fi

THE HOG BOOK

H. C. DAWSON

UNIVERSITY OF B C. LIBRARY

3 9424 00444 5943

,,i3£SlNG-0iNE

-FllG

U.B.C. LIBRARY

^

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

in 2010 witii funding from

University of Britisii Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/hogbookembodyinOOdaws

The Hog Book

Embodying the experience of fifty
years in the practical handling of
swine in the American cornbelt

By H. G. DAWSON

f^t^f^f^^

CHICAGO:
THE BREEDER'S GAZETTE

COPYRIGHT, 1911.

SANDERS PUBLISHING CO.

All rights reserved.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

H. C. Dawson Frontispiece

bacox Bellies. First Brand, Smoked Breakfast 348

Backs, Commercial Types of 351

Bedfordshire Hog, The 35

Bellies or Sides, Market 346

Berkshire, An English Type of 51

Berkshire Barrows, A Trio of Champion 53

Berkshire Type, A Modern 49

Bo.\R, A Wild 28

Butts and Plates 359

Chester White Boar, A 65

Chester White Sow, A 64

Chinese Hog, The 36

Crate, A Hog Shipping 166

Crates, Types of Breeding 189

DuRoc- Jersey, A Prize-'Winning 57

DuROc- Jersey, Boar, A Showyard 56

Duroc-Jersey" Sow, A Champion 59

Duroc-Jersey Sow and Litter 61

English Hog, The Old 37

Feeding Floor and Hoghouse, A 107

Hams, Home-Cured of High Quality 337

Hams, Long-Cut 339

Hams, Short-Cut 335

Hoghouse, A Moderate-Priced Centralized 95

Hoghouse, Ground Plan for a Centralized 97

Hoghouse, Nebraska Type of an Individual 101

Hoghouse. Wigwam, and Berkshire Sows 103

Hoghouse, Wigwam Type of 102

IL\MPsiiiRE Barrows 69

Large Black Sow, An English Deep-Milking 31

Large Yorkshire Boar, An English Type of 77

Large Yorkshire Sow. An English 78

Large Yorkshire Sows, A Pair of 73

Magie Hog, The 38

HIARKING Sy.stems 153, 155, 157, 158

Hess Pork Side, A 361

(5)

6 THE HOG BOOK

Neapolitan Berkshibe, The 50

Packer's Type of Hog, The 196

POLAND-ClIINAS, BIG-TYPE 43

Poland-Chinas, Bred by Author 41

Poland-Chinas, Showyard 39

Poland-China Type, A Pioneer 33

Pork Cuts 327

Shoulders, Market Types of 355

Siamese Hog, The 29

Sides, Long 344

Tam WORTH Boar, A Ty'Pical 79

Victoria Sows 81

H. C. DAWSON.

INTRODUCTION.

The reader will realize that to give an exhaustive
treatise on the hog business would be practically im-
possible, and that the very mass of such informa-
tion, were it given, would leave him in doubt and
confusion concerning the practical application of
what he had read.

I only give in the following pages that which I
have received. It has all been gained through the
experience of a life devoted almost entirely to the
live stock business. I believe that this common-
sense review of my experience will be of value, but I
write with no idea that I am beyond making mistakes
or learning new things. I would have no one con-
strue me as being above criticism. I naturally ex-
pect many fellow-breeders and feeders to disagree
with me on certain points. The hog business is so
broad and so deep and intricate that no man ever
can thoroughly master all its departments dur-
ing a lifetime. And even after a man has de-
voted practically all of his active j^ears to gaining
this knowledge, and is enabled successfully to apply
it to his own herds, he finds it a harder task yet to
impart it to others through the medium of the
printed page.

To my fellow-breeders and feeders I dedicate this

(7)

8 THE HOG BOOK

record of my experience, gained during 50 years
spent in breeding and handling the great American
hog. It is my hope that they may derive benefit
from it and that its publication will ultimately re-
sult in the betterment of breeds and types and in-
creased profits to producers.

In conclusion, I would remind you, no matter
what or how much you read, study, hear, or see, the
hard knocks of practical experience and close asso-
ciation with Mother Nature are the makers of suc-
cessful swine raisers.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL.

It is with considerable diffidence, and with no con-
scious egotism, that I write of my work in hog rais-
ing. No one realizes better than myself that the
credit of originating the Poland-China does not be-
long to any one man or set of men. Hundreds of
men experimented in breeding during the '50 's and
'60 's and I only claim to be one of the many who
contributed to the origination and development of
this popular, pork-producing breed.

I was born in 1839 between the Wabash and the
old '' Tippecanoe Battle Grounds," in Indiana. My
ancestors were descendants of Francis and Ralph
Dawson, who settled in Virginia and Maryland
from England in 1632 and 1685 respectively. My
ancestors were of the pioneer stock found in the
vanguard of the movement over the mountains and
down through the valleys of the Ohio. From all
accounts they were all lovers of good stock, and till-
ers of the soil. So it was only natural that my
father brought with him from Kentucky excellent
representatives of different breeds, and that I, at
an early age, began to take an interest in all the
stock on the farm. My interest soon gravitated
towards horses and hogs.

The prevailing type of hog during the '40 's was

(9)

10 THE HOG BOOK

lari!:c, coarse, big-framed, many-colored and slow-
maturing. The hogs were very prolific, were forced
to shift for themselves almost entirely, and were
given a short corn feeding for market. They ar-
rived at finished maturity at from two to five years.
In meat and product they varied much. As there
was no ideal as to breed, color or conformation,
every hograiser worked out his own solution by
breeding and crossing various types. This was
the era of experimentation. During it nearly all
our American breeds were established.

My father, like his neighbors, sought to improve
his swine by securing individuals of approved type
from local herds, to cross on his own. Often the
colors and types were so radically different from
previous ones, or the breeding herd, that there was
much conjecture as to the outcome of such breed-
ing. Boy-like, I often asked my father questions
along this line, many of which he was able satis-
factorily to answer in both theory and practice.
But a few of his experiments had left very pain-
ful memories. The main tendency, however, was
toward betterment. When 17 years of age I was
given a working interest in the farm, and I sought
to establish a type that would fill the demands of
the breeding and market pens. At fairs in Indi-
ana and Ohio I found many promising individuals,
and by careful selection, mating and care, I soon
had a small herd of high quality for that period.

In 1860 I bought two sows of David Magie, which
were entirely white in color, being somewhat sim-

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL 11

ilar in conformation to a large-framed modern
Chester White sow. These were known as Magie
hogs and they and their progeny were bred to boars
which were bred by John Milliken, W. W. Ells-
worth and David Magie. These two original sows
I called * 'Queens." All their progeny retained as
brood sows were also given the name ''Queen," and
through the various bloodlines that have been in
my herds of Poland-Chinas to the present time not
a single link of the chain has been lost that con-
nects the Queens of the '60 's to the Queens of my
1910 herds.

In 1864 my first exhibition of swine was made at
the Indiana State Fair. The type of my exhibit
was very similar to that of Magic's and Hark-
rader's, mostly black with large white spots. At
this fair I. won some second and minor ribbons in
competition with Magie, Tilford, Rice and others.
In Magic's exhibit was a litter of pigs almost solid
black with white markings, much like those seen
at the present time. This litter won the first-prize
over mine, and, being inquisitive, I asked "Uncle"
David how he produced the black ground and white
markings. His answer was, "My boy, when you
have bred hogs as long as I have you will know
how." But by much questioning and investigation
I arrived at my own conclusion, and the following
year at the same fair I exhi])ited a litter that was a
facsimile of "Uncle" David's. It immediately at-
tracted his attention and after he had bought the
first-prize pig of this litter to use in his own herd

12 THE HOG BOOK

he asked me the same question I had asked him
previously. I laughingly replied, ''The same way
you did, ' Uncle ' David. ' ' Then I told him the facts,
that the litter was sired by a big black Berkshire
boar with upright ears and a conformation and
markings similar to those of modern Berkshires.
This hog was imported from England by J. A. John-
son, Green Hill, Ind. Many Poland-China breeders
try to deny the infusion of Berkshire blood, but
from personal observation I would assert that
nearly all the breeders who originated the Poland-
China used at least one dip of the black, upright-
eared Berkshire in their work. It was not prac-
ticed much, if at all, after 1870.

Using the progeny of the two original sows, which
I purchased of Magie, for the basis of my sow herd,
I continued to secure boars of outstanding indi-
vidual merit, from outside sources of the same
breed and type. I continued annually to exhibit at
Indianapolis, always winning a fair part of the rib-
bons. At the same time I sold many hogs of my
breeding to breeders and farmers in Indiana, Ohio,
Kentucky and Illinois. In 1873, following the in-
stinct of my pioneer blood, I located in the then so-
called desert of Nebraska. In spite of all the warn-
ings and dire predictions of my friends, I took along
the best individuals of my horses, cattle and hogs.
And I have never had reason to regret the change
in my base of operations. Nebraska was so new
and undeveloped that it was a matter of consider-
able hardship to carry on a breeding and exhibiting

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL 13

business with hogs; but I continued annually to
exhibit at the state fair, from its inception during
the later '70 's to the present time. I cannot re-
member, in that period, either being absent or fail-
ing entirely to win a ribbon.

There was considerable agitation about records,
and one was finally formed at Cedar Eapids, la.,
in 1878, called the American Poland-China Eecord
Association. To this organization I gave aid and
support, and recorded several animals in its first
volume. Prominent among these were Poland
Queen and Poland Queen 2d, which were direct
descendants of the two original sows purchased of
Magie in 1860, and a boar, Major Magie 47, whose
date of farrow was unknown, being sired by Jim
Traer, by Alexander, dam Black Bess. Major
Magic's dam was Beauty, by General. All of these
were bred by D. M. Magie. As there was no sys-
tematic way of keeping records in those days there
was much confusion and difficulty in getting many
hogs into the record, D. M. Magie was somewhat
adverse to organized associations, as he felt piqued
by their selection of the name Poland-China instead
of Magie Hog. The result was ill-feeling for many
years afterward.

There are other families of Poland-Chinas that
antedate my own, and have had more influence in
moulding and originating the breed. And there
were, perhaps, a hundred other breeders who con-
tributed as much as, or more than, I did, and I
do not wish to be understood as attempting to de-

14 THE nor, BOOK

tract from the acliievements of these men or the
merits of their families of liogs. My greatest pride
is to be classed as one of the men who worked con-
sistently and diligently for more than 50 years with
one breed, carrying the bloodlines of the original
stock through the whole period. We worked for one
type, that which is now known as the Breeders and
Farmers' T}^e.

Back in the early days, when the Poland-China
was being moulded into form, I recall personal ac-
quaintance and dealings with many of the most
prominent breeders, among them being David
Magie, John Milliken, David Finch, John Salmon
and J. B. Duffield, the breeder of Tom Corwin 2d,
all of Ohio ; W. W. Ellsworth, H. M. & W. P. Sisson,
B. F. Dorsey, D. P. McCracken and J. N. Mc-
Creary, all of Illinois; and Daniel Drook and Ran-
kin Baldridge of Indiana. At a later date I be-
came acquainted with W. P. Hazlett of Missouri and
John Gilmore, S. A. Knapp, and W. Z. Swallow of
Iowa. There were many other breeders, perhaps
more prominent than some I have named, but those
mentioned I personally recall.

All through my life I have been actively engaged
in the hog business, and have had more or less ex-
perience in every department. During the later
'60 's and early '70 's I dealt extensively in butcher
hogs. I bought them in droves, and after driving
them overland to railroad stations, shipped them
by rail to Buffalo, Cincinnati or Chicago. At the
same time I was interested in a packing house at

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL IS

Lafayette, Intl. I also continued shipping market
hogs after coming to Nebraska, often shipping solid
trainloads of cattle and hogs to the leading jDacking
centers. After looking over my old account books
I believe it safe to assert tliat I have bought and
sold 500,000 hogs for shipping and slaughtering
purposes. I estimate the number of hogs bred and
raised under my supervision to be nearly 10,000
head, and as I have conducted many public sales
during the last 20 years, buying and reselling pedi-
gree Poland-Chinas, the total number of pedigree
hogs handled under my supervision during the last
50 years is probably about 25,000, and figuring in
all hogs in wliicli I have had some sort of a partner-
ship dealing or interest during my lifetime, I be-
lieve the total number will exceed one million head.

Before 1890 I depended mainly on selling my sur-
plus breedin'g stock by attending various state fairs
and by advertising in stock papers. Noting that
the public sale method, employed in selling other
breeds of live stock, was very successful, I planned
to hold my first public sale of Poland-Chinas, and it
took place during the fall of 1891. Since then I
have depended on this method more than any other
in disposing of the surplus breeding stock of my
own herds.

During the '90 's it became evident that a new
type of Poland-China must be established, and with
the co-operation of many of my fellow-breeders
there was formed a type that is now known as the
"big- type." For several years it was hard to dis-

16 THE HOG BOOK

pose of strongly- developed individuals of this t;
and it was also very difficult to secure ribbons
them at fairs, in competition with the smaller
fancier type. So, as the mountain would not c
to us, we arose to the occasion and went to
mountain. We consigned drafts of big-type 1
to public sales which were liberally advertisec
occur at sale points in Iowa, the Dakotas, Missc
Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. These s
were successful, and a demand for a farmer's
was created among farmers and breeders. As
best efforts had been put forth in breeding, fee(
and exhibiting animals of this type, the succe
of these exhibits also created a stronger interes
and demand for this type. Among the chief wor]
in this matter were Col. "Tom" C. Callahan
Col. Z. S. Branson. Two noted sires of the 1
were Wliat's Wanted Jr. and Expansion. We
tributed much of our success to advertising,
have found by actual experience that nothing j
better, when correctly placed and followed up.
always figure to spend from $50 to $300 for ad
tising each sale, according to the circumstances
location. We also carry several hundred doll
worth of general advertising annually. Thrc
this advertising I have sold hogs to nearly e^
state in the Union, besides sending consignm
to Mexico, Canada, Argentina, South America
Africa. And even though I believe myself tc
well-established in reputation among my fel
breeders, I would never think of stopping the ad

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL 17

tising of my Poland-Chinas. To do so would be
equivalent to my retirement from active participa-
tion in my life-long work. And that, so long as I
have physical or mental energy, would be but little
better than a living death.

It may be thought that I am an advocate solely
of the big type Poland-China. This is erroneous, as
I demand quality as well as size, and the farm-
er's pork hog has always been my ideal type.
True all my efforts as a breeder and exhibitor have
been with the Poland-China, but I have always been
ready to recognize and believe in the good charac-
teristics of other breeds. If the reader carefully will
follow the narration of my experience he will, how-
ever, understand my selection of and adherence to
the large tj^pe.

I believe it would not be out of place to mention
my successes in the showrings and sale rings. The
aggregate number of ribbons won in 50 consecutive
years of exhibiting Poland-Chinas at leading west-
em state fairs and expositions totals more than
1,000, and I never made a showing at any fair where
I did not secure one or more first prizes. I have
also had the pleasure of noting the winnings of
many individuals of my breeding.

AGRICULTURE THE FOUNDATION.

No nation can long remain powerful that does not
produce its own food. All wealth by the personal
use of its symbols, gold and silver, gives neither
life, health nor comfort, but agriculture gives all
these to man and secures to his arm the powers of
might and possession. Agriculture is the bed-rock
of nations, and their prosperity largely is meas-
ured by the intelligence and industry of tillers of
the soil. In ancient Rome and Greece agriculture
became a lost art, and decadence was the result.
Nations prosper that produce necessities in excess
of the demands of their own people. This is shown
in Germany, Russia and France and the promised
assertions of power and influence in worldly affairs
by the Chinese and Indian Empires. All of these
countries with the United States are known as the
greatest of agricultural nations, and either have, or
promise to be, the controlling powers of the world.

Nature's creatures when wounded or physically
weakened seek her healing powers, knowing that
what she has once builded she alone can repair.
Men are learning that the freest life is lived only in
the country. Belated cries of ''back to the soil"
are the expressions of a man's folly. For the most
part this state of mind is gained at periods too late
in life for personal advantage.

(18)

AGRICULTURE THE FOUNDATION 19

Agricultural wealth accounts for our standing
among nations. The world is beginning to recognize
the importance of the development of agriculture.
Nearly all our available lands are under cultivation,
and the limit in quantity of production under exist-
ing methods is clearly marked. With our rapidly
increasing population we shall soon be consuming
more than we can produce, under existing condi-
tions, and will be forced to be buyers. But the prom-
ises of agriculture are so great that if its art and
science continue to be developed we shall always
have ample food for our population. Stock hus-
bandry, however, is declining in some regions, and
this is economically unsound. The marked decreases
in the number of breeding animals, with increased
valuation per head, tells of wrong conditions. This
must be remedied by our own generation. In large
part this decrease is due to altered range conditions,
increased cost of production and the desertion of
farms by well-to-do farmers of middle age, who are
flocking to towns and cities. No other branch of
agriculture offers such large and steady returns
as hograising with dairying. Conducted on mod-
ern lines, this Combination, leading to intensifica-
tion of the production of grain and forage, and
involving the utilization of wastes and by-products,
is a success.

Friction between producers and consumers is a
condition of vital importance. To correct it we must
cease blaming this class or that, as neither the
packer, the railroad nor the manufacturer alone is

20 THE HOG BOOK

accountable, no more than is the farmer, the ranch-
man, the home banker, or the laboring man. Con-
ditions must be brought about so that intensified
farming may be practiced, landlordism checked, and
the producing acres owned and tilled by producing
people, so that production shall be high. Wealth
alone can not produce food; it takes thought and
labor and soil fertility to produce food and comforts
for the farmer and his family and a surplus for the
non-producing classes, with prices regulated by the
law of supply and demand.

THE HOG BUSINESS.

There is probably no other class of live stock that
offers greater returns upon the investment than
hogs. And the hog itself is a necessary adjunct to
any general-farming or live stock business, if the
fullest profits are to be realized. No other farm
animal can convert, so economically and profitably,
the wastes and by-products of the farm into finished
products of high quality and constant value through-
out the year.

The increasing value of land, foodstuffs and labor
is making it necessary that agriculture be hence-
forth a more scientific pursuit, in which the cost of
production 'as well as the quality and quantity of
the product, be considered, and the farm made to
produce at its full capacity. This is true as well
of the hog business. All its branches eventually
converge into one ending, the finished product.
That must in the end justify every other side of the
business.

The first essential in the hog business is good
seed, but it must be bred and developed by a man
who takes an intelligent interest in raising the ex-
cellence of his t^'pe. Such men may be termed
hog breeders, and to them must be given the credit
of maintaining and improving the standards of all
breeds.

(21)

22 THE HOG BOOK

Pork producers, on the other hand, are not at-
tached to any one breed, but care more for type and
producing qualities. Their seed is obtained largely
from breeders, and by years of experience with all
breeds and types most porkmakers have learned to
be very practical in their selections. The majority
of them are producing hogs that possess type rather
than breed character; that can convert the by-prod-
ucts and feedstuffs of their farms into finished meats
of the highest quality, in the least time, and at the
least cost. The producer's pens are really an exper-
iment farm upon which the breeder tries out his
types and breeds, and he is guided greatly by the
results of these experiments in his selection of
types. As the result of these experiments and the
interchange of experiences with breeders, produc-
ers are of the opinion that pure-bred or high-grade
hogs of a quick maturing pork-type are the most
profitable for their business.

The successes of breeders and porkmakers can
be traced almost directly to their choice of, and
adherence to, breed and type. Proper mating,
proper care, proper feedstuffs are all essential, and
no matter how well-bred a hog may be individually,
the lack of any of these essentials will tend to upset
the physiology of individuals and their progeny
until marked degeneracy is accomplished. The ten-
dency towards reversion is constant and must be
constantly fought.

Over against these breeders and producers may
be set a class of hograisers whose activities are al-

THE HOG BUSINESS 23

most entirely pernicious. These people — it is hard
to find a suitable name for them — as a class conduct
their business as a side-line or on the ''root hog or
die" basis, never giving it serious attention, unless,
through their careless and ignorant methods in feed-
ing and handling, their hogs develop fatal diseases,
or when they are so fortunate as to have a good
bunch of finished porkers ready to convert into dol-
lars. Such men need the greatest awakening, for
on them rests largely the responsibility for sur-
pluses and shortages and the diseases of swine;
their careless, inditferent, and oftentimes ignorant,
methods of breeding, feeding and caring for hogs
are perhaps the greatest menaces to the progress
and health of all breeds.

So it is well for all men who plan to engage in
the production of pork to weigh their qualifications.
To be successful, much time, study and personal
attention are required. Hogmen are neither born
nor bred, but are generally created by the necessity
of economical general-farming, where the hog is a
necessary consumer of what would otherwise be
waste. The hog will ever be the poor man's friend,
and will never become the rich man's hobby. To
the poor man he becomes at once a personal luxury
and an investment that under good care and treat-
ment will bring home many other comforts and
necessities of life. Dollars will never produce ideal
breeding or pork hogs, but ideal breeding and pork
hogs will, with the proper personal study and care,
produce dollars. So no matter what prices are paid

24 THE HOG BOOK

for individuals, tlieir merits, feed and care deter-
mine almost entirely the successful outcome of the
business.

It is not wisdom to assume that a few years'
experience qualifies a man to speak exhaustively and
authoritatively upon all phases of hog-raising, for
even a lifetime's labor and association will not at-
tain that goal.

No man can realize this better than do the old-
time breeders, who in their mature years view
the prejudices and listen to the theories propounded
by the younger generation of hog men — not that
we would assume to ridicule, for we would rather
commend and admire their showing of zeal and spir-
it, for we too passed along the same roadway, learn-
ing by experience as they, and now we are free
to confess, somewhat with shame, that we too were
perhaps just as egotistic.

After all we all realize that of such men are the
real hogmen made, who will in their maturer years
realize as do we that the ways and endings of the
hog business are many, intricate and varied and that
its science will never be thoroughly mastered in a
lifetime even by master breeders.

THE MAN.

The greatest qualification of a hograiser is a
natural liking for all farm animals. Only a man
who is perfectly at home tending stock and who
takes actual pleasure in the care of his animals, will
be able intelligently to note their progress and their
response to feeding and general treatment. To be
at home in the business a man must have common-
sense and good judgment. He must be able to dis-
cern the merits of individuals, herds and breeds, and
to foretell in large measure the results of mating
individuals of different types and breeds. He
should be conservative and possess an equable tem-
perament, as the hog and many problems of its
raising refuse to be hurried. He should also have
considerable perseverance or else some results will
outstrip his endurance — the proverbial driving of
a pig to market being a case in point. The hog-
raiser of course must be industrious and a lover of
outdoor life, for the hog takes most of his time dur-
ing daylight hours. It is less obvious but equally
true that he must be an artist, that is to say, that he
must use imagination, for his task is to create from
his "raw material" a better and more profitable
animal and that, of course, means using his imagin-
ation constructively. The hograiser should be eco-
nomical in his business affairs, remembering in the

(25)

26 THE HOG BOOK

days of prosperity that extravagance will bring
days of want. The hog business being generally
built up from small beginnings, is open to the man
of little capital and it is, in fact, better to start it
on a small scale. To start at the top by paying high
prices for breeding stock and investing much money
and time before acquiring experience on a small
scale is to make the worst possible start. The wise
plan is to acquire experience from actual practice,
on a small scale, of all things necessary to the suc-
cessful carrying on of the business.

BREED HISTORIES.

The hog is scientifically classified as a genus of
the Suidea branch of the Pachydermatous or mam-
mal family. This branch is characterized by a short
muscular snout, sensitive to touch and smell, and
used in searching for food. Its members are four-
footed and generally have four toes on each foot,
with the front toes larger and bearing the weight,
and the hind toes normally above the ground. The
hog is considered the most omnivorous of all mam-
mals.

The hog of the present day has two lines of an-
cestry. The first is the wild hog of Northern
Europe and Northern Asia, still to be found un-
changed in its original home; the second is the
aboriginal hog of the southern latitudes. The wild
hog of northern latitudes is Sus Scofra. Its size
varies widely, according to location, feedstuffs and
climate. Constitutionally, the wild hog is very
strong, having great heart and lung capacity, being,
in fact, generally twice as deep through the fore part
as through the flank. The head is long and gener-
ally bears large tushes. It has heavy shields on the
shoulders, which, with their necks, are well devel-
oped muscularly. The jowl is clean-cut, and the body
close-coupled in the back, with a comparatively
small loin and ham. The wild hog is of slow matur-

(27)

28

THE HOG BOOK

ity and often lives 25 or 30 years. It breeds once a
year and produces a medium-sized litter. The
young are mothered until four or five months of
age, but protected until they have reached their full
stature, which sometimes is not attained for three or
four years.

A WILD BOAR.

The other type from which modern breeds orig-
inated is the Sus Indica, an inhabitant of the warm
southern latitudes of Europe and Asia. It is a
smaller type than the northern hog, thin-skinned,
early-maturing, fatter, of a finer quality and gentler
disposition. The Siamese, Chinese and Neapolitan
hogs were good examples of its descendants, and

EARLY HISTORY

29

they were used early in 1800 to secure maturing
and fattening qualities in many American breeds.

Wliile the hog is not native to America nor — is
it thought — to Great Britain, these two countries
must be given credit for all the leading breeds of
recent and modern times. America secured the
most of its original stock from Great Britain, and

THE SIAMESE HOG.

the history of the development of swine is prac-
tically the same in the two countries. The old Eng-
lish hog is the original breed, the foundation of
nearly all the late American and English types.
According to the first authentic record of the hog's
arrival in America, Columbus, in his second voyage
to Cuba in 1493 brought over a few breeding indi-

30 THE HOG BOOK

viduals of a reddisli caste, of Spanish origin and
slow-maturing type. Otlier early voyagers brought
individuals of widely different types to many places
along the coast line of the New World during the
beginning of the next century. But probably the
first importations of any benefit were made by the
English to- the Virginia colonies in 1608, and to
Massachusetts in 1624. Holland also sent hogs to
Manhattan Island in 1625. Following these early
importations came numerous others until our colo-
nies had a fair representation of almost every type
then existing in Europe. But the early settlers did
not pay much attention to the uses or welfare of tli"
hog, and for the most part allowed it to rustle ac
large, living in the woods, exposed to dangers and to
the elements. Hogs did not attain much common
development under such conditions, and they did
not change materially until the colonies l)egan to
seek the power to govern themselves.

Peculiarly enough George Washington was the
first importer of a highly-bred type of pork-produc-
ing hog, to be used in establishing a more profitable
stock husbandry. This was during the 1760 's; the
hogs were from the estate of the Duke of Bedford,
who had developed the type from the then existing
English stock. The progeny of this importation
became known as the Bedfordshires. During the
years before and after the Revolutionary War our
vessels of commerce brought importations of hogs
from nearly every port of hograising countries.
These were crossed on existing types, and the re-

EARLY HISTORY

31

32 THE HOG BOOK

suits varied widely with each locality, developing
types of different sizes, colors, shapes and vahies
which are the basis of all the leading American
breeds of today. These crosses eventually became
known as the Bedfordshires, Chinas, old Berk-
shires, Irish Graziers, Red Rocks, Guinea Reds, Jer-
seys, old Yorkshires, Cheshires, Siamese, Suffolks,
Chesters and Essex, and it was not until the period
between 1830 and 1840 that they became distinct in
breed, and attained their present stability.

New Jersey is credited with being the home of
the Duroc- Jersey breed, and the Quakers with hav-
ing produced the Chester White's original founda-
tions. Poland-Chinas were developed in the valleys
of Ohio. ^Hiile the Berkshires are generally cred-
ited to England they received their greatest develop-
ment in America. Several minor breeds have been
developed in America, and others have been lately
imported and developed more highly than they had
been in their original homes.

POLAND-CHINAS.

In giving the history of the ditferent breeds of
hogs I cannot always speak from personal knowl-
edge, and in many cases I draw freely upon accred-
ited authorities. In the case of the Poland-Chinas,
however, I write from my own observations and
from information derived from breeders who were
actually working on this type years before my time.
Tlie Poland-China is distinctively American in
origin. It was developed into a distinct breed in

POL.\ND-CHINAS

33

the Miami Valley of Ohio between 1830 and 1850.
The foundation blood traces back to the early im-
portations of the old Berkshires and old Bedford-
shires. These were crossed and recrossed with other
breeds and types, which were imported from the old
world at this and later dates, and the result, during

A PIONEER rOLAND-CIIIXA TYPE

the early 1800 's, was a scattered conglomeration of
all sundry types, sizes and colors then existing in
America. There were few 'families of hogs kept so
pure in blood that they would even reproduce par-
tial likenesses of themselves. After the Revolution-
ary War, pioneers blazed their way across the

34 THE HOG BOOK

mountains of Pennsylvania and Virginia and
tlirongli the valleys of the Western Slope to the fer-
tile lands of Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana. With the
caravans of these early settlers were specimens of
the prevalent breeds and types of stock from their
homes and, as almost every locality along the coast-
line of the earlier-settled states had a type or breed
in some way different from any other, these settlers
in time brought about wide differences in types.
But as they learned of the fertility of the soil of
these valleys and of its adaptability for the produc-
tion of corn and pork, it became evident that they
must secure a type better adapted to the land. Va-
rious experiments were made with the types then
existing, and with imported individuals of pure
breeding. The prevailing type was large, coarse,
rough, slow-maturing, of various colors and mark-
ings, very prolific, free from disease, living for the
most part primitively, and often not maturing into
marketable pork until three or four years of age.
In a few years the results of the endeavors of these
breeders began to appear in certain types that es-
tablished themselves. These gradually developed
into a common type of much the same conformation,
hardy, prolific, with earlier maturity and with good
carriage. The latter quality was essential, as it
was then customary to drive fattened hogs to mar-
ket in droves. Lacking railroads or even — in bad
weather — passable wagon roads, journeys of hun-
dreds of miles had to be taken on foot.

In 1830 the predominating breeds in the Miami

POLAXD-CIilNAS

35

Valley were, in the order named, Bedfordshire,
China, Berkshire, Byfield, Big Spotted China, Irish
Grazier and Russian. These were gradually blend-
ed into a new type by using the blood of the Siamese,
Essex and Neapolitan Berkshires between 1830 and
1840.

The Bedfordshire was a large sun-fish type with

THE BEDFORDSHIRE HOG.

bones not very large, but credited with being an
exceptionally good traveler; color, sandy, spotted
or striped ; large, flopping ears ; maturing generally
between three and four years of age.

The China was generally white, though some-
times spotted or sandy; an easier and earlier ma-
turer than the Bedfordshire; larger and of finer
quality ; it had large, flopping ears. Its origination

36

THE HOG BOOK

is credited to Pennsylvania and, as was the Bed-
fordshire, it was brought to the Miami Valley by the
first settlers.

The old Berkshire was similar in conformation to
the Bedfordshire, both being descendants of the
Old English hog. The Berkshire was of a more
reddish or sandy cast; not inclined to be as spotted

THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.

as the Bedfordshire and sooner tending to a more
distinctly solid color ; of easier and earlier maturity.
In the latter '50 's and by the early '60 's many fam-
ilies of tliese Berkshires were similar in type, con-
formation and color to present-day Berkshires. The
early type and color of the Berkshire had much to
do with fixing the solid black color and white mark-
ings of the Poland-Chinas during the '60 's.

POLAND-CHINAS

37

The Byfield was a large-framed, long-bodied,
solid white hog, having a slightly-dished face, with
large, flopping ears. This breed was said to have
been evolved from the Bedfordshire, Old English
and Chinese hogs, an ancestry similar to that of the
big China. The Byfield, however, was a larger and

THE CHINESE HOG.

more coarseh -constructed type, and of slower ma-
turity.

The Big Spotted China can hardly be called a
distinct contributing breed, as it was really the fore-
runner of the Poland-China breed itself. The Po-
land-China was often known as the Big Spotted hog
or Big Spotted Poland before being called the Magie
hog, Warren County, Miami, or Poland. It had,
however, a place in the formation of the breed.

38

THE HOG BOOK

The Irisli Grazier was also of American origin,
being, it is said, a blend of the Irish hog, the York-
shire, the Berkshire, and the Suffolk, with domestic
infusions of Chinas and others. The Irish Grazier
was generally white, with but few black spots;
fairly early in maturing ; a good grazer and f attener,
when in market condition presenting a fairly well-

THE MAGIE HOG.

made pork form. The Russian was a large, coarse,
white hog of good length ; long in the head ; long,
slim ears, pointed forward; legs long, with medium
bone ; deep sides with a bad back, shed-roofed and
narrow ; slow-maturing ; producing meat of a coarse
quality; very prolific. T'li'^ Siamese was a small,
black-haired, thin-sKmnea, upright-eared, sway-

rOI.ANn-CITIXAS

39

40 THE HOG BOOK

backed, quick-maturing type, often with white mark-
ings on the legs; fairly prolific. The infusion of this
blood did much to improve the maturing and feeding
qualities of the Poland-Chinas of that time.

As the Poland-China hog was evolved by so
many men, with so many different foundations and
infusions, and so much crossing, inbreeding and line
breeding, it is impossible to trace its lineage back to
the primitive hog. Families of hogs were often
named after the breeder, or after the locality in
which they were bred, and many differently-named
hogs were virtually of the same breed. The Poland
was named after its originator, a Pole of Butler Co.,
0. The original stock was imported from England,
and was of the old Berkshire breed. By judicious
mating and handling it was developed into a type
of earlier maturity, and a better pork animal. The
type was large and in color similar to the old Berk-
shire, being sometimes almost solid red, with sandy
or black spots. The Poland was also prolific and of
rugged constitution.

The blending of all these breeds and types even-
tually began to form a distinct type, a large-framed,
good-boned, fairly quick-maturing, spotted, droop-
eared hog, possessing excellent meat-and-lard-devel-
oping qualities, vigorous, prolific and constitu-
tionally strong. In the early '60 's this type was
known under many different names, the most com-
mon being the Magie hog, Miami Valley, Warren
County, Butler County, Poland and China. Dur-
ing this time the Essex and black up-eared Berk-

POLAND-CHINAS

41

shires wore crossed on tlie partially-fixed Poland-
Chinas, to fix their color and markings. The in-
fusion of this blood also gave the Poland-China
quicker maturity and better feeding qualities. It
proved to be the last outside infusion necessary in
the formation of the breed, and the main endeavor
of the future was to intensify and fix its type and
color. I do not believe that any outside blood has
been used since the '60 's. Many families did not be-

POLAXD-CniXAS BPvED BY THE AUTHOR.

come solid black, that is, black except for the usual
six white markings, until the '80 's, and even at
jjresent there are families of spotted Poland-Chinas,
and it is still possible, by certain matings, eventually
to breed any Poland-China strain back to a spotted
and colored type.

