the chin, one of them run-
ning along the u]>per margin, tlie other jjarallcl to thi^
lower margin. The s^'inplivsis is also fairlv higii, and
is furnished below with a small, jjrominent chin-protu-
berance, but channelled underneath at its angle. Only
at tlie extreme front of the upper margin do \ve tind
an arcuate row of small teeth ((> on each side of the
S3'mphysis), in well-marked, but closely approximated
sockets. The length of the lower jaw varies between 13
and 12 ?^ (in the oldest specimens 11 ??/) of that of the
body, or 60 and 57 % (exceptionalh' 61 % or, in the
oldest specimens 55 ^) of that of the head, and it is
greater, as a rule, than the length of the base of the
anal tin, though in exceptional cases this relation too
is reversed. ( )n the symphysis and the sides of the
lower jaw hangs a fairly In'oad labial fold. Internally
the mouth is furnished with the ordinarj' transverse
folds (vela), the- lower being the more developed. The

\()mer has in front a longitudinal, lanceolMte elevation,
bearing a double rnw of small, pointed teeth, somewhat
larger, however, than the jaw-teeth; and a shorter row
of smaller teeth usuallv occuyjies the extreme front of
each palatine. Tiie tongue is Iree and fleshv, but tliin-
margined. <h\ tlie glosso-lnoid bone is an almond-
shaped card of small ti'eth. The gill-rakers are set in
a single row on most of the branchial arches, long and
setiforin, \vitli numerous small spines on their sides.
(_)n the first branchial arcli there are aljout 70, as a
rule 45 — 47 (exceptionally 44 oi- 50) on the lower part
thereof, and the longest (at tlie middle of the arch) are
about (Hjual in length t(j the subojierculum at its suture
with the operculum. ( >nlv on the upper ])art of the
third arch and on the fourth arch as far as it forms
the anterior margin of the short, hindmost gill-slit, do
we find an inner (posterior) row of .short, lamellate
rakers. About 20 s])ines, similar in form to the latter,
occu]:)V the outside of the lower phar\'iigeals, whiidi re-
semble branchial arches, and are furnished with only
one row of small teeth, whei'eas the upper pharyngeals
bear a triangular card of similar teeth. The outer gill-
openings ai'e lai'ge, extending above the u))per margin
of the operculum, from a level with the superior mar-
gin of the eye, down to a line with the anterior margin
of the latter. The operculum is obliquely quadrilateral,
with the iq)per posterior corner rounded and the lower
anterior corner pi'olongated to an acute angle, so that
the faint S-shape of the subopercular suture is directed
obliquelv backwards and upwards. The length of this
suture varies liet'ween 23 (exceptionally 21' .,) and 26
(exceptionally 27) "o of that of the head. On the sur-
face of tile operculum we can distinguish three slightly
convex patches, sejjarated bj' two shallow grooves, one
running obliquely backwards and upwards, the other
oblicjuely backwards and downwards, from the articular
head of the ojierculum. But these j)atches are smooth
or marked only with faint concentric stria', and the an-
terior lower patch in jjarticular is destitute of radiating
grooves or ridges. The suboperculum resembles a nar-
row, eccentric sector of a circle, varying in breadth;
sometimes its margin' shows an irregular, shallow in-
dentation. The preoperculum is obtuse at the inner
angle, but the lower posterior corner forms a n)unded
right angle, lis posterior disk is so broad that its length
(the lower arm together with the disk) is about equal
to its height (the vertical arm together with the disk).
The interoperculum is triangular and equal in length

(

957

to the preoperculum. Its externalljf visible part (licliiw
the iircoperculmn) is, however, sword-slmpcil ;niil of
unit'oriii l)rc;i(ltli. 'riie hind iuari;iiis ot'iho pi'copci'ciihnu
and iiitcTo|i(_Tculiini to^u'ether tunii ii slii^htly curNi'd iiin',
COiitiniK'il liclow tlio lattci' in ;i contour I'orniiiii;' an
obtuse anji'le witli the inferior ninrgin of tiie suboper-
cuhiin. In tlie Herring, as in the other Clupeoids,
■\ve find a l)onc tliat seems at first siglit to 1)e a lower
Sid)o|)ercuhiui, forming an angular break at the lower
iiostii'ior angle of the opercular apparatus. In order
that till' apjiaratus may be more firmly closed at this
angle, the anterior margin of the shoulder-girdle rises
at this point in the form of an elongated, sharp-edged
knob, the substratum of which consists of an ujn-ight
process (clj), fig. 238, p. 950) from the ui)]ier margin
of the horizontal arm of the clavicle. ( )n closer exa-
luination, however, it soon appears that the a|)parent
lower subopercnlum is really the hindmost of the three
broud branchiostegal rays set on the epihyoid bone.
The first five rays, which are situated on the cerato-
hyoid bone, are subulate and more curved. The branchio-
stegal membranes are free both from each other and the
isthmus, and overla]) each other onlv to a verv small
extent in the extreme front, the left membrane lying
outside the right.

The dorsal hn, wliich is trapezoidal in shape, begins
at a distance from the tip of the snout (the articular
heads of the maxillaries) measuring 47. — 51 % of the
length of the body. The length of its base is 13 — 10 %,
and its greatest height (the length of the first or second
branched ray) 12 — 10 % (less frequently 9 %), of the
length of the bodv. The anal fin is of a similar shape
as the dorsal Init much lower. The distance between
its beginning and the tip of the snout is 71 — 75 %, the
length of its base 11 — 10 96 (exceptionally 12 or 9 ?»),
and its greatest height o'/j — 4"2 % (exceptionally 6 or
4 %), of the length of the body. The caudal tin is
deeply forked, the lower lobe being somewhat longer
and more pointed than tlie u])per. Its middle ravs
occujjv about 5 — 4 % of the length of the body, and
measure only ^'3 — ' _, of the length of the longest rays
in the tin.

The pectoral fins are set low, as in the Salmons,
and of an oval, obliquelv pointed shape, the second
branched (third) raj' being usually the longest. Their
length varies between 16" and 13 % of that of the body,

" In young Herrings sometimes 17.
' In the fry sometimes 50' ,.

and during youth is generally somewhat more, in old
specimens perceptibly less, than half the preabdominal
length, wliich incrc^ases even relatively with age, from
30 to 35 or neai'ly 36 ?o of the length of the body.
The ventral lins are broader and shorter, but triangular.
Their length varies between 10 and 8 % of that of the
bod}'. Their insertion always lies some distance, though
in joung specimens tliis is sometimes very small, behind
the iicr]iendictdar from tlie beginning of the dorsal fin,
and at a distance iVoni the tip of the mouth measuring
51'' — 55 % of the length of the body. The postabdo-
minal length is about "/s "f the preabdominal, and
varies between about 20 and 23 ,» (exceptionally 24 %)
of the length of the body.

The thin and deciduous scales (fig. 239) are round
or quadrilateral with rounded angles. The hind (free)
part is indented at tlie margin with small, rounded
sinuses, and shows onh- faint traces of radiating grooves.
The anterior jiart (covered and about twice as large) is

Fig. 239. Scale from tlie left side of a Clupeu harenijns
3 dm. long. X 3.

smooth-margined and marked with extremely fine and
numerous, irregidarl}' undulating and confluent, trans-
verse stria?, without radiating grooves or with only ru-
diments thereof, in the form of a few streaks (5 — 7
upwards and downwards) obliquely crossing the others.
In this striature the growth-rings of the scale also
appear as concentric lines. The lateral line does not
pierce any scales — onlv in exceptional instances are
there a fe\v perforated scales in front — but under the
scales it runs straight from the upper clavicle to the
middle of the base of the caudal fin. The singular
marginal scales of the bell)' (fig. 240) are of an oblique
diamond-shape, with a strengthening ridge in the me-
dian line of the belly, ending in the backward spine,
and another on each side, continued by the upward
process. They are remarkable in the Herring for their
number, Avhich is greater than in the following species,
being as a rule, according to Heixcke, 27^ — 30 (excep-

958

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

(ioiially 24 — 32) from the isthmus to the ventral tins,
and 13 — 15 (exceptionally 11 — 20) between these fins
and the vent, in all 36 — 48. -hist in fi'(jnt of the ven-
tral lins lies a d(.)uble plate, the upward processes being
bifid, or showing indications that they were originally
comjwsed of as many as three processes. The other
l)reabdominal plates, on the other hand, with the ex-
ception of the foremost ones, are distinguished from those
of the following species liy their long" lateral processes.
The colour of the back is steel-blue with a lustre
of green and gold; the sides are silvery. The limit be-
tween the colours of the back and belly is often marked
l)y a tinge of lustrous green. The new-caught Herring
glitters \\'ith a wealth of hues, and in the darkness it
gleams with phosphorescent light. The snout and the
ujiper parts of the head, as well as the superior part of
the opercular margin, are sometimes pure black. The

Fig. 240. Spiiiiferous scales from tlje ventral margin of a Clupea

harengus 25 cm. long. Twice the natural size.

a, tbe foremost spiniferous scale; b, (lie fifth, counting forward from

(he ventral fins; c, the double scale just in front of the ventral fins;

(7, (lie fifth scale, counting forward from the ven(; c. the hindmost

spiniferous scale.

gill-covers are of a golden lustre, more and more suf-
fused with blood, the longer the fish has been dead.
Tiie ventral and anal fins are ^vhitc Init transparent, as
well as the pectorals; but the ujiiier margin of the last-
mentioned fins is of a grayish or greenish black, which
colour extends, in greater or less intensity, some way
down the fins. The dorsal and caudal fins are darker,
though the membrane is transparent, more densely speck-

led with grayish black, shading on the raj-s into green.
The iris is sometimes silvery with a brassj^ lustre; in
other cases the latter colour is predominant.

With coloration of a lighter or darker tone, and with
body more or less transparent, though this transparency
is always faint, the Herring varies according to the
greater or less intensitv of light in its surroundings.

In the temperament of the whole Herring family
gregariousness and a love of migration are the most pro-
minent traits. The common Herring, an inhabitant of
the North Atlantic and probabl}-, as wa have mentioned
above, of the corresponding regions in the Pacific, roves
in huge shoals ^vithin the said geographical range. How
far its wanderings e.xtend, is still an undecided question,
though numerous investigators, from the beginning of
the last centarv until now, have devoted their attention
to its solution. In an AtJas mariiimua commercialis,
printed in London in 1728, reference is made to the
annual course of the Herring-fishery off the coasts of
Great Britain and Ireland, then essentially the same as
it is to the present day. The most imijortant fishery
in those waters begins in summer to the extreme north,
off the Shetland Islands and then on the Scotch coa.st,
but afterwards advances further and further south on
both sides of Great Britain, to England, Ireland, and
the Channel. Hence it Avas inferred that the Herring-
shoals must come from the far North; they were sup-
posed at first to be so large and denselj' packed that
they had difiieultv in forcing a passage "between the
coasts of Greenland and North Cape"; but the Herring
"army" divided as it came further south. On these as-
sumptions the learned and clever Burgomaster of Ham-
burg, JoHAN Ander.sson, (1. 1743", based his theory of
the aiiiuial migrations of the Herring. The Herring, he
opined, liad its true home under the ice of the Arctic
Circle. There lay its ci'adle, and thither it retreated
year after )ear to escape its merciless pursuers, and to
recruit its thinned numbers. But soon the home became
overcrowded; large multitudes were yearly compelled to
emigrate southwards, and to divide into separate armies,
which marched partly to the right, to America, and
partly to the left, to the ^vest coast of Europe and into
the Baltic. This theory ■was still accepted in the days
of Pennaxt''; but Bloch'" and Noel'' showed it to be

" See his Sachriclilni von hltinil, GnmlanJ iind der Strasse Dav

' Brit. Zooloijn, 17 70.

' Fisdie DeutschL, pari. 1, j). 18'j.

'' Magazin Encyclope<liiiuc, tome VI, p. 5 (Paris 1795).

174(3, pp. 51—72.

mitciiable, the latter stating that, in his opinion, ''each
iiiai'iue region as a rule has its native Herring, which
is easily distinguished from other forms by its migrat-
iiio- at a different time of \-ear, when it forsakes its first
home in the (h.^jiths, and aiipi-oaches land to deposit its
roe in more suitable localities". Mac CuI/Locu" pur-
sued the criticism of Andeksson's theory, and in dii'ect
opposition to tiie regularity assumed l)y Andkksson, lie
rani,;'cd tlie unaccountable \ariations in tlie Herring's

approa

■h to the coast.

It

tiiat Vak-

i;ei.l' di'ew liis well-known and often misused expres-
sion, "the Herring is a most capricious fish." But Mac
CoLLorn also endeavoured to find an explanation of
this fickleness in the different motives that induce the
Herring to migrate from deep \vater to the surface and
the shallows. Among the causes hereof he adduces the
desire of spawning, a point already touched upon by
Noel, the search for food, consisting of animals known
ill his time as "medus;e and other analogous marine
vermes, which are produced in such abundance during
tlie summer, in all tlie shallow seas," and the fear of
enemies. In Sweden NiLSSOX has been the most emi-
nent exponent of this theory, and he attributed thereto
a great economical importance, for he based on it his
assertion that a Herring-fisher}' may be utterlj' de-
stroyed, or at all events ruined for inaiu' years, by
the manner in which it is carried on. Tiie Boliusliln
fishery was in liis opinion a case in point; but this
conclusion has been opposed hj many.

The pith of the question evidently lies in the elu-
cidation bv natural history of the varieties of the Her-
ring, if such varieties be really in existence. Nilsson
original]}'' adopted eight constant, local varieties:

1) The Ocean Herring (Forma oceanira): Rabo'

Herring (var. wresundica), Kulla' Herring (var.

schelderensis), Bohuslan Grass-Herring (var.

iNG. 959

majalis), Bohusliln Breeding-Herring or Great-
Herring (var. bahusica), Norwegian \Vinter-
Herring (\ar. hiemdUs), Norwegian Autumn-
Herring (var. autumnal is);
2) Tlie Shore Herring (Forma tceniensis): Ivivik'
Herring (var. cimbrira), Baltic Herring en-
"Stroinming" (\ar. meinhras).
Subse(pieiUl\ " lie reduced tlic number of these
varieties to six, b\ uniting the Kabo Herring with tiie
Kulla Herring and the BohusUln Grass-Herring with the
Great Herring. Tiie names given above state where
the varieties were su])])osed to occur, and the distinctive
characters were derived from tlie differences in tiie size
of the head and eyes, in the de]jtii of the body, in the
position of the fins, and in the number of marginal scales
on tile bellv. Merely a hasty observation is enough to
show that these characters hold good in the main, or,
to employ Nilssox's words, \\hen the Herring appears
in large numbers together. And yet they are only signs
of different developmental stages. It is but natural,
however, that among innumerable individuals, as when
the Herring appears in multitudes sometimes so densely
packed within inlets of the sea that the name of moan-
tains has been conferred upon them, individual diffe-
rences should be comparatively easy to trace. But if
we eliminate these individual variations by calculating
a sufficient number of averages from an adequate num-
ber of individuals, we can make remarkable discoveries.
Among the factors necessary to an estimation of the
significance of form-characters, or to a determination of
the natural relations olitaining between different varie-
ties or species, the differences of sex and the alterations
of gro^vth occupy the foremost rank. In order to find
expressions for the former, I have caused the avei'ages
to be calculated for 7.5 Baltic Herrings, measured by
^Ir. LuNDBEKG, Inspector of Fisheries''.

° Quart. Journ. Sc, Lit., Arts, vol. XVI, p. 210, London 18-23— 24.

» Hist. Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. U2.

' Prodromns Ichthyologice Scandiriavicce, p. 23.

* Raa is a large fishing-village on the Sound, south of Helsingborg.

' Kullen is a promontory north of Helsingborg, south of Scheldcr Buy.

■'' .\ large fishing-village near Kristianstad.

' Skandinavisk Fauna, Fiskame, p. 493.

" Bih. Vet. Akad. Handl., Bd. 3, No. 4.

Scandinavian Fisht

960

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Averntres in the Baltic Herring (.S"(r

ng; Clupea karengus.

Nnmbcr of specimens incajured

Length of the body from the tip of the lower jaw to the end of the caudal lobes, expressed in iiiillinietr

Distance between the dorsal tin and the tip of the lower jaw in % of the length of the body

,, ., ,, ventral fins „ ,, ,. ,. ,, „ „ „ ,,

„ „ ,, pectoral tins ,, .. ,, ,, „ ,, ,, „ .,

Depth of the body behind the tips of the pectornl tins „ „

Thickness,, .. ,, „ ., ,, ,, ,. ,. ., »» i.

Depth ,, ,, „ „ „ „ „ „ ventral „ „ „

Length of the head ,, .,

Horizontal diameter of the eye m it

Vertical ., ,. „ v ?•

iDterorbital width t. ««

Length of the snout .-- <, „

„ ,. upper jaw „ „

„ „ „ lower ., ,, „

„ „ ,, base of the dorsal iiu ,, „

,, ,, ,, pectoral tins „ „

„ „ „ ventral „ „ „

,, ., ., base of the anal tin „ „

44.75

44.G7

4.S.-1

48.7 9

■20.G4

20.71

1(S,2 7

17.93

9.12

8.90

10.20

15.27

20.81

20.73

5.60

5.42

5.09

5.06

3.54

3.52

7.16

7.21

,S,G9

8.69

11.25

11.15

10.60

10.71

13.02

13.03

8.39

8.32

9.53

9.56

111 vain do we seek here for any noticeable dif-
ference between the sexes. All the |)ercentages are the
same in both columns, except in two instances. The
depth of the body behind the tips of the pectoral fins
and its thickness at the same point are somewhat greater
in tlie males than in the females. This difference, how-
ever insignificant it may appear, is of economical im-
portance, and had in Nilsson's opinion a zoological
importance as well. Greater depth and thickness com-

bined invoh'c greater fleshiness and greater value even
to the epicure. The most important difference adduced
by NiLSSON between the Norwegian Summer (Autumn
or Fat) Herring and the Norwegian Spring (Gray-boned°)
Herring, also consisted in the relative depth and thick-
ness. The same difference appears too between the so-
called Autumn StrSmming and Spring StrOmming, on a
calculation of the averages for these tw'o forms, as far
as thev have been distinguished, in Lundberg's tables:

.\ V c r ,1 g c .^ i 11

Spring
Stromniitig.

Autumn
Stvomming.

23

210.9

29
215.5

Length of the body expre.s8ed in i

Depth of the body behind the
Thickness „ ,, ,, „ „

lips of the pectoral fins i

n% oi

its length

17.9

9.0

17.7

8.S

The difference is indeed slight; hut here as in th.e
preceding table, its course is opposite to that of the
changes of growth in the Herring, and it is therefore
not without importance. The Autumn Stromming too
generally finds a better market than the Spring Strom-
ming. NiLSSON remarked this difference between the
Kivlk Herring and his Stromniing.

Exactly the same distinction may be traced, how-
ever, between different takes of the same Herring-

shoal, netted at the same time, in the one instance
farther from land and in deeper water, in the other
nearer shore and in the shallows. This I have shown
in iny report to the Swedish Home Secretar)' on the
experiments in drift-net fishing carried out under my
supervision in Bohuslan during the winter of 1880 —
81. l-'rom the measurements taken by Mr. Trn'BOJi,
Assistant Inspector of Fisheries, I calculated the follow-
inff averages.

" The word in the original (grabenssiU) really means, according to Ljungman, ijrofbenssUl, i. e. coarse-boned Herring.

901

Drift-net take, Dec. 20th, 1880, in
Seine take, Dec. 21st, 1880,
Drift-net take. .Inn. 3rd, 1881, „

„ ,, .Inn. rnli, „

Seine tukc, .. ,, ,,

„ Dec. lolh. 1S80, ut Otti

Koster Fjord

the Sknger Rack, off Koster

Koster Fjord

;r6, off Giebbestad

specimens
inensured.

Averages.

n * . 1 *!. (Jreatcst cir-

1 ,1. *■ .L Greatest depth

Length of the , ,, , , ' . cumferencc o.

, J ° 1 of the body in, , , , . ,

bodv expressed' , , ,, , • ..ithe body, m ^

' ,^ ol the length , ,, ; ' ./"

Ill mm. .. ,, I r "f the length

oi llic body. ,. ,, 1 ,

ol the body.

314

280
315
299
259

284

Here it appears distinctly that the drift-net takes liowevcr, that has been .set fortli most clearly and

(from deeper water) and the seine takes (made close
in shore) differ from each other in the same way as
tiic Fat Hcrrinu' from the Gray-boned Herring and
the Kivik Herring from the Stromining.

It is the difference between the Ocean Herring
{oce(insiUe)i) and the Baltic Herring (sirommhificn),

most reasonably, ever since Linx.els ado]itcd the
latter as a separate variety. The relations that obtain
between these forms, I have endeavoured to deduce;
by another method from measurements and tables of
averaoes".

Averages in Herrings from

The Baltic. Bohusli

Number of speriinei
Length of the body

10
240.9

3
200.7

1. Lensth of the head .

of the length of the body

Height of the dorsal tin

Distance bet\yecii the dorsal tin a

tip of the snout

Length of the pectoral tins

Preabdominal length

Distance between the ventral tins i

tip of the snout

Length of the ventral fins

Postabdomiual length

il fin a

id the

Distance between the

tip of the snout „

Height of the anal fin „

Length of the middle caudal rays „

., .. ., pectoral fins in % of the pn

ibdominal length.

21.7
10.2
13.0
11.0

48.9
15.5
31.2

52.2

9.8

20.8

4.9
.50.0

20.6

9.3

12.1

10.3

48.8

14.8
31.9

52.2

9.3
21.9

73. c

4.9
4.G

46.G

20.5

9.2

12.1

48.8

14.3

32.7

52.9
9.1

21.9

73.7

4.9
4.2

44.0

20.3

9.2

12.0

9.9

49.7

14.5

36.0
53.7

8.8

22.7

74.5
4.0
3.C

42.6

21.9

21.3

10.3

10.0

13.2

12.8

11.5

10.1

'18.5

49.5

15,8

15.0

30.4

32.4

51.5

53.5

9.9

9.C

20.6

22.0

72 1

72.9

5.6

5.2

5.3

4.2

51.7

47.2

20.3

9.3
12.1
10. 1

48.3
14.6

33.4
53.2

8.8

22.0
73.7

4.8
3.9

43.8

11.9
9.7

51.0

14.4

38.7

4.4
3.4
41.6

Here the averages run with very great uniformitv,
falling or ri.«iing with age; and the form-series thus ar-
rived at in the first four columns is controlled by the
last four columns, which contain the alterations of growth
in the youngest and the oldest among these i-aces, the
former consisting of Fat Herrings (matjes) from Sta-
vanger, the latter of Scotch Herrings from Peterhead.
Such an unbroken continuity in the form-series — if we

choose to regard the Herring-races as separate forms —
and such a parallelism in the alterations of growth could .
hardly be traced, were there no genetic affinity between
all the above Herring-forms, from the Baltic and the
west coast of Sweden, from Norway and Scotland. Thus,
it appears, we can scarcely find any ground ^\^hatever
for the assumption of a form-distinction or even of a
racial difference. We see, however, that in the relations

" These measurements deviate in two respects from tlie preceding ones: tlie dimensions measured from the snout have been taken from
the articular knobs of the maxillaries, and the length of the bodj' has been measured to the end of the middle candnl rays. The percen-
tages are consequently different from those already given, which can have no effect, ho\yever, upon the ultimate results.

962

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

wliich show the most niai-ked alterations of growth — 7,
8, 10, and 1.'^) in the table — the oldest Fat Herrings
from Stavanger (Column 6), though smaller on an aver-
age than the Baltic Herrings (Column 2), have advanced
further tlian the lattei'. Tlieir development has pro-
ceeded more rapidly. Sirailarlj' the youngest Scotch
Herrings (Column 7), though inferior in average size

to the Herrings from Bohuslan (Column 3), have out-
stripped the latter in the alterations of growth. Tlie
more oceanic its home, the more rapid and more vi-
gorous is the development of the Herring type. This
is still more clearly shown by comparing with the last
two columns Bohuslan Herrings more nearly approach-
ing to them in asre:

A V f r a !; c s in Herrings f

•

liohnsliin.

Seotland.

Bohushin.

Scotland.

11

221

5
221

8
263.4

5

260

Length of the hend

Preabdominal length..

Distance between the .inal tin and the tip of the snnnt

in 'i of the le

n-th u

f the h.,dy

i(i.5
32.7

iO.3
33.4
78.7

20.3

33.1
74. s

20.2
33.8
75.8

The same results may l)c deduced from Lundberg's ' Ocean Herrings with the organs of generation equally,
tables by thence selecting for comparison Baltic and or at all events not too unequally developed:

Averages in Herrings from

The Baltic.

Bohuslan.

Nnmher of specimens me:i

Length of the hody to the

„ „ „ head \n •{, e

ured

11

186.1

21.4

42
205.e
20.9

19
223.3

20. s

6
294.2

20.3

7
247.9

IS.s

Number of specimens mea
Length of the body to the
Vertical diameter of the c

ured

11
186.1

5.5

13

201.8

5.2

-

6
294.2

4.7

7
247.9

4.5

cs in °i of the above length of the body

The Baltic form (the StrOmining) thus fails, even
at its most advanced age, to attain averages equal to
those shown ))y the much smaller Herrings from Bo-
huslan in the last column. The Sti-Ommings, as Nils-
son has pointed out, have on an average a larger head
and larger ej'es; but this is only a general rule, for
exceptions are not uncommon.

Between the Str5mming and the Herring, however,
the averages obtainable from Lundberg's tables show
another distinction, the significance of which is all the
greater, since it indicates a different direction of deve-
lopment or at least a divergent tendency, and seems
most naturally to admit of explanation, as we have
above stated of the analogous relations in the Salmon-
oids, on the assumption either that the forms are still
in process of differentiation from each other, or that

one of them is undergoing a degeneration expressed by
reversions to the earlier stages of development. A rule
of general validity, which I stated in 1882" in a de-
scription of an hermaphroditic example of this species,
tells us that, after the dorsal fin has passed through the
forward removal which, as Sundevall'' first showed,
attends the development of the Herring from the larval
stage, there ensues, during the subsequent growth, a
backward removal of this fin. In a preceding table
(p. 961.) we have also seen that the percentages for
the distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the
snout (I'elation no. 5) increase Mith age. The ventral
fins share in this backward motion (relation no. 8).
Let us now examine these relations in the Stromming,
according to Lundberg's tables. For this purpose we
divide the specimens measured by hint into four groups,

" Arch. Biol., vol. Ill, p. 269. It should, however, be reiiiaiked that I was preveuteil from reading the proofs of this paper, which
was printed at Brussels, and that a number of misprints, especially in the numerals, have consequently been overlooked.
' Om jiskyngels utveckling, Vet.-Akad. Handl. 1855, p. 20.

963

the first ineasiiriiif;' (i7 — 111 mm. in Icnulli nC hndy.
the second Kill — 201 mm., tlic third 2(i:;— 2 1(1 mm.,
:iiiil the fdiii'tli (■(iiitaiiiing all llic lai-.Uf sj)eciiiu'iis, be-

tween "242 and 34.5 mm. in lenojth. The first three
groups roughly answer, according to other calcu]ation.s
of mine, to the age-clas.ses of the first three years.

Averages

in S t r 0 1

m i n g

Number of 8|it
Length nl' tlw

8(i

17
17S.9

47

■-'0

'253. r,

in.lx tU t

K- cnil of the caudal

ubes. esiires.scd ill

liiillimetre^

Bistauce hetwt'

n thv d(

rsul fill and the ti|j
utral tius .. „ „

uf the lower jaw..

% of the 1

engtii (

f the body

43.8
47.1

44.-5
48.93

44. c 7
48..'i8

44.32

48.3 9

After the second year tiiere thus ajipcars, on an
average, by no means a liackward removal, but a re-
gular advancement both of the dorsal and the ventral
fins. The normal development of the StrOmming, in
accordance with the rules for the Herring-type, termi-
nates in general at the end of the second year. And
it then shows, as we have seen above (the table on
p. 961, relation no. 8), at an average length of 203
nun., the same position of the venti-al fins as the Nor-
wegian Herring does at a length of 170 mm. As re-
gards the position of the dorsal fin (relation no. 5), the
same rule applies to the BohusMn Herrings.

That a racial difference exists here, seems, in a
certain sense, undeniable. But this difference evidently
agrees, as Petersen" has stated, ^\ith the geographical
separation, and Winther's' observations go to show
that this separation is sometimes evanescent. "The
entire alteration in the Herring inhabiting the Sound",
he writes, "may be summed up as follows. The little
Baltic Herring (Kivik Herring, Xilhs.), which flocks
together at the beginning of autumn at the south end
of the Sound, advanced in 1867 right to the middle
of the strait, north of the Flint Channel, where it found
the great basin known as the "Hidkene" untenanted by
the Boffom Herring', which had already departed. x\fter
the spawning it followed the northward current out
of the Sound into the south of the Cattegat, whence
it returned year after year to its old spawning-place,
constantly increasing, under the favourable influence
of more congenial environments (the greater saltness
of the water?), in size and fecundit^^ It continued to

"improve" in this manner until 1873, when its deve-
lopment liad ad\-anced so far that it could no longer
content itself within the conflned limits of the Sound,
but as it gradually attained the size and form of the
"Kiilhi Herrlufi", began to repair to the spawning-
places of the latter variety. Only few returned in 187.5
to the old spawning-places in the Sound, where a new
stock of Baltic Herring this year (1875) replaced the
old one in the Hulkene, north of the Flint Channel".
The Stromming can thus become Kulla Herring, an
alteration which, as we have seen, involves nothing
more than a higher degree of the typical development
of the species. But it by no means follows that all
Strommings become Herrings, nor does it seem pos.sible
for anyone to show tliat all young BohusUln Herrings,
loddsiUar as they are called, in course of time become
Ocean Herrings.

That a particular stage of development under per-
manent circum.stances may become fixed as the termi-
nation of the development of a species under those
circumstances, is nothing unusual, and the characters
of Aouth, especiall}- in fishes that breed before they have
attained their full specific size and development, may
become hereditary and, under certain conditions, remain
unaltered. This is, no doubt, the explanation both of
the actual difference between the average StrOmming and
the average Herring, and of the fact that the young of
the so-called Spring Herring and Coast Herring differ
from the fry of the Autumn Herring and Ocean Her-
ring'. But the difference appears, to the best of our
knowledge, only in the averages and, probably, only

" Kritik etc., Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For. Kbhvn, 1888, p. 1.
' Nord. Tidskr. Fisk., Aarg. 3 (1876), p. 12.

' The name given by the fishermen to the shoals of larger Herring in llie Sound.

'' "II faut necessairement admettre la residence de ces poissons sur des fonds differents, ou la diversite de la grandeur et de la gros-
seur constitue autant de varietes ou de races qui se perpetuent par voie de generation '; Cm., Val., 1. c, XX, p. 49.

964

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

SO long as the geographical separation is maintained.
The three Herring varieties adopted by Heixcke (1. c.),
wliich he called A, B, and C, are also distinct expres-
sions of different ages. The development has started
from (,\ the characters of wliich, as Heincke saj's, are
a blending of those of ^4 and B; and the last-mentioned
variety represents that stage of de\elopment in ^\•hich
tlie dorsal and ventral fins have moved furthest for-
ward, again to recede, in accordance with the above-
mentioned rule for the development, to the position
which they occupy in Heincke's variety A.

Such is the manner in which the distinctions ad-
duced between different kinds of Herring ma}" be ex-
plained away. Practically expressed, the result is that
no constant character has been discovered for the as-
sumed varieties or races. It must, therefore, be assumed
tiiat the geographical separation is not marked enough
to effect a complete severance of varietj- or race. The
Herring is a migratory fish, no more restricted to lixed
localities within its range than other such fishes. On
endeavouring to find a centre for that range in the
basin of the Atlantic, we arrive at a conclusion which
in a certain degree recalls Andebsson's antiquated
theory. A line including the White Sea, the extreme
north of Norway, Iceland, Southern Greenland, New-
foundland, the west coast of Canada and of the North-
ern States, and further south on the European side
meeting the Bay of Biscay, forms the approximate limit
of the Herring's extension in the Atlantic. That the
Herring besides is really an oceanic fisii, is clearly
shown by the fact that it attains its maximum size and
its highest development of form in the ocean. The
largest Herrings in the market come from Iceland,
Norwegian Nordland, and Norwegian Finmark. Their
average size (to the end of the caudal lobes) is 33 —
37 cm. Exceptionally lai'ge specimens are indeed known
from other localities. From England we are told of
Herrings 39 and 43 cm. long; but the most trustworthy
and the latest accounts in Day (1. c.) give 32 cm.

as the maximum length. The Bohuslan Herring of the
present day is also in general of the same size, though
exceptions are not unknown. We have mentioned above
a Herring from HelsO (Northern Bohuslan) which, though
shrunk Ijy the s]>irit in ^\•llich it is preserved, measures
42 cm. to the end of the caudal lobes. It is not ab-
solutely impossible that such Herrings may be native
to our waters: but exce]ttions make no rule, and it
must be regarded as most prol)a1)le that the Herring
attains its highest development, and has the centre of
its range, in more northei'n regions, in the North At-
lantic between Iceland and Norway. It is, beyond
doultt, from this source that the Herring-fisheries of
the North Sea and Norway, as well as of Bohuslan,
derive their tluctuating supply".

The experience of inanv vears teaches that the
Herring comes to Southern Norway from the north-
west. The Scotch Herring-fishery also begins yearly
off' the Shetland Islands and gradually extends further
and further south. The Herring thus makes fi"om the
north an annual ascent of the plateau, offering a depth
of at most 100 fathoms, on which Great Britain and
Ireland are situated. If this plateau (see the map) were
raised to the surface of the ocean, it would form an
unbroken stretch of dry land between the said islands
and tlie Continent from the Skaw south to about the
middle of the Bay of Biscay. The west coast of the
territory thus produced would coincide to the south
with the pi-esent limit of the Herring's range in this
part of the Atlantic. Between this plateau and Nor-
wa)', along the west coast of Southern Norway, runs
the deep, so-called Norwegian Channel into the Skager
Rack, its depth falling short of 200 fathoms from the
neighbourhood of Bergen south to Lindesniis, i. e. out-
side the region ^vhere the NorAvegian fishery for Spring
Herring is carried on. The channel is rather narrow
oft' Lindesnas, but widens and grows deeper in the
Skager Rack, so that between Arendal and the Skaw,
somewhat nearer to Norway than to Denmark, there

" This opinioD I advanced in 1878. as an explanation of the revival that bad just begun in the Bohuslan Herring-fishery and of
the prospects for its continuance, of which the authorities were then very dubious. About 1870 the fishery for Spring Herrings on the
south coast of Norway had begun to decline. In 1872 the Royal Museum had obtained quite typical Spring Herrings from Stromstod. far-
ing the first years of the decade the Museum received from Bohuslan several pelagic species, Bonitos and other rovers of the open Atlantic,
notorious as pursuers of the Herring. In 1856' too .\. V. Malm had taken off Kalfsund Herring-fry 46 — 49 mm. long, wliich, as was then
assumed, could not possibly be the young of the Grass Herring (a suialk-r kind, spawning in spring) that is always to be found on the coast of
Bohuslan. It therefore seemed beyond dispute that the Great Herring had been present for several years in the North Cattegat and the Ska-
ger Rack, without being directly observed in those waters, until a part of the Herring army penetrated, after they had spawned, into the
island-belt. I found every reason to believe, as has since been confirmed, that a new so-colled Herring-period had set in on the coast of
Bohuslan, i. e. tliat the Herring liad made its way from the North Sea into the Skager Rack, deserting for this locality its spawning-places
off the south-west of Norway.

HEHRINCi.

965

are nearly 400 fathoms of water. The continuation of j thiit it can descend to considerable depths, of sorae
the channel, up to tiie 40-fathonis line, follows the i hundred fathoms at least, though pi-obably not to the
west coast of iSweden south to about the latitude of 1 deepest parts of the Atlantic.

Kon"'sbaci<a, i. e. as far as the true coast lisliery for
Great llerrinu- has ever extended to the south in
Sweden.

To trace the Herring to its ocean liome is a hope-
less task. Conjecture must still play a prominent part
in all opinions of its life in the depths. ISut s(j much
is apparently clear, that its ^\■anderings follow tlic de-
pressions and sfeejis of tiie Ijottom. How deep it can
descend, we i<now not; but the advanced development

As Mac Cullocu has remarked, the ro\ings of
the Herring have three motive causes, the quest of a
si)awning-place, the chase of food, and the dread of
its pursuing enemies.

The spawning-season of the Herring lasts all tlie
year round; Init only a part of the wandering multi-
tudes, in general tliose of tlie same age, are in l)rced-
ing condition at the same time. Different spawning-
seasons may hence characterize different localities, and

Fig. 241. Tlie Xorth-eastern Atlnnlic togetl.c-r with the North Sea and tlie Baltic. After 0. Torell.

of the adipose membrane covering the head ranges it
nearer than the Mackerel to the true deep-sea fishes.
The pressure need not greatly distress the Herring, for
only few fishes can so easily adapt tlie distension of
the air-bladder to varying degrees of pressure. The
lower temperature of the depths need not deter it, for
fishes with so extensive a geographical range must by
nature be accustomed to wideh' different temperatures,
tlioiigh the Herring seems sensitive to sudden varia-
tions. The same may be said of the greater or less
salinity of different layers of \vater. All that we know
of the Herring's nature well admits of the assumption

in the same locality it is not uncommon to find two
separate spawnings every year. In the Atlantic the
two spawnings, where they occur, take place before and
after the winter, in the Baltic before and after the
summer. This a])plies to the main l)ody of the shoals:
but during the intervening periods isolated instances of
breeding fish may be observed almost everywhere. As
a rule the oldest Herrings spa^vn first, in the autumn,
the younger ones later, when the spring has set in or
in the summer. From the Gulf of Bothnia Gisler ad-
duces the Sprin;) or Ice Stromming, -which spawns within
the island-belt when the ice breaks up, the Xet Strom-

966

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

ming, which spawns outside the island-belt from the
middle of May to the end of June, and the Autumn
Stromminc/, which sp.-iwns within the island-belt at the
end of August and beginning of Septemljer". In the
island-belts of Stockholm and MOrkO' the true spring
spawning occurs at the end of May and beginning of
June, the autumn spawning at tiie end of August and
begitming of September. In the south-east of the Bal-
tic, near Dantzic and KOnigsberg each of the two
spawning-seasons (vai'ying from March — June and Au-
gust— September) is of about the same importance to the
fishery. Off Riigen and on the coast of Scania the
autumn spawning is the more important; in the extreme
>vest of the Baltic, oft' Trave and Schleswig, the spring
spawning takes the upper hand. "The further south
\\ c advance along the Sc'anian coast", writes Lundberg",
"the more seldom do we meet with spring-spawning
Herring. The fishermen state, one and all, that several
years maj' elapse without a single one being seen ....
The spring-spawning Herring of the Sound, considered
by G. WiNTHER to be a distinct race, peculiar to the
Sound, would also appear to consist of small specimens
of the common Herring. Our Swedish fishermen there
do not know of any spring-spawning Herring in the
Sound, nor is there any regular fishery for Spring
Herring on the S>\edish side. A little Herring is
indeed taken all the year round, mainly to serve
as bait. But the Herring-fishery proper of the Sound
and Cattegat does not commence until the middle or end
of August or the beginning of September, and lasts till
the middle or end of (October. Most of the Herrings
taken, however, are not in full lireeding condition, i. e.
though they are full of roe and milt, it is not quite ripe
or running. At Kullen I Avas assured that Herrings in
this last condition or spawning Herrings are ver}' seldom
caught during the true season for the Herring-fishery;
but that, after the Herring-fishery proper is over, later
in the autumn, at the beginning of November or end
of October, shoals of spawning Herrings seek shelter,
when the wind is in the north, under the lee of Kulla-
berg, and are then taken close in shore." In the Cat-

tegat the true spawning-.season begins in the middle of
September. The Herrings taken in drift-nets oft" the
coast of Bohusliiu during the latter half of August, 1882,
were for the most part not vet in breeding condition;
but on tile '2<ot\\ of September I found spawning Herrings
among the takes made 3 — 5 miles oft' Marstrand. That
was the first time, during the present Bohusliln fishery
for (ireat Herring, when it was conclusively sliown that
the Herring spawns, at least towards the end of September,
off the said coast, and that a verj' profitable fishery with
drift-nets might be carried on for at least a month be-
fore. That, later in the j'ear, it continues its spawning
within the island-l)elt as well, was proved by Mr. C. A.
Hansson, who found Herring-roe ready for hatching in
Stromstad Fjord on the 5th of March, 1885. More re-
cently (in 18SS) Trvbd.^i observed the September spawn-
ing of the Herring in the North Cattegat off Fladen,
Groves-Flak, Lilla Middelgrund, and the shelving banks
north of Anholt, and outside the Cattegat at the edge of
the shallows west of the Skaw''. Farther out in the Skager
Rack, between Hanstholm (Jutland) and Christiansaiid
(Nor\vay), somewhat nearer to Denmark than to Norway,
Heincke met with "spawning Bohuslan Herring" in the
middle of September, 1889 ^ The younger Herring,
the Grass Herring of the Bohuslan island-belt, spawns
in spring, during March, Ajjril and May.

The Herring, like most fishes, chooses its spawning-
places in water shallower than its ordinary home, and
during youth at least, it also seeks for this purpose
water of less salinitj''. The large Herring can spawn
in 60 — 100 fathoms of water'', though it usually comes
nearer to the coast; the smaller Herrings ascend into
^vater sometimes no more than a fathom deep. In the
neighbourhood of Stockholm the spawning is performed,
according to Sundevall, outside the island-belt or in
the larger fjords, on rises of the bottom or reefs with
5 — 10 fathoms of water, close to land sometimes in
only o fathoms. In the Baltic fishery the rule applies,
that the males are the earlier, both in age and season,
to attain bi'eeding condition — during the spawning-
ftshery the males are usually taken first. But Boeck

" He further adduces from these regions sill, large males, with soft and running milt at midsummer or earlier, Seine Stromming,
sliotten Spring Stromming which is resting during the earl}' summer and is then taken within the island-belt, and Red-bellied Str6mming,
.answering to the Fat Herring of tlie Atlantic, with sexual organs not yet tumid.

' Cf. SuNDEVALL and Ekstrum.

' Meddelanden rorande Sveriges Fiskerier, Haft. I, p. 40.

'' Sdlundersbkningar vid Sveriges vesthust hasten 1S88, Kongl. Civildepartementet, III, y. 16.

' Mitth. Sect. Kiisten-, Hochs. Fischerei, Deutsch. Fisch. Ver., Jan. — Fcbr. 1890. p. 23.

•'' Meyer, Jahrber. Comm. Unters. Deutsch. M., Kiel, 1874 — 76, p. 232.

" Boeck, Nord. Tidskr. Fiskeri, Kbhvn, Aarg. 2, 1875, p. 263.

967

states quia' tin' umiusite of Norway". W'licii the 8iia wil-
ing begins, however, the .sexes uiiiigle pronii-scuously,
and the opei'ation i.s pert'onued mueh in the same way
as we have abo\'e described wiieii treating of the Gwy-
niads. Gislek tells in animated language how the Baltic
Herring then apj)roaches land in large and densely pack-
ed shoals, often extending more than three-quarters of
a mile along the coast, and always containing many
times more females than males. The fish tumble about,
and lash with their tails so violently that tlie scales drop
off and float to tlie surface, in company with small air-
biibbles whicli the Herrings emit. The sea is dyed gray,
and a powerful and rank smell, appreciable at a great
distance, fills the air. The spawning multitude does
not shun the net, l)ut rather presses willingly into its
meshes. The operation does not last long, how-ever, at
the same spot, "probably no more than five or six hours",
according to Si'xdevall, when the shoal withdraws.
Out at sea the spawning presents a similar sight: in a
confused mass, gleaming with phosphorescent light, the
fish toss about, near the surface when the night is dark
and the weather mild; deeper in the water when there
is moonlight and in frosty weather^ The impregnated
eggs sink to the bottom, and attach themselves to sea-
weed, stones, shells, and other firm objects, or some-
times cake together on the gravel or sand, or even on
a clayey bottom.

The number and size of the eggs vary, as usual,
according to the size of tiie mother fish and their own
degi-ee of ripeness. Their number may be estimated at
about 20,000— 40,0U0 in different females; their size,
when they are ripe and ready to be deposited, varies
in the Baltic Herring'', generally speaking, l)etween 0"92
(exceptionally O'So) and 1 mm., in the Xorth-$ea Her-
ring between 1 and I'S mm.' Of the development we
learn from Sundevall's notes' that, "after the embryo
had been formed, it was seen (in August) to turn in the
egg seven or eight times a minute, subsequently more

seldom, and latterly oidy once every two or tln-ee mi-
nutes. The hatcliing generally takes place in a fort-
night or a little more, but in water of a higiier tem-
perature, over + 20° C. (+ 68° Fahr.) for example, only
three days are recpiired''. As long as tlie fry retain tiie
yolk (fig. 242), they move in a peculiar manner. By
violently bending or tossing tlie body, an operation
repeated every second, or at somewhat greater or less
intervals, they work their way upwards, to the surface
(at least \\hen they are confined in vessels 3 — 6 dm.
deep), and as soon as tliey have touched the surface,
they keep still and sink again to the bottom, where
they lie for a while, and then resume this upward mcj-
tion. — As soon as the yolk is absorbed, which takes a
week's time, they commence swimming in dense shoals,
with a serpentine movement. The fins and the general
shape of the body seemed to have attained their full
development in tiie course of two or three months,
when the fish is about 36 mm. long." These remarks
apply to the Spring Stromniing. But so great may be

Fig. 242. Newly liatched Baltic Herriug, 7 mm. long, taken on the
12tli of May, 1854. C. .7. Sundev.^ll.

tlie difference between the summer and winter growtii
that the Autumn Stromniing, which develops during the
colder months, recjuires in the Baltic, according to Mubiu.s
and Heincke, 7 — 9 months to attain the said degree of
development', and has then grown to a length of more
than 60 mm. The ventral fins are developed in the
Spring Herring of the Baltic, according to Heincke'',
when the fish is only 25V2 'i^'ii- long; but in the Autumn
Herring they do not appear until the fish measures
33^/2 mm. The followdng comparison has been drawn
by Meyer between the growth of the Spring Herring
in the Baltic and that of young Trout:

- 1. c, p. 26.

For a description of the noisy spawning at sea, and how the Herring immediately after the operation quits the spawning-place, see
Gov., Val., 1. c. XX, p. 87.

' KupFFER, Jahresb. Comm. Unt. D. Meere, Kiel 1874 — 7(5. p. 177.

'' According to BoECK, 1. c, I'l mm.

' Om Fiskyngels utveckling, Vet.-Akad. Haiidl., Bd. I (1855), p. 17.

■'' The hatching takes place, according to Kupffer (1. c., p. 29), in water of a temperature between + 14° and + 19° C. within 6 —
8 days; according to MoBius and Heincke (Fiscli U/tts., p. 137), at a temperature of + 10° or + 11° C. in 11 days and at a temperature
of + 7° or + 8° C. in 15 days.

' According to Meyer (Comra. Deutsch. Meor. 1874 — 76, p. 248), however, small Autumn Herrings 45 — 60 ram. long and of almost
perfect shape are found in February.

'' Comm., 1. c. p 128.

Scandinai-inn fiihe

122

968

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Herring

Length im-
lueilintely
nfter exelu-
sion, mm.

Length

1 month

afterwards,

mm.

Length
3 months
afterwards,

Length
G months
afterwards.

Lenath
12 months
afterwards,

5-8
If)

17—18
•20

45— JO
30

7r,— 80
64

i:'.0— 140
12.')

Trout

When it leaves the egg, the young Trout is thus
;il)(iut twice as large as the J'oung Herring; but three
UKjiiths aft('r\var(l.« it lias l)een outstripped by the latter.

The larvie of the Herring are distinguished bj' an
elongated (Eel-shaped), somewhat terete, and highly
transparent body, with the vent situated far back, espe-
cially during the earlier stages, with the dorsal fin be-
hind the middle of the body, l)ut with tiie ventral tins
set farther forward. Tiie paired fins ai'e lobate (witii
brachiate l)ase), the jiectorals ajjpearing before the ven-
trals. In the Spring Herring of the Baltic the scales
are developed at a length of only 41 mm.

When two years old, tiie Baltic Herring is afiout
20 — 21 cm. long; when three years old, 22 — 23 cm.;
when four years old, 24 — 25 cm. In Norway the Spring
Herring, it is assumed, requires 7 or 8 years to reach
its full size. The males attain maturity at a length of
16 — 20 cm., the females at a length of about 21 cm.

.\fter passing through the larval stage, the Herrings
gather in shoals and commence their rovings along the
coast, often ascending into a foot of water, and ]>ursued
by Garpike and other predatory fislies. On the shelv-
ing beach near Halmstad, though the Herring is else
a stranger to Lahohn Bay, the shoals of young Herrings
were so dense in my childhood that during summer we
boys used to catch nuniliers by wading out and netting
them in our handkerchiefs. In July, 1834, aliout five
miles west of the Skaw, within the innermost sand-bar,
Khover" observed a shoal of Herring-fry that were about
.") cm. long. The shoal extended for a distance of about
200 yards and \vas more than 20 yards liroad. It was
so dense that the water seemed quite black. Herring-fry
one year old are of rarer occurrence in the open sea';
but on the r2tli and 13th of August, 1889, Heincke''
found several specrimens 15 — 20 cm. long among larger
Herrings in the Skager Rack, on the seaward side of
the Jutland Bank, where the depth was about 100 ni.
The Herring can thus endure the hardships of a life

in the troubled ocean, and accompany its elders on
their wanderings, at an early age.

The Herrings seem to seek strength, or at least to
find a sense of security'', in tlie' close companionship of
numbers, however little this avails. Out at sea they
probably swim in more open order and mingle indis-
criminately. The drift-net fishermen of Northern Scot-
land, who sometimes sail 80 miles from land, take full
Herrings and shotten Herrings, ripe Herrings and maid-
en Herrings (ma.tjes), in the same haul. But the nearer
the Herring-shoal approaches to the shore, at different
seasons of the year, the denser and the more exclusive-
ly do the different sorts congregate, in summer tliose
which are most eager in the ])ursuit of food, in autumn
those with the ripest organs of reproduction. Large
shoals of maiden Herrings (fat Herrings) — witii a
thick coat of fat round the intestine, liut witii small,
filamentous or ribl)on-like organs of generation — re-
pair in summer to the ^vest coast of Norwaj' north of
Stavanger, and feast on their favourite food, the so-
called Adt. The spawning Herrings, on the other hand,
resort in still greater multitudes during autumn and
winter, alternately, as it appears, for a series of years
to the southern part of tlie west coast of Norway, and
for another, shorter period to tlie Skager Rack and the
Northern Cattegat as well as to the fjords of Norwegian
Nordland. In the last-mentioned region the Herring
sometimes advances within the island-belt before the
spawning, but goes out again to breed. To the south
of Norway and off the coast of Bohusliin the greater
part of the Herring-siioal spawns before its appearance
within the island-belt, at least in the beginning of the
said period. In the Baltic the Herring goes out to sea
after spawning; but on the ^vest coast of Scandinavia it
makes its way into tiie island-belt and the fjords, and
rests there for a while, before witiidrawing to the 0])en
sea. At these times it even enters fresh water. Mokeau
states that it ascends the moutii of the Seine up to
Quillebeuf''. After resting it again begins to feed, puts
on flesh, and becomes wiiat is known in Norway as
slosill (witii tiiread-like organs of generation). But the
Herrings of the shoal are not all in the same condition,
although most of thein are ready to spawn. The main

" Damn. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 159, note.

* BOECK, 1. c, p. 18.

<■ .Mith. Sect. Kust., Hochseef. (Ueutsch. Fisdi. Ver.) 1890, p. 17.

'' Cf. the above-nientioijed observations of tlic TlirfC-spiucil Sticklfhack (p. t)57).

' Cf. also Guv., Val., 1. c, p. 66.

9G9

bod)- sweeps along, and in the press swim Herrings
small (so-called lotftiiUar), middle-sized, and lai-ge —
shotten Heri'iiigs, spawning Herrings, and Herrings not
yet in l)reeding condition.

Tiic Herring is, no doidjt, iniijelled, like other mig-
ratory tishes, li\- a well-known instinct, to retrace its
way to the waters which first alt'orded it a home; and
when the s])awning Herring has fonnd a locality where
the circnnistances are congenial to rcpi'odnction, it re-
turns tiiere, as a rule, during tiie following years, so
long as these circumstances continue. On the coast of
Bohusliin it has l)een observed, both in former times"
and recent ^■ears, tliat during the commencement of a
so-called Herring-fishery period tlie fish as a rule come
earlier \ear 1)\' ^•ear, l)ut afterwards later and later,
until, tired of the place, they neither return in such
numbers, nor approach so near to the coast. They have
found more fa\(>urable circumstances in anotlier locality
or farther out to sea — a more trantiuil spawning-place,
ii more plentiful supply of food, and greater security
both for tiuinselves and their offspring. The Scotch
fishermen too have learnt that ti\ej may sometimes shoot
their drift-nets for Herring quite close in shore, but in
other years must sail far out into the North Sea through-
out the fishing-season. These variations, which have
been called Herring-fishery periods, cannot be determined
beforehand. Our iiistorical knowledge thereof, defective
as it is, l:)_y no means i>oints to definite periods in fixed
succession. That they may depend on meteorological
and hydi'ograi)hic, not to say cosmic, alterations, we
cannot positive! v deny; but the periodicity of these al-
terations is as yet unknown'. Century after centiUT,
ever since the idexenth, we have at least indications that
tlie Herring has "come in" on the coast of Bohuslan.
From the end of the twelfth century, at least down to
1537, the Herring-fishery of the Sound, witli Skanoraiid
Falsterbo as its headquarters, was far famed; but Lund-
i!i;uii has shown'' that this was probablj- due, less to the
greater abundance of the fish then, as compared with
the present time, tlian to the commercial relations then
obtaining, to tlie part taken in the fishery by the
powerful Hanse Towns, and to the business-like manner
in which thej' turned its resoui'ces to account. The

Baltic Herring (Stromming) never appears in such vast
numbers, and in this respect, as well as in its moderate
size, more closely resembles the Shore Herring of Bo-
husliin. But Herring-fishery periods of abundance and
scarcity occur in the l>aitic too, as Sunoevall has
shown of tiie island-belt of Stockholm''. He adduces
the instances tiiat the seine-fi.shery for Stromming was

at Nyiiiis Arsta Forsvik

successful . . . n|. to 1825 incl., . . . 1828, . . . 1834,

uiisucicssful . . . 182t;— 1839, 1829—1841, 1835—1843.

successful .... 1840—1849, 1842—1851, 1844 — 1851,

unsuccessful . . . 1850 ct sc(|.i., 1852 ... , 1852 ... .

"so that each new jieriod of plenty or scarcity sets in
some years later, tiie fai'tiier tiie locality is situated
within tlie island-belt."

Iu\STROM gives tile following description of the Baltic
Herring's life in the island-belt of MSrkO: "In spring,
as soon as the ice has broken up, and cleared away in
some degree, the Stn'Jmming ascends from tlie depths
where it has wintered. . It rises so near the surface as
to be carried along liy any storm or gale. When it has
come so near the coast that it does not wish to advance
an-^' further, a halt is made, the whole shoal turning
round with military precision, and facing the wind.
Thus it remains, almost motionless, until the wind
changes and blows from the coast. It now turns again
and faces the wind and the sliore, but draws nearer the
land to seek suitable stations. If it has drifted to a
strange coast, it roves along the shore until it comes to
places that seem convenient for the spawning and as a
home during the summer. It now stays in their neigh-
bourhood, roving about, now farther from land, now
closer in shore, according to the direction of the wind,
for on its wanderings from place to jjlace it invariabh'
swims against the wind or current, e.xcept, as mentioned
above, when it drifts in spring to the coast. This mig-
ration, which depends on tlie direction of the wind and
the set of the current when the fish ascends from the
depths, renders the fishery more or less productive on
different coasts .... Among these islands at any rate,
such has always been the case. The experience of many
years has taught the fisiierinan that, if the ice breaks
up during a south-^vesterly gale, Avhich is usually of
long duration at this time of year, and which sets into

" Sec Fagr^us, Trancp-umsaclen (1784), p. 129.

*• "Bruckner assumes a periodic variation in the lieal radiated by tlie sun, anil tlius explains the variations of temperature, of atuio-
spheric pressure, and of the rainfall. Tlie tliirty-five years' ]>criod lias nothing to do with the number of sunspots." Kbemser, Meteorolo-
eisclie Zeilschrift OVien), 1891, p. 228.

' Del stora siUfisket i Skdne under medeltiden och nijare lidens borjan, Antiqv. Tidskr. f. Sverige, Del. 11, No. 2.

'' Stockholnis Lans Kongl. HushaUningssallskaps Handlingar, 6:te Haftet (1855), p. 187.

970

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

the island-belt, he may expect a successful fishing-season.
But if the wind is north-east at the beginning of the
spring, the fishery is always a failure. These migrations
extend, however, over no great distance, being restricted
to limits of some few leagues. The islander has a rough
knowledge of the coast-line to a distance of at least
some leagues from his home, and consequently can tell
against which promontories or into which inlets the
Str5mming is driven by the wind prevailing for the time.
So the islanders of Morko say, "If this wind holds, they
will have Herring in the islands of Oster Gothland;"
"With this wind the Herring will come to the island-
belt of .Stockholm;" etc. The places most affected l)y the
Stromniing are shallows with a level Ijottom in the large
fjords, or the shores that abut on deep ^\'ater, but do not
fall sheer into the depths, having a fairly level bottom
between the outer edge and the land. Such shores are
generally to be found in these islands off ])romoiitories.
They are all the better if there is a current. The bottom
should be sandy or stony, and overgrown, at least in
patches, with weeds. About midsummer, at tlie middle
or end of June, the spawning is over, and the Strom-
ming retires to deeper water. Towards autumn, in
August, it again ascends, but never visits at this season
the places Avhere it has passed the spi'ing or spawned,
repairing instead to much deeper spots. In December
or even earlier the greater number witlidraw to their
winter-quarters, which they choose in some deeper part
of the sea. These places are not tlie same year after
year, for, when the StrOmniing is taken in winter with
the ice-seine, it is found standing now at one spot, now
at another; but it keeps, generally speaking, to the same
neighbourhood. The islanders of MOrko have certain
strommingsvarj), i. e. certain slieets of water whei-e
StrOmming may be taken with tlie ice-seine, liut only
the tract is known, not the exact spot."

The gregariousness of the Herring is bound up with
its timidity. That it is easily alarmed by noise, we
have already remarked, and Eksthoji adduces evidence
to prove that the passing of steamers may frighten it
away from the navigable channels of the island-belt, and
also that the mei'e setting of gill-nets is sometimes
enough to disturb its spawning and drive it a^vay from
a fishing-station of ascertained value. In Bohu.sMn too
the firing of guns is now prohibited during the fishing-
season. The Herring is not tenacious of life. The ra-
pidity of its death is notorious, and has given rise in
" Cf also Cuv., Val., 1. c, p. 03.

many places to the ])roverbial expi-ession, "as dead as
a Herring^ But, according to Ekstrom", "the infor-
mation we possess on this head is exaggerated. It is
generally believed that the fish dies the very moment
it is lifted above the surface of the water. I have per-
sonally made numbers of ex{)eriments to test this state-
ment, and have found that the time varies with the
temperature of the atmosphere. In s])i'ing, at tlie end
of April, when the air is still cool and usually cold,
the Stromming lives 18 — 20 minutes after it has been
taken out of the water. If caught late in the evening or
at night, it sustains life for fully half an hour. But it
must be handled carefullj' and not exyiosed to any ex-
ternal violence. As the summer approaches, at the
middle of May for example, it never lives more than
6 — 10 minutes, and at midsummer, when the air is
quite warm, tiie duration of its life out of the water
seldom exceeds 4 minutes. It should be remarked, how-
ever, that the individuals on which I made the above
experiments had not been entangled in the meshes of a
net, but were taken, quite uninjured, in a vessel out of
the water and deposited on the beach or in the boat.
If tiie StrOmming has been caught in the seine, it dies
almost at the moment it leaves the water, and those taken
with gill-nets are dead before they are drawn up."

In s]>ite of its fecl)le dentition the Herring ranks
among the predatory fishes, though its victims are
usually of small size. In its earliest youth it lives on the
most minute marine animals. At a length of 11 mm.
a Herring larva had begun to feed on the larva^ of
worms (LiXDSTiio.M), and a young Herring 17 mm. long
had its intestine "full of food, amongst which small
species of Cyrlopiche might easily be recognised" (SuN-
devall). In its later youth and during the rest of its
life the Herring, no doubt, lives jjrincipally on Eiitom-
ostraca, Schizopods, and Ptcropods. Certain parts of
the North Atlantic teem with these animals, which are
so plentiful as to afford a sufficiency of food to the very
largest whales. Tiie Norwegian fishermen class the
Herring's ordinary food {Aaten) under three heads, which
they call JRndaat, Gidaat, and Svartaat or Krutaat. The
first consists ciiiefly of Copepods, either extremely small
or (c. g. Calanus finmarcMcus) as much as 8 mm. long.
"It seems incredible," writes Boeck, "that creatures so
small can \Aay so important a part in the economy of
a Avhole country; but the Mackerel and tlie Autumn
Herring owe tiicir fatness almost entirely to these aiii-

IIEKKING.

)71

luals, and under the niieroscope we may see the layers
(if fat l)etween the muscles and viscera within the frail
shell of these minute organisms." The Gulaat is made
up princi])ally of Annelid larva-, the Svartaaf of small
inollusks, the lar\:e of laru'er nuillusks, and I'teropods.
When the Herring has gorged itself with this food, and
not had time for digestion or to exc-rete the remains,
it is worthless as an article of trade. The tish decom-
poses rapidly, will not absorb the salt, and emits a
disgusting stench. In Norway it has therefore been
prescribed that such tish must be left three days in the
seine before being drawn U]i and salted. The Svatinaf

271) cntci' into the diet of the Herring; and it is no
doulit pai'tial to all other kiuds of small fishes.

The Herring has enemies in numbers. Among fishes
its most destructive foes are the Cod, the Coalfish, the
Hake, large Scombroids, the Salmon, and Sharks. Among
whales the lesser ronpial (Bala'noptcra rastratti), the
great northern nn'qual (BaUeuopt. Juticeps) ami the fin-
whale {Bakenojif. iiikkciiIks) feed on Herrings. The por-
poises are also Herring eaters; and among the most
troublesome of all are the seals, which often leave no-
thing in the net but the heads of the fish. Numerous
birds (gulls, terns, the gannet, etc.) swell the tale of

243. A YannoiiUi drift boat out tisliiniir. After Holdsworth.

is the worst, and almost hopelessly spoils the tish. But
animals of a relatively small size are not the Herring's
only food: it can also devour fishes of com])aratively
great dimensions. In the stomach of a large Baltic
Herring Eksthom found three good-sized specimens of
Gobius mlnufKfi; and the stomach of a female Herring
3 dm. long, which was caught in the island-belt of
Stockholm in .Tamiary, 189o, and in which the ovaries
were swollen to about a third of their full size, con-
tained portions of five Herring-fry that had been almost
equal in size, anil the largest of which had measured
6 /j cm. We have remarked above that the Douljly-
spott-ed Goby (p. 2.51) and f'ri/stdlliK/nlj'nis XH'^sohH ([).

its persecutors. But in the wai- of extermination against
the Herring the most ])rominent part is taken by man.

In the open sea and in the great arms of the sea
the Herring is taken in drift-nets, gill-nets, and purse-
seines. Nearer land the gill-net and jjurse-seine are
also used, but most commonly the seine (Sw. lad") or,
as in Denmark, the hund-garn, a sort of stake-net.

The drift-net is a contiinuius train of nets (Sw.
lank) seized to a stout rope or warp (Sw. drift-rep), to
which large floats (clumps of wood — Sw. Jdahbar, koh-
li(ir — or kegs — Sw. diDiknr, briUar — or bags of skin,
usually dogskin — Sw. tidckbojar) are attached with
stronger seizings, so as to keep the whole 'drift' afloat

" The word vnd is difficult of explanation. Some write vada, and derive it from the verb vada (to wade). The Danes write vdd,
and it is a question whether the word is not (he same as that we find in klOdningsvdd (a breadth of cloth) etc.

972

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIF.S.

in a vertical position". In the Noi'th-Sea fisheries one
of these 'fleets' of nets fi-equently extends to a length
of a mile and a (juarter or more. The net is shot in
the evening and hanled up in the morning. During the
night it is allowed to drift with tlie boat, the warp
being made fast in the bows. Drift-nets may also be
used as fiill-nefs, the two ends being anchored ; but the
common gill-net, called sJiute in the Baltic, ndr'nui in
Halland, is of simpler construction and resembles the
net used in fresh-water fishing. In recent times the
North American'' pitrse-seine has been introduced into
Europe and employed in the Bohuslan fishery. It is a
deep seine, with stout and closely corked head-rt)pe but,
strictly speaking, without foot-line, which is replaced
by a purse-line running free through rings. The seine
is shot in a circle round a shoal of fish swimming at
the surface; and when the circle is complete, and the

/ / /

Fig. 244. Stake-not from tlie Somul.

net walls in the shoal, the jjurse-line is hauled in, till
the seine assumes the shape of a bag. The Imid-seiue
is an engine as common and well-knmvn as any kind
of net; but in the, Herring-fishery it attains its maxi-

mum dimensions, being so long and deep that whole
arms of the sea or great portions thereof may be en-
closed so as to bar the Herring's retreat. The fish are
then secured in smaller seines. The construction of
the sfaki'-itef {hiindgarn, fig. 244) we have described
above (p. ;^52).

The voracity i>f the Hei'ring is such tiiat it may
also be taken with hook and line, and sometimes no
bait is necessarv, the mere glitter of the dancing hook
being sufficient to entice the fish.

The annual take of Herrings can hardly be esti-
mated; it must amount to thousands of millions. In
the Baltic and the Sound more than 200,000 barrels of
Strommings and Herrings, valued at about £16(5,600,
are taken yearly by Swedish fishermen. A barrel of
Str5mmings contains on an average more than 2,200
fish. It is estimated that 1,900 — 2,000 Scanian Herrings
go to the barrel. According to these estimates the
average annual catch of the S^vedish fishermen alone
exceeds four hundred million Str5mraings and Herrings,
and we may surely assiune that the Finiush, Russian,
German, and Danish fishermen together take at least
three times as many. To judge fi'om Dr. A. H. Malm's
latest reports on the Bohuslan fisherj', the average an-
nual take of Herrings for the fishing-seasons 1888 — 92
Mas about five or six hundred millions, a hectolitre
containing at least 300 Herrings. The average annual
value of this fisherj' for the said four seasons was about
£100,000, but in 1891—92 the value rose to £180,000.

The several takes are given in the following extracts
from Dr. k. H. Malm's "Reports on the Sea- fisheries of
the Pi'ovince of Gothenburg and Bohus"'":

1891—92

1890—91

H e r r

i n g - f i

8 li e r y

with

sci

„cs.

g i 11 -

nets.

drift

-nets.

Hectolitres.

Vdue.

1

Heetolilres. i Value.

No. of fish.

Value.

1,403.438
1,094,185
1,538,040
1,443,390

£59,493
£65,115
£30,334

£28,535

228.708
190,821
223,102
279,089

£65,453
£49,288
£39,394
£24.380

5,254,500
9,051,360

£5,373
£5,070

£7,700
£4,788

1889—90 -

1888-89

The value of tlic Halland Herring-fishery for the
year ISflO is estimated by Mr. TRYHt).M, Assistant In-

spector of Fisheries, at £3,272, and foi' the year 1891
at £3,G60. The Herring-fishery of Denmark yielded in

" For a more minute description of the drift-net see Hoi.nswoBTH, Deep-iSea Fis/iimj and Fishing Boat^-. p. 100; Lundrerg, Mediiel.
riirnnde Sveriges Fiskericr, Hiift. I, p. 33, with illustr.

'' At the Fisheries Exhibition (London, 1883) a net of this kind, coming from (.'ornwiill, was catalogued as original.

"■ These reports do not take into account that portion oi the fishery which falls to the share of fishermen from Halland.

it?;]

1890 ii(>;irly t'4.i,000 (t.';5,4.")7 tVoiii Liiiii Fjord"). Nor-
w;iv"s iiicdinc t'nuii tiiis soiirc-c'' in 1X91 was £360,600'.
Tlie results of the Hei-ring- fisheries of Oreat Britain
and Ireland were in 18S7 and 1888"':

Englniul iiuil Wulcs ..

1.SS7.

ias8.

Cwts. £.

Cwts.

£.

1,G05,140 442,288
3,217,361 G41,572

1,729,641

2,846,796

75,548

485,806
614,838
30,728

Irelnnd

The Herring-tisherj' of Holland yielded in 1 880 * about
•227,000,000 Herrings and in 1881 about 197,500,000,
witli a market value of iietwcen three and four million
guldens (£2.M),000— £.383,000). The French fishermen
of the North Sea and the Channel took in 1881'' 39,000,000
kilo, of Herrings, valued at about 9,000,000 francs
(£360,000). The Iceland Herring-fishery of 1882'
yielded .iO,000 barrels of a total valne of £72,000.

On the European side ot the Atlantic the annual
take of Herrings thus amounts to between .')00,000,000
and 600,000,000 kilo., and commands a market price
of about £2,700,000. On the east coast of North Ame-
rica, according to Hind'', Herrings were taken in 1874
to a weight of about 91,000,000 kilo. No gi-eat accu-
racy can be expected of all these calculations and esti-
mates, but they give at least a notion of the value
represented by the Herring, for all its cheapness. The
welfare of nations has dej)ended on the Herring-fishery;
and none need be surprised that this fishery has always
been an apple of discord.

Manv are the eulinar\' forms in which the Heri'ing
appears. In order to fit this cheap article of food for
transportation from the ])lace of its catch to the world's
enipoi'ia, it has been the custum from time immemorial

to dry, smoke, and salt the Herring; and the kitrhcn
has taken measures accordingly. The ib^rring-fishery
beca-me an El Dorado to the Dutch when they learnt
to gut the fish' — to remove tiie gill-arches and in-
testine— before salting. lUit tiie Herring, lik(! otliei-
fishes, is best and cheajjcst when fresh; and with the
speedy means of transit and improved methods of })re-
servation — l)()rate or, .still better, ice — now available,
it may be conveyed to a considerable distance, and
kej)t fresh for at least a fortnight or three weeks. In
this condition it is excellent either boiled or fried. The
English whitebait, the principal coui'se at the fashionable
dinners at Greenwich or Blackwall on the Thames, has
a world-wide reputation. Whitebait consist chiefly of
Herring-fry about two or three inches long, but also
of Sprats, Sticklebacks, Gobies, and other small fishes.
They are taken at flood-tide in spring and summer
with a special kind of net, which is dipped a few feet
below the surface from a boat anchored in 30 — 40 feet
of water. Thev sliould, al)ove all, be procured (juite
fresh and fried as soon as possible. Thej' answer to
the fiskakaqa (fish-cake) of Scania and Halland, only
that the latter is made into a cake by the addition of
a greater quantitv of butter or lard. In France White-
bait are kno\\n as liJanclies (hlaguets) or menis {me-
nitsses).

Herrings and Herring-fry are also much used as
bait for other fishes.

The numerous names by which the Herring is
known in trade, and the details of the numerous me-
thods employed in curing it for the market, cannot
be given here. The reader who is interested in these
questions will find an able treatment of them in
L.TUNGilAN. 1. c.

■' Drechsel, accordiiifr to the -Dansk Fiskeriforeniiigs Meillcinsblafl" 1892, pp. 74 and 75.

' For tlic Norwegian Herring-fisheries and their fluctuations see H. B.^.ars, Die Fischereiindustrie Xorwegens, Bergen 1873, p. 36.

The Central Bureau of Statistics at Christiania, according to the "Dansk Fiskeriforenings Medlemsblad" 1892, p. 490.
■' Fish Trades Gazette 1889, .Jan. 12th and 26th.

' .\ccording to an official statement, in the Catal. Gt. Intern. Fisli. Exliib. London 1883, 1st cd., p. 422.
/ ibid., p. 384.
» ibid., p. 382.

* I!r.-Goode, Fisher., Fislier. Industr. U. S., sect. I, p. 549.
' The discovery is ascribed by tradition to Willem Beukelzoon, a skipper from liicrvlict in Flanders, d. 1387.

974

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

THE SPRAT (S\V. .XKAIiPSILLKN c.It HVASSBUKKX).

CI.UPEA SPEATTUS.

Plate XLIV, tijr. 2.

Length of flic Ihisc of flic mutl fn nxirv than ' ., of the (listtn/ic liettreen the retitral fns and the tip of the snout.

Xinnlicr of sjiiiies at the ventral nuiroin .V.i* — 35".

R. br. f, — \

D.

,(17 — 19);

12 — 14

6'. .r + 1 + 17 + 1 +
11 — 13: Vevl. 4(3-49.

P. -'—, V. ^
15— IG' C

3—5
./■; Liii. hit. 47—50:

Syn.

Spraltiis 1. Upai-liiiyus (Huivngoruiu foetiira), Willughb., Hist.
Pise, p. 221; Ray, Syn. Pise, p. 105; LatiUus, Schonkv.,
Ichtliyol. 6'lesv. Holsat., p. 41. Clupea quadriuncialis, ma-
xilla iuferiore loiigiore, ventre aciitissiTDO {Spratt Anglis,
Hvassbuk Suecis), Art. IcIiI., Gen., p. 7; Syn., p. 17;
Spec, p. 33; Lin., Fun Succ, ed. I, p. 120. Brisling,
Str6m, Sondm. Beskr., p. 271.

Clupea Sprattus, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, toin. I, p. 318;
Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. Warrington, 177G), vol. Ill, p. 303;
Retz., Fna Siiec. Lin., p. 353; Swahtz, Soensk Zoologi,
vol. I, No. 28; NiLSS., Proilr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 22;
Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. I, vol. II, p. 121; Parn., Mem.
Wern. Nat. Hist. Sec, vol. VII, p. 322, tab. XXXV; Kr.,
Voy. Scandin., Lappon., (Gaim.), Zool., Poiss., tab. 18;
Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 177; Ci:v:. Val. (Harengtila),
Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XX, p. 285; Sundev. {Clupea),
Stockh. L. Husb. Sails. Handl. 1855, pp. 81, 108, 185; Nilss.,
Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 510; Mgrn, Finl. Fiskfna, p. 69;
LiNDSTK., Gotl. Fisk.. Gotl. L. Hiisli. Sails. Arsber. 1866,
p. 20 (sep.); v. Bemm. (Harengiila) in Hbrkl., Bouwst.
Fna Nederl., part. Ill, ]>. 381; Gthr {Clupea), Cat. Brit.
Mus., Fish., vol. Vll, p. 419; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk.
Cbrnia 1874, Till.-egsb., p. 193; 1879, No. 1, p. 98;
N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. 112; Seiul.,
Fna Bah., p. 98; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 582;
WiNTH., Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 48;
MoR. {Meletta), Hist. Nat. Poiss., Fr., loin. Ill, p. 447;
Bnckb {Clupea), Fisch., Fischer., Fischi. 0., IF. Preuss.,
p. 172; HcKE, Var. Her., VII Ber. Comm. Deutschl M.,
pp. 45 et GO; Mela, Vert. Finn., p. 354, tab. X; Day,
Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II. p. 231, tab. GXXXIX, fig. 2;
MOii., HcKE, Fisch. Osts., p. 139; Lii.lj., Sv., Norg. Fisk.,
vol. Ill, II. 97.

Chijiea Schoneceldii, Kr., Voy. Gaim., 1. c.. Damn. Fi.'^ke, vol.
Ill, p. 193.

Spratella pumila, Cuv., Val., 1. c., p. 357 + Meletta vul-
garis, p. 366; tabb. GOO et 603.

The Sprat is in most resiJects so like the Herring
that a detailed description is unnecessary. It is, how-

" According to Heincke.
' Sometimes 8, according to Kroyer.
■" Sometimes 7, according to Heincke.
'' With 88 nmi. as the average length.
' With 120 mm. as the average length.

ever, a much smaller tish, measuring at most about 17
cm. to the tips of the caudal lobes; but at this smaller
.size it has undergone changes of growth in many re-
spects more complete: it is, in a word, a more fully
developed Herring form. This appears, for instance, in
the length of the lower jaw, a measurement wliich we
have never found to exceed 53 % of the length of the
head, Avhereas in the Herring it has never proved less
than 55 % of the same. In this character the altera-
tions of growth run in decreasing percentages from the
young to the older specimens.

In Swedish the Sprat has been distinguished from
the preceding species by the name of skarjjsill (Sharp
Herring), a I'eference to its most palpable characteristic
in most cases, the sharper ventral margin, with more
prominent s[)ines on the ventral plates; but this char-
acter is often illusory. A more trustworthy distinction
is the difference in tiic number of the ventral plates,
which in the Sprat does not exceed 35, 20 — 24 (cora-
monh' 22 — 23) in front of the ventral fins and 9 — 13
(commonly 11) lichiml them.

The form of the liody is the same and shows the
same variations as in tlie Herring, being deeper or
shallower, but in the deeper form of Sprat {Vtiipca
Schonerehlii) the ventral profile is still more curved in
comparison with the dorsal. During the growth of the
body from a length of 6G mm. to one of 104 mm.''
(from the tip of the snout to the end of the middle
caudal rays), the least depth of the body has proved
to be on an average 7'1 % of the length thereof; and
during growth from 108 — 147 mm.'' we have found
this average to be 8'1.

The head shows the peculiarity that the eyes are
generally somewhat larger than in the Herring. Daring
ffi'owtli from a lena:th of 73 mm. to one of 147 mm.

975

the Idiiuitudinal dinuictei' of t lie eye; li:is jjrovctl to \:\vy
lictwcrii .")1 .-mil -'ti '~ of the letigth of the liead. The
hrMiichiostepil iiiciuhrane does not form so distinct ;in
anale "itii the inferior margin of the svd)o]>er('idnm;
this angle is sometimes almost imperceptiMe, the jioste-
rior (npiier) iiranrhiostegiil rays extending further hack
than the intei'o|iereulum, and the last of them lieing
obii(iuei\- truncate at the extremity or produced upwai'ds
to a hlunt point, which is applied to the lower margin
of the suhoperculum. The number of gill-rakers on the
first branchial arch we have found to vary between 4fi
and 51, thus fewer than in the Herring. The dentition
resembles that of the Herring, but is feebler, the teeth
being often imperceptible, and usually wanting on the
palatines and vomer, but often present on the ento-
l)ter\goid and ectoj)terygoid bones. The most importa.nt
difference from the head of the Herring consists, how-
ever, in the coinparati\ely short lower jaw, ^vhich is
alwa^•s shorti'r than the base of the anal fin, and the
length of whicli varies between about 47 and 52' 2 %
of that of the head. The length of the maxillaries too
varies in the Sprat between 89 and 84 ?», in the Her-
ring between 75 % (in exceptional cases 73 %) and 79 %
(in exceptional cases 81 %), of that of the lower jaw,
which is besides perceptibly shorter in the Sprat than
the distance between its hind extremity and the upper
angle of the base of the pectoral fin, in the Herring
equal to this distance or a little longer.

The dorsal tin is of the same form and occupies
the same position as in the most developed Herrings.
At a length of body averaging 88 mm. the average
distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout
proved to be 49'9 % of the length of the body, and in
specimens averaging 120 ram. in length the correspond-
ing percentage was 50'7. The distance between the anal
fin and the tip of tlie snout is somewhat less than in
the Herring, and varies lietween aljout 65 and 71 %
of the length of the body; but the base of the tin is
longer, its length varying between 13 and 15 % of that
of the body. The caudal fin is usually not quite so
deeply forked as in the Herring. The length of its

middle r;iys is about ti' ., % of that of the body and
rather more than ' ,> — '/r, of that of the longest rays
in the inferior caudal lobe.

The pectoral fins resemble those of the Herring in
their length as well as in other respects. The \entral
lins are in general shorter and have fewer rays than in
the Herring. Their length varies between S'/j and 7V2 %
of that of the bodv. Their position affords one of the
most imjiortaut characters of the Sprat, the distance
from the tij) of the snout to tlie anterior (upper) angle
of the base of these tins extremely seldom — and then
only slightly — exceeding ' / the length of the body,
and being less on an a\erage than that between the tip
of the snout and the beginning of the dorsal fin, rarely,
and then but slightly, greater llian the latter distance.
It is consequenth- the rule that the ventral tins are in-
serted verticallv below the beginning of the dorsal tin
or further forward. Tlie preabdominal length varies
between 28 and SO',,, %, the postabdominal between
about 17 and 22 %, of the length of the body.

The scales are exactly similar to those of the Her-
rino-, and the most essential difference in the abdominal
plates has been remai'ked above.

The coloration too is so like tliat of the Herring
that no constant difference can be adduced. The line
of lustrous green between the dorsal and ventral colours
is sometimes ribbon-shaped, rather sharply defined. Ac-
cording to Valenciennes'' this line is sometimes a gold-
en band; and Collett mentions' "a half-grown spe-
cimen" that had lost its scales, but was marked along
this part of the sides with two, almost black stripes.

The geographical range of the Sprat does not ex-
tend so far north as that of the Herring, but else co-
incides therewith in the East Atlantic. On the Ame-
rican side the Sprat has never been found; and Faber's
statement'' that it occurs off the coast of Iceland is
not convincing, for he describes its operculum as stri-
ated, in distinction from the smooth operculum of the
Herring. But on Guntheu's authority' the Sprat has
been included, together with several other European
fishes-', in the fauna of Tasmania.

" 483 — 50'4 °o, according to our measurements.
' 1. c. p. 288.
' 1879, 1. c.

'' Fisclie hlawls, p. 178.
' Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1871, p. 072.

■'■ 6V/<EH'i aquila, Zeus faber, Oaranv traclmyus, Stolephoms encrasicltolus, Oonjer vulgaris. Orthcgoviscus mola, Rhina squalina, Galeus
iiis, 6'quati(s (^Acanthias) Blainvillei, etc.

1-23

976

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

In the Mediteri'Jiiiean the Spnit is replaced by a I by tlie greater depth uf the tail, the more advanced

very closely allied species, the Melette of the French,
Vlupea phalerka". Judging from a specimen 90 mm.
long, taken oft' Genoa, and sent to us liy Professor
GiGLiOLi, the Melette is distinguished from the Sprat

position of the dorsal tin, and tlie somewhat greater
size of the head. Its relations to the Sprat in these
respects are most readily indicated by the following
table of percentages:

Length of tho body from the articular knobs of the niasilliirics to the end of the middle c-auJal rays, i.ini

Length of the head - in % of the length of the body

Distance between the dorsal tin and the articular knobs of the maiillaries ,, ,, ,, „ „ „ „ „

Least depth of the tail — „ „ ,, ,, „ „ „ „

Length of the head in % of the distance between the dorsal tin and the articular knobs of the masillaries

Least depth of the tail „ ,, ,, ., „ ,, ,. ,, „ ., „ „ ,, ,. „

Averages
Clupea sp7-attm.

One specimen

of

Clupea phalerka

87.7

120

90

■21.il>

20.8

22.2

49.9 ■:

50,7

47.S

7.1

8.1 d

8.8

42.5 <■

41.0

4IJ.0

14.3

lij.o.^

18.4

The Sprat is common from Trondlijem Fjord (CoL-
lett) to La Rochelle (Valenciennes). It is said to oc-
cur, though scantily, northwards to the Lofoden Islands,
as G. 0. Saks was informed by the iishermen, and
southwards in the Bay of Biscay beyond the Gironde (IMo-
REAu). In Scandinavia it is most common oft' the south-
west of Norway and the coast of Bohusliin; but it is
taken in numbers within tlie Baltic, and is common,
according to Mela, throughout the Gulf of Finland, as
well as in the (lulf of Bothnia up to lat. G4° N., rarer
to lat. 65°. On the Baltic coast of Russia, according
to Seidlitz (1. c), only solitary specimens are met with
that have attained full growth and sexual maturity,
though the young are plentiful. Oft' Memel and Dant-
zic spawning Sprats are common in May and September;
and in Putzinger Wiek (the eastern part of the Gulf of
Dantzic), says Benecke, countless spent Sprats may be
seen in the May spawning-season floating dead at the
surface. In Kiel Bay the Sprat is also common. On
all the coasts of Denmark the Sprat occurs, though only
at a few points in any great number (Wintiiek). In the
Zuyder Zee and all I'ound Great Britain it is as plen-
tiful as anywhere in Scandinavian waters.

The Sprat-shoals live and feed in the same man-
ner as the Herring-shoals, and often intermingle with
tlie latter. It is, we may say, a rare occurrence to
take any quantity of StrOmmings or small Herrings

without finding a number of Spi-ats in the catch; and
in the same way small Herrings are found interspersed
among a haul of Sprats. The Sprat-fishery cannot in-
deed be so productive in most cases as the Herring-
fishery, the S|)rat being a much smaller fish ; Init con-
sidering the size of the fish the Sprat-shoals are hardly
inferior in point of numbers or density to the Herring-
shoals. The same gregariousness, the same manner of
life, and the same diet conjoin the two species with
each other. They are also so similar in appearance
that only a practised eye can distinguish between them,
unless the observer has experience enough to feel tlie
dift'erence in the sharpness of the ventral margin.

The spawning-season of the Sprat occurs within
the island-belt of Stockholm, according to the joint
observations of Sundevall and Cederstkom, in June.
In the west of the Baltic, according to Heincke, the
Sprat spawns lioth in spring and autumn. He observed
in Kiel Bay during the months of Jul}- and August
Sprat-fry 25 — 35 mm. long, which he assumed to date
from the spawning in April and May, and during the
latter part of October and till December other speci-
mens 23 '2 — 33' '3 mm. long, which could consequently
not have been spawned, in all probability, earlier than
in July. Malm found in July and August at Strom-
stad and oft' Gaso (Bohusllln) young Sprats 20 — 57 niiii.
long, which would thus seem to be the ott'spriiig of a

" ^feUttes, Bei.on, p. 208. Aphya phalerka, Rond., p. 212. VlupanoJon phalerica, Kisso, Eur. Mi'r., toni. III. p. 452; MoR.
((Uupen), III, p. 445. Meletta mediterranea, Cuv., Val., XX, p. .309. Alosa papalina, Canestr., Fiia D'ltal.. Pesc, p. 135.

' Maxiiiuiiii in the specimens measured by lis 21'9.

' Mitiimimi ,, „ ,, „ ., ,. 48-tJ.

i* .Maximum ,, ,, ., ,, ,, ,, 8-4.

' „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 43-6.

■' „ „ „ ,. ., „ „ 16-6.

977

Inter or earlier spring-spawning, perhaps even of a
winter-spawning, the same year. From the South of
England we nvv told liy llni.nswniiTH" that the true
snawning-inontli of tlic Spi-at in the neighboui'ing wa-
ters is Jamiarv, hut tliat this tisii also spawns (luring
tlie summer; and he assumes, with reference botii to
tlie Sprat and the Pilchard, tliat the winter-spawning
is performed near land, the summer-spawning at the
surface in deei>er water. Iliit oif the coast of Bohusliin
the Sprat seems to l)c in a lircediiig condition in 'Inly or
.\ugust as well, for at Stromstad ^Ialm took "females
almost read)- to spawn", on the 15th of July, 18^5'.

Of the hatching of the Sprat's eggs we are igno-
rant; we do not even know whether the ova float at
the surface, or sink, like tliose of the Herring, to the
iiottom. But the fry have been described both by j\L\r.M
and Heincke, and differ, according to the latter, from
Herring-fry of the same size in the orange tone of
their coloration, the greater depth and thickness of the
body, the earlier development of the ventral fins, the
earlier prolongation of the air-ldadder, and the smaller
number of the vertebne.

After spawning the Sprat makes its wav into the
island-belt, where it .soon recruits its .strength and puts
on tiesli, in this respect easily surpassing the young
Herrings. In the inner island-belt of Stockholm the
mass of Sprats begin to appear in August. "Till Oc-
tober Sprats are occasionally taken, after whicii time
tiiey again disappear. When they come, they are ra-
ther lean; but towards autumn they grow fatter" (SuN-
DEVAll). During the same season, however. Sprats are
caught in the outer shallo\\s and in the outer fringe of
the i.sland-belt. Even in winter, as at the time of
writing (March, 1893), Sprats are plentiful among the
consignments of Stromming exposed for sale in Stock-
holm. A successful Sprat-fishery is also carried on
among the Smaland Islands off Krakvik', but we have
no information of any such fishery farther south on
the east coast of Swpden. The chief Sprat-fishery of this
country belongs to Boinisliin, especially to the neigh-
bourhood of Fjellbacka. "Here the Sprat puts in an
Hppearance at Michaelmas, and remains until some time

after Twelfth Day. I'p to Twelfth Day, or at least
during the weeks just before Twelfth Day, it swims in
slioais l)v itself: but afterwards it is accompanied by
young Herrings, generally two years old" (A. W. Malm).
It is said to come in lioth north and south of tiie
Weather Islands, straight from the sea (the Skager
Rack). But shoals of Sprats sometimes arrive later in
the winter, as in 1892, wlien tliis fish was taken on the
south coast of Boiiuslan during February and March
(;\. H. Malm). In i-",ng!and too the main body of tlie
S]>rat army lies nearer land during winter.

The Sprat-fishery has much in common with the
Herring-fishery, and is carried on both with sJcotar (fine-
meshed nets) and seines. In Bohusliln the annual take
was officially stated during recent years as follows:

1888 1,900 hectolitres, valued at £l,373,

1889 4,270 „ „ „ £2,176,

1890 2,550 „ „ „ £2,077,

1891 .3,803 „ ,, „ £4,062.

From these Sjn'ats, wiiieh they can procure fresii,
the inhabitants of BohusUin prepare the best quality of
their Anchories, a kind of Pickled Herring, not to Ije
confounded with the true Anchovy, which is a rare fish
in Sweden. But a considerable proportion of the Sprats
thus preserved in BohusliSn comes salted from Norway,
where the annual take, according to Collett, sometimes
exceeds 100,000 hectolitres. In Norway and England
too Sprats are prepared for food in the same wa)'; and
according to Day, three million tins of Sprats, pickled in
a similar manner as the anchovies of the west coast of
France, are annually im])orted into England. In Ger-
many and in certain parts of Scotland the Si^rat is
smoked. This is the method employed in curing the
well-known Kieler-Sproifeu. Mild smoked S])ra1s in
oil are not inferior to Sardines.

The Sprat suffers chiefly from the ravages of tlie
same enemies as the Herring. But its eyes are attacked
b)' a parasitic crustacean, Lenueonema momUaris. This
Penellid shines at night, and to this origin Day ascribes
a sui)position common among English fishermen, that
th(> Sprat-shoal is often guided and lighted on its way
b^• "lanthorn Sin'ats".

" Deep Sea Fishing and Fishing-Boats, pp. 133 — 135.

'' Gt. Intern. Fish. Exhib. London 1883, Sweden, Spec. Catal., p. 170.

' Intern. Fischerei-Ausst. Berlin 1880, Schwed. Catal., Spec. Th., p. 25.

978

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

Subgenus; ALOSA.

Sides of the bodij marked, at least in front, with dark spots. Lotver anterior surface of the operculum coursed
by more or less distinct grooves and ridges. Dorsal fin set so far forward that the distance between it and the
tip of the snout is less than four times the postorlntal length of the head. Inner part of the caudal lobes fur-
nished with foliate scales, larger than the others.

Now that all attempts to employ the dentition as
a means of detining subgenera within the genus Clupea
liave proved futile, no better prospect of attaining this
object is offered, it appears, than by the different de-
veloijraent and position of tlie tins. But tlie subgenus
Alosa, which is further distinguished liy the extremely
feeble dentition of the mouth, is so well defined within
the Scandinavian fauna that no ditficulties meet us here
in its characterization. In exotic forms, however, as

2i5. Scales from the Ifft side of a Pilclianl 20 cm. long (a)
and from a Shad 30 em. in length (/-). X 3.

for instance in the Japanese Clupea zunasi, the striation
of the opercula is hardly perceptible, and the lateral
markings of the body are confined to a single small
spot on the adipose membrane of the upper scajjuiar
region; and in the Mediterranean Clupea aurita, where
the dark markings are also restricted to tlie ujiper jjart
of the tract round the gill-openings, the said striation
consists merely of a ridge crossing the anterior part of
the operculum in an obliquely downward direction. But
the other characters given in the above diagnosis range
these forms beside our Shads, whicli may be I'egarded
as the type of the subgenus, and which are usually to
be recognised at the first glance by tlie striation of the
opercula and the spots on the sides of the body, though

the latter vary I)oth in size and distinctness, being in
some individuals wanting.

The scales of this subgenus are more strongly
developed at the basal angles of the fins and their bases
than is the case in the preceding members of the genus.
Tlie caudal fin is covered to a great extent with scales,
and bears on each side two patches of these, one on
the upper and one on the lower lobe, among which the
hindmost is the largest, and is also venous. Sometimes,
however, these patches of scales are so thin and trans-
parent that they easily escape observation. At the base
of the dorsal fin, the upper angle of the pectoral fin,
and tlie outer angle of the ventral fin, we find pointed
scales, whicli partially conceal these fins; and rounded
scales overlap the lower margin of the pectoral fins,
covering the lo'west raj's, while the base of the anal
fins is also scale-clad. In texture too the scales of
this sul)geiuis differ from those of the preceding one,
the radiating grooves, \vhich are there extremely faint
streaks (see abo\e, p. 9.57), being here far more sharply
defined (fig. 245).

Both the anal and the dorsal fins show a more
pointed prolongation of the outer posterior corner tiian
in the preceding subgenus.

The mo.st constant character, however, is the for-
ward position of the dorsal fin, a character which is
expressed in the above diagnosis of the subgenus by a
comparison witii the postorbital length of the head.
This last measurement is relatively greater in the Shads
than in the true Herrings, the validity of the character
being thus unimpaired even wiien the trunk is siior-
tened, as in tiie American Menhaden, which would else
be referred liy the position of the dorsal fin to the
preceding suligenus.

HEHHlNli-FISHES.

;)79

THE PILCHARD OR SARDINE.

CLUPEA PILCIIAKDUS.

Fig. 240.

Leii(/tli (if the muxUUiries at most about 40 "> of that of tlif head. Louffitudinal diameter of the eyes at least
about 60 %, least depth of the tail at least aJjoiif SO %, leiititli of the suhoperctdum at the suture with the oper-
culum at least about 55 %, of the length of the maullai les. Scales comparatirelij large, their number in a lon-
gUudinal row on the •iides of the bodg at most about HO.

/M:

Fig. 240. Cbijiea pilchardus from Bohuslan. S. Loven, 18C1.

of the naturiil size.

H. br. 7"; D.

14 — 1
,f + 1 + 1 7 + 1 +

(17—18); .1.

-(17—18*); P.

L. h,t. 28—30; L. fi:

16
8—10; Vert.

50—53.

Syn. Sardines ou Celerin.^, Belon, Nat., Div. Potss., p. ll!7.
Hareiigas minor sive Pilchdrdiis, Willoghb., Hist. Pise, p.
223, tab. P, 1, fig. 1.
Ctupea Pilcliardiis, Walb., Ichtlii/ol. Art., pt. Ill (^Gen. Pise),
p. 38 (varictatem Vlttpea: harengi dixit); Bl., Naturg. Ausl.
Fisch., pt. IX, p. 40, tab. CCCCVI; Yark., Hist. Brit.
Fish., eil. 1. vol. II, p. nC; Cuv., Val. {Alansa), Hist.
Nat. Poiss., vol. XX, p. 445, tab. i505; Xilss. {Vlupea),
Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 522; Kr., Tidskr. Fisic. Kbhvii,
Aarg. 2 (1868), p. 71; Steind., Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
LVII, I (1868), p. 738; Gthr, Vat. Brit. Mus., Fisli., vol.
VII, p. 439; Coll., Forh. Vid. Sols. Chrnia 1874, TilL-egsh.,
p. 104; Ceherstr., Ofs'ers. Vet. Akod. Forli. 1876, No. 4,
p. 6G; 1879, No. 2, p. 62; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p.
585; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 224, tab.
CXXXIX. fig. 1; Bncke {Alosa), Handb. Fischz., Fischer.
(M. V. II. Bouxe), p. 170; Lii.L.i. {Clnpea). Sv., Norg.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 106.

Cliipeii siiriiltiis, BufNN., fchthi/ol. .}fassil., p. 82.

Clnpea sardina, Cuv., Regne Anim., ed. 2, torn. II, p. 319
(+ 01. pilchardus, ibid.); MoR. (Alosc), Hist. Nat. Poiss.
Fr., torn. Ill, p. 458.

The Pilchni'd i.s a more terete tisli tliaii the Her-
ring, but is otherwise similar in form. It is inferior
to the Herring in size; but in this respect a distinction
lias long been maintained between two f(5rms, the Me-
diterranean, which is the smaller, being about as large
as the lotf-sill (small Herring) of Bohuslilii or the com-
mon Stockholm Stromining, and which is known by
preference ;\s the Sardine, and the Atlantic Pilchard,
which attains, according to CoENisir', a length of at
least 3 dm., according to Dunn'', of 3"._, dm., including
the whole caudal fin. In Sweden onl}- adult specimens
have been met with, the largest measuring 285 mm.
in length (Malm), the smallest 218 mm.

° 6 — 8, accoriling to Day.

' 19 — 21, according to GCnther; 21. according to Lilljeboro

' Zoologist, 1879, p. 62.

■' In Day. 1. c. p. 230.

980

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The greatest depth varies between about 19 and
22 % of the length of the bod)' to the end of the middle
caudal rays: and the greatest tiiifkness between about
4') % (in small sjiorimcns) and ')l;l "o of the greatest
depth.

The length of the head (measured as above, in the
G^vyniads and Herring, from the articular knobs of the
maxillaries) varies lietween about 22',,, and 21' ., % of
that of the bodj'. The diameter of the ej'es, which
are circular, measures (in Pilchards 81 — 211 mm. long)
between .')() and 2;^ "*, and the interorbital width (at
the middle of the eyes) 20 — 24 %, of the length of the
head. The length of the snout is equal in small Pil-
chards to the diameter of the eyes; in adult specimens
it shows individual variations between about 26 and
80 % of the length of the iiead. The nostrils — the
.-interior in each ])air is merely a niiri-ow slit — lie
nearer to the tip of the snout than to the eyes. The

Fig. 247. Head of a Pilchard, with feebly developed covering of
adipose membrane. Natural size.

ti]) of the mouth, which is formed by the margins of
the intermaxillaries, is incised at an oblique angle,
owing to the position occupied by these bones with re-
spect to each other. The length of the maxillaries,
which extend back to about a line with the anterior
margins of the pupils, decreases in the above-mentioned
specimens from about 39 '/j to ST'/, % of that of the
iiead, and their breadth varies between about 36 and
32 % of their length. The length of the cheek (from
the hind extremity of the maxillarj' to the posterior
margin of the preoperculum) is much greater, as in the
Herring, than its height below the eyes. The length
of the lower jaw, the symjihysis of which shows hardly
any thickening, decreases in Pilchards of the above
lengths from about 55 to 48 % of that of the head.
The cheeks and opercula vary in appearance according
to the density of the adipose membrane on the head.
When this membrane is thin (shrunken, tig. 247) the

striation both of the lower anterior part of the oper-
culum and of the preoperculum and suborbital bones
consists of distinct ridges and grooves. But in other
instances, when the adipose meirdarane is thicker (fig.
246), its ducts with their numerous ramifications occupy
the grooves, and render these as well as the ridges less
distinct. The upper jiart of the scapular region is en-
tirely co\ered with this growth of adipose membrane,
the elevated pores granulating the upper surface of the
head. Measured in an horizontal direction the postorbital
length of the head (from the apparent hind margin of
the eye to the middle of the posterior opercular margin)
increases with age from about 41 — 46 % of the entire
length of the same; measured in an oblique direction
(from the middle of the hind margin of the eye to the
lower posterior angle of the o])erculum) it varies between
about 47 and 53 % of the latter length, and is some-
what more, even in young specimens, than one-fourth
of the distance between the dorsal fin and the articular
knobs of the maxillaries. The operculum forms an al-
most rectangular parallelogram, with the ujiper |)Osterior
angle rounded, the posterior side rather convex, and the
inferior side straight. The last-mentioned side (the sub-
opercular suture) measures about 22 or 21'/., % of the
length of the head. The form of the subopercuhun
varies, its breadth (height) being about one-third of its
length in young specimens, about one-half of the same
in adult Pilchards. The preoperculum is broad, with
rounded, rectangular corner. The interoperculum is
narrow, and has the same relation to the ]iosterior
branchiostegal rays as in the Herring, these ra}'s form-
ing a rectangular sinus \vith the inferior margin of the
suboperculum. On opening the operculum we find that
the l)lack jiosterior limit of the pharynx and the branchial
cavity is rectangular", corresponding to the form of the
operculum itself, so that the posterior margin of the
latter coincides with the vertical arm of the clavicular
angle, and its inferior margin as well as the suboj^er-
culum \\'ith the horizontal arm, the margin of which
consists of the above-mentioned process (answering to
df in fig. 238, p. 950). The gill-rakers are long and
fine, with dense and regular lateral spines of small size.
On the fir.st branchial arch we have counted 110 gill-
rakers, 67 on the lower (horizontal) part of the arch,
and 43 on the upper. The dentition of the mouth is
extremel)' feeble, being usually confined to a few teeth
at the tip of the lower ja-^v and a crenelation of the

Cf. MoKEAu's dofiiiitioii of the genus Sardinella (1.

450): "Ceinturc sc.T]iulaire a liord anterieur vertical'

981

maxilliiries at tlic posterior part of their imdei- inai-jniii.
The pahite-and toii.mic arc almost toothless".

The doi'sal tin begins at a distance from the ti]) of
the snout (the articular knobs of the maxillaries) mea-
suriii"' in small specimens (Sardines) about 41' ., %, in
large (Pilciiards) about 4U %, of the length of the body,
and apjjarently not exceeding 90 % (84 — BT'/o % accord-
ing to our measurements) of the distance between the
ventral fins and the same point. Its base, which is about
eqiial to its heigiit, measures about 12', — H'a % of
the length of the body. The distance between the anal
fin and the tij) of the snout is about 66 — 70 % of the
length of the body. Its outer margin, like tliat of tlic
dorsal tin, is soniewliat concave. Its liase occupies al)out
14 — 16 "'J of tiie Icngtii of the liody, and is four to tliree
times its height. The caudal tin was damaged in all
our specimens; but, to judge by the remnants, it seemed
to be deeply forked, the length of the middle rays being
about ' , of that of the longest ones, which was about
17 % of that of the body.

The pectoral tins are rather more pointed than in
the Herring. Their length is about 15 — 14 %, that of
the ventral tins about 8' g — B'/j %, of the length of the
liod\-. The preabdominal length is somewhat greater
than the postalidominal, but both are contained about
('our times in the lengtli of the body.

The size and texture of the scales we have men-
tioned al)ove. At the ventral margin we have counted
20 spinigerous scales in front of and 16 behind the
ventral tins. These spines are set in a groove, which
is almost entirely concealed by the lowest scales on
the ventral sides.

The coloration (jf a new-caught s|)ecimen is thus
described by Malm: "Back above bluish green, sides
and Ijelly silvery white, with a dash of yellowish green
towards the tail. The whole opercular apparatus, and
especially the u]iper scapular region, as well as the
;iiiteri(jr part of the iris and a portion of the maxil-
laries, of a light, lustrous yellow, like that of sulphur-
pyrites, which extends some way over the shoulder-
girdle. On tiie shoulder-girdle, but sotnewhat aliove
the middle of the side, a light blood-red spot. Central
part of the operculum also blood-red. The whole

gill-co\er iridrsccnt, rcscnibling tlic most beautiful
motiier of pcii-l. i'npil nuindi'd. Iris nacreous, tinged
with orange beiiind, of a greenish gold above, with a
whitish ground; finely punctated with black. Lower
jaw yellowish at the tij). Tip of the snout blackisii.
Oi-bit of an emerald ground-coloiu- in front of the eye.
Below the lateral line a row of six small, blackish spots,
the first situated in the red colour of the operculum,
the second on tiie u])per part of the shoulder-girdle, the
third in front of tiie tij) of tlic pectoral tin, separated
therefrom by a distance equal to about half the diametcn-
of the pupil. Distance between the third spot and the
last one eipial to the length of the pectoral fin. Dia-
meter of these s]:iots half that of the pupil. Fins greenish
gra\'; anal lighter; ventrals colourless. Tongue so dense-
ly punctated with dark dots that it is almost blackish".

The Pilchard is of the same impoi'tance in Medi-
terranean countries and, to a considerable extent, in the
west of France and south of England as the Herring in
the North-Atlantic fishery. Boiled and preserved in oil,
it is known all the world over; but its geographical range
is not so wide as the Herring's, and it can hardly vie in
numbers with the latter. To the south it is known off
Madeira and the Canary Islands'. To the north it is a
stranger' even in the North Sea above Yarmouth, still
more so in Scandinavian waters, though it has been
found as far north as Bergen, wlience Lilljeborg brought
home to Upsala Museum two Pilchards in 18.58. Malm
mentions thi-ee specimens from Bohusliin, one of them
taken at Kalfsund on the 15th of May, 1855, the other
two at Stromstad, respectively on the 11th of August,
1865, and the loth of July, 1869. The Royal Mu-
seum has received from Bohushln two sjiecimens 2.3 cm.
long, the first obtained by Prof. S. Loven in 1861, the
second taken in Koster Fjord by Mr. C. A. Hansson
on the 25th of -luly, 1877. According to Nilsson a
female about 25 cm. in length and with ripe roe was
caught among common Herrings off Kullen on the 25th
of September, 1849. Kkoyer mentions a specimen ta-
ken in a stake-net (buiidfjani) in KtBrteminde Fjord
(Fiinen) during October, 1867.

The true Atlantic home of the Pilchard thus lies
south of England, where it appears on the coasts of

" "After the tongue has dried, a tliin carina may be traced along il, willi some extremely fine teeth, visible beneath the magnifj'ing-
glass, and set in a sint;le row, on the inner part." Nil.ssoN, 1. c., p. 524.

* Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, vol. II, p. 189; Steind., 1. o.

'■ In modern times at least, (in the east coast of Scotland, according to Parnei.L, the case was formerly different ; — see Mem. Wem.
Nat. Hist. Hoe., vol. VII, p. .321.

982

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

the Spanish Peninsula and France and off tlie south
coast of England, in the same manner as the Herring
further north. In the southern part of its range, north-
wards along the coast of the Spanish Peninsula and in
tiie Mediterranean, it is said to he met with near land
all the year round. IJut where the deep water, hounded
by the 100-t'athonis line, lies farther from shore, be-
tween the south of the Bay of Biscay and the British
])lateau, the influence of which on the Herring's geogi-a-
phical range has been noticed above, the Pilchard, a tish
that rests and winters in the depths of the ocean, ap-
proaches land in an order the reverse of that observed
by the Herring. Tiie Herring comes, as we have seen,
from the north, anil spreads round the coasts of Great
Britain. The Pilcliard appears earliest in the year off
the south coast of France, and the iishery commences
later and later to the north". In deep water, however,
the I'ilchard occurs all the year- round off the coasts of
("ornwall and Devon, being often found, according to
Day. in the stomach of tish taken on long-lines in
January; but the Pilchard-fishery with drift-nets does
not begin until July, and with the seine not until
August.

The Pilchard's habits are the same as the Herring's.
It is extremely timid and gregai'ious, but greedily feeds
on minute animals or even on the spores of seaweed and
on Diafonuiced', its sound appetite gaining it the fatness
for which it is famed. The most important Pilchard-
fishery on the French coast depends on this voracity.
Fish-roe is imported from Norway — principally Lofoden
Cod-roe, which costs the French fisherman (SO — KMjfVancs
or more a bai'rel — and this expensive bait, sometimes
mixed for the sake of economy with sand or choj^ped
meat and pounded crustaceans, is strewn on one side
of the net floating at the surface behind the boat, when
the Pilchard is seen on the other side of the net. When
the net is as full of Pilchards as the fisherman thinks
proper — which he sees by the sinking of the cork-line —
a fresh net is shot, so long as the store lasts, and the
fishing goes well. The bait is costly, but justifies tiie
outlay; and in r/ond i/etii's the French fishermen take
one or two milliards of Pilchards, worth fifteen to twenty
million francs. Of the Cornish Pilchard-fishery Fo.\''

states that the exjiort of salted Pilchards from Penzance
and Falmouth to Genoa, Leghorn, Naples and Venice
amounted in 1879 to 11,938 hogsheads or about 3.1 —
36 million fish; and according to Coucii'' the English
export of those fumadncs has averaged for many years
30,000 hogsheads, sometimes amounting to 60,000.

In 1879 the purse-seine was first used in the
French Pilchard-fishery, but it has not yet come into
favour. In the Cornish fishery this engine has been
employed longer, even jjrevious to its inti'oductioii into
the American Mackerel fishery.

The Pilchard-fishery is subject to the same fluc-
tuations as the Herring-flsher)', being still more de-
pendent on the temperature of the water, but naturally
too on the supply of food. According to Dunn** it has
more than once happened during very severe winters ,
that the English Channel proved too shallow to afford !
the Pilchard jirotectiou from the cold. On these occa-
sions he saw "countless millions" of Pilchards perishing
or ficiating dead at the surface. In quest of food the
Pilchard army roves westwards from the Channel out
into the Atlantic; but Dunn adduces instances to show
that this fish sometimes stays off the Cornish coast,
feeding on the multitudes of crustacean larvte in the
Zoea-stage. With the same object it also makes its
way up the Irish Channel; but it seldom extends its |
wanderings to the North Sea. In the migrations of the '
Pilchard and its approach to the coast so-called semi-
secular periods may be obseiwed'', as in the case of
the Herring-fisher)-.

The spawning of the Pilchard is probably performed
in the open sea. Late in May and in June Dunn met
with great numbers of ripe Pilchards 25 — 30 miles
south of the Lizard; but the species breeds, it is stated,
in winter as well, and, according to Yarhell, as early
as in Octolx'i'. "I have reason to suppose," says Corcii,
"that the spawn is shed at the surface, and mingled
with it a large quantity of tenacious mucus, in which
it is kejit floating while it is obtaining the vivifying j
influence of the light and warmth of the sun," an i
assumption that has been corroliorated by the obser-
vations of DiNN and Cunningham^ According to Day
the female Pilchard lays about 60,000 eggs; and it has

" See Vaii.lant and Hennehuy. llapp. Gen. sur la peclie de la Sardine (Gkrville-Reache), Paris 1888. \i.

' In BuoKLAND, Nat. Hist. Brit. Fisli., ji. li'iS.

' Fi.-<h. Brit. 1st., vul. IV. p. 9.'i.

"* Fisli. Trades Gazette, No. iSfi (3nl Sept., 1H'J2), p. '.).

<• See Coi'CH, 1. c, p. 85.

•'' Mith. Sect. Kust., Hochs. Fisclier., Doutsch. Fisrii. Ver., 1892, p. 4.5.

SHAD. 98.S

lung IjfC'ii kiiDWi'i tliMt (hiring tlie spMwiiing-st'nsoii tlio I T\vait<^ or tlie Allicc Sluid, tliougli tlie two last-inc-ntioiifd
Pilchard is so dn' and tasteless as to be seareely | forms do not lireed, so t'ai- as we know, in salt water.

eatable.

Man is not tlie Piicliard's oni\' (nieniw l''islies and

Dolphins make ha\i)c among its slioals. Among them

Sharks (such as Si/K(ih(s (uanfhiaf: nm] Carcharias fflan-

ciis) and Scia-noids are the most destructive.
. Couch" has described and figured a Cliipca sqiia-

mo-pinnata, which is stated to have larger scales than I smaller scales, like tliose of the Herring, on the other
' the Shads, and has tlierefore lieen explained by (Us- side, 'fliis form has Ixien ligured and described by Day''

TtiEi;'' as a hvl)rid l)etween tlie Filcliard and citlier tlie as a cross between the Pilchard and the Herring.

The defective specimen, the only one known, can only
serxc, which was all that Coucii intended, as an in-
centive to further investigations. More,' notoworthy is
another form, also found in Knglish watei's, which re-
sembles the Pilchard in the striation of the opercula
and the large scales on one side of the body, but has

THE SHAD (sw. stamsillen).
CLUPEA ALOSA.

Fig. 24S iukI riale XI.III. tig. ■_'.

Lenijfli of the )ii(i.iill(iri('s at li-ast ahmil 4'> % of that of the head. LoiHiitiulhial diameter <if tl/e e;/es'' at most

(diotit ')(l %, least depth of the tail about 7 ■'> %, leiijith of the sidioperraJiitii' at most altoat 4!) %, of tlie leitf/fh

of tlie ma.iillaries. Xiimlier of- scales in a roir aJoiK/ the sides of the Iwdii at least (dioat (10.

Fip. 248. Clupea nlosa, var. >n(a, ?, ' , of tlic- natiiriil si/e. ■{'nki-ii in a SaliiKHi-traii i.tf Killii.gljMlin (Slromsl.id Fjord) on llie I81I1 .July,

1881. I.v Mr. C. A. Hansson.

'■ 1. f.. p. 1 '_>:■,. |.l. CCVI.

' Cat.. \. <:., p. 431;.

' Proc. Zool. Soc. I.oimI. 1887. p. 12!). pi. XV.

'' In specimens more tlian 1 dm. long.

"■ .\t llic suture witli tlie opcrL-uImn.

Scanrlinarinii Fishen.

984

SCAXUIXAVIAN FISHES.

A. Var. Jinta — Tivaite Shad (Sw. StaksiU). Fig. 248.

Gill-rakers on the first branchial arch about 40 — 60
(fijr. 249, a).

C. .(•+ 1 + 17 + 1 +.)•; /.. lat. fiO— 65*; L. ti: !7'': Vert. 55— .W"

B. Var. alosa — Allice Shad (Sw. Majfisk). Pi. XLni, tig. 2.

Gill-rakers on the first branchial arch about 90—120
(fig. 249, b).

R. hr. 7—8; D.' ^ ; A.-' ^ ; P. ^- ; F.* i-

15—16 22—24 14—15? • 8'

6'. ,r + 1 + 17 + 1 + x: L. lat. 70— HO; L. ti: 20—23; Vert. 57-58'.

W

a: of a Twiiite Slia.l (\

Fig. 249. First left brfmclii.il arch of Cbipea alo.-<a. Natural size.
/»?.(); ''•• ill tlie Allice Shad (var. alosii) shown in PI. XLIII. fig. 2, logetli.-r wil
from tlie middle of the arch.

a gill-raker (X 2)

■Syn. Agon, Pacelle, .Alose, Bei.o.v., Nat., Diners. Poiss.. pp. 267
302, 307. Thri.isa, Rondel., De Pise. Mar., p. 220. Alosa.
vel Alaiisa, ant Thrissa, Schonev., Ichthyol. Slesv. Hols., p,
13. Shad, WiLi.UGHB., Hist. Pise., p. 227, tab. P, 3
Ulupea apice maxillse superioris bifido, maculis nigris utrinque,
AiiT. Ichthyol., Gen. Pise., p. 7; Syn., p. 15; Spee., p
34 (ubi; "Apophyses in parte concava ' (branchiarum) "ossese,
albse et satis robustie" ; varietateni /!?Jtom igitnr desoripait).

Vltipea Alosa, Lm., Syst. Nat., ed. X, toni. I, p. 318 (ex
Art.; Jinta igitur); Bi,., Fisch. Deustehl., part. I, p. 209,
tab. XXX, fig. 1; Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 353; Flmng,
Brit. Anim., p. 183; v. Yhi.en, Fiskaren, 1878, p. 38;
MOb., Hoke, Fisch. Osls., p. 141.

Alausa vulgaris, Cl'v., Vai,., Hist. Nal. Poiss., vol. XX. (i.
391, tab. 604; Hokl, Kn., Susswassei'f. Ustreich. Mon., p.
228; V. Bemm. in Herklots, Bouicstoffen voor eene fanna van
Nederland, pt. Ill, p. 382; Canestrini {Alosa), Areh. Zool.,
I'Anat., cett., vol. IV, fasc. 1 (Apr. 1866), p. 141; Steind.
{Alama), Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. Naturw, CI.,

LVII, 1 (1868). p. 737, Canestr. (Alosa). Fna d'ltal.,
pt. Ill, p. 22.

Var. A.

Alosa fieta aut falsa, DuH.. Tv. Peek., pt. II. sect. IH,

p. 320, tab. I, fig. 5; tab. II, fig. 1.
Twaite Shad, Penn., Brit. Zool. 177G, vol. Ill, p. 307
Clupea fallax, Lacep., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. V, p. 452
Cltipea (Alosa) Jinta, Cnv., Eegn. Anim., ed. 2, toni. II
p. 320; Nii.ss., Prodr. Ichthyol. Sea7id., p. 22
Yakr. (Alosa), Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 131
Sohagerstr. (Clupea), Fysiogr. Sails. Tidskr., p
291; Kr. (Alosa), Damn. Fish., vol. III. p. 202
Trosohel (Alausa), Arch. Naturg., Jahrg. 18, Bd. 1
p. 228;_N!Lss. (Alosa), Skand. Fna, Fish., p. 527
SiEB., Siissicasserf. Mitteleur., p. 332; Gtiir (CUi
pea), Vat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VII, p. 435; CoLi.
(Alosa), Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilliegsh.
p. 195; Cederstk., Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 187G
No. 4, p. 67; Malm, Gbr/s, Boh. Fna, p. 587

" A. 20 — 25, according to Day.

'' 60 — 75, according to Day; 63 — 71, according to Fatio.
' 16 — 17. according to KrOYER; 16 — 19, according to FArui
'' Till' latter number, according to Fatio.
4—5

14—17(19)

20—24 '
'•' Sometimes 13,
'' V. sometimes 10,
' .\ncording to Fatio

, according to Fatio.

15 — 16, according to Lilueborg.

985

WiNTH., NiitLirh. Tidskr. Kblivn, scr. 3, vol. XII
(1879), 13. 50; Fedders., ibid., p. 81; MoR., Hist.
Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 456; Bncke, Fisch.,
Fhicfiei:, Fischz. 0., W. Preuss., p. 167; Day (6Ym-
pea). Fish. Gt. Brit., Trel., vol. II, p. 236, tab.
CXLl; Cor.r,., N. Mag. Nalurv. Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884),
p. 113; LiLU., Sc, Norij. Fisk., vol.III, p. 120;
Fai'ki {Alosa)y Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. V, part. 2,
p. 40; Tryb. (Cliipea), Sv. Fiskeritidskr., Arg. 1
(1892), p. 120.

Var. B.

Vlupea major. Alosa vera Autorum, Dun., I. c, p.

316, tab. I, fig. 1.
Allice Shad, Pknn., 1. c.
Clupea alosa, Lackf., 1. c. p. 447.
Clitpca (Alosa) alosa, Cuv., 1. c, p. 319; (Jtiii!, 1. c,

p. 433: Uav, 1. c, p. 234, lab. CXL: Coll., N.

Mag., I. c, p. 112; LiLU.. 1. c, p. 113.
Alosa communis, Yarr., 1. c, p. 13(i.
Alosa vulgaris, Sel. Longch., Fne beUje, p. 220;

Trosch. {Alaiisa). 1. c. ; SiEB. {Alosa), 1. c, p. 328;

WiXTH., 1. c, p. 49; Moi:., 1. c, p. 453; Storm,

Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondlij. 1883, p. 31; Fatio, I.e.,

p. 29.
Alosa Cuvierii, Malm. 1. c, p. 054.
C. Var. sapidissima, forma americana. pinna anali fintw, bran-
chiospinis alosa'.

Vlupea sapidi.'sima, Wilso.n, \u Uee's, Cyclop , Univ.

Diet. Arts, So. Lit., p. 461; JoRD., Gilb., Bull.

U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 16, p. 267; McDoN. in Br.

GooDE, Fisher., Fisher. Industr. U. S., sect. I, p.

594, tabb. 212 et 213.
Alosa prwslabilis, Dek. N. York Fna, pt. IV, p. 255,

tab. XV, fig. 41.

Ill furiu of body the Shad resembles the common
Herring even more closely than the Pilchard does, the
greatest thickness seldom rising to ^ ., of the greatest
depth, and usually measuring lietween 35 and 45 ?«
thereof. Tlie alterations of growth in this respect are,
however, considerable, the rule being that young Shads
are most like the Herring, and that in older specimens
the hind part of the body is prolongated to such an
extent as to reduce the greatest depth (across tlie
middle of the preabdominal part), whicli is commonly
between H?) and 28 % of the length of tlie Iiody, to
about 22 % tliercof. The body then acquires a com-
pressed, clavate sliapc, quite different from the liand-
some type of the Herring. The least depth varies be-
tween about 8 and 6' 3 % of the length. The Shad is
also far more vigorous of growth than the Herring.
It almost ranks among the large fishes, thougli the
above-mentioned varieties differ in tliis respect. The

Twaitc Shad seldom attains a lengtii of (i dm." or a
wciglit ol' 1 kiln., w hcrras tlic Allice Shad, it is stated,
often measures 7 dm. in length and weighs 2^/., kilo.,
and the Nortli .VnuricMii Shad attains in modern times,
according to McDonald, a weight of at least o'^., kilo.,
which it formerly exceeded, sometimes turning the
scale, it is said, at (i'^ kilo, or more.

The length of I lie head in Young Shads measures
about 23' .J % of that of tlie Ixjdy. During growth to
a length of 4 or 5 tlm. tiiis percentage falls to 22
or 21'.,, and in still hirgcr Shads to about 19, judging
bv a stuffed specimen. To the covering of adipo.«c
membrane on the liead and shoulders the same remarks
apply as in the case of the Pilchard; nor do the lateral
ridges on tlie top of the head coalesce behind in tlie
occipital crest. In old specimens the tij) of the snout
is incised, more than in the Pilchard and most in the
Twaite Shad, whicli lias the deepest sinus at the head
of the angular or S-shaped indentation in the margin
of the intermaxillaries. In younger specimens and in
the Allice Shad the tip of the snout is more even,
showing only the above-mentioned sinus at the middle
of the margin. The eyes are abont as large in young
Shads as in the common Herring, in old specimens
perceptibly smaller. In a Shad 12 cm. long both the ver-
tical and the horizontal diameters of the eyes are nearly
'/, of the length of the head, in males 3 — 4 dm. long
little more than ' -, of the same, and in females of
this size the proportion is only about 18 %. The cor-
responding pro])ortions to the length of the maxillaries
are respectively about ^ ., (50"7 9o), 45 — 41 %, and about
43 — 39 %. Ill the smallest specimen the diameter of
the eyes is somewhat greater than the interorbital width
at the middle of the ej-es, in old males about 90 — 80 ?»,
and in old females about 80 — 70 % thereof. The length
of the snout is somewhat less in the tirst-mentioned
specimen than the diameter of the eyes, in the others
equal to or a little greater than the same. The nostrils
are set almost as in the Herring; but the distance lie-
tween the two pairs is comparatively somewhat greater,
being in young specimens ' o, in old about "3, of the
breadth of the snout at the articulation of the maxil-
laries. The length of the maxillaries is about 11' 2
— 9\ % of that of the body or 49 — 45 % of that of
the head, and these bones extend l)ack tn al)oiit a line

" A stuffed specimen from .\lexandria and in the possession of tlic Royal Mn.<euui measures about 61
caudal lobes.

to the ends of the

986

SCAXDINAVIAX FISHES.

witli the posterior margin of the eyes, the length of
the cheek behind them being less than its height below
the eyes. Tlu' length of the lower jaw is 14 — 13 %
of that of tlie body" or al)out 62 — o8 % of that of the
head. The height of the dental piirt is less than in
the Herring, measui'ing about ' ., of the length of the
lower jaw. At the symphysis the lower jaw is most
like that of the Pilchard and oidy slightly prominent;
Imt in old or lean specimens the symphysis is more
truncate (deeper), and has two pairs of compai'atively
small chin-protuberances above. The jaw-teeth dis-
appear more or less comi)letely with age, most in the
AUice Sliad: Imt even in old specimens a fairly regular
row \w,\\ lie found on tlie intermaxillaries, a tooth or
two in tlie front of tlie lower jaw, and traces of the
dentiform crenelation on tlie hind part of tlie maxil-
laries. Tliere ai'e no other teeth in tlie mouth. The
differences in the gill-rakers of the two varieties have
been mentioned above, and may l)e seen in the tigures.
Tlie oijcrcuhu' apparatus differs from that of the Her-
ring in the greater extension of the jireoperculum back-
wards and downwards and in a con'es]KMiding reduc-
tion of the ojierculum below, the obli(|uely set inferior
margin (the suture with the subojierculum), which is
fairly straight or incurved, measuring oidy about 17 V3
—21 % of the length of tiie liead, S.")— 47 %'' of that
of the maxillaries, or 29 — 3.5 % of that of the lower
jaw. An equally perceptible alteration of growth a|)-
pears in the form of the suboperculnm, which becomes
narrower, as n, rule, during gro\vtli, its breadth at. tiie
middle decreasing from about 60 to 40 % of the length
of the said suture. As the length of the body increas-
es from 12 to 40 cm., tlie postorbital length of the
head rises from about 4-5 '/a ^^o 58 % of the entire
length thereof, or fi-om about 25'/. to 30 % of tlie
distance between the dorsal fin and the articular knobs
of the maxillai'ies. When the postorbital length is
measured in an oblique direction (to the lower posterior

angle of the opercidum), these percentages increase re-
spectively' from about 52'-., to 62' ^ '"icl from 29'/o to 32.

The length of the pectoral fins, which are oblique-
ly pointed, is about 16 — 14 %, that of the ventral
fins about 10' ., — 8' . %, of the length of the body.
The i)i-eabdominal length varies between about 22 and
26 ?o, the postabdominal between 21 and 24'/^ %, of
the length of the body.

The dorsal fin begins at a distance fnnii the ar-
ticular knobs of the maxillaries measuring about 42 —
44'/2 % of the length of the body, or 90—99 % of the
distance between the ventral tins and the same points.
Its height decreases with age from ;ibont 15 to 11*',
and the length of its base varies between about 13
and 15 %, of the length of the body, the latter propor-
tion seeming as a rule to be somewhat less in young
specimens than the former, greater in old. The caudal
fin is deeply forked, the middle rays measui'ing only
'/^ — '/- of the length of the longest ones, which varies
between about 22 '/^ and 19 % of that of the body.
The inferior lobe of tlic caudal tin is, ns usual, some-
what longer than tlie superior.

The anal iin is of special interest from a syste-
matic point of view. The form is indeed highlj' vari-
able, but we have failed to discover any rule for its
variations. Sometimes the Iin is comparatively high,
the length of its longest ray measuring as much as
"/s of its liase. In other specimens it is as low as in
the pi-eceding Clupeoids, the height lieing but little
more than '/^ of the base. But the extent of the tin,
the length of its base, seems to afford a distinction
both between tlie sexes and the varieties. In each
variety of the Shad, so far as onr observations have
been carried, the females have ;i comparatively longer
anal tin than the males; and the base of the anal fin
is comparatively longer in the Allice Shad than in the
Twaite Shad. \Ye mav liei'e adduce the following ex-
amples of the rule:

11 sinks in llie oldest Shads to 12

Alioiil 55 — 58 \ in ihe Pilcluird.

Or even to 9 "i, jndo'ino^ by a stuffed specimen

lereof, judging l>y a stnfEed specimen.

987

Leilath of the bndv cxpiesscil in millimelrcs

Bwe of the mini tin in % of the length of the body

„ „ „ ., „ „ , head

„ ., ., „ ., „ „ dislauee lietnein the iinnl tin nnd the tip of the snout

, „ postiibdcmiiniil length

dorsal tin in =-. of the hnse of the iiunl tin

length of the iiKixillaries ,, ., .. „ „ ., ., „

^, .. ., pectoral tins „ ,, ,. ., .. ,, v „ „

Irfnst de|.lll ..f Ihe tail '

121
14.7
(J2.8

•21.8

1)3.6
iKi.s
78.6
95.5

ioy.4

72.4

57.8

Clupea finta.

348

14.6

64.5
21.1

61.8

92.7

71.5

90.8
99.1!
63.7
53.0

284

302

lli.o

13.9

71.5

60.8

24.3

20.7

75.8

56.7

80.2

105.9

(i3.7

80.9

86.8

98.8

96.7

102.3

61.5

()8.i

46.1

57.1

393
16.0
72.0
24.0

90,5
54.7
48.5

Cluiiea a! OS a.

147
16.0
64.8
22.6
70.3
80.0
71.1
93. s
103.5
60.0
53.3

147

18.1

74.5
63. G
84.2
90.0
58.0
46.8

321
17.1)
85.1
29.6
87:o
74. s
53.8
68.5
75.0
45.0
39.9

358

17.6

74.1
26.9
80.0
79.3
63.5
74.6
84.1
52.4
42.S

385
17.1
79.5
26.1
79.6
75.7
56.5
75.8

80.3
50.0

38.8

Tlu' rule i.s clear: the young and the males have
the sliorte.^t anal tin, and the Allice Sliad is charac-
terized !)v tlie long base of its anal tin. Hut in this
character ihe young male of the Allice Shad — a Medi-
terranean s]iecimen 147 mm. long and sent here liy
Hedknbl.M) — ranks he.side the female Twaite Shtids,
and is so closely a|)j)roximated to them that the dif-
ferent'c is useless as a specific character. The chiiracter
is, however, not without importance, for we find on
comparison that in most of the relations the base
of the aiitil lin is much shorter in male Twiiite
Shads than in .\llice Shads less than half as long.
A develo})ment of form, determined by the female
characters, has evidently advanced i'rom finta" to alosa:
but this development has not yet attained such defini-
tene-ss that true species can be distinguished. The spe-
cific character first pointed out by Troschel, the dif-
ference in the number of the gill-rakers — greater in
alosa (tig. 249, h) than in finta (fig. 249, a) — is im-
paired bv the same indefiniteness. Steixdaciink.i; and
Moiii;.\r showed that their luimber increases with age,
\vhereu|ion Lill.jeb(ik(t remarked with justice that the
character ciin onh" be employed in comparisons between
specimens t)f about ei|nal size. The case appears to be
the same here as in the Gwyniads (see above), where
we also faileil to arri%e at more than variety distinc-
tions bv the iiid of the differences in the gill-rakers.
And even if we could prove that the character derived
from this source agrees in our European Shads with
other characters'', the North American Shad apjiareiitly
baffles our systematic calculations, for it is fur-

nialied, according to .Tord.vn and Gilbert, with the
gill-rakers of the Allice Shad, but externally resembles,
according to Todd's figure in Brown-Goode (1. c), the
Twaite Shad.

The form :ind texture of the scales (fig. 24"), /))
we have described above. They are more firmly at-
tached to the skin in most cases than in the Herring.
The irregularity of their arrangement and the absence
of a lateral line render it difficult to comjnite their
number with certainty. The number of spiniferous
scales at the ventral margin is 37' in all the specimens
examined bv us, 2.') or 22 in front of the ventral fins
and 14 or lo behind them. Here too these scales are
covered to the greater part of their extent l)y the
nearest lateral scales.

The coloration is essentially the same as that of
the Herring. The dark (blackish blue) spots charac-
teristic of the subgenus Alosa, set in a straight r)r an
interrupted (zigzag) row on the sides of the body, the
largest — sometimes as large as the eyes, but commonly

smallei first, ;ire most usual in yoimg specimens.

The\- formerh- ranked as a character of the Twaite
Shad, but are of very irregular occurrence even in this
variety. Our figure (I'late Xi>IIl, tig. 2) also , shows
that thev mav be ipiite numerous in the Allice Shad;
and Fatki relates rhat, on boiling adult Allice Shads
from the Rhine in order to prepare their skeletons, as
many as 1.5 spots a])peared on the sides of the body.
"On the sides of the head too," writes Kroyek of the
Twaite Shad, "a black spot may sometimes be seen
above the preoperculuin" ; and in one of our Twaite

" Or perliaps from the North A
gression in development.

' LlLUEBORG has adduced the different form of tlie tip of th
■•■ 37 — 42, according to Valenciennes.

an Clupea chr'/sochloris, with its still shorter anal tin. unless this form he an instance of retro-

snoiit and the icreater nnmlii-r of tlie scales in alosa (see above).

988

SCANDINAVIAN KIStlES.

Slinds tliis spot is tho only one left, wilh flio exception
of flutt on the slionlder. Nor is the l)l;ick colour of tlie
tij) of tlu' snout, tlie point .yf the lower jnw, ;in(l the
tongue constant. But the scale follicles of the whole
body as well as of the iiead are strewn, more densely
than in the Herring, with tine dots of brownish black;
and at the top of the dorsal tin this colour gathers in
a black spot, the hind margin of the cauthd tin being
also black.

If we include, as we have reason to do, within the
limits of this species the North American Shad (and
perhaps the Skipjack, Cliipea chrysochlorift), the species
has an extensive range on both .sides of the Atlantic.
On the eastern side it occurs from the neighbourhood
of Trondhjcm" to the Mediterranean; on the western
side it lives somewdiat further south, being found from
the (lulf of St. Lawrence to St. John's River, Florida'.
In the Pacific it was unknown until the 2ncl of July,
1873. On that date Livingston-Stone, instructed by
the Fisiieries Commission of the United States, stocked
the Sacramento at Tahama (California) with ."55,000
Shad-fry from the Hudson Rivei', delivered to him on
the 2.5th of June from the Shad Hatchery of New York
State at Castleton. This proved one of the greatest
triumphs achieved by pisciculture; a productive Shad-
tishery ^\'as bestowed upon California. The enterprise
is also of general interest, as calculated to throw light
on the -wanderings of other iishes". We are told by
McDonald: "It is a common belief among fish-cultur-
ists that the ma.tui'e individuals of all anadromous spe-
cies, including the Shad, are led back to the waters in
which they were spawned by a conscious wish on their
part to return to those very localities in which they spent
their young life. Important e.xcej)tions to this rule are,
however, well established by recent ol)servations. For
instance, it is well established that the runs of Shad into
the Susquehanna and Potomac Rivers are characterized
by alternations of abundance; that is to say, an exces-
sively large yield for any given season in the one in-
volves a corresponding diminution in the yield for the
same season in tiie other, thus precluding the possibility
of each individual returning annually to its native stream.

Again, it was confidentlj- expected that all the vounw
Atlantic Shad which were transferred to and j)lanted in
the Sacramento River would, on their return from the
Pacific Ocean as mature tish, find their way back to
this stream. This was not. however, the case, for, to
the utter astonishment of man}- lish-culturists, a con-
siderable number of these now mature iish made their
appearance in many streams of the Pacific hing far
north of the Sacramento Rivci — streams to which Shad
had never lieen indigenous and in wliich none had ever
been ])lanted. These facts go a long way to disprove
the theory of instinct of locality, and indicate that the
river movements of the Shad are regulated l)y involun-
tary and extraneous influences. The migration and colo-
nisation of this fish northward along the Pacific coast
has been so general that at the present day ne^v genera-
tions of a single plant are found in every stream on
the Pacific from the Sacramento River to Puget Sound."
In Scandinavia the Shad may be considered as a
stranger. North of Germany it does not appear any-
where in numbers. But it is not rare. Se^-eral large
Allice Shads have been taken during the summer months,
according to Stokm, in Salmon-nets by the fishermen of
Trondhjem Fjord, and Collett states that an Allice Shad
was caught in the autumn of 1881 off Namsas (64\2°N.
lat.). The finia variety has not been observed so often
in Norwegian waters, and, according to Collett, only
in Christiania Fjord and near Bei'gen. In Denmark the
Shad is fairly common, but almost without exception in
the finta form. This vai-iety was frequently observed
by KnoYEii among the fish taken on the Danish coast
of the Cattegat, and he was told by fishermen that they
sometimes caught hundreds of Twaite Shads in Liira
Fjord. But onlv three Allice Shads, all taken during
Ma)' (1871 and 1878) in Liim Fjord, are mentioned by
WiXTiiER. <_)n the west ccjast of Sweden the case is
about the same. The Royal Museum has received from
Stromstad, through jMr. C. A. Hansson, two females of
the Allice Shad, one of them measuring about 44 cm.,
the other 36 cm., and taken respectively at the begin-
ning of June, 1887 (the original of our coloured figure)
and the beginning of Se])tember, 1892. No other AlHce

" Even on the coast of Iceland tlie Shad is found, acconling to a statement in Faber (Fisclie Islands, p. 182). The fishermen told
him that un the east coast of Iceland a kind of Hevriug was taken, similar to the common Herring, but with hlaek spots along the sides
They called it Ugiia-sild, i. e. Herring with eye-sliaped spots.

*■ The Skipjack strictly belongs to the Mississippi Valley and the neighhouring parts of the Gulf of Mexico. It is uncertain whether
the true Shad is indigenous to the Alabama, where attempts to introduce it have been made since 1848. In the tributaries of the Mississippi,
above all in the Ohio, it has been planted by the U. S. Fisheries Commission.

' Cf. above, on the migrations of the Salmon, pp. 858 — 859.

ilS!

Sliiids ;\re IcTiowii tVoiu tlu' west coast of Swwlei). Tlie
TuMitc' Shad is (•(iniiuDncr, and is taken off the coast of
Boiuislihi, according to Malm, "now and then, most fre-
(iiieiitly on Haddock-lines, both in spring and autninn,
hut usiialh in ( >ctiilici- and November. " At the Ix;-
odnniiig o[ .Iui\-. 1(S.')2, according to Nilsson, about a.
score of Twaite Shads were taken in Flonnder-ncts off
Mtdmo (Bohnsliin)- * *ii <lic ilallnnd coast the Twaite
Shad is fairly coninioii, at least in Laholni I5a\', where
it is called BhoiksUI and SfafsiH, and in snmmci- it
ascends to the lower part of the; River La.ga. It is found
quite often, according to SchagekstkOm, in Sclielder Bay
at the foot of the Knila (Miffs. In the Sound it is rather
rare, but commoner than in the Belts (Winthkk)- ' *n
the Prussian coast, according to P)ENErKE. it formerly
entered the Haft's in great numbers, but is now i-are,
being taken only on few occasions among the hauls of
StrOmniing. Nilsson states that in April, 1850, the
fishermen of Abekas (Southern Scania, west of Vstad)
caught, partly in gill-nets set for other Hsh, jiartly in
Salmon-seines, 8 or 10 Twaite Shads. From Calmar
Sound off Borgholm Dr. Areex sent to the Royal Mu-
seum a male Twaite Shad al>ont 3 dm. long that had
been taken in a trap on the 13th of October, 189 "2.
The Twaite Shad thus occurs in the Swedish part of
the Baltic, but the specimens ai-e probably solitary ro-
vers; and this is, no doubt, the case w-ith the Allice
Shad too. which has been found still higher up. The
Museum of Ujjsala contains a female Allice Shad 57
ciM. long that was taken on the 6th July, 18(i4, in t1ie
Dal Elf off Elfkarleby (Lilljeborg).

No Shad-tislierv of ini])ortance can therefoi'e be
carried on in Sweden, unless successful attempts Ije made
to plant this tish in suitable places within Scandinavia.
Things are different in the Shad's true home. In the Old
World its h;d)itat is of about the same extent as the
Pilchard's, and there tlie Shad is one of the most im-
portant tishes from an economical point of view, its
manner of life reminding us strongly of the Salmons.

The Shad commonly |)asses the greater part of its
existence in the sea; and its life there is little known,
but it probabl)' roves in scattered companies to seek it<
food. This consists not only of small Evertebratcs and
lower alga^ but also of moderate-sized fishes. In the
stomach of a Twaite Shad 47 cm. long Collect foiuid
about a score of S])ra-ts (i5 — Ii8 mm. in length.

" Nouv. Diet. Gen. Peches, p. Hi.
' Cdv.. Val., 1. c, p. 412.

When its pi-opagative institict begins to awake, or
even some time lieforchand — this depending seemingh'
on the temperature of the water — the Shad nuisters in
shoals to connnence its migration to fresh water. Ac-
cording to .McDoXALi) the American Shad ascends the
St. .Icihn's River (Florida) as soon as the temperature of
the water has fallen in autumn to about 60° Fahr.,
Avhich happens at the end of November; but the spawn-
ing is not in full progress till the beginning of Ajjril.
In the Potomac, on the other hand, the Shad presses
on with the greatest eagerness when the temperature of
the ri\c;r, at about the middle of April, is 56° Fahr.
Large and snudl, ri|)e and unripe, the fish make their
approach, but onh' (he former continue their advance,
until thev hnd a temperature of 65° — 70° Fahr., where-
upon the spawning is begmi, the Shads not yet in
breeding condition halting at a temperature of 60° Fahr.
The further north the nioutli of the river lies, tlie later
is the a].)pearance of the Shad. This seems also to be
the case in iMirope. .Vccording to Bl.vxchere" Shads
are taken in French rivers from March till July, and
according to \'alexciexxes* the fish appears earlier in
the Loire than in the Seine. According to van Bem-
melen (1. c.) the Shad (tilnsa first) ascends most of the
Dutch rivers in April and May. It is a rule too that
the Twaite Shad arrives about a month after the Allice
Shad. In England, according to Yarrell, the two
varieties have a preference for dift'erent rivers: in the
Severn the Allice Shad preponderates, in the Thames
the Twaite Shad. In Ireland both varieties are fairly
Common, in Scotland somewhat rare.

At the commencement of its sojourn in fresh water
the Shad is in its Ijest condition, and it retains its fatness
until the spawning begins. For the purpose of spawning
it roves, like the Salmon, but with less vigour, as far
as it can penetrate up the rivers and their trilnitarics, in
the lihine u\) to I'asel, in the Elbe into Bohemia, and
in the Loire into Haute Loire, a distance of more than
800 kilom. (.Moi;.). During the early part of its ascent
it is as timid as the Herring and cautious, retreating
at the a])proach of a thunderstorm or a si)ring freshet :
but as the sexual instinct gains sway, tlic fish lay
aside all fear, and "grumble and grunt, like a herd of
swine" (Baldxer, in WiLLUGiiBv). Meanwliile, as the
males and females ])ress together and thrash the sur-
face with their tails, the eggs are deposited and im-

990

SCANDINAVIAN KISHES.

pregnated. Wlieii tlii' s]);nviiiiig is over, tlie Sliad's
powers are exhausted, and its value lost. Man}' |»erish,
others are cari-ied iialf'-dead b}' the current back to the
sea; and by the end of tiic summer all the full-grown
Shads liavc usiialh' (|iiittcd tlie rivers and streams.

Each adult female lays, it is stated, 100,000—
200,000 eggs" 1'' or 2' mm. in diameter, Avhich sink
to the bottom, and are hatciied in a few days. In
October Yakkell obtained young Twaite Shads 2' ., in.
(63 mm.) long; and in the following spring lie found
young Twaite Shads 4 in. (1 dm.) long and young
Allice Shads (I in. ( 1 ' ,, dm.) in length''. Where the
Shad sjjends the intervals of its existence, and liow it
lives in the sea, until it attains a length of about 3 —
4 dm., and appears after 2 or 3 vears in fresh water
as an adult tisli, is unknown to us.

As tlie Salmons occur in fresh-water forms that
ne\er reach tlie sea, so the Sliad is sometimes contined

foi' its whole life in lakes and their feeders. To this
category belong, according to Fatiu. the so-called Aqun'i,
a kind of Twaite Shad, that inhabit the great lakes of
Loinbardy and South-eastern Switzerland. The lar^e
Twaite Shads, known as Cheppip, ascend tlie Po from
the Adriatic, and spawn during June and July in this
river and its tributaries, retui-ning in August to the
sea. Tlie A//oi/l, on tlie otiier liand, though they attain,
according to Die Betta, a length of 3 — 4 dm. and
according to Fatki, a weight of 1' „ lbs., jiass the
whole year in tiie lakes of Ticino and Lonibard\-, where
they spawn in May and June.

In its liest condition, after lixing a dav or two
in fresh water, the Shad, especially the fat .Mlice Shad,
is said to be excellent eating, in spite of the numer-
ous bones, which are more troublesome even than in
the Herring. After the spawning the fle.sh is lean
and dry.

Gems STOLEPHORUS.

Month large, tlie length of the marUtariefi hetitfi inore than half that of the liead. Tip of tlie snout projecting

more or less distincflg liegond the lower Jan:. Gill-openiiigs large, the branchiostegal memhranes being for the

greater part of their extent free from each other and from the isthmus. Anal fin free from the caudal.

Among tlie .\ncho\v forms tApical in other resiiects we
find species in which the hind extremities of the ma-
xillaries are \erv ol)li(|uelv truncate, with the lower
corner longer than the upper and even iiointed — as
for example in Stolephorus heterolobns from the Red
Sea and India — so that the generic character depended
merelv on a greater or less degree of prolongation.
To tlie genus Coilia, which in foi-m of body calls to
mind the .Macruroids, ^\'e find among the Anchovies
transition forms that Swainsox'' proposed to isolate in
a genus Setipimta'', characterized by the long anal fin,
which sometimes occupies more than half the length

" In American Sliads weigliiiij; 4 — 5 lbs. McDoxalp found only 20,000 — 40,000 ova; but he adds tliat in oilier fenniles (he
number sometimes exceeds 100,1)011.

' Beneckk.

' Fatio.

"* Cf., however, Ehrenbaum (S(.nderbeiliige zn den Mitllicilungen del' Sektion fiir Kiislen- und Hocliseetischerei, Jalirgaiig 1892. p. 12),
who is of opinion thai yonng Twaite Shads of the said size are a year older, and have already paid one visit to the sea.

<■ Cuv., Vai,., Hist. Nat. Pois.'i., vol, XXI, p. 5.

^ Ri'gne Anininl, ed. I, tome II, p. 17G.

? Nat. Hist. Fish., Amph., liept., vol, II, p. 292.

* tri'NTHEii's Telara and Heterotlirissu, Cat. Brit. Mas., Fisli., vol. VII, p. 385.

Ranged beside the preceding genus the European
Anchovy may indeed appear to be so sharply distin-
guished therefrom that it might lay just claim to a
place at least in a separate subfamilv. But on ti com-
parison ^vith the other genera of the family the dif-
ferences disappear, and even the genus Sfolephorns is
difficult to define with natural limits. ^^\LENCIENNE.s'
pointed out this circumstjince, and restored to the ge-
nus those species which Cuvier', on account of the
backward prolongation of the niaxillaries (extending
behind the articulation of the lower jaw and even be-
hind the head), had removed to a separate genus Thrissa.

ANCHOVIES.

991

of the veiitml marj^in, ;nid the lilaiueiitoiis t'loiipitioii
of the first peetoral ray, a iKH'iiliarity tliat extends to
still more of the pectoral rays in C'oilia. Bleeker"
indeed attein])ted, following a suggestion of GOxther's',
to find a limitation for sueli a genus in tlie number
of rays in tiie anal lin, more than 50. But a com-
parisoir between the two Indian species Stolephonis
(Setipinna) telara and St. piirnca, the latter with 38 —
47 (or, according to Glnther, 50) anal rays and
pointed pectoral tins, is enough to show liow nearly
the said characters run into each other. Another ge-
neric character recognised by Bleekek is the peculiarity
first observed by Gunthek in some Anchovies', and
consisting in a more vigorous development of tlu^ jaw-
teeth, among which some are prominent as canines.
But in otlier respects these species resemble those with
small teetii. Lastly Bleeker has directed attention to
the varying develoi>uient of the spiniferous scales at

the ventral margin. In conjunction with a more elon-
gated and terete form of body, these spiniferous scales
disapj)ear in some forms of the genus, either in the
postabdominal region alone or throughout a great por-
tion of the j)r(;abdominai as well. These foi'ms are
also characterized by the shortest anal fin, with at most
23 rays, and Bleeker proposed to reserve the generic
name of Stolephorns, coined by Lacei'ede', for them
alone. But in these respects too there are intermediate
forms, and even in the most typical of the last-men-
tioned species — as for example in the European An-
chovy — traces of S])iniferous scales may be found at
the preabdominal margin. The genus has been most
generally known under the later name of Enr/rai<lis\
and about 50 species have been described from tem-
perate and tropical regions all round the globe, most
of them purely salt-water fishes, but some visitors to
the rivers or at least to the estuaries.

" Atl. Ichthyol. Ind. Or. Xcerl., tome VI, p. 1.S5.

' Vat., 1. c.

<■ See, for example. Day, Fish. Ind., lab. CLVIII, tig. 2 {telara) and tab. C'LVII. fig. 2 (jmriira).

'' GCnther's subgenera Lycengrattlis and Lycothrissa.

' Hist. JVat. Poiss., vol. V, p. 381. From ffroAr^, eijnijmMit, adornment, and (ftqio, bear; with reference to tlie silvery band along

the sides of some species.

f Cuv., R'egn. Anim., ed. I, torn. II, p. 174.

125

992

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE ANCHOVY.
STOLEPHORUS BNCRASICHOLUS.

Fig. 250.

Mn.filldrics roinuled at tliij lihid I'.iirciiiiti/, and not extending lieJiliid the (irtiriilati(i)i of the loirer jaiv. l)iit about
equal in length to the base of the anal fin {somewhat lonrjer or shorter), which is at most aljoitt ^/ 3" of the length
of the head, or '/,„ of the posfabdominal length, or 85 % of the length of the pedunele of the tail, which is
greater than tlie length of the loirer jair. Dentition feeble and irithoitt canines, but complete. Greatest fl/lchiess
of the hodg ahont '\ {GS — 70 %) of its greatest depth, n-hich measures about 14 — 17 % of its length. Least
depth of file tail about '/j,, {29 — SI %) of the length of the head. Xo spiniferous scales, or only restiges thereof,
at the ventral margin. No sharplg defined, silverg band embedded in. the skin along the sides of the body.

Fig. 250. Stolepfionnf encrn-iu-Iiolii.", (f. Nnfiiral size. Taken at Slromstad in 1878, ('. A. Hansson.

3 2

12—13; D. : A. ^-

1.3—15 15*

-; V.

-16 15—16

(-'. .1+1 + 17 + 1 +.r; L. lat. 44—50; L. ti: 7; Vert. 46—47.

•s'yn. Halecula, Belon, Nat., Divers. Poiss., p. 167. E/ierasichohis,
RoND., De Pise, p. 211. Li/costovms balticus, Schonev.,
Ichthijol. Slesv. Hols., p. 46, tab. V (fig. inf.). Chipea
maxilla superiore longiore, Art., Ichthijol., Gen. Pise, p. 7 ;
Syn. Pise., p. 17. Anchois et Melet, Duh.\m., Pcches, pt.
II, sect. Ill, p. 457, tab. XVII, fig. 5; sect. VI, p. 157,
tab. Ill, fig. 5.
Clupea Encrasicolus, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, toni. I, ]i. 318;
Bl., Naturg. Fische Deutschl., pt. I, p. 212, tab. XXX,
fig. 2; Retz., Fn. Suec. Lui., p. 354; Pall., Zoogr. Ross.
Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 212; Cuv., (siibg. Engraulis), R'egn.
Anim., ed. I, torn. II, p. 175; Risso (Engraulis), Eur. Mer.,
torn. Ill, p. 454; C0V., Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. XXI,
p. 7, t,ib. 607; Kii.. Damn. Fish., vol. Ill, p. 221;
NiLss., .Skimd. Fn., Fisl., p. 531; v. Bemm. in Herkl.,
Boniest. Fn. NeclerL, pt. Ill, p. 383; Gthl, Cat. Brit.
Mas., Fish., vol. VII. p. .■585; Coll., Forh. Vid. SeUk.
Chrnia 1874, Till.-egsh., p. 104; 1879, No. 1, p. 99:
X. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. 112; Malm,

" 65 — GO'/o % in our specimens.
'' Sometimes 14, according to Day.
' 20', 2 cm., according to Ehrenbaum.

Ghgs, JJoh. Fn., p. 569; WlXTH., Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvu,
ser. 3, vol. XII. p. 47; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., toni.
Ill, p. 460; Day, Fish. Gt., Brit., Irel.. vol. II, p. 206,
tab. 138. fig. 1; MOb., Hoke, Fisch. Osts., p. 142; Peter-
sen, Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For. Kbhvn 1884, p. 159; LiLLJ.,
Sv., Norg. Fish., vol. Ill, p. 33; Eheenb., Sonderbeil.
Mittheil. Sekt. Kust., Hochseef., Jahrg. 1892 (D. Fisch. Ver.).

Engraulis meletta, Cuv., Regn. Ani7n., edit. 2, torn. II, p. 323
(ex DUHAM.).

Engraulis vulgaris, NiLSS., Prodr. Irlitlii/ol. ■'^'eand., p. 25.

The .Vnrhovv sometimes attains a length of 2 rim.',
but is commouly no more than 12 — 15 cm. long. As
we have already mentioned, it is characterized by an
elongated body, fairly terete l»oth ;tt the dorsal margin
and the ventral, and of a handsome and regular, fusi-
form shape, pointed in front. Onlv the head is com-
pressed below, its sides converging towards each other.
The pointed snout is one of the most fli.stinctive char-
acters belonging to the Anchovy and its nearest con-

ANCHOVY.

9!ia

ffeners. riic etIiiiKj'uhil i-egioii is in-oloiigated in I'roiit
of the iiioutli Mild al)()\e the iiiterinnxillaries, wiiicli
are c\eii inofc ix'diiced tliaii in the preccdinsj' Clii-
peoid forms.

'J'he licad in its remaining: fomi and strnctnrc
lends itself most rcadiiv to a, comitarison witli that u['
tlie (ireatcr Seoiielus (Miiil<ipln(iii cIdiK/iif/iiii). Tiiis
resemliliince may be seen in tiie large, horizontal cleft
of the mouth, with the gill-slits extending far forward
in the lower jaw, tiie very strongl\- constricted cheek-
region below the eyes, and llie l>ackward and do\\'n-
ward pi'olongation ol' the opei-cular apparatus, the ])re-
opereulum having lost the lowei', horizontal arm that else
projects in a forwai'd direction. The cheek behind the
eye is also of the same triangular form as in the said
Scopeloid.

In Anchovies \H — I') cm. long the length of the
head occu|)ies about iM' ^, — 22' ., *«- of that of the l>ody.
So great, however, is the extension of the i)haryngea]
and opercular apparatus tliaT the head itself, trom the
tip of the snout to the occiput, measures only about
Vt of the abovi' length. The longitudinal diameter of
the eyes, which are round, but incline to ;ui oval shape,
is between 24 and 21' ^ **>, their \crtical diameter about
20 %, of the length of the head. The eyes and the
sides of the snout in front of them are covered by an
adipose membrane, which is ijuite continuous, without
aperture or eyelid. l)ut trans|iarent on the pujiil. The
interorbital width at the middle of the eyes is slightly
greater than their vertical diameter, but less than the
longitudinal. The length of the snout is slightly less
than the said vertical diameter, the difference being
least in old specimens. The nostrils on each side are
set close together, being divided only b}' a narrow-
strip of skin, which raaj', however, be elevated so as
to form an obliquely cut groove, open in front. They
are set at the edge between the flat or faintly convex
top of the snout and its converging sides, about half-
way between the ti]j of the snout and the anterior
margin of the eyes or a little nearer to the latter.
The small, stiletto-shaped, and curved intermaxillaries
are attached to the lower anterior margin of the long
maxillaries. The latter bones increase uniformly, but
slightly, in breadth behind, where each of thera is fur-
nished with two narrow jugal bones, pointed in front.

" On the sides of tlie lie.Kl of Uie vomer, on Uic palad
eotopterygoids.

their greatest breadth, including the jugal bones, being
oidy about ' ,„ of their length. The lower jaw is also
shallow and long, in contradistinction to that of the
]>rcce(ling ('lu|)coids; it is slightly tui-ned up at the
ti]i. The length of tlu; maxillaries is about (Jl — 65 %,
that of the lowei' jaw about 68 — 71 %, of the length of
the head. The internuixillaries, maxillaries, and lower
jaw are each furnished with a row of small pointed
teeth, somewhat curved and of uniform size. Similar
teeth nia\' be found on almost all the bones of the pa-
late", but are more or less deciduous. In old specimens
the teeth of the maxillaries, and sometimes, at least in
part, those of the lower jaw, also disapjjear. The tongue
is small, cartilaginous, and toothless, but free. Close
to its base begins the fine denticulation of the long and
narro\\ row of copular bones. Both the upper and
lower phar\ ngeals are armed with small teeth. The
gill-rakers are long and tine, numbering about 62 — 72
(ju the first branchial arch.