I have heard so many different versions of the
origin of the name Poland-China that it is hard to
give credit to any alleged originator of it without

42 THE HOG BOOK

seominp: to ignore some other l^reeder. Person-
ally I do not consider the name Poland-China ap-
propriate or tliat the early so-called hreeds had as
much to do with forming the present Poland-China
as did many other types of that day. The name
Poland-China was finally given the breed by a
convention of swine breeders at Springfield, 111., in
1870. There were contentions, and exhibitions of
env}' at the meeting, due to attempts to name the
type after certain breeders or localities, but the com-
promise name was chosen. It was ratified by a
swine breeders' convention at Indianapolis in 1872,
and was subsequently accepted by nearly all breed-
ers. David Magie, however, remained outside of
the record and organization during the remainder
of his active years in the breeding business with his
"Magie" hogs. But all hog men must give him
credit for his part in the origination and promotion
of the Poland-China. True, there were other pio-
neer breeders, as John Milliken and John Hark-
rader, in his time, but to ''Uncle" David much honor
is due. And the history of the Poland-China would
not be complete if no mention were made of that
great sire Tom Corwin 2d, which demonstrated him-
self so prepotent in fixing color and type, and was
himself the turning stone and bedrock of a breed
distinct in type and color. So far as Poland-Chinas
are concerned, he may be termed the father of the
breed.

The "Ohio Poland-China Record" — the first of
its kind — was started during the early '70 's, but

rOLAND-CIIINAS

43

44 THE HOG BOOK

was not establislied until 1877. Breeders in the
Middle AVest followed it with the organization of
the ''American Poland-China Ee^cord" in 1878 at
Cedar Eapids, la. Its first volume was issued in
1879. Since that time the National, Central, Stand-
ard, and Southwestern Poland-China Records have
been established, but the Central and Ohio have
been merged into the National and the Southwestern
into the American.

The record associations must be given much
credit for holding and improving' the high standard
of excellence of the Poland-Cliina for early maturity,
prolificacy, pork and lard production, and adapta-
bility to American agricultural conditions.

While the Poland- China belongs to the fat or
lard-type, some families have been developed into
producers of bacon. It is not naturally of an active
disposition, yet the hogs take sufficient exercise
properly to stimulate their appetites and digestion.
They are unsurpassed feeders.

Many breeders, growing dissatisfied with the
existing type and the evident tendency to decrease
its size and usefulness, set about to hold or establish
a type that would be in conformity with the demands
of the times. Breeders did not ignore the score
card, but the two factions interpreted it differently,
the big-type l)reeders placing more importance on
size, development, production, prolificacy and adapt-
a])ility. Many of these breeders developed families
to an extreme, but the main tendency among them
has been to retain quality with size, and to be closely

POLAND-CHINA SCORE CARD 45

in line witli the highest requirements of the breed.
Breeders oT the smaller and more compact type in-
terpreted the score card to be very strong on minor
or fancy points and those that would give early
maturity, refinement of character and superior
quality of meat. Breeding for this type had a ten-
dency to lower prolificacy and make the type strictly
fat-producing, incapable of profitable feeding after
it attained 300 pounds in weight. The Poland-China
score card follows :

Perfect
Score

Head 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders 6

Chest 12

Back and loin 14

Sides and ribs. 10

Belly and flank.' 4

Ham and rump 10

Feet and legs 10

Tail 1

Coat 3

Color 3

Size 5

Action and style 3

Condition 2

Disposition 2

Symmetry of points 3

Perfection 100

Head — Head should be broad, even and smooth between and above
the eyes ; slightly dished, tapering evenly and gradually to near the
end of the nose ; broad lower jaw, head inclined to shortness, but not
enough to give the appearance of stubby nose ; and in male, a mascu-
line expression and appearance. Objections — Head long, narrow be-
tween the eyes ; nose uneven and coarse ; too large at the muzzle or
the head too -short ; not full or high above the eyes, or too much
wrinkled around or above the eyes.

Eyes — Full, clear, prominent and expressive. Objections — Dull ex-
pression, deep set or obscure. Sight impaired by wrinkles, fat or other
cause.

Ear-s — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuck, giving

46 THE HOG BOOK

free and easy action ; standing up slightly at the base to within two-
thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or droop should occur ; in size
neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape ;
slightly inclined outward. Objections — Large, floppy, straight, upright
or coarse : knuck long, letting the ear droop too close to the head and
face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears.

isjECK — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched ; rounding and full
from poll to shoulder, with due regard to the characteristics of the sex.
Objections — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoulder to the
poll, with unevenness caused by wrinkles or creases.

Jowl — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fullness back
to near point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw so that the
lower line will be as low as breast-bone when head is carried up level.
Objections — Light, flabby, thin and wedge-shaped, deeply wrinkled,
not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carrying fulness back
to shoulder and brisket.

Shoulders — Broad and oval at the top, showing evenness with the
back and neck, with good width from the top to the bottom, and even
smoothness extending well forward. Objections — Narrow at the top
or bottom; not so deep as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs
under eight months of age, or showing too much shield at any age.

Cjj£St — Large, wide, deep and full ; even under-line to the shoulder
and sides with no creases; giving plenty of room for heart and other
organs, making a large girth, indicating much vitality. Brisket
smooth, even and broad, wide between legs, and extending well for-
ward, showing in front. Objections — Pinched appearance at the top or
bottom, or tucked in back of fore-legs ; showing too narrow between
the legs ; not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, nar-
row, not prominent.

Back and Loin — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying same
width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free from lumps,
creases or projections, not too long, but broad on top, indicating
well-sprung ribs ; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and
should fill out at junction with side so that a straight-edge placed
along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to
noint of ham; should be shorter than lower belly line. Objections —
Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, drooping below
a straight line ; humped or wrinkled ; too long or sun-fish-shaped ; loin
high, narrow, depressed or humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy
or uneven, width at side not so much as shoulder and ham.

Sides and Ribs — Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles;
carrying size down to belly ; even from ham to shoulder. Ribs of good
length, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections — Flat, thin, flabby,
pinched, not so full at bottom as at top ; drawn in at shoulder so as to
produce a crease, or pinched and tucked up and in as it approaches the
ham; uneven surface; ribs flat or too short.

Belly and Flank — Belly broad, straight and full, indicating
capacity and room, being about the same or on a level at the flank with
the under chest-line. Under-line straight or nearly so, and free from

POLAND-CHINA SCORE CARD 47

flabby appearance. Objections — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent
looseness in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too high.

Ham and Rump — Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to
hock ; fully developed above and below, being wide at the point of the
hip, carrying width well down to the lower part of the hams ; fleshy,
plump, rounding, fulness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and
gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail ; broad and well
developed all along from loin, and gradually rounding to the buttock ;
lower front part of ham should be full, and stifle well covered with
flesh. Even width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body ;
even a greater width as to females not objectionable. Objections —
Ham, short, narrow, too round or slim ; not filled out above or below,
or unshapely for deep meat ; nor so wide as the body, back or loin ;
too tapering or small. Rump narrow or pointed, not plump or well
filled, or too steep from loin to the tail.

Legs axd Feet — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart and
squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide above knee and
hock ; below hock and knee round and tapering, capable of sustaining
weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down ; bone firm and
of fine texture ; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short,
tough and free from defects. Objections — Legs long, slim, coarse,
crooked ; muscles small above hock and knee ; bone large, coarse ; as
large at foot as above knee ; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak ;
the hocks turned in or out of straight line ; legs too close together ;
hoofs long, slim and weak ; toes spreading or crooked or unable to
bear weight of ajiimal without breaking down.

Tail — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and tapering well,
and carried in a curl. Objections — -Coarse and long withoui a curl ;
short, crooked or stubby ; too small, even, not tapering.

Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body
well; not clipped, evenly distributed over the body. Objections —
Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly ; swirls, standing up,
ends of hair split and brown, not evenly distributed over all of the body
except belly. Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points.

Color — Black, with six (6) white points: Tip of tail, four white
feet and white in face on the nose or on the point of lower jaw ; all to
be perceptible without close examination. Splashes of white on the jaw,
legs or flank, or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable.
Objections — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots; speckled with
white hairs over the body ; mottled face of white and black, hair mixed,
making a grizzly appearance.

Size — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be consid-
ered. There should be a difference between breeding animals and those
kept or fitted for the show, of at least 25 per cent in size. In show
condition, or when fat, a two-year-old boar should weigh not less than
six hundred (600) pounds, and a sow not less than five hundred
(500) pounds. Boar one year and over, four hundred (400)
pounds; sow, three hundred and fifty (350) pounds. Boar, eighteen
months, five hundred (500) pounds; sow, four hundred and

48 THE HOG BOOK

fifty (450) pounds. Boars and sows six months old, not less than one
hundred and sixty (160) pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condi-
tion, one-fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young
hog has cut a figure in his size and should be considered, other points
being equal. Fine quality and size combined are desirable. Objections —
Overgrown ; coarse, flabby, loose appearance, gangling, hard to fatten ;
too fine, undersize ; short, stubby, inclined to chubby fatness ; not a
hardy, robust animal.

Action and Style — Action vigorous, easy and graceful. Style
attractive ; high carriage ; and in males, testicles should be prominent
and of about the same size, and yet not too large and pouchy. Objec-
tions— Clumsy, slow, awkward movement ; low carriage ; waddling or
twisting walk ; a seeming tired or lazy appearance ; not standing erect
and firm.

Condition — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores ; soft and
mellow to the touch ; flesh fine ; evenly laid on and free from lumps and
wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding qualities. Ob-
jections— Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh ; flabbiness
cr lumpy flesh ; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and stand-
ing up from body ; poor feeders ; deafness, partial or total.

Disposition — Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind, responsive
to good treatment. Objections — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a
vicious turn.

Symmetry or Adaptation of Points — The adaptation of all the
points, size and style combined to make the desired type or model.

BERKSHIRES.

This is perhaps the oldest distinct breed of hogs,
originating in Berkshire, England, more than 100
years ago. The Old English hog was its founda-
tion stock and, as England imported hogs from al-
most every part of the world to cross on its pioneer
herds, many of its counties each developed a
breed that was distinctly local. So at an early
date there were several breeds in England of sim-
ilar conformation, but differing in name and color.
Prominent among these were the Berkshire, the
Bedfordshire, the Yorkshire, the Leicester and the
Essexshire. These were developed largely by the
mixed breeding of Siamese, Neapolitan, Indian and

BERKSIIIRKS

49

.It-,

50 THE HOG BOOK

Cliinese stock. The Berkshire and Bedfordshire
hogs were originally very similar. The former is
described as a large animal, with good length and
depth and fairly good bone, coarse, flojiping ears, the
ham and shoulder thick and fairly well filled, a
broad full back, and good bacon sides. However,
the type was slow in maturing and rarely rounded
into a finished form before three or four years of

THE NEAPOLITAN BERKSHIRE.

age. The quality of meat, however, was excellent
for that day.

America imported individuals of this type in
1770 and as late as 1830 ; but during that time many
English and American breeders were endeavoring
to establish a distinct breed by infusions and out-
crosses of the Siamese, Neapolitan and Chinese.
This eventually resulted in a type very like the

BERKSHIRES

51

52 THE HOG BOOK

standard Berkshire of today, but between 1830 and
1850, many breeders overdid its development by
using too much of the southern blood, and created a
short, fine-boned, quickly-maturing type. For a
while following, the Berkshire's popularity was on
the wane, but other breeders soon transformed the
type into the long, deep-sided, short, broad, and
dish-faced animal that is typical of the breed today.
While there were families of the old Berkshire as
late as 1840, I do not believe that there were any
outside infusions of blood since 1840 in the families
which eventually have become the standard modern
Berkshire. Perhaps many of these families can
trace their lineage back pure in blood and l)reeding
for 120 years. England was generally considered
the headquarters of the greatest Berkshire show-
yard families, but the improvements and develop-
ments made in this breed in America during the past
25 years have give us precedence over the old coun-
try. To such breeders as N. H. Gentry and A. J.
Lovejoy must be given credit for bringing this
breed back into popularity as a type for pork pro-
duction • of high quality. Other American breeds
received many of their good qualities through the
infusion, in their formative periods, of the old Berk-
shire blood. The Poland-Chinas, especially, were
bettered between 1850 and 1865 by infusions of
Berkshire blood.

The Berkshire has long held its place as an un-
surpassed producer of meat and lard of the highest
quality. It is prolific and widely distributed.

BERKSHIRES

53

54 THE HOG BOOK

Many great sires and dams have contributed to the
betterment of the breed, perhaps the most promi-
nent being- the sires of the Longfellow family bred
by N. H. Gentry.

The Berkshires are of the lard type, although
they are cutters of high-quality bacon, and adapt
themselves to use for either lard or bacon. In some
regions they are bacon hogs, while in others, where
conditions are different, they give satisfaction as
producers of lard. Bred pure for a long period,
the Berkshire is noted for prepotency. American
Berkshires excel the Berkshires of England. Be-
ing hardy in constitution and of a naturally active
disposition, the Berkshire makes a profitable hog
in the cattle-feeding lot. The marked difference
between the Berkshire and any other lard-type breed
is its dished face. The snout is very short. The
Berkshire score card follows:

Perfect
Score
Color — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and an occasional

•splash on the arm 4

Face and Snout — Short, the former flno and well dished, and broad

between the eyes 7

Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2

Ear — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward with

advancing age ; medium size, thin and soft 4

Jowl — Full and heavy, running well back on neck 4

Neck — Short and broad on top 4

Hair — Fine and soft, medium thickness 3

Skin — Smooth and pliable 4

Shoulder — Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through chest . . 7
Back — Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coupling close

to hips ^

Side — Deep and well let down ; straight on bottom lines 6

Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making nearly straight

line with the lower part of side 5

Loin — Full and wide ^

DUROC- JERSEYS ' 55

Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and holding

th'ckness well down to hock 10

Tail — Well set up on back ; tapering and not coarse 2

Legs — Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, with hoofs erect

and capable of holding good weight 5

Symmetry — Well proportioned throughout, depending largely on

condition 6

Condition — In a good, healthy, growing state ; not over-fed 5

Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breeding and

constitutional vigor 5

Perfection 100

DUROC- JERSEYS.

Although the Duroc- Jersey is of American
origin, it is difficnlt to trace its pedigree, as several
parts of the Old World had red hogs, and several
different importations were made of them to
America and distributed in different localities. It
is even said that the hogs brought over by Colum-
bus were of a reddish cast. It is certain that Spain
at that time had a breed of red hogs, and so did
Great Britain ; l)ut perhaps the first authentic rec-
ord we have of the ancestors of the Duroc-Jersey is
of their being brought to America by slave-trading
vessels plying between Guinea and New Jersey
early in the seventeenth century. Their progeny
became known as the Red Hogs, Guinea Reds, and
eventually as Jersey Reds.

The Berkshire of that time was reddish in color,
and in some localities red hogs were bred together
to fix the color. There is record of such types being
bred in Connecticut, Massachusetts and New York
between 1820 and 1830 under the names of Red
Berkshires and Red Rocks in the first two states,
and Durocs in the last named. Individuals of these

56

THE HOG BOOK

breeds were crossed with tlie Jersey Beds, and in
1837 Henry Clay of Kentucky imported from Spain
several red hogs. Their progeny was distributed
over the hog country at that time, and there is rec-
ord of their being crossed with the Red Berkshire,
Jersey Red, and other red pioneer breeds. In 1852
Daniel Webster imported from Portugal several

A SIIUWYAUD UUKOC-JEUSKV BOAR.

red hogs and in turn their progeny was crossed on
the red-colored types developed from previous in-
telligent breeding.

From this time on it may be said that the Duroc-.
Jersey became a distinct breed, but as in the case of
the Poland-Chinas each locality had a different
name for it, such as Jersey in New Jersey, Red Rock
in New England, Clay Rock in Kentucky, Duroc,

DUROC- JERSEYS

57

S8 THE HOG BOOK

Red Berkshire in New York, Rod Graziers on account
of the Irish Grazier cross, Red Guineas, on account
of their nativity, and Frank hogs. There was need
of an organization that should effect unity of pur-
pose in breeding operations. In 1870 breeders be-
gan to merge into two distinct factions; one named
the breed the Jersey Red and tlie other tlie Duroc, the
latter suggested by a prominent breeder of red hogs
at Saratoga, N. Y., in honor of his trotting horse.
In 1877 at a convention of breeders at Saratoga,
N. Y., the name Duroc was adopted together with
a standard of excellence. Since that time the ad-
vancement of the breed has been rapid. The Durocs
then were described as being of medium size, with
short straight legs, compact in build, medium-sized
head and ears ; wide back, witli full shoulders and
ham ; quality of meat good for that time ; color gen-
erally cherry red. The Jersey Reds were markedly
different in conformation, being very large and
growthy, slow to mature, with great length of body,
large, flopping ears, long legs, long noses and a
rangy appearance. The color was generally red,
but some were sandy or spotted with white. Their
hair was coarse and inclined to stand erect and be
bristly on the neck. The quality of meat was not
high, but as the hogs were constitutionally strong
and grew to a large size they were popular with
many breeders. In 188.3 the American Duroc-Jer-
sey Swine Breeders' Association was formed in
Chicago, and the name of Duroc-Jersey was adopted,
and since that time so well have the advocates of the

DUROC-JERSEYS

59

o

j;^^l

-

, ^^ j^f^

r!

»•' Jn

S

•v .'ft ^\ia

o

i *' ;•- i-fl|

o

•_,

V ^-" ■ riS

s

*^ • M

n

nji:,-^

h5

m'v^

M

>

O

^

'/'< ..^^

60 THE HOG BOOK

breed battled for siijjremacy that at pre.sent its rep-
resentatives number second to Poland-Chinas. In
1891 tlie National Duroc-Jersey Eecord Association
was organized.

Duroc-Jerseys, belonging to tlie lard-type, in dis-
position are generally active, being considered good
feeders and grazers. Marked improvement has
been made in the breed during the last few years.
Its origin accounts for its ruggedness, good size and
length, and these characteristics earned the breed
steady popularity. Among Poland-China and Berk-
shire breeders there is a tendency to develop types
of greater size but still retaining quality; while
Duroc-Jersey breeders are diminishing size but in-
tensifying maturity and quality. In conformation
Duroc-Jerseys do not differ materially from Poland-
Chinas.

The Duroc-Jersey score card is subjoined:

Perfect
Score

Head an! face 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl • • 2

Shoulders C

Chest 12

Back and loin 15

Sides and ribs S

Belly and flank C

Hams and rump 10

Legs and feet 10

Tail 1

Coat 2

Color 2

Size "^

Action and style 4

Condition 4

Disposition ^

Perfection 100

DUROC- JERSEYS

61

62 THE HOG BOOK

Disqualifications : Form — Ears standing erect ; small cramped
chest, and crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a
depression in the back easily noticed; seriously deformed legs, or badly
broken-down feet. Size — Very small, or not two-thirds large enough
as given by the standard. Score — Less than 50 points. Pedigree — Not
eligible to record.

Detailed Description : Head and Face — Head small in proportion
to size of body; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half way
between a Poland-China and a Berkshire), and tapering well down to
the nose; surface smooth and even. Objections — Large and coarse;
narrow between the eyes ; face straight ; crooked nose, or too much
dished.

Eyes — Lively, bright and prominent. Objections — Dull, weak and
obscure.

Ears — Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward, downward and
slightly outward, carrying a slight curve ; attached to head very neatly.
Objections — Very large, nearly round, too thick, swinging or flabby,
not of same size ; different position and not under control of animal.

Neck — Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching. Objec-
tions-— Long, shallow and thin.

Jowl — Broad, full and neat ; carrying fullness back to point of
shoulders and on a line with breast-bone. Objections — Too largo, loose
and flabby ; small, tliin and wedging.

SH0ULDER.S — Moderately broad, very deep and full ; carrying thick-
ness well down and not extending above line of back. Objections —
Small, thin, shallow ; extending above line of back. Boars under one
year old heavily shielded.

CHE.ST — Large, very deep, filled full behind shoulders, breast-bone
extending well forward so as to be readily seen. Objections — Flat,
shallow, or not extending well down between fore-legs.

Back and Loin — Back medium in breadth ; straight or slightly
arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham; surface even and
smooth. Objections — Narrow, crease behind shoulders; swayed or
humped back.

Sides and Ribs — Sides very deep, medium in length ; level between
shoulders and hams, and carrying out full down to line of belly. Ribs
long, strong, and sprung in proportion to width of shoulders and hams.
Objections — Flabby, creased, shallow, and not carrying proper width
from top to bottom.

Bellt and Flank — Straight and full and carrying well out to line
of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides. Objections — Narrow;
tucked up or drawn in ; sagging or flabby.

Hams and Rump — Broad, full and well let down to the hock; but-
tock full and coming nearly down and filling full between hocks. Rump
should have a roiuid slope, from loin to root of tail ; same width as
back and well filled out around tail. Objections — Ham narrow, short,
thin, not projecting well down to hock ; cut up too high in crotch.
Rump narrow, flat or peaked at root of tail ; too steep.

Legs and Feet — Medium size and length, straight, nicely tapered ;

CHESTER WHITES 63

wide apart and well set under the body ; pasterns short and strong.
Feet short, firm, and tough. Objections — Legs extremely long, or very
short, slim, coarse, crooked ; legs as large below knee and hock as
above ; set too close together ; hocks turned In or out of straight line.
Feet, hoofs long, slim and weak ; toes spreading or crooked.

Tail — Medium ; large at base and nicely tapering, and rather bushy
at end. Objections — Extremely heavy; too long and ropy.

Coat — Moderately tliick and fine ; straight, smooth and covering
the body well. Objections — Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh and
rough, wavy or curly ; swirls, or not evenly laid over tlie body.

Color — Cherry-red, without other admixtures. Objections — Very
dark red or shading brow'n ; very pale or light red ; black spots over
tlie body ; black flecks on belly and legs not desired but admissible.

Size — -Large for age and condition. Boar two years old and over
should weigh 600 pounds; sow same age and condition, 500 pounds.
Boar IS months, 475 pounds; sow, 400 pounds. Boar 12 months, 350
pounds; sow, 300 pounds. Boar and sow pigs six months, 150 pounds.
Tlie figures are for animals in a fair show condition. Objections — ■
Plough and coarse and lacking in feeding qualities.

Action axd Style — Action vigorous and animated. Style free and
easy. Objections — Dull or stupid; awkward and wabbling. In boars,
testicles not easily seen nor of same size or carriage ; too large or only
one showing

Condition — Healthy ; skin free from scurf, scales, sores and mange ;
flesh evenly laid over the entire body and free from any lumps. Ob-
jections— Unhealtliy, scurfy, scaly, sores, mange ; too fat for breeding
purposes ; hair htysh and standing up ; poor feeders.

DisPO.siTioN. — ^Very quiet and gentle ; easily handled or driven.
Objections — Wild, vicious or stubborn.

CHESTEK WHITES.

Originating in Chester Co., Pa., the Chester
White's foundation stock is enmeshed in historical
uncertainties, but it is known that the okl Bedford-
shire was being bred in that region at the time. In
]ftl8 Capt. James Jeffries imported white hogs from
Lincolnshire, England, and at about the same time
English and Chinese hogs were imported from Eng-
land. Both were generally white in color, but both
sometimes had black or blue spots over the body.
There were white hogs in Pennsylvania previously
to these imi^ortations, but they were of a slow-

64

THE HOG BOOK

maturing type. Using l)lood from these various
stocks, there was finally developed a type that was
white in color and free from spots. It soon gained
favor in Pennsylvania and some parts of Ohio. In
conformation its representatives varied from an ex-
tremely large, coarse, slow-maturing type to a small,
compact and quick-fattening pattern. Some of this
blood was used in moulding the Poland-China breed,

CHESTER WHITE SOW.

and it is evident that the foundation work for both
breeds was along the same lines, except wherein
color was established.

The Chester White is one of the oldest distinct
breeds of swine in America, and has made its great-
est development as a pork-producer during the past
30 years. Its history shows contentions among
breeders based on the name and type, but the breed

CHESTER WHITES

65

is loyally supported by its advocates. The men wlio
have done much to popularize the Chester White are
the Todds of Ohio, who originated the type known
as Todd's Improved Chester between 1860 and 1870.
This strain eventually became known as the Im-
proved Chester White. Then L. B. Silver of Ohio
developed a type from foundation stock secured

nTTTTTTTT TTTTTl

CHESTER WHITE BOAR.

from the Todds, his aim being to fashion an ideal
pork hog. Considerable success attended his efforts,
and his type became known as the Ohio Improved
Chester. A record association was formed in 1884.
The Chester Whites classify with the lard breeds.
In disposition they are not active, but possess good
feeding qualities. In conformation tliey vary from
extremely long, coarse individuals to more refined

66 THE HOG BOOK

specimens, the latter being the rule in the leading
herds of the cornbelt. Following is the breed score
card :

Perfect
Score

Head and face 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders 6

Chest 9

Back and loin 15

Sides and rib 8

Belly and flank 6

Hams and rump 10

Feet and legs 10

Tail 1

Coat 2

Color 5

Size 5

Action and style 4

Condition 4

Disposition 3

Perfection 100

Disqualifications : Form — Upright ears ; small cramped chest ;
crease around back of shoulders and over the back, causing a depression
easily noticed ; feet broken down, causing the animal to walk on pastern
joints; deformed or badly crooked legs. Size — Chuffy, or not two-
thirds large enough for age. Condition — Squabby fat; deformed, seri-
ously deformed; barrenness; total blindness. Score — Less than GO points.
Pedigree — Not eligible to record. Color — Black or sandy spots in hair.

Detailed Description: Head and Face — Head short and wide;
cheeks neat but not too full; jaws broad and strong; forehead medium,
high and wide. Face short and smooth ; wide between the eyes ; nose
neat and tapering and slightly dished. Objections — Head long, narrow
and coarse ; forehead low and narrow ; jaws contracted and weak. Face
long, narrow and straight ; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berk-
shire.

Eyes — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles or fat surround-
ings. Objections — Small, deep or obscure; vision impcired in anj- way.

Ears — Medium size, not too thick ; soft ; attached to the head so as
not to look clumsy; pointing forward and slightly outward; fully under
the control of the animal and drooping so as to give a graceful appear-
ance. Objections — Large, upright, coarse, thick, round, too small;
drooping too close to the face, animal not being able to control them.

Neck — Wide, deep, short, and nicely arched. Objections — Long,
narrow, thin, flat on top ; tucked up ; not extending down to breast-bone.

Jowl — Full, smooth, neat and firm; carrying fullness back t(/
shoulder and brisket when the head is carried up level. Objections —

CHESTER WHITE STANDARD 67

Lig-ht; too large and flabby; rough and deeply wrinkled; not carry-
ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket.

Shoulders — Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line with
the side, and carrying size down to line of belly. Objections — Xavrow
at top or bottom, not full nor same depth as body ; extending ab<.(v'e
line of back ; shields on boars too coarse and prominent.

Chest — Large, deep and roomy, so as not to cramp vital organs;
full in girth around the heart, the breast-bone extending forward so as
to show slightly in front of legs, and let down so as to be even with
line of belly, showing a width of not less than seven inches between
fore-legs of a full-grown hog. Objections — Narrow, pinched; heart
girth less than flank girth ; too far let down between fore-legs ; breast-
bone crooked or too short.

Back and Loin — Back broad on top, straight or slightly arched;
uniform width, smooth, free from lumps or rolls ; shorter than lower
belly line ; same heiglit and width at shoulder as at ham ; loin wide and
full. Objections — Back narrow, creased back of shoulders; sun-fish
shaped, humped, swayed, too long, or lumpy rolls ; uneven in width ; loin
narrow, depressed or humped.

SroES AND Ribs — Sides full, smooth, deep, carrying size down to
belly ; even with line of ham and shoulder ; ribs long, well sprung at top
and bottom, giving hog a square form. Objections — Flat, thin, flabby,
compressed at bottom ; shrunken at shoulders and ham ; uneven surface ;
ribs flat and too short.

Belly and Flank — Same width as back, full, making a straight
line and dropping §,s low at flank as at bottom of chest ; line of lower
edge running parallel with sides; flank full and even with body. Ob-
jections— Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby ; flank thin, tucked
up or drawn in.

Hams and Rump — Ham broad, full, long, wide and deep, admitting
of no swells ; buttock full, neat and clean, thus avoiding flabbiness ; stifle
well covered with flesh, nicely tapering towards the hock. Rump should
have a slightly rounding shape from loin to root of tail ; same width as
back; making an even line with sides. Objections — Hams narrow, short,
not filled out to stifle ; too much cut up in crotch or twist, not coming
down to hocks ; buttocks flabbj-. Rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep,
sharp or peaked at root of tail.

Legs and Feet — Legs short, straight, set well apart and squarely
under body ; bone of good size, firm, well muscled ; wide above knee
and hock ; below knee and hock round and tapering, enabling animal to
carrj' its weight with ease ; pastern short and nearly upright. Feet
short, firm, tough and free from defects. Objections — Legs too short,
long, slim, crooked, too coarse ; too close together ; weak muscles above
hock and knee ; bone large and coarse without taper ; pasterns long,
erooked, slim like a deer's ; hoofs long, slim, weak ; toes spreading,
crooked or turned up.

Tail — Small, smooth, tapering, w-ell set on ; root slightly covered
with flesh; carried in a curl. Objections — Coarse, long, clumsy, set too
high or too low ; hanging like a rope.

68 THE HOG BOOK

Coat — Fine, straight or wavy ; evenly distributed and covering the
body well ; nicely clipped coats no objection. Objections — Bristles, hair
coarse, thin, standing vip, not evenly distributed over all of the body
except the belly.

Color — White (blue spots or black specks in skin shah not argue
impurity of blood). Objections — Color any other than Mhitc.

Size — Large for age and condition ; boars two years old and over,
if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sow same age
and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars IS months old in good
flesh should weigh not less than 400 pounds; sows, 350. Boars 12
months old, not less than 300 pounds; sows, 300. Boars and sows six
months old, not less than 150 pounds each; and other ages in propor-
tion. Objections — Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to fatten.

Action and Style — Action easy and graceful, style attractive ; high
carriage ; in males, testicles should be readily seen ; same size and car-
riage. Objections — Sluggish; awkward, low carriage, wabbling walk;
in males, testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, or only
one showing.

Condition — Healthy ; skin clear and bright, free from scurf and
sores ; flesh fine and mellow to the touch ; evenly laid on and free from
lumps; good feeding qualities. Objections — Unhealthy; skin scaly,
scabby or harsh ; flesh lumpy or flabby ; hair harsh, dry and standing
up from body ; poor feeders ; total deafness.

Disposition — 'Quiet, gentle and easily handled ; with ambition
enough to look out for themselves if neglected. Objections — Cross ;
restless, vicious or wild ; no ambition.

HAMPSHIRES.

Of English origin, the Hampshire traces back
to the old English hog. There is evidence that the
original English Thin-rind and Essex hogs were
similar in conformation and color markings to the
Hampshire, which reached the United States
through several sources, one being by way of Can-
ada into New York, where the breed became known
as the Ring Middle or Hampshire. The name Hamp-
shire is English. Individuals of this breed were
brought to Boone Co., Ky., in 1835 by Major Gar-
nett. Their descendants for a number of years were
kept pure and became popular with many breeders
in Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Ohio, but they

HAMPSHIRES

69

n

-^::-:i

^r- r V"vl '"i.:^* •^-''^

^"'k-^r^v^-

;^/L>^>'^=- i'3^vt

70 THE HOG BOOK

eventually became so mixed with other breeds that
it was hard to find a pure-bred Plampshire in the
'60 's. A direct importation of Hampshires from
England to Massachusetts was made in 1800, and
the progeny remained pure for some time, but
eventually became scattered and mixed with other
breeds. There yet remained individuals here and
there of the popular type and color markings, and
these were selected to perpetuate the breed. In the
'70 's there were several herds along the Ohio River
known as Thin-rinds. These continued to exist with-
out much special improvement until the American
Hampshire Swine Record Association was estab-
lished in Boone Co., Ky., in 1893. This organization
began vigorously to advertise the breed, and its
work has made it increasingly popular.

Hampshires are a combination type, being adapt-
ed for both bacon and lard. In disposition they are
fairly active and good feeders, producing meat of
high quality. In pattern the hogs are of good length
and depth, showing good firm smooth sides, with
fairly well-developed hams, strong-arched backs and
narrow clean-cut heads. A distinguishing character-
istic is the color, which is black excepting a white
belt eight to ten inches wide round the body over
the shoulders with forelegs included. Following is
the standard of perfection :

Disqualifications : Color — Spotted or more than two-thirds white.
Form — Any radical deformity, ears very large or dropping over eyes,
crooked or weak legs or broken-down feet. Condition — Seriously im-
paired or diseased, excessive grossness, barrenness in animals over two
years of age, chuffy or -squabby fat. Size — Not two-thirds standard
weight. Pedigree — Not eligible to record.

HAMPSHIRE STANDARD 71

Perfect
Score.

Head and Face — Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks not
full ; face nearly straight and medium width between the eyes,

surface even and regular 4

Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy; nose crooked or
much dished.
Eyes — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings. . 2
Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by fat
or other cause.
Ears — Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward and forward. 2
Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuck, droop-
ing or not under good control of the animal.
Neck — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to

head 2

Objections: Long, thick or bulky.

Jowl — Light and tapering from neck to point, neat and firm 2

Objections: Large, broad, deep or flabby.
Shoulders — Deep, medium width and fulness, well in line with

back 6

Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond the line
with sides and hams.
Chest — Large, deep and roomy ; full girth, extending down even

with line of belly 12

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, small girth, cramped
or tucked up.
Back and Loin — Back straight or slightly arched ; medium breadth,
with nearly uniform tliickness from shoulders to hams and full

at loins ; sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders 15

Objections: Narrow, creased or drooped behind shoulders;
surface ridgy or uneven.
Sides and Ribs — Sides full, smooth, firm, carrying size evenly from

shoulder to hams; ribs, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. 8

Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased, or ribs not
well sprung.
Belly and Flank — Straight and full, devoid of grossness ; flank

full and running nearly on line with sides 6

Objections: Belly sagging or flabby; flank thin or tucked up.

Hams and Rump — Hams of medium width, long and deep ; rump

slightly rounded from loin to root of tail ; buttock full and neat

and firm, devoid of flabbiness or excessive fat 10

Objections: Ham narrow; cut too high in crotch, buttock
flabby ; rump too flat, too narrow or too steep, or peaked at
root of tail.
Legs and Feet — Legs medium length, set well apart and squarely
under body, wide above knee and hock and rounded and well
muscled below, tapering ; bone medium ; pasterns short and
nearly upright ; toes short and firm, enabling the animal to

carrj' its weight with ease 10

Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or short;

"72 THE HOG BOOK

weak muscles above hock and knee bone ; large and coarse legs
without taper ; pasterns too long to correspond with length of
leg, too crooked or too slender ; feet long, slim and weak ; toes
spreading, too long, crooked or turned up.

Tail — Medium length, slightly curled 1

Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging lilie a pendulum.

Co.VT — Fine, straight, smooth 2

Objeciions: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curly.

Color — Black, with exception of white belt encircling the body, in-
cluding fore-legs 2

Objections: White running high on hind-legs or extending
more than one-fourth length of body, or solid black.

Size — Large for condition ; boar two years old and over, 450 ; sow,
same age, 400; 18 months, boar, 350; sow, 325; 12 months,
boar or sow, 300 ; six months, both sexes, 140 pounds 5

Action .\nd Style — Active, vigorous, quick and graceful ; style at-
tractive and spirited 4

Objections: Dull, sluggish and clumsy.

Condition — Healthy, skin free from all defects ; flesh evenly laid on
and smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess of

grossness

4

Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or otherwise un-
healthy ; hair harsh ; dwarfed or cramped, not growthy.

Disposition — Docile, quiet and easily handled 3

Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or with no ambition.

Perfection 100

LARGE YORKSHIRES.

Tlie Yorkshire breed originated in England,
wliich has three distinct types: the Large, Middle
and Small White, and all bred in America, the Large
Yorkshire being the most popnlar. It is with this
l^acon type that I shall deal. The old English hog
was the foundation stock. Chinese hogs were im-
ported and crossed on this breed and eventually de-
veloped a breed known as the Yorkshire, which was
a large, white-colored hog of slow maturity, having
great length of body and long legs, with a narrow,
weak back. It grew to great size. Another type was
produced from the same foundation through a sys-

LARGE YORKSHIRES

73

74 THE HOG BOOK

tern of inbreeding wliicli resulted in a type known
as the AVliite Leicester. It of course resembled the
old Yorkshire in color and size, but inbreeding made
it more compact and of finer quality. Another lo-
cality in England developed a smaller type from the
same foundation blood. It was at this time that
the historic English breeder Bakewell was improv-
ing several breeds of sheep by inbreeding distinct
types. lie also developed from white breeds of hogs
a type much like the present Large Yorkshire.

Large Yorkshires were imported into Canada in
the early '80 's; the first importation into the United
States was in 1892, followed by many later impor-
tations into different regions. The breed has gained
rapidly in popularity and is noted for its prolificacy,
grazing qualities and the production of superior
bacon. It develops frame comparatively early and
this offers opportunity for the production of cheap
pork. The breed score card is affixed :

Perfect
Score
General Outline — Long and deep in proportion to widtli, but not
massive ; sliglitly arclied in tlie baclc, symmetrical and smooth,
witli body firmly supported by well-placed legs of medium

longtli 5

Outline of Head — Moderate in lengtli and size, with lower jaw
well sprung, and considerable dish toward snout, increasing

with advanced maturity 4

Forehead and Poll — Wide 1

Eye — Medium size, clear and bright 1

Jowl — Medium, not carried too far back toward neck, and not

flabby 1

Snout — Turning upward with a short curve, increasing with age. 1

Ear — Medium in size, standing well out from the head, of medium

erection and inclining sliglitly forward 1

Neck — Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising gradually
from poll to withers ; muscular, but not gross, evenly con-
necting head with body 3

LARGE YORKSHIRES

75

76 THE HOG BOOK

OuTUNK OF Body — Long, deep and of medium breadth, equally-
wide at shoulder, side and hams ; top-line slightly arched,

under-line straight 7

Back — Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; strong

in loin, short ribs of good length 10

Shoulder — Large, but not massive, not open above 6

Arm and Thigh — Broad and of medium length and development.. 2

Brisket — Wide and on a level with under-line 3

Side — Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip S

Ribs — Well arched and deep 5

Heart Girth and Flank Girth — Good and about equal 8

Hind-quarters — Long, to correspond witli shoulder and side ; deep,

with moderate and gradual droop to tail 5

Ham — Large, well let down on thigh and twist, and rear outline

somewhat rounded 10

Twist — Well down and meaty 1

Tail — Medium, not much inclined to curl 1

Legs — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing straight

and firi^ 5

Hair — Abunaant, long, of medium fineness, without any bristles. . . 4
Skin — Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin do

not disqualify 2

Color — White on every part 1

Movement — Active, but not restless 5

Perfection 100

TAMWORTHS.

Sir Robert Peel originated this bacon breed in
Tamworth, England. He secured foundation stock
from Ireland. This breed had existed in Ireland for
many years. There is no evidence of its having been
crossed with any other breed in Ireland or England.
It is probably the purest-bred of all breeds of hogs,
as the l)lood has been kept pure since the time of Sir
Robert Peel. The Tamwortli is an excellent bacon
type on account of its conformation. It is described
as a bright cherry red in color, though it is some-
times lighter or darker ; nose rather long, with a
clean-cut jaw; ears almost erect and straiglit; legs
long but with good feet; shoulders narrow and

TAIM WORT ITS

71

78 THE HOG BOOK

smooth with a long body and sides of considerable
depth; a back flat on top with a good tenderloin.
Tamworths were introduced into Canada about the
same time that the Large Yorkshires were imported,
and reached the United States from that country,
some also coming from England. The score card is
subjoined:

Color — Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black.

Head — Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face

slightly dished, wide between ears.
Ears — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined slightly

forward.
Neck — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.
Chest — Wide and deep.
Shoulders — Fine, slanting, and well sot.
Legs — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside

body.
Pasterns — Strong and sloping.
Feet — Strong and of fair size.
Back — Long and straight.
Loin — Strong and broad.
Tail — Set on high and well tasseled.
Sides — Long and deep.

Ribs — Well spruny and extending well up to flank.
Belly — Deep, with straight undcr-line.
Flank — Full and well let down.

Quarters — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.
Hams — Broad and full, well let down to hocks.
Coat — Abundant, long, straight, and fine.
Action — Firm and free.

Objections: Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat,

coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping shoulders,

wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.

ESSEX.

This breed originated in Essex County, England,
prior to 1800. Foimdation blood was that of the
old Essexshire type, which was large, rangy, most-
ly black in color, but generally having white fore-
legs and shoulders. It is said that the Duke of Es-

THE ESSEX BREED

79

80 THE HOG BOOK

sex in 1820 imported Neapolitan hogs to cross on
the old Essexshires, followed ])y using Berkshire and
Sussex blood. By 1840 a distinct breed had been de-
veloped. It was solid black in color, for the most
part, and highly prized for the production of pork of
good quality. The first importation to this country
was made in 1821 to Massachusetts, the hogs resem-
bling the original Essex. Other importations fol-
lowed, but no distinct type was established until
after the importations during the '50 's of improved
Essex hogs from England. Essex hogs were used at
an early date in the foundation of the Poland-China
breed. They are prolific and as producers of meat
and lard of good quality are held in high favor, es-
pecially in the South. Score card :

Perfect
Score

Color — Black 2

Head — Small, broad and face dished 3

Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2

Jowl — Full and neat 1

Neck — Short, full, well arched 3

Shoulders — Broad and deep 7

Girth around heart 6

Back — Straight, broad and level 12

Sides — Deep and full 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 12

Flank — Well let down 2

Ham — Broad, full and deep 12

Tail — Medium, fine and curled 2

Legs — Fine, straight and tapering 3

Feet — Small 3

Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3

Action — Easy and graceful 4

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other 10

Perfection 100

VICTORIAS.

The origin of this breed is credited to New York
breeders. In type it is similar to the modern Suf-
folk. G. F. Davis of Indiana established a type by

VICTORIAS

81

82 THE HOG BOOK

using" Poland-China, Chester AVhite, Berkshire and
Suffolk blood. He claims that the Victorias are pro-
lific, easy to mature and fatten, and to keep in good
condition. The eastern type is smaller and more
compact. Score card:

Perfect
Score

Color — White, with occasional dark spots in the skin 2

Head — Small, broad, and face medium dished 3

Ears — Fine, pointing forward 2

Jowl — Medium size and neat 1

Neck — Short, full and well arched 3

Shoulders — Broad and deep 7

Girth around heart 6

Back — Straight, broad and level 12

Sides — Deep and full , 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 12

Flank — Well let down 2

Ham — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat 12

Tail — Medium, fine and curled 2

Legs — Fine and straight 3

Feet — Small 3

Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3

Action — Easy and graceful 4

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other 10

Perfection 100

Color — White, with occasional dark spots In the skin.

Head and Face — Head rather .small and neat. Face medium-
dished and smooth ; wide between eyes ; tapering from eyes to nose.

Eyes — Medium size ; prominent, bright, clear and lively in young,
and quiet expression in aged animals.

Ears — Small, thin, fine, silky ; upright in young pigs, pointing
forward and slightly outward in aged animals.

Neck — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched, and full at top.

Jowl — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from loose,
nabby fat.

Shoulders — Broad, deep and full, not higher than line of back, and
as wide as top of back.

Chest — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large girth back of
shoulders.

Back and Loin — Broad, straight, or slightly arched ; carrying same
width from shoulders to ham; level and full at loin, sometimes slightly
higher at hips than at shoulders.

Ribs and Sides — Ribs well sprung at top ; strong and firm ; sides
deep, full, smooth and firm ; free from creases.

Belly and Flank — Wide, straight and full ; as low or slightly
lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and nearly even with sides.

CHESHIRES 83

Hams and Rump — Hams long, full and wide, nicely rounded ; trim
and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and full, reaching well down to
hocks. Rump slightly sloped from end of loin to root of tail.

Legs and Feet — Legs short, set well apart and firm ; wide above
knee and hock, tapering below. Feet firm and standing well up on toes.

Tail — Small, fine and tapering, nicely curled.

Coat — Fine and silky, evenly covering the body.

Size — Boar two years old and over when in good condition should
weigh not less than 500 pounds; sow same age and condition, 450
pounds. Boar 12 months old, not less than 300 pounds; sow in good
flesh, 300 pounds. Pigs five to six montlis old, 140 to 160 pounds.

Action — Easy and graceful, but quiet.

Condition — Healthy; skin clean, and white or pink in color, free
from scurf ; flesh firm and evenly laid on.

Di.sposition — Quiet and gentle.

Disqualifications : Color — Other than white or creamy white, with
occasional dark spots in skin. Form — Crooked jaws or deformed face ;
crooked or deformed legs; large, coarse, drooping ears. Condition —
Excessive fatness ; barrenness : deformity in any part of the body.
Pedigree — Not eligible for record.

CHESHIRES.

Several breeders in Jefferson Co., N. Y., includ-
ing A. C. X^lark, who imported Cheshire sows
from England, which he bred to boars, were respon-
sible for the development of the Cheshire breed.
They nsed the blood of Yorkshire, Suffolk and Cava-
naugh hogs. Inbreeding was practiced to produce in-
dividuals of high merit. This breed was first called
the Jeiferson County hog. During the '60 's and
70 's, and after the retirement of Mr. Clark during
the later '60 's, several other breeders carried on the
work of establishing a distinct breed. The type
was changed somewhat and in 1884 the leading
breeders eifected an organization with a standard
of excellence. Cheshires have never reached any
degree of popularity outside of New York. They are
early-maturers and prolific, good mothers.

84 THE HOG BOOK

Following is the score card :

Perfect
Score
Head — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length of

body 8

Face — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes , . . . . 8

Jowl — Medium in fullness 3

Ears — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals slightly pointing for-
ward 5

Neck — Short and broad 3

Shoulders — Broad, full and deep 6

Girth Around Heart 8

Back — Long, broad and straight nearly to root of fail 10

Sides — Deep and full ; nearly straight on bottom line 7

Plank — "Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly equal

to heart girth 3

Hams — Broad and nearly straight w-ith back, and running well

down toward hock 10

Legs — Small and slim, set well apart, supporting body well on toes. 10

Tail — Small, slim and tapering 3

Hair — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 3

Color — White ; any colored hairs to disqualify 2

Skin — Fine and pliable ; small blue spots objectionable but allow-
able 3

Symmetry — Animal well proportioned, handsome, and stylish; and

when grown and well fattened should dress 400 to 600 pounds. 8

Perfection 100

THE SCORE CARD.

Soon after the American Poland-China Eecord
was formed in Iowa during the early 70 's, it was
recognized by several Poland-China adherents that
there was a need of some sort of established stand-
ard of excellence to guide judges and breeders. To
Father Hankinson, as he was familiarly called, per-
haps the first score card can be credited. After much
discussion a standard was adopted during the early
'80 's. The ideal described by it was so high that it
was considered a standard for all time, but the early
'90 's found some of its requirements outgrown or

THE SCORE CARD 85

impracticable, being out of line with the tj^pe de-
manded by the markets. So a committee was ap-
pointed in 1896 to revise the standard and make it
strong on points of commercial importance. This
committee consisted of J. Y. AVolfe of Nebraska, W.
W. McClung of Iowa and myself. After much de-
liberation we constructed a new standard which was
adopted in Jnne, 1906. It gave satisfaction until it
began to be misinterpreted and carried to extremes.
As to a score card, nobody will question its useful-
ness in measuring values. Breeders need the aid
of its direction. Its study makes for a united effort
in a common direction. It establishes a goal at
which to aim. Its main weaknesses are due to mis-
interpretations by breeders in developing certain
points to an extreme. This in some cases has
prompted other breeders to disregard these points
and go in for others, resulting in warring extremes
that in breeding work against real progress. In
spite of such abuses the score card has worked im-
provement in tlie breed, and there is no question
that in large measure we can credit the present pop-
ularity of Poland-Chinas to the standard by which
the rank and file of breeders have been influenced.
All the common breeds are approaching their re-
spective ideals, and the time soon will be opportune
to set our stakes far ahead in new fields.

PEDIGREE STOCK.

The pedigree is a certificate of pureness of breed-
ing in which the line of descent is tabulated, and

86 THE HOG BOOK

the individuals composing it represented by names
and figures. When properly certified by a record as-
sociation a pedigree becomes a guarantee of lineage
and heredity. From it an intelligent breeder can
form conclusions regarding the effects of further
breeding with the pedigree animal. It will thus be
seen that the pedigree is an important safeguard
against cross-breeding and inadvisable matings.
The value of pedigree stock is now recognized on
every hand. Pure bred pigs fatten evenly where the
scrub fattens in bunches around the internal organs ;
they fill out in proper proportions of lean and fat
where the scrub is unevenly developed; they fatten
ax less expense and often bring $1 to $2 per cwt.
more, owing to the better quality of their products.

HOG-FARM EQUIPMENT.

Hogs reach their highest state where there is
good water and the greatest variety of feed. They
graze, eat grain and will consume flesh. It is the na-
ture of a hog to eat a little at a time and often. So
a location for hograising should be where staple
crops for feeding grow in abundance. A considerable
portion of the land should produce corn, wheat, oats,
barley, rye, alfalfa, clover, peas, beans and roots.
As to topography, one need not be fastidious except
in relation to crop-growing. Hogyards, however,
should have good natural drainage so that rains will
wash away much of the accumulation of manure and
waste and not collect in mudholes. In this way na-
ture helps to make sanitary conditions. Shade and
protection from cold, wind and storm are essential.
Groves of native or planted timber afford excellent
places of retreat. Part of the farm should be in
pasture, and as rough or rolling land is peculiarly
adapted for pasture, a farm that has both rough
and smooth land is admirably suited for stockrais-
ing. Many breeders find that dairying in connec-
tion with pork production increases the resultant
profits, each line being an aid to the other. A few
milch cows should therefore be kept on the premises
as an adjunct to the hog department. Locate the hog
plant on the sunny side, with hills and windbreaks

(87)

88 THE HOG BOOK

on the north and west, and a sufficient slope to insure
drainage.

As to water, the best sources of supply are
springs, wells, and streams originating on the farm.
Make fresh water accessible at all times to the herd.

A hog-farm should be of sufficient acreage to pro-
duce feed and give ample range for a strong herd
managed on the intensive basis. The common mis-
take is to try to cover too large an area. Large farms
take almost the entire time and attention of occupy-
ing owners, so that the hogs must shift largely for
themselves. A hog-farm should have several sources
of revenue besides its hogs. Generally speaking, an
80-acre farm is almost ideal, so far as size is con-
cerned, for hograising. All branches of agriculture
are being conducted on scientific lines, as the prob-
lem of cheaper production makes this imperative.
The day of producing great quantities of inferior
products is past. The present and future demand
quality. As agricultural land is limited increased
production depends on brains. Our small farms
must be raised to the highest productivity.

SWINE BARNS AND HOUSES.*

What would be the business future of the swine
breeder whose hogs were compelled to be exposed
to the cold blasts of winter or the glaring sun of
summer? "What would their condition l)e if they

*This discussion in outline of the general principles that
shouhl he carefully considered Ijy every liOK-raiser who plans to
equip his farm for the special business of raising hogs is taken
from "Farm Buildings," a new and valuable illustrated work pub-
lished by The Breeder's Gazette.

BARNS AND HOUSES 89

were obliged to eat and sleep in filth? What would
the pig crop be if the sows were allowed to farrow in
the fence corner some cold stormj'^ night with only
the canopy of heaven to shelter them? Answers to
.these questions will urge the proper equipment of
the farm for the breeding of pure-bred swine. How
extensive the equipment should be will depend, of
course, on the number of animals to be carried on
the farm and the amount of money to be invested.

First a swine breeder should have necessary
buildings for housing the herd, the feed, the appa-
ratus for mixing and preparing the feed and the
procuring of the necessary water. There are many
kinds of buildings for this purpose, many of which
are satisfactory. Breeders have different ideas re-
garding this matter, many preferring the large
gloomy hoghouse or building where the whole herd
may be kept under one roof, and where the bedding,
feed, water and everything pertaining to the comfort
of the animals may be kept convenient and used with
the least labor, and where all the work in caring for
the herd may be done under cover. This plan has
many advantages and where adopted the buildings
should be so arranged that as much sunlight as pos-
sible may be admitted to the pens and feeding floors.
There are other breeders who prefer the outdoor
individual house large enough for only one sow and
her litter, with a grass lot of at least one-half acre
where the sow and pigs may always be by them-
selves. This latter plan will, of course, occupy con-
siderable land, at least where the herd is large, and

yU THE HOG BOOK

will necessitate considerable fencing into lots along
either side of a lane and the hauling of all the feed
to the different lots at each feeding time. But this
plan insures both abundant pasture for the sow and
litter as well as plenty of room for the necessary*
exercise, and has the advantage of always affording
clean quarters for the hogs and freedom from dis-
turbance for sows farrowing.

There are many different plans for both the
large houses and small individual houses, from
which may be selected whatever best pleases the
breeder. As much or as little expense may be put
into the building of hoghouses as the breeder de-
sires.

All buildings used for breeding and feeding swine
should be strongly built and made of good material,
and all should have floors both for feeding and sleep-
ing apartments. Floors made of wood are prefer-
able in the sleeping quarters, being warmer and
more easily kept dry. Where the large hoghouse is
used many prefer the feeding floor to be constructed
of concrete or cement and the sleeping floor of wood.
Wliere the building is used for the feeding of a large
number of swine together some prefer the feeding
floor to be constructed along the outside of the build-
ing, and in such instances the floor should be con-
structed of concrete or cement, raised slightly above
the surrounding surface. A cement feeding floor of
this kind properly made would be practically inde-
structible and would be easily kept clean either by
sweeping or flushing with water.

BARNS AND HOUSES 91

Where the individual system of houses is used
there is no necessity for a feeding floor except a
small one about 8'x8' in one corner of the lot most
convenient to feed, and this only for the use of the
litter where the pigs may be fed secure from the
intrusion of the mother. She may be fed near them
from a single trough.

Where the individual houses are used it will be
necessary to have a feedhouse or building so ar-
ranged that all feed may be kept there in separate
bins; where water may be easily obtained either
from an elevated tank or from a pump in the build-
ing and where the mixing of the feed may be done.
With this system the easiest way to distribute the
feed to the various lots is to use a wagon not to ex-
ceed 12" in height from the ground, and large enough
to hold three or four barrels of feed set upon it.
Such a wagon with a pair of shafts and a gentle
horse kept for the purpose of hauling all feed and
water to the different lots makes it very easy for the
feeder to care for 100 or 200 hogs in a short time
with very little labor.

Where the feeding is all done in one building or
house a feed-carrier suspended from a steel track
above the alley is the most convenient way to handle
the feed, as it requires but very little effort to carry
a large amount of feed in tliis manner along the
alley.

There are many kinds of troughs on the mar-
ket. Some of them are good, others better and some
absolutely worthless. Old-fashioned wooden troughs

92 THE HOG BOOK

are about past. They are expensive because so soon
destroyed, and are always damp and convenient for
animals to put tlieir feet in while eating. There are
several types of galvanized iron troughs as well as
two or three cast iron troughs. One of the latter is
made for animals of any size and is absolutely un-
breakable. This trough weighs 122 pounds, is round
and accommodates eight animals, and whether small
or large animals they are never crowded, as the
trough forms a circle. A hog or a pig can not get
its feet into it, for the reason that it eats out of
a cup just large enough to stick its nose in. These
cups are filled from the center in a receptacle where
the feed falls on a cone, thus being evenly distributed
into the eight individual cups, which are separated
by a heavy iron rod, and the pigs can eat only from
the cup before them. These troughs are always
clean, having no place for the feed to lodge and be-
come foul. This style of trough x>ossibly is not
suited to pens along a feeding alley in a building,
but for outdoor use it is admirable for feeding slop.
The matter of feed troughs is of great importance,
as all feed in the condition of a slop or mush should
be fed in good troughs easily kept clean. No feed
should ever be fed on the ground, unless it may be
ear corn where the ground is frozen or is hard and
smooth.

A breeding crate should always be used. This
is an important matter. By this method of breed-
ing the number on the ear tag or the ear mark may
be taken and entered in a book at the time of breed-

BARNS AND HOUSES 93

ing, giving day and date. There are several kinds
of breeding crates and the breeder can easily learn
which is best for his purpose.

Another necessary fixture on the swine breed-
ing farm is a good dipping tank. This is of great
value not only for the purpose of disinfecting swine,
destroying vermin and mange, but in keeping the
skin and hair in a healthy condition. Such a tank
sunk into the ground with a chute from an incline
where the animals slide down into it and have to
swim through the dip will pay on any pure-bred
swine-farm. It is of great value in preventing dis-
ease.

Another valuable appurtenance is a first-class
feed steamer. It is generally admitted that while
cooked or steamed feed is of no advantage so far as
economy or iiutriment is concerned, it is of great
value in the feeding of young pigs during the cold
months, as young pigs fed on warm feed either
cooked or scalded with hot water thrive almost as
well during cold months as through the warm
weather. It is also of value in feeding brood sows
during the winter season, as a mixture of clover
hay, or where possible alfalfa, run through a feed
cutter and mixed with meal, bran or middlings and
steamed or mixed with hot water is an ideal feed for
brood sows.

LARGE IIOGHOUSES.

Large hoghouses are constructed for the purpose
of housing many hogs and are adapted to a combi-
nation of uses, including breeding and sleeping

94 THE HOG BOOK

quarters for sows and litters, and for fattening hogs
when not in use for farrowing purposes. In build-
ing them the main essentials sought are cleanliness,
dryness, warmth, sunlight, ventilation and labor-
saving arrangements. There are many styles of
hoghouses, and to recommend any one particular
popular design is no part of my duty as an author.
As we become familiar with the various types we
know which one is best suited to our purpose. In
form hoghouses are either square, oblong, octagonal
or round. As a rule where one form possesses
strong features it is weak in some other point. As
to the outlay for a hoghouse, be governed by a close
study of the conditions at hand. The condition in
which a house is kept has a closer relationship than
the cost to the results secured. Perhaps one of the
most commonly-used hoghouses — and it gives wide-
spread satisfaction — is described as follows: Di-
mensions, 24'x48'; it is divided inside by six pens
on the south side, each pen being 8'x8'; the north
side, which is 8'x48', is fixed with movable partitions
every 8', giving use of this entire space for sundry
purposes. This leaves an alleyway of about 8' in
width through the center of the house. If it be de-
sirable, a bin can be constructed at either end of the
north side or in the back end, and a platform erected
wherever most convenient on which to set a stove.

The height of the pens is generally 3' to 4' ; each
pen should have a good strong door opening into the
alley, and provided with a secure lock or fastening.
Each pen facing the south should have a small door,

CENTRALIZED HOUSE

95

96 THE HOG BOOK

also witli a strong latch, opening outward. It is
not advisable to have doors or openings on the north
side, but small doors are needed at each end of the
north row of pens, opening outward to the east and
west. The floor plan gives the use of 11 or 12 pens
when necessary, and of six farrowing pens, with
one or two large sleeping or feeding places for large
droves of hogs. The north side can be fitted with
troughs along the alley partition, which will be
found very convenient for use in feeding fall pigs
or other hogs when weather conditions are bad.

The foundation should be constructed to stand
wear and tear, be easily cleaned and free from
dampness and habitation by rats. It should be at
least a foot higher than the ground level, surround-
ed on the east, south and west sides with a gently-
sloping floor extending 8' or 10' from the house.
Concrete is the best material for floor and founda-
tion construction, but where this is not practicable
planks may be used, if laid close and tight, with
proper slope for drainage.

It is advantageous to erect inclosures around the
outside floors, with movable partitions, so that each
inside pen, if desired, may have a separate outside
inclosure, especially on the south side, while the
north side and south as well can, by lanes and parti-
tion fences, be arranged so that they may connect
with large yards and pastures. In using concrete
for floors it can be roughed on the surface and
small creases be arranged in the pens with slopes
of a few inches to drain out collections of moisture.

CENTRALIZED HOUSE

97

98 THE HOG BOOK

The slope can be made either to the doors of the
outside or to the alley. The back part of each pen
or the largest space away from the doors should be
higher than at the doors. This space is used as the
sleeping part of the pen. It should be well drained.
Should the cement prove too damp and cold, a
wooden platform can be constructed to fit each pen.
These can be removed, cleaned, aired and dried, when
necessary. The pen floors should be several inches
higher than the alleyway or the outside floor. Should
neither concrete nor plank be desired for flooring, a
good serviceable floor can be constructed of sand,
gravel, clay or cinders by mixing and tamping the
material down very compactly, then placing a close-
meshed heavy wire fencing flat on the surface, sta-
pling the ends and sides to the sills of the foundation
and covering this with two or three inches of sand,
dirt or gravel. This will work down, and with a
little more material and attention form into a fairly
even, hard floor. However, such a floor is some-
times hard to clean and keep sanitary, but it proves
to be better than plank or cement floors in many in-
stances, as cement floors are generally cold and
damp, and plank floors rot or hold dampness. Well-
constructed plank floors give better satisfaction.

Around the sides of each farrowing pen l"x6" or
2"x6" pieces are nailed horizontally 6" or 8" from
the floor, forming a shelf to protect the pigs during
their first few weeks in the hoghouse. Underneath
these projecting pieces the youngsters are safe from
trampling by their mother. To admit light and sun-

CENTRALIZED HOUSE 99

shine windows are placed in the south, west and east
sides, one window for each pen, while some houses
have a solid row all along the south side at the top
and bottom. To secure an even distribution of sun-
light the house is built with an offset of the roof on
the south side. It is 3' in depth — sufficient to take a
row of windows directly underneath the top comb-
boards. This plan makes the south roof several feet
lower than the north one. This row of windows fur-
nishes sunlight for the north pens ; the south pens
secure theirs through windows placed in line under
the roof and over the doors of the south side. In
some cases windows also are placed in the east and
west end, where they will admit sunlight to inside
pens. A chimney of brick should be built from the
loft up through the center of the house. Over the
pens of the north side a loft can be arranged to store
bedding or other articles likely to be needed, and if
desired a small room can be fitted up at one end or
the other for the storage of feeds and utensils.

In construction the hoghouse proper should be
framed and put together solidly, and be made almost
air-tight, so that ventilation can be regulated by the
doors and windows. The roof can be of shingles or
rubber roofing; iron roofing is cold in winter, hot
in summer. The siding may be constructed much
like that of a farm residence, using building paper
between the sheeting and the siding, or iron siding
over the sheeting and building paper, or shiplap
or rubber roofing over the siding. It is essential that
the hoghouse be centrally located, close to the var-

100 THE HOG BOOK

ious yards and pastures, and used for hogs only. I
would install a water supply system in it. Some
liogTQen arrange this with a well or a cistern close
by or in the house ; others place a dipping tank un-
derneath the floor in the alleyway.

Such a house as I have described answers every
practical purpose, and in price it is not out of reach
by most breeders. It can be built as one 's means per-
mit by building it in sections or a little at a time.
A few hundred dollars will erect the frame and $400
or $500 will cover the entire cost of the material.

INDIVIDUAL HOGHOUSES.

The use of small, movable hoghouses, designed
for the individual occupancy of one sow and litter,
constitutes the so-called "colony system." Many
breeders combine it with the centralized plan, which
is perhaps the most satisfactory in the central hog-
belt. The centralized system is preferable in the
North and the colony system is best for the South.
A strong recommendation for the individual house
is that it is isolated, and thus offers many advan-
tages in coping with contagious diseases. Affected
or exposed hogs can be quarantined by moving the
houses and aifected animals to a remote part of the
farm. As the cost of the individual house is small
it can be destroyed and replaced with a new one
without serious sacrifice, while should disease break
out in a costly centralized house this expedient
would be out of the question. Good serviceable
houses of this type can be built at a cost of from

INDIVIDUAL HOUSES

101

102 THE HOG BOOK

$10 to $25, according to location, prices of material
and of the size and design desired, while it will take
from $20 to $35 to house a sow and a litter in a
larger centralized house.

There are several designs, of which the wigwam
or tepee and the small oblong or square are the most
popular. The floor dimensions are from 6' to 7'

WIGWAM TYPE OF IIOGHOUSE.

wide, 8' to 10' long and 6' to 8' liigh. The base is
generally constructed to rest on skids, so that the
house can be moved easily about by horses or men.
The roof also serves as the sides, as it extends from
the floor sill to the ridge piece. To secure sunlight
a small window or door is placed over the lower door
in the top of the front end. The door is 2' to 3' wide
and about 3' high. It should be hinged and carry a

THE WIGWAM HOUSE

103

104 THE HOG BOOK

secure fastening. To secure ventilation tlie comb
])oards can he raised higher tlian the roof board by
means of small blocks and by leaving a space be-
tween the roof boards. The sloping sides prevent
the sow from h^ing close enough to the edges of the
floor to endanger the young pigs ; indeed this con-
struction x)rovides a protection for them, and for the
same purpose a guard rail is nailed across the back
end. These houses can be constructed without board
floors or with cement floors, but a doubled board floor
is more satisfactory. They are generally roofed and
sided with shiplap lumber and, to secure more
warmth, can be covered with rul)l)er roofing. It is
an advantage to have a window in the end opposite
but higher than the door in the other end. This pro-
vides far better ventilation, and enables the owner
or herdsman to reach in with a whip and drive the
occupants out at the other end.

The oblong or square design is generally 6'x8'
or 8'x8' in dimensions, with the bulk of the roof slop-
ing to the north ; a window or a door is built in the
top part of the south side for sunlight and ventila-
tion. Another design has about two-thirds of the
roof sloping to the north and one-third to the south,
with a door or a window in this part. The oblong
and square styles are generally made permanent in
location, although some men provide them with
skids to facilitate moving. I think it best occasion-
ally to move all small hoghouses. All such houses
should be located on high points in the hogyards.
Drainage is thus provided for, and sanitary condi-

FEEDING FLOORS 105

tions are more easily maintained. Many breeders
make the mistake of housing and confining hogs in
low places where the ground is cold and wet, and
surface drainage impossible.

FEEDING FLOORS.

The value of a solid, clean surface on which to
feed hogs cannot be overestimated. It can easily be
swept, washed and cleaned. A cement floor properly
constructed will last a lifetime and it can be disin-
fected and kept in a sanitary condition. How to
mix and use cement, gravel and sand for floors, walks
and foundations is explained in literature which the
leading cement manufacturers will supply on appli-
cation.

A feeding floor should be several inches above the
level. To secure a permanent floor dig an excava-
tion from 8" to 12" deep. To construct the bottom
part, fill with 4" or 5" of rock broken into pieces small
enough to lie close together and form a fairly level
surface. Then a mixture of coarse gravel or crushed
rock and Portland cement, four parts of the former
and one part of the latter, may be tamped into the
spaces, forming a solid foundation. This can also
be made to overlie the rocks 2" to 4". The next layer
or course is made of a mortar or finer sand or gravel
mixed at a ratio of four to one or three to one,
properly tamped and trowled, until it is 5" or 6" in
thickness, being a trifle higher in the center with a
slope to all sides. A top coat made of fine sand and
Portland cement mixed in the proportion of three to

106 THE HOG BOOK

one is applied to a depth of 2" or 3". This, coat must
be thoroughly trowled until the cement works out
well on top, and a little dry cement may be scattered
over it and worked in by trowling. The final touch
consists in roughening the surface and by dividing
the floor into squares by open lines, as in sidewalk
construction, to prevent checking and cracking by
frost. It is best to construct feeding floors inside
of wooden frames, leaving them in place for at least
two weeks, so that the cement may become perfectly
hardened. As most feeders use such floors for both
wet and dry feeds it is advisable to mortise in bolts
with round eyes, placed so that they will project 4"
to 5" above the surface of the floor, where it would
be convenient to put troughs. To these bolts the
troughs can be secured to the floor, from which they
can be easily removed. A floor of this kind on the
sunny side of a building, hoghouse or shed, is one
of the best investments a breeder can make.

Plank floors are expensive, unsanitary and do not
last long. Besides, they are hard to keep from sag-
ging. Where flat stones or vitrified bricks can be
obtained at small cost good floors can be made by
laying them close together, filling the interstices with
concrete or cement and binding the edges with a ce-
ment wall or planks. Floors may also be constructed
of small rocks with a heavj'' dressing of coarse
gravel and clay tamped between them and closed
with a plank binding at the edges. Some hogmen
select high elevations and improve the surface by
coarse gravel and clay.

HOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR

107

The essential of feeding floors is a hard, perma-
nent surface, impervious to weather, proof against
rooting by hogs and easily cleaned and disinfected.

HOGHOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR.

A plan for a hoghouse for 100 hogs and a feed-
ing floor for hogs is shown in the accompanying
diagrams to which the subjoined description applies :

6'

Concrete makes the best and cheapest feeding
floor. It is rather cold for a sleeping room, and is

108 THE HOG BOOK

not SO dry as a board floor. Dryness and warmth
are necessary for young pigs.

Ten pens 8x8' will accommodate 100 fattening
hogs. In front of these pens make a concrete floor
12x80'. For foundation and nail ties of the house
set on edge five 2"x6"xl6' joists on the north side,
one 2"x6"x8' on east, one 2"x6"x8' on west and five
2"x6"xl6'on south side and spike together at corners.
Make the foundation 8' wide, outside measurement.
Cut eight 2"x4"s 7' 8" long and place with tops flush
with the outer joists for partition ties and spike to
keep in place. Then drive enough strong stakes to
keep all in line. Fill in with 3" of concrete made of
6 parts of crushed stone or gravel or screened cin-
ders to 1 part of good Portland cement. Tamp even-
ly until tlie water begins to show on the surface.
After this sets finish with a coat of cement, 1 of
cement to 3 of coarse clean sand. Use a straight
edge 9' or 10' long to finish up level with the 2"x6"
and 2"x4" ties. Trowel down to a good finish and be
careful that there are no depressions to invite water
and ice.