The top of the head, which is almost flat, is coursed
at the middle b}' a longitudinal ridge from the very tip
of the snout (the u])per margin of the ethmoid bone)
to the occiput: and from the inner side of each pair of
nostrils, oliliquely outwards to each supraorbital mar-
gin, and thence obliquely inwards to the occiput, there
run the same ridges as in the Clupeoid forms im-
nicdiateh- preceding the Anchovy. The cephalic sy-
stem of the lateral line is generally less developed than
in the said forms, but here too varies considerably in
its development. In some instances only faint traces
thereof appear: in others the whole top of the head,
the temples, the upper parts of the scapular region, and
the triangular cheeks are covered with numerous, ver-
rucose elevations and pores, sometimes \vith a network
of confluent ducts belonging to this system, and the
hind margins of the operculum, the preoperculura, and
the scales on the scainilar region are pierced by the
straight, backward ramifications of these ducts. The
preoperculum is crescent-shaped, though the lower cor-
ner is somewhat prolongated, forming a thin, rounded
lobe. The operculum is quadrangular and of uniform
breadth, but curved like a sickle, its uj)per anterior
margin, above the articular head, being perpendicular,
and its whole posterior margin forming a fairly regular
curve of about a quarter of a circle. Its lower posterior

on the entoplcrygoids. and. in .n small card, on the liind part of (lit-

994

SCAXDINAVIAX FISnES.

margin shows an arcuate indentation. Obliquel)' across
its surface, from the articular head to the lower pos-
terior corner, runs a groove, in front of which the
lower anterior, triangular part of its surface is some-
what tumid, but smooth. The suboperculum has a
rounded triangular form, with the hind margin sharply
curved. The length of its upper margin, which coincides
with the breadth of the operculum, is about 10 — 12 %
of the length of the head. The interoperculum is of
about the same shape as the subo|ierculum, but much
smaller. All the opercular bones are very thin. The
branchiostegal membranes are narrow, hardly perceptible
at the hind margins of the operculum and suboperculum.
In front (below) they follow the branches of the lower
jaw, their bi-eadth being but slightly greater than that
of these bones or, at the extreme front, less. The
branchiostegal rays are also comparatively short, gradu-
ally increasing behind (^vitll the exception of the last
one) in length and breadth. The anterior are subulate
and curved, the posterior of more and more uniform
breadth and sabre-shaped, with obliquely set, terete shaft;

Fig. 251.

Composite scale from the left side of (he inferior caudal
lobe in an Anchovy 16 cm. long. X 3.

but the hindmost is of a rounded triangular shape, re-
sembling in form and position a lower suboperculum.
The nine middle rays are set on the ceratohyoid Ijone,
the last two on the epihyoid.

The distance between the dorsal fin and tlie tip of
the snout is about 44 (44V2) — 48 %, its height as well
as its base about 10 — 11 %, of the length of the body.
The first ray is extremely small, the second about Vs as
long as the third (the last simple ray), which is slightly
shorter than the first branched ray. The last ray in
the fin is scarcely elongated. The distance between the
anal fin and the tip of the snout is about 60 — 63 '/o %, its
base about 14 %, and its lieiglit (tlie lengtli of tlie first
branched ray) about 6' ., — 7 %, of the length of the
body. It is thus both longer and lower tliaii tlie dorsal
fin, and has a more concave outer margin, the last ray
being somewhat elongated. The first of the two simple
rays at the beginning of the fin is hardly '/s as long
as the second, which is almost equal in length to the
first branched ray. The caudal fin is deeplj' forked,
the length of the middle rays (about 5 — h^!^ % of the
length of the body) being even less than '/g of that of

the longest ones (in the inferior lobe). On each side
of the fin are set, as in the Clupeoid forms iramediHtely
preceding the Anchovy, a pair of so-called comijosite
scales — much smaller, however, than the largest body-
scales — one on the superior lobe, the other on the in-
ferior, and each consisting of a scalpel-shaped dermal
flap, with diamond-like reticulation, and covered with
a considerable number (20 — 25) of small scales. These
are set in imbricated rows, and each of them is marked
with a row of brownish l)lack pigment-spots (fig. 251).
The pectoral fins are comparatively short, their
length being about equal to the height of the dorsal fin
or a little greater, and are obliquely truncate, their shape
reminding us strongly of the pectoral fins in those An-
chovies where the first ray of these fins shows a fila-
mentous elongation. The ventral fins are also obliquely
truncate, but much shorter than the pectoral, their length
being only about T'/j — 7 % of that of the l)ody. The
position of the ventral fins is such that the distance be-
tween them and the tip of the snout measures about

'^m

Fig. 252. A scale from the left side of an Anchovy 16 cm. long.
Three times the natural size.

40—44 % of the length of the body, or 90—92 % of
that between the dorsal fin and the same point. The
pi'eabdominal length is about 18 — 22 %, and the post-
abdominal about 20 %, of the length of the body.

The scales are extremely thin and transparent, ra-
ther large, but short, and of a quadrangular shape,
rounded at the corners (fig. 252). Their posterior (free)
part is as large as the anterior (covered) portion, and
is also finely striated, the concentric stria; being even
twice as numerous as on the latter. The radiating
grooves are sharply defined, originating both at tlie an-
terior margin and the posterior. The scales of tlie pec-
toral fins, and the pointed axillai" scales of the vontral
fins are long, extending respectively ^/j and ^4 "^ t'^*^
distance along the fins. The basal scales of the dorsal
and anal fins are about tlie same as in the Shads. The
median line of the belly is covered, it is true, with
ordinary scales; but vestiges of the spiniferous scales
that appear in the preceding Clupeoid forms may some-
times be found. These take the shape of linear thicken-

ANrilllVV.

99 =

int's of the skin in the pi-cahdonunal i-egion, answering
to the lateral processes of the spiniferous scales; and
outside (below) each pelvic bone, just in front of the
outermost (first) ray of the ventral tins, lies an extreme-
ly tliin, s([naiuoid covering-bone, whicli sends out a
wand-sliaped process in the skin, extending about ' ., of
the distance up the sides of the body, and corresponding
to the ordinary double process that rises at this point
in the Herrings (cf. \). 958, tig. 240, c).

Tlie coloration is essentially the same as in tlie
Herrings, but is characterized by a steely longitudinal
band on the upper part of the sides, forming a sharp
line of demarcation between the back, which gleams
chiefly with a greenish lustre, and the lower parts of
the sides, which are silvery wliite. On the articular head
of the operculum lies a dark, elliptical spot, the length
of which is scarcely half the diameter of the eyes.

The Anchovy's range in the Atlantic coincides with
that of the Pilchard". Its true habitat lies in the Mediter-
ranean and the neighbouring part of the Atlantic, and
liardly extends north of England and Holland, though
numerous specimens have been taken in Christiania
Fjord, and solitary individuals occur along the Norwe-
gian coast up to Bergen. It also roves into the Cat-
tegat and the Baltic, probably in the train of the Her-
ring and Stroraming, up to the island-belt of Stockholm,
where Professor Hjalmar Holmgren took a female An-
chovy about 18 cm. long'' on the 15th of August, 18(59.
In the south-west of the Baltic it is caught somewhat
more frequently — "though rare", wrote Schonevelde
in 1624 — off Kiel (MoBius and Heincke) and Trave-
iniinde (Lenz). On tlie north coast of Fiinen Feddeksen
obtained 7 specimens in the middle of June, and Pe-
TERSKN caught 4 at the end of the year 1885. On the
north coast of Zealand Kroyer saw two Anchovies. In
the Sound north of Sa-ltliolm Winther secured a speci-
men IH cm. long in June, 1870. The Royal Museum
has received from Baron (tYllenstjerxa a specimen
17 cm. long, taken off Kullen in August, 1829. Burman
sent two specimens that had been caught in Herring-
nets oft' Stromstad in July, 18(52, and the Museum has
more recently received through Mr. C. A. Hansson two
more from the same locality. MaliM mentions 4 speci-

mens from BohuslMn. The Anchov}', tliougii rare, is
tlnis not to lie reckoned amoi]g tlie rarest fishes of the
Cattegat and Skager Rack. In Clnnstiania Fjord it is
so common, according to Coli.ett, that it appears every
summer, at least in small numbers, at the fish-market
of Clu'istia.nia; and in August, 1873, Coelett met with
a considerable niunber, both large and small, in the
fjoi-d. In Octobei-, 1875, he found several specimens
among common Herrings off Christiania, one of them
nearly 19 cm. long, another only 68 mm., whence he
infers that the Anchovy spawns in those waters. The
adeijuacy of this evidence may, however, be questioned,
if EuRENBAUiM be correct in his opinion that Anchovies
of the latter length may be; in their second year and
h;ive passed one winter in the sea.

That the Anchovy is outside the bounds of its true
habitat, or at the northern limit thereof, on the coast
of Holland — though it spawns there, and is sometimes
extremely plentiful — ap])ears from the great irregularity
to be observed in its occurrence. Van Bemmelen re-
lates, on Martinet's authority', that in 1765 or 1766
fifty fishermen could not secure more than three An-
chovies during the whole summer in the Zuyder Zee,
though some years before the Zee had been "so full of
Anchovies as to be almost unnavigable for smacks."
Even so far south as in the English Channel it is far
less common, according to Moreau, than in the Medi-
terranean.

From the large gape of the Anchovy and its other
resemblances to the Greater Scopelus we may conjecture
that its manner of life is also nuich the same, and that
it is strictly a pelagic fish-of-])rey. But in cjuest of
food and in oi'der to spawn it approaches the coast,
and for the former purpose it enters brackish or even
fresh \\'ater. It is found both in the Zu}'der Zee and
the mouths of the Dut(-h rivers. The Seine it ascends,
according to Valenciennes, up to Quillebeuf. It spawns
in the Mediterranean, according to Risso, and on the
coasts of Holland and Hanover, according to HoffiMAn''
and Ehrenbauji, in spring and early summer, from
April till the beginning of July. This seems also to
be the case on the English coast, to judge by an ob-
servation of Mr. Jackson's (Day), who took Anchovies

" According to GUnthek (L c.) (he Anchovy is found off Tasiuania and New Zonhnid, in a variety distinguished by a somewhat
greater nnraber of rays in the anal fin.

* The specimen is so greatly damaged that the length of the body cannot be stated exactly.

' Verh. Haarlem 1754— 9.S, XI, pars 2, p. 2.36.

'' Verslag van den iStaat der Nederlandsche Zeevisscliereien over lff84 en J8Sh'.

99(i

SCANDINAVIAN I'lSIIES.

full of roe off Soutliport (Lancashire) on the 9th June,
1878°. The actual course of the spawuinfr has not yet
heeii observed; but the eggs, which are easily distin-
guished from the more or less spherical ova of other
fishes by their ellipsoidal form, and which measure
O'T' — To' mm., have been found on several occasions.
Ehrenbaum met with them in large numbers at the
beginning of June at the surface and in open water
9 — 10 fathoms deep off the island of Norderney (East
Friesland). In the innermost parts of the Zuyder Zee
Anchovy-eggs have been found; but the actual s]>awn-
ing is probably performed in salt \\ater. According
to Wenkebach (Ehrenbaum), the ova are hatched in
three days. According to Hoffmann, the fry mea-
sure 32 — 55 mm. at the beginning of August, and 50
— 100 mm. at the beginning of September. A Dutch
Anchovy-salter stated too that in August and Septem-
ber such enormous ipiantities of young Anchovies 50
— 70 mm. long are often taken that they are salted
and consumed in the same way as the larger ones, in
spite of the fact that a firkin contains 8,000 — 10,000
of these small fish, whereas only 3,200 — 4,000 full-
grown Anchovies go to the barrel. Ehrenbalm is, how-
ever, of opinion that these small Anchovies belong to
tiie spawning of the preceding year'', and assumes that
larviv less than 3 cm. long grow very slowly during
their first winter and spring in the sea. If this opi-
nion is correct, tlie Anchovy does not attain sexual
maturity until its third year, wliicli we should else
date a year earlier.

The food of the .\nchovy consists princii)ally of
CopepodcB, Mifsidce, and young shrimps.

The Anchovy is taken partly in fine-meshed drift-
nets, sailing-seines, and shore-seines, ]«irtiy with hoop-

nets and stationai-y engines, such as ri/ssjor (traps) etc.
In the Mediterranean the fishery is carried on chiefly by
torchlight, the glare enticing the Anchovies to the boat,
where the fisherman splashes in the water so as to
frighten tJicm into the meshes of the nets spi-ead round
about. Tiie value of the fishery is generally- nuich less
than that of the Pilchard-fishery; but the Anchovy
commands a higher price than the Pilchard, and in
certain places the Anchovy-fishery is consequently the
more valuable. The annual take of Anchovies on the
Palermo coast is stated' at 400,000 kilo., valued at the
same number of francs; while the Pilchard-fishery brings
in 600,000 kilo, of fish, but only 200,000 francs. In
France the take of Anchovies for 1881 was nearly
6,000,000 kilo., valued at rather more than 500,000
francs; whereas in 1882 the quantity fell to 1,500,000
kilo., but the price rose to somewhat over 700,000
francs^ Holland had an average annual export for
the years 1883 — 1890 of nearly 1,750,000 kilo, or
35,000 barrels of salt Anchovies, whicli fetched a price
per barrel of 8 — 78 Dutch guldens" (on an average,
according to Ehrenbaum, 20 — 30 guldens).

The Anchovy is recommended not only l)y its
fleshiness and fatness, but also by its flavour, a pecu-
liar bitter taste, which combined with its saltness tick-
les the gourmand's palate and whets his appetite. This
bitterness, which becomes disagreeable unless the head
as well as the liver and intestine be removed before
salting, was prized l)y tlie Romans, to whom Anchovy
sauce {garum) was known. From this too the ancient
Greeks derived their name for the fish, a name which
the species still retains, oirniHii'Imhis (with the gall in
the head).

" Both Day (1. c.) utid Olsen (Piscatovial Atlas), however, state that in English waters the Ancho%-}- spawns in aiidnnn, September
— December.

' According to Wenkebach, Lpioted bj- Ehrenbaum.

' According to Hoffman, quoted by Eheenbabm.

'' On tlie assumption that a growth from 4 — 32 mm. is impossible during the interval between the end of the spawning-season aud
the beginning of August. But this growth is not so inconceivable from the beginning of the spawning-season.

' Esposiz. intern, di Pesca, Berlino 1880, Sez. Ital., Catal., p. LXVII.

/ Statislique des peches maritimea, 1882. pp. 235 and 237.

" A Dutch gulden = Is. 8d.

I'lKK-KISHES.

ESOCIFORMES.

1)97

Phjfsostoms with the fthoukler-ffirclle suspended crs usual in tin' Tdcosts, from the head <t>i(l nithout precoracoid

bones. The first four ahdonilnal rertehree normal hi form and derelopment. Jir-hladder, where present, simple,

without conne.rioH irith the cranial cariti/. Jfi/omaiidihalar and j)li-rii(/ti))alati)ic arrhes roniplete, as well as the

opercular ajijxiratus. Marillarics Julli/ derrlopcd. \o adipose fni.

The Ksociform series corresponds to tlu; order i tins). In the Sc;indinavi:ui fauna the series is repre-

established, under the name of Haplomi", by (Am'e''.
It includes tlic i*ikes {Esocidre). tlie Mud-Minnciws
(Umhridte, named after the Austrian and Hungarian
dogs-Jish'), the Toothed Carps {Cyprinodontidce — see
above, p. 7(1:2 — three species of which family occur
in Soutliern Europe), and the Blind-iishes (I/etcr-
(ipiplii. inhal)itants of caves and lirooks in North Ame-

sented h\- thc^ tirst-mentioned family alone.

The series contains \ery dissimilar forms, ])rcdat(jry
tisiies like the Pikes, and more iiarmless iislies of small
size, principally insectivorous or ev(;n mud-eaters. This
dissimilarity manifests itself, as usual, most clearly
in the form of the head and especially of the mouth.
In addition to the ahove-given characters, however.

rica, a family whose maxillaries, like those of the the series has a peculiarity characteristic of the great

Toothed (^irps, form no part of the margin of the majority among its mendiers in the backward jjosi-

mouth, and wiiich is especially distinguished by the tion of the dorsal tin. which lies above or even behind

forward situation (if the vent, in front of the pectoral the anal.

Fam. ESOCID^.

Dorsal fin situated, at least for the greater part, behind the perpendicular from the vent. Gape large. Snout
depressed and long {at least as long as the postorhital part of the head or onig a little shorter). Margin of the
upper jan- formed bg the tip of the ethmoid bone, the interma.rillaries, and the ma.rillaries. Mouth furnished with
canine teeth. The pneumatic duet of the simjile air-bladder runs from the anterior part thereof to the cesophagus.

The family of tiie P'ikes differs considerably fi-oni
i the preceding family: a Pike and a Herring have not
nuich in common. But one of the most characteristic
external peculiarities of the Esocoid family, the caudal
position of the dorsal and anal fins, reappears in a.
Mediterranean tish Alepoeephalus, the type of a family
very nearly allied to the Herrings, and also in the
above-mentioned Paralepidince. The more predatory
instincts of the Pikes, however, accompanied as they
are by a simplification of the intestinal canal, the py-

margins of the upper jaw are also formed almost as
in the Salmonoids — short, toot^ied intermaxillaries (tig.
253, (J and F, pmx) and long, though here toothless,
maxillaries (w?;r), each with a well-developed supple-
mentary bone (,/) — but show a pecularity which we
have not seen in the preceding tishes, and which is all
the more important, from a systematic point of view,
to the explanation of the forms immediately following
this family. The intermaxillaries, which we have
hitherto found to be more or less closely applied to

loric appendages having entirely disappeared, range '\ each other at the tip of the snout, are here (tig. 253,
these fishes nearer to the Salmonoids, in spite of the j C, pmx) separated by the cartilaginous end of the
numerous jjyloric appendages of the latter. The lateral : ethmoid bone (fig. 253, A. f. and E, etcr). which

" anXoog, simple and COjJOg, shoulder; i. e. without precoracoid in the shonlder-girdle
'■ Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, Philnd., n. ser. vol. XIV (1871), p. 45,').
'■ Heckel and Kxer: ■'iusswasserf. Ostreich. Moii., p. 291.

998

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

forms the very tip of the snout, and its inferior
covering-bone, the head of the vomer. This peculiarity
shows that the Pikes occui)y a comparatively low rank
in the system of the Teleosts, during whose evolution
the rostro-ethmoidal jiart of the snout has suffered re-
duction, while the parts of the upper jaw have been
more strongly developed. In the head of the Pikes
too the jjrimordial chondrocrauium is persistent to about
the same extent as in the Salmonoids. The hyoman-
dibular bones of the Pikes (fig. "253, A and F, Inn)

show a great resemblance to those of the Gadoids in
the long, backward process {hmp) with the top of which
the operculum {op) articulates. Tlie anterior of the
two articular heads {lima) which ser\e to articulate the
hyomanilil)ular l)one witii tlie cranium, is directed so
oblicjuely inwards that it meets the petrosal bone {ptr,
prooticinn, fig. 253, E), instead of having its articular
cavity, as is usually the case, on the under surface of
the postfrontal bone {sjilio, sphenoticum).
This family contains only one genus.

Genus ESOX.

BocJi/ elonr/afed, iviih the abdominal part longest and of uniform depth", more or less terete or compressed. The
dorsal and anal fins, which are opposed to each other, short and of the same size. Caudal fin forked. Middle-
sized or small ci/cloid scales cover the hodji entirely, the head partially. Psetidobranchice hidden.
Branchiostegal rai/s numerous {11 — 20).

The genus of the Pikes, with its five or six spe-
cies, is distributed over the rivers and lakes of the
north temperate zone both in the ( Jkl and New Worlds,
a relic of the period when a land communication, \vith
collections of fresh water within its bounds, existed
between Europe and North America*. But only one
species is found in the Old World.

The generic name of Esox ■was adopted bj' Artedi'
from Pliny'', who applied it to a large fish of the Rhine.
Gesner' had already conjectured that the Pike was pro-
bably the fish meant; but not even he was confident of
the correctness of his opinion. In iiis works, as in most
of the ancient authors, the genus was called Lucius, the
Italian Luzzo, from the Greek /.vaoi'.

THE PIKE (SW. GADDAN).

ESOX LUCIUS.

Plate XLIV. fig. 4.

Cheeks and temples, together with the upper part of the opercula and the posterior part of the occiput {to a line

tvith the upper end of the preoperculum) covered with scales: the rest of the head naked. Usually 14 {13 — 15)

branchiostegal rays. Sides of the body spotted with yellow or yellotoish white, the impaired fins with brown.

R. br. 13 — 1,5!'; n.

-; A.

(5)6-8
12 — 13(14)'

14 — 15'

V. j-; a. ,r + 1 + 17 + 1 + .r; Lin. hit. cii 12,5—130; L. tr

ca 26 — 28 supra pinn. veutr.; Verl. (58).59— 62.

6')/n. Eso.xC?), Plin. 1. c. Lucius, AusoN., Mos., vers. 122: Bei.on,
Nat., Divers. Poiss., p. 292; Rondel., Pise. Lacustr., p.
188; Gesn., 1. c, p. 500; Schonev., Ichthyol. Slesv. Hols.,
p. 44; WiLLDQHB., Hist. Pise, p. 236. Esox rostro plagio-
plateo, Aet., Syn. Pise. p. 26; Descr. Spec. Pise, p, 53;
LiN., Fn. Suec, ed. I, p. 114.

" With the exception of gravid feiuales witli poDdent belly.

' Sjutt, Eijggradsiijurens geologisku iitvecl.liiiy och slagtshapsfdrhdllaiideii, p. 59.

■■ Gen. Pise, p. 14.

'' Lib. IX, cap. 15.

' Hist. Anim., lib. IV, p. 368.

.f Belon derived the name from the Latin Incere, "because the fish when dried shines in the dark" (see Gesnkk, 1. c, p. 502).

' Sometimes 16, according to FniES and Ekstruh.

Eso.v Lucius, Lin., Hi/st. Nat., oil. X, fom. I, p. ;j]4; Bl.,
Naturg. Fisch. Dcutschl., pari. I, p. 229, tab. XXXII;
Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 350; PjU.l., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat.,
vol. Ill, p. 336; Ekstb., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1831. p. 75;
NiLSs., Prod}-. Ichthi/ol. Scand., p. 36 ; Richardson, Fna
Bor. Amer., part. Ill, ]>. 124: Fr., Ekstr., ■'<hand. Fish.,
ed. 1, 11. 4P, V. Wit., lab. X; Cuv., Val., l/i.^t. Nat. Poiss.,
vol. XVIII, p. 279; SuNDEV., Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forli. 1851,
p. 11)4; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 236; 'Su,s&., ISkand.
Fna, Fisk., p. 348; Sunuev., Fiskyng. Utveckl., Vet.-Akad.
Haudl. 1855, p. 11; Stockh. L. Hush.-S.allsk. Haudl., H. 6
(1855), pp. 82, 91, 167; Hckl, Kn.. Sitsswasserf. Ostr.
.Von., p. 287; SiKi)., iS'usswasserf. Mitlelevr., p. 325; Mgrn,
Fint. Fiskfna, (disp. Helsingfors 1863), p. 66; Gthr, Cat.
Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VI, p. 226; Canestr., Fna Ital., pt. Ill,
p. 21; LcN., Poiss. lac Lem., p. 161, tab. XIX; Coll., Forh.
Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilltegsh., p. 175; 1879, No. 1,
p. 94; Olss., Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1876, No. 3. p. 131;
1882, No. 10, p. 48; Malm, Ghgs, Boh. Fna, p. 550; Fed-
DEiis., Nalurli. Tidskr. Kbhvu, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 81; Bncke,
Fisch. Fischer., Fischz. 0., W. Preuss., p. 165; Mor., Hist.
Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 466; Mela, Vertebr. Fenn.,
p. 355; tab. X; Jord., Gilb., Bull. U. S. Nat. Miis., No. 16,
p. 353; Dat, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 139, tab.
CXXVI; M6b., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 134; Reut., Sundm.,
Finl. Fisk., tab. XII; LiLLJ., Sv., Norg. Fisk., vol. II, p.
476; Fat., Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. V, p. 419.

Eso.v estor, Le Sueur, Val. p. p., uoc- Dekay; vide Jiirp.,
Gilb., 1. c.

The iiiaxiiiiuin .•*ize Mttaiued by the Pike in Sweden
may be estimated, on the autiiority of several trust-
worthy statemeut.s from different places, at a length of
19 dm. and a weight of 26 kilo". Pike of tliis size
are, however, at least in our times, of rare occurrence;
most of tlie specimens taken measure between 3 and
12 dm. The relation between the length and weight
varies in different individuals. In old and nearly full-
grown Pike the weight increases in a greater propor-
tion than the lengtli.

The elongated body becomes shallower at tlie head
and tail; but between tiiese points the depth is almost
uniform, so long as the belly is not distended with
food or tumid organs of generation. The gi-ea.test depth
measures as a rule 15' 2 — 17 ?6 of the length, and the
greatest breadth is rather more than half, as a rule
about 52 — 57 %, of tlie greatest depth. In a transverse
section tlie body is more or less distinctly quadrilateral,
with rounded angles, and broadest in the dorsal region,
growing more or less compressed towards the lielly.

K. 999

Tlie back is alwaj'S broad and convex, the belly mostly
Hat. Tlie least depth of the body measures in the fry
about 35 — 36 ?/y, in adult Pike about 38 — 43 %, of the
greate.st depth, or in the formei- about 17 — 20^, in the
latter about 24 — 2K %, of tlu' length of the head.

The length of the head measures in the fiy (about
V2 dm. long) about 32 % of that of the body, in full-
grown Pike aliout 27 — 30 % thereof. Its posterior out-
lines form an uninti'rrujjted continuation of those of the
body, but in front of the eyes it is depres.sed into a
hollow, with the sides somewhat widened in front, and
the tip rounded in an horizontal direction, thus acquir-
ing a resemblance to a duck's bill. The cleft of the
mouth is large, extending below the anterior margins
of the eyes''. The mouth shows a, struc-ture peculiar to
the Pike and intimately connected with its well-known
voracity, in whicR respect it is surpassed by few fishes.
The bones entering into the apparatus of the jaws are
endowed with great mobility, the mouth being capable
of considerable distension; and both jaws, the palate,
and the pliarynx, including the branchial arches, are
well armed with sharp, retrorse teeth. The mobility
and expansivene.'^s of the jaws are sujiplemented by
the free articulation of the o])ercular apparatus.

As we have mentioned above, the intermaxillaries
{pin.r, fig. 253) are widely separated bj' the broad, flat,
|iroininent, and cartilaginous ethmoid bone (efcr), which
grows broader in front, and, supported bj- the vomer
{iwm), forms the anterior margin of (he upper jaw.
The ethmoidal cartilage is furnished not onl}' with this
inferior covering-lione, the vomer, but also with two
pairs of upper covering-bones, the supraethmoids, called
by others the nasal bones (spef, 1 and 2), the anterior
pair situated above and beside the long nasal processes
(,/Vw) of the frontal bones, \vhich j^rocesses extend al-
most to the tip of the snout. By means of cartilaginous
joints the small intermaxillaries articulate with the an-
terior outer angle of the ethmoidal cartilage and the
last-mentioned nasal bones. An ascending process, flat
and incurved, of the intermaxillaries overlies the an-
terior extremities both of the maxillaries and of the
concave articular head on the anterior outer end of the

" The Fisheries Commission of 1881 — 83 received from several provinces information of Pike 15 — 19 dm. long and 17 — 26 kilo.
in weight.

* The length of the npper jaw from the middle of the tip of the snout to the hind extremities of the maxillary bones occupies in
the fry (about ' , dm. long) about 38 %, in Pike 4 — 5 dm. long about 46 — 49 %, of the length of the head; and the length of the maxil-
laries measures in the latter about 38 — 40 %, and their greatest breadth (across the supplementary bone) about 7 — 8 °i, of the same. The
length of the lower jaw is about 65 — 69 % (in the young about 60 ?b) of that of tlie head.

1000

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

palatines {jil), where the anterior exti-emity of the
niaxillaries has its articulation; while the posterior part
of the intermaxillarics is inserted under the anterior
extremity of the niaxillaries. In addition to the above-
mentioned covering-bones the ethmoidal cartilage has a
further ossification at each anterior outer corner, an-
swering to the true ethmoid bone (et), which forms
the prominence wJiere tlie anterior extremity of each
palatine bone has its niol)ile articulation. The hind
extremity of the palatine is joined ;is usual liy a firm

a firm suture to the anterior margin of the quadrate
bone (qii), wliile the upper arm sends out above the
bend an ascending process which is linked by a mobile,
cartilaginous articulation to the lateral ethmoid {c.tl,
prefontai bone). Tlie articulations of the hyomandi-
buhii' with the under surface of the squamosal bone
(squ) ;ind with the upper posterior angle of the petrosal
(2)fr), ^\•hich there meets the latter bone, have already
been mentioned. The whole apparatus of the upper
jaw, the palate, and the suspensory apparatus of the lower

suture to and covered by the geniculate pterygoid bone ] jaw are thus capable both of lateral and up^vard disten-
(pt), the lower arm of which is applied and united by I sion, the lower jaw simultaneously expanding, for

?^ii%«^\ ^'"

Fig. 253. Bones of the liend in a Pike. ' ,, tlic natural size. A, from the riglit; B, the skull, seen from beliiml; 6', the head, seen from
above; /), the skull, seen from tlie riglit; E, the skull, seen from below; F, the upper jaw, palate, and suspensory apparatus of the lower

jaw, right side, seen from without; G, the lower jaw.

alsp, alisphenoid; art. artieular part of the lower jaw; de, dental part of tlie lower jaw; cpt, entopterygoid; et, elhnuiid; eh-r, tip of (lie
cartilaginous part of the ethmoid; eti, lateral ethmoid; />, frontal; fni, part of the frontal bones that projects above the ethmoidal cartilage;
ftr, exit of the iierms trigeminus; lim, hyomandibular; hiiia, anterior articular process of the hyomandibular; /»«;;, hyomandibulor articular
process, with the end of which the operculum articulates; iop, interoperculum ; j, supplementary (jugal) bone of the maxillary; mb, tip of the
lower jaw; mpt, metapterygoid; ml, mastoid; mx, maxillary; ocb, basilar part of the occipital; ocl, lateral part of the occipital; ocs, squa-
mosal part of the occipital; op, operculum; jmr, parietal; pi, palatine; pmx, intermaxillary; pob, preorbital, the foremost bone in the sub-
orbital ring; pop, preopercnlum; psp, parasphenoid; pt, pterygoid; ptmp, post-temporal; ptp, ascending process of the pterygoid; ptr, petro-
sal; 7M, quadrate; sd, supraclavicula; sob, hindmost (fifth) bone in the suborbital ring; sop, suboperculum; spet 1 and 2, supraethmoids;
spho, postfrontal bone; spl, os symplecticum ; spo, supraorbital; squ, squamosal part of the temporal bone; st, tfty]oUl (opistlioticiim); yom, head

of the vomer; vomp, shaft of the vomer.

1001

its two halves ;ire joined in IVoiit (ml/), at the syiu-
nhysis, inereh' In' eai'tilage instead of the ordinary
firm sutiu'c.

The lonii' niaxillaries (iii.r), whieh arc somewhat
curved and t\\'isted, are tootidess, and llie sin_L,rl(. or
sometimes (in front) (h)nlih' I'ow of intei'maxiiiar\' teeth
are not \er\- iai-ge; hut all the yreati'r is the size of
the teetli on tlie head (vom) of the vomer, in the inner
rows on tjie palatines (pi), and, above all, in the lower

o\er wiru-li the eard of teeth (extends, being thus raised
fi'ce above the hind ]iart nl' tlie jjharyngcal itself. All
the hones already enumerated in the mouth and pha-
rynx may be dentigerous in most of the Teleosts; but
in the Pike we further lind lliat the gill-rakers, on the
front of tlie In'anehial ai'ehes, are transformed into dense
cards of teetii, di\ided into (luadrilateraj or rounded
(verrueose) groups, and containing teetli about equal
in size to the intermaxillary ones. The nund)er of the

jaw {(h'). In the long, posteriorly pointed patch of j teeth is thus augmented so considerabh' that Khoveu

teeth thai oecu])ies the siiaCt (romp) of the vomer, ex-
tending l)ack to a line witli tlie nasal cavities, the
dense teeth decrease in size behind, a diminution which
also appears, both outwards and backwards, in the some-
what broader card of ])alatine teeth, which extends a
little further back than the vomerine card. The man-
diliular teeth of young Pike are set throughout in one
roAv; ill large Pike there are tw(j rows at the extrc^me
front, both being incurved (recurved) nearest to the
syniphvsis. Iiiit only one row throughout the; rest of
the jaw margin. The front teeth ai'e comparative!)'
small, about twice as large as the intermaxillary teeth;
but the size increases backwards, while the teeth be-
come more scattered, the posterior two-thirds of the
jaw margin being armed with only about G large ca-
nines. Among these canines the middle ones are the
largest, being of so considerable a size that in Pike 9
dm. long the largest mandibular tooth measures together
with its base 19 mm. "and above the gum 14 mm.
The tongue is cartilaginous, somewhat broader in front,
but incised at the truncate tip. The hind part of its
lingual bone and the three copular bones (the first and
largest of which is formed by the coalescence of two),
are set with dense cards of small teeth. The roof of
the pharj'nx is armed -with t^vo pairs of cards, on the
upper pharj'ngeals, containing teeth about etiual in size
to the foremost in the lower jaw, the anterior cards
pointed in front, and both cards together of about tlie
same size and form as either of the two cards on the
lower jiharyngeals. The last-mentioned bones are slen-

succceded in counting "certainly more than three tiiou-
sand teeth" in tlie moutii and pharynx of a j'ike. All
the teeth are ophidian in type, jjointed, foi- the mo.st
part curved, rigid in an outward direction, flexibk; to-
wards the interior of the mouth, with the tip directed
inwards and backwards, thus affording a ready ingress
to the prey, but preventing its egress. Exceptional in
form are the straight small teeth on the branchial ar-
ches, and the largest canines in the lower jaw, which
are also straight, but dagger-shaped and two-edged.

The number of the branchiostegal rays varies be-
tween 13 and 16, being not unfrequently different on
either side. All of them are sabre-curved, the posterior
sharp, the anterior rather more terete. The anterior
(lower) 6 or 7 are set on the ceratohyoid bone, and
are somew'hat separated from the posterior (usually 8),
which belong to the epihyoid. The branchiostegal mem-
branes are free and sejiarate underneath to the root of
the tongue, where they are attached, the verj' extre-
mities crossing each other. This arrangement further
contributes to the distensibility of the pharynx.

The top of the head is flat, with a concavity be-
tween the eyes. These are large", ovaP, rather far
apart'', and set high, about half-way along the head'.
Above their anterior part projects a semi-elliptical or
rounded quadrilateral bone (fig. 253, .s^jo) that calls to
mind the superciliary shield in birds of prey, and gives
the Pike a similar fierce and savage look. The nasal
cavities are large, and lie just in front of the eyes,
each containing two apertures, the anterior round, the

der (resembling branchial arches), but furnished on the | posterior furnished with a rounded dermal lid, origi-
posterior inward side with an elevated, fiat jn-ocess, ', nating from tlie fairly broad ridge of skin between them.

" Ttie Iciiigituilinal diameter df Uio eyes measures in Die young about ' ,, in Pilie 4 — 5 dm. long about '/g — '/s, oi the length
of the head.

' The vertical diameter of the eyes is about 80 — 85 % of the longitudinal.

' The interorbital width at the middle of the eyes is about ',', (19 — 21 %) of the length of the liead.

'' The length of the snout is about 42 (sometimes 40) — 45 K. and the postorbital length about 43 (in the fry .37) — 46 °i, of the
length of the head.

1002

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The ce])lialic' system of the lateriil line has very
distinct and deep pores in the thick skin. In each
t'ronto- rostral brancli tlierc nsuall)' appear 4 pores along
the forehead and snout; in the suborbital branch (tig.
2")3, sob — poh) 9 oi' 10 in a row sui'rounding the lower
])art of the eye and advancing along tiie snout to a
])oint just in front of the nostrils; in the niandil)ular
branch 5 |)ores on the under sui'face of the lower jaw
(de) and H at the preoperculai' margin. The occiput
is crossed on each side by a serjjentine groove (the
supraorbital l)rancli, cf. above, fig. 104, p. 368), ending
at the outer extremity in a similar pore, from which
a, row containing 8 (n- 4 pores runs back, along the
temple, to the ujjper angle of the gill-o]iening. The
body is covered witli soft, middle-sized, and imbi-it'ated
scales (fig. 254), each enclosed in a thin follicle and
naked only at the tip, which apj)ears in a small, an-

of the length of the abdomen, measured from the- an-
terior (lowei') end of the shoulder-girdle.

Among the seven fins the vertical, \\hich are si-
tuated on the tail, are most developed, forming the
])rope]ler by the aid of which the Pike darts like an
arrow on its prey. The dorsal fin is high and rounded.
It begins vertically aliove the vent, at a distance from
the tip of tiic snout measuring 67 — 69 ■%; of the length
of the body, and terminates al)ove the end of the anal
fin. Its base measures about 11' , — 13''2 9//, and its
longest ray about lO^^ — ll'/j *% of the length of the
body. The anal fin is similar to the dorsal, but shorter,
usually almost as high as it is l<.)ng. Its distance from
the tip of the snout is about 71 — 74 ?»', its base about
10'/,— 9', 2 %, and its height aliout 10—11 %, of the
length of the body. The caudal fin is slightly forked.
The middle rays, which occupy about 6 — 7 % of the

Fig. 254. Scales of the Pike. X 2. A. from Uie anlcTior part of tlie body, above the lateral line; B, from the lateral line;

C, from the ventral side.

gular opening, usually of a distinctive colour. In shape
they are rounded and oblong, or (on the belly) more or
less pointed behind; and they are most distinguished
by the cleavage of the anterior (inserted) jjart into three
or four lobes. The lateral line is straight, and runs
somewhat nearer to tlie back than to the bell}'. It is
marked by scales incised at the tip, but is interrupted
here and there by scales with entire ti]). ( )n each side
of the lateral line, especially on the tail, there are
scale-rows similar in the structure of the scales to the
lateral line, but varying in number, extent, and position.
At the outer angles of the ventral fins the usual scale-
fiap" is wanting.

Tile anal aperture, which is large, lies so near to
the caudal fin that its distance therefrom is only '3

length of the body, are about half as long as the long-
est ra3's in the fin.

The pectoral fins are oljliipiely rounded and set low.
Their length in adult Pike is about 10 — 13 % of that
of the body. The ventral fins ai-e of about the same
size. They are situated half-way along the body, and
the preabdominal length is about ^^ (in gravid females
as much as ^\„), the postabdorainal about ' , (in gravid
females somewhat more), of the length of the body.
Without any examination of the internal organs, the sex
may be determined by the fins, which are generally larger
and more rounded, with thicker rays, in the male than
in the fenaale. The length of the pectoral fins, in parti-
cular, is somewhat more in the male, less in the fe-
male, than half of the preabdominal length.

" Cf. above, on the Loaches (ji. 709 and note d) and on the Minnow (p. 751)).

*■ In the fry abont 36 — 38 %, in Pike i — 5 dm. long about 44 — 47 %, of the length of the head.

' In the fry about 34 — 38 %, in Pike 4 — 5 dm. long about 38 — 43 %^ of tlie length of the head.

'' In the fry about -/ai in tlie males commonh' less than in the females.

1003

Tlie coloration of the Pike is black above, white
below. The sides ar(^ grayish green, with transverse
bands of greenisii velhnv, more contiinHius in the
young, broken up in old Pike into iiiinost round or
oval spots, sometimes elongated, like a ril)l>ou, in the
longitudinal direction of the body. The ground-colour
of the tins is grayish j'ellow, waved with a, darker tint.
The anterior margins of the ventral and anal tins and
the inferior lobe of tlie caudal are of a purer \ellow.
The iris is vellow, with a dark, grayisii brown spot
both in front of and behind the pupil. From the eye
two siiuious, greenish yellow stripes run to the hind
margin of the operculum, and sonae irregular spots of
the same colour apjiear on tlie lower part of the said
bone, ilie snout has an elongated, triangular patch,
coursed by a longitudinal black stripe, on the sides in
front of the eyes. On the sides of the body the scales,
as we have mentioned above, have a naked, ci-escent-
shaped or angular spot, with the angle pointing for-
wards, and of a metallic lustre, with a dash of yellow
or white. The ordinary dress of the iish, as described
above, shows variations dependent on age, the fluctua-
tions in the supplv of food, and the nature of the sur-
rounding water. ( )ld specimens have a purer, more
defined coloration. The Pike that live in turbid water
are always darker tiian those that inhabit clear lakes
or streams; and in small lakes with dark water almost
black specimens have been found. In the inner island-
belt of the Baltic small Pike are taken at the beginning
of winter which have a dark lemon-yellow coloration
instead of tlic white tone. The islanders believe that
these Pike have just arrived from the outer islands or
the sea outside, and have therefore conferred upon them
the name of Xi/ldndare (new-comers).

( bi an examination of the internal organs the liver
is found to consist of a single lobe, long, obtuse, and
arched, which lies principally on the left side of the
body, and extends back to a point just shoi-t of the in-
sertions of the \entral tins. (.)n the concave upper sur-
face of tlie liver, at the extreme front, but to the riglit,
lies the gall-bladder. The intestinal canal is simple.
When the stomach is empt}', it apparently composes
together mth the oesophagus a tube of almost uniform
width, extending to about a line with the begiiniing of

the last third of tlie xcntral fins when folded. At this
point it bends abrii|itl\. and with a slight constriction
at the pylorus is contimicd in a forward direction by
the intestine, which ad\aiices l)elow its riglit side to
the gall-bladder, and bends thc^re with equal abrujitness,
to return in a straight line to the vent. The spleen is
triangular, and lies close to the termination of the sto-
niacii. The gall-duct is long, and enters the intestine
at some distance? Iiclow the pylorus. The air-bladder is
long, almost cylindrical, and is connected with the ceso-
phagus by a short and narrow duct from its anterior
extremity. The testes and ovaries are long, and follow
the direction of tlie abdominal cavity. The kidneys,
which lie above the air-bladder along each side of the
spinal column, arc dark red. The urinary bladder is
thin, cylindrical, and rather long, and shares with the
sexual organs a special aperture behind the orifice of
the intestine.

The Pike has a very extensive geographical range
— about the same as the Minnow's (see above, p. 7.57) —
from North-eastern Siberia, west to the east of North
America. According to Pallas it inhabits the River
Amoor", which falls into the Sea of Okhotsk, and the
Rivers Indigirka and Chatanga, which disembogue into
the Arctic Ocean. Breiim found it in the lower course
of the River Obi', and in the great lakes of the Baraba
Steppe (the upper basin of the Obi and Irtish) it is ex-
tremely common, according to Pallas, and attains a
considerable size. It also occurs in the Caspian Sea, but
not in Transcaucasia, nor in the Black Sea, though it is
found in the Sea of Azov and the ba.sin of the Danube.
It is met with in rivers and lakes throughout Russia,
North and Central Europe, including Great Britain and
Ireland, and Italy, including Sicily (Canestrixi); but is
said to be wanting in Greece and on the Pyrenean Pen-
insula. It inhabits almost all the waters of Scandinavia:
but in Nor\vay Collktt has observed that its range,
like that of the Perch and several other fresh-water
fishes, is interrupted, the gap extending over the Pro-
vince of Trondhjem, Nordland, and the whole west coast.
Though really belonging to lakes and rivers with fresh
water, it is also found in the island-belt of the Baltic.
That salt water is not its true home, appears from the
tact that among the said islands the Pike shows a de-

" Assiiniing that Pallas liere refers to our cuniiiion Pike. Frcmi tlie Ouon, a Danrian triluitary of tlie Amoor, lie describes a "va-
riety of a coloration more suggestive of the Americau Eso.v nobilior.

On the Kamchatkan Peninsula, according to Pallas, the Pike is wnnting.
' Brkhm's Thierleben, 2:te Anfl., Gr. Ausg. (1879), Bd. 8, p. 241).

1004

SCANDIXAVIAX KISIIES.

crease l)oth in size .and numbers the nearer it ap-
pi'oaches to the open sea, at last disappearing entirely. It
ascends to a great altitude among the mountains; but
in Switzerland, according to Fatio, stops short at a
height of 700 — 800 m. above the level of the sea,
though it has been planted with success 1,100 m. or
even 1,400 m. above the sea-level. In Tornea Lapp-
mark it inhabits the alpine lakes above the birch-region;
in Jemtland, according to Olssox, it ascends to lakes
at least 650 m., perha])S 740 m. aliove the level of the
sea. In its American range too, the Pike is common
from the Ai'ctic regions (Richahdson) south to (_)hio;
l)ut it is not included in Bkan's list of tlie lislies of
Alaska. From Greenland and Iceland it is unknown.

The Pike chooses its spring and summer haunts
Ijy preference in shallow inlets with a weedy bottom
and shores overgrown with reeds and rushes. Towards
autumn it betakes itself to precipitous, stony shores,
which it again forsakes when the winter is at hand,
and the inlets freeze. Most of the Pike then return to
their summer stations; Init tiie larger ones seemingly
follow the shoals of other fishes to the depths, being
seldom caught during winter in shallow water. To
these a more plentiful supply of food is, no doubt,
necessary than the shallows afford in winter-time.

When the Pike has chosen its station for the season,
it restricts its wanderings to the immediate neighbour-
hood, leading a solitary life, and never seen in com-
pany except dui'ing the spawning. Its attachment to
one spot may he gathered from a circumstance related
to us on trustworthy authority. A Pike that liad ta-
ken a ti'olling-hook and escaped was recaptured after
several j'eai's in a seine at the same place, and the
hook was found in its stomach.

The Pike is undoubtedly the most voracious among
the fresh-water fishes of Scandinavia. It devours in-
discriminately other fishes, young waterfowl, small
mammals, and carrion. From the dense bed of grass
or rushes where it usually passes the day in stationary
watch, it pounces with the speed of an arro\v on its
unwary victim. It almost always seizes its prej' cross-
wise, and retains its hold until the latter is dead or
so exhausted as to desist from all struggles. Then the
Pike turns the prize in its jaws till the head points
towards the interior of its mouth, and commences its

meal. This operation is a protracted one when the
victim is large, for the end first swallowed and received
in the stomach must digest to make room for the
remainder. ^Ir. C. Fr. W.i^rn has kindly comnuuii-
cated the following observation in point: "I have ke])t
Pike together with a Salmon in a pond fed with run-
ning water. The former were usually stationary, the
latter kept constantly on the move. On one occasion
I saw a Pike of 7 or 8 llis. weiglit dart forward and
seize the Salmim, which was quite as large, in its for-
midable jaws I'ight across the body. The combat was
fierce. The Salmon leapt out of the water and made
desperate, Imt fruitless struggles to shake off its re-
lentless captor. In a couple of hours' time the Salmon
was uttei'ly exhausted, and the Pike began to swallow
it head fii-st. The meal lasted three days before the
whole body had disappeared. The process of digestion
must have taken much longer, for all the following
week the Pike had a very swollen a]:)pearance, arid
could hardly be induced to move by touching it with
a long stick." This voracity grows to ravenous and
insatiate hunger, and blood-thirsty tendencies are in-
herent in the Pike from its earliest youth. Baron
C. J. Cederstrom relates" from his experiments in
pisciculture that on the 17th of June he had four
small Pike, two of them measuring about 26 mm., the
other two about 20 mm., living together in a bowl of
water. They had l)een fed with, small Ide-fry, the
larvaj of gnats, and water-fleas (Daphnin). In dark-
ness they ate nothing, their rapacity was excited only
by the moving objects appreciable to their sight. Dur-
ing the night their bowl had been covered with a lid.
When he removed the lid at .5 a. m., they were to be
seen all four; but when he returned a quarter of an
hour later, one of the larger pair had begun to devour
one of its smaller comrades. Half of the victim's body
still stuck out of the other's moutii, and moved for
some moments, while the stomach of the latter was
monstrously distorted and distended. Soon afterwards
he ol)served how the other pair kept a jealous watch
on one another. The larger of them soon made an
assault, but was foiled, the smaller escaping by a dex-
terous movement, yet without fleeing to any distance.
But the second attack was rewarded with complete
success, and the two victors now swam a!)Out, glutted

" In SuNPEVALi., 5fvers., 1.

with prey. After two hours had elapsed, the tails of the
victims liad disappeared into the maws of their devourers.

The strenijth of the Pike is ftilly prop()rlioiiat(^ to
its size and \oraeity. We liave just seen that a Pike
can come off vietoriouslj' from a hattle witli a Salmon
of its own size; but Ekstrom adduces" a more singular
proof of its powers. In the back of a Pike that did
not weigii more than 8' ., kilo., he found tlie skeleton
of an osprey {Fandlon haJiuefiis), wliieh had rasiily
attacked tlu; tish, but been draNvn into the depths and
drowned. Similar tales are told of sea eagles that
have perished in the attempt to capture and carrj' off
the Pike.

Tiiough not very tenacious of life, the Pike may
be kejit alive for a long time in a well, especially
if it has some smaller tish to prey on, for it re-
tains its rajiaciousness even in captivity. In contra-
distinction to other tishes, it continues to feed during
the spawning-season. On the 9th of June, 189.^), we
purchased in Stockholm a gravid female 4' ., dm. long
stronglv distended' by the ovaries, which were quite
ripe, and voided the eggs at the least pressure. In
tlie stomach, however, laj' a Roach 12 cm. long, only
the head of which had digested.

The s])awning is of long duration, its season de-
pending on the age of the fisli. The young spawn
first. When they have finished, the middle-aged Pike
begin, and last of all the oldest and largest. In spring,
before there is open water in the lakes, the Pike com-
mences to ascend towards the shores. A tradition, handed
down among the fishermen of Central Sweden from
time immemorial and still surviving, states that on
St. Gregory's Day (March 12th) the Pike turns its
head towards the shore, and on St. Gertrude's Day
' (March 17th) l)egins its ascent. It repairs to those
parts of the shore where streams and brooks fall into
I the inlets, rendering them in the Swedish fisherman's
parlance laiidlosn (Inndless). The Pike that arrive first
are known as Gertrude's or Ice Pike. A great por-
tion of the roe they deposit is probably destroyed,
for it is often committed to the open lake, where it
is exposed to so many dangers. When the spring is
so far advanced that the lakes are ice-free, the brooks
clear, and the low-lying meadows round the shore
under water, the larger Pike make their wav to these

B. 100.5

iiumdated places, and begin to spawn. As this gene-
rally coincides with the pairing-time of the frog, the
Pik(! that bi'eed at this season are called Fro-r/dddor
or Gloss-tjiiddor, from Kail fro and Glossa, names ap-
plied by the peasantry to the frog (Rana temporaria).
They are also known as Grds-(/uddor (Grass Pike)
and Arifis-fiaddor (Meadow Pike), from the nature of
tlieir spawning-place. Last of all come the largest
Pike. These usually begin to breed at the end of
^lay, when the ti'ces arc in leaf, and several flowers
in bloom ; and are hence called Lof-gdddor (Leaf Pike)
or Blomsfer-gdddor (Flower Pike). They are few in
number, like the Ice Pike, and spawn in water of
some depth within weedy inlets. The earliest Pike,
which are often of a l)rassy yellow colour, also bear
the name of Messiiit/s-fjdddor (Brass Pike). The some-
what older fish are known, on account of their slender
form, as Ld>if/sfjert-i/ddd(>r (Long-tailed Pike), and the
oldest, with their thicker l)ody, as Kortstjert-gdddnr
(Short-tailed Pike).

The further north the Pike has its home, the
later is the spawning-season. In the Tornea Elf the
Pike does not breed until the middle of June. The
Frd-gddda or Grds-gddda ahvays spawns in shallow
water; and as the breeding fish are neither timid nor
massed in numbers at the same place, they may be
closely observed. The females, which are always larg-
est, come first, each attended by two or three, seldom
four males. The female swims so high in the shallow
water that, when the weather is calm, the surface is
faintly rippled by her movements. Now and then the
dorsal and caudal fins may be seen above the surface.
As soon as the female halts, the males approach and
surround her, one on eacli side, and. if there are
more than two, one under the tail and another above
the back. They rub themselves against her body,
during which operation she keeps still, only moving
the fins. After a while she disperses the males with
a sudden lash of her body, and darts to another
point, where the same operation is renewed. Mean-
while she deposits on the grassy bottom the yellowish
and coarse-grained roe, which is impregnated by the
milt. In a Pike weighing 6 German pounds (2*/5
kilo.) Block counted 136,500 ova; in a female weigh-
ing 28 lbs. avoirdujiois (12'7 kilo.), and with ovaries

Vet.-Akii.l. H.inai. 1831, p. 79.

The greatest deptli 21 % of the length of the body.

1U06

SCAXDINAVIAN KISIIKS.

weighing 21 oz. (607 grammes), Bucki.and" found
292,320 eggs, and in another weighing 32 lbs. (14' ,
kilo.), and with ovaries weighing 5 lbs. (274 kilo.),
59.1,200. Tiie Pike is thus fairly prolific, but its fe-
cundity is not above the average, as compared with

Fig. 255. A, young Pike 2 days old ;ind hardly 10 mm. long.
The vent has not yet divided the vertical emhryonic fin. Pectoral
fins rudimentary. No fin-rays. Immediately after hatching the larva
is hardly 9 mm. long. /?, young Pike 11 daj-s old and 15 mm.
long; a, from the side; h, from above. Vent open. Ventral fins
have appeared about half-way along the embryonic fin in front of
(he vent. No fin-rays. Distinct teeth in the lower jaw. Opercula
developed. (7, young Pike 5 or G weeks old and 20 mm. long.
Dorsal and anal fins begin to separate, before the rays are formed.
Ill the caudal fin the base seems to develop first, the rays being
rather short. /', young Pike 7 or 8 weeks old and 26 mm. long.
Of the vertical embryonic fin only a small remnant to be seen under
the caudal fin and another, very narrow, from the anal aperture to
the ventral fins. All the fius, though thick and rigid, have the com-
plete number of rays. In the ventral tins the rays are separated at
the base. The upturned tip of the tail still lies, rather large, in the
form of a compressed, membranous lobe, above the caudal fin, but
is confluent therewith, and no longer shows increase in size. —
SUNDEVALL.

Even in a larva 15 cm. long and between 6 and 7 months old
(killed on November 10th and born of an artificial impregnation per-
formed in April) the development of all the fins and the cleavage of
the branched rays are not much further advanced than in Hemibranchs
and Lophobranchs (see above), these rays being compressed, with re-
mote articulations, and M'ith short and imperfect, almost exclusively
simple division.

that of other fishes. The eggs, which are at first
rather adhesive, lie free on the bottom, and in sprino-
(A])ril) require about three weeks to hatch.

"The new-hatched fry", writes Sundevall, "are
short and tliick in shape, with rather large belly (fig.
255, A). The coloration is yellowish, but quite trans-
parent, and densely punctated on the surface with
black dots, a dark l)and running from the eye along
the sides of the belly. In coloration, external form,
and movement they have some resemblance to tadpoles;
but some are much more sparsely punctated with black,
and coiisequentl)' of a lighter tone. At first tlie larva
remains for tlie most jjart still, ]jreferriiig to lie close
to the surface beside plants or floating straws and the
like, to which it seems, as it were, to hang, or else
at the bottom in less than an inch of water. On being
touched, it swims rapidly aliout, with hasty movements
of the tail, but soon resumes its former position. In
about 10 or 11 days (fig. 255, B) the yolk is ab-
sorbed, and the belly much reduced in size, but the
head prolongated, with large mouth. It now begins
at once to s^vim more steadily, in the same manner
as its elders, and goes in quest of prey. It soon
abandons the liabit of lying at the bottom or resting
alongside floating olijects, repairs to sonie^vhat deeper
water, remaining for tiie most part stationary, as if
on the watch for prey, and seizes small fishes and
other aquatic animals of a size considerable enough
in comparison witli its own, but only tliose which it
sees moving, just as older Pike .... The external
form in which the specific charactei'S of the Pike may
be traced (fig. 255, D) seems to be full)- developed at
an age of nearly 2 months and a length of about a
Swedish inch (25 mm.)." Subsequently the growth
proceeds rapidly, as usual, at fii'st, Init \vitli \'ery con-
siderable variations, depending on the different supply
of food under circumstances favourable in other re-
spects. According to some observations a one year
old Pike is only 15 cm. long, according to others 30
cm. Blancheue states the growth as follows'':

M. M.

Maximum length of the Pike at the age of 1 year 0-25— 0-30

,, „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 2 years 0-36— 0-42

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ 3 „ 0-55— 0-60

„ „ ,, „ „ „ „ „ „ 6 „ 1-00

, „ „ „ 12 „ 1-35.

" Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 387.
' Dictionn. Gen. Peches, p. 116.

1007

How widely sucli coiniJUtatiDns may differ, appears
from Ekstrom's observations. He found that Pike-fry
37 — 4!) nun. lonu'. kf|it in a sprina' witli muddy l)ottom,
onlv attained in ."> years the size of a eonunini Herring;
hut tiiat a. specimen 1.') em. long, kept in another spi'ing
with smaller fish to feed on, " attained in .') years a.
length of 4 dm. 'i'lie statenu'nts we i)ossess of the Pike's
duration of life — according to old acconnts o\-er 200
j-ears — whatever ma\- lie their luithenticity, only show
that this tish may prohahly live to a very great age.

As a food-fish the Pike is of no small value. The
flesh is white, firm, wholesome, and comparatively free
from hones. I'resli Pike is hy no means had eating;
and the flesh has an advantage over that of many otiier
fishes: it may he kept for a long time, without de-
teriorating, in a salted or dried condition. The great
havoc wrought by the Pike among other species of fish
has given rise to jiroposals for its exterunnation, at
least in small ])ieees of water. But the only result of
such a ])roceduiv would be the increase in number of
the smaller species to so great an extent that the
supplv of food would at length fall short, the develop- i
ment of the fish be arrested, and a great proportion
of them die out. I

Some stated peculiarities in the history of this
species n)ay lastly be adduced. The fishermen in ge-
neral believe that at certain seasons of the year tiie
Pike entirely abstains from food (fuf/cr icke svaJg as
the Swedish fishermen say), and at others is excessively
voracious. These seasons are said to be pei'iodical and
regular in occurrence, the observant fisherman l)eing
able to predict the time when the Pike is on its feed
{i tagei), as it is called. But these periods are said
not to occur at the same time year after j^ear, and
according to some observations they are determined by
the spawning-.season, for the period of voracity begins
in the same change of the moon (waxing or wane) as
the Pike finishes spawning. There is one exception,
however, the Pike being always on (Y.s /ee(^ throughout
the dog-days. This periodical voracity and moderation
is said to dei^end on the circumstance that, when the
Pike is ofi' its feed, the gums are so swollen that the
points of the teeth hardly project above the flesh, .some
tenderness of the gums being thus the curb of the
Pike's usual rajiacitv. Perhaps we have here some
observation of llie manner in which the Pike casts its
teeth, or we \\];)\ find a more probable explanation in
the fact that the fish requires some time to digest the

Scan^innviaii FLihes.

great (piantily of food which it devours during the pe-
I'iod of voracity, .\nother singularity is that the Pike
can disgorge its yvcx. a consequence of the structure
and .simplicity of the intestinal canal.

Most of the fishing methods emplo\ed for the Pike
de])end for their success on its rapacity, it is this
(pialit\ too ihat entices the Pike to the spawning-places
of most other fishes, whei-e it finds prey in abundance,
and is always on the alert. The Pike is conse(|uently
taken on man\' occasions in the tackle set for other
spawning or scdiooling fishes. We may also assume
that the Pike is caught with almost all kinds of fishing
engines. We shall conhne our attention, however, to
those which are used in Sweden especially for Pike.
Among them w(> find;

The fi/ssja (fig. 7, p. 33, above), in which Pike
are taken principally during the spawning-season, when
they ascend into inlets and channels, to low-lying, in-
undated meadows or marshland, and to grassy shores
^^•here the water is shallow.

Nets (ordinary gill-nets. Pike-nets, with a mesh
of more than 25 mm.) may be employed all the year
round, so long as there is open water, but are al-
w-ays unproductive tackle. When used for Pike, they
are set in shallow^, grassy inlets, and sometimes to
close broader pieces of water and thus guide the Pike
into ri/ssjor or similar traps.

The tramwel-net (fig. 183, p. 741, above) is plied
only in summer, and always with success off shores
fringed with reeds and rushes, where the Pike usually
takes its station on bright and warm summer days.

The lon<i-line {backa, (/udd-ref) is used from the
end of Jlay, when the Pike has finished spawning, till
late in autumn. The warmest part of the summer is,
however, an unfavourable season, partly because the
high temperature of the water soon kills the bait, which
should always be alive in this method of fishing (fig.
25()), partly because the Pike then has an abundance
of small fish to feed oti. In early summer the lines
should be set on grassy shores and round shallows
and islets, some yards outside the edge of the reeds,
but from September and during the rest of autumn
in deep inlets, with stony or sandy shores thinly fringed
with reeds.

Tlie (ii/iielkrol: (really triangle-hook, originally in
the fVn-m of a triangle with one side o])en, fig. 2.37).
The w inter is the only season. The fisherman chooses
his pitch in bays or creeks of no great depth, with

127

1008

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Fijr. 266. Different metliods of fnsteniiis; live bait on tlie suood liooks of a Pikc-liue.

reedy shores, but else clear of weeds, so that the hooked
fish cannot run the line foul. Though this fishing may
be practised all the winter, it succeeds best and is
attended with least difficulty early in the season, be-
fore tlie ice has attained anv considerable thickness,

13)

Fit;. '2,')7. Different forms of triangle-hook for Pike-fisliing under
tlie ice with live bait. The liait is attached by inserting the point
of tlie hook in the fleshiest part of the back beside the spinal co-
Innin and drawiiis; it out in the direction of the head, so tliat, when
the bait is left in the water, tlie hook keeps it in a natural position,
and the point of the hook is directed biickwards.

and after some snow has fiillen, to render the ice less
transparent and to give the fisherman a foothold.

Tlie stdnrjkrok (fig. 258), with the stdng (a thick
rod) obliquely thrust into the bottom, and with the
line wound up, so that the Pike can run to its entire
length until the fisherman comes to examine his tackle,
may be used not only in summer, but also, with some
modificMtion of its setting, in winter. In all seasons

Fig. 2.58. a and b. the tops of two rods ns used in stiinghrok
Msliing (as inucli as should be visible above the water); a, with the

line wound on a boiv (hazel beet); b, with the line wound on a forked
stick (juniper best), c, bait fastened on the hook (see above, fig.
256), but also suspended from the line by a fine thread (attached to
a pin stuck through its back), so as to keep it in an horizontal posi-
tion, d, dead bait suspended in a triangle, where the line (the thick
line in the figure) forms one side of the triangle, the hook and the
bait form the base, and a fine thread, attached as in c, forms the
third side.

the stdvf/krok is invariablj' set near the edge of the
reeds, off rocks, promontories, and holms, in such in-
lets as the Pike is supposed to haunt.

The khoiipkrok (fig. 259). M'ith the rod of the pre-
ceding method replaced by a floating Mump (a piece
of timber 3 or 4 feet long), one end of which is an-
chored witli a stone, the line, woiuid iij) on a hmr,

Fig. 259. Khivtphrok.

being suspended from the other end. Used at the same
season as the stdii(/krok and at similar spots.

The pdlkrok (fig. 2G0), with one end of the line
anchored by means of a stone but fastened at a dis-
tance from this point somewhat less than the depth of
the water, I)y means of a running noose, in a notch
at the end of a floating pale (a splinter of sjiruce-fir
about 3 feet long), so that about a third of the splinter
projects above the surface. Employed at the same
season and in the same places as the klioiipkrok, to
which it has no slight resemblance.

1009

Fig '2(iO. Pallcrol,:

Trolling (Sw. slant), an old and well-known me-
thod of angling, the descri])tion of" whicli would carry
us too far, if we attempted to give ever}' detail. Ihre
derives the Swedisli name from the Belgian slotuh'ii (to
gorge). The rod and line are plied from a rowing-

grass oi' weeds tliat grow :it the hottoni or in mid-
water withiiut reaching tlie surface, in whicli case the}'
may be avoided l)y the angler. Lastly the snood — a
suitable violin-string (silver-string) is best — is fastened
with a peculiar kind of knot (tig. -HW. //), tied in the
loop at the end of tlie line. Now the frnlliiif/ begins:
tlie l)ait is (iro|>ped wiiere the fisliernian hopes to find
a I'ike, l)ut soon drawn up again, so as to keep it bob-
bing up and down. This motion entices the Pike to
seize the bait, wliich tlie angler easily perceives by the
check. As soon as the Pike lias taken the bait, the
fisliernian instanth' jerks back the rod sufficiently to
allow the loop to .«lip oft" the pin at tlie end of the rod.
The line is now free, and is let out until the Pike stops,
when tlie boat is kept stationar}-, either by heading it
towards the reeds and holding it fast, or by thrusting
tlie butt of the rod into the bottom of the lake. The

b <i e f g

Fig. 2(51. a. reel (lelcare); h and f. Imiling-needles of different form (7 (^r S in. Ions:, of wood or brass), in wliicli tlie snood is wedged

when it is to be passed Ibrougli tlie bait; d — f, gorge-hooks of different form; ij, lower part of the bop at the end of the line and the

upper enil of (he snood, showing how the knot between theni is tied.

boat by one man, while another pushes the boat cau-
tiously along the edge of a bed of reeds or in some
other place supposed to be haunted b}' Pike. The line
runs through a loo|) at the end of tlie rod, or is at-
tached by a loop {riskct) to a straight pin of wire fixed
there, and can be let out or taken in at pleasure by
means of a reel {lekare) fastened above the butt of
the rod. The snood with the hook at its end is passed
through the bait (a Roach, Bleak, Crucian Carp, or
other Cyprinoid with bright scales) from the mouth
to the end of the tail. The hook is shanked with lead,
has one or two prongs (tig. 261, d — f), and should
be barbless, the prongs being left to project backwards
from the mouth of the bait. The snood is lashed with
thread to the tail of the bait, and all the tins are then
cut off, to prevent the liait from running foul of the

fisherman now wtiits a while, at most 1.') — 'iO minutes,
for the Pike to pouch, when it again begins to move:
and now is the time to haul in both line and fish.
Trolling may be practised with success from spring,
after the close of the spawning-season, till late in autumn,
though it should be observed that (doudy weather and
a light breeze are more favourable than calm, tine days,
on which the fisherman is seldom rewarded. The fish-
ing-place is chosen during summer in grassy and
shallow inlets, during autumn off stony shores and in
deep water.

Sprimikrok (fig. 262) is a modification of the
preceding kind of fishing, and is conducted most coin-
monh' at times when the fisherman suspects that the
Pike is off its feed. The place should be the same
as in trolling.

1010

SCANDINAVIAN l-ISIIES.

Fig. 262. Sprintjkrok: hollow, with the ol.istic arms held biick liy

their pressure iigainst the sides of the tuhe, as in (/, or

drawn out, as in li.

Thag (spinning), also called Bragspan, Oppror,
Bottenror, etc., is a well-known kind of angling. S. de-
ceptive hook (fig. '26.t), or a range of hook.s on a bright
metal bait imitating a fish, is towed with a long line,
which can be wound in on a reel (fig. 261, a), after a boat
rowed at an even and rather rapid pace. The fisher-
man's object is to attract the attention of the Pike in
the same j»arts of the water as when trolling; but in
this case he can manage without assistance if he holds
the line between his teeth. Spinning is practised

Fig. 263. Spinning-bait for Pike.

throughout the summer and autumn, but the best
season is from the middle of August till tlie end of
September.

Spearing by toi'chlight (cldstiidjniiig) is perhaps
one of the oldest kinds of fisliing, and has advantages
as being one of the least expensive. The method of
using the light we have seen in the Stickleback-fishery
(see above, p. 657, fig. 164); but when spearing Pike,
the fisherman must find out the spot where the fish is

standing, and wlien lie strikes witli tin; leister {Ijusicr
fig. 264), he must aim the blow at the he;id of the fish,
in case it should take to flight. Spearing is practised
in spring and autumn, when the nights are dark, and
off shores with shallow and clear water.

Fish n\&\ also be speared in broad davHght. This
kind of fishing is called IJHMriiig (leistering), and is
most often employed for Salmon on their upward jour-
ney, but also for Pike when they are spawning on in-
undated meadow-land. The fisherman always goes
alone, and either stands on the shoi'e or wades, with
his creel on his back to receive the speared fish. But

Fig. 264. Sahnoii .iml Pike spear, with tlie lower part of the shaft.

as the fish are more difficidt of a]ipri);icli in the dav-
time, he must be skilled in the s])eci;d art (if hurling
the spear at his quarrv.

Spenring l)y torchlight is ikjw less in vogue than
formerly: more effective methods of fishing hiive been
invented, and men of the craft have learnt by expe-
rience that it frightens the fish from shore, and thus
hai'ms the fishery.

We should mention one more wav "f catching
Pike, though it can never be rewarded with any great
success. When the Pike is spawning or standing among
grass where it thinks itself hidden from sight, it may
be captured by cautiouslv passing a noose of copper
wire, attached to a stick, over its head until the noose
is past the gill-openings, when the fish should lie pulled
up at once.

(Ekstko.m, Smitt).

Ei;L-KlSIIli.S.

1011

ENCHELYMOHPHI.

Shouhlcr-yirdle detnclictJ aliorc frniii tlic head (Did suspended (it the sides of the spiiud coIkdui Iteh'oid it. No
pracoracnideum. Anterior rertehra' iioniud: air-bladder destitute of osseous coviie.rion n'itli the aaditorii apjiaratas.
Opercular apparalits complete: lint Ih-- hijomandihidar arch without si/mplerticum. Palatine arch <ind ma.iillarij

arch incomplete. Ventral fins none.

Regarded eitlier tVdiii m biological or a morpho-
logical point of view the F,nchel\inurph series is one
of the most remarkable among fishes. The life of the
Eels, especially their sexual life, though studied for
thousands of years, was shrouded in a veil of mystery
to a time within the memory of man; and the mor-
jiliological elucidation of their structure shows the Te-
k'osteous type in a singular simplicity, whether this
should he explained as a primordial condition or as a
retrogression in the direction of older types.

The suspension of the shoulder-girdle in our com-
mon I-^el lias a certain resemblance to tiie analogous
arrangement in the Ravs and Sharks, tiiough the sus-
pensory bones do lutt corres[>ond. Tlie ])osttemporal
bone as well as the postclavicular is wanting, the girdle
itself consisting on each side only of the clavicle and
supraclavicle. The latter of these (fig. '2&a, set), with
its flattened, more or less distinctly forked to]i, hangs
loose, embedded in the outei'most layei- of the dorsal
half of the great lateral muscle, but the clavicle (fig.
26.J, el)y which retains its ordinary relation to this
muscle, is attached liy means of an horizontal tendon
(a part of the aponeurosis between the dorsal and
ventral halves of the lateral muscle) to the sides of
the fifth and sixth aVjdominal vertel)r;e''. Tiie shoulder-
gii'dle is similarly suspended, behind the head, in the
said cartilaginous fishes; but an essential difference con-
sists in the absence of both clavicle and supraclavicle
in the last-mentioned forms, the supi'ascapular part (the
upper parts of the (jrimordial shoulder-girdle) being
attached to the upper side of the spinal column. In
the Eel this resemblance to the cartilaginous fishes is

consequently of a secondary origin, probably coimected
\vith the great development of the branchial cavity,
wiiich has forced the shoulder-girdle backwards, loosen-
ing its attachment to the cranium, and causing the
disappearance of tlie posttemjjoral bone. The girdle is

Fitf. SilS,
in frciit.
clavicle :

Half of llie shoiilder-gircUe in Anyuilla vulgoi-is, seen from
o times the natural size, set, left supraclavicle; cl. left
. left scapula: cf, left coraecid; i, brachial liones of tlie
left pectoral fin.

completed below by the ligamentous connexion between
the two clavicles, which are curved at an obtuse angle;
and this lower part of the girdle is joined by a long
muscle to the short urohvoid bone' (fig. 2(iS, A and
fig. '271, I> and (', ah), which is directed backwards,

" Gr. e'/xeXvs. eel, and fiOQCpr[, form.

'' In our Conger the shoulder-girdle is suspended in the same manner and at the same point, but still more superficially, with the
upper parts nearer to the skin. The posttemporal bone is thus wanting there as well; but a row of cartilaginous duels, belonging to the
lateral line, nms under the skin from the head (the temples) to the supraclavicle.

'■ In our Conger the urohyoid bone is longer, but preserves the ordinary Teleosteous type, being flattened only at the base, where it
articulates with the basihyoid bones (coalescent, as in the common Eel, with the ceratohyoids), and furnished with a raised median keel on its
upper surface. Its posterior extremity is more or less deeply divided into three spinous points (fig. 282, p. 103G).

1012

SCANDINAVIAN KISHES.

and has the tonii of a flatteiiud cone. Higli up on ihc
superioi- arms of tlie clav icles ai-e attached the scapular
disks. These ai'e thin and in great part cartilaginous,
each con.si.sting of a circular scapular p;irt (fig. 265, sc),
witli an angular incision above and a small, round hole
(scapular fenestra) below, and a semicircular coracoid
part (tig. ■2(3.5. cr), both of tlieni litted into the mem-
brano-cartilaginous disk. A scapular disk as simple as
this belongs to the earliest stages of development in
other Teleosts; Init a manifest relic of the morphological
alliance witii more jjrimitive piscine types appears in
the great number of supporting Ijones (brachial bones
— fig. 265, h) possessed bj* the pectoral fins of the Eels.
In almost all" the preceding Teleosts the number has
been 4; in nur conininn I^el it is 7 uv 8. Amid, a Gan-

thc primitive forms. Tlie loss of tlic ventral fins, on the
other hand, as we have seen in many of the preceding Te-
leosts, is, here too, .secondary in its significance; and in
foreign 1-^els the pectoral fins may share the same fate'.
The skeleton of an adult Eel is firmly ossified, and
characterised b}* its numerous vertebne — generally
more tlian 100, sometimes about 160 — of almost uni-
form shape and with feebly developed appendages. In
our common Eel the anterior vei'tebrie, to the seventh
inclusive, have their shallow but long, almost contiguous
neural spines broken up into several (as many as !•)
spicules''. The said vertebrae are furnished botli witii
upper" and lower' transverse processes. The former are
alary spines, directed backwards and of fairly uniform
strength, whicli are, liowever, exchanged on the seventli

Fig. 2U(). Three iiliddiniiial vertebra? (44 — 46) in Anrjiiilla viilrjaris, seen from the left and magnified.

j/a, scleral bone (ei)ineiiral, cf. fig. 23G, \>. 947); psps, iijijier spinous process; ptrp, lower posterior transverse process (processus transversus

posterior); ptra, lower anterior trimsversc ]irocess; Ini. li;em;d arch; pspt, lower siiinoiis process (processus spiiiosus inferior); pi, ribs.

oid genus, lias the same number; and rahiptcnis. an-
othei- Ganoid genus, has 13 — 1? brachial l)ones. These
Ganoids have besides retained one or more bones be-
longing to the innermost (proximal) row of tlie prim-
ordial cartilage (Gegenbauk's pterygium) of the pectoral
fins, which has entirely disappeai-ed in the Teleosts.
During the evolution of the Teleost type the basal parts
of the pectoral fins have thus suffered reduction''; and
the Eels are most nearly approximated in this respect to

and following vertebra' for sclernl bones, directed back-
wards and upwards in the dorsal half of the great lateral
muscle (fig. 266, no). The lower transverse processes
{ptra) of the first \ertebra are only small, pointed [jro-
tuberances. C)n the following vertebrip they grow
broader, but from the seventh vertebra inclusive they
become pointed s[>ines, directed outwards, backwards,
and downwards, and bearing at the tips short and \\eak
ribs {pJ), which in their turn give place towards the

" For exceptions see the Italraehoids (p. 133, aliove) and tlie Lopbioids (p. 13G). Ostracion, a Pleclognalc, has .0 liasal tiones.

' Cf. Smitt, Ur de hiigre djvrens iitvechlingshistoria, p)). 222 seq(|.

'' Cf. the Lophobranchs, see above, pp. 667 seqq.

'' In the Conger this division is restrieteil to llie formation of lateral grooves on the neural spines, li\it is peri'eplible in tliis form
vcn in the 13th vertebra.

' Diapopliyses.

f Parapophyses.

r.r.i.-nsiiKs.

1013

fail tu sclcr.-il lidiics ill the \eiitrai luiif ol' the latcrMJ
iimsi-'ic. 'J'lirniiiiiiniit llic i^rcatcr ]iart of the ali(i(iiiiin;ii
ref,ni)ii, from tlie 8tii vertebra to the 44tli inclusive, we
find in the common l']el another pair of lower transverse
processes (parapophyses, y^/zyj), hehind the last-mentioned
processes and always smnllei' than these. On the 4')th
vertebra, oi- sometimes on the 4-lth, this posterioi' trans-
verse process on each side of the bone disappears, or
is at least, reduced more jjerceptibly than before; but
the anterior transverse ])rocess divides instead into two
(three) branches, the anterior (outer) supporting the
rib, the posterior (lia), which is simple or double, curv-
iiiiT inwards. <.)ii the 4(5th vertebra this posterior
i)ranch springing from one side of the vertebra joins
the corresponding l)r;incii of the other side, to form

(an inner) ti'ansverse ])rocess, the former continued by
a row of transverse processes at the middle of the
sides of tin; caudal vertebra' (which row is wanting in
the common lud), the latter l)v the row which curves
downwards and inwards to form the hu'inal canal of
the caudal regicju. The skeleton of the Eel, for all its
simplicity, thus shows with the greatest distinctness how
the vertebral a|)pendages may be homologous in the
lower grades oi' differentiation, although, when i\u-
differentiation is more advanced, they are different
both in origin and functions.

The ti|) of the tail presents the appearance of a
rather primitive (diphycercal) structure. Only the outer-
most (last) two vertebra' — the outermost of which is
coni])osed, at least in our common lud, of two pi-im-

Fitr. 2C,7. Ski4i'lal parts cf tin- tip uf tl.c tail in Anijnilhi i-n!;/,in's, sciii fmiii tlie left side ami iiin.iriiififd.

-l; from a yomi.e: Eel (Elver, Fr. Cn-rlle), aftor Robin; B: frcin n full-grown Eel.

r, vertebra, originally the antepenultimate, subsequently tlie penultimate; yi, its ba>mal areh; h, its neural arch; m, its spinal eaual; ", urigi-

iially penultimate verletira, afterwards confluent with the last vertebra; (', primordial articulation between these vertebrte; h, hindmost hiemal

arches, surroundinsr the cavity of the lymph-heart; ^ termination of the spinal canal; ;•, lowest, .9, uppermost ray of the caudal tin;

.1'. posterior expansion of the urostyle.

the closed ha'mal arch and its h;ema] spine (pspi). In
the Conger the said posterior iiarapophvsis appears only
nil a few vertebra^ in the liindniost |)art of the ab-
dominal region, and even there is not always jjresent,
or is sometimes developed only on one side of the ver-
tebra-. But the parapophyses of the abdominal vertebra'
are broad, as in the Codfishes, and pierced at the base";
;ui(l ill file last H or 10 abdominal vertebrae the anterior
parapophysis divides info .in upper (outer) and a lower

ordial vertebra; — enter into the structure of the a])pa-
ratus supporting the caudal fin. Although the vertical
tins of the Eels are, as a rule', so confluent that no
separate caudal tin can be distinguished extei-nally, the
presence of such a tin is indicated internally by the
circumstance that the hindmost tin-rays — 10, both in
our common Eel (tig. 267, r — s) and in the Conger' —
do not articulate like the others by means of a flat ar-
ticularv surface with separate intei'Spinal bones, but

" In the JIurana the posterior parapophysis divides on the 2,5th vertebra, and from the 73rd vertebra inclusive its lower branch enters
into (he structure of tlie closed luenial arch: — see Owen, Anat. Phi/siol. Vertebr., vol, I, p. 45.

'' In some, however, as in Oplnchthi/.^, the tip of the tail is free, without any trace of caudal tin.
' In the MuRcna (i.

1014

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

include witliin tlicir flcjveii base tlie iiiargiu uf the
hypural bones and urostyle. Tlie spinal canal extends
straight l)ack towards the end of the last Aertebra (f),
the body of which is compressed to form the urostyle
(.!■), also directed straight backwards. The first (posterior)
hypural bone (li) is really composed, in analogy to the
primordial continence of the last two vertebra-, of two
luemal jiarts, \\hich have been united in an arch at the
base (proximally), just below the last vertebra, and have
closely applied their outer (distal) extremities to each

other, thus including an elliptical cavity', in \vhich the
pulsating lymph-heai-t of the Eels is situated". The
lower (anterior) lnj)ural bone (between j) and r) an-
swers to the ha-mal spine of the penultimate vertebra,
which also supports the hindmost hasmal arch (j>). In
young Eels, as well as in the Conger, Robin found this
hypural bone to lie fairly well developed'' and originally
divided by a suture from the hannal arch. In older
Eels (lig. 267, 7^) it is extremely narrow, and lies, in
the form of an osseous rod, close to the under mar<nn

squ s,.li.

spKo j' s,u

?'r spt,,

D

Fig. 268. Skull of an AnguiUa vulgarifi. ^ ., linies the natiirnl sizi'. A: witli branchial apparatus, jaw-bones, and orl)it. B: cranium, seen

from above. C: the same, from the riglit; D: tlie same, from below; E: the same, from behind.
al.sp, alisphenoid; bo, basilar jiart of the occipital; et, etv, and v, ethmoid (el) and vomer (v), conflvient in front; fr, frontal; '"". hyomandi-
bular; iojj, interoperculum ; /, lingual; lo, lateral parts of the occipital; mdh, mandible; 7nt, mastoid part of the temporal; op, operculum; par,
parietal; po/i, preorbital: pop, preopcrcnlum ; psp, parasphenoid ; ptr, petrosal; <ju, quadrate; /?. br., branchiostegal rays; xo, squamosal part of
tlie occipital; sob, liindmost part of the suliorliital ring; sop, suboperculum ; spet, supraethmoidal; ^plio, postf rental (sphenotic); fjti. s(|uimiosal

part of the temporal; ;//;, urohj'oid.

" In the Conger tlie ujijier (]iosterior) part of this liypural bone coalesces with the lower edge of tlie urostyle. See Robin, Joum.
Anat., Phys. 1880, jd. XXV, figs. 1 and 2.

' Cf. KOBIN, 1. c., pi. XXV, fig. 3 and pi. XXIV, fig. 4.

r.Kl.-KISIlKS.

1015

of the lirst (posterior) ln|)Ui'al \nniv. A contiiiucd vv-
duc'tioli woiilil thus seem to ohtiiin here; and the di-
nlivccrcMl caudal tin of flic l*'cl, a character wliicli woidd
else he the toki'u of a Iciw degree of evolution, ratliei'
suo'gests a far advanced, retrogre^ssive nietaiiioi-phosis.

Among the peculiarities that characterize the .skidl
(it the I'.el, the first to attract attention iire the coin-
]);n"iti\'el\- great expansion of the parietal bones (fig.
2i)H. jKir), wiiich form almost half the roof of the cra-
nial ca\itv, and the ext-essively cdongated S(|uamosal
hones (sijii). which li\ means of a long jirocess on the
upper side of the skull extend forward to a line with
the hind extremities of the upper ethmoids (ef and etr),
niui at aliout the middle of their length support the
pnstfrontals (splio). The last-mentioned bones rest below
on the jx'trosals {])tr), and have lost their imjiortance
as a p<iint of suspension for the hind extremity of
the suborbital ring. This {soJ/ — poh), which in our
common Hel — as \vell as fhe prefrontals (its anterior
suspensories) and turl>inals (sjiet) ■ — is cartilaginous, is
attached behind on each side of fhe skull to a process
(/)• in D), broken up into spines and originating from
the side of each frontal bone just before the anterior
cxtremitA' of the squamosal bone. The breaking-up of
this process into spines, wherebA' firmer muscular at-
tachments are secured, and which we h;ne previously
seen in the upper spinous processes of tlie anterior
abdominal vertebrtt, extends to the lateral occipitals
{lo) and the sipiamosals, that expand backwards like
wings, and, as well as the other bones in the lateral
walls of the skull, are characterized by a spongy tex-
ture. Thert' is no orbito-muscular canal; and the true
sphenoid (basisphenoideum, hsp in tig. 282) is closely
super[)osed on the parasphenoid, with upward processes
towards the descending processes (fr below in fig. 268,
(') of the frontal bones and towards the aiisphenoids
(alsji) beliind them. There are no ovbitosphenoid bones.

(ireat diversity of opinion still prevails as to the
composition of the palatine and maxillary arches — as-
suming tliat both these arches should really be re-
garded as distinct in the present series. In that case
each of them consists on each side of only a single
bone. The inner bone (tig. 269, jjt), in the common
Eel of a thin and oblong, lanceolate form, often im-
perfectly ossitied in front, joins the oblique hyoman-
dibular {Inn) and the quadrate (fjii) to the anterior

Zeitschr. Ges. Naturw. 1867. p. 270, laf. I, tig. 1 («)•
nilhinehn Fishes.

part of the parasplmnoid (lig. 268, /isp). In the Con-
ger it is expanded anil liilid behind, one liraneh meeting
the h\<iniandibular, and the other forming the con-
nexion with the (piadrate. The outer bone (fig. 269,
iiiji) lies anteriorh' and thrcjughout the greater part of
its length ill the same plane as the inner, and is there
uniled 1)\ liganK'Uts witli the latter, the two bones thus
forming on each sid(! a ])alatine roof continuous with
the parasphenoiil bone. But the hind extremity of the
outer bone is twisted anil bent downwards, and is folded
outside the mandible, being united b)' strong, but loose
bands of sinew to the outside of the coronoid process
of the latter. In tiie common Eel this end is pointed,
in the Conger flattened, somewhat expanded, and in-
serted between the outer and inner Ijands of sinew by
which the great cheek-muscles are attached to the man-
dible. In the latter species the hind extremity of the
outer bone also glides on the outside of the coronoid
j)rocess of the lower jaw, by means of a flat and car-
tilaginous, articulary surface on each bone. In the Mu-
rivna, according to Jacoi5y", it is joined by a special
band of sinew to the outside of the quadrate. The an-
terior extremity of the (juter bone is tightly articulated
with the compound bone formed by the coalescence of
the vomer and the ethmoid (tig. 268, ef, etr, and r),
a striking resemblance to the corresponding connexion
between the intermaxillaries in the Pike, where we
found the said Ixmes (fig. 2.53, j/ma") similarly furnished
with a fiat, ascending process. But here these processes
(fig. 268, A) are so closely applied to the constricted
and carinated anterior (!xtremity of the ethmoid that
the}' almost meet above, behind the expanded head of
the vomer {etv, to the right in B). This connexion
reminds us most of the ordinary position in the Teleosts
of the palatine bones. Tlu' analogy between the outer
bone and a palatine is further strengthened by the
disposition of the teeth. In most of the fishes we have
hitherto seen fiu-nished with teetli both on the vomer
and the palatines, the transverse row of teeth on the
anterior extremity of the first-mentioned bone (the
head of the v(jmer) forms an arch together with the
palatine teeth, and iierc too the teeth are so arranged.
The long and narrow vomer (r), the posterior end of
which extends on the under side of the parasphenoid
bone a little beyond the orbits in the common Eel, is
armed underneath and in front, for rather more than

128

1016

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

half its ]ono:th, with an uiil)i-<il<eii" card of twth, which
are straigiit or slightly recurved at the tip, in young
Eels pointed, in (jld more obtuse. In the extreme front,
at the tip of the snout, the bone has an expansion,
like a vomerine head (fig. :2G8, D), and behind this
]ioiiit it is constricted. The form of the dental card
follows that of the bone. Into the said constriction on
each side is fitted the outer bone with its card of teeth,
which resembles in composition the vomerine card, and
extends, gradually narrowing behind, to the very cor-
ner of the mouth, working against an exactly similar
card on each half of the mandible.

It is easy to perceive that the structure of the
palatine roof and the upper jaw may give rise to the
mcst conflicting interpretations. That a comprehensive
reduction has taken place, is obvious. The inner bone

Fiij. "2(59. Bones of tlie paliitinc roof nnd jaws in Anguilta vulgaris.

'* ., times tlio niitural size.
Inn, liyoiiiniiilibular; hiihi, its anterior articuhiry process; limp, its
posterior nrticulary process, witli the end of which the opercuhim ar-
ticulates; i]u, quadrate; ■pt, entopterygoid ; mp, palato-inaxillary; mdb.
mandible; art. its arlii-ular part; d, its dental part.

(pt),, which serves to connect the hyomandibular and
quadrate witii the anterior part of the parasphenoid
and with the bone wliich we have hitherto called the
outer bone, cannot be explained as anything but a pte-
rygoid. Such is the position occupied on each side of
the palate in all the Teleosts — where these bones are

distinct from each othei by the inner pterygoid {en-

toptenjgoldeum 1. mesopterygoideum) and the posterior
pterygoid {nietapterygoideum), the latter of which has
coalesced in the Eels, according to ()wen\ with the
hyomandibular. The outer bone (nip) lias received three

interpretations: as a jxdafine (1), a maxillary (2), and
an intermaxillary (o).

The first-mentioned interpretation (1), which was
suggested by Owen', jiresupposes that the maxillaries
as well as the intermaxillaries have disappeared in the
process of reduction, and that the tip of the snout is
formed, as in the Pike, by the ethmoid and vomer.
Tendencies to such a reduction we have seen above,
e. g. in the maxillaries of the Glanomorphs and in the
intermaxillaries of Argentina. The hind extremity of
the assumed palatine occujjies a peculiar jiosition, it is
true, in relation to the lower jaw; still it is not so
superficial and free as the extremity of the maxillaries
in other, more typical Teleosts, and it is also joined,
accoi'diiig to Jacoby, by a band of sinew to the quad-
rate bone.

The second explanation (2) — acc(jrding to which
the margin of the u])per jaw is formed on each side by

Fig. 270. Operciilar apparatus of Aihjiiilla vulijaris. X ' .,.

op, operculum; pop, preopercvUum ; sop, subopercuhnn; iop. inter-

opercnlum.

the maxillaries — was fir.st given by Rosenthal' and
Meckel', and has subsequently been adopted by Peters
and his pupil Jacoby in Berlin, by Brattstrom-' and
his teacher Lilljeboug, and others. It is based on the
presum])tion that palatines are wanting, and that the
intermaxillaries, in their confluence ^vith the ethmoid
and vomer, form the tip of the snout. The relation
of the assumed maxillary to the pterj'goid and the ho-
rizontal expansion inwards of its anterior part, how-
ever, do not agree with this interpretation, nor can the
assumed coalescence of the intermaxillaries and the
other bones at the tij) of the snout be regarded as by
any means fully demonstrated.

, p. 291) I have not been able to detect,
»1. 1, p. 122.

" The gap mentioned by Jacoby (1.

'' Compar. Anat.. Phijsiol. Vertebr.,

'■ 1. c, pp. 113 and 118.

' Irhtliijutom. Tafebi, ta£. .Will, /*.

'■ Sijst. Venjleich. Anat, Ed II. p. .350.

■' Om kraniet ocli .ihdderijordeln ho.t ^ful^a■na anfjuilla, Li.N., disp. Ups. 187.5, p. 1

en in young Eels 66 mm. long.

EKL-FI^IIKS.

1017

Tlie tliinl iiiterpri'tatiuii (3) — accordiiiy' t(i wiiicli
the margin ol' tlif upper jaw consists laterally of the inter-
iiiaxillaries and anteriorly of the vomer (there coaleseent
with tlic etlinioid) — was first proposed l)y C'uvikh",
and lias long been the most genei'ally accepted. It j)re-
supposes that true maxillaries and palatines are wanting.

The history of tiie Eels' dexelopnient has not \'et
pronounced judgment on these three oj)inions; and a
fourtli explanation migiit reasonably be suggested, name-
Iv that the palatines and maxillaries were originally
independent, but have coalesced, as Meckel and, after
hini, 1'etei!s assumed of the relation between the inter-
inaxillaries and the etlimoid and vomer. Fi'oni the
evolutional instory of tlie higher vertelirates we know''
that the maxillaries as well as the ])alatine roof are
primordial excrescences of the mandibular arch, and
tiiat tile iiicii)ieiit palatine roof ma^' appt^ar as a se-

\\.r

Fisf. 271. Hyoid arch of Anguilla vulyaris. X '' .,.
A: liyiiiil arch wilh Iminchiostegal rays; B: linsjunl Ixmc; (': tlic

seen from below.
/, lingiinl; iih, iiroliyoid; bbr, first copula (hasi-braiichi.il); cell,
tohyoid: c/i/f, cpihyoid; R. br., brancliio.'itefral rnys.

condary growth in an inward direction, originating from
the maxillary arch. \Miether an equally intimate rela-
tion between these parts has possibly arisen during their
reduction in the Eels, is a question which onl}' the his-
tory of evolution can solve. We accordingly consider
it still doubtful whether intermaxillaries and maxillaries
are wanting in the Eels or have coalesced with more
internal btnies, and in the present state of the (juestion
the describer is fully entitled to speak of maxillary
and vomerine teeth.

In conjunction witli the great development of the
branchial cavity the Eels have very broad branchiostegal

" Man. Mils. d'Hist. Nat., tome I, p. 118.

'' Cf. Smitt, L'r de hogre djureni' iiti'ecklh>i].'!histo)-ia, p. 167.

mcmbrimes and long branchiostegal i'a\"s (A', hr.). iSiit
the foi'mer arc united ihrougiiout by far the greater
part of their margins to tlie skin and joined to each
otiiei', thus leaving oni\' small, slit-like gill-openings;
and all the latter, excejit the uppermost (hindmost) ones,
are slender, filanumtous, and coiled backwards, upwards,
forwards, and rinidl\- dnwiiwards, so as to include within
their cur\c both the operculum and the suboi)erculum.
In the Conger (fig. 2X2, p. 103G) the last two bran-
chiostegal rays of each membrane are expanded at the
top; in the common Eel (fig. 271) the expansion is con-
fined to the last ray, lint is so great that the ray is
sometimes e(|iial in breadth to the comijaratively nar-
row, obliquely semi-elliptical operculum (fig. 270, op).
The sabre-shaped — in the Conger (fig. 282) elongated
triangular, posteriori)' pointed, but curved — suboper-
culum (sojj) follows the curved inferior margin of the
oyjerculum, and is weaker iioth in the common Eel and
the Conger than the triangular, anteriorly pointed inter-
oi)erculum (iojj), which is even larger than the thin,
crescent-sha])ed preoperculum {x>op).

The Eels are exceedingly voracious; and their di-
gestive canal is accordingly rather short and simple.
Our common Eel raaj' serve as an example. The main
abdominal cavity of this species varies considerably in
length, between about 26 and 30 % of the length of
the body; but in the caudal part it has on each side
a prolongation, of which we shall give a fuller descrip-
tion when treating of the sexual organs. The thin-
walled and rather wide (esophagus passes into the sto-
mach ivithout a break, except that the longitudinal
folds (ridges) in whicli the mucous membrane lies on
the inside become thicker and higher in the stomach,
while the wall of the stomach is also thicker than that
of the oesophagus. Straight backwards the stomach is
prolongated in the form of a cone; but from the right
and lower side of its anterior part it sends out a pyloric
portion, with e(]ually thick walls, which runs forward
to the hind margin of the liver, where it bends abruptl)'
in a narrow crook, so that the beginning of the intestine,
which runs backwards, lies close to its under surface.
There are no cajcal diverticula. .\t the middle of the
crook is a funnel-like valve (an annular fold on the in-
side), marking off the pvlorus from the intestine; and
on the inside of the latter the mucous uiemlirane is
di.sposed in a honeycombed network of dee]), confluent

101«

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

folds. Beside the tcniiiiuitioii of tlic stcjiiiach thf in-
testine forms a curve of varying size, with one or more
small convolutions, before passing into the rectum, from
wliich it is divided intcriialh' In' ;i inort^ or less distinct,
annuhii' fold". Tiie liver is generally almost entire,
having only a more or less deep incision in tin; hind
margin. Its length is about ' , of that of the abdomi-
nal cavity proper, somewhat more than '^ of that of
the stomach, (jr ' j of tiie distance between the termi-
nation of the stomach and the vent. Sometimes, how-
ever, its length is equal to the last-mentioned distance.
Its upper, concave side surrounds the under side of the
oesophagus and the begiiming of the stomach, as well
as the gall-bladder, which is rather large and lies to
the right. The spleen is oblong, rather more than half
as long as the liver, and is situated on the right side,
at the fold between the ])vl<irus and the intestine. On
" 1 1

and MA(irii'' as testes. The air-ljladder varies consider-
abl)' in length, between ' ^, and ' 3 of that of the alj-
dominal cavity proper. It is of a pointed fusiform
shape, lint in front, for almost half its length, is divided
into ;in upper and a lower cone, the latter joined by
the piicuniatir duct to the oesophagus, tliough in the
s])ecimens examined by us the communication has in-
variably been closed. The kidneys lie, as usual, close
below the spinal column, above the air-bladder and
vvithout the peritoneal cavity. They extend not only
throughout the length of the abdominal cavity proper,
l)ut also int(j the backward continuation of the hieinal
canal, in the caudal region, above the prolongations of
the abdominal cavity, to which structures we shall re-
turn in our description of the generative organs. The
urinary bladder lies just behind the downward curve
of tlie rectum towards the vent, and has its orifice just

M

Fig. 272. Alidoiuinal visuera <.f Amjuilla Bnlgan.<. After SvitsKi. A. female; /;, male.
A: a, riglit, i, left ovary; c. right, d. left prolongation of the ovary in the eauilo-alnlominal cavity; e. septum (prolongation of tlic mesen-
tery) between the cauclo-abdominal cavities; /, vent; (/. urinary bladder; //, fold of ailipose membrane on the right side of the intestine; //',
fold of adipose membrane on the stomach; i, fold of adipose membrane on tlie left side; k. stomach; /, pylorus; m. liver;

n, gall-bladder; 0, pectoral fins.
B: rt, right, 6, left testis; c, right, d, left prolongation of the testis in tlie caiido-ahduminal cavity; e, septum between the caudo-abdoininal
cavities;/, efferent duct of the testes {ous deferms); g, seminal vesicle; li. vent; /. urinary bladder, mainly concealed by the seminal vesicle;
/■, k', and I, corresponding to li. h' , and / in .-1 (see above); m, stomach; n. pylorus: o, liver, turned up to show how it is applied to the

(esophagus and stomach; ;), gall-ldadder; i/. pectoral fins.

the left side of this fold, tis well ;is <m Ijoth sides of
the intestine and rectum, liangs a lolmlnted peritoneal
fold, whicli has been develojjed into an omentum-like

behind the tuial aperture. In our c()mnion Eel it has
the form of an equilateral triangle, with one angle (the
so-called neck) directed downwards and passing into

fold of adipose membrane, 'consisting of coiniective-tissue : the urogenitnl a})erture.

meshes tilled with fat-globules. In appearance these
folds are so like generative organs that they have been
described both by Ercolani'' and by Balsaiio-Cravci.li

of tl

" The honeycombed mucous mend)rai
])art, is apparently subject to considerable variations.
' Mem. Accad. Sc. Bologna, 1872, p. 529.
'■ Mem. Isl. L(,nd.. Sc, Lett. AHlauo, Xll, 1872, p. 229

The generative organs are suspended on each side
of the abdominal cavit)- and throughout the greater
part of its length, side liy side with and caitside the

intestine and rectum, as well as tlio tliiekiiess of their walls and tliat (jf the pyloric

EKl.-l'MSIIKS.

lOM)

abovc'-iiiciitiiiiied folds of ndiiiosi' uieiubraiR', tln" imli'IiI
be^iiiiiiiijU' fartln'i- forward than the left, but not ex-
tending;' so far back. 'I'lu; structure and significance;
of these organs, especially in our conuiion Mel, lias
long l)eeu an obscure ciuestion, which was not eluci-
dated until recent times.

{•"roui tlie preceding pages (p. 829) we know that
the Salinonoid family and sonic other fishes, among
them tlic faiiiih' of the Eels, are destitute of oviducts,
at least closed ones, such as appear in the remaining
Teleosts, and that the eggs of these fishes fall, wdien
ripe, loose into the abdominal cavit\', wliencc they are
expressed tlirougli a more or less deNclopcnl peritoneal
canal on each side, opening into the genital ijoix' just
behind the vent or into the urogenital aperture com-
uioii to the genitals and the urinary bladd(n-. The
testes, on the otlier hand, are furnished, e\en in tlu'
Eels, with efferent ducts (rasa defi'ri'iifia), which have

hand, they occupy as caudo-abdoiniiial cavities the same
relation to the skeleton as the abdominal cavity proper.
The peritoneal fold in which tlu; intestine is sus])eiided
(mefievfcriKm) crosses from tiic intestine to the urinary
bladder, which lies behind the rectum — leaving in the
females a triangular opening (peritoneal canal) between
tlie lowest part of the rrclmii and the neck of the
bladder- and is continued backwards in the middle
of the ha'iiial caiiiil (or a little ol)lii|ncly). It thus forms
n. ])artition wall between tlu' two eaudo-abdoiuinal ca-
vities, susjKMided from a continuation of the peritoneum
proi)er, which lines tlui walls of these cavities and di-
vides them from tiic superposed prolongations of the
kidneys (caudal kidnexs). The most striking peculiarity
ill the generative organs of the common Eel is, how-
ever, the duplication of the parts contained in the
caiido-abdominal cavities, each organ consisting there
of two blades running side by side.

.-<S.ȣ<qr' =

.JiJ.'-*^^

Fig. 273. Ptprtions of the testes in AiiguiUa vulgan's. A, alHlominiil cavity (posturitjr part) and Laiulu-abiloiiiiiial cafity, opened aud wid]
the walls folded back to show the enclosed organs; natural size; after Brock. B, a portion of the young testes, at an early stage of deve-
lopment, in an Eel 23 cm. Inn.e, taken at Trollhiittan in 1848; magn. about 8 diam., to show how the testicular lobes (t) originate in a thin

and transparent mesorchial fold (at first of uniform breadth) of the peritoneum.

/•!, left. Ill, right testicle in the abdominal cavity; tsc, left, tdc. riglit testicle in the cando-abdominal cavity; vds, left, vdd, right testicular

duct (viis deferens); vs, seminal vesicle; vu, urinary bladder; ra, abdominal, re, oaudo-abdoniinal divisions of the kidneys; ura, abdoininal.

lire, caudo-abdominnl urethra; ;•, rectum, detached and laid to the left; vcd, vena cava dextra; cl, cloaca {anus).

their common aperture, as usual, in the anterior wall
of the neck of the urinary bladder. Characteristic oi
the majority of the Enchelymorph genera, liut most
developed in our common Eel, are two backward pro-
longations of the abdominal cavity and the continua-
tions in these cavities of the generative organs, one
below each side of the caudal (post-anal) prolongations
of the kidneys. We have indeed seen a similar pecu-
liarity in the Flounders, though the secondary abdo-
minal cavities are there situated outside the ha'inal
canal (see above, pi). ?)70 etc.). Here, on the other

The ovaries have the appearance of frilled bands;
but their inner (median) side is smooth, and the ap-
pearance of frills is caused by elevated, transverse (ver-
tical), simple or double, foliate lobules (ovarial lamella',
in which the eggs are developed) on the outer (lateral)
side, though so arranged that in the caudo-abdorainal
part of the ovary the inner blade has these lobules on
its inner side, and turns its smooth side outwards, to
face the outer blade of the .same ovary. The testes, on
the other hand, so long as their real nature was un-
known, bore the name, conferred on them for their

1020

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISIIE.S.

apjieanirice, ot loljiilalc arf/aiis (S\v. fiikorc/aii, Germ.
Lappenorgan). They cc^nsist of a ro\v of rounded la-
mella', coherent to each other just at the base, and
suspended from the ett'erent duct (y;a,s deferens).

In their internal structure the ovaries show a mcsh-
woi'k (if connective tissue, so closely packed, when they
are unripe, with strongly refractive fat-globules, that it
is dilticult enough to distinguish among these the ex-
ceedingly small eggs, wliich iu tlie common Eel usually
measure during the sunnner months at most about '/lo
mm. in diameter, and late in autumn or even in De-
cember attain a size of abcnit ' ., mm. The testes are
essentially similar to the ovaries in the texture of their
stronui (connective-tissue fold), but arc witliout adiposis,
being consequently more transparent and difficult of
detection. Most easily perceptible is their white ett'erent
duct {ras deferens). Their seminal cells (spermatogonia)
are also exactly similar at first to newly-formed ova,
and remain extremely small, measuring 0.015 — 0.03
nun. in diameter; but they multiply by fission as thej'
pass from the germinal epithelium into the stroma,
where they gather in their special cavities (spermatic
ducts). In the Conger and Mura^na the development of
the spermatozoa has been traced; in the common Eel
spermatozoa have not yet been observed.

Some Enchelymorphs, among them pi'obably our
common Eel", cleve]o|) without any great metamorphosis.
Others, such as the Conger, have a larval existence dur-
ing which they are scarcely recognisable. These larvae
were first described under a generic name, Lepfoceplta-
Jhs'' or Helmichtliys' \ and were long regarded as types
of a distinct family Leptocephalida or Helniichthyidce)
or even of an order {Lemniscafi''). The structure of
these larva; was described by Kollikeh in 1852'. They
are thin (ribbon-shaped) or more terete (cylindrical),
and so transparent that only the black eyes -with sil-
very iris betray their ])resence, as thej' move with slow
and languid undulations of their wliole body, sometimes

near tlie coast, sometimes in the middle of the ocean.
The head is extremely small — hence their name' —
and the skeleton most feebly developed, ^vith hardly
anj^ signs of vertebrae, these being confined, as a rule,
to the hindmost part of the body. The notochord
{clHirda dorsaJis), entire or only marked witli annular
constrictions, advances without a break into tlie carti-
laginous mass of the skull, and lies in the body, en-
closed, together witli tlie sjiinal cord and the great
blood-vessels, in a nmcous mass, which separates these
parts from the surrounding musculature. The muscular
mass is fastened to the skeleton only in front (at the
head) and behind (at the tail), lieing attached elsewhere
to the skin; but it is divided, as in other fishes, by
the zigzag transverse bands (myocommata) into flakes
(myomeres), each with an angle (directed forwards)
at the middle of the sides of the body, another (di-
rected backwards) at the back, and a tliird at the
ventral margin. The mt)utii is armed, liotli in the
upper jaw and the lower, \vith comparatively large and
strong, rather scattered, straight and pointed teetli, set
in a single row and directed ol)li(|nclv forwards. Each
nasal cavity is a depression in front of the eye, with-
out proal nostril. The tul)ular abdominal cavity ex-
tends along the greater part of the ventral margin.
The straight digestive canal includes, according to Kol-
LiKER, a cacum-like stomacii, with two upward, ca^'ai
diverticula and Uvo similar ai)i)endages belonging to
the intestine. The liver is faintly developed; spleen,
air-bladder, and sexual organs are wanting. From this
larval structure Facciola" has succeeded in tracing a se-
ries of transition-forms that bring it to perfect identity
with the young of the Congers, a metamorphosis at
which Gjll'' had already hinted. The most singular
point is, however, that these larva>, retaining the struc-
ture proper to their first stage of development, can
attain dimensions considerably greater than those of'
the stages in which the terete type and internal struc-

" In the Ball. Aocad. Gioeu. Sc. Nat. Catania (Fasc. 34 — 35; Nov. 1893 t- (ieim. 1.S94, p. 4) Grassi and Calanphuccio have ex-
pressed the supposition that the ova of Am/iiilla vulgaris are to he t'omid Hoatins in (lie sea, aud that Leptncephahis bveiirflstns is the
larval stage of tliis species.

'' Gronovii Zooplii/tac, Fase. I (17ri3), \>. 135. Morris, an aiHiuaintanc-e of Pkn.nan'i's. had foimd Uiese Hshes in St. George's Chan-
ni-1, ..ti Holyhead, North Wales.

"' Rakinesquk, Ind. Itliol. Sic, where the name is, however, written Heliiiictis.

'' Richardson.

' Zeltschr. f. Wiss. Zool., Bd IV. p. 360.

-' From Gr. kerctog, fine, small, and y.erpah'j. heail.

" II Natnralista Sieiliano, Anno XII (1893), p. 194.

'' Proc. Aead. Nat. Se. Philad. 1864, p. 207.

Ki;i,-ri>;iiKs.

Iit21

turc^ (if tlu; s|».'<'ics iiiii\' bp recognised witlidiil dillifiilty.
GOnthki! iiicntidiis l^eiitoccplialdids iis iiuicli iis 10 I'aris
inclics (■270 mm.) long-"; ;iiid Kacciola t'ouiid larva' <il'
the i-iimmmi ('(Higer in tiie tirst stage of dc\('l(i|im('nt
(LeptocephalKs ItKeijualls) that measured TG — 140 mm.,
while almost typical fry of the same species were only
75 ram. long. Glntiikr also considers it protiahle that
not all these larvie foUow the normal course oi' dc\'e-
lopment and become Congers, but that some ol them
— perhaps when thev are borne by the current or some
other agency out into the open sea or too far from the
coast where the species deyelops under noi-mal condi-
tions — may lead a pelagic, but niorl)id (hydropic) life,
increasing in size, though never attaining the typical
structure of their species or propagating themselves.
Among the Leptocephali of the Koyal iMuseuni we find
a specimen, otherwise uninjured, and taken in the
middle of the Atlantic, south-west of the Azores (Lat.
31° 13' N.; Long. 35° 46' W.), that has five vesicular

duliitable and li."> doubtful species; in 1<S8;! Jokdan and
(iii.iiKKT'' estimated ihc nundier of the species then
known at about •2S0. The great vai'ialiility of form
indeed dcpri\-es any such estimates of c< inclusive author-
ity; but the nund)er of species is at all events con-
siderable enough to necessitate the arrangement of the
series in several divisions. Bleekek established six
families within the scries. riiNTUEii was of opinion
that, ciiiisidering the transition-forms and tlu- varia-
bilit\- of the Ijiehelymorphs, the whole series might be
included within one family {Murceniche); but at the
same time he established ten subfamilies, the majority
of which HUght well laj- claim to th(! i-ank of distinct
families. The Scandinavian fauna contains only two
members of one among these families; but for the
European fauna several of them possess interest. On
the English coast there occurs, though seldom, the Me-
diterranean Murama {Mumna Iidena), which we have
mentioned above, the type of the Gymmthoracidfe (Blee-

FiK 274. Leptocephalu.1 Monifii (?), from tin- AUanlic; takLii in Lat. 31 1.-.' N.; \jmi:. :!5° 4(i' W. Natural size.

tumours — two of large size, occupying the whole
depth of the body, and three smaller ones, in the dor-
sal region — full of fluid and with the myomeres more
or less atrophied. Sickliness and an abnormal manner
of life might well explain, as Gunthek has pointed out,
the inc(jnstancy both of form and structure that m:\rks
these larvir. From the Mediterranean 35 s]K'cies of the
so-called genus Leptocephalus have been described'', but
without evidence to show that the specific characters
are more than individual variations.

The Knehehniorph series is fairly rich in forms.
Bleeker'' had examined in 1864 more than 250 si)ecies.
In 1870 GCnther adopted in his Cataloffue 227 in-

ker's Gi/mnofliordcoldei, GCntiier's Muianidm engy-
schistte, with narrow slits between the branchial arches),
a family very rich in forms, especially in India, and with
naked body, laterall}- compressed, and no pectoral fins.
The Enchelymoriihs live both in fresh and .salt
water; but most of them are marine fishes. A great
number are deep-sea forms' — some of them taken in

more than 4,000 fathoms of watei and show reduc-

ticjiis still more comprehensive than those we have
described above, tlie piscine type consequently appear-
ing in such simplicity that it is sometimes difficult
to decide in which order the forms have their right
place.

■' Vat. Bnt. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 143.

^ ('arls. Prodi: Fme Medit., vol. II, p- S-ttJ- 15"l ('.Mius remarks witli reganl to these species, '-Not.v specitiea? tantuin variant, iit
species distinctic vix tlescribi possint.

'■ Atl. Ichth. Ind. Orient. Ni-erl., tome IV, p. .0.

'' Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, pp. 355, seqq.

' GtJNTHER (Deep Sea Fauna, Cliall. Exped.) knew 14 such species. an<l Vaiixant (E.vped. .Scient. Ti-availleiii: Talisman; Poissons)
36, exclusive of the Leptoeephaloids.

1022

SCANDINAVIAN I'I.SHE8.

1am. ANGUILLIDiE.

(rill-slifs {hdifceu till- brdiichial ai-(ltvs) iridc: (/ill-opeiiiiit/s {in flic s/:iii) iridehi separutt'd. Heart situated jnfit

behitid the lirancl/ial carities. Vertical fins u'eU-derelojjed and Cdifiiin/f round the tail. Pectoral fins present.

Anal fin separated from the tip of the snout hy a distance of more than tiiice the lenr/th of the head. Posterior

nostrils distant from the niart/iii of the upjicr lip. I'onf/ur n-ith free tip.

Among GCntheh's Plat/jschistce some (the Si/napho-
hranchid(s) are characterized Ijy the downward removal
of the gill-openiiigs to^\■ards the ventral side and their
uiiiou. Others (the I'tjiiihraiichidce) arc marked by so
great a prolongation of the forepart of the bodv that
the heart is situated far behind tlie branchial cavit}'.
t >thers again (the Nemiclithtjidce) have the vent far ad-
\anced, close to the gill-openings or separated from
them b\- a distance less than the length of the head,
and the beginning of the anal fin just beliind this
point. In others (tlie Saccophari/i/f/ida'") the moutli

and pharynx are developed into a monstrous, funnel-
shaped gorge, so large that it exceeds the abdominal
cavity in length. Another division (the Ophichtlujidce
and Myrida, the former with finless tip of the tail)
are distinguished by a singular do^vnward removal of
the nostrils, sometimes quite to the margins of the
ujjper lip. Some (the Murcenesocidm) are without free
tongue; others (the Heterocongridce) are similar in all
these respects to our common Eel, Imt destitute ot
pectoral tins. The rest compose the family that has
its most marked type in the

Genus ANGUILLA.

The slim II hodi/ furnished irith scales immersed in the skin.

By this solitary character it is always possible to
recognise one of tlie so-called Fresh-irafer Eels'', all
otlier distinctions being far too inconstant to be im-
plicitly relied on. Another character, which is not
peculiar, however, to Anguilla, though within the Scan-
dinavian fauna it is sufficient to denote the genus, and
besides has the advantage of being more conspicuous,
consists in the fact that the tip of tlie snout falls short
of the point of the lower ja^\■, or at least does not
project beyond it.

"An infinite number of species," says GCnthek,
"ha\e Ijeen desci'ibed; but nujst are so badly charac-

terized, or founded on individual or ?;o trivial cha-
racters, that the majority of ichthyologists will reject
them." Kali-', who was tlie greatest authorit)' on
this head until GCntheh's time, adopted no less than
49 species; GuNniKR'' reduced the number to 23. Da-
rkste" acknowledged only 4 or possibly 5. As Gi'N-
THEK has remarked'^, the genus is known throughout
the Tropical and Temperate Zones, with the excep-
tions of South America, the -west of North America,
and Western .Africa. In Scandinavia and tlie rest
of Europe only one species is recognised at the pre-
sent day.

" For the Saccopharijiigido! see Gill and Ryder (Proc. U. S. N.it. Mus., vol. VI, p. 262; vol. VII, p. 48), wlio founded a separate
order {Lijomeri) to receive this family, and Vaillant {Exped. Scient. Travailleur, Talisman, Poissoiis, p. 193), wlio considered them to be as
nearly aUied to the Anacanthines as to the Enchelymorphs. Among thi-ir peculiarities it should first be remarked that the number of the
branchial arches is 5 instead of 4, the usual number in the Teleosts.

' Fresh-water or at least brackish-water fishes indeed occur witliiu otlier Enclielymorpli genera, as in Gyiiinolhora.e, Pisoodoiiophs.
6'pltaijebyanchiis, Morinr/ua. and Mura-neso.r; but in these genera salt-water Eels predominate, and they are liesidcs entirely foreign to thi-
Scandinavian fauna.

' Oatal. Apodal Fish., Brit. .l/»s. (18.50), p. 32.

'' Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII. p. 23.

"" Arch. Zool. Experim., tome l\. p. 224.

•'' Introd. Study of Fishes, p. 671.

KKI.-Fl.SlllvS.

102;^

THE COMMON EEL (s\v. alkn).

AXcniJ.A \ri/;Ai(is.

I'latc XLV, liu. 1.

The dors((l _fiii commences far behind the tips of the folded pectorals, beinf/ separated from the tip of the snout
by a distance of more than twice the lenc/th of the head, and precedes the anal by a distance about equal to (some-
what (jrvater or less tlian) the Iciuith (f the head, the distance between it iinil the tip of the snout being about
29 — .5.7 %, tlud hettrvcn the anal and the same point about 40 — 45 %, of the lenfith of the l)ody. The jaw-teeth
strait/ht (of an nhfiise, eoniad form), or someu-Jiat recurred at the tip, ((nd set in (juite continuous cards.

li. hi: Ul— 1'2"; I), ci
P. 17—20''; I './•/. 112 — 11;

'.lh\ A. ca 205-

V. 10;

Hyn. Mnvana miicdlor; iiia.xilhi iiitVrion,- Imigiore. Am., /i/it/ii/ol.,
Geii: p. 24; Hi/n., p. 38 (uLii isynon. vet. videantiir): ^'/jcc,
p. lili; Li.s-., Fiia A'»ec-., ed. 1, p. 100.
Maroji.K iiiKjuUla, Lin., ^'//s/. Nat., ed. X, toiu. I. p. 24.^;
F.uui.. Fna Groenl, p. 137; Ht,., Natunj. Fisch. DeutsrhL.
pt. III. p. 4. tab. LX.XIII; Aiir. (( iphichtus), .Spec, /i-htli.
Miir. (Jp/iirht. (disp. Ups. 17^0). p. 1 1 ; Ketz., Fiki dun:
Lin., p. 311; F.ab. {Miirana), Fisch. Isl., p. o'j; P.\i,i,.,
Zoui/i: Ross. As., toiii. III. p. 71; Ekstr., Vet. Akad.
Handl. 1831, p. 285 (= Mur. o.ryrhiita + Mm: platijrhina,
p. 287); NiLSs., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 65 (+ Mur.
latirostris); Id., Uka'id. Fiki, Fi.'^l,:, p. 661; Sundev.. Stoddi.
L. Hush. Sallsk. Handl., VI (18S5), pp. K3, 92. 181;
Wdgrn, Landtbr. Akad. Plaudl. 1858, pp. 181 et 210; Ny-
STRUM, faktt. Fniin Jemtl. Vattemb: (disp. Ups. 1863), p.
20; V. Bemm. in Herkl., Boiiwst. Fiia Nederl., part. Ill, p.
388; Olss., Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1876, w. 3, p. 139;
1882, tio. 10, p. 51.
Auguilhi vidtjaris, Turt., Bi-it. Fna, p. 87; Mitch., Trans.
Lit.. PbiL Soc. N. York, vol. I, p. 360; Flmng, Brit.
Aniin., p. 199; Cost.\, Fna Reyn. Xap., Peso., pt. I, Mala-
cott. Apod.. Anyuilla, p. 52 {+ Angu. platyrhynchus, p.
50, ex Cuv., + Anyu. acutirostria, p. 51, ex Y.4RR.), tabb.
LIII — LX; Blanch, Poiss. d. eau.v douces Fr., p. 491
(ouJHs format; Anyu. latirostris, p. 495, ex Risso, Eur.
Mer., toni. Ill, p. 199, + Anyu. mediorostris, p. 496, ex
Risso + Angu. oblongirostris, ibid., + Anyu. aculirostris, p.
467, ex Risso, 1. c, p. 198); Sieb., Siissivasserf. Mittel-
eur., p. 342; Mgr.n, Finl. Fiskfna (disp. Helsingf. 1863),
p. 33; Gthr, Vat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 28
(+ Anyu. bostoniensis, p. 31, ex Lesleur, Jouru. Acad. Nat.
So. Pbilad., vol. I, p. 81,+ Anyu. texaiia, p. 32, ex K.up,
+ Anyu. latirostris, p. 32, ex Risso, + Angu. Kieneri. p.
35, ex Kaup); Dareste, .\rcli. Zool. Exper., torn. IV (1875),
p. 217; Coll., Forb. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilla;gsh.,
p. 196; 1879, no. 1, p. 99; N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd
29 (1884), p. 113; Wixrii., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser.
Ill, vol. XII, p. 50; Fedders., ibid., p. 93; Mor., Hist.

Sat. Poiss. Fr.. loni. Ill, p. 560; Bncke, Fisch., Fischer.,
Fisch;. 0., II'. /'rcHss.. p. 173; Mela, Vertebr. Fenn., [i.
357. tab. X: Day. Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 241.
tab. CXLII, tiK- 1; Mup,., Hoke, Fisch. Osts., p. 143; Br.-
Goode, Fisher., Fisher. Industr. U. &'., sect. 1, p. 630, tab.
239; Seei-EY, Freshw. Fis-h. Eur., p. 373 (+ Angu. eiiry-
.'■■tuina, p. 380, ex HcKL, Kn.); Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fisk.,
vol. III. p. 375; Reut., Sundm., Finl. Fisk, tab. XXXIII;
Car., Prodr. F,<rc .^hdit.. vol. II, p. 540.

Miiraina rostrala (+ bostoniensis) Lesueur, Jouru. Acad. Nat.
So. Pliilail., vol. 1, p. 81 (+ Mur. argentea + Mur. mo-
crocephala. p. 82): DiiK., .V. York Fna, part. IV, p. 312
(+ Angu. tenuirustris. p. 310); Jord., Gu.b.. Bull. U. S.
Nat. Mus., no. 16, p. 361.

Aiiyinlhi jlnviatilis, Agass. (ex Cuv.?), Rech. Poiss. foss., torn.
V, p. 130, tab. F, tig. 2; Hckl, Kn., sSusswasserf. Ostr.
Moil., p. 319 (+ Angu. eury'stoma, p. 325).

Anyiiilla caiiariensis, Val. in Webb, Berth., lies Canar., Poiss.,
p. H8, tab. 20, tig. 1.

Aiigui/la japonica, Schleg. in Sieb., Fna Japan., Poiss., p.
258, tab. CXIII, fig. 2.

Exjdor. Alger., Zool., V, p. 111.

Guicn.

Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, i.. 616
642, ex Yarr. + Angu. latirostris.

Angiiilla callen.'<is,
tab. 7. tig. 1.

Angiiilla inigratoria, Kn.,
( + Anyu. acutirostris, p
p. 656, ex Yarr.).

Angiiilla Kieneri, Kaup, Val. Brit. .Mus., Apod. Fish., p. 32
( + Angu. Vuvieri + Angu. Bibroni, p. 33 + Angu. Sa-
vignyi + Angu. capitone, p. 34 + Angu. morena + Angu.
nielanochir, p. 35 + Aiiyu. marginata + Angu. microptera,
p. 36 4- Anyu. aiicidda + Angu. mediorostris + Angu.
altirostris, p. 37 + Angu. platycephala + Angu. latirostris,
p. 38 + Angu. acutirostris, p. 39 + Anyu. nilotica + Angu.
ceyyptiaca, p. 40 + Angu. callensis + Angu. canarienais,
p. 41 + Angu. novieorleaneyisis, p. 43 + Angu. tenuirosiris
+ Angu. punctatissima + Angu. cubana, p. 44 + Angu. no-
voeterroE + Anyu. texana, p. 45 + Angu. tvabashensis, p. 46);
Carus, 1. c.

Anguilla LinnJi, Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 590 ( + Angu.
latirostris, p. 591).

" Sometii

les 9. M

16,

116,

cording t

o LlLI.,IEB

. Kroyei;
, Hay.

iRr

ScandinariiiT

n<he.<.

1024

SCANDINAVIAN I'lSIIES.

Tlie Common Eel, witli wliirli most of our readers
ai't", MO doubt, familiar, attains a length of about 1 ' ., in.
and a weight of about 5, perhayjs 6 kilo." Its ordinary
length and weight, liowever, are respectively under 1 m.
and 2 kilo. The snake-like body is so terete in front
tliat the greatest breadth (thickness) is sometimes equal
to the greatest depth, or even (when the branchial ca-
vity is distended) greater tiian it; i)ut the former is
commonly no more than ^/- or '\ ^ of the latter, and
at the termination of the abdominal cavity the body-
shows greater and greater lateral compression. The
greatest depth, which occurs just in front of the dorsal
fin, increases with age in the young, though even at a
length of 4'/2 c^™- rt sometimes measures, according to
Kroyer, only about 5'/j, % thereof; but the rule is that
it subsequently decreases during growth, falling in Eels
measuring: 4 — 7 dm. from 7 to fi % of the length of

lengtli of tlie body increases from about 2'^, to 6'\, dm.,
tiiat of the head decreases in our specimens from 13 to
11 % of the former'', or from about 41 to 36 % of the
distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout.
But in this respect we iind that older Eels — we can
speak here only of females — and certain individuals
which it lias lieen proposed to treat as a separate spe-
cies or variet-\- Uuturisftis), revert to the juvenile cha-
racters, or even exceed the limits of these, the length of
the head sometimes measuring 15 % of that of the body
or 46 % of the distance between the dorsal tin and the
tip of the snout. The form of the head is also highly
varial)le, in front more or less conical [acutirostris] or
broader and depressed, wedge-shaped (latirostris), and
behind more or less tumid, depending partly on the
greater or less distension of the branchial cavity, partly
(behind the eyes) on the varying development of the

Fio-. 275. Three varieties of AnguiUa vulgaris. A, Aiiguilla latirostris; J3, Aiigu. inediorostris ; C, Angu. acutirostris

After BLANCHfcnrf,.

the body. Still large Eels grow to the thickness of a
man's arm. The males seem always to remain smaller
than the females, for up to the present large specimens
have been found in every instance to be of the latter sex.
The head passes so gradually into the rest of the
bod}' that the limit between them is externally almost
indistinguishable, being indicated only by the position
of the small gill-openings, just in front of and partly
l)elow the pectoral fins. The size of tlie head is ex-
tremely variable. After the larval stage its relative
length (to the middle of the anterior margin of the
gill-opening) shows the usual diminution. While the

masticator}' muscles. The usual ]jroportions of the se-
veral parts of the head are such that the length of the
snout is 20 % or somewhat less (17 %), the longitudinal
diameter of the eyes 10 % or somewhat less (in young
Eels at least 13 %, in old sometimes 7 %), and the
postorbital length about 70 % (varying in individual
cases between 68 and 75 ?&')) of the length of the head.
The eyes, which are covered with a thin skin that still
further enhances the snake-like ap])earance of the Eel,
are sometimes set vertically, sometimes rather upturned.
Partly in consequence of this variation in the position
of the eyes, partly following the alterations of growth,

" According to the reports made to the Swedish Fisheries Comniissiou of 1881 — 83, the Eel — which occurs in every province of
Sweden — attains in Werinlnud, Westmanland, and Westernorrland a length of 5 Sw. ft. (148 cm.) and in the last-mentioned province a weight
of 15 Sw. lbs. (G'/j kilo.). According to Desmarest the Eel attains a length of at least 17 dm. and a circumference of at least 3'/2 d™-

* According to Kroyf.r this percentage sometimes faDs to 10.

'■ According to Kroyer sometimes nearly 77 %.

COMMON EICL.

]02r)

the young li;i\iiiL;\ us usual, couiiiiiraliNcK' larger eyes
partly in connexion \vith tiie different environments and
habits of the tish, and partly owing to the ahove-nien-
tioned retrogressions of development, eoiisideralile varia-
tions ajipear in the relati\e dimensions of the e\'es. In
young Eels (sumetinies even in specimens 8' ^ dm. long)

small, short tip. (Jill-rakers and pseudobraachi;e are
wiinting. Tile line and pointed pharyngeal teeth, weaker
tiian tlu; ja\\-teeth, form dense, velvety cards, two above,
of an ovaJ shajx^, on the upper pharyng(!als, and two
below, of a more elongated sliajie, on a thin inward
expansion of the lower pharyngeals, whicii else resemble

and in the \ariety known as Idtiroslris, the longitudinal ; branchial ai-ches. The upper half of the gill-openings,
diameter of the eyes is about ecptal to the interorbital , which ai'c slit-like or curved forwards in a crescent,

width or at least ^/j thereof. The eyes are comjjara-
tively smallest, as a general rule, in the migrating Eels,
usually measuring less than " ,, (sometimes only about
43 %) of the interorbital ^vidth. In the last-mentioned
specimens the interoi-bit.d width is also hardly less"
than the length of the snout, in the former sometimes
scarcelj' ^ ^ thereof, though the ])ercentage for this re-
lation increases with age. Each nostril in the pos-
terior pair lies, in the form of a dermal fissure, set
obliipiely or in the longitudinal direction of the snout,
just before the up])er anterior corner of each eye; the
anterior nostils are situated, in the form of dermal
tubes, one on each side of the tip of the snout. The
mouth is horizontal, with the tip of the lower jaw more
or less prominent — most distinctly in old Eels and in
latii'osfrif: — and with the corner situated below the eyes
or, especially in lafinistris, somewhat behind the per-

lies just in fi-ont of, the lower half below the base of
each |)ectoral fin, their height l)eing ecpial lo this base
and about the same as the interorbital widtii.

The dorsal tin is of about uniform height, though
low in front and very gradually increasing in height
behind, the increase being proportioned to the percep-
tible decrease in depth shown by the posterior third of
the body. The longest rays, which measure about ' „
— ^/s of the greatest depth of the body, thus lie in the
hindmost part of the fin, just before it slopes to form,
together with the caudal and anal tin, a lanceolate ti[)
at the end of the tail. The anal fin is similar to the
dorsal, but much shorter, commencing, as we have men-
tioned, considerably further back, so that the distance
between the dorsal tin and the tip of the snout is about
70 — 75 % of that between the anal fin and the .same
[joint. In Eels 2' , — 7 dm. long this difference increases.

pendicular from tiie hind margin thereof. The lips are as a rule, during growth, until the body attains a length

double, fieshv, and tumid, the outer folds being more
or less expanded at the sides, in the upper jaw as though
the free luaxillaries of other Teleosts were here replaced
by this dermal growth; but the underlips are usually
broadest. The length of the upper jaw (of the cleft of
the mouth), from the tip of the snout to the hind mar-
gin of the buccal corners, measures about 26 — 33 %,
that of the lower jaw about 35 — 47 ?6'', of the length
of the head, the latter proportion in each case being
characteristic of latirosfris. The dentition of the month
is partly described above. The most characteristic point
in the dentition of our Eel, as opposed to East Indian
and Australian forms otherwise very closely resembling
it, is the absence in the jaw-cards of the longitudinal,
toothless ga|j shown In' the last-mentioned forms, thougii
the innermost mw in both jaws, even in the European
Eel, is made u]> of smaller teeth, and mav, as a rule,
be distinguished more easily than the others. The
tongue is fleshy, free, toothless, and elliptical, with a

of about 4Vo dm., but afterwards diminishes, the length
of the head thus being generally less in middle-sized
specimens, especially in the migrating Eels, than this
difference, in large Eels some\vhat greater than the
same. But the individual variations appear to deprive
the difference of all systematic significance; nor does
it seem to j^ossess any importance as an external sexual
character.

The pectoral fins, when expanded, are o\al, often
somewhat pointed, and the middle rays (about the 10th)
are the longest. The relative length of these fins ex-
pi'esses both a distinct alteration of growth, the \()ung
having even relatively shorter pectoral fins than the
old, and a difference of sex, the males in general having
shorter pectoral tins than the females. In 6 Eels (4 c/'
and 2 ?) 23 — 41 em. long the average length of the
pectoral fins pi-ii\ed to be 3'r> % of that of the body
and N'li % of the distance between the anal fin and
the tip of the snout. In 7 Eels (all ?) 45 — 68 cm.

" AccordiTio: to .Jacoby even grenler.
' According to Kkovek up U' .54 %.

1026

h)iv^ the corresponding percentages were respectively
4"8 and 10. In the males the former percentage varied
l)etween 3'0 and 3'7, in the females between 3"8 and
4'5. The latter percentage varied in the males between
7 '5 and 8'G, in the females between 9 and 10'9. That
this sexual difference — as it apjtears in the above
measurements — is fully constant, enabling us in every
instance to distinguish between males and females, is
hardly probable, for it coincides with a marked altera-
tion of growth; but it would seem at least to show
that the males retain the characters of youth longer
than the females".

The thick and tough skin completely envelops even
the tins, but owing to the underlayer of lax connective

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

cial scales

t

Fig. 276. Scale of Anijiiilln riilgai-is. About 23 times the natural size.

tissue and fat is so loosely attached — as every kit-
chenmaid should know — that it can easil}' be stripped
off entire. The copious .slime tiiat covers it has ren-
dered the Eel's slipperiness proverbial; and the system
of the lateral line is \vell developed. The lateral line
itself, which is straight, lying about half-way up the
sides, in front somewhat higher, so as to meet the
temples, is made ii]i of c()ni])ai';itively scattered })ores,
on the tail often indistinct, and not su])])orted by spe-

)ut Msiiallv marked otl' b\- their light hue
from the gi-ound-coloration. The ce])halic system of
the; lateral line shows a transverse row of pores across
the top of the head behind the ej^es, from which they
are sepai-ated h\ a distance about equal to the length
of the snout; and on each side runs a i-ow, usually
containing tliree distinct pores, straigiit forward from
the transverse row, towards the su])eri(jr margin of the
eyes, but not extending half-way thither. More distinct
are the pores on the snout, one row on the turbinal
bones and the suborliital ring, another on each half
of the mandible. The scales, which are entirely im-
mersed in the skin, are thin, flexible, and of a ])ro-
longated elliptical shape, somewhat constricted at the
middle of their length, which is aliout half the dia-
meter of the eyes. On the .sides of tlie liody their
arrangement is such that a certain number, usually
3 — .5, lie beside and contiguous to each other, obliquely
across the longitudinal direclion of the body, and on
each side of this grotip lie others, the scales of which
are set at about right angles to the former. Or each
grou]) may be longer, containing u]) to a score of
scales, and tbrming a straight or curved row. ())• the
scales may be iuxta]>osited one l)y one, in the said
zigzag arrangement, (hi the belly the scales are more
scattered, and more nearly apjjroach to the longitudinal
direction of the body. The texture of the scales is
highly characteristic. When slightly magnified, the
entire surface seems to be composed (jf dense strings
of lustrous beads, all parallel to the margin. When
the scale is more powerfidly magnified (flg. 276), this
conformation dissolves into a honeycombed network,
due to the union of the concentric stria^ (ridges) round
the elongated, central nucleus by radiating ridges of
equal elevation.

The coloration of the Eel varies with age, the
season (jf the veaf, the haunt of the fish, and jtartly
too with its sex. The dorsal side is of a lighter or
darker, greenish or grayish colour, the \entral yellow
or white; the middle of the sides has a bronze lustre
of varying intensit\\ The colour of the fins usually
resend)les that of the Ijack, except in the case of the

" How futile it is to nly on the external sexual eharaeters liitherlo assisue.l in literature to tlie Eel. is most elearly sliown by tlie
conflieting results at which different writers have arrived, .\ccording to ,1acoby {Fisrhf. Comacchio. Berlin 1880, p. 40) tlie males have
pointed snouts. From his measurements (p. 41) it appears that the breadth of tlie snout at the nasal duets — (1 assume that "Breite der
Schnauzenspitse zwischen den Nasaltuben" nnist be taken in this sense, for "between" the nasal tubes I have never found the distance so
great) — measured in 8 males (319 — 480 mm. long) less, in 8 females (313 — 480 mm. long) more, than 12 % of the length of the head.
According to LiLUEDORQ (,Sv., Novg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 382) the niale.s most eommonly have blunt, "sometimes pointed" snouts.

COMMON K!:i.,

10l'7

anal iin, wliic-h in ['nmt shows the coh)!!!- of the; Ijclly.
The yellow tint of the lu'lly is (/hanictcristic of the
youriu- anil of the Eels that lead a somewhat stationary
life anions' the seaAveed on the coast, or in the innd
and anion.ii' the arass of the lakes. The white helly
belongs to tiie migration unifoi'iii, the spawninj^-dress
of the Kels". The l)aek is darkest, sometimes even
black, in the miiirating males. Among colour-varieties
there have been observed light s]>eeimens, almost yel-
lowish green on the back, and irregularly spotted fish,
with light, clouded spots on the dorsal side <ir with
"dorsal streaks of a golden yellow" (Bknkckk). Albi-
nos have also bet'U found''.

In tlie basin of the Atlantic the Eel is dispersed
between the latitudes of the West Indies and of Nor-
wegian Einmark, and from the United States eastwards
over North Africa and throughout Europe, including
the regions drained l)v the Baltic and the Mediterra-
nean, but, strange to say", originally with the exception
of the Black and Caspian Seas and their feeders. Fa-
BKicii;.s mentions it among the fishes of Southern Green-
land, and even Olaj'sen'' knew it from Iceland, where
according to Fabek, however, its length seldom exceeds
1*2 It.: but from the Arctic seas and rivei's it is else
unknown. Within the basin of the Pacific it is found
in .Ia|ian, China, Formosa, Borneo, and, according to
Gi'NTHi;!!, New Zealand. The geographical range of the
Eel is thus one of the most extensive; Imt the ga|)S
— its absence, for instance, from the west coast of
North America — are difficult to ex|)lain.

In Scandinavia the Eel liecomes rarer and rarer
inland and towards the north. Solitarv specimens ha\e
indeed bet^n found in the Fjords of Varanger ;ind Tana;
hut into the innermost parts of Finland the Eel does
not penetrate, and in Sweden, as well as in Norway,
it seldoui, if ever, ascends into the mountain-regions.
On the Norwegian coast it is common, accoi'ding to
CoLLETT, up to Lofoden, rarer on the coast of I'inmark

further north, and in Exaaxand, a lake in BjelJerud
(Province of C|n-istiansand), it has been met with at a
height of 1,()0() feet (oiMI m.) above the sea-level'. The
Eel occurs in every pro\iuce of Sweden, but to the fai-
north onl\' on liie seaboard. Wideohex described in
1S(;() the Ixd-fishery of the lower I.ulea Elf and the
islands at its mouih. From the liasin of the Angerman
Elf Tiniioxr' was told 1h:it F.eis were found in Eake
Malgomaj, situated ;^')(i m. alxiNc the level of the sea;
and according to ( )i.sso.\ the Eel ascends to the neigh-
bourhood ol' (iiiddrde, on (^)\arnberg \A^ater, near the
Norwegian iVontiei-. in the basin of tlie Ejunga, accord-
ing to Olsson, it has been found on rare occasions in
Herjeadalens Storsjo, 363 m. aliove the sea-level. In
Southern Sweden, as in Uenniark, tlie I'^el is c(nnmon
in rivers, lakes, .-ind meres, whercNcr it can find a con-
genial haunt. Throughout the basin of Lake Wener,
howevei", it is said to have l)een wanting' previous to
the construction of the TrollhiVtte Canal, when the Eel-
fry made their wav through the locks up the fall.

The Eel is tenacious of life and supple of body,
adapting itself to the most confined abode and the most
meagre circumstances; Init in order to attain any con-
siderable size it re(|uires abundant food and ample space.
It reminds us strongly of the snakes in its nocturnal
habits and its fondness for hiding in holes or burrowing
in the soft bottom. Like the viper it gathers in large
bunches — ''hu/ffer .su/ i. rirt"'' says the Swedish fisher-
man. To tliese serpent-like traits is allied its power of
sustaining life for a long time out of the water: just as
the connnon snake is partly an aquatic animal, the Eel
can traverse considerable distances by land. Its serpen-
tine, wriggling movements enable it to make rajiid pi'o-
gress though the water, so as speedily to find a hiding-
place; and its great jiower of muscle endows it with
great endurance dui'ing its rovings in the sea; but it
seems to rank among the sluggish fishes, and by nature
belongs to the ground-swimmers. "Slippery as an Eel,"

° Cf. F. H. T. Leth: lakttagelser over Aaleiie. Diinsk iMskcriticlcmle 1882, p. .393.

'' Feddersen, Dansk Fiskeritidende, 1891, p. .395.

' The Ell's original absence from the basin of the Danube — where i( lias been planted in recent times, and seems to thrive, having
volmitarily spread to the Black Sea and the lower cour.ses of the Russian rivers — may perhaps be explained by a comparison with the equally
singular presence in the Danube of the Hueh (see Smitt, Riksiii. .Salmonider, p. 148). The Eel is wanting in Siberia, being compelled to
enter salt water in order to breed, and incapable of enduring the cold of the Arctic Ocean, into which the Siberian rivers fall; and the same
ancient configuration of tlie ocean as enabled (he Siberian Ilndi to spread to the h:t<iv ..f i1m- l>Hini).e may have cut off the advance of the
Eel hi this direction.

'' lieise igiennem I'tantl (1772), vol. I, p. 594.

' In the Swiss Alps, according to Fatio (Fiu Vert. Suisse, vol. V. |i. 458), the Eel ascinds to an elevation about twice as great.

' Xord. Aarsskr. Fisk., liste Aarg. (1884), p. 306.

:' See Lloyd, Scand. Ado., vol. I, p. 143, and Nii.ss., tSlcand. Fun, Fifl.-.. p. 675. note.

* Vret is probably connected with vrida, to writhe, twi.st. Tr.

1028

NCANDIXAVIAX I'lSHES.

is a pro\'erl)ial ex])ressiou; and tliis (luality is of great
service io tin- iisli in ever\" strail. Xnr does tlie l-^el forget
to take advantage thereof, hut slips through the tiniest
openings. In order to widen the aperture, when this
is too small to afford a passage for its head, it has re-
course to the same method as that employed by a
F'ierasfer in gaining entrance to the l)ody of an Holo-
thuria (see aliove. y. 598, tig. 143). It first inserts the
end of the tail. From a live-well or other receptacle,
left without a lid, the Eel has often escaped tail first,
lifting itself over the edge with this part of the body.
The toughness of its skin is equalled by the obstinacy
with which it keeps stationary in the same spot, unless
impelled liy hunger, the sexual instinct, or fear. It lies
motionless among the dense water-plants of the lakes
or river-banks, or among tufts of weed in the sea; hides
under stones and in the crevices between them, or lies
in the tunnel which it has l)urro\\ed in the mud or
loose santl, its head and tail projecting at eitlier end.
Its caution is extremely gi-eat, and it avoids every sus-
picious object. An old tradition is current among the
fishermen that if, on its migration in a river, the Eel
comes to the unljarked trunk of a birch-tree jdaced
across the cliannel, it halts; and by laying down such
obstacles they force it to take tlie path leading into
Eel-weirs or similar contrivances. Linn^us makes re-
ference to this in his "coercetur trunco albo Betuhe."
To changes in the weather it is very sensitive, and
becomes greatly distressed and very restless in a thun-
derstorm, quitting its retreat, and falling an easy victim
to the seine. In winter it burrows to ;i depth of se-
\eral feet in the mud, and lies torpid, often in large
companies, to escape the cold. But it may be frozen,
though not too hard, and again thawed to life. Its tena-
city of life is kno^vn to most by exyjerience. Though
skinned and chop]>ed to |)ieces, it still moves. Its suf-
ferings, before death finally releases it, must awake the
pity of all. Ghastlj- is the description given by Jacoby"
of the Eel-roasting carried on by the Italians at Co-
macchio. "A large establishment for the roasting of
Eels is a sight during working-iiours that none will
forget. You see before you a living picture of hell,
where the damned suffer all the torments that the pious
imagination of mediasval painters could conceive; and
you are surprised at evei-y moment by the perfect re-
semblance to the woi-k of their pencils. In the back-

" Der Fischfang in der Lagiine von Comaccluo nebst eiiier Dnrstelhiiir/ il
' Cf. above, p. 621, Darwin's anecdote of a Diodoii.

ground a huge door opens now and tlien, to let in the
full flood of daylight. Tiirough the door and over tlie
murky water of the canal a rower guides his broad boat,
mouthing execrations. He brings with him the souls of
the damned, the Eels, wliicli lie in writhing heaps at
the bottom of the boat. Tlie victims are now scooped
up with nets and thrown into tubs. In front of each
tub sits a fiend, armed with a sharp hatchet. He chops
into three or four pieces the wriggling bodies of the
large Eels, which vainly strive to escape. The small
Eels are cast as they are, together with these pieces,
into other tubs. The work is now taken up by other
hands, with another diabolical duty to perform, that of
spitting on huge skewers, up to two yards long, the
pieces and the live Eels in coils, one after another. The
spits, loaded with the still writhing pieces and the
wriggling small Eels, are now taken to the fire. Eiglit
or nine large i'urnaces, heated with great blocks of wood,
spread a violent heat over a great portion of the dusky
room. In each furnace, before and in the tire, hang
seven or eight of these loaded spits. They are kept
turning by women, who in face, age, and figure har-
monize well with their infernal surroundings. Each
gang of \\orkers, men and women, chants its song, the
flames roar, the smell of burning fat rises from the
victims, and the picture of hell is almost complete."
Man is here no more merciful than the beasts, which
in the struggle for existence reck little of each other's
sufferings. A different proof of the Eel's endurance was
iiffbrded us by the dissection of a porpoise that had
been found dead in the Cattegat off the coast of l!o-
husliin on the 29th of April, 1878. In the abdominal
cavity lay a dead Eel 465 mm. long. It had evidently
been swallowed alive by the porpoise, but had retained
strength and sense enough to gnaw its way through
the wall of one of its devourer's stomachs into the ab-
dominal cavity, thus inflicting death on the porj)oisc,
though itself unable to escape from its prison''. In
spite of these poAvers of endurance it is easy enough
to make a wriggling Eel lie still. Only cut a slit
across the hind part of the tail; and so great is the
sensitiveness of this part that the Eel becomes motion-
less, probably with pain.

The Eel feeds principally by night, the time when
it is most active in every way. Even in the daytime
it may l)e enticed with a tempting bait, lint, as a

Aalfnige, Berlin 1880, p. 83.

I

CIIMMON KKl,.

1029

rule, o]\\\ \\li(>ii tlu! WMter is turhid mIIci- ;i storm or
in wrt wc'itlioi'. It devours ;iimost all aniniai food,
live or dead, tVesli or putreiied, that it eaii swuiiow.
The smail h^els content themselves witii lowi-r marine
animals of" every kind, small crustaceans (Gannuarids),
worms, and mollusks. Tiieir elders begin with small
fishes, sueli as Sticklebacks, Sand-eels, and l.amiireys,
and often gorge themselves with iish-roe. In fresh
water they wage a ruthless war of exteriniiiatioii against
the crayfish, which they most appreciate just after the
old shell lias lieen cast, and while the new one is still
soft. They also attack one another; and instances are
recorded of the victor in these combats being suffo-
cated by its prey. The latter, the head of which was
alread)^ swallowed, had bent its tail right liack and
forced it out through the gill-opening of its captor.
Soon they do not shrink from assailing higher ani-
mals, such as fi'ogs, young waterfowl, and water-rats.
They even pui'sue the water-rats into their subaqueous
holes, and Eels ai'e frequently found that have turned
these into their own hiding-places. But vegetable
substances, such as grains of corn, demonstrably enter
into their diet"; and Feddeksen relates'' that at Copen-
hagen it was a [popular diversion to feed the Eels in
a pond in Orstcd's Park with liits of bread. The vo-
racity of the Eel thus renders it omnivorous.

In this connexion we may consider an observation
repeated on many occasions, but as often explained
away or even ridiculed: — the Eel, like the aljove-
meutioned Climbing Perches {LabyrintMci), voluntarily
travels in (piest of food by land. "The Eel is said
sometimes by night to crawl out of the water on the
fields where it finds lentils, ])eas, or beans sown"', wrote
Albektls Macxus' ill the 13th century. "This mig-
ration", wrote ISock' in the 18th century, "explains
the mysterious fact that in Prussia and Pomerania
fish are caught on dry land and with the plough.
On wai'iii nights, when the Eels betake themselves to
the peas, the peasants plough a few furrows along the
water towards dawn, before the day has broken; and
these are the nets in which the Eels are taken. For,
though the Eel can drag itself along on the iirass, its

retreat is cut ofl' by the u])tui-ni-d sods. llu' rustics
consider it a sign of a])proat'hing storm when the Eel
(piits the water for dry land." The Royal Museum
|)oss('sscs in its collection of manuscrijjts a communi-
cation made to Prof. li. Fkies in 1836, and relating
how the Dowager Countess B. M. IIa.milton in the
I'arlv part of the centurv instituted the most cautious
observations of some Eels and caused their capture
during theii' land excursions on her estate. They
wandei-ed of a night from Lake lledeidunda into a
field, and ate pea-pods "with a smacking sound, like

that made by sucking-pigs when they are eating

On investigati(jn it ^vas found that the pods were not
gnawed in pieces or eaten up, but that the Eels onl)'
consumed the outer soft and juicy skin covering the
young pods; and after this discovery the Eels, which
were kejjt at HcMlcnlunda in a live-well, were fed with
pea-pods."' The comraunicati(jn further contains a
description of the acutcness with which the Eel ap-
prehends the slightest noise, even on land, and the
ccleritv with which it then retreats to its pro]ier ele-

B^ig. 277. Iiifr-stiiial wnnii (Auritnn labiata) of the Eel compared
will] a yoiiiiK Eoi of tlic same sv/.e. After Be.nECKE.

ment. Ekstkom rejected all similar anecdotes as fa-
bles; Xil.s.son'' assumed that the Eel's object in these
journeys was the quest of a food more suitable than
peas, namely slugs {Lima.r). This opinion may be
more reasonable, but credence can no longer be re-
fused to the above-cited oliservations, for we have
evidence from other soui'ces of the Eel's taste for vege-
table food.

The propagation of the Eel was a riddle for thou-
sands of years, and has given rise to the most mar-
vellous conjectures. According to Akistotle' no one
had found eggs in the Eel up to his time; but even
then its intestinal canal had been observed to contain
"hair-like or worm-like growths" (fig. 277), that were

" See Trybom, Dausk Fiskeritidendc, 1885. ].. 4 11.

'■ Same periodical, 1885, p. 341; 1891, p. 397.

' Quoted by Siebold, 1. c, p. 314.

•' Wirlschaftl. Naturgeschichte voii dem lumirji-eii'li OkI- iind Westpreu-isen. 1784, quoted by Benecke, 1. c, \>. 175.

' Sk-and. Fna, Fisk., p. 669.

^ Aiiim. Hist., lib. IV, cap. XI.

1080

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIiI>.

supposed to he youiiii' Eels, m uiistake ngainst wliicli
lie cautions his readers, but wliieh often crops up, even
in modern times. He believed that Eels were born of
\vor'nis generated in the sea by decaying \veed and on
the shores of fresh water by mud under the influence
of heat". According to Puny'' the Eels rub themselves
against the rocks, and wliat they thus scrape off their
bodies comes to life. According to Kondelet' even
Ai'tiENvEUS and Oppian (2nd and 3rd cent., A. D.) had
seen Eels knot themselves together in bundles; and
they believed that the slime the Eels tiuis pressed out
of one anothei''s bodies received animation. The old
tale of the Eel])out {Enchclyo'pus, see above, p. 607)
as "Eel mother" can be traced in literature back to
Albertus Magnus. \\'ith these conjectures the Eel
qiicfitUtn A\as dismissed throughout the Middle Ages;
and the founder of modern ichthyology, Artedi, re-
frained from touching the point in his writings". Ti-
selius, a Swedish rector and a contemporary of his,
had, however, published at Upsala in 1723 an "Ut-
forUg heskrifning cifrer den stora Svea och Gofha SJon
Wdtter", where he relates (p. 113) that "in several
Eels, close to the small of the jjack and the spine,
has been seen a, tine and handsome roe of a reddish
appearance". Tliis observation probabl}' refers to the
kidneys of the Eel, but perhaps to the true ovaries.
The first discoverer of these may thus have been a
Swede; but in scientitic literature the Italian Mondini'"
and the Danish naturalist O. E. Ml'llek' are generally
mentioned as rivals for this honour. The ovaries were
more thoroughly investigated by Rathke" and Hohn-
BAUM-HoKNSCHUOH ''. The male organs of the Eels
were not discovered until more recent times. Hathke
indeed speaks in several passages' of such organs, but

\vhetlier he referred to the true testes, or had any
knowledge of their structure, seems more than doubt-
ful, for he so expressly states that they are witiiout
efferent duct. Sykski ' was the first to publish more
accurate information of these organs, and since then
Broch* and Rydek' have been the principal contri-
butors to the elucidation of ijuestions connected here-
witli.

The first (ibser\ation from which we can derive
a positive opinion as to the breeding of the Eel, is
old enough, even in a literary sense. Ahistotle was
quite aware that the Ke\ goes out to sea, t)ut lie ex-
pressly denied that these wanderings were due to sexual
instinct, tiie Eel being destitute, in his opinion, l)oth
of semen and ova. From the middle of the 17th cen-
tury, however, it has l)een known that the Eel breeds
in the sea. We are told by Franciscus Redi'": "Now
there are other fishes that pass the greater part of their
life in fresh water, but resort to the sea for the pur-
pose of disburdening themselves of their seed. Thus
I have arrived, bj' means of numerous and long con-
tinued observations, at the conclusion that year by year,
as soon as the rainy season sets in about the nmnth
of August, espet-ially on dark and cloudy nights, the
Eels repair in great numbers from rivers and lakes to
the sea, where they deposit their germs. The small
Eels born of these swim up the mouths of the rivers
into fresh water earlier or later, according as the
weather is more or less severe, towards the end of
January or just in the beginning of February-, so that
the migration is commonly over by the end of April.
They do not arrive in one bod^■. l)ut in several de-
tachments and at varying intervals. They come in
such numbers tliat some fishermen wiioni I connnis-

" There (ire several niediieval receipts for tlie breeding of Eels by laying two moist sods with tlie ;

* //(.«/. Mtmdl Lib. IX, cap. 50.
' De Pise, fitw., p. 199.
'' LinNjEUS (^Syst. Nat., 1. c) based his <ipiniou on Fahlberg's conmninication to the Swedish Aca(

discovery of young in the intestine of Eels, a repetition of tlie old confusion with intestinal worms.

* De Anguillce ovariis, communicated to the Academy of Bologna in 1777, but not printed until 17
.'' Underbrochne Bemiihungeii bet den Intestmalwurmern, Schr. Berl. Ges. Naturf. Freunde. vol. I, 17
" Beitr. Gescli. Tliierw., 2:te Abth. (Schr. Naturf. Ges. Danzig, Heft. Ill), pj.. 121, 161, 175;

Niiturg. 1838, p. 299: Bemerk. hocbtr. Aal, Arch. Anat., Phys. 1850, p. 20.3.

* De Anyuill. semi et genet:, disp. (ireifsw. 1842.

* Beitr., 1. c, pp. 183, 186, 196.

■> (Jber die Reproductions-Organe del- Aale, Sitsber. Akad. Wiss. Wieu, LXIX, i U87-1), p. 315.

* Mith. Zool. Stat. Neap., Bd. 2, p. 415.
' Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm., 1885, p. 1.

"■ Francisoi Redi, Optcsculoriim pars tertia, sive de animalctdis vivis qiiw in corpofibus animaliuui vi
Ex Etiusci Latinas fecit Pethus Coste, Lugd. Batav. 1729, p. 99.

grassy sides together

leiuy of Science in

1750 of the

83.

80, p. 204.

Weibl. Geschlechhr

Aal.. Arch.

voriini reperiitiitui; obsercationef.:

COMMON ICKI..

in Ml

sioiied in UiliT td lisli the i;i\cr Anui at I'isa iK'twcen
tlie l)i'i(liic' nearest to tlie sea and tlic inidillc l>ri<lge,
took within tlie space of 1i\-e liotirs more (lian .'i.OOO
ponnds of I'.els in seines alone Anotliei- tivhernian of
the same ri\'er. onh half a mile (."),(.)<)() puces) from the
sea, ean^u'lit jnst at da\lireak more than liHO pounds (_)f
Eels which were so \'oung and small that aliout 1.01)0
of them went to the jiotind — I mean a Tuscan pound,
which contains 1:^ ounces. I'mt not all the luds aic of
the .same size when tlie\' enter fresh water": 1)\ fai' the
greater nundjer measure', aecdrdini;' to his ;ip]ieuded ti-
gnrcs, about 35 — ')'^ mm., the remainder ahout 70 —
140 mm. ( )ii the same experience the great Eel-tishery
of the lagoons off Comaechio, at the mouth of the Po,
has been based since time immemorial. Here the ex-
tensive sy.stem of lagoons lias been disided ])\ means
of dams and dikes into bro:id> and canals, \\lieri' the
Eels can lead their fresh-water life. E\ery year, on
the 2nd of Eebruarw all the sluices are opened, free
ingi'ess from the Adriatic being thus afforded to the
ascending Elvers, which struggle up against the current,
swollen as it is by the winter rains. By far the greater
nundier of them are under G — 8 mm. in length, accord-
ing to jACoiiv. (_)n line days they keep to the bottom;
at night and in cloudy weather they s\\ini nearer to
the surface. This Eel-fare, called by the Italians nioii-
tafa (the French moiifee), lasts three months. Towards
the end of Ajiril the sluices are closed. They are again
opened at the end of Septend)er, when the summer
drought has so I'cdueed the volume of tlie lagoons that
the water of the Adriatic streams in. At this season
the sexual instinct awakes in the old Eels — from 4 to
6, or, according to some, as much as 10 A'ears of age —
and thev set out on their seaward migration. But their
path is barred by the fisherman's devices; inti'icate
systems of weirs guide them into large baskets, where
the Eels lirst congregate, to be afterwards transferred
to the broad boats which we have mentioned above.
This fishery with all its contrivances depends on a
knowledge of the migrations undertaken by the Eel,
and was already old when TmujiATo Tasso, in his La
Genigalemmc JJberata, com]iared TANrr.Kn in the am-
bush to the Eels in this labyi'inth.