This done, lay off the feeding floor 12'x80' by set-
ting on edge a 2"x8"xl2' joist at each end and five
2"x8"xl6' parallel with front of house 12' away. Se-
cure the corners and joints and stake well and fill
in with concrete as in the foundation for the pens.
Finish flush with the tops of the outside joists. A
better job will be had if a concrete curb is made in-
stead of using the wood outside curb, but it will cost
more. As the concrete is finished it must be cut

HOUSE AXn FEEDING FLOOR 109

through in squares not over 5', better 4' or 3' to in-
sure against cracks that are sure to follow expansion
and contraction with changing temperatures. After
the cement has well set fill all the cuts made with hot
pitch or coal tar roof paint; this keeps out water,
yields to expansion and adds to the life of the floor.
This should be hot and poured in from a vessel with
a lip or spout to secure a small stream.

The erection of the pens on the foundation is
easy. We need 20 2"x4"xl6' and 11 2"x4"x8' for nail
ties and roof support, and 1,800 feet of 16' lumber,
free from knot holes. To this add shingles or metal
for roof. Make the rear of the house 3' 6" and front
6'. The top rear nail tie acts as nail tie and roof
support. The front has two nail ties, one 3' 6" above
floor and the other 6' above the floor; this also is a
roof support- or plate. Another 2"x4" must be the
center support of the roof. The sheeting must run
up and down and is ready for shingle or metal, but
it will pay to cover with tarred paper before laying
shingles or metal, as it will l^e warmer and keep out
snow. It will pay to make the siding double and use
tarred paper between, as this actually keeps out
snow and wind, which are disastrous at farrowing
time. The doors in front should be 2'x3' and hung
on hook hinges. A drop window 18"x5' 6" will give
air and sunlight, opening south. After cutting tlie
cement floor into blocks pass a tool along the cut and
round the edges. Round the edges of the floor, too,
as this will prevent crumbling that is sure to follow
with edges sharp and rough. According to the

110 THE HOG BOOK

testimony of those who have used this hoghouse and
feeding floor, results have been uniformly satis-
factory from every point of view. They consider
the combination decidedly convenient and econom-
ical.

CONCRETE FLOOR FOR HOGHOUSE.

The bottom to receive concrete should be solid,
so that it will not settle in holes nor out of the orig-
inal level. It must be so that no water can stand
under it, as it will freeze in winter and heave up
the floor, of course cracking the concrete. It is best
to remove a few inches of top soil and tamp well
the surface that is to receive the cement. The gen-
eral way is to excavate 8" to 12" and fill with gravel.
But if the floor is protected from water getting un-
der it the gravel is not necessary.

The best concrete is made from broken stone,
gravel and coarse sand. Mix dry 13 parts gravel, 6
parts sand, 6 parts Portland cement, then when thor-
oughly mixed, add water to make a stiff paste. Then
take 27 parts broken stone, thoroughly drenched with
water, so that all fine dust may be washed out, and
mix the crushed stone with the other until all is in-
corporated with the cement.

In laying cement it is best to divide .the floor into
squares of 4' or 5' with 2"x4" pieces firmly staked
down. Fill every alternate square with the mortar
well tamped down until the fine cement begins to
come to the top. After it has stood a short time at
least, but before it is dry, apply a finishing coat of
V'i' or %" made of 2 parts sifted sand to 1 part of

CONCRETE FLOORS 111

cement, smoothing down Tritli a trowel. After set-
ting it so as to be fairly firm remove the 2"x4s" and
fill the other squares in the same way. If made in
too large squares shrinkage cracks will occur. In
laying cement walks or feeding floors outdoors the
cracks marking the divisions or squares are cut clear
through the cement, thus allowing for contraction
and expansion.

To make concrete without the broken stone coarse
gravel may be used, but it will need more cement,
say 6 or 7 parts of sand and gravel to 1 of cement.
There seems to be no hard and fast rule as to this.
Only as much should be mixed at one time as can
be immediately used.

After completion the floor should be sprinkled
daily with water, which is necessary to complete
hardening of the concrete. It is best to leave the
studding around the outside for a long while. Con-
crete will usually cost from a quarter to a half more
than wood, but the concrete is for all time and is cer-
tainly more sanitary and easier to clean and keep
clean.

BEDDING.

Clean bedding for hogs promotes and conserves
health. Quality rather than quantity must be con-
sidered in selecting bedding. It is far better to have
a dry floor, bare of bedding, than a foot or more of
wet and dirty bedding on wet, unclean floors. Hogs
do not naturally require much bedding. The skin

112 THE HOG BOOK

of pigs is very sensitive to prickly, irritating trasB
often found in coarse bedding, and sucli material
may cause skin diseases, especially in young pigs,
and greatly aggravates cases of sore mouth, nose
and tail. Bedding that becomes dry and dusty pol-
lutes the air with fine particles of dust which, being
inhaled, give rise to mechanical pneumonia and other
diseases of the respiratory organs. Such bedding
also is a favorable breeding ground for vermin.
Leaves of forest trees and wild grasses are the prim-
itive bedding for hogs, but millet hay, prairie hay,
timothy, alfalfa and clean rye or wheat straw, with
but little chaff, are the best bedding materials that
can be secured cheaply and abundantly. Chaff in
grain straw irritates the skin.

YAEDS AND INCLOSURES.

A hog-farm should be fenced hog-tight, so that
one may know that one's own hogs and those be-
longing to neighbors are securely enclosed. The re-
sult is protection of the growing crop and against
disease and the use of pasture and fields by the herd,
thus affording a saving in production by utilizing
waste feeds that are scattered over the farm. Hogs
acquire the rustling habit when given such freedom
that does much to promote health, especially in
breeding herds. It is not praticable to give fatten-
ing droves such a wide latitude, but it will be found
of great benefit to hogs in the developing stage.
Young hogs require yards large enough to yield them

YARDS AND INCLOSURES 113

a sufficiency of pasturage and forage. Experience
shows that it is not best to place any great number
of hogs in one bunch ; 10 to 15 pigs will be sufficient
for a lot of four acres of alfalfa, clover or other pas-
ture crop. Of course at short intervals the number
of hogs can be increased, but to economically use the
forage it is best to produce an excess so that it can
be mown two or three times a year. This also pro-
vides tender, succulent feed.

Yards or pens that are necessary about the in-
dividual or centralized houses need not exceed an
acre in size. Such yards may be plowed and seeded
to rape or other annual forage crops — a practice
that makes for healthfulness. Smaller pens, which
immediately enclose farrowing quarters, need not be
more than one rod square, and may be constructed
of planks. Provide a well-constructed gate at one
corner. Put a feeding floor in each pen. Panel con-
struction is recommended so that the pens may be
removed when not in use. For fencing small pens
close woven No. 9 lateral and No. 14 horizontal hog
fencing 26" high and of 6" mesh is the most satisfac-
tory. For close yard fencing still heavier wire
should be used, and a more open and lighter fence
can be used in enclosing large lots, pastures and
fields. A barbed wire placed underneath the woven
fence will prevent hogs from rooting and crawling
under. With two or three wires at the top an ideal
farm fence is established.

For posts use well-seasoned native timber, cedar

114

THE HOG BOOK

or hedge treated with creosote ; these will last eight
to 12 years. For close yard fencing the posts should
be placed 8' apart and 2' to 3' in the ground. In
height the posts may be alternately ^Vo' and 3' above
the ground. All corners of fences should be securely
braced; all gates should be of plank or steel with
woven wire and provided with secure fastenings.
For open field fencing posts may be 16' or even a
greater distance apart, using shorter posts between.
Where hog fences cross guUeys or draws, stones, logs
or poles may be buried in the ground and the wires
attached to them. In recent years the cheapness
and durability of cement have led to the use of ce-
ment posts, which can be made on the farm at a cost
ranging from 10 to 25 cents each.

SHED AND SHELTER.

Some breeders depend on large open sheds to
provide shelter and windbreaks for their herds.
These are often combined with cattle sheds or placed
on the south sides of barns, granaries or cribs. This
shelter is found to be cheap and useful in warm
climates, but is not recommended for the extreme
North. Such a shelter must have a weather-tight
roof, sides and ends, the south side being left open
to secure ventilation and admit sunshine. One great
fault of large open sheds is that they are generally
not divided into compartments; consequently the
hogs overlie and pile up during cold nights and be-
come too warm, and sweat. Then, as they separate

HOG TROUGHS 115

after sleeping and are exposed to cold air, they
"catch cold," and develop lung diseases which are
often mistaken for cholera. Another disadvantage
of such sheds is the difficulty of keeping them in
sanitary condition. I have never heard of a proper
name for this method of keeping hogs, but I believe
it might be called the "socialistic plan." While
such a system may be permissible as a temporary
substitute for something better, I would not advise
its practice to any large extent in cold climates.
When such a shed is used it will be found advisable
to partition it off with short panels of fence, 3' or 4'
in height every 4' or 6' of its length. This would di-
vide the hogs into small groups and prevent the bad
effects of crowding. Of course, such sheds must be
liberally disinfected with lime, crude carbolic acid
or other disinfectant and otherwise kept in as sani-
tary a condition as possible.

HOG TROUGHS.

The essential thing in a hog trough is that it may
readily be cleaned. No trough, whatever the advan-
tages claimed for it, should be used which has inter-
stices or cracks in which dirt may lodge, and all
practical plans tending to keep the trough free from
dirt should be put into operation. My experience is
that the simplest and cheapest form of trough is
also the most satisfactory for general use. The
old V-shaped trough, when properly made and
mounted upon a platform to aid in keeping it

116 THE HOG BOOK

dry and clean, is hard to improve. For all practical
purposes, from 6' to 10' will be long enough to build
it. Its capacity should be sufficient to hold at once
the entire amount of any one meal. If feeding
troughs are not placed on platforms they should at
least be on high ground to minimize dirtying by the
pigs' feet, although there will always be a certain
amount of that, especially if the trough be near a
muclhole. It is a common practice to put swinging
panels in the fences of hog pens so that the troughs
can be filled without entering the pen and without
the interference of the hogs. Flumes may also be
arranged to carry slops through the fence and these
devices are quite satisfactory. On the whole, how-
ever, I prefer the movable trough, placed high and
dry where it can be easily kept clean.

Troughs constructed of iron or steel and of gal-
vanized steel or of concrete, having rounded bot-
toms placed upon platforms and where the sun can
shine direct into them, also constructed so that they
may be easily flushed out and kept clean, are com-
monly accepted as ideal hog troughs from practical-
ly all standpoints, especially sanitary.

A DEVICE FOR HOLDING HOGS.

The device shown on page 117 for holding hogs
by the head while ringing is simple and cheap in
its construction and easy in its operation — so sim-
ple, in fact, that the mere illustration furnishes all
the specifications necessary. The uprights should

DEVICE FOR HOLDING HOGS

117

be firmly set in the ground and the upper piece of
stocks pinioned to tlie upright on a pivot at A. By
nailing boards to the uprights on both sides in the

rear a small chute may be formed by means of
which the hogs may easily be driven into the "trap."

HERD MANAGEMENT.

There is much misunderstanding of the applica-
tion of the terms "quality" and "finish," and it
may not be amiss to give the meaning of these terms
as they have been used by experienced breeders. All
through my career these terms have been applied as
here outlined, and all my judgments of individuals,
types and breeds have been made with a broad in-
terpretation of them. When our score card was
revised in 1896, the committee on revision, without
question, gave these terms their broadest meaning
and application. Quality may mean several things,
according to the application of the term to the dif-
ferent parts of the hog. Broadly defined, it means
the character, fitness or mark or stamp of excellence,
of any part of the hog, or of all the essential parts
or points that may be classed together or distin-
guished from one another on account of their pecu-
liar uses to the hog or in his pork product. So the
word when applied to the hog may be used broadly
and to cover nearly all his points and uses. This
has been the usage among breeders and feeders for
60 years, to my own knowledge. They spoke of the
breeding, feeding, maturing, shipping, show, devel-
oping and pork qualities, and of many other lesser
qualities that made up the hog. They judged these
qualities by the character and construction of the

(118)

HERD MANAGEMENT 119

meat, lard, bones and hair, and as they noted their
adaptability for different purposes, quality was the
main defining word used. The word even goes on
to the stockyards and through the packinghouse to
the consumer's plate.

In breeding herds the term quality gives the
measure of the value of reproducing individuals,
and all breeders have learned to discern such values
by a conformation that quite accurately stamps the
individuals as breeders or non-breeders.

Finish is not the same as quality, but it is the high
state or degree of development of quality. Finish
is accomplished only after all quality has been de-
veloped. So often the finish of one individual is not
as high as that of another, as its inherent and de-
velo{)ed quality was of a lower grade. The best out-
ward indications of finish in a hog of high quality are
the absence of creases, lumps and over-development,
and, on the other hand, a good condition of body,
meat, hair and skin. Animals with fair-sized strong
bones, evenly-constructed bodies covered with fine
coats, with firm but fairly thin skins, and producing
meats of fine texture; that conform closely to tlie
characteristics of their breed, and that have indica-
tions of possessing and developing high quality may
be credited with high quality and finish. The score
card treats largely of size, color, condition, disposi-
tion and action in hogs. But in the case of each of
these there must be reckoned the quality, finish and
symmetry of the points, and althougli neither quality
nor finish is given any stated percentage of the make-

120 T?IE HOG BOOK

up, every point and part must have a preponderance
of both in order to qualify. Many people mistaken-
ly regard symmetry as synonymous with quality and
finish. Although there exists some connection be-
tween the terms, the word symmetry really means
the similarity in shape of the parts of both sides of
the body, so that each side of the body is exactly
like the other and both combine to make perfect
animal form.

SELECTING BOAES.

To select a boar to head a herd is a responsible
undertaking, as the boar is generally credited with
exerting more influence than the sows in forming the
general type in a herd. Much should be known
about the bloodlines and the general type of his an-
cestors for a few generations back. If these are fa-
vorable, close inspection of his individual merit is
of next importance. He should be a true type of his
breed, and in every case a better individual than the
average of the sows. If he is inferior to them im-
provement cannot be expected. He should be strong
in points wherein the sows are weak, so that the
common demerits of the sows may be corrected in
the progeny. The crossing of extremes in confor-
mation is to be avoided; use boars mainly as cor-
rectors. In the selection of new and distinct blood
the powerful influence exerted by the sire in doing
either great good or great mischief should be con-
sidered. To some extent the general make-up of
future litters of sows bred to boars of like type can
be forecasted. In many cases, however, even where

SELECTING SOWS 121

the boar is of the same type as the sows, the breeding-
back of him makes the type of future litters very
uncertain; he does not make a good ''nick." How
important this is every experienced breeder knows.
I urge a careful study of a boar's immediate an-
cestors as a necessary part of a man's business in
selecting a herd-header. The boar should be con-
stitutionally strong and vigorous, of good size for
his age, in good health, free from lumps and wrinkles
and without serious defects. The back should be
fairly long, even, broad, full, strong and slightly-
arched; his frame larger than that of the typical
herd sow ; his bone strong and of close texture ; his
legs straight and set wide apart, giving evidence
of plenty of room for heart and lungs ; his carriage
free, with action and style; his pasterns short and
strong, so that he will stand on his toes. He should
possess easy feeding qualities. The better the sows
individually the better the boar should be, and the
better he is the better the pigs will be.

SELECTING BROOD SOWS.

Figuratively speaking, the sow is the seed-bed,
and the boar the seed. Good seed will do better in
poor seed-beds than poor seed, but to secure the
highest reward in results the seed-bed must be rela-
tively as good as the seed. The only true course in
the up-building of types is by the use of good seed
in good seed-beds. This involves the correction of
all deficiencies, by matings of sows with males of the
same breed which are strong in the points which the

122 THE HOG BOOK

SOWS lack. To mix breeds or to practice cross-breed-
ing is but to tear down the structure and eventually
the foundation of the types which it has taken
breeders years to build. The selection of the brood
sow, therefore, is as important as that of a herd boar.
One of the first considerations is fecundity. Find
out about a sow's ancestors; her pedigree should be
examined and her conformation studied. Many
breeders select their breeding animals at six to
eight months old, deciding, from characteristics of
form which individuals give the greater promise of
breeding value. They cull all those with a tendency
to mature too quickly in frame, and that promise to
mature into finished pork at small weights. These
are fed for market and slaughtering. The others
are retained for future trials in the breeding herd,
with the certainty that some of them will be dis-
carded after their first litters.

In selecting a brood sow I would have the size of
the animal fairly large, of good length and depth,
not compact nor yet too loosely constructed. The
back should be straight or slightly-arched, even and
full, with the rib line even and well-extended from
loin to shoulder, the rump and top of the ham broad-
er than the top of the shoulders and the width
through the hams more than the width through the
shoulders. The loin should be developed fully to
the lines that are even with connecting points. The
l)one should be firm, strong and of good size; the
general frame of the sow may be slightly rangy;
legs straight and set wide apart; hoofs round with

SELECTING SOWS 123

short pasterns, and standing firmly on the toes with-
out dew-claws touching. The sow should possess
free use of every part, showing good carriage, free
action and some style; head and ears medium in
size, broad in the face between butts of ears and
eyes, tapering down to the end of the nose, which
may be longer than that of the boar; jowl clean-cut
and comparatively free from fat. The neck need not
be full or wide, but may be generally narrower and
sloping to conform with the shoulder, and without
wrinkles or creases. The heart girth must be good,
showing good width between the fore-legs and be in
proportion to the length of the body. The sow
should be free from blemishes and over-develop-
ment of fat in any part of her body, which should
be of a muscular, bony build, thus insuring repro-
ductive vigor.

The udd-er should be naturally well-developed. To
show indications of a full development for the nurs-
ing of eight pigs is considered better than a develop-
ment for a litter of 12. The function of a brood sow
is to produce, in large numbers, animals whose
frames permit easy and quick maturing into finished
pork. Sows must possess deep, well-rounded hams
that have the large end up ; broad backs filled with
meat and lard, deep, wide bacon sides that have
streaks of fat and lean in them ; and shoulders well-
filled and covered with some fat, with the larger part
of the shoulder up.

It is better to secure a few sows possessing the
leading characteristics than to have many that do

124 THE HOG BOOK

not. Sows so strong in type and blood that they

will reproduce themselves may be termed brood

sows.

AGE OF BROOD SOWS.

Nature must be given plenty of time in which
to mature breeding animals. We cannot expect
immature gilts or fat sows to be as prolific or
produce as strong and healthy litters as older and
maturer brood sows. As the matured brood sow
ages her usefulness decreases until it becomes un-
profitable to keep her. Gilts should be annually se-
lected to take the places of retired sows.. Spring
gilts can only be considered experimental brood
sows, and in selecting them double the number ac-
tually needed should be placed under observation.
Fall gilts are more promising brood sows, as they
are generally better developed, but it is not best to
depend entirely even on them. I would keep a diver-
sity of ages, from gilts to perhaps six-year-olds,
culling out from time to time those that failed to be
profitable, although it is well not to be too hasty in
condemning gilts for small litters, as they sometimes
prove the best producers and mothers on further
trial. By filling in with younger breeding animals
and discarding older ones an even balance will be
kept in the herd, and a practical demonstration of
the success or failure of the bloodlines adopted
and methods followed will be made. Pigs from ma-
tured sows are generally stronger at birth, have bet-
ter chances to survive the first few critical days,
seem to adjust themselves to conditions more read-

CARE OF BOARS 125

ily and to make better growth, with but few of the
troubles that affect small pigs, than do those from
immature sows. Nearly all winning show animals
and the best bunches of pigs or finished hogs are
from matured dams. Mature sows are apparently
more prepotent than gilts; the latter farrow pigs
that finish frame growth at too young an age. As
to the extreme limit of age, there are instances of
spws breeding until foster mothers must be used to
nourish their pigs. Generally speaking, best results
are obtained before the sows reach the eighth year.

CARE OF BOARS.

The boar is the head of the hog family, the ''mas-
ter of the harem," the heart or "germ seed," and
center of the pork-producing plant on the farm. Af-
ter ascertaining that this seed is pure and of excel-
lent quality, it becomes most important that all con-
ditions are fulfilled to get the greatest benefit of his
qualities. No matter how good the blood, or how
superior the individual, the care, the feed prior to,
and his physical condition during the breeding sea-
son regulate largely the vigor and value of his off-
spring. If the boar has been purchased, feed him as
nearly as possible as did his previous owner, and
any necessary change in diet or care should be made
very gradually. His yard or inclosure should be at
least 100' square; it would be much better if it
were an acre seeded with alfalfa or other forage.
Tlie lot should have good drainage and shade; a
warm, dry house jjlaced conveniently so that the

126 THE HOG BOOK

hog may be seen easily and often. The house should
have a small, high and tight pen enclosing the open-
ing, sufficient to give the animal exercise during peri-
ods when it is best to guard his safety. This last
precaution is especially necessary during the night
and in the breeding season. The large lot should
be enclosed with a moderately high, tightly-woven,
heavy wire fence, with posts at intervals of at least
8', and one or more barbed wires at the bottom and
on top. These yards should not adjoin each other
directly or the yards of the brood sows. It is not
essential that the boar be provided with cement feed-
ing floors; if any floor is needed, a small wooden
platform can be arranged. The feeding trough
should be wide and of fair size, and should be dis-
carded, and replaced with a new one, at least once
a year. Muscle and bone-building rations should be
fed, with plenty of pasturage in the summer, and a
liberal supply of alfalfa, hay and roots in winter.
Corn may be fed daily, but not excessively, and with
a slight increase just before and during the breeding
season. The main feeds used should be shorts, oats,
oilmeal and milk. The boar should always be kept
strong, healthy and vigorous, and should not be al-
lowed to become either too fat or too poor. The bal-
ance can be regulated by raising or lowering the
balance of his rations.

For best results, the practice of breeding one sow
daily, or from 30 to 40 sows during the breeding sea-
son, each with but one service of natural duration,
is best, and all that nature intended. If it be nee-

CARE OF SOWS 12/

essaiy, however, and the boar is in proper condi-
tion, the services may be arranged at 12-hour in-
tervals for a few days. But this is a bad practice to
continue any length of time, although not as bad as
allowing the boar freedom in the sows ' quarters dur-
ing the breeding season. Sometimes the boar's dispo-
sition may be quieted by letting an old sow run with
him, and hard or shy breeders may be brought back
this way, but the boar should be kept away from
close contact with droves of sows. The sanitary con-
dition of the boar's premises should be kept per-
fect, as disease may be spread quickly from such
a center, especially during breeding seasons. He
should be treated for lice and mange very frequently,
whether there is apparent necessity or not, and
should always have a liberal supply of ashes, coal
and charcoal in his pen.

CARE OF BROOD SOWS.

Let us assume that the brood sow is of the proper
type, in good condition, and is being fed a. balanced
l)rood sow ration when the breeding season opens.
For spring litters, this season begins generally in
the latter part of October and covers November, De-
cember, and the first part of January. May and June
are the breeding months for fall litters. Age and
maturity of sows have much to do with bringing
about good results. Some types, breeds, and indi-
viduals develop and mature more quickly than oth-
ers; so no definite breeding age may be determined
upon in all cases. Perhaps the best rule would be

128 THE HOG BOOK

to avoid the farrowing by any sow before she is one
year old. This will generally give time for gilts fully
to mature. It is better to breed sows to farrow
about the same time ; this gives better results in size
and uniformity of the offspring. The gilt is in heat
about every 21 days after the age of four or five
months, the period being from two to four days.
The conditions are the same with older sows ; those
that have weaned pigs will come in heat within 21
days after entirely weaning, although signs of heat
may be shown before then. The best time for service
is about the middle or height of the period. The
time of gestation varies from 112 to 118 days but is
generally about 114 days. Pigs farrowed much be-
fore 112 days are usually weak and hard to save,
and those that are farrowed after the regular time
generally have some condition that causes consider-
able trouble in raising them. Experience has shown
that the strongest and most easily raised litters are
farrowed in or between the common minimum and
maximum periods given.

After the sow has been bred she should be re-
moved to secure quarters out of contact with other
hogs, and there given a few days' rest. Feed during
this time should be light, of laxative nature, and even
temperature; her quarters should be dry, warm
and sanitary. After the sow has been returned to
her former yard the feed should be such as will
grow muscle, bone and tissue, but not highly con-
centrated, and with only a small allowance of corn.
Alfalfa, shorts, oats, skimmilk, a little oilmeal or

CARE OF SOWS 129

tankage, vegetables or roots, with plenty of pure wa-
ter, plenty of exercise during the winter time, make
an ideal regimen for the development of the sow and
her foetal litter. In summertime plenty of pasture
and shade must be provided, so that an even temper-
ature of the body may be maintained, and where con-
ditions are normal there should be no wallowing in
mudholes or ponds. After 30 or 40 days the corn
allowance may be increased slightly but never over-
balanced. About three or four weeks before farrow-
ing the allowance of corn should gradually be cut
down and its place finally taken almost entirely by
increased allowances of oats, shorts, brans and the
like. Some breeders use a little oilmeal and tankage,
but, where it is practicable I advise the use of ground
alfalfa. The brood sow's balanced ration should in-
clude such gr-ains and forage as are produced on the
farm. In any feed mixture it is essential that there
be no deleterious substances. The feeds must be
muscle, bone and tissue-builders and, in the latter
part of the gestation period, laxative and fever-
allajdng. During this time it is essential for the sow
to take plenty of exercise daily for her digestion
and assimilation to be regular. The bowels must be
regular but not over-active. This condition will pre-
vent or allay fevers and many other farrowing
troubles that affect the sow and her litter.

Great precaution must be taken upon the ap-
proach of parturition against possible injuries by
other hogs, fences or other obstacles, or by anything
that could force the sow's body over high objects

130 THE HOG BOOK

or through small spaces. About the hundredth day
the sow should be accustomed to her farrowing pen
by confining her in it every night and giving her ex-
ercise during the daytime in a yard enclosing it.
Attention must then be given to the farrowing signs.
Among these are the filling of the teats and the ud-
der from which a watery or milky substance can be
obtained by stripping 24 hours before the end of the
period. Another sign is her carrying of litter or
bedding and the construction of a nest. As the hour
of farrowing approaches, the pains of labor produce
a condition of enforced quiet and the sow takes a
recumbent position. Then the man who has fed and
cared for her properly has but little to do beyond
giving each new arrival its first assistance and count-
ing the youngsters. They are generally able to care
for themselves afterward.

The condition of the brood sow during pregnancy
and motherhood should be made as favorable as pos-
sible to the full development and upkeeping of her
body and its functions. She has a double strain dur-
ing gestation — the development of herself and of
her foetal litter — so should be neither too fat nor too
lean. Her care, feed, sanitary condition, exercise
and general condition control in large measure the
fate of the litter.

In yarding brood sows, discretion and judgment
must be used in getting together those inclined to be
of the same temperament and those requiring and
eating about the same amounts and nature of feed-
stuffs. The most ravenous, strongest, and ill-tem-

FEEDING THE HERD 131

pered sows should be allowed to contend against one
anotlier, while the milder-tempered sows should be
segregated, and the result will be an approximately
equal distribution of feed.

FEEDING THE HERD.

There is a great difference in the feeding of
breeding stock and of fattening stock, and small lit-
ters and unprofitable returns in the hog business can
be attributed largely to the breeder's lack of dis-
crimination in his methods of care and feeding. Many
men lose sight of the fact that the frame must first
be constructed, and that breeding animals must be
supplied largely with feeds that will develop muscle,
bone and tissue, as well as with heating and fat-
making feeds (carbohydrates). The individuals of
the herd have been selected on account of their prom-
ising fitness for breeding. They are usually of su-
perior frame development, and should be easy-feed-
ing and easy-maturing animals. After they have
been selected their feed should be of a highly devel-
oping nature, but at no time excessively fattening
nor too strong in protein. They should have access
to pasture, and receive plenty of exercise. Always
rememl)er that the intention of feeding is not to fat-
ten, Ijut to produce an animal of large frame that is
meaty and well-developed in every way, and that
such feeding must also supply these same elements
of strength for the development of reproductive
power. These considerations show the necessity of
feeding liberally high-protein feeds.

132 THE HOG BOOK

Breeding animals possessing such conforma-
tions and receiving such care and feed as here indi-
cated, are not only satisfactory in size, vigor and
constitution, but endow their offspring with these
qualities. Before the breeding season, it is best to
increase the allowances of heat-producing feeds, as
this is required by some individuals fully to develop
their breeding powers. After the breeding season
the ration should be much the same as before, grad-
ually increasing its grain, and compelling plenty of
exercise. During the early winter or when pasture
ceases to be sufficient, roughage should be supplied.
A ration of alfalfa, wheat, oats, corn and oilmeal
may be ground and mixed and fed wet or dry, al-
though it is better to feed it as a thick mash in
troughs or on feeding floors. As farrowing time
approaches, it is essential that the digestive tract
be kept in a perfectly healthy condition. Avoid con-
stipation.

Dry, warm and clean sleeping places must be
provided. Nearly all heating feeds should have
been discarded two weeks before farrowing, and
the sow's ration composed of such cooling and
laxative feeds as alfalfa hay, oats and bran, with
very little corn. But the ration must not be made
too laxative nor lack in nutriment. This treatment
will prevent fever in the mother and give the young
pigs the best possible start. During motherhood,
the feeds after a few days should be gradually
strengthened until it is of a highly developing na-
ture. It is important to remember that feed even

POINTS ON FARROWING 133

now must develop tlie bone, muscle and tissue of
the young pigs through the agency of their mother,
as well as nourish the sow herself.

When weaning time approaches the feed for the
dam should be stronger in grain and she should be
kept away from her pigs for several hours at a time.
Meanwhile the pigs should be receiving sufficient
feed to carry them over her absence. By this
metliod the sow will begin naturally to dry up, and
the pigs will naturally wean themselves; so that
final weaning will not be harmful to mother or pigs.
After weaning, the sows should be placed in yards
containing green feed and fed lightly on grain for
a few weeks, then gradually placed on a strong
brood sow ration — which means a more liberal allow-
ance of grain to prepare them for their next breed-
ing. Mature or old sows do not require any great
amount of protein when being carried over, but
should be given more liberal amounts of carbo-
hydrates during pregnancy and motherhood than
are given to younger, developing sows.

POINTS ON FAEROWING.

Every hograiser should keep a record of each
brood sow, including her breeding and farrowing
dates, and facts about producing and maturing quali-
ties and the disposal of her litters. By such a sys-
tem the owner is enabled to determine each sow's
individual worth as a brood sow, and to know with
certainty her farrowing time and when to transfer
her from the herd to an individual farrowing pen.

134 THE HOG BOOK

Signs of approaching maternity in brood sows are
extreme fulness of the belly and the filling of the
udder and teats until they are full and smooth in
appearance. Investigation should be made of these
every day for about a week before the farrowing
date. Sows also show that farrowing is near by
restlessness and by collecting material for their far-
rowing beds. While the sows should previously
have been allowed plenty of exercise during the day
time, they must now be secured in farrowing pens
to which they have become accustomed by sleeping
in them for a week or more. When these signs are
noticed the hograiser should arrange his farrowing
pens and fasten the sows within, with the expecta-
tion of litters within 24 hours. The bedding should
not be excessive, and should consist of clean, dry
millet, hay or rye, or wheat straw. Mature sows or
those that have had previous litters, and have been
properly fed and cared for with farrowing in view,
need little assistance at farrowing; they require for
the most part close observation so that aid may be
given should occasion require. It is always well
for someone to be on hand at frequent intervals for
24 hours before and during farrowing. Many pigs
are lost by lack of attention or over-attention. Sows
differ largely in temperament and the hograiser
should be governed by this fact and other condi-
tions, such as weather and difficulty of labor, in giv-
ing assistance, that he may make the whole process
of farrowing as nearly natural as possible. More
attention is required during the cold months, as the

POINTS ON FARROWING 135

pigs may cliill before they suck. This makes it ad-
visable artificially to heat the pens during farrow-
ing or to heat them by means of jugs of hot water
or hot stones or bricks, wrapped in cloths and
placed in barrels, boxes or baskets.

When the sow shows signs of sickness by taking
a recumbent position, investigation will show that
parturition has started; a watery discharge from
the vagina will be noticed. The sow must not now
be disturbed by noises or attention, and every pre-
caution must be taken against them. If the sow
be of a quiet disposition or will permit of handling,
it is best for the attendant to take a position from
which he can quietly secure each arrival in folds
of cloth or sacking, wiping their nostrils and mouths
clear of all matter which would suffocate them. This
will also prevent chills. The pigs should be given
a chance to suck as quickly as possible after drying,
and, if they do not naturally suck, should be aided
by stripping milk into their mouths. If the weather
is cold, the pigs and dam should be covered with a
light blanket for a few hours. This should then be
removed gradually, to prevent chills, and natural
conditions established. Should the sow be feverish,
restless, cross or unnatural, it is often advisable to
place the litter between suckling periods in boxes
with artificial heat, until the dam shows a natural
and motherly disposition.

The afterbirth generally is the end of farrowing,
though not always. It should be removed from the
pen and either burned or buried, as its consumption

136 THE HOG BOOK

by the sow is of no benefit, and often causes liarm.
Sows given brood sow rations seldom sliow any in-
clination to eat the afterbirth, while those in im-
proper condition invariably do.

The nse of instruments should be avoided when
natural farrowing is in process. If there are in-
tense pain and labor for an hour or more without
results, an instrument may be used after being anti-
septically cleaned, and oiled with lard or linseed oil.
The insertion of forceps will often turn the pig into
a position where proper emergence will result. An
injection of medicated linseed oil is often an effective
aid.

Pigs are farrowed either fore or hind legs first.
They sometimes become doubled, however, so that
they will not pass through the opening of the womb,
and have to be straightened out by using forceps.
Where forceps are used, great care must be taken
not to injure the inner lining of the womb and the
unborn pig. After a secure hold has been made of
its legs or head, so that it will come forth naturally,
a slow steady pull should be given, as an aid to the
sow's lal)or, holding all the gain until an issue is
effected. Another method for getting the young
pig into a proper position for easy birth, and one
which I personally prefer to any method involving
the use of instruments, is injection of warm water
and oil with a hose. After the injection the sow
should be kept with the rump lower than the head.

Oftentimes pigs apparently are dead, from this
treatment or other causes, when they first come

POINTS ON FARROWING 137

Many of tliese may be saved by immediately wiping
out the mouth and nostrils, pulling the tongue down
and forward, and inducing artificial respiration by
gently forcing the body from a straight to a bent
or doubled-up position and blowing air into the pig's
mouth. If it does not respond to such treatment
within two minutes there is little chance of recovery.
If there be any trace of heart action pigs are some-
times revived by stimulants, such as three or four
drops of whiskey in a spoon of cow's milk, or they
may be rubbed with a cloth saturated with whiskey
or alcohol.

During farrowing the house should be kept as
evenly-heated as possible, and free from draughts
of cool or too hot air. The pigs must be allowed to
suck at least every 10 or 15 minutes during the
first few hours of life and at least once an hour
when about 24 hours old. Sunshine is of great im-
portance to newly-born pigs. It apparently imparts
strength and causes a filling-out of their bodies,
giving them a condition and appearance which no
artificial heat can produce.