In Sweden too, time out of mind, the fisherman
has set Eel-nets (lanor) and constructed Eel-traps with

the entrance op[)0sed to the stream for the adiiiittincc
of the descending Eels. In our ri\ers and lakes tiiis
downward migration begins in May, lint does not be-
come general until the dark nights set in, towai'ds the
close of .\ugiist. "In the iieighbourhoo(l of Ipsala",
writes SiNDKVALL. "IJarou < 'icnEiisritriM was informed
that before midsummer the E.els haunr the large beds
of reeds and horsetail on the lower course of tlie Eyris.
During duly ("till St. Olaf's Day", the 29th), when
these reed-beds ai'C cut. the\' descend into the arm of
Lake Millar known as E.koln. into \vliich the l"\ris falls.
\\ the beginning of .\ugust gi'eat (pianlitie> ol' Va-\ are
taken there on long-lines with 400 hooks. The Eels
proceed down tliis liay to Sko Land, the south coast
thereof, where the de])th is gi'eatest. measuring 20 — 'M)
fathoms. Here they are taken for a short time in the
middle of August, after which they disa])pear ". During
its sojourn in fri'sli water the Eel retains its keen appe-
tite; but less and less food is consumed as the sexual
instinct asserts itself, and as the ti'ue migrat(jry di'ess,
the pale belly, is adopted. Frerjuentlv tlie migrating
Eels knot themselves together in bunches, and large
bundles, often a fathom in circumference, are seen King
still in the lakes or trundling down the streams. (_>n
reaching the sea the Eel proceeds on its wa\- to the
spawning grounds. Their situation has not yet been
ascertained; but Caldekwooo" mentions a female 29' ^
in. (749 mm.) long and "almost ready to spawn" that
was taken on the 27th of December, 1892. about 12
miles south of the Edihstone. or 20 miles from the
nearest in)int of land, Rame Head. That the Eel of
Swedish waters spawns partly in the Baltic, seems pro-
bable, \oung Eels 7 or 8 cm. long having been found
both in the Roslag (Upland) and in the Ljusne Elf'.
But the main bod\' of the Swedish raigratoi-y Eels roves
along the Baltic coast and round Scania out through
the Sound, perha|)s too, in company with Russian and
German Eels, through the Belts. That the Eel spawns
in the Cattegat, is proved b\- the multitude of Eel-fry
'j, — 1 dm. long so often to be observed in spring and
summer all along the west coast of Sweden making
their way into fresh water. In the north of the Sound,
nearer to the Swedish than to the Danish i-oast, is a
deep channel with more than 10, in places 20 fathoms
of water, where Eel-fry occur in mjriads during win-

" km\.. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 0. vol. XII (189.=!), p. .S.5.
' LiLu., Sv., Norg. Fisk.. vol. Ill, p. 392.

103 2

SCANDIX AVIAN FISHES.

ter. "And hero", says Vilu'msex", "it iiinv dt'tcn Ije
observed huw tlie ("od in winter disuorge tVoin their
crammed stoiiiachs extremely siiiali and seiin-ti'.-iuspa-
rent young Eels, only o — 8 em. long'. Food digests
rapidly in the stomach of a Cod, and as the disgorged
Eels are fresh and entire, we mav safely conclude that
they have heen swallowed (|uite recently and thus on
the spot. I have also seen them jum]) alive from the
jaws of the Cod, which had probablj^ seized them at
the same moment as it took the tisherman's bait. The
bottom in this part of the channel consists of mud
mixed with clay, and must be tenanted by multitudes
of Eel-fry, for sometimes every single Cod has secured
a number of them. It cannot well be assumed that
these frail creatures swim freely al)0ut u.t a time of
j-ear when tlie larger Eels eagerly take refuge in the
security of the bottom. It is more probable that they
lie concealed in the mud, but that the Cod knows how
to rout them out from their hiding-places. This opi-
nion is su})ported l)y tlic fact that the stomacli of the
Cod also contains other inhabitants of the mud, such as
Ascidians, Holothurians, worms, etc."

"The Eel lays its eggs in the nuul", writes Des-
jiarest'', "after a kind of copulation. The eggs are bound
together b}' a slimy mass like that which envelops the
ova of the Perch, and form small clues or round balls.
Each female, as we have ascertained by personal ob-
servation, annually lays several of these agglomerations.
The fry are soon hatched, but remain for some davs
after exclusion within the said balls. When the fry
have attained a length of 4 — .5 cm.', they liberate them-
selves from the bonds that confine tliem, and ascend
the neighljouring ri\ers in dense and extremely nume-
rous bodies".

Not all the Eel-frv, however, re|)aii' to the rivers
at tliis age. A great nundier pass one or two years
in the sea'', and are 2 — 4 dm. long when they under-
take the ascent. At Elfkarleby fry of this size make
their way up the Dal I'.lf, where thev are called AI-

vlmmor or Alrinner\ without intermission from July
till October, but mostly in Sejitemlier. These Alvim-
mor or Elvers are the Cirelles of French rivers. When
thev have grown somewhat larger, and are found among
the seaweed of the littoral regions or the grass of the
lakes, they are known in S\\eden as Gras-cil oi-, on ac-
count of their watery flesh, Bh'it-nl, in Denmark as
Visse-(il.

We have still to consider the (piestion whetlier the
Eel als(i breeds in fresh water. As wc liave seen, this
is hai'dly |)robable. Eels occur, it is true, in tarns of
great elevation and in isolated pieces of water which
seem to be cut off from the sea by barriers impassable
to a fish. But Eel-fry have an almost incredible capa-
citv of penetrating or circumventing obstacles in their
path, and their elders can also travel bv land. Obser-
vations lia\c l)een made, however, which are at least
easiest of explanation on the assumption that the Eel
propagates in fresh water as well as in salt'. Trvboii
states (1. c.) that "in 18()4 1,000 young Eels were trans-
planted from I'^lfkarleby to Lake Hagel in Dalecarlia.
Tile lake lias no outlet, and no Eels had previously
been found in its waters. In 1871 Eels weighing 1';^
— I'/a kilo, were taken there, in 1872 specimens that
turned the scale at r7, 2, and even .3'4 kilo. In the
summer of 1879 small Eels weighing only '4 kilo, as
Avell as larger ones Avere caught. Eel-fr}' have been
planted in the lake on oidy one occasion". (_)nly a few
vears ago it was supposed tliat male Eels occur in the
sea alone, and do not ascend, at least not in any great
number, into fresh water. It was consequently incon-
ceivable that the Eel should multi])ly in fresh water.
But the collections of the Ro\'al ^luseum had contained
ever since 1844 a male Eel 23 cm. long, taken by
Lieutenant Robsahm at Trollhattan; and in 1880 Hek-
iiES'' found 13 male Eels in the Elbe off Cumlosen, near
Wittenberg, about 25 German miles from the mouth of
the river. Recently (the middle of June, 1S93) at
Silkesborg Papermills and Ilolm Mill, in the Eel-tra])S

" Diiiisk. FiskeritidfiKle, 1892, i... IT..

* CiiENU, F.ncycl. <V[Iist. Nat., Jiept., Poiss., p. 328.

'^ But cf. .Iacoby's staleuieiit, nientidiied nlxive, (liiit iridsl of the yoimg Eels ia\ tlu-ir iiiiwaril journey at Coiiiacchio are only 0 — 8
mm. long.

"^ In the old outlet of the Uiver Niss.i, the so-called Svinback, open towards the sea, but now almost choked up, Eel-fry ' j — 1 f''"-
long used to take up their summer quarters wilhout evincing any migratory tendencies; and the hoys of Halmstad amused themselves by
wading in the shallow water to frighten these young Eels out of the mud and cl.'iy ami catch them.

" Su^^DEV.^LL, Stockli. L. Hush.-Sallsk. Handl. 1855, p. 92; Tktbom, Landthr. Akad. Hand!., Tidskr. 1S81, Oiii s. h. Alchiiier etc.

■'' See for example Lewin's remarks in Wittmack, Deulsch. Fisch. Ver. Circular, No. 1 (1S75), p. 127.

? BuU. U. S. Fish. Comm. 1881, p. 98, and Mitth. Sect. Kiist., Hochseef., Deutsch. Fisch. Ver., 1893, p. 113, not. 2.

COMMON KKL.

1033

of till' (tuiIcii, wliicli falls into Itandcrs l-jord (llic Ciit-
teg!>t), 1'"ki)I)i;i{sk\" fouiitl auioiii;' ilcsccndiiiii' Iv-ls 2'/„
— 4 ilin. luiiu' numbers of uimIcs with \'cllo\v liclly,
aiiioiiiitin;^- lit the tirst-nientimicil place to St) \k'V cent
of the catch. In Lakes Hjul, Bras, and Avn, within
the same river-liasin, similar males were taken with
Kel-seiiies. A month later (15th — 17th .lulv) tiie males
in and near the Lakes of Silkesborg had hegini to de-
velo]» the white belly of the migratory dress, but judging
by the take were fewer. He made similar observations
at Maarup Mill, between Lakes Orum and ()\e, on the
other side of Liim Fjord, and in Westen-see (Province
of Rendsburg, Holstein). It thus seemed probal)le at
all tiiese places that a descent of young Eels, es])ecially
males, takes jilace in summer, before tlie general descent
of older females commences. The males, likt' the fe-
males, consecjucnth' siiend a ]iortion of their lilV' in fresh
water; but the assumption that the Eel s])awns in fresh
water, side by side with its normal breeding-season in
the sea, first recpiires authoritative confirmation.

Not all the Eel-fr\', as we have seen, ascend into
fresh water during the tirst year of their existence; nor
do all females of a size that indicates maturity under-
take miirrations. In the lagoons of C'omacchio the fisher-

In recent times ichtln'ologists have been most in-
clined to the belief that after spawning the Eel dies'.
This opinion ma\' be correct, for it is jiartly true of
the Salmonoids, and a]>plies to the Lampreys, from
which the l-^els do not difl'er widely in the structure
of the generative organs. On one or two occasions
dead I'.els, spent, as it is stated, have been found on
the seashore, and a skipper is said to have sailed some
distance in the North Sea among dead Eels, floating at
the surface. Large Eels have never been found mi-
grating in an\' number to fresh water. But this is no
ade(]uate solution (jf tiie point, for that a re-ascent may
take place, though it is seldom observed, appears from
Robin's'' discovery of female Eels, with the stomach
full of niaiine animals — Annelids (Juinire sanf/uinea)
and shellfish {l>(>iis) — which thev had brought far up
the Adour, 40 kiloni. from the sea. The so-called hlol-
dlar and sliikuhir in the sea must also be taken into
consideration. The\ ai'(> demonstrably not always .ste-
rile, nor has it yet been pnncd that the larger among
them have never spawned.

The Eel is greedily preyed on bv mammals, such
as otters, seals, and dolphins, by piscivorous birds, and
by larger fishes; but its most destructive enemy is

men have long been aware of this, and call the large ' undoubtedl}' man. To a good digestion its flesh is one

Eels that do not migrate FaschdV'. Near the same
locality these forms are also found in the sea, off the
coast; and Jacoby described them as broad-snouted,
small-eyed, yellow-bellied, high-finned, and with glassy
ovaries, destitute of fat and containing transparent eggs

of the most excellent foods, whether boiled or fried
— less indigestible in the latter form — fresh or salted,
smoked or marinaded. The young are made in many
places into Eel-cake (cf. above, p. 973). The tough
skin of the Eel has been most generally employed as

with little, if any, granulation. He explains them too material for flail-thongs.

as sterile females; but whether this sterility is ])erma-
nent or temporary, still remains an open ipiestion, for
nian\- broad-nosed Eels have ovaries of normal develop-
ment. In Sweden the'S' are known on account of their
voracity as sliik-ol (ravenous Eel), the Danish khepctl.
They do not rove in shoals, but lead a more solitary
life; yet are often caught, for thev freely take a hook.

The great Eel-fisheries have contributed in a liigh
degree to our knowledge of the Eel's habits, for the
method of setting his tackle which the fisherman has
learnt from the experience of ages best indicates how
the Eel comes and goes. \Mien the Eel descends the
rivers, large or small lanor, a kind of seine with fine
meshes in the bosom, are stretched across the channel,

the best bait being Roach. Jacobv extols their de- i or Eel-traps (a/Z/M.s) are constructed in the slopes of the

licious flesh, "which melts in the mouth". Kuovkk ' streams. These are timbered like log-houses, but on

describes their flesh as hard, dv\, and lean, and the lower side chinks are left between the logs, wide

their skin as hard and tough. The difference may enough to allow of the passage of the water, but too

easily be due to the recencv or remoteness of the narrow for the Eel to slip through. On the side facing

spawning-season. the current a hole is made, in which is inserted a

■■ Dansk Fiskerilidende 1893, p. .333.

* "Pasturers".

' See Jacoby, 1. c, p. 55.

<> Comptes Rendus, Fevr. 21, 1881, p. 382.

i(»;u

SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

trough or wooden i)um])-l)ai'i-el, lilackened lest it sliould in tVesh wiiter, ainoBg the reeds and in calm inlets,
frighten the Eel, and with the inner end raised high j Eel-boxes (dl-hhlor) are sunk, lined witii woolly sheep-
enough above the level of the water in and below the I skin, the wool facing inwards, and jiieived witii round
traji to cut off the Eels retreat. When the trough is ; holes ?> or 4 em. wide. At these holes the sheepskin
closed, tlie water runs out of the trap, and the Eels ' is slit up crosswise, and the strips are left hanging
are fished up. < )n the same j)rinciple Alkistor are crjn-

C^:

Fig. il>^. Eel-basket.

structed beside mills and ntht'i' waterwni'ks; Init their
lower end is generallv closed with a tine iron grating.
Into Eel-trunks (hradsiniijiar), which are placed in a
strong current, the Eel is guided by two converging
rows of freshly peeled, white stakes or unbarked birch-
trunks. \\'herever the Eel is known to have its liaunts

Fig. 2 7!). Eel-spear.

there. The k^el-liox is baited with pieces of meat or
the like wrap|;ied in fresh pea-haulm, and the liox is
then left in a fathom or two of water for a week or
so, when it is examined, and moved to another localitv,
if the catch is too poor. In tlie same way Eel-baskets

Fisr. 280. Danish Eel-weir. After DiiECHSEL.

ciiMMdN ei:l

1(I35

{(ilkiij)iir, tiiS. 27(S) ure set, constnu-Tcd on the suinc in tlic l}()tliiii) {hiirktiiHi/, Inithilin/, or pKtfiiiin/). doing
princiiilr as nijaidar (si'i' al)ovc', ]i. MlM, Imt IriauLi'iihir, more liarni than tlio cati'li (-■an repax'. In (icrniaiiy and
woNcn with osiers or thin deal s|)lintcrs, and with a i)cnniai'k much nsc is made of the su-callcd al-cad
round wooden plug to stop the opening ut tiie narrow (i-",el-seine). eitliei- tiu; drif-rad (drift-seine, Germ. Zee-
end. \\'illi tlie setting of Eel-lines all our readers are, .S('«), a net for bottom-fishing, plied from a sailing-boat,
no doiil)t. familiar. fliey may be baited with fish, if and with a double bag as in the trawl, or the handvad
possible ali\e, shrimps, or \vorms. F.els may also be ! {piilsniil. hiilt-rad, inilati-iad. ov stiiirrc-nid), ]iu\]\\\m\n\e(\
taken with an ordinary hand-line, baited with worms from a rowboat, and with a simple bag. Large (jr small
or tisli-oftal — |iylorie .appendages art' i)est — bul the seines (stiKiidnulni) are also drawn from the shore. (_)r
bait must lie on the liottnm. With the l-lel-spear (lji(- the tisliermeii wade out with an ah)Uji, a s(juare seoo])-

Fig. 281. Diffc-ieut iiielliods of setting dUioii

A. frfiiii tlip Proviii

of I'liliiKir; I}, fri'iii I'.lckiiisc :iiul Eiisteni Scania, .\fter Lundberc.

ster, fig. 27H) much Eel is caught, both in winter and
summer. Where the Eel lies hidden in the mtul, or
among the grass or weed, air-bubl)les rise to the sur-
face. In winter tliese bulililes stop under the ice, and
show the fisherman where to strike; in stuiimer lie
watches for them in smooth inlets, or where the current
is not strong, and there the Eel lies of a morning, with
its head turned towards the sun. The fisherman thus
knows where to [tlunge his spear so as to transtix the
Eel, even without seeing it. In many places, as in the
island-belt of Blekinge", the Eel-spearer strikes blindly

net, which one of them holds on the bottom, while the
other splashes in front of liim, to drive the Eels into
the net. But the most valuable Eel-fisheries depend on
the migrations of the Eel in the sea. In Deiunark Eel-
weirs ((il(/(ird(iy) hav(! been constructed from prehistoric
tiutes. These are rows of stakes, or fences woven with
brusli (fig. 280), running straight out from the beach,
and with an al-ri/ssja (ho)iima) at the outer end. Or
there, as on the Swedish coast, only hoiiniior are used,
set singly or in a row, one outside the other (fig. 281).
These constructions have conferred names on the mi-

■■ See Forslag till mj jtskeristadrja, Stockli. 1883, p. 94.

1036

SCANDIXAVI

grating libels, i/mil-al in i'ciniiark, liant-al in Sweden.
The lionwior" are one-armed or two-armed, furnisiied
in the latter ease with a long arm and a short one, the
former (the leader or lduff-(ir»i) to guide the Eel into
the homnia itself {halt), the latter (the check-arm or
gin-arm) to head oft" the fish and prevent them from
passing the opening. At the outer end of the homma
an Eel-basket (kasse or fhui) is set, out of which the
Eel cannot creep back. The whole engine is firmly
anchored to the bottom with lai-ge stones, and the bas-
ket is secured in a sled-shaped wooden frame. When
the Eel, on its migration along the east coast of Swe-
den, comes from the north and north-east, along the
south coast from the east, and in the Sound from tlie
south, the Jiommor must be j)]aced with the opening on
that side of the leader from which the Eel approaches. ..
The same rule applies, of course, to the position of the
(il-riissja at the outer end of the Eel-weirs, where the
weir may be lengthened by setting more ryssjor outside.
The season lasts through the closing months of the

\N FISHES.

year, dark and stormy nights and land-winds Ijeing
most favourable to the fishery. Most of the Eels taken
on the east coast of Sweden are sold alive to Germans
who sail in their well-boats (fjvasar) along the coast,
buying up the supplv.

The value of the Eel-fisheries in Scania and Ble-
kinge, according to Lundbeeg\ was in the years

1882 £8,240,

1883 £11,604,

18-84 £15,691,

1885 £l4,846,

the price fetched in Scania l)eing about Is. Id., in Ble-
kinge about lO'/sd. |)er kilo. The statistics of the
Eel-fisheries in other parts of Sweden are extremely
defective; but we probably do not exaggerate in assu-
ming that the Eel aft'ords our country an average an-
imal income of between £1(5,500 and £22,000. In
Denmark the Eel-fishery is still more productive, and
its combined annual value in the two countries certainly
exceeds £55,000.

Genus CONGER.

No scales in the skin. One row of Jn/r-feefJi Jar(/er fhini the rest and traiisrersetij compressed at the base, but more or
less sharj^ened. at the tip in the loin/itiidiiial direction of the jatrs. Vomerine teeth set in a card containing sereral roivs.

lop R.ljri pop '^''■^ ^^

Fii;-. 282. Bonos of tho head in a Conger {Conger niyer).

alsp, alisphenoid; art, articular jiarl, of Ilie lower jaw; bsj}, basispheiioid; ceh, ceratohyoid; ceth, cartilaginous parts of the ethmoids; rf, dental

part of the lower jaw; et, ethnioiil ; //•, frontal; km, hyomandibular; iop, interoperculum; mp, maxillary (maxillo-pahitine); op, operculum;

poh, preorbital (iirst suborbital); pop, prcoperculum; psp, parasphenoid; pt, entopterygoid ; qu, quadrate; R. br. I— IX, first — ninth branchio-

stegal rays; sob, hindmost suborbital bone; sop, suboperculum; spet, supraethmoidal (nasal); splio, postfrontal (sphenotic);

squ, squamosal; till, uroliyoid.

" A minute description of this li.shery may be found in Lundberg, 0»i aljislcet vied s. k. hommor vid svensha Ostersjoknsteii samt
Oresund, Landtbr. Akad. Handl. oeh Tidskr. 1881.

' Meddelanilen rorande JSveriges Fistcerier, Part. II (1888).

1037

Tlie genus of the Coiigei's, wliicli as cU'liiu'd iilK)\o,
ai'tcr Kai'I'", contains a few (o or 4) as('ortain(Ml siiccics,
ill the essential form of liie Ijoily and lins resembles
the preceding genus, onh' tluit the dorsal tin commences
further forward. The character afforded by the form
and distribution of the teeth (fig. 282) distinguishes it
not only from the preceding genus, but also from three
other genera'' belonging to the family of tiie I'.els. The
most important skeletal differences from AnniilUa are
remarked above. Here we shall merely add that the
nasal (sui)raethmoidal, spct) bones covering each nasal
cavity are more developed in ('onf/er, lieing indeed thin,
but broad, and broki'U up anteriorly into a grating,
with the openings set transyersely or, at the extreme
front, directed forwards.

'liie generic name had a specific signification in

fjNN.Kfs, and ouglit indeed to have retained tliis cai)a-
cit\'; but ('rviici!' raised it to its |n'esent rank, which
it has unifoi-mly preserved in tiie system. X(jw tiiat
it liiis lieen pro\ed (see above) that the formerly recog-
nised genus Lcptocephaliis, which has occupied a place
in the system since 1763, consists of larvtc and dege-
nerate forms, belonging in grijat part to the species of
the common Conger, it nia\' well lie asked whether the
Cuvierian generic name ought not to l)e replaced by
the (ironovian. Hut at present, so long as there are
Lepto('Cj)]ialns forms which cannot be referred with
certainty to any definite species, the alteration might
easily cause confusion'. Furthermore, Conger has been
•known as a generic name ever since the time of
Akistotle'', and in llie works of Belon-'^, Rondei.et",
and WiLLUfiHUv''.

THE CONGER (sw. hafsalen).
COXCEli NIGER.

PliUu XLV, fig. 2.

Bisiancc heticeeii the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout alwut '/^ ' of the lenf/th of the body, or at most aJioiit
*/V of that between the anal fi)i and the same point. Length of the snout V.i '"' """'? "./ that of the head,
which measures ^3 — ^/\ of the distance between the dorsal fin and the tip of the snout. Length of the pectoral

fins about ^/^ — '/,, of the last-mentioned distance.

R. bv. 9 '—10; D. ca27o— .SOO; .4. en 205—22,1; C. 10;
P. 17'; Vert. 153 — 156'".

Syn. Munena supremo nmrgine pinn;e dorsalis iiigro, Aut.. Irlithi/ol.,
Gen., p. 24; Syn., p. 40.
Murcena Conger, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I. p. 245;
Bl., Naturg. Ausl. Fisdi., pt. II, p. 37, tub. CLV; Am,
(Ophichtliiis), .Mur., Oph. (disp. Ups. 1789), p. 11; Mitch.
{AnguilUi), Lit., Phil. Trans. N. York. vol. I, p. 360;
Pall. {Murcena), Zool. Ross. Asiat., toin. III. p. 72; NiLSS.,
Prodr. Ichthyol. Scnnd., p. 64; Ku. (Angiiilla), Damn.

Fisk-., vol. Ill, p. 60.3; XiLss. (Mnrcena), SIcand. Fna,

Fish., p. 680; Bu.-Goode (Leptocephalus), Fisher., Fisher.

Indnstr. U. S., sect. I, p. 656. tab. 240.
^[ltrcen(t mynis. BrOnn., Ichthyol. Massil., p. 12 (false de- ,

term.).
Erlielu-s Macropterus, Hak., Caratl. Ale. X. Gen., p. 64

(+ E. Gruncus, p. 65), tab. XVII, figg. 2 et .3.
.Mnni'iiii nigra, Klsso, fchtliyot. Nice, p. 93 (4- .^ftlr. conger,

p. 92); JoRD., GiLE. (Conger niger), Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

No. 16, p. 362; Coll., N. Mag. Naturv., Bd. 29 (1884),

p. 113.

"" Cat. Apod. Fish., Brit. Mus., p. 111. The cliaraeters were first pointed out. however, by KiciiARnsoN in Ichthyol. Ereb., Terror, p. 107.

* Ophisoma, Swainson (Congromuriena, Kaup, Gthr), Vroconyer, Kr, and Poeciloconger, Ctiir.
' Regn. Anim., ed. 1, tome II, p. 231.

* JoBD., Gill., Bull. U. S. Xat. Mus., No. 16, p. 362, nt.te.

'• rdy/QOg, De Anim. Hi.H., lib. I, eap. V; lib. II, eapp. XIII. XV. XVII; lib. III. eap. X: lib. VT. eaj.. XVII; lib. VIII. oa],p. XIII.

XV; lib. IX,- eap. II.

^ Aat., Divers. Poiss., p. 159.

■' De Pise, lib. XIV, cap. I, p. 394.

" Hist. Pise, lib. 4, eap. V, p. HI.

' 19—^20 %; in old specimens, according to Kroyer, up to 23 %.

J 46—52 'i.

'' Sometimes 8, according to Bleeker.

' ,, 15, ,, ,, „ , and 19, according to Day.

'" 154 — 164, according to Day.

1038

SCANniXAVIAX KISHF.S.

(Jnni/er ini/t/aris (Vothjre romtnun), Cuv., liegn. Anitn., oil. I.
toiii. II, p. 231; Yakp... Ilist. lirit. Fish., ed. I. vol. II,
p. .304; ScHi.Hci. ill SiEi!.. Fun Jcijwii., PifC. p. 25'.t;
Bi.Kii, All. Irhtk. Ind. Or., toin. IV, p. 26, tab. CXLIX
(Mvr. V), fig. 2; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mhs.. Fish., vol. VIII,
p. 38; Coll., Forli. Vid. SeUk. Cliniia 1874, Tilla>gsh.,
p. i;i;i; 1879, No. 1. p. 99; Dabeste, Arch. Zoo). Exper.,
toni. IV, p. 227; WlNTH., NaUirh. Titiskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3,
vol. XII. p. .il; .MoR., Hist. Nat. I'oiss. Fr., foni. Ill, p.
565 ( + var. iii,jei\ p. 566); Mela, Vert. Fenn.. p. 359, tab.
X: Mob., Hckh, Fisch. Osts., p. 148; Day, Fi.^h. Gt. Brit.,
Intl., vol. II. p. 250, tab. CXLII, fig. 2; Stokm, Vid. Sels.
Skr., TroTidhj., 1883, p. 41; Lill.i., Sc, Nonj. Fna. Fisk:.
vol. Ill, p. 410; Cai:., Pnnlr. Fiuk Medit., vol. II. p. 541.

Ci'ixjriis h'Hcophaiis. Richards., Ichlli. Vo;/. Ereb.. Terr.. \>.
108.

Conycr occidentalis. Hek., N. Yuri- Fna. pt. l\ . Fish., p.
314, tab. LIII, fig. 172.

Conger Linnei. Malm, 6'i(/.?. Boh. Fna. p. 591.

FoiiiKL' larvales et degtnerat;x>:
Leptocephaliis, Gronov., Zoophyl., fnec. I (1763), p. 135, No.

410, tab. XIII, fig. 3; Morris, Penn., Brit. ZooL, ed. 1776,

vol. Ill, p. 139, tab. XXV, No. 67.
Leptocephaliis Morrisii, Gll., Syst. Nat. Lni.. c-d. XIII. tnm. I.

p. 1150; Yarr.. Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 311; Kp,

Cat. Apod. Fish.. Brit. Mas., p. 147; Couch, Hist. Fish.

Brit. Isl.. vol. IV, p. 348, tab. CCXXXVIII. fig. 2; Gthr,

Cat. Brit. Mas.. Fish., vol. VIII. p. 139; MoR.. Hist. Nat.

Poi.os. Fr., torn. Ill, p. 567.
Helmictis punctatus, Raf., Lnd. Ittio!. Sic. p. 62. tab. II.

fig. 3; Kp. (Leptocephaliis), 1. c. p. 148, tab. XVII. fig.

8 — sec. MoR.
Leptocephaliis 6'pal/ait:ani, Klsso, Ear. Mir., torn. Ill, p.

205; Kp., 1. c, tab. XVII, fig. 7 — sec. Gthr.
Leptocephaliis Gtissonii, Cocco, Isis 1831. p. 1340 — sec.

Kp et Gthr.
Leptocephaliis candiilissimns, Costa, Fna Reg. Nap.. Pesc,

MalHCott., Apod., tab. XX — sec. Kp., (?) sec. Gthr.
Leptocephaliis incequalis, Facoiola, Atti. Soc. Tosc. Sc. Nat.,

vol. VI, fasc. 1; Natural. Sicil., Anno XII (1893), p. 194.

Obs. Dareste proposed (1. c.) to unite with this species, or
at least to regard as a variety thereof, the East Indian and East
African Conger marginntiis, Val., Gthr = Conger Noordzieki, Blke,
and judging from the variability of the preceding species, there would
seem to be good reasons for this opinion. But apart from the more
elongated (shallower) form of the body, the higher dorsal fin, and
the black-spotted pectoral fins, characters of Conger marginatiis that
Bleekek in particular laid stress upon, we find a remarkable difference
ill the shorter trunk of the last-mentioned species — the beginning of
the anal fin being separated from the tip of the snout by a distance
of aliout 36 % of the length of the body — and in the commencement
of the dorsal fin being still more advanced — the length of the head
measuring about 79 or 80 % of the distance between the dorsal tin
and the tip of the snout. In these respects the species is conse-
quently still farther removed from the preceding genus than Conger niger.

The Conger, in Sweden known as the Hafsal (Sea-
Eel) or sometitnes, in BohiislSn, a8 the Konger-al, so
closely resembles the Common l^el in the form of the
body that no long description is necessary. The mo.st
prominent differences from the preceding species are

the grcati'f extension in a forward direction of the
dorsal fin. thr more pointed tail, the longer snout, and
the larger, more oval eves. .\s a rule too the Conger
is distinguished by its far more con.siderable size. In
Scandinavian waters it is, we may almost say, rare to
find Congers so small that they might be mistaken for
CoiuuKjii Eels, tliougii KiiovEK mentions a specimen
34 cm. long. The maximum length whicii can be
assigned witli certainty to the Conger is about 2' , m.
Day mentions a specimen of this length and weighing
.58 kilo. Tiie largest specimen Collett had heard of
from the Norwegian coast was taken at Farsund in
September, 1883, measured nearly 23 dm., and weighed
2.5 kilo. The greatest depth of the body in sniali
Congers is about .5 %, in large ones about 10 or 11%,
of the length of the body, except in the case of fe-
males with belh" monstrously distended by the tumid
ovaries.

The langtli (if the head commonly varies between
about lo\, and 15\., % (sometimes as nuich as \1 %)
of that (if the body. Its form is the same as in the
preceding species, witii the above-mentioned exception
that the snout is longer, and the tij) of the snout
usually projects beyond that of the lower jaw, though
this is by no means constant, lioth jaws being some-
times of equal length. The eyes are oval, some-
times so distincth" that The vertical diameter is only
' J or even '/g of the horizontal, sometimes, in old
specimens, less perceptibly. During the growth of the
Conger from a length of 'i^j, to one of IG dm. the
longitudinal diameter of the eyes varies between 19
and 11 % of the length of the head. The length of
the snout varies between 25 (25^ ^, according to Kro-
yer) and 28 %, and the postorbital length is about ^ 3
(66 — 64 %), of the length of the head. The interorbital
width increases in these Congers from aljout 15 to 24 %
of the length of the head, the longitudinal diameter of
the eyes, which in young Congers is greater than this
width, lieing in the old only about half thereof, and
their vertical diameter decreasing during these altera-
tions of growth from about ^/^ to ^/, or even approach-
ing ' 3 of the same. The jiosterior nostril on each side
is a longitudinal slit in front of the anterior u|)per
corner of the eye, in young specimens measuring only
about "12 of the longitudinal diameter of the eyes, in
old up to about V.i of the same and separated from
the eye by a distance about equal to its own length.
The anterior nostrils are set here too one on each side

of the tii> of the snout, mikI iirc tuhiilar, hut coni]);ira-
tively sliorter tlnui in the in-eceding speci(!s. The
moutli is similar to that oC the coniinon Eel, but the
gape is eouiparatively larger, and the lips are still
broader, espeeially in front, on the sides behind the
tips of the snout and lower jaw, where the outer folds
may be expanded almost like win^s. Into the base of
the outer fold on the upper jaw projects the lower
posterior corner of the preorbilai bone, which is fur-

anterior part of the upper jaw and on the ti|) of tiie
lower, subulate ti'cth are set in a car<l containinjj: se-
veral rows, tiie two tirst-nieiitioned groups being often,
not always, separated by a toothless space at the above-
mentioned constriction. < hi the jaws these p(jinted
teeth are continued backwards in a row doul)le in front,
single beiiiiid, farthest l)ack on the inside of the above-
mentioned great median row of compressed teeth, for
a shoi-t distance on its outside. The tongue is free,

phbri

epbr I

pkbr II

iMi II

e/tr IV

phs

ephr IV

Fig. 283. Brnuclii.ll arclies of a Conger (Conger niger) seen from above. Natural size. Halves of the right arclies in a natural position,

those of the left arches bent outwards, so that the under surface of their upper parts is visible.

glh, glossohyoid (true lingual) bone; cop /—/F, first — fourth copula;; hbr I — /F, first — fourth hypobranchials; cbr 1 — /F, first — fourth cernto-

branchials; epbr I — IV. first — fourth epibrauchials ; phbr I and //, first and ."second phnryngobraiichials; stbr, stylobranchials;

pihs, upper, phi, lower pharyngeals.

nished on the outer side with a large, round hollow,
including a muciferous cavity belonging to the cephalic
system of the lateral line. The length of the ui)per
jaw from the tip of the snout is about 37 or 38 %,
the length of the lower jaw about 48 — 52 ?», of the
length of the head. In front, both on the under sur-
face of the rostro-ethmoidal tip (of the interniaxillaries,
according to Peters' theory) and on the vomer, in tiie

Scandinavian Fishes.

narrowing abruptly to a point. The branchial arches
(tig. 283) are here too without gill-rakers, and the cardi-
form pharyngeal teeth resemble those of the common
Eel. The structure of tlie opercular apparatus we have
mentioned abo\e. To the gill-openings essentially the
same remarks apply as in the case of the common Eel.
The dorsal and anal tins difi'er from those of the
common Eel in having their longest rays somewhat

131

1040

SCANDINAVIAN 1-I.sIIES.

f'inilicr t'orwiird, tlic ^M-adual tiackw ard slmrteniiig of
tlic I'avs Infill,;:' tlms more cNtciidcMl, wlieiiee tlie more
pointed form of the tail. 'I'lir length of the head is
always perceptibly less than ilic distance from the be-
ginning of the dorsal fm to that of the anal, usually
onl}- 60 — 70 % thereof; bul in Mongers with an exces-
sively hjiig head this pcrccnlage may rise to 85.

'i'he jjectoral tins are oval or obliqneh' pointed
above, the n])]ier ra\s being longest, and extending to
about a line with the beginning of the dorsal tin, soine-
wliat l)evond or somewhat short of the same. Their
length is about (I "o — in Kkovick's youngest specimen
only 4 % — of that of the body, or about 10— l.") %
of the distance between the anal tin and the tip of
tlie sn(jut.

In the scaleless skin the depressed, straiglit latei'al
line with its light (wliite or yellowish ^vhite) pores is
distinct throughout the length of the body.

The coloration of the dorsal side and the tip of
the tail is gray, with a moi-e oi' less pronounced tinge
of chocolate-brown, lighter or darker, sometimes even
black, the \entral side is white, \vith a dash of violet
behind. The base of the dorsal fin is of the same
colour as the back, but towards the top the fin becomes
ash-gray or violet, to a greater and greater extent be-
hind, and the extreme margin is black. This black
tint also appears on the posterior part of the margin
of tlie anal fin, the rest of this fin lieing grayish blue
or violet, growing paler in front. The pectoral fins
are black at the upper margin, ash-gray or violet with
a white or yellowish white rim on the outside, dark,
sometimes quite black, on the inner (posterior) surface.
The toj) of the head in colour resembles the Ijack ; the
lips and its under surface are of the same hue as the
belly, the former, however, with a more or less distinct
tinge of flesh colour; the cheeks have a more or less
powerful metallic lustre. The iris is sometimes silvery,
punrtated \\\\\\ black, sometimes of a. metallic lustre.
In old ('ongers the inside of the mouth and the bran-
chial cavities are pi'incipally black; in the young the
motitli and tongue at least are white.

The ('onger, as the Swedish name conveys, is
distinetlv a salt-water fish, and has a. wide geographical
range, extending almost round the globe. It is known
fr(»m the east coasts both of North and South America,
IVoin St. Helena and the west coast of Europe, the
Mediterranean, India, Japan, New South Wales, and
Tasmania. (Jn the west coast of America, it has never

been found. Its true home hardlv extends into Scan-
dina\ ian waters, though it can by no means be regarded
as rare on the west coast of Sweden, and sometimes
strays even into the Baltic. Stohm received specimens
from the outer ])arts of Trondhjem Fjord; but farther
north it has never been taken. On the shelving west
coast of Jutland it seems to be rarei' than in Norway;
but several six'cimens are known from the Skager Rack,
the Cattegat, and the Sound. I^smakk I'eceived a Lepfo-
cephidns caught, it was stated, in Christiania Fjord,
and perhaps a proof that the Conger may spawn not
far from Scandinavia, though these larval forms rove
c<insideral)le distances in the ocean. In 1877 Malm
estimated that at most l)etween 20 and rio specimens
had been securecl during the preceding 30 j'ears on
the Swedish coast. NiLssox received a specimen nearly
15 dm. long from Halmstad, and another (in the win-
ter of 1853), 24 dm. long, from Landskrona. The
latter, according to Lilljeborg, had been left by the
waves on a sandbank; and a female It! dm. long was
found under similar circumstances oft' Kaa (near Hel-
singborg) at the l)eginning of March, 1883, and for-
^\■arded by Dr. Trybom to the Royal Museum. Mobius
and Heincke mention two specimens from Eckernforde
Bay, the one 2 m. long and 34' , kilo, in weight, the
other weighing 45 kilo., iine from Travemunde Bay,
measuring 17 dm. and weighing 14^ j kilo., and one
from Kiel Harliour, 16 dm. in length and over 15 kilo.
in weight. According to Mela the Conger has even
penetrated into the (tuII of Finland, to the Njdand
coast. It is plentiful on the English and French coasts
and, above all, in the Mediterranean. In the Black
Sea it is rare off the Crimea, but is often seen in
Constantino[)le.

The true haunts of the Conger lie in 20 — 50 fa-
thoms of water, l)ut it ascends between the tide-marks,
and has been found at low water on dry land. It
shares the pi'eference of the common Eel for a noc-
turnal life, and in the daytime shows the same procli-
vit\- for hiding among weeds and stones, in crevices
and in the sand. Off the mouths of rivers it lies in
wait for the migratory fishes on their upward and
downward journeys. It has great powers of endurance
and a robust appetite. Its dentition shows that it is
one of the most formidable pi-edatory fishes. With the
jiointed, though smaller, front teeth it i^'izes its prey,
and with the sharp edges formed by the close-set,
larger jaw-teeth it mangles the victim. Its strength

1041

may he <j;atliere(l tVcuii tlie tact tliat it lias been seen
to tear asunder lines as thick as a mail's tiiigei'. It
docs j^rcat damage to fishing-tackle, and ]a_ys tlie lisher-
man's take under hea\ y coiiti'ihutioii. It I)ites holes
in the nets and drags out the fish. It creeps into
lobster-pots, makes siiort work ot" the catch, and if the
material of the jiot is flexilile, bores its way out, fail
first, through one of tlie chinks. Like the coniiiuiu h'el,
it is sensitive to changes in the weather. Ininiediateh'
before a gale it is restless, and many Congers are cast
ashore in stormy weather. It seems to suffer es])eeially
from cold. In winter it is often found half-dead at
the surfaet', with air-ldadder stroiigh" distended. The
cold apparentlx' dejii^ives it of coiniiiand o\ei- the disten-
sion of this organ.

The rapacity of the Conger often embroils it with
other ]jirates of the deeji. and it falls a \ictiiii to jxir-
poises, dolphins, Sharks, and large Ivavs. In the Medi-
terranean one of its bitterest enemies is its own relative,
the large Mur;Bna, and the combats of these antagonists
were famed even among the ancients. Against the
Miira-na its ordinary stratagems, such as snddenlv tak-
ing refuge in holes, or firmly coiling its tail round
stones or in crevices, are of no avail; and as a proof
of its tenaeit\' of life the old stoi-s' relates that the
Mura.Mia bites off its tail, but that it survives the
wound.

The diet of the Conger comprises all kinds of fish
— principally belonging to the Clupeoid and Gadoid
families, and especialh- Rocklings — lobsters, crabs, and
cuttles; and it shows no mercv to its own species.
The Conger is conserpiently taken in luunbers on the
hook, with a bait of Herring or other fish; but the
bait sliould, if i>ossible, be fresh. Yet it does not
disdain decomposing flesh, and it has been found con-
cealed within the dead bodies of large animals.

The spawning-season occurs in winter. Blcklanii
estimated" the number of eggs in a female at over
fifteen million, perhaps a liberal computation ; but Day
mentions a female, weighing nearly 7 kilo., that had
died in the Southport Aquarium, and the ovaries of
which weighed rather more than 3 kilo., containing
over six million eggs. In fecundity the Conger is thus
by no means inferior to the common Kel. The actual
spawning has never been observed; but the young have

been diligenth' studie<l in recent times, especially b\'
the Italian I'accioi.a '. lie distinguishes between six
different L('j>l<i(i'iili<iliis forms belonging to this species,
more or less distinct transition forms which com])0,se
an unbroken series from the most degenerate larva-,
Lcptoccphalits hueqiiaUfi, or fi-om the longer kno\vn
Leptocephaln.s Morrisii, to the easily recognisable fry
of Conr/cr iiit/er. The iii-st-mentioned lar\-a; are sharp-
nosed, transparent, slender, but deep behind the middle
of the body, are furnished with com|)aratively large,
subulate jaw-teeth, and have the beginning of the dorsal
fin situated in the jxisterior third of the length of the
bodv, tlie vent in the hindmost lil'tli thereof. Lrjito-
fi'jili(il/(s Miin-'isii is blunt-nosed, with prominent tip
of the snout, terete, tiiougli transparent, and of more
unifortn depth, has lost all the jaw-teeth or the greater
numbei' thereof, and has tlie l)eginning of the dorsal
fin situated at a distance from the ti]) of the snout
measuring about 28 % of the length of the liody, the
vent at a distance from the same point measuring about
38 ?v of the said length. The ascertained fry of Con-
f/er ni(/er are brown on the back, and at first show
two longitudinal bands of chestnut-brown. As we have
already remarked, however, the average size of the last-
mentioned, least degenerate forms may be less than
that of Leptocephalus iruequaUs.

The subsequent growth of the Conger is apparently
very rapid. Jackson, the manager of the Southport
Aquarium, added to the collections a number of Con-
gers w-eighing 2 — 8 lbs. (0'9 — 1"36 kilo.), which he
assumed to be about a year old. Five vears afterwards
(in 1880) one of these specimens died, and was sent
to BucKLAXD. It measured ti ft. ."> in. (1,956 mm.)
and weighed 90 lbs. (40-8 kilo.).

In aquaria the Conger is easilv kept alive, but its
ravenous hunger renders it a dangerous comrade to its
fellow-captives. "We find these congers," wrote Jack-
son, "are the most voracious creatures we keep; they
attack and devour even dogfish, and these of a size
that one would think bevond their jiowers of swallowing.
We have ipiite gi\en up keeping the piked dogfish with
them, and even the topers must be big ones, or down
they go. The onlv safe things are our big stui'geons,
monk-fish, skate, and the huge tui'bot we have reared
from little ones (these latter continue to grow). Con-

" Nat. Hist Brit. Fit^h., p. 387.

'• // .Xiituralista Siciliano, Anno XII, 189:i, p. 194.

1042

SCANDISAVIAN FISF4KS.

i

gers swallow their prey liead first, as a rule, liut when
comniittiiig an act of cannibalism they swallow their
small brother often, if not always, tail first. If the
youngster is a bit too l)ig, 3-011 may often see him
three parts swallowed, and when the big one is cjuite
exhausted the other will wriggle out none the Avorse,
except that it is scratched bj' the big one's teeth. We
have had this happen so often with the same fish that
at last it has got as ragged and full of scratches as it
could hold; some day, however, one of the big ones
has given a mighty gulp, and once let its jaws close
over the head of the little one, and we see it no more".
In the fisherman's boat the Conger struggles violently

to escape; it bites at everything within its reach, and
with the aid of its prehensile tail casts itself overboard,
unless stunned in time. Even when cut off from the
})ody, the head of the Conger lias been known to in-
flict a dangerous bite.

In Scandinavian waters the Conger, on account of
its small numbers, cannot repay any special fishery.
Where it is more plentiful, large quantities are taken
on hand-lines and long-lines; but its flesh is inferior
and full of bones. It is eaten boiled, or the flesh is
dried and ground to a powder, which is used as an
ingredient in soups. The tough skin may be employed
in the same manner as that of the common Eel.

ClIONDKiiSTKOUS FISllKS.

1043

PISCES CHONDROSTEI

(STURGEON-FISHES).

Fishes with endoskeleton principally cartilaginous, but with dermal ossifications repre-
senting several of the internal bones of the Teleosts. with shoulder-girdle suspended from
the head, with maxillary and palatine arches free from the skull or united therewith
merely by a mobile connexion, with branchial cavity, which is situated under the skull
and common to the free branchial arches, more or less entirely covered by the opercula,
with fully heterocercal caudal fin, and with paired fins unilaterally rayed. Nostrils lateral,

set just in front of the orbits.

We liave In-iefiy mentioned above (|). 1) tlie most
important anatomical points wherein the Teleosts dift'ev
tVom other piscine orders, and we have now to examine
the relations obtaining l>etAveen tliose typical fishes
which in general organization are by no means inferior
to the Teleosts, but which never attain so high a degree
of skeletal differentiation or ossification as the latter,
and have therefore borne the general name of carti-
laginous fishes. As a rule, though with important ex-
ceptions, we find that in these forms the ossification
deficient in tiie endoskeleton is compensated in the
dermal system, which is strengthened or protected with
hard, thick (Ganoid) scales, spiny plates, or scutes. In
Artedi" they were included, together with the Ci/clo-
stomata, in a single order, ChondroptenjgU, which was
retained under the name of a series by Cuviek', in
contradistinction to the "true fishes" (Teleosts). Agassiz
divided this order into two: the Ganoidn", among
which he further ranged, on account of their hard
dermal gi'owths, several Teleosts (the Glanomorphs,
Plectognates, and Lophobranchs), and the Placoidei'',

among which he placed the Cyclostomc fishes too.
Bonaparte' introduced the first reform, and removed
the Cyclostomata to a separate subclass, Marsi pohranchii ,
as opposed to the subclass of the Chinupras, Sharks,
and Rays, Elasmobranchii, and Miller-^ eliminated
from the order of the Ganoids the said Teleosts. The
delimitation of the Ganoids from the Teleosts, however,
was no longer based exclusively either on the enamelled
scales of the I'oi-mer or on the less advanced calcifica-
tion (ossification) of their skeleton, but mainly on the
characters adduced above (p. 1) and derived from the
more intimate fusion (chiasma) of the optic nerves after
their emergence from the brain, and the prolongation
of the heart, at the transition to the connuon branchial
arterv', into a muscular conus arteriosus, furnished in-
ternally with several rows of valves. Thus defined the
Ganoids still comprised, in addition to the Chondrostei,
the multitude of fishes, possessing more complete jaw-
bones, but now for the most part extinct, in which the
piscine type has evolved by manifold ])rocesses a wealth
of forms rivalling that of tbe Teleosts, but of which

" Gen. Pise, p. 64.

' Regn. Anim., etl. 1, torn. II. p. Ill: t-d. ■>. to

<^ Eech. Poi.w. Foss.. torn. II.

•* ,, ,, ,, foin. III.

' Selachiorum tabula anali/tica, Roina? 1839.

.'' Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1844, p. 147.

II. p. 128.

1044

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

I

only two types survive, iiiliMl)it;uits uf the tropical re-
gions of Africa (the Bichir, J'olijptpius) and America
(the J3onj' Pikes, Lepidosfeus). Lutken" restricted the
scope of the Ganoids to tlic iMst-nientioned division
(MCller's Holostei), but I'anged theiu as well as the
Sturgeon-fishes (MCllicu's Chonclrostei) in the categor)-
of distinct subdivisions among the Teleostean Physostoms.
The free gill-arches alone, with the branchial la-
mellaj projecting beyond their free, outer (convex) mar-
gin, are enough to distinguish the Sturgeon-fishes from
tiie true cartilaginous fishes and approximate them to
the Teleosts, with which they are also allied by several
other points in their organization, e. g. the covering of
the liead witli nienil)rane-ljones tiiat distinctly represent
the several component l)ones of the Teleosteous cranium,
and the structure of the generative organs. Their in-
clusion witliin the (jrder of tiie Teleosts is indeed for-
bidden not only by the above-mentioned chanicters
(rinasmfi and coni(s), but also by the structure of the
extremities, wherein the Sturgeon-fishes have preserved
a great portion of the |jrimordial cartilaginous radialia,
as well as l)y the undi\ided chondroci'aniuin and the very

partially transformed notochord. But LCtken is, bevond
doubt, fully justified in his o])inion that the Sturgeon-
fishes have far more in common with the Teleosts than
witii tlie true cartilaginous fishes. Dodeuleix'' too com-
bined them together with the Teleosts and the true
tianoids into an order, Teleostoini, cliaracterized l)^• tlie
completely ossified skeleton or at least by membrane-
bones on the head and shoulder-girdle, bv the free
(joined to the cranium bv articulations, sutures, or
ligaments) hyomandibular and palatoquadrate arches',
and by the unarmoured pectoral fins'. Among the
Teleostoins they are distinguished by their fully hetero-
cercal caudal fin, with the tip of the spinal column ex-
tending (piite or nearlv to the end of tlie upper caurlal
lolie, and by their unilaterally raved' paired fins. In
DoDEHLEiN they rank, with these characters, us a sub-
order (Fleferocerci). In the Scandina\i;ni fauna, winch
contains neither Lung-fishes (T)ip)i(i}) nor (ianoids, it
may suffice to have drawn attention to the relation of
the Sturgeon-fishes to the Teleosts and the true carti-
laginous fishes, which is adequately expressed by MuL-
LEKS interpretation of then\ as a distinct ordei'.

Fam. ACIPENSERlDiE.

Bodji fusiform, with fire rows of large osseous hucklers. Four barhels in a transverse roir on the under surface
of the s)ioiif, in front of the profriisile month. No hranchioster/al rai/s.

In modern times the ("hondrosteous order contains
oidy two families, one of which, the American and
Chinese Polyodontida, with almost or quite naked body
and without barbels, is ]u'incipally distinguished by its
conq)ai'atively large moutli, o]i('n I'ven laterally (on the
sides of the head), and with upper jaw incapable of
protrusion, the anterior exti'cniitv of tlie palatine arch
being firmly united by ligaments to the under surface
of the skull. Another important difference is that the
I'ohiodoiitidte are without psendobranchiu', those of the
Sturgeons being exceedingly well developed, even func-
tional as gills, with at least superiorly free branchial
lamelliE, on the inside of the opcrcula.

< )n ii])eiiiiig tlie pharvngeal and bi'anchial cavities
of a Sturgeon, the most striking difference from all
the Teleosts meets us in the roof of the palate. This
(fig. 284, mx — mpt) is a continuous, convex disk, with
free margins lioth in front and beliind, and capable,
together with the toothless jaws and fleshy, tumid lips,
of protraction forwards and downwards and of retrac-
tion. On each side of the deej) fold that hangs, covered
with the thick mucous membrane of the phaiynx, be-
tween the free hind margin of the palatine roof and
the under surface of the skull (jiarasphenoid bone) or
jiosterior, fixed palatine roof with its continuation, the
roof of the pharvnx, we find an a]icrture. This hole

" Om Ganoideriais lier/riendsniiii/ oij Inddeling, Vid. Meildel. Nntiirli. For. Kblivu, 1868, scp.

'' Stkinmann and D6derlein, Elcinenle dcr Puldontologie, p)i. 540 and 5.51;.

' As opposed to the Lung-fislics.

'' As opposed to tlie priiiievnl iuid extinct Placoderiin (Pterich/hi/s, Ce/ilialaspi.'^, etc.).

'■ Not loliate, or but sli^litly so, in contrast to tlie strongly lobate fins of tlie so-called Crossopteri/i/ii

STlli(;K.O.\-FISIlKS.

1045

leads into a canal which runs upwards, skirlinu' I he
anterior niaruin of the urcat upper suspensorium (h\-<)-
niiUidihular, Inn) conmnin to the whole ajiparatus of
the palati.' and jaws, and opens (tij:'. 2StI, sji'n) on ihe
top of the iiead, a little behind the eve, at ihc outer
margin ut tiie osseous plate eov(!riiig tiie s(pianiosal
part (s(jii) of the skull, and foreshadowing the s([ua-

to the sulioperculuin and inlcropen-uluni. In the Sterlet
these hinielhe ai'e for tiic most part free; in the com-
mon Sturgeon the\- c-oalesce liiroughout the greater part
of tlieir extei-nal margin witii the operetdum, only their
to]is heing free. In one of the Ganoids (Lepidosteus)
MiiJ.ini" has shown tiiat the u])pt'r part of this row of
giil-iainina' loses its functicjual importance as a respi-

7nosal bone. Tiie uppt'r opening is called the spiracle, ratory organ, and it is tiuis fully lioniologous with the
and the canal, which as well as the former is entirely ; pseudobraiichia' of the Teleosts. liehind the pharyngeal
absent in tiie fishes we ha

tiie tislies We have hitherto considered, but
which in all higiier animals, man included, has its
homologue in the external and internal auditor\ meatus
and the tviiipanum, is liere furnished in its lower
(inner) part, just aliove the internal apertui-e. with a
row of bi-anchial hnnella'. not respiratory, however,
for tlie\' ar<' supplied with arterial blood. Tlie entire

eavitv the branchial ca\it\ of (he Sturgeon shows the
same structuif as that of the Teleosts, four gill-arches,
each \\ith two rows of branchial lamella' and short,
scattered gill-rakers; and the fifth arch (fig. 284, Iibi%,
+ rhr,X the lower jiharyngcal of the Teleo.sts, furnished
with one row of gill-rakt'rs, is here, too, destituti; of
branchial lameihe, and has no gill-slit behind it, lieing

Fig. 284. Forepart of tlie endnslvcleUm in a Sturgeon. Partly after ,1. Mli.i.eh ami Pakkku.
B, basal angle; C, notocliord; c'i/', — cir., first — fiftli ceratobrancliial cartilages; cehi/, eeratoliyoid; fOS(, — cost^, first — eighth ribs; csp, spira-
cular cartilage (according to Pabkek); de, dental part of mandible; etl, lateral ethmoid; hbr^ — /(Ar,, first — fifth hypobranchial cartilages; hhi/,
hypohyoid; km, hyomandibular cartilage, witli the upper part covered by a parostotic disk; M, articular part of the mandible (hind part of
the Meckelian cartilage); m.r, maxillary; mpt, metapterygoid cartilage; ^V, n<iiral arches; Na, nasal cavity; obsp, orbitosphenoid; op*, foramen
of the optic nerve; /•/, palatine; pop. preoperculum (according to Pabkkr); Ps. neural spines; psp, parasjihenoid ; pt. pterygoid; 7;/, quadrate
cartilage; /!. n.stral cartilage: .-7./. syniplecticum; sthi/, stylohyoid; (;', foramen of the nerviit! Iriijemiiiiis; vij, foramen of tlic

canal is analogous to a gill-slit between tln' palato-
niandibular and hyoid ;irches, the latter of wiiich fur-
nishes with its upper parts (the h\oni;iiidibulai-, fig.
284, Itni, and symplecticum, spl) a suspensory apparatus
to the former as well. The gill-slit next behind (between
the hvoid arch and the first branchial arch ])ro]iei') has
its branchial lamelke set in a large. Init single, arcuate
row on the inside of the operculum, throughout the
hind margin thereof, as well as on the inside of the
plates situated below the operculum and corresponding

firmh loalescent with the hind wall of the branchial
cavit\- or anterior side of the scapular arch.

In an adult state the mouth of the Sturgeons is
entirelv toothless; but their larva- have teeth, in form
;ind distribution not unlike those of the Sharks, in their
corneous structure resembling those of the Lampreys,
both in the u])per and lower jaws and on the cerato-
branchial bone (<:hi\) of the first branchial arch proper.
These teeth are developed soon after the palato-Uiandi-
bular arch, originally continuous and arcuate, has brok-

» Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1844, p. 133, taf. II, fig. 1 and taf. V, fig. (!.

1046

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

pii uj) into two parts, an iipjicr, wliich has medially
gi-(j\\'ii togetlier from the sides to form the framework
of tlic palatine roof and an analogue to the quadrate
bone (fig. 284, qu), and a lower (the Meckeliaii carti-
lage), which forias the framework of the lower jaw {de
+ M). At the age of three months these teeth dis-
appear. Meanwliile the }(alato-(]uadrate cartilage has
differentiated into two tirndy coalescent, but distinguish-
able parts, the posterior {nipt) ans\\ering to the meta-
pterygoid of the Teleosts, the anterior corresponding
principally to tlieir pterygoid proper and quadrate (qn),
but also acquiring at its anterior margin special ossi-
fications, homologous with the palatines {pD and tlie ento-

pa £::.

Fis;. 285. Ossifications on tlic under surface of the skull in Acipen-
ser sturio. '/4 "^ the natural size. /),«/), parasphenoid ; pa, its ascend-
ing splienoid process; ro«(, vomer; sci\ vomerine scutes.

pterygoids (pf). There further ap])e,'irs on each side of
the anterior margin of the ])alatine arch a freer bone,
the maxillary (lu.r), whicli extends from the anterior
tip of the palatine disk (pterygoid bones) to its lateral
extremity (the knob by means of which the quadrate
bone articulates with the mandible), leaving between
itself and the palatine disk a fissure, through which
the levators of the lower jaw find a passage. On the
outside of the above-mentioned juncture between the

maxillarv and the quadi'ate lies a triangular ossifica-
tion {pop), nio.st jjointed aliove, which has been inter-
preted by Parkeh as representing a jtreoperculum; and
on the tiutside of the Meckelian cartilage (Jl/) is deve-
loped the dental part (r/e) of the lower jaw.

lu the skidl itself there appear ossifications the
largest of which {psp) answers to tiie parasphenoid of
the Teleosts, and extends from tlie nasal region not
onlv under tiie skull, but also, divided into two lateral
])lates (fig. 285), under that part of the spinal column
wliicli has not been completeh- divided into separate
vertebra', l)ut in tlie form of a cartilaginous Tuass, con-
tiiuious below, comp(jses a backward prolongation of
tlie ci'aiiial cartilage. This parasphenoid is covered
underneath, throughout the greater pai't of its length,
by the hard mucous membrane alone; lint between the
nasal and orliital regions (in tlie etlimoidal region) it
pierces the downward projection (fig. 284, B, the so-
called hasal angle, which may also be observed in the
Sharks) of the chondrocranium. Within tliis it meets
and wedges itself into the vomer {ram in figs. 284
and 28.5) in front of it, which advances under the
rostral cartilage (fig. 284, B), and is continued in its
turn by several vomerine scutes (fig. 285, scr), evi-
dently belonging to the skin. In tlie etlimoidal region
(the lower anterior part of each orbit) the lateral eth-
moids (fig. 284, eU) are developed; al)ove the foramen
of each optic nerve (in the arched roof of the orbit)
aj)pears an orbitosphenoid bone (fig. 284, ohsp), behind
this a smaller osseous disk, corresponding to the ali-
sphenoid, and behind the orbit, round the orifice for
the nervus tngemmus {tr), an osseous disk answering
to the petrosal. I'ut all these bones, according to Pah-
kek", are su[)erticial growths external to the cartilage
{parostoses), foreshadowing the cartilage-bones (ectosto-
ses and entostoses) present at the same points in the
Teleosts a-r:d the higher vertebrates. Similar foresha-
dowers apjjear in the form of osseous scutes (scale-
growths) in the skin on the toj) of the head and outside
the shoulder-girdle. At the middle of the ocei])ut, but
firndy united to the first dorsal scute, lies a trefoiled
(posteriorly broad, ^vith a narro\ver lobe projecting in
front) osseous plate, evidenth' answering to the supra-
occipital (here called the siipraoiTipifal snite, fig. 286,
ocs) of the Teleosts. Further forward lie two larger
scutes, usuallv the largest on the whole head, whose

Pliilos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 17.3 (1882), p. 175.

SrUKCKdX-l ISIIK:

1047

plac'i' is (ir(.-ll|)i('il in the skull of tlic Tclcdsls (sec, I'dt
instiiiicT, the ri'.-iiiiinii of the l^cl. p. 1014, lig. 2HK, />',
par) l'\ til'' |i.-iricfals (/tarictid smlcs^ (in-. -jMli, par).
Their hind oxtrciuities arc parted l)V the said jirojcrt-
iiig iolu' ot the su]jraocci|)ital scute; they are sometimes

sinallei' plates. All these variations may lie observed
in the same sprcics, e. i;-. in the <'ommMii Sturfjfeon.
The ineonstancN of form depends upon the eomparati\ol\
lax eotuiexioii hetwecM these scutes and the skeleton,
the looseness incrcasinH' towards the snout, which is erene-

contiguous throughout the rest of their length (tig. 286, ' rally covered with numerous, more irregular, smaller

B), and in other cases their anterior ends are separated

(tig. '2i>i\, A) 1)\' an osseous plate (I'f) fitting in ht'tween

them tVoni in front. l)efore (hem and parth on the

sides of their anterior extremities lie a pair of jjlates

(frontiil sciitrs. fr). often hut slightly inferior to them

plates, except on tlir sides, which are armoured in adult
specimens of the common Siurgeon \\ith large scutes in
a detinite row. (Mitside each parietal jilate lies a .«(/»«-
iiiosdl siiilc (In othei's called the fem])oral scute, sqii),
and in fi-ont of this, ahovc the orliit, on tlie outside of

B

Fig. 281). Upper siirfaci- of IIjp lieail in tlir S(nri;eon (Acijienser slurio). ' ^ of tlie niitiiral sizi-. Two fif;iiroB sliowiiij; \ ariations in llii-

speciep; tiolli specimens taken a1 (.'hrislianslad.
d^, first dorsal send-; et. etliinoidal scute; etl. ectethmoidal scute; //■, frontal scute; mt. mastoid sciilc; n. anterior nostril; o. eye; ocs. occi-
pital scute; par. parietal scute; ptoli, postorbital scute; ptp, postteiiiporal scute; splio. sphenotic scute; spo, supraorbital scute; ,«;)?>, spiracle;

squ. squamosal scute; tp, temporal scute; op, operculum.

in si'ze. These correspond in situation to the frontal
hones of the Teleosteous skull, and are sometimes close-
ly applied to each other, but usually separated at least
in front (fig. 286, B), sotnetimes throughout their length
(fig. 286, A), either by an elongated ethmoidal scute (et),
which may even extend, as mentioned above, between
the anterior extremities of the parietal scutes, or by
several (up to .') or more and sometimes two-rowed)

each frontal plate, a curved row of three .scutes, the
posterior representing a postfrontal bone {.sphenotic .sci(te.
splio), the anterior a prefrontal bone {ectethmoidal scute,
etl). and the middle one a supraorbital bone {sujyra-
orhital scute, spo). The lower end of the sphenotic scute
touches the top of an angular plate, the form of which
calls to mind the preopcrculum of the Teleosts, but
which here cf)m])oses the posterior and inferior limits

i:ri-i

1048

SCANDINAVIAN FISllKS.

of the <irl»it. ;iii(l is liciicc kuDwn ms the ixiMorhiful scute
i/ittili). Behind each s(|u:iiiii)s:il |>hite we sometimes find
fwi) ])lates, sometimes only oni ', touching the outer
sides of the pariettil, occipitjil, ;ind first dorsal scutes.
Where the [)lates iire two in iiunibei', the anterior is
evidently homologous with I lie mastoid of the 'I'eleosts
()iiast(>i(l sriiii'. nit), and the posterior, which has re-
ceived the name of the IriHjioidl scute {fp), is the uiJi)er-
most plate in the curved row co\eriiig the se;ipular arch
of each side. It rests on (covers) a backward prolonga-
tion of the mastoid angle of the chondrocraniura, ju.st
as tlie first dorsal scute is jdaced on a similar process
springing from the supraoccipital jiart of the chondro-
cranium. We have already mentioned (p. 635) Parker's
comparative investigations wherein he traced the homo-
logues (jf the human clavicle in different vertebrates
from the very stage where they are mere dermal growths

even in its cloven form, with t!ie posttcmporal b(»ne of
the Teleosts. It stands out. howc\ er with ecjual dis-
tinctness as the first plate in the np]ier lateral row of
bo(h- bui'klers, and forms tiic supcrioi' part of the hind
limit of tlie In-anchial cavitw but lies as a tegumentary
botic on two cartilages, one of which {the upper) is
the top of the above-mentioned process issuing from
the mastoid |)art of the head, while the other (fig. 287,
.s.sr) is the uppermost, segmented part of the shoulder-
girdle proper, a part wdiich has disappeared in the
Teleosts, where the dermal plate has also lieen trans-
formed into a portion of the endoskeleton. The median
pai-t of the hind limit of the branchial cavity consists
chiefly, sometimes entirely, of a large jdate, tlie davi-
(udai' sriite (cl), answei"ing to the clavicle of the Tele-
osts. Often, however, there is inserted, close behind
the upper part of this plate, a smaller one, the siipra-

I'Mg. 287. Left scapular sculcs and cartilages of a Sturgeon (Acipenser utiirio). ' , nf tin- natural size. .4, seen frnni within: 7>. from witliout.

.\fter Parker.

The cartilaginous parts of the shoulder apparatus are: ssc, pars suprascapularis '' ; sc, paiv scapidans; cr, pars coraroidea: ecr, pars epicora-

coidea; per, pars prcecoracoidea; fnc, fenestra coracoidea; /. cs, fenestra eoraco-scaptdaris. The scales (plates) transformed into tegumentary

bones for the shonlder-ginlle are: ptp. postteniporal scute: cl. clavicular scute; id. interclavicular scute; scl. supraclavicular scute.

(flsh-scales); and it was principally from the Sturgeon ! dariciilar (set), corresponding to the supraclavicle of

that he traced his comjiarisons. On the outer and the Teleosts. The lower ])art of the clavicular scute

posterior sides of the temjioral scute, or in the same curves inwards, over the ventral side, but the greater

relative position to the mastoid scute, when this is ; part of the eNternal scapular arch on each side consists

confluent with the former, lies a vertical plate, more
or less deeply forked above, cm which Parker con-
ferred the name of the jxisffeniponil scute (figs. 280

at this point of the interctaricular scitte (id), the horao-
logue of the interclavicle remarked above among the
characters of the Hemibranchs. The inner parts of

and 287, ptp), and whicii is evidently homologous, ! these plates are jjcrfect lio

and

in tlie Teleo.sts,

" Tliis variation too may Ih' obscrvCjcl within tlic limits of the same species, for c'xample in the common Sturgeon.
'■ Above the suprascapular part, below the top of the postteniporal i.l.-ite (ptp). lies the tip of the prolongatcrl mastoid cartilage,
not shown in the tigure.

s'rri{(;K((N-i'iNiiKs.

1049

)!' the I'rmik- tlic cdracoid liniic (cr). and an inner anterior part, eor-
resjiDndinL;' to (lie |ireror:icoi(l (per). At tlie line \viici-<'
the seapulM ami coracoid meet (;it /'. r.s). the [jeetoral
tin is arli<'ulated, in the s;inie niannei' as nornially meets
US among tlie Teleosts; hut the articulary surface of the
large first ray (s])inous my) glides partly on a projec-
tion of tile elaxicle. an .-irtieulation that calls to nnnd
the pectnr;d tin of the ShcMfHsh. In the hasal structure
same, M flat, lieart-sluiped hone. Its origiiinl dermal of the tin we find (tig. I'SS) the same four radialiii
stnictiuv is indicated niereh li\ a siiudl, terete protii- (liracliial hones, /— /) as in the 'feleosts, increasing in
bertmce, e\fii externalh visilile, and it is a|i|iMreiitl\ length hackwards (do\vnw:u'<ls). But these are cartila-
to he reg:u-ded from ;i morpliologienl point of view iis ginous mid divided into two joints (;in iiuier and an

outer row. ef. alio\(\ on the Herring, ]>. 951 ): and at
the hind inferi(n- margin of the fin there are se\ci'al

ill ;i manner that reminds us es|)ei'ially
fishes (see ahoxe, y. (il9), hoth the chniele and the
iiiter<'l:i\icle are continued inwards 1)\ an entire osseous
disk. Inniiing the posterior w, -ill of the liraiiehial (•a\it\-.
Witliiii (al)ove) the anterior extremities of the inter-
clavicles, where these bones meet in the median line of
the hcUw N\(' tind, situated under the coiiiis (iiicridsus,
and forming, as it were, a special iirotectioii tor the

{W(^t4

Fig. 288. Ijeft pectoral tin of a male Sturgeon (Adpenser stiii'io)

1,845 nun. lonu- and takon at Lulea on Jnly tfttti, 1893. ' ., of

the nalviral size. Seen from above.

/f, radiate of lite first (c-oniposile) ray, answering to (Jegenhaur's

mesopteri/ijitwi : / — 4. tlie four true radialia, the last of wliicti (4)

answers to Gegenbaur's metapteri/giiun.

representing the sternum of the higher \ertehrates
(sternal sciife).

The internal parts of the shoulder-girdle — omitting
the alread\- mentioned sujirascapular part (s.<c) — form
ii continuous mass of cartilage; but in adult Sturgeons
this mass is seen to consist of three several parts, the
same as we have seen above in Glanomorphs, Cyprino-
morplis, and Thrissoniorphs, namelv an upper part, an-
swering to the scapula (sc). a lower part, answering to

Fig. 280. Left ventral tin and pelvic bone (>f tlio same Sturgeon as
in the preceding figure. ' ,, of the natural size. Seen from above.

/or. foramen obturatoriuni (?): mtp. metapterygium : pil, processus
iliacus(?); /)/>. processus pubicus(?); 1 — 7, radialia.

supplementary radialia, the inner ones branching <iff.
however, from the outermost (iiiiidmost) radiale, called
by Gegenbauh the nn-tdjitcrii'/iin)!. A similar, but still
greater superfluity of cartilaginous radialia apjiears in
the basal parts of the ventral fins (fig. 289). The num-
ber of radialia is greater in the Sterlet than in the
Sturgeon (fig. 289, / — 7), being in the former at least
9, in the latter 7; but in tlie foi-mer the first three,
in the latter the first four radialia (basalia) articu-
late at the proximal (iiuier) end with a common
cartilage, answering to the pelvic bone of the Tele-

1050

SCANDINAVIAN I'lSHES.

osts"; wliei'eiis tlic others (the posterior six) articiilHte j more or less distiinth' at aiiuies to a inoi-e developed

in tlie Sterlet, according- to von Haitknfei.I), each with I basal ])ai-t, which is ori,ifinalh' situated at the hind

a separate cartilage, parallel to the jielvic hone, but i margin of tlie tin — is best exjiiained l)y a comparison

evidently of the same nature as the radiale. from which I with the transformation of the caudal fin from diphy-

it has been separated by constiiction. Similarly a small [ cercy to heterocercy. Fishes'' in general began by niakin<f

])ieee of cartilage is cut off from tiie distal (outer) end their caudal tin — their (earliest organ of locomotion —

of most of the tirst-meiitioned radialia, so tiia,t three heterocercal, for tiie attainment of a more liighlv deve-

rows of these bones are formed, the innermost row con- lojjed musculature, concentrated on one side, to steer and

taining the pelvic bone and, behind this, the inner ra-
dialia. In the Sturgeon, on the otlier hand (tig. 289),
tlie post(n'ior (:'>) radialia are distinctly inclined at
angles to each other, and so ari'anged tliat only one
of the innermost parts ()iifpt), common to them all, ar-

accelerate their ino\eraents. The same alteration was ex-
tended to the other vertical tins, dorsal and anal, the
anterior margin and its basal parts being strengthened
and dc\eloped intt) organs for cutting and stemming the
water or into weapons of offence and defence, while the

ticulates with the jjelvic bone, and with the top of this | posterior parts grew more mobile with more numerous

])art are jointed two cartilages, one belonging to the
fifth radiale, the other forming a common base for the
last two ((ith and 7th) radialia. .Ml the radialia thus
lie on one side of an imaginary a.xis, drawn through
the inner margin of the pelvic bone, and continued
outwards hx the liindmost (innermost) radiale. The
pelvic bone is now'' interpi-eted as being formed by the
coalescence of the inner parts of the anterior radialia;
and at the inner end of each ]>elvic lione we find in
adult Sturgeons' a constriction setting off' the part (jJJ))
^vhich, according to Wiedershei.m, is the true rudiment
of the pelvis of the Selachians and the higher verte-
brates. The dift'erence in the immber of the radialia in
the Sterlet and Sturgeon is the expression of a conti-
nued reduction, which has finally brought about their
disap])earance in bv far the greater number of the Te-

divisions, but \\itli the outer (distal) joints arranged in
series on one side of the more or less confiuent basal
portions (Gegenbaih's mt'tupterygium). Having once
been e.stablished among the vertebrates, this manner of
development spread to the lateral fins, to the fore
and hind limbs of the highest vertebrates. These too
became unilateral.

Among the remaining skeletal peculiarities most
characteristic of the Sturgeon-fishes is the persistency
of the notochord with onlv slight alteration, without
undergoing such coarctations or constrictions as attend
the development of perfect vertebra*. It is enveloped,
however, by a comparatively thick sheath (perichord,
fig. 290, Cs and Ee). in and upon \vliicli there develop
cai'tilages representing both neurapophyses (N) and
ha>ma])ophyses (7/), as \\ ell as upper spinous processes

leosts. On the other hand, the similarity in structure (/'s), which parts, however, remain separate. Between

of the original basal parts of the ))ectoral and ventral the apophvses lie strengthening disks (iiifrrcaloria, Ic),

fins, their composition of ai'ticulated radialia, covered : and the luemapophyses are prolongated into transverse

at the distal ends by the bases of the true (secondary) processes, bearing cartilaginous ribs, and also grow

fin-rays, is the expression of the common origin of , inwards (Fo) under the notochord, where they sur-

these fins. They have been i)roduced bv the differen- j round in tlie caudal reirion both the aorta and tlic

.... . ■ . I . " . .

tiation ot a fold running along eac-h side of the belly, ] caudal veins, in the abdominal region tmly the former.

now ])ersistent only in the Laneelet, in the same man- Above the si)inal cord, which is enclosed on each side

ner as the dorsal and anal fins have originated from by the apophyses, runs another similar canal, formed

dift'erentiations in the region of the embryonic vertical by holes through each vertebra, and containing an

fin. The one-sided arrangement of the radialia. — set elastic, longitudinal, tendinous band (EI).

" C'f., however, DUr ri'innrks (above, p. G'^5) on the pelvic bones of the Heniibrani-bw, wliich bones .are evidently ilennal growlli-^ of
the nature of interspinal plates. The normal pelvic bones of tlie Teleosfs, on the otlier hand — as appears from their form — are hoinolo-
gons with interhiemal bones (supporting bones of the anal and caudal fins), and we now see that the pelvic bones of the Sturgeons are in-
terinuscnlar growths, and have the same origin as the supporting bones of the vertical tins, ontogenically being confluent constrictious of the
supporting cartilages of the ventral fins.

'• Cf. WiEPERSHElM, Das Oliedmnssenskdet der WirbeUliieir, Jena 1892, ]i. 70: (Iriindriss VenjI. Aiiat. WirbeWi.. Jena 1893, p. 184.

'■ As in Polyodon and Scaphirhynchops, see Wiedehsheim. 1. c.

" Smitt, I'r de hogre djnrens utvecklingshistoria (lectures for 187.'!), Stockholm 1876, p. 2.30.

nriiciKiiN-KisiiKs.

lO.il

Of the sxsti'iii of tlif iMtcviil line (dcriUMl si'iisi'-
orcnns) we find in xoiiny- Sturycoiis jKircs in tlic iilates
of tlu' lateral line and in tiie tenijioral and niastnid
nliiti's. as well as a eDniieeting eaiial (a innctimi <'()ni-
1111)11 in the Teleosts too between the tw(j supratemporal
canals, ef. s/if in fig. 104, p. i)(j8) across the ocei])Ut,
hetwoen the inastiiid and sii|ira(ieei])ital plates. < >n each
side of the head the main canal lains forward iiiiih'r
the s(|uaniosai [ilate, to hraiich a1 ihe upper pustei'idr
(•(iriiiT of the eye downwards to the spheiiotic and post-
urhital plates, and forwar<ls, under ihe inner margin
of the supraorhital and eclethmoidal plates, in the der-
mal bridge between the nosti-ils. The system is most
distinct, however, on tlu^ snout, especially on the under
surface thereof, Avhere the four filaments of touch (bar-
bels) of the Sturgeon are also situated. Here we find
partly small, simple pores (ordinary lateral line jjores),
parth' agglomerations of these, forming wheel-shaped
figures that cover large miiciferous cavities. These ca-
vities (the Si hlelmsih'li'r or Xrm'i/si'ickr and (rdllni-
riihri'ii of Lin dk;, the tiihfs ni/nrit.r ii iniipdide'^ fii' ]'>v-
MKJiii.) occur in the cmnnion Sturgeon, l>eing most
distinct in voung specimens, 1) lielow the eyes and on
the upper surface of the snout in a row along each
margin, forward from the nasal cavity, '2) on the under
surface of the snout, sinnetimes throughout its extent.
The small, sim])le pores are set on the under surface
of the snout in a single or double row, curving in-
wards from the lower posterior angle of eacdi suli-
nrhital plate, and thus answering to the suborbital
hraiich of the Teleosts, hut running forwards, outside
the outermost barbed, and discernible in voung speci-
iiieus to the ver\' tip of the snout.

The variations in the form and arrangement of the
hoil\' bin Iders belong to the descriiition of the several
species; but common to all the Sturgeon-fishes and
most of the Ganoids are the so-called fnlrnt, imbricated
splints, resembling spinous rays, at the anterior mar-
gins of the vertical tins. The [josterior fulcra of the
.several fins, however, more and more assume the form
of true fin-rays, and thus clearly show a transition be-
tween these growths. Tlie tins of the Sturgeon-fishes
are furnished, lik(> those of the Teleosts, with secondary.
partially ossilied and sagittally (in the longitudinal di-
rection of the body) divided rays, originally all simple
and articulated. lUit with age these rays become more
and more confluent and, in the anterior ])art of the
tins, hardened, as in most of the Physostoms, so that

the forcnnost ravs are spine-like, though with distinct
\estiges of the original articulations.

In the internal structure of the Sturgeon-fishes we
lia\c alrea(l\- r(Miiarke(l the most essential respect wdiere-
in the heart differs from that of the Teleosts. In a
male Sturgeon measuring 1,845 mm. from the tip of
the snout to the end of the Upper caudal lobe, the
length of the ali(lominal casitv is about 700 mm. 'I'he
thick-Axalled oesophagus I'lins in this specimen for a,
distance of about M cm. (dose under tlie spinal c()himn,
and is interna 11\' furnished here anteriorly with .'), postc-
ri(u-l\ with H s(!ries of hamate or (behind) \alvular
flaps, excdiaiiged furthest back for shallow, fiat folds
of the mucous meinbraue. Where these folds terminate,
the muciius membrane of tlie stomach, wdiich is some-
what wider, but has thinn(!r walls, commences, atid
about 4 cm. further back opens the short, but wide,
piieiiniatic duct of the laroc and thick-\\alled air-bladder.

I''ii;. "29U. Tr,insversi; siM-tioii of Ihe fiiilerior )uirl oi tlu- spinal cci-
luiiiii ill Acipoiscj' i-iilhtniis. .\flcr Wiedershkkm.

y^s, upper spinous process; £/, elastic tenilinous band; A", ueurapo-
pliysis; <S7, tibrillar tissue (belonging to the skeletogenous laj'cr);
M, medulla; /-*, inner membrane (jrid) of the niyelon; /f, intercalare;
r. notochord; Us, inner chordal sheath; Ee, outer (elastic) chordal
sheath; H, hiemapophysis; Z, basal part of a hfemal arch; Fo, cross-
pieces projecting mediad (inwards), and ventrally (inferiorly) covering
the main trunk of the arterial system (aorta, Ao).

'\\w. stomach now assumes a more intestine-like form,
and runs u])wards to tlie left, to a distance of about
28 cm. from the diajihragm. where it turns forwards
to the right and down\\ai-ds. t<i a point (tig. 291, ;•)
distant about '.\ cm. from the diaphragm, where it
agtiin bends back and is tliickened. At each crook its
inner surface is furnished with thick, terete folds of
the mucous membrane. 8 at the former bend, (i at the
Latter: but between these points the inside is smooth,
and the lasT-mentioned folds are continued on the inner
surface of the pylorus (pi/l). which is directed back-

1052

SCANDINAVIAN" 1-ISHKS.

wards, lias \ci'y thick walls, .uiil is huiiiKled fruui the
retral duodemiui {(hind) l)\ a strouu', aimiilar valve.
Just behind this vahe the u|)|ier wall (if the intestine
is pierced with a large hole {(i/i/i). wide enouuh tor
the insertion of a finger, and two somewhat smaller
holes, outlets of the large pancreas {pir), wliich is
flesh-coloured with yellowish hrown spots, and lias hien
formed by the coalescence oftheca'cal jivloric a])pciid-
ages", being therefore coursed \)\ numerous, tubular
l)assages (cap). This gland is of a flattened elliptical
shape, about 12 cm. long, H cm. broad, and 2' ,, cm.
thick, with sharpened edges. It is situated in the
circle formed b\ tiie aliove-nientitmed gyrations of the
intestiniform stomach: and in the ]iresent case it oc-
cupies rather more than two-thirds of this circle. The
duodenum (duod) runs back to a distance of 37 cm.

depressions on the inside. A similar, tliough somewhat
finer network a])pears on the nuicous membrane linintf
tlie rectum (isjt). which is about .")0 cm. long.'' Here
we Hud an a])paratus peculiar to the Sturgeon-fishes,
(ianuids, Lung-fishes, and Selachians. The valve is con-
tinued by a spiral, in the present case with eight coils,
which extends almost to tlie tei'mination of the rectum.
The spiral consists of a thick raised margin (sji), which
shows the same de])ressions as the network of the mu-
cous membrane, though more sparsely, and which runs
along the inside of the upper rectal wall, being con-
tinuous therewith; but at eight ])oints it detaches itself
from the roof, and is attached instead b\- a backward
niendiraiious sjiiral (/y/xy;) to the rest of the intestinal
wall. About 2' .^ cm. before the vent the central cord
of the spiral terminates in a tubercular swelling (/«/<),

ahd

■'f^'T--'""

Fi.i;. 291. Vis

f.f

If Sliirsi-c-Mij (AcijH'iisev stnrio) 1..S4.0 iniii. Iniio. Uiken at LhIcm i.ii .Inly IStli. 1H0.T. About •' ,„ iial. sizi>.
Seen cbliqiiely frt'iii liclow.
ahd, riglit (abe. left) wall nf tlie abdominal eavily opened and folded back; apm, inner niontb of tbc loft Miillerian dnrt (M): npp, largest
of the pancreatic orifices visible in the opened beginning of the duodemuii (duod); cap, section of one of the pancreatic canals; diioil, duo-
denum; h, front part of the liver; hd, right lobe of the livery isp, spiral intestine, opened; /, spleen; M, left Miillerian duct; msp, spiral
membrane, the lateral membrane of the spiral valve; per, pancreas, sectioned and with one (the ventral) half somewhat raised to show the
canals (caj)) within it; pi/l, pylorus; sp, spira, central cord of the spinal valve; id, right, ts, left testis, with the posterior half of the latter
cut loose and laid back behind the left wall of the abdominal cavity; tul', tubercular swelling of the spira; u, termination of the procurvated
stomach; ves, dotted line indicating the outlines of the posterior imrt of the air-bladder, otherwise concealed; v/, gall-bladder;

* — **, mesorcliial thickening of the right testis.

from the diaphragm, where it aliruiith bends forwiird I and the extreme end of tlie rectum has five longitii-

to a point distant about 2(»<ni. from the same, and turns ' dinal ridges with rather sharp margins on its inside,

back with equal abruptness, soon passing iiito the straight The liver (// — lid) of the present specimen is of a bluish

(.spiral) intestine, from which it is divided bv an an- black colour'. The left lobe is about 21 em long, the

nular valve. Throughout the course of the duodenum i right lobe (lid) 17' „ cm. The gall-liladder (r/), about

the mucous membrane forms a uniform network of 36 mm. long and 23 mm. broad, lies embedded in

" Cf. their structure in the 'I'unny. see above, p. 99.

'■ We here adopt Rathke's division of the intestinal canal. According to otlii-rs (see, for instance, WiEDERSHEiM, Grundr. Virijl. Anat.
Wivbelth., p. 412), the greater part of what we here call the rectum, so far .'is the spiral valve extends, should be regarded as a part of
the middle intestine.

' According to Krovee it is of a ruddy yellowish brown.

sTrmii'.oN-i-isiiKs.

1053

the liiteral mitrrior iiiar.iiili of tlie vi^iilif lolir; iiiiil the
I'lill-iliifl {i/ucfiis cItnlcdocliKs coiiNinniis] opens on llir
riaiit side of ihc iibove-inentioiu-d paiici'cMtic oi'iticcs.
Tlic spleen (/), .-ilioilt lo' ,, cm. lont:' and .">'., em. hl'oad,
is pointed l)eliind and forked, beina; divided from in
front, tliroii.iiiiout tlie iireater' part of its lentrtli, into
two anteriorl\' jiointed lobes, tlie 1o\\<t of wliieh lies
und<'r and to the left of the alu)\ c-mentioned tirsl erook
1)1' the stoliiiieh, behinil and pl-ojet'tiui;' a little \\a\- o\cr
the paiu-reas, while the other lobe is laid to the right
of the mesenterial fold joining the stomach to the intes-
liiu'. TIh' testes {ts and til) of the jirosent speeimen,
whieh was taken in the middle of duh-, are \-er\ tnmid,
;nid had ne.ai'K' .attained their annu.al ripeness. They
extend throughout the greater part of the length of the
,-d)doniin.al e,a\it\-, the left being, howexci', longei- ih.an
the right, 'riironghout their length tlK'V are divided
into iri'egular lolies by transverse ineisions and slud-
Idwer consti'ietions. The length of the loft testis (/.s) is
')A cm., its greatest breadth 7' o cm., .-iiid its greatest
thickness 4 cm. The corresponding ilimensions of the
right testis (f(l) are respectively 49 cm., (i cm., and o
cm. So oblique is the relative po.sition of each testis to
the other that the hind extremity of the left only ex-
tends to a point distant 11 cm. from the anal aperture,
a distance whicdi in the ease of the right testis is re-
duced to 7 cm." Their outside (facing the wall of the
abdominal cavity) is convex, their inside flatter; the
former is covered with an extrenielv thin membi-ane,
the latter v\itli a thicker contiiniation of the mesorchiinn,
the jK'ritoneal membrane that holds eacli testis susj)end-
ed partly (in front) from the wall of the abdominal
i-avity, parth- (fui'ther back) from the air-bladder. ])artly
(behind the air-bladder, which terminates about 19' ^>
em. in front of the vent) from the kidneys. Posteriorly
tile mesorchium is thickened (* — **), on the left testis
for a distance of about 10 cm., on the right for about
>i cm. I'x'hind this tliickening tlie testes are free from
tlieir siispeiisor\' membrane, the" left only for a very
little way, the right for a distance of 6\„ cm. < )n the
inside, in front near the middle of thi' breadth or even
near the lower, free margin of the testicle, behind
near its up])er (suspensory) margin, runs a wide ef-
ferent duct (/7/.S- (IrfrrPiist). the radices of which ramify
in all iiarts of this side. The efferent duct is skirted

by a sharp-edged, imiIkm- thin, adipose band, with free
margin and in soiiii- places 1 cm. broad, at other
points narrower or e\en merging into the uie.sorchium.
.\ir blown into the efferent duet spreads jiartly into
its ramitieations, parth-, in the hind portion of the
testis, into large lacume betweiii the testicular mem-
brane and the stroma. Mercurx' injected into the
duct peiielr.atcs through canals in the thickened part
(* — **) of the mesoi-chium into the kidneys. It is
thus evident that the sperma may find egress in this
direction and ihiough the ureter; but another ])assage
seems also to be afforded. IJolh male and female Stur-
geoii-tislies possess peritoneal tunnels, not unlike those
we ha\e seen ;d)o\e in female Salmonoids, es]:)eeially
in the Smelt and <'apelin. lint here these funnels are
developed into inile|ien(leiit ducts {M), distinct from
the true organs of genei'ation, denselv ciliated, anil
opening behind into the ur<'ter. They are thus full)'
homologous with the so-called .}fiiUerian ditcts (ovi-
ducts) of the tiaiioids, l.iing-tishes, Selac^hians, and the
higher vertebrates. In the males of most vertebrates
the\- are more and nioiv reduced, the testes being fui'-
nished instead with deferent canals through the pro-
iie])hros; but in the Sturgeon-tishes this transformation
has not advaiK-ed so fai', the males having as large,
as open, and apparentl\- i(uite as functional Miillerian
ducts as the females, in the above-mentioned male
Sturgeon the iiiiK r (abdominal) aperture (apm) of the
left Miillerian duet lies about ;^l' 2 cm., that of the
right 32' ^ cm., in front of the anus; and the former
duet measures l.i cm. to its jiosterior apertui'e, which
opens into the ureter. l"re(|uentlv'', at least in male
and female Sturgeons not yet in spawning condition,
the last-mentioned .iperture is closed; but to judge
bv the perfect development of the .Miillerian ducts in
our specimen, it would seem <|uite probable that they
may be functional in breeding tisli of both sexes, even
if the sperma of the males may also find its way into
the ureter b^- another mod(! of passage.

( )n each side of the anus the Sturgeoii-tish(>s are
commonly furnished with a so-called ahcJomincd pore',
an ajierture by means of which the abdominal cavity
communicates with the surrounding water. It is often
wanting, however, as in the s])ecimeii just described.
Its function is somewhiit doulitful, though probably

° In another Sturgeon tlie rel.itinns were reversed; tlie left testis exlemled fiirllii
'■ Cf. .luN-GERSEN, Bidr. Kuiuhk. A'flH«jn/. Udv.. Dis,,. Kbl.vi, 188!>. |.. KU.
•• Cf. Wehku. Mcirpliol. .liilirl... ltd XII (IKSCi). p. :!6t;.

biiekward direetion. tli:in the right.

1054

SCANDINAVIAN IMSIIK.S.

tliat of a respiratury or^an. It is ;i relic of the seg- Acijieiii^rr. The foriiier, of wliirh oiii\ one species is
mental organs found in lo\ver animals, and recurs in the j known, with spatulate snout, long but shallow (depressed)
.Selachians and Ganoids, as well as in the Salmonoids, peduncle of the tail, with the ujiper h^be of the caudal
Enchelymorphs, and Mormyroids among the Teleosts. tin |>rf)li)ngated into a hlameiitoiis appendage, and further
The family of the Stui'geon-tishes contains oidy characterized I)\ the absence of spiracles, belongs ex-
two, not very dissimilar genera, Sraphirhynchops and j clusively to the southern regions of North America.

Gem.s acipenser.

Fedniulc of the fail terete (not dejiressed) mid at least tir'iee as deeji iis the lateral laadal plates, a'hieh dn not

meet fraiii each side of the liodif.

'J'lie Sturgeons ha\e met with the same variet\- of
systematic treatment as the Salmons, and probably from
the same cause. They are anadromous fishes, breeding
in fresii water — a few, it is true, jiermanent inlialiitants
thereof — but else living in the sea. Their geographical
range is about the same as that of the Salmons, ex-
tensive enough to ofl'er a great vai'iety of plnsical
environments. The)' also show an inconstaiicy of form
fully comparable with that of the Salmons, and the
methods of their classification have been equally diver-
sified. In 1870 DuMEHiL described" 81 species of this
genus, among them (!"i from Amcric;i. In the same
year Guntiiei; ado])ted in his Cafaloe/ne only 19 spe-
cies, 9 American. -Iokdan and GiEisEirr'' (1883) re-
cognised only b species in Amei-ica, 2 from the Pacific
coast, 3 from the Atlantic: but the specific rank even
of these may be called in (picstion.

The characters hitherto employed in the definition
of the species are subject to considerable variations.
It has long been known that the large body bucklers
of young Sturgeons are set closer together, and have
a longer, more pointed, and usually more hooked, cen-
tral spine, than those of older specimens. Their num-
ber was indeed recognised by Gunthei! as a valid
character, but varies in the common West European
and American Sturgeon, for example, between 1 1 and
13 in the dorsal row and between "26 and 34 in the
upper lateral row. Accoi-ding to Jokdan and Gilbert
these variations extend between 11 and 14 in the

dorsal row and between '27 and 36 in the upper lateral
rows, according to Kroyer between 10 and 14 in the
former and between 26 and 31 in the lattei'. Fatio'
counted 1.") plates in tiic doi-sal i-ow. ( )f the small
plates in the skin between the large bucklers GuntiieI!
remarks, in the case of the common Sturgeon, that in
very young examples (which thus would be refeiTed
to the genus Haso of Dlmeril) the skin is provided
with very small rough ](oints; in older ones these ossi-
fications are broader, rough, substellate, and more (as
in the genus Acipenser of Dumeril) or less (as in An-
taceus of Dumeril) regularly arranged in oblique se-
ries''. According to Milner's observations' of the
American fresh-water Sturgeon, the large bucklers in-
crease in size until the fish has attained a length of
about 63 or ()4 cm., but afterwards diminish, partly
owing to the detrition of the spines, jiai'tlv by resorp-
tion of their margins, and both at the dorsal line and
the ventrjil margins they partially droj) off, or at least
become indistinct. Simultaneously with this process
may be obser\ ed a siiortening of the snout; and the
far greater relative length of the snout and its more
pointed foi'ni in young Sturgeons give the head an
appearance (piife different from that of older specimens.
The external sexual characters ai-e not nnirked,
and but little has been observed on this head. In the
Searui/a {Sherg, Acipenser stellatas) of the Black Sea and
its feeders, which species is characterized by a very long
and slender snout, the females, according to Heckel

■" Nouv. suites a Buffon. Hist. Nat. Poiss., tome II. pp. S7 cett..

* Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, pp. 8."-,, celt.
' Fne Vert. Suisse, vol. V, part. II, |i. 491.

* The same observation liad already lic-mi made by Nii.ssdN OSh-anil. Fihi. F/.s-/-.. p. 702), thoug:li lie did not expressly point out its
systematic significance.

■• U. S. Comin. Fitili an.l Fislier., Rep., p.-nl. II (1872 and 187.^). p. 70.

sriRCiEONS.

I0r>'

and KNKif", Imxc a shorter snout, a weaker spine in
the ix'eloral fins, smaller dorsal and lateral scutes,
with longer hooks than in the males. Of the Sterlet
(Ac. n(tlieinis), iiowexer. tiic same writers'' remark tiiat
the t'eniales ha\e a. longer, thinner, and more upturned
snout and a Hatter forehead. In the eonimon Sturgeon
{Ac. sfiirio) we iiave foiuid no perceptihle extci'iial
differenee between the sexes, save tiiat the \entral fins
of the males are not removed so far hack (hiring
oTOWth as tiiose of tiie females, the length of tlie pec-
toral tins even in old (more than 1 m. long) males
being at least ' - of the distance between the ventral
fias and tiie tip of the snout. Tiie males tinis seem
to represent the characters of the earh' stages of growth.
Of the Hansen too IIeckki. and Kneh' state that the
females attain the greatest size. The materials within
diu' reacii as well as the recorded tibservations, how-
ever, leave much to be desired in our knowledge of
the external differences of sex.

Th(" form of tiie Sturgeons is also influenced by
their en\ ironments. "Some forty j'ears ago", wrote
GRniM'' in 1S88, "the sterled penetrated through tiie
canals into tlie North ihina, and finding tlie condi-
tions fa\imrable to its existence (for ex. cold water,
wiiich is so necessary for it) it not only settled down
Mild miilliplied, but ac(|uired some peculiarities in its
exterior (a siiort, blunt snout and an arched back)
and also a fine flavour, fcti' which in Petersburg it is
prized more than the \'olga sterled. I must remark
tliat even in tiie system of the Volga the sterled is
much finer in the north (for instance in the river
Sheksiia) tiian in the southern parts, and the further
south one goes, the less tasty the sterled becomes".
Among the Sturgeons, as among the Salmons, certain
forms' are sometimes found landlocked in fresh water
and unaxdidalily debarred from exchanging at regular
intervals, in obedience to the natural instinct of the
genus, fresli-water life for a marine existence. It is

oiiK to be ex])ected that such forms sliould suffei'
alteration.

The actual number of species within the genus
it is tliiis impossible as \et to state with certainty.
In Europe 7 or S species are sujjposed to occur, most
of them belonging to Russia and the Danubian coun-
tries. Ill Scandina\ian waters onh' <me species of the
genus is found, the common .'Sturgeon of W(!Sterii
iMirope. King 1"kki)Ki;i(k I. of Sweden attempted to
plant the K'ussiati Sterlet in kxlsviken (near Stockholm)
off ririksdal. an experiment which at first seemed to
pr(mii.sc success, but exentually pro\-ed a ccnnplete failure.

The Sturgeons have been highly esteemed from
time immemorial for their flesh, their roe, and the
gelatine extracted from their air-bladder, (iregarious
and at certain seasons extremely sluggish, they are
an easv catch: and at other timers, when the\' are more
active, their great timidity drives them blindly into
the fisherman's snares. Some of them are among the
colossi of the piscine world: the Hansen, for instance,
is stated to have attained a weight of more than 1,500
kilo., and specimens weighing 550 kilo, are still taken
from time to time. A single fish of the latter weight
commands at .Vstrachan a price of about £22 '. The
Sturgeon-fislier\' is consc(juently of great importance
and, especially in Russia, a productive source of food
and income. According to Danilovski' the annual
take of Sturgeons in European Russia may be approxi-
mately valued at eight million roubles (£1,250,000).
Of this sum about five millions are represented by
the flesh, about two millions and a quarter by cavi-
are, about (iOO,000 roubles by isinglass, and about
100,000 roubles ])\ rjeiii/ii, the notochord (eliorda
d(irsiilis), which is principally employed in the pre-
paration of stock for soups and as an ingredient in pies'.

Acipenser' is classical Latin, and was introduced into
ichthyology, as a generic name, by Artedi. In Plinv
the Sturgeon is called Affili(s' and Marin.' Among the

" .Siisswasser/. Oslr. Moii.. p. 345.

' 1. c, p. .3.^9.

<■ 1. c, p. 5G9.

'' Fi'sli., Hunt, in Buss. Wat., p. 24.

' E. g. Acijienser rubicundns in America.

■' CiRIM.M, 1. C. p. .S2.

" See (7RIM.M. 1. c, p. 2(3.

* For a description of Ihe Slurgeon-fisliery in Rusai-i, see Brehm, Tliierleben. Gr. Ausg.. 1879. Alitli. Ill, Bd. 2. p. 358.

'■ Gesneb supposed thai tlie word had arisen by letter-changes from the Greek oll'ggiyxOS-

' Hist. Mweli. lib. IX, cap. XIII.

' 1. c, lib. IV. cap. XV.

Hcanilmnrinn FUlits.

1056

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

(ireeks the genus bore the names of EUop.^", Antaceus'', j mius'' is tlie same as the Scandinavian stoy (crreat), hut

and several others, the application of which is, howevci-, according to Gesner" sliould be derived from the Teutonic

disputed. In mediaeval times tlie name of Stitiio was i^torcn (to root, stir u]) the bottom), a reference to tlie

coined from the Teutonic Stncr, whicli according to Won- method ])ractised l)v the Sturgeons in procuring their food.

THE STURGEON (sw. storen).

Acii'KXSKi; sxriiio.

Pliilo XLVl. tig. 1.

Dorsal bucklers mesocentrir {/ritli the boss iippernmsf in tlie m'i<hJJe. ainJ sUqnnff forirards (Did bnckirards). Xuiti-
ber of plates in the upper liderul roir as a ride less than 37'. Lei/i;fli of the snout abont ', ., {68' — 42 %) of
that of the head, ivhich occupies about 27 — 20 % of that of tlie body. Width of the mouth, which, when pro-
truded, is square with rounded angles, at most about ' , of tlie breadth of the snout at the barbels. Barbels
terete, simple (not fimbriated"), and shorter than the distance betireen them and the anterior inari/in of the month.
Base of the dorsal fin less than 'i^ of the length of the bodg. Length of the pectorals less than ' ^ of the
distance betireen the rentrals and the tip of the snout.

R. Ij
V. 26—27(30); C.

0; D. 30—40(44); A. 23-
26 — 29 super.
iO — 100 infer.

'26(.30); P. 36—40(42);

pi. I, p. 286.

54. tab. XXVIII,

toin. I, ]i. 237;
Fisrti. DenlsM..

Acipenser sive Sturio, Sohonev., Ichttiiiol. S/esr. Hols., p. !1.

Stwio, WiLLUGHB., Hist. Pise, p. 329. tab. P. 7, fig. 3.

Acipenser corpore tuberculis spinosis aspero, Art., Itlit/ii/ol
Gen., p. 6,5; Synon., p. 91; LiN., Fna Suec, c-fl. I, p. 101
It. Scan., p. 187.

Haae-aterje (Sturio), StrSm, Sondm. Besl-r.

Styrin, Olafs., Reise Tsl., pi. II, p. 711.

Acipenser enroptrtis, Lin., Mils. Ad. Frid., p
fig. 2.

Acipenser Sturio, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X
Mull.. Zool. Dan. Prodr., p. 39; Bl..
pt. Ill, p. 89. tab. LXXXVIII; Retz., Fna Snec. Lin.,
p. 309; Ekste., Vot. Akad. Handl. 1831, p. 104; NiLss.,
Prodr. Iclithijol. Scaiul, p. 109; But, Ratzeb., Medic.
Zool., vol. II, pp. 17 ei 352, t.ib. Ill, fig. 1 et M—S :
Parn., Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist 800., vol. VII, p. 403; Bonap.,
Fna Ital.. Pesc. (torn. Ill, ■•). tab. 129, fig. 1; Yarr., Hist.
Brit. Fvl,., vol. U, p. 47.") et Suppl. (Rioh.\rds.) II, p. 7;
Kr., Damn. Fisk.. vol. Ill, 2, p. 747; NiLSS., Skand. Fna,
Fish-., p. 699; Hckl, Kn., Siisstvasserf. Ostr. >/oh., p. 362;
Mqrn, Finl. Fiskfna (disp. Helsiugf. 1863), p. 70; Malm,
Gbgs Vet. Vitl. Sanih. Haudl., Ny Tidsf., H. VIII (1863),
p. 102; Steind., Stzber. Akad. Wise. Wien, Math. Naturw.
CI., LIII, I (1866), p. 204; v. Bkmm. in Herkl., Bouwst.
Fna Nederl., torn. Ill, p. 318; Lindstr., Gotl. Fisk., Gotl.
L. Hush. Sallsk. Arsber. 1866, p. 24 (sep.): DOM., Hist.

Poiss. (N. Su. a BufiE.), torn. H, p. 184; (^thr. Vat. Brit.

.\f,is.. Fis/,., vol. VIII, p. 342; Coll.. Forh. Vid. Selsk.

Chrnia 1874, Tilla>gsh., p. 205; 1879, No. 1. p. 102; N.

Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd 29 (1884), p. 11,5; Malm, Gbgs,

Boh. Fna, p. 604; Winth., Naturh. Tidskr. Kblivn, ser. 3,

vol. XII, p. 55: Fedpers.. ibid., p. 93; MoR., Hist. Nat.

Poiss. Fr., toiu. I, p. 471; Bncke, Fiscli., Fisetier., Fiscli:.

0., W. Preuss., p. 191; Id. in M. v. d. Borne, Handh.

Fiscliz., Fisclier., p. 181; Doderl., Man., Ittiol. Medit.. pt.

II, fasc. I. p. 6; .Iord.. Gilb.. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16,

p. 85; Mela, Vert. Fcnn., p. 362, tab. X; MOe., Hcke, Fiscli.

Osts., p. 149: Day. Fish. Gt. Brit., frel, vol. II, p. 280,

tab. CL; LiLLJ., Sc, Xory. Fisk.. vol. Ill, p. 488.
Acipenser Lichteiisteinii. Bl., Schn., Si/st. IchtlnjoL, p. 34f<.

tab. 69; Bdt, Ratzeb.. 1. c.. pp. 21 et 352, tab. II, fig. I.
Acipenser o.ryrhjnclms, Mitch., Trans. Lit., Phil. Soc. N. York,

vol. I, p. 462 {+ ■} Acip. sturio, p. 461 = .4n7i. imv-

rostrum. Lesueub, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. I, p. 390);

Dek., .V. York Fna. pt. IV, p. 346. tab. LVIII, tig. 18<l;

SroR., Mem. Am. Acad. Arts, Sc, vol. VIII, p 431, tab.

XXXV, fig. 4; DOM., 1. c, p. 106.
Acipenser laiirostris, Parn., 1. c, p. 405, tab. XXXIX.
Acipenser huso. Thomps., .\nn. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. XX, 1847, p.

172; SuNDEv.. Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1853, p. 228. NccLinne.
Acipenser Thompsonii, Ball, Proc. Irish Acad., No. 25, p. 21;

Thomps., Nat. Hist. Irel, vol. IV, p. 245.
Acipenser liospitus, Kr., 1. c. p. 780.
Acipenser sturioidcs. Malm, Gbgs Sandi. Handl.. 1. c, |i. 10** ;

Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 605.

cap]). 13 et 15.

" 'EXXoip, Aristot., Zool., lib. II,

'' Herodot., Hist., lib. IV, cap. 53.

" Cf. Chakleton, Onomasi. Zoic, p. 152.

'' De Aguat., p. 932.

' The specimen described by Richardson, (in Yarr., /h-it. Fish., ed. 2, Sii|ipl. II, p. 21) from the Free Kirk College of Edinhiirgli,
with 38 plates in the upper lateral row on the right side and 40 on the left, has been shown by Gl'ntheu to belong to tjie American spe-
cies Acipenser rubicundns, which may thus be assumed to have strayed into European waters. But Day (Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vi'l. 11, p.
279) questions the Scottish origin of the specimen. Malm counted in a Swedish specimen 38 plates in the said row.

^ In a young specimen — probably an exceptional case — 57 '.i, according to Kroyer.

" In old Sturgeons, however, the barbels are sometimes broader, compressed, and more or less distinctly timbriated.

.srt KOEON.

1().')7

The unliiiar\' size oC the ScaiidiiKiviaii Stiiry'eun is
about I'o — 2 111. Ill the isLiiul-helt of Sodevinaiilaiul,
accordiii.ii' to !u\sti;(i.m, small spocinieiis ?, — (i dm. long
are foiiiiiioncst. The veiling Sturgeon, IIS cm. long,
figured h\ Lixx.Kis, is still preserved in the Roj^il
Museum; Imt whether it was taken in Seandinavia, is
uncertain. Among the sjieciniens measured li\' Kuoviou
the throe smallest are 1 •> — Ml' cm. long; but he does
not state whether they are Scaiidiiia\iaii. Malm's small-
est siiecimeu was 39 cm. in length. < >n the other
hand, rather large siiecimens, measuring u|i to >> m.,
are more frequently found; and Lindstkom records the
find in Gothland of a dead, stranded Sturgeon whi(;h
was stated to have been 14 Sw. feet (415 cm.) long.
According to an old siatciiiciit in Schonevelde, the
Elbe Sturgeon has been known to attain a length of
18 feet (.5' , in.)".

The body of the Sturgeon is of an elongated fusi-
form slia]ie or, ^vhen the fish is spent, clavate, thickest
at the occiiHit. It tajiers forward in a highh' charac-
teristic manner, due to the p\ramidical foi'iii of the
snout, and also deviates behind from the ordinary pis-
cine type in its oblique, prolongated, and heterocercal
caudal tin. The greatest depth of the body, which is
usualh' deepest just behind the occiput, is about ' ^ —
Vi,i of its length, and the greatest thickness about
'/lo — ' 9 ^^^ ^^^^' s:nne. The least depth, just in front
of the caudal tin, is only about 3 % of the length, but
increases with age (during the growth of the Sturgeon
from a length of 16 cm. to one of 18.5 em.) from 11
to 16 % of the length of the head, or from 23 to 2S %
of the length of the pectoral fins. The fusiform shajje
of the bod\ is considerably modified, however, especially
during yciiith and in lean specimens, by the large shield-
rows, which render it pentagonal in section. The shield-
rows belong to the dorsal line, the lateral line, and
the side margins of the belly; but on the under sur-
face of the tail, lietween the vent and the anal tin, the
ventral rows coalesce, at least partialh, into one, which
is again divided, however, behind the anal tin; and on
the back of the tail, behind the dorsal fin, the shield-
row of the dorsal line commonly, but often irregularly,
breaks up into two rows, which may also be pre-
indicated in front nf the dorsal fin by one or two pairs
of plates, smaller than the rest, being fitted in before

its fulcrum. In shape and relative position tlie buck-
lers show considerabk; variations, indi\'idual, it is true,
appearing even in specimens of eipial size, but evidently
also expressing the alterations of growth. In young
Sturgeons they are more densely set and deejier, with
sharjier and more pointed, I'ecurved spine, which is
furnished with small spines on its sloping hind margin.
With age the sjiines are obliterated, the plates become
shallower (Hatler), and sejiarate more and more from
each other in the several rows. Yet it applies to these
alterations of growth, as to so many others, that they
appear more distinctly in one indi\ idual than in an-
other, and lia\e conse(|uentI\' occasioned the designation
of the same sjiecies by a plurality of names. As a
rule the si^ines are most persistent on the posterior
bod^' bucklers. The plates of the dorsal line are most
curved, showing in young Sturgeons an acute-angled
transverse section; the jihites of the lateral lines are
least curved, especially in the anterior parts thereof;
the jilates of the ventral line, even during youth, are
most remote from each other. The surface of the
scutes is scabrous and both radialh- and concentrically
striated with cavities and ridges, calling to mind the
scale-texture we have seen above in the Eels. In the
dorsal and lateral lines the anterior scutes are shorter
(comyiaratively broader) than the posterior. The form
of the plates further \aries from the rhomb, wliich pre-
jionderates in the ventral lines and the anterior part
of the dorsal line, or hexagon (rhombs with truncated
anterior and posterior angles), which appears in the rest
of the dorsal line, to the semicii-cle or triangle, as shown
in the lateral lines. The foremost (properly the only'')
fulcrum supporting the anterior margin of the vertical
fins is linguiform in the dorsal and anal tins, with the
narrower end directed U[) the fin-margin; at the upper
and lower margins of the caudal fin the tongue is pro-
longated to a lanceolate form. The inconstancy in the
number of plates in the dorsal line before the dorsal
tin and in the lateral lines has been mentioned above.
Behind the dorsal tin 4 pairs are set, as a rule, in front
of the caudal fulcrum; but on each side of the posterior
part of the dorsal tin the small dermal jilates are usually
enlarged \vith age, so that a more or less regular row
of 2 or 3 plates, smallest in front, appears on each side
at this point, forming a forward continuation of the

" BEi.dN (.Vrt/., Div. Poiss., \>. 89) also
at JIdiitargis to King Francis I.

'■ I. e. of a texture tliat ilistinctly calls to mind tlie plat

tions a specimen 18 feet long. A Sturgeon of tliia size was said to have been presented
the liodv.

1058

SCAXniN AVIAN TISIIKS.

(lorsocauflal row. The jjlatcs of the vt-iitral lines vary
in each row witliiii the jjreabdoiniiial region, as a rule,
between 10 and 12; but Kkiivek once found only 8, and
iji,L.lEiii)i!(; adduces as many as 14. Behind the vent
there generally lie 2 or o pairs in front of the anal
fulcrum, or the posterior of these jxiirs coalesces into
one plate. Behind the anal fui are svi. 8 — ') (in excep-
tional cases only "i) pairs ni' distinct plates in front of
rhc lower caudal fulcrum: but to the postei-ior part of
the anal tin the same remarks apply as to the corre-
sponding part of the dorsal. In the preceding pages
we have also considered the transformation of the I'e-
maining dermal covering from small scattered spines
and their more or less distinct agglomerations, simul-
taneously with their adoption of a blunter, more tuber-
culate foian. into the diamond-shaped dermal scutes,
arranged in obliipie transverse rows, with small rows of
tubercles between them, that are especially pi'ominent
on the dorsal sides above the lateral lines. ()n the fins
and their rays the small, sharp spines are persistent;
Imt on tlie upper part of the caudal fin, on each side
(if the continuation of the s])inal column within this
fin, elongated, diamond-shaped, and smooth bony plates
are developed, arranged in oblique rows running from
below and in front upwards and backwards.

The hind part of the head is rathei- terete, con-
stricted above at the gill-openings and eyes, with more
or less depressed interorbital space. A striking diffe-
rence from the head of the Teleosts is that the operctda
do not entirely cover the gill-openings, the gills of the
Sturgeon being consequently laid bare to some extent
behind. In front the head is de])ressed and of varying
length, tapering in a ]iyramidical form, with the superior
surface of the snout more convex than the inferior and
the other two sides narrowing S(jmetimes to an edge.
In young Sturgeons the relative length of the snout, as
we have mentioned above, is considerably greater than
in old, varying witli age from at)iiut 14 % at least to
about 8^/^ % of the length of the body, or from 53%
(according to Kroyek sometimes 57 %) to 42 % of that
of the head, so that the entire length of the head is also
comparatively less in the latter. The postorbital length
of the head, on the other hand, I'elativcly remains al-

nu)st unaltered during growth, being about ' ,,|"ofthe
length of the body. The eyes are small and somewhat
oval. Their longitudinal diameter, which shows relative
diminution during the growth of the fisji, varies between
10 and 7 % of the length of the head, between 19 and
14 "-. of the length of the snout, or between 37 and 22 %
of the interoi-bital width''. The interorbital space, which
is ciiiivcN. liut medially more or less depressed, grows
narrower in proportion to the general growth, varying
between about 7' ., and 6' ., % of the length of tlie body,
but wider in proportion to the length of the head,
varying between about 27 and 33 % thereof. In front
of the (;yes lie the large nostrils — comparatively larger,
however, in young Sturgeons than in old — the posterior
in each pair being the larger, an obliquely or even a
transversely set ellipse, the length of which is some-
times greater than the diameter of tlie eyes, and situated
low down; the anterior more extended in the longitu-
dinal direction of the body, and set nearer to the level
of the forehead. They are separated by a thin (in old
sjjecimens rather broad) dermal ridge. The shortening
of the snout during the growth of the fish is accom-
plished at the expense of its anterior part (the ro.stral
cartilage), the distance from the anterior nostril to the
ti]) of the snout being sometimes reduced with age
from 47 to 28 % of the length of tlie head.

The under surface ot the head, like tliat of the
belly, is rather plane. Behind the perpendicular from
the centre of the eyes is situated the comparatively
small mnutlr. Owing to its structure, which we have
described above, it may be protrudetl (in a downward
direction), so as to form a square tube, rounded, how-
ever, at the corners (fig. 292). The toothless jaw-margins
are rounded. The lips are tumid, on the upper jaw
rather uniforndy, but with a median indentation, at the
corners of the mouth in a bulging form, on the lower
jaw in the form of two fleshy folds, which ai'e closely
applied to each other from the sides, but distinct, the
jaw itself being medially nidged. Half-way between the
tip of the snout and the mouth — sometimes, in young
Sturgeons, distinctly nearer to the latter, sometimes, in
old, nearer to the former' — hangs the transverse series
of barbels characteristic of the Sturgeons. These are 4

" Varying, according U> onr nii'iisurcniPiils, between about 10'., and !)' ., %.

'' For the vertical diameter of tlie eyes the corresponding percentages are respectively 8 and .'>' ,, Hi and 12. 30 and lH.
•■ One of the niosl reliable distinctions from the Hansen (Acipenser huso) and the OssAr (Tok-, Ar. CulcU-nstadtH), whicli have a
oader mouth.

■' The distance between the barbels and the tip of the snout measures 04—44% of Ibat- between the uionib and (he same point.

STI!HGE(IN.

lOoil

in iituiil)('r Mild lit' t'airU' ei|u;il Icnjitli, soiiietiiiics ex-
tending', wlirii l.iid liMck, r.-itlur iR'.-ir, l)u1 iicnit i|iiitc
to tlic .■inlri'iiir iii.-iruiii dI the iiioiitli, si'ldoiii indeed In
tile IkiIIow ill llie etliiiiiiidal enrtil;ige fur tlie reee|itii>ii
of tlie latter. In tlie median line of tlie under surface
of tlie snout till re lies in front a sefies of tubereulated
bonv jilates in the skin, ]>aired or, at the very lie^'in-
iiiiiiT, set ill se\-errtl iri'e^iular rows. Thest; i'()\\s lerini-
iiate hehiiid, lietween the middle barbels, in a |>late
whieh does not belong exclusively, however, to the skin,
but is merely the prominent, though sometimes concealed,
head of the vomer (tig. 28."), p. 1046X whose hind ex-
tremity, MS we have described above, is embedded in
the cranial cai'tilMge and meets the parasphenoid bone,
'fliiis we lia\t' hen- a most excellent aiKitomical example
of the morphological transition from dermo-ossiticatioiis
to parts of the endoskeleton.

The plate-armour of the head we considenid above,
when we selected the Sturgeon as our tv'pe of the ge-
neral conformation of these parts within the family.
There remains only the opercular apjiaratus, which ex-
teriiallv resembles that of the Teleosts, but is charac-
terized ])\ the absence of rays in the thick branch iostegal
lueiJibrane. The gill-o]jenings extend right across the
sides of the body, the branchiostegal inemliranes being
united below to the isthmus in a line with the uj)per
angles of the gill-ojienings, and separated from each
nthei' 1)\ a distance iiMrdly greater in young Sturgeons
than the diameter of the eyes, but which widens in
older specinu'iis until it is at least half of that between
the upper angles of the gill-openings. Each bi-anchio-
stegal membrane contains three bones, in a, row one
helnw aiiotlier. 'flie uppermost is the o|)erculum, which
is naked throughout the greater part of its extent, and
shows the same radial striation and thimble-like granu-
lation of the surface as the dermal scutes. In form it
resembles a sector of a, circle, somewhat greater than a
i|iiadraut, and with the inferior radius incurvated. At
the anterior part of its lower angle, and iinitefl by a
tirni suture to its inner surface, is inserted the more
elongated suboperculura, which lies across the body,
and in old Sturgeons is mostly covered by the skin, but
on the outside has a high ridge, above sending out
through the skin a few granulated s|)ines. The ridge
is continued on the lowest bone, explained as an inter-
operculum, which has a more quadrilateral form, but
is irregularlv incised, with radially disposed ridges on
the outer surface.

The dorsal tin lies fir back, farther in old Sttir-
geoiiN tliaii ill \-oiiiig. Tlie distance between its begin-
ning and the tip of the snout increases with age from
about 111' to (;:) % of the length of the body, its last
ray is so small in (j1<1 Sturgeons that its trapezoidal form
approaches to the triangular. The ujiper posterior mar-
gin is conc'a\c. 'Ihe length of the liase varies between 6
and S- % of the length of the body, and the height is
about the same, somewhat greater or less. The tirst three
or four rays in old Sturgeons are ver\' short, thick, and
hai'd, reseml)ling I'ulcra. As a rule, the tirst seven or
eight rays are simple, gradiialh' increasing in length,
and the ninth or tenth ray is the longest in the tin.
The anal tin is opposed to the posterior inirt of tlu' dorsal,
and resembles tlu^ latter tin, but has a shorter base
— varying between about .'! and 4',., % of the length of
the body — and consecpiently a more pointed form. The
form and covering of the caudal tin we have already
noticed. The upper lobe (tlii' very tip of the tail), which

Fi^-. 29->. Head lit' till- Slur.i;:i-i>ii. witli nii.iitli iirotnided lilie m proboscis.

After liKNKrKE.

in adult specimens (more than '2 dm. in length) has all
its upper rays, except the outermost 8 — o, transformed
into hard fulcra, is nearly twice as long as the lower.
The pectoral tins are set low, almost in the plane of
the belly, and liorizontalh-. They are obliquely pointed
in form (tig. 2SfS, \>. 1049), with rounded inner jiosterior
angle. Their length varies between about 12 and 11 *
of that of the body, or between about 22 and 18'., % of
the distance between the \entral tins and the tip of the
snout, affording an easy distinction between the present
species and the Sterlet, which has jjerceptibly longer pec-
toral tins. The first ray is considerably stronger than
the rest ; but distinct traces in its structure mark it as
the i-esult of a coalescence of several (8 — 10) simple and
articulated rays. The ventral tins are inserted behind
the middle of the body, at a distance from the tip of
the snout measuring about 54 — 59 % of the length of the
body. Their form (tig. 289) is less pointed and more
traj)ezoidal than that of the pectorals. Tlieir length dur-

1060

SCAXDINAVIAX FISHES.

iiiof youth is ;iliout a5 "»" . in old s])eciiuons Mhout (iS —
(io % of t!i;it of the iipctonil Has. At the l)ase nf th(
anterior margin are set two sh(jrt and tliick sujijiortin^

the f)h)ck Sea'', is douhtfuL Xeitlier Heckkl and Kxeh
nor XiiHDMANX found it tliere''. hi the Baltic, m: the
otliei' hand, it makes its wa^- to the liead of the (iulf

rays, .simihir to fidci-a, and tiie following- I! or 7 simple of Bothnia, according to a stateiaent liy Wideghex', even

rays gradually increase in length out to tlie tip of the tin. up the Tornea Elf. Now and then it is met with off

I^oth in foi-m and structure the ventral tins are thus not all parts of the east coast of Sweden as well as on the

unlike tlie vertical. Tlie pi'eal)dominal length measures j Finnish coast, and occasionalh- it ascends into the Swc-

ahoiit .1.) — 'M "„, tlie |iostabdonrinal about 12 ?s, of the i dish lakes^: Init it is common in the Baltic pi'oper oidy

length of the body. The latter (the distance between j to tlie soutli and in the German rivers falling into those

the anterior margins of the \cntral and anal tins) is, i waters''. It is common in all Danish waters, says \\'in-

however, not fully entitled to the above name, for the theh; but as the r)anes do not ply any special Stur-

vent lies i-ather far in front of the begiiuiing of the geon-tishery, it is not seen very often. The case is the

anal fin, the distance lietween them being f) — 7 % of I same throughout the west coast of Sweden, especially

the length of the body. off Mount Kullen and in Laholm Bay; and in the Gota

The coloratifju of the Sturgeon is simple, its salient Elf it has been found at Lilla Edet, 33 miles above

Gotheid^urg (Nii.ssox). In Norway too the same ob-

features calling to mind that of the Codfishes''. The dor-
sal side is of a reddish or bluish gray, gradualh" paling
down the sides of the body, though a distinct boundar}--
line, about half-way between the plates of the lateral
lines and those of the ventral margins, divides this colour
from that of the belly, which has a bluish tinge above,
sometimes with a silvery lustre, and below is pure white.
Above the ventral fins, however, runs a bi-oad stripe, in
an obliquely forward direction, joining the bases of these
fins to the dorsal coloration. In young Sturgeons Kro-
YER found, "between the plate-rows of the doi-sal and
lateral lines, blackish spots, giving this part a chequered
appearance". The outer parts of tlie fins are of a more
or less pronounced ash-gray, becoming paler towards
their bases. The pectoral fins are darkest, but share,
as well as the dorsal and c^andal, in the coloration of
the back ; the ventral and anal fins are palest. The iris is
of a brassy yellow; tlie black pu])il has a dash of green.
The Sturgeon is a salt-water fish \vitii the migratory
instinct of the Salmons, an anadromous form that as-
cends from the Atlantic into the rivers of North ."Ame-
rica and Europe in order to spawn. Fi'om the Atlantic
its range extends into the Baltic and the Mediterranean
including the Adriatic Sea. VVhetlier it penetrates into

sei-vation has been made: the Sturgeon is not taken
any\vhere in numbers, but solitary specimens are fre-
quently- met with throughout the coast-line, both in the
sea and the river-mouths, even east of the North Cape
(CoLLETT and Storm). (_)ff Iceland it is rare. It is
common enougli in the rivers running from the east
into the North Sea. In Great Britain and Ireland it is
not much commoner than in Sweden; but into the
Fi-ench rivers with a westward course, especially into
the Garonne, the Sturgeon ascends more frequently and
in greater numbers (MoREAu). Its most constant habitat
lies, however, in the Mediterranean and Adi'iatic as well
as the rivers flowing into these seas. ( )n the cast coast
of North America its range extends from Cape (.'od to
Florida. A fresh-water form, considered to be a distinct
species'', inhabits the ^lississippi Valley, the Great Lakes
with their feedei's, and the basin of the Albany Hiver.
On one occasion this American Sturgeon is supposed to
have extended its wanderings into Scotch waters, and
Glxtmer' Avas of opinion that the young Sturgeon from
Boiiuslan, described by Malm under the name of Aci-
penscr sfiirioidef:, should be referred to this sjiecies. So
wavering are the specific distinctions within the genus;

" Sometiiiics 50, acconliug lo Krbyeu.

' Tlio name of ovla/.og was thus applied by tlie aneienl Greeks butli to L'odtislies and the Slnryeoii.

' Gkimm, 1. c., states that it occurs there.

'' In the Black Sea and the Danube lives a species very nearly allied to the Sturgeon, the Ossetr {Toks, Acipenser Oitldenslinltii), whicli
has a broader mouth. Cf. below, as to the difference between the American fresh-water Sturgeon and the present Sturgeon.

' Landtbr. Akad. HantU., 18:de delen (1858), p. 181.

f According to Lilueborg a specimen has been fouml in Lake Limmar (Roslagen, just south of Norrtelje).

" In the Baltic Provinces of Russia the Sturgeon is rare, according to Seidlitz, Fauna Baltica, p. 89.

'' Acipenser rubicundus = Ac. maculosus. .\ecording' to Milnee it has a broader mouth than onr Sturgeon. No other dislinttion of
any signiticanoe seems to be given between tlieiii.

' Vat. Brit. Mks., Fish., vol. VIU. p. 38il. note.

SIlKGKnN.

1 015 1

and tlic siis|iiciuii I'cadily suggests itself lliiit the Ame-
ricMii tresli-water Sturgeon is ;i landluelved foi'in of tiie
conunon Stui'geon, and stands in tlie saint; relation to
the latter as Sahiio fntttd to S. snlar.

Of the ]if(! and liahits of the Sturgeon we possess
but scanty information. Most of its existence is passed
at the bottom, where it is l)e\'ond the reach of all cu-
riosity. To judge bv its behaviour in atpiaria. it is a
sluggish, though petulant creature; and it usualh' glides
at a gentle pace o\er the bottom, shooting out and
drawing in its mouth; but of a sudden, awaking, as it
wei'c, from its drowsy laziness, it darts through the
water with the speed of an arrow. It is extremely
tenacious of life, and in a cool ])lace may be kejrt alive
out of the water for twenty-four hoiu'S or even longer.
'"It seems a. spiritless tish", says Pennant", "making
no manner of resistance when entangled, but is drawn '
out of the water like a lifeless lump". By the asser-
tion of its great muscular strength, however, it some-
times gives formidable proof that it is by no means
insensible to danger and sufferings, and a blow dealt
hv the tail of a large Sturgeon is enough to fracture
an arm oi- a leg. Besides it is far from always so in-
different to its fate as to abandon itself to the toils
without more ado. The fishermen fre(piently complain
that it breaks loose from their nets. When the Stur-
geons are foiuid in rivers which they have ascended in
order to spawn, and when they are distressed by the
pressure of the tumid generative organs, the)- are slug-
gish from natural causes; but "in the sea, where they
are sometimes stated to be sterile, they are evidently
not ripe for the time being, being in a certain sense
virgin, and consequenth' fai' more active. Herr Dei-
KEH has communicated a proverb current among the
Sturgeon-fishermen of the North Sea, which runs, Lmp-
infi Stun/eonf! and (lancing fi'irls are hard to hold fast'"'.
The Sturgeon also resembles the Salmons in its habit,
when migrating,- of now and then flinging itself entirely
out of the water.

The Sturgeon feeds in the manner just described
on the worms of the bottom, crustaceans {Awphipoda),
and raollusks, but also, like several Cypriuoids, on the
decomposing animal substances to be found in the mud.
The stomach of a male which was taken at Dalaro on

tile l(Sfh of .Inlv, I S!)0, and which is rcjiresented in
our ligure (I'latc .\l,\'l, lig. 1), was filled at the an-
terior crook witli a scoi'c oi' two of Isopods {Idothea
cittonidii). 'fhat the diet of tlie Sturgeon consists prin-
cipally of Herring, Mackerel, Cod, and Salmon, the last
of which it chases up the rivers, is a statement which
originated witli Lacki'icde', and was dictated by his
conception of the Sturgeon as distinctly a predatory
hsh, using its barbels as a lure to entice its prey. The
Stnrgccm. nn ddulit. does not disdain a tish oi' two,
wln'U it can pi'ncure a meal of this kind — its larger
congener, the llauscui, is notorious for its pursuit of
small tishes, especially a variety of Bleak, in the Rus-
sian rivers — but so far as we know, it contents itself
with victims of insignificant size, such as Sand-Eels,
wlujse manner of life renders them a suitable prej'. We
also know' that it is sometimes taken on Haddock-lines
or Cod-lines, the bait of which must thus have attrac-
tions for it. From the last-mentioned circumstance we
may also conclude that its haunts in the sea extend from
the littoral zone down to a dt'pth of some twenty-five
fatlioms; but how deep it can descend, is unknown to us.
The spawning-season of the Sturgeon occurs in
spring and early summer, from A]iril to the end of
July. Like the Salmons, it then repairs to running
water, preferring rivers with wide mouths, deltaic
streams, or estuaries where the salinity of the water
gradually diminishes up the channel. That it spawns in
Sweden, admits of no question, though no special lo-
cality where the opei'ation takes place is known. In
the middle of July we once received from Lulea a ripe
male, the internal organs of which are described above,
and at the same time of year we obtained a spent male
from Dalaro. In the island-belt of Sodermanland Ek-
STK<')M secured fry .'! — 1 dm. long, "during autumn, in
the deeper watei'courses". Under ordinary circumstances
the Sturgeon does not ascend so far up the rivers as
the Salmon. Its timidit\' too probably leads it to avoid
the Swedish rivers where timber is rafted. That it
should spawn at the mouths of the Swedish rivers or
even in the Gulf of Bothnia, on the shores of the island-
belt, is by no means incredible. Milxer describes how
its neai'ly related congener, if not a member of the
same species, the fresh-water Sturgeon of America.

•■ Brit. Zool. (1776), vol. Ill, p. 110.

^ He.nking, Deutsch. Fisch. Ver., Mittli. Si-ct. Kiist., Hochseefiscli., 18ii:i. [i. 21.

' Hist. .Vat. Poiss.. (1708). iome I, p. 418.

'' Kroykr. 1. <■.. |i. 77.^.

1062

SCANDINAVIAN I'lSlIKS.

congregates ne;ir the shores aud at tlie nmutlis of the
rivers, and liow the fish may he seen in the evening leap-
ing from the snrfacr, throwing their hnlky forms entireh-
out of the ^\■■,lt^JV. "At I'ier Cove, .Micli., on the 11th of
.Tune, 1S71, schools of stui'geons were at the edge of tiie
shore in a few feet of water, M,nd men from the vici-
nit\' were in the liahit of wading out and drawing them
asiiore with gaff-hooks. Mr. roUT.MAN, of Ijenton Har-
bor, has .seen the sturgeon at this season King in num-
bers on a shallow (■]:\\ Irdge at the edge of a stream,
.several of them lying flat on their l)a(d<s, with their
bellies upward, rolling and splashing in shallow water,
with aj)parent enjoyment"". With regard to the spawn-
ing of our European Sturgeon, to the best of ray know-
ledge, no per.sonal observations have j'et been recorded.

The eggs are at first yellow. A.s they approach
ripeness, this colour turns to black. Eggs of both co-
lours are often found intenspersed in the same female.
The diameter of the ova rises to about 2 mm., and
their luuuber in a single gra\id fish runs to several
millions. They are said to be hatched six days after
dei)osition: and the fry soon afterwards set out on their
journey to the sea, whence the young Sturgeons do
not return until capable of taking part in the opera-
tions of reproduction.

The Sturgeon-fishery is naturally pursued on the
most extensive scale in the countries where the fish
annually ascend the rivers (foi- instance the Po) in large
shoals. I)ut the value of the Sturgeon is greatest just
before the roe begins to ripen; and off the river-mouths
of Northern Europe important sea-fisheries are carried
on for Sturgeon in this condition, especially in the
(Termau Haffs and on the west coast of Germany. The
tackle employed consists of coarse-meshefl nets, with a
raesh 14 — 18 cm. square, and with or without sinkers.
The net is always loosely attached to the head-line,
so that in certain parts the meshes riui free along
this rope, the Sturgeon thus entangling itself in the
net more and more at every struggle. Besides Stur-
geons the catch often includes seals and dol])hins, Sal-
mon and other large fishes. The captive Sturgeons
are generally handled with no great tenderness. A
rope is |)assed in throuuh the mouth and out at one
of the gill-openings, .\nother rope is made fast round
the tail. The fish is then towed at the end of these

" Cf. Dean, Note on the Spaivning Condition of tlie Sturgeon,
'' The caviare principally imported from Russin into Sweden is
caviare of llie Sterlet is scarce in tlie latter ccumtry.

lines beside the rowboat, and tethererl, on the fisher-
man's return, to a stake or an anchor. The Sturgeon's
tenacitA' of life (jften exposes it to considerable suffer-
ings before it finds a purchaser.

The purposes to which the Stui'geon is ajtplied in
domestic economy, and the value set u|ion it, vary
widely in different localities. Tlie fiesh, in nianv pla-
ces where its excellent (pialities ai'e appreciated, has
been and still is higlih' esteemed. There is an old
saying which declares that a skilful cook can convert
the flesh of the Sturgeon into ham, beefsteak, roast
lamb, or feathered game. The ancient Romans decked
the Sturgeon with flowers, and the dainty fish appeared
at table to the strains of music. At present the Stur-
geon is eaten less commonly fresh than smoked. The
carcase is cut up, and the strips of flesh are cured in the
said maimer. Most generally known and ])rized, how-
ever, is the roe, which is usually sold in Sweden under
the name of Elbe caviare''. To be fit for consumption,
especiallv if it is to be kept any length of time, the
roe should be not quite ripe. The (jvaries are opened,
and the roe is stirred in a sie\e, through which it is
carefully pressed, so as to rid it of the ovarian mem-
branes and blood-vessels. This caviare requires no fur-
ther preparation but salting, though it is often coin-
pressed in small bags, especially for transportation to
other markets, in which form it is, of course, drier,
but is preferred by manv palates. Vjezitia (the noto-
chord), which finds a great demand in Russia, is not
prepared from the Sturgeon in S^veden.

The Sturgeon also yields — though on a far less
important scale than the Hansen — an excellent fish-glue
for industrial purjxises. This gelatine projierly consists
of nothing but the innermost membrane of the air-
bladder, washed and dried, in leaves which are cut to
a. convenient size. In this condition, its purest form,
it is both tasteless and w ithout smell, and maj' be used
not onlv as a glue, but also as the best isinglass for
soups and jellies, as a vehicle in the administration o\
medicines, and in the fining of wines. In the usual
process of preparation, however, several other parts ot
the air-bladder are not removed, and the i)urity of the
isinglass thus suffers. A coarser glue may be extracted
from the skin of the Sturgeon, and the offal may he
boiled down into oil.

Zool. Anzeig., XVI Jalirg., No. 4;i6 (27 Dec. I81I3). p. 473.

the coarse-grained roe of the Hansen. The iiner-t;raincd, more valiialile

KI.ASMOIiUANCIlS.

10G3

PISCES ELASMOBRANCHII.

Fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton (without dermoskeleton), with the shoulder-girdle
detached from and suspended behind the head, with the maxillary (and mandibular) bones
represented merely by loose cartilages at the sides of the palate and lower jaw, with the
branchial arches entirely or partly united to the skin (gill-slits externally open or covered
by a common dermal fold), and with diphy cereal or heterocercal caudal fin. Fin-rays
primary. Nostrils as a rule ventral. Air-bladder none.

These fishes were removed from Ahtedi's Chon-
dropferi/ffii'' by Boxapakte into a se])arate order, most
clear]}- distinguished by the structure of the gills lioth
from the ])receding orders, which have borne the com-
mon name of Tectohranchii" , as having the branchial
cavity co\ered b)- a true opercular apparatus, belonging
to the skeleton, and fi'om the lower fishes, the (Jyclo-
stomi and J.rptdcdrdii. which are without true branchial
arches. The union between these arches and the skin
is accomplished in the Elasmobranchs by the extension
of n membrane, supported by cartilaginous rods, l)e-
tween the latter and each of the former. With this
membrane too the several branchial lanaelhv coalesce
throughout theii- length. In some Elasmobranchs, in
the subordei' nf the Chimseras, however, the said mem-
brane extends oiih' in |)art, above and lielow, (piite to
the skin, a cdununii branchial cavitv lieing thus pro-
duced on cMch side of the bod\'. This cavit%' is fur-
nished, as in the preceding fishes, with a single apei--
tm-e, and the rest of it is covered by a dermal flap,
extended on cartilaiiinous rods, which are honioloffous

with the branchiostegal ra3S of the Teleosts, and by a
thin disk of cartilage (fig. 294, op), representing the
opei'culum of the preceding fishes, but evidently form-
ed here, as in the other suborder, by the mutual
confluence of the ujjper (posterior) cartilaginous rods
at the upper (anterior) end. Analogous cartilaginous
rods also appear, as we have mentioned, in the mem-
brane originating from each of the branchial arches,
and supplying attachments for the branchial lamella^.
In the rest of the Elasmobranchs, the suborder of the
Sharks and Rays, which is far superior in variety of
form, the last-mentioned membrane, sup])orted by its
cartilaginous rods (figs. 298 and 300, rhr and hi), is
united throughout its extent, both from the hyoid and
the branchial arches, either obliquely or in a straight
outward direction, to the skin, which opens at the in-
terstices into external gill-slits, numbering 7 — .') in the
surviving forms of this suborder.

The scapular and jjelvic arches are far more de-
veloped in the Elasmobranchs than in the preceding
fishes; and starting from the l^asmobranchs, mor])h(i-

° An exception is iiinde by ancient (primitive) forms, sucli .'is Cliluniydosclnclic anyuineiw. !\ Jajxinese tisli remarkable in many otlier
respects on account of its primitive characters, and described liy ({ai<m.\n. liidl. Mus. Comp. Zool. Hnrv. Coll., vol. XII, No. 1, and Gt'NTHER,
Deep Sea Fish., ('hall. Exped., p. 2, pi. LXIV. LXV.

" See above, p. 1043.

' Hasse, Jieitr. allgem. iitammesgesdi. UlrMlh., .Jena 1S83, )). 12.

ScaiHlinavian Fisht.

134

1064

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

li>L;isrs lifivc .siiccL't'ded ill fxplinninj;: the e(]ui\;ilciit
|i;irts of tlic i)recefliiig fishes, wiiere tliese arc more
iiiid more siiii))lified I))' reduetioii, as well as the cor-
r('spoiiding structure of the highei' vertebrates. In some
I'.iasmoljranchs (the iJays, tig. 29."!) tiic siidulder-yirdle

artirnlar condyles (for the pectoral fin), set in an hori-
zontal row. Tlie scajinlar jjart lies above the coracoid;
but both of tlicni form a contiiuious cartilaginous disi<
and are also of a jiiece witli the lower median part of
tlie ring. The last-mentioned part has been intei-preted

forms a closed, flattened ring around the anterior end , by Pakkkk as an equivalent (jf the epicoracoid bone of

of the abdominal cavity and tlie spinal column behind
the last branchial arch, being sus])ended over the con-
fluent neural spines of the anterior part of the spinal
column. Tlie up]ier jiart of this ring consists of tlie
two sim|ilc suprasca]>ular disks;, one on each side of

the higher vertebrates, where this bone is distinct
even in the lowest mammals. In most of the Elasrao-
branchs (the Sharks and Chimteras, fig. 294), howevei",
the suprascapular cartilages (.ssc) are ])arted from each
other and suspended from the membranous investment

Fiir. 2'J^. Skel,-l,,ii

1,1 slnmldcT-a

of (1„. Hays.

A: Skele-ttjii (if a Skate (Raja )udrosieiisi.s), cf, seen frcni tlic ilc.rsal side. '/,„. Trondhjeiu Fjord, Marcli 17, 1891. Couserviitor SroiiM.
fi: ShoiikUT-Kirilli- of a Thoniback (Raja ctavaia), spr-n from Die- ventral side. ' j. .\flor Parker, v. part (.f the 8)iiiial cohnuii : ;//. the
first of the three lateral processes fiirTiished with articular siirfaeis for the pectoral tin; ci\ coracoid part; e. ci\ ventral side of the shonMer-

y'irdle (epicoracoid part).

the spinal column. The sides thereof are formed by
the much moi'e expanded scapular and coracoid parts,
^^dlich are pierced with large foramina (for the passage

{aponeurosis) of the dorsal muscles only by a prolonga-
tion of their own investing membrane (pericJiondriiim),
the whole girdle too being more simple and not unlike

of nerves and blood-vessels) and furnished with three , the pelvic girdle. The cartilage of the latter (figs. 293,

ICLAS.MolilfA.MU.s.

KKi.")

A iind lill.")) ucNcT t'urms ;i clused ;ircli, l)Ul ciiil\- n and the aiMnieiirosis of tlic lateral iimsclcs, in the sanie

veiitrally i^itiiated half'-^irch (in cadi side, tiie twn liahcs manner as tlie suin-aseapiilar eartilaiie suspends the

being nsuaily emilhieiit in ihe median line nt' the li(diy, sh(ini(h'r-t;irdle in tliose fishes and in tlie Sharks. A

hut in the Cinnueras nnited (inly by a mobile syni- j eloser nioi'])hologieal connexion in resjjeet to tiie strue-

iiliysis. The main part of the pelvic girdle — originalK' ' tnre of the shoulder-girdle and pelvis exists, as we see,

produced b\- the inward gi'owth and coaleseerK'e of the
inner (proximal) parts of the primary ventral radialia
answers to the ussa piiliis: and oftsa ii^rhii of the higher
vertebrates, but in most cases there aiJiiears on each

between the Mlasmobranc-hs and the higher Ncrtebrates
than between the formei- and the Teleosts.

The structure of the fnis points to a similar con-
clusion. In this i'esi>eet. it is true, the l'>lasmobranchs

side a process ascending from the end of the pehic a|i|iroach nearer to the t'oninion [larent-fonns, where
disk, esjiecialh' well de\eloped in the l!a\s, and re]ire- all the lins were more or less diflerentiated sections of

iktd H

^ L

''■, X

tj) Ol)t tli ti

(u f-^

n '"I

'», ^ . _,/^

^' dp ^

Imi i chy op
bhy

--//

^'-

, - mh

n

Fig. 294. .\utcri(.r j.art i.f tin

skc-leto

('/,i

''. o".

b, sadiUt-like disk fcriiied by tlio cutdesceucc of Uie iitiira|n.iiliysc.-s <■£ tlit tirst abd in;d vertetirii-; //A//, biisibyoid; cc, finteriipr 0]>cTtiire of tlie

ethmoidal canal; c/i, uotoehord; chy, eeratoliyoid; cp. |ir<orliilal uanal, passage of tlie raiinis uphtliahnicus stqierior nervt trigemini to the
ethmoidal, eaiial; du. anterior dental plate of the upper jaw; ili. dental plate of the lower jaw; dp, posterior dental plate of the upper jaw;
fa, foramen for a branch of the facial nerve; fO, iibrils of the anterior dorsal and the pectoral fins; li. rudimentary ha?niapophyses; /;»», hyo-
maudibular; iktd, spine (ichthyodorulite) of the anterior dorsal fin; in, interneurals; //, fronto-unsal cartilage (prehensile organ of the male);
Imi. labial cartilage of the lower jaw; Ims, labial cartilage of the upper jaw; //(,, first labial cartilage of the nasal capsule; fe.^, second labial
cartilage of the nasal capsule; /;■,, first rostro-nasal cartilage; /;■,, second rostro-nasal cartilage; mb, posterior, fibril-less membrane of the first
dorsal fin; iii)t. mcxopterygiiim ; mI,, first part of the metapteiyc/iitiii; mt.,, second part of the metajiterygium ; N, nasal capsule; nn, neurapo-
physes; occ, occipital condyles; on, orbitonasal canal, passage of the ramus ophthalmicus profundus nervi trigemini to the ethmoidal canal;
opt, optic foramen; pp, propterygium ; ijpg, palatoquadrate; R, imdivided radial (interspinal) cartilage of tlie first dorsal fin; rb, foramen for
the ramus buccalis nervi trigemini; s, Solgerian (spiracular) cartilage; sc, scapular cartilage; sp. tegumentary cartilage of the spinal canal
{processus spinosi superioms); ssc, suprascapular cartilage; sy, symplecticuiu; tr, foramen for the trigeminal and facial nerves; trs, foramen
for the ramus ophthalmicus nn'vi trigemini: 1 — ff, first (proximal) to sixth (distal) scries of the pectoral radialia.

senting an os ilii. In the ('him;vras this proems runs i originally continuous dermal folds — unpaired along the
80 far up, more in a straight line with the pelvic disk, dorsal and inferior caudal margins, but double (paired)
as to unite bv means of ligaments the pelvic girdle cm the ventral side, as having been divided to surroinid

1066

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

rlie vent and advance along ciicli side of the belly".
Vet this structure iwis undergone i;reat development,
retaining meanwhile tlie axial parts of the paired fins
to such an extent tliat mor])hological comparison may
have recourse to the; Elasmol)raiichs in (]uest of starting-
points for the inter|)retation of the ai-ms and legs of
the highei' vertebrates. From embryology HALKoru''
and WiEDERSHETM'' learnt — as 'riiA<'iii:n'' and Mivaht'"
had previously discovered by researches in comparative
anatomy — that the primordial parts in the skeleton of
the paired tins are the basal portions nf the cartilagi-
nous rays (primary radialia), whicii grow inwai-ds to
form the groundwork of the shoulder-girdle and the ])el-
vis, and in their outward collocation, radiating unilater-
ally from a basal part, are split in a transverse direction

a still surviving Lung-tish'. 'flic a\ial ]iarts wliich iiave
liecn retained in the paired tins of tlie Ii\ing Elasmo-
braiichs have been named by OEiiENiiAii! the aiiterior,
middle, and posterior pteryyial parts (pro-, ))ieso-, and
metapteryginm). In some forms, as in the Rays, the
Xotidanoids, and some Dthei' Sharks, all these parts
share in the articulations of tlie pectoral tins, in others
onl}' two of them or e\eii oiih' one, as the projjtery-
giuni and a i)art of the metapteryginm in (Jliimmra
(fig. 2114, pj) and );//,), and the m('ta])terygium in
Sri/iniHfs. The last-mentioned jieculiai'itA' may also be
observed in the ventral tins. In the ( 'hondrosteans and
Teleosts we have seen how these parts gradually dis-
appear during the development (if the normal piscine
tyjjc. In the ventral fins of all male Elasmobranchs,

"" fl]il^'i~

I'fpd

,,a3.-ew«ffl^S^?f;^^"'

<\U- nil. I li-fl vi-iitrul liii ..f a Chimojra

Homti-

sa, (f. -J luit. .'iize.

Fig. 20.5. Left siile <.f the |iulvic

b, undivided basal cartilage of (lie veiitnil tin. iiiiswcriiig to tlie propterygiiiin and niesopterygium ; for, olitiirator foramen, at the .side of
whicli appear two fenestra?, closed witli niciiibrane, in the pelvic cartilage; /nl, iliac part; pis, ischiadic part; /)/), ]mbie part; prp, pra'piihic
part, Herrated cartilage or anterior copiilatory organ of ihe male; ptpd, ptenjgopodium of the male, inetapterygoid structure, consisting of:
mti, inner inela]iterygoid cartilage; m(, and mt^, inner (proximal) and outer (distal) inetapterygoid parts, the latter divided into three bran-
ches, the outer superior {ar). tlie inner superior (xi) .ind tlie inner inferior (ii).

and multiplied within tlie tin itself. That the prim-
ordial arrangement, however, here as in the diphycercal
caudal fin, was bilateral, with rays on each side of an
axial part, ajjpears from such forms as Pleuracanthus,
■A primitive Shark of the Permian fauna, or ('eratodiis.

on the other hand, the metapterygium is prolongated.
into free appendages (tig. 295, ptpd), which may serve
as (H-gans of motion, but are propei'ly copulatory organs.
The male (-hitUcvras are furnished with another ap-
pendage, possessing the same function, a uKibile, sickle-

" Gf. Smitt: Ur dc liogre iljiir/'ns lUvfcktiiiyslii^^toria, pp. "240 .iiel

'' Comparative /imbryologij, vol. II, pp. 492, cctt.

' Das Gliedmas.ienskelet der Wirbelthiere, .lena 1892.

^ Median and paired Jinfi, Trans. Connect. .Vead.. vol. Ill (1877).

' On the Fins of Elasmobranchii, Trans. Zool. Soc. Loml.. vol. X.

-'' Appending a reference to the stnictiire of the ]iiiirccl fins i

mtnitii.'.; 1 expressed in 1873 the above-cited opinion, wliicli

WlKUKRSHEIM (1.

p. l.S) calls "Die TuACHF.n-Mlv.MiT-BAi.FOlili-HASWELI.-DnnnN'sche L'-bri'".

KL.SSMiiliKANCIl;-

IOC?

shii|)<'ii disk nf cartilauf (ti^-. 2'.l."), y*///) on <'ai-li side
of tli<' |)cl\is. uriiied witli sharj) tcctli at the uuicr
(lowci') iiiai'iiiii, and analogous in jiosition to the \n-.v-
|iiil)is of I lie ISalracliiaiis and Iteptilcs.

The tin-i'a\'s of most of tlic l'">iasnioliranciis nvc
cartilaginous, distal sections (joints) of the rudialia : hut
ill the nuMiilirane of flu; outer parts of the fins — soiiie-
tiiiii's, as in tiie dorsal fins of the Kays, also between
till' tojis of tlie true rays - are set fibrillar or corneous
i'a\'s (figs. 2'.t4 — '2'M. fh), such as we Innc seen above
in the eiubrxdiiic fins of the Teleosts or in the so-
called adipose tin. In the Sharks and Chiniieras siniihir
i'a\s su)i|)orf th(-' greatei- part of the fins (outside the
radialia). Well-inarked calcifications indeed appear,
iiiidcr the form of hn-rays almost e\actl\' resembling
in their extcricjr the sj)inous rays we ha\(> seen among
tlie preceding fishes. Such i-avs are set in many Elas-
luohranchs before the unpaired fins (fig. :294, iktd);
and in some Kays they arm the tail with mobile wea-
pons of offence and defence. In pala'ontology the\" beai-
the name of icIifln/oiIoniUtes. Agassiz has shown", that
both as regards tiicir attachment, which is without true
articulation, and their texture, which exactly corre-
sponds to the dentinal structure of dei'inal spines (])la-
coid scales) and jaw-teeth, these spines are widely dif-
ferent from the spinous rays of the Teleosts. They are
mere dermal gi'owths; but inasmuch as they immediate-
ly overlap- and cover with their bases the antericjr
margin of the supporting cartilages of the fins — e. g.
the spines of the dorsal fin in the Sharks and Chiinie-
ras — they should also lie interpreted as most nearly
representing skeletal tegumentary bones, although they
are without true ossification.

The skeleton of the Elasmobranchs is characterized
by this very want of endoskeletal and tegumentary hone.
Calcifications of great extent appear it is true, in old
specimens, under the form af a thin coat outside or
just within the surface of the skeletal cartilage, and in
several Sharks the intercellular mass of the vertebral
cartilages is radially or (at the centre of fiie vertelira)
concentrically calcified. But there is no true ossification,
riie structure of the S|iinal column, comjiosed of very
niiinerous vertebra^, displays the most sweeping altera-
tions and the most radical divergencies. In the VWi-
ina^ras tlie notochord (fig. 294, rh) remains almost un-
altered throughout the life of the fish; hut around it

slender eaicilic rings ile\clop, sc\'ei-al, i'we or even more,
to eacli vertebra, whose area tiiay be defined as the space
between the origins of two pairs of roots Ijelonging to
the iiieiliillai'\ iier\es. In the Sharks and Mays, on tlie
other hand, ihe notochord is more or less consfrit^ted
dig. 2!lt'i, r), or <\en siiijiped olf entireh' at each ver-
tebra (tig. 297, (■), by the formation of the hollow
doulile cones, contiguous at the tops, of which the body
of the \ertehra is eoiiiposed. The neural arches of each
verteiira are usiialix iirokeii up into two or UKjre jjairs
of triangular disks, Ihe true iieura|ioph\-ses (figs. 294,
29(;, and 297, i/a) applying their base to the body of
the vertelira, and the other disks, the so-called upper
inter'.-alaria or iiitercriiralia (///), wedging the apex of
their triangle in a downward direction between the
neurapophj'ses. Tlie spinal canal is sometimes (fig. 294,
sp and fig. 297. parilv lietwecn /c) closed almve by
the develojiment cif un|iaire<l tt-rminal parts, answering
to the upper sjiiiious |irocesses of more developed ver-
tebra", and where the vertical fins appear, vertical disks of
cartilage sometimes afford high sui)|)orts to these lins and
their I'adialia — sometinies |»roduced by the coalescence
of the spinous processes, as in the ('hima'ras (tig. 294,?;),
sometimes corresponding to the inters])inal or interneural
bones of the Teleosts. In other cases this closure is
accomplished by the intercalai'ia (fig. 296 and fig. 297,
partly between le). < h- the covering may consist simply
of a fibrous niembi'ane. The neural arches sometimes
(e. g. in the Rays) grow downwards along the side's of
the vertebne or even to their ventral side; but as a
rule htcmal arches (figs. 296 and 297, ha), lower inter-
calaria (ih). and lower tei'minal parts (spinous ))roeess-
es) are developed in a downward direction, their extent
and alterations being similar to those we have just re-
marked in tlie eont'Spondiiig parts of the neural canal.
In the anterior jiart of the bod\-, behind the head, both
the vertebra.' and tiieir a])opiiyses often coalesce into a
continuous mass of cartilage, piei'ced only by the spinal
cord and the spinal nerves; and in this part ribs are
wanting or re])laced by a continuous fibrous membrane,
whereas costal cartilages are present further back. Such
is the case in the Hays. In the Sharks, on the other
hand, the vertebra' are more regularly differentiated
throughout the spinal column; and ribs, though some-
times wanting, are more frecpiently present throughout
the abdominal region. The Ifnhvrphnl) (fig. 294) show

" Poiss. Fo-fn., toni. Ill, pp. 1 .and 212.

1068

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIIvS.

ii coalescence of tlic aiiieiMur |i;irt of the spiiinl cdliimn their piistorhital ijitdh) and in-cdrltital (;*/'///) |ii'<icc>;ses,

similar Id that jnst inentioiiefl, and are withont rihs. , (4) an cthnjdidal region, aronnd the nasal cajisules (jY)

The rii)s dt' tlie l',lasniol)ranchs, iiowever. diffei- essen- I Avitii the internasal cartilage, and lastly (o) a rostral

tially froni those "I' the Tiledsts in being nmre deei)l}- regidii, with the cuntlnent tojis nf the pi-iniordial tra-

<Mnl)ed(led in the nniscnlalure (Hesh), sd that they are heeiihe (the liasitraheenlar ti|i, //) and the sni»[)ortin"

not innnediatelv ajiplied to tlic' )ieritdnenni, init in this cartilage {Ir) of the strongly de\elojied rostral system

respect more nearh" answer to the scleral hones of the of the lateral line.

Teleosts and the ribs of tiie higher ■ve'rtebrates. ' The occipital region is the shortest. In the nid.sf

The sknll t'orms a continuons cajisnle of cartilage. priniitixe foians the anterior end of the ndtochord ex-

with no dther limits between the separate parts than tends into the basidccijiital })art", and the foremost

those indicated b\' the sitnation of the organs of sense nenra|)dpliyses <'nter into the cerebi-al capsnle. In the

and by the oritices of tlie cranial nerves. With their j Sharks the articulation between the head and the first

aid we can distingiush (/) an occipital region, aroiuid j vertebra is commonly very little more de\eloped than

/■''•■.

il'f -^^

ha ih

Fig. 296. First dors.il tin with its skeletal piirts and tlie siibjaeent part of the spinal eclinini in a Cycluspundyle (Hasse), a Oreenlanil
Slinrk (A,;intln,rhiiias carcliarkis), 230 em. long, from the Nortli Sea. ' ., of the natnral size.

b, hasal disk of the dorsal tin; ikt, rudimentary dor.sal spine, liidden under the skin; /i, dorsal tin uith its hunches of tihrils; c, and r,, tirst
(proximal) and second (distal) rows of radialia; cr, lateral ridge of the basal disk, a projecting crest for the attachment of muscles; Ig, ver-
tical ligament of the dorsal tin; le, elastic ligament of the spinal column; in, intemeural cartilages (intercalaria neuralia); na, nevirapophyses ;

c. vertel)r:e, superficially constricted and each containing in the space between the constrictions a division of the spinal cord; dispondylic.

each vertebra answering to two neurapophyses ; li, ha^nal ridge, divided into haemapophyses (ha) and interhannal cartilages

{ih, intercalaria Im iiialia).

the foramen magnum (figs. "298 and 299, ftim), and
limited in front by the nerrus riir/i(s firamen (vag),
(,?) a temporal or labyrinthine region, bounded in front
by the true trigeminal foramen (figs. 294 and oUO, tr),
(5) a frontal ((orbital) region, surrounding tlie orbits with

in the Teleosts; but in the liays (fig. ;^)U0) and the
Ohima^ras (tig. 294), as well as in .some Sharks (fig.
298, 0 and tig. 299), this articulation is accomplished
by trtie condyles (ore), in the same manner as in the
hiirher vertebrates. In the (/himu'ras, these condyles.