The dam's feed for 12 hours previously to far-
rowing, and 24 hours following, should be little more
than tepid water. If the sow is in excellent condi-
tion, a light slop of bran, shorts or ground oats may
then be given, slightly increasing in richness for a
few days until the desired balance in the ration is
reached.

Sometimes from different causes a sow reaches
a state in labor where artificial aid threatens her

138 THE HOG BOOK

life. The best treatment at this period,, if she has
farrowed part of the litter, is to place the sow in
a mud bath and take steps to allay the body and
milk fever. Often the sow will live through the
process of passing the dead parts of the unborn
pigs and recover her former health and usefulness.

RUNTS AND BACKWARD PIGS.

Wlien the growth of a pig is arrested and, in
spite of the usual methods of care, the animal refuses
to develop, the blame may be laid either to its breed-
ing or to causes operating after birth. Only in the
latter case is the tendency remediable to any great
extent. Inbreeding, carried too far, often results in
this unwelcome class of pig, while unwise cross-
breeding will have the same tendency. The breeder
who pursues either course too far will undo the
building work of years, and end up by producing the
kind of hogs that were outclassed 50 years ago.
Naturally the only way to deal with such a situa-
tion as this is radically to change one's methods of
breeding and choice of herd animals. When back-
wardness is due to causes arising after birth, it is
an easier matter to deal with. The first cause
of runts that can be detected after birth is lack of
suckling capacity in the sow. If the litter is larger
than the sow can take care of, the stronger and bet-
ter-developed pigs get their share of the milk, and
then some, thus depriving the weaker of a fair share.
The handicap increases as the stronger pigs gain,
and an ill-assorted litter tailing off with the weakest

RUNT PIGS 139

runts is the result. Tlie only way to head off this
tendency is to supply the needed nourishment to the
runts. Cow's milk should be given them, and the
weaning should be hurried along so that they will
have an early chance to feed and make up for lost
lacteal opportunities. If necessary the weaker pigs
may be transferred to another sow with a small
litter, but if this is done it should be seen that the
same lack of uniformity is not repeated. The pigs
should be placed in a litter approximately in the
same state of development as themselves and such a
transfer should only be made when the pigs are less
than a week old.

Pigs are also stunted by wrong feeding in their
early days. Often^ the feed is not properly dis-
tributed, the stronger getting the lion's share and
the weaker getting onl}^ half the necessary amount to
keep up normal growth. Not only does this hurt the
weaker pigs, but it involves a waste of feed, and even
the stronger pigs may become runty from the very
excess in their diet. To avoid this happening, only
pigs of about equal age and size should be fed to-
gether, and all those that grow ahead of the others
should be removed and fed by themselves.

Thumps, constipation, fever and other sicknesses
also cause pigs to lose in growth, and appropriate
measures against these ills should be taken. The
best general treatment is to put the pigs to pasture
with plenty of shade and pure water, and gradually
to change the balance in the rations. The protein
should be increased, giving such feeds as separator

140 THE HOG BOOK

milk, tankage, alfalfa, dry corn and middling slops
in the summer, and cnred alfalfa or clover hay, cook-
ed roots, corn, milk with shorts and middlings, tank-
age and slops, in the winter, with free access to wood
ashes and salt. Milk and good pasturage with a lit-
tle concentrated feed will do wonders in bringing
runts into presentable form.

WEANING PIGS.
Every breeder has his own method for weaning
pigs. Methods vary from forced weaning at three to
four months old to allowing pigs to wean them-
selves, or their mothers to wean them, at ages ex-
ceeding three months. Some breeders wean the pigs
a few at a time until only the runts are left to dry up
the dam. All methods have their drawbacks as well
as their good points. Perhaps the best general
method is to institute near as possible natural wean-
ing, which can be effected by encouraging the pigs
to form an early taste for warm cows' milk,
corn and short slops, increasing the quantities
of these until their appetities for them are well estab-
lished. In this way the change from the dam's milk
is made gradually, and most of the disadvantages of
the various methods of weaning are overcome. The
litter or any part of the litter should not be removed
during this process. At seven or eight weeks of age
the pigs should be freely eating feeds practically to
full extent of appetites, hardly depending on
the dam at all. About this time the dam's udder
will begin to dry; she should then be removed to
some tightly-enclosed pen out of sight and hearing

FALL PIGS 141

of her pigs. After a few days she will dry up com-
pletely. The pigs' rations of grain and milk may
then be increased to take the place of the dam's milk,
and the pigs will hardly realize that they are weaned.
Strong, Greedy Pigs. — "Eobber Pigs" are pro-
duced for the most part by the practice of running
litters of uneven sizes and ages together. It is only
natural that under such conditions the stronger pigs
will secure the feed of the weaker ones, and will ex-
tend their operations to all the other litters to which
they can get access. The only cure is to segregate
the robbers where they can only get access to their
own dam, and then size up the remaining litters so
that the inequalities wliicli give rise to robbing may
be eliminated. Much of the danger of robbing is re-
moved by putting sows and their litters in individual
one-acre pastures, or placing them, not more than
two sows together, in small pens and houses. If
large numbers of litters are in pastures together
only very close personal attention and the prompt
removal of robbers will prevent the evil.

FALL PIGS.

Fall pigs, raised under favorable conditions, may
be made almost as profitable as the spring litters,
and, in fact, two litters a year are necessary if the
hog-farm is to pay adequately for the outlay and
labor it exacts. Where feed and care are properly
given, the raising of two litters a year will actually
improve the breeding stock. Plenty of home-grown
forage and adequate housing are the necessary con-

142 THE HOG BOOK

ditions to success in fall operations. Pigs farrowed
during the latter part of August and up to Oct. 1
are best adapted to carrying over and developing
during the winter. Their care during infancy should
be similar to the care given spring litters, but as
weather conditions are better in the fall it is a mat-
ter of less anxiety. On the other hand, fall pigs
must be weaned earlier and be able to eat and entire-
ly independent of their dams before cold weather
sets in. During the early fall, so long as the weath-
er is favorable, young pigs should be developed as
much as possible by exercise and plenty of such for-
age as alfalfa. This treatment makes the body
firmer and more closely-grained than that of the
spring pig, and my observation is that this difference
enables them to stand stronger feeding earlier in
life than the spring pig can stand. Corn, wheat,
shorts and milk are the basis of this feeding, supple-
mented by alfalfa or hay, which will replace the ear-
lier pasturage, when that is out of season. This
latter can be given in the natural state or ground
and mixed with the other feeds mentioned, with a
little oilmeal or tankage added. Koot feeds, slightly
cooked or raw, may be added, and pumpkins or
squashes will be found good appetizers and correct-
ives of digestive troubles. In cold weather the
drinking water should be heated to between 70° to
80° F. always above 50° F. It is advisable to soak
or slightly steam the alfalfa, corn, wheat, oats, tank-
age combination and to feed it in a thick mash.
Grains and shorts may be fed dry with liberal allow-

FALL PIGS 143

ances of drinking water, and free access to alfalfa,
ashes and salt.

The sanitary condition of fall pigs should be
watched closely. They should be in bunches not
to exceed 12 or 15, confined little as possible, and
be given opportunity to secure plenty of late fall
green forage. Apart from the forage, their feeding
should be on sheltered or covered floors. Their
sleeping quarters, too, should be arranged so that
they cannot pile up ; to prevent this the nests should
be partitioned oif into spaces that will accommo-
date not more than five of six pigs. Steaming pigs,
fresh from an overheated, close nest, on cold win-
try mornings, shivering and hunting in snow or
mud for their feed, contract colds and fatal cases of
pneumonia. Pigs cared for badly and exposed to
such conditions will never compete with pigs that
have received adequate protection. Fall pigs fol-
lowing feeding cattle will be helped materially by it.

The skin condition should be especially well look-
ed after in fall pigs. If lice make their appearance,
not only must the skin be treated but the bedding
and ciuarters should be liberally disinfected. Fall
pigs as a rule develop more runts than spring
pigs; these should be separated from the bunches
in which they occur and fed especially on milk and
warm slops, to hasten their development. If they
do not respond to especial care they should be sold.
In dividing fall pigs into bunches, their age, size and
digestive capacities should be kept as equal as pos-
sible. Throughout the winter, feeding should be for

144 THE HOG BOOK

development ; there should be no excess of fattening
feeds, but with the advent of spring the grain allow-
ance and fattening feeds in general should be in-
creased. Pigs farrowed in September, with the best
of care and feed, may be brought to 400 pounds by
June of the following year, and it is not at all un-
common for bunches to average from 250 to 300
pounds. The cost of production per pound is but
little greater than that of spring pigs of the same
weight.

Breeders of fall pigs may be troubled by the
natural tendencies of some of the boar pigs com-
monly termed as ''ranters." They should be iso-
lated or sold. Boars should be kept in bunches of
approximately the same size, temperament and de-
velopment. Those used for breeding purposes should
not be returned to the bunch and the bunch should be
kept away from the neighborhood of the sows. In
many cases a good pasture is sufficient to minimize
this kind of trouble from the boars. A few barrows,
put in with the bunch, will also have a good effect.
Lastly, it should be remembered that the feed must
be highly developing, and for this purpose nothing
supplements the corn better than shorts, tankage, al-
falfa and good separator milk, with free access to
ashes and salt.

SIZE OF LITTERS.

The size of the litter that can suitably be cared
for depends largely upon the proper care and feed-
ing of the dam, but her capabilities should never
be pressed to the limit, and if the litter is unusually

CARE OF SPRING PIGS 145

large part of them should be transferred to another
sow or given artificial nourishment. While 10 or 12
pigs can be taken care of by a dam of the best de-
velopment under proper care and feeding, a smaller
number is safer, and in a mixed herd of old and
young dams seven or eight pigs is a practicable
size of litter, with the older dams carrying 8 or 10,
and the gilts five to eight. "While as many as 17, 18
and even 23 farrowed, and 14 pigs of one litter
have been raised without any runts, the breeder who
produces six to eight pigs ultimately does best.

CARE OF SUCKLING SPRING PIGS.
For some time prior to farrowing and up to the
weaning time it is important that the mother sow
should be carefully observed. See to it that sanitary
conditions surround her ; be cautious as to the quan-
tity and quality of feeds. On these factors depend
the thrift and usefulness of early pigs. The pigs
should be housed in warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated
quarters, free from draughts and dust and independ-
ent as far as possible of artificial heat. The tem-
perature should be about normal. It is not best to
heat hoghouses far above the outside temperature
or to allow it suddenly to change. Little pigs should
not be placed too close to a heated stove, as sudden
clianges of temperature in their bodies give rise to
many ailments. It would be better to remove the
litter from the artificial heat or at a further distance
from it when they are a week or more of age. Get
them used to natural weather influences as soon as
conditions allow. If properly constructed, individu-

146 THE HOG BOOK

al liogliouses offer ideal accommodations for young
litters. Pigs should be exercised at an early age
on favorable days. Drive the mother and pigs out
of the house and around the yard. The sow should
be fed outside of the house and the pigs encouraged
to rustle around the yard with her.

Pigs over two weeks old will naturally begin to
nibble at the feeds given their mother. They should
be encouraged in this by placing, where it will be
convenient to them and out of reach of other hogs,
a small trough in which to give a small quantity of
sweet milk, soaked corn, shorts, slops or ground or
soaked oats when feeding their mothers. They will
soon learn what the feed is for, but great care must
be taken not to overfeed them. Gradually increase
the amount each day, according to their needs, re-
membering that their main source of nourishment is
the mother. See to it that they clean up what is
given them and are still a trifle hungry after each
feed. This is important, as overfeeding destroys
the future usefulness of thousands of pigs. To start
right is a great aid to success.

While getting pigs on feed we must not overlook
the mother. She should have feeds that produce
bone, muscle and milk. It is well to know the quan-
tity and quality of what she consumes, as brood sows
will often eat material that is detrimental to them
and their pigs. If the sow be excessively fat use
milk-making feeds — those rich in protein ; if in high
breeding condition give her an even-balanced, de-
veloping ration ; if in poor condition, and the litter

PIG-EATING SOWS 147

promises to be quite a drain on lier system, give lier
feed that will produce both fat and milk. When
conditions are kept nearly natural, the sow and lit-
ter will have little need of drugs and tonics, but they
should be supplied with charcoal, ashes, lime and
salt and their sleeping and feeding quarters kept
in a sanitary condition, by cleaning and disinfection.
As the weather grows milder the sow and litter
should be encouraged to make use of the pasturage
in their yards. At weaning time the pigs should be
so well advanced as to be quite independent of their
dams for sustenance, so that they can be easily
weaned without appreciably upsetting them.

PIG-EATING SOWS.
The eating of her young by a sow generally re-
sults from lack of care and improper feed given for
some time previously to farrowing. As a result
she is out of condition and craves essential mineral
and body building materials. The sow is generally
costive and feverish, and farrowing is usually at-
tended by many minor troul)les. The little pigs
(also usually not natural) cause annoyance and
I>ain in sucking, and the sow becomes irritated. This
coupled with her craving for flesh-forming feed,
causes her to eat her offspring. Relief to her ir-
ritation and remedy of her craving requires time
to effect, for the trouble is from long-standing
causes. Watchful attendance on the sow and lit-
ter is required, and laxative and fresh fatty flesh
feeds should be given first. Tankage may be in-
cluded after the first 24 hours, and these will

148 THE IIOG BOOK

eventually stop the unnatural craving. Some-
times it is best entirely to remove the litter
from the mother until she ceases to be cross and fev-
erish. In this case they should be allowed to suck
at intervals, under protection. Some breeders give
a small dose of laudanum to produce restfulness and
to help allay the fever. If the sow is costive, injec-
tions of warm Castile soap-water with castor oil
will remove hardened feces and help to promote
bowel action. If there be inflammation or fever in
the udder treatment should also be given to reduce
it, mud poultices, hot fomentations, or hot cloths be-
ing beneficial for such troul)le.

THE ROOTING HABIT.

Nature provided the hog with an ' ' appendage of
independence," and when not adequately provided
for the animal "roots for a living." Hogs relish
herbs, roots, grubs and mineral substances found in
the soil. If supplied with ashes, charcoal and grit
the instinct to root will be less assertive, although
hogs will dig around alfalfa and clover plants and
root up the soil in cool and shady places in which
to rest in the heat of the day. So far as the hog is
concerned, the rooting habit is not harmful, but
rooting destroys grass and growing forage, and as
the habit grows and is rewarded by edibles they
come to depend on it to such an extent that their
other feed does them little good. The best treat-
ment is to supply materials that will satisfy their
craving. As a last resort rings may be placed in

BAD HABITS 149

their snouts. By the time these drop out, they will
have largely forgotten the habit. Avoid ringing
hogs, especially brood sows, too deep, and do not
uninterruptedly continue the practice, for hogs must
root some. Cutting the snouts to break the rooting
habit is a reprehensible practice.

CHICKEN-EATING HABIT.

This habit is generally contracted by carelessness
in the disposition of dead fowls, or in the care and
management of poultry. Once acquired, it is very
hard to break, especially in older hogs, while a young
pig by isolation from poultry will lose its taste for
this kind of meat. Various contraptions and meth-
ods are used to break the habit. My advice is to
market the chicken-eater unless it be a show hog.
Chickens should not run with hogs. The hog is car-
niverous, and chickens tempt it. Liberal feeding of
meat will often satisfy the craving. Some breeders
have used tankage successfully in curing the habit.

BREACHY HOGS.

Hogs contract good or bad habits much the same
as men do. The care, feed and condition of their
inclosures have much to do with their forming hab-
its. Irregular feeding, under-feeding and forgetting
to feed cause them to seek feed elsewhere. If not fed
and watered they become as unwilling prisoners,
and inevitably find weak places in the fences sur-
rounding them. Escaping, after being driven back
a number of times with dogs and clubs, they learn to

150 THE HOG BOOK

be cautious, and to use some ingenuity. . Other hogs
learn the trick under the leadership of an old sow
or other breachy members of the herd. All fences,
gates and buildings should be of standard construc-
tion and kept in good repair. All hogs that show
breachy dispositions should be placed in quarters
from which it is impossible for them to escape. The
herd should be supplied with fresh water and plenty
of feeds of different varieties and at regular feeding
times.

RECORDING HOGS.

In order that a hog may be eligible for record it
must have an unbroken, recorded lineage on both
sides to the first recorded swine of the breed. It
is therefore of the utmost importance to keep the
chain of record unbroken, as it is difficult to collect
data and information necessary for record, if it is
not done at the time of breeding. On the other hand,
it is easy to keep a record of all breeding operations
as they take place and to write up the pedigrees of
the animals bred. Blank pedigree books may be pur-
chased at the rate of 1 cent a form. These forms
contain blanks for the dates of farrowing, the num-
ber and sexes of pigs, hj whom bred, names of sires
and dams, their numbers and full pedigrees, as well
as spaces for identification marks, owners' names
and the like. In order to record swine it is abso-
lutely necessary to fill out the date of farrow, the
number of pigs in the litter, proportion of each sex,
breeder's name and address, sire's and dam's re-
corded names and numbers, and breeder's and own-

MARKING SYSTEMS 151

er's signatures. It is advisable to fill out all the
other blanks provided. The breeder should not at-
tempt to offer an animal for record unless it is dis-
tinctly above the average of merit of its type. The
purity of blood alone is not a sufficient cause for
record and unless the pure-bred animal has some-
thing to show for its blood it should be marketed. It
is unfortunately true that many pure-bred ' ' scrubs ' '
have been recorded. Breeders who thus seek to
add value to inferior stock inevitably are discrimi-
nated against by the best class of buyers.

IDENTIFICATION MARKS.

For purposes of identification, to insure correct-
ness in keeping records of pedigrees, and to estab-
lish a mark to denote ownership, various forms of
marking are in use. There is no best way; every
method has its drawbacks. Buttons or metal clips
in the ear lose or tear out ; cuts or punch holes along
the edge of the ear grow together, or are torn and
disfigured; indelible marks are effaced by wearing.
I favor marking pigs at two weeks of age with a
common harness punch, using one-half of its cutting
circle in marking notches in the ears. I use it on
both ears, taking little nips out of the lower edges.
The plan is adapted to 36 sows or it can be changed
by placing marks in the tips, middles and butts of
the ears to carry fewer marks on the ears and yet
accommodate 100 sows. Of course a record will
have to be kept in connection with it to give a key.
For a start the following is given, the upper figures

152

THE HOG BOOK

representing the riglit ear and the lower figures the
left:

LITTER OR SOW NUMBERS.

No.

The ear marked and number
of marks in it.

No

The ear marked and number
of marks in it.

Right ear.

Left ear i

Right ear.

Left ear.

1

1

0

19

3

5

2

0

1

20

3

6

3

1

21

4

1

4

2

22

5

1

5

3

23

6

1

6

4

24

4

2

7

5

'25

5

2

8

6

26

6

2

9

2

1

27

4

3

10

2

2

28

5

3

11

2

3

29

6

3

12

2

4

30

4

4

13

2

5

31

4

5

14

2

6

32

4

6

15

3

1

33

5

5

16

3

2

34

5

6

17

3

3

35

6

5

18

3

4

36

6

6

PLAN FOR EAR-MARKING HOGS.

Succeeding diagrams show a system used by A. J.
Lovejoy, who thus explains it: "After using differ-
ent breeding records for many years we put in a
card system for keeping records. We index our cabi-
net by number and give each sow in the breeding
herd a number. For each litter she produces we fill

MARKING SYSTEMS

153

154 THE HOG BOOK

out a card giving the number of pigs farrowed, num-
ber of boars and sows, date of farrow and the sire
of the litter. At the bottom of the card we mark
on a pig's head (made with a rubber stamp) the way
the litter is marked. When we sell any produce from
the litter we have to write one for the buyer. We
also have a small pocket memorandum book show-
ing the various litters and how marked that we carry
when we go out among the pigs. When a buyer asks
how a pig is bred we look at the ear mark, then refer
to the book and have the breeding for him at once.
In this little book we put the sow's index number so
we can refer to the cabinet when we get back to the
office.

"In regard to marking pigs, there are two very
good systems of marking by notches in the ears,
made with a harness punch when .the pigs are about
two weeks old. One system is where you give each
litter the same mark. This system we advise where
the pig crop is large. It is as follows : Every notch
of the outer rim of the right ear counts 1 ; inner rim
of right ear, 10 ; outer rim of left ear, 3 ; inner rim
of left ear, 30. For the first litter farrowed we place
one notch in the outer rim of the right ear; for the
second litter we put two notches in the outer rim of
the right ear; this stands for two. For the third
litter we go to the left ear and put one notch in its
outer rim; this means three; for the fourth litter we
mark one notch in the outer rim of each ear; this
raeans four; for the fifth we put two in the outer
right and one in the left — two plus three=5. For

MARKING SYSTEMS

155

156 THE HOG BOOK

the sixth litter farrowed we put two notches in the
outer left ; this means six. For the seventh litter we
put two notches in the left and one in the right. For
the eighth litter we put two notches in each ear outer
rim, making 8. For the ninth litter, three in the
outer left ear, meaning 9. For the tenth litter we go
to the upper right ear and put one notch in that
place; this stands for 10. "We follow up the suc-
ceeding litters by a combination of marks in the same
way. We have found this method very satisfactory
for keeping the records and when the breeding sea-
son starts we simply take the ear mark and the
markings of white in keeping sisters (Berkshires)
from the same litter identified.

''The other method say for 100 pigs and where
one is dependent on outside help to attend to the
breeders, gives each pig of a litter an individual
mark and is as follows : The right ear has a notch
close to the head which means 1 ; in the middle of the
outer rim it stands for 2, and close to the top it
stands for 3; just around in the inner rim means 4
and in the middle of the inner rim means 5. The left
ear stands for just 10 times as much. Now for the
first litter farrowed we start and mark one pig with
1 notch that stands for 1; the second pig we give
mark No, 2 ; the third pig No. 3, and so on up as far
as the litter goes by using a combination that stands
for the number required. Wlien all of that litter is
marked we start with the next litter where we leave
off and continue as before. You can mark up to 99
pigs with not more than 4 notches in the ear of any

MARKING SYSTEMS

157

one pig; then when the breeding season starts you
can go out and select the sows and decide as to what
boars you wish them bred to; make out a list and
leave it with the man in charge, saying breed gilts
Nos. 8, 11, 23, 25, 30 to whatever boars you decide

LEFT

on. "When he puts a gilt in the breeding box all he
has to do is to count the notches, look at his list
and act accordingly. ' '

Commenting on the foregoing or Love joy sys-
tem an Illinois farmer writes: '"^Mr. Lovejoy's
method requires a little book in case one forgets.

158

THE HOG BOOK

Here is a system (page 158) that is easier to keep
in mind. In the lower part of the right ear are 1,
2, 3, 4. In the upper part of right ear one cut means
5; in upper part of the left ear one cut means 10;
in the lower part of the left ear one cut tells the
number 20 is on the animal; cuts on the lower and

RIGHT

LEFT

upper ear left will mean 30; the lower and upper
right ear will be 9, so the animal marked that way
with 7 cuts will be numbered 39. This means the
fewest cuts and is easier to remember — points of
much importance to any busy man who values time
and energy.

KEEPING RECORDS

159

KEEPING RECOEDS.

Every careful breeder should keep a record of
each sow's performances so long as she is in the
breeding herd. This would show which sows were
profitable and those which were not. The keeping
of such records also makes the business a matter
of history and recorded experience. Buy a blank
book, allot a page or two to each sow, ruling it off
properly, and the breeder can record the essential
history of his work in pork production. Records
simplify collecting and referring to breeding facts,
and are highly valuable in business transactions.
Some day we shall require more vital data about
ancestry than we commonly keep now.

Some men keep records of expenses and receipts,
but this is not essential, and many of us would have
to employ bookkeepers if we did likewise. A good
plan to keep a record of breeding sows is shown :

Queen May 110113 S.
Dam.

Farrowed May 3, 1903.

Her mark.
1 R.

Sire, Poland King 26293.
Dam, Queen Anne 101203.

Bred Oct. 28, 1905.

Boar bred to.
Prince Again 29281.

Due to farrow.
Feb. 17, 1906.

Farrowed
Feb. 18, 1906, 10 pigs.
Raised 8.

Identification
mark.

Boars

3

Sold to
J. Jones.

[1]
$50

Sold to
B. Smith.

[2]
$40

Died
young.

[3]

1. R. E.

2. L. E.

Sows

5

Sold to
J. Jones.

[1]
$40

Sold to
E. Brown.

[2]
$30

Sold on
market.

[3]
230 lbs., 8c.

Keeping Died
in herd, young.

4 i [5]

Remarks— This was not a good cross ; will breed her to Bill Taft for fall
litter.

Note— The numbers are in brackets when hogs are sold or die.

160 THE HOG BOOK

ADVANCED KECORDS.

In large measure the improvement of a breed
lies in the hands of a few men and even they do not
work in harmony toward an ideal type. The result
is that the great mass of breeders are left to their
own resources in forming ideals of type, so that
there really is no common ideal for guidance. Al-
though the standard of perfection has contributed
to breed improvement in the past, it has always been
inadequate as a positive factor in breeding opera-
tions. Among the advocates of every breed there is
much confusion as to type. There is need of an
organization that shall bring the farmer, breeder,
packer and consumer to understand their relation-
ship to pork production. ^Hiile it may not be wise
at present to demand any radical changes in the
type of the pork hog, the future demand will be for
pork that contains more lean than fat, and the type
capable of producing it will lead in popularity. There
is no need to discard any of our popular breeds;
the type can be changed to meet market require-
ments. Breeders inevitably make mistakes in mat-
ings, and why? Because they keep no record or his-
tory of the pork-producing qualities of their breed-
ing animals. We have records that give the breed-
ing of animals, but there is no record of conforma-
tion, size, physical measurements, show winnings,
fecimdity, and maturing qualities. No breed asso-
ciation has any fixed or compelling standard by
which exposition and fair managements may be gov-
erned in selecting hog judges; consequently they

BUYING AND SELLING 161

are left to their own resources, and generally select
judges who favor a type locally common. So we
find one type winning the most of the prizes at one
state fair and an altogether different type triumph-
ing at another. Therefore the breeder who studies
types at fairs and by reading reports of them is left
in a confused state of mind. The greatest need in
the improvement of types is for a yard stick of
performance to measure values. I urge the establish-
ment of a system of records founded on principles
rather than personal feelings or opinions. This sub-
ject is entitled to the most serious consideration by
all breeders of pedigree stock.

BUYING AND SELLING BREEDING HOGS.

The hog breeder owes much to his fellows for the
promotion of fair and square dealing in all their
transactions.' The great majority of stockmen are
conscientious and square-dealing and upon them
rests the whole structure of confidence that is built
up in buying and selling, privately, publicly and by
mail. That this state of affairs may continue there
must exist between the buyer and seller a feeling
of confidence broad enough to overlook many mis-
takes and oversights, as the possibility of error or
misjudgment is always present in dealing with var-
ial)le animals like hogs. Some people think it is
wrong constantly to purchase sires from the same
lierd and of the same breeding, and it is their prac-
tice to buy from a different herd every season. This
may work out all right if the purchaser is an unus-

162 THE HOG BOOK

ually good judge of hogs, but for 90 out of every 100
breeders and producers it will be best to note the
families of hogs tliat are proving successful, to se-
cure individuals that have this blood from some
breeder in whom they have confidence, and to watch
the results in their own herds. The success of this
same blood in the breeder's herd may be watched,
and if it is constant the producer may continue to
get sires from this fountain-head until he finds that
the type is departing from his ideal; then if the
animal has proved a cross that is corrective, he
may still use another sire of the corrective breeding ;
but if not then and only then is it time for him to
look to other breeders for corrective breeding boars
and sows. By so doing the producer is enabled to
reap much of the breeder's harvest without much
cost and experimentation of liis own. This is the
main reason for the existence of breeders in the first
place, and producers should govern their business
policies so as to make the greatest use of the good
breeders' productions in order to keep up the
quality of their stock.

Breeders should cull their herds very rigidly and
feed for market all boars and sows showing any
marked deficiencies. Just what percentage of each
year's crop should be culled out depends much on
the general type and breed, but it is a safe estimate
that 10 per cent of any breeder's herd should be
marketed, and some herds will run higher than 50
per cent. Conscientious culling should be regarded
as a debt to the breed. The days of $10 boars or of

BUYING AXD SELLING 163

noigliborliood trading are past and should not be
revived any more than the analogous practice of
securing seed corn from unpromising sources. In
this day seed must be pure and of investigated power
of germination and production, and porkmakers
have neither the time nor the money to waste on
cross-breds, scrubs or renewed experiments along
the lines of the fallacies of yesterday. The pace for
the future is set, and it is almost furious in com-
parison to that of the old-time breeder, who did,
however, accomplish wonders in evoMng types.
"Wliat the future holds in store for the betterment of
the hog no one may prophesy, but it will be well for
all breeders to be in line to mould their types into an
accepted form before 10 years shall have elapsed —
a realization of that for which breeders have been
striving for centuries.

In bm-ing or selling breeding animals the selec-
tion of individuals should not be made from the ex-
treme developments of the general type of either
herd. Corrections of type and better results in uni-
formity of progeny are secured by mating individ-
uals of somewhat the same make-up, by using the
boar as a correcter of the deficiencies in the herd,
and increasing the effect by mating individuals pos-
sessing the stronger points desired.

Prices vary according to indi\ddual merit and
bloodlines, and there is perhaps no hard and fast
limit to the worth of an outstanding breeding boar.
Some breeders fix prices by hundreds and thousands
of dollars but I would suggest a more common use

164 THE HOG BOOK

of the hundreds. As a guide, it may be said that all
boar pigs should be worth at least $20 at any age,
and if they are not they should be castrated. Gilts
and sows can be figured at about the same price.
In all cases, if there is suspicion in your or in the
intending purchaser's mind of an individual being
worth only about pork prices it is time to study your
type and to think about marketing a good many of
your pedigree animals. For in such a case something
is wrong, either with you, your hogs, or with the
purchaser's mind. When a prospective purchaser
visits your herd the selection of breeding stock
should be largely left to him, reasonable prices
should be quoted, and if he buys he should be given
a description of the animals bought and they should
be marked so that he can designate the breeding of
each one in the future. In guaranteeing, the seller
should make no unreasonable promises, but should
be willing to stand by those he does make. The pedi-
gree should accompany the hog or immediately fol-
low it. It is not necessary to record the pedigree for
young pigs, so that it will be an easy matter prop-
erly to fill out a blank in a few minutes, and doing
so obviates many errors.

Should the intending purchaser answer an ad-
vertisement and ask about certain animals the breed-
er should describe fully all the individuals that
would approximately fill the order, and should make
his prices a little higher than for a local sale, to
cover the extra cost involved. As the selection is
left to his honor and judgment, when the buyer is

BUYING AND SELLING 165

not on the ground, he sliould send the best pig he has
that fills the order. Such pigs are generally worth
from $5 to $10 more and sometimes a great deal
more than the general average price that can be ob-
tained at home. When the purchaser accepts a cer-
tain pig, by all means send that pig or send his
money back. If something should prevent his get-
ting the right animal it is well truthfully to tell him
why, and offer the next best or return his money.

Several mediums are used to sell surplus breed-
ing hogs, and each has its good features. Many
breeders have a home trade that will take all of their
annual surplus. Others advertise, and if they have
a type that is acceptable to the public they dis-
]jose of their surplus at a profit. Some breeders
hold annual or semi-annual sales of their surplus,
which are much like private expositions of their
breeding animals and of their year's advancement.
Of course such sales also should be well advertised.
And this plan, if properly managed, is the most sat-
isfactory and aboveboard method of disposing of
breeding stock. Here the breeder invites compari-
son, criticism and the critical testing of his stock by
the men who are most directly interested. It is al-
ways helpful to a man to listen and talk to others
who are engaged in tlie same business.

The practice of attending fairs and exhibitions
is but another form of testing the fitness of indi-
viduals of one's herd to keep up the accepted ideals
of type and breed. It offers the breeder a view of
the highest standards in the light of which he may

166

THE HOG BOOK

judge and compare his own and guide his future
course.

A HOG SHIPPING CRATE.

The accompanying sketch shows a strong ship-
ping crate for hogs. It should be well built of pine
or other light wood. For sheep a similar construc-
tion is good but I/2" lumber is heavy enough.
About 16" wide, SVo to 4" long and 30" to 36"

high are the right dimensions for a sheep crate.
If it is to go a long journey wire in a small
tin pail in one corner, so that the sheep can be wa-
tered. One can put a lot of green clover or grass
in the crate at the beginning of the journey. Do
not try to feed much grain nor to send a bag of it
along unless a very dilute chop, mostly of bran, for
a short period of starvation is better than feeding

ADVERTISING STOCK 167

by expressmen. A iieatly-l)iult erate, a shipping
tai>" bearing the shipper's name and that of his farm,
will often aid in selling stock.

ADVERTISING.

Advertising is an important factor in the busi-
ness of breeding pedigree stock. Men who conduct
their business along proper lines generally are suc-
cessful because they advertise. If a breeder adver-
tises his surplus animals in high-class farm and
stock journals intending purchasers have confidence
in the man. Any breeder who has a surplus of good
quality can well afford to advertise. In doing so he
should make his advertisements telling and fairly
modest. He should bear in mind that there are oth-
ers in the business. Do not describe a type or an
individual that cannot be delivered when ordered.
Owners of animals of superior merit with estal)lished
records should use facts about them in their adver-
tisements. Many men would appreciate such data
for guidance in selecting breeding stock. No breed-
er sliould expect to sell all his surplus stock by ad-
vertising ; it is a rare occurrence in any line of busi-
ness completely to close out an entire stock by any
one method of sale. Success in advertising depends
largely on promptness and judgment in answering
correspondence. The advertiser who answers in-
quiries without delay, describes the animals desired,
giving breeding, weights, ages, measurements and
prices that are neither high nor low, generally sells
more than the advertiser who brags and over-ex-

168 THE HOG BOOK

plains. When advertising brings a prospective buy-
er to your farm let him feel at once your friendly
interest. Show him the herd and premises ; respect
his judgments about the hogs. In every sale the
pedigree should accompany the individual or be
sent immediately after the purchase price is paid.
A journal in which it pays to advertise should have
quality in all departments, and a reputation as an
authority on live stock affairs. Its circulation
should be among landowners. Stock cannot be sold
to town people, and rarely to renters.

Public sales offer the opportunity and advan-
tage of securing breeding stock of high individual
merit at prices which buyers have the privilege of
fixing. They are clearing houses for the disposal
of surplus breeding stock under a method which is
well established. Properly conducted they insure
a just relationship between buyer and seller. They
also develop men's business qualifications. Breed-
ers should never offer any individuals with known
defects without publicly stating them. Sellers should
have as much interest as buyers in the future use-
fulness of the individuals that they otfer. If this
interest is shown it goes far to establish confidence.

Superior individuals often sell at prices seeming-
ly exorbitant, while others, even more desirable,
bring less. No system of selling accurately can
measure a man's desire of possession. A safe guide
in purchasing the high average character of an of-
fering is to avoid extremes. Public sales carried out
under the conditions suggested, being well adver-

AUCTION SALES 169

tised and aboveboard in every particular, are the
best means of transferring individuals from buyer
to seller.

AUCTION SALES.

Auctioneer Z. S. Branson of Nebraska writes tlie
following: "The public sale is firmly established.
Let every man remember that when he places his
offering in the sale ring he not merely offers the in-
dividual animal or piece of property but with it
something of his own honor and judgment. And
just in the proportion as these characters are good
in the man will men see value in the offering, and
be ready to pay for it. The business end of a public
sale is not when the auctioneer mounts to block;
this is the consummation. I consider the man the
factor of greatest importance. If he have high char-
acter and high ideals his stock already is strongly
recommended. The animal is an expression of the
breeder's art. The second consideration is true
individual merit. Look well to the catalogue. Sale
animals should be in convenient places for inspec-
tion, in desirable condition and properly divided
and identified. A carefully-prepared catalogue
should be in the hands of attenders. Then the seller
must have a conscientious, intelligent, discriminat-
ing, persevering auctioneer.

"A breeder can raise the standards of public
sales by establishing a regular annual auction of
the best of his surplus. There should l)e no reserve
bids, arrangements or collusions. Everything should
be left to a free and ojjen competition among the

170 ' THE IIOG BOOK

bidders. Breeders and buyers cannot afford to
spend time and money only to be disapi:)ointed by
the best having been sold before the sale at private
treaty or be ent off from purchase or forced to com-
pete against by-bid competition. No shy breeder,
barren, deformed or miprofitable stock should enter
the ring, unless a full statement concerning its de-
fects is made, publicly by the owner. All information
should be positive and reliable. No breeder can af-
ford to deceive customers intentionally by withhold-
ing information either at public or private sale. The
future of the breeder who makes an ordinary or
even a low average on strictly first-class stock is
brighter than that of the man who sells plain, unre-
liable stock at an extravagant figure. Temporary
success without merit is a failure. Temporary fail-
ure where both breeder and stock are of high char-
acter tend toward ultimate success. The more pop-
ular public sales become, the greater the necessity
of confidence, harmony and fraternal affiliation
among breeders. There is no danger so great in any
business as disorganization, envy, jealousy and dis-
cord. The public sale system condenses business,
brings money in bulk, cheapens expenses, widens
reputation, brings many buyers together in a friend-
ly social relation, extends acquaintances, places the
seller on his mettle and teaches men to think rapidly
that they may act wisely.'*

BREEDING PROBLEMS.

I have found that '4ike hegets Hke" a safe
principle in hreeding. We can expect all litters
strongly to resemble their sires and dams in type
and markings. But inherent and acquired defects
are expressed in diseased, undersized, hard-matur-
ing, low-quality hogs, many of which will come in
every herd. The breeder's highwaj^ is strewn with
the wrecks of ignorant experimentation and mis-
takes of crossing breeds and types. Men who would
attempt to depart from the practices of experienced
breeders must look well to their own qualifications.
I am of opinion that 25 per cent of the pigs in a pure-
bred herd will conform quite closely to the general
type of sire and dam; that is, in their genesis they
will be practically independent of other ancestors.
In breeding therefore there is probably not more
than 25 per cent of the progeny that can be de-
pended on as a basis of betterment; 25 per cent of
heredity appears to work antagonistically, while the
remaining 50 per cent may be classed as neutral.
Upon the proper mating of individuals depends the
aid of this passive blood in augmenting the percent-
age of superior individuals. A difference in indi-
viduality is always noticed in litters. There are
never two pigs alike in conformation, one or more
being of outstanding excellence and others of grada-

(171)

172 THE HOG BOOK

tory inferiority. In the main, a litter closely will
resemble the blended type of the sire and dam, and
more strongly the type of the parent that is of the
greater intensified breeding with the greater stami-
na. The relative power of sire and dam to influence
the conformation of their progeny depends largely
on their own ancestors. In breeds with a long line-
age I should say that together they exert 50 per cent,
their ancestors controlling the remaining 50 per
cent, diminishing in power with each removal of re-
lationship. There is yet a negative influence, as
shown by reversions, which can be corrected and
strengthened by breeding. Such work may and often
does destroy the usefulness of a type or a breed. To
illustrate, in 1894 I bred a sow whose ancestry was
known personally to me for almost 40 years to a boar
bred in Ohio whose ancestry was known personally
to its owner for perhaps a like period. The litter con-
sisted of 10 pigs, nine of which were standard in
color and conformation; while the tenth (a boar)
was pure white. Being curious as to what the prog-
eny might be, this was crossed on a sow of standard
color; the resulting litter was mostly well-colored
with a tendency to white. With these pigs I prac-
ticed inbreeding, securing an individual almost pure
white in color. The experiment was here ended by
marketing all hogs from the last cross.

Size, vigor, prolificacy and quality are often jeop-
ardized for points of the fancy and by the too intense
mating of close relations. Such breeding carried to
an extreme (Nature never favors extremes) de-

BREEDING PROBLEMS 173

feats the ends at which it aims. Breeders should
study bloodlines and conformation and compare
methods. Mate animals that have the essential
parts well developed; breed those that are strong
in essential points to those that are relatively weak
in others. This is the way to effect improvement.
But animals that possess the same points of weak-
ness in common should not be mated together, as
this would intensify the weaknesses in their progeny.
Follow this line of Ijreeding with limited inbreeding
to intensify and fix type.

It is unwise indiscriminately to change from one
distinct bloodline to another in selecting sires. I
advise the gradual establishing of a type by using
sires of a consistent similarity of form and largely
of the same family bloodlines, with an occa-
sional infusion of outside blood in sires that conform
to the objective type. Follow this infusion with
matings closely in line with the adopted ideal of
standard.

Boars are generally more prepotent than sows,
due largely to selection, care and feeding which in-
crease vitality. Prepotency in pedigree hogs is much
higher than in cross-breds. Age also exerts a
strong influence on prepotency. A boar generally
attains his highest breeding power during the full
bloom of maturity, which is in his second and third
years. This power can be conserved by intelligent
use of the boar until well along in middle life, and in
some instances to extreme old age. Many a breed-
ing animal never reaches the natural limit of its

174 THE HOG BOOK

breeding power, owing to abuse and improper
breeding. Many are weaklings when they should
be in possession of their highest virility.

The short periods of gestation and lactation in
hogs help to make them very prolific, making two
litters a year possible under domesticated condi-
tions. To secure the best results in breeding, the
season of the year must be taken into account, as
well as the condition and degree of maturity of sire
and dam. The dam should be of the so-called "ideal
brood sow" type, that is, highly developed in bone
and muscle, and not be past her prime, well cov-
ered with flesh but not with fat, and fully up to the
standard or beyond the standard of her breed in
size. This kind of sow, mated to a boar of similar
character — always bearing in mind that the boar
must be at least fully the equal of the sow and if
possible superior — and well fed during the breed-
ing period and gestation, will produce the largest
and strongest litters of pigs which will be compara-
tively easy to raise.

The general tendency of late years has been to
breed animals that are quite immature in growth,
age or size. This is a short-sighted policy which
has done much to retard improvement and develop-
ment of breeds by the creation of a type that is too
small and too much inclined to run to fat, or that
is low in fecundity. Naturally the constitutional
stamina and vigor of the stock are lowered where
this is practiced to any extent. The question of
fecundity depends also on management, that is, on

BRE1£DIXG PROBLEMS 175

caro and feeding, bnt it certainly depends no more
on management than on the proper selection of
breeding animals. The age at which this necessary
maturity is attained depends on the season in which
the sow was farrowed as well as on her after-care.
Spring gilts generally mature more quickly than fall
gilts, and may be bred in time for them to farrow
when they are a year old. Fall sows do not develop
so rapidly, and they should not be bred before they
have attained practically a year's age.

Boars, properly fed with developing feeds of a
concentrated nature, reach safe breeding maturity
at seven or eight months of age, although they do
not attain full maturity for about two years. In
their early breeding days, therefore, they should not
be worked to excess, but should be looked after so
that the progress of their development is never
checked for'a single day by the demands on their
organisms. Only when this iy strictly looked after
will they be at their best and of the greatest real
ser^'ice when they do attain full maturity. If it has
been looked after the effective breeding life of a boar
may be extended to eight or 10 years before he
bcomes unprofitable or unreliable. Sows, too, may
be by proper care and management kept in good
breeding condition for many years, and useful brood
sows should be kept for that purpose so long a5 they
give satisfactory results or until the breeder has
developed other breeding indi\dduals whose type is
more nearly an approximation to the ideal he wishes
to acMeve.

176 THE HOG BOOK

Climatic conditions and season affect farrowing
and the development of pigs, and the breeder must
take account of these factors in a number of ways.
The wild hog produces but one litter a year, and
does it in the most favorable season, spring. As the
young produced in the spring have that season and
the warm summer in which to develop, they harden
and begin to mature during the fall, and so they are
ready to face the rigors of winter when that un-
kindly season comes around. Man, however, has
found that two litters can be produced annually un-
der proper conditions. The sows are bred for a
litter to be produced in the spring, and this may
be called the ''natural litter." It is weaned early
enough, however, so that an early mating will give
a fall litter which may be termed the ''supplemen-
tary litter." Here, however, the conditions are not
so favorable as in the spring, and so conditions
should be made, by artificial means, as like those of
spring as possible.

The months in which it is best to farrow depend
on the purposes for which the pigs are being bred.
The market demand is for heavier hogs during the
winter packing season, while during summer the
demand is for lighter animals which supply bacon
and fresh meat. This summer demand, for "pig
bacon," as it is known, is best suited with hogs of
150 to 200 pounds, and with hogs of from 200 to 275
pounds which cut up into a large percentage of lean
meat. The winter season, on the other hand, re-
quires heavier and fatter hogs whose meats, being

breeders' terms 177

maturer and firmer, are considered of greater food
value. To produce "pig bacon," therefore, farrow-
ing should occur in January, February, and March,
and these pigs will reach the market at an oppor-
tune time; while April and May litters may be car-
ried along and matured into heavier pork during the
winter or early spring.

BREEDERS' TERMS.

Hog breeding produces four general types.
These, by the operations of line and inbreeding,
close and outcross-breeding, develop all the types
and breeds. A pure-bred hog is one whose sire
and dam can trace a direct lineage, without a break
or infusion of unknown blood, and all of whose an-
cestors have been bred pure for some years, until the
prepotency of the line has become fixed and it al-
ways breeds" true. Eecord associations have been
formed to keep track of the lineage of pure breeds to
aid in their propagation, and guarantee their purity.
Animals eligible to record are called pure-breds,
but pure-breds can and do exist outside the record.
Line-breeding, inbreeding, close-breeding and cross-
breeding are not practiced to any great extent ex-
cept in the case of pure-bred animals.

Grades are the result of mating any two indi-
viduals that are not both pure-breds, either the boar
or sow being pure-bred, and the other a grade, cross-
bred or scrub. To attain best results in grading
up a herd in blood and quality pure-bred sires
should be used, so that their good qualities may be

178 THE HOG BOOK

introduced most rapidly into the herd. In carry-
ing out further the grading up of a low-bred and
low-quality herd a pure-bred sire should be used
on the i^rogeny of pure-bred sires. The pigs so
bred may be called ' 'high-grades." Sucli hogs, un-
der the care of successful raisers, rank next to pure-
breds, and often prove better, from a pork produc-
ing standpoint, than many inferior pure-breds.

Cross-breds come from mating individuals both
of which are pure-bred but of different breeds.
Many breeders think this method of breeding pro-
duces the best type of market hog, but after a life-
time of experience in handling hogs of all breeds,
mixtures, types and conditions, there is no other
plan against which I would more earnestly warn
breeders and producers than that of cross-breeding.
The breeder's course is set onward and never back-
ward. Cross-breeding will not bring improvement
of type, but will degrade the type with each cross.
Often the pig of the first cross will prove to be
exceptionally valual)le as a pork animal, but the
type can not be made to repeat, and so, if this kind
of breeding is practiced at all, one cross should be
the limit to the experiment, and all breeding sows
retained from this cross should be bred back to high-
grade as rapidly as possible, or sold. The continu-
ing of cross-breeding and mating of individuals that
are cross-breds or grades, without study or consider-
ation of their blood, in breed or relationship, will
result in the "scrub."

Many breeders believe that scrub hogs are those

SURVIVAL or THE FITTEST 179

wliicli cannot be recorded in some record associa-
tion and that pnre-breds are simply hogs that can be
so recorded. Scrubs, however, exist in almost all
breeds. Pedigree hogs can be bred, through igno-
rance and careless matiugs coupled with bad care
and feed, until they are pedigree scrubs. Scrubs will
develop in grades and cross-breds through the same
conditipns. It may be said by way of definition,
then, that individuals that are so low in prepotency,
and of such type and quality that their mating pro-
duces indi\'iduals of still lower merit, are scrubs.
It might be thouglit that wild or primitive hogs
would be included in this category, but their power
of prepotency is so highly developed that the wild
species now existing must be credited with being-
nearer pure-bred than any domestic swine.

SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST.

Probably every breeder is acquainted with the
great law associated with the name of Charles
Darwin, the law of the survival of the fittest. It is
only too true, however, that some breeders proceed
along lines that would not reveal their possession
of this knowledge. In the natural state the weaker
male is not generally permitted to reproduce, and if
by any chance he succeeds in so doing he simply
perpetuates his weak constitution to a line of
progeny that emphasizes the weaknesses until nat-
ural selection does succeed in eliminating the line
altogether.

This process should give the breeder a general

180 THE HOG BOOK

principle on which to conduct his own operations.
In the selection of male and female for breeding
purposes, symmetrical, strong-boned, well-muscled
bodies, clear eyes, general aspect of vigor, graceful
style and action, perfect carriage and control of
movements should be sought. At the same time
extreme characteristics should be- looked upon with
suspicion, for tliey may have possibilities of rever-
sion or abnormality that would make the litters
valueless for further breeding purposes.

LINE-BREEDING AND INBREEDING.

Stockmen often confuse line-breeding and in-
breeding, and practice the one thinking it the other.
Such practice is the most upsetting thing that can
happen to their herds, and the knowledge that would
prevent it is not in the possession of a large num-
ber of breeders. Inbreeding and line-breeding have
been described respectively as "the mating of ani-
mals more or less related in bloodlines" and "the
mating of animals that have little or no blood rela-
tionship." From this it will be seen that inbreeding
is a specialized form of line-breeding. AH breeds
and types have been formed by as much preliminary
line-breeding as was necessary in order to produce
a desirable type, followed by such inbreeding as
would fix and intensify its characteristics and make
them prepotent in further reproduction.

The inbreeder should remember that "like be-
gets like," and study carefully the relative vigor,
size and quality of the animals mated. If they have

SYSTEMS OF BREKDING 181

a preponderance of good points in common or if the
weak points of one are opposed to strong points in
the other the mating will be productive of good re-
sults. Breeding in this manner constantly corrects
such faults as appear in the herd, the general char-
acteristics to be produced are known in advance,
and the uncertainties of selecting outside blood for
sires every breeding season are removed. On the
other hand, the inbreeder is not debarred from an
occasional infusion of outside blood when the type
represented by it is in conformity with the type
which he is building up in his own herd. In this
he may well follow the example of Bates and Cruick-
shank in cattle. He may also be warned by the imi-
tators of these two famous breeders who copied
their methods, but, not having access to the original
herds, only succeeded in practicing a form of line-
breeding that led to constant reversions and the loss
of the distinctive merits which had been built up in
the original herds. Beyond warning breeders against
half-attempts at line-breeding when inbreeding is
required, and against promiscuous in-and-out breed-
ing, little more can be said in a general way. They
must study their problems in detail and know the
reason for every step taken.

CROSS-BREEDING.

It may be thought that, as there is not any certain
breed or type exactly acceptable for the purpose of
bacon or lard production, one can be created by a
system of crossing distinct breeds and types. But

182 THE HOG BOOK

there is nothing more disastrous ultimately than this
practice, even though it may appear profitable for
one cross. Breeders and producers must under-
stand that all breeds have long ago passed the
formative period wherein the use of distinct outside
blood was of benefit. The only course by which to
secure improvement in the type of a breed now is
by the selection and mating of the proper individuals
of the same breed that show promise of building up
a type like the ideal sought. The successful creation
of new breeds, and of distinct types within breeds, is
the work of ''master breeders." The course of im-
provement in breeding is set, and it is always on-
ward, upward and forward, and never backward.
So all corrections, to be of the quickest and greatest
benefit, must be made within the breed and by the
breed, through judicious matings wherein stronger
points will correct weaker ones.

The climate, feeds, local conditions and the time
available for the care of the hogs must not be over-
looked in the selection of stock, for all of these must
be favorable for the best production of the type and
breed. It is not best to select extreme types under
any circumstances, and the great majority of pro-
ducers have selected breeds of hogs that are really
combination types. The breeds that often furnish
individuals of this type are the Berkshire, Poland-
China, Duroc-Jersey and Chester White.
DRESSING COMPARISONS.

In conclusion a summary of some packing house
tests of the dressing records of leading breeds is

BONE DEVELOPMENT 183

given for what it may be wortli as an aid in selec-
tion. In percentage of dressed weights of meats
they ranked as follows: Large Yorkshire, Poland-
China, Tamworth, Chester White, Duroc- Jersey and
Berkshire. There was, however, scarcely 2 per cent
between the highest and the lowest. In weights of
digestive organs they stood as follows : Duroc-Jer-
sey, Tamworth, Berkshire, Chester White, Poland-
China, and Large Yorkshire. In vital organs, as
follows: Berkshire, Large Yorkshire, Tamworth,
Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey and Chester ^Tiite.

QUALITY AND SIZE OF BONE.

The structure and quality of bone are essential
of a profitable hog. Large frames, big bones, strong
feet and legs are indicatives of strong constitutions.
Hogs of such build can avail themselves of all pos-
sible advantage in securing forage, and tlieir free
carriage of body aids digestion, promotes health and
saves them many times from possible injury. We
should feed as well as breed for bone. Size of frame
or bone is not always indicative of strength, for size
must have quality.

The leg bone should be round above the dew-
claw and widening towards the body. The bone
should be of close texture, hard and strong, and
the legs should be without bends or crooks. The
hog should stand firmly on the toes, without the dew-
claws touching or the toes spreading apart. The
foot bones must taper towards the foot. Flat,

184 THE HOG BOOK

coarse bones or broken-down feet generally indicate
deficiency of strength. To measure the bone the
tape should be drawn tight around the smallest cir-
cumference of the leg above the dew-claws. Year-
ling boars measuring 9" are passable, while 10"
would be very good, and 11" a rare occurrence. Boars
two years old and over may exceed these measure-
ments about 1". The value of any excess of 12" is
questionable, unless the quality of the bone is unus-
ually good. Sows will measure from 8" to 9", and
very rarely 10". Young boars and gilts at six
months should measure 6%" to 7%", and increase in
size till maturity.

PEOLIFICACY OF SOWS.

The naturally high prolificacy of swine is well
known. When conditions are favorable for the sow
and her litter troubles do not often arise. Proper
feeds and intelligent breeding make it possible to in-
crease fecundity. Closely-confined, under-exercised
and highly-fed types show the error plainly by their
record as producers. While such types may be ideal
for packers they have proved failures as breeders'
types, usually favoring their owners with twins. The
ideal brood sow conformation is different in many
points from that of an ideal packing hog. In the
former there must be room for the full development
of certain vital organs. To increase powers of pro-
lificacy depends much upon the type, breed, care and
feed. Should the record for prolificacy be good for
several generations, then by proper care and feed it

PROLIFICACY IN SOWS 185

can be increased, but if on the other hand the type
or breed has degenerated in this respect it is best
to secure from known sources breeding stock of
marked fecundity. Many men weaken breeding pow-
ers in their herds by reckless overfeeding with corn.
We can only expect to reap that which we sow. If
the seeds of prolificacy are sown we may expect to
reap large litters. Hogs require about 90 per cent
or more of bone and muscle-forming feeds to 10 per
cent of fat-formers to keep their breeding powers in
good condition. Two farrowings should be figured
on annually. It is not definitely known what influ-
ences the number of pigs in a litter, but most breed-
ers attribute the variations largely to the condition
of the sire and dam prior to or at the time of service
and to the feed and care of the dam up to farrow-
ing time. The full structure of the fcetal litter is
literally fed to the dam, and in fact all her feed for
four to five months prior to farrowing should be
constructive. By understanding this and applying
their knowledge breeders have increased the breed-
ing powers of their herds. But we must not overstep
the bounds of nature, which seem to indicate in the
sow's udder capacity the expected nursing of 8, 10
or 12 pigs.

The estimated annual increase of hogs is given as
500 per cent, while that of cattle, horses and sheep
ranges from .30 to 100 per cent, and coupled with this
increase is the rapid conversion of feedstutfs into
pork products. A hog produces two pounds of meat
from the same amount of grain from which a beef

186 THE HOG BOOK

animal produces only one pound. While the mare
and the cow generally reproduce a single unit annu-
ally, the ewe two, the sow twice a year farrows lit-
ters averaging six to seven in number, which rapidly
develop to combined weights many times greater
than the producing units and oftentimes give repro-
ductions of self at ages in the year of their own birth.

BAREENNESS IN BOAES AND SOWS.

There are many causes of barrenness in breeding
animals. Extreme fatness caused by excessive feed-
ing is perhaps the greatest. However, some are
born barren. We must expect a varying percentage
of low vitality and fecundity, which may eventually
produce individuals that are barren. Sometimes de-
formities of the reproductive organs occur. Animals
having such defects or tendencies to reproduce
them should be fattened and sold. These organs
also are injured by system-weakening scourges like
cholera and fever, but in many cases they can be
restored by proper feeding and care. After regain-
ing strength if an animal fails to breed give 12 drops
of fluid extract of Damiana daily for two or three
days in milk or slop. Good pasturage and access to
natural conditions are essential ; corn feeding should
be discontinued.

For the best results boars and brood sows should
never be fattened to an extreme, sows especially,
unless they are to farrow after the bloom of show
quality and finish is reached. In the fattening of
breeding animals feed relatively high in protein

BREEDING CRATES 187

should be used, aud plenty of exercise given. Such
animals really should not be fattened unless for show
purposes, although they are often fattened for public
sales. In all cases of fattening breeding animals
plenty of exercise must be given to help diminish
evil effects.

The practice of raising two litters annually, with
proper precautions in mating healthy animals, and
using care in feeding and management, will prevent
or eliminate barrenness.

BREEDING SOWS.

Nature's unaided manner of mating is generally
to be preferred to any other. The sow should be
bred during the season of heat ; all that is necessary
is to give her the company of a boar. Breeding
crates are useful in mating a boar and a sow
markedly different in size or states of flesh. Such
crates are often used in breeding extremely large or
fat sires to gilts or small-sized sows. Used for this
purpose, breeding crates are advisable, but some
breeders use them to an extreme, as in forcing sows.

TYPES OF BREEDING CRATES.

The dimensions of the box (Fig. 1) are; Length,
5' 6", width 2' and height 3'. The length of the short
box, which may be made by moving the end board j
into the slot k, is 3' G". The corner posts are 2" x 4"
scantling and the sides 1" x 4" strips ; a a a are joists
for nailing the floor to ; b b extra board to which the
joists are nailed to stiffen the sides of the box; c c

188 THE HOG BOOK

are boar supporters which hold the boar's weight
during service. The one on the left is stationary,
while one on the right is adjustable to the size of the
sow and should fit up tight against her side ; d is a
piece used to adjust the right-hand support; e is a
pin which holds the support in place ; f is a strip to
hold d in the groove or mortise; the g's (of which
there are six) are pieces that hold the supports solid
and are 13" in length ; h is a wooden screw to hold the
front end of the adjustable support in place; i is a
%" rod which is placed behind the sow to keep her
from backing out of the box ; j is a movable end board
which is used to adjust the box to different-length
sows. "When long sows are to be bred the board is
placed in the end of the box, as shown in the dia-
gram, and when the short sows are bred the board
is removed and placed in the slotted board k. L L
are cleats which hold the bottom end of the board j
in place ; m is a platform used to raise a small boar
high enough to serve a large sow.

Fig. 2 shows another type. Instead of the
adjustment for long and short sows being handled
from the front of the crate the end is made station-
ary. Put in lower sideboards 10'' high through
which holes are bored at convenient intervals
(C C C C) to admit the iron rod B, which should
pass close under the hams of the sow just above the
hocks. The proper hole to use is determined by
the size of the sow. A crotch support A is added
with a notch in it which passes between the sow's
hind legs and rests on the retaining rod, as shown.

BREEDING CRATES

189

FIG. 3.
TYPES OF BREEDING CRATES.

This is 2"x4"x3' long, and the upper edges are
rounded off smooth, so as not to injure the sow.
The side supports for the boar E are made adjust-
able by hinging to one of the cross slats in front
and are raised or lowered from the back by means

190 THE HOG BOOK

of a chain (0) which passes over the top of the side
board, and fastens to a pin or heavy nail G. Put a
chain on for each support. Two 4" boards, 6" apart,
should be nailed over the top of the crate above
where the sow's head comes to prevent her from
climbing out.

• THE QUESTION OF TYPE.

Altliougli I have worked with one breed so long
that I might be expected to be prejudiced in its
favor, I have attempted to lay aside all prejudice
in the following remarks on the special qualifications
of the different breeds. The first qualification of
any hog, irrespective of breed, type, or color, is its
pork-producing ability. Next comes adaptability to
climatic and other conditions of the raiser's local-
ity. The individuality and condition of the hog se-
lected must also be taken into account. Then, there
is required the ability by the pork-producer to keep
his hogs in high condition so that they may bring the
largest returns, for no matter how highly-bred any
hogs may be or what their achievements in the show-
yard were, bad care and management, and unfavor-
able surroundings, will cause a reversion of type.
Yet men who understand not only breeding but the
best methods of feeding and care can force indi-
viduals of low merit and low breeding to produce
better returns than can careless men with the best
of breeding and individuals. This fact often ac-
counts for the reputed failures of pure-bred swine
to make good as pork-producers, and for the false
assertion by many that grades or cross-breds
give better results than do pure-breds. The fact is,

(191)

192 THE HOG BOOK

however, that there is no grade or out-crossed hog
that can be made to accomplish the profitable results
that selected pure-bred individuals will, if fed and
cared for by a successful pork-producer. The
weights and winnings of pure-breds at State Fairs
and Fat Stock Shows attest of their supremacy.

THE BACON TYPE.

In many ways the bacon type is like the lard
hog, but has a more rangy build, with a larger de-
velopment of sides, which makes it produce more
lean meat than the fatter type. The United States
has not heretofore developed this sort so commonly
as Denmark, Great Britain and Canada have done,
as our market has demanded a type that combined
lard and bacon possibilities. An ideal bacon type
may be described as follows: In stature, long and
rangy; standing on long legs that give an appear-
ance of great height to the hog ; great depth of body
with a good length of side ; a ham developed mostly
at the top, with a long rump connecting with a back
strong and arched but smooth and even ; shoulders
smooth and even without superficial development of
the sides or coatings of fat at the bottom parts; a
neck of fair length, smooth but not thick, tapering
to the head, which should be clean-cut with a very
light jowl, with scarcely any curvature; underline
straight and well down to provide capacity for vital
organs, and for a long and wide side of meat in pro-
portion to the body of the hog.

The weight of the bacon hog is from 175 to 225
pounds, although some packers use lighter weights,

THE QUESTION OF SIZE 193

which are termed '*pig bacon." This is not done,
however, with weights much below 150 pounds, as
such pigs are too young to be depended on for bacon
of the highest quality, firmness, and flavor. But
hogs of nearly all weights heavier than the ideal are
used for bacon cuts, if they have the bacon parts
strongly developed. Generally hogs weighing 250
pounds and over have too much fat with the lean
in their bacon parts to be termed, strictly speaking,
bacon hogs. Of course the standard bacon types are
better adapted to furnish bacon at a wider range of
weights and ages than hogs of the fat or lard-type
which have to be fed and developed almost espe-
cially for this purpose, and marketed at a certain
age and weight. The leading breeds of this type
are the Tamworth and the Large Yorkshire, which
is perhaps best of all, and the medium Yorkshire.
Wliile the Hampshire and Cheshire are often classed
as a bacon type, they are more of a dual type.

THE QUESTION OF SIZE.
The size of a hog is regulated within certain
limits by its breed and the conditions under which
it was bred, and the actual development of size de-
pends on the purpose for which the animal is being
fed. The questions of size and maturity go to-
gether. Full maturity should not be reached at too
early an age nor with too small a stature. It should,
however, come fairly rapidly, and the hog should not
be four or five years in attaining it. The hog should
be capable of growing in bone and body, as well as
merely in size through increase of fat, when devel-

194 THE HOG BOOK

oping feeds are given, until it weighs from 800 to
1,000 pounds at full maturity. But it should also
be able to arrive at maturity, from a pork stand-
point, at any age over six or eight months, in
response to a finishing process of feeding. Breeding-
animals should be larger than their pork-fellows, for
such animals should be mature, and they should not
be fed finishing but developing rations. For brood
sows 300 or 400 pounds is considered a good average
weight. From 400 to 700 pounds are considered
mature weights, but over that the breeding value of
a sow is doubtful, unless she is highty developed and
known by record to be a reliable breeder, careful
mother and suckler.

The weight of hogs intended for pork has to be
looked at from another standpoint : the cost of feed-
ing them in relation to the number of pounds of pork
the feeding will eventually produce. As this cost
will vary in relation to age, size and approach to
maturity, all these things must be taken into account.
Pigs fed continuously from birth to maturity often
become unprofitable if the finishing process is pro-
longed, and for this reason they are marketed in
pig form at 150 to 200 pounds. On the other hand,
pigs carried on more or less of a developing ration
may be induced to mature at a later age, when they
weigh 175 to 225 pounds. Then, pigs fed what may
be called a special developing ration, and given a
short finishing feed, will weigh from 200 to 275
pounds with good pork-maturity, quality and finish,
and at a lower cost per pound.

THE packer's type 195

The principle of this difference is simply that
finishing feeds cost more than developing feeds ; that
hogs fed continuously on highly nutritious finish-
ing feeds do not make the same percentage of gain
when close to full maturity as they would do before
the beginning of maturity was reached. To keep
the cost of production down, therefore, it is neces-
sary to breed from stock of large size and at full
maturity which will transmit the ability to mature at
200 to 300 pounds. The selection of such breeding
animals of course requires good judgment backed up
by practical experience in detecting the presence or
indications of the necessary characteristics. Apart
from this aspect of the matter, however, a large
part of the power to control weight and usefulness
resides not in breeding but in scientific care and
feeding after the hogs are bred.

THE PACKER'S TYPE.

The butcher and packer look at a hog from a
money-making standpoint, and care nothing for pedi-
gree and breed except in so far as they produce a
type which has a definite value in dollars and cents.
Packers, like breeders, however, are not unanimous
in defining the characteristics of such a type. But
the majority of them agree that the high-priced
meats are carried high, relative to the whole carcass,
and of course the animals carrying the largest pro-
portions of these meats are the most profitable cut-
ters. They want as little waste in the hog as pos-
sible, and so the smaller percentage of the total

196

THE HOG BOOK

weight represented by the jowl and head the better
from their point of view. One packer in describing
his ideal to the author made a diagram like that
below, explaining it by saying that he wanted a pre-
ponderance of back and side meats, with a good ham,
which is not, however, overdeveloped at the lower
end.

While such a shape would certainly give a high
percentage of high-priced meats, it would leave but
little room for the vital organs and would be con-

trary to accepted breeding types. Up to the
present we have not been able to furnish an ideal
packing type, such as the one illustrated, and at the
same time retain the necessary breeding qualifica-
tions. While hogs of different weights are in de-
mand, according to the season, the combination type
is in demand all the time, for it carries the greatest
compatible proportions of such products as lard,
bacon and ham, wliicli are needed all the year round.
But at the same time the seasonal demand, now for a
lard hog, and again for a bacon hog, will sometimes

THE packer's type 197

exceed tlie supply, and cause those types to bring
better prices than the combination type. These fluc-
tuations make impracticable the outlining of a
definite type to be bred for the packer. The needs
of the packer themselves depend on the demands of
the public, and these demands vary with the season
and with other factors.
^ It is possible, however, to give a rough approx-
imation of a good breeding animal of the packer's
type: Head, rather small, but in proportion to
body, broad in face and between eyes, tapering to
the nose ; ears and nose, medium ; jowl, clean-cut and
not baggy; neck, short, wide and full; shoulders,
wide, smooth, with most meat on top but not over-
developed; chest and width between forelegs, full
and very wide, showing plenty of capacity for the
vital organs.; heart-girth, equal in circumference to
loin circumference or length, or a little over this,
which is only an approximate proportion; top line,
even, without holes or lumps ; rib line, even from
middle of shoulder to middle of ham, showing well-
sprung ribs and a smooth, wide, even back; sides,
full and deep, almost straight from the rib-line,
rounding slightly in to the bottom line, which should
be almost level with the exception of a medium cut-
in of the flank.

In the development of such a type as this the
points to be strengthened are the loins, tops of hams
and top cuts of bacon, as these are the price-bringing
parts. The development may also be pushed in the
direction of wideness through the back end, tapering

198 THE HOG BOOK

to the shoulders. But apart from these, other ex-
tremes of conformation should be avoided. To
carry this conformation to advantage strong legs and
a firm bone structure are required. Not only must
the hog be able to stand transportation without in-
jury but it must be able to stand development and
finishing treatment, and be constitutionally strong.
These considerations have much to do with the effec-
tive weight of the hog from the standpoint of profit
in that weight. The weight of a hog is not a matter
of so many pounds, as is sometimes supposed, but a
matter of the quality of the pounds, that is to say, of
the percentage of high-quality meat in the finished
carcass. While quality and finish may be seen in the
condition of the animal, and in other indications
when alive, the final test is made by the packer and
the consumer.

It is important to bear in mind that the packer's
demands can never be satisfied altogether without
ruining the breeding possibilities of hogs, and that
the breeding of a good compromise animal is a slow
matter, the undue forcing of which will result in
degeneration. The consensus of opinion among the
packinghouse buj^ers of the best practicable type of
hog for their general purposes favors the Poland-
China and the Berkshire, with first crosses of
Poland-China boars on Duroc-Jersey sows a close
second. They say that all these breeds produce ''a
hog of generally good form, with good back and
leaning strongly to weight in the hind-quarter."

From their observations of animals slaughtered

A COMBINATION TYPE 199

and inquiry into their feeding, the packers agree that
a mixed ration of such materials as corn, barley,
wheat, oats, alfalfa and clover should be given until
four or five weeks before marketing, followed by a
full feed of corn for hard fattening and fleshing
with very little pasturage. Milk and slops should
also be used, as they produce the finest possible
meats. These feeds may be used in almost any
combination, but the actual finishing should be al-
most entirely vnth corn.