" See, for example, Chlumi/dosdache in G..m:m.\x (Bull. Mns. Com]!. Zool. Harv. Coll.. vol. XII, No. 1), jil. VII. Hg. B.

i

KI,AS.M(ilii;.\N(liS.

KKiil

low l)iit hriiad, iiirdi.illy rdiivcx ami latiTiilly L-oiicaAc, On the nutsidc (if tlic lateral rranial walls iIhtc lie in

lire set one on each siile n\' ihe lui-anien niai;iiiini. , this region the nioi-c or less marked articadiif cavities

,■111(1 a c(iri'cs|i(indinL; ciindx le, nieiliallv conca\'e and of the hyoniMiidibular cui-tilage (liiii). 'l'liroii;.di the

liitcralh' convex, is set on the front ^ide of the con- leniporal i-egion pass the foramina lor the iicrnis ijlos-

tlneiit N'ei'teliral mass at ihe lie^innini;' of the spinal 1 sojil/iiri/iif/eKS (fig. 21IS, (\ 1//1), )i. /(irialis (fig. 300,

I'oluinn (fig. "ilU, li). ; /«), and, at the lioiindary l)etween it and the orbital

The temporal region snrronnds the parts of the region, for the 11. t lificDihiKf (fr).

labyrinth, and frecinently shows trace.s (elevations), j The orbital region is furnished on eac'li .side in

even on the snrfaee, of the position within the carti- the most primitive forms with a posterior articular

lage of the laliyrintliine c;inals (fio-. 2!IS, asc, psc, and I cavity for the palatine cai-tilag(! of the np])er jaw (jia-

. '/i/l/f /

Fig. 207. First ddrsid tin with its skeletal parts imil \\\v siiliincciit purl (pf the spiniil (•(ihiiiiii in an Astcrosiiunilylc (H.assk). a Porhcaglc
(Isurus cornubiciis), 213 cni. Idiit:. fmni tin- Nortli Sea. ' , of tin- n.itiiral size.

ra, rarlialia of tlii-- anterior margin; rb, basal radialia; J'h, bnnelies «i fibrils, partly inserted between the distal radialia; riiU, nietapterygoid
radiidia, with their distal sections (rmU — rmt^); Ig, vertical ligament of the dorsal fin, investing in its lower part (/y, ) the elastic ligament
of the spinal cohmin (/<■) — the last ligament is partly removed to show the roof of the spinal canal, composed partlj' of the intemcnral arches,
partly of special snpraspin.1l cartilages; in, intcrnenral cartilages; m). neuraiiophyses; c, vertebno. complete, amphiooelous, with longitudinal
lateral cavities and ribbed; monospondylous, each vertebra answering to only one neurapopliysis; /in, hwmapophyses; //;, interhiemal cartilages;
the two last-mentioned cartilages together forming on each side of the spinal column a rim projecting outwards and downwards (answering

to /( ill the preceding figure).

hsc) and the vestilnde. On the upper side of the lato(|uadrate cartilage) on a postorbital pi-ocess, and with

skull (tigs. 2!IS — 300) this region is usually depressed an anterior articular cavity for the same cai-tilage at

into a parietal cavity, where the two endolymphatic the bottom of the orbit, on an expansion of the cranial

ducts or aijiKechtrtus rfsllhidl (aiji) have their orifices. ! cartilage which has been called the basal disk, and which

1070

.SCANDINAVIAN MSHE.S.
S b

fspo

4^ r ^

J\i

hbr
A

pJihi,

phbr

ebr,
br.

>)^
evs I

^^
cbr^ -V

ebt I phb>\ -^

h-

,h,,b,

P )» nb

fb>,cr. ,b,, ''"■. ^'^"\rhy Mk

psc fom

hsc i ^

%y^ n(< ch lag
V

Fig-. 298. Skull of Housh Hound (.Sci/lliarhiniis caiikula).

[•en from abnvi

AftlT P.MtKEIi.

(.4), from the right (S), and from hchiiid (<'). Natural siz

aqc, atjnceductus vestibuli; asc, external prominence of the anterior semicircular canal of the labyrinth; bbr, basihranchiale (cojuilii); br, Ciir-

tilaginous rods of the branchial membranes; cbr^ j, ceratobranchials of the first — fifth branchial arches; ch, space for the notochord, filled

with cartilage; cIi?/, ceratoliyoideum; cp, preorbital canal; ctr, cornua trabecularinn in the floor of the skull, seen through the prefrontal

fontanellc; ebr^ 5, epibranchials of the first — fifth branchial arches; evs, extravisceral cartilages; fom, foramen magnum; fspo, supraorbital

foramen; gp, foramen for llie neruns glossophargngeus; hbr^ 2' hypobranchials of the first and second branchial arches (other hypobranchials

not denoted); hm, hyomaitdibuhire; hue, external prominence of the horizontal (enter) semicircular canal of the labj'rinth; la, anterior suspen-
sory ligament, for the palatoquadrate cartilage; Imi, labial cartilage of the lower jaw; Ims, labial cartilage of the upper jaw; /«, — ,, anterior
and outer nasal labials; Ip, posterior suspensory ligament, for the palatoquadrate cartilage (upper jaw) and the mandibular arch (Meckelian
cartilage); Iv, rostral labials; Mk, Meekeliau cartilage (lower jaw); N, nasal capsule; occ, occipital condyles; o;)(, optic foramen; phbi\ — 5,
pharyngobrauchials of the first — fifth branchial arches; prob, preorbital process; psc, external prominence of the posterior semicircular canal
of the labyrinth; ptoh, postorbital jiroccss; ptp, suspensory process of the pterygopalatine arch; qpq, pterygopalatine cartilage; R. rostral
cartilage; i\ bi\ branchiostegal rays; spc, spiracular cartilage; spi7% spiracle; /;■, foramen for the nevLnis tr/geniimis; rag, foramen for the

nei'vus vagus.

ELASMOliHAMIl."

107

projt'i'ts (lowiiwMrils ill an aiifjle, known as tlie basilar
an'^l«"- ''"' '" ^'i^' 111"!'** I'econt forms of Sharks and
in tlic l!a\s tlu'se articulations iiave been looseiuHl, and
are r(']ilai('d by ligaments, the postorbital process and
the basilar plate having meanwhile suffered reduction''.
The Oiiiniieras have undergone an opposite development,
the palatoijuadratc cartilage (fig. 294, qpfj) licing con-
fluent with the skull — whence the nanic of Ifuloi-e-
nhuVt — and furiuinu a firm floor fo the orbit. \\'itliiii
the skull, above and just behind the basilar angle, lies
the Tiirl.isli saddle (with the mfimdihuluin, gJcnidida
pitiiitiniii. and ccDiaUs caroticus), and here the septum
between the orbits is |>ierced by a transverse canal, in
and nround which the niiiscali recti of the eye have
tlieir insertions, and wliich is consequently homologous
with the posterioi- orliito-muscular canal present in most
of the Teleosts. In the orbital region the roof of the
skull (tlu' forehead) is sometimes (in the; Kays) iraper-
fectlv closed, lieiiig completed by a membrane (frontal
fontanelle, fig. 300, fonf). The anterior limit of the
orbits is formed bv the preorbital process (tigs. "2i)<S —
300, proh), which is pierced, as well as the more or
less arched and expanded roofs of the orbits (with their
supraorbital foramina, fig. 298, fspo), by ramifications
of the ophthiiliiiic lu-anch of the trigeminal nerve. The
canal (preorbital canal, figs. 294 and 29(S, cp) that
traverses the upper part of the preorbital process tor
this purpose either opens on the top of the skull (fig.
299, cp^) and soon descends again into the cartilage
of the ethiiKiid region (ethmoidal canal, tig. 294, re),
or proceeds uninterruptedly, without appearing on the
surface, into the said cartilage, or leads to a deep in-
cision on each side of the skull (fig. 299, ie). the limit
between the orbital and etlimoid regions. In the lower
part of the preorl)ital jirocess runs another canal, the
so-called orbitonasal canal (tig. 294, on), to receive an-
other ramification of the said ophthalmic nerve. Behind
the ojjtic foramen there often projects within each orbit
a cartilaginous rod to support the ej'eball, this rod being
the so-called eve-stalk. The tip of each preorlutal pro-
cess .sends out in the Xotidanida (the most primitive in
type of the surviving Sharks) a backward process,
which ill the lia\s (fig. 300, poh) becomes a free car-
tilage jutting out laterally and jointed l>y ;i well-deve-

loped articulation with the ]ireorl)ital j)rocess and the
nasal ca|)sule. \\\ I'akki;!:' this cartilage was inter-
lireted as a \estige of a preoral (situated before the
moiitli) \isceral arch; but if would seem to have most
in common with the preorbital bone of the Teleosts,
es])ecially as this appears in the CnUtidce. In the
lia\s it meets the prorsal basal cartilage (propte-
rvgiuni) of the pectoral fins, and is most highly de-
veloiied in the Electric b'avs (Torpediiii-s) and Kagle-
Hays {MjiHubatidd).

The ethmoid region composes the anterior limit
of the cranial cavity, being the jiroduct of the strong
expansion and development of cartilage attained by the
side-angles of the embryonic trabecuhe (fig. 298, ctr).
Medialh" this mass coalesces into a septum, the inter-
nasal cartilage, between the large nasal capsules (figs.
294 and 298 — oOO, N), each of which is pierced with
a large foramen for the olfactory nerve. On the upper
side of the skull there appears at this point, in most
of the Elasmobranchs, the large prefrontal fontanelle
(figs. 299 and 300, fonpf), filled with a loose, mucoid
connective tissue, the backward continuation of which
passes, in the interior of the skull, into the hard mem-
brane of the brain {dura mater). The lateral parts of
the ethmoid region are fornuid by the large nasal cap-
sules (iV), which ai'c of an inverted bowl-shape, arched
above, open below, and the ))osterior walls of which
coalesce on each side with either preorbital process.
The structure of these capsules originates, it is true,
from the side-ends of the embryonic trabecuke; but
also includes up to three so-called labial cartilages
(figs. 294 and 298, /«, and In.,), originally free, which
form the margin and marginal valves of the nostrils.

The rostral region, which attains its greatest de-
velopment in the Hays and Saw-fishes — being pro-
duced in the latter into the so-called saw with its large
lateral .serrations and its two pairs of longitudinal ca-
nals, the inner pair continuations of the above-men-
tioned preorbital canals — is least developed in the
most primordial Sharks, where it forms a compressed
and narrow, oi- dejiressed and l)road prolongation of
the cranial floor. In most Sharks, however, the snout
is furnished on each side with a siijiporting cartilage
(figs. 298 and 299. Jr). originally a so-called labial

" Cf. tlie Sturgeons, see above p. 1045, tig. 284, U.

'' An exception to tliis is tl.e Hammerhead (.Zygceiia), in wliich tlie postorbital jirocess as well enters into the laleraUy elongated orbits.

' StcMll of Sharks, Shates, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., vol. X, p. 224 (ao).

1072

KCAXDIXAVIAN KISIIKS.

cartilage, which is (lircctcd tVoiii tlic tip nt' the rostral
cartilage (B) to the roof of tlie nasal capsule on the
same side. These t\\'o lateral cartilages and the rostral
cartilage thus huild up a tju'ee-sided pyraniidifbrni case,
within which is enclosed the fibrous capsule wherein
the ampulla' hereafter to be described have their ca;cal
base. In the HoloccpliaJi — wliere, as in the generality
of deep-sea fishes, the rostral system of the lateral line
is particularly well developed — tlie soft snout and the
said capsule are supported by a pair (fig. 294, J)\) of
cartilaginous rods, widely se})arated at the bases but
converging towards the ti))s, with tlie bases resting on
the snout in front of the nasal capsules, and by an

The morphological Iximologues of tlie jawliones of
the Teleosts and the higher vertel)rates also appear in
the Klasmobranchs under the guise of labial cartilages.
The Klasmobranchs are in general ra])toi-ial fishes of a
pronounced type, with powerful teeth in the mouth; hut
these teeth are set, not on the jawbones proper, hut
on the predecessors, in the development (jf the verteb-
rate type, of the palate and lower jaw. on the palato-
quadrate cartilage (fiifs. 21)4 and 21IS, <ji)ij) and the
so-called Meckelian cartilage (J/A') of each side, the
predecessors of the lower jaw, which cartilages appear
even in the embryos of the highest vertebrates as gra-
dually evanescent rndimcnts in the structure of the

ptoh

),t oh I j)

y^^

ptp

fo>wf-
im,h-

/
' '1',

'I'

Ints Imv

rai/ foDi Off
B

Fig. 299. Skull of a Tope {Galeorhimis), seen from the left (A) and from above (B). After Gegenbaur.
ro, nuiiinent of occipital crest; fonpf, prefrontal fontanelle; ie, incisura ethmoidalis. Tin- otlier letters are explained in tlic prei

unpaired, thicker and firmer cartilaginous rod {h\), set
on the bridge of the snout lietween the two anterior
oi)eniMgs of the ethmoidal canal (rt'), a confluence of
the anterior parts of the preorbital ((7;) and orbitonasal
{on) canals. The males also pos.sess a similar carti-
laginous rod (//) above the preorbital process, free and
mobile, transformed to a ])rehensile organ set with
teeth, and probably serving to hold the female during
copulation. The history of evolution has not yet elu-
cidated the morphological significance of these carti-
laginous rods in the Nnloci-jilidli, but from this point
of view they should probably be ranged, one and all,
beside the labial cartilages of the Sliai'ks.

mandible. The relation of the ])alato(|ua(lrate cartilage
to the skull we have already considered. At the jws-
terior (tiuadrate) extremity it articulates with the
]\lecke!ia,ii cartilage, which here functionates as a lower
jaw, so that the two pairs of cartilages form a ring
around the gape. But these cartilages, especially the
;\Ieckelian, are closely united behind by ligaments to
the hyoid arch, an opening (the spirai'le, fig. 298, spir)
being left, however, between the quadrate i'Ji^g) and
the hyomandibular {hm) cartilages, and the anterior
margin of this spiracular canal being furnished either
with a more or less developed cartilaginous disk (.?i)c),
answering to the meta|)terygoid lione of the Teleosts,

KI.ASMdliliANCUS.

1073

or, MS ill the llaxs (tiu'. ;i()0, nt/it), l)y :i iiioir cxti'ti-
sivc cai'tiliijiX'. strctcliiim' rnuii the Idwcr |i:ir1 tA' the
hyoiuiiiidiliiiliir Ihiik.' to the iioslorliilal region. ( )iitsi(lc
this |)linr\ii,i;(':il and masticatory aiiparatiis tlicri.' lie as
a rule three (sdiiietimes — as in several SharisS [tig.
29<S, Inis and lnii\ — miiy two, sometimes — as in the
Rays — none) i>airs of laliial eartilaues, the two largest
mid most con-itaiit meetiiiii- at each corner of tlie mouth.
Where tlie\ are all present, two of tliem {Ims) lie, one
hefore and below the other, on the outside of the palatu-
<iuadrate cartilaue. the third {h)ii) outside the Meckeiian
cartilaiie. 'I'he former two answer to the intermaxil-
laries and maxillaries, the latter is homologous with
the maiidilile.

The position occupied in relation to the said ske-
letal parts li\- these cartilages recurs in a number of
cartilaginous rods (tig. 298, ers). first described by
Hatiikk", which lie in the skin between the gill-open-
ings, forming the outer suijport of the above-mentioned
cartilaginous rods in the branchiostegal memliranes (fig.
298, //)•). (iKcKM'.An;' called the first-mentioned rods
outer (/ill-drclics, and considered them, as (Yviki; had
partly done', to be vestiges of the more complex
branchial arches of the Marsipobranchs. Parker'' called
them crfrarisccrals or e.rfrahranch'uils, and saw in them
■ hoimdogues of the shoulder-girdle (the scapuhe and
coracoid bones), as being extracostal growths. \ATiere
their development is highest, as in the majority of the
Sharks, thev consist of two parts, a dorsal and a ventral,
which meet and are applied to each other throughout
a greater or less portion of their extent. In several
Sharks and in the Rays they either are rudimentary, or
have only the ventral parts developed (fig. 298), or are
eiitireh- absent. Tlie angular, hooked or forked venti-al
ends of these "outer gill-arches" are joined below, from
one side of the body. to the other, by an horizontally
set, filirous membrane; and in this manner is formed,
under the hvpobraiiehial (lowest, figs. 298 and :Wi). Iihr)
I and eopular (hhr) parts of the true branchial arches, a
special ehaiidier, a prolongation of the pericardial cavity,
to receive the heart with the conus arteriofiKS and,
within an anterior division, the truncus arteriosKS.

The hyoid arch shows an entirely different com-
position and suspension in the Sharks and Chima'ras
on the one iiaiid and in the Rays on the other. In
the former the true middle part {leratohi/oideuni, figs.
29 I and 298, clii/) is suspended from the lower ex-
tremit\- of the Inomaiidibular cartilage [lini), and the.se
parts are united below, from one side of the body to
the other, by the lirst copula {hosilii/oidciim, bhfi). In
the l!a\s the hyoid arch consists on each side, as a
rule, of ;^> or 4 jiarts, the lowest {hijpohyoideum, fig.
;-500, ///;//), as well as the lowest part of the first branchial
arch {lii/jKihrdHrliiali'), meeting the first copula {hlii\).
Among the remaining parts of the hyoid arch the
ceratohyoid {'■lii/) and e|)ihyoid {elii/) are the most con-
stant; the uppermost jmrt (sthy), answering to the sty-
lohyoid of the Teleosts, is either cartilaginous or re-
presented ]>\ a ligament, and suspends the arch from
the upper posterior angle of the hyomandibular cartilage.
The true branchial arches consist as a rule of four
parts on each side — the hyijobranchial (hbr), the cera-
tobranchial {cbr), the epibranchial (cbr), and the pha-
ryngobranchial (phbr). R)Ut between the lowest parts
(the hypobranchials) there appear in the Sharks, though
their occurrence is irregular, unpaired pieces (copular
parts), sometimes five in number. Only the hindmost
and largest (bbr), under which tlie heart is situated,
is constant, and tiiis is always present in the Rays
as well, where it attains a still greater development.

GDI-rakers are usuall}' wanting in the Elasmo-
branchs; but two remarkable exceptions are formed by
the largest Sharks known, the North Atlantic Basking
Shark and the Whale-Shark {Bhinodon fi/piciis) of the
Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean east of Africa.
Like the whales, these Sharks live on small animals, and
like the Teleosts that feed in the same way, they are
furnished with a tiltering apparatus ("gill-grating'\
Steenstrui% .see fig. 832, ]>. 1 14.")), which separates the
food fi-om the water that [Hnirs from the mouth at
the same time and linds an outlet through the gill-
slits. This tiltering ajijiaratiis is composed in the Bask-
ing Shark' of fine, setiform, and den.se gill-i-akers, up
to (i inches long, the raicro.scopical structure of which

" Anat. Phil. Loiters. Kiemenapp., Zungenh. Wirbellb. (18,S2), p. 83.
' Unters. Vergl. Anat. Wirketth., 3:tes Heft, p. 1G4.
"■ Lemons, ed. 2, torn. VII. p. 307.
'' Trans. Zool. Soc. Loud., vol. X. p. 212.

' (iu.NNERUS, Trondhj. Selsk. Skr., pari. Ill (ITfi.")). p. 4i;: Foii.is, I'n.
Vid Selsk. Forh. 1873. Xc 1. p. 47. tab. II.

Bosl. Sw. Xat. Hist. 18.54. p. 203: Steenstp... Overs. D.

1074

SCAXmXAVIAN FISHES.

was shown Iiy Hanxovki; to be tlie same as that of vity; and as the latter, being ])ier(e(l by tlie abdominal

(the teeth and) the dermal spines.

Among the peculiarities of the intei'nal organs in
the Elasmobranchs we liave already considered the
structure and position of the heart. A further charac-

(anal) poi'es, one on each side of the anal aperture, is
in a cei-tain degree open to the surrounding water, this
element may find a passage to tlie heart itself". The
intestinal canal is comparatively simjile (tig. oOl). The

ph b)\
fy mpt opt pob

Fig. 300. Skull of a Thornback {Raja clavata) seen from above {A) and from the right {B). Nafurnl size. Atter Parker.

ehy, epihyoid; fa, foramen for the nervus facialis; fonf, frontal fontanelle; fonpf, prefrontal fontanelle; hhj, liypoliyuid; mpt, metapterygoid;

poh, prt'orbital: sthtj, stylohyoid. The other letters are explained in fig. 298.

teristic of these fishes is the communication afforded i wide, but sometimes very short a'Si>ijhagus ((/) passes
to the pericardial cavity by means of two holes behind, ' into a stomach (e) usually of greater length, and this
in the diaphragm, with tlie abdominal (peritoneal) ca- I termina,tes behind in a more or less prolongated blind

" MoNRu, Striirl., PJnjsiol. Fish.. Edinburgh, 178.5, p, '20, pi. II, 22, 23, pi. .Will, 10, 11, 12. Blainviu.e, Ann. Miis. Hist. Not.,
tome .Win (1811), p. ill.

:■:l..\s\l^l!K.\^■(*II^

1075

sac, Init lieiids t'orwnrd in a ]i\l(ii'ii' pari (toy), l-'niin
the ii\'liiriis the (Iui.iiKmiuui runs straiuiit hark, and
passes into tlu' spii'al intestine {//), whieli is eontinned
|i\- the slmrt i-eetnni. The niueims nuMuhrane dl' the
iiiti'stiiial canal differs in the vai'ious seetions much as
in titc case of tlie ('lionch'osteans. In the (csopiiaf2:iis
it tofins hmyitudinal iiv. in additii)n, ti-ans\-ei'se tuhis,
or is reticulated; or it ni;iy i)e studded with more or
less hard ]iapilhi', pointed excrescences, in considerahle
innnher. The nnieoiis niemhrane of the stomach is
iisiialK' coursed liv stroniiK' de\eloped (hut t'rw) lon,i;i-
tudinal folds. The ijvloric part, where there are also
longitudinal folds of the mucous memlirane, is some-
times without internal limits, but sometimes hounded,
hoth at the beginning and end, by an annular \al\'e".
As we ha\(' remarked abo\e (p. 1().")'2, note /*), the
spiral inti'stine is usua.lh' regarded at the present day
as a section of the duodenum. The spiral fold in its
interior is ver\' highly developed in the genei'ality of
the Klasmobranchs\ with reticulated mucous nn'inbrane
and with Transverse ridges on most of the coils. The
rectum is short, and its nnicous membrane smooth.

The ]i\er (tig. oOl, c) is large and oily, usually
con.sisting in the Sharks of two lobes, in the Ka.vs of
three. The gall-l>ladder lies free, or is embedded in the
liver. The spleen (.r) lies at the posterior part of the
stomach. To the riglit thereof (vertically below /' in
the figure) lies the pancreas, \vhich is usualh' of less
volume. Into the beginning of the rectum there opens
a digitiform gland (/), which was first remarked bv
MoNKO' under the name of vermiform appendage or
coecal sac', but whose glandular, botryoid structure,
around a central efferent duct, was first (dearly de-
scribed by LEYDir,'.

There is no air-bladder. The kidneys (fig. 301,;;?)
are situated as in the Teleosts. They taper in front
and expand liehind, sometimes so greatly that they
seem to be confluent. Their general shape adapts itself

to the external form of the liod\'. Thus the)' are
elongate(l in the Sharks, broader and shorter in the
Rays. 'I'he ui'iiiar\- bladder is usually double, forming
a dilatation of each ureter. 'Ihe anterior part of each

l''i!;

:!0i.

Alnln

;il visi-ern ut a iii.-ilc Sliarlc. After KYMElt-.JoXE5.

(7, lie:irl; 0, gill-openings; c, c, a, lobes of the liver, tlie left removed,
the liiiilrlle (lutiuliis iSpiei/elii) and riglit retained; d, oesophagus, pass-
iiif;- into tlie sfoiiiaeli (e). wliic-li is eontinned by the dnodenmn (/),
into wliiib the gall-duet (</) opens; //, spiral intestine; i, glandnla
rclt'oaniih's; k, urogenital cloaca; I, pterygopodiuni ; m, left kidney;
n, left testi.s; o, uas deferens; p, dilatation of the Kas deferens (vesi-
riilii xeminali.f); r, urogenital [lapilla; .v, ahdoniiiial (|ieritonenl) pores;
.,; spleen.

" In the Basking Shark Blainville (I. c, p. lOtJ, pi. (!, tig. •>. O) hence gave to this section Ihe iiuiiie of the third sturiiuch. In
the Picked Dog-fish I find no valve, either between the stoniaeh and the pyloric part or between the latter and the diiodeniini.

'' In a Picked Dog-tish I find 14 coils; Kroyer found 1(1 or 17. The last coil terminates in a broad, labiated fold. In several
Sharks, however, the spiral fold is less developed. In Alopias vulpcs and V'ircharias (jlauciis it is described as very short. In Thalassorhi-
Hus viilpecnla and Zygwna tudes no stair-like coils arc formed along the inside of the intestine, but a long and broad membrane curves in
comet-shaped folds, one within the other, and lies like a packet within the intestine, with only one margin attached to the wall thereof. \t
Ihe free margin of this membrane runs, according to Duvernoy (Ann. Sc. Nat., Zool., 2 ser., tome III. p. 274, pi. 10 and 11), a power-
fully muscular venal trunk (^vena niesenterica), which is continued by the vena porta and impels ihe blood and chyle into the latter.

' ■Strui't. Physiol. Fish., Edinb. 1785, PI. II, 8; I'l. 111. /•.'; PI. XI, D; PI. XVIII, 16; PI. XIX, 14.

' /iursa ctoaae, Retz., Obs. Anat. Vhondropt.. \i. 24. alundula retroanalis, Costa, Fna Regn. Nap., Chimeridei (1852), p. .36,
lav. II, tig. 1 , y.

■" Beitr. mikr. Anat., Entwickcl. llaien nnd Rnrhen (lS.i2), p. M, § .-'.S.

1076

SCANDINAVIAN F I SI IKS.

kidney (the W'olftiaii hoth) is sciiMi-jitefl in tiie luaics
from the ])osterioi' part, and is applied, as an epidi-
djjmls, to tlie aiitei'ioi' jiart of each testis, receiving
the efferent duct then-ot'.

In the structure of the generative organs the Elas-
nmhranchs are even more closely approximated than
the Chondrosteans to the higher vertebrates. These
organs are generally more restricted in extent, whence
it naturally results that the offspring is far less nu-
merous than that of the Teleosts. The efferent duct
(vas deferens, lig. 801, o) of the male organs («) passes,
as in the higher vertelira.tes, first tiirough an epididii-
mis. Before opening into tlic cloaca, it widens into a
dilatation (seminal vesicle, jt), the posterior extremity
of which is applied to tiie corresponding part of the
seminal vesicle on the other side of the body, and then
finds outlet, in common with the other seminal vesicle

their sliniA' secretion. .\ large gland of this kind i.s
.situated on the under side of tlie \entral tins. In most
cases the said organs are besides furnished at the tip
witii cards of teeth or with s])ines.

The copulation between the sexes that is practised
with the aid of these organs by the Sharks has been
observed in the case of the Nurse Hound {Sri/JIinrhinus
stell(iris) bv Boi.AU at the Hamburg Aquarium, and is
illustrated by the aj^jiended figure (302). Of tlie copu-
lation of the Rays Hollbekg writes'': "During the
season of propagation they repair to the surface of the
sea and, for the ]«irpose of depositing their eggs, to
the shores. At these times they are taken with the
harpoon. The female is frequently attended by several
males, who endeavour by lifting and tossing her with
their snouts to turn her over on her back. The first
to succeed in this applies and presses his \eiitral side

ITig. 302. Male Nurse Himiul cltisping- (lie female dnrins eopulatin

AfdT BuLAU, Zeitsc-hr. f. wiss. Zoo)., Bd. XXXV, p. ,^22.

and the ureters, into a special cloaca {k, the urogenital
cloaca, MoEEAU, Hist. Nat. Foiss. Fr., tome I, fig. 26,
p. 246), which projects on the wall of the anal cloaca
in the form of a ])apilla (r) only recpiiring the erectile
tissue to re])resent a true penis. In the Chimicras the
urogenital aperture of the males lies externally on the
ventral side, at the anterior extremity of an oblong
and compressed, but posteriorly tumid protuberance
behind the vent.

The external copulatory organs of the males we
have mentioned above. The most impoi'tant, the .so-
called pterygopodia of Petri", consisting of the trans-
formed hindmost radialia of the ventral fins {metapte-
ri/f/iiiiii in Gegenbaur; fig. 301, I; fig. 295, ptpd), are
composed of .several parts and furnished with a longi-
tudinal channel, into which several glands discharge

so closely to hers that, if only one of them be har-
pooned, both may be drawn out of the water without
being ])arted." On the occasion described by Bolau
the right ]jteryg(jpo(lium of the male \vas inserted into
the sexual aperture of the female. The male flung his
tail upwards and forwards along the right side of hei-
body and bent his c)\\ n in the opposite direction, though
with the dorsal side under, so that the top of his head
pressed his tail to the back of the female above her
pectoral fins. In the last-mentioned circumstance we
may perhaps find a clue to an explanation of the man-
ner in whieli the male Chinuvras emplov' the mobile
prehensory organ situated on their forehead. The co-
pulation of the Chima3ras has never been obsei-ved; but
as the mouths of the two oviducts, which open in the
females of these fishes beside each other and externally,

" Zeilsclir. wiss. Zool., Bd. XXX, p. 291).

' Gbgs Wett., Witt. Snmli. N. Hamll., lU Dolen (ISIO). p. ItJ.

KI.ASMdlili.WCIIS.

107:

in tlic skill <it' the Miitr;il side, lictwci'ii flic .•iiiiis ami
the iirclliral a|icrtiir(', are (■(|iiall\' (uiiiiil diiriiii;' the
lircciliiiji-seasoii, it si'ciiis highly prohiihic that Imlh the
iitcrygopodia t'miotionate simultaneously. The situalidii
of the iiniLiciiilal o|)eiiiiii;' in the iiialcs, relatively to
tlu' hase of the iiti'rv;L;(i|)()dia, is such that tlit? seiiieii
iiia\' apjiai'ditlv he reeeived almost iiiimediately in the
ahove-meiitioued channel on tlie iiterygopodia.

Tiie ovaries (tit;'. IWS^ it) oceupv the same position
as the testes — in the anterior part of the ahdoiiiinal
cavitx' the\- are attached hy means of their niesoariiini
(jieritoiieal fold) to the spinal column — hut are sepa-
rated from their effei'ent (the Mi'illerian) ducts, which
unite hefore them, under the crsoiihagus and just he-
liiiid file diaphra.iiin, in a curve, at the middle of wiiicli
thev lia\e their common openin.ii' (7). 'l"o this ojieniny
the egii's thrown off by the ovaries ;ire conducted hy
a current produced by the ciliary motion of the investinsi-
cells of the serous tissue lining the interjacent organs.
The said curi'cnt may be observed even shortly aftei-
the death of the fish by opening the belly, i-emoving
or lifting aside the liver, and strewing finely powdered
charcoal on the parts. The oviducts (^Miillerian ducts)
heiid backwards, one on each side, a,nd are i-acli fur-
iiisheil with two dilatations. The anterior (o) of these
is glandular, its walls l)eing traversed by ramified ducts
that secrete a nidamental substance to envelop tlie eggs;
while the posterior ir) is a uterine pouch within which
the impregnated ova eitlier undergo the earliest stages
of their de\elopment, or remain until the young are
fully develo|ied and capable of free motion. In the
latter case, when only the right ovary as a rule is
functional, the glandular dilatation of the oviducts is
little de\-eloped. but the uterus all the more so, its
walls being lined with vascular folds or even with a,
jildfi'iila iitrihid, into whicli the vitelline sac of the
embryo is fitted by means of wai'fy placental grt)Wths
(cotyledons), an arrangement that would lie fully ana-
logous to the viviparous development of the mammals,
it' the yolk sac were replaced by the fcetal fnembraues
of the latter. The o\iducts open either into the com-
mon cloaca (.S-, .s), on each side of the urethral aper-

ture (/), or, as mentioned above, at special orifices in
the skin.

TIh; primeval type of the Elasmobranchs has rami-
fied in two essentially different directions of evolution,
on the one hand I0 the liaJdcepliaJl, on the other to
the I'liif/iost(imi.

Fig

i-ntraf

30.^. Fcinnfe

rail II

r.f a SliaA. After Owii.N.

all, tiif ippi-11 and laid back; b, sections of Uie slioulder-
•dk' and pelvis; c. licari in its pericardium; /(, hindmost part of

■ recluin and tlie ascending glandula relrounalis; n, riglit ovary;
nidamental dilatation of tlic left oviduct {(jlandida nidamentalis);
ciinimon aperture of tlie twii oviducts; at its bottom the orifice of

■ rinlit oviduct (to the left in the figure); r, uterine division of
i left oviduct (the right oviduct lies unopened to the left of the
ore); ^', posterior mouths of the two oviducts; t, urethral papilla,

the tiji I'f which a bristle is inserted into the urethra. On each
(■ (if Ihis brisUir may be seen an abdominal pore (the month of a
peritoneal canal).

1078

SCAXDIXAVIAN IISHES.

ELASMOBRANCHII HOLOCEPHALI'.

Elasmobranchs with one gill-opening- common to all the gill-slits on each side of the body. No spiracles. Skin

smooth, without placoid scales (spines'). Notochord unaltered, not constricted by the formation of vertebrse,

only with superficial rings of cartilage, considerably exceeding in number the vertebral spaces (polyspondyli).

Palatoquadrate part not divided from the skull, but furnished like the lower jaw with dental disks.

That course of (k'velopioent fruui the primordial j cartihiges admit of interpretation as vestiges of aborted
fishes' wliieli is represented in the jiresent age by the spiracular gills. On the other linnd, tiie structure of

HoJnccphali, the suborder of tlie Chinueras, has been
arrested as regards the structure of the spinal column
at a lower stage than the Plagiostoms. It is probable
too that the structure of the palate in the Holocephali
is a relic of the .said ancestral types; Init only the
iiistory of evolution can decide whether the union lie-
tween the palatoquadrate parts and the skull, a pecu-
liarity which we shall again meet with in the still
more primitive Marsipobranelis, is here of a primary

the l)ranchial cavity in tlie Ilolocejihdii more clearly
indicates a higher degree of differentiation, a .step in
the direction of the Chondrosteans and Teleosts.

Tlie HoJdcepliali are marine and deep-sea fishes
with a wide geogra]jhical I'aiige. How great is their
geological age, can hardly he stated at present with
certainty, for ichthyologists have sujjposed'' that remains
of these fishes have been discovered even in Devonian
deposits. It is certain, however, that tliey lived in the

or a secondary nature. Equally indispensable is the aid | Jurassic period, when its very earliest stratum (the
of the history of evolution to a determination whether Lias) was formed; and during the latter part of this

the absence of spiracles is original or rather the con-
sequence of reduction. Solger has described in Chi-
meera monsfrosa small cartilages (iig. 294, .s) which
occupy in relation to tlie lower jaw the same position
as that assumed in relation to the jialatoquadrate car-
tilage by tlie spiracular cartilages (supports of the spi-
racular gills) common in tlie Plagiostoms. It may
reasonably be assumed tiiat tliese so-called Solgerian

period the)' attained a size far surpassing tiiat of mo-
dern Holneephali. Townsend, for instance, found in
the Portland ciialk at Great Milton (near Oxford) an
under tooth of Chima'.ra {Ischyodon) Toirnsendn' that
measured 1 1 cm. at the symphyseal margin, a dimen-
sion whicli in a Chimcera moiistrasii If) cm. long is
re|)resented by 14 mm.

The suborder contains only one family.

I AM CHIMTERIDiE.

liodij (if a compressed rlurute form^ most nearly resernhVuKj that of the Macniroids. Dentition of tlie 7iioidh made
up of tiro upper pairs and one inider pair of dental plates, most similar to those of the Lan/i-fishes {Dipnoi).
Tw<r' dorsal fins, the anterior, (diore the pectoral fins, triangidar and armed irith spines, the posterior loir ami
long: a small, sometimes scarcely distinyiiishahle anal fin, situated far haeh: caadal fin dijihycereid or lieterocercnl.

Of this family only four'' s})ecies survive at the pre-
sent time. These have been ranged in two genera, one of

which, the Antai'ctic Callorhynchas, contains a solitary
species and is characteiised by the more obliquely for-

" olog, wliole, and y.iC(ia7,l\, head.

' In the ycmng- of Callorhijnclius (a genus frnm tlie Pacitic Ocean anil the Antarctic regions) spines liave been found in two lougilu-
dinal rows, |iarlly on the forehead, partly on the back, between the first and second dorsal fins (see DiJJi., Hist. Nat. Poiss.. Snites a Biiffon,
tonic I, p. 094, pi. 14, fig. 4), an indication that the skin of the primitive forms was clothed with spines.

' Pisces aspondyli, Basse, Natiirl. 6'i/si. Elasmohr., Allgcni. Tlieil, ]>. 31.

'' Of. GtJNTHEK, Introd. Study Fish., p. 349.

' AOASSiz, Rech. Poiss. Foss., tome III, p. 343, tab. 40, Iig. 20.

f Sometimes the posterior dorsal fin is so deeply sinuons that tlircc dorsal fins have lieen counted.

" Gill has besides described a Cliinurra pluinhfii from the Atlantic consi of North America; but there would hardly seem to he any
specific distinction between this form and our (Jliima'ra.

Ildl.iK'lCIMIAI.I.

107!)

ward (lirectiuii of tlic U])]ier IVont teeth, li\- ;i special upward ilireetion (if the lij) ni' the tail, the ii|)])er ])art
dermal a|i|>cnilaL;e at the tip (if the snout, and 1)\' tlie of the caudal fiii JK'iiig extremely small (hctei'ocereal).

Genu.s chimera.

Fri»>f tccili ill the upper jair of a reiiical or hut sliifhlli/ oIiI'kjiil- fonrard direelion : tip of the snout iritJioiit

special ujijieiidiific : tiji of the tail jirolouf/nted straight hack, in a tine with the spinal coliniiii. the caiidul Jin

iiiirroiriiiji hehiiid and heiiiij of about the same heii/ht and extent ahore as heloir.

JM the Iliad (\'I, 179) HoMEK depicts the slaying
by IJelleroiihon of the JCt'uniQa, a tire-ljreathing mon-
ster shaped in front as a lion, behind as a dragon, in
the middle as a goat. In the seventeenth century
KkxTiMAX sent to Gesner a drawing of a fish from
Denmark which lie called Meeraff {Simia marina); and
when Lixx.F.us found the same kind of tish from Bo-
husliin in the Royal ^luseura at Ulriksdal, he called it

finery, which they l)elie\e haw so displeased the great
God that He hath seen good to warn tliem witli signs
and wonders, which belief news-men, no less wise than
they, .speed the whole world through to the edification
of all"". Tiius the name oi' C'himcera was introduced
into ichthyology; and though the monstrosity formerly
seen in the structure of the genus has disapjieared in
the light of modern researches into its relations to the

Monheij-fish or Monster-fish {Chimtera). "Monster is 1 other Elasmobranchs, the life led by these fishes is still

the name given to tliis fish, which is so unlike all
others and as it were a medley of all fishes. At certain
seasons when this strange fish dieth and is cast ashore,
the conunon people behold in him a miracle and ima-
gine that they see laces, points, topknots, and other

in great part a mystei-y to us.

Three species are recognised within the geiuis,
one from the west coast of North America, one from
the North Atlantic and flapan, one from the coast of
Portuiral.

THE NORTHERN CHIMERA (sw. iiai'musen).
CHLM.^KA I\I0XSTRO.SA.

Plate XLVI, tigs. 2 arid 3.

All the rertiral fins contiguous or nearlij so: the anal lohe distinct just in front of the het/inning of the loicer caudal
lobe and heloir the end of the second dorsal fin. Tip of the tail prolongated into a finless, n-hip-like appendage.
The tips of the pectoral fins, when laid hack, extend to the anterior margin of the ventral fins or still further.
Pterygopodia (posterior appendages of the centred fins) of the males forked throui/houf the greater part of their length.

Si/u. Mecriijf (Simia inarimi) sec. Kentjiann in lilt. : Ges.n., De
Aquatilibus, p. 878 (fig. in p. 877). Gateua Acanttdas
Clusii Exoticus, Willughby (ed. Ray), p. .57. tali. B, 9,
fig. 0. fis-Galte, Str6m, Sondmcirs Beslcviv., Tom. I, p. 289.
Uliima'ra monstrosa, LiN., Miis. Ad. Frid., part. I, p. 53,
tab. XXV: ,S;/.it. Neil., ed. X. vol. I, p. 236; Fiia Siiec.,-
ed. 11, p. 197; GuN.v. (Hav-KaUen), Trondhj. SelsU. Skr.,
vol. II, p. 270, (abb. V et VI; Olafs. {liavtmis), Rei!:e Is!.,
pp. 300 el :>9H; Ascan. (Selvtiaaen, argenten), Icon. Rer.
Nat., fasc. II, p. 6, tab. XV; MuLi.., Prodr. Zool. Dan.,
p. 38; Bi,., Naturg. Ausl. Fisch., part. I, p. 60, tab. CXXIV;
Lacep. {Chim. arctique), Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. I, 392, tab.
19, fig. 1; Retz., Fna Stiec. Lin., p. 308; Do.vov., Brit.
Fisli.. lab. CXI; Risso, Ictithyol. Nice, p. 53; F.MNG, Brit.
Anim., p. 172; Faber, Fiscli. Isl., p. 41 (+ Otiim. cristata,

\\. 4.5); NiLSS., Prodr. Ictithyol. Scand., p. 112; Vai.. in
Gaim., Voy. Isl., Groenl., tab. 20; Bonap., Iconogr. Fna Ilal..
Pesci, tab. 130; Schlec. in SiEn., Fna Japan., p. 300, tab.
CXXXII; Ekstr., Gbg.s Vet., Vitt. Samh. Handl., Ny Tidsf.,
vol. I (1850), p. 21; Co.srA, Fna Regn. Nap., Chim., tabb.
1 — 7; Kit., Damn. Fislc., vol. Ill, p. 784; NiLSS., SIcand.
Fna, Fi.-'k., p. 705; DOm., Hist. Nat. Poiss. (su. a Biff.),
tome I, p. 686; Gthr, Brit. Mns. Cat., Fish., vol. VIll,
p. 349; Coll., Forli. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tilla>gsb.,
p. 206; Cederstb., 6fvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1876, No. 4,
p. 67; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 605; Winth., Naturb.
Tid.skr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 56; MoR., Hist. Nat.
Poiss. Fr., tome I, p. 455; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 363, tab.
X; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 286, tab. CI.I;
LiLL.1., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fislc., vol. Ill, p. 511.

" Mus. Ad. Frid., part. I, p. 54.
Sctmdhini'iiin Fishes.

1080

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

is sliared by the ]iu|)ils. At tlie anterior iiiar<rlii of
the eyes the t'oreliead of tlie. females is soniewliat tumid,
and in tlic males tlie coiTesponding prominence is me-
dially concave; but behind the concavity articulates the
singular hooked organ (fig. 294, If) whose jn-obable
function as a prehensile organ during copulation we
ha\i' iilrcady pointed out. It is a curved rod of
hard cartilage, the base of which is widened and pro-
more — is occupied by the prolongated tail', which is : longated, gliding by means of a longitudinal articulary

Chiuuera horealis, SilAW, Geiier. Zool., vol. V. pari. I, p. 30.'),

tab. 157.
V/iiincera arctica, Hoi.lb., Boliiml. Fisk'., fasc. II, \>. 1 uuiii

tab. (Gbgs Wett., Witt. Sainli. N. Hand!., part. IV).
Chima-ra mediterranea, Risso, Eur. Mei:, torn. Ill, p. 108.
(.')Cln'ma'ra phtmbea, Gill, Proc. Philos.Soc. Washington, Dec. 2'2,

1X77; vi(k, .lojtD., GiLi!.. Bull. U. S. Xat. Miis., No. 10, p. :,i.

The Nortlu'iMi (-liima.'ra attains a lengtli of about
a metre". The greater part of tliis length — " ., or

thread-like at the tiji. Tlie gi'eatest depth, just beliind
the pectoral fins, measures \'g — \!-, of the length; and
the greatest breadth (thickness), just in front of the said
point, is about '/a — % of the greatest depth. Where
the first dorsal fin is situated, the dorsal line is straight;
from tills part it slopes at an angle of about 4r>" to-
wards the snout, but very slowly towards the tip of
the tail. The inferior profile of the head ascends from
behind about as much as the upper profile descends or,
when the mouth is open, a little more; but the belly
is usually rounded and tumid, the inferior caudal profile
(behind the ventral fins) thus ascending in a very gra-
dual curve. The l)ody is, however, so loose and slippery
that no constancy in these respects can be e.Kpected.
The length of the head, which is conical and be-
hind laterally compressed, decreases as usual during
growth, varying between l.'i and 11 % of that of the
body in specimens 7 — 9 dm. long. Its most charac-
teristic features, the position of the mouth and nostrils,
as well as the structure of the soft and somewhat trans-
lucent snout, have already heen descrilied. The longi-
tudinal diameter of the large and ovally rounded eyes
in the specimens just . mentioned measures about ^/^
(37 — 31 %), and their vertical diameter about '/j (22
— 18 %), of the length of the head. They are .set high,
their superior margin lying but slightly below the frontal
profile, but somewhat obliquelj^ sloping in a forward
direction; and whereas the length of the snout in front
of them measures about '/^ (48 — 51 %) of the length
of the head, the postorbital length of the head is not
much more than Vs (35 — 38 %) of its entire length.
The elongated form is not re.stricted to the orbits, but

gi-oove on tlie median edge of the forehead, and the
top of which is furnished on the under surface with
a card of 40 — 50 pointed, recurved teeth. As the
form of the articulary surface shows, the hook is only
slightl}' erectile; but when it is depressed, the card
of teetii works against the anterior ]);irt of the said
prominence.

On the external surface of the snout the Northern
Chinian-a accjuires one of its most characteristic singu-
larities, consisting in the ramifications of the lateral
line. The lateral line itself extends, as usual, along
the sides of the body, in front rather high, behind
nearer to the middle of the sides, until it descends just
behind the beginning of the lower caudal lobe to follow
the base thereof. It is without true jiores, liut instead
has a fissure-like opening throughout its lengtii, this
being due to the structure of its wall, as first descril)ed
by Leydig'. Instead of piercing through scales, which are
wanting in these fishes, the wall of the lateral line is sup-
ported liv half-rings'' set beside eacli othei' and branched
at the tops. In this form the lateral line advances on
the head, where it runs upwards and inwards' on the
occiput, and just behind the mouths of the aqiKediictus
vesfihidi sends out a transverse canal', a line of commu-
nication between the two sides of the body, with a
backward offshoot in the middle. Forward from this
transverse canal a supraorbital branch'' runs on each
side of the head, above the eye and latei'ally along the
bridge of the snout, to the side of the tip of the snout,
where it bends downwards and backwards, though only
to meet and join in a curve on the under surface of the
snout the supraorbital branch of the opjiosite side. A

long. Tbe true lenglli of (lie

" Day and Lilljeborg give 4 feet (1,200 mm.). Our largest specimens are females about 95
body is in many cases doubtful, for it is difficult to see whether the tip of the tail is entire or broken.

' Our specimens corroborate Lilljeborg's statement that the males have the comparatively longest tail; but Krover's measurements
show the reverse, and rather indicate that young Chimserae have a comparatively longer tail than old.

"■ Arch. Anat., Physiol. 1851, p. 251, taf. X, tigs. 2 and 9.

'' Of an osseous structure, according to Leydig.

' This ascending portion is called by Garman (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. Coll., Cumbr., vol. XVII, No. 2) the occipital canal.

.' Aural canal, according to Garman.

•" Cranial canal and rostral canal, according to Garman.

MiliTllKltN clIlMyKliA.

insi

more iimnciliate funtiiiu;itiou oi' tlie iMtcral liiu' proiun'
consists lit' :i siil)()rbhMl lir.-mcli", i-uiiiiiii_u' iilili(iiK'l\-
downwards and forwards aloiio- the posterior margin of
each orliit and tlience obli([nely upwards and forwards
idong the sidiorliital margin, t(_) a point about twice as
far from the tip of tlie snout as from the eye, wliere it
forms an iS'-sliaped curve', first downwards and liaek-
wards'', then downwards and forwards, afterwards join-
ing tile supraorl)ital braneii, just before the junction of
the latter witli the con-esponding canal on the other side-
of the bodv. Where the suboi'bital bi-aneh first alters
its course, <in the cheek, below the low(>r posterior cor-
ner of tlu' orbit, it sends out a branch downwards and
backwards, an opercular canaT, which becomes narrower
and narrower until it disappears externalh', being con-
tinued, howe\er. by a row of narroAv, transversel)' set,
sharp-edged jiort'S, rigiit across the branchiostegal mem-
brane. Just before the origin of the opercular branch
from the suborl)ital, the latter sends out another branch
in a downward direction, a malar canal', which soon
forks into a maxillar-s' and a mandibular' canal. The
former runs along the cheek, below the middle thereof,
to a line with the anterior margin of the nostril, where
it divides into two branches, an upper anterior (maxillo-
rostral'O and a lower posterior (maxillo-nasal''). Each
of the last-mentioned canals crosses the under surface of
the snout to meet and join the corresponding canal on
the opposite side of the body; but the maxillo-rostral
branch also sends out, upwards and torwai-ds, in the
median line of this under surface, an unpaired canal',
which unites it to the above-mentioned junction between
the supraorbital branches. The mandibular branch cross-
es over behind the lower jaw in the same maimer as
the opercular branch across the isthmus. All these ra-
mifications of the canals belonging to the system of the
lateral line mark the head and in particular the snout
with an extremely singular design, all the more striking
as their anterior parts, on the cheeks and snout, become

coarser, with more distinct fissure, and at certain |ioints
are widcMied an<l deepened, thus aci|uiriiig a moniliform
ap])earance. lietweeii the dilatations the inside of the
canal is ])ierce(l by the inward ramifications of the c.ucal
ducts described by Costa-'. In addition to these canals
appertaining to the true system of the lateral line the
snout is furnished with the numerous muciferous sacs
(ampulhe) described by Lkvdk;'. From the many pores
that partly follow, in single rows, the above-mentioned
canals and the sharp fohl which the skin forms in a
cur\e just before the no>trils and abo\ e the lateral por-
tion of the njiper lip, partly are scattered, in groups or
more isolated positions, between the said canals, these
long ampulhe take their origin, in the form of ducts
directed ui)wards and forwards (as the\- ap|)roa(-h the
very tip of the snout, backwards). Tlie posterior am-
pulhe terminate ca'cally under the skin, betwe('ii it and
the large fibrous cai)sule, filled with a gelatinous mass,
that occupies the interior of the snout, resting on the
cartilaginous rods which we liave observed above in the
rostral region of the Iloloccpliali. The anterior ampulhe
on the under surface of the snout, as well as the above-
mentioned ducts issuing from the anterior parts of the
branches of the lateral line, penetrate within the said
cajjsule. Ill the gelatinous mass are also embedded the
large and numerous ramifications of the fifth pair of
cranial nerves', which innervate the ampullar The
skin itself is marked on the l)ack of the snout with
a network (thimble-like |)attern) of pits, and within
each of these may be seen in miniature the same
rotiforin figure as we remarked above in the dermal
covering that invests the muciferous sacs of the Stur-
geons.

The mouth is comparatively small. It presents, in
combination with the large preoral nostrils, an appearance
seldom exemplified in the preceding fishes. The dermal
fold which bounds in front both the mouth and the
nostrils has a great reseml)lance, it is true, to the lower

" Orbital and suborbital canals, according to Garman.

' In Plate XLyi, fig. 3 of the present work tlicre is an error, tliis branch being connected with the supraorbital canal.
' Jtiijutar canal, according to Garmak.

'' Sometimes the opercular and malar branches issue in a comnion canal {orbitonasal, according to Garman) from the suborbital branch.
' Angular canal, according to Garman.
■^ Oral canal,

' Subrostral canal, .. .. „

'' Nasal canal, ., „

' Median canal, ,, ,, „

■* Fna Regn. Nap., Pesci, Chimceroidei, tav. VII, figs. 1 — 4.
^' Arch. Anat., Physiol. 1851, p. 253, taf. X, fig. 1.

' According to Ewart, to whose investigations we shall return below, the nerves wliieh innervate both the ampulL-c and tiie other parts
of the cephalic system of the lateral line are homologous with an anterior division of the nervus facialis of the higher vertebrates.

1082

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

sul)<)i'l)ital (preorljital) margin ut'the Teleosts; hut it caii-
iiot be fully homologous therewitii, tor here the nostrils
are situated below it. The nostrils, which lie Justin front
of the median upper lij), are externally — each being
bounded laterally by the lateral upper lip of that side^ —
simple, round, and rather large apertures, separated by
a thin sei)tum. On raising the lateral upper lip we find,
liowever, that each nasal cavity besides possesses a pos-
terior opening, a dermal fold, bent into several curves
and internally supported by a cartilaginous disk (fig.
294, In.,), being turned inwards from the outer margin
of the nasal cavity and foi'ining the greater part of the
posterior limit of the anterioi' nostril. To meet the inner
edge of tliis dermal fold — ■ though without being con-
tiguous with it — a longer fold rises from the inner
margin of the nasal cavity, a true narial passage being
thus present, though not fully closed behind". Exter-
tially the nasal cavity is covered by the lateral upper
lip, so that the posterior nostril opens within the lip,

Fiir. 304. .Jaw-teeth of the left side in tlie Nortlicrn Cliiinivra (CTi'miPca
monstrnsn). After Ag.^SSIZ. A, seen from -without; B, from within.
da, anterior dental plate of the upper jaw; dp, posterior dental plate of
the same; di, dental plate of the lower jaw. Cf. fig. 294 (p. 1065).

inside the cavitj' of the mouth. The Chinia}ra can
thus respire even when the mouth is closed.

The lips are thick and fleshy, studded outside and
at the margins with small protuberances (papillae), the
upper lip, as we have already hinted, being divided
into three parts, a quadrangular middle part (median
upper lip) and two larger wing-shaped lateral lobes (la-
teral upper lips). The median uiijier lip as well as the
underlip is doultle. The former partially covers the two
anterior dental plates (fig. i'dA, da) of the upper jaw.
Tiie underlip is entire in front, but furnished behind
witli a broad, pendent fla]) at each corner of the mouth.
Tiie dentition of the mouth consists of two pairs of
palato-dental i)lates, one pair (figs. 294 and 304, da)
before the other ((///), at tiie margins of the upper jaw,
and a single pair of mandibular plates {di). The inter-
maxillary (prepalatine) plates {da) are quadrangular and

most distinctly grooved, with 6 rounded ridges: the lateral
maxillary (palatine) plates (dp) and the mandibular plates
{di) are more triangular, undulate and nodose on the
inside. The tongue is small, but free at tlie ti]), and is
densely set with papilla?. The front of the branchial arches
is also studded with similar papilla;; but soft gill-rakers,
about 12 on the first branchial arch, are besides present.

Tiie three free gill-arches are complete (with bran-
chial lamella; on both sides), but both before and behind
them lies a half gill (single row of laraella;), the former
coalescent with the operculum, the latter with the hind
(abdominal) wall of the branchial cavity. The gill-
openings are about equal in dejith to the length of
the orbits, and are set far down, though separated by
an isthmus the breadth of which is about equal to the
depth of the orbits.

The general form of the fins we have already no-
ticed. The triangular first dorsal begins just behind the
head, the length of which varies between 80 and 90 %
of the distance from this fin to the tip of the snout.
The spine at its anterior margin lies exactly above the
base of the pectoral fin and sometimes (in the male.s) is
oidy a little shorter than the head; sometimes (usually
in the females) only ""/j as long. It is rather sharp in
front and is marked anteriorly on each side •with a
distinct groove. Both its posterior margins are armed
superiorly, usually somewhat more than half-way down
the spine, with pointed, descending prickles, and its top
is usually free from the remainder of the fin to a point
a little further downwards. Behind the spine the fin is
supported by fibrils, gathered into about a dozen sepa-
rate bundles, which resemble fin-rays. The posterior
margin is somewhat concave, and the fin-membrane is
prolongated to the vanishing point backwards along the
dorsal margin and more or less near to the second
dorsai tin. The latter tin begins at a distance from the
tip of the snout measuring a little more or less than
twice the length of the head and extends back about
half-way along the rest of the liody, measured from the
commencement of the fin. Its height is almost uniform
and only about V4 or '/j of that of tlie first dorsal.
Just liehind its termination the upper caudal lobe begins.
The lanceolate caudal fin is made up (jf two almost si-
iniL'ir lobes, one over and one under the tail, whose tip
nari'ows uniformly to a filament, and of which they
occupy the anterior half or third, before thej' gradually
and, at last, imperceptibly disappear. The anal fin con-

" Answering to one of the stages in the development of the nostrils of the high(

NOKTIIEUN CIII.M.llliA.

1()h;-5

sists of !i siiimII lobe, o!)li(|ucl\' tri;iiij.Milar ami i)osrc'i'iorl\'
soinewliiit elongated, below the end of the seeoiid dorsal.

The paired fins are hihati; (with fleshy, broail,
brachial base, so far as the radialia [fig. 294, / — (! and
tig. 295, / — ^J extend and form the rounded basal disk)
and obliquely pointed, iU(jre or less siekle-shaped, the
pectorals more than the veiitrals. The former are set
vertically on the lower |iart of the sides, just behind the
gill-openings, and are very large. Their ti])s extend,
when laid back, at least to the insertions of the vcntrals,
in the males usualh' beyond the said points. The ven-
tral fins are set about half-way between the ti]) of the
snout and the beginning of the caudal fin, the length
of the head being about ^4 of their distance from the
tiji of the snout. They are onh' about half as long as
the pectorals, measuring in the females about ' j, in the
males about (S8 ?o, of the length of the head. Before
theiu lies in the males, within a dermal sac, opening at
an oblique, slit-like aperture, the tongue-shaped, fiat,
but somewhat twisted anterior copulatory organ (fig. 295,
fip), armed at the inner margin Avith 6 or 7 pointed,
curved teeth, and articulating with the fore end of the
pelvis. Behind them and on their inside are situated the
posterior copulatory organs (pterygopodia) of the males,
which are tritid at the tip for about ".^ of their length.
The three branches are e([ual in length, but differ in
thickness, the lowest (lower inner) branch (fig. 295, ii)
being invested only with a thin dermal covering, where-
as the two upper l)ranches have a thick skin, with
imnierous pmrsal denticles on one side. When at rest,
however, the lower inner branch {ii) lies so close to
the upper inner {si) that the apparatus seemingly con-
sists of only two sections.

The Northern Chimiera, when alive, is a Ijrightly
coloured fish of a beauty more striking than agreeable.
The back is reddish brown, lighter or darker; the sides
are for the most part silvei'y, shading above into blue;
the lower parts of the bodv white. But under the sil-
very lustre of the sides the dorsal colour spreads in
curious figures, oblong spots, arranged in longitudinal
rows, or irregular, sinuous, and indefinite patches (clouds),
a kind of marbled pattern being thus formed. The sil-
very lateral line is sharply marked bv its brown edges.
The top of the head partakes of the dorsal coloration,
hut in front is crossed with the retiform design which we
have already noticed; its under surface shares in the

iT- -^ in

white of the belly, 'i'lic iris
silvery sheen: the pu])il a grc
tins arc of the same colour

has either a goldcTi or a
•nisli lustre. The unjiaired
as the back; l)Ut a black

" Sec tlie special figure
behind, in the female.

liordei- extends throughout the length of the caudal (in,
more or less far forward along the second dorsal, and
along the upper posterior margin of the first dorsal.
The jjaircd fins too are similar in coloi'ation Ix'hind to
the back"; the anterior (under) surface is lighter, with
rays of an ashy gray. The cavities of the mouth and
pharynx are more or less black, but the tongue and
the branchial arches yellowish.

Of the internal organs Retziu.s and Hui,iju.;ii(; (I.e.)
have given an exhaustive description, and we shall here
merely refer the reader to our above remarks on this
head, adding that the bluish black intestinal canal is
short and almost straight, with oidy three coils in the
spiral intestine, the heart extremely small, and the bi-
lobate liver, especially the right lobe, very large and
oily. The well-developed spleen is of a triangular fusi-
form shape and lies beside (under and behind) the pan-
creas, between the inferior edges of the lobes of the liver.

The Northern Chiunera has its proper home in the
depths, some hundreds of fathoms below the surface,
but frequently ascends to a higher level, to a depth of
40 or 30 fathoms, where it is occasionally taken on
Haddock-lines. It often falls a victim also to the not
unusual fate of deep-sea fishes, being carried involun-
tarily to the surface and cast ashore dead or in a help-
less condition by storms. It has a wide geographical
range in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean as
well as in Japanese waters. It occurs besides, according
to DC.meeil's statements from the Museum of Paris, qE
the Cape of Good Hope. Within the limits of the Scan-
dinavian fauna it is known from East Finmark to the
west coast of Jutland and the Sound. It is most com-
mon on the coasts of Norwegian Nordland and Bergen
(Collett). Hollberg remarked that it was common in
Bohusliln during the Herring-fishery of last century; but
it afterwards became rare, and each time a ChimaM-a was
seen there, the revival of the said fishery was eagerly
expected. Off Blount Kullen it has been caught on se-
veral occasions, and in the Sound it has been met with
between Landski'ona and Hvecu (Nii.sson). From the
Belts and tlu; B;dtic it is unknown. (_)ff the coasts of
Iceland it is rare (Fahek). It is equally rare in its oc-
currence off the Shetland and Orkney Islands and on the

r plate, which represent the form ami colour of the left |iectornl and ventral tins, seen from

1084

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Scotch coast, oft' Baiift'sliii-e (Flemixg and Day). In tlie
Mediterranean, according to Giglioli", it is not uncom-
mon off Nice, Genoa, and Palermo; but during 21 years
Costa could only procure 16 sjjecinieiis from the Bay
of Na]>les. On the east coa.st of North America it is
found from Cape Cod northwards (Jordan and Gilbert);
i)ut l'\\i5Hi('iL's does not include it among the fishes of
(ireenland. According to Sciileoel it is rare off South-
ern -lapan, i)ut cominon to the north, especially in
autumn, when it pursues the Hcrritig-shoals to the
ver\' heads of the inlets.

The life and habits of the Northern Chimai'ra are
otherwise little known. Its intestinal canal has been
found to contain the remains of fishes', testaceans, crus-
taceans, Echinoderms, and worms. A few fi'agments of
seaweed among the contents have, no doubt, been s\va,llowed
accidentally with the food. The dentition of the mouth is
evidently intended both to cut up fiesh and crush shells.
The spawning-season of this fish is unknown; but in the
month of February, according to Lilljeborg, each ovi-
duct of a female nearly 1 m. long contained in the uterine
dilatation an egg witii tlie parchment-like shell almost
fully developed and 122 mm. long. Esmark received
from Christiania Fjord another egg, which has been
described by Collett. It was of a lustrous brown, but
empty, and had probably been washed ashore. The thick
end was cylindrical", the small end prolongated into a
filamentous appendage. The whole egg was longitudi-
nally fringed all round with a fin-like membrane'', con-
taining rays directed olilifpiely outwards towards the
thick end. A similar, though rayless membrane followed
the middle of the egg, at right angles to the plane of
the former membrane, along the whole of one side and
the narrower part of the other. The length of the egg
was 163 mm., exclusive of the thread at the small end,
which appendage measured 42 mm. Its greatest breadth
was 42 mm., exclusive of the fin-like membrane on each
side, which was 4 mm. broad. During the English ex-
pedition on lioard the Triton a young male A^j^ in. long,
which Mpjieared to have just been hatched, was taken, ac-
cording to Gunther {Deep Sen Fish., Cliall. Ex|)ed., p.
12), at a depth of 505 fathoms.

Tlie economical imjiortance of the Northern Chinuera
cannot be considerable, for as a rule only solitary spe-
cimens are met with, and the flesh is worthless as food;
but the oil that flows from its liver has been highly
esteemed in medicine. "Since olden times'", wrote Holl-
berg in 1821, "the islanders of Bohusliin and especially
of Norway have appreciated the value of the fat ])repared
from the liver of the Chima^ra, as an excellent external
remedy for stiffness of the joints, gout, rheumatic pains,
glandular swellings, cataract, etc. The fishermen of the
noi'tliern island-belt of Bohusliin frequently offer this fat
for sale in the stomachs of Ling, for it does not fail to
find a ready market either in chemists' shops or among
the peasantry. In ;dl likelihood, however, not all this
fat is procured from the rare Chima^ra, though it ahvays
bears the name of that fish." The oil of the Chiman'a
is also used internally, like that of the Ling and Cod,
to alleviate weakness and disease of the respiratory or-
gans; and it has been especially prized as an internal
remedy for the sting of the Weaver. The great oiliness
of tlie liver may be seen even in Chimasras that have
lieen preserved entire for scores of j'ears in the spirit-
jars of museums. On opening their abdominal cavity,
oil runs eopiousl}' from the belly.

The Northern Chima'ra has many names. The
nostrils and the invariably visible front teeth, in com-
bination with tlie mol>ile snout, give it a certain resem-
blance to a grinning monkey, whence the name of simia
marina (Jiafsapa). The thread-like tail and the wriggling
movements have given rise to the name of hafmus (Sea-
mouse). LiNN.T'ius called the species vidmiderfisk (Mon-
ster-fish). In Norway it has borne the names of IsfjaJf,
Gulhd, Blankhu, Sorotte, Somus, Hamus (the last three
= hafmus), Sarcev, Solvfisk, Havkriu/e, Hnvkaft, SpiJ-
strceng-Hyse. In the Shetland Islands it is known, ac-
cording to Day, as the King of the Herrings and the
Babhif-fish. The former name occurs even in Dauben-
ton', and is said to be derived partly from the ravages
committed by the Chimera among the Herring-shoals,
partly from the hooked organ on the forehead of the
males, which appendage has been compared to a ci'o^vn.
The latter name has the same oi-igin as hafsapa.

" Espos. intern, di Pesca in Berlino 1880, Sez. Itnl., C.ital., p. 111.

' One of oiir specimens had Herring-scales in the montli.

' According to Lilljeborg's description of the egg-shells, wliieli \\:\A nut ijuite reached (heir ftdl development, compared with DOme-
ril's figure of an egg probably belonging to the nearly related genus VaUvi-hi/nchus (Hist. Nat. Poiss.. pi. 8, fig. 8), the thick end of these
eggs is furnished with two short filamentous appendages.

'' In the egg described by Dumeril this niendirane was covered with silky hairs.

*■ In the old Eiicyclopcdie Methodiqne.

RAYS AND SHARKS.

108.")

BLASMOBRANCHII PLAGIOSTOMI .

Elasmobranchs with several outer branchial apertures and with more or less distinct' spiracles. Skin com-
monly shagreened, with papillae and spines (placoid scales). Notochord constricted by the formation of ver-
tebrae. Palatoquadrate part mobile independently of the rest of the skull and dentigerous. Paired fins

inserted horizontally.

That course of evolution from the Paheidiihijcs
which i.s re|ireseiit(!(l in our times by the Plagiostoms,
the sul)oi'der o'i tlie Sliarks and Kays, has advanced so
far, as regards the structure of the spinal column, tliat
the most highly- developed forms possess complete ver-
tebra-, fully divided from each other, and retaining the
notochord imly in the intervertebral spaces between the
centra, which are am[ihicoelous or conically hollowed at
both ends. In theii- typical forms the two well-known
phalanxes — the Sharks, with their elongated, fusiform
or clavate Ixidy, and the Rays, wdiose pectoral fins, ex-
panded and coalescent with the sides of the body, give
the forepart (the head and trunk) a discoidal shape —
are even externally so unlike each other that no other
character than the outer shajie seems necessary, espe-
cially in the case of the Scandinavian fauna. f5ut inter-
mediate forms, Itays with less expanded pectoral fins
or with an unusually terete and thick tail, and Sharks
with triangular, wide-based pectoral fins and a body
more than commonly depressed, occur in foreign seas;
and during youth — in a larval stage when the Pla-
giostoras are still furnished with filamentous external
gills — the Rays have a gi-eat external resemblance to
Sharks. The latter were undoubtedly the earlier forms,
geologically speaking, and in the present age the most
imperfectly developed forms — as Hasse in particular
has pointed out with respect to the structure of the
spinal column — are Sharks.

Even from the Silurian deposits ichthyodorulites
are known which have l)een referred to a Selachoid
genus (Oiuhiis), and in the Carboniferous seas Sharks
were very numerous: — the family of the Cestraciontkhe,
which still survives in the Pacific, already existed. And
ever since the Jurassic Period the Notidanoid family
has survived with a structure which in the tropical
and subtropical seas of the present age represents

the lowest stages in the evolution of the Plagiosto-
mous type.

Individually too most of the Plagiostonis show
great tenacity of life. During the fishery for tiie (Green-
land Shark in the Arctic Ocean bcitween Norway and
Bear Island, these large fishes are hauled up from a
depth of a hundred fathoms or so and deposited on the
deck of the. fishing-vessel. There they lie motionless,
partly, no doubt, owing to their sluggish temperament,
but probably stupefied as well by the sudden reduction
of the pressure in which they are accustomed to live.
Their belly is openeil witli a large knife, and the liver
removed for the sake of the oil which it contains; but
nothing is done with the rest of the body, unless a
fresh bait be recjuired for the huge hook. A Greenland
Shark in this condition may be skinned and entirely
disembowelled; but the manifestations (jf life do not
cease for many hours. Even after the head lias been
cut off from the body and has lain some hours by
itself, it is dangerous to get one's fingers between the
jaws, for they may easily be bitten off, and the bite is
so tenacious that one may attempt in vain to extricate
what the jaws have once grasped. Couch tells an anecdote
of a Blue Shark which had been hooked and deprived
of its liver in a similar manner. With the entrails
hanging out of the belly it was restored to the water
and followed the fishing-vessel for some time. It was
not long before the fish tried to seize a Mackerel that
had dropi)ed from the net of the vessel. On another
occasion a Shark was thrown overboard after being
decapitated. For some hours the fish kept swimming
round about — as a boy on board expressed himself —
as if the body was looking for its head. Of the common
Skate the same author relates that its heart may be cut
out and retain contractile powers for at least 25 hours,
when he saw the auricle beating five times a minute.

" TtXd'/lOg, slantinij, obliijue, and acdf-ici, mouth.

' Though sometimes obliterated.

' The Electric Rays and yomg Eagle-Hays, with smooth skin, are exceptions.

1086

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

PLAGIOSTOMI BATOIDEI".

/?rt.se of the pectoral fins extended hachvards aJoriff the sides of the bodii and fonrards alomi those of the head,

ahore the fire hravehial apertnres. Tail slender, terete {Khrp-Jike^' or depressed. No anal fin.

All the rertical fins helong to the tail.

Tlie most iinportiint distinctions between the Rays
and Shai'ks we have already mentioned in the intro-
duction to the Elasmobranchs. They are bound up with
the diftcrent habits of tliese fishes. Nearly all the Rays
are ground-swimmers and live in the same manner as
the Flounder-fishes, only seldom attempting rapid ex-
cursions or movements in the water. The above-men-
tioned intermediate forms — the well-known Saw-fishes
(Prisfis) and their nearest relatives, without a saw, the
Bhinohatidee, a family common principally in Indian
waters — therefore apjjroach, in their way of life as
well, the transition to tlie .Sharks.

Among the vital capacities of the Rays one, namely
the power of giving electric shocks, possesses a special
interest. Not only is this facultj- a rare phenomenon
in the whole animal kingdom and the peculiar property
of fislies — even among these it is shared, in a singular
and liitherto unexplained manner, by representatives of
widely separated orders and families. At least two
Teleosteous families'' are endowed with this power, and
a third" possesses it in so slight a degree that doubt
is still felt whetlier this family should be included
among the electric fishes or not; but none of these
Teleosts is so nearly connected with the Scandinavian
fauna as to have induced us to describe its faculties.

That electricity is really present both in muscles
and nerves, or, to express ourselves more cautiously,
that at least under certain circumstances electricity
may be stored in nuiscles and nerves, has long been
known; })ut nowhere has this electricity such an opjior-
tunit}' of accumulating as in certain fishes. The earliest
and best known among these fishes are the Electric
EaiiK. Their family, the Torpedinida-, is fairly rich
in forms: about 20 species, distributed among 6 genera,
have been described witli varying accuracy from the
tropical and temperate seas. Three of them — Torpedo
nohiliana, Torp. ocellata (narce), and Torp. marmorata —

live in the ]\Ieditcrrant'an and the adjoining parts of
the Atlantic, the last-mentioned species being besides
an inhabitant of the Indian Ocean.

The power possessed by the Electric Rays of ac-
cumulating electricity in their organs and voluntarily
discharging these at need has been known at least since
the time of Aristotle and Theopheastus; and Roman
physicians, ^\'hen Galen lived, if not before, employed
these Raj's in the treatment of gout and nervous dis-
eases. In recent times this electricity has been more
minutely studied, and has been found to be identical
in its effects with other electricity. It has the same
influence on the magnetic needle, it can decompose
chemical compounds, and it emits the electric spark.
When the Neapolitan fishermen have drawn their seines
ashore, it is usually, according to Owen, their first
care to pour a bucket of water over the catch. If the
net contains an Electric Ray, its presence is at once
betrayed by the shock transmitted along the stream of
water to the hand holding the bucket. To handle a
live Electric Ray is unpleasant enough, for the arm at
least is paralysed by the shock for a long while.

Like the still more powerful Electric Eel — which
is not an Eel, though it has the external appearance
of one, but rather a Sheatfish, an inhabitant of fresh
water in tropical South America — these Rays employ
their electric power both to kill or at least to stun
their prey and to defend themselves against their ene-
mies. The other electric fishes known to us are far
inferior in their cajjacity of accumulating electricity,
and probabl)' have recourse to this faculty in defence
alone. Other fishes again scarcely have the power of
giving appi'eciable electric shocks, but possess true elec-
tric organs, which on account of their feebleness have
been called pseudoelectric. Such organs appear in se-
veral of our common Rays. Their strength is not
great, and it has seldom been observed; but in 1888

" Gr. (idvog, Ray.

'• Fain. Gijmnotida: (Elcciric Eels) iiml Ihe subfamily MalapteritriiKi; of llie great Slienlfish faiiiilv

'" Fain. Morinyrida'.

1087

it WMS tested hv Sanderson and (.toTscii" in tlic case
of the TliDriihaek (lUijd cJnrala) and found 1o !n' aliout
'/,„ of that possessed l)y tlie electric orf^'ans of tiie
Tori)e(h). Sn-iinge to say, however, thcise so-called
pseudoeleetric orgaiis of our eonnnon Kays are situated
in an entirely different part of tiie body from the elec-
tric organs of the ToypcdiuUhe. \\'iiercas the latter
(fig. 30.j, E) lie on the sides of the head and the
branchial cavities, the former are placed on each side
of the dorsal line of the tail. With this dift'erenee are
connected two other essential dissimilarities: the nerves
which run to these organs are of a totally different
origin in the Electric Rays and the common Rays, and
the arrangement of the respective organs is entirely un-
like. The electric organs of the Torpedinoids lie in

Fig. 305, An Electric Hay (Toi-jjkIo iiiarmorala) wiih tlic skin re-
moved from tlie electric organs (iJ), the skull (S), and the biancliinl
cavities (A'). 0, eyes; Sp, spiracles. After Wiedehsueim.

the region of the transverse muscles, the levators and
depressors of the branchial arches, and are supplied
with nerves from the fifth and tenth cranial pairs and
have their elements transversely arranged — the piles
are vertical. The electric organs of our common Rays,
on the other hand, are situated in the region of the
great caudo-lateral muscles, at the lateral edges of the
tail, (dose under the skin, and their nerves are spinal,
their elements arranged in the longitudinal direction of
the body. The difference thus affects both the parts of

the body to which the orgaTis ])elong and the innerva-
tion of the organs. Such a genetic connexion Ijetwcen
these organs in the diffei'cnt fishes as that one form of
them can have derixcd its origin immediately from the
otiier, we can therefore scarcely expect to find; but
they have one thing in common, their development
from muscular substance: — the electric organs are
transformed muscle fibres. This was first shown by
Babuciiin'' in the case of the Rays, and was still more
clearly elucidated by Fhitsch's examination' of the
Electric Eels brought home by Sachs; but a special
interest, of a yet wider inqjortance, attaches to Ewart's
investigations' of the de\elopment of the electric ele-
ments in our eonnnon Kays. From these researches it
appears as if we might be able to deduce from the
structure of the electric organs an exj)lanation of the
composition of striated muscular tissue and of the im-
portance of the different substances in this composition'.
A muscle or a portion thereof may be converted
into an electric organ at entirely different periods in
the life of the fish. In the Torpedo, for instance, this
transformation takes place at an early stage, during its
embryonic existence within the egg and almost simul-
taneously with the appearance of muscular cells, before
these are fully differentiated fron^ other embryonic cells.
In a common Ray, on the other hand, that part of the
upi)er caudal muscles which is destined for conversion
into a pseudoeleetric organ exhibits the same for-
mation in the larval stage as the other parts of these
muscles, with the typical composition of the muscular
fibres unaltered; and the observation of the subsequent
changes shows in a series of different developmental
stages how one constituent of the muscle fibre sepa-
rates from the other, each being destined for a distinct
purpose, the sarcopJasma probably to intercept and
store the electricity, the rhabdia to serve as a non-con-
ductor. In the common Skate (Boja hatis), for example,
this indeed takes place before the embryo leaves the
egg-capsule, but not until it has attained a length of
about 3 in. (7' . cm.) and has its entire organic sys-
tem, even the muscles, typically formed. In the Starry
Ray {Ihija radkita) the development of the electric
orirans does not commence until the fish measures 12

" JouYn. Physiol., vol. 9, Xos. 2 and 3.

' Centralbl. Medicin. Wiss. 1870, p. 259; Arch. Anat., Physiol. 187G, p. 501.

' Dr Carl Sachs Vnters. am Zitteraal, Leipzig 1881.

'' Phil. Trans. Eoy. Soc. Lontl., vol. 179 (1888), 13, pp. 399 and 539.

' Cf. above, p. 662, on Rollett's investigations of (he muscle fibres in Hippocampus.

1088

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

cm., long after it lias left the egg and in general \ the same and simple enough. One muscle fil)re after

assumed the external foi-ni of an adult member of the
species. The course of the develojjinent is, however.

another (tig. 306, J, 1 — 5) thickens at one end — where
the many terminal tiljrils of the motor nerve are at-

Fig. 306. Development of the electric elements in the tail of

lion Skate (Raja balls). Mngnified. After Ew.\rt.

A: Horizontal section tliruugli a part of the lateral muscle of the tail in an embryo 7 cm. long. The muscle fibres are obliquely extended
between the intermuscular septa (s), and their transformation proceeds from in front, the hindmost of tlie figured fibres (1) being entirely
unaltered, the others (2 — <5) more and more club-shaped the further forward they lie. In all these fibres the muscle nuclei and the stria-
tion are still distinct, even at tlie expanded enil ; but in the most transformed (clubdike) fibres the nuclei begin to pass towards the thick-
ened end. Between the fibres and tlie intermuscular septum lie numerous connective tissue cells, and between these nerve fibrils are

supplied to the fibres.

B: Two isolated clubs from a somcwliat ohler embryo. Tlu' thick end is here llattened and at the top (in front) has a layer of surco-
plasnia with muscle nuclei (a), under tliis a denser striation (rhalidia). within which the nuclei are beginning to disappear (i), next a layer
of sarcoplasma with nuclei and sparser striation (c), and al the bottom tlie aborting stem (d). a is the rudiment of the so-called electric
plate, to which the nerve fibrils (e, with nerve nuclei and connective tissue bodies) are attached; /) is destined to form the so-called striated

layer, c tlic so-called alveolar layer.

0 and /'; Two different stages of development approximating to the bilboquet form. Letters as iu B.

E: A fully developed electric clement, with a part of the stem (./) still persistent and at the posterior end (c) still showing traces of stria-
tion; a, b, and t' as in B. f, gelatinous ]t\yer of ccuinective tissue; </, nerve tilirils; ii, nerve fibre: s, septum between two electric elements;

*', ]iart of the original transverse intermuscular septum.

lOSit

taclied — and the tiln'c imw ix'soiuliles a (.-lul). Tlic
thick end (imiLT or anterior end) soon expaniis still
iiKH'c (ti_i;'. '-'AHj. I!) and is liollo-wed int(.) a cu]) sliuiio,
tViiiii tlic bottom of which the thin end ((/) of the
tilire [iroceeds in the form of a shaft, the fibre now
hiiving the appearauee of a hiUiOf/nct. The I)o(l\' is
further flattened (tig. oOli, (' and /», and the shaft is
more and more reduced, until it tinalh- ln'uds (piile to
one side (tig. 306, E) ur disappears, the tibre being
now similar to a fiat disl<. In the eonimon Skate the
electric elements pass througli all the three stages of
development, in the .Sandy liav (Ti'tja fahavda) oidy
the first two, in the Starry Ray onlj- the first stage.
In the electric elements of a Starry Ray, which
are club-shaped but always some\vhat eoneave at the
tO|i, tlie two constituents of the muscle tiljre, the sareo-
plasnia and tlie rhabdia, are parth' separated from each
other. They ha\e gathered at the thick end more
densely than in the slender portion of the lilire, and
a special layer of sarcoplasma. a so-called electric plate,
is interposed at the top, immediately below that part
of the sarcolemma where the ner\-e fibrils are inserted.
Under this electric plate lies a densely striated mass,
consisting jirincipallv of rhabdia, but containing nu-
merous muscle nuclei, an indication that a considerable
amount of sarcoplasma is present. In the cu])-like
(iiilboquet-shaped) elements of a Sandy Ray the stri-
ated layer contains far fewer and more scattered muscle
cells; and under this part the granular substance (the
sarcoplasma) has formed a distinct layer with pro-
cesses and alveoli (sponge-like meshes), a so-called
alveolar layer. In the common Skate the rhabdia is
entirely separated from the sarcoplasma and contains
no muscle nuclei. Each electric element thus consists
ill this species (fig. 306, E) of three plates (a, h. r),
one above another, the outer pair {a and c) being,
however, confluent at the margin. With the addition
of the secondary growths of gelatinous (/) and fil)rous
(s) tissue that extend into and till up the spaces be-
tween the electric elements proper and also support
capillaries and nerves, we find liere, in the common
Skate, an electric apparatus of essentially the same
Structure as in the Torjiedo and Electric Eel. On each
side of a comparatively firm plate, in section densely
striated and originallj- formed of rhabdia, are set layers
of sarcoplasma differing in their histological structure.
This difference may ])erhaps produce different kinds of
electricity. In that case we should here possess an

analogue to the well-kno\\n galvanic piles. ( )r pei'-
haps the electricity ma\' be of the same kind in both
la\ers of sarco]ilasma. In the latter cas(i the eh'ctric
apparatus of thes(! fishes eori'csponds to an agglomei'a-
tion of electrophori.

The manner in which these organs are em])loyed
b\- our common IJays is not yet known. Their elec-
tric faeult\- cannot l)e doubted; but thousands of tliese
lla\s i)ass througli tlie hands of fishermen without any
recorded instance of a human I)eing having experienced
an electi'ic shock from one of these fishes. When a
Ray feels the resistance f)f the hook, and the fishei'man
begins to haul in the line, it first endeavours to cling
to the bottom by clasping its pectoral fins round some
hard object or tighth- pressing them to the ground;
and when it emerges from tlie water, it tries to defend
itself b-\' raising the ])ectoral fins as a shield for its
bo(h-, bending the tail upwards and forwards, and
dealing violent blows witii the latter member. Now
the tail of these Rays is so formidably armed with
large, pointed spines that these in themselves are a
sufficient warning to the fisherman against handling
the Ray with the naked hand until he has given it a
finishing blow, and hence it may well happen that as
a rule he has no o]j]iortnnity of experiencing the elec-
tric powers of the fish. Whether the electricit}' is
utilised in condjats with otlier inhabitants of the deep,
in self-defence or to stun a victim, is also unknown.
We know that dolphins (toothed whales) are the worst
enemies of the large Rays, Ling and Halibut of the
smaller ones; but S.wille-Kext saw dolphins seize
Rays by the tail, the very part where the electric or-
gans arc situated. From ol)ser\ations in aquaria we
learn that the Rays secure their prey by casting them-
selves over it with a sudden movement of the pectoral
fins, squeezing it under their body, and gliding over
it, until it can be grasped with the jaws. In these
oi>erations the tail can evidently serve merely as a rud-
der to direct the course of the fish. So too, when
the Rays swim freely about in the water, propelling
themselves by undulating movements of the pectoral
fins, the tail can only steer and preserve the ecjuipoise
of the body. S.wh.i.i'.-Kent compares the movements
of a swimming Ray to those of a wading bird that
stretches its long legs behind it in its flight.

The sj'Stem of the lateral line in the Rays requires
a special chapter, though it rather closely resembles that
of the HoJocephali. It is gencM-ally far more developed

1090

SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

than in other tishes. Four kinds of organs belonging
to this system may also be distinguished: 1) the true
lateral line with its i-ainitications on the head, the
trunk, tlie pectoral tins, and the tail; 2) the so-called
Lorenzinian ampulke (niuciferous sac ducts); 3) the so-
called Savian vesicles; 4) the so-called pit organs.

The lateral line, the histological structure of whicli
has been elucidated by Leydig (tig. 307), has nume-
rous ramifications, and opens on the surface of the body
not only into simple pores, but also into long trans-
verse branches originating at right angles or obliquely
from the line itself and its ramifications. The main
branches of the system indeed find their parallels in
the ramifications we have seen above in the Chim»i'a;
but peculiar to tlie true lateral line of the Rays is the
complex network of canals on the pectoral fins. In the
genus Raja we recognise on the ujiper surface of the
head the transverse occipital (supratemporal or aural)
branch (fig. 308, 21), the frontorostral branch with its
divisions, the occipital {20 to j) and the supraorl)ital

Fig. 307. Part of a brand] of the cephalic system of the lateral line

in the Thornhaclv (Raja clavata). Magnified. After Leydig.

a, outer wall of hard membrane, removed on one side to show b,

the inner, soft membrane, on which are visible the papilla (e) and

the nerve centra (sensory spots, rf), with extended ramifications of

the entering nerves (e).

(/ to 2), and the suliorbital branch (7 to 8), which
runs on each side of the body between the eye and the
spiracle. When these branches have advanced nearly
to the margin of the body (at 2 and 6'), the former
quite close to the tip of the snout {2), the latter some-
what further back (-9), they pierce the bod}' to reappear
on the under surface of the head (2 to 6 and 8 to 11),
and join each other as in the Chimera. This junction
is simple, however, in the said species and follows the
median line of the snout (median canal, Garmax); here
it is double, one brancli on each side of the median
line, and the immediate continuation of the frontorostral
branch (supraorl)ital division) bends outwards on the
under surface of the snout in a sharp crook (from 3
to 4 and 5). After the junction the suborl)ital branch

" LORENZINI, Observ. int. alh Torpcd., 1678, and Munro, Strii

is contiinied backwards by a maxillary part (6 to 9),
that bends inwards, in about a line with the middle
of the length of the nasal valvule, to a naso-maxillo-
rostral branch (.9), which indeed (at 10) joins the cor-
responding branch of the other side to form a maxillo-
nasal canal, but also sends out a raaxillo-rostral canal,
.straight to the tip of the snout, within the continua-
tion of the supraorl)ital branch on the under surface
of the snout. The po-sterior and more immediate back-
ward continuation of the suborbital branch and its ma-
xillary part answers to the opercular canal of the Chi-
m:era, and has been named l)y Kwart the hyomandi-
bular branch (12 to 19). Tliis branch runs here (12
to 13) on the outside of the branchial apertures {aphr),
following the direction of tlie series formed by the
latter, and on the under surface of the pectoral fin
bends in a great loop, first backwards and outwards
{13 to 14), then almost straight forwards {14 to 15),
to a point near its origin, where it bends inwards {15
to Id) and afterwards runs forwards (1(1 to 17), pa-
i-allel to its commencement and to tlie suborbital branch,
until (at 17) it comes in a line with the nostrils, where
it turns upwards straight through the body. On the
dorsal side it now bends straight back (from 77 to 18),
and after an inward curve (at IS), where it receives
connecting ducts from the suborbital branch, it pursues
its course along the margin of the pectoral fin, and in
the posterior part of the dorsal side thereof (at 19)
joins a pleural Ijranch (22 to 23) from the lateral line
proper. The last-mentioned part of the system follows
on each side of the body the same course as in the
Teleosts, from the temporal region (at 21) to the tip
of the tail. At the shoulder- girdle it forms an outward
bend and here it gives off on the dorsal side of the
pectoral fin both the anterior pleural l>ranch -which we
have noticed above at its junction with the termination
of the hjomandibular brancii, and, in the genus Baja
and its nearest relatives, a posterior jjleural branch
(24 to 25), which ramifies in the posterior part of the
pectoral fin. Just behind the mouth there lies, as a
detached portion of the hyomandibular liranch, a trans-
verse canal (27), answering to the mandibular branch
of the Chimtera.

The ampullary system (fig. 309) properly belongs
to the head alone, where all its canals have their ca?cal
base. These organs have been known for more than
three centuries", but their true nature was first eluci-
•(., Pli>/swl. Fish., 1785.

HAYS.

10',) 1

(l;it('(l 1)V Jacohson", liETZirs'', and Lkydig'". We have
ol)sor\e(l them aliove in the Chima'ra. In llic liays
tliore coinnuinl}- lie several symmetrifal pairs of cap-
sules (fibrous iiivcstineiits of the basal parts of the

ampulla' uini of the iicr\(! t\vi;[is supplied to them), 1) at
the (ip of tlie snout (lig. 308, lia), 2) further back
on each side of the base of the rostral cartilage, on
the ventral side before the nasal capsules, 3) on the

Fig. 308. Sclic-matic figure of the distribution of tlie lateral line eanals in a Jiuja, partly after (i.^njUN and Ewart. Right half of the

body; to the right the dorsal side, to the left the ventral.
1 — 2, course of the supraorbital branch on the forehead and the dorsal side of the snout; 2 — 3, its backward continuation on the ventral side
of the snout; 3 — 4 — 6, its outward crook on the ventral side of the snout; J — 6^, canal by which it eoniinunicates with the suborbital branch;
7 — 8, course of the suborbital branch on the dorsal side of the head; 8 — 9, its backward continuation on the ventral side of the head; 9 — 10,
its inward ramification, which at 10 gives out a transverse canal inwards to join the suborbital branch of the other (left) half of the body,
and then advances to its termination at the tip of the snout, at //; 12 — 13, backward course of the opercular (hyomandibular) branch on
the ventral side of the head and pectoral fin, in a curve outside the gill-openings (apbr); 13 — 14 — 15, its ventro-pleurnl bend; 13 — 76", its
inward, ventral continuation; 16 — 17, its forward, ventral course side by side with the suborbital branch; 17 — l(!f, its backward course on the
dorsal side of the head; 18 — 19, its dorso-pleural curve, which at 19 joins the anterior pleural branch of the lateral line; 20 — 26, the lateral
line proper; 21, transverse occipital branch; 22 — 23, anterior dorso-pleural branch of the lateral line; 24 — 2.'5, posterior dorso-pleural branch
of the lateral line; 26, lateral line of the trunk and tail; 27, mandibular branch; Ra, rostral ampulla?; oa, orbital ampulla;; hya, hyoid am-
puUaj; ma, mandibular ampullie; jjn, pit organs; o, mouth; oc, eye; sp, spiracle.

Bull. Sc. Soc. Philom. Sept. 1813.

Ofvers. Vet. iVkad. Forh. 184.5, p. 177, where references ar

Rochen, Haie, Leipz., 1852, p. 41.

eniainiiig literature on this question.

1092

SCAXDINAVIAX FISHES.

(lorsiil side, oiir ]i;iir (ni the dutsidc of the preorMtal
cartilage (oa) .■iiid annthcr (iiitside the spiracle {lii/a).
Asvininetrical capsules also occur, as in Tri/(/oii l)et\veeii
the anterior ends of the two nostrils. Thr anipullarv
canals e.xteiid throughout the sides of the body, those
of the ])ectoral tins for example, which run to the
hyoid capsules, attaining a considcral)le length (tig. .309).
In the IClectric Piays FKrrscii" has observed a regular
alternation on the dorsal side of the pectoral fins be-
tween tlie ducts of the auipulhe and those of the lateral
canal proj)er, the outer (distal) part and the oritice of
eacli anipullar\' duct lying as a rule betwi'en a pair of
the outward transverse branches of the lateral line.
To this he appends the remark that the presence of

Fig. 309. Hyi>ia ainpiill;!' and tljeir o|ioiiing ducts tcisc'tlier with tlie

dorsal course of tlie Intend line in tlie left half of a Raja.

.After Gabm.\n.

true sensory bulbs (nerve-bulbs) with tlie hair cells
oceurring in the lateral line has not yet been demon-
strated in the nerve ends on the inner wall of the
ampulla', whence he infers that the ampullar should
be regarded as a secretory part of the system of the

lateral line. Their cavity is tilled with an endolymph-
like, more or less coagulated mucus.

The third kind of organs belonging to this system
the so-called .sensory vesicles of Savi', appear only in
the Electric Rays, and are situated in one or two series
on the snout of these fishes and around the anterior
part of tiicir electiic organs. They are homologous
with the cacal bottoms of the ampulbe, but are entirely
closed, and their inner surface is usuallv furnished with
three sen.sory spots, the middle sjjot l)eing the liir"est
and furnished with numerous hair cells.

The fourth kind (fig. oOS, po) of the sense organs
now under consideration are the so-called pit organs'
(called by Fiutscii'' spalt-papiUen). These are present
in our common Kays, and are wart-like dermal growths,
open at the top and containing a spherical or some-
what more prolongated (bottle-shaped) cavity, which is
filled with sensory cells furnished with hair-like pro-
cesses and surrounded by su])porting cells. The pit
organs or sensory follicles lie scatteri'd in rows along
the inferior orbital margins, in the temjioral region,
and on each side of the median line of the body, be-
tween tliis anil the trtie lateral line.

The iiuiervation (.)f the entire system of the lateral
line is supplied, according to Ewart, almost exclusively
from branches of the facial nerve' and from the late-
ralis. The supraorbital branch (fig. 308, 1 — 6) and the
rostral tinijiulhe (Ru) are supplied by the superficial
ophthalmic division of the facial, the suborbital branch
and the anterior part of the occipital, the orbital ani-
pullaj {oa), and the pit organs {po) at the orbits by the
buccal division of the facial, and the hyomandibular
branch (12 — lU) together with the hyoid ampulke {lijia)
and the mandibular branch {27) by the hyomandibular
division of the facial nerve. The lateral line proper,
as well as the posterior part of the occipital branch,
the transverse occipital canal {21), and the majority of
the pit organs {po), is innervated by the lateralis, one
of the main divisions of the vagus.

As Feitsch has remarked, some obscurity still
obtains in the question of the physiological importance
of the entire system of the lateral line; and the division

" Die Elektrischen Fisclie, II, p. 87.

' Matteucoi and Savi, Traitd des phenomenes electrophysiologiqiies des unimaiid; Paris 1844.

' Trans. Koy. Soc. Edinb., vol. XXXVII (1891 — 92), p. 101.

•' Stzber. Akad. Wiss. Berl., VIII (1888), p. 291.

* This nerve consequently consists in fishes, according to Ewakt, of liotli sensory and motor fibres. In tlic liigher vertebrates it is
motor ahme, the sensorial parts, according to Ewart, having disappeared. According to the older opinion, wliicli is no doubt still niaiiitained
by tlie majority of anatomists, the divisions enumerated above belong to the trigeminal group.

loiia

of \V(irk \\lii<'li he ;issio-|icd on the one liniul to the aiu-
pulhi' as S('ci'i't()i'\' organs, on tlie oflicr to the hiteriil
hue proper and tlie Savian vesicles as organs of sense,
n'i|nires fnrtlier denionstration. Its anatomical structnre
ranges the s^■stenl of tlie lateral line witii all its niodi-
fications as intermediate between the organs of iiearing
and those of the senses of jiressure (tonch — especially
as in the worms), taste, and smell; and its physiological
significance is perhaps best expressed as yet by Ley-
pig's assnniption tliat it apjiertains to a sixtii sense,
foreign to ns, and receptivt' of the impressions yielded
h\- siu-h \ ilirations of the surrounding medium as are too
grave (slow) for appreciation by the organs of hearing.
The Rays probably spend the greater ])art of their
existence in a stationarv jiosition at the bottom, and to
facilitate their i espiiMtion, to keep the gill-slits supj)lied
witli IVesh water, thcv have been provided with large
spiracles on the upper side of the head, just liehind the
eyes. Above each spiracle is simple, below the passage
divides into two, one l)ranc]i entering the cavitv of the
mouth, the other passing to the gills. To prevent the
water thus supplied from escaping through the mouth,
the\' Ikinc a palatal fold, usually of jxnverful develop-
ment, in the upper jnw. On the under surface of the
head the nasal cavities show about the same relation
to the mouth-ca\ity as in the Hohccpliali, only tliat no
lateral uppei' lip encloses them outside and in front.
Here tlie median upper lij) instead is still more deve-
Idiied. and forms a broad dermal fold extendinu' fi'om

tlie aiiiei'ioi' margins of the nostrils and betw<H'n them
back to the cornei-s of tlie mouth", on each side cover-
ing a deep groove that runs irom the nasal cavit}* to
the corner of the moutli. Hu tiie outside this groove
is bounded b\- a dermal i-idge, which is indeed furnished
anteriorh' with a more or less prominent, Idunt or
rather jiointed proluberaiice, l)Ut which does not form
any limit between tlie anterior and ])Osterior nostrils.
The fi\(' |)airs of liranchial apertures are set on the
ventral side'', in two more or less straight lines con-
verging beldnd or in a eur\e anteriorly concave, pos-
teriorh' interrupted, belniid tlie head and between the
prorsal jiarts of the pectoral fins.

.\s the form-series of the Rays, winch includes
about a hundred and tifty species, is a develoiimental
offshoot of the Selachian type, the forms that have most
widely diverged from the Sharks must, of course, be
regarded as the most advanced in the scale of evolution.
Among the Rays observed in Scandinavia there are two
families which are both distinguished by the exceedingly
slender (whip-like) tail and by the loss of at least one
dorsal tin. In tlie tliird family of Scandinavian Hays
both dorsal fins are jiersistent on the much l)roader and
depressed tail, which is besides fringed on the sides
with a more or less distinct dermal fold. But e\en
this family is more \videly remo\ed from the Selachian
type than the three remaining families, which are
strangers to our fauna: the Tofpcdhtidte, lihiiiohatidcc,
and Prisfi(hr.

Fa M MYLIOBATID.E.

The irliiji-lili' tail iriflioiif cuuilal fin, but ir'ith n ihirsal fin in front, lirhind irliirh there (/enertilli/ appears a

serrated spiiw, n-ith or witliout eonipensator// spine. Tlie Jarfie peeforal fins interrujited on the sides of the head,

bat continaed on the sides of the siiont bij so-eaJJed eephaJic fins.

This family contains the giants among the Rays,
some forms l)eing veritable monsters of the deep. In
addition to the characters given above the members of
the family are distinguished b^• the elevation of the
head above tlie plane of the pectoral tins, the forehead
being especially high, and causing the eyes to assume
a vertical jiosition with lateral aspect, instead of the

oblique or horizontal jiosition the^" occujiv in the other
Raj-s. The skin too is smooth during youth in most
of these fishes, and in older sjjecimens is commonh-
shagi'eened on the tail alone or also on the bases of
the pectoral fins, but sometimes over the whole body.
The family derives its uiime from the form and molar
function of the jaw-teeth, which are adajjted fVir the

" The abovc-meiilioneJ intermediate forms (tlic Kliinoliatido! and Piintkhe) between tlie Rays and Sharks are approximated to tlie
Sharks in this respect too, and have the nostrils entirely separated from the mouth.

' Hence the name of Hi/potvemes, applied by DCmerii. to the suborder of the Rays.

1094

SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

tTusliiiig of iKird-shelled animals. Tliese flat, ])late-like
or tiihuroLis teeth are also charactei'istic of different
genera and species. They are set as if in a mosaic,
fitted beside one another like the stones in a pavement
{denies pavinientati), and arranged, in the longitudinal
direction of the body, in several rows or in a quincunx,
with tlie pointed corners wedged in between each other
(tig. 310). Here, as in the Sharks, the largest forms
have relatively the smallest teeth. On account of the
differences that prevail in this respect, Mlllek and
Hexle" distinguished anmng the forms now under
consideration two families, the MiilioJnitiihs and CepJia-
Jnpteva-, which Glxthei;'' united into a single family

FiK- 310. .Jaws of an Eagle-Ray (Myliobalis aijiiihi). After
Agassiz and Gl'nthek.

under the name and with the definition given above,
but divided into two siil)f;imilies, ]\I//linbiifiiHi and
Ceyatopteruxi' .

(.)ur knowledge of the gigantic but comparatively
small-toothed Rays of the latter subfamily is indeed ex-
tremely defective; but they have long afforded material

for fabidous narratives, and should probably be included
in the list of marine monsters that have posed as the
great sea-serpent. Their true homes are the great
oceans and the Mediterranean. As an example of their
magnitude we may cite, after Mitchill, the dimensions
of a Ceratoptera rampijnis taken in September, 1823,
in Delaware Bay, on the east cost of the United States'*.
Its length was 10 ft. 9 in. (3274 ^m.), exclusive of the
tail, which measured 4 ft. (I2V5 d"!-)- and its breadth
between tlie tips of the pectoral fins 18 ft. (nearly 55
dm.). Its weight was so considerable that three j-oke
of oxen, a horse, and twenty-two men were required
to haul it ashore. The pectoral fins, as well as the
cephalic fins, which in the above instance were 2 ft. 6
in. (77s elm.) long, may be folded over so as to meet
at the mouth; the latter fins are besides mobile in all
directions. These Rays often swim in pairs, male and
female. They cleave the water with rapid strokes, like
the flight of a bird of prey; and in pursuit of their
victims, wliich consist principallv of Cephalopods and
fish, thej' display a litheness in their movements which
one would hardly credit to a Ray. Sometimes they
swim so high that their fins emerge above the surface';
and when the cephalic fins are thus exposed to view,
the seaman compares them to horns, and hence confers
upon the fish such names as ox, cow, or calf, or even
that of the prince of darkness, which appears in the
form of Devil-fish. Others have compared the move-
ments of these Rays to the flitting of a bat, whence
the name of Vampire-Baii. On the Irish coast a small
specimen of a Ceratoptera has once been met with
(about 1828).

Genus MYLIOBATIS '.

CepliaJic fi)is {(III the sides of the snout and at its tijA in the same plane as the pectoral. Molars in the middle of
the Jairs of adidt S2)ecimens much (.3 — 8 times) broader than long, and larger than the lateral teeth, which are

set in several roivs.

This genus too, which contains 7 or 8 species, can
boast of considerable dimensions of body, though not

so great as those of Ceratoptera: one species, the Me-
diterranean 3Ii/liohatis hovina, often attains, according

" System. Besclireib. Plagiostom., Berlin 1841, pp. 176 and 184.

» Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 488.

' Cephaloplera, the genus established by the elder DOmekil, has necessarily been altered to Dicerobatis, the name more recently con-
ferred upon it by Blainville, Ceplialoptera having been previously employed as a generic name among birds.

'' Isis, vol. XXV, 1832, p. 10G3. According to Brown-Goode (Fislier. Industr. U. S., sect. I, p. 666) this species attains a breadth
of 30 ft. (9 111.) between tlie tips of the pectoral fins.

' Thus we may perhaps explain the account of the "sea-serpent" as seen by Lieutenant Hayes from H. M. yacht Osborne in June
1877. See Henry Lee, Sen Monsters Unmasked, Handbooks, Intern. Fisher. Exhib. London 1883, p. 94, fig. 23.

/ C. DUmeril, in Guv., Regn. Anim., ed. 1, torn. II, p. 137. From ^tvliag, millstone, and (iaiig. Bay.

EA(ir-K-I!AV.

109;

to BdSArAKTK, ;i weiglit of oOO Italian pounds (about ' according to Scui.kciki,", at 400 iiouiids (about 180 kilo.)-

100 Icilo.), and the Japanese form, GCntiier's Mylio-
batis cornuta, which is probably identical in species
with the Atlantic form, sometimes turns the scale,

The genus belongs properly to the ti-ojiical and sub-
tropical seas; but one species has strayed northwards
within the limits of the Scandinavian fauna.

THE EAGLE-RAY (sw. 6rnrockan).
MYLIOBATIS AQUILA.

Fig. :!ii.

Molars in the middle row tvithin the jaws of adult specimens 4 — 6 times as broad as long. Tip of the snout
blunt, with a small, prominent protuberance at the middle. A more or less distinct similar protuberance on the
front of the upjter orbital margin in the males. Anterior margin of tlic jx-ctorfd fins convex, posterior margin
concave, tip somewhat obtuse. Beginning of the dorsal fin situated about three times the length of its base behind
the insertions of the ventral fins. Length of the tail at least equal to the breadth of the body between the tips
of the pectoral fins or greater. Skin quite smooth or roughened with spinuhe only at the root of the tail. Colora-
tion above brownish green or yeUowish gray with a bronze lustre, below of a dirty white or grayish brown. Tips
of the pectoral fins dark. Young sometimes spotted with irkite. Faint traces of dark transverse bands sometimes

present an the dorsal side.

Fig. 311. An Eagle-Kay, Myliobntis aquila. 0^, ',5 of tlie natural size. From tlic Museum Adolpbi Frideriei.

Syn. '^Eicg, Aristot.. Am'm. Hist., lib. V, cap. y. Aigte de mer
{Aquila marina), Belon., Nat., Divers. Poiss., p. 85. <!)'«-
cunda Pastinaca: species. Rondel., Pise. .Mar., p. 338.
Aquila, Salv., Hist, aquat. atiim., p. 147. fiaja corpore
glabro, aculeo longo serrato in eauda pinnata; AitT., Ichth.
Gen., p. 72; Sunon., p. 100.
Raja aquila, Lin., Hy-it. .Va^, ed. X, toni. I, p. 232 ; Civ.
(Myliobatis, ex Dl'M.), 1. c; Johnst. (Raia), Proc. Berwicksh.
Nat. CI., Sept. 1839 (vide Yark., Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II,
p. 592); Mill., Henl. (Myliobatis), Syst. Beschr. Plagiost.,
p. 170; Dt)M., Hist. Nat. Pniss. (su. a Buff.), torn. I, p.
634; Gtur, Oat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 489; Mor.,
Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. I, p. 442; Coll., Forh. Vid.
Selsk. Chruia 1882, No. 29; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol.

II, p. 352. tab. CLXXyi; Doderl., Man. Ittiol. .\fedit.,
fasc. Ill, p. 234: Lillj., Sv., .Vory. Fisk:, vol. III. p. 534.
Myliobatis noctula. Bonap., Iconogr. Fna Ital., toni. Ill, Pesci,
tav. 159.

The Eagle-ltay attains a lengtli of 1' ., ni. or more.
According to Bonai'akti:, however, it is commonly
smaller than its Mediterranean congener Myliobatis bo-
vina, which is ciiaracterized by a more pointed and
more elongated snout and more pointed pectoral fins.
The rhombic disk is remarkable for its great breadth,
which is sometimes more tliau twice its length. The

" Myliobatis aquila in Sieb., Fna Japon., Pisces, p. 310, tab. CXLII.
candinavian Fishes.

1096

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

head — with the semicircular" or still more obtuse and
depressed snout — presents an appearance which was
compared by Rondelet to that of a toad's head, by
Johnston to the print of a horse's hoof, the great fon-
tanelle representing the impression left by the frog of
the hoof. The eyes are set so high that their superior
margin is almost in a plane with the forehead. Their
longitudinal diameter in the young is about half the
length of the snout, in old specimens less. Just behind
the eyes lie the large spiracles, the length of which is
about twice that of the former. The nostrils are ap-
proximated rather closely to each other, the dermal flap
which covers their internal jjarts (the nasal valvule)
being medially attached only at its base by a narrow
frenum. This valvule is trapezoidal in form, broad,
and expands behind to the truncate edge that lies, with
a shallow median sinus and fringed with papilla?, close
to the anterior margin of the mouth and outside the
very thin true upper lip. The underlip too is thin at
tlie middle, l)ut tliickened at the corners of the mouth.
The breadth of the mouth is about ^ ., of the distance
between it and the tip of the snout.

The body is somewhat depressed (flattened) behind
the head, but a little further back rises again to the
shoulder-girdle, where the depth is about equal to the
length of the fontanelle mark on the top of the head.
In the median line behind this point there is a low
ridge, which passes on the tail into a dermal edge in
front of the dorsal fin, which is rounded above or
obliquely truncate. Behind this tin lies the spear-like
caudal spine, with faintly convex front, carinated
back, and numerous (40 — 50) retral barbs on the
sides''.

The large triangular pectoral fins have been coin-
pared to the wings of an eagle, and have given the ge-
nus its vulgar name. The ventral fins are quadrangular,
with straight or somewhat convex posterior margin.

The general features of the highly varialJe colo-
ration have already been indicated.

The Eagle-Rav, which is known from Australia (Syd-
ney) — ])i'obably from Japan too — and from the Cape
of Good Hope, has its principal European habitat in the
Mediterranean and the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic.
(_)n the north-west coast of Fi'ance it is fairh' common,
but even on the English coast it is rare. Further
north it is still i-arer. On the IGth of November, 1882,
however, a young male" of this species was taken among
small Heri'ings at Vettre Farm in Asker, 20 kilom.
south of Christiania. The Herring-seine was drawn on
a clay bottom, at a depth of 12 — 14 fathoms (Collett).

The habits of the Eagle-Ray essentially resemble
those of the Devil-fishes as described above. It is a
less marked bottom-fish than the true Raj's. It appears
to fly rather than to swim, says Mokeau, whether it
is traversing raid-water or lashing the surface with one
of its pectoral fins. An Eagle-Ray was kept in an aqua-
rium at Arcachon, the same author states, and whenever
it ^vas taken out of the ^\•ater, it uttered a rather loud
bellowing noise. Its flesh is of little value and is not
much eaten. On the other hand, it is greatly dreaded by
the fishermen for the sting of its sjiine. The tail is usually
chopped oft" before handling the fish. According to Mo-
REAU the Eagle-Ray is viviparous. A fisherman from Ros-
coff told him that a female of this species had given
birth to seven living young just after she had been
hauled into the boat.

lAM TRYGONIDiE.

The whip-like tad icith or iritlioiit either fins or spine. Pectoral fins extended irithoiit a break forward along
the sides of the head and contigaous in front of the tip of the snout.

This family has its true home in tlie seas and
rivers of the tropics, where many of its members are

a scourge to bathers. They generally live in shallow
water, concealing their body in the sand or mud, so

" In a male 60 cm. long the leiigtli of the Hatteued snoul in the median line before the fontanelle is lialf its breadth at the
same point.

*• In the specimen described by CoLLETT, the tailless body of which measured 318 mm. in lengtli, tlie true candal spine was 82 nnn.
long, but in front of it lay a compensatory spine, still covered with skin and 11 mm. long. In a male 66 cm. long, tlie tail of which
measured 40 cm., the former spine was 63 mm. long, the compensatory spine [ib mm.

' Length of the body 853 mm., including the tail (535 mm.). (Ircalcst breadth (between the tips of tlie pectoral fius) 540 mm.
Length of the copulatory organs (pterygopodia) 78 mm.

STIXG-KAYS.

1097

that only tho eyes iiiid spiracles are free. On being
alai'incid tiie-\- usually take to flight at once — and
bathers or waders theri'fore stir up the hottoni in front
of them with a stick, an oar, oi- the like, or 1)}' scrap-
ing their feet — but if accidental!)- trodden on, they
i)roniptly dart their caudal spine into the foot or leg,
inflicting an extremely painful, perhaps even a nioi'tal
wound. Alxnit fifty species are known — not all, how-
ever, armed with caudal spine — and among tluMu are
several (7) inhabitants of the Mediterranean, which
have rendered the family notoiious sijice j)rehistoric
times. A Greek mvth relates how the sorceress Cihoe
tipped with the spine of a Sting-Ray — or perhaps of
an Eagle-Ray — the spear .she gave to her son Tele-
GONUS, when he was setting out to seek his father
Odysseu.s, and ho\v this spine became the latter's bane.
The family occupies an intermediate place between
the preceding and the following families. Often the
head is perceptibly elevated, the eyes assuming almost

the same position as in the preceding family, the ven-
tral tins arc uiidi\ided, n(n'er deej)ly forked or lobed,
and the skin is sometimes almost entirely smooth; but
the extension of the jiectoi'al tins along the sides of
the head ranges this family beside the true Rays. Se-
veral of the forms are also furnished with vertical
dermal folds, sometimes with a true caudal tin, on the
superior or inferior caudal margin, sometimes on both.
.Most of them have a caudal spine and sometimes as
many as two oi' three compensatory spines in front of
the former. < hie dorsal tin is occasionally present
within this family, but there are never two.

Dlmekil" divided the family into four subfamilies,
distinguished by the absence of the caudal spine {Uro-
rjlimni), or by the presence of a caudal fin {UroJophi),
of a dorsal tin ( Trfigonopterce), or by the absence of
both these tins (Pastii/acrf). To the last-mentioned
subfamily, which contains the greatest numlier of spe-
cies, belongs the

Genl.s TRYGON'.

One or more dagger-spines furnished with retral harbs on the tail. Where rerticcd dermal folds appear on the
tail, these are low and do not extend out to the tip thereof. No raged vertical fns. The transverse cleft
of the mouth almost straight or at most hut slightlg curved. Jaw-teeth (fig. 313) fattened, triangular, and set
in a dense quincimcial arrangement; in the males sharpened. Disk of the body rhomboidal, of almost equal

bread til and length.

Thus deiined the genus includes about a score' of |
ascertained species from tropical and temperate regions
all round the globe. The generic name is of classical
Greek origin, and occurs in many passages of Aris-
totle's works in its present signification, though it
was originally applied to a dove. The notorious and
dreaded Ray thus became the namesake of the symbol
of innocence, "not on account of its colour," says Rox-
delet', "for this is yellow, but because of the resem-
blance of the pectoral tins to expanded wings." Among
the Romans the genus was called I'astinaca, a name
that RoxDELET derives from the colour and terete form
• if the tail, which in these Rays is like a parsnip.

Fitr. ?.

2.

.laws and t.-elli

of a Sting-Ray {Tri/gon po

stinaca), $.

Nntural

size

After MoREAC.
scale.

Within tlif figure teeth on
/, ligaments.

a ningnified

° ffisl. Nat. Poiss. (su. a BuFF.), tome I, p. 579.
* Adanson, Cotirs d'Histoire natureUe, 1772, vol. II, p. 170.
adopted the name of Trygon from it in 1809 (Descr. de I' Egyjite).
' CtUNTliEK diagnoses 23 species in his Catalogue.
■' De Pise, p. 332.

This work first appeared in print in 1825; but Geoffr. St. Hil.

1098

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

THE STING-RAY (sw. spjutrockan).
TRYGOX PASTINACA.

Figs. 313 and 314.

Tail, irhich occupies about half {in the young rather more than half) the length of the body, furnished both above

and below with a shallow dermal fold, the upper, however, insignificant. Length of the disk about 80 — 85 %

(88 %) of its breadth. Tip of the snout more or less obtuse, lateral tips of the disk (of the pectoral fins)

rounded. Ventral fins rectangular, with the inner posterior angle strongly rounded.

Length of the head (from the tip of the snout) to
the occiput about ^ %, (37—40 %), to the iirst gill-
opening .somewhat more than \ 3 (34 — 36 %), of that
of the disk. Length of the snout (from the anterior

mouth. Skin of young specimens entirely smooth, of
old often tuberculated in the median line of the back
and above the shoulder-girdle. Coloration above of a
grayish or l)rownish yellow, or darker, of a Ijlackish

J^J

Fig. 313. 7'rijijon pastinaca, $.

~--<

From Mouiit KuUen, July 24111, 1849. Barcu Gyllenstjerna. The property of tlie
Miiseuin of Lund.

margin of the eyes) about " ., of the former length of
the head. Nasal valvule, which is attached by a nar-
I'ow frenum almost throughout its length, of a rect-
angular form, about twice as broad as long", and its
breadtli at the base somewhat greater than the widtli
of the moutii. Greatest depth of the body (the thick-
ness at tlie slioulder-girdie) somewhat less than half
the length of the head to tiie occiput. Teeth of the
upper jaw, with thimble-like indentations on their sur-
face, set in about 20 — 30 rows directed obliquely liack-
wards. Distance of the caudal spine from the root of
the tail about equal to the length of the head. Breadth
of the tail at the base aliout e(iual to tiie width of the

green, in front grayish, in the young sometimes spotted
with white; under surface of a dirty white.

Si/H. Piistinaca, la Pastenade de iner, on Tourterelle, ou Tareroudc,
Belon, Nat., Div. Poiss., p. 82. Pastinaca marina Oxy-
rinchos, Sohonev., Ichthijol. Slesv. Hols., p. 58. Raja cor-
poie glabro, aculeo longo auterius serrate in cauda apterygia,
.\BT., MUIii/oL, Gen. Pise, p. 71; S;/ii., p. 100.
Raja Pastinaca, Lin., fSi/st. Nat., ed. X, toni. I, p. 232;
Pe.n.s., Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), torn. Ill, p. 83; Retz., Fna
Suee. Lin., p. 304; DoNOV., Brit. Fish., tab. XCIX; Cuv.
{Trygon), Eign. Anim., ed. I, loiii. II, p. 136; NiLSS. (Raja),
Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 120; Parn. (Trygnn), Mem.
Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. VII, p. 440; BoN.iP., Iconogr.
Fna Ital., Pesci, tab. 156; Nobpm. in Demid., Voy. Russ.
Mer., torn. Ill, p. 549; MUll., Hle, Hyst. Besclir. Plagiost.,
p. 161; Ekstr., Gbgs Vet., Vitt. Sauili. Handl., Ny Tidsf..

" Lengtii of the nasal valvulL- 48-

iif its breadtli at the base.

STING-RAY.

10!) 9

H. 1, p. 41; Kr., Danni. Fi.--ke, vol. Ill, p. 1018; Nii.ss.,
.■^k-tinil. /'«!(, F/.-A.. 1-1. 741; 1!hdt, Vid. Meddel. Nntuvli.
For. Kblivn 18(54. p. 27t'i; Pi'm., Hist. Nat. Poi.is., toiii.
I. p. (JOO; Gthu, Vat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. Vlll, \<.
47S: WiNTH., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. Ill, vnl. XII, p.
i;i; MilH., HcKE, Fisch. O.Hs., p. 158; Day, Fish. Gt. lirit.,
Irel., vol. II, p. 350, tab. CLXXV; Dodeul., Man. Ittiol.
.Ueilit., fnsc. Ill, p. 220; Peters., Vid. Meddel. Naturh.
For. Kbhvn 1884. p. 160; Lii.u., •Sc, Norg. Fisk., vol.
Ill, p. 539.

Tri/'jon h/iiima, Geoffr., Descr. Egyiit., Poiss., y. 219. t;ilp.

27, tig. 1.
Niija ■Sayi, LesueI'R, Joiirn. .\cafl. Nat. Hist. I'liilad., vol. 1,

p. 42. Vide Gthr.
'J'ri/yoii cuitjaris (= Pastenayiie commune ex Cuv.), Eisso, Env.

.V,'ri(l., torn. Ill, p. 160; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,

toiji. I, p. 448.
Tfijijoii Akajei, Mi'Li... Hle, 1. e., p. 165, tab. 5,'!; SiHi.. in

SiEi'.., Fna Japan., Pise, p. 308. Vide Gthr.

The Sting-Kay, which is coimiioTi in Southern
Europe, is stated to attain rather considerable dimen-
sions, at least a length of 2' ^ m. and a breadth of
1' J m., though the occurrence of so large specimens
has not been authenticated in European waters. Bona-

PAHTK indeed speaks of Sting-lJays from the Mediter-
ranean weighing 10 centners; l)ut Risso says that their
average weigiit in tliat sea is about 10 — 1"2 kilo., and
according to Dukkui.icis the hirge.st Sting-liays in the
fishmarket of Palermo weigh 20 kilo, or more. Schle-
GEL states that the Japanese form {Trygon Jkajei)
attains a weight of several centners; and the dimen-
sions given above are tliose of a s])ecimeii fi'om the
("ape of Good Ho]je, now in the Museum of Psiris.

It seems rather probable, however, that several
species are included in the above list of synonyms.
Our material is indeed scanty, consisting of two females,
which we iigure here, of about the same size; but even
these show divergencies of form uncommon at least in
the other Rays. The one, wliicli was probably the type
of LiNN.EUs's Raja Fastiiiaca, has a less expanded disk,
and apparently comes nearer to the American Trygon
Sayi; the other, the only Swedish example of this spe-
cies on record, corresponds more closelj' to Bonaparte's
and Day's Trygon pasiinata. The most important dif-
ferences are expressed in the following percentages:

Length of the disk in 'i of its breadth ■

,. „ he,id to the oeciput in % of the

., ., ,, first gill-opening , ,. „ „

DisL-ince between the caudal spine and the root of the tnil ., „ ., „

Length of the snout from the corners of the mouth in % of Ihe length of the head to the
Distance between the nostrils in % of that between each of them aud the tip of the snout.

breadth of the disll

Speciuie

in the

Lund MuRi

Specimen

from the

.Mus. Ad. Frid.

30.0
27.5

31.G

57.2

88.6
35.3

31.5

:37.a

63.4

59.0

According to Risso the Sting-Ray is a tish of noc-
turnal lial>its. liiding itself as we have described above,
and hing in w;ut for any prey that may approach;
but at night-time it may be taken in gill-nets. When
it attacks a fish, it flings its tail round the victim,
which it then pierces and tears witli its sting; and it
defends itself in tlie same manner from tlie hand tliat
would grasp it. Its food consi.sts of tish, crustaceans,
and mollusks. <-)n tlie Sicilian coast, according to Do-
DEULEix, it approaches land and is taken in numbers
from the middle of December till the end of March,
dui'iiig wlncli season it contains eggs of but little de-
velopment. This is probably the lireeding season, for
the more isolated females caught in summer are more
or less gravid. The young are born alive.

From the Black Sea and the Mediterranean the
true geograpiiical range of tlie Sting-Ray extends along

the Atlantic coast of Europe hardly further north than
to England. Even there, as well as on the north-west
coast of France, it is far from common; and to the
north it becomes rarer and rarer. Now and then it is
met with (jff the Scotch coast. Schonevelde knew it
from Heligoland. Bloch received it from Hamburg.
KiioYEK heai-d fishermen sj)eak of its occurrence off
Hirsholm. Reinhahdt i-eceived a specimen that had
been taken in the autumn of 1862 off Frederikshavn.
ScHRADER sent to the Museum of ("openhagen a speci-
men that had been caught on June 10th, 1882, on the
soutli side of tlic Skaw. From the fishing-village of
Ai'ild, at the foot of Mount Kullen in Scania, Baron
Gyllexst.jerna received, on the 24th of July, 1849,
a specimen which is now preserved in the Museum of
Lund. This example (fig. 313) has a disk 34' ., cm.
broad and 27' „ cm. in lengtii from the tip of tiie snout

1100

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

to the extreme end of the margin of the iiectoral fin. Museum, but witli tlie tail l)rol<en oft' short), which
Whether more Sting-Kays liave been found on the coast ! had certainly been in Linn.eus's iiaiids, Ijut is jirobably

of Scandinavia, we are ignorant; but Retzius included
the species in his edition of Linn.els's Fauna Suecica:
and the Museum of Drottninghohn contained a speci-
men about 6 dm. long (now preserved in the Royal

..^f^

of foreign origin, as he did not personally recognise
the species as Swedish. The last-mentioned specimen
is represented in the appended figure.

f ^

Fig. 314. Trygon pastiiiaca, 9) 'i.) ^^^- size; a, caudal spine, uat. size. From the Museum Adolphi Friderici.

Tail depressed^ frith dermal edge on the sides, ffat underneath, conre.v on the top, and furnished u'ith two dorsal
fns, with or without caudal fin. The pectoral fins extend forward to the snout or even in front of the rostral
cartilage. Where electric organs are present, they lie on the sides of the fail. No spear-like spine on the tail.

As we have remarked aliove, these fishes, the fa-
mily of the true Rays, in sjnte of the singular deve-
lopment of the pectoral fins, deviate less than the
preceding families from the form of body tj'pical of
tlie Sharks. A distinct expression of this is given by
the arrangement of the nostrils and tlie nasal valvule.
Each nostril is indeed continued here too I)y a groove
to the corner of the mouth; ))ut the nostrils are farther
apart, and the nasal valvule coalesces throughout the
greater part of its inner surface with the bottom of
the snout, so that in many cases only its posterior
lateral corners foi'in free dermal Haps.

The stronger tiatteniiig of the bodv, especiallv of
the head, imparts to the eyes, as we have mentioned
above, a more horizontal jjosition; l)ut they are ijro-
tected above by an expansion of the frontal skin, and
to mitigate the excessive brilliancy of the light, the
upper m;irgin of tlie iris is prolongated in most of the
species into finger-shaped processes partly covering the
pupil.

The family as a whole — it is dispersed round the
globe from the troitical to the frigid zones — is about
as varied in form as the preceding one, but in our seas
more so; and its members are often difficult to distin-

cruish. In niaiiiier cil' lite tliey essentially resemble the
preeediui!; Kmas; hut iii;m\- of thein (leseeiul to greater
depths. Tliey are oviparous; l)ut the embryo leaves
the egg very soon after the exclusion of the latter

s. 110 1

from the eluaea, or even durinjr its transmission through
the said passage.

Of the four or five genera which the family con-
tains, the Scandinavian fauna possesses only one.

Gems RAJA".

• The pectoral fins do not extend in front of the rostral cartilaqe. Tin' ventral fins are deeply forked at the hind
margin. Where a caudal fin is present, it does not extend to tin' under surface of the tip of the tail.

The foundation of our knowledge of the species
belonging to this genus and tlieir mutual relations,
especially as they appear in the Scandinavian fauna,
was laid in its essential details by B. Fiuics''. His tirst
remarks had reference to the value of the specitit' char-
acters emploved at his time within the genus.

The spin\- armature of the body, he wrote, has
been the chief specific distinction employed since the
infancy of science, and it also affords beyond all question
not only clear, but- also really trustworthy characters,
if only we refrain from minutiaj, such as counting the
number of the spines, determining their positions iind
size, as has hitherto been customary, for it is in this
very manner that most of the nominal species and the
constant confusion of the species arise. Every one who
studies the species by comparing a number of indivi-
duals, and who afterwards compares nearly related spe-
cies with each other, will tind without fail that the
armature, however similar it may appear at tirst sight,
yet follows in each species a distinct development, char-
acteristic of the species, and expressed not only in the
form, size, position, growth, and shedding of the spines,
hut also in such normal deviations from the original
specific type as age and, in part, the difference of sex
entail. I'or the attainment of descriptive lucidity Fries
proposed the following terminology. Smdtaf/gar (spi-
iiiihc) he called the prickles that cause the asjx-rity of
the skin. The\- are (juite small and short, either subu-
late, with a bifid or (juadrifid, stellate base (spinulce
stellares), or granular {granuloses). Knaggor {aculei)
was the name he aiJjilied to the large, claw-shaped,
and usuallv recurved, thorn-like spines which stand as

column, on the rostral cartilage, around the orbital
margin, and on the dorsal side above the scajmlar re-
gion, parth' at other undefined spots and in highly
variable number i)()tli on the dorsal side and the ventral
{acidei extraordinarii). Both these kinds of aculei vary
in number, form, and size, are shed pei'iodically or
accidentally broken off', in which case, however, they
always leave, at least for a time, a mark in the skin.
Furthermore both may occur with expanded, flattened
or nail-headed base (aculei clavati), or with expanded,
conical base, deeply grooved on the sides and as it
were radiate (aculei radiati). Besides spinukv and aculei
the Rays have a third kind of spines, but only the
males. These Fries called the cards of the males (car-
mines maris). They are situated on the dorsal side of
each half of the body, partly at the outer margin of
the head, parti}- and principally on the pectoral tins,
a little way from the tips thereof. They consist of
rather long, simply bent or hooked, and very pungent
spines, set in rather irregular longitudinal rows, and
furnished with a mobile attachment, so that the Ray
can depress or erect them at will. When depressed,
they lie close to the skin, and may easily escape ob-
servation. By the distribution of the aculei on the tail
Fries distinguished between two types among our in-
digenous species, the one with an odd number of lon-
gitudinal rows, the other with an even number. The
latter type — as exemplified in the Shagreen Skate and
the Sandy Ray — seems hardly ever to be impaired by
exceptions or to alter with the age of the individual,
but, is always recognisable by the symmetrical rows of
aculei (arranged on each side of the median line). The

wound-inflicting weapons partly at certain flxed spots on ] former type, on the other hand, is often overlooked
thebody(fff«/e«ord»(ff ;•/«)> namely in rows along the spinal | and mistaken owing to the considerable modifications

" Artedi, Ichthijol., Gen. Pise, p. 70. "'Est
' See Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 12G.

L-abuhnii I'MNII. Dcrivatio .liibia" (ART., Phil., p. 7.H).

1102

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

induced by age. Judging hy those species whose de-
velopment FiiiES had an opportunity of tracing, he
remarised, as a rule ])robably of general application,
tliat no species of Ray belonging to tha type with an
odd number of rows of caudal a( iilei, wlicn young or
newly hatched, lias more tlian one such row, which
tiien invariably occupies the median line of the tail.
The lateral rows do not appear until the fish has
reached a more advanced age. Most of the Scandina-
vian species fall under this type, but develop in a di-
rection involving something peculiar to and characteristic
of each. In some the lateral rows always project from
the side-margin of the tail, in others between this mar-
gin and the median line. In certain forms the spines
of the lateral rows never attain the same size and
strength as those of 'the median row, while in others
the relations are reversed. In some species the spines
of the median rows are persistent even at n very ad-
vanced age, in others they are normally lost or shed.
The form of the jaw-teeth, remarked Fries, has
been rejected as a specific distinction by Cuvier and
other writers, and on the whole with good reason, for
greater differences of dentition may often be observed
between the young and the old, between the male and
the female, than can be determined between two nearlv
related species. But it is equally certain, he wrote,
that most of the species, not to say all the Scandinavian
ones, have a fixed form of dentition proper to them,
whereby some of them can safely be distinguished, and
some — e. g. the Thoridjack, Shagreen Skate, and Starry
Ray — are so ^vell marked in this respect that they can
be confounded with no other species. To gain a right
conception of the dentition of each species, the deve-
lopment of the teeth must be carefully followed, and
a good clue is afforded to the investigator by a com-
parison of the teeth nearest tiie cornei's of the mouth
Avith those in the middle of the jaw. The former are
arrested, as it wei'e, at a lower grade of development,
and most nearly resemble the teeth of the young; the
latter exhibit the highest stage in the dental develop-
ment of the species. The several intermediate rows
between the said points show the transitions from the
lowest to the highest development of the teeth. If at-
tention be paid to this, and the gradual detrition to
which the outermost (foremost) transverse rows in the
mouth are subjected l)e also taken into consideration.

the greater number of the said anomalies in tlie denti-
tion of a s[)ecies disappear. As in the preceding fa-
mily, the males are characterized by more pointed jaw-
teeth than those of the females: but only in one of the
species indigenous to Scandinavia (the Thornl)ack) is
the dentition of each sex thoroughly distinct: in tlie
others the difference is sometimes so slight that it has
even been overlooked.

The form of the snout affords cliaracters of no
little importance and constancy, especialh- if tlic alte-
rations of growth l)e kept in mind; and the variations
in the form of the snout are attended by differences in
the general configuration of the body, which form is
really determined by that of the snout and the pectoral
fins. To find a safe e.xpression for these variations in
the form of the snout. Fries compared the length ot
two lines, one drawn right across the head through the
centre of the pupils, the other at right angles to this
and extending to the tip of the snout. The species in
which the latter line is less tlian lialf as long as the
former, he called blunt-snouted; those in which the
length of the snout is more than half or at least half
the breadtli of the head at the said point, he ranged
among the sharp-snouted Rays (the .Skates). Another
expression of this, which besides affords an often re-
quisite character from the under surface of the head,
may be obtained by comparing the least width between
the inner margins of the nostrils (the base of the nasal
valvule) with the distance between tlie nostrils and the
tip of the snout, whereby we find that in tiie blunt-
snouted species the length of the base of the nasal
valvule is more, in the sharp-snouted species less, than
70 % of tiie distance Iietween the nostrils and the tip
of the snout. The form of the snout also supplies an-
other charac^ter, wliich was indeed remarked by Fries
in his descriptions, but has won greater recognition in
more recent times". In the Ravs with a very pointed
snout a line drawn from the tip of the snout to the
anterior margin of the outer tip of the pectoral fin falls
entirely outside the disk, whereas in the blunt-snouted
Rays it at least ])arth' cuts tlie same.

From tiie position of the dorsal fins with relation
to each other Nilssox'' deduced a specific character the
value of which was also appreciated by Fries. Some
species, such as the Starry Ray, have the two dorsal
fins set quite close together on the tail ami without

See E. MoREAU and DOderlein.
Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 119.

aculei betweon tliein. In others, as in the Tlmniliaek,
the two tins are farther a|iart, and the median line
between tiieni is armed with one or more spines.

Of the coloration of the body Fries observed that,
in spite of its \ ariability, it is partly characteristic in
some degree of different S])ecies — especially that of the
under surface. As a natural result of the life led by
the Kays, which ;ire bottom-fishes, this side of the body
is coiumonlv light and colourless (whitish), and it would
appear as yet to be uncertain whether the dark colour,
entire or distributed in large spots, where it occurs on
the ventral side, aflords trustworthy specitic characters
or not. But good characters may be drawn from the
sometimes distinctive coloration of the long winding
canals and apertures of the ventral system of the lateral
line, and tiiese characters are of so much greater utility
as being present from earliest youth and persistent in
specimens either stuffed or preserved in spirit. The
spots and ocelli which occur on the dorsal side of certain
species, showing endless variation in size, colour, an<l
extent, are utterly worthless as specific characters.

With regard to the external differences of sex,
which have long been known, Fries stated that they
are, as usual, less marked in young specimens than in
mature individuals, most of the male attributes being
cominoidy absent or only rudimentary in the former,
and developing in proportion as the age of puberty is
approached. In general the females are armed with
far more numerous and much larger spines than the
males; but this rule is not without exceptions.

Most of the true Rays are good and esteemed food-
tishes. When boiled fresh, their flavour calls to mind
that of the Halibut, or is not unlike that of lobster.
They mav also be dried and kept till required for use,
in which case the fish is scored along the body. In this
form they are usually eaten after having been lyed in
the same manner as stock-flsh. They are consequently
sought after bv the fisherman, and they are in general
well distinguished and familiar to all, their vulgar
names affording valuable aid in the definition of the spe-
cies and their synonymy. Hollberg (1819) knew three
Scandinavian species of the genus, the klorocka {Baja
radiata), knaqf/racka (Ttuja clarata, -which he called
prickrocka), and sidtrocka (Raja hatls). In his Prodro-
mus (1832) NiLSSON characterized four, the above-men-

s. 1103

tioned species and the lildt/anisracka {li. litifea, which
he called U. fi(IUi)ii((i). In 1838 Fries added two, the
(jiikrocka [It fnUomca) and plogjenisrocka {R. oxtj-
rhynchns). To these six species Mawi supplemented in
18.')7 the sdiidnickd { I!, falsarela, which he called .tpdtt-
roi-ka); and in 1881 ( "oi.lett described as Scandinavian
Lilljehorg's srarthiiksi-ockii (II. iiidrosieiisis). All these
forms unquestionably belong to the Scandinavian fauna;
but Coi.LETT further established in 1878 another species,
Raja hypcrhnrca, to which the said fauna can probably
lay claim. These species may be distinguished as follows:

A: Blimt-snoiitod. Intcriiasiil width more than

70 % of the distiincc between each nostril

and the tip of the snout: — Rajaa clavatee.

(i; 1-toot of the aculei nail-headed. Distance

between each nostril and the tip of the

snout 15 °» or h?ss of the breadth of

the disk - --.. Kaja clavata.

b: Root (if the aculei grooved. Distance
between each nostril and the tip of the
snout at least Hi °i of the breadth of
the disk.

a: Upper median line of the tail armed
with a series of aculei.
ok; Aculei in the median line of the

back and tail at most about IG.. Raja radiata.
Jih: Aculei in the median line of the

back and tail at least about 24.. Raja hyperhorea .
/S; Upper median line of the tail with-
out aculei - ---- Raja fal.iareln.

B: Sharp-snouted. Internasal width less than

70 % of the distance between each nostril

and the tip of the snout: — Rajaj L-eves.

a: Ventral side light, plain, without dark

punctuation.

«; Upper median line of the tail with-
out aculei - Raja fidlonica.

(i: Upper median line of the tail arm-
ed with aculei Raja liiitea.

b: Ventral side dark or marked with small
dark dots and streaks.
«: Length of the snout less than 18 %
of that of the body or than 28 'i

of the breadth of the disk Raja balis.

li: Lensth of the snout more than 18 f.'

of that of the body or than 28 'i

of the breadth of the disk.

aa: Aculei (even if small) at the

eyes. Ventral side blackish and

with indistinct punctuation Raja nidrosiensif.

bb: No aculei at the eyes. Ventral
side comparatively light and
with distinct dots and streaks.. Raja o^ryrhynchus.

Rcandinm-ian Fishes.

1104

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Sectio I: Rajse clavatse, Rays. Snout short, its tip hh(nt, the length of the snout from its tip to the
centre of the ej-es being less thnn half its breadth at the latter point.

These species are the smallest, or at least do not attain the same magnitude as the Skates. The females
are larger than the males and more plentifully armed bi)th with spinuhu and aculei. Spines of the latter kind,
known by Fries as extraordinary aculei, occur, sometimes in considerable number, scattered here and there on
the body without definite arrangement and often without symmetry. Iris furnished with lobate lid overlapping
the pupil (Fries).

THE THORNBACK (.-w. knaggeockan).
RAJA GLAVATA.

Plate XLVII. fitrs. 1 and 2.

Length of the snout (from the anterior margin of the eges) about 12—13 % of that of the hodij or 17 — 19 %

of the breadth of the disk. Distance beticeen each 'nostril and the tip of the snout at most alwut 15 % of the

said breadth. Dorsal fins well separated, and the median line hctn-een them usualhj spinigerous. Aculei ungroored,

their number in the median line of the back and tail in front of the first dorsal fin about 26—30 %'.

Syn. Raia clavata. Rondel., De Pise, lib. Xll, cap. XIII, p. 353;
ScHONEV., Ichthjol. Slesv. Hols., p. 5S; Willvghb., Hist. Pise,
p. 74. Baja aculeata, dentibus tuberculosis, cartilagine trans-
versa in ventre, AuT., IclUliyol., Gen., p. 71; Synon., p.
99; Spec, p. 103; Lin., Fna Suec, ed. I, p. 100; It.
Westrog., p. 175.

Raja clavata, Lin., Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 232; Bl.,
Fische DeutscliL, pt. Ill, p. 65, tab. LXXXIII (? + Raja
rubus, p. 67, tab. LXXXIV, (^); Retz., Fna Suec. Lin.,
p. 304; HoLLB. (p. p.), Gbgs Wett., Witt. Samh. N. Handl.,
Ill (1819), p. 29 (nee fig.); Fab., Tidskr. Naturv. Kbhvn, vol.
V (1828), p. 246; Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. I, vol. II, p. 436;
Fk., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 140; Bonap. {Dasybatis),
Iconogr. Fna Ital, Pesci, tab. 149, figg. 3 et 4 ( + 2>. aspera,
ibid.); Ekstr., v. Wb. {Raja), Skand. Fisk., ed. I, p. 154,
tab. 35; Mull., Hle, Syst. Beschr. Plagiost., p. 135; Kr.,
Damn. Fiske, vol. Ill, p. 962; NiLSS., Ska?id. Fna, Fisk.,
p. 735; Couch, Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. I, p. 99, tab. XXII;
Gtjir, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 456; Coll.,
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, Tillfegsh., p. 214; N. Mag.
Naturv., Bd 29 (1884), p. 118; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna,
p. 606; WiNTH., Natnrh. Tidskr. Kblivn, ser. 3, vol. XII,
p. 60; Mob., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. I, p. 391; MOb.,
HcKE, Fisch. Osts., p. 154; Storm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr.,
Trondhj. 1883, p. 45; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II,
p. 343, tab. CLXXI; Doderl., Ulan. Ittiol. Medit, fasc.
Ill, p. 176; LiLLJ., Sv., Norg. Fisk., vol. Ill, p, 555;
Carus, Prodr. Fnoe Medit., vol. II, p. 521.

Raja scabra, LitJ., Mus. Ad. Frid., tomi II:di prodr., p. 52
(sec. specimen ex Musaeo Drottningliolmensi).

Raja Dasybatus punctatus, Hollb., Gbgs Wett., Witt. Samh.
N. Handl., pt. IV (1821), p. 25 cum tab.

Raja pontica. Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., torn. Ill, p. 58; Rathke,

Mem. div. s.iv. etrang. Acad. Sc.Petersb.,toni.III(1837),p.309.

Raja Rtibus, NiLSS. (ex Block), Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 118.

The males attain a length of about 7 dm. from the
tip of the snout to the end of the tail; the females
sometimes measure 9 or 10 dm. Until they have reach-
ed or nearly reached this size, the}- are apparently
incapable of propagating their species; Fries at all events
never found an individual under 6 dm. in length with
the external or internal genital organs develojjed.

The disk is rhombic, with somewhat pointed pec-
toral and ventral tins. The anterior side-margins of the
body form two bends, the anterior situated just behind
the tip of the snout, where a small, blunt muzzle is
thus produced, the posterior beginning a little in front
of a transverse line drawn through the centres of the
eyes. The posterior side-margins are more convex, but
in their outer parts curve slightly inwards. The great-
est breadth of the disk is on an average' 69 % of the
length of the body. The distance from the tip of the
snout to the extreme end of the hind margin of the
pectoral tin (the length of the disk) is on an average"
75 ?», to the anterior angle of the cloaca 64 %'', and
to the tip of the posterior ventral lobe 84 %% of the
breadth of the disk.

** Provided that the series be complete, no aculei having been lost.

' In 11 specimens 36 — 92 cm. long. Tlie variations run between 65'

' The variations run between 71 °i and 7 9 %.

'' „ „ „ ,, ei'/o % and 68 %.

< ,, 79 % and 91 'i.

ad 72'/, %.

TIIOHNliACK.

nor)

The lenijtli of tlic licnd tVoiu the tip of tlio snout
to till' (H'ciimt is alioiit ' ., of tiie ciitii'c Iciigtii of tiu'
body. Tlie Juiigtii of the snout \ari('s between \'2 and
13 ?^ (exceptionaJh' 14 %) of tliat of tiie l)ody, or l)e-
tween 17 and li)' „ % of the greatest breadth of the
disk. Tiie least interorbital width of the concave fore-
head (e\ciusi\e of tlie dermal fold aboxc the (ncs) va-
ries between 30 and M7 % (exceptionally 39 %) of the
length of the snout. The longitudinal diameter of the
oblong eyes is about '/V' "J^ ^^^^ length of the snout,
and the longitudinal diameter of the s])iraeles, which
lie just behind the eyes, is in young specimens only
about ^:.. of tliat of the latter, in old Thornbacks almost
equal to the same. The internasal width is in young
specimens about ^ .,, in old " ,„ (exceptionally 95 %), of
the distance between each nostril and the tip of the
snout, or about 18 — '20 ?6 of that between the cloaca
and the last-mentioned point. The lateral flaps of the
nasal valvule are fimbriated behind. The breadth of the
mouth, which is transverse and but slightly curved, is
equal in young specimens to the internasal width, some-
what greater in old. The dentition differs considerably
ill the young and old and in the males and females.
.\11 young specimens have small, blunt, granular teeth,
set in rows running obliijuely on each side, and \vithout
any distinction between the sexes (fig. 'S\ri,A); but as
the males approach maturity, the crowns of the teeth
become more and more flattened, with the hind margin
pointed and prolongated, a transition to the characteristic
dentition of the old males. The teeth of the adult males
are set in fairly regular rows, both longitudinal and
transverse, and those forming the 14 — 22 rows in the
middle of the mouth have a somewhat prolongated crown
with subulate cusp (fig. 315, /?), wdiich is directed inwards
towards the pharynx, thus lying like a scale over the
tooth behind it. The rows nearest to the corners of
the mouth have quite small, flat crowns, with the hind
margin slightly prolongated into a flat, sharpened heel,
which is more and more extended and approximated to
the subulate form, the nearer the row to which it be-
longs lies to the first-mentioned median rows. Only
the teeth with subulate cusp have a very narrow rim at
the base, and as these are most exposed to detrition,
the tips of the foremost (oldest) teeth are always worn
and blunt. In old females the teeth have broad, lo-
zenge-shaped, and sloping crowns, set in pentagons

(so-called mosaics, tig. 315, C). This dentition is pe-
culiar to the Thornback, and cannot be confounded
with that of an\' other among the Scandinavian Kaj's.
The whole uppei- surface of the body is densely
strewn with fnie, coni])ressed spinuhe, branching at the
root into a star with two — four or even six arras.
Similar small spines, more scattered, however, are set
on the ventral side of the body in full-grown speci-
mens, especially under the snout and tail, but are
wanting on the jxictoral and ventral fins, which are
smooth. In Aouiig individuals, on the other hand,
especially of the male sex, the whole ventral side seems
smooth to the touch; but on careful examination very
fine spines are detected even there, at least under the
very tip of the snout and at the sides of the alxlominal
cavity. All the aculei belong to the type which, wlien

; Y a

D

E

Fig. 315. .Jaw-teetli and aculei of tliu Thornback {Raja clavata).
A, teeth of a young male, natural size, and (below) a tooth magnified,
lateral and superior aspects; B, tooth of an old male, magnified,
lateral and superior aspects; U, tooth of an old female, magnified,
aspects as before; D, dorsal aculeus of an old Thornback; E, caudal
aculeus of a younger specimen.

fully developed, has a smooth, expanded base (aculei
clavaft). The ordinary consist in young specimens of

1) a row running along the back, containing some
twenty spines, with base as j^et but conically e.xpanded,

2) an aculeus on the scapular cartilage, on each side
of this row, 3) one or two before and two or thre*!
behind the eyes, and 4) a few quite small acvilei on
the rostral cartilage, set in two rows. In older speci-
mens we find, besides those enumerated above, a row
on each side of the median series at the root of the
tail, and sometimes, especially in the females, two ro\vs
at the same point, containing aculei of the same size
as or even larger than those of the median series.

" In a young specimen 14 cm. long the diameter of the eyes, according to Kroyee, was 37'/.^ % of the length of the snout.

1106

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

These lateral rows do not ofcujjy the extreme side-
margin of the tail, but the space between this and the
median series, except where there are two lateral rows
on each side, in which case the outer row projects from
the said margin. They do not extend throughout the
length of the tail, but only a short distance along it; they
are not symmetrical, ;ind contain an cxti'emcly variable
number of aculei. A little behind the termination of
these lateral rows and Ijcfui-e the origin of tlie first
dorsal fin, we usually find in old specimens 1 — 3 true
lateral aculei (set at the extreme side-margin), in
most cases the largest on the tail, seldom of equal
number on both sides. These few lateral aculei at the
said point and those occupying the space between the
two fins are, though not constant, good characters,
where they are present, of the Thornback. The extra-
ordinary aculei are so variable, botii in distribution
and number, that no rule can be stated. They seem-
ingly appear a short time before the period of puberty,
for in all young specimens there is not even a sign of
their presence. The}- are most numerous in middle-
aged females, but in very old ones most of them have
again disappeared". Thej' are exti-emely seldom sym-
metrical, sometimes preponderating in number on the
dorsal side, sometimes on the ventral; sometimes scat-
tered, sometimes collected in groups. Their basal scutes
are often of considerable extent. Among the Scandi-
navian species of the family the Thornback is the only
one in which aculei appear on the ventral side.

The coloration of the dorsal side is yellowish gray,
with a number of large, I'ound, whitish yellow spots of
varj'ing size and without s^'inmetry. Between these
appear smaller, black spots, like round dots, which
gather round the former and compose black frames,
sharply defined especially in young specimens. Some-
times there also occur in old individuals large ocelli, cir-
cular black spots with light margin, in one or two pairs
on the dorsal side. The ventral side is wliite, with a
dash of violet round the margins of the fins. On the
tail the dark colour now and then, especially in young
specimens, forms several (up to 6 — 8) broad transverse
bands, most distinct on the under surface thereof.

The sex is manifested externally, in part and with
most clearness, by the large pterygopodia of the male
and the cards of spines peculiar to him on the upper

surface of the pectoral fins — two patches of erectile
sjjines on the sides of the orbital region and another
pair of larger patches within the otiter angles of the
fins — in part by several other differences already no-
ticed. However distinct all these characteristics may
be at an advanced age, during youth they are wanting
or only subindicated, and at first the sexes are exter-
nally indistinguishable. As the time of puberty ap-
proaches, they all appear almost simultaneously, and
afterwards the difference bet^veen the sexes grows more
marked year by year. In a male 216 mm. long (pre-
sumably a year old) taken in August, ]\Ialm estimated
the length of the pterygopodia at only ?> mm. In a
male about 42 cm. long Fries found the ]jterygopodia
still quite small and short, their tips extending only a
little more than half-way along the ventral fins; there
were no signs of cards; the teeth were still of a gra-
nular, lozenged and blunt form; the ventral side of
the body was quite smooth, only a i'ew spots (the tip
of the snout and the sides of the belly) being rough
to the touch ; there were no extraordinary aculei, and
of the ordinary caudal aculei only the median row was
present. In a specimen 52 cm. long the circumstances
were essentially the same, only that the pterj'gopodia
were somewhat longer in relation to the \entral fins,
and the ventral side of the body was rougher, especially
under the tail. But in an individual rather more than
6U cm. long the pterygopodia are so developed that
their tips extend more than half-way along the tail,
and all the other characteristics of the male have ap-
peared, though the cards are still small, containing
few spines, and these set in 2 or o rows, whereas in
larger and older specimens as many as 6 — 8 rows
ma}' be counted, each containing some twenty spines
or more.

The Thornback is the commonest of all the Swe-
dish Rays. In the Sound it occurs southwards to the
shallows off' Saltholm (Winther). It has occasionally
been met with in the south-west of the Baltic, on the
east coast of Schleswig-Holstein (Schonevelde and
MoBius and Heixcke) and the north coast of Mecklen-
burg (Boll''). It is most plentiful in the Cattegat
and the North Sea. To the nortli, according to Storm,
its range probably does not extend beyond the neigh-
bourhood of Trondhjem. To the south it penetrates into

■■ Fries met witli very olil males .is well as females destitute of a single extraordinary aculeiis.
' Die Ostsee, Arcli. Ver. Fr. Naliirg. Mcckl., Heft. I, p. 89 (sep.).

'ril01!Nl!ACK.

1 1 07

the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Pallas), and
it has been found off Madeira (Guntiiek).

In the island-belt of BohusUln Thornbaeks both
young and old are taken all the jear round. During
winter, however, they are less common, and the fisher-
men state that at this season the Thornback rejjairs to
deep water, in spring and summer it is very plentiful
off the coast, where it seems to prefer water of a mo-
derate depth" and with a sandy bottom. It lives almost
invariably at the bottom and extremely seldom ascends
to a higher level. Its food consists of small fishes,
crustaceans — crabs, lobsters, shrimps, etc. — mollusks,
Annelids, Echinoderms, and Acfinm''.

Throughout the summer the females contain deve-
loped ova; but according to Fries only one egg is laid
at a time, and the period of oviposition for each female
must consequently l)e of long duration. Fries obsei'ved
that, on opening old females in summer-time, the egg-
clusters in the ovaries are found to be considerably
tumid, the several eggs showing different grades of
development, from the size of a pea to that of a plum.
In tlie two oviducts however — each of them dilated
below into a uterine organ — he never found more than
a single egg, and this alreadj- invested with the sin-
gular corneous shell. When one of the uteri contained
an Qgg, the other was emptj-. The ovum is of the form
normal among the Rays, rectangular, with the four
corners prolongated in its longitudinal direction, and
according t<i Malm' is 55 — 57 ram. long and 40 mm.
broad, liut including the tilaments at the corners 110
— 115 mm. long. Fries once found a female Thorn-
back with a half expelled egg in the cloaca. On ex-
amination the ])rotmding end of the egg proved to be

(:H)en, tlie larva hM\ing alreach' left the sliell. lie dis-
sected the specimen, and saw that the Icift uterus was
empty, })ut tlial in the rigiit there lay a recently de-
scended o\ uni, the sliell of whicli was still very soft.
In this case it was consequently evident that the em-
bryo had freed itself from tlie egg immediately on the
expulsion of the latter. Malm, on the other hand,
never found a viable foetus, scarcely a distinct embiyo,
in newly de])osited ova, whence he inferred that the
development of the (nid)ryo does not commence until
the egg is laid'. Tlie process of develoj)ment may thus
vary in its acceleration; but l)y far the greater number
of the eggs found after liberation are empty. During
their early life, according to Khoyer, the fry keep to
the shallows of shelving coasts.

The Thornback is taken on long-lines and in Floun-
der-nets, less frequently in the seine. As an article
of food it enjoys a good reputation in Great Britain
and Ireland, especially in the latter country'; but
in the island-belt of BohusUln, according to Ekstrom,
it is regarded as one of the poorest fishes. It is hardly
ever eaten fresh there, at all events by the islanders,
who instead dry the flesh in the open air on flakes
{gdUar) or platforms, constructed in elevated situations.
After drying it is sold to tlie peasants of the agricul-
tural districts, who use it as a substitute for lutfisk^ at
their Christmas festivities, and consider it good eating.

Besides knaggroclm (Spin}' Hay) this species bears
in the island-belt of Bohusliin the names oi piggrocka,
as adult, and rockhok and pcnik, while young. On the
coast of Scania it shares with the following species the
name of torr-horr, according to Lilljeborg a corruption
of the Danish Tavhe. (Fries, Ekstrom, Smitt.)

" According to Malm the full-grown Thornback is only seldom found in less than 14 f.atlioiiis of water.

* See Olsson, Fiskavnes foda, Lunds Univ. Arsskr., torn. VIII, 1871.

■■ Ofrere. Vet. .\kad. Forh. 187G, No. 3, pp. 94, 95.

" Ghijs, Boh. Fauna, p. 607.

' See D.4Y, 1. c, p. 345.

•^ Dried Cod etc. soaked in Ij-e before cookins. Tliis is still a sLipl ■ course in Sweden at Clirislmas and on oilier feast-days. Tr..

1108

SCANDINAVIAN KISHES.

THE STARRY RAY (^w. klorockan).
RAJA RADIATA.
Plate XLVII, fig. 3.

Length of fhc snout {from the anterior margin of the eyes) about 13 or 14 % {in one gear old speeimens about
12 %) of the length of the bodg or abont 19 — 21 % of the breadth of the disk. Distance betircen each nostril
and the tip of the snout about 17 or 18 %" of the said breadth. Dorsal fins set close together, and the median
line between them usuaUg n-ithout aculeus. Aculei grooved in a stellate form at the base, their )iui)iber in the

median line of the back and tail at most about 16.

Si/n. Raja clavata, Olafs., Reise Isl., pp. 359 et 987, tnbb. XLIX
et L; HoLLB. (p. p.), Gbgs Wett., Witt. Samh. N. Haudl.,
pt. Ill (1819), p. 29 cum tabb.; Pall., Zoogr. Ross.
A.iiat., torn. Ill, p. 58; NiLSS., Prodr. Ti:hthyol. Scaml.,
p. 119.

Raia fuUonica, Fabr., Fna Groetil., p. 125; Faber, Tidskr.
Nalurv. Kblivn, vol. V (1828), p. 240; Id. (p. p.), Pisch.
IsL, p. 38.