It will be seen that the development of hogs for
general packing purposes must be guided very
largely by the question of utility in the packing-
house. The hograiser will be helped very much in
his efforts by knowing just what that means. Such
knowledge will enable him to use his initiative to
advantage in working out his practical problems.

A COMBINATION TYPE.

Taking it for granted that the law of the survival
of the fittest has created and lent stability to the
four or five leading breeds of today, a combination
of conformation is given in which the good points
and their objections are contrasted. This may be
considered as the ideal for a breeding, feeding and
market type that leans more to a lard form than it
does to bacon. The same type, however, may be
developed to a strong bacon-producing tendency. A
detailed description follows :

Head — Medium, broad, slightly short, tapering
evenly to end of nose; surface, even and smooth.

200 THE HOG BOOK

Objections: Long or narrow between eyes; too
coarse or uneven, too short or snub-nosed.

Eyes — Full, expressive, prominent, clear, free
from surrounding wrinkles. Objections: Dull, deep-
set, impaired, weak, or too small, or too narrow be-
tween.

Eaes — Medium size and thickness, attached to
head with short, firm knuckle, free and easy action,
fully controlled by animal. Objections: Too large,
coarse, floppy, drooping, big-knuckled, thick or too
small, fancy and unproportioned in size, or contrary
to breed.

Neck — Full, wide, medium short, even, well-
arched, rounding with due regard to sex. Objec-
tions: Long, thin, flat, shallow, drooping, uneven,
wrinkled or creased.

Jowl — Medium to full, broad, smooth, firm, car-
rying fullness well back to shoulder and brisket.
Objections: Too large, loose, flabby, wrinkled, small
or thin, not carrying fullness back to connecting
points.

Shoulders — Broad, oval on top, even with back
line and nock, carrying good evenness of width from
rib-line to line of belly. Objections: Narrow at
either top or bottom, creased or of uneven width or
depth, of disproportionate sizes; excessive shields
or over-development of lower parts.

Chest — Large, capacity of good width, depth
and fullness, showing an even underline, and giving
plenty of room for heart and other vital organs;
showing a large girth and even, smooth, and broad

A COMBINATION TYPE 201

brisket, with good width between legs. Objections:
Narrowness at top or bottom, lack of depth or full-
ness, tucked up behind or between fore legs, small
heart girth or narrowness between fore legs.

Back and Loin — Straight or slightly-arched,
with good breadth, carrying same width from shoul-
der to ham; smooth, even surface, free from lumps
or creases; showing well-sprung ribs that till to a
straight edge from point of shoulder to point of
ham, shorter than lower belly line, but permissibly
a trifle higher at loin than at shoulder. Ohjectlons:
Narrow, shed-roofed, sway-backed, creased, wrin-
kled or humped ; loin too high, narrow or depressed,
or uneven in width or fullness, not connecting evenly
with other parts.

Sides and Eibs— Full, smooth, of good depth and
length, firm and free from wrinkles, carrying size
down to belly line; ribs well-sprung and of good
length, being in line with shoulder and ham, giving
the hog a slightly-rounded square form and of car-
rying a high percent of loin, ham and bacon. Objec-
tions: Flat, flabby, thin, pinched, tucked up, un-
even or creased surface ; ribs too short, weak or flat,
lack of rounded spring at top or bottom, lack of
length or width, not in alignment of points of shoul-
der and ham.

Belly and Flank— Belly fine, straight, full and
l)road, level at flank with underline to chest, same
width as back, having ample room for vital organs.
Objections: Belly line uneven, narrow or sag-
ging, flabby, pinched, or tucked up ; flank too high.

202 THE HOG BOOK

Hams and Rump — Hams, full, long and deep, with
good width, extending well down to hock, fully
developed above, very wide at point of hip, carry-
ing width well down to lower part, tapering toward
the hock, being rounding and plump in appearance,
sj^mmetrical with other connecting points; rump,
rounding and sloping gradually from loin to root of
tail, same width as ham, back, loin and body, well
developed, and filled out around tail. Brood sows
should be of greater width through the hams than
shoulders. Objections: Ham too short, narrow,
round, slim, undeveloped, unshapely or cat-
hammed, lacking width, or cut up too high; rump
too narrow, not filled, or too steep, sharp or too
peaked, uneven with connecting points. '

Feet and Legs — Medium in length, straight, set
wide apart, and squarely under body, tapering down
to hoof, of good size and well-muscled above knee,
round and tapering below ; bone of fine texture, firm
and round below, with short pasterns, set nearly
upright; short, tough, firm feet free from defects,
standing well up on toes. Objections: Legs too
long, slim, coarse or crooked or knock-kneed; bones
too coarse or not tapering from top to foot; light-
muscled, long, weak or crooked pasterns, legs set
too close together ; hocks out of line, hoofs too long
or weak, crooked, spraddling or spreading, broken
down, or turned up.

Tail — Of medium length and thickness, tapering
to bush, well set on, carried with style, smooth, hav-

A COMBINATION TYPE 203

ing medium bush at end. Objections: Coarse or
too long, small or too fine, short, crooked or stubby,
ropy, uncurled or too bushy.

Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, close-lying, and
body-covering; evenly distributed excepting belly.
Objections: Hair too coarse, bristly, harsh, rough,
dead-like, wavy or curly with swirls, standing up;
not evenly distributed, or too fine, or insufficient in
quantity.

CoLOK — Either solid black, cherry red, or white,
or black with six white points, with occasional spots
or splashes over body, according to breed. Objec-
tions: Spotted, sandy, or speckled with different-
colored hairs over body, or spots of different-colored
skin or hair in solid-colored hogs.

Size — Large for age and condition, quality ac-
companying, with a difference of 25 per cent allowed
between breeding and show animals. Two-year-old
show boars should not weigh less than 700 up to
1,000; two-year-old show sows, from 600 to 800;
yearling boars, 550 to 700; yearling sows, 450 to
600; boars 18 months old, 600 to 800; 18-months
sows, 500 to 700; under 1 year boars and sows, 400
to 500 ; boars and sows six months old, not less than
160 up to 240 pounds. Objections: Over-grown, too
coarse, flabby, angular, hard-maturing, too fine,
under-sized, too short, stubby or chubby, too small
in maturing; other than robust animals.

Action and Style — Action, vigorous, easy,
graceful; style, attractive with high carriage. Ob-

204 THE HOG BOOK

jections: Sluggish, awkward, waddling, lazy, not
erect, or low carriage.

Condition — Healthy, free from scurf, sores or
scales, soft and mellow to touch, flesh evenly laid on,
free from lumps and wrinkles and of fine texture;
hair lying close to body; good feeding qualities.
Objections: Unhealth}^ wrinkled, scabby skins;
flabby, creased, or lumpy-fleshed, too fat for breed-
ing; poor feeders, serious physical defects; hair,
harsh or showing bad condition.

Disposition — Responsive to good treatment, quiet
but naturally good exercisers. Objections: Wild,
cross, vicious, restless, too sluggish, stubborn or too
dependent.

disqualifications.

Form — Too large, too coarse or too small, nar-
rowness between eyes, drooping ears that impair
sight or extremely small or fine or upright ears
indicating too small maturity ; cramped chest capac-
ity, weak or sway back, deformed or crooked legs,
too soft or spongy bones, broken-down feet, deep
creases back of the shoulder on back or on sides, seri-
ous deformities or defects in any part of the body.

SfzE — Over-grown, gangly, loosely-connected,
narrow, shed-roofed, too small, too short; body,
sides or back, maturing at not over two-thirds of
minimum size for age, or at too advanced an age.

Condition — Excessive fat, gobby, barren, de-
formed, diseased, blind, or evidently of hard, slow
maturity.

THE LARD TYPE 205

Score — Less than 70 points.

Pedigree — Ineligible to record, or, if not of pure
lineage, until prepotency has been firmly estab-
lished.

Color — Radically different from that of ideal or
having tendency to breed intermittently.

THE LARD TYPE.

Hogs are j^roduced mainly for meat and lard.
The types that produce the greatest quantity and
the highest quality of these products give the high-
est-selling hogs on the market, and they are most
in demand. So whatever breed we may select we
should be influenced by the market demand, which
is twofold, on the one hand requiring animals pro-
ducing plenty of fat — the lard hog — and on the
other requiring the bacon type. Which of these
two one should raise depends upon one's location
and the conditions it imposes. The fat or lard type
is also known as the packer's or butcher's or farm-
er's type. One of its essentials is a good frame,
especially fitted to carry an abundance of high-
priced meat and fat. The animal should be
equipped with a perfectly-working digestive and
assimilative apparatus in order to secure and prop-
erly distribute the materials that build flesh and fat.
Every other feature of its conformation should be in
line with these factors in order to insure strong
constitutions and easy-feeding qualities. There
should be no over-development of such parts as the

206 THE HOG BOOK

jowl, head or shoulders, which, when over-developed,
check the growth of other vital parts. But there
should be strong development in the hams, sides,
loin and black, with an extra thickness of flesh evenly
distributed and covered smoothly with an abundance
of fat. In stature the hog should be medium or
large, of good length, breadth and depth, and possess
symmetry. Breeds which produce this type are
the Poland-China, Berkshire, Duroc-Jersej^, Chester
White and Essex. Hampshires and Cheshires may
be regarded as compromises between the lard and
bacon types.

THE BREEDER'S TYPE.

"What I term a breeder's type represents the
highest ideal for any breed. We should use in our
herds individuals that possess great scale and are
of high show quality, when properly developed for
their respective classes. We should use mature
sires and mature dams in producing breeding ani-
mals to sell. A breeder should know positively the
individual merit of his animals before they are
offered for sale, thus testing the seed before guaran-
teeing and disposing of it. Pigs from immature
gilts and experimental matings are often a handi-
cap to purchasers. Breeders should cull their an-
nual pig crops very closely, so that all individuals
offered for sale or returned in the breeding herd
shall be of high average excellence. To give assist-
ance in selecting and judging a breeding type the
following standard of excellence is outlined, being

THE farmer's type 207

applicable to the Poland-China, Berkshire, Duroc-
Jersey and Chester AVhite breeds:

Size. — Large for age, quality combined with size; weiglit of
boars: Two-year-olds, 600 to 1,000; 18 months, 500 to
700; yearlings, 400 to 550; under one year at breeding time,
not less than 200; sows under one year, not less than 200
at breeding time: yearlings, 250 to 450; IS months, 300
to 550; two-year-olds, 350 to 700 pounds 8

Back axd Loix. — Broad, slightly-arched, with even width from
shoulder to hiyii, of good length, without depressions, ribs
well sprung, loin well developed 10

Sides and Ribs. — Sides deep, even and smooth, with good
length, and of even width, free from wrinkles; ribs well
sprung both top and bottom, of good length, giving the
hog rounded, square-like form and indicative of good
capacity 9

Hams and Rump. — Ham broad, full, deep, of good length and
width, extending well down, fully developed, wider at
point of liip in sows, carrying widtli well down and taper-
ing toward hock; symmetrical with connecting points, the
rump rounding and sloping gradually from loin to root of
tail; brood animals should be better developed in the ham,
rump and back than shoulder 10

Chest. — Large, wide, deep with a full even underline, no
creases, good capacity for heart and other organs, wide
between legs 10

Feet and Legs. — r\Iedium length and good size, straight, taper-
ing from top to hoof, set wide apart, squarely under body,
well-muscled above knee; bone of firm texture and of
round shape below knee, pastern short, nearly upright,
with short tough firm feet, free from defects, standing
up on toes S

Condition. — Healthy, free of creases, lumps or excessive fat,

in good flesh, but not poor 6

Disposition. — Quiet and easily handled 2

Shoulders. — Fairly broad, rather oval on top, even with back
and neck, not wider than hams in sows, but in conformity
with sides, back and ham 5

Action and Style. — Attractive, easy and graceful carriage;

boars vigorous 5

Quality. — Fitness for purpose, general high character of all
points and parts as a breeder and a producer of animals
of desired pork type 6

Head. — Broad between the eyes, tapering to end of nose; head

medium in size, rather long without extremes either way. 3

Eyes. — Full, expressive, clear and unimpaired 2

Ears. — Of medium size, firmly attached, of rather thin and lean

shape, controlled by animal 2

Xeck. — Medium long, of good depth, slightly rounding and
arched, even and smooth without wrinkles in sows; boars
should show more fulness 2

Belly and Fi.ank. — Belly broad, straight and full, showing
good capacity, of even width, not flabby or sagging, hav-
ing straight underline with flank well let down 5

Jowl. — Fairly full, smooth and firm but not over-developed... 2

Coat. — Fine, straight and smooth, evenly distributed 1

Color. — Ideal of breed 1

208 THE HOG BOOK

Tail. — Medium length and size, tapering, carried with some

style 1

Symmetry. — The similarity and regularity in shape of all parts
of both sides of the body that go to blend the animal into
a model type, each side being an exact counterpart of the
other 4

100

THE FARMEE'S TYPE.

I have always advocated keeping the type of my
breed in line with the farmers' requirements, and
have realized that no matter how good an individual
I may develop, how great its achievements in the
showring or how great a valuation might be assigned
it, there was a farmer somewhere who could use that
individual in his own herd, and that this individual
was none too good for him to use. The business of
breeders is to produce the best seed from recorded
lineage for the farmers to use in improving their
herds. Whenever a breeder thinks that his breed or
type is too good for a farmer to use he is destroying
its usefulness. If it was not for the farmer's de-
mands for breeding stock, we should soon have no
distinct types or breeds, record associations or
breeders. The farmer's hog should be the best that
any breed or type can furnish. Its strong points
should be maturing and feeding qualities, constitu-
tion, activity with free carriage of body, adapted to
forage for feed, proUfic and quiet in disposition
during pregnancy and motherhood. Market demand
and the feeds produced on the farm largely dictate
the type, but the great majority of farmers prefer
the large, long, deep type, with a large percentage
of high-priced meats. More farmers are feeding

EARLY MATURITY 209

l)alaneecl rations than ever before, and are endeav-
oring to produce better grades of pork at more
economical costs. The type of hog they need is not
common in any breed, as only the best can qualify.

EARLY MATURITY.

The type of hog that matures in frame too young
and too quickly is not the most profitable for feed-
ers and farmers, for when it has reached this point,
which is often at 200 pounds, it cannot respond to
feeding, as the limit of capacity has been reached.
The type to bring about the cheaper production of
pork, and to meet all conditions that may arise, is
the hog of gTeat capacity, capable of responding
profitably to feeds for a long period. It is a hog
that will not mature or quit growing at too early
an age or too small a size. Such hogs will also finish
easily and quickly at any period after five months
of age, with the proper feeding.

This does not mean an extreme slow-maturing
hog that possesses great size, bone, length and
height, whose conformation is irregular, being shed-
roofed, cat-hammed, sway-backed, elephant-eared,
rat-faced, triple-chinned or jowled, with Clydesdale
legs and feet.

The ideals set up in the foregoing chapters on
types are the ones to choose and adhere to for suc-
cess, pleasure and profit.

FEEDS AND FEEDING.

The first thing to remember in feeding hogs is
that the rations must be so balanced as to fulfill all
the requirements of growth and expenditure of
energy by the hog, while they also contain enough
bulk and moisture to make thorough elimination
possible. The most important constituent of the
ration is protein, and it has been estimated that
12-100 of a pound of digestible protein is required
daily for every 100 pounds of the hog's weight. This
theoretical requirement should always be exceeded
to a slight extent, however, as there is a constant
factor of waste due to the fact that digestion of
protein is never quite complete. On this basis the
pig would require, in practice, from 3-5 of a pound
of protein up to 4-5 of a pound until three or four
months old, after which the amount should be around
3-5 of a pound, varied according to the purposes of
feeding. The next essential constituents in the
feed are the carbohydrates, and the amount needed
of these increases with the growth of the pig. It
is claimed that i/o of a pound daily of carbohydrates
per cwt. of pig is required for its maintenance alone,
and an additional 1-5 of a pound per cwt. per day
for growth and waste due to imperfect digestion.
The latter proportion should be increased to 3-10 of
a pound when the pig is seven or eight months old,

(210)

FEEDS AND FEEDING 211

and may then be regulated according to the purpose
of feeding. The more the hog must rustle for his
feed the greater proportion of carbohydrates will
be required, as they have to supply the energy
needed when any muscular effort is made.

An imiDortant point in feeding is that the hog
should have free access to charcoal, lime> wood ashes,
salt or bonemeal, which supply needed cleansing
substances and the mineral constituents of bone and
muscle.

It is of the greatest importance that the hog be
given plenty of pure water. From 10 to 12 pounds
is needed daily for every 100 pounds of pig when
it is first weaned, but the amount drops as the pig
grows until at maturity only one-third that amount
will be required. In summer, much of the water may
be given with the feed, forming slop, but in winter,
dry feeding and free access to pure drinking water
give the better results.

The effects of feeding will be enhanced by giving
a proper amount of exercise. Pigs confined to
small pens will not eat as much as will freely-run-
ning animals, and their digestion will not be so good
as if they were allowed to forage for some of their
feed. Confinement to pens is only justified when
finishing for fat. Continually practiced, it will not
only hurt the individuals, but the breed will be af-
fected. Exercise, on the other hand, stimulates di-
gestion and directly increases growth and the capac-
ity to fatten up to the greatest extent. The smaller
types of pigs and hogs to be retained for breeding

212 THE HOG BOOK

purposes need more exercise than do the larger-
framed animals and those on a finishing ration. The
distinction, however, is not an important one, as all
kinds of hogs may be given a free range and each
type will naturally take sufficient exercise to secure
its own best condition.

Feeding, in its results, may run to two extremes :
excess of fat or excess of lean. As the greatest pork
demand is for table consumption, the feeder should
avoid both extremes, and try to attain both lean
and fat in proper proportions. The consumer 's ideal
is a product rich in lean but carrying sufficient fat
for its own cooking as well as a good remainder for
consumption. In feeding for this end the attention
should first of all be directed to the attainment of
a sufficient basis of lean meat, for this can be pro-
duced more cheaply than the fat. That, being rela-
tively expensive, should be left until the finishing
process, and should be piled up in as short a time as
possible, if it is to be done economically. The rela-
tive expense of the two kinds of feeding will be seen
if the dress of a well-finished hog of 225 or 250
pounds is roughly analyzed. The dress will vary
from 74 to 82 per cent of the gross weight ; this will
figure 18 to 26 per cent offal. The average lard
yield of such a hog is 12 per cent of the live weight,
the bones are 20 per cent and the remainder, less
10 per cent for inferior and inedible parts, or about
58 per cent of the gross weight, will be lean meat.
Assuming the cost of production to be $5 per cwt.
for the gross weight, and dividing the loss from

FEEDS AND FEEDING 213

waste and offal between fat and lean, it will be seen
that the cost of production for the pound of fat is
much more than for the pound of lean. It is, there-
fore, quite unprofitable to feed for fat at any other
than the finishing stage. But when the fat-feeding
IS done rapidly after the hog has reached maturity
of frame, the cost of increasing the weight is lowered
and the animal may often profitably be carried up to
300 pounds.

In all the operations of feeding and care, the
natural disposition of hogs should be kept in mind
Not only should water, feed and shade be given but
quietness should be secured, and hogs on no ac-
count handled, harassed or driven around more
than IS absolutely necessary. Many useful hints
lor their management may be gleaned from an at-
tentive study of the hogs ' dispositions. An example
ot the kind 'of observation here referred to is the
utilization of the natural greed of hogs, when they
are inclined to fall off in appetite. If a few lean and
hungry pigs be turned in with a hog that is slightly
off feed the change in its attitude toward the feed-
ing trough is remarkable.

Feeding should always be frequent and at regular
intervals. Plenty of drinking water should be pro-
vided, and the hog may be trusted to resort to it be-
fore and during meals as often as is necessary for
the best results in digestion. Large feeds of slop, or
dry feeds, followed by deluges of water, on the other
hand, will only serve to derange digestion. With
the mam feedstuffs, a few dainties and appetizers

214 THE HOG BOOK

should be aclcled, as the hog is likely to lose appetite
if too heavy a diet is given without intermission.

It is best to always gradually build the ration
up in variety and richness, finally ending with
mostly corn when fattening for market. It is harm-
ful to build the ration down or to radically change
its nature or amounts.

Cleanliness is essential. Feeding floors, troughs,
yards and sleeping quarters should be frequently
disinfected, and yards changed to a new location at
least every 10 years. This will reduce danger of
many infectious" diseases, Hog Cholera, Lice, Worms
and Enteritis especially. Cobs, trash and accumu-
lations should be raked into piles and burned into
charcoal every few weeks. Feed should not be left
over and allowed to accumulate in feeding troughs.
Swill barrels and pails should be kept clean. When
slop is made and left in barrels a handful of soda to
a barrel of slop will be found a useful preservative.
Into barrels containing soaked corn a handful of
salt or a small amount of concentrated lye should be
placed, making it more palatable.

Pigs should be fed in bunches of not more than
15, and they should be graded according to their
feeding capacities. Those which do not develop at
the same rate as the bunch should be separated and
graded off with pigs of their own class.

A SHORT SUMMARY OF HOG FOODS.

Feeds relatively high in protein are conducive to
the best results. These are obtained largely from

FEEDS AND FEEDING 215

forage crops, like alfalfa and clover or milk, supple-
mented with grains comparatively low in fat. To
produce meat and fat use corn, wheat, rye, barley,
oats, peas, beans, alfalfa, forage and pasture, in
combinations to make balanced rations. The tend-
ency in recent years has been to produce finished
hogs of extreme fatness, regardless of the fact that
home consumption calls for a meat type. Corn is
the basic hog feed and is the most economical feed
for fattening. In breeding herds evil effects always
attend its excessive use. Wheat and its products — •
shorts, middlings and bran — are generally fed in
connection with corn and pasturage. Bran is highly
valuable for brood sows during pregnancy. Barley
and rye, somewhat similar to wheat in composition,
should be fed ground into a mixture of other feeds,
and soaked for a few hours. Rye is not recommend-
ed for brood sows. Oats, a cooling laxative, is one
of the best cereals for brood sows and growing pigs.
Oatmeal is used largely for growing and fattening
pigs and by many breeders in finishing show ani-
mals. Peas and beans are used mostly as forage
crops, although they are often ground into meal
and made the nitrogenous parts of rations, being
generally mixed into a slop of moderate thickness.
This method of feeding produces the best results
in the summer, while in the winter it is better to
use these materials in a dry state. Feeds should
never be soured, neither should they be soaked for
a period longer than 24 hours.

Alfalfa and clover are staple forage and hay

216 THE HOG BOOK

crops. Grazing is practiced in spring, summer and
fall, and in the winter cured hay is fed whole or
chopped and ground into meal. For prompt and eco-
nomical returns the open pasture and grazing sys-
tem, with weather conditions especially favorable to
pork production, is the most profitable. Where al-
falfa and clover cannot be successfully produced,
such crops as rape, peas, beans, sorghum, millet and
oats may be employed with good results. It is essen-
tial that hogs should have access to forage and pas-
ture, whether they are in the developing or fattening
period. Milk is the best-balanced food for man or
beast. It is almost indispensable in developing pigs
for the highest usefulness as breeders. This is why
I urge hogmen to keep dairy cows. Cream and but-
ter command good prices, and skimmilk is a pig feed
par excellence. While there are many feeds manu-
factured for hog feeding, and their use is profit-
able under special conditions, home-grown products
should be used practically exclusively. Hogs, like
men, relish variety and change in their diet. Cotton-
seed-meal has a limit of about 40 days and a full-
corn ration will wear out its welcome within 60 days.
No matter what feed is given as a whole ration, hogs
will tire of it and begin to make gains expensive.
This is why many feeders find it unprofitable to feed
hogs after they weigh 250 pounds; the last 100
pounds cost too much. The secret of cheap produc-
tion is first to grow strong frames on diversified
grain and forage crops, always keeping the hogs
keen in appetite, then giving them a short high

INJUDICIOUS FEEDING 217

finishing feed to wliicli tliey will respond. In this
way the ultimate cost of producing 300 pounds of
finished pork will be perhaps one-third or one-half
less than in the case of the continuously grain-fed
hog. Besides, the time required will be shorter.

OVERFEEDING AND UNDERFEEDING.

From personal experience I am inclined to blame
overfeeding and underfeeding for many of the fail-
ures in hograising, and for many of the ills of hogs
generally ascribed to other causes. Of the two,
underfeeding is the lesser evil, if not carried to its
logical extreme. The underfed hog may be built
up in appetite and capacity to an evenly-balanced,
correctly-gauged ration and will show but little
traces of its, previous underfeeding; but it is a much
more difficult matter to bring the overfed hog back
to a normal ration without, in the process, bringing
to light many bad effects of its previous gorging.
The whole question of success in feeding depends
on giving the pigs a proper start and then feeding
them consistently. The raiser who overfeeds one
day and underfeeds the next will produce an ill-as-
sorted bunch of hogs, most of them very apparently
the worse for such treatment. It should be remem-
bered that while some hogs have inherent powers
of responding uniformly and satisfactorily to feed-
ing that is neither uniform nor satisfactory, the ma-
jority have not, and require careful judgment in
their feeding if they arc to show any profit from it.

Overfeeding estaljlishes many digestive disorders
and is perhaps responsible for more so-called cholera

218 THE HOG BOOK

and swine plague than is the real cholera germ itself.
As in the case of humans, there is very often a fail-
ure to discriminate between disease that is really
due to germ infection, and that simply due to bad di-
gestion. Besides these symptoms overfeeding is re-
sponsible for scours and rickets, and gives rise to
other conditions that take valuable time to rectify,
and meanwhile leave the pig in a condition suscep-
tible to infection by every disease that afflicts hogs.
And this is in addition to the wastefulness of the
habit in the first place. The overfeeding of brood
sows, particularly before and after farrowing, ruins
more litters — both qualitatively and quantitatively
— than any other cause. If there is any doubt about
feeding at such times underfeeding is better than
the other extreme. It should be remembered in
feeding them, however, that the litter is being pro-
vided for as well as the mother, and this is true
both before and after farrowing. With this in view
no feed should be given which would have a harm-
ful effect on the young. Sour and fermented feeds
should be barred, and heating and high-protein feeds
should be used sparingly. On the otlier hand, proper
feeding is not a difficult matter if good judgment
and common sense be used, and it will be found to
yield certain and invariable returns to the hograiser
who takes tlie trouble to give it proper attention.

WATER.
Pure water is one of the greatest essentials on
a hog-farm. It should be constantly accessible to
hogs in both winter and summer. Owners of farms

CORN FOR FEEDING 219

on wliicb there is living water, as in springs and
spring-fed creeks originating on the premises, have
a splendid opportunity to construct storage systems
that, with tanks and hog-watering devices, would
make pure water of even temperature available to
stock at all times. This may be termed the natural
ideal water supply. Where dependence for water is
on wells and windmills, storage tanks and cisterns
can be used in collecting and distributing water. It
is not advisable to allow hogs to drink from ponds,
pools or running streams originating far away from
one's own location. Such water is apt to be polluted
and to carry disease germs. It is also of importance
that all storage tanks, cisterns, watering tanks, hog-
waterers and troughs be thoroughly cleaned and dis-
infected quite frequently. Whatever the source of
supply, it i-s of special importance that the hogs be
given at least twice daily a liberal allowance of pure
water, even should it have to be carried a long dis-
tance in pails. Water can be used to excess, but hogs
will not drink too much when it is freely accessible
to them. It is advisable to heat it to a temperature
of 70 to 80° F. by use of a tank heater during the
winter.

CORN FOR FEEDING.
Corn is the basis of the best rations for practi-
cally every purpose in hog feeding. Other feeds
should be used in various proportions as supple-
ments to it, according to the end sought in feeding.
Corn itself is not rich enough in protein to be used
exclusively, and it has an excess of heat and fat-

220 THE HOG BOOK

forming constituents to make a balanced feed in
itself. It is, however, an ideal finishing feed for a
short course before marketing. When corn is used,
however, with other farm-produced feeds the cost
of production is cheapened, and the hogs are
healthier, grow more rapidly and have better appe-
tites than if denied corn. Unlike some other feeds,
corn contains no injurious ingredients, and when
harm does arise from its use it is either because
the quantity given is too large, upsetting digestion,
or because the corn is green, sour or mouldy. It
should not, however, be used as an exclusive feed
for brood or growing sows, as they require much
more protein and mineral matter than it affords.
From the nature of veterinary questions which I
have read in the farm press it is certain that many
of the diseases of hogs are due, directly or indirectly,
to the excessive use of corn.

The excessive feeding of corn tends to diminish
the strength of bone, retards the growth of frame
and induces excessive fat. To avert these conditions
use nitrogenous feeds, such as can be grown in prac-
tically every section where hogs are raised. What-
ever these feeds are, roughage and pasturage should
be included among them, as they cheapen the cost of
production and give bulkiness.

Corn may be hogged down in the field, fed on the
cob, shelled, cracked, ground or soaked, by itself
or mixed with other feeds. For summer feeding it
is best to soak it from 12 to 24 hours, while in the
winter it should be fed dry, on the cob or shelled.
Many feeders grind up rations of corn, alfalfa, wheat

HOGGING FIELD CORN 221

and oats to feed during the winter, preparing their
market hogs for summer finishing. Corn may also
be ground with the cob. While this latter method
gives good results, the expense of grinding, for
corn alone, is hardly justified. In general practice
the best method is to feed younger hogs dry corn
while on pasture and feed soaked shelled corn to
older and maturing animals.

CHEMISTRY OF THE CORN KERNEL.

The kernel of corn consists of six different parts :
the hull, the horny gluten, the horny starch, the
crown starch, the germ and the tip or cap, the pro-
portions of which vary according to variety of corn,
season, climate and soil, giving corn a considerable
range of feeding value. The hull of a kernel is the
thin outer coat, constituting about 6 per cent of the
whole. It contatins very little protein. Underneath
the hull lies a horny material which comprises from
8 to 14 per cent of the whole, and is about one-fourth
protein. Starch crowns and walls the kernel. The
germ is about 11 per cent of the kernel and contains
about 40 per cent of corn oil, which, of course, is a
fat former. In growing corn for feed it would pay
to select those types or varieties which show a small
proportion of starch (white material) immediately
surrounding the germ of the corn. Such corns have
a relatively high-protein content.

HOGGING FIELD CORN.

Harvesting corn by turning hogs into the field
has been adopted by many farmers in the cornbelt.

222 THE HOG BOOK

Where the farm is well-fenced and the feeder can
limit the range of the hogs by cross-fencing, this
method is profitable. The hogs, if handled properly,
will not waste any more corn than they do when it is
fed in dry lots, and much labor and time in harvest-
ing and handling the corn are saved. The only draw-
back to this practice is the carelessness with which it
is apt to be pursued.

Corn and Milk. — Separator milk balances corn
and with it forms an ideal ration. Any feed supple-
mentary to corn should be high in protein and ash
and be of high digestibility and palatability. Variety
is the spice of hog feeds. Fattening hogs need con-
centrates; breeding animals require considerable
bulk. Feeds that meet all these requirements are
wheat-shorts, alfalfa, bran, barley, oats, rye, peas
and beans, while among the commercial feeds may
be mentioned oilmeal, meatmeal, tankage and glu-
tenmeal.

SUPPLEMENTS TO CORN.

Since corn is low in protein and relatively high
in fat-formers, it makes an ideal finisher, but for
all general purposes it should not be fed alone. Sup-
plementing it with other farm-produced feeds cheap-
ens the cost of producing pork, hogs are healthier,
gains are more rapid, digestion is increased and less
risk is incurred. While it is advisable in the corn-
bolt to use corn in all hog rations, the amount should
be regulated. Given in moderate amounts it does
not have any harmful effects, nor is there anything
in it harmful to hogs ; the only bad effects from feed-
ing sound corn are due to its use in excessive

WHEAT AND RYE 223

amounts. If it is of inferior quality it may derange
digestion. Sour, mouldy, rotten or green corn should
be fed vrith caution. Excessive feeding of corn tends
to diminish the size and strength of bone and weak-
en the constitution. Feeders must learn what feeds
in their localities are best adapted to use in connec-
tion with corn.

WHEAT.

Fed whole, cracked or ground, dry or soaked,
wheat is a valuable hog feed. Best results are
gained by grinding or soaking it for 12 hours. This
prepares it for more thorough digestion. "Wheat,
like corn, should not be used as an entire ration ; it
should be mixed with other feeds. There is more
protein in wheat than corn, but the fats are lower.
So wheat is often used to balance corn. Hogs can
be finished exclusively on wheat, making gains com-
parable in rapidity with those obtained from
corn; but the quality and finish of the pork will be
inferior. Moreover, the high price of wheat makes
it unprofitable to feed for any considerable length
of time, so the farmers resort to the by-products
of wheat, such as shorts and bran, to secure valuable
nutrients at economical prices. Many hogmen
pasture hogs in wheatfields in the fall, winter and
spring, and this affords much needed forage and
does much to promote good health. Besides it will
not injure the wheat, if it be pastured judiciously.

RYE.
In protein content rye ranks higher than oats,
corn and barley, and in heat-forming constituents

224 THE HOG BOOK

it rivals corn. This makes it objectionable for brood
sows and young pigs. In its per cent of fat rye ranks
low among the grains. By mixing it with other
grains profitable use can be made of it in feeding
hogs. Rye is fed dry or soaked, whole, cracked or
ground, but it should not be allowed to ferment. Rye
often contains ergot, for which the feeder should
keep a lookout. Hogs are pastured on rye with good
results during the fall, winter and early spring.
If it is not grazed too short it will make a grain
crop.

OATS.
Like wheat or rye, oats may be fed whole, soaked,
ground or mixed with other feeds or by pasturing
the green plant. Oats are higher in protein and
lower in starch than corn. Oats give good results
fed to brood sows and are useful as a part of a grow-
ing pig's ration. In view of their cheapness oats
should be in more general use, especially for brood
sows and growing pigs, but this grain can not be
considered as an exclusive feed, largely on account
of its being too bulky.

SHORTS AND MILLINGS.

Shorts is a by-product from milling wheat for
flour. If the patent process of milling is not too
fine or if the shorts are not adulterated, shorts
makes an excellent balance for corn. In protein
it is richer than whole wheat. Shorts may be fed
dry or mixed with water or milk made into slops.
The summer feeding method is to soak shorts from
one feeding time to another, feeding it as a slop in

GRINDING HOG FEED 22o

connection with grain, milk and pasture, but never
allowing- to sour. Ketep all buckets, barrels,
troughs and the like clean. In the winter better re-
sults are secured from dry feeding or when the
shorts is mixed with alfalfa, wheat, oats and bran.
Shorts is used in nearly all combinations in pig
feeding, and when fed as a supplement to corn it
will cheapen the cost. It is a cheap supplement
even when its per cent is one-third higher than that
of corn.