Raja radiala, DoNOV., Brit. Fish., tab. CXIV; Yarr., Brit. Fish.,
ed. I, vol. n, p. 439; Fr., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p.
146; MULL., Hle, Plagiost., p. 137; Sundev., v. Wr., Skand.
Fislc., ed. I, p. 178, tab. 43; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill,
p. 939; Nilss., Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 736; Mgbn, Fiiil.
Fiskfna, p. 72; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII,
p. 400; Garm., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. XVII
(1874), p. 177; Coll., Foih. Vid. Selsk. Chriiia 1874,
TilljBgsh., p. 214; 1879, No. 1, p. 105; Norsk. Nordh.
Exped., Zool., Fisk., p. 14; N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, vol.
29 (1884), p. 118; Cedebstr., Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh.
1876, No. 4, p. 67; Malm {Ambbjraja), Gbgs, Boh. Fna,
p. 607; WiNTH. (Raja), Naturb. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3,
vol. XII (1879), p. 60; Mor., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., toiii.
I, p. 394; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 368, tab. X; MOb.,
HCKE, Fisch. Osts., p. 153; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. II, p. 347, tab. CLXXIII; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fisk.,
vol. Ill, p. 547.

The Starry Ray is the smallest Scandinavian spe-
cies of the genus. At a length of 4V2 dm. it has
attained maturity, ai:d 6 dm. would seem to be its
maximum length, v. Wright's iigure represents a fully
developed female in which the length of the disk was
253 mm., that of the tail 192 mm., the greatest breadth
309 mm., and the distance between the mouth and the
tip of the snout 67 mm. In this species too the males
are commonly smaller than the females.

The disk is almost square, but has sti-ongly rounded
angles, especially the posterior, which is formed by the
very long, broad, and uniformly rounded posterior lobes
of the ventral fins. The anterior side-margins of the

disk show a slight, .S'-shaped curvature, with broader
and more rounded snout than that of the preceding
species, and from the tip of the latter projects a verv
small, blunt muzzle. The posterior side-margins may
almost be described as rounded. The greatest breadth
of the disk is on an average rather more than ^5 (58
— 64 %), and its length somewhat more than 'Z, (50
— 55 %), of the length of the body, the latter thus
measuring 86 — 88 % of the former. The average dis-
tance from the tip of the snout to the cloaca is rather
more than ' i„ (70 — 75 %) of the greatest breadth of
the body, and the length to the hind margin of the
ventral fins is almost equal to the said breadth.

The length of the head is here too about ' - (IS
— 21 %) of that of the body, and that of the snout
varies, as in the preceding species, between about 12
and 14 % of the latter, but here between about 19'/2 and
21% (exceptionally 23 %) of the greatest breadth of the
disk. The interorbital breadth of the forehead and the
dimensions of the eyes and spiracles are about the same
as in the preceding species. In the position of the
nostrils too there is little difference from the Thorn-
back, the distance between them being about ■■/;„ — ''/,|,
of that between each of them and the tip of the snout
or 21 — 17 ?» of that between the cloaca and the last-
mentioned point. The breadth of the mouth is here too
in the young somewhat less than or equal to tlie inter-
nasal width, in the old .somewhat greater. The denti-
tion is very nearly alike in both sexes. The teeth (fig.
316) are small and pointed, set in about 36 rows along
both jaws, the largest in the middle, both the size and
number showing diminution towards the corners of the
mouth. Each tooth consists of a rounded basal disk,

" Sometimes, according to Kroyer, 15'/, %.

STAHHV I! AY.

109

somewluit concave in the nii<l(lle, iVoiu tlie hind iii;ii;ii;in
of wliicli a. fine, subulate cusp rises ()hlii|ui'ly upwards
and backwards.

(^nly tlie ujijier surface of the body is armed with
spines, the under being tpiite siuooth and soft. The
spinuhe are of the same form as the aculei .scattered
over tlie wjiole surface, having a conii-all\' expanded,
stellate base and an extremely fine, pungent ti]). The
only difference between them is in the size, thougii no
such definite line as in the Thornbaek can here be
drawn between tlie spinuke and aculei, large and small
of all sizes being indiscriminately interspersed with one
another, and their distribution being more scattered and
irregular, leaving more or less extensive patches of
smooth skin between them. The ordinary aculei occupy
in young specimens tiie same positions as in young
Thornbacks, and stand in nearly the same relation to
one another; but their distribution is characteristic in
three respects: there is no aculeus between the two
dorsal fins", which are set so close together that the
membrane of the first often overlaps the anterior mar-
gin of the second; the aculei along the spinal column
are only 12 — 16 in number; and the scapular cartilage
is always furnislied with two aculei, one behind the
otiier, and sometimes with a third, between this pair
and the median series, all with deeply grooved, stellate
base. In old specimens there further appeal's on each
side of the median series a lateral row, commencing
high u]) on tlie dorsal surface not far behind the sca-
pular cartilage, and extending back to the first dorsal
fin. On the tail these lateral rows lie about half-way
between the median series and the side-margin of the
body, and here the aculei never attain the same size as
those of the median series. The lateral margins of the
tail are never spinigerous. The extraordinary aculei
appear, as we have mentioned, only on the dorsal side.
They gradually increase in size, but never attain the
same dimensions as the ordinary aculei on the spinal
column. They are scattered with some degree of sym-
metry, and are never wanting in adult individuals.

Characteristic as the radiate base of the aculei
generallj- appears in this species, it should be remarked,
howe\'er, that during earliest Aouth, in individuals i) —
12 cm. long, the base is quite smooth, and the anterior
aculei rise to a height of 5 ram. in a subulate form.
Even at the former length of bod^• all the ordinary

aculei are already ])resent, and their length as just
stated is \ery considerable in ])r()i)ortion to the size of
the body, as compared with their dimensions in older
sj)ecimens, this being a sufficient character by which
small young individuals of the two species may im-
mediately be distinguished.

The coloration is above of a plain liver-ljrown,
faintly marbled with yellowish white, and thinly stnnvn
with ii'regular, very indistinct, blackish spots of small
size; but the large, round, whitish spots that appear
in the Thortd)ack are entirely absent. The spinuhr
and aculei are of a paler, yellowish white colour. The
whole under surface is white, somewhat pinkish at the
margins of the fins, the canals and pores of the lateral
line being colourless. Kkovek remarks, however, that
black spots, varying in number and size, frequently
occur on the ventral side, especially on the under sur-
face of the tail. Transverse bands may also be observed,
but are less numerous than in the preceding species.

is,"^

B

Fig. 316. Jaw-teeth and aculei of a Starry Ray (Raja rarfm(a), na-
tural size. ,4; tce-lh of upper and lower jaws; a, tootli, magnified,
lateral and superior aspects; B: dorsal aculeus, lateral and superior
aspects, natural size; a, aculeus from the fail of a young specimen,
lateral and superior aspects, magnified.

The external diflference of sex is less marked in
young individuals of this species than in young Thorn-
backs. In adult Starry Rays it is distinctly shown by
the long pterygopodia of the male and by the posterior
cards at the outer angle of the pectoral fins. The an-
terior cards, on the other hand, at the side-margins of
the head, may be regarded as wanting, for the female,
which generally has more numerous spines, is, if any-
thing, better armed at these spots than the male.

The Starry Ray belongs to northern latitudes, and
occurs far up in the Arctic Ocean. From Greenland
it was described by Fabiucius. The Norwegian North
Atlantic Expedition of 1876 — 78 found it ofi' Bear Is-
land and the north-west corner of Spitzbergen. In the
White Sea it was known even to Pallas. In the Bay
of Biscay, according to Mukeau, lies the southern limit

" In adult Starry Rays from the Arctic regions, liowever, Collett frequently found
specimens from the White Sea there is no aculeus between these fins.

aculeus between the dorsal fins

1110

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

of its geographical range, but its occurrence is rare
even off the north coast of France. It penetrates into
the Sound fiiul, through the Belts, into the western-
most part of the Baltic in the same manner as the

Fig. 317. llaja hi/perborea, rf, ^,3 nat. size. After Collett

Tlioruhack, but is somewhat commoner there, though
less numerous on the coast of Bohusli'tn than the latter.
iMjually e.Ktensive is its bathymetric range. In Scan-
dinavian waters it general!)' lives at a less depth than
the Thornback, but appears also to descend to far lo^ver
levels. Stou.m obtained a specimen from Trondhjem
Fjord that had been taken in 250 fathoms of water,
and the above-mentioned Norwegian Fxpedition secured
their two young s]5ecimeiis from Spitzl>crgen at a depth
of 4.59 fathoms.

In its manner of life the Starry IJay seems else
to resemble the preceding species; but it is smaller,
and is therefore restricted to smaller prey, preferably
small fishes, comparatively minute crustaceans (Aniphi-
pods), and worms. "Early in spring (in the month of

March)", says Kkdyek, "it ascends towards the shal-
lows; it appears to lead a secluded life during a great
part of the summer; and at the approach of winter it
returns to the depths on the completion of its spawn-
ing operations." Its egg-shells, he says, are about 61
mm. long, exclusive of the prolongations at the tour
corners, and 39 mm. broad. The fry seem to remain
not far from land during winter, for the small young
specimens mentioned above, whose peculiarities were
remarked by Fuies, were caught at this time of year
in Herring-seines.

In Scandinavia the Starry Ftay is of less im-
portance than the Thornback, partly owing to its smaller

Di;i;P-SKA RAY.

nil

sizi', piirtly lifCiuise it is less foiniiioii. It is frc-
(|iiently' taken, however, on Haddock-lines and in I'loun-
fler-nets, occasionally too in seines drawn for Herrings

(Fkies, Smitt.)

to' I

■f

o*^

Fig. 318. Uaja lii/perl/orea, c^, - j nat. size. After GOnther.

THE DEEP-SEA RAY.
RAJA HYPERBOEEA.

Figs. .St 7 and 318.

Leiif/th (if the snout {arcordhifi to Guntiier's figures) about 13 — 14 % {according to Collett 17 %) of that of
the bodif, or 17 — 18 % {according to Collett 22 %) of the breadth of the disk. Distance between each nostril
and the tip of the snout about 14 — 1(> % of the said breadth. Dorsal fins set close together, with {in the young)
or u-ifh'iiit (in the old) interjacent aruleus. Aculei groored, their number in the median line of the hack and

tail at least about 24".

Si/n. Raja htjperborea. Coll., Foih. Vid. Selsk. Clirnia 1878, No. 14,
p. 7; Norsk. Nordh. E.xped., Zool., Fislj., p. 9, tab. I,
figg. 1 et 2; Gthr, Deep Sea Fish., ChaUeng. Exped., Zool.,
vol. XXII, p. 8, tab. IV; Lillj., Si\, Norg. Fish., vol. Ill,
p. 604.

As may be inferred from the diagnosis, as well as
from the figures given above, it is as jet uncertain
whether this Ray should be regarded as a distinct s|ie-
cies or merely as a variety (jierhaps two different va-

" One of GCnther's young specimens, liowever, liad only 16.
.Si-nn,;i;mi-inii Fishes.

1112

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

rieties) of the coininon Starr)- Yl&j, to wliich it is also
similar in size. Only six specimens are known, five
of them — includinjT a male 62 cm. long — taken by
the Knight Errant Exix-dition at a depth of 400—600
fathoms between Scotland and tiiu Faroe Islands and
now in the British Musenm, tlie sixth a male 52 cm.
long taken by the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition
in 459 fathoms of water, oft" the north-west corner of
Spitsbergen, and now at Christiania.

From the common Starry liay it difi^ers principally
by the greater number of acnlei in the median line of
the back and tail — the ventral side is smooth and
quite free from aculei — and bj- the maculation of the

ventral side. Tliis surface of the body is marked on
its white ground with large, almost symmetrical spots
and patches of the same dark grayish brown colour as
appears on the dorsal side. The species is stated to
be further distinguished by more scattered and more
pointed jaw-teeih. Tlie form of the body differs so
widely in Collett's and Gunther's figures that in this
respect the Deep-sea Ray would seem to be a highly
variable intermediate form betM'een the Starry Ray and
the sharp-nosed species of the genus. The species — which
is based principally on a chromatic chai-acter- — evidently
requires revision, a task which, having no specimen with-
in our reach, we cannot undertake in the present work.

THE SANDY RAY (sw. sandrockax or spattrockan).
KA.JA FALSAVELA.

Fig. 319.

Leiiiith of the snout about l()—ll\., % of that of the body or l!)—21 % of the breadth of the disk. Distance
between each nostril and the tip of the snout about 16—17 % of the said breadth. Dorsal fins set close tof/ether.

No row of aculei in the media)/ line of the tail.

Fig. 319. Young female of the Sandy Ray {Raja fahavela) from Uie Skoger Rack • 3 nat.

Syn. Raja riihui>, Lacep. (p. p.; ncc Bl.., Gmel.), Hist. Nat. Poiss.,

toiii. I, p. 79, tab. 5 (lig. vera, tlescr. p. p.).
Sandji Ray, Coucii, Mag. Nat. Hist. (Charleswouth), vol. II

(1838), p. 71 (sine noin. system. ).
Raja radula, Yarr., Brit. Fish., cti. I, vol. II, Snppl., p. 69

(nee De La Roche).
Raja falsavela, Bnp., Irono<jv. Fna Ital., I'esci, tab. 148, fig.

1; Canestr., Fii'i ftnl.. /'esci, p. JiG; Gigl., Esp. Intern.

Pesca Berl. 1880, Sez. Ital., p. 114; DSderl., Man. Ittiol.

Medit., fasc. Ill, p. 202.
Raja ncvi-us. MOll., Hle, Plagiost., p. 138 ( + /?. vadtila,

p. p., p. 133).
Raja civcnlaris. Couch in Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II,

p. 574; Maui, Ofvens. Vet. Akad. Fiirli. 1857, p. 187;

Couch, Fish. Brit, hi., vol. I, p. 115 i+R. miratetns,

p. 112); Gtiir, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 4C2;

SAXDY RAY.

111?,

Coll., Forli. Vid. Sclsk. Chrnin 1874, TilNofjsli., p. 214;
187!), No. 1, p. 105; N. Mag. Natnrv. Chrnin, vol. 29 (1884),
p. lli); M.\LM, Gbgs, Boh. Fini. p. t!08; MoR., Hist.
Xat. />»/.«. Fr., torn. I, p. .^07; D.w, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irei,
vol. II, p. .348, tab. CLXXIV; LiLL,r., Sv., Norg. Fisk.,
vol. Ill, p. 004; C.Mius, Prodr. Fine Mcdit.. vol. II,
p. ,V21.

The Sandy liay attains tlie greatest size among
our blunt-nosed species, the females growing to a
length of at least \'l dm. It also undergoes tlie greatest
alterations in its |ir<)[)oi-tions, tlic Miung lia\"ing com-
paratively a mucli longer tail tiian the old.

Tiie form of the l)ody is essentially the same as
in the case of the Starry Hay; but the disk is still
more rounded, and the root of the tail broader (flatter).
The breadth of the disk is in young specimens (less
than 4 dm. long) about 48 — .')o %. in (dd as much as
63 or (34 %, and its length in the former about 44 —
51 ?*, in the latter 52 — 54 %, of the length of the body,
the length of the disk thus varying between about 85
and 95 %" of its breadth. The distance from the tip
of the snout to the cloaca is about ' \i of the greatest
breadth of the body, and that to the hind extremity
of the ventral tins about equal to the same.

The length of the head, which varies, according to
DoDEiiLEis's measurements, between 25 and 38 ?a of
the breadth of the disk, is during youth, in consequence
of the great length of the tail, only about 15 % of that
of the body; subsequently, according to Dodeklein, this
percentage increases to 20, while the relative length of
the tail is undergoing reduction, but again diminishes in
the old to 16 % of the length of the body. The length
of the snout is less in proportion to that of the body
than in any among the preceding species of the genus,
but in proportion to the breadth of the disk similar to
the same measurement in the Starry Ray*. The least
interorbital width of the forehead in this species too
is somewhat more than Vj (about 36 %) of the length
I if the snout, and the longitudinal diameter of the eyes
varies between about ^,'4 and ^,'3 of this breadth. The
width of the spiracles, which are directed rather straight
outwards, is in young specimens less, in old, according
to DoDERLEiN, '4 greater, than the longitudinal dia-
meter of the eyes. The mouth and its dentition are
subject to considerable alterations of growth. In the
young the cleft of the mouth is much smaller tlian in

Starry li:i}S of tiic same size, but the teeth are similar
to those of the latter; in old sjiecimens tlie moutii is
broad, and the teeth are siiarp and unguiform, both in
females and males, while their number too shows con-
siderable int'i'casc with age. In a young sjn-cimen about
45 cm. long we find onh' .')4 longitudinal rows of teeth
in tlie upper jaw, where Mai.m in older specimens
counted 78. Tlie internasal width is in our young
specimens 71 — 72 ?» of the distance between either of
the nostrils and the tip of the snout, but only 15 —
16 ?o of that l)etween the mouth of tlu> cloaca and the
latter |)oint.

Young specimens of the Sandy Ray too have only
the dorsal side armed with spines, the ventral being
perfectly smooth. In ohlcr specimens both the ventral
side and the dorsal are more or less densely coated
witli spinulte throughout the greater part of the surface;
but certain patches, as, on the dorsal side, the hind
margin of the pectoral fins, the anterior lobe and the
base of the ventral tins together with an ol)long patch
further in, and the greater portion of the median line
of the back and tail, and, on the ventrai side, the outer
part of the pectoral fins, the whole of tlie ventral fins,
and the region between the latter pair, are smooth.
Along the anterior margin of the pectoral fins — in old
specimens both on the dorsal side and the ventral — as
well as on the sides of the tail and at its extreme lateral
margin ■ — in young specimens, however, only to a line
w'ith the beginning of the first dorsal fin, where the
lateral margins of the tail develop a broad dermal
fold — are set rows of larger spinulaj, intermediate be-
tween spinulte and aculei. The true aculei, which here
too are grooved, though not so distinctly as in the
Starry Ray, have a broad conical base and a compress-
ed, recurved spine. They are set on the front of the
snout, in a curved row on the supraorbital margin, in
a triangular patch between the head and the scapular
cartilage, one or two at each end of the latter carti-
lage, in a row on each side of the median dorsal line
behind the scapular cartilage — sometimes, especially
in old specimens, this row commences further back or
even not before the tail — and in two to four more or
less irregular series on the sides of the tail. The me-
dian line itself is smooth, with the exception that,
owing to the irregularity prevalent in the distribution

" According to DOderlein's measurements the variations run between 83 and 97 °o.

' In the Mediterranean falsavela, however, it is sometimes, according to DOderlein's measurements, only about IG — 17 % of the
breadth of the disk.

1114

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

of the spines, an aculeus or two may sometimes be
forced in even to tlie middle of the upper caudal
sui'face.

By the coloration ilouKAU distinguished between
three varieties: fahavela, with plain, brownish or red-
dish gray (clay-coloured) dorsal side; n(etnis, with the
base of each pectoral fin spotted with a large ocellus,
the middle of which is black but crossed by rather
broad, yellowish white streaks; circularis, with nume-
rous, but smaller, syinmeti-ically arranged, simple spots,
light (cream-white) or dark, scattered on the dorsal
side of the disk. The venti-al side is white.

The Sandy Ray has an extensive geographical
range, more southern and to the north more pelagic
than that of the Starry Ray. Its true home in the
( )ld World lies in the [Mediterranean and the adjoining
jjarts of the Atlantic, but it is frequently found even
so far north as on the fishing-banks oft' the south-west
of Norway, where IMalm w^s the first to observe it among
the take of fish at Jaderen. Even in the Skager Rack
it has been met w ith, Init only once, so far as is known.
On the 12th of July, 1879, Theel and Foesstrand
took two specimens in a deep-sea trawl at a depth of
370 fathoms, oft' Arendal, on a bottom of fine, brown
clay. One specimen was a male 33 cm. long and not

yet arrived at maturity", the other a female 4.j cm. in
length. Round the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland
the Sandy Ray would appear to be commoner (Day),
but in France it is stated to be rare (Mokeau). Yet,
like the Starry Ray, it is apparently an inhabitant of
the West Atlantic too, where Mitchill's" and Stoker's'
Ilaja oceUata and H. diaphaties from the east coast of
the United States can hardly be distinct in species from
our Sandy Rav. As Mokeau has remarked, the Sandv
Ray was certainly known to Lacei>ede; but the name
he conferred upon it was incorrect and has been so
misused that it iiardlv deserves recognition. When the
synonymy of the species has been fully elucidated, the
point will be decided whether the systematic name em-
ployed in America has not most right to emplcnment.
Where Malm first found the Sandy Y\u\. it had
l)een taken on long-lines in company \vith all the
other common Rays of Scandinavian waters, except
the Starry Ray; and its manner of life is probablv
much the same as that of its congeners. As food, ac-
cording to Couch, it is little esteemed in England,
where it is mostly used to bait lobster-pots and ei-ab-
pots. From s])ring till the end of autumn it may be
found on the English coast in \vater of a moderate
deptii; during winter it lives farther from land.

Sectio II. Rajge Iseves, Skates. Snout loiii/, tip of the snout acitte-atifilcd: length of the snout from the
tip to the transverse line through the Ijody at the centre of the eves more than half as long as this trans-
verse line.

These Rays possess so-c;dled ordinary aculei only at the eyes and along the spinal column and tail, no
further ordinary aculei being scattered on the surface of the bodv. All have pointed teeth.
A: Ventral side of the body white, without spots. — White Skates.

These Skates have the two dorsal fins set close together, never with interjacent aculeus. Their under sur-
face is entirely free from spots, they have ordinary aculei both on the back and the tail, and the lobate pupil-
lid originating from the ii-is is absent. In size they are intermediate between the Bajce duvata' and the true
BajcB laves. They live at a great depth and seldom approach the coasts of Scandinavia. (Fries.)

" Trans. Lit., Phil. Soc. N. Y., vol. I, p. 477.

' Mem. Anier. Acail. Arts, Sc, Boston, N. ser., vol. IX, p. 240, tab. XXXIX, tig. 1.

1115

THE SHAGREEN SKATE (-sw. oukkockan;.

];aja Fn.LOMCA.

Fig. 320 and I'lato I„ fig. 1.

Length of the s>ioHt about l:i — 14 % of that of the Jiodi/ or ■i0~^4 % of the breadth of the disk. Distance

between each nostril and the tip of the snout about 17 % of the said breadth or nearly twice {175 — 300 % of)

the inlernasaJ iridtli. Acidej t/roored. Xo aciiici in the median line of the back and tail.

X

\

^^

Fig. 320. Shagreen Skate {Rnja fiiUonicfi). ?. ', nat. size. The Caltegat, July, 183.5. B. FniES

outer aspects, b, a dermal aculeus.

tooth, magnified, lateral and

Syn. Raja aspera nostras, the White Horse dicta, Willughfi., Hist.
Pise, p. 78; R.4y, Si/nops. Met/i. Pise, p. 26. Raja toto
dorse aculeato, duplici ordine aculeorum in canda, simpli-
cique ad oculos, Art., Ichth., Gen. Pise, p. 72; Si/ii. Pise,
p. 101. Shagreen Rai/, Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), vol.
Ill, p. 77.
Raja Fullonica, Lin., Sijst. Nat., ed. X. torn. I, p. 231;
Rathke in Asc.\N., Icon. Rer. Nat., ad. tab. XLIII; Fk., Vet.
Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 150, tab. II, fig. 2, tab. Ill, figg. 5
et 9; Mull., Hle, Plagiost., p. 145; Kr., Danm. Fislc.,
vol. Ill, p. 996; NiLSS., Shand. Fna, Fish:, p. 737; Yarr.,
Brit. Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 578; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus.,
Fish., vol. VIII, p. 467; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia
1874, Tilla;gsh., p. 217; 1879, No. 1, p. 106; N. Mag.
Naturv. Chrnia, Bd 29 (1884), p. 119; Malm (Leucoraja),
Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 609; Winth. (Raja), Naturh. Tidskr.
Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 61; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. II, p. 342, tab. CLXX; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fisk.. vol. Ill,
p. 569.
Raja chagrinea, Mont., Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. II,
p. 420, tab. XXI; Paen., ibid., vol. VII. p. 431, tab. XLI;
Couch, Fish. Brit. IsL. vol. I, p. 117, tab. XXIX; Mok.,
Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., tom. I, p. 401 ; Doderl., Man. Ittiol.

Medit., fasc. Ill, p. 172: Caeus, Prodr. Fnte Medit., vol. II,
p. 521.
Raja aspera, Flmng, Brit. Anini., p. 172.

The ordinary dimen.sions of the Shagreen Skate,
as it is brought home by the deep-sea fishermen of
Bohusliin from the fishing-banks off Jutland and Nor-
way, are a length of al)out 1 ni. and a bi-eadth of about
6 dm. At this size it has reached full sexual maturity.
According to Moreau its length varies between 8 and
12 dm.

The form of the disk is rhoniI)ic. The distance
from the tip of tlie snout to the hind margin of the
ventral fins is about ecjual to the gi-eatest breadth of
the bodv. The anterior side-margins of the disk are
undulate, somewhat concave, so that the most promi-
nent margin of tlie head falls short of the line between
the tip of the snout and that of eitiier pectoral fin.

llKi

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The snout is pniloiigated in a sccuriforin shape. The
]josterior side-margins of the disk are ai'cuate, with
a slight inward curve near the tip of eacli pectoral fin.
The ventral fins are conically pointed and rounded,
rather long, their length, measured fi-om the sacral
prominence, Ijeing not natch less than ' ,, of the entire
length of the tail, measured from the same ijoint. Tlie
body as a whole is fiat and not fleshy, its depth at
the shoulder-girdle being only about 9 ® of the greatest
breadth of the disk. The tail is furnished, as in the ])re-
ceding Rays except the Thornback, with two juxtaposited
dorsal fins, often united at the base. The hind margin of
the posterior lies half a fin-length from the tip of the tail,
which bears above a low and almost seraicircida.r caudal fin.
The length of the head to the occiput measures in
specimens 1 m. long about 18 % of the length of the body
or 30 % of the breadth of the disk. The length of the
snout as stated above distinguishes the Shagreen Skate,
as well as the following species, from the preceding
forms of the genus, but the distinction is least marked
in the Shagreen Skate, as appears from the relation
between this length and the least interorbital width of
the forehead. The latter is at least aliout 3U — 3o %
of the length of the snout from the anterior margin
of the eyes. The longitudinal diameter of the eyes is
about half the interorbital width. The spiracles, which
are almost transversely set, are of about the same size
as the eyes. The mouth is liroad and curved, power-
fully armed with teeth. The form of the teeth is also
highly characteristic, and among the other Scandinavian
Raj^s there is none with whose dentition it can be con-
fused. Each tooth (fig. 320, a) has a fairly long, un-
guiform crown, subulate at the tip, with some\vhat
compressed sides and without other indication of the
ordinarj' basal rim than a very small intumescence on
each side. The largest teeth are set in the middle of
the jaws, and their size decreases towards the corners
of tlie mouth. All these teeth are arranged in about
60 regular, longitudinal rows, which, in consequence
of the length of the pointed crowns, the superimposed
(imbricated) position thereof, and the fixed intervals
between the I'ows, have a resemblance to thin ridges,
fitting in between each other when the jaws are closed.
The internasal width is about Vs' — V3 greater than the
least interorbital width (120 — 133 ?o), somewhat more
than half (55 — 60 "/o) of the distance between each
nostril and the tip of the snout, and about 1 2 % of that
between the tip of the snout and the anus.

Among all the Scandinavian Ravs the present spe-
cies has the most shagreened skin. The whole up])er
surface of the body is covered everywhei'e \vith dense,
but \crv short spinuke, ])artly pointed with stellate
base, partly granular and hardly distinguishable to the
naked eye. On th(! snout, both above and below,
throughout the anterioi' side-margins of the disk,
and throughout the ui)per and under surfaces of the
tail, these spinuhp show a somewhat greater develo])-
ment, and with their pungent tip, recur\'ed in a hamate
form, they greatly resemble, on a small scale, the aculei
proper. The ventral side too is strewn with spiiuila-,
but more sparsely, large patches of smooth and naked
skin being left on the pectoral and ventral fins, in the
anal region, and at other points. The ordinarv aculei
have an expanded, stellate or grooved, laterallv com-
pressed, and flat base and a haraately recurxed tip.
Two short rows of small aculei, vai'ving in numlier
and size, are set on the rostral cartilage. In a semi-
circle around the inner margin of each orbit runs a
row of larger, but unecjual aculei, the middle ones,
however, often absent or lost. The spinal column be-
tween the head and the scapular cartilage is followed bv
a series of aculei. 8 — 10 in ninnber and not very large,
and sometimes a row of still smaller ones skirts this
series on each side; but often only vestiges of these last
aculei remain in the form of small, worn protuberances
occupying the said places. Two rows on the back begin
just behind the scapular cartilage, the aculei being at
first cjuite low, Imt increasing in size as tliev approach
the tail, along which the rows proceed parallel to each
other, on each side of the median line and nearer to
this than to the side-margin of the tail. In these
rows the aculei are verj' densely packed, sometimes,
as it were, extruding one another. The largest aculei
lie in front of the middle of the tail; further back
their size again gradually decreases. On the spinal
column itself, i)ehind the scapular cartilage and in the
caudal region, there is no row of aculei.

The dorsal side is of a plain yellowish gray, the
ventral side of a translucent milky wliite, the muscles
of the pectoral fins being visible, and the tips of the
fins showing a bluish tinge. According to Montagu the
back is of a plain grayish brown; but in one specimen
he found a few black spots on this ground-colour.

The external differences of sex are confined, ac-
cording to Fries and Malm, to the ordinary cards of
spines on the sides of the head and the outer parts

SHAIU'-NOSEI) SKATK.

1117

of till' pcctdriil iiiis ill tlic male and to his ptcrvffo-
[lodia.

The Shagreen Skate is stated to have been taken
once on the coast of Sweden. Baron Gyli.exst.ierxa
received it, accordiiiu- to Nilsson, in (October, 1X49,
from the fisliing-villuge of Arild (Mount Kullen). l>ut
the specimen has disappeared, and with it the certainty
that no confusion of the species has taken place. Ac-
cording to CoLLETT a female 9' j dm. long was caught
in January, 1880, off the Onso coast, at the entrance
of Christiania Fjord and consequently on the confines
of Sweden. Its favourite haunts in Scandinavian wa-
ters, however, are the rich tishing-banks off Southern
Norway and the west of Jutland, where the water is
from .50 to 120 fathoms deep. Kroyer and Collett
assign Trondhjem Fjord as the northern limit of its
range", and to the south it occurs, according to Gun-
THER, oft' Madeira and, according to Moreau, in the
Mediterranean, where it is described, however, as rare.
Like the other Rays it ascends nearer land in summer;
in winter it is not taken, except where the fishermen

follow it to the dee]> sea. It feeds on all kinds of
tislies, sucli as Sharks and Codiishes, as well as on
crustaceans and mussels''. The strong, pointed teeth
in its jaws are suggestive of considerable voracity. i\s
food it is little esteemed both in I'.ngland (I)av) and
France (IW.a.nchere'')-

The systematic name of the Shagreen Skate {fiillo-
nica, Lat. fullo, a fuller) has reference to the similarity
between the spiny skin and the im])lements used in
cleaning clotli and the like. It was adoptcHl 1)\- Lix-
N^EUS from Rondelet', but was not a])i)lied originally
to this sjjccies. It is also probable that the Swedish
name (c/dkrocf>a = Cuckoo l!ay) ^vas borrowed from
England, though the latter name is ascribed by Couch
to the preceding species. In Norway, according to
Rathke, the Shagreen Skate is called Ncehskate (Beaked
Skate), a name which, as Kroyer has remarked, is
more appropriate to one or other of the following spe-
cies. In Bohuslan Fries also heard the name of Godsh-
rocka (Jutland Ray).

(Frie.s, Smitt.)

THE SHARP-NOSED SKATE (sw. hvitrocka.\ ou blagarnsrockan).
R.\JA LINTEA.

Fig. 321.

Lenrith of the snout froDi tlie anterior marqin of the eyes ahoat 14 — 18 % of the length of the liodij or 24 — 29 %
of the greatest hreadtli of the disk. Distance heta-een each nostril and the tip of the snout ahout 21 — 25 % of the
said breadth or more than fivice {207 — 243 % of) the internasal ividth. Acidei faintly grooved. Both the iqyper
median line of the tail and its lateral margins armed with rows of aculci. Second dorsal fin extended nearly to
tlie tip of the tail. Caudal fin rudimentary. Ventral side white.

Syn. Raja lavi's, major (p. p.). Dun., 7V. Peches, part. II. sect. IX,

p. 285.
Raja oxyrinclius {Sliarp-nosed Bay), Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed.

1776), vol. III. p. 73; Mont., Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soo.,

vol. II, p. 423; Yabr., Brit. Fisli., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 424;

ed. 2, vol. II. p. 556; Couch {Burton Slcate), Fisli. Brit.

Is!., vol. I, p. 97, tab. XXI.
f Raja alba, Lacep., Hist. Nat. Poiss., torn. V, p. 663, tab.

20, fig. 1(4- Raja manjinata, ibid.); Mor., Hist. Nat. Poiss.

Fr.. tom. I, p. 412; D.\Y, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II,

p. 339, tab. CLXVIII; ? = Raja (Lceviraja) bramante,

Sassi, vide Canestr., Mem. Accad. Sc. Torino, ser. 2, tom.

XXI (1865), p. 361, tab. I, figg. 2—5.

Raja Fullonica, NiLss., Prodr. Idith. Scand., p. 119; Storm,
Norsk. Vid. Selsk. Skr., Trondhj., 1883, p. 47.

Raja lintea, Fr., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 154; Mull.,
Hle, Plagiost., p. 147; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p.
1005; NiLSS., Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 738; Malm, Ofvers.
Vet. Akad. Forh. 1857, p. 193; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus.,
Fish., vol. VIII. p. 466 {f + Raja marginata, p. 465);
Coll.. Forli. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874, TilL^gsh., p. 217;
1882, No. 29, p. 4; Malm {Leucoraja), Gbgs, Boh. Fna,
p. 611; LiLL.1. (Raja), Sv.. Norg. Fisk., vol. III. p. 580.

Obs. That the blagarnsrocka of Bohuslan (the Norwegian hvid-
skade) is identical in species with the English White Skate (the French

".Storm, who states (Nori<k. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. 47) that Raja ftdlotiica is very commonly taken in Trondhjem Fjord,
evidently referred here to the following species, for he says that "the middle row of caudal spines extends far forward on the l.aik".
^ Cf. Olsso.n, Om fiskarnes fOda, Lunds Univ. Arsskr.. tom. VIII (1871).
' La Pijche et les Poissons, Diet. Gen., p. 666.
"' De Pise, lib. XII, p. 356.

1118

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHES.

rate blanche), is extrcinoly probalile, lliougli so large specinitus liave
never beeu found in Scandinavia as further south, nor has the juve-
nile form (Kaja margiiinta) referred by Mobeau to the said species
been met with in Scandinavian waters. Fbies too was of this opinion,
for he combined Montagu s Raja oxyrhynchus and his own Raja
Untea. In recent times (DOmeril", GOnther, and Day) it has been
proposed again to separate them; but the best descriptions (Moreau,
1. c. and D6derlkin') seem to favour the opinion that they are iden-
tical, if we beiir in mind (lie significance within the genus of llic
alterations of growth and tlic external differences of sex.

Among thu Slinr[i-iiose(l Skate, which were certainly
not few in number, brouplit home Ijy the tisliermen of
Bohuslan from tlie deep-sea fishery in the North Sea,

-^4

Fig. .^21. Sharp-nosed Skate {Raja Untea), $, '/g n"*- size. The

Cattegat, July, 1837. B. Fries. From a stuffed specimen, o, an

aculcus, after W. von Wright.

Fries never came across specimens more than 9 or 10
dm. long; but none of the females he opened had fully
developed ovaries, nor had the males full-sized ptery-
gopodia'. "It is thus probable," wrote Fries, "that
these Skate attain a greater length before they are ca-

pable of reproduction, which is lioriie out by Pennant's
statement that a specimen found by liiin measured 7
feet (21 '/j dm.).""

In form of body the Sharp-nosed Skate most nearly
resembles the [^receding species. The anterioi' lateral
margins of tiie disk, however, show hardly so deep un-
dulation or concavitv', the most prominent side-mai-ijin
of the head ap])roaching close to the line from the tip
of the snout to that of either pectoral tin. The ventral
fins too are shorter, more truncate at the tip, rectilinear;
their length from the sacral jirominence being contained
3V2 times in the entire length of the tail. The two
dorsal fins on the tail are closely ju.xtaposited, though
sometimes without being confluent at the l)ase, and the
posterior is set so far back that the upper tin-margin
projects beyond the tip of the tail, \vhich is finless,
save for a lobe formed by an incision iii the hind mar-
gin of the second dorsal fin.

The length of the head in a female 9 dm. long
measures nearly '4 of that of the body oi- ^,5 of the
greatest breadth of the disk. The interorbital width
(the least breadth of the cranial forehead) is ' \ of the
length of the snout to the anterior margin of the eyes.
The diameter of the transversely set spiracles is much
less (Vi, according to Kr0yek) than the longitudinal
diameter of the eyes, which measures, according to Kr0-
YER, % of the interorbital width. The mouth is not so
broad as in the Shagreen Skate, and the dentition too
is feebler. The form of the teeth is not very charac-
teristic. It almost exactly resembles that of the common
Skate, with the exception that everj- tooth is compara-
tively smaller both in the area of the basal disk and the
length of the cusp, and that the number of longitudinal
rows is somewhat less, in the above-mentioned female
45'. The internasal width is much greater than the
least interorbital width (150 — 175 % thereof), but at
most somewhat less than half the distance between each
nostril and the tip of the snout.

The Sharp-nosed Skate has the smoothest skin of
all the Scandinavian species-^. The ventral side is per-

" Hi^t. Nat. Poiss. (su. k Buff.), tom. I, p. 564, note.

* Man. Itliol, Medit., fasc. Ill, p. 1135.

■" In the male 1,125 mm. long and with pterygopodia 190 mm. in leugtli described by Malm (Gbgs, Boh. Fna), these organs had not
attained their full development, though nearly so. The largest female mentioned by Malji was nearly 12 dm. long. According to D6derlein
the Mediterranean Raja brauiante grows to a length of more th.au 2 ni. .\ccording to Day the White Skate of English waters sometimes
weighs nearly 500 lbs.

■^ In this respect the descriptions and figures of the present species vary considerably. According to Kroyer the tip of the snout in
a male is "strongly prolongated from the disk and of a considerable length.

' In a male Kboter counted 48.

•'' Young specimens of the common Skate, however, are sometimes equally smooth.

119

f'ectly soft and sniodth", without a sign of spiiiulu', in
ordinary cases even iiiuler the snout and fail, f\(C]it at
the extreme ti]>. The dorsal side is for the most part
naked, if we excejit the edge of the anterior lateral
margins of the ilisk, which is fringed with eoarst!, scat-
tered spiniihe with stellate liase, the rosti-al cai'tilage,
where similar, but still mure scattered s|>iiud;e appear,
the dorsal fins, and the tail. The latter is somewhat
roughened with fine, very dense spines. These spines
present the peculiarity of heiiig distributed in two
longitudinal bands, bi-oad in front, narrowing behind,
which extend between the aculei of the median and
lateral rows, back to the sides of the base of the second
dorsal fin, the outer margin of each band touching the
lateral row of aculei, but the inner margin falling a^
little short of the median row, so that the spinal column
itself, on which the aculei are situated, is covered between
them with quite smooth skin. The ordinary aculei are the
following: a) a few before and behind the eyes, b) a row
along the back and the middle of the tail, though it should
be observed that the aculei in the anterior part of this
row are often worn, short and tuberous, here and there,
or wanting at certain spots, c) 2 to 4 on each side of
the spinal column above the scapular cartilage, and d)
a row of smaller aculei on each side of the tail, oc-
cupying the extreme lateral margin, just above the
membrane with which this is edged. The aculei have
a singular and rather easily recognisable form. The
base is a triangular cone, with compressed sides, sharp
in front, truncate behind, and with a hollow and grooved

or somewhat radiate surface, and from tliis rather elevated
base there springs abruptl\- a very short cusp, usually
directed obliquely backwards, but on one or two of the
aculei at the side-margins of the tail antrorse. No
aculeus is e\er present between the two dorsal fins.

The coloration i< above of a plain bluish gray,
underneath of a pui'e milky white, with a grayish baod
along the middle of the tail and a spot of the same
tint on each side of the anus. Sometimes a darker
tinge appears on the margins of the disk, both above
and below, being apparently a remnant of the juvenile
dress which has given rise to the name of marr/inafa.

The external differences of sex are tlu; ordinary
ones.

The haunts of the Sharp-nosed Skate are the same
as those of the Shagreen Skate, but it is more frecjuently
caught by the fisherman. It lives at the same consider-
able depth. Middle-aged individuals preponderate among
the Sharp-nosed Skate taken on the Norwegian banks.
In Bohusliin this species bears the names of Spanjor
(Spaniard) and Blagarnsrocka (Canvas Skate), and is well
known and distinguished from the others by every ex-
perienced fisherman. As we have already mentioned,
our Sharp-nosed Skate is probably the same species as
the French Rate lisse et hlanche, which has been an
article of trade between French and English fishermen
for centuries, the former visiting the English coast to
purchase this fish for transportation to their own country,
where on account of its fleshiness it is more in demand
than other Rays. (Fries, Smitt.)

B: Ventral side of the bodj- gray or grayish black, punctated with black dots and lines. — True Skates.

The two dorsal tins are separated, sometimes with, sometimes without interjacent aculei. The ventral side
is of a dirty grayish or lilackish colour, with numerous black pores, opening into cm-vilinear muciferous canals
(Lorenzinian ampulhe and divisions of the lateral line). No ordinary aculei on the back, but only on the tail
and sometimes at the eyes. These species attain a considerable size, live in veiy deep water, and are highly
valued for their fiesh. (FuiE.s.)

The relations between the three following species
are very highh' suggestive of the same close kinship as
we have considered at length above, especiallj' in the
families of the Flounders and Salmons. These Skates
compose a form-series in which the specific distinctions

are more or less obvious expressions of the differences
of age and sex. The most prominent specific charac-
ters depend on the prolongation and contraction of the
anterior part of the body, especially the rostral region.
In this respect one of the Scandinavian forms, the com-

" Snmetimes, however, spines occur on the under surface of the snout ; and in Raja alba (bramante) the anterior margins of the
pectoral fins are also sometimes spinigerous underneath.

Scandinavian Fiihes. 1*1

1120

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

mon Skate, stands side by side with tiie most advanced
stages of development in the s|)ecies immediately l)re-
ccding it. The course followed l)y its alterations of
growth is sncli that, during the growth of tlie l)odv
from a length of 3 dm. to one of 15 dm., the length
of the snout increases from about 16 to 18 ?^ of that
of the body, in exceptional cases exceeding the latter
percentage, Or from "21 to 26 % (sometimes 27 %) of
the greatest breadth of the disk. In another of our
species, the so-called plogjernfirocka (Baja vomer) of
Fries, where the alterations of development, however,
are .scarcely known, these percentages for the length of
the snout vary between about 20 and 24 in relation to
the length of the body and between about 31 and 35
in relation to the breadtii thereof. Tlie tirst-mentioned
alteration during growtli of the proportion to the length
of the body indeed depends in great part on another,
which we have also observed above, namely the rela-
tive abbreviation of the tail with increasing age; but
iierewith is associated in the common Skate a difference
of sex, which is expressed by the comparatively greater
length of the abdominal region in the females than in
the males. This is distinctly shown by the relations
between the distances from the tip of the snout on the
one hand of the mouth or no.strils, on the other of the
cloacal aperture. The distances of the mouth and eyes
from the tip of the snout are about equal in these Kays,
and decrease in male specimens of the common Skate
from about 53 to 38 % of the distance between the

mouth and the cloacal aperture, whereas in the females
these percentages diminish from about 51 to 27. The
Long-nosed Skate represents in this resjiect the male
cliaracters of the common Skate; but in the former
species, owing to the different prolongation of the snout,
which is longest in the females, the sexual distinction has
been reversed, the distance between the mouth and the
tip of the snout being in adult males about 58 — 60 %
of that between the former and the cloacal aperture,
in the females about 75 — 80 % of the same. The males
of the two species may consequently approximate so
closely to each other in form of liody that the limit
between the species is difficult to fix. Furthermore
Parnell in Scotland, Bonaparte in the Mediterranean,
and CoLLETT in Trondhjem Fjord have each distinguished
an intermediate form to fill the gap between the lines
of demarcation. This intermediate form has retained
one of the juvenile characters of the common Skate,
namely the aculei arming the supraorbital margin,
which disappear in old specimens of the common Skate,
and are wanting in the Long-nosed Skate. In Trondhjem
Fjord this intermediate form has acquired a still darker
(brownish black) ventral side; but even this peculiaritv
seems primordially to have been a sexual character,
the males, according to Storm, being darker than the
females. The more northern common Skate, with its
more stronglj' marked female characters, thus repre-
sents an original form from which the two remaining
species are descended.

THE COMMON SKATE (sw. slAtrockan).

RAJA BATIS.

Plate XLVIII.

Length of the snout from the anterior margin of the eyes about 14 — 18 % of the length of the body or 21 — 26 %
of the greatest breadth of the disk. Distance between each nostril and the tip of the snout about 21 or 22 % of
tlie said breadth and less than tn-ice {ISO — 140 % of) the ititcriiasal iridfh. Least iiderorbital ividth more than
^/i {about 30 — 42 %) of the length of tlie snout. Aculei n-ithout grooves {or u-ith extremely faint ones). A row
of aculei either in the upper median Hue of the tail or on each of its lateral margins, seldom, simultaneously '
present on the former and the latter. The second dorsal fin ends at a distance from the tip of the tail measuring
more than half its own base, and the tip of the tail is furnished above with a distinct caudal fin. Ventral side

grayish or darker, dotted and streaked u:ith black.

Si/n. Baja undulata sive cinerea, Rondel., De Pise, p. 346. Haja
Ucvis {Tepel), Schonev., Ichth. Slem. Hols., p. 58. Raja
laivis undulata seu cinerea Rondeletii, Willughb., Hist.
Pisc, p. 69, lab. C, 5. Haja varia, dorso medio glabro, unico
aculeorum ordine in cnuda, .Vrt., Iclith., Gen. Pisc. p. 73;
Syn. Pisc, p. 102. ."^kata, Raja (Umjor ct vulgaris) dorso

non aculeato, Olafs., Peise Isl., pp. 359 et 987. Skate
1. Eokke, Raja clavata Auctt., Ste6m, Sondm. Beski:, p.
309; cfr Trondhj. Selsk. Skr., vol. I, p. 148.
Raja hatis, LiN., iSi/st. Nat., ed. X, tola. I, p. 231: Pemn.
(Skate), Brit. Zool. (cd. 177IJ), vol. Ill, p. 72, tab. IX;
Bl., Fisch. Deutschl, part. Ill, p. 54, tab. LXXIX; Hollb.

COMMON SKATK.

121

(Dasi/lmtus ex Blaixv.), Bolnml. Fisk:, Gbgs Welt., Wilt.
Samh. N. Uandl., part. Ill (1819), p. 21 oiim 2 tnl)b.;
Fah. (IfMJa), Fisdi. M.. p. 3,3: Nli,ss., Proilr. Ichthyol.
St-aiuL, p. 12{>: YAiiii., Brit. F/.s-A., eii. I, v(,l. 11, p. 421;
Fit.. Vet. .\kiifl. Il:aull. 1838, p. 158; MOi.i,., Hlk, Plai/iost.,
p. 14l-i; Ki!., /i.,,u„. /•'/><•.. vi.l. Ill, p. 978; Nll.ss.,
.sA-./«./. /''//.,. FiA.. p. 739; Mai.m, Ofvers. Vet. Akad.
F.irh. I8.''>7, p. 193; (hHK, Cat. Brit. Mns., Fish., vol. VKI,
p. 463; Ltkn, Vid. Meddel. Naturli. For. Kbhvn 1873,
p. 3G; Cui.L.. Foih. ViJ. Selsk. Clunia 1874, Tilliegsli.,
p. 216; 1879. Ni.. 1, p. 106; N. Mag. Naturv. Clirnia,
Bd 29, p. 119; Malm {Laciraja ex Salv. ot Bonap.),
CVi-/.?. Boh. F,i,i. p. 61,5; WiNTH. (Uaja), Naturli. Tidskr.
Kblivii, ser. 3, vol. ,\II, p. 60; MoK., Hist. Nat. Poiss.
Fr., ton.. 1, p. 409; Mlhi.. Hckk, /'7s,//. Oste., p. 156;
Day. Fi.^h. Ot. livit. B-el.. vol. II, p. 336, tab. CLXVI;
Lii.Lj.. ^'v., Aoiy. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 584.

R'liti ijfiiimirdi, ROBEUT in Gaim., Vni/. Isl., GroeiiL, /Cool.,'
Bois.s., (abb. 2 et 3; UiUi., Hi.ft. Nat. Pois.o. (n. sii. a Buti.),
torn. 1, p. 505.

Batis riih/,tri.-<, CorcH, FiAi. Brit. hi., vol. I. p. 87, tab.
XVIII.

Most of the coiniiion Skatf t;iki'n in Bohusliln
measure between 12 and 1.5 dm. in length, but at this
size ai'e hardh' mature. On the south and west coasts
of NorwaA" Kkoykk met with specimens 22 — 25 dm.
long and rising 200 Norwegian jiounds (100 kilo.) in
weight.

The form of the body is rhoinl)ic, with the anterior
side-margins somewdiat undulate and more or less in-
curved, the posterior, on the other hand, verv faintlv
rounded (convex), with a slight incurvature just behind
tlie tip of each pectoral tin. The distance from the tip
of tlie snout to the hindmost part of the posterior
margin of the pectoral tins is about 74 — 84 % (as a
ride about 77 "o), and to the posterior margin of the
ventral tins aiioiit 80 — 1)4 %, of the greatest Ijreadth of
. the disk. The greatest thickness (the depth at the
shoulder-girdle) is about 7 or 8 % of the greatest breadth.

The form and leugtli of the head vary consider-
ablv, in projiortion to the greater or less prolongation
of the snout as mentioned above. The longitudinal
diameter of the eves is aliout ' ^ — '',; of the length of
the snout. The maxinuim diameter of the spiracles is
about "5 — ■* .- of that (jf the eves. The internasal width
measures about 57 (in young specimens, according to
KiiOYER, sometimes 55) — 68 % of the distance between
each nostril and the ti|) of the snout, which distance
is about 88 (in \()Uiig specimens, according to Kkoyer,
sometimes 91) — 88 % of the length of the snout. The
breadth of the mouth is about equal in young speci-
mens to the internasal width, in older ones perceptibly

greater, at least 112 — 114 % thereof. The jaw-teeth
are comparatively small (fig. 822). On a neck-like,
but low base is extended an almost nail-headed disk,
the postei'ior pai't of which rises in a- somewhat conical,
retrai tip, .short in the females (tig. 828), longer in the
males. Teeth of this form are distributed in fairly
regular rows, denser in young indi\iduals than in old,
both along and across the jaws. The largest teeth, with
the longest cusps, are set in the middle of the mouth.

Fig. 322. Half of a jaw in a male (A) and a female (B) of the
pommoii Skate {Raja liatis). Natural size. After LCtkkn.

the smallest, with hardly a sign of cusp, innermo.st at its
corners. As a rule the longitudinal rows number some
40 — 50, the transycrse (i — 10. The various ages ex-
hibit less difference in the number of the rows than
in the form of the teeth, for in very small Skate there
is scarcely an indication of the projecting ciisjis which
are so prominent in older specimens, especially in the

Fig. 323. A (ootli of Baja liati.'', $, magnified.

males; and the whole tooth thus acipiires in the young
a plane, lozeng(;-shaped ajjpearance.

The s])iny armature of the body consists in very
young specimens merely of a restricted number of ordi-
nary aculei, namely two before and one behind each
eye and a row along the u])per median line of the tail
with one or two spines between the two dorsal fins.
(*f spinuhe there is not a sign in tiiese joung S])eci-
mens, either on the dorsal side or the ventral, the
body being smooth on both sides. In middle-aged in-

1122

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

dividuals both the u])])ei' and under surfaces of the
l)ody are roughened witli spinula', wliich are, however,
somewhat unevenly distributed, large and small patches
of perfectly smooth skin occurring here and there. The
spinulffi are also rather scattered, except on the under
surface of the snout and around the inner oi-bital mar-
gins, where they are card-like. They do not extend
to the hind margin of the pectoral fins, which is per-
sistently smooth. In form these spinula3 are very
pointed and fine, with a somewhat expanded, stellate
base, the diameter of which is less, however, than the
entire length of the spine, and which is scarcely dis-
tinguishable to the naked eye. Here and there they
are worn and more granular, and their size is highly
variable. In middle-aged specimens the orliital aculei
are as a rule already worn down or missing. This is
partly the case too with the median caudal row, of
which there usually remain only one or two aculei and
the marks of the rest. Each lateral margin of the tail,
oil the other hand, has developed by this age a row
of aculei, which is also very variable, seldom symmet-
rical, and displays the peculiarity that most of its
aculei are oftenest directed forwards. Full-grown fe-
males are rather densely covered with spinuUc through-
out the dorsal side, except on the outermost parts of
tiie hind margin of the pectoral fins, and on the pos-
terior fold and anterior lobe of the ventral fins. The
ventral surface of the snout is almost as densely armed
with spinuliB as the dorsal side. At the middle of the
body and on the tail, as well as on the inner parts of tiie
hind lobe of the ventral fins, the ventral side is also spini-
gerous, but the spinula; are more scattered and grow
sparser and sparser outwards, until they disappear on
the outer parts of the pectoral and ventral fins, the an-
terior lobe of the ventral fins being also naked. In adult
males the spiny armature is as usual less developed.
The coloration of the dorsal side is yellowish gray
or brown, with irregularly distributed and highly vari-
able spots of lighter and darker tint. Young and
middle-aged specimens frequently have one or two pairs
of ocelli, varying in size, on the jjosterior and inner parts
of the pectoral fins. One of our figures (PI. XLVIII,
fig. 2) represents a specimen from Gullmar Fjord witii
the dorsal side strewn everywhere with light spots (var.

guttata). The v(;ntral side is of a dirty grayish white
or darker, chocolate-coloured, shading towards the hind
margins of the disk into a grayish violet. It is also
clotted and streaked, as we have mentioned above, with
black, the apertures and opening ducts of the system of
the lateral line being thus indicated. This black ])unc-
tuation extends sometimes even to the anterior part of the
back. Sometim(>s, however, the ventral side is so white
— Baron Cederstrom has presented to the Royal Museum
a specimen of this description, a male 1 in. long and not
j'et mature, from StrSmstad — and the black punctua-
tion so sparse and faint that the difference from the
Sharp-nosed Skate in this respect is inconsiderable.

The common Skate is strictly a North Atlantic fish,
its range extending from Norwegian Finmark and Ice-
land south to the Bay of Biscay. According to Moreau
and Carus" it ;dso occurs in tiie Mediterranean, being
fairly common, especially off Cette and Riou; but neither
GiGLiOLi* nor Doderlein" includes it among the list of
Mediterranean fishes. The difiiculty of fixing a specific
limit between this species and the so-called Black-bellied
Skate, which at least has a representative form in the
Mediterranean, renders it impracticable to pass an opi-
nion on this head without access to specimens. Our
knowledge of tlie North American Kays is also too un-
certain to decide the question whether the common
Skate does not belong as well to the western parts of
the North Atlantic. The waters round the British Isles
and the fishing-banks off the south and middle of Nor-
way are undoulitedly the most frequented haunts of
the common Skate. It also enters in numbers the deep
fjords and the island-belts of the west coast of Scandi-
navia. In Bohusliln it is commoidy taken. In tiie
Sound it penetrates at least to the neighbourhood of
Landskrona, and through the Belts it makes its way,
though rarely, at least to Travemiinde Bay (Mobius
and Heincke). Its bathymetric range is also rather
extensive. The older individuals are taken in Norway,
according to Lill.ieborg, at depths sometimes amounting
to 200 fathoms. But, like the other Raj's, it ascends
to higher levels during summer; and Keoyer once saw
4 specimens, 12 to 15 dm. long, taken at the end ot
September in a stake-net off Gilleleje (the north coast
of Zealand), in water probably not more than 4 fa-

" Prndr. Fucb Medit., vol. II, p. 523.

' Expos, intern, di Pesca, Berliiio 1880, Sez. Ital. Catal., p. 114.

' Mannuale Ittiol. Medit., 1. c.

BLAOK-BELLIEl) SKATK.

1123

tlioms deep, this Ijeiiig the in.ixiimiiu deptli of an or-
dinary stake-net.

Tile conniion iSlcate seeks its food, like other Rays,
among all kinds of marine animals, its size rendering
it a still more dangerous enemy of the larger among
them, such as Flatfishes, Codiishes, and large crusta-
ceans. Even its congeners do not escape.

'File breeding season of the common Skate occurs
in spring. During summer, from May till Septemher,
it deposits its eggs, the siiell of which, according to
Kroyer, is of a handsome sea-green colour when fresh.
While dredging in very deep water off the outermost
islands in Bohusliin, Fhies secured the emptj' egg-shell
of a Kay. It measured 32 cm. in length and rather
more than 13' „ cm. in ])readth", and in all probability
belonged to the common Skate.

The fairly ])lentiful occurrence of this species ren-
ders it of no little economical irapoi'tance to man. The
largest Skate are less esteemed, however, than those of
medium size. When boiled fresh, Skate finds no great
favour with the fishing population, who prefer either
to keep it a day or two before eating or to score it
with deep long slits, after which it is either salted or
dried. Under the last-mentioned form it is often sub-
stituted for stockfish in their Christmas fare''.

No special fishery can be said to be practised for
the common Skate; but on his long-lines the fisherman
usually heaves everj' fifth snood, the so-called Ray-snood,
without float, so that it may siid< to tlie bottom, where
the bait, generally tlie head of a Herring, is more easily
reached by the Skate.

(FiiiE.s, Smitt.)

THE BLACK-BELLIED SKATE (sw. svartbuksrockanO-
RAJA NIDROSIENSIS.

Figs. 293, A and 324.

Length of the snout from the anterior niorf/iv of the ei/ef! {in adidt specimens) ahotit 1!) — 23 % of the lent/th of
the hody or ;2S ?« {:^7 — 30 ?») of the greatest breadth of the disk. Disfanre betiveen each iiostril and the tip of
the snout about ' ^ of the said breadth and more than twice the internasal width. Least interorbital width less
than '4 {34^ 2 — 31 %) of the length of the snout. Females" ivith three rotes of aculei on the tail, males with
only one (that of the upper median line). Otherwise: aculei, dorscd fins, and caudal fin as in the common Skate.
Ventrid side so dark (blackish) that the black dots and streaks are indistinct.

Syn. f Raja Macrorynchus, Rafin., Caratt. ale. n. gen., \i. 15;

BoNAP. {LcEviraja), Iconogr. Fna Ital., Peaci, lab. 151, fig.

2; Gthr {Raja), Cat. Brit. Mus. Fisli., vol. VIII, p. 468;

Mou., Hist. Xat. Puiss. Fr.. torn. I, p. 405; Day, Fish.

Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 338, tah. CLXVII.
.' Rata ijitermedia, Parn., Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. VII,

p. 429, tab. XL; Rich, in Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 3, vol.

II, p. 557.
Raja jiidrosiensis. Coll. apud Storm, N. Vid. Sclsk. Skr. Trondlij.

1880, p. 80; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1881, No. 7;

Storm, ). c. 1883, p. 47; Coll., N. Mag. Naturv. Clirnia,

Bd 29, p. 121; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill,

p. 576.

Of the Black-bellied Skate only large specimens,
about 14 — 20 dm. long and 10 — 14 dm. broad, have
hitherto been found. In form of body it is so similar
to the common Skate that the longer snout can merely
be adduced as a character which is generally distinctive

of the Black-bellied Skate, but which — to judge bv
the course of development known to be followed by
the other Rays — will probably lose its significance
when information has been obtained of the earlier stages
in the growth of this fish. The skeletons of the two
species are also alike, apart from the length of the
rostral region. The only difference worthy of rcraai-k
in skeletons of about equal size seems to be that in the
pectoral fins of the Black-bellied Skate the mesoptery-
gium is bifid; but the number of the radialia applied
to the two parts is the same (13) as that possessed by
the undivided mesopterygium of the common Skate.
The outer (anterior) lobe of the ventral fins also appears
in the Black-bellied Skate to be longer in proportion to
the posterior lobe; but to judge by Collett's measure-

" In its present dried condition it measures, including the short horns, 24' , cm. iu length and 8'
' See p. 1107, note /.

' LlLLJEBOBO, I. C.

■* According to CoLLETT.

cm. in breadth.

1124

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

merits of these parts, tlie variations in this respect are
equally great in the two species and overhi]:> each other.
Tlie spiny armature of the skin is generally weaker
and on the dorsal side sparser than in the common Skate
— sometimes it is entirely wanting — but on the ventral
side it is more uniform and more extensive, except at
the outer margins of the ventral fins and on the tail,
which in some instances, however, has a strip of fine
spinulu' along the middle of its under surface. The aculei
of the young are persistent, at least in the males, on

In a male 14'* ^ dm. long tlie length of the head
to tlie occiput measured 27"8 %, that of the snout from
the anterior margin of the eyes 21 %, and the distance
between tlie mouth and the tip of the snout 22'3 %, of
the length of the liody. The last-mentioned distance
was 68 % of that between the moutli and tlie cloacal
aperture, a percentage which, according to Collett's
figure, amounts in a female 19 dm. long only to 56.
The breadth of the mouth -was 40 % and the internasal
width 4.3'8 % of the length of the snout". The iaw-

Mii*"

Fig. 324. Black-bellied Skate {Raja nidrosiensis), cT, from Troudhjem Fjord, March 17, 1891. ConserTator Stokm. '/,„ nat. size.

The skeleton of this specimen is figured above, p. 1004.

the orbital margins, and are also retained in both se.xes , teeth are similar to those of the common Skate both

on the upper median line of the tail, a few usually re-
maining as well between the two dorsal fins; but ac-
cording to CoLLETT only the females are furnished with
a row of aculei on each lateral margin of the tail.

in number and form''.

The coloration of the dorsal side, according to CoL-
LETT, is of a dark grayish bi'own, and the ventral side
is nearly brownish black, ))lackest in the middle'. The

imoiinls in a female 19 dm. long hardly to 37; and the moutli seema

" According to Collett's figure the last-mentioned percentage
to have been even narrower than that of the specimen described above.

' The distinction adduced by Moreau between the dentitions of Raja tiuicrorfiijncJuis and R. batis evidently depends on differences
of age and sex.

' According to Carus Raja macrorhynchus is also dark brown (fiisca) both above and underneath.

LONG-NOSED SKAl'K.

1125

iris is bronze-coloured, tlic i)n|iil sluidcs into green anrl
hlue-bliiek. Tiie male IMack-liellied Skate from 'I'roiid-
lijem Fjord presented by Storm to the IJoyal Museum
in Mareh, 1891, and the original of our figure, showed
on the dorsal side about the same coloration as the
Long-nosed Skate represented in Plate XMX; tlie black
skin of tlie ventral side had been for the most part
chafed awa^' during the railwax-journey to Stock-
holm.

The Blaek-bellied Skate is hitherto known only
trom the deepest parts of Trondhjem Fjord, where Stokm
first distinguished it in 1880, among the fish taken at

a depth of 150— ;10() fathoms. It is stated to be fairly
ciinniion tliei'e. As mentioned above, however, there is
scarcely any reason to regard it as distinct in species
from tlie Scotch Jiuja hilermcdla and the Mediterra-
nean /('. iHdcioiiii/iirluis. Its manner of life, says
Stokm, is about tlie same as that of the other deep-
sea Skates. It voraciously devours both large fishes
and crustaceans. The fishes he most fret|uently found
in its stomach \vere Macruriis and Sebastcs as well
as Sphiax nif/er and I'lisfiurus catiih(s, and the crus-
taceans commonest among the contents were Lithodes
■maja, rasiphai- tarda, and Pandalus borealis.

THE LONG-NOSED SKATE (s\v. plogjernsrockan).
RAJA OX YRH YNCH US.

Plate XLIX.

Length of the snout from the anterior margin of the eyci about 20 — 24 % {24^ j^ %) of the length of the body

or 31 — .^'.5 % {36 %) of the greatest breadth of the disk. Distance between each nostril and the ti]i of flic snout

about 27 — 31 ?o of the said breadth and more than tic'icc the infeniasal iridth. Least interorbit(d tridth less

than Vj of the length of the snout. Other cssoifial characters as in the common Skate.

Si/n. Levirnja mucusa. buvosa, Salv., Aquat. aiiiiii. /(ist., fol. 149,
fig. 52. Rata oscyrhynohos major, Willughb., De Pise,
p. 71, tab. C, 4 (ex Salv.). Raja vaiia, ttiberculis deccm-
aculeatis iu inoilio dorsi, .\rt., Ichthyol.. Gen. Pise, p. 72;
Syn. Pifc. p. 101.

Riija Oxyrijichtis, Lin., Syst. Xnt.. c-d. X. torn. I, p. 2.31;
BoNAp. (Laioiraja), Iconogr. Fna Ital.. tab. 151, lig. 1; (Jthu
(Raja), Cat. Brit. Miis. Fisli., vol. Vllt, p. 4G9; Mor.,
Ifisl. .Xat. Poiss. Fr., toni. I, p. 403; Day. Fish. Gt. Brit.,
Irel, vol. II, p. ,S41. tab. CLXIX; Dopkbl., Man. Itiiol.
Medit., fasc. Ill, p. 152.

Raja chagrinea, Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, veil. II, p. 414.

Raja Vomer, Fr., Vet. Akad. HaDdl. 1838, p. 161; MOll.,
Hle, Plagiost., p. 144 ( + R. Salmani, p. 143); Kb., Damn.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. toil; Nilss. (oxyrhinchusf), Ukand.
Fna, Fisk., p. 740; Malm, Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forb. 1857,
p. 193; Rich, in Yakr., Brit. Fish., ed. 3, vol. II, p. 548;
Gthr, Cat., I. c., p. 468; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Cbrnia
1874, Till^gsb., p. 217; 1879, No. 1, p. 106; Nyt Mag.
Natiirv. Chrnia, Bd 29 (1884), p. 120; Malm, Ghgs, Boh.
Fna, p. 617; Storm, Norsk. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondlij. 1880,
p. 81; 1883, p. 46; Lillj., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol.
Ill, p. 598.

Raj<i miicronata, Couch, Corn. Fna, p. 25; Fish. Brit. IsL,
vol. I, p. 93. tab. XIX; Y.abr.. Brit. Fish., ed. 2. vol. II,
p. 550.

That this species also ranks among tlie large.st
Scandinavian forms of the genus and perha])s rivals the
common Skate in size, appears from the fact that females
measuring 1 ','3 m. are found that have not yet reached

maturity. As a rule, however, the Long-nosed Skate
is smaller tlian the common Skate, and tiie males are
sometimes mature, as our figure shows, at a length of
121 cm. The largest females found by Malm among
the take from the fishing-banks of Jiideren were 14
dm. long, and the largest males measured 137 cm.

The form of the body is highly charactei'istic of
the Long-nosed Skate. Owing to the strong prolongation
of the snout and its ]jointed or ploughshare-like form,
the disk acquires the appearance of a sector of a circle,
the two radii (the anterior side-margins of the disk)
being undulate and incurved, so that the mo.st pro-
minent lateral margin of the head falls a good way-
short of the straight line from the tip of the snout to
that of either pectoral fin. The posterior side-margins
of the disk together form a handsome circular curve,
the centre of which lies in the middle of the mouth
aperture. The distance from tlu' tip of the snout to
the hindmost part of the posterior margin of the pec-
toral tins measured in two females about 83 — 84 ?» of
the greatest breadth of the disk, in two males about
88^ — 90 % of the same. The distance fi-om the ti]) of
the snout to the posterior margin of the ventral fins
is very nearly the same as the greatest breadth of the
disk (about 92—104 % thereof).

1126

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The length of tlie iiead to the occiput is about
28 — 30 % (according to Lilljeborg sometimes '3) of
the length of the body. The longitudinal diameter of
the ej'es measures about ' ,(,■ — '12 of the length of the
snout. The spiracles, tlie diameter of wiiicli is as usual
variable, are of about the same size as the eyes. The
internasal width is about 40 — 45 % of the distance be-
tween eitlier nostril and the tip of the snout, which
distance measures about 90 % of the length of the snout.
The breadth of the mouth, even in old si)ecimens, is
perceptibly less than the internasal width. The denti-
tion almost exactly resembles that of the common Skate.
The only difference that might be adduced is that, on
comparing specimens of equal size, the teeth of the
Long-nosed Skate prove to be somewhat smaller, and
tlie retral cusp ascends in a more conical form. The
rows of teeth are nearly the same in number as those
of the common Skate. The divergencies to be observed
in this respect are most naturally regarded as the re-
sults of individual circumstances.

In middle-aged and large specimens the whole skin,
both of the dorsal side and the ventral, is densely and
almost uniformh' covered with spinulte of almost equal
size, which have a stel lately expanded base, fairly dis-
tinct to the naked eye, and consisting of 3 — 5 prostrate
rays, each of a length nearly equal to the height of
the spine. In the females no smooth gaps are left,
except the circumanal region and the under side of the
ventral fins and tail, which surface is partly naked. The
rest of the skin is uniformly roughened throughout,
even to the hind margins of the pectoral tins. In the
males the smooth patches are rather more extensive.
Around the eyes the spinuhr are somewhat coarser,
and in young specimens, according to Dodeklein, a
well-developed aculeus is set at the preorbital margin.

The only other aculei possessed bj' this species
consist of a row on each lateral margin of the tail.
They are comparatively small, but of unequal size,
pointed and compressed, with the base prolongated and

as it were lobed. Tiieir arrangement is iifit symmetrical,
and their tips are directed indiscriminatelj' forwards or
backwards.

The coloration of the dorsal side is lirownish grav
or reddisli l)rown, with sparse, light brown or even
milk-white sjiots, scattered in curved rows or iiTegu-
larly. The anterior side-margins and the spine-cards
of the males are light gray. The under surface is
coloured and marked as in the common Skate, but
seems in general to be lighter.

The Scandinavian distribution of the Long-nosed
Skate is probabh' the same as tliat of tlie common
Skate, only that the former does not enter the C'attegat
proper, though it no doubt approaches the Swedish coast
in the Skager Rack. On the 14th of November, 1889,
Mr. C. A. Hansson secured in Koster Fjoi'd, off' Hels6,
the male figured in our plate. The northern limit of
the species apparently lies near Trondhjem, the southern
limit off' Madeira. The Long-nosed Skate is besides a
rather ct)mmon fish in the Mediterranean. Its batliy-
metric range appears to extend in Scandinavia between
depths of about 70 and 150 fathoms.

In its manner of life the Long-nosed Skate re-
sembles the common Skate. The same fishes are found
in the stomach of both, and oft' our coasts they are
taken on the same tackle (long-lines) and in company.
With regard to the deposition of the ova Grieg noted"
that a female 129 cm. long, which ^vas caught on the
18th of May, 11 miles west of Bergen, laid a fully
ripe ^t^g when drawn into the boat.

In BohusIiVn the Long-nosed Skate is well known
among the deep-sea fishermen and to the fish-dealers.
It is there called, according to Malm, vdriiuhb (Big
Beak). It is taken less frequently by the Swedish
fishermen than the common Skate; but according to
Storm, Jensen, and Grieg it is common in Trondhjem
Fjord and oft' Bergen.

As a food-fish it is considered inferior to the com-
mon Skate. (Fries, Smitt.)

I

Bergens Museums Aarbog 1892, ji. XVIII.

i

1127

PLAGIOSTOMI SELACHOIDEP.

Pectoral fins of ordinary form, situated behind or belon- the branchial apertures. Tail gradually contracted in
unbroken continuity with the trunk. Anal fin present or u-anting. One or two dorsal fins, the anterior generally

belonging to the abdominal portian of the body.

Among tlic Sliai'ks iiistaiK-es are indeed afforded
of coin})aratively slii.ii'gish l)ottoui-fislies; but this sub-
order consists ])riiici|)ally of the most powerful and
endui'iiig swimmers, which chase their l^rey in speedy
pursuit and seize it with dexterous agility. Their form

bod\' and uiorc pointed fins. 1-^speciali)' their caudal
tin, the propeller of the body, is in general powerfully
developed and, in contradistinction to that of the Rays,
principall}' ventral (lieterocercal).

The sensory organs of the Sharks are also adapted

of body adapts itself to their manner of life. The rpiiet to the re(|uirements of their predatory existence. The

Fig. 325. Diagram showing the ramification of the cranial nerves and the system of the hiteral line in tijc anterior part of a Greenland

Shark {Acanthorhinus carcharias). After Ewart.
aq, aquceductus vestibuli; Au, auditory nerve; bu, buccal branch of the facial nerve; cgU ciliary ganglion; Fa, roots of the facial nerve;
/a, facial nerve proper; Gl, glossopharyngeal nerve; gbu, ganglion of the buccal branch; ggl, ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve; g. hit,
ganglion of the intestinal branch of the nennis vagun; g. Vag*, ganglion of the fourth branch of the tierviis vagus; lim, ganglion of the
hyomandibular branch of (he facial nerve; hya, hyoid ampullae; lab, labyrinth; tra, lateral ampull;e of the snout; ma, mandibular ampullie;
md, mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve; m,v, maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve; JV, nasal cavity; n. int, iutestinal branch of
the nerviis vagus; n. tat, lateral branch of the tiervus vagus; o, mouth; oa, oral ampullie; Oc, eye; om, oculomotor nerve; pb, last prebrauchial
division of the ttervus vagus; ph, Inst pharyngeal branch of the nervus vagus; pi, palatine branch of the facial nerve; po, pit organs; Pr and
pr, nervus ophthalmicus profundus; ptb, last postbranchial division of the nervus vagus; ptbf, postbranchial division of the facial nerve (running
behind the spiracle): Ra, superior rostral ampullar; sof, superficial ophthalmic branch of the facial nerve; sot, superficial ophthalmic branch
of the trigeminal nerve; S]>, spiracle; Tr, trigeminal nerve; Vag^ — ^, first — fifth branches of the nervus vagus; 1 — 27, canals of the system
of tlie lateral line. The signification of these numerals is explained below fig. 308, see above, p. 1091.

and indolent Sharks iia\e a more depressed body — an- system of tlie lateral line (see the explanation of fig.
teriorly at least — and more rounded fins; the active 325) consists of the same divisions as in the Rays,
and more distinctly raptatorial a more terete, fusiform . only that here the opercular (hyomandibular) canal

" From the Greek Oe/.a/o^;, a cartilaginous fish
Scandinavimi Fishes.

1128

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

(12 — l-i) floes not extiHid lieyoiul tlic l>riiiiclii;il a))er-
tures, sometimes not even to tliem, and lliut tlie nian-
(lilinlar l)raiich is continuous witii tins canal.

In Scandinavian waters Sharks are less common
and conse(|iiently less kno\vn and feared tlian in more
temperate or tropical seas. Ahout one liundred and
lit'ty species are recognised, but of these oidy eleven
can be claimed for the Scandinavian fauna.

In the sketch given by Hasse" of the evolution of
the Elasinobranchs one group, the Pnlf<viii(ifi(hn/i, in the
present age most nearly re})resented by the NntidankJa'' ,
a family foreign to Scandinavia, rank as the primordial
type botii of the Sliarks and Rays. Externally this fa-
mily is chai-acterized b)' the possession of only one
dorsal tin, l)ut of six or seven gill-openings. Tlie proofs
of its jjrimitive nature must be sought, however, in the
structure' of the spinal column, with its undifferentiated
vertebra". From the Palceonotidani, according to Hasse,
three diffei-eiit evolutional series may be traced, with a
calcified double-cone, more or less distinct and of varying
development, in the centra of tiie vertebra-. Its deve-
lopment is most imperfect in the so-called Cijdospon-

dijVi, wiiei'e it appears mereh- as a ring of calcitication.
Externallv all these Sharks (tlie fainih" Spiiiacidce), with
their typical form of bod\-, may Ix? recognised In-
their want of anal tin. In tlje (jther two evolutional
series tlie double-ccme (composed of two more or less
deeply hollowed cones, contluent at the vertices) is
generally developed to such a degree tiiat the bodies
of tlie vertebra? are fully amphicadous; but in one of
tliem —the so-called Tectospondi/Ii — it consists of
smooth, concentric layers of calcitication, in the other
— the so-called Astemspondi/li — calcareous rays issue
radially from the centrum. The Tectospondyli are
without anal fin, and their series comprises both two
Shark families foreign to the Scandinavian fauna, the
Angel-tishes (Bhinidce) and the Saw-Sharks {PriMiophii-
rid(e), which are transitional even in their external
form to the Batoidei, and the whole phalanx of the
Rays. All the remaining Sharks — all furnished with
anal tin and two dorsal fins — are Afiterospondyli,
and in this series the Plagiostomous type has attained
its richest dcn'elopment, with the greatest wealth of
families.

ASTEROSPONDYLI.

SJiark.'^ ivitli aind tin mid tint dorsrd fins.

Among the Scandinavian Sharks the families be-
longing to this series ma_v be distinguished as follows:

A: First dorsal fin situated between the pcrpemlicnlars drawn
through the pectoral and ventral fins.

a: Eye with a nictitating membrane Fam. Carcliariida.

b: Eye without nictitating membrane., ,, Lainnidn:
B: First dorsal fin situated above the ventral
fins or behind the perpendicular drawn
through these fins , Scylliidce.

Fam. carchariidj:.

Two dorsal Jins niid one amd, the first dorsal opposite to the space hetween the pectoral and central fins. Ei/c

n-ifh (I nictitathuj membrane, which is drawn up from the lower part of the orbit. Spiracles obliterated or minide.

The hindmost or even the penultimate gill-openinfj situated above the base of the pectoral fin.

According to GC'ntheh's definition' of this family it
includes among its 60 — 70 species the true Hounds (Mus-
teli) and their nearest relatives — with small, pointed
or flat, more or less paved jaw-teeth — as well as the
Hammerheads {Sphyrnce), with their singular lateral

l)roduction of the orl)ital and nasal regions. These two
subfamilies are indeed .strangers to the Scandinavian
fauna, as far as we know at present, but approach very
near to its limits, a sjiecies of each having been found
(m the Scotch coast, and one of these {]]fHstelas nilyaris)

" Natiirl. S'jst. Elasmobi:, .Jeuii 18711, ^Ulgeni. Theil, pp. U.'j, cett.

'■ Two, perhaps three species of lliis family are inhabitants of the Mediterranean and the Atlnntio; and one of these species, Noti-
,l'iiiti.< {lle.tnndnis) griseus, is not so very rare on the Englisli coast and has been met with so near the limits of the Scandinavian fauna as
off the coast of Scotland.

•■ Vat... vol. VIII, p. ;i53.

MAN-KATKH SUAUIvS.

112U

extending its wanderings u|i to the .Slietliind Islands.
The third division, the snhf'aniih' ('arcli(iriinfi', is re-
cognised hy the normal de\elopnieiit of its head and
its large, triangular or subulate jaw-teeth, and to it
belong most of the s|)eeies vvithin the family.

The two gcsnera wliieli oeeur in Seandinavian wa-
ters may be distinguished as follows:

A : Peduncle of the tail crossed by a trans-
verse groove (a notch) above and below,
just in front of the base of the caudal (in Genus Carcliarias:.

B: Contours of the tail unintcrrujjted (witli-

out notch) in front of the caudal fin... ,, Galeorliinus.

Ohs. Frciin Iceland Faber dc-srribed" a species of Shark 7 —
9 ft. ImiK. wliiili 111' called Sijualua arcticus. NiLSSoN assumed that
60 large a Shark, with tlie well-known roving proclivities of these
fishes, couhl not occiu- off Iceland without paying at least an occa-
sional visit to Norway: and on this ground Sqnalus (ircticns was in-

troduced into the Scandinavian fauna''. The eldcT RlilNllAliUT showed,
however, that, admitting the possibility of one or two slips of the
pen or lapses of memory. Faber'b description is most appropriate to
/t:iirii.i (lAimna) coruiibiciis'. More recently MCller and Henle found
in the Museums of Berlin and Leyden a species of Shark'' which they
assumed to be Faiier's Squalus arcticus, and which they placed in
their genus Goleocerdo, most nearly resembling Galeorhinvs, but with
a groove in front of the caudal fin. Kr0ybr also states' that he has
examined two nuindibles of Oaleocerdo arclicus from Iceland. But
Fader's description by no means coincides with that given by MCi.LER
and Heni.e of the last-mentioned species. Especial attention is due
to the following points in Fabeis's description : "Schnauze vcrlangert,
zugespitzt . . . Nasenoffnuugen dichi vor den Augen . . . Schwanzflosse
fast halbmondformig." Nll.ssoN too was probaldy justified iu his as-
sumption I hut, if so large a Shark had occurred regularly off the
coast of Iceland, it ought also to have been met with in Norwegian
waters. As tliis lias not happened for more than sixty years since
attention was first drawn to the possible occurrence of the species,
we see no reason for notieiug this upecies among the fishes of Scan-
dinavia at greater length than we have done in the present note.

Genus CARCHARIAS.

Spiracles ohJiterated. A transverse f/roore in the superior and inferior margins of the tail Just in front of tlu.
caudal fin. Valve of the spiral intestine longitudinally coiled.

The Sharks most commonl)' known as man-eaters,
dreaded and detested with equal fervour by the sailor,
belong to this genus. With their elongated form of
body and their well-developed fins — especially the
usually long and scythe-shaped pectorals — they are
confirmed rovers and readily .strike the eye, whether
disporting themselves at the surface of the open sea
or swimming in shallower water, sometimes close in
siiore. Their insatiate voracity renders them formidable
pirates throughout their range in the tropical and teiu-
perate seas. The seaman that falls overboard, in most
cases, no doubt, becomes their prey, and the incautious
bather, even on a shelving coast, may meet with the
same fate. Sailors therefore take a delight in torment-
ing these fishes in every conceivable manner when they
have succeeded in getting them on board.

During his voyage to India Suni:)EVali, made the

following notes with respect to the genus Carcliariiis:

"These species are commonly seen slowly following the

I vessel in fine weather and light winds, especially Avhen

" Fiscfl. IsL, p. 17.

^ Prodr. Ichtli. Scand., p. 11.5.

' Maanedskr. f. Lit.. Kbhvn, Bd \

'' Plagiost., p. 60, tab. 24.

' Damn. Fhlc., Ill, p. 933, note.

the salt meat for daily consumption is towed behind
the ship, as is tlie general custom, in a sort of keg, to
be soaked. The Shark is then seen crui.sing al)out,
with dorsal fin projecting above the surface, and as
soon as anything is tlirovvn into the water, it is at
once pounced upon by the fish. Bits of wood and
other inedible substances are readilj^ seized, but soon
discarded. The Shark is consequently an easy catch,
but the hook should be of a suitable thickness, the line
strong and furnished witit some iron links next tiie hook
to prevent it from being bitten off. These fishes do not
disdain any animal substance or filth. In securing any
floating object, they open the jaws over it quite lei-
surely and raise the whole head above the surface, the
moutii being .situated on the ventral side; but upon
objects that sink in tiie water they dart with great ra-
pidity. In taking a baited hook, the Shark turns upon
its side or completely ov(n-, with tlte Ixdly u|)\vards, as
the snout woidd else come in contact \\ith the line
and push the l)ait awav. When the wind is at all

, p. Sl-i and Bd 9. p. 263.

1130

SCANI11NAV1AN FISHES.

high, these Sharks are never seen, presumahly because
they are sluggish swimmers and cannot keep up with
the vessel. In all their actions they greatly resemble
a hungry dog or a wolf pi'owling in quest of food;
hence the names of cliien de nier, grand chien hieu, etc.,
which ai'e conferred u])on them in several languages.
Most frequently these Sharks are attended by a little
tish known among seamen as the Pilot {Xaiicrates d ac-
tor, see above p. 82, note d). This fish, which is about
a foot long, presents a handsome appearance, being
silvei'y blue with Ijroad transverse bands of dark blue.
Seafaring folk in general suppose that it guides tlie
Shark to the prey in the hope of gaining its share
thereof, and this belief has been supplemented by all
kinds of romantic additions. Cuvier, who discerned
the improbability of these fabulous narratives, was of
the opinion that the companionship of the Shark and
the Pilot-fish is merely fortuitous, each of them fol-
lowing the vessel. But this is not the case. The Pilot-
fish really attends upon the Siiark, Ijut only to feed
upon its excrements, as a few writers, ancient and mo-
dern, have correctly stated. I have often had the op-
portunity on tropical seas of carefully watching Sharks
accompanied by one or two Pilot-fish, and have always
made the same observation. The Pilot-fisii keeps close

to the body of the Shark, at the dorsal, pectoral, or
venti'al tins, but now and then ((uits his post to taste
some tioating object he has espied. Apparently, however,
he seldom finds anything that tickles liis palate, and
soon returns to the Shark; but the moment the Shark
passes any excrementitious matter, the Pilot promptly
and eagerly makes off to secure tlie ))rize, and then
returns to its former station, from which it refuses to
be enticed for a long while, whereas, when it is hungry,
it readily swims after any small object thrown into the
water. I never succeeded in hooking a specimen. In
the Bay of Bengal I had good opportunity of observing
that large turtles are also attended by the same kind
of Pilot-fish; and Suchinfi -fishes (EeJimeis, see above,
p. (S9, note a) accompany both Sharks and turtles for
the same reason as the Pilot, but always adhere firmly
to the Ijody of their host, till they see any morsel of
food, when they vie with the Pilot-fish in agility, and,
their errand accomplished, immediatelj' return to attach
themselves as before."

These Sharks are, however, not exclusively salt-
water fislies. Some of them ascend the great rivers of
the tropics, even beyond the tidal portion of their
course. In Scandinavian waters they are strangers;
but one species has strayed to our coasts.

THE BLUE SHARK (s\v. blahajen).
CARCHARIAS GLAUCUS.

Plate L. tig. 3.

Teeth serrated at the margins. Snout more or less coniadlij prolongated to a length <if ahuat lialf that of the

head. First dorsal fin nearer to the ventral fins than to the jieetoral, beginning about half-way between the tip of

the snout and the base of the caudal fin". Coloration above of a blackish or grayish blue, underneath white.

Sijn. rXavAog, .(Elian., Anim. Nat., lib. I, cap. XVI, p. 22.
Galeus glancus, Rond., De Pise, p. .S78; Willughb., Hist.
Pise, p. 49. Squalus fossula triangulari in extreino dorso,
foraminibus nnllis ad oculos, Art., Ichtk., Gen., p. 09;
Syn., p. 98.
Squalus glaucus, Lm., Sijst. Nat., ed. X, toiii. I, p. 2.3.5;
Bl., Naturg. Fisch. DeutsM., pt. Ill, p. 78, tab. LXXXVI ;
Retz., Fna 6'uec. Lin., p. 306; Blvlle {Carcltarinus),
Bull. Sc. Soc. Philoni. Paris, 1816, p. 121 (+ C. roam-
leus, ibid., cfr Fne Franc, I, Poiss., pp. 90 — 92); Cuv.
(snbg. Carchavias), R'cjn. .Anim., cd. I, Kmi. II, p. 126;

Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 381; ed. 2, vol. II,
p. 498; BoNAr., Iconogr. Fna Ital., Pesci, tab. 133, fig. 2;
MOLL.. Hlb (Carcharias, subg. Prionodon), Playio.^t., p. 36,
tab. 11 ( + C. liirundaceus ex Val., p. 37); Couch, Fisli.
Brit, hi., vol. I, p. 28, tab. VI; DOM., Hist. Nat. Poiss.
(su. a Buff.), torn. I, p. 353; Barb. Boo., Cap., Pei.i:
Plngiost., p. 17; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII,
p. 364; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss., toni. I, p. 329; M6b.,
HcKE, Fi.K'l). Osts.. p. 150; .Jonn., (iiLii. (Carcliarinus),
Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, p. 22; Day (Carcharias),
Fish. Gt. Brit., /ret., vol. II, ).. 289, tab. CLII; Coll.,

" Tbe distance between the beginning of the first dorsal tin and the upper transverse notches on the peduncle of the tail is in our
young specimen 91 % of that between the same fin and the tip of the snout, which latter distance is equal to that between the anterior
angle of the pectoral fin and the beginning of the anal fin. In (dder Blue Sliarks the last-mentioned distance is even relatively somewhat
greater.

HI. IE SIIAUK.

1131

N. Mag. Naturv., Bil -211 (1K«4). p. lllj; DOiii'.ui. , .)/'!».
Iltiol. Medit., fasc. 11, p. 42; Lii.ij., ,Sv., .Xori/. Fun,
FM:, vol. Ill, p. COO.

Ill IMmIc L, tig. 3 we give a representation of m
young l>liie Shark, 41 cm. long, from tlie Indian Ocean.
It was cut out of the lielly of the niothcr-tisli. The
specimen is .sufficiently developed and well preserved
enough to give a Ijetter idea tiian a stuffed e.xamph!
of the appearance of the species. Tlic IJhie .Shark,
however, attains a considerable size, in ordinary in-
stances a length of 2 to 3 or 4 m.", and tlie form
varies during growtli. Tlie pectoral fins become con-
siderably longer and narrower, their length being some-
times thrice their breadth. The relative size of the
eyes diminisiies from aliout ' '; to ',,„ of the length of
the head. The form of the jaw-tcctli (fig. 32fi) is
altered as shown in the figure; and the number of

specimen 3' ., m. long was taken in Ti-aveniiinde Hay
and described by W.m.bai m''. During the previous
year a specimen is s:iid to have been caught off KieP.
According to Coucu the Blue Shark roves round the
English coast during summer, but leaves those water.s
at the a])proach of winter.

Though the r.lur Sliai'k attracts most attention as
it swims at the surface, it also descends to a consider-
able dc])th (at least about 100 m.), and here is perhaps
its most congenial home. Light is apparently obnoxious
to it, for at the surface and in the upper strata of the
water, so long as the light is powerful, and when it is
desirous of fixing a steady gaze on some object, it keeps
drawing the nictitating membrane up and down over
its eyes. In the Mediterranean the young make their
appearance during ^lay and June (Doderlein). Oppian
celebrated in verse' the care devoted by the parents

^V'

^■v.

,0;^n4'^i^iW

H

^^^^^^-^hh^hhhh

-^^^^41%\1^

Fii.'. 32<!. .Ia\v-ti?eth of tlie right side in a youiiK (.4) and an adult (B) Blue Shark. ' ., nat. size. After MOli.er and Henle.

their transverse rows, one behind the other in each
jaw, increases from 2 to .5.

In the tropical seas the Blue Shark is dispersed all
round the globe. In Europe it is common in the Medi-
terranean and at least not rare on the south coasts of
England and Ireland. Even in St. Andrews Bay (Scot-
land), according to McIntosh, it is not uncommon,
and according to Couch it strays up to the Orkney Is-
lands; but further to the north and east it is appa-
rently but an occasional visitor. In November, IcSSS,
• 'oLLETT received a specimen 16 dm. long that had
been taken at the very head of Christiania Fjord, and
Blue Sharks have been caught in the westernmost parts
of the Baltic. At the beginning of October, 17.53, a

to their oft'sjiring. \\'hen any danger threatens, the
mother (or, according to others, the father) opens its
mouth for the young to take shelter in its pharynx' or
even in its stomach. The fry are, however, soon ca-
pable of defending and feeding themselves, for they
come into the world fully developed for leading an
independent existence, and measuring, according to a
note of VAN Beneden's-', at least 60 cm.

The diet of the I^lue Shark consists principally of
fish of all kinds. In the stomach of a specimen 6 ft.
long Couch foutid a large Picked Dog-fish and a Con-
ger, both bitten right in two, and a Gurnard. In an-
other he found four Mackerel, half a Garpike, and so
many Herrings, (luite whole, that the fisherman sold

" LlLUEBORG states as niuoli as 7' ., m.
* Cf. Bloch, 1. c.
' Cf. MoBins and Heincke, 1. c.

' Halieuticorum lib. 1. From the beginning of the third century, A. D.

■ Cf. the method employed by the ChromidcB of preserving their eggs and fry in the branchial cavity. AOASSIZ. A Journey in
Uracil, p. 222.

■' Poisn. Coles Belg., p. 4; Mem. Acad. Roy. Belg.. torn. XXXVIII (1871).

1132

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

them tor eiglitec'iipeiicf; and yet tlie Sliark liad heeii
hungry enough to goi"ge the bait. To tlie tishonnan the
Blue Shai'k causes great annoyance, as it robs the long-
lines of their bait, and cuts the line in two or twines
the latter i-otind its l)ody, l)y rolling over and over,
in such a coiu])licated manner that the task of disent-

anglement i^ hopeless; and it plucks the tish out of
the net and tears asunder the meshes.

The flesh of the Blue Shark is hard and has a nau-
seous smell, but it is eaten in Italj' by the poor. The
onlv othei- value of the fish consists in its oily liver
and finely shagrcened skin.

Gems GALEORHINUS.

Spirtirles opoi, flioiifili snnill. Pi'ihoicle af tlir fail iritlnuit transverse nntcli. Valve of the spiral intestine spiralli/ coiJed.

Both in form of body and manner of life the ge-
nus of the Smooth Sharks closely resembles tlie pre-
ceding one; but they do not attain the same dimensions
as the man-eater Sharks, and the narratives related ever
since Pliny's time of combats between divers and
Smooth Sharks are probably based on a confusion with
Blue Sharks, though the Tope is sometimes large enough
to take a substantia] mouthful from the body of a

swimmer. The ground-colour of the body, though it
does not distinguish them in the least from several
man-eating Sharks, has given rise to the name of
Gray Sharks (Nilsson in Skand. Fauna); but this
name is more commonly applied to another genus, also
occurring in the North Sea, namely Notidaniis.

Only two species are known, one from Japan alone,
the other cosmopolitan in the tropical and temperate seas.

THE TOPE (SW. HASTOIUEN Oli BETHAJEN).

GALEORHINUS GALEUS.

Platf L, fig. 2.

Inner marffin of tlie teeth smooth, their outer margin ohliqiieli/ notched, finely serrated, hut u'ith a coarser denti-
cuJation at tlie base. Snout in yreat part fraushicenf and proJonyated in a more or less fattened form to a length
measuring about lialf that of the head. First dorsal fin at least about twice as large as the second and situated
nearer to the pectoral fns than to the ventral, the distance between it and the tip of the snout being slightly more
than "/, of the length of the liody to the beginning of the caudal fin. Beginning of the second dorsal fin sonie-
ivhaf further fonrard than that of the anal. Coloration above of a more or less light bluish gray, underneath white.

Fig. 327. Teetli of the upper niul lower j:i\vs in a Tope (Galeorliimis yaleiis) 13 din. long, -3 nal. size.

Si/n. Fcdeog Kvwv, Ahistot., De anim. hist., lib. VI, cap. XI. GaUus
i-anis, RojJDKL., De Pise, p. .377. Vanis (jnUns, Wii.i.uqhi).,
Uist. Pise, p. 51 (ex S.\LV.). S'/ii(iliis nnribiis ori vioinis,
fornminibus exijijuis ad oculos, Akt.. h-litlii/ol., Gm., p. IIH;
6>«., p. 97.

Sijualtcs Galeits, Lin., Si/st. A'al., iil. X, toin. 1, p. 234;
Blnvlle iOaleorhinus), Bull. Sc. Sue. Pliiloiii. IHIC, p. 121;
Cuv. (subg. Galeus), Regn. Anim., I'll. I, toni. II, p. 127;
Xii.ss. (Hqaaliis), Prodr. Ic/itli. ^ScuiuL, p. IIT); SuNDKV.,
V. Wr., iSkand. Fisl-.. eil. 1, p. IH.'i. tub. 4,'5; Couch
{Toper), Fish. Brit. Isl., v..l. I, p. 45, lab. IX; .Joud.,
(JiLB. (Galeorhimts), Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16. p. 21;
Coll., N. Mag. NaUirv. Chinia, Bd 29 (1884), p. llC.

Galeus cnUjaris, Flmno, Brit. Anim., p. 165; Yajih., Ilrit.
Fish., ed. 2, vol. II, p. 509; Kh., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill,
p. 834; Coll.. Forb. Vid. Splsk. Cliriiiu 1874, Tilhugsh.,
p. -207; 1870, No. 1, p. 102; D.w, Fish. Gt. Urit., Irel.,
vol. II, p. 292, tab. CLIII; Lillj., ^y., Nory. Fna, Fisk:,
vol. Ill, p. 612.

Galeus canis, BoNAP., Iconoyr. Fna Ital., loin. Ill, Pesci, tab.
l.'S2, fig. 3; MOLL., IIle, Plagiost.. p. 57; NiLSS., Skand.
Fna. Fisk., p. 714; Barb. Boc, Cap., Pei.v. Plagiost., p.
18; Gthr, Val. Ilrit. .I/h.v., /"«//., vol. VIII. p. 379;
Wi.NTH., Natnrli. Tidsk. Kblivii, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 56;
MoK., Hist. Xat. Poiss. Fr.. torn. I, p. 317; Doderl., Man.
fttiol. Medit., fasc. II, p. 36; Cai;.. Proilr. Fna: Medit.,
vol. II, p. 509.

Galeus Linnei, Malji, Ghgs, Boh. Fna, p. 618.

The Tope, known in France a.s le cJiicn de iiier and
ill Italy as hi laniiola, attain.s a length of about 2 ni."
The form of the bodj' is nioderatelj' elongated for a
Sliark. lint varies rather considerably with age. Old
individuals are more robust, with deejier body, than
yoimg. Tile greatest dejjth, just in front of the first
d(jrsal tin, measures in the young about '/j„ — ',,, in
the old sometimes ',, of the length of the body. The
least de])th, just in front of the caudal fin, shows less
alteration, measuring about ''3,, (3'1 — 8'4 %) of the
length (if the liody or 17 — 18 % of that of the head
to the first gill-opening. The ordinary fusiform shape
is laterally compressed in the anterior abdominal re-
gion, furtlier back more terete or of a rounded quad-
rangular section, the dorsal margin being depressed,
and the ventral almost plane. In front of the first
dorsal tin, however, tlie back is bliintlv sharpened
(fastigiate or a so-called hog-lwck), which gives the
section of the b(jdy in front of the pectoral tins an
almost triangular form. Even the form of the head
partakes in this modification, approaching in old spe-
cimens to that of a three-sided jiyramid, but with a

•K. 1133

longitudinal swelling behind the eyes and a flattened
snout, the lateral margins of which form a parabola.
In younger s]ieciinens flic iiead is flatter forward fiom
the occiput, shalhnvcr, and bciiind the eyes of a more
quadrangular section.

The length of the head to the first gill-o[)ening is
somewhat less than '/-, (18 — 19 %) of the length of the
body. The length of the snout from tlie preorliital
margin is about 4t) — 48 %'' of the lengtii of the iiead.
The eyes tlicmsclves are indeed roiuid (witli round
ii'is), in the young with round, inferioi-ly acute-angled
pupil, in old with elongated, slit-like; pupil; but the
orbits are oblong, their longitudinal diameter measuring
in specimens '/.> m. long about 18 — U) %, in specimens
1'4 m. long about Ti — 13 %, of the length of the head,
the vertical diameter onlj' Va — Vs of the longitudinal.
The suborbital margin has been turned inwards to form
the fold known as the nictitating membrane. The use
of this membrane we have noticed in the Blue Shark.
It is for the most part shagreened. like the skin of the
body, Ijut at the fold itself (below and at the corners of
the eyes) nake<l and .soft. The interorbital width is
about ^/f^ of the length of the head. The spiracles be-
hind the eyes are fairly large and distinct in -voting
specimens; in old they are contracted into small, elon-
gated slits and simultaneously removed farther from
the ejes, the distance increasing from ' ., to ^ ^ of the
longitudinal diameter of the orbit. Spiracular gills are
wanting or are extremely vestigial, forming a row of
10 — 11 small papilla', situated rather far in. The nos-
trils are somewiiat oiiliqueh' set slits, directed inwards
and backwards from the edge of the snout, on the
under surface thereof, and their length is about equal
to the vertical diameter of tlic orbits. Their anterior,
(jverlapping margin is doiililc, lieing divided into an
oiitt'r (lower) and an inner (upper) lobe, and each of
these lobes is furnished, about half-way or two-thirds of
the waj' along the nostril, with a small, jjointed, tri-
angtilar flaji (valvule). Tiieir otiter. somewhat ex])aiided
corner, which lies close to the edge of the snout, is
sejiarated from the tip thereof by a distance of about
', i„ (72 — (38 %) of the length of the same. Their inner
angle lies at a di.stance from the anterior margin of
the mouth that is (Hiual to tlie iicitrht of the gill-

" From Dublin Blake-Knox states (Zoologist. Dec. 1866. p. 509) tliat lie has taken Tope, wliicli are comnioii llicre, as much as 7
ft. (21 dm.) long.

'' ■\cfording to Kbover soiiietiines 52.

1134

SCANDINAVIAN' FISHliS.

openings or about ' . of the length of the head. Tlie
cleft of the mouth is horsc-shoed. Its breadth is about
eijual to tlie postorbital length of tlie liead. liotli cor-
ners of the nioutli are surrounded l)y an impressed
fold of skin and are sharply defined, the distance from
the tip of the snout to this posterior limit of the li])S
varying between about " ,, and "^ , (66 — 77 %) of the
length of the head, and tliat from tlie anterioi- margin
of the mouth to the same point being about 45 %" of
the same length. The teeth are set so unevenly in 3
or 4 rows within one another that their number in
one of these rows on each side was estimated by Kko-
YEii at 7, by Mlllek and Henle at 17, the former
having only counted the teeth exactly in a line with
one another, omitting those close to (within) these at
the intervening spaces. Both the upper and the lower
jaAvs are furnished with a thick, but narrow fold (ve-
lum) behind the rows of teeth, with lobes answering
to the dentition. The tongue is broad and fleshy, but
flat. Of the five gill-openings on each side the last
t^vo are situated above the base of the ])ectoral fin.

The t\\'o dorsal fins are of rather similar form,
but differ widely in size. Their form may be described
as a triangle with the posterior corner raised above the
base and stronglj' prolongated. The basal length of
the second dorsal fin varies between about 63 and 53 %
of that of the first, and the anterior margin of the
former measures from about 58 to 48% of that of the
latter, which last-mentioned margin increases with age
from about 8 to 9';2 % of the length of the bodj-.
The distance between the first dorsal fin and the tip
of the snout is about Vs (32 — 34 %), that between the
second dorsal fin and the same point about ^Z, (63 —
67 %), of the length of the body. The anal fin is si-
milar to the second dorsal, but somewhat smaller' and
situated a little further back". The caudal fin resem-
l)les in form that of the Blue Shark, l)ut is shorter,
its lengtii from the beginning of the inferior lobe to
the extreme tip of the fin decreasing during gro^\■tll
fi'om about 24 to 22 'Z, % of the length of the body.
The inferior lobe is so deeply forked that it almost
seems to consist of two fins, an anteritn-, prolongated
forward so as to form a triangular lobe, behind shal-
low and of idinost uniform depth, and a posterior, which

is triangular, and together with the elongated shallow
upper caudal lobe, gradually ascending behind, forms
the extreme tip of tiie fin. The ]iaired fins are tri-
angular. The i)eetorals are of much the same form as
the dorsals, but the posterior (inner) corner is only
slightly prolongated. The distance bet^v■een them and
the tip of the snout measures about 23 — 22 %. their
anterior margin about 13 — 15 %, of the lengtii of the
body. The ventral fins, which surround the anus, have
the form of almost right-angled triangles with conti-
guous hypotenuses. These sides, which are about ' ^
greater than the others, measure about 6 — 7 % of the
length of the body. The distance from the beginning
of the ventral fins to the tip of the snout is about 50
— 53 %, to the beginning of the pectoral fins about
27—30 %, of the length of the Iwdy.

The whole skin of the body — witii the exception
of triangular pati'hes Itehiiid the cloacal region and
the dorsal, the anal, and the pectoral fins — the
surface of the fins, and the ca\ity of the mouth, are
finely shagreened with small three-spined placoid scales,
so small that, ■when stroked from in front, the body
is smooth and slippery to the touch, Init in the oppo-
site direction feels harsh and rough.

The external difference of sex is that normal in
the Sharks. In the Aoung male represented in our
figure the pterjgopodia had not j^et grown beyond the
tips of the ventral fins.

The back, together with the dorsal and caudal fins
and the upper surface of the paired fins, is of a steely
gray, sometimes with a bronze lustre. The ventral
side is \vhite, sometimes with a nacreous lustre, or
yellowish. The iris is white, with a narrow ring of
cupreous lustre round the black pupil.

The Tope is knoAvn from the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Indian Oceans. In the Atlantic it has been found from
the Cape of Good Hope to the Oi'kneys and the neigh-
bourhood of Bergen. In the Mediterranean and on the
coasts of France, the south of England, and Ireland, it
is common. In the North Sea it becomes less frequent
of occurrence to the north; but even in the Cattegat
it cannot be deseril)ed as rare. North of Bergen it has
never been met with; but in Christiania Fjord and on
the coast of Bohusliin, as well as in Danish \\aters, it

" According to Kroyeb soinetimt-s 50.

' Base about 90—91 % of that of the second dors.il; interior iMart;in about 80 — 80 % of that of tlic- second dorsal.

' Distance between the second dorsal and the tip of the snout about 98 — 99 ». of that between the anal and the same point.

1135

is frequently taken. In Liini Fjord n speeiinen was
caught 1>}' I'^K.DDKR.SEN off Struer in tlx^ sninnier of 1S7().
A female 15 dia. long was taken off Skmntneslof (Hal-
land) in November, 1881, and forwarded to the Iioyal
Jluseum b^- Mr. A. v. Moij.ei!. Anotlici-, not nmch
iiiferioi' in size, was secured in the north of the Sound
during .biniiar\', 1835, and was described by Sundevall
in the former edition of the present work. It is other-
wise usual that only young Tope are met with near
land and enter the Sound (KiioYEK and Nilssox), pe-
netrating to the shallows round Salthoini (Winther).
Older individuals genei'ally confine themselves, except
during the breeding season, to deeper \\ater. Their
haunts are soon learnt by the tisherniaii, wiio finds the
snoods of iiis Haddock-lines torn off, and perliajjs hauls
in a Tope that has eventually been hooked, and in its
despei-ate struggles has twisted the line round its body,
in the same manner and with the same result as we
have just rehited of the Blue Shark. A Tope 13 dm.
long, wliich iiad been forwarded from Bohuslan to tiie
Royal Museum, had in its stomach two Haddocks about
4 dm. long, each with a hook and a bit of the snood
in the mouth. The great strength of the Tope appears
from a statement made by two fishermen who were
out fishing for Ling in September, 1887, about seven
luiles off Langesund. In 10 fathoms of water a Tope
seized the bait, and the line being strong, lie towed
the boat beiiind liim for lialf an hour. The fish was
a metre long and weighed 55 kilo.

In summer, from June till September, the Tope

gives birtii to its young, al)out '20 — 40 lieiiig excluded
from tiic tt'uialc at a time, and tlicse ali'eady about
4 dm. long. Througii the winter the joung stay near
the coast, while the old retire to deep water, and ac-
cording to ^'.MiKEi.L tiiey reacli their full si/e the fol-
lowing year; but no j)recise information on this head
is forthcoming. Couch says that on the English coast
they are about 5 dm. long in January; but a Tope of
this size was taken off the coast of Bohusliln by Mr.
C. A. Haxssux in Seplembi'r.

The Tope does more harm than good to the fisher-
man. The oil extracted from its liver and the fine
shagreen prepared from its skin liardh- compensate
the damage it causes. Its flesh is ])Oor, but in spite
of this it is eaten in many places. At th(! Diinish flshing-
villages, according to Kkuyeh, it is boiled fresh, or
dried and sold in this condition at the markets of
Northern Jutland. According to ^Iokeai' it also finds
consumers in the French departments l)ordering on the
English Channel.

The Swedish name of Mstdrje {hd, /(ay'= Shark) is
derived, according to Sundevall, either from the re-
semblance of the head to that of the Sturgeon (storen)
or from the size of the fish {sfor = great, large), Swe-
dish fishermen meaning by hd or haj, when used with-
out qualification, the Picked Dog-fish. Similarly they
call the Tunny Mctkrilsfdrje (Great Mackerel). The
name of hefhaj (Bait-Shark) is conferred upon it in
Bohuslan for its habit of stri]iping the long-lines and
Haddock-lines of the bait.

Fam. LAMNlDiE.

7^7) (hirsal tins and one anal, the first dorsal opposite to the spaec befiree)i the peetoral and central _fins. Eyes
iiitlioiit nietitating membrane. Spiracles obliterated or mi)Nife. All the branchial apertures situated in front of

the pectoral fns".

This family too contains large, not to saj' the , as that of the preceding family or even more so;

largest Sharks, and has the same pelagic distribution
iis the preceding one, but is not so ricli in forms. Gux-
THER includes in his Catcdogue only 9 ascertained spe-

othcrs — among them the largest Sharks — live on mi-
nute animals, and have extremely small teeth in pro-
portion to the size of the body. These differences led

cies. Most of these are characterized by large — one Guxther to divide the family into two subfamilies,
genus by exceedingly large — gill-openings. Some are | which are represented in the Scandinavian fauna by
formidable predatory fishes, with dentition as powerful 1 the following three species:

" The last-mentioned character is adduced as being generally valid and distinct, and especially serviceable in cases where the presence
or absence of a nictitating membrane cannot be controlled. Yet it liappens, as in the Fox-Shark, that the character may easily lead to a
misconception, tlie hindmost gUl-opening approximating its lower end close to the beginning of the base of the pectoral fin, and being di-
rected, as well as the penultimate opening, obliquely backwards and upwards above the said base.

Scandinavian riahes. 143

1136

: Tcotli large or middle-sized. The gill-
openings extend only slightly, if at all,
above the middle of the sides. — Sub-
family Lwiiniiiff.
a: Length of the caudid lin about half

that of the body or even greater.

Peduncle of the tail not keeled ....
b: Lenirth of the caudal fin much less

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Alopias viilj^e)!.

than half that of the body. Sides

of the peduncle of the tail furnished

with a longitudinal carina in front

of the caudal fin Isiirus rorniihicns.

B: Teeth extremely small, numerous, of
a simple conical form. The gill-open-
ings extend up the greater portion of
the sides. — Subfamilv Selaehince Cetorhhius maximus.

Genus ALOPIAS.

Caudal ,//« usKaUij (irnipn'ntfi more titan Italf the li-iigf/i of the hoclij. A transverse depression at its base above
and beloH-. Xo lateral carina on the tail. Teeth middle-sized, of a compressed triangular form, smootlt-marcfmed.

Of this genu.*, which jiossesses, in its so singularly | This is strictly a stranger to the Scandinavian fauna,
elongated caudal tin, ;iu unmistakable characteristic I but has been met with three or four times within the
among all the Sharks, only one species is known. limits thereof.

THE FOX-SHARK (.sw. uai-ha.ien).

ALOPIAS VULPES.

Y\g. 328.

Bod%j, apart from the caudal fin, of a thick fusiform shape, almost clavate. the least depth being only slightly less
or even more than half the greatest, which is contained about 4 times in the length of the body, excluding the
caudal fin. Length of the short conical snout about '/g — \L of the interorbitcd width. Diameter of the eyes about
half the length of the snout. Spiracles extremely small, situated in a groove exactly behind the eyes, from which
they are separated by a distance ecjual to or half as great again as the diameter thereof. Gill-openings middle-
sized {small, in comparison with those of the two folloiring species). First dorsal fin situated about half-way
between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin, triangular, with the lower inferior corner but slightly
prolongated. Second dorsal and anal very small, the former situated about tiro-fJiirds of the way bettveen the first
dorsal and (he caudal and u-ith its base in front of the perpendicular from the beginning of the anal fin. Pec-
toral and ventral fins rather large, especially the former, which are of a broad scythe-shape, their length being
about 1^ of that of the body to the beginning of the caudal fin: ventral fins rather similar to the first dorsal.
Caudal fin scythe-shaped, u-ith a triangular flap near the tip of the inferior lobe. Coloration above slaty-gray,
underneath irhitc, these two colours being interspersed on the lower part of the sides.

^^'^

Fi;;. .'528. Fox-Shark (Alopias vuljies), ' g nat. size. After Todd, in Bbown-Goode.

Si/n. '^Xiartrj^, .\ristot., De Aiiim. Hist., lil>. VI, capp. X el XI.
Singe de mer, Bei.., Xat., Divers. Poiss., p. 88. Viilpe.'',

KoNDEL., De Pise, p. 387. Sijualu.^ caiida lougiore qimm
ipsiini corpus, Akt., Ichtiiyol.. Gen., p. 68; Sijn., png- f")-

iii.\-.siiai;k.

ii;^,7

6'i/iialus Vidjies, Gmel., •Hi/st. Nat. I.iii., eii. XIII. toni. 1, p.

1496; Mitch., Trans. Pliil., Lil. Soc. N. York, vol. 1 (1816),

p. 482; Blnvi.le (Carcharinus), Bull. Sc. Soc. Pliilom.

1810, p. 121; Cl'v. (snbg. Carcharian), I^h/ii. Atiim.. >-d. 1,

torn, a, p. 120; Yarr., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. .'iTll;

lioNAP. (Alopias ex Rafin.), Iconogr. Fna Ital., Pesci, tnb.

134, fig. 1; ilOLh., IIle (Alopecias), Plagio.'it., p. 14; Couch

(Carcliarias), Hist. Fish. Brit. 1st., vol. I, p. 37, tab. VII;

DCm. (Alopias), Hist. Nat. Poifs. (sii. a Buff.), toin. I, p.

421; Barb. Boc, Cap., Peix. Plagiost., p. 14; GrHii (/l/o/)e-

cias), Cat. Brit. Miis., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 393; Com.., Forli.

Vid. Selsk. Clirnia 1874, TilliEgsh., p. 208; 1879, No. 1, p.

102; MoR. (Alopias), Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.. torn. 1, p. 287;

DooEBL., Man. Ittiof. Medit., fasc. II. p. .')2; Hay, Fi.^h. Gt.

Brit., Inl., vol. II, p. 300, tab. CLVU; I'KTKRSK.N, Viil.

Meddel. Nnlurli. For. Kbhvn 1884, p. ll'iO; Day, /"/s/,. India

(Suppl.), p. 810; LiLLJ., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill, p.

027; Car.. Prodr. Fiicf Medit., vol. II, p. 507.
Atopia.'i .Macrourns. Rafin., Caratl. Ale. Nuov. Gen.. Spec. p. 12.

Tlie Fox-Shark attains a length of at least 5 in.
(MoiiEAu) and a weight of 300 kilo. (Dodekleix.)
BucKLAND cites" a specimen, taken by Mackerel-iisher-
men from Yarmouth, 44 dm. long, 17\/'„ dm. in girth,
and weighing 500 lbs. (226^< kilo.), and another*
measuring 45 dm., taken by Herring-tisherincn from
Folkestone.

Its geographical extension includes the Atlantic,
Indian, and Pacitic Oceans. Between the Cape of Good
Hope and the Shetland Islands lies its Atlantic home,
and in the Mediterranean it has been known time out
of mind. Its comparatively large eyes suggest that it
is more of a deei)-sea tish than the other members of
the family; but throughout its range it attracts atten-
tion at the surface in its pursuit of schooling fishes.
The long caudal tin, ^vhich often projects out of the
water on such occasions, has not only conferred upon
the species its name, but has also given rise to the
most fabulous accounts of its ravages. With its tail
it lashes the waves and deals blows on the surface of
the water that resound like a cannon-shot. Dolphins
frightened by this noise have been seen to take to pre-
cipitate flight. It is quite credible that a whale may
now and then have shown the same timidity. But from
these observations, and owing to a confusion with the
grampus (Ona i/hidiafor), whose dorsal tin also appears
above the surface, it has been concluded that the Fox-
• Shark is the relentless persecutor of wlialcs and dol-
phins, though its dentition is far too weak for the
achievements ascribed to it. "It is sometimes," says

BucKEAXi), "called the 'thresher shark,' because it is
.said to iiitlict chastisement on the whale, though 1 can
find no real authority for this being the case; nor can
I see why the shark should flog the whale. The tail
of the skate can, as 1 know to my cost, inflict severe
wounds, and the tail of the sting-ray contains a dagger
which is e^•en more formidable still; I fancy, therefore,
that the tail of the fox-shark is used by the owner as
a weapon of defence, for if he chooses to use it, it
would act like a waggoner's whip, .\gain, I think it
just }»ossible that, whereas we all know we can drive!
tish by long jioles dashed suddenly into and about in
the water, so the fox-shark may use his tail to splash
about and drive the frightened herrings or mackerel
into the position where they will be most handy for
him to catch and swallow. I should imagine an un-
frightened luaekerel to be a difficult thing to catch
when swimming at libertv in the sea. If, however,
the fox-shark comes lashing aljout with his tail, he and
his comrades would become confused, and while making
up their minds what to do and \vhere to go, they
would suddenly find themselves going down the shark's
throat. One thing is quite certain, his long tail would
enable him to turn smartly round the corners and as-
tonish unsuspecting nati\'es."

In the stomach of a Fox-Shark 41 dm. long Buck-
land found 27 Mackerel; and Herrings are devoured
with equal avidity. Accordingly it happens often enough
that the Fox-Shark gets entangled in the drift-nets shot
for Mackerel and Herrings or in the tackle of the Pil-
chard-fisherman. On the other hand, it never takes a
hook, which apparently proves that on the whole it is
less rapacious than the other .Sharks.

In the Mediterranean the Fox-Shark gives birth to
its young during summer. In August Dddeulein se-
cured a young specimen 27 cm. long. During October
BuCKLAND found in a lai-ge female from Folkestone an
egg 76 ram. long and 11.'! nun. broad, on its backward
passage through the oviduct, while the ovaries con-
tained thousands of smaller eggs, from the size of a
hazel-nut to that of a pin's head.

The Fox-Shark is, as we have mentioned, a stran-
ger in Seaiidina\ ian waters. A female 429 cm. long
was taken near Bergen on the 31st of August, 18()8,
and is described by Lilljebokg. In Bunde-Fjord, about

" Land and Water, Jul.v 6, 1869, p. 608.
' Nat. Hist. Brit. Fish., p. 221.

1138

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

a league from Christiania, a specimen 16 dm. long was
caught, according to ("ollett, on tlie 1st of February,
1878. Petersen cites a specimen "nearly 4 Danish
ells (874 ft-) long," tliat was cast ashore in December,
1886, off Tidsvilde on the north coast of Zealand.
Kr0Yek was besides informed on trustworthy authority

tliat the Fox-Shark had once been met with on the
west coast of Jutland.

The flesh of the Fox-Shark is "moderately good,"
sa3's DoDERLEiN, "though rather hai'd;" but at Cettc
it is sold, according to Mokeau, under the name of
White Tunny ( Thon hJanc).

Genus ISURUS.

Peduncle of the tail marked above and heloiv with a transverse depression and furnished with a lonf/itiidinal ca-
rina on each side. Caudal fin crescent-shaped, its length much less than half that of the I'odij. Teeth middle-
sized, entire-margined, pointed, in adult specimens ivifh" or irithoiit'' lateral cusjis at the root.

By its smooth-margined teeth, in the upper jaw j spiracles, at least of adult specimens, are very minute

too of a narrow triangular form or even subulately i or even obliterated.

pointed, this genus is distinguished from Carcharodon, I In deference to the current rules of nomenclature

the most dreaded Shark of the Mediterranean and the I the generic name of Isurus, coined by Rafinesque in

tropics, often confounded with the Blue Sharks under 1810", must supersede the more generally employed

the name of man-eater. In both these genera the Ijimna, which was tirst proposed by Ouvier in 1817''.

THE PORBEAGLE (sw. uabrande.n).
ISURUS CORXUBICUS.

Plate LI, fig. 1.

Snout conicalhj pointed, its length' about ^/i„ {29 — 31 ?i) of that of the head {to the first gill-opening), which
measures about '/j {18 — 22 %) of that of the body. Teeth of a narrow triangular form, ivith a cusp on each
side of the expanded root. Third tooth, counting from the middle, smaller than those beside it. Distance between
the pectoral fins and the tip of the snout about *lr, {80 — 83 %) of that between the first dorsal fin and the same
point. Coloration above slaty-grag, underneath white.

^'i/n. Porbeagle, BoHLASE, Nat. Hist. Cornwall (1768), p. 265,
tab. 20, fig. 4. Haae-Brand, SteAm, Soiidm. Beskr., part. I,
p. 281. Touille-Boeuf on Loutre de mer, DuH., 7V. Peclies,
part. II, sect. IX, tab. XX, fig. 4. Beaumaris Shark, Penn.,
Brit. Zool., ed. 177(3, vol. Ill, p. 104, tab. XVII. Le
Nez, Brousson., Mem. Acad. Sc. Paris 1780 (ed. 1784), p.
()G8. Haabrnnd, Ascan.. Icofi. Rer. Nat., tab. XXXI.
Squalus glauciis (Haabrandsunge), Gunner., N. Vid. Selsk. Skr.,
Trondhj., v.il. ly (Kblivn, 1768), p. 1 (nom. erron.);
Strom (Haama-r), N. Saml. N. Vid. Selsl<. Skr. Trondhj.,
vol. II (Kbbvii 1788), p. 3.35, cum tab.; Retz., Fna Suec.
Lin., p. 307.

° Subgenus Lnnina.
' „ Oxyrhina.

' Caralt. Ale. Nnor. (Jen., Spec, p. 11.
'' Riyn. Anim., ed. 1, tom. II, p. 126.

' According to Malm tlils Icngtli, "measured along the
of the bead.

Sijualtis coriiubicus, Gmel., Si/st. Nat. Lin., ed. XIII, toni. I,
p. 1497; Cuv. (subg. Lamna), Regn. Anim., ed. 1, tom. II,
p. 127; Nii.ss. iS(pialus), Prodr. Ichtli. Scand., p. 116;
Id., Observ. Ichthyol.. p. 13 (Di.sp. Lund, 1835); Yabr..
Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 384; Bonap. (Lamna), Iconngr.
Fna Ital.. Fesci, tab. 134, fig. 2; Sundev., v. Wr. iSijualiis),
Skand. Fisk., ed. 1, p. 135, tab. 30; Mull., Hle (Lamna),
Plagiost.. p. 67; Gray (hums), Cat. Vlwndropt. Fish.
Brit. Mtis., p. 58; Kr. (Lamna). Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill,
p. 852; NiLss., Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 718; DUm., Hist.
Nat. Poiss. (su. a Bofk.), tom. I, p. 405; Gthr, Cat.
Brit, ^fus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 389; v. Ben., Poiss. Belg.,

surface" (not.

straight line), may amount to - . of that

I'OHBEAGLK.

113!)

p. 8 (Mom. Aond. Koy. Sc. Bclg., l,.ii,. XXXVIII, IS7I);

Coll., Forli. Vkl. Srlsk. Clirniii 1874, Tilliegsh., p. 208;

Malm, G/u/s, Boh. Fiia, p. G18; Moii., Hist. Nat. Poiss.

Fr., toiii. I, p. 290; Dodkrl., Man. Ittiol. Medit., fasc.

II, p. (ill; Mela, Vtrt. Feim., p. 365, tnb. X; MOb., Hcke,

Fisch. Osts., p. 151; Jord., Gilb., Bull. U. S. Nat. Hue.,

No. IG, p. 30; Day, Fi.-^li. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 297,

tab. CLVI; Storm, Norsk. Vid. Sels. Skr. 1883 (Trondhj.

1884), p. 44; Lillj., ^V., Norg. Fna, Fisk.,vo\. Ill, p. 020;

Car., Prodi: Fiue Medit., vol. II, p. 505.
S(/ualii.<! nasus, Walb., Ichtbyol. Art., Gen., p. 517.
Sipmlus monensis, Shaw., Gen. ZooL, vol. V, p. 350; Cuv.,

1. c; Yark., 1. c, p. 387.
(?) Imiriis O.ri/rinclms, Rafin., Caratt. Ah: X. Gen. e Spec,

p. 12, tab. XIII, fig. 1 (fide Doderl., fignra tiiiiien pessiiiia

fero potius ad Isurum Spallamanii referonda).

due ti) the small, dciise .'Scales, wliiclr in a Porbeagle
18 dm. loiiu' arc niih ' . mm. liroad. ( >ii the upper
parts of the body they are seinieireular and thick, with
5 elevated, convex stria^, the end.s of which project at
the margin of the .scale, forming rounded denticulations.
On the under side of the b<)d\- tliev have oidy 3 such
ridges. On the fins tiiey ai'e set with equal denseness,
but are smooth, as it were worn.

The iiead, like the body, is without prominent side-
margins. The snout in front of the eyes and mouth
is conical, its dc])th at the mouth being almost equal
to its length. It is denselj- punctated (fig. 330) with

Fig. 329. Teeth of the upper and lower jaws in a Porbeagle (Isuriis cornnbicns) 213 cm. long. ' 3 nat. size; a, the first three pairs of
teeth behind the gap {diastema) on the right side of the upper jnw, nat. .size.

Sqttalns Selanomis, Leach, Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. II,
p. 64, tab. II, fig. 2; Flmng (Squ. selanoneiis), Brit. Anim.,
p. 168 := Selanonitis Watkeri, p. 169.

The Porbeagle ranks among the larger Sharks. Its
ordinar}- length in Scandinavia, however, does not ex-
ceed I'/s — 2^2 111- I" the [Mediterranean it attains a
length of at least 6 111."

The bod\" is almost terete, slighth' comjiressed,
rounded above and below, and pointed at each end.
The greatest depth varies between about '5 and ' , of
the length. The skin is everywhere rough as a tile
when stroked from behind, but not exactly rasping; in
the opposite direction it is soft to the touch. This is

distinct, impressed, muciferous dots, the mouths of
Lorenzinian ampulhe, distributed in 6 broad, multiijlex
rows, which are sepanited In- the same numljer of im-
punctate stripes, one in the median dorsal line, one
vertieallv below this, and two on each side, all con-
verging at the tip of the snout, which is also without
punctures. Below the eye lies another row of similar
dots. The eyes arc round, closely liounded by the
slightly oblong orl)ital margins. Their diameter is some-
what less than '3 {27- — 31 ?») of the length of the snout.
In a dead specimen the jiupil apjjeared to be somewhat
oblong and oblitpiely set. There is no nictitating mem-
brane. The nostrils are .S'-shaped and transversal, with

Bonaparte even stales "12 up to 20 or 24 feet," perhaps confounding the species with Carcliarodon Rondelelii.

1140

.SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

■A very siiiiiU flap (\;ilvuK') iit the anterior niaririn.
They lie so far in front of the ]ierpeiidicu]ar from tlie
preorbital margin that the distance between them and
the tip of the snout is al)out 80 — 90 % of that between
the mouth and the same point, wliicii latter distance
is rather less than or sometimes equal to the length
of the snout. The mouth is large, its breadth at tiie
corners being somewhat more than ','3 of the length of
the head. The cleft of the mouth is sharply curved,
so that the lower jaw is rather long, and the distance
from the corners of the mouth to the middle of the
anterior margin of the upper jaw is about "j^ of the
length of the head. Externally no dermal folds are
visible on tiie jaws, for the small creases that lie al)ove
and below each corner of the mouth are concealed by

Fig. 330.

Heaii of a Porbeagle (Isurtts eornubicus) 213 cui
seen from below. ' '. iiat. size.

the skin of the upper jaw. The teeth (tig. 329) are
set ill three rows. The anterior ones are the largest,
measui'ing in a specimen 24 din. long somewhat more
tjian 12 mm. or '/j of the diameter of the e3'es. They
are set rather far apart, of a narro^v triangular form or
conical, terete on the innev, but somewhat flattened on
the outer side. The base of the broad root is emarginate,
so that the tooth apjjarently has two fangs. In old
specimens the root has a small conical cusp on each
side; but this cusp is wanting in young si)ecimens,
sometimes even at a length of 9 dm. In both jaws
we find at the extreme front a small gaji, without
middle tooth. The upper jaw has 14 or 1.5 (10) teeth
in each row on either side, the number being alike
both in young and old. The first two teeth are large.

the third is rather small — :ind liehinil this lies a wide
gaj) (diasti'ma) — the fourth and the following ones are
again large, but gradually decrease in size, the hind-
most teeth being comjiaratively minute. In the lower
jaw there are 12 or 18 (14) teeth on each side. The
gap at the extreme front is somewhat wider than in
the upper ja\v. The first and second teeth are the
largest, the others decreasing in size behind. All the
teeth are slightly recurved.

The sjiiracle of the Porbeagle is extremely small,
resembling a hole pierced with a coarse pin. It lies
exactly behind the eye, separated therefrom by a dis-
tance of twice the diameter thereof or somewhat more
in large specimens. It is consec|uently situated rather
f\irther back than in most of the other Sharks, and has
many times defied detection, being probably obliterated.
All live branchial apertures lie in front of the pectoral
fin, the lower end of the iiindiuost opening terminating
close below the margin of this fin. This opening is,
however, obliquelv set, being considerabh- aiiproximated
below to the jienultimate aperture. In the dermal fold
that covers each opening, lie three j)avallel cartilaginous
rays (radiating extrabranchial cartilages, sec above),
originating from the middle of each arcli and extend-
ing to the edge of the opening.

The bodv itself is almost terete, with indistinct
lateral line, which is best marked in dried skitis. From
the temporal region, above and l)eliind the eyes, the
line forms a slight curve above the gills and then pro-
ceeds in a straight direction to the lateral carina of
the tail. These occupy, immediately in front of the
caudal fin, one-fifth of the length of the body behind
the head. Tiiev have an almost sharp, curved outer
margin, and are so large that their breadth i.s ^/g of the
greatest breadth of the body, and that the tail just in
front of the caudal grooves is, more than four times as
broad as deep. The caudal grooves above and below are
deep and clothed with finer scales than the rest ut
the skin.

The first dorsal fin is rather large, its base mea-
suring about ' g, the length of its anterior margin ,'7
— Vei ^^^^ ^^s height about '/g, of the entire length of
the body. Its beginning lies at a distance from the
tip of the snout measuring about .'50 — ?>'! % of the length
of the body. In form it resembles an almost e(|uilateral
triangle, with a large rounded incision above the elon-
gated posterior angle. The posterior dorsal and the
anal fins are almost similar in form and size, and lie

I'OHBEAGLE.

1141

opposite to each othoi the former, however, a little

further back, at a distance from tlie first dorsal measur-
ing about 28 — 26 % of the len<jtli of the body. They
(U'e rather small, their bases measiiriiii;' ai)out ' - — ' ,. of
tliat of tlie tirst dorsal tin. Their anterior (upper) angle
is rounded, the posterior acutely elongated. The distance
l)et\veen the anal tin and the tip of the snout is nearly
■ I of the iengtli of the body. The superior lobe nf
the caudal tin, which is of the crescent-shaped form
tiiat characterizes most of the niendx'rs of this famih',
measures about \ ., of the remaining length of the body,
and is strongly curved in an upward direction, with a
pointed and exceedingly small terminal lobe. The in-
ferior lobe, on the other hand, is larger than in most
of the other Sharks, at least somewhat more than half
as long as the superior. The pectoral tins are from
l'„ times to nearly twice as long as the anterior mar-
gin of tiie first dorsal tin, and their length is ratlier
more than ' ,; — ' , of the entire length of the ])ody or
about equal to the distance from their base to the cor-
ner of tile mouth. Their lireadth is somewhat more
tlian half tiieir lengtli. The ventral tins are small, with
tlie outer angle obtuse and the posterior acute. Their
length tiiroughout tiie inner margin (the base together
with the posterioi- lobe) is about 8' ^ % of the length
of the body. Tliey are set a little behind the middle
of the liody.

Besides the pterygopodia of the males — wiiicii in
a specimen 22' ^ dm. long were 247 ram. in length
and 25 mm. in diameter — Sunpevall remarked that
it appeared to liim as if another external sexual cha-
racter were expressed in the form of the second dorsal
and the anal fins, which seemed to have the pos-
terioi' tip niucli more elongated in the males than in
tlie females.

riic coloration is above of a blue-black gra\. un-
derneath white, tiie posterior angles of the dorsal tins
being also whitish. The iris is dark brown.

Tlie Porbeagle is somewhat variable in form. In a
number of cases, both male and female, the body is
rather slender (greatest depth '- — '^ of the entire
length), the dorsal tin comparatively high and rectilinear,
the snout short and narrow (length of the snout in adult
specimens about ' - of the distance between its tip and
the pectoral tins), the inferior caudal lobe ' ^ as long as
the superior, or even more, and tlie iiindmost gill-
opening distinctly oblique. This form is ajjparently
the commoner. Other specimens present the appearance

shown in our figure (Plate IT, fig. 1). They arc; tiiieker
(greatest depth up to ' -, of the entire length), with
somcw iial larger iiead and thicker, longer snout (length
of the snout up to '/,, of the distance between its tip
and tiie pectoral tins), with tlie inferinr caudal lol)e little
more than half as long as the superior, and with the
hindmost gill-oiiening somewhat less oblique. This latter
firm seems in general to be characteristic of youth.
( (ur figure was drawn in Bohusliln from a young spe-
cimen I.')' 3 tlm. long. But tiiat tliis form lias repre-
sentatives even among full-grown Poi'beagles, seems
probable from the descriptions given by the authors
cited above (in the synonymy) of Squnlus moncnsis,
whereof Yakhell mentions a specimen 29 dm. long.

The I'emaining alterations of growth consist prin-
cipally in the relative reduction with age of the snout
and eyes and the furnishing of the teeth with basal
cusjis, which are wanting in the smallest specimens, liut
in Porbeagles 18 dm. long are already quite distinct.

The Porbeagle is the only one among the large
Sharks that appears with any frequency in the south
of the Cattegat; but it is far from common on the coasts
of Sweden. It occasionally makes its way through the
Sound into the Baltic, and it has been met with, ac-
cording to Mela, even in the vicinity of Aland. Along
the Norwegian coast it occurs upi to Finniark, where it
is found rather often, according to Collett, except to
the extreme north. Its oi-dinary name in Norway, as
in Bohusliln, is Hahrand; but it is said to be some-
times coupled with the Greenland Shark under the name
of Iliimdy. As it had no Danish name, Kroyek called
it Sillliqj (Herring Shark). The Porbeagle is dispersed
throughout the North Sea, though it is not so common
there as on the west coasts of the United Kingdom and
France; and its greatest development seems to be at-
tained in the Mediterranean. On the other side of the
Atlantic it has been found oft' the east coast of the
United States; and according to JU'lleu and Henee's
determination of tlie jaws sent by BCrgek from Japan
to the Museum of Leyden, the Porbeagle also occurs in
the Pacific off' the Japanese coasts. Haast includes
the species among the fishes of New Zealand.

The ap])earance of the Porbeagle is even more re-
pulsive than that of other Sharks. It emits an ex-
tremely disagree;d)Ie, fetid smell, and the surface of the
body, which is j'ielding and at se\eral spots flabby,
acquires a dirty look from the secretion of tough mu-
cus. This is especially copious at all the orifices, and

1142

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

it was this uncle;iiint'ss, wliicii is siiared bv tlie whole
jjhalanx, that sunrgested the ancient name of S(jiiidits".
Furthermore, the ])rofi]e of the Porbeagle indicates far
jiiore stupidity in combination with ravenousness than
that of other Sharks. The Porbeagle is said to be a
more rapid swimmer than most of them, a statement
apparentl}- borne out by the powerful caudal fin and
the keeled, robust tail, which in ueai-ly all fishes is the
principal organ of locomotion.

The food of the Porbeagle consists chiefly of fishes
and Cephalopods. The Herring-shoals in particular
suffer greatly from its depredations; and several Por-
beagles often join company in the chase. Like the
preceding species these Sharks too sometimes become
entangled in Herring or Pilchard nets. Deep-sea lines
do not escape their ravages (Thompson and Day); and
many a narrative relates how the Porbeagle dashes up
to secure the Whiting, Cod, or other fish which the
fisherman has hooked.

Of the breeding of tiie Porbeagle not much is
known. The j'oung are considerably developed at birth.
The foetus described by Gunnerus, which was taken
out of the mother-tish in summer, measured "nearly
three-quarters of a Zealand ell" (47 cm.) in length.

SuNDEVALL examined a young specimen 74 cm. long,
and found that every external trace of the navel, which
is situated in the Sharks between the pectoral fins, had
disappeared. Hence he concluded that the length of
the young at birth must l)e between these two dimen-
sions. In a female cited by Pennant oidv two foetuses
were found.

Tile Porl)eagle is not much sought after by Scan-
dinavian fishermen, for the liver is small and lean, with
a scanty yield of oil, and it is onh' for this sake that
the large Sharks are taken. By accident, however, or
in the absence of better fish, the Porbeagle is caught
by the Norwegian Shark-fishermen. In the south of
the Cattegat and in the Sound it is scarcely ever taken
except when it entangles itself in the nets set for other
fishes. The skin is fairly well adapted for the polishing
of articles of fine workmanshij), in wood or horn for
instance, and it is also applied to this purpose. The
hard scales withstand a consideralile amount of wear.

The flesh of this species, like tliat of many other
Sharks, has a disagreeable smell, and it is hardly eaten
in Sweden; but in Italy and Spain it enjoys a better
reputation.

(SUNDEVALL, SmITT.)

CxENus CETORHINUS'.

Teeth numerous, small, conieal. BritnvhhiJ ((nhcs fiiruislivd icUli Jialecn-Jike, fine, hniq, and dense f/ill-raJiers.

Anterior i/ilI-ope)iiiif/s extended across the ureater part of the sides of the bodi/. Tail irith transrerse t/rooves in

front of the eaadal fin and irith the sides longitudiriaUii carinated. Caudal fin crescent-shaped.

The genus of the Basking Shark occupies within
the Lamnoid family a position analogous to that of the
Hounds in the preceding family; but in the Basking
Shark, tlie solitary species of the geiuis, the reduction
of the ja-\v-teeth has advanced still furthei", these organs
having scarcely retained any function, at least in the
capacity of Shark-teeth. The genus conseciuently does
not belong to those commonly known as ])redator}'
fishes; but it contains the most gigantic piscine forms.
As we have mentioned above, it shares with another
genus of huge fishes (Bhinodou) a manner of life si-
milar to that of the large whales. Notwithstanding its
own gi'eat size, it lives exclusively on minute creatures,

which it strains oft' from the seawater l)y means of its
gill-rakers. This manner of procuring food calls for a
wide mouth and a capacious pharynx, with room for
the filtering apparatus; and herewitli is connected the
great width of the branchial arches and apertures. In
the remaining characters we easily recognise a form
akin to the Porbeagle. The most important external
difference to be found on comparison is that in the ' '
Basking Shark the second dorsal fin stands entirely in
front of the perpendicular from the begiiniing of the IJ
anal fin or nearly so. *

The name of Cetorhinus means Whale-Shark, and
has reference in the first place to the dimensions of

From the Latin squalor, filth.

Blnvlle, Bull. Soc. Philoni. Paris, 1816, p. 121.

1143

THE BASKING SHARK (sw, maoDEN).
CETOIMII.NUS MAXIMl'S.

Fig. 331.

Form of the head hi old specimens fairly normal, with short, hlunthj poinded, conical snout, in the younrf {up to
a lenyth of .? — 5 m.) contracted in front of the mouth info o scmici/Iindrical, inferiorly flat forepart {orbit orostral
liiirtioii), irith diirsally pointed tipi of the snout. The small spiracles situated hiijh up. Just behind the perpen-
dicular from the corners of the mouth or further back, sometimes about half-Kay between the eyes and the top
of the first giU-opening. Coloration above of a brownish or bluish black, underneath lighter, shading into tvhite.

The soft snout, with its numerous pores, reddish.

Fig. 331. Tlic Basking Sliark (Cetor/imus maximns): A and i?, a youn.<r specimen in the Museum of Genoa University, after Pavesi, ',3
nat. size; C, the specimen described by Bl.u.sville (&]iiale pelerin, Nov. 21, 1810. Dieppe), about '5, nat. size, after Todd's

copy of Bl.^invii.le's figure.

Scandinavian fishe

144

1144

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Si/ii. Bn/i/de, Strum, Soucbit. Besl-r., pt. I, p. 273. Beinliaakall,
Oi.AFS., Reis. fsl., p. !I88.
6'i]ual>is tnaxivm^. GtN-NKu., Trondhj. Sulsk. Skr., vol. III. p.
33, tab. II; vol. IV, p. 14, tab. IV, fig. 1; LiN., Syst.
Nat., ed. XII, toin. I, p. 400; Penn. (Basking shark),
Brit. Zool, vol. III (ed. 177G), p. 89, tab. XIII; (?) F.^br.,
Fna Groent., p. 130; Mitch., Trans. Litt., Phil. Soc, N.
York, vol. I, p. 486; Cuv. (snbg. Selache), Rcgn. Anim.,
eil. 1, toiii. II, p. 1-29; F.M)., Fiscb. IsL, p. 20; NiLSS.
{/Sijualus), Prodr. Ichtln/ol. .SVonrf., p. 114; Yarr. (Se-
lachus), Brit. Fish., cd. 1, vol. II, p. 396; MCli,., Hle
(Selache), Plagiost., pp. 71 et 191; Dek. (Helachus), Zool.
N. York, pt. Ill, p. 357, tab. 63, fig. 208; Kb. (Selache),
Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 932; NrLSS., Skand. Fna, Fisk.,
p. 720; Couch, Fish. Brit, hi., vol. I, p. 60, tab. XIV
( + Poljiprosopus Rashleighanus, p. 67 + Polypr. macer, p.
68, tab. XV et vol. IV, ].. 421, tab. XV*); DOm., Hist.
Nat. Poi.'^s. (su. a Buff.), torn. I, p. 413, tab. 3, tig. 18;
Stor. (Selachus), Mem. Ainer. Acad. Arts, Sc., ii. ser., vol.
IX, p. 229, tab. XXXVII, fig. 3; Gthr (Selache), Cat. Brit.
Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 394; Step (Selachus), Overs. D.
Vid. Selsk. Foih. 1873, p. 47, tab. II; Pav., Ann. Mus. Civ.
Genova, vol. VI (1874), p. 5, tabb. I— III; vol. XII (1878),
p. 348, tab. Ill; Coll. (Selache), Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia
1874, Tillajgsh., p. 209; (Selachus) ibid. 1879, No. 1, p. 103;
Gerv., P et H. (Sgualus 1. Cetorhinus), Journ. Zool., toin. V
(1876), p. 319; Ltkn (Selachus), Vid. Meddel. Naturb. For.
Kblivn 1879 — 80, p. 62; MoR. (Selache), Hist. Nat. Poiss.
Fr., loiii. I, p. 305; Doderl., Man. Ittiol. Medit., fasc. II,
p. 70; D,\Y, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 303, tab. CLVIII,
fig. 1; Lu.L.i., ^.'fi'., Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 633.
Squahis Gunnerianus, Blnvlle, Journ. Phys., torn. LXXI (1810),
p. 256, tab. II (+Squ. pelegrinus + Squ. Homianus, p.
257); Id., Squ. Pelerin, Ann. Mus. D'Hist. Nat., torn. XVIII
(1811), p. 88, lab. 6; Id., Cetorhinus Ounneri + Cet. Pere-
grinus + Cet. Shtivianus + Cet. Homianus (?), Bull. Sc. Soc.
Philora. 1816, p. 121.
Squalus isodus, Maori, Att. Accad. R. Sc. Borbon., Nap., vol. I
(1819), p. 55, lab. I, fig. 1; tab. II, fig. 2 (+ Squ. ro-
stratus, p. 76, tab. 1, fig. 2). Squnlu.i (Cetorhinus) rostratus,
Cornish, Zoologist, vol. XXVIII (1870), p. 2259.
Squalus eUphas, Lesueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Hist. Pliilad., toiii.
II (1882), p. 343.

The Basking Shark attain.s a length of at least about
13 or 15 m. Larger specimens are cited; but the ac-
counts of these do not adniit of satisfactory verification.
GuNNERUS states, for instance, that specimens have been
met with measuring 16 fathoms (30 m.) in length
and 3 fathoms (5 '/a m-) in breadth. A specimen of
this size would j'ield over 28 hectolitres of liver; and
according to a statement in Collett a Basking Shark
was harpooned in West Fjord about 1868 that con-
tained 23 tunnor (27 hectolitres) of liver. Nilsson
was informed by the fishermen on the west coast of
Norway with wliuui he ctmversed in 1826, that they
harpooned Basking Sharks every year considerably more

tlian 40 ft. (12 m.) long, and that the liver of each
fish filled 10 — 12 tunnor. The largest Basking Sharks
they had seen, had yielded 14 tunnor of liver.

Apart from the above-mentioned characters, the
Basking Shark in form of body rather closely resembles
a Porbeagle, being of a terete, fusiform shape, on the
back rather flat, behind with some lateral compression,
though broadened by the lateral carinas of the tail,
which render the breadth of this part greater than
the depth. The greatest depth of the Ijody measures
in young specimens, according to Pavesi, about 10 — 12 %
of its length, in old, according to Blainville, about
18 %, according to Dodeklein as much as 22 %, of
the same.

The different foi'in of the head in the young and
old we have remarked abo\'e. The alteration is essen-
tially due to the position of the cleft of the mouth,
which in the joiuig is transverse, as in the Rays, in
the old curved, as in other Sharks. The corners of the
mouth, which during youth are directed straight out-
wards, form the rounded protuberances on the sides of
the head behind the eyes. In the jaws the recurved,
conical, but sharp-edged, pointed teeth are set in 4 — 7
transverse rows, l)ut are so small that they "are often
concealed by the gums and accumulated filth" (GuN-
nerus). In a Basking Shark 39 dm. long they are
3 mm. high, according to Lilljeborg. Stoker counted
1,400 teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils lie on the
under surface of the snout, but close to either side-
margin, much nearer to the eyes than to the tip of the
snout. The relative length both of the snout and the
entire head is considerably greater in the young than
ill the old. In the former, according to Pavesi, the
length of the snout is about '/jo or V13 of that of the
body, in the latter '/g,, of the same or less. The length
of the head to the first gill-opening is in the former
about ' ., — Vo) i" flif latter at most less than ' ,.,, of
the le'ngth of the liody". The eyes, which are round
and small, undergo, as usual, the same alteration of
growth. According to Pavesi the diameter of the orbit
in the young is about '/s of ^be breadth of the head
at the base of the snout; according to Storer this dia-
meter measures in an older specimen '/j of the inter-
orbital width. The gill-openings extend across so con-
siderable a portion of the sides (the throat) that the
distance between the tops of the first pair is only twice

According to Stober the length of the head in a specimen 9' 4 m. long was 15'7 % of that of the body.

BASKING SHARK.

1145

the (liiuueter of the orbits, between those of the second
pair three times tlie same diameter, of the third pair
five times, of the fourth pair seven times, and of the
fifth ])air nine times, in each case according to Stoker's
measurements. Tlic gill-rakers (tig. 332) have claimed
a sjiccial cliapter in literature. They are long and fine,
apparentl)' corneous, transversal seta?, uniserial on the
first and last Ijranchial arches, biserial on tlic others.
Even rirxNERL's descril)ed them" as foi-ming a kind of
strainer; and a xci'v characteristic indication of their
structure is his opinion that it was by clinging to
them tliat the proj)het Jonah escaped being engulfed in
the maw of his captor — a Basking Shark, not a whale,
being tiie monster that swallowed this remarkal)le man.
In 1867'', witliout knowing what the objects were
or whence they had come, but guided by their micro-
scopical texture, Hannover determined some dry frag-
ments of these gill-rakers, preserved in tlie ^luseums of
Copenhagen, Kiel, and Christiania, as a kind of squa-
mous or spinous growth belonging to some Ray. Tlie
same texture, answering to that of dentine, was detected
by v. Benedex in 1871' in similar substances from the
Antwerp Crag, and he assigned them to a Ray otherwise
unknown, \vliicli lie called Hannocera aurafa. Steen-
.STKUP (1. c.) and, after him, Geuvais (P. and H., 1. c.)
have since maintained both that these gill-rakers afford
one of the most important characters of the genus Ve-
torJiiniis, and that v. Bexeden's find carries tlie existence
of the genus back at least to the Tertiary epoch.

The fins are very like those of the Porbeagle ; but
their outer (posterior) margin is less incurved. The first
dorsal begins at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring aljout 40 — 36 %, and its base occupies about
10 — 9'/2 %, of the length of the body. Its height some-
times measures, according to Storer, 14\'2 % of the
length of the body. The distance between the two
dorsal fins is about 18' , — 19 ?^ of the said length.
The second dorsal and the anal fins are about '3 as
large as the first dorsal. The superior caudal lobe
measures about 19 — 21 % of the length of the body,
and the inferior lolie is about ^/^ as long. The median
breadth of the caudal fin, from the upper transverse
groove, is about ecpud to the length of the base of the
first dorsal. A little within the tij) the under margin

of the superior lol)e lias tlie same notch as in the Por-
beagle. The pectoral fins arc rather more than twice
as long as broad. Their length is about 18* of that
of the body. Tlic ventral fins, according to Pavesi's
figures, are obli(|ucl\- ipiadrangular. Their length is
about the same as the breadtli of the pectorals. The
preabdorainal length is about e(jual to the distance be-
tween the beginnings of the two dorsal fins.

The thick skin is armed with sharp and strong
spines — small in cmiiparison to the size of tlie body.

■mw

Fig. 332. Gill-rakers of the tasking Sliark .4, an t\nsccl brantliial

arcb, on a reduced scale, after E. Perceval Wright (Aatttre, vol. XIV

(1876), p. 313); B, part of a row of gill-rakere, nat. size, after

Hannover .incj Steenstrup.

"... "fine, stiff, lustrous black strings, resembling bristL
a round, rartilaginous arch, of a thumb's thickness".

' D. Vid. Scls. -Math. Natur. Skr., 5:te Rsekke, Bd VII, p. 489.

' bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., ser. 2, torn. XXXI, p. 504, pi. II, tig. 16.

horse-liair. all with one cud attac-lic<l to and bans

over one side of

1146

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

but large enough to draw Ijlood from the finger, if
incautiously handled — gathered in patches or series,
with interstices between, tliat give the body an ap-
pearance like that of elej)hant-hide. Hence the name
conferred ujion tiie species by Lesueur.

The Basking Shark is a pelagic fish of the Nortli
Atlantic", whose manner of life calls to mind in many
ways that of the whales, which it also rivals in size.
A line between North Africa and Virginia forms the
soutliern limit of its geographical range, so far as this
has been investigated up to the present time; and the
species roves northwards to Iceland and the extreme
north of Norway, even to Varanger Fjord, principally,
no doubt, witliin the area of the Gulf Stream. At all
events it does not a])pear to be, strictly s])eaking, an
arctic fish; and the old accounts from Greenland of
an immensely large Shark, whicli was said to devour
dolphins (especially whitefish), rorquals, and humpbacks,
whereon Fauricius based his statement'' that the Bask-
ing Siiark occurred on the coast of Greenland, have
been assigned by Lutken (1. c.) to the category of
fables. The comparatively small e}'es and the firm,
thick skin are in themselves sufficient to suggest that
the Basking Shark is no deep-sea fish, properly so call-
ed; and the probability that its life is passed in the
upper levels of the ocean is further increased by the
nature of the food to wiiich it is evidently referi'ed.
As yet, it is true, we know but little of the bathy-
metric distribution in the oj)en sea of those minute
creatures — chiefly lower crustaceans, in general so-
called Entomostraca, and the larvie or even the eggs of
fishes and invertebrates — which compose the diet both
of the lai'ge whales and the Basking Shark. Investiga-
tions into the biological conditions at various depths in,>
the high seas, vigorously pursued as they have been
since first instituted by the Swedish expedition in 1869
on board the corvette Joseph hie'', have still much left
to teach us. But we already know that the supplv of
animal food of this kind in the upper strata of the open
sea is plentiful at depths varying with the changes of
the weather or the set of the currents, and that it
fluctuates at different seasons of the j'eai-. Guided
hereby, the Basking Shai'k too probably shifts its quar-

ters. The course taken by the Gulf Stream affords an
explanation why the Basking Shark is found more fre-
quently off the north of Norway than on the south
coast and has never been met with in the Skager Rack
or Cattegat. In the North Sea it is rarer than on the
west and south coasts of Great Britain and Ireland.
On the west coast of France and in Portuguese waters
it has been taken once or twice. It penetrates into the
Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar (Doder-
lein). On the east coast of North America it occurs
in the same manner as on this side of the Atlantic.

The Basking Shark is a peaceable and sluggish
creature, harmless to man or other animals of any magni-
tude, and asserting its presence only by roving in quest
of food at the surface, sometimes with snout above the
water. When it accelerates its pace, cleaving the waves
with the projecting dorsal and caudal fins, and when
it swims in a company of several, one behind another,
it presents an appearance that may well have dictated
an occasional contribution to the history of the great
sea-serpent. Or the same phenomenon may be suggested
to the imagination by a sight of this fish as it lies
during calm weather in repose at the surface, often
with the bellj' upwards, and as the waves lap its rotund
l)ody. The name of Basking Shark was conferred upon
it by Pennant in exchange for the older name of Sun-
fish employed on the Irish and Welsh coasts, an allusion
to its habit of lying motionless at the surface, as if
basking in the sun. Yet extremes meet, even in the
temperament of the Basking Shark; and it has some-
times been seen to leap several feet out of the water.

In spring the Basking Shark approaches the Irish
coast. Whether this is done for purposes of propaga-
tion, is unknown. Pennant found in a female a foetus
about 3 dm. long; but he does not state the time of
year. On the west coast of Ireland, about 100 miles
west of Clew Bay, is a bank long celebrated for its
Basking Shark fishery. Off Tory Island too (N. W.
coast of Ireland) companies of 60 to 100 Basking Sharks
have been seen. In certain years they are commoner;
during others they perhaps do not put in an iippearance.
From this locality they seem to migrate northwards
along the west coast of Scotland.

" BROWN-GoonE indeed states (Fisher., Fisher, hulustr. U. i>., sect. I, p. 669) that tlie Basking Shnrli is nut unfrequently harpooned
by whalers on the Pacific coast, where a specimen of this species was examined at Monterey (California) hy JoiiDAN and Gilbekt; but in tln'ir
Synopsis of the Fishes of North America the latter writers do not mention a word about this.

' Fna Oroenl., p. 130.

"■ See Smitt: De senaste dreiis undersokniiigar om hafsfaunans gratis mot djupet, in the periodical Fraintiden for 1870, p. 345.

BASKING SHARK.

147

"The Basking Slinrk fishory," writes Nii.ssdx tVi)in
notes taken nbout seventy years :\<^t>. "('(jnunenees on
the west coast of Norway about the middle of August.
The boats used are about 18— "20 ells (107—119 dm.)
long, carry all tlie tackle re(|uisite for the HsherA', and
are manned by a crew of four. These l)oats cruise
along the coast, and tin; Shark generally appears in
their Avake and conies close t(j the boat, but is some-
times found King still at tiie surface. ( )mc of tiie
crew tiien takes the hai'])oon, wliich is furnished with
a long siiaft (a jiole), and plunges it witli all ids might
into the fish. The others lend a helping hand, 'but
the nionu'iit tiie lione is touclied, lie i)lunges to the
bottom.' The -iiarpoon-line, whit'ii is aliout 14 — 15
score fatlioms (.530 — 565 in.) long, and which lies coiled
up (kreilet) and clear, runs out so rapidly that water
must be poured on the bulwark to prevent it from
catching fire. On reaching tlie bottom the Basking
Shark swims along until exhausted, towing the boat
out to sea. Sometimes, if lean, it can liold out for
twenty-four hours; if fat, it gives in after three or four
hours. When it is tired out, they haul it up alongside
the boat, and with a long knife cut the tail in front
of the caudal tin, not i|uite oft', for, if so treated, it
would stave in the liuat with lashes of the maimed
limb; they leave a part of the fin hanging fast. After-
wards they stab it to deatii with lances; then turn it
belly upwards in the watei-, and lash it fast to the mast.

Now one of tiie fishermen takes a long knife and cuts
out a great piece at tlie fore (^nd of the livei-, wiiere-
upon lie inserts liis arm and severs all the bands and
ties of the liver. Finally he cuts open tiie belly with
a single slit, when the livei' comes out and floats on
the water like a bolster; but at the same moment the
water rushes into tiie beilv of the fisii, and the lashings
must be cut loose with haste, or tiie boat will sink."
Tills fishery was commenced, according to Gunnkhus, at
the middle of the eighteenth century, and was still
practised, according to Nilsson, in 1820 — 1880; but it
lias now been abandoned as a special occupation, and
for tile last forty years the Basking Shark has been
s])oken of in Norway almost as a rarity.

The Basking Shark is most souglit after for its
liver, which yields an excellent oil; but according to
GuNxicHUs the poor at lea.st were accustomed in his
time to cut rukJiiKj and raf" from tiie flesli of the
Basking Shark. Tiie outer skin is used for jiolishing
purposes; and the thick true skin is manufactured into
saddles and shoe-soles.

The Norwegian name of tiie Basking Shark is ])ro-
nounced both bnu/de and bryi/de. Olafsex cites from
Iceland the names of Jli/ner and Beinhaakal (Bony
Greenland Shark), tlie latter having reference to the
greater tirmness which its skeleton displays than that
of the Greenland Shark and of the smaller Siiarks. In
Ens'land too it is known as the Bone Shark.

Fam. SCYLLIID.E.

Tu-o dor.-^al fins (unl one anal, the ^/irsf dorsal sttaafcd above the re>itral tins or behind the perpendkidar there-
from: none of them irith sj>ine. Eijes icifhoitf nictifafinc/ mendirane. Spiraeles open, comparatlveltj larf/e.

Sharks of rather considerable dimensions and some-
times dangerous to man'' are indeed not wanting within
tlie jiresent family, liut most of the 25 species are
middle-sized. or small. B}- GCxther the Scyllioids are
distributed among 7 genera. From the preceding Sharks
they dift'er both in form of body and manner of life.
Instead of pelagic rovers we here meet for tlie most
part with bottom-iishes and littoral species of nocturnal
habits, hiding themselves by day among seaweeds, on
the sand or under rocks, where thej' lurk for prey.

The fins are consequently of a more rounded or trun-
cate form. The tail too is straighter. running in a
line with the trunk, and without any marked upward
curvature of the caudal fin, the tip of which forms a
diplucercal lobe, in most cases not very obliquely cut,
the anterior part of the lower caudal lobe being similar
in shape to the anal fin. Another character of fairly
general validity in tliis family is the great development
of the nostrils, which is frequeiitlj" so advanced that
these apertures are confluent, as in the Ka}\s, with the

" See above, p. 415.

' Tlie Australian WoObeijong {Vrc

rhimis), see Hill in TENlsON-\yooLis, Fish and Fisheries of N. 6'. Wales, p. 94.

1148

SCANDINAVIAN FIvSHES.

mouth, being separated from each other and covered
within by a sometimes continuous nasal valvule. The
mouth too of some forms is set very far forward, close
to the tip of the snout, and fringed with dermal flaps.
None of these Sharks gives birth, so far as is known,
to living young.

Within the Scandinavian fauna three species have
been observed, belonging to two very similar genera:

A: Dorsal margin along the beginning of

the caudal fin armed with spines Fristiurus catulus.

B: Dorsal margin without special spiny
armatuie.

a: Inner posterior corners of the ven-
tral fins acutely prolongated, in the

males coalescent with each other.. Scylliorhiims canicula.
h: Inner posterior corners of the ven-
tral fins obtuse, in the males se-
parated from each other Scylliorliinus stellaris.

Obs. De Filippi and Verani" have described from tlie Mediter-
raneaQ a Scyllium acanthonotuvi, distinguished by a row of spines ou
eacb side of the back, extending from the middle of the head nearly
to tlie end of tlie first dorsal fin.- Of the species, however, they had
seen only a young individual with vitelline capsule attached. GOn-
theh' was of the opinion that this young specimen belonged to one
of the above-mentioned jSci/ltiorhini ; GlGLlOLl" referred it to Pristiu-
riis. Tht correct explanation may be left to the future; but it seems
likely that the spin}' armature is a character of youth which dis-
appears entirely in Sc7/llioi-/iinus, partially in Pristiurus.

Genus PRISTIURUS''.

Nostrils so remote from each other and from the mouth that the distance between their inner angles is perceptibly
greater than that between either of them and the mouth, somewhat greater than their length, and about equal to
the distance between their outer angles and the orbital margin. Distance between, the mouth and the tip of the
snout greater than the postorbital length of the head {to the frsf brancliiul aperture). Anterior part of the upper
caudal margin (tig. 333, a) armed on each side u-itli a row of retral serrated spines.

This genus contains only one species, which is
more nearly appro.ximated by the situation and deli-

Fig. 333. Egg-capsule of the Black-mouthed Dog-fish (Pristiurus ca-
tulus) from the fishing-bank of Jaderen. Nat. size, a, a part of the
upper edge of the caudal fin in a Black-mouthed Dog-fish 67 cm. long,
superior aspect, X 5 to show the serrated spines and the scale-rows
on the dorsal margin between them.

mitation of the nostrils to the preceding genus than is
the case with the succeeding one. It also has a more
finely shagreened skin than Scglliorhiniis. In these Sharks,
as we have seen in numerous Teleosts, e. g. the Gobies
and Salmons, the scales of the tail are larger than those
on the anterior part of the trunk. Here we also find
that the plaeoid scales of the tail approach more and
more to the form of the jaw-teeth, least so, however,
in Pristiurus. Besides the above-mentioned characters
this genus displays the peculiarity that the tip of the
tail is bent downwards, ^vhereas in the following genus
it is straighter. The egg-capsules of Pristiurus (fig.
333) are distinguished by the absence of horns at the
extremity directed backwards in the uterus, which end
is rounded by the incurvature of the corners and in-
cised at the tip, while the liorns at the other end,
one at each corner, are as short as in tJie egg-shells
of the Raj's.

" Mem. R. Accad. Sc. Torino, ser. 2, tom. XVIIl (1809), p. 193, tab., fig

* Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 403.

' Espos. Intern. Pesca Berlin 1880, Sez. Ital., p. 112.

^ BoNAP., Fna Ital., Pesci. Established as a subgenus of .':ici/llium.

1149

THE BLACK-MOUTHED DOG-FISH (sw. hagalen).
PinsTHKrs (ATULUS.

Plate LI, fig. 2.

Coloration ahovc of a rcddisli ar ijroiniish ijrai/, with spots darker than the ground-roloar Iml vith a liqhter
border, and varying in size and form, nsuaUy larger, quadrangular or rounded, next the hack, smaller down the sides.
Dorsal fins behind, the other mipaired fins at the base more or less cinereous, at the tops darker. Pectoral and
ventral fins of the same colour as the hack or sides, hut immaculate, pcding outwards. Ventral side white. Mouth
and pharynx, as well as the branchial cavity and peritoneum, black. Iris light blue.

&'>/n. Haae-Gicgle, Stb5m, Sondm. Beskviv., part. I, p. 283.

Squalus Uatutus (Haae-Gwlen), Gunner., Troudh. Selsk. Skr.,
vol. II, p. 235; Asc.\N. (Rodhaae), Icon. Rer. Nat., tab.
XXXVIII; Risso, Ichth. Nice. p. 30 (p. p.; femiuam Scyllio-
rhini caniculce credidit); LiLL.1. (Pristiuriis), Sv., Norg. Fna,
Fish, vol. Ill, p. 657.

Galeiis melastomns, Rafin., Caratteri N. Gen., N. Sjk, p. 13;
Yarr., Brit. Fif/i., vol. II, ed. 1, p. 375 {Scyllimn), ed.
2, p. 495 (Pfistiiinis); Bonap. {Prisliurus tnelatiostomtis),
Fna Ital., Pesri. tab. 131, fig. 3; MUll., Hle, Plagiost.,
p. 15, tab. 7; Lowe, Fish. Madeira, p. 93, tab. XIV;
Kr. {Scylliuin melastomum), Danm. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 832;
Gthr (^Pristiuriis melanostomus), Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish... vol.
VIII, p. 406; Coll., Forh. Vid. Sels. Chrnia 1874, Till.-Bgsh.,
p. 211; N. Mag. Naturv., Bd 29 (1884), p. 117; Malm,
Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 623; Winth., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn,
ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 58; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr., toin.
I, p. 284; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel, vol. II, p. 314,
tab. CLX, fig. 1; Storm, N. Vid. Sels. Skr. 1883, Trondlij.,
p. 43.

Scyllium Artedi, Risso, Euv. Merid., torn. Ill, p. 117; Barb.
Boo., Cap. {Pristiunts), Pei.t. Plagiost., p. 11.

Squalus annulatus. Nilss., Prodr. Ichtliyol. Scand., p. 114;
{Scyllirm), Skand. Fna, Fish., p. 713.

The Black-mouthed Dog-fish attains according to
Stoum a length of 80 cm., according to Moreau of 90
cm.; but it is commonly smaller. Our specimens from
Scandinavia measure between 33 and 68 cm. The largest
are females. The body is of the elongated Shark-form,
with flattened snout, more terete, though somewhat de-
pressed head, behind which the vertical section is more
or less triangular (hog-backed), and more or less com-
pressed tail, almost flattened on tlic sides, the depth
just in front of the caudal fln being about twice the
thickness. The greatest depth, at the pectoral fins, is
in the males about 9 %, in the females about 10' o %,
of the length of the body. The greatest breadth falls
within the head, just in front of the fir.st brancliial
aperture, and varies, as usual, with the di.stension of
the jaws and branchial apertures, being somewhat less

Fig. 334. Ventral side of a Black-mouthed Dog-fisli (Pristiitrus ca-

tulus), $, from the fishing-bank of Jaderen. Nat. size. The anterior

outer lobe (lae) of the right nostril is raised to show the anterior

inner (/</)') and the posterior outer (Ipe) lobes.

or greater than the greatest depth. The least depth
of the tail, just in front of the caudal fin. is about
4 — 4'/, % of the length of the body.

1 1 50

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The head occupies about 17 (I?',,,) — 15 (14'8) %
of the length of the hody, and differs essentially from
that of the following genus in the length of the snout,
wliicli measures nearly half (49V2 — 46 %) of that of
the liead. Tiie snout is translucent, and its skin is
pierced with nuinei'ous ampullar orifices, arranged above
in series so as to form oblong patches on each side of
tlie median line, below in the manner illustrated in
fig. 334. The nostrils, wliicli are directed obliquely
inwards and backwards from the edge of the snout,
have the anterior overla])])ing margin double (cf. above,
im the To])e), and the outer lobe (/we) has a pointed
tiiangular Ha]), tlie base of which is continued inwai-ds,
the inner (/(//) an obtuse, more or less rounded flap,
belonginir to tiie outer jiart of the nostril. Exactly
opposite the last-mentioned flap there projects a more
deep-seated, more tubercular lobe (Jpe) fi'om the pos-
terior margin of the nostril. In this manner the nostril
is incompletely divided, as that of the Ravs, into nn
outer (anterior) and an inner (a posterioi') part; but
the latter is not confluent either with the nostril of
the opposite side or with the mouth. The distance
between the inner ends of the two nostrils is .somewiiat
more tlian '3 (in the younger among our specimens
about 3(i %, in the older about 34V2 %) of the length
of the snout; and the distance from either of these
ends to the mouth varies between '/, and ^/j of the
former distance. The orbits are oblong, the vertical
diameter being about "/s of tiie longitudinal or even
less, and the longitudinal diameter measuring about
half tlie length of tlie snout, somewhat more or less,
or about "/g of the interorbital width. Exactlj' behind
the orbits — at a distance from them rather greater
than their length — lie the spiracles, whose diameter
is about ','4 of tliat of the former. The mouth is semi-
circular, the lower jaw being somewhat more pointed
tlian the upjier, and is so situated that the anterior
margin of the upper ja^\• lies in a line witii tlie |n'e-
orbital margin or a little behind the perpendicular there-
from, the tip of the lower jaw almost below the centre
of the eyes. Lips are wanting, but the corners of the
mouth arc elevated and posteriorly bounded by a rather
deep semicircular groove. The teeth are pointed, with
one or two lateral denticulations on each side of the
main cusp. They are set in a quincunx of three — live
series, which gives them the appearance of being dis-
triliuted in some thirty longitudinal rows running
obliquely backwards and outwards across the jaws. The

tongue is fleshy and flat, as in most of the Sharks.
The gill-openings are middle-sized, the hindmost being
.set above the beginning of the pectoral flu.

The dorsal fins are characterized, as in the follow-
ing genus, by their similarity to each other both in
form and size; lint in these fins, as in tlie other un-
paired fins, it siiiiuld lie ol)serve(l that the forward
extension of the anterior margin varies in different in-
dividuals, the measurement of the basal length being
thus rendered uncertain. The distance from the tip of
the snout to the first dorsal fin is about 45 (44'/2 —
47' 2) %, to the second about 63 (62—64) %, of the
length of the body; the interval between the two fins
measures between 13 and 14 % of the said length.
Their form is obliquely quadrilateral, with the jiosterior
corner almost rectangular. The length of their base
varies between 4 and 4' „ % (sometimes nearly 5 %),
and tiicir liciglit l)etween 5 and 6' 2 "o, of the length
of the bod}'. The first dorsal fin lies opposite to the
anterior part of the space between the ventral and anal
fins, the second to the posterior part of the anal fin.
The last-mentioned fin, which has an unmistakable re-
semblance to the anterior part of the lower caudal lobe
(an obliquely trapezoidal form, gradually attenuated
behind, with pointed infero-posterior corner and slightly
concave under margin), is here distinguished by its
length — about 15 — 16 % of that of the body, and in
the females 4 times or less, in the males u|) to 5 times
the greatest height of the fin. The distance between
the tip of the snout and the beginning of the anal fin
measures in full grown females perceptibly more than
'/b (about 54 %), in males and young females about
','2 or less (49—51 ?»), of the length of the body. The
caudal fin is expanded at the end, obliquely truncate,
with somewhat rounded corners. Its length from the
beginning of the anterior lobe is inoix' than ''4 (27'/j
to nearly 33 %) of the length of tiie body.

The pectoral fins are broad, obliquely truncate,
■with rounded corners. Their length at the anterior
margin varies between 10 and 12' 2 *» their base be-
tween 6'/ 2 :tnd 8 %, of the length of the body. The
ventral fins are quadrangular, low but long, with the
posterior corner pointed. Their base is longer than that
of the pectorals — in the females about 8' 2 %, in the males
about 9 %, of the length of the body — but their iieight
(breadth) is only about '/g or ^ '^ of the length of the base.

The lateral line is quite distinct, from the very
temples, and at first runs about half as far from the

KOUSSETTES.

llol

dorsal margin as from the ventral, but on the tail at
about the middle of the sides, until it reaches the an-
terior |),irt (if the caudal fin, where it bends down-
wards ill a loop to the lower third of the depth of
the l)ody.

The Black-mouthed Dog-fish is most known in the
Mediterranean and on the coasts of Portugal and Nor-
way, this being probably due to the circumstances that
it generally lives at a depth of about 100 — 250 fthms.,
and that fisheries at this depth are most developed in
the said localities. But it also roves into higher strata,
being met with, though seldom, in the North Sea, and
penetrating in the Skager Hack and Cattegat into 40

fathoms of wafer (Malm) off Bohusliln and in Christia-
nia Fjord, or even, as once happened, in March, 1847,
according to Nilsson, into the Sound off Kk-k. Lowe
has described it from Madeira; according to Collett
it has been fmind off Trumsu. It thus lias a wide
geographical range in the North Atlantic.

The food of the Black-mouthed Dog-fish consists
of fish and crustaceans. It takes the ordinary bait of
deep-sea lines. During spring and summer the female
deposits iier singular eggs (fig. 333), two at a time,
as described bj- Gunnerus. The life of this species is
otherwise little known; but where it is taken in any
number, the Hcsh is considci-ed eatable.

Genls SCYLLIORHINUS '.

Nostrils approximated behind to the mouth or even meetin(] the anterior margin of the nipper Jaiv, the distance
hetneen tvhirh margin and the tip of the snout is less than the postorhitaJ length of the head. Upper edge of

the caudal fin without prominent serrations.

As lias been hinted above, the difference from the
jirecediug genus is rather inconsiderable. The most
important distinction consists in the advancement of the
mouth and the more or less marked prolongation of the
nosti'ils back towards the mouth cavity. Consequently
we also find in the genus Scglliorhinns that the tip of
the lower jaw is in a line with or even in front of the
])reorbital margin. The genus is indeed without seri-a-
tions at the upper edge of the caudal fin, though these
may sometimes be traced in the difference between the
large s])iny scales in the upper rows on each side and
tlie smaller and smoother ones in the median dorsal
line at the said spot; but it has a compensation for
tiiem in the stronger development of the spiny scales
on each side of the body aliove and behind the anal
fin, which almost exactly resemble jaw-teeth.. These
scales literally form a rasp, which the fish uses as a
defensive weapon.

To the characteristics of the genus also belongs
the form of the egg-capsules (fig. 33.5). These are
similar to those of the Rays, oblong, rectangular, and
flattened, hut with one half thicker than the other.
.Vt each corner they are furnished witli a long (mea-
suring sometimes half a metre) filamentous appendage.
When the first pair of these tendrils emerge from the

cloaca, the female coils them round a branch of sea-
weed or coral, where the egg is left hanging. Two
eggs, as a rule, become simultaneously ripe for exclu-
sion, one in each uterus; and the female deposits them

i'ig. 335. Egg of Nurse Hound (Sci/lliorliiniis stellaris), cut open to
sliow tliC enclosed foetus, and willi the posterior (the first excluded)
cnid turned downwards. Nat. size. After Moreau, who further states
tliat tlic ova of this species differ from those of the Rough Hound
in tliat the thickened side-margins are transversely striped.

° 2y.i).lov in Aristotle, elsewhere av.ikaE (lanicula in Gaza), = irhelp.

.'!crindimn-iaii Fishes.

1152

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

in pairs, at certain intervals. In the course of a month
a female Nurse Hound has been seen to lay 18 eggs.
The eggs deposited early in April were hatched at the
beginning of December (Coste, Comptes Rendus, Ja-
nuary 21, 1867).

The systematic name of the genus, Scylliorhinus,
was coined by Blainvili>e in 1816 and must be re-
cognised, as Jordan and Gilbert" have proposed, in
deference to the accejrted laws of nomenclature, although
the Cuvierian name of Sei/Uium has hitherto been in

general use. The Swedish name of Bodhajar (Red
Sharks) is originally a Danish rendering, introduced
by Kroyer, of the French Roussettes, an alhision to
the red coloration prevalent in the family, which cha-
racteristic is further distinguished by its maculation
from the plainer dress of other Sharks. Nilsson call-
ed these Sharks dogr/fiskar, an adaptation of the Eng-
lish word.

Of the genus 8 or i) species are known from tro-
pical and temperate seas.

THE NURSE HOUND.

SCYLLIORHINUS STELLARIS.
Fig. 336.

Nasal valvules separated exactly in front of the mouth by a space equal in width to the height of the hindmost
gill-opening. Length of the head about 19 — 17 % of that of the body and greater than the distance between the
anterior margins of the tiro dorsal fns. Distance between the p)eetoral fitis and the tip of the snout at least "'5
of that between the first dorsal and the same point. Distance between the ventral fins and the tip of the snout
somewhat greater than that between the first dorsal and the eyes; their inner posterior corners obtuse, scarcely
elongated behind. Length of the base of the anal fin greater than or at least equal to the distance betu-een the
two dorsal fins. L^ength of the caudal fin from the beginning of the inferior lobe more than ''4 of the length
of the body. Greatest depth of the body about 10 — 12 %'\ least depth, in front of the caudal fin, about 4^!^ — -5%,
of the length of the body. Coloration above grayish brown, sometimes shading into yellow or red, below white.
Back, sides, and: fins, the paired ones even underneath, strewn with comparatively large roundish spots ■ — • some
{more constant) blue-black, others (sometimes indistinct or n-anting) whitish — about equal in size to the gill-
openings, smaller on the head and the forepart of the back.

Si/n. Galeus stellaris 7innor, Belon., A'at., Vivers. Poiss., p. 65.
Cauicula sa.vatilis, Rondel., De Pise, p. 383. Catubis
viaximus, Willughb.. Hist. Pise, p. 63; Ray, Sijnops.
Method. Pise, ji. i'2. I'iqualus einereus, pinnis veutralibus
discretis. Art., Ichtlnjol.. Gen. Pise, p. 69; Syn. Pise,
p. 97.

^tjualus stellaris, LlN., Si/st. Nat., ed. X, toiii. I. p. 235;
Flmng (Scyllium), Brit. Atiiin., p. 166; Bonap., Iconogr.
Fna Ital., Pesci, tab. 131, fig. 2; Thomps., Nat. Mist. Irel.,
vol. IV, p. 247; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Miis., Fi.^h., vol. VIII,
p. 402; Malm., Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forli. 1875, No. 10,
p. 33; Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 622; Lillj., <SV., Norg. Fna,
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 652; Car., Prodr. Fine Medit., vol. II.
p. 508.

•'^fjualus canicula, BrU'nn. (iiec Lin.), hhthijol. Massil., p. 4;
Bi,. (p. p.), Naturg. AiisL Fisch., part. I, p. 16, tab. CXII.

tiqualus (.Scgllium) catiilus ( + 'i!q. stellaris), Cuv., Eegn. Anim.,
ed. I. torn. II. p. 124; Yarb. (iScyllium catuliis, nee Lin.'),

Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 373; ed. 2, vol. II, p.
493; MOLL., Hle, Plagiost., p. 9. tab. 7; DUmer., Hist.
Nat. Poiss. (sii. a Buff.), toni. I, p. 316; Barb. Boc,
Cap., Pei.v. Plagiost. Portiig., p. 11; Mob., Hist. Nat.
Poiss. Fr., toin. I, p. 280; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel.,
vol. II, p. 312.

Nnrse Hound, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. I, p. 11, tab. I.

The Nurse Hound attains a length of at least
12'/., dm. (Bocage and Capello; according to Day
1.5 dm.); but so large specimens appear to be rare.
.\s a rule the length varies between about 5 and 7
dm. It is strictly a Mediterranean fish, dispersed in
the Atlantic to Ireland and England. Sometimes it
strays north to the Orkney and Shetland Islands; and

■■ Bull. U. S. Nat. Mils., No. 16, p. 869.

' Soinetiine.i. according to Douerlei.n (Man. Ittiol. Medit., fasc. II, p. 23), about 14 %.

NI'RSE IIOUN'I).

1153

on a single occasion it lias been met with in Scandi-
navian waters. In November, ISTf), ^Ialm received a
female 622 mm. long that had been taken on a Had-
dock-line north-west of Hallo, in the central portion
(if the island-belt of Bohusliln. The i'a\ourit(' haunts
of the Nurse Hound are the deepest algal /ones or

tebrates, but also of fishes. As mentioned above, it takes
the bait of long-lines set for Haddock.

From April to September ripe egg-ca])sules have
been found in the uterine dilatations of the female.
The development of the foetus in the egg after deposi-
tion is said to take nine months.

Fig. 336. Nurse Hound (•'ici/lliorliiiini <:tilhin^), (f. ' ., nat. size. From Nice. Gioi.ioi.i.

lower levels, on a stony or rocky bottom; its coloration
too indicates that it does not usually frequent the re-
gion of the green algaj, even if the females repair
thither, as Thompson states, to attach their egg-capsules
to LambiarHB. Its food is, no doubt, the ordinary diet
of the small Sharks, consisting principalh- of inver-

The skin of the Nurse Hound is considered to be
one of the best polishers — it bites marble and iron —
and after being smoothed it is employed in cover-
ing the hilts of sabres and small-swords. Its flesh
is eaten freely by the poor of Southern Europe. In
Scandinavia its oidv value is that of rarit\-.

1154

SCANDINAVIAN KISHKS.

THE ROUGH HOUND.

SGYLLIORHLXUS CANICULA.

PlatL' LI. tig. 4.

Nasal valvules in front of the mouth almost confluent, formhuj a broad dermal fold interrupted only for a rerij
short distance at the middle. Length of the head about 12^ L^ — /^"g % of that of the body and less than the
distance between the anterior margins of the two dorsal fins. Distance between the pectoral fins and the tip of
the snout about V3 (5^ — 57' ?^) of that between the first dorsal and the same point. Distance between the ventral
fins and the tip of the snout about *j,^ {77 — 83 ?i) of that between the first dorsal and the same point and less
than that between the latter fin and the eyes. Inner posterior corner of the ventral fins acutely elongated, the
two fins coalescent behind in the males. Length of the base of the anal fin about j^ — ^/j {71 — 83 %) of the
distance between the two dorsal fins. Lengtli of the caudal fin from the beginning of the inferior lobe less than
\!i {21 — 24 %) of the length of the body. Greatest depth of the body about 8'^^^ — 11 %, least depth, in front of
the caudal fin, about 3 — 5^/4 %, of the length of the body. Coloration above russet, on the sides grayish yellow,
paling downwards towards the white ventral side. Fins more or less reddish. Body more or less densely streivn
above and on the sides, as well as the fins {the paired ones only on the upper surface), tvith roundish brown
spots, densest but smallest on the head and back, more scattered but larger {though not so large as the gill-open-
ings) on the sides of the body and the fins.

fSi/Ji. Galeus sleliaris major, Belon., Nat., Div. Puiss., p. 64. Cani-
cula Aristotelis, Rondel., De Pise, p. 380. Vatulus major
vulgaris (9 adult.) + Catuliis minor (juv. et cf'), Willuqhe.,
Hist. Pise, pp. G'2 et 64. Uatuhis major vulgaris + C.
minor vulgaris, Ray, Syii. Meth. Pise, p. 22. Ajualtis ex
riifo varius, PiDiia ani medio inter aoum et caudam pinnatam
+ Squ. dorso vario; Piunis ventralibus concretis, Art., Idi-
thyol., Gen. Pise, pp. 68 et 69; Syn. Pise, p. 97. Spotted
Dog I<\sh + Lesser Spotted Dog Fish, Penn., Brit. ZooL, vol.
Ill (ed. 1776), pp. 99 et 101, tab. XIX.
iSqualus Canicula, Lin., .S'^s?. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p. 234;
Gmel., ed. XIII, p. 1490; Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 305;
Blainv. {Scylliorhinus), Bull. Sc. Soc. Pliilom. 1816, p. 121;
Cuv. (Scyllitim, subg.), E'egn. Aniin., ed. I, toin. II, p. 124;
NiLSS., Prodr. Ichthyol. Scand., p. 113; Bonap. (Scyllium),
Ifonogr. Fna Ital., tab. 131, fig. 1; MOll., Hle, Plagiost.,
p. 6, 'tab. 7; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 814; NiLSS.,
Shmd. Fna, Fish:, p. 710; Thomps., Nat. Hist. Irel, vol.
IV, p. 247; DOm., Hist. Nat. Poiss. (sii. a Bukf.), toni. I,
p. 315; Barb. Boc, Cap., Peix. Plagiost. Port., p. 1 1 ;
Fedders., Tidsekr. Fisk. Kbhvn, Aarg. 2 (1868), p. 123;
Aarg. 4 (1870), p. 339; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol.
VIII, p. 402; V. Ben., Poiss. Belg. (Mem. Acad. Sc. Belg.,
torn. XXXVIII), p. 3; Coll., Forb..Vid. Selsk. Chrnia 1874,
Tilhegsb., p. 210; 1879, No. 1, p. 104; N. Mag. Naturv.
Cliruia, Bd. 29, p. 116; Malm, Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1875,
No. 10, p. 33; Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 619; Winth., Naturb.
Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 57; Mob., Hist. Nat.
Poiss. Fr., torn. I, p. 278; Doderl., Man. Ittiol. Medit.,
fasc. II, p. 24; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit.. Irel, vol. II, p. 309,
tab. CLIX, fig. 1; Petersen, Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For.
Kl>bvii 1K84, p. 160; Lill.i., 6'v., Nory. Fna, Fisk., vol.
Ill, p. 645; Oak., Prodr. Fna; Medit., vol. 11, p. 508.
Ajualus Catiilus, Lin., 1. c, p. 235; BrOnn., Ichth. Massil,
p. 5; Bi„, Naturg. Ausl. Fisch., pt. I, p. 21, tab. CXIV;

DoNOV., Brit. Fish., tab. LV; Blainv. (Scylliorhinus), Fne
Franc, Poiss., p. 69, tab. 17, fig. 1 ( + var. Sc. Canicula,
p. 71).
P>ough Hound, Couch, Hist. Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. I, p. 14,
tab. II.

Obs. Willughby and Kay regarded tbc male and tVmale as
distinct species. Artedi and LlNN^us were bardly more tlian copyists
of their predecessors; but Gmelin, Retzius, and Blainville paved the
way for a correct apprehension of the case. At present there need
be no risk of ambiguity in dropping the Linnsean name of Catuhis
here and applying it instead, as GuNNEBUS has done, to the Black-
mouthed Dog-fish.

Tlie Rough Himtid never quite attains the maxi-
mum size of the preceding species. The largest speci-
mens on record were about 1 in. long (lO'/a dm. ac-
cording to Day). The ordinary length of both species
is, however, the same, .5 — 7 dm. In the terete form of
the bod}% anteriorly .somewhat depressed, and broadest
at the posterior part of the head, they are also mucii
alike; but the Rough Hound appi'oaches nearer to the
Black-mouthed Dog-fish in the usually greater elongation
of the body and the anterior compression of the back.

The difference in the form and delimitation of the
nostrils (fig. 337) shows that the Rough Hound comes
still nearer to those members of the family which are
yet more singularly equipped in this respect. Not only
is the outei- lobe {lae) at the anterior margin of each
nostril expanded forwards and prolongated inwards, so

II

ROUGH MOUND.

lis;

close to the correspondinji lobe of tlic other side that
an almost continuous nasal valvule is produced, not
unlike that of the Hays — the posterior margin of the
nostril is also furnished internally in hotli species with
a dermal lobe, wliicli in the Nurse Hound, however, is
simple and thin, jirojecting like a leaf into the back-
ward iiarial groove, Init here develojis into two barbel-
like processes, one of them (above the dotted line from
Ipi) jutting into the said groove, the otlier (l)elow the
dotted line from lj)i) directed backwards and laid witliin
the moutli, outside the margin of the upper jaw. The
lower jaw is furnished in both species, but in the Nurse
Hound only behind, in the Rough Hound throughout
the greater part of its length, with a pendent labial
fold; and the skin on the margin ot the upper jaw
swells towards the corners of the mouth in a labial form.

As a compensation for the absent nictitating mem-
brane these Shai'ks possess the faculty of raising the
lower eyelid so high that tlie orbits become shut; and
NiLSSON as well as Malm lias described how the Rough
Hound can close the pupil by contracting the iris, till
the latter leaves open only a narrow longitudinal slit,
dilated at eacli end.

The fins of the Rough Hound are most like those
of the Black-mouthed Dog-iish; but the dorsals are set
somewhat further back, the first beginning about half-
way along the body, the second just behind the second
third thereof, and the anal and caudal tins are shorter,
the l)ase of the former measuring only about 9 — 10 %
of the length of the liody.

The shagreened skin is fairly alike in both the
Roussettes, but generally rougher in the Nurse Hound.

The Rough Hound has about the same geogra-
phical range as the Nurse Hound, but is somewhat
more addicted to northern rovings. On the English
coast it is far commoner than the latter, and it is con-
sidered to be one of the commonest Sharks in British
waters. In Scandinavia it is indeed scarce, but not
among the rarest fishes, for it has repeatedly been met
witli on the west coast of Norway, south of Bergen,
and in tlie Cattegat — even in the Sound, between
Malino and Helsingborg, one sjiecimen has been taken
(LiLL.iEBnRCi). Off Mouiit Kulleii, according to NiLSSON,
it is familiar enough to bear a special name {Hdshlrf-
vincj); and at Agger, on the west coast of .lutland, it
is known, according to Feudeksen, as the Tasluij
(Toad Sliark). The original of our figure (Plate LI,
fig. 4) is also from the west coast of Jutland, and was

presented to the Royal Museum in November, 1889,
by Mr. Fukdeuicksen, a Copenhagen merchant.

The Rough Hound prefers a sandy bottom with
its growth of seaweed, as indicated by the reddish co-
loration the fish generally displays. Wlien it lives on
a clayey bottom, the body has a different gi-ound-colour,
darker (grayish or blackish) with still darker spots
(Thompson). In its reproduction, tem])erament, and
general habits, this species resembles the preceding one.
Both liave something of the serpent about them, as

Fig. 337. Ventral side of a Rougli Hound {Scylliorhiuus canicida),
(f, from Messina, 6—10 fthnis., stony bottom, Feb. 5, 1891, C.
BOVALLIUS. ' ,, nat. size. The anterior outer lobe (lae) of tlie right
nostril is raised to show the anterior inner (/ai), the posterior outer
(/jue), and tlie posterior inner (Ipi) lobes.

they sway their whole body in sinuous movements;
and both are gregarious, each species by itself, as tliey
chase schooling fishes. To the Herring and Pilchard
they are dangerous enemies, and they cause tlie fisher-
man trouble by tangling and tearing liis nets. Tlie
long-line fishermen too complain of them. In tlie Eng-

ii')(;

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

lish Channel it has hap|)ened" that Mshermen who had
sliot long-lines for Cod have f(juiid a Kouuh Hound on
almost every hook; and the hooked Cod had been de-
voured down to the head and a bit of the backbone.
The Rough Hound eats, besides tish, both crustaceans
and inollusks, seeming to be especiall)' fond of whelks
{Buccinum undatum) and lygworms (Arenicola).

As human food the Rough Hound also finds con-
sumers among the fishing population and the poor.
In Scandinavia it is far tc^o rare to possess any eco-
nomical importance. Not so in France and the rest

of Southern Europe. Its skin is used in polishing
various substances. Its hard flesh and musky odour
are disagreeable, but the latter is said to be removed
by boiling. The liver, which is described as having
an abominable taste, is considered poisonous. One Doc-
tor Salvage of Montpellier related in 174.5 that a fa-
mily who had eaten the liver of this fish were over-
powered b)' heavy dro^vsiness, from which they first
recovered on the third day, and which was attended
witli a skin disease, causing the whole e])idermis to
peel oft ill fragments.

CYCLOSPONDYLI.

Sharks with tiro dorsal fius, but no anal.

Hasse has shown' that the Sharks whose external
cliaracter is expressed in the absence of an anal fin'',
in their internal characters stand lowest, next the Cow-
Sharks {Notidanida) — which indeed have an anal fin,
but onl}' one dorsal — and nearest to the jjiimordial
fopms common to the Sharks and Rays. A comparison
between our two figures 296 and 297 (see above, pp.
1068 — 69) shows the gi*eat difference in the structure
of the spinal column between a Cyclospondylous and
an Asterospondylous Shark. In the former the ver-
tebrae are far less differentiated. Tlie bodies of the
vertebra form a continuous canal, onl}- imperfectly
coarctated by the constrictions answering to the middle
parts of full)' developed vertebra-. Frequently, though
irregularly, so-called diplospondylism occurs, two pairs
of apophyses (two neurals and two interneurals), or at
least two pairs of foramina for spinal nerves on each
side, appearing in a single vertebra. The basal parts
of tlie dorsal fins also exhibit a lower grade of ditt'e-

rentiation: but in conqjensation most of tlie Ci/clospoH-
djjli are equipped at the anterior margin of each dorsal
fin with a spine (ichthj'odorulite), which in the species
our figure (296) represents, however, is considerably
reduced, not projecting above the skin.

All the Cijclospondi/li have open and rather large
spiracles. Their eyes are without nictitating membrane.
All their gill-openings lie in front of tiie pectoral fins.
Their caudal fin is generally less heterocercal than that
of other Sharks. Most of them are characterized by
the singular form of the jaw-teeth. One genus {Acan-
fhorhinus) differs from all the other known Sharks in
having the duodenum furnished at its commencement
with a pair of Cctcal appendages''. The great majority of
them are known to be viviparous; but one species of the ge-
nus just mentioned, the Greenland Shark, has been sus-
pected in recent times to form an exception to this rule'.

Hasse lias divided the Ci/clospondi/U into three
families: Lfemarr/i', without externally visible dorsal

° Brehm, Thierleben, 2:te Aufl., AbUi. 3, Bd 2, p. 377.

' Nattirl. S;/st. Elasmobr., Allgeni. Th. p. 41; Besond. Th., p. 5.5.

'^ Squales anhypopteriens Mokeau, Hifl. Nat. Poiss. Fr., torn. I, pp. 276 and 340.

"* This observation may be traced even in Gunnebus (Trondhj. Selsk. Skr., vol. II, pi. X, tig. 2), luit is unnoticed in llie text.

' Sec LDtken, Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For. Kbhvn 1879 — 80, p. 56. A female Greenland Shark 23 dm. long was taken in the North
Saa during January, 1891, and presented bj' Mr. Fredericksen of Copenhagen to the Royal Museum. The oviducts lay, as Turner (Journ.
Anat., Physiol., vol. XII [1877 — 78], p. 604) also found them, extended from the diaphragm to the cloaca, straight and thin-walled, gra-
dually expanding in the hindmost part alone to the thickness of a goose-quill, and here with somewhat stouter walls than in front, but with-
out any special dilatation whatever throughout their extent. From this circumstance it is, however, impossible to decide with certainty the
appearance presented by the oviducts after the act of copulation and the development witliin them of the impregnated eggs.

.'' Containing the genera Acantlwrhinus, histius, Euprotomicrus, and Scyimius.

SI'l'R-SlIAUKS.

11. -)7

fin-spiTies; Echinorhini" with the first dorsal lin oppo-
site to the ventrals and witli large dermal spines, si-
milar to the aciilii (if the Hays, hut without dorsal tin-
spines; and Sjiuim id(i-\ with externally prominent spine
het'ore each dorsnl tin. Two of these families ai'e re-
presented in. the Scandinavian fauna.
.1; At tlie anterior margin of each

dorsal fin a more or loss prominent

spiui'. — Pam. Spinacidn-.

a: Distance between each nostril

and the tip of the snout oon-

sidenibly more than half of that

between the former and the

moutli S<j>ialii.'< <tr(nillii<i:i.

h: Distance between each nostril

and the tip of the snout less

than half of that between the

former and the mouth Etmopterus njiina.r.

B: Ko externally prominent dorsal fin-
spines. — Fam. Scymiddcv Acauthorhinxis rurrltarias.

Fam. SPINACID^.

Skin ttniformlif slnK/ireued. First dorsnJ fi)i set Iialf-
rciitrals or fiirtlier for/card. At the anterior margin

The intermediate position between the (_"ow-Sharks
{Notidanid(c) and the Roussettes {SryUiida) occupied in
many respects by the VijclospondijU, is especially mani-
fested in the form of the jaw-teeth. The primitive
Notidanidan type is characterized partly by the diffe-
rence of the teeth in both jaws — longer (broader) and
coarser, like serrate disks, in the mandible — partly by
the obliquity in the growth of the denticulations, espe-
cially in the lateral teeth of the lower jaw, with the
tips of all the denticles directed outwards (towards the
corners of the mouth) and with the innermost (or one
of the innermost) denticles largest, so that the others
evidentl)' answer to accessory cusps. In most of the
CyclospondijH, and especially within the present family,

trail lietireen the perpendiculars from the pectorals and
of each dorsal Jin a more or less prominent spine.

this difference between the jaws, as well as the obli-
quity of the teeth, has persisted — only one genus, the
Greenlandic and Nortli American Centrosci/llium, has
teeth similar in both jaws and resembling those of the
Roussettes — or the obliquity has advanced yet further,
the original inner edge of the largest denticle being
turned entirely aside and having become an inci.sive
upper edge; and this form of dentition may finally
develop not only in the lower jaw but also in the
upper. The differences in the dentition besides af-
ford the best distinctive characters between tlie .5
genera into wliich the family of the Spur-.Sharks
has been divided, together including about 20 known
species.

Genus SQUALUS.

Teeth of the upper and loirer jaws almost similar in form, obliquely shaped incisors. Nostrils middle-sized, their
width much less than the distance from the tip of the snout to the middle of a transverse line crossing their an-
terior margins. Pectoral fins triangular {following the ordinary Shark type), with the outer posterior margin

concave. Dorsal fin-spines without lateral grooves.

In the woi'ks of most recent writers the Linn;T?an ' he employed this generic name, Linnjeus had first in

generic name of Squalus has been dropped entirely, or view the species which is commonest in Scandinavian

applied, as in BoxAPAiiXE, to the Blue Sharks, as re- ■ waters, and which he ranged first in his systematic

presenting the highest development of the Shark type. enumeration of the Sharks.

.ToRDAN and Gilbert, however, have advanced the opi- Among the Sharks destitute of anal fin the genus

nion", previously maintained l)y Rafinesqle'*, that, when Squalus is the most differentiated or, so to say, mo-

" Containing a solit.iry species, Echinorhiiius f:piiiOsus, from tlie Atlantic between the Nortli Sea and tlie Cape of Good Hope and

from the Mediterranean.

' Containing the genera Centrophorus, Ventrina, Centrosci/lliurn. Sgualus, and Etmopterus.

' Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, p. 16.

■^ Varatt. N. Gen., Spec, p. 13.

1158

SCANDINAVIAN FISHKS.

dernized, most nearly resembling in external form the
preceding Sharks. This is best shown by the character
drawn from the shape of the pectoral fins, and might
also be expressed by the relative dimensions of these
fins, but for the fact that the alterations of growth
within the genus approximate the fry, or at least the
almost viable fojtuses, too nearly to the following ge-
nera. The same remark essentially applies to the form
and dimensions of the two dorsal fins. How closely
the genus Squaluf> is allied, howe^■er, to tlie remaining
genera of the family, appeal's from the rank long as-

signed to a Mediterranean form, the so-called SqiiaJus
uyato of Rafinesque (1. c). as an independent species
of this genus, until Bellotti and Dodehleix" disco-
vered it to be a young form of Centroplwrufi f/ianii-
losii.s, an inhabitant of the neighbouring parts of the
Atlantic \ Even between the two species left within
the genus S<pialus after this elimination there would
appear to obtain some developmental relation, one of
them (Sqiialiis BJoinviUei) representing in its cha-
racters the juvenile and male characters of the
other.

THE PICKED DOG-FISH (sw. pioghajen).
SQUALUS ACANTHIAS.

Plate LII, figs. 1 and 2.

Distance hehveen each pectoral fin and the tip of the snout at most about *,3 {67 — 56^ %) of that between the
first dorsal and the same point. The ventral fins begin half-waij along the bodi/ or somewhat further bach:

iSi/n. ^yi/.av^iag yaXeog, Aristot., ZooL, lib. VI. cap. X {= Mii-
stelbts spinax, Gaza). Gateus acanMas, Rondel., De Pise,
p. 373. Cams Acantliias, Gazm spinax, Schonev., Ichthyol.
Slesv. Hols., p. 29. Sgtiahis pinna Ani nulla, ambitii cor-
poris siibrotundo, Art., Ichthyol., Gen. Pise, p. G6; Srpi.
Pise, p. 94; Spec. Pise, p. 102; Lin., Fna Suec, ed.
I, p. 100; It. Wgotli., p. 174; Mus. Adolph. Frid., part.

I, p. 53 {Hundfisk). Haae, StrSm, Sondm. Beskr., part. I,
p. 280. Ifaafvr, Oi.afs., Reise Isl., part. I, p. 359; part.

II, p. 989.

Squalus Acantliias, Lin., Syst. Nat., eii. X, turn. I, p. 233;

Bl , Naturg. Fisch. Deutschl., part. Ill, ji. 74, tabb. 75

(iig. 1) et 86; Eetz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 305; Blnvllb

(Acattthorhinus), Bull. Sc. Soc. Philoin. 1816, p. 121; Cuv.

(Spinax, aubg.), Regn. Anim., ed. 1, tcmi. II, p. 130;

NiLss. {Squalus), Prodr. Icldhyol. Scand., p. 117; Bonap.

(Spinax), Iconogr. Fna Itiil., tab. 139; Sundev., v. We.

(Squalus), Skand. Fisk., ed 1, p. 187, tab. 40; Jord.,

GlLB., Bull. U. S. Nat Mus., No. 16, p. 16; Lill.i., Sv.,

Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 665.
Picked Dog Fish, Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), vol. Ill, p.

88; Yare., Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 400; Coucii, Fish.

Brit. Isl, vol. I, p. 49, tab. XI.
Squalus fernandinus, Molina, Uhili, p. 229; Guichen. (Spiiirix)

in Gay, Oliile, Zool., torn. II, p. 3S5.
Acanthias vulgaris, Risso, Eur. Merid., toni. 3, p. 131; MOll.,

Hle, Plagiost., p. 83; Schleo. in Sied., Fna Japan., Poiss.,

p. 304, tab. CXXXV; Kr., Damn. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 868;

Nilss., Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 731; DOm., Hist. Nat. Poiss.

(uouv. au. a But?.), torn. 1, p. 437; Barb. Bog. , Cap., Peix.

Plagiost. Port., p. 21; Gthe. Cat. Brit. Mas., Fish., vol.

VIII, p. 418; Coll., Forli. Vid. SeUk. Chrnia 1874, Tilla?g.sli.,

p. 211; 1879, No. 1, p. 104; Winth., Naturb. Tidskr.

Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 58; Mou., Hist. Nat. Poiss.

Fr., torn. I, p. 342; Dodeel.. Man. Ittiol. Medit., fasc. II.

p. 86; M6b., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 152; Day, Fish. Gt.

Brit., Irel., vol. II, 'p. 315, tab. CLX, fig. 2; Storm, N.

Vid. Sels. Skr. Trondbj. 1884, p. 45; Car.. Prodr. Fnce

Medit., vol. II, p. 503.
Acanthias americanus, Stor., Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts, Sc, vol.

II, p. 506; vol. IX, p. 232, tab. XXXVIII, fig. 1.
Acanthias Linnei, Malm, Ghgs, Boh. Fna, p. 624.

The Picked Dog-fish belongs to the smaller Sharks.
According to Day it attains a length of 12 din. on the
English coast; but in Scandinavia it does not exceed,
so far as we know, one of about 9 dm.' New-born
fry with obliterated navel measure about 22 — 25 cm.
In the external form of the body the Picked Dog-fish
is not unlike the Tope, but it is usually rather more
elongated. Tlie greatest depth of the bod}', just in front
of the first dorsal fin, varies irregularly bet^\■een about
9 and 11 % (according to Khoyer sometimes 8 or 12 %)
of its length, the least depth between 2 and 2' ., %
(according to Krover sometimes nearly 3 %) of the
same. The hitter depth measures between about 13 %

" .Man. Ittiol. Medit., faac. II, p. 118, Nota.

' Tliis might besides be taken for granted partly from Rafinessue's description of the teeth of the upper jaw (ilenti mimiti ed acuti),

pirlly from Barboza de Booaqe's and Capello's iigures of old and young specimens of Centrophorus grtjnii/osiis.

■" The Vega Expedition brought home a male 9V2 dm. long from Bebring Island.

PICKED DOG-FISH.

1159

(accordinir to Kroyek 16 — 17 ?a) of the Iciijrth of the
head to the first gill-openiiig. Like the 'ro|)e, the
Pieked Dog-fish has an almost terete body, but the
anterior part of the trunk is of the so-called hog-backed
form, with a rounded triangular section. iSeliind tlie
body is slighth' compressed, the breadtii being al)out
eipial to the depth, and the section almost quadran-
gular, though rounded (convex) abo\e and laterally
siiarpened below bv a dermal carina, running on each
side b(;hind the perpendicular from the second dorsal
fin and some way out above the beginning of the in-
ferior caudal lolie. The sides of the tail are, howevei-,
without true median carina, nor are there any caudal
grooves, though a trace tliereof mav sometimes l)e
found above, at tlie dorsal margin, in front of the
caudal fin. Tlie head, in particular the translucent
snout, is depressed, behind somewhat broader than the
trunk, with l)readth about equal to the deiith of the
latter, and with parabolically pointed snout.

Tile length of the head to the first branchial aper-
ture varies between 17 (in the nearly viable foetus 18)
and 15 % of the length of the body. The length of the
snout to the eyes measures about "3 (40 — 44 S) of the
length of the head. Both the eyes and the orbits are
oblong, the latter most so, the vertical diameter of the
eyes being always more than '/o (53 — 70 %), that of
the orbits sometimes V3 (-11 — 33 %"), of the longitudi-
nal diameter. This measures in the case of the latter,
which are besides sharply pointed at each end, about
30' — 20 % of the length of the head. The pupil is
either ronnd, but acute-angled below, or transversely
oblong. Behind the eyes, but higher (further in) than
these, lie the ratlier large spiracles, their diameter being
only slightly less than or even equal to the vertical
diameter of the orbits, from which they are separated
by a distance of the same magnitude. Their anterior
margin is folded double, the fold being sometimes so
deep as to give them the appearance of being really
double. The interorbital width is generally about equal
to the length of the snout, somewhat greater or less,
usually the latter. The prone nostrils are set about
half-way along the snout, but the distance from the
mouth to the transverse line drawn through their pos-
terior margins is greater in the young than that from
the tip of the snout to the transverse line drawn through

their •nntcrior margins. In the old the said distances
;ire aliout ei|uai, the lip nf tiie snout in front of the
nostrils being even relatively prolongaterl with age.
The nostrils are, as usual, obliquely transversal, with
a small ])ointcd valvule at the middle of tli(> anterior
margin. Their width is about '3 of the distance be-
tween them. The mouth is less curved than in most
other Sharks, with deep folds around the corners. The
distance from the tip of the snout to the anterior mar-
gin of the mouth is about ' „, to the corners thereof
about 60—70 %, of the length of the head. The teeth
are densely set, without gaps or unpaired median tooth.
They are merely attached to the skin, as in all tlie
Plagiostoms, not to the cartilage, and are c(jnse([uently
mobile. The first two rows of teeth stand ujiright,
apart from the rest, the inner row leaning backwards;
the remaining 3 or 4 rows have the cusps turned inwards
(backwards), covered l)y the transverse fold (\elum) in the

Fig. ,^)38. One of the right teeth of the upper jaw (n) and the lower
jan- (/;) in tlie Picked Dog-fish (Squalus acatithias), anterior aspect. X 5.

front part of each jaw. The last-mentioned ro^^•s are,
however, erected in the old, where the anterior rows
have disappeared. Each tooth (fig. 338) is small — in
an adult fish only about 2 mm. high — flat and sharp-
edged, with a deep jag in the outer (posterior) margin,
under the keen, laterally directed cusp. Thej' have the
same form in both jaws, but are somewhat larger in
the lower than in the upper. In front they have a
basal cusp running into the gum, and reminding us of
the median ridge and the shaft with which the der-
mal scales are furnished. In a young female Suxdevall
counted 26 teeth in each transverse row above and
22 below. The tongue is not free, and consists mere-
ly of a skin investing the rather large, liyoid carti-
lage, whicii occu])ies almost the whole mandibular arch.
The branchial apertures are comparatively small, the
middle ones smallest, the hindmost opening somewhat
larger than the first, the height of M'hich is about '3
to ' „ greater than the vertical diameter of the orbits.

" According to Kroyeu down to 28 ;
' In a nearly viable fcetus rather mo

iir.o

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Tlie two dorsal tins in their relative position to
each other resemble tiiose of the Tope; ])ut their form
approaches more nearlj' to the square, and each of
them is furnished at the anterior margin with a fairly
stout and strong spine. As a rule the second dorsal
fin is ])erceptibly smaller than the first, about '/^ as
large; but its spine is the larger, being even higher
than the fin itself, whereas the spine of the first dorsal
extends ordy about half-way up the anterior margin
thereof. The spines are pointed, somewiiat curved, and
triangular in section, with the whole posterior surface
concave, but with rather convex side-margins. The
first dorsal fin commences at al)out the end of the first
third of the length of the body, the second 'dorsal at
the termination of the second third thereof, somewhat
further forward in the adult males than in the females,
and further back in the young of both sexes than in
the old. The length of the base of the first doi'sal is
about equal to the interorbital width. The base of the
second dorsal measures about ''/j- — ^/^ of that of tiie
first. The caudal fin is distinguisiied partly by the

a h

Fig. 3.^9. .\ scale of the Picked Dog-i3sli {i^ipiahis acant/iias), seen

from nbove (from willioiit, a, with the retral tip directed upwards in

the figure) and from tlie side (4, witli tlie retral tip turned to the

riglit of the figure). About 37 times the natural size.

sliglit ujjward curvature of tlie tij) of the tail witliin
tile fin, partly by the greater relative breadth of tlie
upper lobe than in the preceding Sharks and the ali-
sence of incision in the hind part of the inferior mar-
gin of the fin. The length of the upper anterior mar-
gin of the fin is in the males somewdiat more, in the
females somewhat less, than '/j of the length of the
body. The lower anterior margin is about half as long
as the upper or a little longer.

The pectoral fins indeed approach to the more
S[)atulate form they exhiliit in the following Sharks,
but they remind us of the preceding species in the
marked prolongation of the posterior inner corner, the
hind margin being thus rendered concave. The distance
between them and the tip of the snout is about ^j of
the length oi the body, and in the males a,bout '/^, in
the females about "5, of that between the fii'st dorsal
fin and the same point. The length of their anterior

margin measures about 80 — 9.5 96 of tiiat of the head
— relatively less in the young — and the breadth of
their base about 34 — 40 % of their length. The ven-
tral fins are obliquely lozenge-shaped, or resemble an
obtuse-angled triangle, when the fins are laid l)aek, in
■which case the base is continued, without a break, by
tlie inner posterior margin. The distance between them
and the tip of the snout in the males is about .50 —
.52 %, in the females about 53 — 54 %, of the length of
the body. TJieir base together with their inner pos-
terior margin measures about 9 or 10 %, their anterior
margin about 5 or 6 %, of the length of the body. In
adult males the distally flattened pterygopodia project
far beyond the ventral fins, and are furnished on the
upper surface with a broad dermal groove, in which
two spines are concealed, the one long and hamately
curved at the tip, the other, which is visible in our
figure (PI. LIl, fig. 1), pointed, grooved, and serrated.

Tiio skin is uniformly shagreened with scales of a
singular form (fig. 339), elevated on a terete shaft, at
the top of which they are rectangularly bent and ex-
panded behind in a three-pointed foliate form, with the
middle point longest and most po-\verfidly strengthened
by a median ridge, passing into the anterior margin
of the shaft, on whose sides the lateral ridges are also
continued.

The coloration is above grayisii lirown, more or
less dark, shading dow^i the sides into violet, ^^•ith a
few small, roundish, whitish spots set in a row along
the anterior half of the lateral line and in another row
along the back, which latter series is umcli sparser, but
is rontimied in very young specimens back to the tail.
Tlie lielly is pale and whitish, but finely punctated with
dark dots. After death the colour of the back soon
fades and becomes more grayish, but it may be better
preserved by depositing the specimen at once in strong
spirit.

The external difference of sex may be traced in
unborn firtuses 18 cm. long. The males among these
have fairly distinct pterygopodia, which are, how'ever,
only half as long as the inner margins of the ventral
fins. These young specimens are almost similar in form
and coloration to the adult individuals, only that the
tip of tiie snout is somewhat shorter, the distance be-
tween the nostrils and the extreme tip of the snout
being only about "3 of that between them and the
mouth, and that the dorsal fin-spines are short. The
posterior of these spines measures only V3 of tl^^ height

I

ri(n<KD DOG-FISH.

IKIl

of the liii, and the. naked tij) of eai'li spine projects
only a very little wma' al)c)\e tiie skin. Tiie lireadth
of the caudal and pectoral tins is also rather greater
in proportion to their length. Somewhat smaller {(b-
tuses, 15 — 111 cm. long, with tlie large vitelline sac still
attached in tlie form of a, peai- 7 cm. long, with a stalk
measuring 2\/„ cm., have a dec]) groove, like a seam,
along the under surface of the snout. Their fin-spines
are so short that the tips have not emerged from their
scaly dermal envelope, ^\'hich occupies, however, as
great a portion of t lie tin-margin as in adult specimens.
In the males only (piite indistinct rudiments of the
pterygopodia, act yet protruding from the skin, are
visible. The coloration is full}' developed. The young
are not born until the j'olk has been entii-ely absorbed,
and may then have attained a length, as mentioned
above, of 25 cm.

The Picked Dog-lish has a very e.xtensive geogra-
phical range. In the North Atlantic this includes the
most northerly parts of Europe, Iceland, and the east
coast of the United States, as weW as the west coast
of Europe and the Mediterranean. To the south the
species has been found off the Cape of Good Hope, the
Mascarene Isles (Dumekil), and on the coast of Australia
(Richardson and GOnther)- In the Pacific it is also
known from Chili (Molina), Japan (Schlegel), and
Behring Island (the Vega Expedition). It is conse-
quently to be regarded, we nn^^" almost say, as a cos-
mopolite. Throughout the west coast of Scandinavia
it is common, and it penetrates, though more rarely,
into the Baltic to the east coast of Riigen (Mobius and
Hkincke) and to the north-east of Scania (Wallengren").

In Scania, Bohuslan, and everywhere in Norway
the Picked Dog-fish is called Hd (Haa). In Sweden
the name is written Jiaj, probably from some German
or Dutch dialect. (_)ther, less usual names are: Piggltd
or Hdfisk, in Iceland Hafr or Haaftir, on the Faroe Is-
lands Haavur, in Scania Hdkatt or Hafsliati. The name
of hd (Shark) seems to have been everywhere applied
among the Gothic nations by preference to this species,
the commonest Shark; and the other forms have been
distinguished by the addition of some sutiix, as Hd-
hvand (the Porbeagle), Hdsforje (the Tope), Hdmcir,
Hdkdring, or Hdkal (the Greenland Shark).

The Picked Dog-fish has its constant habitat on a
soft and oozy bottom, but, like most of tlie Sharks, is

a conlirmed rover. It swims in shoals, and is exceed-
ingly voracious. Its food consists both of lower marine
animals and of fishes, especially tho.se of gregarious liabits,
such as Clupeoids, Garpike, and even Cod or Haddocks,
which it bites in two with ease, though they be not
much tiiiimer than itself. When Picked Dog-fish ap])ear
in shoals, they ai'e a great nuisance to the fisherman,
for the}' j)lunder and damage nets set for other fishes,
make off with hooked fish or get caught themselves
instead, a poor exchange, and olteii bite off the snood
above the hook, which is thus lost. They are said to be
most numerous early in spring, when they approach the
coast in enormous shoals, whose multitude, it is alleged,
rivals that of the Herring. A boat's crew, it is stated,
can then take several boat-loads in a day. From Norway
Sundevall was told that the Herring-shoals are some-
times hemmed in near shore by Picked Dog-fish, which
keep watch outside. Tiiey are as plentiful on the Eng-
lish coast as in Norway, but in Bohusliln they do not
seem to occur in quite so great numbers, when the
Herring is not there. Stkom, in his descrijjtion of Sond-
m5re, says that they withdraw from the shallows at the
beginning of April, shortly after the Cod have couw in,
after which very many are hooked, about Whitsuntide,
in the dee]) fjords. On the coast of Bohuslftn they are
again taken towards autumn, first on hand-lines and
Haddock-lines, thus in somewhat deeper water, during
August and September, when the catch is said to consist
almost exclusively of males, and later on, in October,
when they are said often to penetrate far up the fjords
and to remain there until the frost sets in. During
winter they are not met with on the said coast, except
when the Herring is there, possibly because they are not
sought after in the deep M'ater where they pass this season.
Aristotle stated that on the coast of Greece this
fish copulates in August and brings forth its young
from May till August. The case is a])parcntl}- as a
rule the same in Scandinavian waters. Ekstrom con-
cluded from his observations in Bohuslan that the
breeding is performed in shoals during August or Sep-
tember in rather deep water. According to many cor-
roborative statements the voung are l)orn most ])lenti-
fullv at the end e)f April and the beginning of Jlay
and afterwards, in less number, throughout the summer.
\\'. V. Wright states that during spring the females
assemble in large companies near land, in small pools

Ofvers. Vet. Akftd. Fork. 18(56, No. I, p. 5.

1162

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

3 — 6 f'thms. deep, whifli are known in Bohuslitn as
hdljor, and are then taken in the seine, without the
catch of a single male. When drawn into the boat at
this time of year, they often give birtli to young ones,
the probal)le origin of the assertion that young fish
1.5 — 17 dm. long swim in shoals together with their
elders on predatory excursions. The Swedish fishermen
declare that the frj' never accompany the old, but live
by themselves in shallow water. There they keep to
the bottom, and are often taken on iiand-lines during
autumn. As they are never caught in numbers at the
same time, it would appear that they do not gather in
shoals, but lead a more solitary life. Each female
seems to bring forth only about 10 j'oung — in Ireland
Thompson was told that the number is always odd —
and the fishermen state that the female seldom contains
more than 5 or 6 "/«//-//>t*»'«" young at a time. Sun-
DEVALL found all the young taken out of the same
female to be exactly similar in size and development,
whence he concluded that they are probably born
shortly after one another. As we have mentioned above,
the new-born fry are 22 — 25 cm. long. Those taken
in autumn are hardly any larger, and even in January
a few specimens of about the same size are now and

then caught. These are probably born late in the year,
and THOMrsoN states from Ireland" that even at Christ-
mas-time he found a female Picked Dog-fish with 9
nearlj' mature fa'tuses (5 male and 4 female) in the
oviducts.

The flesh of the Picked Dog-fish is quite white
and free from the disagreeable smell with which the
larger Sharks are tainted. It is said to be fairly pa-
latable, and it is eaten in Bohuslan both fresh, either
boiled or fried, and cured, either salted or dried, in
the last case usually after lyeing*. So too in Norway,
where it is, however, not much esteemed. In Scotland
and in Southern Europe the Picked Dog-fish is also
frequently used for food. In a dried state it is a mar-
ketable commodity. If left uncooked for some days in
summer, it begins to give off a rather powerful and
exceedingly pure ammoniacal vapour, without any per-
ceptible putrid smell, such as that usually emitted by
decaying flesh. The caudal fin, which is a common
article of trade in the island-ljelt of Bohusliin, under
the name of ha-ntmp, is used by cabinet-makers in
polishing wood and metal. In many localities the eggs
are made into pancakes. The liver is boiled down
into oil, and gives a fair yield. (Sundevall, Sjiitt.)

Genus ETMOPTERUS.

Teeth of the upper Jair symmetrical in form, multicuspid : those of the loirer Jair obUqneh/ shaped incisors.

Nostrils Jarije, their icidth heing greater than the distance froxi the tip of the snout to the middle of a transverse

line crossing their anterior margins. Pectoral fiis ovaUg spatulate. Dorsal f'n-sjtines with lateral grooves.

It is true that PlAFINESQUE^ when he established
this genus in 1810, based it partly on an erroneous
observation — that it possessed only three branchial
apertures — partly on a fortuitous character — that its
dorsal fins were split at the margin''. But no ambi-
guity is thereby involved, and the current rules of no-
menclature therefore demand that his name for the genus
should supersede the generally adopted, but j^ounger
name of Spinax, which Cuvier' and, after him, Bona-

parte, in accordance with an unfortunate practice, bor-
rowed from the Linnaan specific name.

GCnther indeed recognises three species of this
genus, one from Europe, another from Madeira and
tlie West Indies, and a third' from the southern
coast of South America; l)ut tlie distinction be-
tween them is apparently rather dubious, and the
former two are identified with each other by DC-

MERIL.

" Nat. Hist. Irel., vul. IV, p. 254.
' See above, p. 1107, note /.
" Caratt. N. Gen., Spec, p. 14.

■^ Hence tlie generic name (Gr. iid'fiog, strainer .ind tcceqoi', irimj, /h)i wliich (niglit strictly to be written Ethmopterns. Still we
retain here the orthography of its author.

' Regit. Anim., ed. I, toni. II, p. 129 (1817).

■'' Spina.v granulosus, Siiore Fishes, Rep. Challeng. Exped., Zool., 6, p. 19, lab. II, fig. V.

1163

THE SAGRE (.sw. blakaxan).
ETMOl'TEHUS SPIXAX.

Plntf LI, \\g. 3.

Skin shag reeved irifh CKrred, sefifonn spines, expanding info three or four arms at the base. Coloration above

blackish blue, underneath coal-black.

W B

Fig. 340. Teeth and scales of the Sagre (Etmopteriis spinax). a, two teetli from the upper jaw; b, the four niiddle, longitudinal rows
(if mandibular teeth, removed from the jaw and seen from in front, the descending compensatory teeth being visible through the mucous
membrane; c, the same rows of teeth, seen from behind (from within); a — c, from a female 42 cm. loug, X i\ d and e, scales, anterior

and lateral aspects. X .ibout 4.5.

.Vyji. Galens Acanthias seu spinar fiiscus, Willuuhb., Hist. Pise,

p. 57. S'pmbis pinna ani carens; naribus in extremo rostro,

Art., IchthyoL, Gen. Pise, p. 67; ^'yn. Pise, p. 95.
Sijualns Spiuaic, Lin., Syst. .^'a^, ed. X, tom. I, p. 233!

Martin, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1761, p. 227; Lin., Fna Siiec,

ed. 2, p. 107; Gunn. {Sorthaaen), Trondhj. Sels. Skr., vol.

II (1763), p. 313, tab. VIII; Asoan. {Blaataske), Icon.

Rer. Nat., tab. XXXVII; Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 305;

Risso, Ichtli. Nice, p. 41 ; Id. {Acanthias), Eur. Mer., torn.

Ill, p. 132; NiLSS., Prodr. Ichtliyol. Scand., p. 118.
Etmopteriis acideatus, R.ikin., Car. N. Gen.. Spec, p. 14,

tab. XIII, fig. 3.
Spinax niger, Cloquet, Diet. Sc. Natur.. T. 1 (Suppl.), p. 93;

Agass., Poiss. Foss., tom. Ill, pp. 61. 93, tabb. A, 6g. 3;

B, figg. 4, 5; BoxAP., Iconogr. Fna Ital., Pest-i, tab. 141;

MCll., Hle, Plagiost., p. 86; Kr., Damn. Fisk:. vol. Ill,

p. 893; NiLSS., Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 729; DCm., Hist.

Nat. Poiss. (N. su. a Bufe.), tom. I. p. 441, tab. 4, figg.

13 et 14; Gthr, Cat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 424;

Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chmia 1874, Tillsgsh., p. 212;

1879, No. 1, p. 104; Gigl., Espos. intern, pesca Berlino

1880, Sez. ItaL, Cat., p. 113; MoR., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,
tom. I, p. 348; Doderl., .I/oh. Ittiol. Medit., fasc. II, p.
96; Storm, N. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Trondhj. 1883, p. 44; Car.,
Prodr. FncE Medit., vol. II, p. 504.

S'l'ina.r Gnnneri, Rhdt, Overs. D. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1824 — 27,
p. XVI; Coll., N. Mag. Naturv. Chmia, Bd 29 (1884), p.
117; LiLLJ., Sv., Norg. Fna, Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 673.
? Acinithiditim pusillum, Lowe, Fish. Mad., p. 37. tab. VI.
■Spinax Linnei, Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 626.

The Sagre i.s the smallest Europea;n Shark. It
would scarcely appear to attain a length of half a
metre: Gunnekus's largest specimen was "somewhat
more than half an ell in length" (between 30 and 40
cin.), and the largest female obtained by Storm from
Trondhjein Fjord was 47 cm. long. The body is of a
terete, fusiform shape, with rather indistinct hog-back",
flatly convex on the forepart of the back and on the
belh% somewhat flattened at the middle of the sides,
deepest at the first dorsal fin, and gradually passing
forwards from this yjoint into the flatly depressed snout,
though with a depression at the_ occiput, between the
spiracles, and a corresponding swelling below, at the
lower jaw and the hyoid bone. The peduncle of the

" In old females,
pronounced.

vitli belly distended by ova or foetuses, the hog-backed form (rounded triangular section) of the body is more

1164

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

tail is of a rounded quadrangular section, and is more
or less deepl)' impressed .in the median line above and
below. Where the body is shallowest, just in front of
the caudal fin, the breadth (thickness) is about ^|^ of the
deptli. Tlie greatest depth measures about IS'/g (9) —
11' 2 (a^) %, and the least depth about 272—3 %, of
the length of the body. The greatest breadth occurs
in the head, just in front of the gill-openings, and is

Fig. 341. Anterior part of the ventral side in a Sngre {Etmopterus
spinax), rf, 4 dm. long, from Stromstiid Fjord. Nat. size.

about 11 — 9 % of the length of the bodv- Across the
gill-0])enings, on tlie other hand, tlie body is somewhat
contracted, forming, as it were, a neck.

The length of the head to the first branchial aper-
ture measures in full-grown specimens about 17 '/a —
17 %" of the length of the body. Above the head is
almost flat, underneath convex. Between the eyes the

forehead is coursed bv a longitudinal gi-oove on each
side of a terete median carina, which forks beiiiiid into
two divergent branches. The interorbital widtli (in-
cluding the dermal rim of the supraorbital margins) is
about 4.5 96, and the length of the elongated, anteriorlv
and posteriorly pointed orbits about 31 %, of the length
of the head. The eyes themselves are also elongated,
the height of the iris being about ^4 of its length,
which is nearly '/,-, of that of the head. Tlie length
of the snout is about equal to that of the orbits, and
in form the snout differs considei-ably from that of tlie
preceding species, advancing with uniform breadth,
until it is abruptly rounded off at the nostrils to a
very blunt tip. The nostrils (fig. 341) are apparently
double on each side, tlie small, pointed nasal valvules,
one from the anterior margin, one from the posterior,
laying their tips together, so that each nostril seems to
consist of a circular aperture, situated at the very margin
of tile snout, ;ind a proximal, oblong opening, directed
obliquely backwards and inwards. Their entire breadth
(both apertures) is about equal to the distance between
their inner extremities, but only '/j of that between
the latter and the middle of the margin of the upper
jaw, which luargin lies below the posterior margin of
the eyes, about half-way along the head. At the middle
of the under surface of the snout is a longitudinal con-
cavity which calls to mind the groove present at the
same point in foetuses of the preceding species. Among
the pores belonging to the system of the lateral line
on the snout, a double row on each side of the median
groove underneath and a similar series on the upper
surface, in a loop above the nostrils, are especially pro-
minent. At an angle to the last-mentioned series a
vow crooks over each eye and is continued back towards
the occiput. The broad mouth is .slightly curved, its
breadth being about ^ - of the length of the head, or
somewhat greater than the distance between the nostrils
and the upper jaw. The thin corners of the mouth
are each surrounded by a deep groove, which is conti-
nued backwards by a slit narrowing to a point. The
upper jaw is armed with 3 or 4 transverse ro^\'s of
tricuspid or quinquecuspid teeth, with the median cusp
largest, one row close behind the other. The lower
jaw contains only one row of simultaneously function-
ing teeth, essentially similar to those of the preceding
species, and forming, as there, a serrated cutting-edge;

According to Lilljeborq 16 %; according to Kboyek sometimes IS'/j %■

but beliiiid (witliin) this vnw lie two or tiirfc rou-.s of
coinpensatory teeth, directed iinviu'ds atid downwards.
Thick dermal folds form, as usual, transverse curtains
and cover the inner rows of teeth both in the upper
jaw and the lower. The tongue is broad and flat. (_)n
opening the mouth, we can see from within straight
through the large spiracles, which here, as in the pre-
ceding species, have the anterior margin double. Here
too thej' lie obliciuely behind and above (within) the
posterior ends of the orliits, so far iinvards that the
distance betw-een them is only about ■*/,, of the inter-
orbital width, and so far back that their distance from
the tij) of the snout measures somewhat more than 7s
of the length of the head. Their width is about half
the external diameter of the iris. The gill-openings
are still smaller than in the Picked Dog-fish. They
are scarcely larger than the spiracles, or even smaller
than these. The last three are often set so close to-
gether that at a casual glance one may fail to distin-
guish between them, this being the probable explana-
tion of Rafinesque's above-mentioned mistake.

All the fins are extremely thin at the outer mar-
gin, without scaly covering, and more or less trans-
parent. They are consequently torn in most cases at
tlie said margin, and they are seldom seen so entire as
in our figure, which is drawn from a newh' caught
specimen in a good state of preservation.

The dorsal tins are distinguished by the posterior
being considerably larger than the anterior and having
about twice as large a spine. The first dorsal fin com-
mences at the end of the first third of the body, the
second somewhat before the end of the second third
thereof. The form of the first dorsal calls to mind
that of the adipose fin in the Sal monoids, the second
is raoi-e typically a Shark fin, with concave outer pos-
terior margin. The caudal fin, as a whole, is sickle-
shaped, with the usual sinuses in the under margin
only subindicated. The laterally compressed tip of the
tail forms a slight upward curve within it. From the
beginning of the upper lobe the caudal fin measures
rather more than '5, from that of the lower lobe rather
less than ^,4, of the entire length of the bodj'.

The insertion of the obtusely rounded pectoral fins
commences at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring somewhat more than '/j of the length of the
bodv. Their length is about 8 — 8\\, % of that of the

!E. 11 fj.')

l)od\- or 43 — b4 % of that (jf the head; and the l)readtii
of their base is ahout 52 — 56 % of their length. The
ventral fins are elongated, with the outer angle strongly
rounded. Their insertion, which measures about 8'/j
— iJ'Vj ">' of the length of the bod)% begins at a distance
from the tip of tlie snout answering to about 54 — 56 %
of the said length. The pterygopodia of the fully ma-
ture males — figured by DOmerii,, 1. c, PI. 4, fig. 13 —
have before the tip three curved and pointed spines, two
of which — the (jutermost being molnle — are set at
the outer margin of the cleft on the upper side of these
organs, the third being hidden in the skin near the top
of the inner tegumentary margin of the cleft. The
cloacal aperture occupies about the postei'ior half of
the space between the ventral fins.

The scaly armature we have already noticed. The
lateral line is sometimes cjuite distinct, marked by a
black punctuation, and follo\ving a rather straight course,
near the back, until it comes within the region of the
caudal fin, where it o-ooks downwards to follow the
inferior margin of the tip of the tail and pass straight
out over the fin itself.

The coloration is distinguished from that of the
preceding Sharks first and foremost by its being darkest
on the ventral side; and from this black colour a stripe
ascends on each side behind the ventral fins and ex-
pands both forwards, above the said fins, and backwards
on the sides of the tail. Another similar stripe runs
up before the beginning of the inferior caudal lobe and
spreads along the lower pai-t of the tip of i he tail. The
termination of the lateral line is also marked by a fine,
coal-black streak along the under margin of the tip of
the tail. The l)lackisli blue colour of the back and
sides acquires along the middle of the latter a more
or less distinct silvery band, due to the gi-ajdsh lustre
of the setiform scales. The iris has a greenish metallic
lustre: the pupU is green. The dorsal fin-spines and
the teeth, as well as the outer parts of the eyes, are
conspicuously marked by their white colour.

The Sagre is strictly a deep-sea fish, and it con-
sequently- shares with several other fishes" the pecu-
liarity of having been found in widely separated loca-
lities without being discovered in the interjacent regions.
Thus it was first described by Willughby from the
Mediterranean, where it was already known — more
than three hundred vears ago — to the Genoese fisher-

for example above, p. 155, on the Blue-mouth

1166

SC^\NDINAVIAN FISHES.

men under the above name. It is certainly not very
rare in the Mediterranean, for in 1879 Giglioli took
40 specimens on one occasion from depths of 800 —
1,000 m. The stated occurrence of the Sagre on the
coast of Portugal is doubted by Bauboza and Capello;
but in the Bay of Biscay it is found, though seldom,
accoi'ding to Lafont (in Moreau). On the coasts of the
United Kingdom and in the North Sea it has not yet
been met with ; l)ut on the Norwegian coast it is com-
mon, occurring northwards at least to the 70th degree
of latitude. In Trondhjem Fjord, according to Storm,
is is one of tlie most usual catches on deep-sea lines.
But it also ascends into comi)aratively shallow water,
and the original of our figure, a male, was taken in
November, 1881, on a Cod-line, at a depth of 40 — oO
fthms. in Stromstad Fjord. In Christiania Fjord, ac-
cording to CoLLETT, it is common. As mentioned above,
it can hardly be distinct in species from Acnuthidiiim
pusillum, a Madeiran fish described by Lowe, which also
lives, according to Gunther, in Cuban waters; and re-
membering the wide distribution of the preceding spe-
cies, we do not consider it impossible that with the
Sagre should be also identified in species Gunther's
Spinax granulosus from Chili.

The Sagre swims in shoals and, despite its insigni-
ficant size, pestei's the fisherman after the same fashion.

if not in the same degree, as the Picked Dog-fish. It
often bites on the long-line, and is a disappointing sub-
stitute for the expected catch. Its diet is similar to
that of the Picked Dog-fish, though it must, of course,
confine itself more exclusively to small creatures. In
a female 43 cm. long, from Bohnsliln, the contents of
the stomach comprised fish-scales (some Scopeloid spe-
cies), a small cuttle-fish (? Odojnis), almost digested,
feet of crustaceans (some shrimp or Pandalus), several
specimens of an indeterminable Annelid, fragments of
worm-tubes, and a quantitj^ of clayey sediment. The
same female contained in the left ovai'y 8 eggs, in the
right 5, about 14 — 17 mm. in diameter; but no eggs
had passed into the oviducts. During April Storji
found in Trondhjem Fjord a female with 14 young in
the oviducts, and at the middle of July Collett ob-
tained off Naradalen females with 7 or 8 fully deve-
loped foetuses. In the Mediterranean, according to
Risso, the Sagre breeds all the year round, giving
birth to 15 — 20 young about 1 dm. long.

The flesh of the Sagre is not used for food; but
the liver yields a good oil.

Frequently the Sagre is infested with an ectoparasite,
a Cirrhiped, Anelasma (Alepas) squaticola, Loven, which
forms at the dorsal fins and on the under surface of the
head tumours, first described and figured by Guxxerus.

Fam. SCTMNIDiE.

Skilt iDiiformlji shagn'oiecl irith tuhcrcular or ((ntkaJ spimilic. First dorsal fin situated lialf-u-atj between the
perpendiculars from the pi-ctorals and ventrals or further forward. No externally protruding dorsal fin-spines.
Teeth of the upper and lower jaws different from each other, hut all smooth-margined and without lateral cusps.

The two genera that compose this family, Scymnus
and Acantliorhinus, come nearest both in the dentition
and tlie coloration to Etmopterus. Hasse has suggested"
that the obscure pelagic forms Isistius hrasiliensis and
Euprotoniicrus Labor dii should also be ranged within
this family, in which case the above character for the
position of the first dorsal fin must be altered, this
fin l)oing removed rather far back in the two last-

mentioned genera, more as in the family Echinorhi-
nidce. In either case we are apparently confronted
here with one or more series of reduction-forms, which
have originated from the Picked Dog-fish ty))e, and
whose genealogical relations to one another and to the
primordial forms still require elucidation. The Scan-
dinavian fauna possesses only one genus.

" Nat. Syst. Elaswobi:, AUgciu. Tli., p. 43.

1167

Gknis acanthorhinus.

Tct'tJi of flio upper jaw co>iiial, car'nidfeil mi tlic aiitcriar surface, and set in several siwaUaneoiisI;/ fanetionaJ
transverse roics. Teeth of the lon'er Jair olillqueli/ shaped ineisars, set in several transverse rrnvs, of vliicli the
foremost tiro or three are sinudtaneoKsli/ erect and set close togetlier. Length of the snout about the same from
the ei/es as from the mouth. Lenr/th of the caudal fn at the upper edr/e less than ^/^ of the lene/th of the hodji.

Of this genus two species iiave Ijeeii (lescrihi'd, (.me
of wliicli, lioweN'er, Acanthorhinus rostratus. from the
MediteiTaneaii and the Atlantic outside, is extremely
little known, and lias been founded on characters that
seem rather uncertain. Tiie name of the genus was
coined by Blaixville, who in 181G conferred it upon
all the Sharks witliout anal tin", with especial reference,
it is true, to the Picked Dog-fish, but also enumerating
among the species our Greenland Shark. Subsequently
the genus lias received several names, which must be
rejected, liowever, for different reasons. In 1817 Cuvier
included the Greenland Shark in the subgenus Sci/mnus

{les Leiches). from which it was afterwards removed
on account of the dentition. Lesuei'H (1818) gave the
genus the name of Sonwiosus, a translation of the
Sleeper, as tlie Greenland Shark is called by American
fishermen. In 1841 .Mllleu and Henle bestowed
U])on it the name of La'marf/us, which Kroyek had
conferred sliortly ])efore (1837) on a genus of crus-
taceans. Tile oldest available name is Blainville's,
and as it cannot Ix- applied to either of the two pre-
ceding genera, both of which have earlier names, its
employment here is fully justifiable.

THE GREENLAND SHARK (sw. hakaringen ok haskardi.ngen).
ACANTHOKHLXUS CAKCHAHIAS.

Plate LII, tig. 3.

Skin rather sparsely shagreened with thorn-like (conical) spines, in an unworn state pointed, tvith grooved base and

arcuatehj recurved tip. Length of the snout cdtout * , of the postorbital length of the head or more. Greatest

depth of the body about 15 — 17 ,%, its least depth (just in front of the caudal fin) about 5' ,„ — 4 %, of its length.

Coloration brown or black, sliading on the sides into violet; iris blue, pupil green.

Fig. 342. Upper (a) and lower (i) jaw-teeth of a Greenland Sliark (Acantliorliimis can-hnrias) 3", ni. long, nat. size; c, d. and e. tl.ree
dermal spines (scales) of ditferent forni from tlie same individual as a and h. magnified.

V/)i. Hay, Egede, Gronl. Perlustr., p. 49. Canis marinus, Canis
Carcharias, Crantz, Gronl. Hint. {ed. suec.), lib. II, rap. 2,

§ 14. Haae-Kkrring. Strom, Siindm. Beskriv., p. 284.
Iluakall. Olafs., Reis. hi., pp. 359, 597. 839.

" Rafinesque liad indeed collected all these Sharks into one genus CDatatias) previously {Car. Ale. A'. Geti., Spec, p. 10): but he
liaracterized them by the absence of spiracles, and besides he was not acquainted with any species of the present genus.

147

Scandinmian Fishe,

iir,8

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Si/ualus Carchafias {llaa-Sh-ierdiitij), Gunn., Troudlij. Sels. Skr.,

vol. II (1763), p. 330, tabb. X et XI; Lin. (p. p.), Syst.

Nat., ed. XII, torn. I, p. 400; F.^bb., Fna GvoeiiL, p. 127;

MCll., ZooI. Ddii. Prod,:, p. 38; Ki.nk, Gnml., vol. I, i, p.

135; vol. II, p. 2 1-2.
6'rjiialiis microceplmtii.':, Bi,., Schn., Si/xt. Iclitli., p. 135; Kb.

('^cymnus'), Danm. Fid-., vol. Ill, p. 914; Mgbn, Of vers.

Vet. Akad. FSrli. 1804, p. r,?,6; 1807, p. 264; Coi.L.,

Foih. Vid. Selsk. (Jhriiia 1874, Tilliugslj., p. 212; Mai.ji,

Gbys, boh. Fna, y. 020; WiNTli. {LiBinargus), Naturh.

Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 59; Ltkn {Somniosus),

Vid. Meddel. Naturh. For. Kbhvn 1879—80, p. 56; Mela

{Scymnus), Vert. Fenn., p. 366, tub. X; JORU., Gilb. {Som-

niosus). Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 16, p. 15; Storm (6'cytn-

7ius), N. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Troudhj. 1883, p. 44; Coll.

(Somiiiosus), N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd 29 (1884), p. 117;

Day (Lcemargus), Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. II, p. 320,

fab. CLXII, fig. 1 ; Petersen (Somuiosus), Vid. Meddel. Naturh.

For. Kbhvn 1884—80, p. 100; Lill.i., .So., Nortj. Fna,

Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 079.
Acanthorhinus Noru-eijianus, Blnvllb, Bid). Sc. Soc. Philoni.

1816, p. 121 (+ A. Microcephalus, ibid.).
SoinniosuK breuipinna, Lesueur, Jonrii. Acad. Nat. Soc. Phil.,

vol. I (1818), p. 222; Stor. (Scyinnin), Mem. Amer. Acad.

Arts. Sc., N. ser., vol. IX (Boston 1807), p. 235, tab.

XXXVIII, fig. 2; MOR. {Lcemargm), Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,

toni. I, p. 3C1.
S'/nalus liorealis, Sooresby, Acc. Ari:t. Reg., vol. I, p. 638,

tab. XV, figg. 3 — 5; Flmng {iScymnus), Brit. Aniia., p.

106; Yarb. (Greenland Shark), Brit. Fish., ed. 1, vol. II,

p. 403; MUll., IIle (.Hcymnus, Lcemargus), Ptagiost., p.

93; Nilss. (iScymnns), Skand. Fna, Fisk., p. 724; Couch,

Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. I, p. 57, tab. XIII; DOm., Hist. Nat.

Poiss. (N. su. a Buff.), torn. I, p. 455 ( + Scymnus \_L(b-

viargus\ brevipinna, p. 456); Gthr (Lcemargus), Cat. Brit.

Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 420.
Squalus glncicdis. Fab., Fisch. Is!., p. 23; Nils., Prodr. Ich-

thyol. Scanil., p. 116.
Scytnnus micropterus, Val., Nouv. .\ini. Mns. His(. Nat., toin.

I (1832), p. 454, tab. 20.
Srjualus (Scymnus) Gunneri, Richards., Fna Bor. Amer., part.

Ill, p. 313.

Obs. As we were compelled above to recognise the Linna>an
specific name of catnlus for the Black-mouthed Dog-fish, although it
was originally intended for another species, here too we must acknow-
ledge the specific name of carcharias, which was transferred by Gus-
nerus in precisely the same manner to tlie Greenland Shark, all the
more, since LINN.EUS himself included Gunnebus's determination among
the synonyms of his own Squalus Carcharias.

Next to the Basking Sliark the Greenland Shark
is the largest Scandinavian tish. Specimens so la,rge as
those known from hearsay by (jtUNNERUS — nearly 8 m.
in length — must be reckoned as exceptions; and the
statement may perhaps depend on a confusion with tlie

Basking Shark. Both Fabek and Kink give 18 feet
(.t() dm.) as the greatest length (jf the (jreenland Shark,
and according to the latter its average length on the
coast of (ireenland is only 25 — 28 dm. Nilsson as-
sumed tlie maximum leiigtii might be tixed at 15 feet
(4'/2 m.). In 'rriindhjem Fjord, according to Storii,
the Greenland Shark liardly exceeds a length of 3 m.

The l)ody is of a handsome and regular, com-
pressed fusiform shape, sometimes, like that of the Sagre,
somewhat approaching in front to the so-called hog-
backed form. The head is strongly arched above, the
snout convex both above and below, anteriorly depressed
towards the edges, which meet in a tip parabolically
rounded in the horizonttd plane. Tiie Ijack is broad
in front, in uninterrupted continuation of the arched
head; but behind the perpendicular from the base of
each pectoral fin it is compressed, and acquires in the
median line a carina, anteriorly imperceptible, gradu-
ally ascending, and continued by the anterior margin
of the fir.st dorsal fin. The median line is also some-
what keeled between the two dorsal fins and in front
of the caudal fin, the beginning of these fins being
consequently ditficult to fix externallj'. The peduncle
of the tail, however, behind the second dorsal fin and
the cloaca, often — as may occasionally be observed in
the two preceding species — has a longitudinal impres-
sion both above and below, and (jn the lower part of
each side we find, as in the Picked Dog-fish, a more or
less distinct longitudinal carina. The greatest breadth
of the body, just in front of the branchial apertures,
is aljout " ., of the greatest depth, at the beginning of
the first dorsal fin, where the breadth is more variable,
according to the distension of the aljilominal cavity".
The peduncle of the tail also shows considerable varia-
tion of form, the breadth (thickness) of its shallowest
part varying at least between 71* and 82 % of the
depth thereof.

During the growth of the body from a lengtli of
15 to one of 19 dm. the length of the head decreases
from about 20'/2 to 18' j, % of that of the body'. The
eyes are round and rather small, measuring '/,, — 'lo
of the length of the head and about Vs — '/e of the in-
terorbital widtii. They are closely surrounded by the
margins of the oi'bits, wliich are not very large. The

" According to Valenciennes the breadth at this point is ' ,5 of the depth.
' According to Valenciennes down to 50 °i.

' In a stuffed specimen 3', '2 m. long the lengtli of flic lienil is only 17','., % of that of the body; but the measnremert is, of
course, uncertain.

CKKKXI.AND SIIAllK.

1169

nostrils are similar In tlmse of the two preceding spe-
cies, l)ut are set at aliout the end of the tii'st third of
the snout, measured tVom its tip. The hroad and Init
slightly curved moutli has free corners and deej) grooves
outside tlieni. The teeth (fig. 342, a and h) are most
like those of tlu' Sagre. In the ujiper jaw tlicA' are set
in 5 — 7 transverse rows. Lateral i'nsi)S are wanting or,
if present, small and tulierous. The l)ase of the tooth
is higher than in the Sagre, more quadrangular, and
on the broad anterior surface has a terete carina, con-
tinued to a greater or less distance on the cusp. In
the lower jaw the first two rows of teeth are commonly
erect, the compensatory teeth, on the other liand, the
five or six posterior (inner) rows, directed downwards.
Here too the lamellar base is higher, in propoi'tion to
the oblicpielj" set, serrature-like cusp. In the lower
margin it has a median sinus and on the anterior sur-
face above the sinus a median carina, ^vith one or more
holes on each side. In comparison with those of the
two preceding species the spiracles are small and set
high. They have the appearance eitiier of triangular
or elongated, narrow openings, their length not exceed-
ing the diameter of the iris. Their distance from the
ti]) of the snout measures about ''/s (61 — 68 %) of the
length of tlie iiead, and their distance from each other
about lialf as much (al)out 30 % of tlie length of the
head). Tlie gill-openings are hardly middle-sized, the
height of the first being about twice the diameter of
the iris, but their height gradually increases from the
first to the hindmost opening. They differ from those
of tlie two preceding forms in that the last aperture
lies a little in front of, not quite close to, the base of
the pectoral fin.

All the fins are distinguished l)y tlieir insignificant
size. The two dorsals are obliquely qnadrangular,
longer than high, with the upper anterior angle roundly
truncate and the upper posterior elongated to a point.
The first dorsal begins at about the end of the fourtli
and ends at the termination of the fifth tenth of the
body; the second begins just in front of the end of the
>eventh tenth and ends at the termination of the third
quarter. The distance between the posterior extremities
'if their bases is consequently equal to that between the

second dorsal ami the iqiper ti]> of the caudal fin. This
distance is also similar to that between the beginning
of the pectoral insertion and the end of the base of
the first dorsal. Tlie caudal fin is comparatively broad,
but short, its foi-m being more nearly approximated
than in any of the preceding Sharks to the Teleostean
caudal fin. A peculiarity almost or entirely absent in
the two preceding species is, however, that the hind
margin is interrupted above l)y a sliallow break, calling
to mind the incision usually present in the other Sharks.
The upper anterior margin of the fin measures about
18 %, its lower anterior margin about 12 %, of the
length of the liody. .\mong the paired fins the ventrals
are not unlike the dorsal fins, but the pectorals are
i]uadrangular in a different manner, as if the oval form
were truncated and concavely emarginated at the broad
end (the top). The relative position of the ventral tins
to the second dorsal is about the same as in the Sagre;
they begin at a distance from the tip of the snout
measuring about ^ 5 (63 %) of the length of the body.
The distance between the pectoral fins and the ti|) of
the snout is rather more than V4 (26 — 28 %), and
the length of these fins at the anterior margin about
7—10 %, of the length of the liody.

The shagreen and the coloration are noticed above.
The small spin}- scales are of the same type as in
Scymnus, and resemble in miniature the spines of Eclii-
norJihiiis, but are not so denselj* grooved. The white
teeth of the mouth stand off sharply, as in the Sagre,
against the dark ground of the l)ody. Soon after the
Greenland Shark is drawn out of the water, the loose
epidermis peels oft", and the body assumes a bluish gray
tint. V. Wright's figure (PI. LII, fig. 3) represents the
tisli as it apjicars immediateh' after its capture.

The Greenland Siiark is reallj' an Arctic species,
its affinity to Acanthorhinus rostratus, a form observed
in the Mediterranean and on the coast of Portugal,
being as yet unelucidated". Fisheries for the Green-
land .Shark have long existed on the coasts of Green-
land, Iceland, and Norway, and in recent times Spitz-
bergen has also become a fishing-station. On the North
American coast the species goes south to Cape Cod.
Isolated specimens have been met with in the North

" We need hardly remind tlie reader of the erroneous conceptions which stuffed specimens either of Sharks or Kays may give. With
tlie other close resemblances to be observed between Acatithorliinus carcharias and A. roftratus, it would appear quite possible that the very
>trong prolongation of the occiput in the latter, according to Capeli.o's (.torn. Sc. Math., Phys., Natur., Lisboa 1869, p. 14G, tab. IX. figs. 2,
'-' 11, 3 b) and Canestrini's (Mem. R. Accad. Sc. Torino, ser. 2, toni. XXI, p. 364, tab. II, figs. 2 — 4) figures, may be due to stretching in
ihe process of stuffing. The slendemess of the body and tlic great size of the eyes in Acanthorhinus rostratus may be characters of youth.

1170

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

Sea and the Channel (off the mouth of the Seine), as
well as in the Cattegat, even off Mount Kullen, where
Baron Gyllexstjekxa secured a speciuien during the
spring of 1831, and on the north eoast of Zealand,
whence Khdveh and Peteuses each adduce a specimen.
On the coast of BohuslUn the Greenland Shark is not
too scarce to have received a special name among the
tishei-men, being called Hdmdr (as in Xorwa)) and, on
Koster, Bldmauer or Bhimaq-mur. Strictly, however,
it is a deep-sea lish, with its true linlutat at a depth
of some hundreds of fathoms, so that its appearance in
tiie upper strata and in sliallow water must be regarded
as more or less fortuitous.

The Greenland Shark is sluggish and insensitive,
but rapacious. Its acute hearing and keen smell have
always been remarked by the iisherman. From the
dejjths and from afar it is attracted hj the odour of
dead flesh, whether a whale is being cut up, a seal-
hunt in progress, or a piece of carrion be cast out as
a Ijait. From the carcase of the whale it tears pieces
as big as a man's head, and cares little if the exaspe-
rated whaler stabs it witli his long knife or pierces it
with a, lance. It is soon ready again to renew its vo-
racious repast. To a moderate-sized Greenland Shark
a seal is a comfortable mouthful. In the stomach of a
Greenland Shark, according to Guxnerus, the carcase
of a reindeer has been found; and Fabek relates that,
when horses belonging to the Icelanders venture on too
tliin ice and are drowned, the Greenland Shark makes
its way up the narrowest fjords — where it never puts
in an appearance at other times — to feed on horse-
flesh. But as a rule, no doubt, its prey consists of live
animals; and in the stomach of a specimen 44 dm.
long Fabek found a wIkjIc seal {Plioca vifiiUiia), 8 large
Cod, a Ling I'i'/, dm. long, the head of a large Hali-
but, and several pieces of whale-blubber. It lias even
been considered dangerous to man. Fabricius relates
that it attacks the Greenlanders in their kayaks and

bites both boat and kayaker in two. The Greenlanders,
he states, therefore took care never to make a noise or
talk aloud \vhen passing over deep spots, for fear tlie
Greenland Shark should hear them and come up. Rixk,
however, seems to give no credence to these accounts,
and even says that the Greenlanders are only afraid of
the very large Greenland Sharks, which by their move-
ments and with their sharp skin might tear holes in
the kayaks. Faber states that in Iceland no instance
had been recorded of a Greenland Shark attacking
human beings.

As has been indicated above, ichthyologists are
still doubtful whether the Greenland Shark gives birth
to living young or lays eggs. Fabiucius states posi-
tively that it is viviparous, and Faber adds that the
young are born in July and August. A female of
Acanthorhinus rostrutus dissected by Corxalia" had 6
foetuses in the oviducts, and another prepared by MM.
Gal at Nice' contained 12 fcetuses. Lutkex, however,
pointed out the singularity of the fact that in recent
times, so far as he could ascertain, no fa-tus had been
found in any Greenland Shark, and also cited express
statements from Iceland, where a general conviction
obtains that the Greenland Shark is oviparous. In sup-
port of this opinion he adduces the circumstance that
the eggs of the Greenland Shark, which have been
found, inside the fish, of the size of goose-eggs, are so
numerous that an adult female sometimes contains a
barrel and a half or t\vo barrels thereof; and such
numerousness, he says, is surely not compatible with
the development of the fa?tuses within the oviducts,
provided the development be simultaneous or nearly so.
The last-mentioned assumption, however, has not been
demonstrated: and so long as this is the case, we have
good reason to follow Lilljebokg and give the prefe-
rence to the earlier belief that in this respect the
Greenland Shark resembles its nearest relatives, and
gives birth to living young'.

" See LOtken, 1. c.

' See MoREAii, 1. c.

■" Long after the printing of the above in the Swedish edition of the present worlc, on Christmas Eve, 1894, the Royal Museum re-
ceived a female Greenland Shark that had been tal^cn some days before on the coast of Bolnislan. The length of the body to the tip of
the upper caudal lobe was 172 cm., to that of the lower caudal lobe 158 cm. Tlie length of the abdominal cavity was about 44 % of the
former measurement. The two pointed lobes of the liver, which gradually narrowed behind, were longer than the said cavity, the length of
the left lobe being about 1'., times (136 % of) that of the right lobe l' , times (126 'i of) the length of the abdominal cavity; and they
were therefore bent behind, their posterior extremities being directed forwards. Both were of about the same breadth, which measured, where
greatest (in front), about '/,„ of the length of the abdominal cavity. The gall-bladder was rather large, twice as long as broad, and about
equal in length to the base of the ventral fins or about '/g as long as the abdominal cavity. On each side of the ventrally median peritoneal
fold joining the gall-bladder to the diaphragm, opened the anterior end of the oviducts, which were of almost uniform thickness throughout

GKEENLAXI) SllAlJK.

1171

The fishery for the Greenland Shark is fairly lu-
crative ill many localities. On th(! coast of Norway,
and (iccasionally on tiiat of Holiiislrni, the (ireenhind
Sliark is soufijlit after princijially for tlie sake of its
liver, from wliich oil is extracted; but in Iceland and
(Greenland the flesh is eaten both by man and dogs.
A large tisli contains, according to Rink, two barrels
i)f liver, which, when melted down, yields oil to the
amount of about 53 %. The flesh is also oily, but the oil
I'xudes in process of drying, or may be removed by press-
ing while the fish is fresh. The Icelanders, like the Nor-
wegians in GuNNERUs's time, cut the flesh up into rav
and rdkling". The Greenlanders prefer to eat it rotten.
When fresh, it tastes like Halibut, according to Kink,
and has an agreeable, white appearance, but is some-
what coarse and tough.

In Norway the Greenland Shark is caught on large
hooks, turning freely on a swivel, and with a snood
of slender iron-chain, which the lish cannot bite asun-
der. The line is a centimetre thick or a little thinner,

and is wound up nn a small windlass, made fast to the
bulwark of tiie \cssel. With this tackle the bankers
lie at anchor in the npcii sea lictwcen Norway and
Bear Island or Spitzbergen, in 100 — 200 fathoms of
water. The method practised is the same on the co;ists
of Iceland and Sduth (iivcnland; but in North Green-
land, according tn Kink, tlie (ireenland Shark is taken
witli far less trouble and nuich greater succ(!ss through
holes in the fast ice. The strong-smelling bait is dang-
led (jiily a few metres below the surface, or it even
happens that the Shark may be; enticed right up to the
hole, where it is captured with a gaff. The sluggish-
ness of the Greenland Shark is such that it sometimes
allows itself to be taken on an ordinary Cod-line.

Among the parasites of the Greenland Shark is
often observed a crustacean, Lcnueopoda eloiif/afa,
which attaches itself to the cornea of the eye, and
which was first tigured by Scokesby and, after him,
by Couch in his figure of the Greenland Shark.

their length, ami wliieh rrooked backwards along the posterior surface of tlie diaiihragni, each to its resijuclive side, below and along the
spinal column. The two ribbon-shaped ovaries were symmetrically suspended on each side in the anterior part of the abiloniinal cavity and
were of about the same size, 30 em. (-5 of the length of the said cavity) long and 2'', cm. broad. The eggs were innumerable, and hardly
distinguishable to the naked eye. At uo point was there any indication of an earlier development in one part of tlie egg-mass than in an-
other. This specimen too seemed accordingly to bear out LOtken's opinion as to the reproductive operations of the Greenland Sliark; but
the question cannot be fully solved until older and ripe females have been examined.
" See above, p. 415.

117:

SCAX11IX AVIAN I'lSHES.

PISCES CYCLOSTOMI.

Skeleton cartilaginous only at the head and tail, elsewhere fibrous. Notochord unaltered
throughout life: no complete spinal column. No true maxillary or mandibular parts. No
true gill-arches, the branchial lamellae being serially arranged on the inside of sacs each
with a separate aperture or all having a common aperture on each side of the body. One
nasal aperture only, in a developed state dorsal. No paired fins. No shoulder-girdle, no pelvis.

Hitherto all the fishes under our consideration have
lieen of indisputable inseine nature. We now approach
tlie primordial limits of the vertebrate type, where the
differences between the various classes find more or less
imperfect expression in the structure of the several
forms. Our knowledge of the geological evolution of
the vertebrates is indeed deficient as yet in many re-
spects, and fails us when we have to determine the
origin of the classes. Besides, many remains cannot
be expected to be preserved of animal forms which for
the most part were indubitably Avithout firm skeleton.
But morphology and ontology (the de\elopment of the
individual) point so clearly to intermediate forms which
probably had representatives once in the living world,
that the imagination has full right to picture an ex-
tensive area of the system, principally tenanted by ex-
tinct animals in whicli the characters of the different
classes were combined or not yet differentiated. The
Cyclostomous order survives during the modern age in
such a i)osition. The [iiiints of resend:)lance between

these fishes and the rest are indeed so man)' tliat none
can well deny the piscine nature of a Myxine or a
Lamprey; but several portions of their structure lend
themselves best to explanation by a comparison with
the organs of batrachian larva-.

A very salient proof of the low rank occupied by
the Cyclostoraes as vertebrates lies in the metamorphosis
jjointed out by A. Miller" in the transition from Pride
{Ammocaies) to Lampern (I'efromiizo)i). The trans-
formation is here as great in certain respects as that
undergone by many invertebrates, and is also acconi-
jdished, at least in part, by histolysis (dissolution) of
the organs to be transformed.

The order contains two families, one of which, tliat
of the Myxine, never acquires any true (discoid) suc-
torial mouth, the name of CycJostomi {with round mouthy
— Avhich we retain in accordance with the rules of
zoological nomenclature — being hence less appropriate
than the later Marsipobranchii {with sai<ate ffiUs)'.

fam p e t r 0 m y z 0 n I d j:.

Seven (/ill-ojieuinf/s on each side of the forepart of the bodi/ (the throat). The nasat duet terminates ca'caltij
and in a developed state has its inner {posterior) end situated hetween the anterior part <f the notixhord and the

(esophagus, under the former and (diove the latter.

well as hy the following family, \\ith relation to the

On account of the al)ove-mentioned intermediate
position occupied ])y the family of the Lampreys, as

other classes of vertebrates, its study has possessed

" Miillers ArcMv 1856, ].. 32:3.

'' C. DOmeril, Zoologie Aunh/tiipie, Paris 1806, p. 100,

■■ BONAI'AKTE, Sdavhiorvm Uilmla tuwhjtica, N. Ann. Sc. Nat., Bologna, Ann. I, loni. II (1838), p. 214, anil Systema Mthyotogiai,
il.id., Anil. II, toiii. IV (1840), [i. 277.

LA.Ml'ltlCYS.

117;-!

irreat inorplKiloiiic'il signitirMiicc. in tlic structure of
the skeleton of tlic Laniin-cys the difference between
the internal (verteliral) and tiic external (extravertebral)
parts is far inure |ir(iniinent than in the tishes we have
hitherto considered, the latter parts being here endowed
with a more prei)onderating iinjiortance. The purely
vertebral parts appear in the LaniprcAs merely as the
framework of tiie cranium and its nearest appendages
and as very imperfectly developed neural arches (fig.
.143, arc) on the sides of the myelon and the unaltered
notochord (etch)- I" ^lie vertical fins too cartilaginous
rods are developed which arc applied to the neural
arches in such a manner that it has been proposed to
interpret them as representing spinous processes both
superior (neural) and inferior (hajmal). The skull itself
is an almost straight continuation of the fibrous me-
dullispinal sheath, which has ])een dilated, and which

grows, on each side of the brain, t(j forni a moi'e or
less complete i-oof for the cerebral cavity {tetjmen cranii,
t). Laterally and downwards the floor expands in three
places on each side into flat ]>rocesses. The fonnnost
])air of these })rocesses projects from the ethmoidal pai-t,
the posterior two pairs issue from the spheiKjidal jnirt.
'Hie former is I'vidently homologous with a palatine arch
((xil), the latter answei' to the upper parts in the sus-
pensory apparatus of the mandibular and hyoid arches.
But no mandibular arch proper is developed in these
fishes. The two posterior processes on each side are
confluent at the base; but the antei'ioi' of them (jiff/)
grows outwards and forwards, in a loop below the eye,
Tuitil it coalesces with the top of the foremost (palatine)
process (pal). In this manner a flat ring is formed,
surrounding an aperture {fenestra suhorbliaJ'is ov fissura
orhitaUs inferior, fo), and composing the bottom of the

la ctr Ip net > <

Fig. 343. The eartiliigincus skeleton of the anterior part of a Lampern (PHromijson fliwiatilh), ^, ., naf. size.
mm, annular cartilage of the oral disk; rtrf, rudimentary neural arches; a», cartilaginous capsule of the auditory apparatus; br, branchial basket;
i-eh, eeratohyal cartilage; cir, posterior cartilage of the roof of the mouth {conma trabecxdarum); eph, epihyal cartilage; et, ethmoidal pait
of the cranial floor; etch, outer sheath of the chorda dorsalis; fo suborbital fenestra; la, anterior lateral cartilage of the roof of the raouth ;
lat, lateral labial cartilage; //), posterior lateral cartilage of the roof of the mouth; meil, median cartihige of the roof of the raouth; n, ol-
factory capsule, with the tubular orifice of the nasal duct; //a/, palatine part of the roof of the mouth; phy, posterior hyoid cartilage;
pre, pericardial cartilage; pUj, pterygoid part of the roof of the mouth; st, sublingual cartilage; sph, sphenoidal part of the cranial Hoor;
spl, symplectic (^? hyomandibular) cartilage; t, lower part of the cranial roof (legmen cranii).

is invested in the developed Lamprey with a more or
less comjilete cartilaginous capsule (0 originating from
the skeletogenous laj'er round the anterior end ot tiie
notochord. The part first formed, the cranial floor,
answering to a sphenoidal region (spli) applies itself to
and coalesces with the already present auditory capsules
(au). In a forward direction are developed the so-called
cranial trabecukv, around the cerebral appendage (hypo-
physis, posterior nasal duct) and the under-brain
(infundibuluni); and after their union in front into an
ethmoidal part (i-t) they advance to the so-called corniia
frahecularuni {ifr), which coalesce into a disk in front
of the nasal capsule («)• Upwards the cranial floor

cranial orbit. To the top of the hindmost process is
attached the hyoid arch proper. The upper part of
the latter is an unbroken downward continuation of the
said process, and represents an epihyal bone [ejih); the
lower (ventral) jiart, which is suspended at right angles to
the lower tip of the upper part, answers to a eeratohyal
bone (ceh). A certain similarity to this structure of
the cranial roof of the palate and pharynx we have
indeed seen in the Chimtvras (fig. 294, p. 1U65), where
a coalescence, suggestive of a dev<!lopment (jresumably
very primitive, has taken place between the pterygo-
palato-quadrate parts and the cranium. But the closest
resemblance to tliis structure in the Lampreys meets us

1174

SCAXDIXAVIAN I-ISHES.

ill batrachian lar\;v (tig. 344), a reminder that in tiieir
origins these two types were structurally not far re-
moved from each other. Tiic tongue of the Lampreys
contains a long rod-like su]iportiiig apparatus, capable
of protrusion and retraction, and suspended under the
ceratohyal. This ai)paratus consists of two cartilages,
an anterior, semipateriforui, excised in front, situated
in the mouth, and a posterior (jtlnj), much longer, the
posterior extremity of which projects into the branchial
l)asket. It is interpreted as homologous with a basihyal,
and the anterior cartilage liears the lingual teeth (fig.
34.5), at the very tip a curved, transversal dental plate
{((h/). with firm, rounded and obtuse teeth, and further
l)ack two plates (plii). lying more loosely in the gums,
meeting anteriorly in an ellipse, and furuislied with
small but acute, retral teeth.

The whole oral apparatus of tiie Lampreys, which
is aljundantly su])plied with cartilages, paired and un-
paired, ]jateriform or lamellar and rod-like — one of

I, 1 I iihi f I

Fig. 344. Cartilaginous parts etc. in tlie head of a tadpole about
1 in. long, at the time when the hind legs begin to appear.
About 9 times nat. size. After P.4RKER.
(■()', n. and et, as in preceding figure; Mh, Thl, and Me, the three .in-
terior divisions of the brain; Oc, eye; als (alisphenoid), pro, (prootic),
pto (pterotic), so (supraoecipital), en (exoceipital), and op (opisthotic),
all answering to t in preceding figure ; dr., section of the skin ; G, gill-
opening; br, as in preceding figure; Inn and sj)l. answering to spl m
preceding figure; fo, as in preceding figure; liy, answering to j^l'y '"
preceding figure; Ip, lips (dermal flaps); mck, Meckelian cartilage;
7ndl', mandible; i]u, quadrate bone; ma.r, upper jaw.

them annular — belongs to the extravertebral structures.
Below the cormta trabectdanim (fig. 343, ctr) is medially
situated an invertedly pateriform cartilage (the median
cartilage of the roof of the mouth, ))ie(). MCller's "vor-
dere Deckplatte des Mundes"), which has behind it on
each side a flatlj- convex cartilage of a rounded quad-
rangular form (the posterior laterttl cartilage of the
roof of the mouth, Ip, Mi ller's "hintere Seitenleiste")
and at about the middle of its side-margin a narrower,
more terete plate (the anterior lateral cartilage of the

roof of the mouth, la. Miller's "vordere JSeiteideiste").
Ll^nder and before the said median plate lies the annular
cartilage (ann, Muller's "knorpeliger Lippenring"), the
bearer of the largest teeth, which has behind it a me-
dian plate (the sublingual ctirtilage, si, MCller's so-
called "Zungenbein"), situated under the tip of the hyoid
bone, in front expanded and convex, behind acutely
elongated. On each side of this sublingual plate lies
behind the annular cartilage a rod-like cartilage (the
lateral labial cartilage, laf, Muller's "sfielformit/er
Anhang des Lippenrhuies"); and three small cartilages,
the bearers of the lateral teeth of the mouth, lie loosely
in the skin on each side of the annular cartilage.

The branchial basket {hr) too is entirelj- extra-
vertebral, a network of thin flat cartilaginous rods, su])-
porting the outer walls of the gill-sacs. Anteriorly this
network is suspended from the epihyal cartilage; pos-
teriorly the cartilaginous mass developes into a saccate
case for the heart, a pericardial cartilage {pre).

Tlie nervous S3stem of the Lampreys has thrown
light, especially in two points, on the morphologj' of

Fig. 345. Tip of the tongue and its dental plates in a Lauipern

{Petromyzon fliiviatilis), X about 5.

aln, anterior dental plate of the tongue; pin, posterior dental plate

of tlie tongue.

the higher vertebrates. These points have reference to
the interpretation of two organs still involved in great
obscurity, the cerebral appendage and the pineal gland.
At the bottom of the human cranial cavity, as well
as on the under surface of the lirain in all other true
vertebrates, lies a glandiform organ whose function is
still doubtful. It is known anatomically as the hijpo-
physis cerebri. In man it is about as large as a pea,
oblong in form and transversally set, lodged in the de-
pression on tlie ui)per surface of the sphenoid bone
(the so-called sella turcica) and attached to the brain by
a funnel-shaped prolongation thereof in a downward
direction from the bottom of the third cereliral ventricle.
It consists of two parts, an anterior, the development
of which we shall now describe, and a posterior, whose
development originates from the brain. Great impor-
tance was formerly attributed to it both by physiologists
and psychologists. B}- Galen, in the second century

I'lTl ITAHY (iLANI).

1175

A. 1'.. :iii(l .-it'tcr his time far into tin- luiddir a<i'e.s, oven
if the e()iice|iti(iii was uiodified in se\eral manners, tiie
cerebral hypophysis was explained as an extremely im-
portant organ for the purification of the fluids contained
in tlie lirain. It was also called the gland for the se-
cretion of the nasal mucus (r/huuhild 2)ifiiifaria). an error
which was not refuted until the seventeenth century.
Another opinion was advanced, whicii even at the be-
ginning of the present century was maintained by so
eminent an anatomist as Meckel, namely that it secreted
some kind of important fluid, which was supplied to

A

fa-tal life tiian afterwards and is comparatively larger in
young ]iersons than in old, as is the case with several
other organs wiiose significance ajipears to be more
historical than physiologically clear.

Better than its function, however, we know the
origin of the iupophysis". In man it arises as an in-
volution of the cmbr\onic ectoderm in the region which
afterwards becomes tiie roof of the mouth cavity. Tiiis
involution rises, towards the anterior end of the noto-
chord. It makes its appearance before the mouth ca-
vity proper is formed, and long before the mouth has

J'ubcOi

2.1 Mdb

Fig. 34lj. Longitudinal section of tlie forepart of Jarvie of Petromyzon Ptaneri, after A. Pohbn. A three days, B six (lays, U seventeen

days after exclusion.

<7(, cluirda dorsnlis; Eiit, entoderm: Ep. epiphysis; Hy, hypojiliysis; /»/, infundibulum ; M, stomodieuin, future mouth cavity; Max, upper

jaw; MM, lower jaw; MT, mouth tentacle; N, nasal sinus, future nasal cavity; Thr/, thyreoid gland; Tub. cin, tuber cinereum.

the third ventricle of the brain. In modern days phy- j broken a passage through the pharynx to join the in-
siology does not seem to devote very much attention to ! testinal canal. In the form of a tube it grows u]; to-
its interpretation: it is most generally referred to tlie ' wards the rudin)ent of the bi-ain; and when the floor

so-called blood-vascular glands, which it resembles in
the greater part of its structure. Remarkable is the

of the skull is developed the lower part of this tube
closes, in the region where the presphenoid bone sub-

■ircumstance that it lias a more robust growth during ' sequently coalesces with the postsjihenoid: the comnui-

" The first investigator hereof was Rathke, Ceber die EulMehnng der Glaiidula pitiiitavia, Miillers Arcliiv 18.38, p. 482.

an,linari„n Fiskc

1176

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

nication with tlie mouth cavity is interrupted, and the
hypophysis lies enclosed in the cranial cavity. Sucii is
the development in all the higher vertebi'ates. In the
lower, on the other hand, as for instance in the frogs,
the cerebral hypophysis appears still earlier, before the
mouth cavity is developed enough to contain the origin
of this appendage within its region. In Pehbates fiiscus
Goette" has shown that the origin thereof is visible
even before the future mouth cavitj' is indicated in any
way. There, accordingly, the cerebral hypophysis is at
least as primordial an organ as the mouth. In the
Lampreys Dohrn" and, after him, Kl'pffer' saw a stage
of development (fig. 346, A and B) in which the nasal
cavity (N), the hypophysis (Hy), and the mouth cavity
(3/) had Ijeguii to appear on the under surface of the
rudimentary head in the form of three uniserially (in a
sagittal row) arranged impressions of the ectoderm. But
here the homologue of the hypophysis becomes much
more than, and something cpiite different from, a mere
apjjendage of the brain. Such an appendage is indeed pre-
sent in the Lampreys; the said rudiment here too grows
in a tubular form upwards and backwards towards the
tip of the notochord, but it also moves upwards round
the snout, continually growing, and becomes the so-
called nostril of the Lampreys, which throughout their
life opens on the dorsal side of the head and thence
extends in a tubular form backwards and down^vards
over the pharynx. During its growtli and migration as
described above the nostril draws -withiii its limits the
true olfactory apparatus (fig. 343, n), a capsule imper-
fectly divided internally into two chambers, and deve-
loped from the nasal cavity (fig. 346, B; N) that once
lay before the rudiment of the hypophysis. In this
manner the Cyclostomes attain a unique position among
the vertebrates. They possess, it is true, a well-developed

" Entwickehingsgeschichte der Unk-e, p. 288, tnf. II, tigs. 34-

' Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neapel, Bd. IV, p. 172, taf. 18.

<' Arcli. f. Mikr. Anat., Btl. 35 (1890), p. 537, taf. XXXI, fig. 62.

'' In the Quart. Jouin. Micr. Sc, N. ser., vol. XXIII (1883), pp. 349, cett., Hubreciit has tried to show that both the liypopliysis
and the notochord are inheritances from the worm-like predecessors of the vertebrates. The hypophysis, he contends, represents the proboscis
of the flat-worms and the notochord their proboscidian sheath. At the limit between the proboscis and the sheath — where the latter suffers
invagination to receive the former when refracted — lies the principal mass of the Platyelminth nervous system; and at the corresponding
point in the skull of the lower vertebrates, at the limit between the epichordal and prechordal part.! of the brain, there too do the notochord
and hypophysis meet each other.

Neither the hypophysis nor the notochord would thus be peculiar to the vertebrates; they would have their prototypes in the lowest
worms. The hypophysis lies under our brain in the most protected spot throughout our body, as even Galen remarked, as if it were a most
important and delicate organ; but it lies there, according to Hubrecht, merely as a relic, a vestige of an organ which serves the lowest
worms for purposes of touch, offence, and defence. In us adults the notochord has entirely disappeared; but during our foetal life and that
of the other higher animals, as well as in the adult state of lower vertebrates, this string is the axis round which the vertebrse are developed
and their bodies chondrified or ossitied; — and this string, says Hubrecht, was once a sac within which the homologue of the hypophysis
might find concealment.

*■ The Brain and it.^ Functions, Intern. Sclent. Series, vol. XXXVIl, Loud. 1881.

olfactory apparatus, but only oiw nasal capsule and one
nostril. Meckel therefore called theui Mo)iorhhu.

The hypophysis is accordingly a vei-y primitive or-
gan — at least as ancient as the mouth — but in the
highest animals has lost its most essential significance/.
Similar is the history of the pineal gland.

In 1881 LuYS published a jjsychology* as the result
of his works on the brain and its functions, giving us
in a very popular way means to understand the relation
between the different parts of the brain. By numerous
and successful sections he traced the course of the nerve
fibrils to the brain and within this to the connexion
between its countless ganglion cells. Contemporaneously
with these and other anatomical works Ferrier in Eng-
land, Fritsch and Hitzig and, after them, Muxk in Ger-
many, had published their famous attempts to discover
in the superficial layers of the brain the so-called psy-
chomotor centres and to define their limits. These and
other later researches in many points have modified the
views advanced by LuYS, especially as to the arrange-
ment of the sensorial tracts, but for our present purpose
we may leave those discrepancies out of sight. The
brain of the higher vertebrates, with its rich psychical
life, is, however, of so complex a nature that the mj's-
teries of that life would jiroliably have never been
solved by the methods of nattu-al history, had not more
simple material been placed at the investigator's disposal.
The study of the lowest fishes in particular has led to
the one comprehensive conclusion after the other. Thus
we shall, no doubt, be able at length to trace the ori-
gin of different psychical faculties in connexion with the
different development of some part or other of the brain.
Already in 1840 Johannes MClleii foreshadowed this,
when in his work on the nervous system of the Myxines
he chose the cerebral structure of these fishes and of
-38.

I'INKAL (;LAM>.

li:

the Lainjjreys as tlie liiisis of liis explanation of tlie eorres-
[lunding struetiires in the higher \ertel5rates: — and even he
could declare that "tlie structure of the brain in the Lam-
prey and Pride is a perfect parallel to the earliest stages
in the development of the brain of the higher vertebrates."
From the results of the history of evolution Beakd"
drew a picture of tlie worm-like ancestors of the \'er-
tebrates, ancestors \\ liicli liave all disappeared from the
earth, so far as a\c know, without leaving a trace of
their existent-e. Their body, he says, was anteriorly
furnished Avith several, at least eleven pairs of gill-clefts,
and above, i. e. at the dorsal termination of each gill-
cleft, la}" a sense organ in the skin, probablj- to w-arn
the animal of the approach of any dangerous object

guide, sense organs of the same kind have originated
tlie development of all the other higher senses. Even
in the mammals Fkoiuep'' has traced the same course
of development for three of the cranial nerves (faciaUs,
(/lossophari/ngeus, and vagus) as Beakd found to obtain
in Kays and other fishes for all these nerves, including
tliose of smell, liearing, and taste. In order to obtain
their basal ganglion these nerves grow from the sides
of the rudimentary spinal canal downwards and out-
wards to the inner surface of the embryonic skin and
meet a thickening thereof at a spot answering to a prim-
ordial sense organ of a gill-cleft. Tiic ganglion is form-
ed by the growth and multiplication of the epidermal
cells at this point; but the rudiment of the primordial

towards the gill-bearing parts of the body. The nearest ! sense organ disappears after having thus done its duty

C

L.ol.

r]/;Mri p^l //

VII 17 m\ \ CI,

Fig. 347. Tlirec sketclies of the brain iiml mcdtill.'i obloug.ala in a Pride (Petroint/zori in the Ammoca'tes stage), magnified. After ^VIEDERS-

HEIM. A, from below; B, from the right; C, from above.

/ — A", cranial nerves in order from in front; 1, first pair of spinal nerves; Cb, cerebrum; Obi, cerebellum; Ep, epiphysis; Hi/p, hypophysis;

L.ol., lobi olfactorii; ME, mesencephalon; Med, medulla; Mob, medulla oblongata; S. v., saccus vasculosus; Tlit, thalamencephalon.

jiarallel to the sense organs of the gill-clefts in their
original form is thus afforded by the lateral-line system
of fishes and batrachians, with their marvellous deve-
lopment to the possession of a sense which we as j^et
scarcely understand, a specification of the sense of pres-
sure, enaliling these lower vertebrates to appreciate cer-
tain undulations of the water, and thus to detect at a
distance the presence of objects or the approach of
changes which under the same circumstances could
hardly be perceived by the senses of the higher verteb-
rates. But if the history of evolution lie a faithful

in the history of evolution, without ever having felt
a sensation. Even the formation of the eye may be
referred, considering the manner of origin shown by
the ciliary ganglion and the lens, to the same scheme.
Originally a number of these sense organs would thus
seem to have been present in the skin of the verteb-
rates; but according to this assumption most of them
have become useless since the development of the senses
in their present form. The course of this process is
known at least in the case of one such organ, the pineal
gland, whose fate has been traced \vith fair preci.sion.

Si/st. branch, ^iense Org., Qnart. Journ. Micr. Sc, Nov., 1885, and Develop. Peripher. Nerv. Syst., same periodical for Oct.. 1888.
Ueber Anlagen von Sinnesorganen am Facialis, Glossopharijngeus unci Vagus etc., Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1885. Auat. Abtheil.

1178

SCAXDINAVIAX PISHES.

When Ahlbokn resuiued tlie study of the brain of
the Lampreys in 1883", its structure appeared in a new
light, different from that shed upon it in Joh. Muller's
day. In the brain of the lower vertebrates (fig. 347)
a distinction is now drawn in tlic first place between a
posterior and an anterior part. Tlie posterior, epichor-
dal part — so called because it extends as far forward
as the subjacent chorda dnrsalis — contains the medidla
oblongata (prolongated sj)inal cord or afterbrain. Mob)
and the small homologue of our little brain (hindbrain
or cerebellum, Cbl), but in the Lampreys is almost as

Fig. .'548. Diagram of a longitudinal section through the human ce-
rel>ruiii and medulla oblongata, to illustrate the higher functions of the

brain, according to the assumptions advanced by LuYS.
/, thalami optici; 2, corpora striata; 3, course of the propagation of
acoustic impressions (labyrinth of the internal ear). These impressions
arrive in the corresponding centre (4), are radiated towards the sen-
soriura (i5), and reflected at 6', to the large cells of the corpus striatum,
and thence at 7 and 7', towards the motor regions of the spinal axis.
8. Course of sensitive impressions. These are concentrated (at 9) in
the corresponding centre, radiated thence into the plexuses of the sen-
sorium (,10), reflected to the large cortical cells (11), and thence pro-
pagated to the large cells of the corpus striatum, and finally to the
different segments of the spinal a.xis. 13. Course of optic impressions.
These are concentrated (.it 14) in tlieir corresponding centre, then
radiated towards the sensorium (at 10). Tiicy are reflected towards the
large cells of the corpus striatum and afterwards propagated to the
different segments of the spinal axis; 18, 19', 19", the antero-lateral
fibres from their point of origin in the corpus striatum, are invested by
the elements of cerebellar innervation which begin to appear in the
pedimcles (19), to become considerably thicker at 19', on a level with
the region called the pons, and to diminish insensibly on a level with
the medullary regions, 19". — 20, peripheral expansion of the ol-
factory nerves.

large as the whole anterioi' portion, the so-called pre-
chordal part. All the cranial nerves, except those of

" Unders. lib. das Gehirn der Peiromyzonten, Zeitschr. f. Wiss,

sight and smell, have tlieir r<jots in this posterior part
of the Vjrain. In the prechord;d lirain the homologue
of the brain proper (forebrain or cerebrum, Cb) of the
higher animals is merely a small, hollow prominence
on each of the two olfactory, lobes [L. oh). The two
parts of the brain which are incomparably most deve-
loped in man — the cerebrum and cerebellum — are thus
the smallest in the Lamprey; and but little, though
somewhat, greater is the development of the cerebrum
in true fishes (Teleosts) and batrachians. Merely for
anatomical reasons it has been possible to prognosticate
that in these animals the cerebrum is simply a gathering-
place and a control-station for the sensations coming
from the organs of smell. In 1868 Goltz successfully
extii-pated the cerebrum of frogs, wiiich still lived for
some time "with their intelligence preserved," as he
expressed it; and in 1886 the same experiment was
performed on fishes by Steixer at Heidelljerg and VuL-
PIAN in Paris. A Carp which lived si.x months after
the removal of its cerebrum (forebrain), the other parts
of the brain, even the olfactory lobes, being left intact,
showed no other irregularity of behaviour, according to
VuLPiAN, after the wound had healed, than that it was
apparently destitute of the sense of smell. Yet in the
higher vertebrates that part of the brain of which it
was deprived, is the foundation for the subsequent de-
velopment of the material substratum in everything that
bears the name of consciousness. Thus in the fish it
is only those ganglion cells with which the conscious
apprehension of the impulses of smell is bound up that
lie there. Another part of the prechordal l)rain appears
in fishes to occupy exactly the same relations to the
stimuli of .sight. This is the postero-superior part,
the so-called midbi'ain {ME), which on the dorsal side
is closely applied to or even confluent with their little
brain. The first control-stations for the sensations of
sight within the region of the brain, however, lie in
the antcro-inferior part of the median portion of tlie
prechordal brain, the so-called 'tweenbrain (fig. 347,
TM). Originally, as here in the Lamprej's, the 'tween-
brain and midlirain enclose that cavity of the brain
known as the third ventricle, and this they also do in
the embryos of the highest vertebrates; but in the adult
brain of the latter they have sunk down to the bottom
of the ventricle; and before this has hapj^ened, great
revolutions have taken place in the surroundings of
that ventricle. The midlirain has dwindled into the
Zool., Bd. .39.

PIXEAL GLAND.

117!)

corpora quadrigemuKt, and thus become a part of \\w.
enrolling stations for the nervous action which pro-
ceeds, according to Luys, between the surface-layers
of the cerebral hemispheres and the central gray matter
of tiie sjiinal column, i. e. Ix'twcen the psycho-intel-
lectual and the vegetative life. The 'twcenbrain, on
the otiier liand. has developed into the ojitic thalanii,
uliicli now, however, have a far greater importance
tiian tiiat of mere collectors of the visual sensations,
for hither, according to Luys (hg. 348), stream all
the sensations not yet idealised, but destined to the
consciousness. Here Luys distinguished between four
centres, wcll-deiined gangliar masses in each optic
thalamus (i), the foremost of which receives and trans-
mits the impulses of smell {20), -the second those of
sight [IS — 14), tlie third those of touch {8 — 9), the
fourth those of hearing [3 — 4). Before and outside
the optic thalarai lies the primitive floor of the cerebrum

f stp Ihrh hi

was a time \\\\vu it was su[iposc(l that tiie soul had a
fixed and s|)t<'ial station in some part of the brain, and
Descaktes assumed that the pineal gland was the seat
of the soul: — it had such a remarkably central situa-
tion, and it was solitary, unpaired. Had the soul dwelt
in a paired organ, said Descartes, we should always
have two ideas aljont the same thing, and there would
be a continual conflict to determine which side should
have the mastery. The researches of modern times
have certaiidy divested tiie pineal body of most of its
reputation from this point of view; but its historical
importance claims all the greater recognition.

Before the transformation of the 'twcenbrain into
optic thalanii, even before the apjiearance of the rudi-
ment of the true optic thalanii, this part of the l)rain
grows laterally outwards in a vesicular form and sup-
plies the rudiments of the eyes and optic nerves, and
in a downward direction it forms an expansion known

stp c r

Fig. .340. Ripe female of the Lampern {Petromyzon fluviatiUs, forma branchinlis), uat. size. .1, from the left; B, forepart, from above; C, the'

same, from below.

1-. anterior connecting branch between the frontorostral canals; stp, posterior connecting branch; r, rostral branch; so, suborbital branch;

m, mandibular branch; hn, mediolateral line; Id, dorsolateral line; Ibrs, superior branchiolateral line; Ibri, inferior br.inchiolateral line.

(forebrain), the so-called corpora striata (2), to which
the manifestations of consciousness that have been de-
rived from the said sources and developed in the sur-
face-layers of the cerebral hemispheres are conducted
{14— 15— Id— 17: 9—10—11—12 and 4—o—G) for
tlieir tirst realisation, with that contribution to the
power and distinctness of the currents which is suiiplied
by the little brain, whose upper peduncles, according
to Luys, liy means of their jellow fibrils join tiie gang-
lion cells in the yellow nucleus of each corpus striatum.
Between the optic thalami and the corpora quadrigemina
lies a small swelling, the pineal gland {Ep in fig. 347),
the historv of whose transformations is among the most
remarkable. In man the nervous matter of the pineal
bod}^ probably plaj's the same part as that of the cor-
pora quadrigemina, but is of less importance. Yet there

as the underbrain {Inf. in fig. 346); l)ut in the roof of
the 'twcenbrain there appear two thickenings of the
cerebral wall (behind Ep in fig. 347), situated side by
side and usually of uiic(iual size. These collections of
nervous matter become the rudiments of the true optic
thalami. Over the 'twcenbrain the cerebral wall has
grown out into a vesicular swelling {Ep in figs. 346,
347), which is at first flattened, but rises, becomes tu-
biform, and grows forward over the brain. This is the
first appearance of the pineal gland in the lower verteb-
rates, and in them it attains a considerable. develop-
ment. In the Lampreys it is even externally visible
through the skin as a light, round spot behind the
tubular aperture of the nostril (fig. 349, B).

The pineal gland belongs, as mentioned above, to
that division of the brain with which the orifrin of the

1180

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

alt
iiiU

^^^K^S^l - -am

""'^'' :/*jiji

Ml (I, I lap end

Fig. 350. Section of the forepart of a Lampern (Petromi/zon); about
twice (lie nat. size; partly after Parker, partly after Vogt and Yung.
all); branchial artery; nhy, anterior liyoid cartilage; aln, anterior
linguodental plate; alt, anterior lateral dental plate; (iiui, annular car-

tilage of the mouth (severed in two places); at, anterior dental plate;
aiirc, auricle of the heart ; c, ventricle ; Uer I + II, prosencephalon
and thalamencephalon ; Uer III, mesencephalon; Cer IV + V, cerebellum
and medulla oblongata; ch, chorda dorsalis; coel, abdominal cavity
(coelom) ; ctr, cornua trabecularum ; dc, ductus Cuvieri ; ebr, outer gill-
openings; hej}, liver; Hy, nostril; ibr I^VII, first-seventh inner gill-
openings; med, median upper cartilage of the mouth; Ml, myelon;
mtt, left mediolateral dental plate; mr/c, mj-ocomma; mt/m, mj-omere;
11, olfactory capsule (the severed cartilaginous wall); oes, oesophagus;
ovar, anterior extremity of ovary; pliy, posterior liyoid cartilage; pt,
posterior dental plate of the mouth: t. tegmen oranii : r. anterior
part of intestine; vel, vehim.

paired eyes is connected, and its manner of origin is
the same, the difference is strictly but local. In its
highest development too, it becomes an eye with optic
nerve, an eye in the middle of the skull, asymmetrical,
for its nerve root would apjiear to originate from the
left optic thalamus, though l)efore this becomes a true
optic thalamus, and wliile it still lies, as in the Lanii)re\'s,
in the roof of the bi'ain and bears the name oi' fffDif/Jion
liaheniiJfP {intermedium) siiiisfniiiL This pineal eye,
■whose functional time jjroper fell under the period known
by geologists as the Mesozoic, bore within itself, how-
ever, the seeds of its destruction in the vertebrates, for
it was constructed on the ocular type of the invertebrates:
— its lens was an ependymal instead of an epithelial
(epiblastic) growth, and its retinal cells had the base
directed peripherally instead of centripetally into the
eyeball. And after the advent of the Tertiar^■ ]>eriod this
Polyphemous type disappeared from among the verteb-
rates. In many, however, as in the Lampreys, it endures
in a more or less vestigial condition. To all ap])earances
the pineal eye was more ancient than the ])aired eyes,
perhaps originally the only true eye in the worm-like
ancestors of the vertebrates, hardly elevated as yet above
the level of the invertebrates; and all the sensations des-
tined for our consciousness still follow in tlie optic thalami
(if we maj' believe LuYS, fig. 348) a path laid down
through the realm where the pineal eye once held sway.
The mental faculties of the higher vertebrates
had a long history before thev became what they
are. The pineal eve and the sensory organs of the
primitive gill-clefts are examples of structures at dif-
ferent grades of abortion. The first has almost ceased
to functionate at all, and terminates its existence as
a functional organ in the class of reptiles; the latter
do not extend so high in the animal series, and they
nowhere retain their original, preponderating signifi-
cance; but they have a descendant, the system of the

l.AMrKEYS.

1181

lateral line, wliich still serves one uf the most impor-
tant senses possessed by fishes and batrachians.

The lateral-line sj-stem of the Lampreys retains
perhaps a relic, at least a reminder, of the primitive
condition assumed by Beard, a pore of the system being
present above each gill-opening (fig. 349, Ihrs). In its
extension over the body this system is otherwise not
unlike that of the Teleosts. Behind the eyes run two
trans\erse series of pores (c and stp); and the lateral
line proper is double {I»i and /(/). The frontorostral
branches and their subdivisions are most distinct below
and before (,S'0 the eyes and in two parallel longitudinal
rows ((■) on the upper surface of the snout. Round the
lower jaw runs a mandibular branch {)ii), which sends
out backwards on each side a sub-branchial series (Ibri)
below the gill-openings. In most cases, however, all
these pores, except the rostral, are very difficult of
detection.

Another primitive condition is manifested, accord-
ing to Laxgerhaxs, in the skin of the Lampreys, its
outer epidermal layer (cuticular cells) being frerpiently
furnished, though irregularly and in patches, with cilia
— calling to mind a very common appearance in the
skin of the invertebrates. But in the Lampreys, according
to Laxgerhass, these cilia are dead, motionless (sensory
hairs). Neither the Lampreys nor the following fishes
show any sign of squamous growths in the skin.

The intestinal canal of the Lampreys is simple and
straight, the divisions being scarcely distinguishable from
without. Only at the extreme front and back is it attached
by a mesentery to the dorsal wall of the abdominal
cavity; throughout the rest of its course it lies free in
the cavity. The anterior pai-t, answering to an ceso-
phagus and a stomach, is wider but has thinner walls
than the duodenum, which is lined with longitudinal
folds, one of them deeper than the rest and bending at
the middle of the duodenum into three or more spiral
roils. Behind the duodenum and separated tiierefrom
by an annular valve, lies a short but somewhat dilated
rectum. The liver lies as usual in the extreme front
uf the abdominal cavity, and is rather small, Ijut firm
and without lobes. There is no gall-bladder. The air-
Madder is also wanting. The kidneys are paired and
ribbon-like, with the sharp inferior margin hanging free
in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity, but ex-
tending forward beyond the middle of its length. Their
efferent ducts have a common opening at the top of a
l)apilla projecting behind the cloacal aperture and longer

and more pointed in the males than in the females.
This conunon outlet, however, has on each side (to the
right and left) an opening (a slit) from the abdominal
cavity, and by this route the sexual products, both ova
and sperma, after being shed into the said cavity, are
expelled through the papillar orifice. Both the ovaries
and the testes are uni)Mired, suspended between the kid-
neys, without special deferent canals. When ripe, they
fill the abdonunal cavity throughout its length, sur-
rounding the shrunken intestine.

Especially interesting is the foremost part of the
intestinal canal, the a'sophagus, as it appears during the
metamorphosis of the Lampreys. In their larva?, the
Prides {Ammoavtes), the branchial cavity (fig. 351,
hr I — VII) couuuunicates directly on the one hand
(anteriorly) with the pharynx and mouth, on the other
(behind) with the (esophagus (oe.s) and the intestine, so
that all food must pass through the branchial cavity in
company with the water used for respiration. During

Hir-—

" ■ ' i ''

MTM hrl

nd

nhr

br VII

Fig. 351. Section through the forepart of a Pride (Ammoccetes),

about 3 times the nat. size.
abi; brauchial artery, with seven openings, for the arterial branches
supplied one to each gill-opening; br I — VII, first-seventh branchial
sacs; C, heart; Uh, notochord; Hy, nostril; La, anterior lip; Lp,
posterior lip; -1/, posterior (inner) mouth cavity; Ml, myelon; MT,
mouth tentacles; oes, lesophagus (anterior part of intestine).

the metamorphosis, however, the posterior passage is
closed, and a new oesophagus (fig. 350, oes) is formed
above the branchial cavity, in the form of a string first
solid and afterwards hollow. The food receives a .special
passage. The water used for respiration passes neither
thi'ough the mouth nor the nose, but must be received
and expelled thi-ough the branchial apertures. At the
same time the rostral region is developed, from the
conixa traheculantm. (see above) to the jaws and denti-
tion inclusive.

The family of the Lampreys hardly contains a
score of species, though more have been described.
These are distributed among four or five genera, only
one of which belongs to the Scandinavian fauna.

1182

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISHES.

Genus PETROMYZON.

The (liphi/cercaJ caudal fin continuous ahorc with the itostcrior part of the dorsal. Anterior doifal jilate of the
mouth funrished otdij at each end irith an eterated tubercle or pointed tooth.

As we have mentioned above, in tlie Lampreys
we cannot speak of real jaws or ja\\-teetli; but witiiin
the suctorial disk of adult Lam|H'eys are set several
horny, j>ointed teeth or terete protuberances, charac-
teristic of different genera and species, and to these
teeth it has been hitherto customar)- to give such names
as if they were set in real jaws. The oral aperture
is first surrounded, as we have seen, by an annular
cartilage (fig. 343, ami). This bears botli on its an-
terior (upper) and its posterior (lower) margin an hori-
zontal dental plate furnished with more or less pointed
teeth (fig. 3.52), which may be called respectively an-
terior teeth (at) and [losterior teeth (pf). On each side
of the annular cartilage there lie in the sucking-disk,
next the mouth, three small loose cartilages, each set
with 1 — 3 horny teeth (protuberances), which we entitle
the lateral teeth of the mouth {alt, mit, and ^)?0- Out-
side these the sucking-disk has within its fimbriated
margin a number of scattered teeth, arranged in rings
or in carved rows, suctorial teeth, as Gunther calls
them {ist and est). Within the mouth itself, between
the anterior and ]>osterior dental plates, appear the
lingual teeth, an anterior {ahi) and two posterior (^j/«)
curved dental plates, parallel to the posterior dental
plate of the mouth. It must be observed, however,
that when the tongue is protruded to its utmost extent
its posterior teeth project beyond the anterior ones, and
probably serve as the most po^verful I'asping organ of
the Lampreys. The dental character assigned above to
the genus Petromyzon is intended to express the fact
that the anterior dental plate of the moutli is neither

bipartite, as in the Pacific genus Mordaria. with a
group of three teeth on each i)art, nor tridentate, as
in the genus Ichthyonujzon from the west coast of North
America". The other character given above diffei-en-
tiates all these genera fi'om Geotria, a Pacific genus,
with the caudal fin separated from the posterior dorsal.
A deep-sea genus, Bathymyzon, "with the suproral and
infroral plates or laminae destitute of odontoid tu-
bercles," was distinguished by Gill'' among the fishes
taken by the American fishing-schooner Albatross at a
depth of 520 fathoms within the area of the Gulf Stream
in lat. 49° N. He remarks, however, that the onlj'
species known {liathymyzon Bairdii) comes ^•ery near
to Petromyzon marinus.

The species of the gciuis Petromyzon that belong
to the Scandinavian fauna are the same as are found
in other parts of Europe; but considering the variabi-
lity of form wjiich here asserts itself, we distinguisli
only the following:

A: Anterior dental plate of the month

so short that its two teeth stand close

together — Subgenus Petromyzon Petro>niizo)i marinus.
B: Teeth on the crescent-like anterior

dental plate distant from each other

— Subg. Ammocoetes Petromiizon fluviatilis.

a, var. viajor: the two dorsal fins

more or less distinct-
ly divided from each
other — Petromyzon
fluvialilis.

b, var. minor: the two dorsal iins

more or less distinct-
ly confluent — Pe-
tromiizon brancliialis.

" According to Jordan and Fordice :i imilinn tooth sometimes occurs on the anterior dental disk in Petvotiii/zon jiuviatiUs hnincliialis,
so that the genus lehthyoinyzon can hardly be retained.
*• Proc. U. S. Nat. Mue. 1883, p. 2.54.

OyCLd.SToMES.

1183

THE SEA LAMPREY (sw. ii.u-'sne.ion6(;at).

p]-7n;(>MYZ().\ MAinxus.

PliUe LIII, lis- 1.

Anterior luujuodeiital pidtc nwdinllij recurred and hollowed from in front. Teeth on the anterior dental [date of
the mouth contiguous at the base. Length of the suctorial disk when closed {in adult fishes) more than half that

of the head to the fi'rst r/ill-d/n'iiinfj.

.Uiistela, AusoN., Mos., vers. 107. Lamproi/e da mer, Bei.ON,
Nat., Div. Poi.is., p. IIO. Lampetra", Rondel., De Pise,
p. 398. Lampreta 1. Lampreda'', Gesn., De Ai/uatil., p.
592; Paralip., p. "i'i. Petvomyzon' inaculosus, ordinibus
(lentimn circiter viifinti, Airr., Ichtlii/oL, Gen. Pine, p. (54;
•yi/H. Pise, p. 90. Ste6.ii, •Sondm. Beskr., pf. I, p. 297
{Neijenogen). Sea-Lamprei/, Penn., Brit. Zool. (ed. 177ii),
vol. Ill, p. B7, tab. VIII, No. 27.

Petromijzon marinus, Lin., Hijst. Nat., ed. X, toni. I, p. 230;
Fna Suec, ed. II, p. 106; Gunn., Trondhj. Selsk. Skr.,
vol. IV (1768), p. 22, not.; Bu, Fische Deutscld., pt. Ill,
p. 38, tab. LXXVII; Retz., Fna Suec. Lin., p. 302;
Born, Zeitschr. Organ. Pliys. (Heusinqer), Bd. I (1827), p.
170; Nii.ss., Prodi-. Ichtliijol. Scand.. p. 121; Yaur., Brit.
Fisli., ed. 1, vol. II. p. 448; Sel. Longoh., Fne Beige,
p. 226; Kr., Damn. Fi.<:k., vol. Ill, p. 1025; NiLSS.,
Sk-and. Fna, Fisk., p. 743 ; Hckl, Kn., .Susswasser/. Ostr.
Mon., p. 374; Sieis., Silsswasserf. Jfitteteur., p. 368; Malm
(Lampetra), Gbgs Vet., Vitt. Samli. Hand!., Ny tidsf., H.
VIII (1863), p. 87; Mgrn (Lampreta), Finl. Fiskfna (disp.
Helsingf. 1863), p. 75; Couch (Petromyzon), Fish. Brit. Tsl,
vol. IV, p. 385, tab. CCXLVII, fig. 1 ; Blanchabd, Poiss. d.
eaux dotices d. I. Fr., p. 512; Canestr., Arch. Zool., Anat.,
Fisiol. (Modena), vol. IV, p. 184; Gthr, Oat. Brit. Mus.,
F!>A., vol. VIII. p. .501; Coll., Forh. Vid. Selsk. Chrnia
1874, TillfEgsh., p. 218; 1879, No. 1, p. 106; N. Mag.
Natiirv. Chrnia, Bd. 29 (1884), p. 122; Malm, Gbgs, Boh.
Fna, p. 630; Winth., Naturh. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol.
XII, p. 61; Fedders., ibid., p. 04; Mor., flist. Nat. Poiss.
Fr., toni. Ill, p. 602; Bncke, Fiscli., Fischer., Fisehz. 0., W.
PreiL^s., p. 194; Mela. Vtrt. Fenn., p. 369, tab. X; Day,
Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., v..l. II, p. 356, tab. CLXXVIII; Frbmy,
Conipt. Rend. Acad. Par. 1883, No. 11 (Mars 2), p. 721;
MOb., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 159; Jord., Ford., Ann. New
York Acad. Sc, vol. Ill, p. 283; LiLLJ., Sv., Norg. Fna,
Fisk.. vol. Ill, p. 719.

Petromyzon Lampetra, Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., vol. Ill,
p. tjii.

Petromyzon Aniericaiius, Lesceur, Trans. Amer. Phil. See. 1818,
p. 373 (+ Petr. nigricans, p. 385); Dek., New York

Fna, pt. IV, Fish., pp. 379 et 381, lab. 66, fig. 216; tab.

79, fig. 247; Stor., Mem. Amer. Aoiul. Arts, Sc, N. ser.,

vol. IX, pp. 251 et 253, tab. 38, fig. 4; tab. 39, fig. 6.
AmmoC'i'tes /licnlor, Lesueur, 1. c, p. 386; Dek., 1. c, p.

383, tab. 79, fig. 248; — foriimm larvaleni hnjnH spct-iei een-

suerunt Jordan et Fordioe, 1. r.
Petromyzon appendix. Dek., I. c., p. 381, tab. 64, fig. 211.
Ammoca;tes unicolor, Dek., 1. c, p. 883, tab. 79, fig. 250;

— form, larval, sec. JoRD., Ford.
Petroniyzim maculosiis, Gronov., C'«(. Fish., ed. Gray, p. 2.

The Sen Lamprey attains a, length of abuiit 1 ni.
and a weight of about I'/a kilo- Still larger speci-
mens, weighing at least 2V4 kilo., are indeed adduced'',
but are certainly rare. According to Linn.eus" Wahl-
BOM caught at Caluiar a Lamprey of an arm's thickness.
In spite of its dimensions this species undergoes its
metamorphosis from tlie larval stages at a lengtli of
only about 'V4 — IV^ dm.'

The body is Eel-like, anteriorly terete or showing
some lateral compression, which increases more and
more behind. The greatest depth, about half-way be-
tween the last gill-opening and the beginning of the
first dorsal fin, is about 7 or 8 % of the length of the
body. Behind the Iiody gradually tapers; but even at
the space between the two dorsal tins the depth is ;ibout
.5 or 6 % of the length. In front tlie depth is more
constant forward to the head, the form of which is
determined by the singular snout. When the fish is
not attached to any object, the snout is not uidike an
inverted spoon; but the under surface, the su('kiiig-disk,
can alter its position, when the tish attaches itself, till
the snout terminates in a more or less vertical, broadlv

Inllg.

" ".\ lambendis petris '.

^ E.x lumpen, German. = dependere.

' "A nirqog lapis et fu'Cw s. /.ivCdu sugo, quia sugcndo lapidibus adhaeret in fluviis ', Philos. Ichth.. p. 73.

"* Pennant, Brit. Zool., vol. Ill (ed. 1776), p. 68; Day, 1. c, p. 359.

' Fna Suec, I. c.

/ Dekay states the length of Petromyzon appendi.i- at 101 — 152 mm. Storek adduces a length of 76— 17H mm. ioT Petrom. nigri-
In Scandinavia SchagerstbOm (according to Lilljeborg), M.alm, and Collett have found fully developed Sea Lampreys ^ibout 14' j cm.
The larva; (Ammoccetes unicolor) attain, according to Dekay, a length of at least about 1 dm.

o.....:.....:._ r-:.^.. 149

1184

SCANDIXAVIAX l-ISIIKS.

ellii)tie;il disk. la its tirst-iiiuiitiuiicd coiiditiuii, when
the disk can almost be folded together from the sides,
its length is al)out equal to the deptii uf the body,
somewhat greater or less, and as a nile more tlian * ,,
of the length of the snout (to the anterior margin of
the eyes), which varies between 10° and 8 % (excep-
tionally approaching 7 %) of the length of tlie body
or between "//' -"kI 7.i "^ ^1'''^ "^ ^'i'' 'i^-ad to the first
gill-opening.

In the mere size of this suctorial disk, even rela-
tivel)- greater than in the following forms, we have a

est

medinn line), directed in a niore or less sharp crook
towards tiie mouth; but exactly in tiie ])reoral median
line tiic row is straight, and the rows on the posterior
part of the suctorial disk are only slightly curved, each
row being dii'ected in\vards with fair rcgularit}' towards
one of the teeth (cusps) of the posterior dental plate
of the mouth. The teeth in these rows (the suctorial
teetli, tig. 352, est and 'ist) are unicuspidate, conical,
gradually increasiiig in size inwards, separated by
grooves in the gums, which are thus divided into lo-
zenges, one to each tooth. Four rows meet the sides

nln-

Fig. 352. Oral disk of a Lauiprt-y (Petroiiii/:on manmin) 8'/,, cm. long, X 2.

ahi, aiilorior lingiiodental plate; fill, anterior lateral dental plate; at, anterior dental plate; esl. onter suctorial teeth; w^ inner suctorial teeth

mil, niediolateral dental ]ilate; jilii, posterior linguodental plate; j'll, posteri<.r lateral dental plate; pt, posterior dental plate.

of the mouth, and the two innermost (largest) teeth in
these rows (the lateral teeth, aJt, niU, and pit) are so
closely set that they are joined at the ba.se into liicuspid
teeth, eacli on its o^vn root (lateral dental plate). The
fringes (dermal papillre), and within these appear nu- ' iMcuspid anterior dental plate of the mouth {at), situated
merous rows of teeth (12 or 11 on each side of the \ between but a little behind the anterior lateral plates.

very good character for tiie Sea Lamprey; but tiie most
characteristic peculiarities are shown by the dentition
of the moutii and tongue. Tiie suctorial disk is edged
witli a (hiuble or multifarious series of densely .set

" Sometimes 11 in the variety occurring in Cayuga Lake (at Ithaca, N, Y.); see Meek in Jordan and Foupice, 1. c.
' In exceptional cases only 63 '/<,; see Meek. 1. c.

SKA LAMl'REY.

US')

is ot .•ilioiit tlie same size us these and of the saiiio
t'orm. 'I'Ik' crescent-shaped posterior dental plafc <it' the
nioiitli (jif). on the otiiei- hand, is coiisiderahly hii'ger.
In yoiniii' s]ii'ciinens it is comparatively hiu'lier than in
old, hnt also has coniparativch' smaller ami usually
more inimerous (in ma!iy cases 8") and more pointed
teeth. In old si)eciinens the latter (usually 7) are more
conical, ol' alxiut the same si/.(^ and t'onii as the large
lateral tct'th. All these teeth proliahh' serve merely as
an adhesive oi-gan that holds the Lamprey fast to the
skin of its pre\', which is forced to drag it along.
Withiti the month is the rasping lingual appai-atus that
opens the skin of the \ictim and saws into its flesh.
The anterior linguodental plate (lingual ])late, nlii) is
indeed simple and curved semilunarly like the posterior
dental plate of the month; but at the middle it is dee])ly
recurved, thus acquiring the form of a S. Of the two
loojis thus ]iroduced the left bears 7 or ti, the right (i
or .i sharp points (tooth-cusps), exclusive of the hind-
most median tooth of the plate. Here too it seems to
be the ride that young Lampreys have more numerous
and more |)ointed teeth than old*. Behind (within) this
plate lie the posterior linguodental plates (supi'alingual
plates, pin) beside one another, each resembling in form
a reversed ruminant hoof, with the crook directed for-
wards and parallel to one of the loops of the anterioi'
linguodental ]ilate. The left supralingual ]date is usually
furnished with I -H jiointed teeth, the right with 12,
these being largest in front, on the crook, gradually
smaller behind.

The eyes are rounil. Tlieii' size varies considerably
with age; but as they arc; covered by the more or less
transparent skin, the measurements taken depend greatly
on the traiis|iarencv of the skin and the method of
measuring. In Sea Lanijireys 4 — 8' , dm. long Kkover
found the diameter of the eves to be ^ ^ % of the length
of the body or about 7 % of the length of tlie head to
the first gill-o])ening. Our measurements of the outer
diameter of the iris in so large specimens fix the latter

percentage at about lU or ij'. The opening of the
nasal duct (the nostril), more or less distinctly ele-
vated into a tul)e, is about ' ,, as large as the eyes,
and is situated just in front of the interoi'bital space,
at a distance from the tip of the snout measuring about
-' ., ((i?,— 7(» ",.) of the said length of the head. Behind
the nasal duct lies the light, elliptical, but indis-
tinctly bounded epiphj'seal spot.

The gill-openings are comparatively small (see our
i\<!:\{n- in I'l. LllI), but when distended they attain a
height not uuicli less than the diametcn- of the eyes.
Th(!y -An- each coNci-ed IVom ill front, partly by the
anterior margin itself, which forms a vertical dermal
fla]). partly by t\vo other, somewhat pateriforni, rounded
dermal lobes, one of which rises from the inn<r part
of the lower wall of the gill-opening, the other hanging
down in a similar maimer from a])ove. The hind mar-
gin of each gill-oi)ening is furnished with small fi-inges
and jjapilbv. The total extent occupied by the seven
gill-opeiiings in a row one after another measures about
9 or 10 "-■/ of the length of the bod}', and in young
Sea Lampreys ('2 — >> dm. long) is in many cases equal
to the length of the snout to the nostril or about ^/^
of the length of the head to the first gill-opening'', in
the old greater, about Vr, (77—84 %) of the said length
of tlie head, wiiich in the young is up to 1.5 %, in the
old only about 11 %, of the length of the body.

'i'he first dorsal fin is an elongated, low triangle,
with the greatest depth ('4 — '/< <>f" fh« length) situated
in the anterior part, but with the anterior end indis-
tinctly delimited from the dorsal edge of the body,
which margin in i'i|)e individuals (oftenest in males,
but sometimes too in females) may rise into a. hard
carina both before the first dorsal fin and between it
and the second dorsal. This renders it also ditfictdt
to determine with certainty tile distance between the
first d<5rsal and the tiji of the snout', but the rule
appears to be that the fin commences close behind or
even at the middle of the body, comparatively further

" According to Meek (I. c.) exceptionally 9.

' Bluuter and sli.irper tcctli thus occur in this species as in the following oue. In cstininling tlio ini|iiirtiiuci' of tliis dift'erencc, which

is by no means exclusively dependent on age, it should be remembered that we have liere to deal not witli real teetli, but only with points

of homy sheaths, which are changed time after time. In ordinary cases the homy sheath is so loosely attached to the plate that it can be
removed altogether, new, unworn, and tliereforc (if they lie fidly developed) more pointed teeth being thus exposed to view.

"" LiLLJEBORG gives 9 or S «, (' j, — ' lo)- .\ccording In Meek (1. r.) tliis percentage is about 16 — 1.3 in Sea Lampreys 2' ^ — 3' j

dm. long from Cayuga Lake.

'' .\ccording to Meek (1. c.) sometimes only 5.5 % of the last-mentioned lengtli.

' According to Meek tliis ilistance v.iries witli great irregularity between 55' 2 ""'l 49 % of the length of the body.

1180

SCAXDIXAVIAN FISHKS.

back in the young". Tliu length of the tin is about
9', 2 — 12 % of that of the l)ody. The second dorsal is
considerably higher (sometimes twice as high or a little
more), but essentially of the same form, its length
varying l)etween about 18 and i^ % of that of the
body, with the highest percentage in old specimens.
Behind it meets the caudal fin, or overlaps the u])i)er
anterior margin thereof, but is always sharply defined,
as well as the first dorsal, at its jjosterior termination.
Ill front it is separated tVoni the first dorsal b)' an in-
ter\al which in adult specimens (over 2'/2 dm. long)
varies with age from about (i to 4 % of the length of
tlie body, and wliicli, according to Wilder's measure-
ments of tlie North American fresh-water form, is less
in the males than in the females. Tlie diphycercal
(almost symmetrical) caudal fin is uniformly widened
behind (tongue-shaped), with short, triangular but
rounded tip. The entire length of the caudal fin oc-
cupies in adult Lam]>reys about 9' j — S'/a % of the
length of the liody.

The anal aperture lies below the anterior portion
of the second dorsal fin, at a distance from the tip of
the snout measuring 75'' — 72 % of the length of the
body, further back in the young than in the old. The
urogenital papilla is comparatively small. As men-
tioned above, all the Cyclostomes are without anal fin;
but between the vent and the caudal fin a dermal carina
frequently occurs, similar to that of the dorsal margin.

The coloration varies with age, locality, and the
time of year. Our figure represents a nearly ripe fe-
male in a fresh condition, as recei\ed by the Royal
Museum from Ringkjobing (Jutland) at the end of May
through Mr. <J. Fredericksen. Here oidy tlie wliite
and lilue colours prevailed, the former being pin-e on
the belly, the latter pale but unmixed on the head, and
composing tlie pale gi'ound-colour of the sides and liack,
^^•hich were mottled with a darker blue, siiading into black.
The fins were pale, mottled with blue, with a dash of gray.
The pupil was black, the iris of a faint silvery lustre
but not much jjaler than tlie pre\ailiiig colour. Tlie
gill-openings and mouth were tinged with red. Ooxo-
van' figui'es and describes the species as more varie-
gated, with a ground-colour of lustrous green, mingled

with blue, yellow, and red, \\ith a handsome marbling
of Idack. He also adduces blue and olive varieties, as
M'ell as reddish ones mottled with chestnut-brown in-
stead of black. According to Kroyer the under surface
of the head is yelloM-, the fins being reddish, of a dark
orange, the dorsal fins besides mottled with black. Ac-
cording to both ilALM and CoixETT the marbling is
absent in young specimens; and according to Lesleur
and Dekay this also apjdies to the lar\:e.

The larval stage, so far as is known, has not yet
been observed in Europe; but in North America an
Ammocn'tes hiiolor was described })y Le.sueur (1818)
and another form, Amm. nmcolor, by Dekay (1842), both
of ^vhich have been referred by Jordan and Fordice to
Petromijzon marhrus as its larvie. The former of these,
according to Dekay', has not been rediscovered since
Lesueur's time, but had lieen named from its colora-
tion, reddish on the liack and sides, white on the belly,
with a sharp, undulating limit between these U\o co-
lours. The latter {Hiiicolor) is in all respects still more
like an earthworm, but has developed distinct eyes. Its
coloration is described by Dekay as a nearly uniform
dark or dusky brown, occasionally verging to bluish,
somewhat lighter beneath; the anterior ]>art of the head
darkest. The form of the body cylindrical for Uvu
thirds of its length from the head, becoming slightly
compressed just anterior to the vent, very much com-
pressed and acuminated at the tail. Greatest depth of
the body 7'/2 % of its length. Surface smooth, with
between 80 and 90 transverse folds (myocommata),
giving tlie body an annulated appeai-ance. The fins ap-
pear to lie nothing more than mere membranous pro-
longations of the skin, without the slightest \estige of
rays. The dorsal commences at the beginning of the
3rd fifth of the length of the liody (from the snout), in
a scarcely perceptible furr^)^v. and advances low and
subequally until about the middle of its length, when
it begins to rise, and then rapidly diminishes at the tij)
of the tail, where it unites with the caudal and anal,
which latter is obsoletely triangular, and becomes in-
sensibly effaced at a point corresponding to the begin-
ning of the last fourth of the length of the body. The
vent is a large longitudinal aperture between the 2nd

" (Uir measurements of S(ia Lampreys 2'/.2 — 8')., dm. long show that tlio distance from the tip of the snout to the heginning of the
first dorsal tin diminisiies with increasing age from 53 to 48 % of the lengtli of the l)ody. Kboyer's measurements of specimens 4 — S'/j
dm. long indicate that tliese percentages decrease from 51' o to 50.

'' According to Meek (1. c.) exceptionally 77 or even 80.

'■ Brit. Fish., pi. LXXXI.

SKA r.AMl'Kia".

lis;

niid ;^i'(i third i)l tlit- len;Lilli dt the hoily. Mouth i|a;id-
rilntcnd. (»|)(_Miiiig to the throat very hiri^c, Iiut uceii-
ratcly closed hy six irregular and ragged suhcartilagi-
nous })rocesses, which meet in the centre. Anterior lip
tr;^ls^ erse, convex on its outline, and eniarginate at eacii
end, where it unites witii the lateral lips; these latter
are wide and convex on their slender margins, luiiting
posteriorly lielow the edge of the lower lip, heaving them
free above. Length of the snout to the eyes .5 %, and
tiic diameter of the eyes 1' ., %, of the lengtli of the body.
Eyes distinct, lateral, covered with the common tegu-
ments, and placed in a depression o\ir the mai'gin of
the lower lip. Nasal orifice lai'ge, and suri'oundcd l)y a
i-aiscd ma.rgin; contracted, linear in front, circular be-
hind; its distance from the tiji of the snout 8'/,, % of
tite length of the body. The branchial furrow occupies
' g of the length of the body, is directed obli(iuely down-
wards, and extends to a point al)ove the lower angle of
the lateral lijis; the apertures are exceedingl)' small, and
appeal- to I)e capable of being closed by their mem-
branous edges. Such was Dekay's description of this
larva. It is said to be common in the muddy bottom
of most streams in the north and west of New York
State. JouDAX and Gilbert explained it as a larva of
Dekay's Petromyzon appendix: and when Jordan and
FoRDiCE combined this nominal species with Pciromyzon
nxiriniis, the larva, of course, had to be referred to the
latter species. If the explanation is correct, the Sea
Lamprev thus undergoes a metamorphosis similar to
that of tlie following species, though not in every de-
tail. The mouth ai)paratus and the snout are entirely
re-formed (see above). The eyes advance further for-
ward from the gill-oijcnings. The nostril loses its an-
terior narrow part. The anal aperture is removed fur-
ther back. The dorsal tin-growth is divided, and its
begiiuiing mo\ed more to the front. A s]>ecial caudal
fin is develo])ed; l)ut the rudimentary anal fin disappears.
Ammoco'fes hirolnr. whicli has also been referred to the
present species, was said to resemble the developed Sea
Lampi'ey more nearly in the dorsal fins and the position
of the anus, though the eves were still indistinct.

The Sea Lamprey, as we have seen, has an exten-
sive geographical range, embracing all the seas of Kuroite.
According to Pallas the same species inhaliits the Cas-
l)ian Sea and ascends the Volga; but Kes.slei! ranged
tins form as a new species, Pefromi/zni) Wafpirri. It

would also appear uncertain whether we can still rely
on 1'allas's statement th;it our Sea Lamprej' also occurs
in the Sea of Okhotsk. From "West Africa", howe\'er,
according to (tlntheh, the British Museum has received
the true I'droiin/.toii mariiiKs; and tiiis Lamprey has
perhaps a more congenial habitat in the west of the
Atlantic and the east of Xortii .America than in Europe.
There it has even been landlocked in several lakes, and
lives in these without ever fiiidiTig its way to the sea.
In this species we accordingly find the same state of
things as annmg the Salmons, and tlie form landlocked
in Cayuga Lake (Ithaca, N. Y.) was regarded by W'li.-
DEi; as a_ distinct species, I'ctromyzon chirsatus, its dor-
sal carina being jiarticularly well develo])ed.

In Scandinavia the Sea Lamprey is found every-
where from the extreme north, though of unfreciuent
occurrence. From the Vestraannaej'iar, on the south
coast of Iceland, it was remarked b)' Kroyek, from the
Fai-oe Islands l)y the elder Keixhardt. In Greenland it
is unknown. In Norway, as well as in BohusUln and
on the other coasts of SAveden, probably too in Denmark,
many years may elapse without the catch of a single
specimen being notified to the museums, and as a rule
oidy solitary individuals are taken. In the Baltic, where
it is so well known on the coast of Blekinge, according
to NiLSSON, that it has a special name {SUlapipare)
among the fishermen, the species peneti-ates so far that,
according to ^Ialjigren, "a fairly large and handsome
specimen has been taken in the seine in Gammelstads-
vik" (Southern Finland).

All that is known of the life led by the Sea Lam-
prey in salt water is that it swims like the Eel, bending
the whole body in sei-pentine movements. Frecpiently
it is taken from shore in the Herring-seine; and this
would in all probrd>ility not happen so often, unless the
LanipreA" were nici\iiig about among the Herrings. Most
of its time, however, it no doubt passes attached to
stones or fioating objects, such as driftwood or boats,
and to the fishes which it selects as its victims. Grx-
nerl's (1. c.) states tiiat Sea Lampreys fix themselves in
great numbers to the 'bod\- of the Basking Shark and
do not leave it until it is dead". The Sea Lamprey also
attacks finer fish, surh as Mackerel, Codfish, etc. Gesxek
relates\ on the authority- of a Strasburg fisherman, that
the Sea Lampre\- attaches itself to Salmon ascending
from salt water, and is thus conveyed far up the rivers.

1038.

" The same statement, given on tlie nutliority of Govenior (.'hrisiie of Bergen, nppeiirs in Kruyke, 1. c
' De Aqiiatilibus. p. 596.

118S

SCANIJINAVIAN FISHES.

Bur th« Sea Lamprey alsu roves into fresh water on its
own account, when it makes its way, early in tlie year
or at latest in early summer (Feb. — June), to the spawn-
ing, which is performed during summer. On these ex-
cursions, liowever, the Sea Lamju'ey i)roves to be no
very powerful swimmer, ca])able of stemming the cur-
rent with ease; "but, when the stream is so strong that
the Lam]ii-ey lias difticult\- in surmounting it, the tish
plunges ipuckly forwards and hastily attaches itself to
some fixed object, tlicn awaiting an op|)ortunity for a
new plunge" (Yahhell a.nd Kroyer). Consequently it
does not ])enetrate far up the stream in rapid rivers;
but in tlie Gotha l-">lf it goes at least to Lilla Edet
(Lloyd" and ]\Iai..m'); in the Kjeflinge River (Scania) it
ascends at least a ("on pie of leagues from the sea (Nils-
son); and in the River Helge it was taken by Schager-
sTRo.M at Kristianstad (Lill.ieijorg). In Germany it is
found still farther iidand, in tlie Riiine to Basel, in the
Elbe up to Bohemia (Beneckk). In the Loire it has
been met with above Orleans, in the Rhone and Isere
beyond the frontier of Savoy (Bi.anchard).

The spawning of the Sea Lampre}' was observed
by Paxizza' at Pavia on the River Po; and Baetlett
wrote to Storeu (1. c.) of its breeding operations in
Massachusetts, "They ascend the rivers a little earlier
tlian the shad, and move mostly in the night. It is not
known by the fishermen when they return, as they are
never seen. There is a notion tliat they all die. They
are often seen in the summer in pairs at work together,
constructing a little mound of stones. They build this
about three feet in diameter at the base, and about two
feet high, of stones from the size of an ounce bullet to
that of the fish. They often aid each other in carrying

the same stone. This is j»retty evidently a lalxir of /ore, as
they co])iilate once in five minutes, or so, during tiie whole
time. The young go down the river when the water be-
gins to freeze. They are from six to eight inches long".
But to take the above words of Bartlett to imply that the
metamorphosis from the Ammora'tesstagt takes place with-
in the first yeai', would, no doul)t, be too hasty. Strange
to say, no observations are recorded in Europe either of
the develojnuent of the Sea Lampre}' in its earliest stages.

The Sea Lamprey is a palatable disli, if skilfully
prepared, when caught in spring and before it is ripe
for spawning. In former times it was offered as a
Christmas gift by the city of Gloucester to the sovereign
of the realm. It may be stewed like Burbot, or mari-
naded for preserving. Day gives the advice, however,
to remove the notochord before boiling, as being too
indigestible. Many consider the whole fish uneatable.
In many |)laces it is related that the Sea Lamprey is
far rarer now than it was formerly. The once famous
fishery of the Severn lias decayed so greatly that, ac-
cording to Day, the usual price of a Sea Lamprey there
is now ha-lf-a-crown. In France the Sea Lamprey was
protected, together with the Salmon and Shad, in the
piscatorial laws of ancient times, by fishing prohibi-
tions luider certain circumstances, and the trade was
strictly regulated. At the i)resent day, says Blax-
CHARD, it is, if not exactly rare, so uncommon that
no great attention is paid to it. In Scandinavia this
fishery has never possessed any importance.

All the Lampreys are tenacious of life, and this
adapts them eminently for use as bait. The Sea Lam-
prey, however, can seldom serve the Scandinavian fisher-
man for this purpose.

THE LAMPERN OR RIVER LAMPREY (s\v. nattingen).
PETHOM YZOX FLr VI ATI IdS.

Plate LIII, Has. 2 — 4.

Anterior liHi/uodenfal plate ereiilij (Uid sHi/htlij curved, trith the conre.rif/j in front. Anterior denttd plate of the
month semilnnurli/ car red and .to lonr/ (in the transverse direction of the hodtj) that tlie elevated, dentiform ends
are distincth/ separated from one another'^. Length of the oral disk in adult specimens less than half that of the

head to the first ffill-openinfj.

'Si/ii. Lamproije il'eaii doulce + Lamproi/on, Belon, Nat., Divers.
Poi.ss., p. 67. Lampetra parva et fiuviatilix. Rondel., Pise.

147.

_/?««., p. 202. Mustela + Alterum ijuniis LantprediK, (iESN.,
De. Aqiint., pp. 595 et 597. Lampetra Jiiiviatiiis, Willughe.,

•Scandinav. Advent., vol. I, p.

M.1LM also cites a newspaper paragraph which seems to indicate that the Se.i Lninprey sometimes passes the locks at TroUhJittan into Lake Wener.

Mem. Istit. Lomb. Sc, Art., Milano, vol. II (1845), p. 25.

= Genus Lampetra, <tR.\y, List Spec. Fish.. Brit. ,1/«.9., part. 1. Cliondrnj,!., p. 140.

I.AMrEKX.

iisy

UUl. Phc, p. 104. lal.. G. -2. Hg. 1 i + Laiiij: media,
[.. lOi;, i,ih. (i. 3, t\g. 2 + Lamp, cwca Baltiien, p. 107,
tub. (i. ;i. lig. 1). Petroii>i/:o)i uiiit-o imliiic ili'iiliiiilciniiu
luiniDuiruni in liiiilici oris, praHer iiift-riori'S lll;lj^^r^■s +■ /'ficom.
ciirpuri' liuiiiiliihc. appendieibiis utrinque dunlnis in iimrgine
(■ris, .\i:t., Ichtliijol., Gen. Pise, p. 64; Si/ii. Pise, pp.
•Sit il 90; Spec. Pise, p. 99. Petromi/zoti pinnii doranli
si'tMuulii (ingnlata (Suefis Neiniiga, Wcstrobotliniensibus Niitting)
+ Petr. pinna dorsali secunda lineari, labio oris siipcrioro
jione Idbatd, LlN., Fna Stiec, ed. I, p. 102. Lesser Laiii-
j.i-r;,. I'KNN., /)'/■//. Zool. (ud. 177G). v(.l. Ill, p. 70, tab.
\'!II, Nc. 2.S + I'vidc. p. 71, t.ib. VIII. No. 29.

.4; f..n,

'.""■■ I'l"

dcrsalihiis

ril.tis

Pelrum>/:oii fltiviatilis. I.i.\., ''^'yst. Xat.. cd. X. b'lii. 1. p.
2.30; Bi... Fisch. Dculsclit., part. Ill, p. 41. tab. I.XXVIII,
liff. 1; Kktz., Fiia Snec. Lin., p. 303; Swartz, Svensk
/Couloiji, II. ij, No. 33; Pall., Zoogr. Ross. Asiat., tout. Ill,
p. (>G; Cuv., R'eyn. Anim., cd. I. torn. II, p. IIH; NiLSS.,
Prodi: Ichthyol. Scand.. p. 122; Ekstr., Vet. Aka.l. Hnndl.
1H34. p. 70; Yaku., Brit. Fish., c-d. 1, vol. 11, p. 4.54;
Ki:.. Danm. Fisk:. vol. III. p. 1042; NiLSS., Skuml. Fua,
Fisk\, p. 74,5; Hckl, Kn., Siisswasserf. Ostr. Mon., \>.
377: Sii:n.. Siissicasserf. Mitteleur., p. 372; Malm, Gbgs
Vet., Via. Saudi. Haudl., Ny Tidsf.. VIII, p. 88; Mgbn,
FinL Fiskfna (disp. Helsingf. 1863), p. 72; v. Bemm. in
Hkhklois, Bonwst. Fna Nederl., part. Ill, p. 392; Blanch.,
Poiss. d. euK.r donees Fr.. p. 515; Caneste., .\rcli. Zool.,
.\uat., Fisiol., vol. IV, p. 185; Fna Ital., Pese. \>. 31;
Gthe, Vat. Brit. Miis.. Fish., vol. VIII, \k 502: Coll.,
Forh. Vid. Selsk. Cliriiia 1874, Tillreggsli., p. 219; 1879,
Xo. 1, p. 107; N. Mag. Naturv. Chrnia, Bd 29 (1884),
p. 122; Ltkn, Arct. Man. (Rupert Jones, 1875), ji. 122;
JIal.m, (ih'js. Boh. Fna, p. 632; Feddehs., Naturli. TidsUr.
Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. 94; MoK., Hist. Nat. Poiss. Fr.,
toiM. III. p. (104; Bnoke, Fisch., Fischer., Fischz. 0., W.
Preuss.. p. 196; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p 370, tab. X; Day,
Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel., vol. IL p. 359, tab. CLXXIX, fig. 1 :
Mob., Hcke, Fisch. Osts., p. 161; Fatio, Fne Vert. t)>uisse,
vol. V, part. II, p. 512; LiLLj., .S'r., A'org. Fna, Fisk.,
vol. Ill, p. 693; LCnxb., Bib. Vet. Akad. HaiHll., Bd IH,
Afd. IV, No. 2.

Petrmnyzon aryenteus, Bl., Ausl. Fisch., part. IX, ]>. 74, tab.
CCCCXV. fig. 2: Bl., Schn.. iiijst. Ichthi/ol.. p. 532. tab.
102, fig. 1; Coi^cH, Fish. Brit. Isl., vol. IV, p. 40n.

Petromyzon prickii (o.x Daubkntox, Encycl. Metli.), Lacei'., Ilist.
Nat. Poiss.. toni. I. p. 18.

Pelromyzon Omalii. V. Bex., Boll. Acad. So. Belg., ser. 2, torn.
II (1857), p. 549 cum (ab. .id p. 554; toin. XX (1865),
p. 46; Malm. 11. cc.

* Petromyzon phimbeus, Ayres, Proc. Calif. .Acad. Nat. Sc. 1855,
p. 27. Petr. ayresii, Gthr, 1. c, p. 505. Aminocwtes
liharius, JORn., Fori.., Ann. N. V. Acad. Sc. vol. HI (1885),
].. 292.

/>'; forina minor, pinnis dorsalibus altioribus. approxiinatis.

Pelromyzon I'laneri, Bi... Fisch. Deiitschl., part. Ill, p. 47.
tub. LXXVIII. fig. 3 (dub.); Lacep., 1. c, p. 30 (+ Petr.
sanyuisnga. toiu. II, p. 101, tab. I, fig. 3 + Petr. sept-
oeil + Petr. uiyer, tout. IV, p. 667, tab. 15): OsB., Vet.
.\kad. Handl.. 1804, p. 181; Swaetz, I. c; Crv.. 1. c. p.
119; NiLSS., Prodr., 1. c. ; Yarr., 1. c, p. 457; Kb., 1. c,

747; Kessl., Bu
A. Mi'LL., Mull,
p. 380; SiER., 1,
92; Morn, 1,
Cane.str., Arcli., 1. c, I
rf. Ges. Freib
, |.. 95; Mor.
•., p. 499;

11. Soc.
Arcbiv

c, p.

c, p.
. 186;

i. B.,
, 1. c,

LlLL.1.,

•omyzon
V, p.

Coll.,
107;
Day,

.JoRIi.,

p. 1052; Nu.ss., /•'««, 1. c,
Natur. Moscou, 1856, p. 390
1856. p. 325; Hckl, Ks., 1. c, p
375; Malm, GbgH Mandl., I. c, ]
73; Blanch., 1. <•., p. 517
Fna. 1. c; Lanohbu.. licr. Verb. Nat
B,l VI (1S73). II. 3; ri.:Mu:i:s., 1. .
p. 606; BxcKE, 1. c, p. 197; Fatio, 1
1. c, [I. 708.

Petromyzon plumheus {= P. septoeil, Lacep.) + Petr
hieolor (= /-". niyer, Laciop.), Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol.
263.

Petromyzon brancliialis (+ larva), Gthb, I. c, p. 504;
Forh. 1. c. 1874. Tillicgsb., y. 220; ibid., 1879, p
.Malm. Fna. p. 636; Mela, 1. c, p. 371, t.ab. X:
1. c, p. 362, tab. CLXXIX. figs. 2 (l.arva) et 3;
FoRP. (Ammoco'tes). 1. c, p. 293.

C: forma larv.ilis.

Petromyzon iranclnaiis, Lix.. ,Sysl., I.e.; liL., Fisch. Vcntschl.,
1. c, p. 45, tab. LXXVIII, fig. 2; Swartz, I c; DCm.
(Animocoetns), J)issert. Poiss. Cyclost. 1808; Cuv. (.i4mjH0-
coetes), 1. < .. p. 120; Nilss. {Petromyzon, subg. Ammo-
ca'tes), Pnnlr., p. 123; Yarr. {Ammoccetes), I. e., p. 459;
Ki:., 1. c, i>. 1060; Nilss., Fna, \. c., p. 748; Hckl, Kn.,
1. c. p. 382: Cederstr., ('jfvers. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1861,
p. 91.

Pelromyzon niher. LACiip., 1. c . torn. II, ].. 100, lab. 1, fig. 2.

Petromyzon linnhricalis. Pali.., L c, \k 69.

Adn. Aminocoetes anreus (Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mu.s. 1881,
p. 159; Bk.-Goode, Fish., Fish. Industr. U. <S'., Sect. I,
tall. 251), ex Alaska, Petrom. fluviatilis simillimus videtur.
Caput (fide descriptionis) perparvum, '^/jooo lorigitudinis cor-
poris 1. "' jnni, distanti!¥ inter apiceni rostri et origiueni pinna-
dorsalis priiuse, quod numquain in nostra specie vidi. Figura
taiuen citata lias rationes non confirmat.

The Lamperii attains in Scandinavia a length of
at least 4' ^ dm. In Gerinany and France it is said
sonietiiues to lueasui-e .') dm. In thi.s I'esjiect, liowever,
there is great difference between the Lamperns t)f' dif-
ferent tracts within the same ((Uintry, this species toci,
in its full ile\ elupmeiit. Vicing an anadromons fish, and
requiring tlic liduiitcdiis resnnrccs and saltness of the
sea, or at k'ast of hrackisli water, to attain its most
typical size and form. How variable the anadromons
fishes are in this respect, we have seen most distinctly
in the .Salmons; lint tlie .'^ea Lanipre\' liere affords a
comparison at iloser (piarters. Where the Lampern
li\es in lirooks and otlier small collections of fresh
water, it iisnall}' ajjpears as a smaller form, about 2
dm. long. Tlie same differences may be observed in
the size of the lin-\;e. Sometimes the metaiiKiriihosis
from Ammocii-tcs to Fetroiiiyzon takes place at a length
of 1 dm., sometimes larva; are met with at least l',„

1190

SCANDINAVIAN FI.SHKS.

dm." long. What are tlic causes tiiat retard the iiieta-
morpliosis or accelerate the growth of the larvtc, we
do not know; and sometimes we tind in tlie same wa-
ters Pi'ides wiiicli are larger tlian tlie Lamperns''.

The size, the teeth, the closer proximity of the
tins, and the usually immaculate colour distinguisli the
Lam])ern from the preceding species; "hut in all other
relations of form, both external and internal", wrote
Lacepede, "the two Lamprey species are so like one
another that they seem to he two cojiies of the same
model". The Eel-like body is here too more or less
terete in front, laterally compressed behind, with the
same varial)ility as in tlie Sea Lamprey, though some-
what greater'.

The length of the head to the tirst gill-o])ening
vai'ies in tlie true Lamperns between about 14 and a
little (jvei- 10 %'' of the length of the body, the per-
centage being least in the oldest specimens; but here
too it is as a rule greater than the length of the series
of gill-openings'. In the Prides, on the other hand,
the length of the head is only about ^^1., — T^l., % of
that of the body and always less than tiiat of the
branchial region, which occupies about 12 — li'/j % of
the last-mentioned length. The length of the snout to
the anterior margin of the eyes is in the Lamperns
about '/3 (60—68' %), in the Prides only Vs, of the
length of the head. These dift'erences are external ex-
pressions of the alterations involved by tlie metamor-
phosis; but herewith too is connected tlie great differ-
ence in the structure and form of the mouth and oral
disk. The Prides (PI. LIII, figs. 3 and 4) are to.ithless
and never attach themselves by suction. They lead a
more worm-like life, buried in sand or mud. Their
mouth is edged in front and on the sides with a horse
shoe-shaped or semiquadratic anterior lip (fig. 351,
l/i), the lateral parts of which are rounded and pen-
dent, passing evenly or with a shallo^\• sinus into the
corners of the anterior side, but sliarply terminated lie-
Iiind, where they enclose between them the siiallower.

transversal ])osterior li|) (7.^)). The outer mouth ca\ity
is forniciform, with a patch of small pajiilla?, set in rows,
at the middle of the roof, and is bounded behind by a
coroniforin series of concentrically directed processes with
verrucose ramifications (papilhe, 3/T). Behind this co-
rona lies an anterior pharyngeal cavity (inner buccal
cavity 71/), of somewhat smaller capacity than the other
and bounded behind liy an annular, contractile valve
(velum, re?), whose lateral parts are tumid ; and l)ehind
this again lies tlie still smaller true pharynx, the en-
trance to the tubiform branchial cavit}-, through wdiich
the food too must pass. In the anterior pharyngeal
cavity the lingual apparatus is developed. The corona
of papilla' disappears. The lips are thickened, but
coalesce into a ring, which becomes the suctorial disk
of the Larapern (PL LIII, tig. 2). The most important
differences between the suctorial disks of this species and
the preceding one have been already noticed. Here the
disk is both smaller — the dimensions of the snout being
thus also reduced — and more feebly armed. The edge
is fringed with papillie here too, but sometimes only in
a single row. Just within the margin we see a ring of
small horny teeth (e-s/), like the other teeth pointed or
blunt, white or yellow'. Within the anterior part of
this ring and parallel to it, we tind in ordinary cases
a curved row of similar, simple teeth (is^, and the rule
is that the remaining surface of the suctorial disk, out-
side the com]iosite teeth of the mouth, is smooth or very
finely verruculose. This is one of the most patent char^'
acters of the species, in contradistinction to the lozengedP
comparting of the suctorial disk in the Sea Lamprey,
where the gums round the bases of the several suctorial
teeth are liounded by grooves intersecting in a diamond
pattern (see fig. 352). Fretpiently, however, we find
here too, in the Lampern, scattered suctorial teeth on
the a.nterior i),-irt of the disk, and in a pair (cf and 9)
of Lamperns from Archangel (tig. 3.')3), which are other-
wise (|uite ty|)ical specimens — only tliat the middle pair
oi the lateral teeth of the mouth, a pt'culiarit\' which is

" 2 dm., according ty Bkneoke.

'' At Helgevarma Mill, near Wexiii, Baron (J. C. CedeusthOm caught, in May, 1857 and ISfiO, Prides 145 nnii. long and Lamperns
(forma Planeri) 120 mm. in length.

' Tlie greatest depth of the body varies in the Lamperns from abont 7'., to n(.'arly 9 % of (lie length tliereot. In the small Prides,
wliicli as a nde, however, have a more lunnd branchial region, the ilepth beliind tin's is sometimes only 0' .j °o of the length of the body.

'' 1(V:! is the least percentage we have found for this relation.

*■ .\n exception is adduced by Kroyek in the largest Lampeni measured by him. The variations may be dne, however, to the dif-
ferent degree of contraction in the snout and dorsal muscles at death or in alcohol.

■'' In the preceding species 68 — 75 %.

'■' T'he dental differences in these respects are so variable that we have not been able to reduce them to any nile; but it would appear that speci-
mens from (lie sea or with only intnmescent genital organs and not yet shrunken intestinal canal most often have the most pointed .and whitest teeth.

ll'.tl

not iiiK-oimiioii, are l)icus|ii(l instcail of ti'ieiDsiiid — tlici-c
not i.m\\ appear anterior suetorial teetli {ist, above in
tile tiaure), in almost tlie same arraiigenient as tiiose of
tiie Sea l.anipreA" and witli lozenged frauU'S, liiit tlie
male also possesses, on tiie posterior part of the disk,
a cur\'ed tliougli irregular row of teetli (/,s/, lieiow in
the figure), fhe speeitie eharaeter in the anterior dental
plate of the luoutii {at) we ha\-e pointed out abo\'e. The
posterior dental jjlate {jit) is of the same form as in tiie
preeeding speeies; hut its two outermost cusps are larg-
er than the others and oftenest bifid (bicuspid). The
number of cus]js between theni is as a rule ti\e, exeep-
tioiiall)' (fig. 353) four, so that the total number of cusps
varies between 7 and 9. The lateral dental plates of
the mouth {(tit, mlt, and y*//) are similar to those of the
i)receding speeies, but lie farther apart, and the middle
pair on each side {mlt) are, as we have mentioned,
usually tricuspid. The anterior linguodental plate {aJn)
is crescent-shaped, with the median cusp on the uni-
formh- curved margin largest, and with h or (i small
cusps on the lateral parts. The posterior linguodental
plates lie, when at rest, deej) in a groove between the
tumid lateral halves of the tongue", and are only slightly
curved but otherwise of the same form as in the pre-
ceding species. Their 10 or 12 retral teeth are very small.
The orifice of the nasal duct undergoes almost the
same alterations as in the preceding species. In the
Pride it is pear-shaped, anteriorly pointed, with the
dermal margin more elevated and expanded behind. In
the Lampern it is more uniformly I'ound, with the mar-
gin more or less elevated. In consequence of the some-
what shorter snout, the distance between this orifice and
the tip of the former' is also less than in the Sea Lam-
prey. In the Pride this distance is rather less than "5
(about 37 '/2 *)i ill the Lampern rather less than ^;^
(about 53—59 %'), of the length of the head to the first
gill-opening. The series of gill-openings is somewhat

longer than in the preceding species, varying, however,
between about H' ,, and 11' ., ?^ of the length of the
body; and tlu; st;veral gill-oijenings maj' be closed from
the anterior margin by a continuous, even flaj) of skin.
In tlie Lampern too their posterior margin is verruculose.
In the form and jiosition of the tins we can indeed
distinguish between two varicities of Lampern, but only
with far from reliable characters; and the variability in
these relations is such that we cannot even state a per-
fectly trustworthy distinrtiuii between the Lampern and
the Sea Lamprey. The rule, however, is that the limit
between the caudal fin and the second dorsal is less
distinct in the Lampern; and as the two dorsal fins are
sometimes contiguous, and a fin-like, though rayless,

^#^'

Fig. 353. Oral disk of a iimlc- Lain|ic-rn {Petromyzon JluL-itttilis, v;ir.),

31' o cm. long from Arcli!iiigc-1, X 2. Signification of tlie letter«

explaincil in llie preceding figure.

dermal ridge is usually perceptible between the caudal
tin and the anus, the Lampern may be regarded as a
loAver form, with more distinct vestiges of the larval
condition. As regards the difference between the two
assumed varieties of Lampern, it has been asserted, first
and foremost, that the exclusively fresh-water form
Petromyzon hrdiichidlis or Planeri in general has higher
and closelj' contiguous dorsal fins. According to Kro-
YER the following relations hold good:

Length ut' the Ijody expressed in millimetres

Greatest heiiiht iif the first dorsal tin in % of the total length of the head and hranchial region

., ., .. „ ,. ,. „ „ „ ,. „ distance between the tirst dorsal and the tip of the snout .

„ „ „ „ second „ „ „ „ „ „ total length of the head and branchial region

„ „ ,. „ „ ,, „ „ „ „ ,. distance between the first ilorsal and the tip of the snout..

Petromyzon

Petromyzon

Planeri,

fluviatUis.

144— 'i61

333— 3il2

11.1—14.8

7.6-8.2

5.1— G.6

3.2—3.3

20—32.4

17.6—18.2

9.2—14.6

.i.t.-7.7

" Our figure (PI. LIII. fig. 2) of tlie oral disk, as it appeared through the glass wall of an aquarium, where the Lampern had at-
taclicd itself, shows in the middle these lateral halves, separated by a V-shaped groove under the anterior dental plate of the mouth. Under
them the anterior linguodental plate, which is also white, may be seen; lint the dental cusps are too minute to be visible in the figure.

'' In the preceding species about 63 — 68 %.

X,-n,„i:„n,-inn Fishes 150

1192

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

However patent tliese differences may apjjear, inter- \ inents in tour Lamperns of the form usnally called Fetro-
luediate forms give rise to very great uncertainty. As mijzon Planeri, two males and two females 278 — 309 mm.
examples we will here adduce the corresponding measure- long, taken together in Lake Ifo (Scania):

Minimum.

Mnsimum.

4.3
1«.8
7.8

14.2
6.1

21.7
9.9

„ „ „ ,. ,. ,, ., ,, „ „ „ distance between the tirst dorsal and the tip of the snout

„ „ ,, ,, second ., ., ,. „ ., „ total length of the head and branchial region

,, ,. „ „ „ ,. „ „ „ „ „ distance between the fir^t dorsal and the tip of the snout

and in four females of the form Fetroini/zon Jiuciatills, 255 — 2S8 mm. long, taken together at Lulea:

Greatest height of the first dorsal tin in % of the total length of the head and branchial region

„ „ „ „ .. ,. „ ., „ „ „ distance between the first dorsal and the tip of the snout

„ ,, „ „ second „ „ ., „ „ „ total length of the head and branchial region

,, ,, „ „ „ distance between the first dorsal and the tin of the snout

Minimum.

Maximum.

7.4

'i.s

144

n.i!

9.9
3.7
IS. 7

7.7

As may he easily seen, these percentages partly
overlap one another, partly approacli one another in
very close proximity.

Equally variable is the character drawn from the
relative position of the two dorsal tins. The length of
the space, between them varies in Petroniyzonfluviatilis,
according to Lonnberg's measurements of 1-12 speci-
mens 245 — 375 mm. long, between 1'8 and 7'8 % of
the length of tlie l)ody; and on examining the results
of these measurements we find that in the 12 smallest
(245 — 255 mm. long) the average percentage was 4'5,
in the next 65 specimens (260 — 295 mm. long) 4'3,
in the next 52 (300 — 335 mm. long) 4"1, and in the
13 largest specimens (340 — 375 mm. long) 4"7. During
the period of growth examined by Lonnberg it thus
appeared that at first Petromi/zon fluvlafiUs approached
nearer and nearer to the character of Petr. Planeri,
but eventually receded all the more abruptly tlierefrom.
Often, however, we find a dermal flap extending for-
ward from the beginning of tht- second dorsal fin in
the median dorsal line towards the first dorsal, so that
the limit of the former fin is difficult to fix. And
Schneider", Waygel'', and Benecke" have totally re-
jected the specific distinction between the two forms.

The relation between them, as Lonnberg has remarked,
is very like thtit between the large Trout (grdlax)
and the Salmon (blanklair); and in the preceding pages
we have made the same observation in many otJier
parts of the history of the Scandinavian fishes. Fresh-
water life has had greater influence on Petromyzon
fluviatiUs tlian on Petr. marbius: and two varieties have
thus arisen, which in tlieir typical forms are indeed
easy of distinction, with the guidance of tlie above-
mentioned characters, but are linked together by inter-
mediate forms. "Among 7 specimens of Petromyzon
Planeri from tiie same locality (Bieberbach, near Gies-
sen) 3 had the two dorsal fins separated by an interval,
while in 4 the fins were contiguous" (Schneider).

Tlic first dorsal fin begins in the Pride and usually
too in Petromyzon Planeri somewhat in front of, in the
typical Petromyzon fluviatiUs somewiiat l)eliind, the
middle of the body. The second dorsal begins in the
former two in front of, in the last-mentioned form
beliind, tlie beginning of the posterior third of tlie Ijody.
The caudal fin is of the same symmetrical form as in
the preceding species. The boundary between it and
the second dorsal, marked by the more distinct rays of
tlie latter fin, is more prominent in Petromyzon fliivia-

'• Btitr. VergL Aunt., Entwickl. Wirhellh., p. 35, § 1.

» Verb. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, XXXIII (1884), p. 311.

' Handb. Fischz., Fischer. (Max'v. d. Bohne), p. 193.

'' Exceptions not seldom occur in old specimens of Petromyzon Planeri.

198

tilis tlmii ill I'etr. I'laiieri. Its length %aries here too
between about 10 and 8 % of that of tiie body. Tlie
aniil aperturi' also occuiiics tlic same i)ositii)li as in tlu'
Sea Lamprey Imt the urogenital |>a]iilla is fr(.in.i>;i,lly
more developed, es|)eeially in retr(iiii//.:(iit I'Idiicri. and
longest and most pointed (projecting far baek), as
usual, in the males. Besides this .sexual character may
be observed dui'ing the breeding season, I'spcciallx in
the females, an Indropical ttiinidit\- of the skin (hg.
3411), in particulai' round tlie anus and along tlie anal
fin-ridge, which is .sometimes considerably elevated at
this season, as well as along tiie base and in front of
the second dorsal fin.

Tile coloration differs from that of the preceding
species in its monotony, being without shar])ly defined
spots, and as a ruli- on tlie back steel-l)lue or darker,
on the belh' \vliitc, with a silvery lustre on tlie sides
of the body. Yet it varies with the age of the fish,
the .season of the year, and the locality. In fresh water
and with age the back becomes greener, and the belly
assumes a muddier tone. The fins are either transparent,
grayish white, or, in old .specimens, lirownish. The
Prides are entirely destitute of silvery lustre and some-
times greenish yellow, sometimes bluish green. Our
figures of Prides, as well as of the Lampern, are painted
from living S[ieciinens taken by Professor Ketzh'S at
Elfkarleby early in October.

The Lampern is dispersed throughout Europe,
Northern Asia, and Japan, as well as the northern re-
gions of North America together with Greenland. Theel
and TuvBoM brought home Prides of this species from
the Yenisei; Gixtheh referred the Fetromyzon japoni-
CHS described by Maktens" to the same species as our
Lampern; Pefromi/zon plinnhcus {ciharius) and I'etr. au-
reus from the ^vest coast of North America have ap-
parently no greater claim, judging by the descriptions,
to a specific rank; and from Southern Greenland, ac-
cording to LCtken, the ]\Iuseum of Copenhagen has re-
ceived two specimens of Pctninu/zoii fiuriafiUs. Through-
out Sweden this species occurs in both varieties, but
seems to be less common in the west than in the ea.st,
besides which it has long been known that the more
typical form is commonest and largest in the Baltic and
the rivers of Northern Sweden. In Norway the last-

iiKMitioned form, according to Collett, is very rare and
has been met with only in Christiania Fjord, but I'efro-
nii/soii I'ldiicri is said to be cduinion enough south of
the DoNTefjeld, where it attains, according to Kascu, a
length of at least 8 dm. Ncu'th of the Dovrefjeld the
species has not been found; but Mela adduces it from
Varanger Fjord, and it has long been known from the
^^'llite Sea and the rivers of Northern Russia. In Den-
mark it has been met with both on the islands and in
.Intlaiid. In the Sound it is no rarit\'. ( >n ISornlioliii,
according to Feddkusek, only the smaller form has been
found. In llussia, (lermany, the Netherlands, Southern
Europe'', and the British Islands it is as common as in
Scandinavia, in some places perhajis commoner. Ac-
cording to Fatiii it is unable to pass the great falls of
the Rhine and Rhone, being wanting both in Lake Con-
stance and the Lake of Geneva. In Scandinavia, on
the other hand, each of the forms occurs both in Lake
\A'ener, above TrollhiUtan, and in Lake Wetter. Nearest
the sources of the brooks and in small collections of
water the smaller form has its home; the larger keeps
to the lower courses of the rivers and, in the lakes,
to the outlets of the brooks. How high the Lampern
ascends in the mountain regions of Scandinavia, is
scarcely known as yet. C)lsson'' says that both Lam-
perns and Prides are coninion in the southern part of
Stroms Vattudal (Jemtland), though they do not ascend
the streams flowing thither. According to Tuybom"
Prides 11 — lo cm. long have been found at Asele
(Angerman Elf, f>4° 10' N. lat.; 300 m. above the sea-
level), on flax placed in the river to steep; and similar
specimens are sometimes taken, it is stated, in Lake
Storlogde (Logde Elf). Lilljeborg found Petromyzon
Plmieri at Karesuando (Muonio Elf, 68° 25' N. lat.; 320
m. above the sea-level). Fatio sets the limit to the
ascent of the Lampern in Switzerland at about 600 to
700 m. above the level of the sea.

Tenacious of life and greedy of prey, the Lanntern
has the same habits as the preceding species. Its man-
ner of life in the sea is hardly known, for it is met
with too seldom in salt water. Baltic specimens have
been found to have the intestinal canal (stomach and
spiral intestine) filled to distension with a pulpy mass,
in which we could distinguish in one specimen morsels

" Wiegin. Arch. XXXIV, p. 3.

* Not adduced from Greece, however, by Apostolides.

>■ ('ifvcra. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1876, No. 3, p. 140.

'' Nurd. Aarsskr. Fisk. 1883, p. 307.

1194

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

of bone and fin-rays, probabl)' remains of some Goby.
From the island-belt of LuleA Widegken writes" that
during summer La.mperns follow tlie shoals of Baltic
Herrings and fasten themselves to the fish, gradually
devouring them, ('ollett received fi'om Christiania
Fjord a Lampern that had attached itself to a bit of
Herring with which a long-line had been baited. From
Lough Neagh a Lam])ern was sent to Hyxdman'' that
had fastened itself to a large Trout. ( )therwise the
Lampern lives on minute creatures, such as worms,
crustaceans, and the larva- of insects. The Prides, which
are toothless and without closed sucking-disk, must
naturally confine themselves to the smallest prey and
the decomposing matter they may find in the mud or
sand. Tiie Lainperns that have ascended the rivers
to spawn, with their greatly shrunken intestinal canal,
cease to take any nourishment.

The Lampern displays activity as it wriggles along
in the streams like an Eel or a snake, now and then
taking a rest by attaching itself. At such times the
branchird region may be observed continually expand-
ing and contracting, opening and shutting the gill-
openings at a breath, about 200 times a minute when
the fish is most lively. ( )r it creeps up on jetties,
dams, or projecting stones, with head and branchial
region above the water, the air expressed from its gills
causing a faint bubbling sound. So tenacious is the
bite of the Lampern on these occasions that even if
the body be cut off the iiead sometimes retains its
position. The Lampern and its larva can live for hours
or days out of the \vater, and may thus be kept for
transmission or consumption as required; but in thunder-
storms it often happens that most of the captives die.

In autumn, from September till Novemlier, the
Lampern ascends the rivers from the sea. It is then
taken in great quantities, especially near the mouths of
the Norrland rivers. At this season the generative or-
gans are of fairly advanced development, with eggs
measuring ^4 mm. or less; but nut until the spring or
early in the summer, when the ova have attained a
diameter of 1 mm., does the spawning take place, after
the same fasiiion as we have seen above in the case of
the Sea Lamprey. The Lamperns that constantly in-
habit fresh water do not repair to the spawning-places

« Landtbr. Akad. Handl. 18:de delen (1858), p. 200.

* Thomps., Nat. Hist. Irel., vol. TV, p. 26.').

•' LiLU., 1. 0., p. 717.

'' Cf. too Benecke, Finch., Fischer., Fiscli:. 0., W. Preuss.,

' Tliis iiifiiiuscript. wliich was rediscovered by SlEEOLD in iho

until shortly before the commencement of the opera-
tion, in Scandinavia usually during April or May. The
ova of the small Lamperns are then about equal in size
to those of their larger fellows. Hence the number of the
eggs is highlj' variable, from a thousand or so in small
individuals to several tens of thousands in large fish.

AuRELi/ observed the behaviour of small Lamperns
at their spawning-places in tlie brooks of Lake Wetter.
"They occurred in very shallow water and where there
was a brisk current, sometimes 2 to 10 or 2() in com-
pany. When alone, tiiey were timid and usually shot
oft' witli almost lightning speed down the current if
disturbed. But this was not often the case, for they
sought one another with passionate eagerness. The
males were more slender and cylindrical than the fe-
males, which, seen from the sides, were broader. When
the males were touched, the milt spirted out through
the genital ]japilla to a distance of a }ard or two, and
on being touched the female emitted her roe. Their co-
lour showed great varial)ility, and some, both male and
female, were mottled." Else, according to A. Ml'ller'',
the male attaches himself to tlie neck of the female
and coils his body round her in a half spiral. The
spawning-place is chosen preferably on a pebbly bottom,
where the fish hollow out a cavity by wriggling the
body, or construct, as we have mentioned of the Sea
Lamprey, a shelter for the eggs. After the lapse of
about three weeks the larvai are excluded.

The development, first to Pride and then to Lam-
pern, was known even to the Strasburg fisherman Bald-
NER, who in the 17th century wrote a Fischhiicli' of the
Middle Rhine; but his remarks were forgotten until at-
tention was drawn to them by Siebold, after A. Mulleu
had succeeded (18.5(>) in watching tlie spawning oi Petro-
niyzon Planefi in the Panke, a brook that falls into the
Spree at Berlin, and in seeing Prides develop from the
deposited eggs. According to MCller the Pride li\es
three or four }'ears before its transformation into a-
Lam])ern. It buries itself meanwhile in mud nr sand,
or dwells in brooks or by the banks of rivers among
fallen and decayed leaves. At times the fish raises the
forepart of the body and swings it to and fro in the ij
water, or wriggles itself entirely free but hastens again '*
into concealment. It is so gregarious that in many

p. 38.
Miiseinn of Strasburg, is also cpioted in several passages by Wili-CGHBY.

MYXIXOID,S.

111(5

|ilaces it lUMy be dug vi}) in niinihers, after the stream
has Ix'cii (laniiued above tlic s|Kit. Its Swedish name
of lindl (Flax Eel) is derived frum its iiabit of creep-
ing among flax laid in the watcn- to rot. In August
the raetaniorpliosis begins, and by tlic New "^'ear or
soon afterwards it is completed. The organs of genera-
tion become distinct even earlier than this.

After depositing its eggs the Lampcn-n dies, ac-
cording to MrLLEii; and 'riiYiioji" has remarked, as
evidence of tins, that all the eggs in its ovaries are
of tile same size, so that no undeveloped ova, to be
matured for another year's s})awning, can be detected.
Fetrnm/i^oii I'hnieri, according to their assumption, only
lives a few montiis in its adult state. Of Fetromyzon
Jiuviattlis, ou the other hand, Ijenfxke assumes that
the larvffi migrate to the sea while tuidergoing meta-
morphosis; and their life in salt water is unknown.
But the fact is that sexually mature individuals of both
varieties are found differing so widely in size that it
is almost inconceivable that they can be of the same
age. It would thus appear that some attain maturity
the very first year after the metamorphosis, others not
until several years have elapsed. For the present, as

Fatio has also observed, we must consequently regard
it as an open (piestion, whether most of the spent Lam-
perns may not survive, but conceal themselves some-
where beyond our ken, and jjossibly reaj)pear at the
spawning of tlu; following year.

The Lampern is a useful tish. For a gijod di-
gestion it is excellent eating. Smoked and broiled it
is a delicious wiiet before dinner; lint f<ir tiiis purpose
it is tit only during the cold season; in siuumer it is
lean and dry. It is always a very valuable bait. It is
taken in /crt.s'.sar (closely woven baskets, ]jreferably of
osier) and ndttingstnchar (small square boxes made of
thin boards perforated witli small iioles), wliich are
placed betw(!en the stones where the current is of a
suitable strengtii. The fishery succeeds best on dark
nights, for the Lampern, like the Eel, is most active
between sunset and dawn.

The Lamjiern has several Swedish names. Nejon-
oijd is originally a German word {Neunauge). In Hal-
land it is known as sfensiigare (Stone-sucker). In Ble-
kinge it is said to share witli the preceding species the
name of ■■iillajtijxire. The smaller variety is called by
SwAirrz i(ji'l-noA)id(/0)i (Leech-Lamprey).

Outer branchial apertures

fam. myxinidj:.

(Described by (ir.STAF Ketzius.)

iither single or sereral {U — 7'') on each side of the forepart of the Ijody {the throat).
Nasal duct open behind, penetrating the palate.

This remarkable family in its essential characters
comes near to the preceding one, and has therefore
been cou]iled therewith to form the Cyclostomous order;
but in other respects it exhibits such important dif-
ferences from the Petromiizonidce that at present, the
links whicii would seem to have once connected them
having apparently disappeared, the investigation of their
mutual relationship and collocation in the phylogenetic
system is no easy task.

Perhaps they are both more or less retrogressive
forms; this is probable at least with respect to the
Myxinoids. In several respects, however, the latter
display obviously lower characters than the family of
the Lampreys.

The time may possibly come where the ontogenetic
evolution of the Myxinoids may in some degree supply

•" Forh. AUm. Sv. Fisk. Konf. Goteborg 1891. p. 88.
' .According to Girard soinetiiiies 14.

an answer to these questions, so im])ortant to a con-
cejation of tlie origin from which tlie vertebrates liave
sprung; but as long as the said evolution of the Myxi-
noids, in spite of the pains devoted to its study, re-
mains all but unknown, the proper course is to refrain
from drawing any conclusions that are not borne out
to the full liy ascertained facts.

The Myxinoid family is represented in the modern
fauna h\ only t^vo genera, Bdellostoma and Myxine. The
former, of which three species, inhabitants of the southern
seas, have l)een distinguished, is characterized principally
by the ])resence on each side of the body of six or more
outer branchial ajjertures, each composing the opening
duct of a gill-sac. In the geiuis My.vine, on the other
hand, each side of the body is furnished with only one
branchial aperture, the common orifice of the six gill-sacs.

ii9(;

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

Of thi; latter genus too three species have been
distinguished, respectively from the North Atlantic, the
Pacific Ocean (Sea of Japan), and tlie extreme south
of South America.

As the Scandiiia\ ian fauna, however, contains only

one representative of the Myxinoid family, namely
Myxine glntinosa, our principal attention shall be con-
fined Ix'low to this species, which has besides in re-
cent times been the most fretjuent subject of investi-
gation, and whose structure is therefore best known.

Gems myxine.

On each -s/rfc of tlic forepart of tlir bot/i/ (thf tliroat) a siriffh- bratichial ajierfinr, at irhich tlie duds /;iren out
hy the six qiU-sacf: of each half of the tioi/i/. after loiitiiiq hito a eommoii duct, fnd av outlet.

In Mi/xhie, as in Fetromyzoii, the cj'lindrical noto- I a dorsal and a ventral lamella, which are confluent
chord, continuous, unsegmented, persists throughout Ijehind and form round both .sides of the termination
life, anteriorly terminating in a conical tip at the ba.sis j of the spinal cord a more or less narrow, short canal.

Fig. 354. Caudal cartilage of ^fl/a)lu ijlutmusa. seen from tlit right, X 7.
a, ventral plate of the caudal cartilage; /;, ventral cartilaginous rods (fin-rays) issuing therefrom; c, right sac of the caudal heart; d, button-
shaped process of the ventral plate; e, notochord; /, spinal cord; g, medullispinal canal; /), free dorsal and !, free ventral cartilaginous rods

of tlif caudal fin; h. dermal muciferons ejlands.

cranii, under the brain, posteriorly extending close to
the tip of the tail and terminating there after gradual
contraction but somewhat obtusely, before the posterior
extremity of the spinal cord (fig. 354, e). This noto-
chord, composed of large cells filled witli a clear fluid
and cemented together by their investing membranes,
is enveloped in two closely fitting sheaths, which have
been somewhat differently interpreted by morphologists.
These are surrounded by fibrous connective tissue,
\\hicli does not differentiate, however, into any true
vertebral skeleton. Only at the head and tail are
cartilages developed, but in Myxhie they never assume
anj' vertebrally segmented character. Tims in the tail
(fig. 354, a) we find a median cartilaginous plate with

The outer edges of this cartilaginous plate send out
upwards, back^\ards, and do\\nwards a great number
of slender cartilaginous rods {h), pointed at the tip.
which compose the supporting rays of the caudal fin,
and not without reason have been compared — or at
least regarded as analogous — to the spinous processes
of higher vertebrates. Even in front of the said carti-
lagiiKius plate there appears in the caudnl fin, aliovc
and below, a scries of similar rods, the jjroximal ends
of whicli terminate in a button-like form within the
septum of connective tissue and are imjoiiied by cartila-
ginous tissue (fig. 354, /;, /). In Mjixive there is not
a sign, as in l'etromyz(i)i, of lateral cartilaginous arches,
to re])resent vertebral apo|)h3'ses.

iiA(;-Fisiii;s.

1197

In tlir lii-iul of Miixlne tlie (•;irtila,i;iiioiis skeleton
is e()ni]i!ii'ati\(4y Car more developed and complex. Here
we meet with two kinds of eartilaginous tissue, one
rather liard, of a yellowish colour, the other soft, colour-
less. This cartilage forms the floor of the cranium, as
well as a nund)er of pnjcesses and ai'ches uriginatiiig
therefrom and composing a singular framework or
"basket-work" within the head. No segmentation into

fore end of the anterior iiitertrahecula and the anterior
opening of the nasal duct are two paii's of shoi't, some-
what curved, anteri<jrly jjointed rods of cartilage (m),
which are the supports of four — two on each side of
the nasal apertiu'c — tentacles or pa])ilhe ("barbels"). On
the outer side ('a(;h of the two trabecula' is bounded by
an elongate oval hole (fenestra .suhorbitalis, n) and on the
outside of the latter is another cartilage {pferyf/okleum.

vertebral parts can be observed, as we have already j o), which here forms the outer edge of the cartilaginous

stated; but by means of a comiiarison with I'ctriimiizoii
and its larval form and, above all, with the ]>li(Miomena
during the development of amphibian lai-\;c, it has
been attempted, not without success, to interpret in
detail the cartilaginous framework of the skull in
Mijx'Dte. Follow ing Pakkek's explanation we here give
a brief description (fig. 3.d5).

The anterior conical termination of the notochord
is surrounded l)y a sheath of hard cartilage (the pafd-
chordal cdiiihif/e or investinfi mass, fig. 355, >>), which
in the median line exhibits a dorsal fissure and on
the sides passes into the rounded kidney-shaped audi-
tor!) capsules (c), also formed of hard cartilage, which
have their longitudinal axes directed from within and
behind outwards and forwards, and pi'esent on their
inner sujjerior side the foramina for the branches of
the auditory nerve. In frcint the parachordal cartilage
passes into two slender cartilaginous rods, the so-called
cranial fraheeulce (d), which enclose an elongate oval
hole (the hasicranial fontaneUe, e) composing the floor
of the cerebral cavity and in great part tilled by fibrous
connective tissue, but containing behind and in the
middle a spoon-shaped cartilage (the posterior i)itertr(i-
becula, /). Anteriorly the trabecula? pass on each side
into the palatine cartilages ((/), which, together with
the ethmoid cartilage (h) joining them to each other
in front, form the anterior limit of the fontanelle. Fi'om
tlic antci'ior ends of the jialatinc cartilages projects on
lach side a cartilaginous rod {coniu prfepalatinum, i),
curved outwards and forwards and ])ointed at the tip.
True cortma traljecularum are wanting. In the median
line lies a long cartilaginous rod (the anterior inter-
tndtecnla, k) originating from the dorsal side of the
interior termination of the fontanelle and from the
<thmoid region. This rod supports the long tube,
formed of transversa] cartilaginous rings, that com-
Idses the nasal dart (I) and leads behind partly to the
olfat-tory organ, ])artly to the palate, into the cavity
of which it has a free opening. On each side of the

framework of the skull and behind borders on another,
larger hole (fenestra lateralis anterior, }>), also of an
elongate oval shape. On the inner side of this fenestra

Fig. 355. Skull ni .\fi/xine glutino.ta, Sfcn from below, X 5.
After Parkkr.
(I, notochord; b, paracliorilal cartilage; (,', auditory capsules; d, trabe-
cule; e, basicranial fontanelle; /, posterior intertrabecula; y, palatine
cartilage ; /;, otlinioid cartilage ; /)/, etiinioidal tooth ; /, comua pra;-
palatina; k, anterior intertrabecula; I, nasal duct (in outline); m, carti-
laginous rods of the four circuninasal tentacles; n, suborbital fenestra;
0, ptcrygoideum ; /), anterior lateral fenestra; <], mandibnlo-hyoid
fenestra ; r, quadratuin ; s, symplcctic region ; t, interhyoideum ; u, epi-
liyoidenm; v, ceratoliyoideum, x, first epibrancliial; y, posterior lateral
fenestra; !, first pharyngobranchial; <2, second pharyngobranchial.

1198

SCAX1>INA\IAN I'IMIKS.

the iiterygoid cartilage passes into a narrow cartilage
whicli has heeu naiiierl tin' mainJihidoIiiioid, and on the
inner side of the last-mentioned cai-tilage, close to and
below the outside of the auditor)- capsule, lies a small,
narrow, oral hole {fenestra mandihido-hyoidea, ij). The
small part (Pakkeh's "ppdlrlr') in front of this hole
answers to the upjK'r end of the suspensorium: and
tlie l)art {]ii/(im(tndihidarc) that hounds the liole hchind

Fig. 356. Cartilaginous framework of Uio tongue in Mi/.rine gliiti-

iiosa, with the teetli in position, seen from above, X 5.

After Parker.

a, i, basihyal cartilages; c, supralingual cartilage; d, supralingual

teetli; e, basibranchial cartilage.

to the head of the hyoid arch. On the outside of the
anterior lateral fenestra there lie, behind the pterygoi-
deum a bi-oad plate of hard cartilage, answering to the
quadrate region {quadrattim, r), and behind this again
a soft cartilage {regio symplectica, s), which forms the

posterior limit of the anterior later;il teiiestra and passes
inwards, behind the hard mandibiilo-liyoideum, into
another S(jft cartilage (hifcrhi/oideinii. f) and its conti-
nuation {epihyoideuni, ii). I'liese last-mentioned carti-
lages enut in an outward direction two soft cartilagi-
nous arches, tlie anterior (whose up])er ])art is named
the reratdlii/oideiivi (r), the extero-inferior ])art the
hypdhyoideum) bending outwards and downwards and
attaching itself to a hard cartilage (bitsiliyoideum), the
posterior {ejnhranchicde 'prmiini, x) curving downwards
and forwards and attaching itself annularly to the sj-m-
plectic region, together witli whicli it siu'i'ounds a large
hole {fenestra Jateralh jjasterior, //). On the inside of,
but not directly continuous witii, the interhyoideuin,
epihyoideuni, and sjmplectic region, lies a cartilage
whicli answers to the first pharyngobranchial bone {£),
and which with its hard, clavate, anterior end, close
to the inner margin of the quadratum, occupies the
posterior part of the anterior lateral cavity and with
its soft, tapering, posterior end reaches a little way
behind the ejubranchial cartilage. The second branchial
arch {jiharyuyo-hranrJiiale secundum, a) is represented
onl}- by its })haryngeal, upj)er part, which is here com-
posed of a few medially corniected, .singularly' formed,
branched rods of soft cartilage, embedded in that fold
of the palatine mucous membrane which lies behind
tlie pharyngeal aperture of the nasal duct.

The lingual apparatus of Myxinv displays an espe-
cially powerful development and is furnished with large
cartilages both hard and soft (fig. 85t>). Thus there
are four hard hasiliyal cartilayes {a, h) and on their
upper surface a part consisting of several cartilages
(the snpralhiyiial cartilages, c), -which bear tlie jiower-
fuUy developed siipralinyital teeth {d). Backwards from
the basihyal cartilage rims a dorsally grooved rod of
tibrocartilage (the hasihranchial caftUaye, e), which ex-
tends back to the region of the gill-sacs.

The muscular system of Myxine exhil)its about
the same develoimiental type as that of Fetromyzon
and even, in the main, as that of the other piscine
orders, i. e. on each side a "yreat lateral muscle" di-
vided into very numerous parts {myomeres) by septa
of connective tissue {myocommata), and thus showing a
segmental arrangement, though the axial skeleton is
not segmented, and two ventral muscles. There being
no extremities, or lateral fins, the muscles belonging
to them are also \vanting; but the head, on the other
hand, contains rather numerous singular muscles, which'

IIAd-KISIlKfS.

1199

partly enter into tlie eoiiiiiositiuii of tlic ton,i;ue, pMrfly
are intended f'oi' the locomotion in different directiotis
of tlie said organ, tiie mouth and nasal duet, and the
palate and branchial apparatus. These muscles consist
of striated fibiv.

As for the bJaod-rasciilar si/stciii, tiie heart (tig. '^f)^)
is composed, as in other fishes, of an atrium, a \en-
tricle, and a tnmcKS arteriosits. Of the two Cuvierian
duets onl)- the left attains full development, and of the
two cardinal veins tlie right is feebly (U'velo|ied and
joins the left. The blood coming from tiie liind part
of till' body accordingly flows into the left Cuvierian
duct; the hepatic veins are discharged l)y two trunks
directly into the sinus renosiis. The portal vein, which
also receives tiie numerous ^•eins coming from the gene-
rative organs (mesovarium or mesorchium), dilates into
:i wide sac, the "portal heart" discovered by A. Ketzius,
before distributing itself to the two lobes of the liver.

The bimpliatlc and serous system is strongly deve-
loped in Myxme. Under the greater portion of the
cutis there lies, throughout the dorsal region, fi-om the
snout to the tip of the tail, on both sides a. large (sub-
cutaneous) Ij'mph-space, which dorsall)' extends quite to
the median line, where a thin lamina of connective
tissue, |)rovided with nerves and bloodvessels, divides
the two lateral spaces, except in the cephalic region,
where thej' are in open communication Avith each other.
\entrally the space extends close to the row of muci-
ferous glands that runs on each side of the body. But
on the ventral side" there is no similar, large and con-
tinuous lymph-space, only a fairly abundant and dense
subcutaneous connective tissue. In the head, however,
especially around the tongue and pliarvnx, there lie more
profound Ivmph-spaces, which, according to Klinckow-
strom", are in open communication with the large sub-
cutaneous space; even the gill-sacs are furnished, accord-
ing to the same author, with l^^mph-sijaces. IJetween
these j)arts of tlie lymphatic sj'stein and the portal
heart, according to him, there apparently exists a com-
munication. He also describes a direct communication
lietweeii the vessels metamerically radiating in tiie tail
from the lateral (and "ventral") lymph-spaces and a
\essel running at the margin of the caudal cartilage
and "opening into the paired caudal heart discovered
by Retzu.s". This last-raentioned organ (tig. 354, f),
which has a certain resemblance to the pulsating organ

long since observed in the Eel, ap])cars on each side
of tlie ventral lamella of the caudal cartilage, is fur-
nislied with spciial muscles, and exhibits quick, rhyth-
mical contractions; it is sanguiniferous and discharges
its contents directly into the vena caudalis''. Of interest
is the circumstance made known by Klinckowstkom
tiiat the subcutaneous lynq)h-s|)aces as a rule carr}' a
red fluid with a strong admixture of blood; the ex-
planation of this may well be supplied in part by the
above-mentioned coinmunications between the blood-
vascular system and the lymphatic system, but the
circumstances re(|nire further elucidation, for tlic l)urst-
ing of bloodvessels in conseipience of the usually
rapid transference of the animal from a great depth
may contribute to tiie said appearance.

The skin, whicii owing to the large lym])h-spaces
on the greater part of the body is free and moveable,
consists of a rather thick, fibrous cutis and a super-
incumbent epidermis, which is composed of several
layers of polygonal nucleated cells, towards the surface
of the bodj- as a rule somewhat shallower, more flat-
tened. No scale-growths can be traced in the skin.
Of gJandidar gnrwths in the same only the muciferous
glands so characteristic of the Myxinoids are known.
These are set in a single row on each side of the belly,
to a number of more than a hundred; the foremost
(fig. 363, g) are situated behind the head (2'5— 3 cm.
from the tip of the snout); the hindmost extend, in oppo-
sition to what is sometimes stated, a good way bej'ond
the cloaca, back to the anterior end of the ventral la-
mella of the caudal cartilage (fig. 354, A-), though with
a break behind the cloaca (fig. 363, /;). In form they
are oval, and consist of sacs about as large as hemp-
seed, lying under the skin and opening on its surface
each at a small tine pore-like aperture, which apertures
lie in a line at a distance of 2 or 3 mm. from one
aiiotlier. These glands copiously secrete an extremely
tough, whitisli gray nunnis, whicli proves on microscopical
examination to consist of tine, strong threads, wiiich
have lain rolled up in the secretory cells of the glands
and been formed of the protoplasm within those cells.

True fins there are none, but in the median line
the skin forms folds, partly in the caudal region, where
the fold contains the rays of the caudal cartilage and
thus to a certain degree represents a caudal fin, and
partly on the belly, from the cloaca forward to a point

" Axel Kunckowstr6m, Biol. Fiireningens Forh., Bd IV, Nos. 1 — 2. 1891.

' G. Retzius, Ein s. g. Caudalherz bei Myxine glutinosa, Biolog. rntersucliungeii, N. V. I, 1890.

1200

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISIIKS.

about 1 ciu. behind tlie Ijraiicliial aj)ertures, where
there appears a fold triangular in section, thus with
broad base and as a rule with the free flap measuring
only about 2 — ?> mm. in lieight, which fold may be
regarded as representing a rontral fin.

No external limit is visible l)etweeii the body and
the head. The tip of the snout tc-rminates dorsally in
a median triangular dermal flap; nnderneath this is the
slit-like oval nostril (fig. 3(38, I), flanked on both sides
by two (thus altogether four) conical, pointed tentacles
(papillae) about 8 mm. long and directed forwards and
somewhat upwards. These contain in their axial part
the above-mentioned small cartilaginous rods (fig. 35.5, m)
and are covered with soft skin. Under the tip of the
snout the anterior surface of the head slopes backwards
and downwards, and 7 — 8 mm. behind the tip of the
snout opens the oral aperture (fig. 363, m), its appear-
ance varying with its functional position. In its su-

k o

Fig. 357. Sagittal section of the cephalic end cif Myxine glutiiwsa, X 4.
a, niouth aperture; i, nostril; c, nasal duct; d, connecting canal be-
tween the nasal duct and the pharynx; e, pharynx;/, nasal tentacles;
I/, oral tentacles; /(, olfactory organ; i, olfactory lobe; k, forebrain;
/, ganglion habenulie; 7H, midbrain; ;i, hindbrain (little brain); o, cen-
tral ventricle; p, afterbrain (medulla oblongata); 7, myelon; )■, dorsal
irniscular layer; s, mcdullispinal canal; «, nntocliord.

perior margin may usually be seen, when it is retracted,
two large and two small folds of skin and in its inferior
margin several small folds of a somewliat varialile na-
ture. Suctorial mouth or sucking-disk, like those of
Pefromi/znn, there is none; nor are there any true lips.
On till' other hand, both sides of tlie oral aperture are
furnished in Mij.cine with two, thus altogether four ten-
tacles (papillffi) of a similar kind to those situated round
the nostril. Of these tentacles the inner pair (situated
nearer the mouth) are small and broad; the other pair,
set outside; and somewhat above the former, are longer,
narrower, and more pointed. The irregularly slit-like
("stelliform") mouth, open only when the animal is

eating, leads int<; a long buccal cavity, dilating behind,
in the roof of which, about 1 cm. behind the tip of
the snout, is a somewliat crooked horny tooth with
retral tip. This tooth, surrounded by folds of mucous
membrane, is attached to the ethmoid cartilage and is
th(n'efore called the ethmoidal tooth (fig. 355, hi). A
few millimetres fin-ther back (13 — 14 mm. behind the
tip of the snout), viz. when the tongue is in its normal
position of rest, lie the sirpralhif/ual teeth (fig. 356, d),
attached to the upper surface of the tongue (to the
supralingnal cartilage) and arranged in anteriorly con-
vex, a])[)roximately concentric curves; these are also
horny, and their tips are directed backwards and in-
wards. When the tongue is protruded, this dental
a])paratus is visible at the oral aj)erture. Above and
behind the same opens the above-mentioned tubiform
nasal duct (fig. 357, c) through a canal (d) sloping
downwards and backwards in the palate, and further
back appears a fold of mucous membrane at the tran-
sition to the pharyngeal tube, which (e) runs straight
back above the long tongue-apparatus to pass behind
the branchial apparatus, in the form of an also coiu-
paratixcly narrow and long "lesophagus", into the in-
tesfiiKd ((DHd. This (fig. 363, e, f) has the form of
a straight, thick-walled, broad and capacious tube,
furnished internally with shallow, longitudinal, zigzag
folds, but without "spiral coils", and runs to a point
distant about 3 — 4 cm. from the tip of the tail, where,
after bending downwards (ventrally), it opens into the
cloaca, situated in the median line and nearly 1 cm.
long, whicii terminates in a sagittal slit, tlie outer
cloacnl aperture (i), fianked by two dermal flaps or lips.

Tlie f/all-hladder duct enters the foremost part of
the intestine. The gall-bladder lies between the two
widely separated lobes of the liver (fig. 363, d) and
receives a duct from each of them. Of pancreas and
spleen not a trace has yet been found. The kidney ot
Mi/xine exhibits, as Johannes Mii-lek, in his famous
work on the Mj'xinoids, first showed, a very remarkable,
extremely low development ("pronephron"); on each side
of the notochord runs a duct o))ening into the cloaca
and receiving during its course in the abdominal cavity
a number of lateral branches, whose capsule-like dilated
ends each contain a plexus of vessels, a glomerulus
composing a branch of the aorta.

In con.sequence of the powerful develoj)meiit of the
tongue the branchial apparatus (fig. 358) is removed
far back. It is not furnished with any branchial basket

IIAC-KISIIK.S.

1201

ijroptT, but only with tlic iibo\e-iiieiitioiied eai'tilaj^inoiis
rods, situated in its t'oreniost part. The six <^ill-sacs
(hr) vu each side couimunicate inwards by means oi' a
siiort transverse duct with the a'sophagus; outwards
eacii of them emits a longer duct {hr'), curving down-
wards and outwards. These latter ducts coalesce on
each side into a single canal, thus tinding an orifice
on the two outer sides of the bodj' at an opening
situated far back, the two outer hravchkil apertures
(rtg. :i:)H, s; fig. 868, A).

A^^rroiis fo/sfeni. The brain of 3L/.rine exhibits a
rudiuientarx structure with decidedly retrogressive cha-
racters (figs. 357 and 359). As mentioned above, the
investing cerebral ca])sule consists of cartilage under-

Fig. 358. Braiiclii:il apparatus, heart, Ijrancliial artery, and (oscipljatciis

of Mijxiiie gliitiiiosa, after Johannes MCli.er. Nat. size.
r. lesophagus; i, inner branchial ducts; ir, gill-sacs; br\ outer hran-
ohial ducts, which coalesce and have a common opening at s, the outer
branchial aperture; a, atrium of the heart; v, its ventricle; ab, branchial
tirtirv, vvliirli sends n division to each sac; d, flaps of skin, folded hacU.

neatli alone; its sides and roof are of a fibrous texture.
The brain is first enveloped in a thin, blood-vascidar,
connective tissue, a kind of pia mater, which descends
into and fills the cereliral sulci. Seen from above (fig.
.l.V.l) the naked brain is triangular, with tiie base of
the triangle directed forwards. By a dorsal longitu-
dinal sulcus in the median line a bisection into two
lateral halves is indicated. In each lateral Iialf five
divisions, bounded by transverse sulci, may be traced,
namely, beginning from in front, the olfactori/ brain,
forehraiu, midhrain, hindhrain, and afterhrain. Of the

'ttreenhraiii there api)ears dorsnlly, in the angle between
tlie f'orebrain and midbiain, a small, rounded or oval
protuberance, tlie (/(iiif/lioii liubenuke, usuallj- consisting
of a right and a left lobe; but of the epiphysis itself
not a trace can else be detected; on the ventral side
is a small infundibulum with a lamellar a|)pendage,
the liifjwplii/sis. Tlic afterbrain (medulla oblongata) is
strongly develo])ed; its anteriorly dilated central canal
advances tlirough tiie midbrain to a cu'cal termination,
somewhat ix^fore the posterior half thereof. The third
ventricle is oblitt'rated, with the exception of two small
vestiges. Of lateral ventricles there is no trace. No
ej)endj"mal pallium, like tliat of the Teleosts and I'efro-

Fig. 359. Brain of Mi/xiiie f/lutiiiosa, seen from above. X 7.

«, olfactory lobe; i, forcbrain ; c, midbrain; d, hindbrain; e, after-
brain; /, ganglion lmbenula»; g, spinal cord; li, nasal duct with carti-
laginous rings; ?', olfactory organ with cartilaginous basket; k, eye;
/, o)itic nerve; m, trigeminus; h, facialis (?); 0, trigeminus (?); p,
acoustic nerve; q, vagus; »', sensory roots of spinal nerves.

mi/zon larvtv, is to be found. It is hence impossible
for the present to determine with certainty in the adult
state whether the forebrain of ^fi/xine merely corre-
sponds to the cor[)ora striata, or whether the cerebral
pallium also enters into its structure.

The nerves issuing from the brain on each side
are: olfactorius, opticus, tric/eminus, facialis, acKsficus,
and raff us; of the others no trace can be seen.

1 202

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

The spinal cord consists of m flattened band, of
iiniforiu breadtli and soiiirwliat trianijjular in section,
which in a fairly spacious niedullispinal canal, lying on
the notochord, follows the latter to its posterior termi-
nation, and there extends in a contracted ependymal
tilum terminale somewhat hcliind the same (tig. 3.54,/).
By means of improved colouring methods the form, dis-
tribution, and proces.ses of the ependymal as well as
the neurogliar and ganglion cells has been elucidated on
M fairly extensive scale in the spinal cord and jjartly
too in the brain.

The nerves (jriginating in jjairs, but not (piite sym-
metrically, from the spinal cord (spinal nerves) each
have a ventral (raotory) and a dorsal (sensory) root,
and tlie latter is furnished with a ganglion. As in
Petrowi/zon, all tlie nerve-libres are "pale", being with-
out myeline sheatii. The motory nerve-tibres end their
terminal ramitications on tlie muscular fibres in free

I q d
Fig. 360. Auditory urgan of the riglit sirle of Mi/xine gluttnosa,

seen from above and within, X 18.
a, internal division witli e, the macula acnstica; b, external division
with an ampulla at each end (o, (/) and a crista acustica (/, g) in
each ampulla; /, /, branches of the acoustic nerve; //, endolymphatic duct.

"end-trees" within more or less marked end-hillocks
(end-plates). The sensory tibres terminate within the
different organs also in free intercellular ramitications.
Such is the case too with the nerves in the epithelium
of the skin and raucous membranes. No special sensory
organs (end-cells, end-buds, sensory corpuscles, etc.)
iiave been demonstrated. Even in the tentacles sur-
rounding the oral and nasal apertures only free terminal
ramitications of the sensory nerves in the epidermis
have been traced, liut here there is a slight sign of
end-buds, round whose cells the nerve-ends ramify.

No lateral line witli aijpertaining end-buds ai)pears either
on tlie head (jr the bod)'. In the subcutaneous nerve-
plexus, on the other hand, especially in the head, nu-
merous ganglion cells have been found embedded. Pos-
.sibly they belong to the sympathetic nervous system,
whereof else no trace has hitherto been discovered.
These ganglion cells further remind us by their po-
sition in some degree of the cells in the rostral region
of the Lancelet, close to the foremost nerve-pair.

Of the (iryans of sense proper the oJfnctnrii oryan
is obviously the most powerfully developed. It forms
(tig. 8.59, i) a conical organ situated close before the
brain in a cartilaginous basket and con.sisting of nearly
vertical and dense folds of raucous membrane, their
surface covered with olfactory epithelium, i. e. olfactory
cells with supporting cells arranged between them. The
filamentous, central processes of the olfactory cells enter
the olfactory bulb, and terminate there in numerous
ramitications and with free ends in the olfactory glome-
ruli, in which other nerve-fibres, from the ganglion
cells (mitral cells) of the bulb, running towards the
periphery, also terminate in free ramitications. The ol-
factory organ of Myxine thus exhibits in the main the
same structure as this organ retains throughout the
whole of the vertebrates, even including man. Here
there is no trace of "olfactory end-buds", as Blaue
has endeavoured to demonstrate in the Teleosts. Neither
in the latter nor the Cyclostoraes, nor indeed in any of
the vertebrates, do such "end-buds" exist as Blaue
meant; and his theory of the genetic connexion between
the olfactory organ and the sense-organs of the skin,
especially the lateral line, is therefore without ground
in the structure of the said organs.

Special oryans of taste have not yet been demon-
strated in Myxine, whereas Petromyzon and its larva dis-
play witiiin tlie mouth cavity bulbous or genimiform
organs tliat may with reason be regarded as represent-
ing tiie gustatory organs of the higher vertebrates".

The oryan of sight in Myxine'' is very rudimentary.
It is composed of the two very small, (jblong ej'es dis-
covered by JoHANNE.s MuLLEK, which, covered by the
skin and a layer of muscles, lie on each side of the
fore end of the brain (olfactory brain) and close to the
posterior outer angle of the cartilaginous basket invest-
ing the olfactory organ (fig. 3.59, k). The two optic

« Cf. G. Retzius, Biol. Unters., N. Folge, Bd. V, p. 69, taf. XXVII.
' Cf. „ , 1. c, p. 64, taf. XXVI.

IIA(J-KlSincs.

1 2U3

nerves (/), wliii-li, after cros.siii;;-, emerge tVoiii tlie vent-
ral sifle of tlie inidhi-ain and afterwards turn first out-
wards and then forwards, penetrate the hind extremity
of eithei- e}'e, and their fibres may be traeed some way
in witliin its central parts. The eyes, surrounded by
a eajjsule of eonneetive tissue, do not show the regidar
structure common in the vertebrates; cornea, iris, and
lens are entirely wanting, and of vitreous body there is
only a rudiment; the retina does not ))resent tlie nor-
mal arrangement, it fills nearly tlic whole orbit, its
stratitication is very irregular and ditticult of elucida-
tion, instead of rods and cones there is only an cjii-
thelial layer of obscure nature. By means of the mo-
dern colouring methods the presence of numerous cells
of neuroglia-like appearance may be demonstrated, but
also of some other cells that may possibly be of a true
nervous description. Hence it appears that the eye of

each side of the ant('ri(jr end of the notocliord at the
bottom of tlie cranium (Hg. ;-i.').'), c). In tlie annular
tube may be distinguished an inner division (fig. 3(J0, a),
furnished with a hjng nerve-ending, a macula acustica
(c), and an outer division (h), furnished at eacii end
witli an aniiiuilace<jus dilatation (c, d) and a nerve-
ending, tiiiis witli two eristic acustica^ (/, </). This
outer division may reasonably be interpreted as repre-
senting two semicircular canals, each with an ampulla.
Tlie inner di\isi(iii gives out a ca'cally terminating en-
cloh^m|ihatic duct (li).

It is else not easy to institute any close compa.ris(jn
between the so little differentiated parts of the auditory
organ in Myxine and those of the coi-responding organ
in other fishes and the higher vertebrates. Unfortuna-
tely this applies also to the same organ in Petrnniijzon,
where it has many peculiarities and forms no true link
c b

d-^

i- h

A i

Fig. S6l. Auditory organ (right) of a Lampeni {Petromi/zon fiuoiatilis), X 18.
A, seen from below; B, seen from above and without: a, a', vestibule; J, anterior semicircular canal; f, f', anterior ampulla; d, posterior
semicircular canal; e, e', posterior ampulla; /, saccate appendage; /', its nerve-ending; fc, commissure; g, ganglion of the acoustic nerve; /i, acoustic
nerve; ;, cerebral part from which the acoustic nerve originates; k, anterior branch of the acoustic nerve; /, posterior branch of the acoustic nerve.

Mijjittc is not only undeveloped, liiit has probably also
undergone retrogressive development. That no true sight
exists, is evident from the structure of the eye and its
concealment below the surface of the body. Yet phy-
siological experiments might well be made to investigate
whether, in spite of this, the fish may not be capable
uf appreciating with these rudimentary eyes certain
intense lights.

The auditnnj offjun of Mijxine (fig. 860) is struc-
turally the simplest known within the vertebrate king-
<lom, if we except Branchtostoma, in which no trace of
such an organ has been discovered. It consists of a
paired, annular, membranous organ, which lies enclosed
in the above-described cartilaginous capsule situated on

between that of Myxine and of the other vertebrates.
In Petromijzon (tig. 361) may be distinguished a large
common chamber (the vestibule), a saccate appendage,
and two seinicircidar canals each with an amjiulla and
appertaining crista acustica. In the vestibule is a large
nerve-ending (macula acustica) perhaps composed of se-
veral, and a smaller one appears in the saccate appendage.
It is first in the osseous and cartilaginous fishes
(fig. 362, A, B, (', I)) that the membranous auditory or-
gan is developed to that fundamcnital ty])e which it
afterwards retains throughout its evolution within the
vertebrate kingdom, even in the human race. It parts
into two divisions, a superior and an inferior. The
superior consists of a fairly wide, horizontally and sagit-

1204

SCANDINAVIAN flSHES.

tally directed tube, utricKlns {k), \\liicli dilates aiiteriorly
iiito a vesicular l)ull), )-('cessi(f: utrkuli (rcc), in whose
anterioi- and outer sides open two vesicular tubes, the
anterior (aa) and the external (ae) amjmUtB, continued
each by a narrower, tubiforin duct, the anterior {ca)
and the external {ce) semieircular canals, Avhich bend

round and at their other end again open into the utri-
culus, the former at the U])i>er end of an upward in-
vagination thereof, .s/»/m.s ntricidi superior (ss), tlie latter
into the lower part of it. At the posterior termination
of the utriculus, sinus ntricidi posterior (sp), opens a
third vesicular tube, the posterior ampulla (ap), which

Fig. 3<")2. Auditory (.r.tcan of Ujc rislit Hidu; A, iu n Percli (I'erca t/iiviatih'.t; X 3, sec-ii fruui witliin); B, in a Sturgeon {Acipenaer sturio;

X 3',2, seen from without); 6', in a Cliimcera {Chimicra vionstrosa: X 3' j, seen fronj within); D, in a Roiirjh Hoxmd (Scylliorhimis cani-

ailri : X 3l..,), and E, in a Mud-eel (/SVrc" laceftina; X 11'.,), botli the last seen from witliin.

((«, ampulla anterior

ae, ,. externa

aji, ,, posterior

ac, iiervus aeustieus

iide. apertnra externa ductus endolyin])lintiei

adp, ,, ductus perilymphatii i

ass, apex sinus .superioris

c, cutis

ca, canalis anterior

ce, ,, externus

cp, „ posterior

cr, crista acustica anipuUaruni

ors, canalis recessu-saccularis

cus, canalis utriculo-saceularis

de, ductus endolymphaticus

dcp, ductus canalis posterioris

dji. ,, perilympliaticus

/, lagena cochlea'

vin, macula acustica ueglecta

»K«, ,. ,, sacculi

mu, „ „ recessus utriculi

0, otolites (in the recessus utriculi, sacculus

and lagena)
pi, papilla acustica lagena'
raa, raniulus ampulla' anterioris
rae, ., ,, externa'

rap, raniulus ampulhe posterioris

rl, ,, lagen.'e

rn, ., neglectus

/•s, „ sacculi

ru, „ recessus utriculi

rec, recessus utriculi

s, sacculus

$e, saccus endolymphaticus

sp, sinus utriculi posterior

ss, ,, ,. superior

sg, squamse cutis

II, utriculus.

AU1)IT<')RY (lltCANS.

120.5

passes hc'liiiid iiit(j a third srmicircidar canal, caiialis
posterior (cp), tliat bends ui)\vards and afterwards for-
wards and inwards, ojjeiiiiip- into tlie uii])er end of tlie
superior sinus (s.s).

Tlie superior division of the or^aii usually coni-
inuiiicates by means of a small ojieninir or a shoi-t tulx-,
canalis utriculo-saccularis {cus), in the l)ottom of the
utriculus, with the inferior division. The latter consists
of a saccate part, sacciiliis (s), which in most tishes
possesses beliiiid a ]iouch-like ajiiiendage, laf/eiin corh-
li'W (/), the first rudiment of the cochlea so riclily de\('-
loped in the liii;her animals and, above all, in man,
together with its highest develoijment (the organ of
Corti). From the inner superior side of the saccidus
there issues besides a narrow canal, ductus e)i(l<il//iiiji/i(i-
ticus, which as a rule lays itself on the membranes of
the brain and terminates ciecally, but sometimes, as in
the Elasmobranchs, ascends to the upjier surface of the
head, wiiere it has a free orifice.

Of nerve-endirujs the superior division contjiins at
least 4, namely a large one in the bottom of the re-
cessus utriculi {macula ac. recessus utricuU, mu) and
one in eacdi of the three ampulht {cristce ac. ampulhe
anterioris, e.deriue, and pusterioris, cr), besides wjiich
there appears in most fishes at the bottom of the utri-
culus itself, in the neighbourhood of the opening into
the sacculus, a small nerve-ending [macula ac. neglecta,
mil). In tile inferior division may be found, within
the sacculus, a large ending {macula ac. sacculi, nis)
and in most cases another, posterior one {papilla ac.
lafjente, pi), which is situated on the wall of the pouch-
like cochlear appendage, as soon as this is developed.
Thus in some fishes the number of nerve-endings is
only 6, in others 7. These endings are everywhere of
the same structure, the epithelium which lines them
consisting (jf numerous cells (auditory or hair cells)
furnished with hair-like processes (auditory hairs) jjro-
jecting freely into the endolymphatic fluid, ;uid of
supporting cells set between the former and isolating
them.

The acoustic nerve divides into several branches,
^\■hich supply all these nerve-endings each with a bundle
of nerve-fibres. These fibres, each of which issues
trom a bipolar ganglion cell embedded in the acoustic
nerve and its branches, penetrate the epithelium of
the nerve- endings and ramify around the auditory cells,
<iver which they spin free terminal ramifications, with-
out being directly continuous therewith.

Here we give s(jme figures (tig. ?)i\i) to illustrate
the various development of the auditory organ in carti-
laginous and osseous fishes, namelj' Vhimcera, Acipen-
scr, and Pcrca, adding a figure of Scijlliorhinus to show
further how the organ has developed a special ty|)e in
the Sharks and Kays. The auditory organ of the l^ung-
fislies and amphibians is most closely linked, among
the forms adduced here, to the Ganoid type, as shown
by fig. 3(52, E, which represents the a])|)earance of this
organ in Siren Uic.ertiiia. The iiresent, however, is no
suitable oi(])ortunity for a closer consideration of these
(inestions.

From the above it appears tliat, as we have al-
ready pointed out, tin; auditory organ of jlfi/xine may
justly be regarded as the lowest known form of the
development of this organ among the vertebrates, but
that, the intermediate links being- absent, we can only
imperfectly sketch its |)hylogenesis. In Myxine a di-
vision into a superior and an inferior part has pre-
sumably not yet taken place, and the inner part of the
annular tube probably represents both utriculus and
sacculus, which is also indicated by the emission from
this part of the end(dym])hatic duct. The (juter part
of the annular tul)e jirobably answers to the anterior
(or the outer) and tlie posterior semicircular canals with
their respective ampullar. Possibly in the future, when
the development of Myxine has been brought to light,
some knowledge may be gained both of this t|uestion
and so many others, touching the systematic position
of this remarkable creature and its relation to the rest
of the vertebrates.

In the anatomical structure of Mijxine we have
still to consider the orr/ans of ijeneration and in con-
nexion therewith the jiresent knowledge of the im-
pregnation and development.

The structure of the orari/ and eggs has long been
known. In the abdominal cavity of most specimens is
found along the right side of the intestine a somewhat
lobate, longitudinal mesentery, within wliicii are en-
closed, as it were suspended, rather numerous ova of
varying dimensions. In small individuals these ova are
generalh' of insignificant size and rounded form, some
hardly visible U> the naked eye, other somewhat larger,
up to the size of a pin's head. In more full-grown
individuals many similar eggs are also found, but there
besides appear, as a rule, a number (10 — 1.5 or more)
(jf larger ova, which are always oblong, fusiform, mea-
suring in some cases only 3 — 10 mm., in others 11 — 12

1206

SCANDINAVIAN FISIIKS.

mm. These eggs ai"e enveloped in a firm ineiiihrane
and yellowish in colour; the greater part of their eon-
tents consists of yolk. In its hindmost ])art the said
ovarian mesentery (mesorarhim) jtresents a totally dif-
ferent appearance; no eggs are visil)le here, and the
mesentery assumes a still more lobate, tuberculate or
granular form. On microscopical examination no eggs
are found here, but only vesicles or capsules, contain-
ing a great number of large cells, many of which are
in process of division. I. T. Cunningham" was the
first to express the opinion, based on his investigations,
that tins hindmost part of the mesentery is a mesor-
chium and contains the male organ. Nay, he even
considered that he had here found spermatozoa at dif-
ferent stages of development. Fridtjof Nansen' fol-
lowed up these researches and adopted the theory of
hermaphroditism, adding that he had observed that, in
young individuals which liad not yet attained a length
of 320 — 330 mm., the male organ was, as a rule, the
more developed and contained almost ri]5e s))ermatozoa,
whereas the female organ ■was more or less undeve-
loped. Larger (older) individuals he found, on the
other hand, to contain more developed female organs
and also large eggs, wliile the male organ was more
rudimentary. Hence he concluded that in the j'ounger
stages of its development Mi/xine is masculine (prot-
andric), but afterwards in the older stages feminine.
But there besides occur, according to Nansen, indivi-
duals that are males alone. The same investigator also
gives figures of spermatozoa he had observed in Mjixine,
and asserts that those described by Cunningham are
not of a true nature. The latter writer has subsequently
given a new description of the spermatozoa observed
by him, and insisted ujjon his priority \vith respect to
the theory of hermaphroditism. As I mj'self too, during
a series of years (since 1877), have made repeated in-
vestigations into the structure of Myxine and its mys-
terious development, 1 will state that, so far as I can
find, no distinctly developed male individual thereof
lias hitherto been observed \vith certaint)-, and that
there is much to be said for the Cunningham-Nansen
theory of its hermaphroditism. Considering that I have
raacroscopically examined a great number of Hag-fishes
and have microscopically prosecuted these investigations
in many instances that seemed especially i-emarkable as

regards the point in (luestion, and this at every season
of the year, it may a])pear strange that I have never suc-
ceeded in iinding within the cell-filled vesicles of the so-
called mesorchium fully developed spermatozoa, but only
lower and some^vhat dubious stages thereof. Yet from
preparations kindly sent me by Nansen it would seem
that the structures found by him presented in a high
degree the appeai'ance of spermatozoa. Phenomena of
movement, however, have not yet been observed in
them, and even their development is not fully known".
As for the season of impregnation and oviposition,
these do not ajjjjear to be restricted to any fixed time
of year. All the investigators who have made any
minute researches into this question are a]j])arentlj'
agreed that ripening eggs are met witli in these crea-
tures all the year round, but that at the same time in
other individuals ova may be found at the most different
stages, from (piite small, colourless globules, hardly
distinguishable to the naked eye, to the opaque, yellow-
ish eggs 10 — 12 mm. long, of an elongated oval form,
pointed at the ends, enveloped in a horny shell, and
filled for the greater part by a large j-olk. Of such
ripening, but not j'et fully developed eggs a rmmber
of 10 — 15, up to 26, are as a rule found in the same
individual, all then exhibiting the same size and ap-
pearance. These ova, however, as mentioned above^
are not quite ripe for deposition. There are a few in-
stances in which specimens have been secured of fully
developed eggs. In 1859 Allen Thomson figured and
described in Todd's Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Phy-
siology ova of Myxlnc that measured about 25 ram. in
length, had an oval form, and were furnished with a
firm, horny shell and at each end with a number of
horny threads, each having hooks (barbs) at the end.
Some years afterwards J. Steenstrup (Oversigt af d.
K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. f. 1863) described ■
and figured eggs of similar appearance that had been
found in a Glutinous Hag. A. W. Malm (Goteb.. Bohusl.
Fauna) also secured ripe eggs 19 mm. long that were
met with in the stomach of a (^od (thus ])resumably
devoured after their deposition) ; a couple of these were
described in 1875 by W. Muller in the "Jenaische
Zeitschrift f. Naturwissenschaft". Furthermore I. T.
Cunningham has described in the Quart. Journ. of Micr.
Sc, N. S., V. 27, 1887 an egg preserved in the Edin-

" I. T. CuNiNiNGHAM, Quart. Jipurniil of Miirosc. Science, N. S., V. 27, 1887.

'' Fhidtjof Nansen, Bcrgens Museums Aarsberetuing f. 1887 (ed. 1888).

' See further G. Retzius, Biolog. Foreningens Forhandl., Bd 2, No. 8, 1889—90.

IIA(i-FIlSIIE8.

1207

burgh Aiiatoiaical iMuseum (iK)>;sibly the same specimen
as formerly descri1)e(l I))- Thomson). Nansen also states
that he observed in the Museum of Bergen a ripe; agg
which iiad been dredged up by 1). C. Danielssen at
Molde. In •Inly, ISSS, wliile examining a large num-
ber of (Tlutinuus Hags from Gullmar Fjord, I found in
an i!idi\idual ;5() cm. long, containing 12 large eggs, a
ripe egg furnished witii threads at the ends (G. Retzius,
Biol. Foren. Forhand., Bd. 1, Okt. 1888). This egg
was still attaciied in the mesovariuni, the third from
behind in the chain of ripening ova. It was larger
than the others, measuring 14 mm., had a yellower
colour, was blunter at the ends, and harder on the

ri|>e as tiiose described by Steenstruf and tiie otlier
above-mentioned writers. Since that occasion I have
opened and examined several thousand Glutinous Hags,
but I never succeeded in finding another egg so far
advanced in development.

On the 1st of January last (1S95), however, Baron
Axel Klinckowstkom (Ofvers. K. Vet. Akad. Forh. 1895,
No. 1) found, in a Glutinous Hag taken together with a
number of others in Gtdlmar Fjord by Fisherman Aback
a day or two before, an egg at about the same stage
of development as that described by me. This egg,
whicli was of a bright reddish yellow, almost orange-
coloured, lay (Mitirely free in the abdominal cavity and

Fig. 36H. A Glutinous Hag, nat. size, seen obliquely from below ami from (be left. Abdominal cavity cut open to sbow its contents.
a, lobes of tlie so-called mesorcbium (male organ); b, a large, nearly ripe egg with thick, horny sbell and horny appendages at both ends,
of which the anterior was still attached to the mesovarium; c, less ripe eggs in the mesovarium; d, liver; e, /, intestinal canal ; <?, apertures
of the foremost nniciferous glands of the skin; k, apertures of the hindmost group of muciferous glands; ;, cloacal aperture; k, outer branchial

apertures: /. nasal aperture: m. oral aperture.

surface, whicli evidently consisted of a strong, horny
shell. The ends were each furnished with a horny
process 4 mm. long, which i)roved to consist of a bunch
lit' dense threads, all of them tipped with a button-
shaped thickening armed with four barbs. One (the
anterior) of these processes was attached to the con-
nective tissue of the mesovarium: otherwise the egg
hung free in the abdominal cavity. Fig. 363 repre-
sents this specimen of Mi/xiiie with the abdominal ca-
vity cut open and the ripened egg (h) suspended from
the mesovarium. Probablj- this egg was not quite so

Scandhinvinn Fhhfs.

dropped out on the latter being opened. Its total length
was ■20"5 mm., the egg itself measuring 16 mm., and
the two terminal bunches of barbed threads respectively
3 and l'r> mm. This find is of special interest as con-
firming the opinion that the spawning of the Glutinous
Hag is not restricted to any particular season.

This is in effect our whole knowledge of this
question. Manifold endeavours liave been made during
the last two decennia by several investigators (W. MCller,
CuNXixfiHAM, Nansex, myself, Theel, Tullbehg, Klinc-
kowstkom) to trace the development of the Glutinous Hag;

1.52

1 -lOH

SCANDINAVIAN KISIIES.

but liitlierto they have proved all hut fruitless. It has
been attempted, for instances, with dredges of a special
construction to collect in the clayey bottoms where the
(ilutinous Ha<j has its home deposited ova and fry in
course of devel(Ji>niont. l^irther experiments have been
made by keeping a nunil)er of Hags in aquaria, or Ity
sinking them in corves to the deptiis where they live
in a state of natui-e and examining at intervals the
contents of the corves; but all to no ])urpose. Yet it
is (juite possil)le that the (|uestion may be solved by
still more systematical and comprehensive investigations,
attention being paid to the biotic conditions of the Glu-
tinous Hag (the temperature of the water, the pressure,
etc.). Or perhaps, a circumstance of which the history
of science affords more than one example, a hajjpy ac-
cident may throw light upon the mystery. In any case
each new (lontribution to this result, each new sugges-
tion is of value. It is not yet known with certainty
whether the eggs are impregnated after or before their
deposition. W. Muller and Cunningham have described
a micropyle in the ripe eggs. x\n impregnation of the
ova after their exclusion from the parent-fish is ac-

cordingly not impossil)le. N(jr is it known iiow and
where the eggs are laid, whether this is done on the
clayey bottom, as is most probable, or perhaps among
alga? on a rocky ground. It has been stated that the
TFlutinous Hag constructs with its slime a kind of
nest in the clay for the reception of its ova; hut
nothing positive is known on this head. It is not
known whether the embryos live in the clay or free
in the sea-water. Their appearance is utterly un-
known. Perhaps they are larval forms of quite a pe-
culiar ty|je, as the Ammocmtes form of Pefromyzou.
The smallest recorded specimens of the Glutinous
Hag, taken alone now and then in pots baited with
dead tisii, measure no less than 9 cm., and they
already conform in structure to the developed animal.
It consequently remains for the investigator to secure
them at earlier stages and, above all, to find new-laid,
impregnated eggs, as well as to watch the earliest
development of the embryos. This (juestion acquires
greater and greater biological importance year by year,
and it is to be hoped that the solution thereof will
not baffle research too long.

THE GLUTINOUS HAG OR MYXINE (sw. pir.\len or pilalen).
MYXINE GLUTINOSA, Linn.

Plate LIII, fig. 5.

SaprnUiuinnl teeth hurjer in the anterior outer than in the poMerior inner row, and nicmberincj iji the former 7
or 'S, in the latter S — 10, the two foremost hein<i Jiesides continent at the tiase.

Sijn. Pihrril \. Ingeris Pilt, Kalm, Besa .^'. Ainer., toni. I, p.
100. Hviid-Aal, Str6m, Sondm. Bedi:, pt. I, p. 287.
Sleensuer, Olav., Slcag. Beskr., p. 156, tab. 3, figg. .8 et 4.
Myxina glutinosa, LiN., Mus. Ad. Frid., torn. I, p. 91 (inter
Vermes), tab. VIII, fig. 4; Syst. Nat., ed. X, torn. I, p.
6.50 {My.vine); Gunnerus (Sleep- Marken), Trondhj. Selsk.
Skr., vol. II (1763), p. 2,50, tab. Ill; Penn. (Glutinous Hay),
Brit. ZooL, vol. IV (ed. 1777), p. 33, tab. XX, No. 15;
A. J. Ketz., Vet. Akad. Haudl. 1790, p. 110, tab. IV (sim.
cnni Petromyzonibus inter Vermes et Pisces interni.); Fabr.,
Fna Groenl., p. 344 (inter Vermes); A. J. Rbtz., Fna Suec.
Lin., p. 301 (inter Pisces); A. RKTZ.,~~Vet. Akad. Handl.
1822, p. 233, tab. Ill; 1824, p. 408, tab. VI; Nilss., Pi-odr.
Ichttiyol. Scand..\). 123; J. MDr.i,., Vergl. Anat. Myxin., Abh.
Akad. Wiss. Berl., Pliys. CI., 1834. 1837, 1838; Sund.,
V. Wr., Skand. Fisk., ed. 1, p. 121, tab. 28; Kr., Danm.
Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 1068; NiLss., Skand. Fna, Fisk., ip. 750;
Stui', Overs. D. Vid. Sels. Forh. 1864, p. 233; Couch {Borer),
Fisli. Brit. Isl., vol. IV, p. 408, tab. CCXLVIII, fig. 3;
Gthr, Vat. Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 510; Putn., Proc.
Host. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1873, p. 135; Coll., Forh. Vid. Sels.
Chrnia 1874, Tilljegsh., p. 220; Malm, Gbgs, Bolt. Fna,

p. 637 ; WiNTH., Naturli. Tidskr. Kbhvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p.

62; Mela, Vert. Fenn., p. 372, tab. X; Storm, Vid. Sels.

Skrift. Trondhj. 1883, p. 48; Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., Irel,

vol. II, p. 364, tab. CLXXIX, fig. 3; Cunningh., 1. supr. c;

Nansen, 1. supr. c; G. Retz., Biol. Fiir. Forh. Sthlm, Bd

I, p. 22, tab. Ill; Bd 11, p. 80, tali. Ill; Lii.i.j., Sc, Nor'j.

Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 730.
Gastrobranclius cascus, Bl., Aual. F/.^rh., pt. IX, ]i. 67, tab.

CCCCXIII.
.My.rine //«<«,(, GiR.. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1858, p. 223.

The Hag that lives on the west ('oast of Swe-
den and in Norwegian waters has an average length
of 25 — 30 cm. Sometimes, however, individuals mea-
suring 45 cm. or a little more are met with.

The hod// is of almost uniform thickness, for the
most part terete. Eel-like; behind the middle it shows
some lateral compression, and this is increased towards
the tail, which is thin, flattened, and somewhat dia-

(UATINors IIAIi

1 I'd',!

pliMiioiis. 'I'lie i-nldi'atiiiii iis i>t ;i rcddisli L;r;iy, iiKirc
or less str(iiii;ly sutt'iised tin the l)ack and the U|iiicr
part of the sides witli Mackish gray, owing to the pre-
sence of subentaneous pigment, a vague bluish violet
tint being thus produeed in those regit)ns. Sometimes
the pigment is une\enh- distributed, gi\ing the boily
a pieliald a|)i)earanee. On the belly the colour is of
a somewhat lighter gray-

The hcdil is not delimited from the body, being of
about tlie sanu' thickness and terete form, but it tiipers
in a forward direction towards the tij) of the snout.

in its appearance and structure the species be-
longing to tlie Scandinavian fauna exhibits all the pe-
culiarities enumerated above as characteristic of the
genus Mii.r'nic: and no further description is therefoi-e
necessary.

The Glutinous Hag occurs throughout the west coast
of Sweden, from the .Sound upwards, and along the whole
Norwegian coast up to Finnmark. In the Sound, how-
ever, it appears to be very rare. From Mount Kullen
upwards, along the west coast of Sweden, and all the
coasts of Norway, it is common in such localities as
are congenial to its manner of life, viz. where the bot-
tom consists of soft clay and mud, the water is of a
suitable depth, about 20" to 50 fathoms, and preferably
where there is some ground current. The Glutinous
Hag is quite at home, however, in deeper water (100
— 200 fathoms), as has been observed off the northern
most coasts of Norway. It seems besides to occur in
the Arctic seas, off Greenland (Fabruius) and the east
coast of North America, though it is apparently n<'t
common there. On the coasts of Scotland and Northern
England it is also met with, but is less numerous, to
judge by the statements on record, than in Scandi-
navian waters.

As regards its maimer of life, it seems as a rule
to lie embedded in the clayey bcjttom. This is its
hal)it too, when kept in aquaria with a bottoni of clay
or mud, and suj^plied with running water, an experi-
ment which I have repeatedly made. It soon burrows
into the clay and remains lying there, with only the
tip of the snout exposed to view. But it does not live

and sunk in salt watei' at a depth of some fathoms.
At first the\ show great acti\it\- in llieii- mo\-ements,
wriggling like Fels, generally forwards, but sometimes
backwards, and swaying the head now to one side, now
to the other. In these actions tliey display fairly great
strength, and the\ seci-ete meanwhile large quantities
of slime, in which the\' sometimes entangle themselves.
They often project the tongue and draw it in again,
thus getting portions of the slimy secretion into their
mouth, and tln' dead Hags are eonsecpienth- found in
man\- cases to have clots of slime adhering far l)ack
in the mouth ca\it\-.

( )f their habits little or nothing more is known.
That they are true parasites, as was formerly asserted
and is still stated in some foreign manuals, is in the
highest degree improbal)le. At least there is ufi direct
evidence of this. They apparently live on dead ani-
mals, princijially fish. This appears distinctly from
their not seldom attacking netted fish, or creeping into
pots containing dead tish or tish offal and sunk in
places frequented by this species. The most enticing
bait seems to be Haddock or Whiting, and by this
method great numbers of Glutinous Hags may be taken.
In one single \)ut a hundred or two may sometimes be
caught. ( )n examination the intestinal canal of the
captured Hags is found to be full of recentl)' de-
voured morsels of tish. They apparently do not with-
draw to any distance from the sea-bottom, and accord-
ing to the statements of experienced fishermen thej"
fasten upon netted or hooked fish only when this is
on or close to the ground.

That the Glutinous Hag also attacks the corpses of
dro\\ned human beings, is a fact known on the west
coast of Sweden.

The Glutinous Hag would thus ap])ear strictly to
feed on dead ci'eatures. It may be regarded as a sca-
venger of the depths. But, guided bj- its powerfully
developed organ of smell, it also assails hooked fish
hanging on the line, and must thus be stigmatized as
in some degree injurious to the fishery.

Itself it possesses no economical value. Its flesh
is not irood to eat and is nowhere used for food. Pos-

long in captivity. As a rule the prisoners die in the , sibly it might be smoked for consumption, like the
1 nurse of a few hours, even if they be placed in a corf ; Lanqjern. (G. Retzius.)

" The least depth at wliich I succeeded in iil)taiiiin,i; it in Gullmar Fjord was Irt — 17 fallKHiis. liut, fioeordinic to statements given liy
fi'hernien, the animal lives diiring the winter at a still less depth (10 — 11 fathoms).

1210

SCANDIXAVIAX FISHES.

PISCES LEPTOCARDII.

Fishes whose unaltered notochord extends further forward than the spinal cord, which is

of uniform thickness and without true brain. No head proper; no true heart. Respiratory

apparatus a large, retiform branchial basket.

c h.

Fig-. 364. Lanrelet (BrancMostoma tanceolatum), seen from the left, with the skin and muscles removed from this side. About 3 times

nat. size, .\fter VoGT and Ycng.
a, dorsal, b, ventral fin-ray growths; c, organs of generation; d, branchial basket; e, anal aperture; /, notochord; g, spinal cord; /), intestinal
appendage (hepatic c«cmn), situated on the right side, seen through the branchial basket; >', intestine; k, mouth; ', great lateral muscle;

m, rostral fin; ?), caudal fin; o, abdominal pore.

Here it may be questioned even more than in the
jjreceding order whether these creatures are vertebrates
or invertebrates. It is not only the low rank occupied
by this order in comparison with the preceding ones;
we shall besides find here an asymmetry that strongly
reminds us of certain invertebrates.

Johannes Muller interpreted this order as a se-
parate subclass among fishes — I)ut so he also regarded
the Cyclostomes and Elasmobranchs ■ — and gave it the
name of Leptocardii" . Under the name of Cirrosfomi
the order was coupled by (^wen' together with the
Cyclostomes in a subclass, TJermopteri (with fins in the
form of dermal folds). Others have gone still further
and regarded the order as a separate class among the
vertebrates. So the Leptocnrdii, under the same name,
were conceived by Gill"; and E. Hkckel called them*
Vertehrata Acrania. Othei's' have indeed considered

these creatures to be the lowest vertebrates, but have
assumed that thej' attained this position by a retro-
grade develo])ment (degeneration) from better equipped
vertebrates, which have now disappeared. Others again
have ranged them beside the Tiinicata, and regarded
them as one of the types for the predecessors of the
prtjtovertebrates (the supposed ancestors of tlie verteb-
rates). Thus Balfour called them-', together with the
Tunicates, Protochnrdata (primordial forms among the
animals furnished with permanent notochord), and con-
ferred upon them the S])ecial uiinie of CephalocJiorda
(with notochord in the head), a. reference to the for-
ward extension of the notochord in that part which
answers to the head of the vertebrates, as distinguished
from the Tunicates (Urochorda), which have a notochord
only in the tails of the larvje. The significance of
these divergent opinions is best a]ipreci;ited after we

" Ob. d. Bau u. d. Grenccn dcr Oanoiden, Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berl., 1844. Physik. .-ibh., p. 204, lerctOQ, thin and /MQdUt, heart.

' Comp. Anat., Phys. Vertebr., vol. I, p. 7.

« Arr. Fam. Fish., Smiths. Misc. Coll., No. 247, p. IX.

'' Gener. Morphol. Organ., Bd 2, p. CXIX.

' DOHRN, Ursp. Wirbelth., Leipz. 1875, pp. 51 — 55.

^ Comp. Embrtjnl., vol. II, p. 271.

T.KPTDCAliDIANS.

1211

hiive gained an insight into the strncture and de\elop- I Tlie tow forms of the order belong to a single

nient of the Leptocardians. | family, the

Fa I AMPHIOXlDiE

whose characters thus coincide with those of the ordt'r.
NOr have reasons been discovered for the estal)lishment

within this tumily of more than one genus.

Cem s BRANCHIOSTOMA.

Body more or less elongated, lanceolate, pointed and lateralhj compressed at both ends, intermediatehj trianf/ulur
in section. Mouth ventral, elliptical, fringed with tentacles, hut jawless. A dermal fold edges the hodg from
the mouth round the tip of the snout, along the hnck and round the tip of the tail, and, usually'', forward along
the rentral margin to the abdominal pore, whence two lateral folds extend to the mouth. Anus situated far back,

beside the ventral margin.

This genus is probal)ly dispersed throughout the
temperate and tropical coasts of all the oceans, but
sporadically. It is known from Europe, Australia, Peru,
Brazil, and the east coast of North America. Where
it occurs, it is generally met with in luimbers. Usu-
ally it lives on sandbanks, where it has shelter and
plenty of food. Its diet apipears to consist exclusively
of Infusoria and similar minute creatures or the lowest
vegetable forms. If a Branchiostoma (PI. LIII, tig. (i)
be placed in a vessel of seawater with a little sand on
the bottom, it will perhaps lie still on its side for a
long while, as if dead; but on being touched it leaps
up and tosses itself to and fro with swaying move-
ments, until it eventually lies down to rest again on
the sand or buries itself in the liottom. This is done
with great rapidity, in a moment; and afterwards it
only sticks the oral end up into the water, opens its
wreath of tentacles, and commences in its mouth cavity
the ciliary motion that conducts water and food into the
respiratory cavity, which also serves as an oesophagus.

That which first gives this animal, in contradis-
tinction to the rest of the vertebrates, a singular posi-
tion in the system, is, as mentioned al)ove, its almost
entire lack of that we call head. With the same justice
IS we call a mussel a headless mollusk, we may also
describe Branchiostoma as a headless vertebrate.

Fig. 365. Anterior end of the body of the Lancelet, seen from the

right, magnifiecl.
a, site of the olfactory organ (situated on the left side); b, site of
the eye (pigment spot); c, second pair of nerves, counting from in
front; d, spinal nerves; e, homologues of the upper spinous processes
of vertebrie; /, cartilaginous ring, supporting the external mouth aper-
ture; ij. cirri; ^f!/, spinal cord (^>nyelo7i); Ch, notochord (chorda dor-
salis). .\fter Quatrefages and Huxley.

Throughout the length of the body — excepting
the extreme tips of the snout and tail — there run in
Branchiostoma (fig. .365) a spinal cord (My) and a
notochord {Ch). the latter representing a structure pre-
sent in the embryos of all other vertebrates. But in
them the notochord terminates anteriorly under the
swelling of the medullispinal canal, the rudimentary

" Amphioxini, .J. Ml'llek. I. c. Afterwards the family was called Braiwhiostoinidtn in Bonaparte, C'«^ .Mtt. Pesci Europ. (184(5).
9 and 92.

'' Tn the Australian Branchiostoma {Ejngonichthys) culiellus described by Peters this part of the dermal fo]<l is said to l)e rudimentary,
anus of this species being accordingly situated in the median ventral line.

1-212

SCANDINAVIAN KISllKS.

form tl
slightly

Here ill J!)(iii(h}<isf<))iia tlierc is iiardly any such ^ Jlniiicl/in.stonia, is th;it ihc iiotochi.ird (ti^'. 060, Ch)
r: — tlie spinal cord is a string of almost uni- projects forward beyond tlie anterior end of tlie spina!
lickness, gradually ta])ering backwards, and only : cord (il///) and in front of tlie mouth ajierture (/ and f/).
dihited at its anterior end (fig. ?.6(), «) so as At the ])osterior end of the body tlie case is different.

Thei'c (tig. :'>i\7) we find an u])curved dilatation of
the medullispinal canal («), reminding us of Myx'nic
(fig. ?,'A).

The mouth is of a curious structure for a verteb-
rate. It is neither a prehensory nor a suctorial mouth;
it is, so to say, merely a deglutitory mouth, edged
with a ring of small cartilages (fig. SB-'), / ), in texture
resembling the notochord. Each one of these cartilages
gives out a jjrocess (r/) to form a sup|)ort in one of
the so-called cirri which sujTound the oral aperture

Fig. 366. Anterior end of tlie spinal cord and tlie nerves thereof in
Branchiostonm lanceolatum, seen from above and magnified. After

VoGT and YuNG.

a. medullispinal swelling and its cavity; //, first, c, second pair of

nerves; rf, pigment spot (eye spot?); e, third and fourth pairs of

upper (posterior, sensory) nerves; /, spin.il cord.

Fig. 367. Caudal end of linnic/aostoina Iniiccotntntn, seen from the

left and magniticd. After VoGT and Ylxg.

a, sjiinal curd: li, notochord; c, upper ramifications of the sensorj'

nerves; (/, lower ramifications of the same; e, hindmost myoeonima

(boundary of the hindmost myomere).

to form a kind of cerebral vesicle. And the notochord
tapers to a pointed termination at each end of the body.
A peculiarity never seen in any vertebrate higher than

Fig. 368. Posterior wall of the mouth cavity (postoral sphincter or
reliim) with its twelve centripetally meeting cirri, which are funnshed
with the sensory bodies first described by Langerhanr, bundles of
sense-hairs on thickened parts of the eiiithelium. After H.\Y LANKESTliK.

outside, but are folded inwards wiien the mouth is
closed. These cirri are almost exactly similar to the
sense-filaments or tentacles possessed liy many of the
lower animals. At their base they are united to a
membrane coursed by muscular fibres; and their sur-
face is clotlied witli a cylindrical epitiielium, among
whose cells some are ciliated, others prolongated out-
wards into stiff setip, ^vhich are collected in verruciform
bundles, and connected inwards witii nerve fibrillae,
whence tiiey iiave been inter] ireted as organs of taste.
\\'itliiii the mouth is a buccal (pliaryngeal) cavity,
the inner surface of which displays active ciliary mo-
tion, especially along the margins of a number of

LEPTOCAHDIANS.

1213

(ligitifonu (iii'occss-likc) thickenins's (tiir. 3(i."), v(>rtic;illy
a.l)uve /); miuI a cuiistiuit ('UiTeiit of wattT is thus kept
iq) into the bi'anchial sac (respiratory cavity, tig. 364, d).
Tlie mouth cavity is delimited from this sac by a
circlet of ciri'i (tig. o()8), similar to those of tiie oral
margin.

Tiie walls of the respiratory cavity, wiiicli also
serves, iiowcvcr, as a pharynx or rather perliaps an
■ i>so])iiagus, are laterally constructed of a net\v(jrk of
irtilagiiious i-ods (tig. 3(ii)), closely resembling tlie
liomologous structure in the Ascidians; Ijut above and
below the respiratorj' cavity has a continuous groove,
tile ujiper known as the epilii-anchial, the lower as the
hj'pobranchial groove. The oblii(ue]y vertical rods set
transversely in the body are rib-like growths on both
sides, connected above with the outer sheath of the noto-
chord (the so-called skeletogenous layer), the most pri-
mitive rudiment of an axial skeleton. Relow (towai'ds
the ventral side of the animal) these rods are free, some
(the so-called itrimary bars) bifurcated, others (the so-
called secondary bars or tongue-bars) single. The con-
necting rods between them stand in the longitudinal
direction of the b(xly. Thus a. network is formed, and
this is faced everywhere, as the two grooves are also
lined, with an epithelium of ciliated cells, exactly si-
milar to those we have just seen in the mouth cavity.
But the meshes of the net are minute, hardly visible
even under a high magnifying power and under ordi-
nary circumstances do not transmit anything but the
clearest, purest water. In the adult state of the aiiinial
this water, which has now served its respiratory pur-
pose, passes out on the sides of the respiratory cavity
and into a special chamber, a secondary compartment
of the abdominal cavity. This chamber, which has been
named by K.vy Laxkester" the atrium, surrounding
the respiratory cavity on the sides and underneath and
extending some way behind it, has a special aperture
(the abdominal or atrial pore) Ijehind on the ventral
side (tig. 364, o) for the discharge of the water. Every-
thing else that has accompanied the water into the re-
spiratory cavity, and especially the food — Infusoria
and other minute creatures — finds its way through tlie
(i-sophagus j)roi)er, a tubiform prolongation of the epi-
l)ranchial groove, into a kind of stomach (tig. 364, just
in fr(jnt of /) with a long ciecal appendage (/(), and all
the useless matter now passes out through the straight

intestine (/) and tlu^ anal aperture (e). 'I'he ca'cal a]i-
pendage projects forward on (he right side into the
atrium, pressed close; to the respiratory cavity. Tlie
whole; digestive canal, the stomach and intestine, is lined
with an epithelium of ciliated cells and exhibits a vibi-a-
tile motion, just as the intestinal canal of the woi'ins.
The l)lood of Brunchiosfoma is colourless; and the
circulation, of which little is yet known with certainty,
may indeed be ret'errcid to the })iscine type, for the vascular
system is di\ided into certain i-egions which apparently
lend themselves to a com})arison witli the heart and the
great bloodvessels of fishes; but here too we are re-
minded (jf the worms. Under the respiratory cavity
runs a long contractile canal with a contractile vesicle
to each ascendinff rod in the branchial network. This

.-rftl

Fig. 3(59. A portion of tlu' right .siile of the liranoliial bosket in

Branchiostoiiia lunceolulnm, seen from without and |:io\verfiilly inairni-

liril. .After VoGT and Yung.

<j, secondary roils, so-calU'd tongue-bars; /*, primary rods.

canal has been cejmpared to the venous heart of fishes.
Another iMjiitractile tube, anteriorly double (one on the
right side, one on the left), posteriorly single, runs along
the dorsal margin of the abdominal cavity, under the
notochord. This canal has been compared to the aorta
of fishes. Another similar canal, according to J. ^li'i,-
LEK, connects on each side these two canals in front,
and this has been compared to the so-called ductus ar-
teriosus Bofalli of tiie lower vertebrates and of the
higher vertebrates in their embryonic stages. .Along the
intestinal canal run two ducts of a venous natiu-e. The

Quart. .Journ. .Micr. So., n. ser.. No. LIX (.Inly, 1875), p. •207; \o. CXVI (Apr.. 1889). p. 365.

1214

SCANDINAVIAN FISHES.

one, which is said to lia\e its i-oots in the capillaries of
the intestinal canal, runs under the stomach and citcum,
there ramifying into a capillary network bet^veen the
green cells in the wall of the caecum, which is said to
functionate as a kind of liver. Here the blood, it is
stated, is again collected, on tlie upper side of the cte-
cum, in the other, superior canal, whose contractions
run backwards in the opposite direction, to the exit of
the caecum from the stomach, and convey the blood to
tlie heart: — and we sliould tlius liave found here a
l)ortal ^'ein (the inferior canal) and an efferent hejjatic
vein (the superior canal). Descriptions have besides
been given of a separate, but wall-less lymjihatic system,
filling all the cavities of the bodj' and ramifying into
the smallest lacuna^ between the organs. But in all the
said contractile canals there appear distinct traits of the
typical arrangement of the vessels in a worm. In those
]iaired connecting vessels between tlie upper vessel and

y

Vig. 1370. Anterior end of n Branchiostoma laiiceolatum, seen from

the right and magnified. After Vogt and Yung.

a, olfactory depression; b, first, c, second pair of nerves; d, eye spot;

e, peripheral ganglion cells in the skin; /, notochord; y, spinal cord;

It, fin-ray growths (spinous processes?); i, myocomma.

the lower wiiicli are most plentiful in the forej)art of
tlie worms (Ainndatu), we may well seek a parallel to
the respiratory system of Branchiostoma. And the two
contractile vessels that run bulging in the latter along
tlie u])per and lower sides of the intestinal canal also
functionate in the worm for the tirst sucking up of the
alimentary juice and its con\er.siou into nutritive fluid.
The vei'tebral segmentation of tlie body is indeed
subindicated even in Branchiostoma by a transversal
division of the raembrano-cartilaginous sheath that en-
velops the notochord, expands both around the neural

canal and the iuemal cavity, and breaks U]) at the liase
of the vertical dermal tin-fold along the dorsal and the
posterior jjart of the ventral margin into pieces resem-
bling fin-rays (fig. 364, a and h\ fig. 370, /;) — though
far more numerous than tlie muscle flakes. But the
muscular and nervous systems are the organs that iiere
most distinctly call to mind the vertebrate type.

That portion of the muscular sy.stem M'hich answers
to the great lateral muscles of fishes is divided into
transverse bands {m/ionieres), which are angular, with
the angle directed forwards; and each myomere is com-
posed of bundles of muscle fibre extended between ten-
dinous expansions of the notochordal sheath {mijocom-
mata), just in the manner of the said piscine muscles.
Along the ventral side of the abdominal region, between
the mouth and the atrial ])ore, extends an horizontal
muscular plate, composed of transversal muscle fibres.
Its fiuiction, consisting of rhythmical contractions, is
mainly subservient to the respiration, and its posterior
part, at the atrial pore, swells into the so-called abdo-
minal papilla, coursed by muscle fibres in all directions.

The nervous .system shows the peculiarity that the
spinal nerves (except the first two pairs) do not issue
in pairs, exactly opposite each other, but alternately,
the nerves of one side in front of those of the other
(fig. 366, e), and that only the basal parts of the dorsal
branches (sensory nerves) are entire, those of the ven-
tral (motory) nerves being broken up into fibres. In
the spinal cord there appear, as in the preceding order,
besides the ordinary ganglion cells, large so-called co-
lossal cells. Among the organs of sense A. Retzus was
the first" to discover a black pigment spot (fig. 370, (I)
on the anterior end of the spinal cord. This spot is
interpreted as an e^^e of the most rudimentary descrip-
tion. It is com|)aratively larger in young specimens
than in old, which suggests a still advancing reduction;
and its visual function is somewhat dubious, for similar
spots jtlso occur in a row on each side along the greater
]>art of the s])inal cord. Al)ove the anterior end of the
S]>inal cord, but on the left side of the body, Kolliker''
and, after him, (^)l:atrefages'" found a ciliated depres-
sion (fig. 370, a), the simplest form of an olfactory
apparatus. The organs of taste we have already re-
marked f)n the cirri of the mouth a])erture and the
postoral velum; and a similar cell structure also ajijiears

" Moniitsl.er. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1839, p. 108.

'■ Miill. Arch. Anat., Physiol., 1843, p. 32.

<■ Ann. So. Nat., ser. 3, Zool., tome IV (1846), p. 226.

LANTKI-ET-KISIIKS.

121 ->

ill tlif In iiiihiviiicliial ,i;niovt\ Kangehiians dcscrihed"
as sensory cells ;i nuiiil)er of cyliiidricMl eiiithelial cells
scattered in the skin and most iiiiinerous on the fore-
most part of the bod)-, furnished distally with a long,
stiff hair, iir(i\iiiiall\- with a ])rocess fo whirii the peri-
])heral end of a nerve tihrilla attaches itself. In the
vertical dirnial fin around the anterior end of the liody
\'()(iT and YiNG remarked'' small, round or oval, trans-
parent ganglion cells, situated ofteiiest in the fork be-
tween two nerve twigs (tig. 870, e)-

These organs of sense have indeed scarcely been
submitted as yet to adequate investigation; but so much
is kiiiiwn, that the rudimentary eye has the same struc-
ture as in the lower Polycha^tous worms, and the ol-
factory depression also finds its nearest jinatomical liomo-
logue in Nemertines, Turbellarians, and some other
worms. There is this difference, however, that in
Branch'wstoma both these organs are single, and that
the olfactory organ is asymmetrical, situated on the left
side of the body. The only further reason which might
be adduced for calling the anterior end oi Branchiostoma
■A rudimentary head, is that the spinal cord, as men-
tioned above, dilates in front, though but slightly, into
a vesicle from which there originate two fairly sym-
metrical ])airs of nerves, the second pair larger and
more numerously ramitied than the other spinal nerves.
It is therefore not surjirising that some have proposed
to separate this animal into a distinct class, and ha\e
said: it is neither a vertebrate nor an invertebrate, it
is something between the two.

The organs of generation (fig. 364, c) are a row
of saccate vesicles, free from each other and usually
numbering 'iti — 28 on each side in full-grown indivi-
duals, between the abdominal wall and the atrium. The
male and female can be distinguished only liy the con-
tents of the vesicles'; and the sexual products are iiro-
bably emitted, as a rule, through the atrial pore. Ko-
walewsky' and Hatschek', however, saw these pro-
ducts discharged through the mouth aperture; and one
of the females received by us from Bohuslan had several
ripe eggs in the mouth cavity, where they may easily

arri\f, as 1 1 atsciikk has pointed out, id'ter first being
liberated, b\- tlu; bursting of the generative sacs, in the
atrium and then passing, through the clefts of the
branchial sac, into this cavity and out at its anterior
(sphincterial) aiicrture.

As e\cretor\- organs in the full-grown JJraiicliid-
sfomu \\'eiss has adduced' a large amount of the epi-
thelial lining of the atrium, es])ecially on two tubiforin
prolongations of the said cavitj' which project into the
abdominal caNitx- pro|ier or cndom (atrio-crelomic fun-
nels). In this connection he also draws attention to ids
(iwu discovery of small, tubular glands (kidiieysV) si-
tuated at the top of the branchial tongue-bars (secon-
dary cartilaginous rods) and opening on the outer side
thei'eof into the atrium.

The character of the genus and its relation to other
animals are best (!xplained, however, by the history of
evolution''. BrancliioKfoma dejiosits its ova (fig. 371, A),
,,. // // /.'

I)

Fig. 371. A, an uiiiiiipreguated egg, witli tlie so-called polar body
(Riclitungskorper, R), a small body liberated from the egg and marking
that pole thereof at wliich the segmentation is most active. D, an
impregnated egg, witlv two oleavage-cells not yet quite divided from
each other. C, an egg segmented into 8 parts. D, an egg with 8 large
cells round the inferior pole and 5 sixteen-celled circles higher up. E,
optical section at the Blastula stage (simple sacculation), with the in-
ferior pole flattened, the commencement of its upward invagination
towards tlie inside of tlie wall of the upper pole. F, optical section
(■f an embryo in the Gastrula stage, with the above-mentioned in-
vagination completed. Each cell of the ectoderm {Ekt) is furnished
with a flagellum. Ent, entoderm, .answering to the lower part of the
Blastula wall in tlie preceding stage. Tlie Gastrula mouth (Cm) is
the downward opening. After Hatschek. X 140.

" Arch. Mikrosk. Auat., Bd. XII (1875—76), p. .30.S.

' Leitrb. prakt. vergl. Anat., Bd. 2, p. 361.

' And also, according to VoGT and Yu.ng (1. c, pp. 375, 376) by the inner epithelial investment of the transverse ventral muscle,
this being developed into a kind of support for the organs of generation (deferent grooves?), different in males and females.

'' Mem. Acad. Sc. Petersb., ser. yil, tome XI, No. 4, p. 1.

' jStiul. iil). Entw. d. Amphioxus, Arb. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, torn. IV, H. 1. y. 14.

/ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc, n. ser., No. CXXIV (Nov. 1890), p. 489.

•' KowALEWSKV, 1. c. and Arch. Mikr. Anat., Bd. XIII (1876 — 77). ].. 181: Hatschkk, 1. c, Ray Lankkster and Willey, Quart,
burn. Micr. Sc, n. ser., No. CXXIII (Aug. 1890), p. 445.

.«..««j;«^...-«,. «';.,/.«.. 1'''3

1216

SCANniNAVIAN FISHKS.

enveloped in a transparent nieniln-ane, free in the water,
where they are impregnated. When one of these eggs
has undergone its total segmentation, it hollows itself
out — it becomes a vesicle or rather an entirely closed
sac (tig. 371, E), the cavity <jf which answers to tlu'
segmentation cavity (under the blastoderm) in tlie ova
of the higher vertebrates and, like the said cavity, is
principally obliterated, the sac being flattened (E), so
tjiat tlie lower wall comes nearer to the upper and at
last lays itself close up to tlie same (F). The original
sac has now become a bowl; and the rim hereof is
contracted into a narrower and narrower aperture (Gin).
Meanwhile the external layer of the bowl (Ekt) has
developed small mobile bristles (flagella) on its cells,
one to each cell (Germ. Geisselcell): — the egg has at-
tained a stage of development common to most of the
invertebrates and called by H^eckel the gastrula. Now
it dances briskly about within its egg-shell (vitelline

Fig. 372. A', an embryo, prolongated and witli llie rudiments of tlie
first protovertebrfE (one on each side of the intestinal canal) seen from
the dorsal side. After Hatsohek. X 77. .4", transverse section of a
similar embryo. After Kowalewsky. ,4'", optical longitudinal section
through the middle of A'. After Hatschek. X 140. B' . a larva with
two pairs f.f protovertebrje, seen from the dorsal side. After Hat-
SOHKK. X 77. B", optical longitudinal section through the mi<idle
of a similar larva. After Hatschek. X 140.

.\t the stage A (after Hatschek) the embryo quits the egg by
bursting the membrane thereof. The gastrula mouth is still present, but
is overgrown from below (see B") by the ectoderm, which has besides
raised itself on the sides of the back, thus forming a wide groove (h),
the edges of which (dorsal ridges, r) grow more and uiore together to
form a canal (the future central canal of the spinal cord; cf. nc in fig.
.380). In ^4 the first protovertebra {1 — on each side a vesicular dilatation
of the entoderm) has begun to differentiate itself, after the appearance
between the first two germinal layers (ectoderm, Kkt and entoderm,
Enl) of the middle (third) germinal layer (mesoderm, fig. A", con-
sisting of the animal (a) and the vegetative (y) lamina). According
to Hatschek the mesoderm is developed from the entoderm, in the
hindmost part of which two cells, larger than the rest, indicate the
posterior limit of the mesodermal growth and have therefore been
nanii'il the pnhir cells of the mesoderm (iiip). Sinmltaneoiisly with
thi' t'lirniiiiion of tlie mesoderm and its division into an onter (animal)

and an inner (vegetative) lamina, a body-cavity (ccelom, cl) has arisen
round the intestinal canal. The lumen (internal space) of the latter
is indicated by i. In B the rudiments of two pairs of protovertebrae
(/ and 2) have appeared.

membrane). The two layers of which the body of this
gastrula is composed correspond to the first two ger-
minal layers of the iiigher vertebrates. The structure
is the same, though the manner of life is widelv dif-
ferent, for this gastrula has no vitellus on wliich to
rest, or from which to derive its nourishment. On the
other hand, it has a stomach, which it has acquired by
the invagination of the lower (eventually inner) part of
its wall (Enf). In the embryos of the highest verteb-
rates the intestinal canal indeed has cjuite a different
appearance — though fundanentally constructed on the
.same principle — and is not formed until after a con-
siderable alteration of the original germ; l)ut in the
batrachians the development of the said canal calls to
mind the above-mentioned invagination, although the

Fig. 373. Two optical longitudinal sections of a larva with 9 proto-
vertebrje (somites, / — .9), seen from the left {A) and from the dorsal
side (B). After Hatschek. X 140. The cerebrospinal canal (n) has
now been formed and is separated from the ectoderm, but in front
(at Ay) open and behind (through the original gastrula mouth, Gm)
continuous with the intestinal canal (i). This has dilated anteriorly
to the right (dvd) and the left (dcs). Under the cerebrospinal canal
the notochord (ch) has appeared, and in the protovertebrae muscle cells
begin to develop. In B it appears that the protovertebrae are set
obliquely opposite eacli (■ther, tlie right a little further back than the
left; but the anterior lateral dilatations of the intestinal canal are
still of oi|TiaI size (symmetrical).

batrachian embryo, like the mammalian, has l)een sup-
plied by the transformations of the egg with a kind
of nutritive yolk under it.

The gastrula of the future Branchiostoma elongates
its form of body (tig. .S7'2), thus acquiring an anterior
and a posterior end. In the latter lies its mouth. Soon
it acquires a dorsal and a, ventral side, for on the
former a primitive groove appears, which becomes a
cerebrospinal canal, following the same manner of deve-

LANCKLET-KISIIKS.

121;

lopnieut as in the lii^iicr Nerteliratcs". Ik'twccn tlu^
first two germinal layei's an intiTuiediate layer (tlii'
mesoderm, tig. 37"2, A') is fdrnied : and now lliat the
intestinal eanal and an iiici|iient aliduniinal ("uity haxc
begun to differentiate themselves, there develop a noto-
choni and, by means of bulgings and constrictions of
the intestinal canal, priiiiitirc rcrtcbire {protorerffltm'),
which increase their nnmbci' back\vards from in front.
The foremost bulges (tigs. ;-!7,'-) and ;)74) meet with a
singular fate. The right [drd) d\vindles into the hol-
low at the \\\) of the snout. The left, on the other

{(/I) on the right side of the intestinal canal becomes
a gland'' whi<h also disappears at the close of the lar\al
period, and whose outer efferent duct bends roiuid be-
low to the left side of the body (fig. 875). But in the
median \entral line the intestinal canal coalesces at one
point after another, backwards from in front, witli the
wall of the body, becomes thickened there (tig. 874, at I),
and cNcaitually opens into gill-slits (tig. 875), which are
tirst moved up to the right, but afterwards migrate to
the left side of the body. In the meantime, however,
new gill-slits (tig. 378) have been similarlj' formed in

Fig. 374. Opficnl section uf » larva with its protovertebrEe, seen from the right. After Hatschek. X 280.
Ucrr tlie hiteral dilatations of tht- foreniost part of the intestinal canal have diverged widely; the right (dvd) is elongate and thin-walled,
the left (dvs, which from that side shines through in the figure, at about the middle of the former) has thicker walls (deeper cells) and is
round. Both separate by constriction from the intestinal canal, the anterior end of which is thereby thrust further back. A glandular growth
(the so-called club-shaped gland of Hatschek, gl) has besides begun to develop on the inside of the intestinal canal by means of a trans-
versal constriction, first canaliculate and afterwards, owing to the coalescence of the edges of the groove, tubiform, of the right side of the in-
testinal wall behind the said lateral dictation. Behind this gland the wall of the intestinal canal has been thickened in the inferior (ventral)
median line of the larva and has coalesced with the ectoderm at a point (/) where the first gill-opening afterwards appears. As ye( there
is no true mouth; and the intestinal canal is continuous behind with the cerebrospinal.

Fig. .175. .\ larva 1' , mm. Umg, seen from the left. After Ray Lankestek and Willey.
Of the four gill-slits, which are situated on the right side (/ — IV), the foremost three are rather large, the fourth is rudimentary. The
first is visible through the posterior part of tlie semioval mouth aperture, which belongs to the left side of the body. Through the anterior
part of this aperture are visible, .also from the right side of the body, both the club-shaped gland (j/l), the outer orifice of which may be
seen below, on the wall of the body below the mouth aperture, and, just in front of the said gland, a transversal, but curved thickening (e/irf),
bisected along the middle by a groove, the future endostyle. Before the upper edge of the mouth aperture appears the opening of the funnel-
shaped, ciliated organ (cil). Above this and from the anterior to the posterior end of the body (in front of the caudal fin) lies the notochord
(ch), divided into its numerous transverse disks. Above the notochord, and posteriorly round the termination thereof, the spinal cord (m) is
extended, with the large pigment spot (ocular rudiment, oc) at its anterior end and some smaller sparse pigment spots on its sides. In the
lanceolate caudal fin a sparse collection of pigment spots is also visible. The number of the myomeres is 36; the first myocomma runs
obliquely across the anterior edge of the ocular rudiment and down along the subjacent part of the notochord. In the posterior half of the
intestinal canal (below the 15th and I6th myomeres) the wall of this canal is thickened (v), an indication of the rudimentary stomach.

The anal aperture (oh) lies on the left side of the body.

hand, develops into a funnel-shaped, ciliated organ,
probably an organ of smell, which disappears, however,
at the termination of the larval period. A special bulge

a row higher up on the right side, and these become
the permanent gill-slits on that side. This only ap-
plies, however, to the anterior part of the branchial

" Branchiostoma differs, liowcver, from the higher vertebrates in that the rudiment of the spinal cord
jacent cells of the ectoderm before the canal is closed above (Hatschek).

'' See Wit.LEY, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc., n. ser., vol. XXXII, pt 2 (Xo. CXWI. March 1891). p. 209.

separated from the circuni-

1218

SCAXiJIXAVIAN KI.SIIKS.

basket. Some of tlie fii'st-foniR-d gill-openings close
again; and the jmsterioi- |)art of the tiranchial l)asket
has its slits synmietrieally arranged after the termina-
tion of the larval period. The month appears on the
left side, first a.s a fine slit, afterwards as a large, el-
liptical apertnre with tumid margin (fig. 37.5). A true
anus opens, also, as a rule, on the left side, and the
original gastrula mouth grows together, the connexion
between the intestinal canal and the cerebrospinal canal
being thus cut oft'. As yet the larva moves only with

wards and forwards ovei- the tops of the branchial slits.
The latter {end, with its supporting rods, the so-called
eiuJostijJc, with a right and a left part), on the other
hand, follows, according to Willey, an opposite direction
of development, backwards from in front, originating in
a thickening, at first transversal (figs. 37.5 — 379, end),
of the intestinal \\all beside the club-shaped gland.
The first rudiment of the atrium appears (fig 380, A,
sar) where the atriopore afterwards has its place, and
presents the appearance of two lioi'izontal ridges, grow-

rnd ,/l I II III l\ 11/ \ mix ep

v'li
Kig. 376. A larva .S'/.^ iiiiii. lung, t:iki.-ii swiinmiiig freely in tlie sea, between 1 and 4 fathoms below the surface, at Kristineberg (Bolius-
lan), August 17, 1894. Seen from the left. Letters and numerals as in the preceding figure; besides: am, the ciliated mouth of the cerebro-
spinal canal; eji, the forward growtli on the inside of the intestine, a fold originating from the inferior wall of the intestinal canal. Number
of tlie myomeres here 61. Gill-slits and their rudiments visible liere to a number of l.S (/ — XIII).

the aid of tlie dermal cilia; but it has begun to liend
its body, since the rostral and caudal fins have become
sharpened. Over the gill-slits there grows from above
(fig. 377) a longitudinal fold fr(jm the walls of the
body (soraatopleures, the outer parts of which grow
into the so-called metapleures or abdominal fins, met.

Fig. 377. Forepart of a larva 3".^ """• 'cug, seen from the right.
After Kay Lankester and Willey. Here it appears how the wall of
the body from the ninth gill-slit forward lies like a leaf outside the
upper parts of the slits, and further forward is continued in a sharp,
free edge, forming an upward curve on tlie right side of the head.
Letters ami numerals as in the preceding figure.

figs. 379 and 380) on each side, fii'st on the right;
and })etween these folds the atrium is formed, first only
on the ventral side and growing forwards from l)ehind.
The construction of the branchial basket is contiiuied
(figs. 376, 378, and 379) by the addition of epibran-
chial and hypobranchial grooves. The former {ep) ori-
ginates, so far as we have been able to see, as a fold-
like inciu'vature, advancing in its development forward
from behind along the lower wall of the intestinal canal,
which at the hindmost rudimentary gill-.slit grows up-

ing to meet each other (fig. 380, B), on the inside of
the above-mentioned dermal folds {met), whose inferior
margin subsequently becomes on each side of the body
a longitudinal lateral ridge (abdominal fin or meta-
pleure). Afterwards the atrium expands upwards, en-
croaching upon the region of the abdominal cavity on

fr VII- I- ril fr

I J .,,1"''

1 Mil III

Fig. 378. Anterior end of a somewhat larger larva, seen from the

right. After Willey. Here a series of seven secondary gill-slits

(/- — VIP) has appeared on the right side, above the inferior ends

of the ]irimary slits (/ — XIII), which have been translated for the

most part to the left side, and among which the thirteenth (hindmost)

has been obliterated, and the first has almost suffered the same fate.

The endostyle (end) has grown backwards, and its posterior extremity

extends behind the club-shaped gland {gl). Further forward the velum

of the mouth cavity (vel) has begun to develop. In the skeletogenous

layer (cliordal sheath) a series of so-called fin-rays {fr) has appeared.

On the atrial floor tw'o so-called renal organs (r) may be seen. Letters

and numerals otherwise as in the preceding figure.

the sides of the branchial l)asket, and continued within
the abdominal cavity even behind the atriopore, beside
the intestine.

The details of this development should be easy of
comprehension with the aid of the figures which we

LANt'KLET-KISHKS.

lL>l'.l

i!\w liiTc anil their exiihiiiMtiuiis. In tlic last stages
tli(^ external t'urni (if the liddy is aliiuist complete. But
it still remains tor the month to assume its ventral
position and its wreath ot tentacles instead of the long
vibratile hairs (not included in our figures) which are
set during the larval ])eriod on a vei'inicifonn thicken-
ing just in front of the month-ajiei-lure.

Ilfanclihistoniii hesides teaches us the apjiearance
presented 1)\' the locomotive oi'gans (jf the vei'tehrates
in th{?ir simplest form. riie locomotive organ proper
is the hin<l part of the liody, edgc^l ahoNc and lielow
by a kind of caudal lin or rather a compound of i-udi-
ments of the posterior part (jf a dorsal fin, a caudal
fin, and an anal fin. iiefore the anus this fin-gi-owth

■::iv.^\.fi<^-

end vel cil

Fit;. 3"!'- A larva 5 iiiiii. long, taken togetlier wifli tlic original of tig. 37^. From a pri'paration hrietly tn-atrct with a weak snlntion of
osniinni bielironiftte by Prof. G. Retzius and preserved in glycerine. j4, from the right; B, from the left. Here the above-mentioned fold (et))
originating in the inferior wall of the intestinal canal to foini the epibranchial (hyperbranehial) groove has divided into two parts, the one
(ep) following the tops of the branchial arches, the other (ep") taking its course up towards the roof of the abdominal cavity. In B the
larval mouth shows the coniniencenient of its alteration and translation from the left side of the body to the ventral margin. A dermal fold
(or) has laid itself over the upper part thereof; and the superior margin shows signs of dissolution, atrp, atriopore; metd, edge of rio'ht
wefs, of left metapleure; n', first pair of nerves, with a few ganglion cells (ef. fig. 370, e) visible; other letters as in the preceding figure.

Fig. 380. Diagranmiatical transverse section, A, through a larva of Branchiostoma lanceolatum, with 11 or 12 primary gill-slits, and B,

through a full-grown specimen of the same species. Enlarged. After R.4Y Lankester and Willey.
dm, myoecel of the dorsal fin (that part of the body-cavity (coilotn) which belongs to the dorsal fin-lobe); fr, series of fin- rays; m, great
lateral nniscles; mij, muscle ciBlom, rayoco/l (that part of the body-cavity which belongs to the lateral muscles); m\ spinal cord, with its
' cntral canal; nch, notochord; d. a., dorsal aorta; v. a., ventral vessel; Int, intestine; sp, splanchnocoel (intestinal part of the abdominal ca-
\ity), which (in B) is divided by the ingrowth of the atrial chamber into an inner {sp') and an outer {sp") cavity; sp'" (in B), perigonadial
dilatation of the splanchnoctcl ; d. I. m., double-layered membrane separating the myoc<el from the splanclinocffl; at, atrium; met, metapleure, one on
each side of the body, its cavity, according to Ray Lankester, not in open communication with the ctelom; s. a. r., floor of the atrial chamber.

SCANDINAVIAN I-ISHKS.

advances on tlie \entral luar^uin Ibi'ward \o tlic atrio-
j)ore, l)ut tliere it has a double series of supporting
cartilages (fin-rays), instead of the single row in the
other parts of the vertical fin. In front of the atrio-
])ore are the two lateral ridges (raetaploures) answering
to the first rudiment of or at least foreshadoAving la-
teral extremities, wliether they represent both extreinital
pairs of the other vertebrates, being not j'et differen-
tiated into an anterior and a posterior |)air, or correspond
to tiie pectoral fins alone, in wiiicli case the doul)le
series of rays in the atrio-anal fin would appear to have
some homology with ventral fins. But as yet they are
merely steering organs. This is a function, however,
\\iiic!i is for the most part retained by the unpaired fins
of the back and belly, and indeed by tlie lateral fins, even
in the highest evolutional grades of the piscine type.
The structure and development of Branchiostoma
have now sliown us a ci'eature with the vertebrate di-
vision of the body into a neural and a hfemal canal,
witli a notochord and the membranous elements of an
axial skeleton between and around those canals, and

with the vertebrate type expressed in musculature,
spinal nerves, respiratory, excretory, and generative
organs. But in other respects we have seen an asjnu-
metry, partlj' persistent, partly temporary, A\-hich is
distinctly foreign to the vertebrates, but common among
tlie mollusks; the respiratory organs present a striking
resemblance to those of the Ascidians; and tlie most
important organs of nutrition and circulation, though
coni|)arable with the vertebrate type, I'etain much of
their structure in the worms. Hence the great morpho-
logical interest attached to this genus, which in other
respects is not especially remarkable. Its forms are so
similar that in his famous Catalogue GCnther recog-
nised only a single species. Sundevall, however, had
already (1852 — 53) distinguished between three species,
with characters deri\ed from the form of body and the
number of myomeres. At a more recent date Gi'NTHEii
has decided, basing his conclusions in the main on the
same characters, that six different species deserve re-
cognition within the genus. Only one of these Ijelongs
to the seacoasts of Europe.

THE LANCELET (sw. lansettfisken).
BliAXCHIOSTOMA LANCEOLATUM.

Plate LIII. tig. 6.

Greatest depth of the body about 9 — 10\uj %", greatest breadth (thickness) thereof abont 6 — 8 %'', of the length
of the same. Distance from the tip of the snout to the posterior limit of the month aperture about 8 %% to the
afriopore ahont 70 %'' , to the rent about 88 %' , of the length of the bodg. Number of mgomeres C>() — €2,

n — 13 situated behind tlie rent.

Si/n. Limax lanceolatus, Pall., (Hjiidl. Zool., fasc. X, p. 19, taVi.
I, fig. 11; (lanceolaris), Naturg. Merkw. Th., Samml. X,
p. 24, tab. I, tig. 11; Yakr. {Amphio.vus lanceolatus), Brit.
Fish., ed. 1, vol. II, p. 4GS; Fr., Vtl. Akatl. Handl. 1838,
p. 336, tab. 4, fig. 3; Sundicv., F., Forb. Skand. Naturf.
Kbhvn 1840, p. 280; Sundev., C. J., Arsber. Zool. Framst.
1840—42, Vertebr., p. 287; Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Forb. 1852,
]i. 148; 1853 {Branchiostoma), p. 12; Qi'atref., Ann. Sc.
Nat., ser. 3, Zool., torn. IV, p. 197, tabb. 10—13; Kr.,
Danm. Fisk., vol. Ill, p. 1087; Nilss., -S*<i/«/. Fiia, Fisk.,
\i. 7.53; Couch {A7nphioa:iis), Fish. Brit. /«/., vol. IV, p.
415, tab. CCXLVIII, fig. 4; Gthb (Branchiostoma), Cat.
Brit. Mus., Fish., vol. VIII, p. 513; Rep. Zool. Coll. Alert
(Brit. Mils. Nat. Hist. 1884), ]>. 32; Coll., Forb. Vid. Rels.

8'9 — 10'6 % according to our iiieasurenients of .specimens 43-

5'8 — 8'3 % according to our iiiensurenients.

7-5— 8-8 % .. „ „

C7 —71 % „ „ „ „

8G-5— 90 % „ „ „

Chrnia 1874, Tillaigsb., p. 222; N. Mag. Natiirv., Bd 29

(1884), p. 123; Malm, Gbgs, Boh. Fna, p. 641; Winth.,

Natiirb. Tidskr. Kbbvn, ser. 3, vol. XII, p. G2; MoR., Hist.

Nat. Foiss. Fr.. toin. Ill, p. 618; Storm, N. Vid. Sels.

Skr. Trondbj. 1883, p. 48; Day, Fish. 6t. Brit., frel., vol.

II, p. 306, tab. CLXXIX, fig. 4; Ptrn, Vid. Meddel. Natiirb.

Fur. Kbhvn 1884 — 86, p. 160; Retz., G. (Amphio.riis).

Biol. Futers., N. F., vol. II, p. 29, tabb. XI— XIV; Car.

(Branchiostoma), Prodr. Fna- Medit., vol. II, p. 498.
Branchiostoma lubricum, Costa, Oenni Zool. (1834), p. 49:

Fna Regn. Nap., Pesci, part. II, tav. XXX; J. Mt'Li,., Abli.

Akad. Wiss. Berl. 1842, Physik. Abh.. p. 79.
Gaslerobranclnis glutitwsus.', Rasch, Mag. Natiirv. Cbrnia, Bd

12 (1836), p. 325.

lona

12-21

The Laiicc'let attains in Scandinavia a length of
.ihiiiit ' , dm. LiLLJEBOiMj's lai'gcst specimens were 52
nnii. lung. According to ('aki's it sometimes mea-
sures at least 70 or even 100 mm.' During life the
body is of a jelly-like transj)ai-(Micy; thnjugii tiie skin
and muscles may b(! perceived the light gi'een notochord,
the somewhat darker c«cuni, and the; stomach with
intestine, th<' last-mentioned organs more or less dark
according tn (lie nature of their contents. In a certain
light the skin appears somewhat iridescent, and a hand-
some appearance, as of a row of white, transparent
rings, is presented by the plate-like rudimentary tin-
rays. Wluni the seminal or ovarial sacs are full, they
are |)erceivable (^n each side as a sei'ies of \vhite or
green globules, the green egg-sacs each with a dark dot.

The habits of the Lancelet have been sketched
abo\e. Its breeding-time lasts throughout the summer;
but in wet and chilly weather it does n(jt S|)awn.
Thekl (jbtained at the beginning of July a large number
of specimens which were placed in the aquaria of Kris-
tineberg and laid eggs that developed normally. At
Haugesund in Norway Lill.iei50kg received at the be-
ginning of August specimens not yet (piite ripe. (!)n
the west coast of Fratice and in the Mediterranean the
Lancelet commences spawning in March. According to
Hatscuek, as well as Ray Lankestek and Willey,
who made their ob.sei'vations in the well-known lagoon
of l^jiitano, near Messina, the spawning always takes
jjlace in the evening, segmentation commencing between
7 and S p. m. At 11, say the latter writers, the
gastrula begins to develop, and at 1 a. iii. it is com-
plete. At >') a. m. it begins to revolve by cilia within
the egg-inembranc, and at 5 a. m. it already has two
jiairs of niyoc(Blomic pouches, when it bursts the egg-
membrane and becomes free-swimming. Thirty-six
hours after the commencement of segmentation the
(■u.bryo has actiuired a mouth and a rudimentary gill-
slit. Soon afterwards the anus opens, ;iiid the lai-val
period now begins. The larva^ swim both at the sur-
face, where Malm foiuid them off (jaso Island (Bohus-
l.-in), and dee])er down, at a depth of 1.5 — 20 fthms.,
according to Ray Lankestek and Willey. Here they
■ire found in countless myriads together with other
minute marine creatures {Xoctilucfe, Jieror, Sar/ittfe,

(J(ilani) and their larva', amongst that mass (Hensen's
plankfoii) which the Norwegians call Aat''. The deve-
lopment of the larxa progresses much more slowly than
that of the (anbr\<i. A fortnight is said to elapse be-
fore the formation of the second gill-cleft; and the
remainder of the development, until the atrium is
com])lete, and the Lancelet begins to bury itself in
sand or mud, is said to take months (Hatschek). The
Course of the development is besides very irregular,
and it may be so protracted, at least in the North,
that Di-. ('. \\'. Armvii.Lius found larvae 5 mm. long
swinnuing freely at a depth of 1.5 — 30 m. below the
surface of (iullmar Fjord, in the middle; of November.
In its hiding-place at the bottom fht; Lancelet
leads the life of the worms, and to esca]je danger it
buries itself deejier down, for Malm remarks that, un-
less the dredge — the instrument most generally em-
ployed in the capture of marine animals at the bottom
— takes a sufficient hold in the gravel, sand, or nnul,
there is little hope, even in places known to be fi'e-
rpiented by the Lancelet, of .securing a single specimen.
Few fishes are so tenacious of life; and even if the
body be cut into pieces, the ciliary motion does not
cease at once in the severed parts. In salt water
changed from time to time, it may be kept alive for
months; and Lilljebokg relates that a number of Lan-
celets which he had dredged up at Haugesund on the
2nd of August, in a quantity of shellsand, and thrown
on the dry rock, were alive three days afterwards,
though the moisture of the sand was not very great,
and though rain had fallen in the interval. In spite
of the sluggish life it usually leads, the Lancelet is
quick (jf movement when disturbed, wriggling about
in the aquarium like a young Eel, but with either end
foremost. Its endurance is not great, however; if the
observer should desire to induce the captive to lie still
for examination, it may easily be tired out, and it
will then suffer itself without moi'c ado to be conveyed
where a closei- view may be obtained, provided only
that it has no soft bottom in which to hide itself. In
the day-time it lies motioidess. At night it moves
about; but if a light be brought near rhe aquarium,
it hastens to conceal itself. As human food it is worth-
less; but it has enemies, no doubt, in plenty.

" Cakus, liowever, combines this species with the Pacific Bratichinstoma, and his account of Lancelets 1 ilni. long iiiny perhaps de
pend on that fact.

* See above, pp. 970, 971.

■• Bih. Vet. Akad. Handl., Bd 20, Afd. IV. No. ;i. p. 11.

1222 SCAXDIXAVIAX FISHES.

Tlie Liiucc-let was first described in 1774 hv Pallas,

wild hud received ;i specimen from the Cornish coast.
He took the ventral side between tlie metapleures to
be a creeping-disk, and therefore referred the animal
to the genus Limax. His iigurc was copicil in 1*1. SO,
among the vers moUusfjues, in the EncjidnpMte MpHio-
diqiie; but the Lancelet remained otherwise unknown
for nearh' sixty years. The species was then redis-
covered at no great intervals of time in four localities,
and was shown to l)c a tisli. Coicii found it in 1.S31
on the shore near Polperro, Uasch in 1838 on the
Norwegian coast, Costa in 1834 at Naples, and Fii.
SuXDEVALL and S. Lovex in the same year on the
Weather Islands (Hohuslan). In 1838 our figure was
painted liy v. WiiUinT for Fries, witli a view to a
description which death jirevented the latter from com-
pleting. The specimens collected by Fries, however,
came into the hands of ('. J. Sl-xdevall, his successor
at the Royal Museum, and Axdeks Hetzius, and sug-
gested the first scientific examination of the fish, an
undertaking which was carried out on the coast of
Bohusliin in Retzius's company by Johannes Muller.
In later times the most important contributions to our
knowledge of the Lancelet have come from Messina
and the Zoological Station at Naples. On the west
coast of France and the English coast the species is
also common enough in suitable localities, on a liottom
of sand and gravel, prefei-ably shell-sand, from the
tide-mark to a depth of some tens of fathoms. In
Scandinavian waters it is dispersed from Trondhjein

Fjord (Storm) and along Southern Norway into the
Cattegat, where it is commonest, according to Wintiiek,
in a — 9 fathoms of water, but lias also been found at
;i de])th of 17' „ fathoms. Tiie southern limit of its
known range in Scandinavia is the north of the Sound,
at HellebcPk in Zealand (LCtken) and on both sides
of Samsij, between Zealand and .lutlaiid. ( >n the coast
of Bohusliin it is ]jlentif'ul, according to Malm and
Theel, in the tine shell-sand of the eastern hai'bour
on Storo, one of the ^^'eather Islands, where it was
found first by Loven and Sundevall. Tiieel found
numerous s]iecimens of the Lancelet on the skerrj' of
P>onden, and Malm a few on Flatholm, several on GasO
(all tin-ee localities at the entrances of Gullmar Fjord),
and a few on Paternoster Skerry, north of Mar.strand.
The specimens collected on Bonden by Theel at the
end of June, 1894, were kept for some days at Kris-
tineberg in a glass bowl with fine sand at the bottom,
before being sent alive to the Royal Museum. In the
meantime (till the 30th of June) they had deposited
quantities of eggs, which had already attained or passed
the gastrula stage. Some days afterwards larva' l'/^
mm. long were taken in the acpiarium, their stage of
develojnuent being that shown above in fig. 375. After-
wards numerous larv;e 3V2 — 5 mm. long were caught,
at the stages re])resented in our figures 376 and 379,
swimming freely in the sea at Kristineberg, close u})
to the jetties on the shore, at a depth of 1 — 4 fthrns.
l)elow the surface. These larva- too were forwarded
without difficulty alive to the Royal Museum.

INDEX.

Anlukoiiu, xVuk-kiisf, Aak-nii.iK-r. Aalmutter. Ii(l7.

Aat, 970.

AblKirrc, 26.

nbbroviatus (Cyprimis), 733.

.Vbcloiiiinalcs, Acanthoiiterygii, 24.

.\biloiiiiuaIes, Malacopterygii, li.'*!).

Abiamidiuie, 720, 7'JO.

Abraiiiidopsis, 816, 817.

Abraiiiis, 720, 790, 796, 802, 812.

abraiiio-rutilus (Abrainis, Bliccopsis), 808, 809.

abruptus (Leucaspius), 787.

abyesoruin (Gadus, Lota, Molva), 521.

aiadianus (Glyptucepbalus), 379.

Acantbias, 1158.

acantbias (Acantborhinus, Caiiis, Galeiis, Spina.\,

Sqiialus), 983, 1079, 1157, 1158.
acantbias (Galeus, sen spinax fuscus), 1163.
Ai-antbocottus, 168, 169.
Aiaiitliouybiuin, 90, 116.
Acautbolabriis, 4, 5.
Acantbopsides, 703.
Acautbopsis, 706.
acantbopteri, Hcterocoriiii, 24.
Acanthopterygii, 2.
Acantbopterygii centriscifoniies, 635.
Acantbcipterygii gasterosteifurmes 635.
Acantborliinus, 1156, 1166. 1167.
Acantburidae, 620, 631.
Acerina, 25, 40.
Acipenser, 1054, 1056.
Acipeiiseridae, 1044.
Ai-raiiia, Vertebrata, 1210.
Acrcichiliis, 716.
acronius (Coregomis), 899, 902.
aculeata (Cobites), 706.
Aculeatus, 638.
acideatus (Balistes), 621.
aculeatus (Cliiius, Leptoclinus, Sticbanis, Luni-

penus), 228.
aculeatus (Etmoplcrus), 1163.
aculeatus (Gasteracanthus, Gasterosteus), Ii)i6,

644, 645, 647, 648, 660.
aculeatus (Oithngoriscus), 626.
aculeatus (Rbonibus), 398, 434.
acuiuinatus (Cyprimis), 724.
Acus, 347, 680, 686.
acus (Belonc), 343, 347.
acus (Fierasfer), 598.
acus (Siphouostoiua, Sipbostouui, Syugnatbus),

664, 666, 668. 672, 674, 675.
acuta (Perca), 27.

acutirostris (Anguilla), 1023, 1024.
acutus (Alburnus), 792.
acutus (Exocoetus) 355.
Adelviscb, 909.

Sc<nnlinnt'i(iti Fislies.

^■EglcHnus, 466.

leglcfiiuis (GaduB, Melauogramuius, Mt-rlai

Morrbua), 465, 466, 467, 484.
a^gyptiaca (Anguilla), 1023.
^liani (Thymallus), 884.
fequoreus (Acus, Entelunis, Neropbis,

gnatbus), 666, 680, 681.
affinis (Beryx), 68.
affinis (Coitus), 170.
affinis (Tbynnus), 93.
Agassizii (Brama), 81.
Agassizii (Calliouynius), 271.
agilis (Gadus) 484.
Agun 984.
Agonidie, 126, 202.
Agonopsis, 204.
Agonostoma, 328.
Agonus, 147, 204.
Aigle, 468.
AigleHn, 476, 468.
Aigrefin, 466.
Ailiaifornies, 692.
Akajci (Tryg(.n), 1099.
alalonga (fbyniius), 91.
.-Uandblecke, 798.
alascatius (Aumiodytes), 577.
Alausa, 984.

alba (Clupea, Kugenia), 954.
alba (Raja) 1117.
albicora (Tbynnus) 91.
albidus (Gadus), 540.
albiensis (Leuciscus), 770.
Albicore, 97.
Albula, 792, 898.
albula (Argyrosonius, Corcgciuus, Saluin),

893, 895, 896.
alburniformis (Bliccopsis), 796.
alburniformis (Scardiniopsis), 795.
albunuiides (Leuciscus), 792.
Alburnus, 720, 786, 790, 791.
alburnus (Abraniis, Aspius, Cyprinus, Lc

cus), 792.
.\lburnus lucidus. 33.
alburnus (Menticirrus, Unibrina), 120.
albus (Coregonus), 899.
albus (Gobius, Latrunculus), 266.
albus (Merlaugus), 511.
albus (Scpialius), 770.
alcpidotus (Cyprinus carpi(i), 724.
.\lcpocepbalus 997.
algeriensis (Batracbus), 135.
algeriensis (Gastcrosteus), 648.
aHpes (Salmn), 843, 844.
Alknfva. Alknla. 757.
Alkntta, 757.

Allice Shad, 985.

allitteratus (Eutbynnus, Scomber), 91, 93.

Alopecias, 1137.

Alopias, 1136.

Alosa, 952, 978.

Alosa vera auctoruni, 985.

alosa (Clupea), 952, 983—985, 987.

Alose, 984.

alpinus (Salmo), 830, 831. 835, 842, 851,

867
Alse, 952.

altirostris (Anguilla) 1023.
altivelis (Tracbypterus), 314.
amarus (libodeus). 715, 720.
americana (Morone, Roccua), 44.
americana (Morrbua), 473.
americana (Perca), 27.

americanuni (Ampbiprion, Polyprion), 47. 48.
americaims (Acantbias), 1158.
americanus (Aumiodytes), 577.
americanus (Brosmtus), 562.
americanus (Limanda, Pleurouectes), 362, 363,

390.
americanus (Petromyzon), 1183.
ametbystino-punctatus (Maurolicus), 932 — 935.
Amia, 718, 946, 1012.
Ammocietes, 1172.
Ammodytes, 461, 569.
AinuKidytcs Anglorum verus, 569.
Ammodytidaj, 462, 557, 567.
Ammodytini, 567.
ampbibius (Salarias), 212.
Ampbioxida', 1211.
Anipbioxus, 1220.
Ampbiprion, 48.
Anacanthiui, 371, 461, 567.
Anacantbini gadoidei, 461.
anadromus (Capito), 799.
Anarrbichadida>, 126, 231.
Anarrliicbas, 137, 211. 231, 602
Anchois, 876.
Ancbovus, 876.

Ancliovy, European, 990. 992.
ancidda (Anguilla), 1023.
Ancylddou, 51.
Angelkrok, 1007.
Anglepiga, 390.
Angler, 138.

anglorum (Lumpiis), 294.
Angmarsot, 876.
Anguilla 1022.

anguilla (Mnrajna, Ophichthus), 1023.
anguillaris (Encbelyopus), 605.
Anguillida;, 1022.
anguincus (CIdamydosolacbe), 1063.

154

1224

angiiineuK (Entelunis, Ncnipliis, SyiiKiintliiiti),

680, 681.
luigiilosus (Balistcs), 634.
anhypoptericiiB, Stiuaks, l\f>6.
Ankarvad, 1035.
annectus (Coregoniis), 899.
onnulatuni (Scylliiim, Sqnalus), 1149.
Anoniali, 24.

anomalopteri, .\cantliopterygii, "24, 1'2().
Anon, 466.

Antaeeus, 1054, 1055.
antarctica (Scia2na), 51.
Antennarii, 136, 144.
Antennarius, 144.
antennatus (Diodon), 620.
Anticithaius, 426.
Aiitiinora, 539, 581.
autiqiionim (Hippdoanipiis), r)(;2.
Apeltes, 649.
Aper (Labrus), 7.
Apiisk, 1079.

Aphya, 242, 264, 787, 976.
Aphya cobites, 262, 264.
aphya (Cyprimis, Phoxinus), 33, 720, 721, 754.
aphya (Gobius), 251, 262.
Aphyonus, 462.
Apodes, 461, 567, 595.
ap]iendix (Petromyzon), 1183, 1187.
aquila (C'heilodipterus, Sciasna), 50, 51.
A(iuila marina, 1095.
aquila (Myliobatie, Raja), 1094, 1095.
aquila (Sciaena), 975.
araneiis (Trachiniis), 128.
Archagonus, 206.
arctica (Chimera), 1080.
arctica (Liparis), 287.
arcticus (Chironectes), 146.
aroticus (Galeocerdo, Squalus), 1129.
arctieus (Gymnetnis, Gyninogaster, Trachy-

pterus), 315.
arcticiiB (Mallotus, Osnieru.'i, Salnio), 876.
arcticus (Thymallus), 883.
arctique (Chimere), 1079.
argentatissimus (Gasterosteu-s), 648.
argentatus (Merlucius), 514, 515.
argentea (Chiniiera), 1079.
argentea (Murasna), 1023.
argenteolus (Gadus, Motella, Coucliia), 550,

553, 554, 556.
argenteus (Cyprinus), 733.
argenteus (Fario), 851.
argenteus (Gadiculus, Gadus), 464.
argenteus (Leuciscus), 760.
argenteus (Petromyzon), 1189.
Argentina, 827, 828, 889, 912, 917.
argentinum (Goniosoma), 918.
argenti-vittatus (Thynnus), 91.
argyreus (Abramis), 812.
argyroleuea (Blicca), 803.
Argyropelecus, 924.
argyropomus (Gasterosteus) 648.
Argyrosomus, 892.
Aristotelis (Canicula), 1154.
Arius, 692.

armatus (Aspidophorns), 208.
armatus (Caranx), 85.
Arnoglossus, 863, 426, 427, 428.
arnoglossus (Pleuronectes, Rhombus), 428,

429.
Artedi (Pristiurus, Scylliuni), 1149.
Ascanii (Blenniops, Blennius, Carelophus), 218.
Ascanii (Gymnetrus), 322.
Ascanii (Silus), 914.
Asellus, 472, 518.
Asp, 720, 783.

asper (Limauda, Plcuronoclcs), 390.

aspera (Dasybatis), 1104.

aspera (Lepidotrigla), 195.

aspera (Raja), 1115.

Asperi (Coregonus), 899.

Aspicottus, 187.

Aspidophoroides, 203.

Aspidophorus, 204.

Aspius, 720, 752, 782, 786.

aspius (Abramis, Aspius, Cyprinus, Leuciscus),

783.
aspius (Coregonus), 891, 905, 907.
Aspredo, 692.
Asterospondyli, 1128.
Astronesthes, 921.
Athereethes, 408.
Atherina, 265.
Atherinidas, 327.
Atkinsii (Gasterosteus), 648.
atlanticus (Macrurus), 586.
atlanticus (Sudis), 827, 920, 923, 946.
atrovirens (Cyprinus), 724.
Attilus, 1056.
aula (Leuciscus), 777.
Aulopyge, 715.
Aurata, 41.
aurata (Sparus), 53.
aurata (Tinea ehrysitis), 748.
auratus (Carassius, Cyprinopsis, Cyprinus), 723,

733.
auratus (Mugil), 338, 337.
aurea, var. (Perca ttuviatilis), 80.
aureus (Ammocoetes, Petromyzon), 1189, 1193.
aurita (Clupea), 952, 978.
Ausonii (Salmo), 851.
austvale (Amphiprion), 48.
australis (Brama), 77.
australis (Maurolicus), 932, 985.
australis (Zeus), 306, 309.
autumnalis (Clupea harengus), 959.
Auxis, 99, 107.
Ayresii (Petromyzon), 1189.

Backeljauue, Backeljo, 476.

Badtisk, 776.

Bagrus, 691.

bahiensis (Exocoetus), 358.

bahusica (Clupea harengus), 959.

baicalensis (Thymallus Grubei), 882.

Bailkini (Gasterosteus), 648.

Baingyl, Bainkyl, 657.

Bairdii (Bathymyzon), 1182.

Baldneri (Leuciscus), 797.

Balistes, 2, 137, 632, 633.

Balistidas, 631.

Balistina, 622, 631.

Ballan (Wrasse), 7.

Ballerus, 802, 804.

ballerus (Abramis, Cyprinus, Leuciscus), 720,

802, 819, 820.
balleus (Coregonus), 899.
baltheatus (Thynnus), 91.
baltica, var. (Pleuronectes), 393.
balticus (Hemiramphus), 345.
balticus (Lycostomus), 992.
Banksii (Gymnetrus, Regalecus), 323.
birbatula (Cobitis, Nemachilus), 704, 705, 711,

714.
barbatus (Batrachus), 135.
barbatus (Gadus), 473, 479, 493.
barbatus (Liparis), 287.
barbatus (Lophius), 139.
barbatus (Mullus), 62.
barbatus (Rhombus), 441.

Barbel, Sea, 61.

Barhus, 540. 558, 722, 742.

Barracuda, 327.

Bartel, 640.

Bartelfisk, 539.

Basking Shark, 1144.

Bathymyzon, 1182.

Bathyonus, 596.

batis (Dasybatus, Laviraja, Kaja), 1087, 1103,
1120..

Batiachida;, 126, 133, 1012.

Batracocephalus, 558.

Batrachus, 134.

Baudroies, 136.

Bdellcstoma, 1195.

Beanii (Limanda, Pleuronectes), 390.

Beard, Great Forked, 540.

bearnensis (Squalius), 760.

Beaumaris Shark, 1138.

Becard, 855.

Belmii (Hemiramphus), 345.

Beinlmakall, 1147.

belone (Beloue, Esox, Rhampliistoma), 347.

Belonida;, 343.

Belonina?, 344.

Belonini, 342.

benacensis (Goljio), 743.

Benloja, 794.

Benunge, 660.

Bergabborre, 151.

Bergflundra, 385.

Berggalt, 7, 10.

Berggylta (Labrus), 4, 6, 7, 10.

Berghvarf, 456.

Berglax, 590.

Bergnabba, 14.

Bergsimpa, 173.

Bergskadda, 383, 385.

Bergsnultra, 10.

Bergstubb, 257.

Bergtorsk, 477.

Bergtunga, 375.

Bergulke, 190.

Berycids, 25, 66.

Beryx, 66.

Bethaj, 1132.

Bezola, 898.

biaculeatus (Gasterosteus), 648.

Bib, 493, 498.

Bibroni (Anguilla), 1023.

Bichir, 1044.

bicolor (Ammocoetes), 1183, 1186, 1189.

bicornis (Cottus), 165, 166.

bifurcus (Gadus), 540.

bilinearis (Merlucius), 120, 516.

bilineatus (Orcynus), 89.

bimaculata (Acara, Labrus, Sciiena), 11.

Bimaculated Sucker, 302.

bimaculatus (Cyclopterus, Lepadogaster), 302.

bipunctatus (Abramis, Alburnus, Aspius, Cy-
prinus, Leuciscus, Spirlinus), 721, 790, 797.

bipunctatus (Gobius), 251.

Birkelanga, 521.

bison (Aspicottus), 187.

bisus (Scomber), 108.

bithynicus (Cyprinus), 724.

Bitterling, 720.

Bjelaja Rybiza, Beloribitza, 890.

bjoerkna (Abramis, Bliccn, Cyprinus), 721,
803, 819.

Bjalke, 772.

Bjorkare, Bjorkfisk, 806.

Bjfirkna, 720, 803.

Blaafinne, 806.

Blaaspol, 785.

122A

lUagariisri.cka, 1117.

Blagoina, 238.

Blainvilk'i (.\c-aii(hiiis, S,|um1uk), ;»75, 1158.

BliincliMnli (Gnstcrosteiis). li.'iS.

Blankestcn, 59, 914.

Blankliii, 1084.

Blauklax. 831, 851, 853, 856, 8(i0.

BlankU.d.le, 882.

Blanksej. 50l>.

Blanksill. 989.

Bla\ifolclii-n, 909.

Blniiuiisc, 801.

Bleak, 720. 792.

Blcckn, 8 or.. 822.

Bleekeria, 5l>8.

Blege, 80t).

Blekroe, 846.

BleniiikUf, 126, 212, 709.

Blenniini, 212.

blennioides (Batracocephalus), 559.

Blemiiops, 217.

Blenniiis, 211, 212, 213, 602.

Blemioidea, 211, 212.

blennoiJes (Oadus, Phycis), 540.

Blennomorplii, 126, 211.

Bleniius. 212.

Blenny, Buttedly, 212.

Blenny, Crested, 219.

Blenny, Viviparous, 602.

Blicra, 802, 803.

blicca (.-Vbraiiiis, Blicoa, Cypriniis), 719, 720,

802, 803.
Bliccopsis, 796, 807, 816.
Blicke, 806, 822.
Blinds, 493.
Blindsill, 757.

Blochii (Ortliagi.risous), 626.
Blochii, (Trigla), 197.
Blomstergadda, 1005.
Blue-nKiutli, 155.
Bl&a liafkatten, 2.^7.
Blagunnar, 512.
Blalmj, 1130.
Blaka'ft, 154.
Blakaxa, 1163.
Blamag-mar, 1170.
BMmauer, 1 170.
Blapanka, 806, 815.
Blaskal. 14.
Bl&sniiltra. 10.
Blastak. 14.
Bbastal, 14, 272.
Blastral, 14.
Blatobis, 574.
Blackfisk, 561.
Blotal, 1032.
Boca negia, 155.

Bogdanovii (Pleuronectes), 399, 405.
Bogniarus, 315.
bogmariis (Trachypterus), 315.
Bogini, 53.
Bola, 50.

Boleophthalmus, 240.

bolmensis (Curcgdnus lavaretus), 904, 905, 907.
bolmensis (Leudsous rutilus), 777.
Bonaparti (Cybium, Pelamys), 103.
Bone Shark, 1147.
Bonit, 95.
Bcmito, 95.
Bonito, Plain, 108.

ops (Ostracion), 623, 626.

■rdeliere, 806.

realis (Batraclius), 135.

realis (Beryx). 67.

realis (Chinia-ra), 1080.

boreali.'i (Lieniargiis, Sevinnus, Scinaliis), 613,

1168.
borealis (Maurolieus, Scopehis), 932.
borealis (Pleuronectes), 392, 396.
borealis (Sudis), 945.
Boreogadua, 484.

Boscii (Lepidorhombiis, Pleuronectes), 447.
bostoniensis (Anguilla, Mura-na), 1023.
Botargo, 833.
Bothina, 371, 425.
Botliragonus, 203.
Bothus, 426, 432.
Botia, 706.
Botta, 441.
Botlengnidare, 3(1.
Bottenmus, 208, 211.
Bottenror, 1010.
Bottensik, 900.
bovina (Myliobatis), 1094.
Brachirus, 371.

braebyeentrus (Gasterosteus), 648.
Brachyentri, 717.
Brachymystax, 882.

brachymystax (Coregonus), 899, 906, 907.
brachyponia (Salnio), 851.
bracbypterus (Tbynnus), 91, 98.
Brama, 70, 72, 75, 106, 720, 812.
brama (Abramis, Cyprinus, Leucisciis), 719.

720, 812, 820.
brama (Cantharus), 54.
brama (Pterycombus), 73.
bramante (La?viraja, Raja), 1117.
Bramida;, 70, 309, 709.

branchialis (Ammoccetes, Petromyzon), 1189.
Branchiostegi, G19.
Branehiostoma, 1211.
Branchiostoniidse, 1211.
Brandy-fisli, 376.
Brandtii (Cottus), 181.
brasiliensis (Isistius), 1166.
brasiliensis (Thynnus), 93.
Braxen, 720, 812.
BraxeuHia, Braxenflira, 822.
Braxenloja, 797.
Braxenpanka, 804, 822.
Braxenstand. Bream-stand. 815.
Bream, 720, 812.
Bream, Black Sea, 54.
Bream, Common Sea, 59.
Bream, Pomeranian, 816, 817.
Bream, Rascb's Sea, 80.
Bream, Ray's Sea, 77.
Bream, Spanish Sea, 58.
Bream, White, 720, 803.
Breamflat, 803.
Bredtorsk, 493.
Bregmnceros, 463.
breviceps (Alburnns), 792.
breviceps (Gasterosteus), (>58.
brevipinna (Laemargus, Scymnus, Somniosus),

1168.
brevipinnis (Thynnus), 91, 93.
brevirostris (Scombresox), 352.
brevirostris (Syngnathus), 672.
brevirostris (Tbymallus), 883.
brevirostnun (Acipenser), 1057.
brevis (Ccphalus), 626.
brevis (Coregonus), 894.
brevis (Cypriniis), 735.
brevissimus (Balistes), 634.
Brevorti, (Brama), 81.
Brill, 441.

Brill, Turbot-like. 445.
Brismak, 562.
Brisslinsr. 974.

Brook-Trout, 830.
Brosino, 562.

brosme (Brosmius, Gadus), 562.
brosme (Centronotus), 218.
brosmiana (Lota), 532.
Brosmiii»e, 464.
Brosmius 464, 562.
Brosmus, 562.
Brolula. 595.
Brotuliua, 463, 595.
Brugde. 1143, 1147.
Brunsnultra, 5.
Brygd. 1144, 1147.
Bradsump, 1034.

bubalis (Cottus, Knophrys), 169, 187, 192.
bueculentus (Syngnathus), 672.
bucephalus (Cyprinus). 736.
Buckhorn, 491.
Budd, Butt, 757.
budegassa (Lopliius), 139.

Buggenhagii (Abramidopsis, Abramis, Blieeopsis,
Cyprinus, Leucisens), 719, 808, 809, 817.
BuUerflimdre, 403.
Bullhead, Alpine, 173.
Bullhead, Armed, 208.
Bullhead, Kiver, 170.
Bundgarn, 972.

buniva (Balistes, Melielithvs), 631.
Burbot, 532.
Burbot, Stone. 711.
Burbot, Tang, 711.
burdigalensis (SqualiMs), 760, 761,
Burgeri (Cyprinus), 733.
burgundianus (Gasterosteus), 658.
Burton Skate, 1117.
Bussei (Gasterosteus), 647.
Butirinus, 1, 947.
Butla, 432.
Butte, 432, 441.
buvosa (Leviraja), 1125.
Byrkelange (Gadus, Lota, Molva), 521.
Backro, 831.
Borting, 831, 833, 837.
Bottv.id, 1035.

Cabeljou, 479.

csecus (Gastrobranihus), 1208.

Cagnota, 213.

Calimande, grande, 451.

callarias (Gadus), 462, 464, 465, 467. 472.

callensis (Anguilla), 1023.

Callichthys, 692.

Callionyniida', 271.

Callionymini, 271.

Callionymus, 271.

Callorh'ynchns, 1078, 1084.

Callyodon, 6.

cambricus (Salnio). 851, 856.

Camperii (Scombresox), 353.

canadensis (Lucioperca, Stizostedium), 37.

canariensis (Anguilla), 1023.

candidissiinus (Leptocepbalus), 1038.

Canicula, 1152.

cauicula (Seylliorhinus, ScylUuiii, S<iualus), 1070,

1148, 1152. 1154, 1204.
Canis, 1158, 1167.
cinis (Galeus), 975, 1133.
Cantharini, 53.
Cantharus, 53.
cantharus (Sparus), 54.
Cantr.iinii (Ramphistoma), 349.
Capelan, Capelin, Capelinus, 497, 875. 876.
capeusis (Genypterus), 595.
capensis (Gymnetrus), 323.
capensis (Trigla), 202.

1226

capensiB (Zeus), 308.

capitatuK (Cottus), 170.

Capito 764, 770, 783, 79!).

capito (Mugil), 333, 334, 338, 339, 340.

capitoue (Anguillii), 1023.

Capridie, 70.

caprisrus (Balistes), 634.

CarangidiE, 70, 82.

Caraii.\, 84.

carassioides (Cyprinns), 733.

Cnrassius, 733.

carassius (Cypriiiopsis, Cypriinis), 720, 723,

735, 736."
carbouarius (Gadus,MerlanguH, Pollacliius), .'lOO.
carbonarius (Salmo), 842.
Carcbarias, 1129.
cari-barias (.\cantb(irliinus, Canis), 1068, 11.57,

1167, 1168.
OarcliariidiB, 1128.
Carcbariium, 1129.
Carcbarodon, 1138.
cardina (Pleuronectes, Rbombiis), 4.53.
Cardine, 447.
Carelopbus, 217.
carinatus (Cyprinus), 799.
carneus (Labrus), 10.
Carp, 720, 723, 862.
Carp, Crucian, 720, 735.
Carp, Lake, 727.
Carp, Leather, 727.
Carp, Mirror, 727.
Carp, Pond, 727.
Carp, River, 727.
Carpcnteii (Ones), 544.
Carpio, 723, 731.
carpio (Cyprinus), 720, 723, 724.
carpio (Salnio), 851.
carribajus (Macrurus), 586.
Carter, 447.

Cartilaginous Fisbes, 829.
caspia (Cobitis), 706.
casurus (Pleuronectes), 428.
catapbracta (Trigla), 195.
catapbractuin (Peristediura), 195.
catapbractus (Agonus, Aspidopboriis, Cottus),

204, 207, 208.
catapbractus (Gasterosteus), 648.
Catostoinidie, 702.
Cfttulus, 1152.
catulns (Pristiurus, Scylliorliinus, Scylliuu], Squa-

lue), 1148, 1149, 1152, 1154, 1168.
caudacuta (Motella, Rbinonenius), 545.
caudispinosus (Scopclus), 937.
Cavedanus, 770.
cavedanus (Leuciscns), 770.
Caviare, 1062.
Cefalo, 331.
Celerins, 979.

Centridermicbtbys, 157, 162.
Centrina, 1157.
Centriscidae, 637.

Centrisciforrnes, Acantbopterygii, 635.
Centriscus, 638.
centrodontns (Pagellua, Pagrns, SpariiH), 56,

57, 59.
Centrolabrus, 4.
Centropborus, 1157.
Centroscyllium, 1157.
Ccpbalacanthns, 24.
Cepbalaspis, 1044.
Ceplialocborda, 1210.
Cephaloptera, 1094.
Cepliabis, 626, 770.
cepliabis (Cyi)rinus, Leuciscns, Squalius), 719,

759. 769, 775.

cepbahis (Mugil), 333, 334, 340.

Cepolidas, 211.

Ceratocottus, 187.

Ceratodus, 1066.

Ceratopterina!, 1094.

cerniuni (Polyprioii), 48.

cernua (Acerina, Perca), 41.

Cestraciontidse, 1085.

CestriBUs, 328.

Cetorbinus, 1142.

Cbasnomugil, 328, 333.

Cbaitodon, 24.

Cha>todontid(e, 7 1 .

cbagrinea (Raja), 1115, 1125.

Clialcis, 952.'

cbalybsus (Squalius), 760.

Cbaracinids, 66, 702.

Cbarr, 829, 830, 841.

Cbarr, Black, 846.

Charr, Light, 846.

Cbarr, Northern, 842.

Cbarr, Wetter, 842.

Cbatoessina3, 952.

Chauliodontidas, 930, 936.

Cbela, 823.

Cbelidon, 356.

cbelo (Mugil), 328, 333, 334, 340.

Cbelon, 331, 334.

chilensis (Brama), 77.

chilensis (Sarda), 102, 104.

Cbilomycterus, 620.

Cbimiera, 1043, 1063, 1079.

Cbiniasrida;, 1078.

cbinensi.s (Albula, Salnio), 827.

cbinensis (Cyprinus), 720.

Chiridfe, 147, 211.

Cbirolophis, 213, 217.

Cbironectes, 145.

Cblamydoselacbe, 1063, 1068.

Cbondropterygii, 1, 1043, 1063.

Chondrostei, 1, 1043.

Cbondrostoma, 716.

Chorinemus, 82.

Cborisochismus, 300.

Christmas-fish, 406.

Cbroinida;, 1131.

cbrysitis (Tinea), 748.

chrysochloris (Cbqiea), 987, 988.

Chrysopbrys, 56.

chrysops (Roccns), 44, 46.

cibarius (Amniocoetes, Petromyzou), 1189,
1193.

cicatricosue (Pleuronectes), 404, 422, 429.

cicerelus (Ammodytes), 569, 573.

cii (Leuciscus). 770, 772.

Ciliata, 544.

cimbrica (Clupea barengus), 959.

einibrius, (cimbrieus, Enchelyopus, Gadns, Mo-
tella, Onos), 544.

cinerea (Raja), 1120.

cireularis (Raja), 1112.

Cirrostomes, 1 .

Cirrostomi, 1210.

citbara (Callionynius), 279.

Citbaricbtbys, 426.

Citharus, 371, 426.

Civelle, 1082.

Clarias, 690, 691.

clatbratus (Squalius), 770.

clavata (Dasybatis, Raja), 1064, 1074, 1087,
1103, 1104, 1108.

Clavata;, Rajaj, 1104.

claviger (Cottus), 188, 192.

Clinibing-fisb, 240.

Clinus, 219.

Clupea, 952, 953.

Clupea harengus, 149.

Clupeida.', 827, 946.

clupeiformis (Coregonus), 899.

clupeoides (Coregonus), 890, 894, 899.

Clypeocottus, 187.

Coalfisb, 465, 499, 500.

cobites (Aphya), 262, 265.

Cobitida', 702, 703.

Cobitis, 703, 705.

Coccia, 930, 934.

Cocciina;, 923, 930.

coccineus (Lycodes), 612.

Cod, 465.

Cod, Bearded, 493.

Cod, Broad, 493.

Cod, Common, 472.

Cod, Green, 500.

Cod, Polar, 463, 484.

Cod, Poor or Power, 495, 498.

Cod, Tang, 477.

Cod, Three Bearded, 550.

Ccelorbyncbus, 584.

coelorbyncbus (Lepidolepms, Macrurus), 581,

584, 585.
ccerulea (Pelamis), 93.
cceruleus (Carassius), 733.
cceruleus (Carcbarias), 1130.
cceruleus (Cyclopterus), 294.
cceruleus (Labrus), 10.
Coilia, 990.
Colfisb, 500.

colias (Scomber). 90, 110.
Colin, 500.
comber (Labrus), 7.
Commersonii (Scomber), 93.
Common Trout, 856.
conununis (Alosa), 985.
communis (Lota), 532.
communis (Merlangus), 511.
compressus (Cyprinus), 779.
compressus (Gadus), 532.
Concadita, 331.
coneinnus (Gasterosteus), 658.
Conger, 1036, 1037.
conger (Anguilla, Leptoc-eplialus, Mnrasna,

Opbielitbus), 1037.
Congrogadus, 595, 603.
conirostris (Cyprinus), 724.
Connor, 18.

conorhyncbus (Coregonus), 899.
conspersus (Pleuronectes), 429, 430.
conspicillum (Batrachus), 135.
Corax, 200.
corax (Trigla), 201.
Coregonus, 828, 884, 891, 892.
coretia (Thynnus). 91. 98.
coriaoeus (Cyprinus), 724.
Coris, 21.
cornnbicus (Isurus, Lamna), 1069, 1129, 1136,

1138.
cornubiensis (Labrus), 7, 18.
cornubiensis (Barbus minor), 558.
cornuta (Myliobatis), 1095.
coronatus (Cyclopterus), 294.
corrugatus (Mugil), 334.
Corvina, 51.

Corypbajna, 96, 309, 567, 588.
Corypbasnida;, 70.
Corypba'uoides, 583.
Cossyphus, 5.
Costas Priokfisk, 937.
Cottidse, 126, 156.
Cottinae, 156.
Cottomorplii, 126, 146.

•2-2-i

Cotto-scoiiibriformes, 70.
Cottunculiis, 167.
Cottmiculus, SmiJl-eyeil, 158.
Cottus, 140, 157, 1<">8, 272, 273.
Cottus, Bciinleil, 208.
Cottus, liranoli-spiiied, ItiO.
Cottus, Four-liorned, 175.
Cottus, Short-spiucd, 180.
I'ouchia, 544, 567.
I'ouchii (Acaiitliolnbrus), 5.
c'ouchii (Crenilalirus), 18.
I'riuiKou, 258.
irassiceps (Mi'frurus), 581.
irassus (Leuciscus rutilus), 777.
(renilabrus, 4, 8.
.ristata (Cliinueni), 1079.
rii>t,i(iis (Pleuronoctes), 441.
rr.-Miliinus, 1147.
I'm. Mil Carp, Lake, 7.30.
iruL-iau Carp, Poud, 738.
iruentatus (Gobius), 248.
t'ry.stallogobius. 242, 208.
I'tenodon, 224.
Ctenolabrus, 4, 10.
■ ubaua (.Viiguilla), 1023.
ruculus (Trigln), 105, 197.
■ultratus (Abraniis, Cyprinus, Leuciscus, Pele

ous), 721, 823.
rurtus (Mugil), 334.
I'uvicTi (Autruilla), 1023.
I'uvicTi (Argentina), 917.
Ouvicri (Cyprinus), 733.
( 'uvieri (Trachurus), 88.
Cuvierii (Alosa), 985.
I'ybiuin, 89, 91, 99.
I'yclogaster, 282, 283.
cVclopterida?, 126, 147, 282.
Cyclopterus, 282, 293.
I 'yclospondyli, 1128, 1156.
I 'yclostomes, 1, 1043.
Cyelostomi, 1063, 1172, 1195.
Oynicoglossus, 386.
Cynoglossus, 371.
cyiioglossus (Glyptocephalus, Platessa. Pleuro

nectes), 364, 378, 383, 417.
CyprinidiB, 66, 702, 714.
Cyprininit, 720, 722.
Cyprinodontid*, 342, 997.
CyprinodontiniP, 702.
cyprinoides (Coregonus), 891.
Cyprinoinorphi, 690, 702.
Cyprinopsis, 733, 735.
Cyprinus, 719, 722, 723.
Cypselurus, 350.
Cypsilurus, 356.
Cyttidie, 304, 305.
Cyttomorphi. 120, 304.
Czcmayi (Owsianka), 787.

Dab, Coninion. 380.

Dab, Lemon, 383.

Dab, Rough. 421.

Dab, Smear, 383.

Pace, 720, 759, 760.

■lactyloptera (Scorpajna, Sebastes), 153, 154,

522.
1 lactylopterus, 147. 193.
liajaus, 328.
Uanimruda, 738.
D.alfish, 315.

decadactylus (Beryx), 07, 429.
dt-cagon (Argentina), 918.
decagonus (Agonus, Areliagonus, Aspidophorus,

Cottus, Podotbecus), 204, 205, 200.

diiipicns (Leuciscus), 773.
de Filippi (Vexillit'er), 600.
Dekayi (Gasterosleus), 658.
delicatulus (Spratelloiiies), 952.
delineatus (Lenenspius, Siiualius), 721,754,
dentatus (Piolnodon, Fierasfer, Opbidium),

001.
dentatus (Paralicbtbys, I'seudoiliondms).
dentex (Chorisochismiis), 300.
dcntex (Osnierus), 807, 870, 875.
denticulatus (Auarrldchas), 237.
dergle (Seardinins), 779.
Dermoptpii, 1210.

Desfontainii (Lepadogaster, Mirlielia), 30^
Devil-tisb, 1094.
diapbanus (Pleuronectes), 428.
diccrauB (Ceratocottus), 187.
Dieerobatis, 1094.
Dick-kopp, 772.
didactylus (Batracbiis), 134.
dimidiatus (Gasterostous), 048.
Diodon, 620.
Diplanchias, 020.
Diplodus, 53.
Diplophus, 930.

dipterygia (Molua), 521, 525, 531.
Diseoboles, 282.
Discoboli, 282.
discolor (Carassius), 733.
dispar (Labrns). 10.
dispersus (Coregonus), 899.
Djuproding, 847.
dobula (Cyprinus, Leuciscus, S(|ualius),

760, 770.
dobuloides (Alburnus), 795.
DogFish, Black-mouthed, 1149.
Dog-Fish, Picked, 1158.
Dogge, 470.
Dogs'-fish, 997.

dolabratuB (Alburnus), 719, 795.
DonoTani (Crenilabrus), 18.
Donovani (Labrus), 7.
Doras, 188, 091.
DorosonuitiniB, 952.
dorsatus (Petromyzon), 1187.
Dory, 300.

draco (Trachinus). 128, 272.
draculus (Callionymus), 273, 279.
Dracunculus, 272. 279.
draennculus (Callionymus, Uranoscopus),
Drag, 1010.

Dragonet, Genimcons, 273.
Dragonet, Lesser, 279.
Dragskadda, 391.
Dragspan, 1010.
Drepanopsetta, 408, 420.
Drift-net, 971.
Drifvad, 1035.

Drummonilii (Ecliiodon), OOI.
dubius (Mullus). 03.
Diimerilii (Syugnathus), 672, 073.
Diissiimierina>, 952.
Dvergsinipa, 191.
Dvergulk, 190.
dvinensis (Osmerns), 807.
dvinensis (Platessa) 405, 400.
dypterigius (Gadus), 521.

Echehis, 1037.
Echeneis, 89, 91.
Echinorhini, 1157.
Echinorhinida;, 1106.
Echinorhinus, 1109.
Echiodon, 601.

787.
599,

Edwardii (Coucliia), 545.

Eel, Common, 1023.

Eel, Electric, 1086.

Eel-basket, 1034.

Eel-box, 1034.

Eel-fare, 1031.

Eel-tishes, 1011.

Eel-line, 1035.

Eelpout, 003.

Eel-seine, 1035.

Eel-spear, 1035.

Eel-torsk, Lycodes, 007.

Eel-torsk, Eel-shaped, 017.

Eeltorsk, Plain, 010.

Eel-torsk, Reticulated, 611.

Eel-torsk, Sarsian, 010.

Eel-torsk, V.ahl's. 013.

Eel-trunk, 1034.

Eel-weir, 1035.

Eels, Freshwater, 1022.

Eggerti (Anarrhichas), 230.

Ekstriiniii (Gobius), 202.

EkstriJmii (Liparis), 284.

Ekstrom's Topknot, 453.

Elacate, 89, 91.

Elasmobrancbii, 1043, 1063.

elatus (Cyprinus), 724.

elatus (Leuciscus rutihm), 777.

Elbbutt, 443.

Elbe caviare, 1062.

Elbnt, Elbuttc, 757.

Eldstodjuiug, 1010.

elcgans (Gasterosteus), 648.

Eleginus, 482.

Eleotriformes, 240.

Eleuterognathi, 2.

elongata (Argentina), 912, 918.

elongata (Clupea), 954.

elongata (Cobitis), 706.

elongata (Glyptocephalus, Platessa, Pleuro-
nectes), 379.

elongata (Lotta), 521.

elongatum(Myctophum,Scopelu8),923,937,993.

elongatus (Abraniis, Leucabramis), 798.

elongatus (Leuciscus rutilus), 777.

Elops, 1050.

Elritza, 720. 754, 757.

Emd, 767.

Encheliophis, 462, 001.

Enchdymorphi, 090, 1011.

Euchelyopus, 211, 537, 570, 603, 1030.

Encrasicholns, 992.

encrasicholus (Clupea, Engraulis, Stolephorus),
962. 975, 992.

Engelsman, 425.

Engraulis, 952. 991.

Engyschistfe, Murienidae, 1021.

Enkrasicolus, Enkranlos, 962.

Enophrys, 181, 187.

Entelurus, 680.

Epelan, 869.

Eperlau de Seine, 798.

eperlano-marinus (Salmo), 869.

Eperlanus, 869.

eperlanns (Osmerns, Salmo), 867. 869. 875.
876, 878.

Epigonichthys, 1211.

Epinephelus, 48.

equirostrum (Scombresox), 353.

Eriksmass-lax, 832.

eriox (Salmo), 832, 850, 851.

erythrsens (Salmo), 842.

crythrinus (Sparus), 50, 57, 58.

erythro-bjorkna (Scardo-Blicca), 807.

erythrophthalmoides (Bliccopsis). 807, 808.

1228

Eryllirophtlmlmus, 77il.

erythrophthalmus (Cyprinus, l.ciiciscuB, Sc-ar-

(liuius), 720, 779^
erytlirops (Cyprinus), 779.
erythroptenis (Abraiiiis), 803.
erythrosto:uiis (Aspiiis), 782.
esculentus (Merlucius), 515.
Esmarkii (Gadus), 46G, 4l!7, 5U8.
Esmarkii (Lycodes), fil.S.
Esoeida!, 997.
Esociformes, 69(i, 997.
Esox, 342, 998.
Esox brasiliensis, 345.
estor (Esox), 999.
Ethinopterus, 11G2.
ethiin (Syngnathus), 669.
Etmopterus, 1157. 1162, 1166.
Eucalia, 647.
Euchalarodus, 405.
Eulaclion, 875.
Euprotoraicnis, 1156.
europanis (Acipt'iiser), 1056.
europseus (Aspidophorus), 208.
europseus (Hemirainphus), 345.
eurybrachii, Acanthopterygii, 24.
euryrhynchi (Coregoni lavareti), 902.
_ euryripidi, Acanthopterygii, 24.

eiirypterus (Lophius), 139, 142, 143.

eurystoma (Anguilla), 1023.

Kuthynnus, 91, 92.

euxinus (Gadus), 464, 487.

evolans (Exoccetus, Halocypseliis), 358.

exiguus (Coregonus), 899.

exiliens (Exocoetus), 358.

Exocoetifornies, 343.

Exocoetinie, 355.

Exoccetini, 342.

Exoccetus, 356.

exoletus (Acantholabrus, Ceiitrolabrus, Labrns),

4, 10, 14.
exoletus (Crenilabrus), 5.
exoletus (Labrus), 941.
exsilieiis (Exoccetus), 358.

faber (Zeu.s), 305, 306. 975.

Fabraji (Alburnus), 792.

Fabiicii (Boieogadus, Gadus), 464, 484.

Fabricii (Liparis, Cyclogaster), 287, 288.

Fabricii (Lumpemis), 224, 225, 226.

Fabricii (Macrunis), 584, 586.

Fachse-lodde, 882.

Faisan d'eau, 440.

fallax (Clupea), 984.

falsa (Alausa), 894.

falsavela (Raja), 1089. 1103, 1112.

Fana, 822.

Faren, 720, 812, 819, 822.

farenus (Cyprinus), 812, 819.

Fario, 841, 851.

fario (Salnio), 832, 851, 855.

Fame, 822.

Farra, 898.

Father-lasher, 187-

Fengoninnare, 73.

Fenknoten, 200.

fera (Coregonus), 899.

femandinus (Spinax, Squalus), 1158.

ferox (Salmo), 851, 857, 858.

Fcrra, 898.

ferrugineus (Limanda, Pleuronectes), 390.

festiva (Julis), 21.

Fetsik, 900.

ficta (Al(.sa), 984.

Fierasfer, 462, 598, 600.

Fierastiua.-, 597.

tilamentosus (Krohnius), 581.

Filare, 631.

File-fish, 631, 717.

File-fish, Spotted, 633.

iinta (Alausa, Alosa, Clupea), 984, 987.

Fire-pan, 656.

Fishing-frog, 138.

Fistulariidse, 637.

Fjord-lodde, 882.

Fjaliaundra, 391.

Fjard-lax, 832.

Fjarsingen, vanliga, 128.

Fjarsingen, lilla, 131.

Fjasing. 131.

flauinieus (Cyprinus), 724.

Flatfishes, 361.

flavescens (Bodiauus, Perca), 27.

flavescens (Brosmius), 562.

flavescens (Gobius), 243, 244, 250, 251, 257.

tlavipinnis (Cyprinus), 724.

Flek-Steenbit," 236.

flesus (Platessa, Pleuronectes), 37H. 398, 407.

Flira, 720, 815, 819, 822.

Flire, 806.

Flodliarr, 887.

Flodnejonoga, 1188.

Flotqvabba, niarnuirerad, 145.

Flotqvabbor, 144.

Flounder, 398.

Flounder, King's, 396.

Fluke, Sail, 451.

Flundra, 2, 403.

Flute-mouth, 635, 637.

fluviatilis (Anguilla), 1023.

fluviatilis (Cephalus), 770.

fluviatilis (Gobio), 720, 743.

fluviatilis (Lampetra, Petromyzon). 1173, 1174,

1188, 1189, 1203.
fluviatilis (Perca), 26, 1204.
fluviatilis (Rubellus), 773.
fluviatilis (Salmo), 830.
fluviatilis (Trutta), 851, 852.
Flydra, 416.
Flygfisk, 272.
Flying-fish, 355.
Flying-fish, Great, 357.
Flackfilare, 633.
Flackpagell, 59.
fontinalis (Salmo), 830, 845.
Forel, 831, 833.
Forked-beard, Great, 540.
Forked-beard, Lesser, 558.
fossilis (Cobitis, Misgurnus), 703, 704.
Franklinii (Pleuronectes), 404, 405.
Friesii (Gobius), 244, 248.
frigidus (Leuciscus), 770.
frigidus (Lycodes), 609, 610.
fuliginosus (Gadus), 559.
fullonica (Leucoraja, Raja), 1103, 1108, 1115,

1117.
Fundulus, 743.

furcatus (Phycis, Physcis), 540.
furciger (Icelus), 166.
fusciis (Motella, Onos), 551, 556.
fuscus (Blennius. Raniceps), 558, 559.
Farna, 769, 772.
Parsing, 131.

Gadida-, 462, 463.
Gadinie, 464.
gadoides (Blennius), 540.
Gadus, 464, 514. 693.
Gaiuiardi (Raja), 1121.

Galaxiidiu. 829.

galeatus (Gymnacauthus), 160.
Galoorhinusi 1072, 1129, 1132.
galerita (Blenniops, Blennius, Chirolophis), 218.
Galeus, 1133.

galeus (Canis, Galcorliinus. Galeus. Si|uahis),
1132, 1133.

Gallichthys, 309.

Gall-id, 767.
gallivensis (Salmo), 851.

Ganoidei. 581, 718, 829. 1043.

Ganoids, 1.

Garpike, 347.

Gasteracanthus, 647, 658.

Gasterobranchus, 1220.

Gasterosteidte, 341, 637.

gasterosteiformes, Acanthojiterygii, 635.

Gasterosteus, 637, 638, 644, 658.

Gastra?a, 637, 638.

Gastrobranehus, 1208.

Gayi (Mrrlucius), 515.

Geiiini (Abramis), 812.

gelatinosus (Careproctus, Cyclopterus, Liparis),
283, 287, 291.

geuerosus (Coregonus). 899.

Gestria, 1182.

gerino (Orcynus. Thynnus), 90, 91, 97.

Gers, 41.

Gertrude's Pike, 1005.

Ghini (Orthagoriscus), 626.

gibba, var. (Perca), 29.

gibbus (Labrus), 18.

gibbus (Liparis), 287.

gibelio (Carassius, Cyprinopsis. Cyprinus). 721,
735, 738.

gibelioides (Cyprinus), 733.

Giblichen, 735.

Giersii (Pleuronectes), 395.

Gillaroo- trout, 840.

Gilt Charr, 831.

Gilt-head, 18.

Giofredi (Julis), 21.

glabra (Platessa), 405.

glaciale (Myctophum, Scopeliis), 923, 941, 945.

glacialis (Cottus), 180.

glacialis (Gadus), 484.

glacialis (Pleuronectes), 404, 41)5, 422, 429.

glacialis (Squalus), 1168.

Glade, 891.

gladius (Cepola. Gymnetrus, Regalecus), 321,
323.

gladius (Xiphias), 118.

glanis (Silurus), 693.
I Glanomorphi, 690, 1043.

Glansfisk, 123.

Glasbult, 269.

Glashvarf. 448.

Glasstubb, 269.

glauca (Ciliata, Couchia, Motella), 554, 556.

glauca (Lichia), 83.

glaucus (Carcharias, Carcharinus, Galeus, Squa-
lus), 983, 1075, 1130.

glaucus (Squalus, Haabrandunge). 1138.

glesne (Gymnetrus, Ophidium, Regalecus), 322.

Gli, Glirr", 757.

Glib, 425.

Glibskadda, 426.

globiceps (Gasterosteus), 658.

Glossgadda, 1005.

Gloveri (Salmo), 850.

glutinosa (Myxina, Myxine), 472. 1196, 1208.

glutinosus (Gasterobranchus), 1220.

Glutinous Hag, 1208.

Glyptocephalus, 378, 379.

Glysa, 497.

1229

(ilyskolja, 495, 41)7.

(imelini (Phyuis), 543.

(iobiesocidip, 12(), aOO.

(Siiliiisociformes, 2.39.

liclnida-, 120, 240.

(ioLiiformes, 239, 24(».

(Jobiimu, 240.

(iobio, 720, 722, 742.

gobio (Cottus), 157, llSO, li'.',!, 17(i, 173.

gobid (Cypriuns, Leucisous), 743.

(tobioidei, 239.

liol.ioMinrplii, 121;, 239.

liiil.itis. 70i>.

iu.L.ius, 157, 242.

gobius (Cycloptenis, Lipaiis), 284.

Goby, Black, 245.

i;„by. Doubly >,po{WK\. 251.

(ioby. Fn-ckU-d. 2(i2.

lioby, Jeffrey's, 21)1.

lioby, Spotted, 202.

(ioby, Wliite, 200.

(xoedenii (Salmo), 851.

IxoWtish, 733.

Gold Ide, 707, 777.

Giild Percb. 30.

Gold Koacb, 777.

liiildsimiy, 10.

Goniosoina, 918.

gracilis (Blennius, Clinus, Leptoblennius, Luni-

penus), 225.
gracilis (Coregonus), 898.
gracilis (Gadus, Tilesia), 405, 407, 481.
gracilis (Gobius), 248, 202.
gracilis (Ly codes), 013, 615.
gracilis (Perca), 27.
Grainniiconotus, 352.
Grande Caliinande, 451.
graudoculis (Carassius), 733.
graiHiJata (Perca), 27.
granulosus (Centropborus), 1158.
granulosus (Spinax), 1102, 1100.
Grajling, 882, 884.
Grcenfish, 580.
Grenadiers. 581.
(ireutaggiga Ulkeu. 100.
Grillii (Gymnetrus), 322.
grisea (Lucioperca), 37.
griseus (Cantharus), 54.
grislagine (Cyprimis, Leuciscus), 720, 759, 701,

703, 775.
Grodqvabba, 144.
green landicus (Cottus), 180.
gru)nlandicus (Hippoglossus), 417.
groenlandicus (Mallotus, Salmo), 876.
Groploja, 787.

Grubei (TliyinaUus), 882, 883.
gruncus (Echelus), 1037.
Grundforell, 838.
tirytmort, 777.
Gr&lax, 830, 831. 851.
Gr&lanning, 740.
Grasej, 499, 500. 503.
(Jrasik, 503.
Gr.isgiidda, 1005.
Gr.issnultra, 14.
GrSssill, bobuslansk, 959, 904.
Grastorsk, 476.
Griisal, 1032.
Groning, 579.
(irouling, 711.
(Tuaperua, 034.
Gudgeon, 720, 743.
Gudlax, Guldlax, 120.
Guiniad, Gwiniad, Gwyniail, 898, 909.
Guldmulle. 63.

(iuldniulte, 337.

Guldmort, 777.

Gulha, 1084.

Gunnel, Spotted, 220.

gunnellus (Blennius, Centrouotus, .Munenoides,

Ophisoinus, Pliolis), 220.
Gunneri (Scymnus, Squalus), 1168.
Gunneri (Spinax), 1103.
Gunnerianus (('etorliiinis. Sipialus). 1144.
(Jurnard, Grey, 197.
(Jurnard, Red, 195.
Gurnard, Sappliirine, 200.
Gurnards, Cuirussed, 202.
gurnarduB (Trigia), 194, 197.
Gussonii (Leptocephalus), 1038.
guttatns (Lanipris, Zeus), 123.
Giildenstadli (Acipenser), 1059, 1000.
Glister, 800.
Gwyniad, 891, 898.
Gwyniad, Asp, 891.
Gwyniad, Beaked, 902.
Gymnetrus, 320.
Gymnocanthus, 157, 159.
Gymnodontes, 022.
Gymnogaster, 314.
gyninogaster (Tbyniallus), 884.
Gyninotlioracida;, 1021.
Gyninothorax, 1022.
gymnothorax (Thymallns), 884.
Gyninotidse, 1086.

gymnurus (Gasterosteus acnleatns), 1)44, 048.
Gardal, 1035.
Gadda, 998.
Gokrocka, 1115.
Gos, 30.

Haa. 1101.

Ha.ibr.and, 1138.

Haae-Kierriug, 1107.

Haae-Storje, 1056.

Haafur, 1158, 1101.

Haa-ising, 425.

Haakall, 1107.

Haanuer, 1138.

Haavar, 1161.

Haberdine, 479.

Haddock, 466.

Haddock, Norwiiy, 148.

Ha;lt, 909.

bfeni.atopterus (Cyprinus), 724.

Hiemulon, 52.

Hafgos, 50.

Hafgosfiskar, 49.

Hafkarp, 10.

Hafkatt, bla, 237.

Hftfkatt, tigerfiackad, 236.

Hafkatt, vanlig, 232.

Hafmus, nordisk, 1079, 1084.

Hafpadda, 561.

Hafr, 1161.

Hafsabborre, 45.

Hafsapa, 1084.

Hafsbarber, 61.

Hafskatt, 1161.

Hafsnejonoga, 1183.

Hafsnalar, 679.

Hafsnalen, stora. 680.

Hafspadda, 144.

Hafsruda, 52.

Hafssill, 959.

Hafsal, 1037.

Hafulk, 144.

Hag. Glutinous, 1208.

Haj, 1161.

Hake, 465, 515.

Hake, Trifurcated, 569.

Ilalb Karass, 719.

llalec, 952.

Halecoides, 826.

Halecula, 992.

Halfulk, 103.

Halhos, 197.

Halibut, 409.

Halibut, Lesser, 417.

Haliopbis, 595.

Halocypselus, 350.

HaloporpbyruB, 539, 581.

haniatus (Centridcrmicbthys, Icelue), 165.

hamatus (Salmo), 850, 855.

Hammerhead, 1071, 1128.

Hamntorsk, 757.

Handvad. 1035.

Hansing, 396.

Haploeliitonidie, 820.

Haploidonotus, 49.

Haplomi, 690, 997.

Hardinii (Salmo), 850.

Hareng, 954.

Hareugus, 954.

barengus (Clupea), 952, 954.

Harkning, 1035.

Harr, 884.

Hasel, 760.

Haspa, 887.

Hansen, 1055, 1058.

Havkatt, 1079, 1084.

Havkr.ige, 1084.

Havkvabbe, 543.

Havlodde. 882.

Havmus, Havmuus, 211, 1079.

Hawkenii (Gymnetrus), 322.

Hawkinsii (Gymnetrus), 322.

Hay, 1167.

bebridicus (Argentina, Oamerus), 917.

Heckelii (Abramis), 818.

Heckelii (Leuciscus), 774, 777.

Heckelii (Neropbis), 680.

Heiligbutt, 416.

Heilag-tiske, 410.

helena (Muriena), 1021.

Helmichthyidaj, 1020.

Hehnichthys. 1020.

Helmictis, 1020.

helvetica (Perca), 27.

Helgetiundra, 409, 410.

Helgeflundrau, lilla, 417.

Helleflyndre, 410.

Hemibranchii, 2, 635.

Iiemigymnus (Argyropelecus), 305, 925, 927,

929, 930.
Hemilepidotus, 156.
Herairhamphiformes, 344.
Hemirbamphus, 342.
Hemirhombus, 426.
heptagonus (Cyclopterus), 294.
Herriug, 947, 954.
Herrings, 826, 946.
Heterobranchus, 690, 691.
Heterocerri, 1044.
Heteroconni, 24.
Heterolepidotida>, 147, 211.
heterolobus (Stolephorus), 990.
heteroptcrie, Silnridns, 692.
Heteropygii, 997.
heterorhynchus (Lalieo, S(-bismatorhynchus),

716.
Hcterosoniata. 361.
Hetcrosomes, 361.
Heterothrissa. 990.

1230

hexacornis (Cottus). 175, ITS.

liiatula (Labrus), 11.

biemalis (Clnpea liareugus), 059.

liiemalis (Coregonus), 899.

Hierax, 352.

Hippocampina.', (5G3.

Hippocampus, 662.

HippogloBsiua, 371, 408.

Hippoglossoides, 420.

hippoglossoides (Hippoglossiis, Platysomalicli-

tliys, Pleuroiiectes, Reinljardliiis), 408, 417.
Hippoglossus, 408, 409, 420.
hippoglossus (Pleuroiiectes), 409.
Hirax, 352.
hirlns (Pleuronectes, Rliomlms, ZeiigoptHnis),

458.
hinindinaceus (Carcliarias), 11. SO.
Hirundo, 200, 356.
hirmido (Trigla), 195, 197, 2i»0.
liispidus (Orthagiiriscns), 6'2l>.
Histiopliorns, 117.

liistrio (AntennariuK, Lopliius), 136, 145, 634.
Hlyre, 236.
Holocentrini, 66.
Holoccnfrum, 66, <)9.
Holocplinli, 1072, 1078.
liololepidotus (Labriis, Scia'ija). 52.
Holostei, 1044.
Honialopterida?, 702.
HoiuiaDUs (CetorhinuB, Squalu^), 1144.
Hork, 43.
Hornfisk, 347.

Hornfisk, Homstagg, Horntagg. 657.
Horngadda, 347.
Horngall, 347.
Hornsimpa, 175.
Hornskalle, 185.
Horntuuga, 425.
Hornuggla, 211.
Hornulke, 190.
Horn-al, 1035.
Horr, 43.
Horse-Mackerel, 86.
Horunge, 393, 443.
hospitus (Acipenser), 1057.
Hound, Nurse, 1076, 1152.
Hound, Eough. 1070, 1154.
Houting, 902, 909.
Hnch, 830, 831.
Huch, Danube, 830.
Much, Siberian, 830,
bucho (Salino), 830, 851.
Hulekolja, 561.
Humboldti (Scopelus), 932.
humilis (Coregonus), 898.
humilis (Cyprinus), 736.
Hundfisk, 1158.
Hundgadda, 757.
liungaricus (Cj'prinus), 724.
huntia (Molva), 532.
hurta (Sparus), 56.
Huso, 1054, 1055.
huso (Acipenser), 1057, 1059.
HnUning, 1035.
Hvarf, Inden, 456.
Hvnssbuk, 974.
Hviid-Aal, 1208.
Hvitling, 487.
Hvitliuglyra, 4 99, 508.
Hvitrool<a, 1117.
Hvitsik, 900.
Hvit-tobis, 570.
hybiscoides (Cypriuna), 724.
hybridus (Aspius), 782.
bybridus (Rliombus), 432.

liyperborea (liaja). 1103. 1110, IIU.

Hypomesus, 875.

Hypotremes, 1093.

hypselorhvnchi (Coregoni lavareli), 902.

Hi, 11 6 1".

H&brand, 1138.

mfisk, 1161.

Hligal, 1149.

H&kal, 1161.

Hikatt, 1161.

Hakaring, 1161, 1167.

Hamus, 1084.

mmar, 1161, 1170.

Harnacka, 769.

Harump, 1162.

Haskarding, 1167.

Hiskarfving, 1155.

H&storje, 1132.

Hallefisk, 416.

HSUeflundra, 416.

Hiigfcnig sniiirbult, 259, 260.

la, 859.

Ice-fisb, 767.

Icelus, 162.

lebthyodoruliles, 1067, 1156.

Icbthyonivzon, 1182.

Ide, 720," 764, 768.

Ide, Gold, 767.

Idbnrn, Idplugg, 767.

Idbarus (Cyprinus), 721, 7 64.

idiopteri, Aeantliopterygii. 24.

idus (Cyprinus, Leuciscus), 720. 759, 764,

770, '775.
Igelneinoga (-ncjonoga), 1195.
Iggling, 757.
lUanka (Sahno), 851.
iniberbe (Ophidium), 220, 598.
imbricatus (Acantholabrus), 5.
immaculatus (Salnio), 914.
imperiale (Rampliistoma), 349.
imperialis (Sebastes), 154.
infBqualis (Leptocephalus), 1021, 103H.
inconstans (Eucalia, Gasterosteus), 647.
Ingeris Pilt, 1208.
Ingminnuiset, 587, 589.
inopinalus (Gasterosteus), 64H.
inornata (Lota), 532.
intermedia (Raja), 1123, 1125.
interruptus (Eoccus), 44.
Ipnops, 923.
irideus (Salmo), 830.

iris (Trachvpterus), 311, 312, 313, 315.
Isa, 466.
Isabborre, 30.
Ischyodon, 1078.
Isfisk, 767,
Isgalt, 1084.
Ising, 391.
Isistius, 1156.

islandicus (Bogmarus, Vogmarus), 315.
islandicus (Centronotus, Gunellus, Lumpenus,

Sticliaius), 225.
islandicus (Gasterosteus), 648. 649.
Ismort, 776.
isodus (Squalus), 1144.
Isospondyli, 690, 826.
Isurus, 1069, 1138.
italica (Tinea), 748.
italica (Perca), 27.
italicus (Hymeuoccplialus, Macrurus, Mysta-

couurus), 583.

jacksonicnsis (IJegalecus, Tracliypter\is), 314.

japonica (Anguilla), 1023.

japonica (Brama), 77.

japonica (Cobitis taenia), 706.

japouicus (Gasterosteus), 647.

japouicus (Macrurus), 583.

japonicus (Petromyzon), 1193.

japouicus (Zeus), 306, 308.

Jeffreysii (Gobius), 244, 261.

Jernlodde, 882,

Jesen, 764,

jeses (Cyprinus, Idus), 765.

John Dory, 306,

jozo (Gobius), 245.

Judepiga, 425.

jugulares, Acantliopterygii, 24.

Julidinse, 20.

julis (Coris, Labrus), 21.

Jydekjierling, 425.

Jydetunga, 378.

Jydetunge, 425.

Kabeljaaow, 476.

Kabilj'o, 473, 476.

Kalleraglik, 418.

kanagurta (Scomber), 90, 110.

Kantnal, 674.

Karas, Karass, 735.

Karp, 720, 768.

Karptikarass, 719.

Karpruda, 732.

Karpsten, 716.

Kartniort, 777.

Katsa, 816.

Kaulbarscli, 43.

Keila, 562.

Kelt, 837.

Kieneri (Anguilla, Zoarces). 617, 1023.

Kilch, 909.

Kilnot, 859.

King of the Herrings, 322, 1084.

King of the Sand-Eels, 580.

Kin-jii, 733.

kitt (Pleuronectes), 383.

Kivik-sill, 959, 963.

Kjiirta, 806.

Klajp-al, 1033.

Klarbult, 266.

Klarstubb, 266.

Klorocka, 1108.

Klumpiisk, 2, 625.

Klurnpkrok, 1008.

Klykskrabb, 165.

Knaggrocka, 1104.

Knerii (Polyprion), 48.

Knorrhane, 197.

Knot, 197.

Kolja, 466.

Kolje, 497.

Kollarii (Carpio, Cyprinus), 731.

Kolmule, 511.

Kolmun, 519.

Kongeral, 1038.

Koning van Klipvischeu, 595.

Kordylos, 99.

Kortsa, 763.

Kortstjertgiidda, 1005.

Krohnius, 581.

Kroyeri (Scopelus), 938, 941.

Kuderusk, 211.

Kulla Herring, 959, 963.

Kullbas, 43.

Kulliibas, 43.

Kulmund, 519.

1231

Kui.miul, 5 IT), Sl'.l.
Kuiiirill, 540, di'i.
KuMg, 57'.).
KungsliBk. 14H, 152.
KungsHundra, 39(5.
Kussii, 607.
Kveiso, 1.^1.
Karini;, 151.

Labeo, 710, 718.

L,ilHT.iaii, 479,

Liiliunlii (Euprdtoiiiicrus). 116l).

laliradiirifiis (Cottiis), IM.

Lalirax, 45.

labra.x (Perca, Uociiis), 45.

Labrida-, H.

Labrina, 4.

Labmiile.s, '2.

Labroniorphi, 2.

Labrus, 2, 5.

Laccpedii (Coregcims), .SOSI.

laciTtiua (Siren), 1204, 1205.

Lachsforel, 838.

lacustris (CVprimis), 71)3.

lacustris (Gadus, L..ta), 532.

lainstris (Salmo, Tnitta), 831, 850, 851.

La.Miiargi, 115G.

Lannargus, 1167.

Ljeinonema, 539.

lipves, Raja.>, 1114.

lipvigatus (Cliironcetes), 145, 146.

lipvis (Arnoglossus), 428.

hpvis (Cataphraelus, Pbolis), 214.

lajvis (GastcroKteus), 058.

l:evis (Macmrus, Malacocephalus), 584, 593,

la-vis (Plioximis), 754.

lievis (Pleuronectes), 383.

la>vis (Pleuronectes, Rhombus), 441.

bevis (Raja), 1117, 1120.

hovis (Trigia), 201.

Laggbuk, 622.

Lakatnibb, 174.

Lake, 532.

Lakegers, 174.

Lanina, 1138.

LamnidiB, 1128, 1135,

Lauininie, 1135.

Lampanyctus, 937.

Lanipern, 1188.

Lanipetra, 1183.

lauipetra (Petroiuyzim), 1183.

Lampreda, 1183," 1188.

Lampreta, 1183.

lampretiforniis (Blennius, Clinus, Lumpenus),

225.
Lamprey, 1183.
Lampreys, 1, 1182.
Lampridida>, 70, 121,
Lamprini, 121.
Lampris, 122, 309.
Lamproye d'eau doulce, 1188.
Lamproye de mer, 1183.
Lamproyon, 1188.
lancastriensis (Leueiscus), 761.
lancea (Ammodytes), 575.
Laucelet, 1210, 1220.
lanceolaris (Lini.ax), 1220.
lanccolatus (Ammodytes), 568, 569, 570.
lanceol.itus (Ampliioxus, Branehiostoma, Limax),

1210, 1220,
lanceolatus (Gobius), 24.
Lancelet, 1, 1220.
Lancelet-fishes, 1210.
Landroding, 847.

Scandinanau Fishts.

Lnngsdornii (Cypriuus), 733.

Lanseltfisk, 1220.

Lantern-tisli, 428.

Lapplaudsroding, 830, 831,

lapponieus (Coregonus), 898.

larvalH (Cobitis), 706.

laskyr (Blieca, Cypriniis), 803.

lalerna (Arnoglossus, Platophrys, Pleuronectes),

426, 428, 429.
laticeps (Gobius), 258.
latidens (Microstomus), 383,
latifrons (Auarrhichas), 232, 237.
latifrons (Cypriuus, Leueiscus), 770.
latirostris (Acipenser), 1057.
latirostris (Angiiilla. Muripua), 1023, 1024.
Latulus, 974.
latus (Cyprinu.s), 812.
latus (Salmo Thymallus), 898.
Lauuce, 569, 574.
lauta (Lampris), 124.
Lavarct, Lavaretus, 898.
lavaretus (Coregonus, Salmo), 891, 898, 900,

904, 907.
Lax, 831, 833, 849.
Laxl.Md, Laxbucld. 757.
Laxestiirje, 125.
Laxgi'ird. 859.
Laxmiua, 859.
Lax-ockel, 832.
Lax-rikling, 848.
Lax-unge, 832,
Lax-yugel, 833.
Lax-iiring, 831, 832, 860.
leacliianus (Scomber), 93,
Leaeliii (Clupea), 954,
Lebetus, 259.
Leiehe, 1167.

leiogloasa (Argentina), 912, 917.
Leister, 1010.
Leiter, 719, 720, 816.
leiurus (Gasterosteus), 648.
Lekmort, 776.
Lemani lacus (Salmo), 841.
lemanns (Fario, Salm<i), 851.
Lenmiscati, 1020.
leopardus (Anarrliiehas), 236.
Leotardi (Pleuronectes), 428.
Lepadogaster, 301.
Lepibenia, 44.
Lepidoeephalichthys, 702.
Lepidoceplialus, 702,
Lepidoleprus, 585.
Lepidonote, 230.
Lepidopleurini, 71.
Lepidopus, 567.
Lepidorhombus, 426, 447.
Lepidosteus, 718, 829, 946, 1044. 1045.
Leptagonus, 206.
Leptoblennius, 224.
Leptocardii, 1063, 1210,
Leptocepbalida;, 1020,
Leptoeephalus, 1020, 1037, 1038, 1041.
leptocephalus (Gadus), 500.
Leptoclinus, 224.
Lepturus, 314.
lepturus (Caranx), 85.
lepusculus (Squalius), 760.
Lerbleking, 504, 506,
Lerflundra, 421.
Lerstubb, 256.

Lesueurii (Gobius), 248, 249, 250,
Leueabramis, 790, 798.
Leucaspius, 752, 786
leucichtbys (Salmo). 890.
Leuoiseina>, 720, 752, 759.

Leueiscu-Blieea, 807.

Louciscus, 719, 720, 723, 752, 759, 760, 778.
leueiscus (Cyprinus, Squalius), 760.
Leuckartii (Abrnmidopsis, Abramis), 817.
leucophajus (Conger), 1038.
levenensis (Salmo), 851,
Lieliia, 82, 85.

Licbteusteinii (Acipenser), 1057,
Lilljeborgii (Cottus), 169, 191.
Limanda, 386.

limauda (Hippoglossoides, Hippoglossus), 421.
liinanda (Pleuronectes), 378, 386, 407.
Limandclle, 451.

limandoides (Hippoglossoides, Platessa, Pleuro-
nectes), 421, 429.
Limax, 1220.
limoea (Myxine), 1208.
Lindare, 748.
linearis (Gobius), 269.
linearis (Porobranchus), 600,
lineata (Acbirus, Solea), 364.
lineata (Liparis), 287.
lineatus (Beryx), 68.
lineatus (Cantharus, Sparus), 54.
lineatus (Cyclopterus, Liparis), 284.
lineatus (Cyprinu.s), 733,
lineatus (Kxococtus), 358.
lineatus (Labrus), 7, 10.
lineatus (Lepadogaster), 303.
lineatus (Roccus), 44, 45, 46.
Ling. 230, 526.
linguatula (Citbarus), 371.
linguatula (Pleuronectes), 421.
Linnei (Acanthias), 1158.
Linnei (j'Eglefinus), 466.
Linnei (.\lburnus), 792.
Linnei (Anguilla), 1023,
Linnei (Aspius). 783,
Linnei (Cantharus), 54,
Linnei (Carassius, Cyprinus), 736.
Linnei (Conger), 1038,
Linnei (Galeus), 1133,
Linnei (Hippoglossus), 410.
Linnei (Labrax), 45.
Linnei (Lota), 532.
Linnei (Merlangus), 487.
Linnei (Merluccius), 516.
Linnei (Molva), 526.
Linnei (Pollachius), 504.
Linnei (Solea), 373.
Linnei (Spinacbia), 638.
Linnei (Spinax), 1163.
Linnei (Tinea). 748.
Linnei (Tliyunus). 98.
Linnei (Tracburus), 86.
lintea (Leucoraja, Raja), 1103, 1117.
lioderma (Pleuronectes), 441.
Liparis, 157, 283.
Liparis nostras, 287.

liparis (Cyclogaster. Cyclopterus), 284, 287.
liparoides (Cyclopterus, Liparis), 284,
Lip-fish, 3,
Liza, .331.

Ljuster, 1010, 1034.
Lloydii (Coregonus), 899.
Loach, 711.
Loach, Spined, 706,
Lodda. 876, 882.
Loligo sagittata, 120.
longa (Guaperua), 634.
longibarbis (Macrnrus), 583.
longiKlis {Macrurus, Nematonurus), 581, 583.
longipinnis (Brama), 76, 80, 429.
longissinms (Balistes), 634.
Long-line, 1007.

155

1232

longus (Asellus), o'26.

Lophiidae, 126, 136, 1012.

Lpphius, 138.

Lophobrancliii, 2, 661, 1043.

Loplionectes, 426.

Lopliotes, 309, 320.

LopliotidiB, 309.

Lopbotiformes, 309.

Loricaria, 693.

loricatiis (GasterosU'iis), 648.

Lortbuk, 757.

lota (Gadus, Lota, Lotta), 531, 532.

Lotella, 521.

lotlinringus (Gasteiosteus), 658.

Lotinae, 464.

Lotta, 464, 520, 530.

Lubb, 519, 562.

l.ibb (Gadus), 562.

lubricuin (Branchiostoma), 1220.

Lucerna, 200.

lucerna (Trigla), 194, 199, 200.

Luoifuga, 462.

lucidus (Alburnus), 719, 720, 792.

Lucioperca, 36.

iucioperca (Perca, Stizostediiiiii), 36

Lucius, 823, 998.

lucius (Esox), 998, 999.

Luddhvarf, 458.

Luden Hvarf, 456.

lugubris (Lycodes), 613.

lumbricalis (Petromyzou), 1189.

lumbriciformis (Nerophis, Ophidiou, Scjphius,

Syngnatbus), 666, 683, 686.
Lumpen (Mustela), 603.
Lumpenus, 213, 224.
lumpenus (Blennius, CeiitroiKitus), 225.
Lumpenus, Blunt-Tailed, 225.
Lumpenus. Sharp-Tailed, 228.
Lumpfisk, 283.
Lump-Sucker, 294.
lunipiis (Cyclopterus), 294.
luna (Chrysotosus, Lampris, Zeus), 123.
lunatus (Platophrys), 430.
lupus (Anarrhichas), 232, 237, 608.
lupus (Centropoinus, Labrax), 45.
Lupus marinus, 234.
luecus (Labrus), 5.

luscus (Gadulus, Gadus), 466, 467, 493, 495.
luscus (Platessa, Pleuronectes), 399.
lutescens (Gobio), 743.
Lutkenii (Lycodes), 609, 612.
Luzzo, 998.
Lyceugraulis, 991.
Lycodalepis, 609.
Lycodes, 602, 607.
Lycodidie, 211, 463, 602.
Lycostomus, 952.
lycostomus (Gadus), 504.
Lycotbrissa, 991.
lymma (Trygon), 1099.
Lyouieri, 1022.
Lyr, 506.
lyra (Calliiuiymus. Uranosciipus), 272, 273,

279, 280.
lyra (Trigla), 195.
Lyrbleck, 506.
Lyrtorsk, 499, 504, 506.
Lysi, 519.

Lysing, 515, 516, 518.
Lysipharyngii, 2, 23.
lysan (Cboriueuius), 83.
Langa, 526.
LSngebani. 230, 530.
L&ngebarn, spetsstjertadt, 225.
L&ngebani, (rnbbstjerladt. 228.

Langbala, 822.
Langstjert, 822.
Langstjertgadda,
Lannare, 767.
Lodga, 832.
Lofgadda, 1005.
Lofmort, 776.
Loga, 794.
Loja, 720, 792,

lUacer (Polyprosopus), 1144.
JIacbiBriuin, 595.
Mackenzii (Salmo), 890.
Mackerel, 110.
Mackerel, Frigate, 108.
Mackerel, Spanisb, 1.
Mackerel-guide, 351.
macrocepbala (Mursena), 1023.
inacrocepbalus (Gadus), 464, 473, 474, 475.
macrochir (Maerurus), 584.
Macroentri, 717.

macrolepidotus (Pleuronectes), 370.
macrophthalma (Pliycis, Molua), 521.
macroplitbalmus (Coregonus). 899.
macrophthahnus (Cyprinus), 733.
macrophtlialnius (Gobieso.x), 300.
macrophthahnus (Onos), 544.
macroplitbalmus (Scardinius), 779.
maorops (Lycodes), 608.
macropterus (Eebelus), 1037.
macropterus (Thynnus), 91.
macrorbyncbus (Lajviraja. Kaja). 1123, 1125.
Macrouridas, 581.
macrourus (Alopias), 1137.
Macrurida?, 461, 463, 539, 580.
Maerurus, 583, 1125.
maculata (Motella, Onos), 550, 551.
raaculata, var. (Perca tluviatilis), 29.
maculatus (Balistes), 633, 634.
maculatus (Barbus), 718.
maculatus (Bothus, Rhombus), 366, 432.
maculatus (Callionymus), 272, 279.
maculatus (Clinus, Ctenodon, Leptoclinus, Lum-
penus, Sticbieus), 228.
maculatus (Labrus), 7.
maculatus (Lepadogaster), 303.
maculatus (Liparis), 284, 286.
maculosa (Gadus, Lota, Molva), 532.
maculosa (Perca), 18.
maculosus (Petroniyzon), 1183.
Madui-marane, 902.
Majoticus (Bothus), 437.
Maiforel, 838.
Maigre, 50.

maiuensis (Gasterosteus), 658.
uiajalis (Clupea liarengus), 959.
majalis (Leuciscus), 760.
Majfisk. 984.
major (Barbus), 540.
major (Clupea), 985.
major (Galeus stellaris), 1154.
major (Liparis) 287.
major (ilolva), 526.
major (Perca), 26.
m.ijor vulgaris (Catulus), 1154.
Makrilgadda, 353.
Makrilstorje, 97, 125.
Mai, Europeisk, 693.
malabarica (Scorpasna), 154.
Malacanthidse, 127.
Malacoeephalus, 583, 584.
>Ialacopterygii, 341.
Maliicopterygii abdominalcs, 689.
Malacopterygii .Tpodes, 567. 68<).

Malacopterygii thdraiici, 602.

Malaplerurinii", 1086.

MalapterurUB, 691, 692.

Malarmat, 193.

malarnioides (Aspidopliorus), 206.

Mallotus, 828, 875, 891.

Mancopsetta, 426.

Man-eaters, 1129.

manocentri (Coregimi lavanli). '.MI2.

marasna (Coregonus, Salmo), 898,899. 905, 907.

Mara!ne, 909.

marasnula (Salmo), 894.

Mareflundra, 385.

Mareflynder, 425.

Marena, 894.

Mareskadda, 398.

marginata (Anguilla), 1023.

marginata (Raja), 1117.

marginatum (Ophidiuiu), 598.

margiuatus (Conger), 1038.

Marieskadda, 398.

marina (Perca), 149.

marinus (Canis), 1167.

marinus (Lampetra, Lanipreta, I'elroniyzon),
1182, 1183.

marinus (Sebastes), 148.

Mario, 1056.

marmorata (Torpedo), 1086.

marmorata, var. (Pleuronectes), 402.

marmoratus (Anteunarius, Cbironectes), 146.

marmoratus (Salmo), 851.

Marsipobrancbii, 1043, 1172.

marsupiales, Syngiiatlii, 6117, 679.

Marulk. 138.

Mastaeembelida', 211.

Mastacenibeliformes, 343.

Mastacembelus, 344.

Matfar, 558, 561.

Matjes, 968.

Maurolicus, 931.

nui-xillaris (Coregonus), 898, 902, 905.

maximus (Bothus, Pleuronectes, Khonibus),
427, 433, 434, 442.

maxiums (Catulus), 1152.

maximu.s (Cetorhinus, Sclachc, Selaelius, Squa-
lus), 1136, 1143.

maximus (Hippoglossus). 410.

maximus hybridus (Botliiis). 433, 444.

mediorostris (Anguilla), 1023, 1024.

niediterranea (Chimajra), 1080.

niediterrauea (.Julis), 21.

niediterranea (Mcletta), 97<i.

iiiediterraneus (Gadus, Onos), 551, 556.

mediterraneus (Pliycis), 539.

raediterraneus (Scomber), 1 05

mediterraneus (Thynnus), 98.

mediterraneus (Trachurus), 88.

raedius (Lumpenus), 225.

Meer-ait. 1079.

megalops (Coregonus). 898 !t04.

megastoma (Arnoglossus, Lcpiclorbombiis, Pleu-
ronectes, Rhombus, Zellgll|.Il■rll^). 447, 448.

Megrim, 428.

Meiandrys, 99.

melauocbir (Anguilla). 1023.

melanogaster (Pseudorhomlms), 36().

Melanogrammus, 467.

melanostomus (Gadus), 511.

malanostomus, mel.astoinus ((yaleus, Pristiurus,
Scyllium), 1125, 1149.

nielanotus (Cyprinus, Idus), 724, 764.

melanura (.Julis). 21.

Melet, 992.

Meletta, Melettns, 976.

melctta (Engraulis), 992.

1233

Molic-Mlo«, «31.

iiielops (Crenilabrus, Labriis), 4, 18.

moiiibranaceiis (Paraliparis), 283.

Meiiibras, 052.

membras (Cliipoa buniifjiis), 059.

Menidie, 52.

meiito (Exococtiis), ;!55.

Mcnuaggia, 432.

ineridinnalis (,\|>hia), 2G(j.

lueridioiialis (Snalius), 77U.

Merkii (Ci.regi.uiis), 805.

Merlangus, 487.

im-rlangus (Gadii.«), 4i;4, 4(;i;, 4(;7, 487. 511.

.MitIm barbii, 540.

iiierliieciiis (Meilucius), 515.

Morlutiiiiiu, 464.

Merlucins, 4G4. 514. 515.

Merlus 515.

Merhizzo, 518.

Mertensii (Tbymalhis), 883.

Merulk, 138.

messanensis (Gicerfllus), 573.

Messiiigsgadds, l(llt5.

Meunicr, 772.

M.icrocephalus (Acautbi.rliimis. Liumurgus, Scyiii-

uiis, Somuiosu-s, S(iiiahi.s), 1127, 1168.
microcephalus (Coregouus), 809, 904, 90(i, 907.
inicrocephalus (Gasterosteus), 048.
microceplialns (Platessa, Pleiironectes), 378,

383.
niicTodon (Osmerus), 87G.
microlepidotus (Abramis), 812.
microlepidotiis (Cypriniis), 721, 764.
microlepis (Leuciseus), 753.
micrclepis (Tbymalhis), 882.
iiiicrops (Coregcnus). 006, 007.
microp.s (Cottunculus), 158, 613.
microps (Gobius), 244, 255, 256, 257, 258.
microps (Salmo), 851.
inicroptera (Angiiilla), 1023.
micropterus (Scyiimiis), 1168.
microptery.v (Abramis), 803.
micropus (Lipaiis), 202.
microstoma (Crenilabnis), 14.
microstomus (Pleiironectes), 383.
microstoimis (Salmo), 890.
migratoria (Anguilla). 1023.
milvus (Trigla), 107.
Mina, 850.
miniatus (Idiis), 764.
minimus (Gadus), 559.
Minnow. 720, 754.
min<.r (Albula), 792.
minor (Anarrhichas), 232, 236.
minor (Concilia), 554.
minor (Hareiigns), 079.
minor (Perca), 41.
minor vulgaris (Catulus). 1154.
minuta (Apbya, Atherina), 265, 266, 432.
minutus (Cyclopterus), 204.
minutus (Gadulus, Gadus), 466, 467, 403,

405, 508.
minutus (Gobius), 243. 244, 251, 255, 257,

258, 262, 204, 425.
mirabilis (Clupca), 954.
rairaletus (Raja), 1112.
uiirandella (Alburnus). 702.
Mirbelia, 301, 303.
Mirbelii (Lepadogaster), 303.
Misgumus, 704.
mistops (Salmo), 851.
mixtus (Labrus), 4, 6, 10,
Moeka, 859.

Mogki (Rhomboidichtbvs). 427.
Mola, 625.

iiu.la (UioiU.ii, Ortbagcriscus, Tctraodon, Tclro-

dou), 622, 625, 075.
moles (Cyprimis), 736.
Molina. 622.
Molua, 464, 520.
Molva, 520.
iiiolva (Gadus, l.ota, Molua, Molva), 521, 525,

526, 528, 531.
Mc.nacautliina;, 631.
monensis (Siiualus), 1139.
Monflundra, 385.
Monkey-lisb. 1070.
Monster-tish, 1079.
monstrosa (Cliinia-ra), 1065, 1066, 1078, 1070.

1204.
Moutagiii (Cyclopterus, Liparis), 284.
Mordacia, 1182.

mordax (Argentina, t)snierus), 860, 872.
morena (Anguilla), 1023.
inorhna (Gadus). 472.
Moriiigua, 1022.
Mormyridic, 1054, 1086.
morniyruB (Sparus). 56, 57.
Morone, 44.
Morrbua, 520.
morrhua (Gadus), 472.
Morris, 1038.

Morrisii (Leptoeeplialus), 1021, 1038.
Mort, 503.
Morue, 520.
Motella, 543.
Motellina?, 464.
mucosa (Leviraja), 1125

iniicosus (Cyclogaster, Neoliparis), 286, 293.
mucosus (Lycodes). 608, 609, 612.
mucronata (Raja). 1125.
Mudd, 757.
Mudderskrubbe, 403.
Mud-eel, 1204.
Mud-miunows, 997.
Mugil, 328, 330, 342, 891.
Mugilida?, 126, 327, 328.
Mugiliformes, 126, 327.
Muksun, 898, 899, 002.
muksun (Coregouus), 905, 907.
Mullet, Golden, 337.
Mullet, Red, 63.
Mullet, Tbick-lipped grey, 334.
Mullet. Tbin-lipped grey, 330.
Mullida?, 25, 61.
MuUoides, 61.
Mullus, 62.

multibarbata (Brotula), 595.
raultidentatus (Labrus, Creiiilnbriis), 7, 8.
Mulus, 62.
Mmitlundra, 385.
Mnr.-ena. 1013, 1021, 1023.
munena (Lycodes), 609, 617.
Murseneso.x, 1022.
Mura^nida;, 1021.
Murfenolepis, 461.
Murrayi (Ipnops), 923.
Musteia, 1183, 1188.

mustela (Gadus, Motella, Oiios), 544, 545, 554.
mustelaris (Blennius), 219.
mustelaris (Gadus), 554,
mustella (Gadus, Onos), 550, 551.
Mustelus. 1128, 1142.
muticelhis (Leuciseus, Telestes), 753.
Mutterlosehen, 787.
Myctoplium, 036.
Myliobatida>, 1071, 1003.
Myliobatis, 1004.

Miilleri (Maurolicu.s. Salmo), 022. 923, 031, 942.
MuUer's Topknot. 458.

iiiyrus (Miirtetia), 1037.

Myxina, 1208.

Myxine, 1195, 1196, 1208.

Myxinida,', 1195.

Myxus, 328.

Mort, 720, 773.

Nadd-id, Naddi, 770.

na>vus (Raja), 1112.

uamaycusb (Saluu.), 845.

narce (Torpedo), 1086.

Nasello, 518.

Nasus, 790.

nasus (Coregouus, Salmo), 809.

nasus (Diplancbias, Mola), 626.

uasus (S(iiialu.<i), 1130.

Naucrates, 82. 83.

navaga (Gadus), 465, 467, 481, 514.

nebiilosus (Gasterosteus), 658.

Needle-fislies, 667.

Nejoiioga, 1105.

Nelma, Njelma, 875, 890.

nelma (Salmo, Stenodus), 890.

Neuiacbihis, 704.

Nematoguatlii, 690.

Nemichtbyida-, 1022.

Neoliparis, 286.

Nerophiiii, 679.

Nerophis, G79.

nesogallicus (Chiroucctes), 146.

Nestis, 328.

Neunaugt, 1195.

Neustrife (Labrus), 7.

neustrianus (Gasterosteus), 648.

uidrosiensis (Raj.i), 1064, 1103. 1123.

niger (Astronesthes), 921.

niger (Conger, Muriena), 1037.

niger (Gasterosteus), 648.

niger (Gobius). 241, 244, 245, 255, 343,

461.
niger (Petr(.iiiy/.on). 1180.
niger (Rauiceps), 559.
niger (Spinax), 1125, 1163.
nigricans (Petroniyzon), 1183.
nigripes (Trigla), 197, 201.
nigripinnis (Salmo), 851.
nigro-auratns (Cyprinus), 724.
nigromanus (Pleuronectes), 379.
nilotica (Anguilla), 1023.
Nilsonii (Crystallogobius, Gobiosoma, Gobius,

Latrunculodes, Latmnculiis), 269.
Nilssonii (Coregouus), 892, 898, 904, 907.
Nissoga, 706.

nobiliana (Torpedo), 1086.
nobilior (Esox), 1003.
nobilis (Albula), 898.
nobilis (Salmo), 850.
noctula (Myliobatis), 1005.
Nonnat, 264, 432.
Nordmanni (Coregonus), 890.
Nordinanni (Cyprinus), 724.
norvegicus (Crenilabrus, Labrus, Lutjauus). 18.
uorvegicus (Holocentnis, Perca, Sebastes), 148,

140.
norvegicus (Lepidorhombus, Rhombus, Sco-

plithalmus, Zeugopterus), 427, 452, 453.
norivegiauus (.\canthorhinus), 1168.
Nors, 868, 860.
Norway Haddock, 148.
Nostras (Liparis), 287.
NotldanidiP, 1085, 112H, 1156.
NotopteridR% 829.
Notopterus, 047.
Nounat. 264.

1234

Novaga, 481.

novieorleaiieusis (Aiiguilla), 1023.

iiovieterrse (Anguilla), 1023.

novae-Zelandise (Macronurus), .581.

iioveboracensis (6astero8te>is), IHX.

nuda (OrcynopBis, Pelamys), 103. 104.

nudiia (Cyclopteriis, Gobiesox), 300.

iiudus (Oyprimis carpio), 724.

iiukta (Labeo), 71G.

Nurse-Hound, 1152.

Nyctophus, 936.

mWe, .503.

Nabbgadda, 347.

Xjibbsik, 900, 902.

NSttinp;. 1188.

Obesus (Cyprimis), 724.

oblongirostris (Auguilla), 1023.

(iblongus (Cyprimis), 736.

obolarius (Gasterosteus), 648.

obtueirostiis (Salmo), 882.

obtusus (Alburnus), 792.

occidentalis (Conger), 1038.

occidentalis (Gasterosteus), 658.

oceanica (Clnpea harengus), 959.

oceanica (Limanda), 386.

ocellata (Torpedo), 1086.

ocellaris (Blennius), 212, 219.

ocellatus (Lepadogaster), 303.

ochrodon (Leuciscns), 792.

ocla (Salino), 850.

ogac (Gadus), 464, 465, 467. 479.

ogat, 480.

Olfcrsii (Argyropek'cus, Pli-urotliyris, Slerno-

ptyx), 921, 923, 925.
Onialii (Petromyzon), 1189.
Ombre. 841.
Ombrina, 50.
Onclius, 1085.

Oncorhynchus, 830, 839, 854.
Onion-fish, 589.
oiiitis (Labrus, Tautoga), 11.
Ononiorphi, 461.
Ones 464, 515, 518, 543, 567.
ontariensis (Tliyiiiallus), 883.
Opal), 123.

ophidii, Syngnathi, 667, 679.
Ophidiidas, 461, 463, 567, 594.
OphidiiniB, 596.
Ophidivnn, 595.
ophidion (Nerophis, Scyphius, Syugnallms), 666,

680, 683, 686.
Ophiocephalidas, 328.
Ophiurse, 425.
Opistomi, 211.
Oppror, 1010.
orbicularis (Cantharus), 54.
orca (Gobiiis), 244, 259, 260.
orcadensis (Salmo), 851.
Orcynopsis, 91, 102.
Orcynus, 91, 92, 96, 99.
Oreosoma, 305.
Oreo8omatid<B, 305.
iirftis (Cyprimis), 764, 767.
orientalis (Thynmis), 91, 98
Ormfisk, 711.
Orsini (Ozodnn), 626.
Ort, 768.

OrtliagoriscidfB, 622.

Orthagoriscus, OrthragoriscuK. 622, 625.
Orthocornii, 24.
Osmcroides, 827, 912.

Ofiinenis, 827, 828, 863, 866, 867, 869, 875.
oKsifagus (Labnis), 10.

Osteoglossuni, 947.

Ostracioii, 1012.

Ostracioutina, 622.

Otolithus, 51.

oiiak, 479.

Oulil, 909.

ovak, 479.

ovis (Sargus), 53.

Owsianka, 754, 787.

owsianka (Aspius), 787.

Oxsimpa, 187.

oxygeneios (Epiuephelus). 48.

oxyrhina (Murfena), 1023.

Oxyrbyncl.us. 898, 902.

oxyrhynchus (Acipenser), 1057.

oxyrliynchus (Coregomis), 902, 905.

oxyrhynchus (La^vinjn, K.TJa), 1103, 1125.

oxyrhynchus (Salii ))tusirostris), 882. K99,

902, 905.
oxyrincbus (Isuriis), 1139.
oxyrinchus (Raja), 1117.
Ozodura, 626.

ozodura (Orthagoriscus), 626.
Ozzone, 331.

Pacifici (Batraebus), 133, 135.

pacificus (Cynicoglossus), 386.

pacificus (Thaleichtliys), 875.

pacificus (Thynnus), 91.

Paddtorsk, 558.

Paddulk, 158.

Paddal, 561.

Pagelhis, 56.

Pagrus, 56.

Pagurus, 425.

Pala, Palla, 898.

Pale, 503.

Palseonotidani, 1128.

palea (Coregonus), 898.

Pallasii (Clupea), 954.

Pallasii (Pleuronectes), 392, 395.

Pallasii (Thymallus), 883.

palleus (Leuciseus), 774.

pallidus (Lycodes), 612, 613.

pallidus (Salmo), 842.

Pallonii (Labnis), 4, 5.

palmicornis (Blennius. Cliirolopliis). 218.

Panka, 806, 815.

pantherinus (Anarrliichas), 236.

papalina (Alosa), 976.

Paralepidina;, 923, 936, 945, 997.

Paralepis, 945.

Paralichthys, 366, 408, 420.

Paraliparis, 283.

parallelus (Macrurus), 583.

Pareti (Leuciseus), 770.

Parexocoetus, 356.

Pariielli (Gobius), 261.

Parophrys, 377.

paroticiis (Labrus), 21.

Parr, 833, 855.

parva (Albula), 898.

parvipinnis (Fierasfer), 600.

Pasciuti, 1033.

passer (Flesus, Platessa, Pleuronectes), 398,

399, 441.
Passer fluviatilis, 402.
Pastinaca, 1098.

pastinaca, (Raja, Trygou), 1097, 109H,
Pastinacaj, 1097.
Pata, 859.

patris (Acanthocottus) 160.
Pausingeri (Leiidscus), 774, 777.
pavoniiia (Pleuronectes), 441.

pavonimis (Cyeloplerus), 294.

Pearl-Side, Boreal, 931.

peckianus (Syngnathus), 664.

Pediculati, 136.

pediculati, Acanthoptherygii, 24.

pediculati, Anoniali, 24.

Pejsa, 837.

pekinensis (Caraseius), 733.

pelagicus (Lampris, Scomber), 123.

pelagicus (Syngnathus), 672, 674.

Pelamis, 99.

Pelaniis, Plain, 103.

Pelamis, Stripe-backed, 105.

pelamis (Euthynnus, Scomber). 91, 95.

pelamis (Orcynus, Sarda), 92, 105.

Pelamys, 104.

pelamys (Euthynnus, Thynnus), 95.

pelamys (Sarda), 105.

Pelecus, 721, 790, 822.

pelegrinus (Squalus), 1144.

Peleriu (Squale), 1144.

Pelet, 891.

pellucidus (Aphia, .\phya, Gobius. La(ninciihis),

266.
pellucidus (Thyris), 363.

Pennanti (Argentina, Maurolicus, Scopelns), 932.
Pennantii (Crenilabrus), 18.
I Perca, 25, 26.
Percesoces, 328.
Perch, 26, 44.
Perch, Carass. 29.
Perch, Deep-water, 30.
Perch, Leaf, 30.
Perch, Mud, 30.
Perch, Pike, 36.
Perch, Sea, 45.
Perch, Sedge, 30.
Perch, Spotted, 29.
Perch, Stone, 30.
Perches, Sea-Pike, 49.
Percidffi, 25.
Pereinte, 25.
Percis, 127.
Percomorphi, 25.
peregrinus (Cetorhinus), 1144.
peregrinus (Thynnus), 103.
Periophthalmus, 240.
Peristedion, 193.
Permuck, 554, 557.
personatus (Animodytes), 577.
perspicillum (Lycodes), 608, 612, 615.
Peruk, 1107.
Petromyzou. 1172, 1182.
Petroinyzonida?, 1172.
phalerica (Aphya, Clupanodoii), 976.
Pharyngognathi, 2.
Pharyngognathi malacopterygii, 342.
Phobetor, 159.
Pholis, 213, 220.
pholis (Blennius), 214.
Phoxinus, 752, 753.

phoxinns (Cypriiius, Leuciseus). 721, 754.
Phrynorhombus, 452.
Phycis, 464, 531, 538.
phycis (Blennius), 539.
Physiculus, 538.
Physoclysts, 1, 689.
Physoclysti hemibranchii, 63.5.
Physoclysti lophobranchii, 660.
Physoclysti plectognathi, 618.
Physostomi, 689.
Picked Dog Fish, 1158.
pietus (Chironectes), 146.
pictus (Gobius), 241, 244, 255, 257, 258.
pietus (Uranoscopus), 272, 273.

1235

I'itvare, 441.

PiKK. l!57.

I'iSKh.ij, 1158, lU;i.

I'iKghvarf, 3(58, 4:!4, 441.

I'ifrghvarfvel, 441.

IMjrgliii, 1161.

Pigginnkre], 87.

Piggrocka. 1107.

Piggvarr 441.

I'iliral. 1208.

I'ikf, 11118.

I'ike, Brass, 1005.

I'ike, Hoiiy, 1044.

I'ike, Flc.wer, 1005.

I'ikc, Gertrude's, 1005.

Pike. Grass, 1005.

I'ike. Ice, 1005.

Pike, Leaf, 1005.

I'ike, Limg-tailed, 1005.

Pike, Meadow, 1005.

Pike, Saury, S5'i.

Pike, Short-tailed, 1005.

Pike-net, 1007.

Pike-spear, 1010.

Pilehard, 971).

Pilchanhis. 979.

pilcli,\rdus (.\lausa, Alosa, Clupea), 952, 979.

Pilot-fisli, 8.^, 1130.

Pilil, Piral, 1208.

Pingelii (Triglops), 107.

Pinguipos, 127.

piuguis (Hippuglossus, Platysomaticlitliys,

Pleuruneetes), 417.
piDi (Trigla), 194, 196.
Pipefish, ^^iquoreal, 680.
Pipefish, Deep-nosed, 674.
Pipefish, Great, 6<!8.
Pipefish, Lesser, 1)72.
Pipefisli, Straight-nosed, 683.
Pipefish, Worm, 686.
piscatorius (Lopliius), 136, 138.
piscatrix (Lophius, Rana), 138, 139.
Piscicuhis varius, 754.
Pisoodonophis, 1022.
pistilliger (Cottus, Gymnocaiitliiis, Pholietor).

160, 161.
Pjon, 794.
Plaooidei, 1043.
Placodermi, 1044.
Plagiostomi. 1085.
Plagiostonii batoidei, 1086.
Plagiostomi selaelioidei, 1127.
Plagusia, 363.
Plaice, 392.

planci (Tynipauomiuni), 626.
Planeri (Petromyzoii), 1179, 1189, 1191, 1193.
planifrons (Batraelins), 135.
Plank, 506.
Platessa, 392.

platessa (Pleiironectes), 365, 378, 392, 401, 407.
plates-soides (Citliarus, Drepanopsetta, Hippo-
glossoides, Pleuronectes), 376, 387, 408,
421, 429, 454.
Platophrys, 304, 426, 427.
platyeephala (Anguilla), 1023.
platyceplialus (Cottus), 181, 182.
platyrliina (ilurasna), 1023.
platyrhynehus (Anguilla), 1023.
platyschistaa (Muraenidfe), 1022.
Platysoniatiohthys, 408, 416.
plebejus (Gasterosteus), 648.
Plec(ognates, t>18. 619, 1043.
Plectognathi. 1, 344.
Pleetospondyli, 690. 702.
Pleslya, 803.

plestya (Cyprinus), 803.

Pleuracanthus, 1066.

Pleuiouectes, 377, 378.

Pleuronoctidie, SliC), 377.

Pleiironectina, 371, 377.

Plenronectini, 370.

pleuiostictue (Triglops), 11)7.

Pleurothyris, 925.

Plogjeriisroeka, 1125.

plotizzn (Scardinins), 779.

Plotosiis, t)90, 692.

Phidderinun, 385.

pluMibea (ChiniaTa), 1078, 1080.

plunibeus (Pe(roniyzon), 1189, 1193.

pneuniatopliorus (Scomber), 110.

podas (Rhomboidichtbys), 360.

Podothecus, 20t).

pceciloptera (Trigla), 195, 201.

pcecilopus (Cotliis), ir)9, 173.

Pogonias, 49.

pola (Platessn, Pleuronectes), 379. 3H3.

polaris (Boreogadus, Gadns), 484.

Polcur, 891, 898, 899, 902.

polcur (Coregonus), 891, 899, 904, 906, 907.

Pole, 378.

Pollachiua, 504.

pollachius (Gadus, Merlangus), 4ri('), 4*)". 504.

Pollack, 499, 504.

Pollack, Norwegian Whiting-, 508.

pollan (Coregonus), 896.

PoUinii (Gobio), 743.

Polycentrus, 1 1 .

Polyodontidae, 1044.

polyosteus (Sahuo), 851.

Polyprion, 25, 47.

Polyprosopns, 1144.

Polypterus, 343, 946, 1012, lii44.

Pomatomus, 82.

pontica (Raja), 1104.

ponticus (Gasterosteus), 648.

Pope, 41, 44.

Porbeagle, 1069, 1138.

Poreellus, 41.

Porichthys, 133.

Pornbranchus, (500.

porosus (Cottus), 180.

Potta, 441.

Poutassou, 511.

poutassou (Boreogadus, Gadus, Merlangus),

465, 466, 467, 511.
Powan, 909.
prne.stabilis (Alosa), 985.
Praistetiyndre, 396.
prasinus (Leneiscus), 773, 777.
priuoeps (Brama), 80.
priuka (Petromyzou), 1189.
Pride, 1189, l"l94.
Prionodon, 1130.
Pristidaj, 1093.
Pristiophorida!, 1128.
Pristiurus, 1148.
probatoccphalus (Diplodus). 53.
productus (Gadus, Merluoius), 464. 516.
Proppe, 786.
Protocauipns, 667, 679.
Protochordata, 1210.
proximus (Gadus). 467, 490.
Psamraodiscus, 377.
Psettichthys, 408.
Psettodes, 408.

pscudoflesus (Platessa), 393, 403.
pseudogastropteri, Orthocormi, 24.
Pseudorhouibus, 366, 408, 420.
Pteraclis, 70, 71.
Pteriohthys, 1044.

Pterophryiie, 145.

Pterurus, 680.

Pterycombus, 70, 71, 72.

Ptyobrancliidaa, 1022.

Pucelle, 984.

pulcher (Scomber), 95.

Pulsvad, 1035.

pumihi (Spratella), 974.

punctata (Labrus, Sciania), 11.

punctatissima (Anguilla), 1023.

punctatus (Batraclius), 135.

punetatus (Dasybatis, Raja), 1104.

punctatus (Helniietis, Leptocephalus), 1038.

punctatus (Lepadogaster), 303.

punctatus (Pleuronectes, Rhombus, Zengopterus),

383, 427, 456.
punctatus (Snluio), 851.
punctatus, var. (Scomber), 111.
punctulatus (Batrnchus), 1 35.
pungio (Zeus), 308.
Pungitius, 638.

pungitius (Gasterosteus), 264. 658.
purava (Stolephorus), 991.
purpuratus (Salmo), 830.
purpureus (Gadus, Merlangus), 500.
pusillum (Acanthidium), 1163, 1166.
pusillus (Labrus), 7.
Putnanii (Euchalarodus), 405.
Puttning, 1035.

pycnocentri (Coregoni lavareti), 899, 902.
Pycnodonta, 71.
Pycnodontoidei, 71.
Pyn, 794.
P&drifvare, 832.
P^lkrok, 1008.

quiulracus (Apeltes). 649.
quadrieornis (Cottus), 169, 175.
quadricornis (Motella), 550, 553.
quadridens (Pleuronectes), 383.
quadrilateralis (Coregonus), 899.
quadrilobatus (Cyprinus), 733.
quadrimaeulatus (Gobius), 261.
quadripunctatus (Scomber), 93.
quadrituberculatus (Pleuronectes), 392, 395.
quadrivittatus (Gobius), 263.
Quenselii (Pleuronectes), 383.
Querimana, 328.

quinquecirrhatus (Gadus, Motella), 554.
Qvabbso, 297.
Qveise, 131.
Qveite, 416.
Qvidd. 757.

Rabbit-fish, 1084.

Rabboxe, 893, 898.

Radflackiga Tungehvarfven, 428.

radiata (Amblyraja, Raja), 1088, 1103. 1108.

radiatus (Trachinus), 128.

radula (Raja), 1112.

Ra>bu8, Riepuschka, 898.

Raja. 1101.

Raji (Brama. Sparus), 76, 77. 80, 429.

RajidiE, 1100.

Raniceps, 464, 558.

raninus (Blennius, Gadus, Raniceps), 558, 559.

rauula (Liparis), 287.

Ranzania, 624.

rapax (.\spius), 720, 783.

raptor (Gadus, Molua), 526. 527.

Rasohii (Brama), 80.

rashleighanus (Polyprosopns), 1144.

Rav, 415.

].2U

Ray, Ueup-sea, 1111.

Bay, Eagle, 1071, 109.5.

Ray, Ek-ftric, 1071, 108i;, 109-2.

Ray, Sandy, 1089, 1112.

Ray, Starry, 1087, 1108.

Ray, Sting, 1097, 1098.

Rays, 1043, 106.^, 108.5, lOHC, llOd. 1104.

Redi (<Jrlliag(irisi-iis), (526.

Regalecus, .^520.

regiua (Cyprinus), 724.

rcgina (Rliodithlliys), 59t).

regulus (Sebastes). 150.

Reinhardi (Careproctus, Liparis), 292.

Reisingeri (Cdri-gouiis), 898.

reraipes (Gyninotrus, Rcgalefus). 822.

Renke, 909.

repandns (Trac'liypteriLs), 'A13.

Repspii, 898.

respleiidens (Lanipauyctus, Scdpehi.s). 937.

reticulatus (Callionymus), 279.

retieulatus (Lepadogaster), 30.3.

relieulatu.'' (Liparis), 286.

reticnlatus (Lycodes), C)09, (ill.

Retropinuo, 827, 912.

Rctzii (Ortliagoriscus), ()2().

Rex Cvpriiidnini, 724.

Rhamphistorna, 344, (567.

Rhinida-, 1128.

Rhinoliatida>, 1093.

Rhinodon. 1073, 1142.

Rliinolepis, 691.

Rhinomugil, 328, 333.

Rhodeiis, 715.

Rhodichthys, 596.

rhomboides (Rliombus), 452.

Rhoniboidiclithy.s, 364, 427.

Rhombus, 432.

rliombus (Bothus, Pleuronecles), 427, 433, 441.

rhombus hybridus (Bothus), 433, 445.

Rhynchichthys, 24.

riali (Onus), 515.

Richardspuii (Coregimus), 898.

Richardsonii (Retropinna), .S27, 912.

Ringbug, 283.

Ringbuyk, 283.

ringeus (Balistus), 633.

River Trout, 856.

rivularis (Cyprinus), 754.

Roach, 720! 773.

Roach, Gold, 777.

Roach, Ice, 776.

robustus (Clypeocotliis), 1S7.

Roccus, 25, 44.

rocheanue (Thynnus), 108.

Rochei (Auxis, Scomber), 108.

Rockhok, 1107.

Rock-cook, 14.

Rockling, Five-Bearded, 554.

Rockling, Four-Bearded, 544.

Rockling, Northern, 648.

Rockhng, Three-Bearded, 550.

rodens (Leuciscus, Squalius), 760, 761.

Rogenia, 954.

Rogn-kal, 297.

Rogn-kexe, 297.

Rondeletii (Carcliaroiion), 1139.

Rondeletii (Exocoetus), 358.

Rondeletii (Orthragoriscus), 626.

Rondeletii (Scombresox), 353.

Rondeletii (Syngnatlius), 677, 678.

rone (Labrus). 18.

Rootaug, 779.

Rose-fish, Rosenfisk, 59(;.

Rosenliaueri (Alburuus), 795.

rosens (Pleuronectes), 401.

Rossi (Lycodes), 612. 615.

rostellatus (Syngnathus), 666. 672, 674.

rostrata (Belone), 347.

rostrata (Mursenii), 1023.

rostratus (Acanthorliinua), 1167, 1169.

rostratus (Cetorhinus, Scjuahis), 1144.

rostratus (Leuciscus, Sipialius). 76(1. 761.

Rotskar, 503.

Rough Hound, 1154.

Rua, Ruda, 780.

Rubellus, 773.

ruber (Gadus), 473.

ruber (Petromyzon), 1189.

ruber (Urocentrus), 67.

rubescens (Syngnathus), 669, 671.

rubicundus (Acipenser), 1056.

rubro-fuscus (Cyprinus), 724.

rubus (Raja), l'l04, 1112.

Ruda, 720, 735.

Rudabborre, 29.

Rudd, 720, 779.

Rudskalle, 780.

Ruff, 41.

runiulo (Bothus), 441.

rupestris (Corypluennides, Maciurus). 584, 588.

590.
rvipestris (Crenilabrus, Ctenolabrus, Labrus,

Perca, Scisena), 4, 6, 16.
Ruska, 403. -
■Kuskeskiidda, 403.
Russellii (Regalecus), 321.
Russnase, 801.
Ruthensparri (Gobius), 251.
rnthenus (Acipenser), 1051.
rutilo-hjorkna (Leucisco-Blicca), 807.
rntilo-blicca (Bliccopsis), 811.
rutiloides (Leuciscus), 773, 777.
rulilus (Cyprinus, Leuciscus), 186, 720, 759,

773, 775.
rutiluB (Sahno), 842.
Ryner, 1147.
Ryssja, 1007.
Rabo Herring, 959.
Ranka. 297.
Rafhaj, 1136.
Rakling, 415.
Robug, 255.
Rodfena, 781.
Rodfisk, 152.
Riidhajar, 1152.
Rodiug, 832, 834, 841, 853.
Roding, Lapplands, 830.
Rooing, Vetterns, 830.
Rodknot, 195.
Rodmort, 781.
Rodnabba, 14.
Rodsnacka, 14.
Rodspatta, 369, 392.
Rodspatta, 398.
RSdtorsk, 477.
Roe, 846.
Rofisk, 831.
Rotsimpa, 180.

Sabbik, 262,
Saccobranchina;, 692.
Saccobranchus, 691.
Saccopharyngida?, 1022.
Sa;lbliug, 830.
Sagre, 1163.
Sagris, 352.
Saibling, 830.

saida (Boreogadus, Gadus), 463, 464, 465
467, 484, 514.

Sail-Fluke, 451.

Salanx, 827.

Salar, 841, 851.

salar (Saln.o, Triitta), 830, 833, 849, 851.

Salarias, 212.

Salilota, 531.

salmarinus (Salnio), 842.

Salmlet, 851.

Sahnling, 841.

Salnio, 828, 829, 841, 866, 867.

saliuo (Salmo), 850.

Salmon, 829, 832, 833, 849, 851, 853, 883.

Salmon, Quinnal, 829.

Salmon, Rainbow, 830.

Salmon, Siberian White, 890.

Salmon, Spanish, 507.

Salmon stair, 860.

saliMonata (Trutta), 851.

salmonea (Perca), 37.

Salmonidie, 827.

Salmons, 826.

Salmulus, 850.

salniulus (Salmo), 832, 850, 855.

Salvelinus, 841.

salvelinus (S.ilmo), 830, 831. 835, 842, 867.

Salviaiii (Raja), 1125.

Sand-Eel, 570.

Sand-Eels, 567.

Saudflundra, 385, 386, 390.

Sandflundre, 403.

Sandflynder, 390.

Sandhavr, 887.

Sandhvarf, 443.

Sandkrypare, 720, 743.

Sand-Launce, 574.

Sand-Launce, Smooth, 573.

Sandra (Lucioperca), 36.

Sandsknibbe, 403.

Sandskadda. 390, 425.

Sandstubb, 262.

Sandtunga, 375.

Sandy Ray, 1112.

sanguisuga (Pctromyzou), 1189.

Sanktepersfisk, 306."

sapidissima (Clupea), 985.

Sarachus, 823.

Sarda, 91, 102, 104.

8arda(0rcynus, Pelauiys,Sconiber,Thynnus),105.

Sardell, 992.

Sardine, 979.

sardina (Alosa, Clupea), 979.

Sarf, 720, 779, 781.

Savfrel, 781.

Sargini, 53.

Sarsii (Lycodes), 609, 616.

Saurins, 923, 925.

Saurus, 352, 353, 936.

saunis (Esox, Scombresox), 353.

saurus (Trachurus), 86.

Saussurii (Brauia), 81.

Savignyi (Anguilla), 1023.

Sawfish, 1086.

saxicola (Glyptoceplialus, Platessa, Pleuronectes),

379.
sax.itilis (Canicula), 1152.
S,ayi (Raja), 1099.
scaber (Chironectes), 146.
scabra (Raja), 1104.
Scad, 86. '

Scaphirynchops, 1054.
Scarabicus, 54.
Scardine, 778.
Scardiniopsis, 795.
Scardinius, 719, 720, 752, 778.
Scardo-Blicca, 807.

1237

^cnnic.fii (Scinlinius), 779.

Sinnli.la, 778.

Scanis, 2, 4.

Scliam-tcng, 378.

hi li(lil<Tcnsis (Cliipea liarougiis), 9.59.

ScliietV-rmiilleri (Snlmo), 850.

Scliilus, .3(5.

Suliiiizii (Corogoiuis), 899.

Srhismattirliync-lius, 71(",.

Scliiiii'pfl. 909.

SelmeidtT, 798.

Sfluillc, 398.

Scliomburgkii (I'olyeciitrus), 11.

Sclioneveldi (Clupea), 974.

Sil.usslaube, 798.

Scliwebforell. 838.

SciiPiia, .50.

Scia-nichL-, -if). 49.

Silcrudcrmes, iiii.

Scleroparei, 14(i.

Scomber, 110.

Moinber (Scomber), 111.

Scoiiiberesoces, 342.

Scoinbcresox, 352.

Scdmberoinorus, 89, 91, 105.

Scoinbresocidrt?, .343.

Scoiiibresociforiiies, 343.

Scoiiibreso.x, 352.

Scombridte, 70, 89.

Scoinbroidea, 121.

Sconibromorphi, t!9.

Kcoiiibrus (Scomber), 83, 92, 110.

Sfopelidie, 826, 827, 920, 923.

Scopeloiiuirphi, 826.

Scopelus, 936.

Scnpelns, Arctic, 941.

Scopelus, Greater, 937.

Scoplitbaliims, 452.

Scorptena, 143, 146, 153.

scorpa-na (Cottus), 180.

Scorpienida^, 126, 147.

scorpioides (Gobiiis), 244, 260.

scorpius (Cottus), 157, 169, 180.

scriptus, var. (Scomber), 112.

sculpoiieatns (Cyprinus), 724.

scutellatuui (Scoiiibresox), 353.

Soylliida-, 1128, 1147.

Scylliorliiiius, 1148, 1151.

Scyllium, 1152.

Scyiuiiida', 1166.

Scymnus, 1066, 1156, 1166, 1167, 1169.

Soypbius, 683.

Sea-Bream, Black, 54.

Sea-Breaui, Comnum, 59.

Sea-Bream, Rascli'.s, 80.

Sea-Breaiu, Ray's, 77.

Sea-Bream, Spanisli, 58.

Sea-Cat, Blue, 237.

Sea-Cat. Common, 232.

Sea-Cat, Spotted, 236.

Sea-Pheasant, 440.

Sea Pike-Perclies, 49.

Sea-Scorpion, 180.

Bea-Suail, 283.

Sea-Snail, Common, 287.

Se.i-Snail, Montagu's, 284.

Sea-Snail, Slimy, 291.

scbago (Salmo), 850.

Sebastes, 146, 148, 1125.

Sebastodes, 147, 148.

secundo-dorsnlis (Tbynnus), 91, 98.

Sej, 500, 503.

Sejlyra, 506.

Selache, 1144.

Sela.-hoidei, 1127.

Scldetka, 896.

Selene, 83, 85.

Selysii (Leuciecus), 773, 777.

semiarmatus (Gasterosteus), 648.

Bemiloricatus (Gasterosteus), 648.

seminudus (Lycodes), 612.

semispinosus (Cnran.x), 86.

septentrionalis (Motella, Onos), 544, 548, 557.

septentrionalis (Mugil), 334.

septoeuil (Petromyzon), 1189.

serpcntinus (Acns), 686.

Serpula, 332.

Serraui, 3.

serrato-granulttta (I'erca), 27.

serratus (Gast(^rosleus), 648.

Setipinna, 990.

setipimiis (Selene), 83.

Seuruga, 1054.

Sewin, 856.

Shad, 983, 984, 988.

Shad, AUice, 984.

Shad, American, 985.

Shad, Twaite, 984.

Shadow-tish, 50.

Slianny, 215.

Shagreen Ray, 1115.

Sliark, Ba.sking. 1143.

Shark, Blue, 1130.

Shark, Fo.x, 1136.

Shark, Greenland, 1068.

Sharks, 1043, 1063, 1085, 1127.

Sharks, Cow, 1157.

Sharp-ncsed Ray, 1117.

Shavianus (Cetorhinus), 1144.

Sheatiish, 093.

Slielly, 909.

Sheppy .Argentine, 932.

Sherg, 1054.

sibi (Thynuus), 91.

Sibirian Huch, 830.

siculus (Animodytes), 574.

signifer (Thymalhis), 883.

Siil, 579.

Siil-Smelt, Greater, 913.

Siil-Smelt, Hebridal, 917.

Sik, 883, 891, 898, 900.

Sikloja, 893.

Sikmatk, 832.

sikus (Coregouus), 898.

Sikvimraa, 893.

Sildeloddc, 882.

Silfvcrfisk. 87.

Silfverlax, 856.

Sill, 954.

Sillack, 898.

Sillapipare, 1187, 1195.

Sillkung, 322.

Sillmor, 507.

Silurichthys, 693.

Siluridie, 66, 692.

Siluridse heteroptersB, 692.

Silurifornies, 692.

Sihirus, 691, 693.

Silus, 914.

silus (Ananthiplepis, Argentina, Coregouus).

Salmo), 913, 917.
Simia marina, 1079, 1084.
Simpa, 179.
Simpknot, 167.
Simpstubb, 260.
sinensis (Gasterosteus), 647.
sinuatus (Merlucius), 516.
Siphagonus, 203.
Siphouostoma, Siphostoma, 668.
Siren lacertin-n, 1204.

Sittichkarpf, 719.
Sjurygg, 294, 297.
Sjofjaril, 212.
Sjohane, 301!.
Sjiikarp, 727.
Sjokock, 151, 272, 273.
Sjornda, 736, 780.
Skaboskadda, 396.
Skalle, 780.
Skall-id, 763, 767.
Skall-jer, 763.
Skalnuissla, 471.
Skarpsill, 974.
Skata, 1120.
Skate, Connnon, 1120.
Skate, Black-bellied, 1123.
Skale, Long-nosed, 1125.
Skate, Shagreen, 1115.
Skate, Sharp-nosed, 1117.
Skates, 1114, lUil.
Skates, White, 1114.
Skattbonde, 41.
Skavskadda, 396.
Skinnskrabba, 185.
Skinn.illing, 660.
Skipjack, 988.
Skipper, 353.
Skitspigg, 657, 757.
Skjielbrosme, 543.
Skjier-ising, 425.
Skoliist, 590.
Skomakare, 752.
Skotta, 18.
Skottnat, 741.
Skrabb, 185.
Skrej, 87, 476.
Skrobba, 398.
Skrubba, 403.
Skmbbskiidda, 398, 403.
Skuggfiek, 50.
Skyggtisk, 214.
Skalla, 398.
Skalling, 29, 30.
Skiidda, 377.
Skiiggsinipa, 208.
Skaggtorsk, 493.
Skalryta, 185.
Skar-auer, 155.
Skarflundra, 378.
Skargardssill, 959.
Skarknif, 823.
SkSrlanga, femtomniad, 554.
Skarlanga, fyrtomuiad, 544.
Skarlauga, nordisk, 548.
Skarl&nga, tretommad, 550.
Skarsnultra, 18.
Skotspigg, 657.
Skotstrommiug, 965.
Slant, 1009.
Slemsugare, 291.
Sloni, 867.
Slukal, 1033.
Slutenbl&singar, 461.
Slathvarf, 441, 443.
Slathvarfvel, 443.
Shitrocka, 1120.
Slatta, 390.
Slatte, 391, 398
Slattika, 391.
Slatting, 743, 746.
Slat-tobis, 573.
SlStt-vahr, 392.
Shittvar, 443.
Smear Dab, 383.
Snied, 561.

1238

Sinell, HOS, 869.

Smelt, Arctic, 867.

Smelt, Atlantic, 867, 86!».

Smelt, Pacific, 867.

smiridus (Merlucciiis), 515.

Smalivarf, 453.

Smilax, 832.

Smaling, 898.

Smdrotling, 842.

SmSsej, 503.

Smispigg, 658.

Smitorsk, 476.

Smarliug, 898.

Smurbult, svart, 245.

Snaebel. 909.

Snake-fish, 711.

Snorfojbiil, 297.

Snorgers, 41.

Snorluf, 41.

Snorpels, 41.

Snultra, 2.

Suurrevad, 1035.

Snorpuvad, 972.

socialis (Salmo). 876.

Sockerskadda, 372, 382.

Sole, 386.

Sole, Smooth, 428.

Solea, 371, 372.

solea (Pleuronectes), 372.

soleajformis (Araoglossus, Rliombus), 429.

Soleina, 371.

Soleini, 370.

Solenostoma, 662, 663.

Soles, Double, 375.

Soles, Revei-sed, 375.

Solsensodg, 757.

Somniosus, 1167.

Sorthaa, 1163.

Spier, 511.

Spallaiizani (Leptocojilialus), 1038.

Spanjor, 1119.

Sparidse, 25, 52.

Spariui, 53.

Sparlingus, 974.

Sparus, 56.

speciosa (Julis), 21.

speciosus (Labrus), 10.

specularis (Cyprinus), 724.

Sperlin-Bleak, 797.

spet (Sphyriena), 327.

Spetsstjertadt Langebaru, 225.

Sphagebranchus, 1022.

Spliyr<-Ena, 917, 945.

sphyrasna (Argentina), 912, 917.

Sphyr^nida!, 327.

Sphyrua;, 1128.

Spigg, 2, 657.

Spillanga, 530.

Spilstrsenghyse, 1084.

spilurus (Aspius), 782.

Spinachia, Spinochia, 637, 638.

spiuachia (GasterosteuB, Gastrifia), 638, 660.

Spinacida", 1128, 1157.

Spina.\, 1162.

spina.x (Acanthias, Etmopterus, Sipi.Tliis), 1157,

1163.
Spindelflynder, 379.
spinosus (Cycloptcnis), 298.
spinosus (Echinorhimis), 1157.
spinosus (Zeus), 306.

spinosissimus (Aspidophorus, Leptagonus), 206.
spinulosus (Gasterosteus aculcatus), 646, 648.
Spirinehus, 869.

spirinchus (Osmenis, Saluio), 867. 870. 875.
Spirlin, 798.

Spirliuus, 790, 796.

splendens (Bery.x), 68, 429.

Spjutrocka, 1098.

Spotted Dog Fi.sh, 1154.

Spotted Dog Fish, lesser, 1154.

Spotted Goby, 262.

Sprat, 953, 974.

Spratella, 974.

Spratelloides, 952.

Sprattus, 974.

sprattus (Clupea, Harengida, Meletla), 952,

974, 979.
Springkrok, 1009.
spurius (Salmo), 851.
Spatta, 398.
Squaliu.s, 760, 770.
Squalo, 770.
Squalus, 1157.
squalus (Leuciscus), 778.
Squamipinnes, 49, 52, 71.
squaticola (Alepas, Anelasnia), 1166.
squatiua (Rhina), 975.
Stafsill, 989.
Stagg, 657.
Staggsill, 87.

stagnalis (Sahiio), 835, 843, 867.
Stainbuck, 297.
Stainbajtare, 297.
Stakanat, 859.
Staksill, 87, 984.
Stamp, 530.
Stamsill, 983.
Stavsild, 919.
Steensuer, 1208.
Steinbits-Broder, 236.
Steinbutt, 441.
stelIari8(Scylliorliiuus, Scylliuui, Squalus). 1076,

1148, 1152.
stellatus (Acipeuscr), 1055.
stellatns (Liparis), 290.

stellatus (Platessa, Pleuronectes), 399, 403.
Stenbider, 235.

Stenbit, 297, 711, 831—833.
Stenbrosme, 543.
Stenflundra, 441.
Stengers, 174.
Stenlake, 172, 711.
stenobrachii, Acanthopterygii, 24
Stenodus, 875, 889.
stenorhynchi (Coregoni lavarcti). 902.
stenoripidi, Acanthopterygii, 24.
Stensirapa, 170.
Stensnultra, 16.
Stenspotta, 441.

Stensugare, 172. 385, 746, 1195.
Stensut, 172.
Sterility of Salmons, 838.
Sterlet, 1049, 1055.
Sternoptychid*, 305, 826, 923, 947.
Sternoptychin*, 923, 924.
Sternoptyx, 305, 925.
Stickleback, Fifteen-spined, 638.
Stickleback, Ten-spined, 658.
Stickleback, Three-spined, 647.
Stickk-bnck-net, 657.
Sticklebacks, 2, 635.
Stigmatophora, 687.
Stineus, 869.
Stirr, 833.
Stizostedium, 25, 36.
Stockfisk, 503.
Stoer, 1056.
Stolephorus, 990.
stomachicus (Salmo), 840, 851.
Stone-Bass. 47.

Stone-biter, 711.

Stor Flygfisk, 357.

Storgap, 425.

Storgnoding, 200.

Storniun, 425.

Stornors, 868.

Storryssja, 859.

Storroding, 842.

Storsik, 900.

Storslom, 868.

Storspigg, 647.

Stortorsk, 476.

Strandsatt, 859.

Strandvad, 1035,

Strinsia, 463.

Striped Wrasse, 10.

Stroemii (Carelophus. Gunnellus). 218.

Stroemii (Macrmiis), 590.

Strafling, 763.

Stromharr, 887.

Stromming, 959. 960.

Strouiming, Autumn, 960, 966.

Stromming, Ice, 965.

Stromming, Net, 965.

Stromming, Spring, 960, 965.

Sfronuningsvarp, 970.

Stromsill, 917, 919.

Sturgeon, 1056.

Sturgeon-fishes, 1043.

Sturgeons, 829, 1054.

Sturio, 1056.

sturio (Acipenser), 1046, 1056, 1204.

stnrioides (Acipenser), 1057, 1061.

Stuvitzii (Boreogobius, Gobiosoma, Gobius

Lafrunculus), 266.
Stylophorus, 314.
Stymphaliciis (Leuciscus), 787.
Styria, 1056.
Stangkrok, 1008.
Starting, 763.
Stam, 720, 760.
Stor, 1056.

Sucker, Bimaculated. 302.
Sucker, Lump, 294.
Suder, 752.
Sudernal, 14.
Sudis, 827,. 945.
Sugare, 283.
Sugfisk, 283.

Suidteri (Coregonus), 899.
Buillus (Ctenolabrus, Labrus), 16.
Sujefiauus (Blennius), 213.
Sula, 375.

Sulzeri (Coregonus), 899.
sundaica (Clupea), 952.
Sunfish, Short, 625.
superciliosus (Clinus), 219.
suppositus (Gasterosteus), 648.
surmuletus (Mullus), 63.
Sutare, 720, 748, 752.
svalliza (Squalius), 770.
Svartbuksrocka, 1123.
Svart Sniorbult, 245.
Svartspoling, 815.
Svarttorsk, 477.
Svardfisk, 222.
Swordfish, 118, 221.
Synaphobrauchidaj, 1022.
Synentognathi, 342.
Syngnathi marsupiales, 667.
Syngnathi ophidii, 667.
Syngnathida;, 662, 663.
Syngnathina>, 663, 696.
Syngn.athus, 347. 661, 667.
Sypiga, 14.

. , ,;-Nual, ui>u.
S.ilvtisk, 1084.
Snlvhaae, 1079.
Sulvqveite, 314, .^15.
sr.mu.s 1084.
sr.rotte, 1084.
^„r.av. 1084.

T.iraiKl. 493.

I'a.lpole Fi8l., 558.

T.iMiiii, 314.

uvuia (Acai.tliopsis, Botia, Oohititi, (iobitis),

703, 705, 706, 714.
t.-iMiiensis (Olupea Imrengus), 959.
Ta-niiformes, 309.
Ta'nioides, 309.
la'LioiKitns (Syii.snatlius), 669.
i.ii.iuptonis (Cottiis), 181.
laiuiis (Anidglossus), 428.
Tivrlu', 1107.
Taggmakril, 86.
TaggsiU, 87.
TaggKiuipa. 191.
Tajmeu, 832. 837, 856.
laiicoidcs (Labriis), 7.
Tandfierasfer, 601.
Tangbiosme, 223.

tapeinosoma (Ariiogloesus), 428, 430, 431.
tapinorhyuelii (CViregoni lavareti), 900.
Tara, 482.
Taretorsk. 477.
tail (Batraclius, Gadus), 134.
tazo (Scomber), 108.
Tectobrancbii, 1063.
Tectospondyli, 1128.
Tejstefisk, 222.
Telara. 990.

telara (Setipiniia, Stolephonis), 991.
Teleostei, 1.

Teleostei pliysostoini, 689.
Teleostomi, 1044.
Telesoope-fisli, 734.
telesc-iipus (CypriiHis), 733.
Telestes, 753.
Temnodon. 82, 85.
Tench. 720, 748.

Tenufisk, Tcnnfisk ined spjiU. 657.
teuuirostris (Angiiilla), 1023.
teimirostris (Syngnatlms), 671.
teuuis (Enclieliopliis), 601.
Tepel, 1120.
Tepbrilis, 408.
tessellatiis (Labnis), 11.
Teste. 222.
TesteHsk, 220.

tetraoaiithus ((iasterosteiis). 644. 645, 648.
Tetragoiiiirida>, 327.
Tetragonunis, 327.
Tetraptunis, 117.
Tetrodmi. 619, 664.
Tetrodi.ntina. 622.
texana (Anguilla), 1023.
tc.\aiius (Gasterosteus), 648.
Tlialassophryne, 133.
Tl.aliicl.tbys. 875.

thazard (Aiixis, Scomber), 89, 92, 108.
Tholichtbys, 24.
Thompsonii (Acipeiiser), 1057.
Thomsonii (Ccttiis), 157.
Tlion l.lanc. 1138.

; oracatus (Cypriuus), 733.
loracici, Acanthopterygii, 24.
.'i'>racopteri, Orthocoriui, 24.
ll.ornback, 1074, 1087, 1104.
Tnresher Shark, 1137.
Thrissa, 952, 984, 990.
Thriss.jiiinrphi, 690, 826.
tliiiniiia, thunniiia (Euthyniins, ttnyiu

Scomber, Thyiiims), 93.
Thyiiialliis, 828, 882, 884. 891. 892.
thymallus (Corcgoniis. Salmo). 884.
Thymus, 884.
thynuus (Orcyuus. Scomber, Tbyijiins). 91

101.
Thyris, 363.

tiberiiius (Leiicisciis), 770.
Tilesia, 482.
Tinfish, Speared, 657.
Tinea, 720, 722, 747. 748.
tinea (Cyprinus, Ijcncisciis. Tim-.i). 748.
tinea (Labrus), 7, 18.
tinea (Strinsia), 463.
Tigerfl.aekad Ijat'katt, 236,
Tistefisk, 222.
Toadtisb, Common, 136.
Toadfish, European, 134.
tobianus (Ammcdytes), 568. 5711, 574.
Tobiskung, 570.
Tok. 1059, 1060.
Tope, 1072, 1132.
Topknot, Ekstroni's, 453.
Topknot, Muller's, 458.
Torpedinidie, 1093.
Torpedo, 1071, 1086.
Torr-borr, 1107.
Torsk, 2, 364, 368, 472, 562.
torvus (Caranx), 85.
torvus (C'ottuncuhis), 157.
Townscndii (Cliimfera, Iscbyodon), 1078.
TrachinidiP, 126, 127.
Tracliinini, 127.
Trachinomorphi, 126, 127.
Trachinus, 128, 272.
Trachipterus, 314.
Trachurus, 84.
trachurus (Caranx, Scomber, Traclmrus),

84, 86, 975.
trachurus (Gasterosteus aculeatus), 645.
trachurus (Hemilepidotus), 156.
Trachyderinus, 162.
Trachyuotus, 83, 85.
Trachypteridiv, 126, 309.
Trachypteroraorphi, 126, 309.
Trachypterus, 304, 310, 312, 314.
Trammel-net, 741. 1007.
Triacauthinie, 622, 631.
Triacantlius. 622.
Triadontinu, 622.
Trichis, Tricliius. 952.
Trichiurida-, 309.
Tricbonotidie, 211.
tricirralus (Gadus. MofeMa. Onos). 544,

551. 556.
tricuspis (Cottus, Phobetor), 160.
tridactyhis (Salarias), 212.
trifurcus (trifurcatus, Blennius, Raniceps),
Trigger-tislies, 632.
Trigia, 146, 194.
Triglime, 193.
Triglops, 157, 166.
trimaculatus (Labrus), 10.
tripunctuIatuB (Manrolicus), 931.
Trout. 851, 853. 855.
Trout, Common, 855, 856.
Trout, River, 856.

83,
648.

Trout, Sen, 860.

Trubbstjertailt Laiigcbarn, 228.

Trunifiskar, 49.

Trumpet-iishcs, 637.

Trutta, 841, 849, 884.

trutta (Sahuo, Trutta), 830, 831. 83

truttula (Salmo). 851.

Trygon, 1092, 1097.

Trygonida?, 1096.

Trygonoptenc, 1097.

Tryte, 28.

tscljawytseha (Oneorhynclius), 830.

Tschir, 899, 904.

Tnbfish, 200.

tudes (Zygwna), 1075.

tuuiidus (Chironectes, Lopliius), 145, 146.

Tnnnda, 331.

Tunfisk, 97.

Tunga, 372, 385, 386.

Tungehvarf, radtiiickig, 428.

Tungens hoer-unge, 425.

Tuuglik Flnndra, 391.

tnnicatus (Liparis), 287.

Tim -bellies, 622.

Tunnina, 93.

Tunny, 90, 97.

Turbot, 368, 432, 434, 435.

turdus (Labrus), 18.

Tnrneri (Lycodes), 609, 612.

Tu.shaj, 1155.

Tusk, 562.

Tviirspol, 832.

Twaite Shad, 984.

Typhle, Typhliue, 667.

typhle (Siphonostoma, Siphostonia, Byiignatlius),

663, 665, 666, 669, 672, 674.
typicus (Rbinodon), 1073.
typus (Carangicbthys), 83.
TSnglake, 603, 711.
Tangsnipa, 683.
Tangsualla, liten, 672.
Taiigsnalla, stor, 668.
TAngsnarta, 218.

Uakal, 481.

U.'egte Tunge, 425.

Ulk, 185, 190.

Unibla. 841.

nmbla (Salmo), 830. 831, 841. 842. K67.

Umble, Umbre, 841.

umbra (Sciiena). 51.

Umbrid.-p. 997.

nnciiiatiis (Ceulridermichtliys, Cottus, Iceius),

163.
undulata (Kaja), 1120.
unicohir (Ammocoetes), 1183, 11K6.
unicolor (Orcyuopsis, Pelamichthys, Pelaniys,

Scomber), 91, 103.
unicolor (Sparus), 53.

unimaculatus (Rhombus, Scophtbalmns), 452.
unipmictatus (Gobins), 262.
Upenajus, 61.
Ur. 152.
Uraleptus, 539.
Urauidea, 157, 169, 170.
Urauoscopus, 271, 272.
uranoscopus (Goliio), 742.
Uraspis, 83.
uraspis (Caranx), 83.
Uria grylle, 222.
Urocentrus, 67.
Urochorda, 1210.
Urogymni. 1097.
Urokadlin. 481.

Scnmtin

rishe.

156

Vnmpire-Ray, 10114.

vaiiipyrus (CVratoptiTa), lO'.U.

Vaiidesiiis, 8S'4.

vandesius (Coreffomis). IS04.

Vniilig Fjarsing, 128.

Vanlig Hafkalt, 2.S'2.

variabilis (AcauUiocottiis, Ccttus), 1K(I.

variabilis (Labrus). 7.

variabilis (Triitla). 851.

variegatus (Lahnis), 10.

Vaslodde, 882.

Vegie (Pleuroneetes). H90.

Veling, 768.

velivnlans (I.fpidorliomlms, Zt-iigoptenis), 447

451.
Vcndace, 803.
vencTiiensis (Saliiio), 851.

ventralis (Cottus, Gjamiocanllms.Pliiibetor). ItJO
vftitricosus (Salnio), 842.
Vennlandsroding, 842.
vernalis (Merlangiis). 511.
Veron, 754.

Verrillii (Lycoik-s), (il7.
vespertilio (Lopliius), 136.
vetula (Abramis), 812.
vexillifer (Tl.yinnlln.s), 884.
Vieille, La, 7.
Vildkraks-Biinpa, 185.
villosus (Clupea, Mallotus, Saliiio), 870
Vimba, Vinimii, 720, 799.
vimba (Abramis, Leiicabraiiiis, CyprimiK), 798

799.
vimba (Coregouus, Salmo), H93, 896.
viola (Anfimora, Haloporphyrus), 581.
vipera (Trachimis), 131, 266.
virens (Gadus, Pollacliius), 466, 467, 500
virideseens (Osincrus), 869, 872.
viridi-violaceus (Cyprimis), 724.
Visse-al, 1032.

vitrea (Perca, Stizosledium). 37.
vittatus (Cyprinus), 724.
vittatiis (Labnis), 10.
viviparus (Blennius, Euobelyopus. Zoarc;ens,

Zoarces), 603, 604.
viviparus (Sebastes), 148, 149.
Vogmar, 314, 315.
vogmanis (Trachypterus), 315.
volgensis (Perca), 37.
volilans (Exoctctus), 357, 358.
vomer (Raja), 1125.
vomer (Selene), 83.
vomerimis (Lopliius), 144.
vorax (Aspius), 782.
Yrakfisk, 47.
Vrakhus, 859.

vulgaris (Carassius), 735.

vulgaris (Couger), 143, 975, 1038.

vulgaris (Engraulis), 992.

vulgaris (Ei)erlaiius), 870

vulgaris (Flesus), 399.

vulgaris (Galeus), 1133.

vulgaris (Gobio), 743.

vulgaris (Gunncllus), 220.

vulgaris (Hippoglossus), 408, 409.

vulgaris (Julis), 21.

vulgaris (Leucisous), 761.

vulgaris (Limauda), 387.

vulgaris (Liparis), 284, 287.

vulgaris (Lota, Molva), 526, 532.

vulgaris (Merlaugus), 487.

vulgaris (Merluccius), 515.

vulgaris (Motella, Onos), 550.

vulgaris (Mnstelus), 1128.

vulgaris (Perca). 27.

vulgaris (Platessa), 392.

vulgaris (Solea), 365, 371. 372. 373.

vulgaris (Sphyra>na), 327.

vulgaris (Spinacbia), 638.

vulgaris (Tbymalhis), 884.

vulgaris (Tbynnus), 98.

vulgaris (Tinea), 720, 748.

vulgaris (Trygon), 1099.

vulpecula (Tbalassorliiuus), 1075.

vulpes (Alopecias, Alopias, Carcliarliiuus, Car-

charias, Squalus), 1075, 1135, 1136.
Valgild Torsk, 476.

Wabasheusis (Auguilla), 1023.

Wachna, Wachnja, 481.

Wagneri (Petromyzon), 1187.

Wartmanni (Corcgonus, Salmo), 892. 898. 900,

905, 907.
Wcever, Great, 128.
Weever, Lesser, 131.
Whiff, 447, 448.
wliiff (Lepidorbombus, Pleuroiieeles). 427, 447,

448, 455.
Wliitebait, 954.
White Bream, 803.
Whitefish, 759, 909.
Whiting, 465. 487.
Whiting, Pollack, Norwegian, 508.
Whiting pout, 493.
Widegreni (Coregonus), 898.
Willughbii (Coregonus), 894.
Willughbii (Trematopsis), 626.
Winter-Herring, 959.
Wobbegong, 1147.
Wolf. 46.

(Silurus), 697.

Xiphias, 117.
Xiphiida', 70.

118.
116.

J'arkandcnsis (Cobitis). 705.
Yarrelli (Argentina), 918.

Zaeliirus (Glyptoeephalus). 386.

zebra (Brachirus), 371.

Zenarchoptertis, 343.

Zenida;, 70, 126.

Zenopsis, 305.

Zeugopterus, 426, 456.

Zeus, 304.

Ziege, 823.

Zoarca?us, Zoarces, 211, 602.

Zope, 720, 721, 819.

zunasi (Clupea), 978.

Zyga!na, 1071.

Ziirtbe, 720, 799.

Zarthe, Black, 801.

Zarthe, Pale, 801.

Abuk, 772.

Adrag, 763.

Albrosme, 609.

Alglip, 1035.

Algard, 1035.

Alhomma, 1035.

Alkista, 1034.

Alkupa, 1034.

Alkussa, 607.

Allubb, 609.

Alryssja, 1035.

Alvad, 1035.

Alvimma, Alvinna, 1032.

Angerpiga, 390.

Anims-vimma, 894.

Arannare, 772.

II

Angsgad<bi, 1005.

Oienpaal, 512.

oresundica (Clupea liarengus), 959.

(!)reval, 889.

Oring, 832, 833.

Ornrocka, 1095.

Ort, 768.

Errata.

Page 594, column 2, line 12 from above: commfusiial, read commensal
Page 623, colunm 2, line 23 from above: aponeuros, read aponeiirosh
Page 1031, colunm 1, line 23 from above: 6 — 8 mm. (quoted fr

pagi-

sluaild be omitted.

.J,\COBV) should ]iriilialily be 6 — 8

note c on the

Plate XXVIII.

Figs. 1 and 2: Three-spimd Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus),
nat. size, fig. 1, ?, in winter-dress; fig. 2, cf, in summer-dress;
figures without any indication of locality, but specimens probably
from the Baltic.

Figs. 3 and 4: Ten-spined Stickkhack or Tinker (Gasterosteus
pungitius\ nat. size; fig. 3, ?, in summer-dress, from Haparanda
(N. Baltic), June, 1832; fig. 4, d", black dress.

Fig. 5: Fi/teen-spined Stickleback (Gastrmi spinachia\ "lo nat
size, specimen probably from the Baltic.

Figs. B — 8: Lesser Pipefish (Syngnathus rostellatus), three spe-
cimens caught at the surface of the sea in Koster Fjord (Bohuslan),
July, 1887; figs. 6 — S, a, nat. size; fig. 8,6 from the same spe-
cimen as fig. 8, o, but X 2.

Plate XXIX.

Fig. 1 : Deep-nosed Pipefish {Syngnathas typhle), ?, i,
painted from living specimen in Bohuslan, on the 30th of June, 1837.

Fig. 2: ^Equoreal Pipefish (Nerophis <ieqiioreus), ^, V2 nat. size,
from Bohuslan, 1833.

Fig. 0: Straight-nosed Pipefish (Nerophis ophidion), $, nat. size.
probably from the Baltic.

Fig. 4: Worm Pipefish (Nerophis lumbriciformis), cf, nat. size,
from Bohuslan; fig. 4, rt, fry of this species, X 3, see Vet. Akad.
Handl., 1837, pi. IV.

Plate XXX.

Fig. 1: Sheatfish (Silurns glanis), c^, V, nat. size, caught in
Lake Bafven (Sodermanland), on the 24th of May, 1889.

Figs. 2 and 3: Crucian Carp (Cyprinus carassius), d'd' from
Morko (in the Baltic); fig. 2, Lake Crucian Carp, ',„ nat. size;
fio-. 3, Pond Crucian Carp (= Cyprinus gihelio, Bi..), nat. size.

Plate XXXI.

Fig. 1: Carp (^Cyprinns carpio), of the variety Mirror Carp,
'/j nat. size, from Lake Millar, June, 1888.

Fig. 2: Goldfish (^Cyprlnus auratus), nat. size, cultivated and
purchased in Stockholm, April, 189L

Fig. 8: Gudgeon (^Gobio Jiuviatilis), 'i, iiAt. size, from Lake Finja
(Scania), painted from living specimen on the 13th of June, 1891 .

Fig. 4: Spined Loach (f'obitis t(enia), ?, nat. size, from tiie
River Skena (Ostrogothia), 1842.

Fig. 5: Loach (^Cobitis barbatula), ?, nat. size, from Finland

Plate XXXII.

Fig. 1 : Ide (Leuciscus Idas), <?", '/j nat. size, from the Baltic.

Fig. 2: Dace (Leuciscns grislagine), nat. size, from the north
of Sweden.

Fig. 3: Chub (Leuciscits cephalus). Vio nat. size, from the
River Motala, at Norrkoping.

Plate XXXIII.

Fig. 1: Roach (Leuciscus rutilus), cf, nat. size, probably from
the neighbourhood of Stockholm.

Fig. 2: Rndd {Scardinlus erythrophthalmus), Vio nat. size, pro-
bably from the same locality.

Fig. 3 : Minnow {Phoxinm ophya), cf and $, nat. size, probably
frojn the same locality.

Plate XXXIV.

Fig. 1: Zope (Abramis ballerus), ' ^ nat. size, figure without
any annotation on locality, but specimen probably from Lake

Malar.

Fig. 2: Bream (Abramis brama), o^, 'l, nat. size, probably
firom the neighbourhood of Stockholm.

-J

n

Plate XXXV.

Fig. 1 : fde {('i/prinvs Idus), young specinieu, nat. size, from
Morko (in the Baltic), tvpe-specimeii for Cyprlnus microle/>idotns,
Ekstrom.

Fig. 2: White Bream (Ahramis hlicca), ?, nat. size, probably
from Lake Malar.

Fig. 3: Zurthe {Leucahramis vlinha), tf, ' a nat. size, caught
in the River Motala, at Norrkoping, on the 28th of .June, 1H34.

Plate XXXVI.

Figs. 1 and 2: Asp {Aspius rapax), V* nat. size; cf (fig. 1),

from Lake Malar; ? (fig. 2), from the Baltic island-belt off Stockholm.

Fig. 3: Bleak {Alburnns lucidus), nat. size, probably from the

neighbourhood of Stockholm.

Plate XXXVII.

Figs. 1 and 2: (Jharr (Salmo umbla), 's nat. size, c^ (fig. 1)
and 9 (fig. 2), caught in the north part of Lake Wetter, on the
23rd of October, 1885.

Figs. 3 and 4: Salmon (Salmo salar), ''s nat. size, ? (fig. 3)
and d" (fig. 4), in the beginning of the spawning-time, at Elf-
karleby (R. Dal); figures from H. Wideoren's posthumous papers.

Plate XXXVIII.

Fig. 1: Salmon (Salmo salar), ',., nat. size, cT in sea-dress,
probably from Norrkoping.

Fig. 2: Silver Salmon (Salmo satar, Nar. (ridta). ' , nat. size,
sterile specunen from Lake Wetter.

Fig. 3: Tajmen {Salmn salar, var. trutta), figure labelled by
\V. V. WiUGHT: 'Tajmeu from Toniea".

Plate XXXIX.

Figs. 1 and 2: Trout (Salmo salar, var. trntla), ? (fig. 1),
7,8 nat. size, and cf (Hg. 2), \^ nat. size, in the beginning of the
spawning-time, at Elfkarleby (River Dal); figures from H. Wide-
GREn's posthumous papers.

Fig. 3: Sea Trout (Salmo salar, var. trntta), ? in fresh-water
dress.

Plate XL.

Fig. 1: Parr {Salmo salm\ juv.), nat. size.

Fig. 2: Forell (Salmo salar, var. trntta^ juv.), nat. size.
Fig. 3: Trout (Salmo salar, var. trutta), ''',, nat. size, from
Bohuslan.

Plate XLI.

Fig. 1: Smelt (Osmerux eperlanus), nat. size, probably from
the outlet of Lake Malar, at Stockholm.

Figs. 2 and 3: Capelin (Mallotus villosus), nat. size, d" (fig. 2)
and ? (fig. 3), from Trondhjem Fjord, April, 1892.

Fig. 4: Tench (Tinea vulgaris), o^, '',„ nat. size, probably
from Sodermanland.

Plate XLII.

Fig. 1: Grayling (Thymallus vulgaris), ',2 nat. size.

Fig. 2: Vendace (Coregonns alhula), ?, ' ^ nat. size, from Sa-
volax, Kalavesi (Finland).

Figs. 3 and 4: Giri/niad (('Oi-egonus lavaretus) m two Yurieties:
Blue Gwyniad (fig. 3), ^U nat. size, caught in Lake Lax (Dais-
land), in the month of December; Gray Gwyniad (fig. 4), Vg nat.
size, in spawning dress, from unknown locality.

n

Plate XLIII.

Fig. 1 : Coiiimon Herring ( Cltipeu liarengus), ' 4 nat. size, from
Bohusliin, January, 1887.

Fig. 2: Shad {Clupea alosa), ?, '2 nat. size, from Bohusliin,
June, 1887.

Plate XLIV.

Fig. 1: Baltic Herring (^Clupea harengus, var. memhras), (/,
nat. size, caught at Vaxhohn (island-belt of Stockholm) on the
16th of May, 1889.

Fig. 2: Spnit (^Clupea sprattus), nat. size, probably from
Bohuslan.

P'ig. 3: Boreal Pearl-side (Maurolicus Miilleri), nat. size, from
Bohuslan.

Fig. 4: Pike (Esox htcius), 72 nat. size, from unknown locality.

! Plate XLV.

i

I Fig. 1 : Common Eel {AngiiiUa oiilgaris), V', nat. size.

I Fig. 2: Conger (Conger vidgari^), '3 nai size, from a depth

of 60 fathoms, in Koster Fjord (Bohuslan), on the loth of Fe-
bruary, 1888.

Plate XLVI.

Fio-. 1: Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), d", ',« nat. STze,
caught in the Baltic, at Dalaro, on the 18th cf June, 1890.

Figs. 2 and 3: Northern Chinicera (Chimcera monstrosa), \u
nat. size; <f (fig. 2), caught in Trondhjem Fjord, on the 4th
of March, 1891; ? (fig. 3), from Sacke Fjord (N. Bohuslan).
Below the last figure the left pectoral and ventral fins of the
female specimen are to be seen, from above.

" ^ "

Plate XLVII.

Figs. 1 and 2: Thorn/jack (Raja clavaia), from Bohuslan;

? (fig. 1), \U nat. size; cT (fig. 2), '/, nat. size.

Fig. 3: Starry Ray (Raja radiatu), ?, '3 nat. size, from Bo-

huslan.

Plate XLVII I.

Common Skate (Raja batls), 9 (fig. 1), \U nat. size, from the

North Sea, on the 9th of December, 1891, dorsal and ventral

aspects; cT (fig. 2), '/« nat. size, light-spotted variety, from Grull-
mar Fjord (Bohuslan).

Plate XLIX.

Long-nosed Skate (Raja oxyrhynchus), cf, Vc nat. size, caught
in Koster Fjord (N. Bohuslan), on the 14th of November, 1889;
dorsal and ventral aspects.

Plate L.

Fig. 1 : Shagreen Skate (Raja fullonica), 9, ''5 nat. size, from
Bohuslan; ventral aspect.

Fig. 2: Tope (Galeorhinus galeus), d', '.'5 nat. size, from Bo-
huslan.

Fig. 3: Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus), foetus, Va nat. size,
from the Indian Ocean.

Plate LI.

Fig. 1: Porbeagle (hurus cornubicus), ?, '/„ nat. size, from
Bohuslan.

Fig. 2: Black-mouthed Dog-fish (Prisfiurus catulus), ?, V3 nat.
size, specimen caught in Kamso Fjord (N. Bohuslan), on the
25th of September, 1889.

Fig. 3: Sagre (Etmopterus spiiiax), <f, ',j nat. size, specimen
caught at a depth of 40—50 fathoms, in Stromstad Fjord, on
the 10th of November, 1881.

Fig. 4: Bough Hound (ScylHorhinus canicula), ?, " ,„ nat. size,
from the North Sea, 4th November, 1889.

Plate LI I.

Fig. 1 and 2: Picked Dog-fish (Squalus acanthias), from Bo-
huslan; (f (fig. 1), ''4 nat. size, caught in the month of November,
1886; 9 (fig. 2), ''5 nat. size.

Fig. 3 : Greenland Shark (Acanthorhmus carcharias)^ ?, '/.g nat.
size, from Bohuslan.

Plate LIII.

Fig. 1 : Lamprei/ {Petromyzon marinus) ?, '3 nat. size, caught
at Ringkjobing (Jutland), on the 19th of May, 1890.

Fig. 2 — 4: Lampern (Petromyzon fluciaUlis), from Elfkarleby
(River Dal), caught early in October, 1891. Fig. 2: adult ?,
'/j nat. size; below the figure may be seen the oral (sucking)
disk, nat. size, with its teeth: a/, anterior (maxillary) teeth; /»<,
posterior (mandibulary) teeth; alt, anterior, mlt, middle and pit,
posterior lateral teeth; aln, anterior lingual teeth; est, external
and ist, internal suctorial teeth. Figs. 3 and 4: two larvae (Prides,
Ammoccetes) caught together with the preceding specimen.

Fig. 5: Glutinous Hag {Myxine ghitinosa), ^4 nat. size, from
Bohuslan.

Fig. 6: Lancelet (Branchiostoina lanceolatuin), nat. size, from
Bohuslan, 23rd May, 1838.

Pisces Scandinavia

Tab.XXVIIL

mf)

1 et 2. Gasterosteus aculeatus; 3 et 4^: Gast. piingitius; 5:Spinachia vulgaris; 6 8: Syiignathus acus.

1-5 Wv Wright pimc.
6-8 C. Erdraann pinx.

MCZ L!3RARY
HARVARD U.^JIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE. MA USA

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^

^

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^

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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE. MA USA

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HARVA
CAMBR

"•^-j^-. h.A USA

Pisces ScandinaAAi^

Tab, XXXII.

1: Leuciscus idvis; 2: Leucisciis grisla^iiie; 3: Leuciscus cephalus.

Wv.'WriiM piTDC-

HARV -pY

CAM2 J3A

Pisces Scandinavia

Tab.XXXlIl.

wm'mmmm

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V

HVi^

1: Leuciscus rutilus; 2: Leuciscus erythrophthalnius; 3: Phoxinus aplT)"a.

Wv.Wri^lu pinx.

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HAR\- ... _._..,jirY
CAMBRiDGb. MA USA

Pisces Scandinavia

Tab. XXXIV

1: Abramis ballerus: 2: Abramis brama.

Wv Wright pinx

II \»l\ IH" ■^■■g-"^ i

J>i.*_.4-=^^«*-i _

..!-■ -J

MCZ LIBRARY
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Tab.XXXV

/

1: Leucicus idus juv-. 2: Abramis blirca: ?>: Leucabranus Ninib.

jl^^__r

MCZ L13.RA.^Y
HARVARD U|->^iVLR3ITY
CAMBRIDGE. MA USA

^

\ ot '2: Aspius r.ip,'

irnns lu cuius

pr~r

MCZ LIDRARY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE. MA USA

Pisces Scandinavia

Tab, XXXVll.

1 et2: Salmo umbla (saivelinuSil.c?, 2,^); SeX^i. Salmo salar /nobilis, 3.^, 'i.d'j.

Tig.l et 2 A Ekbloni pinx., 3 et 4- H.E.Bjorncrants apud.H. Widegren pinx.

MCZ LIDRARY
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Pisces Scandinavia

Tab. XXXVllI.

Salmo salar,
Fig 1: forma nobilis; ?et3: forma trutta.

WvWright pinx.

MC2 LIBRARY
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Pisces Scandinavia

Tal] XXXIX.

»' '»'

4 *

7\% V ■

vv.^V^:•::'A^=^v.c^^i'-^•^'.^■.'^t■

Sal mo salar, forma trutta.

Fi|,. 1 et 2 YCE.BjdmcrariLs pinx..
3"V/vWri^ht pinx

I I

■Ai

'3RARY
.'JIVERSITY
l-/'.;-,^.uDG£. MA USA

Pisces Scandinavia

laOAL.

^w^;**^.v,

v^

Salmo salar, forma trutta.

WvWri^ht pinx

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Pisces Scandinavia

Tab.XLL

\n Y\ Y> >-

1: Osmerus eperlanus; 2 et3: Mallolus ^illosiis; 'i:Tinca vulgaris.

Fi^. 1 efi W. V. Wright pinx
.. 2et3 L ■"

MCZ LIBRARY
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Pisces Scandinavia

Tab.XLIl.

1: Thvmallus vulgaris, 2: Coregonus albula,. 3 et ^iCoregonus lavarclus.

"W V Wright pinx;

MCZ LIBRARY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
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Pisces Scandinavi;?3

T;^hXI.in

C.Erdmaim pinx.

1 : Clupea hai'eagus; '-i . (hipea Alo.sa.

-JF"-^ -TV

MCZ LIBRARY
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Pisces Scandinavi;^

Tab.XLIV.

(^

l.Clupea haren^us imembras); 2:Clupea spratlus ; 3:Maurolicus Mulleri; 'i:Esox luciiis.

Ti^. 1 CErdraaim pinx.
„ Z-'i'W.v. Wriihr pinx

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Pisces Scandinaviae

du XLV

1: Anguilla vulgaris,- 2: Conger niger.

Fig. 1 W^Wri^ht pinx.
■ 2 C. Erdmann pinx.

_l L.

I

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HARVARD UMVERSIT^
CAMBRIDGE. MA USA

Pisces Scandinaviae

T-.!, vp/]

M-'

a.

i

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1: Acipenser sturio; 2 et 3: Chiniaera nionstrosa.

C.Erdmann pinx.

MCZ L12RARY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
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Pisces Scaiidinavlse

Tab.IM[.

1 et2: Raja clavata; 3: Raja radiata.

WvWri^ht pinx.

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MC2 LIBRARY
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><

X

^^

v

r:;
c^
o

en

CD
O

in

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Pisces Sv

l:Raja fulloiiica,- 2: Galeorhinus ^aleus; 3;Carcharias glaucus t'oel

Fig.let2'WvWright pinx
- 3 C. Erdmann piiix^

:#^

i:-

'WW

H. ../£.^SITY

CAiviBRlDGE. MA USA

Pisces Scan

i:iC

I:lsurus cornubicus , 2 : Pristiiu'us calulus;3 Elmopterus sspinax; "i: Scylliorhinus c:micula.

Fi^. lW-v:Wright nipv

\

MCZ L
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Pisces Scandinavia

Tab. Lll.

3, a

1 et 2: Squalus acanthias; 3: Acanthorhinus carcharias.

Fi^. 1 C. Erdmann piitx.
„ 2 et 3 WvWright pinx.

I

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Pisces Scandinavia

Ta-

::^:

l:lVtr()myzon nuuinus; I'-'t^Peti-. llimatilis; o. ]M>-xiii.^ glutiuosii.C: Braiicliiostoma hmceolatuiu.

: C. Erdrnann pinx
o.W.v.WnihX pinx.

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