BRAN.
Bran makes a good laxative for brood sows. It is
mostlj^ the husk of wheat berries and is flaky and
light, being of such bulk that a hog cannot consume
much more than it can digest. Bran fed in connec-
tion with alfalfa, oats and a little corn makes an
ideal milk-producing and bone and tissue-building
feed, especially for brood sows. It should not form
more than 20 per cent of the bulk of a ration. It
should rrot be used as a base in any ration except
perhaps for farrowing sows or convalescents.

GRINDING FEED.

The grinding of any grain to be fed by itself
is not always profitable, but the grinding of one or
more together to form a combination or balanced
ration is of greater value. Grinding wheat, oats,
corn and alfalfa together makes one of the best
rations that can be secured. Corn as a rule is not
improved when ground alone for exclusive feeding.
Ground wheat, rye and barley give rather better re-
sults than when fed unground, but more profitable

226 THE HOG BOOK

results follow mixing them together and feeding
dry in winter and soaked or in slops in summer. Any
farm feed that is too rich or strong is improved
by grinding it with some other feed that will balance
the combination. It is well to study the nutritive
values of feeds and to experiment with those pro-
duced abundantly on the farm, grinding and mixing
them in different proportions.

One of the prime objects in grinding is to put
feed in a better form for easy digestion, thus mini-
mizing the percentage of waste. A saving from
5 to 10 per cent is often effected in this way. Hogs
swallow much of their feed whole, and a large per-
centage of it passes through them undigested.
Grains easily digested do not require grinding, while
hard, dry feeds, slowly digested, give best results
when ground or soaked. In this condition they are
acted on more effectively by the digestive fluids.
Grinding does not increase nutritive value except
by preparing slow-digesting grains for maximum
assimilation.

On the whole there is little profit in the grinding
of common grains, as nature has furnished the hog
with grinders of its own, but if corn is more than
50 cents per bushel, and very hard, a small saving
with some benefit may be secured by grinding.

SOAKING FEEDS.

The practice of soaking feeds results in their
better distribution among the swine, greater ease
in digestion and assimilation, greater palatability in

THE USE OF MINERAL MATTER 227

many cases, and the intake of a greater quantity of
water. Soaked feeds being bulkier than the dry
feeds, the hog is less likely to overeat. The fact
that feeds are soaked, however, does not obviate
the necessity of having a constant supply of drink-
ing water. While soaking has these advantages, it
also involves labor and expense, and so it only pays
under proper conditions. Soaking, for short pe-
riods, has value as an appetizing way of varying
rations. Grains may be soaked for short periods,
and the frequent changes from soaked to dry grains
will be found a good method of holding the appetite.
Among the grains materially improved by the
I3rocess are the harder or flint types of shelled corn,
shorts, cracked wheat, bran and ground oats. Grain
should only be soaked as it is needed; otherwise it
will become fermented and unsuitable, if not alto-
gether unfit, for feeding purposes. Hogs running
in dry lots will respond better to soaked or ground
feeds than will those having plenty of pasturage.
In estimating whether or not soaking will pay in
any given case, it may be figured that the process
represents a saving of from 5 to 10 per cent in the
value of the feed.

CHARCOAL AND MINERALS.
Hogs need mineral salts and charcoal if they are
properly to develop and keep healthy. Under nat-
ural conditions they obtain salts by eating earth
which supplies them with lime, phosphates, silica,
other inorganic salts, and carbon. To prevent them

228 THE HOG BOOK

rooting up large patches of ground these salts
should be supplied. Lime may be given slaked, in a
light mortar with sand or in a solution of a pint of
lime to a barrel or water. It acts as a corrective.
Wood ashes and soft coal may be fed ; the hogs will
not eat too much of the former, but they may eat an
excess of coal, whose main agency is to supply
gritty matter and sulphur. These should not be
fed in water, as they may set up undesirable chem-
ical reactions. Charcoal may be made right on the
ground by firing heaps of wood or corncobs until
they burn cherry red throughout, throwing salt on
the burning piles, and then covering them with
damp earth or pouring water on them. Hogs may
be given free access to this charcoal. It is a most
valuable cleanser of the digestive tract and acts as
an absorbent of gases and other undesirable by-
products of digestion. A good plan is to prepare a
mixture of charcoal, salt and ashes, and give the
hogs access to it. Common salt is a stimulant and
should onlj^ be given sparingly mixed with other
substances. It is, however, a necessary constituent
of the blood. Ashes of burned bone, vegetation and
bonemeal are both valuable aids to bone formation.

COOKING FEEDS.
The cooking of grains is not recommended for gen-
eral use, although cooking may produce better gains
at certain periods on fattening hogs. However, it
is advisable to cook feeds for stunted or unthrifty
fall pigs during the winter. But the practice for

BARLEY WITH CORN 229

any extended period will develop weak constitutions,
soft bone and delicate appetites. The steaming or
warming of slops, alfalfa, oats, potatoes and roots is
beneficial when these are fed in connection with
grains to the breeding herd and fall pigs during in-
tensely cold weather, I do not, however, consider it
advisable thoroughly to cook any feed for any kind
of stock unless for sick hogs. Feeds used at nearly
normal temperature give better results than those
either above or below normal. The more natural
all feed and conditions are the better. We can aid
Nature in many useful ways ; we can also hinder her
work by following artificial methods in management.
We should seek to be simple and wise in these
matters.

BARLEY.

Like wheat, oats and rye, barley gives its
greatest benefit when combined with corn. Hogs can
be fed almost exclusively on any one of these grains,
but their values are greatly increased when fed
mixed. Barley is a great muscle and tissue-builder.
It gives a general evenness to the body and develops
pork of the bacon type. But it does not produce a
high finish, especially in the back fats and the cover-
ing of the hams and shoulders. Its most apparent
result is a more growthy appearance, and a more
even distribution of lean and fat, especially in the
sides. Barley is generally much cheaper than wheat,
and as it takes only slightly more of it than of corn
to produce the same results in gains or weight, it
should be more generally fed as a part of the ration

230 THE HOG BOOK

for hogs. It is also pastured by liogs, giving profit-
able results during winter and early spring.

EMMER OR SPELTZ.
The composition of emmer is : Protein, 10.50 ;
carbohydrates, 72.41; fat, 2.32; ash, 3.89 per cent.
It is also called speltz, and is a barley-like grain
with a coarse husk-covering like that of oats. It
is grown in the northwest part of the hogbelt, and
used considerably, after grinding and soaking, as
a feed for developing and fattening, being used
either with or without corn. As emmer is cheaply
and abundantly produced, averaging from 30 to 75
bushels per acre, more attention should be given to
its growing and use. Its nutritive value is seemingly
very high, but in practice emmer does not equal corn,
as it takes nearly 100 pounds to give the same gain
that can be obtained with 70 pounds of corn.

COWPEAS.
The value of cowpeas is comparatively little
known as a hog feed in the cornbelt, although exten-
sively used in many localities where they are more
easily produced than corn, the northern and west-
ern states' soil, climate, etc., being very favorable
for the production and use of field peas. The com-
position of peas is practically the same as that of
beans, the two being the highest in protein of all
farm-produced feeds. Cowpeas generally are pas-
tured, and the Canadian field pea, sown with oats,
is highly recommended for this purpose. Hogs
using such pasturage are usually fattened and fin-

SOYBEANS AND RAPE 231

islied for market on the ripened peas or with grain.
The finished carcasses of hogs fed in tliis manner
are commonl}' of a bacon type with very little thick
fat, such as corn feeding produces. Peas are sown
in June and begin to ripen in August, and this is
the best time to begin pasturing them,

SOYBEANS.

This legume has a high value as a flesh-former.
It is generally pastured as a summer forage. Some
feeders grind the beans into a meal and balance it
with other feeds. As cheapness of production and
liigli nutrient value seem to promise a new and
profitable feedstuff, their use should be thoroughly
investigated. Beans are planted and fed to hogs
in much the same manner as are cowpeas.

EAPE.

This is an annual cabbage-like forage plant that
is seeded in corn at the last cultivation or in land
especially prepared for it to produce green feed for
pigs and sheep. It is considered one of the best
forages for hogs. It is advisable to plow up small
yards and pens and seed them to rape. This method
creates sanitary conditions in the yard, destroying-
germs and renovating the soil, besides furnishing
forage. Eape pasturage gives good results, espe-
cially when supplemented with grain rations. Dwarf
Essex is the most reliable variety and many hog
feeders practice sowing a crop for early pasturage,
and anotlier in August for late pasturage. So favor-
ably impressed have I been with this crop that I

232 THE HOG BOOK

would urge every breeder to grow at least a small
patch of it each season.

COTTONSEED-MEAL.

This concentrate is rich in protein, and should
be fed with caution. It often causes serious de-
rangements when fed for 40 days. Breeders in the
cottonbelt feed it for a short time in connection with
other feeds. It is used more extensively in the South.

TANKAGE.

In this by-product of the packinghouses the nu-
trients are, approximately: 44.1 per cent protein, 7
water, 18.7 ash, 7.2 crude fiber, 9.4 nitrogen-free ex-
tract and 13.6 ether extract, for the low grade or
fertilizer brands ; and 61 protein, 7 water, 15 ash or
mineral, 7 crude fiber, 10 fat, approximately, for
the high grade hogfeeding brands. Tankage is made
from packinghouse meat scraps, refuse and offal,
steamed and dried with intense heat, and ground
into meal. Some feeders are foolishly prejudiced
against it on account of its composition. I consider
it a highly valuable concentrate used in connection
with grain and pasturage. Have a care not to feed
it so strongly as is generally recommended or for
any considerable length of time. Breeders com-
monly use it in brood sow rations and for growing
pigs. In feeding it to pigs under five months of age
great care should be taken not to overfeed.

COMMERCIAL FEEDS.
Broadly speaking, hograisers in the cornbelt
have small need of commercial feeds. Every well-

PACKINGHOUSE FEEDS 233

managed farm produces all necessary feeds. With
corn, wheat, alfalfa, clover, rape, milk, soybeans,
rye, oats and roots the hograiser is able to select
and combine economical and effective rations for all
classes of hogs. The cost of commercial feeds has
to be computed from the price paid to farmers for
the main ingredients; then add the cost of high-
priced labor, interest on and maintenance of costly
plants, advertising and selling expenses, together
with freight on raw materials to the manufacturer
and on the finished product back to the consumer,
and a percentage of profit for manufacturers and
dealers. Grain and forage crops suitable for hog-
feeding can be grown cheaper than they can be
bought in patented combinations. Besides they are
infinitely superior in quality to purchased f eedstuffs,
as the latter often contain sweeping husks, dirt and
refuse mixed and ground up with low grades of
wheat, corn, oats and the like. Oilmeal and packing-
house products are generally of more creditable
origin, and when a hogman cannot produce enough
protein it would be advisable for him to feed such
materials, especially tankage.

MEATMEAL.
Like tankage, this is a packinghouse product.
The proportion and nature of protein is slightly
higher than in tankage and the ash content is about
the same. It is a more desirable feed than tankage
on account of its better raw material, being made
mostly of meat scraps, but its nutritive value is
practically the same.

234 THE HOG BOOK

BONEMEAL.
Bonemeal also comes from the packinghouses.
It consists of ground bones that have been heated
enough to destroy all germ life. The feeding of
bonemeal gives good results in bone-building, al-
though this can be supplied to a great extent through
other feeds on most hog-farms, especially milk.

GLUTEN FEEDS AND MEAL.

Under this general heading are included glucose
meal, cream gluten, gluten flour, glucose feed, dried
sugar feed or meal, maize feed, starch feed, hom-
iny hearts and other similar materials obtained as
by-products from the manufacture of starch and
glucose from corn. Gluten is the tenacious, viscous
constituent in the meal that makes it suitable for
bread. These feeds give fairly good results in con-
nection with farm feeds, but like all other concen-
trates, must be given in a balanced ration and for
limited periods.

BLOODMEAL.

This is simply dried blood that may be fed in
connection with grain. It helps to produce better
growth, especially in the development of frames.

OILMEAL.

Oilmeal is ground cake pumice left in the manu-
facture of linseed oil from flax seed. It has medi-
cinal value, and is very strong feed, high in protein
and fat, compared with natural feedstuffs. It is
used for laxative and cooling purposes in connection
with other feeds. It is considered as one of the best

SUCCULENT FEEDS 235

concentrates when used in proper proportions with
other farm-produced provender. It is generally
used in developing rations ; however, tankage excels
it for this purpose.

APPLES.
Hogs should utilize to advantage all wholesome
waste by-products of the farm, and as there are
usually many bushels of "windfall" apples in all
orchards, it is well to pasture hogs therein. Both
hogs and orchard are benefited. The fallen apples
are appetizers and a tonic, and have some value in
forming flesh ; while, on the other hand, the orchard
is kept clean of wormy, decaying apples, which would
otherwise breed many tree and leaf diseases. Where
trees are protected from rooting this method is as
beneficial to an orchard as an annual sprajdng. Hogs
should not be fed apples excessively or exclusively.

CARROTS.
Carrots are low in nutritive value but may be
fed sparingly as an appetizer or as a corrective for
kidney ailments, and to aid such digestive troubles
as colic or dyspepsia.

POTATOES.

Potatoes are richer in protein and fat than any
other root crop excepting artichokes, and may be
fed, raw or cooked, during fall and winter feeding.
A common practice is to boil small potatoes and po-
tato peelings with corn, wheat or oats, making a
slop, and feeding it to convalescents or runts or to
fall pigs during the closed winter season.

236 THE HOG BOOK

ARTICHOKES.
Artiohokes and potatoes in composition are
very similar, each containing more protein and fat-
forming elements than other root crops. Both are
used as laxatives and in brood sow rations. Arti-
chokes are ''hogged out", fed raw or cooked.

MILO MAIZE AND KAFFIR-COEN.

Both of these crops are becoming popular with
many hog feeders of the South and West, where they
are produced in abundance at low cost. The ripened
seeds ground into meal are fed separately or mixed
with other grains. Both crops possess some value
for developing and fattening, but do not give as good
results independently as they do when balanced
with corn. The cheapness of their growing, how-
ever, promises to make them a factor in the future
production of pork, and all breeders would do well
to experiment in their use, wherein it is practical.

SWEET CORN.
Sweet corn is one of the best late summer and fall
feeds for hogs when given in connection with any
matured grain, and it is generally fed, stalks and all,
to furnish roughage. It has not the disadvantages
of unripened field corn and, if given in balanced
amounts, will not produce serious digestive ailment.
It is a great promoter of growth and may be used as
a roughage from the milk-stage until frost.

GREEN CORN.

Many breeders by the injudicious feeding of
green or immature field corn cause digestive ailments

ROOT CROPS 237

in their herds. So far as the corn itself is con-
cerned it does not contain harmful ingredients or
cause diseases, unless it is consumed much in excess
of the hog's capacity to digest and assimilate it. It
may be fed with profit when given in amounts that
will serve as a relish and appetizer, and it is always
advisable to begin feeding the new crop by giving
small allowances first, gradually increasing it to a
full ration, in connection with matured feeds.

TURNIPS.

This watery root crop is a cooling laxative. It
is fed, like other roots, to supply forage during the
winter for brood sows and young, growing pigs.
Turnips are fed either raw or cooked, but they should
not be too large a fraction of the ration, as they do
not contain sufficient nutrition to sustain life if used
exclusively.

MANGELS.

Mangels are a valuable root feed, being nearly
equivalent to beets but lower in heat. They make a
good supplement to high grain rations, are appetiz-
ing and give welcome results when fed as a part of
a brood sow's rations during the winter. They may
be fed either raw or cooked.

SUGAR BEETS.
The composition of sugar beets is 1.8 per cent
protein, 10.2 carbohydrates, 0.1 fat and 0.9 ash. They
are one of the best root crops for winter feeding.
For hogs on grain rations they are good appetizers.
For brood sows beets are a laxative, and they allay

238 THE HOG BOOK

fever. They may be fed raw or cooked, but should
not form at any time more than 40 per cent of a
ration.

EUTABAGAS.
Breeders find rutabagas a valuable root crop for
feeding as an appetizer, laxative and supplement to
high grain rations, and as a part of brood sows'
and fall pigs ' feed. Feed raw or cooked.

BUCKWHEAT.

This is a good substitute feed that is lower in

protein than any other common grain. It is fed

ground for fattening purposes, but it would not be

advisable to feed it to brood- sows or growing pigs.

PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES.
Pumpkins or squashes in a raw or cooked state
form an appetizing and tonic ration in the fall and
winter feeding of young pigs and brood sows. The
seeds have some value as a vermifuge and regulator
and as a corrective of the urinary system. Neither
pumpkins nor squashes can be considered as an ex-
clusive feed, as neither contains sufficient nourish-
ment. Pumpkins should be grown and used in
abundance on every hog-farm.

ALFALFA.

The composition of a pound of alfalfa hay is 10.55
per cent protein, 37.33 per cent carbohydrates and
1.38 per cent fat. Of green alfalfa it is 3.89 protein,
11.20 carbohydrates and 0.41 fat. Of alfalfa silage
it is 3 per cent protein, 8.50 per cent carbohydrates

ALFALFA FOR HOGS 239

and 1.90 per cent fat. Alfalfa ranks with corn as
a base feed for liogs, and tlie time is not far distant
when every pork-producer will have to rely on it to
compete with producers who have abundant forage
feeds. The cost of grain and fattening feeds will be
higher in the future and only such abundant and
easily-grown feeds as alfalfa will fill the breach be-
tween the cost of growing and eventual profits. So
far hog feeders have not found a forage plant to com-
pare with it for all-around hog development, nor
have they begun to get anything like the full benefits
out of the plant that await its intelligent utilization,
xllfalfa can be grown in almost any locality and soil
in the United States, the author having seen it culti-
vated on the hardest gumbo soil and again on the
sandiest soil, in places where corn would not begin
to grow. The.only kinds of soil which will not bear
alfalfa are extremely dry rock formations and those
which are constantly wet. Properly-managed alfalfa
pastures will last almost indefinitely, and if they
do become ''killed" by such causes as gophers, too
close hog pasturing, from allowing horses to eat the
crowns, or from freezing out where water is col-
lected, the land will be found, on account of the nitro-
gen-fixing nodules on the alfalfa roots, to have been
benefited immensely in crop-producing power. In
fact, alfalfa does for land just what a well-worked
manure spreader does. Soils that have borne alfalfa
for some years are not only made as good thereby
as virgin soils, but they may be made to produce
more than they ever produced in the virgin state.

240 THE PIOG BOOK

It is not uncommon for 40 or 50 bushels of wheat to
be produced on an acre of old alfalfa ground from
which, previously to its alfalfa planting, only 15 or
20 could be taken. And 20 or 30-bushel acres have
been made into 75 or 100-bushel acres. AVlnle it is
practically impossible to estimate the dollar value
of alfalfa per acre, conservative hograisers have
claimed $100 in pork and hay from an acre of the
plant. Fifty dollars at any rate can be realized from
an acre in ordinary practice.

Alfalfa is fed either as pasturage or in the form
of hay. In the latter case it may be fed straight or
may be chopped up and ground into meal and fed
wet or dry, alone or with corn, wheat and oats.
When thus mixed, however, it is generally fed as a
thick mash. An acre of alfalfa, perfect in stand, and
on good soil, such as bottom land, will provide ample
forage for 10 or 12 pigs of 80 to 100 pounds or for
one to three brood sows and their litters, feeding
continuously from farrowing to weaning. And in
addition to that, the acre will produce one or two tons
of hay. More service than this has been obtained
from an acre, in fact, but too close pasturing will
lessen the production and may even kill the plant.
An acre of alfalfa of lighter stand and on poor
ground may provide forage for six or eight 100-
pound pigs or one sow and litter, and still be good
for a ton or more of hay. In fact, under ideal con-
ditions, an acre of alfalfa maj^ produce in pork and
hay, every year, practically the value of the land
on which the alfalfa grows. When the alfalfa be-

BROOD SOW RATIONS 241

comes weak in stand and vitality it is best to plow it
under, and after several other crops have been grown
from the same ground the alfalfa can be reseeded.
During pasturing alfalfa should be mowed three or
four times in the season. This removes the coarse,
wood}' stems of the plant, and the renewed growth
supplies the hog with almost continuous tender, suc-
culent forage.

BROOD SOW RATIONS.

A good ration for brood sows running on alfalfa
pastures is as follows: 5 or 6 pounds of corn or its
equivalent, according to the size of the animal ; and
1 pound of shorts, fed in a thin slop, and free ac-
cess to clean water, wood ashes and salt. For pigs,
the corn ration must be adjusted to their powers of
assimilation.; They should be given the same amount
of shorts as the brood sow, but with the addition of
milk once or twice daily. The results in flesh and
bone development from this ration will be unsur-
passed. For fattening hogs with well-developed
frames and weighing 200 pounds or more, the corn
ration should be increased to 8 or 10 pounds daily,
or 1 bushel of shelled or ear corn to seven or eight
hogs. One pound of shorts should be given, and Vs
or 1/4 pound of tankage will prove profitable. These
weights cannot always be adhered to exactly, and it
is a safe rule to incline to a few ounces less rather
than to an excess in making them up. The feeding
of alfalfa hay and meal occurs mostly in the winter.
The hay should be cured carefully in order that it
may remain green and retain its nutritive value.

242 THE HOG BOOK

The third and fourth cuttings are the best for hog-
feeding. The hay may }Je fed from racks or on
feeding floors or the hogs may be allowed to eat down
the stacks. Three or four pounds of hay daily, in
addition to the grain feeds, is a good average allow-
ance. It should not be fed without grain or in ex-
cess of the quantity indicated.

The following mixed ration has been adopted by
many breeders for brood sows and growing hogs:
Alfalfa, 28 to 30 per cent; corn, 18 to 20 per cent;
oats, 18 to 20 per cent; shorts, 15 per cent; bran, 15
per cent; oilmeal or tankage, 2 to 5 per cent. In
this ration the fattening feeds are increased or less-
ened as the required results dictate. The best meth-
od of preparing this ration is to grind or finely
chop the alfalfa, and mix it with the other ingredi-
ents after they have been separately ground and then
mixed. This should be done in a fair-sized tank,
and sufficient water added to make a thick mash.
In winter the water should be warm or even scald-
ing hot. After the mixture has soaked for an hour
or so it may be fed in troughs or on the feeding
floor. It will be found a profitable ration.

ALFALFA HAY.

The avidity with which hogs in some parts of the
West go to dry alfalfa in stacks has surprised many
observers. On a large breeding farm, just within
the shades of the Kansas Agricultural College, there
were, according to Prof. John M. Evvard of the Iowa
Experiment Station, 200 Duroc-Jerseys, some 30
per cent of which were brood sows. These pigs

CORN AND ALFALFA 243

practicallj^ all had the run of a large, luxiiriantly-
growing- alfalfa pasture and were fed in addition
corn, shorts and tankage. Off to one corner of the
place, somewhat unhandy for the pigs to reach, yet
accessible, there stood a large stack of first cutting
alfalfa. The hogs would stop at this stack in the
morning and at night on their way to and from the
field, and even go to it in between times, eating great
quantities of this first cutting hay. The shape of
the stack reminded one of the strawstacks seen in the
cornbelt in the spring after cattle have run around
them the entire winter. It showed the preference of
the hogs for dry stacked hay as a part of their ration.
Although the green growing alfalfa grew right at
the hogs ' feet, yet they preferred to eat considerable
quantities of the dry hay. Of all the hogs the brood
sows seemed to show an exceptional fondness for it,
this seemingly indicating that alfalfa satisfied their
appetite and craving for furnishing bone and grow-
ing materials for the development of the foetal
babies

CORN AND ALFALFA.
Of especial consideration is the ash content of al-
falfa compared with corn, as for every thousand
parts of the dry substance alfalfa contains a total of
73 parts of ash, while corn contains only 15 parts per
thousand, according to the Iowa Experiment Sta-
tion. Then, too, with alfalfa there is an excess of
basal mineral elements over acid ones to the extent
of 1,304 cubic centimeters of normal solution in 1,000
grams of dry substance as compared to an opposite

244 THE HOG BOOK

acid excess of 117 on the part of the corn. It is es-
sential in a correct growing ration to have a basal
excess. Then, too, on the other hand alfalfa contains
21.44 parts of calcium per thousand while corn con-
tains but .11 parts or 200 times the bone-building ele-
ment. Of potassium alfalfa contains 16.41 as com-
pared to 3.20 corn (grain) or of the neutralizing reg-
ulating agency. Corn is high in phosphorus, the bone-
producing running-mate of calcium, yet alfalfa con-
tains slightly more — or a comparison of 3.36 parts to
3.38 parts. These figures would indicate alfalfa's use-
fulness as a brood sow feed, hence their seeming
great relish of it. However, just why they should pre-
fer the dry to the green would be a different matter.
One ordinarily thinks first-cutting alfalfa not so well
adapted to hog feeding as the third or fourth. This
is undoubtedly true, but then under certain condi-
tions when the first cutting is quite leafy and is cut
early and cured well hogs show a great liking for it.

ALFALFA WITH RYE.
An Ohio farmer writes: ''We prefer the third
cutting of alfalfa hay for hogs. For two winters
our brood sows have been fed alfalfa. We use the
ordinary feed cutter, cutting it as fine as possible.
We moisten the cut hay and usually feed a small
ration of middlings or ground rye, mostly rye, add-
ing the shelled corn, and feed it in a deep trough,
one feed per day. We give probably two-thirds of
a pound of hay per hog. It is weighed after being
cut in dry form. We have not tried a heavier ration
of alfalfa, as this amount carries our hogs along

ALFALFA HAY 245

nicely. Alfalfa is tlirown from the mow into a box
on the barn floor, so there is no waste of leaves.
Last winter onr fall pigs were fed alfalfa from the
latter part of January until March. Pigs do not eat
it quite so readily as the hogs do. I doubt, consider-
ing the waste made by crowding, if they consumed
one-fourth of a pound. Some lots of pigs will con-
sume more than others. One can get the pigs to
consume a greater quantity by adding a heavy ration
of ground feed to the alfalfa, but this is not advis-
able. We would suggest feeding a small amount and
noting results, as no set rule will answer. There has
been some question if the short-cut stems might not
internally injure pigs. We have had no trouble on
this score. We prefer having the pigs weigh 50
pounds or so before beginning the ration, although
in some cases they might consume enough to pay for
the extra work earlier. We feed the ration in the
same form as to the old hogs, differing in proportion
as a matter of course.

"Alfalfa is practically taking the place of mill-
feed ; it is a supplement that has protein and makes
a bulky ration for winter feeding that is neces-
sary. Our spring pigs come nice and strong. In
very cold weather water is warmed for the older
hogs, so as to moisten the ration, and this is more
necessary for pigs. It would be much easier simply
to throw out the corn and let it go at that; but ex-
periments furnish positive evidence that a protein
feed will make com more efficient and decrease the
cost of production, and we are certain that we have

246 THE HOG BOOK

discovered no facts to the contrary." Here is a
point of the utmost practical value to western pork-
makers.

HOGGING OFF RYE.

In The Breeder's Gazette of Dec. 7, 1910, an
Ohio correspondent gives his experience as follows :
' ' I commend this practice, for after giving it as thor-
ough a test as is possible I am satisfied it is a suc-
cess. On July 26, 21 spring pigs weighing 1,425
pounds were turned on about three acres of rye, rape
and clover. These pigs took to the rye and clover
from the start, but the rape was not eaten. On Sept.
21, when taken off the rye, they weighed 2,520, a gain
of 1,095 pounds, at 9 cents market price then, or
$98.55. The rye crop was estimated at 45 bnshels at
70 cents market price, or $31.50. During the last
three weeks they were fed 60 bushels of corn at 50
cents, or $30, making the total cost of feed $61.50
or a net gain of $37.05, to say nothing of the value to
the land, and this at a very slight outlay of labor,"

On the same subject another writer in the same
issue says: "We turned 62 February pigs into five
acres of good rye on July 17 and left them in until
Aug. 29. They ate little more than half of the rye ;
the remainder either volunteered or rotted on the
ground. If these hogs had relished the rye, they
should have cleaned it up in 30 days. This is the
second time that we have hogged rye ; the third trial
will never come. We had good clover in the rye and
gave some slop ; we cut down slop in an endeavor to
compel the shotes to eat rye. The only thing that

SO^rE STANDARD RATIONS 247

we have to say in favor of hogging rj^e is that it is
possibly better than grass alone. To compare it
with soaked corn as a summer feed, we must surely
say to buy corn every time. When hograisers quit
meddling with rye, barley and soybeans and learn
to rely on corn they will have learned the essen-
tial that has made our best feeders successful."

A KANSAS PIG RATION.
At the Kansas Experiment Station Prof. R. J.
Kinzer says he made the best growth and gains on
pigs by feeding a ration consisting of about 50 to 60
per cent corn, 35 to 40 per cent wheat shorts and 5
to 8 per cent tankage.

SOME TESTED RATIONS.

For small pigs the Wisconsin Experiment Station
recommends the following ration, made up on the
basis of 100 pounds of mixed feed and fed in the
shape of a thick slop : ground oats, free from hulls,
35 pounds; wheat middlings, 35 pounds; cornmeal,
20 pounds ; oilmeal, 8 pounds ; salt, 2 pounds.

A Groiving Ration. — Cornmeal, 30 pounds;
ground oats, 20 pounds; wheat middlings, 30
pounds; oilmeal, 8 pounds; salt, 2 pounds.

A Brood Soiv Ration. — Cornmeal, 23 pounds;
ground oats, 23 pounds; wheat middlings, 23
pounds; wheat-bran, 23 pounds; oilmeal, 6 pounds;
salt, 2 pounds.

PASTURE FOR HOGS.

I attach great importance to the use of pastures
in producing cheap pork. Clovers, alfalfa and

248 THE HOG BOOK

grasses for grazing should be grown on every hog-
farm. It is on pasture and forage that pigs lay the
foundation for their future usefulness for fattening.
The following table shows the periods when given
grazing crops are available and the number of 100-
pound hogs which an acre will carry:

Alfalfa April to November 5 to 10 hogs

Clover April to October 3 to 8 hogs

Kentucky bluegrass March to October 3 to 8 hogs

English bluegrass April to October 3 to 8 hogs

Prairie grass June to September 2 to 4 hogs -

Oats April to July 4 to 8 hogs

Rape May to October 12 to 18 hogs

Rye Late fall, winter and spring 4 to 8 hogs

Wheat November to March 2 to 4 hogs

Cowpeas August and September 6 to 8 hogs

Soybeans August and September 6 to 8 hogs

Artichokes November to March 10 to 20 hogs

Sorghum July to October 15 to 20 hogs

CLOVER.

This legume ranks close to alfalfa as a forage
for hogs. For best results in pasturing it, I advise
to mow it quite often, so that there shall be plenty of
tender growth. This also removes the tough and
older stocks. Clover hay for winter feeding is
almost as valuable as alfalfa, but in curing it does
not retain as much protein as alfalfa. Clover is
sometimes fed ground into a meal as a part of a
ration for brood sows.

TIMOTHY.

For hogs timothy is mainly a pasture plant, giv-
ing much the same results as bluegrass, bromus
inermus and prairie grass. It is often sown with
clover; the combination affords excellent pasturage

MILK FOR HOGS 2A9

for hogs. Where other forage is scarce, straight
timothy pasture may be used in connection with
grain.

MILLET.

Used chiefly as a pasture for hogs, millet is com-
monly seeded with rape and millet in hog yards and
small lots to produce forage for summer feeding.
Millet seed has but little value as a feed, and the
best use to make of the hay is for bedding purposes.

SORGHUM CANE.

Sorghum is commonly used for feeding and as a
pasture. Both the cane and seed make a heavy
crop per acre and when supplemented give fair re-
sults. As a forage sorghum will pasture a large
number of hogs per acre. In its young or tender
state it does not make material gains, but after it
reaches the sugary state it is an excellent feed to
rejuvenate run-down hogs. Some feeders claim
medicinal value for it.

THE VALUE OF ]\IILK.

Separator milk is more valuable than many hog-
raisers seem to think. The removal of butter-fat,
besides being profitable from a dairying standpoint,
leaves the milk a better feed for hogs than whole
milk would be. In these circumstances it would
well repay the hograiser to carry on a dairy busi-
ness which will give him a feed that cannot be
replaced, at the same cost, by any grain feed. Sep-
arator or skimmilk is best fed before it has lost its

250 THE HOG BOOK

natural heat, and while it is still in a sweet condi-
tion. Occasionally, however, it will sour before it
is practicable to feed it, and in such a case, pro-
vided the souring is only slight, no harm will be
done by feeding it. Milk fed in conjunction with
grain insures the proper development of bone and
muscle, the milk containing a large proportion of
mineral material needed for bone growth. On ac-
count of its large proportion of protein it should
not be fed in excess, for the quantity of protein the
hog can digest is limited. For the same reason the
amount fed should be relatively greater in young,
growing pigs, and should be decreased when, full
growth being attained, the demand for protein is
lighter. To insure the most thorough utilization
of the milk fed small quantities should be given at
frequent intervals. If the ration of milk is given
in one large dose the curdling, which is the first step
in digestion, is too great, and the stomach fails to
deal with the large mass of curd. Milk will be
found to be a valuable appetizer for hogs that are
losing appetite or convalescing.

A well-balanced milk ration consists of approxi-
mately 1-10 corn, 4-10 roughage, 3-10 water and
2-10 milk. If the actual amounts here are regu-
lated according to the age and size of the animals,
the value of the milk will be from 25 to 50 cents per
cwt. Cow's milk is not so rich as sow's milk, and so
at first in feeding it larger quantities may be given
than were consumed before weaning. But for any
pig under 100 pounds a quart at a feeding should

QUART FEED WEIGHTS 251

be sufficient. Buttermilk is not so good a feed as
skimmilk, as it has lost more nutritive value in the
butter extraction, and is sour and more diluted than
ordinary milk. Some buttermilk should never be
used, as it contains such chemicals as sulphuric acid,
salts or alkalis, used in separation by some cream-
eries. But buttermilk which the feeder knows to be
fresh and pure may be fed with economy and good
results. It should be given sparingly to young
pigs, however, as they do not seem able to digest
much of it, and even with older hogs the bulk given
should not be over half the total ration. Its value,
when fed to pigs, may be from 15 to 30 cents per cwt.

NUTS FOR FEEDING.

Hogs relish all kinds of nuts, as acorns, pecans,
walnuts and hickory nuts. In localities where there
are large areas of nut-bearing trees hogs are able
to secure a living and even fatten on mast and forage
plants during summer and fall. Hams and bacon
from hogs thus fed are usually of the highest qual-
ity and flavor. Nuts also have a tonic value.

QUART WEIGHTS OF FEEDS.

In calculating rations where it is unhandy to
weigh the feeds, the following table of quart weights
are given:

Com, whole grain. . 1 pound, 14 ounces

Cracked corn 1 pound, 12 ounces

Cornmeal 1 pound, Bounces

Com-cobmeal 1 pound, 6 ounces

Oats, whole. 1 pound, Oounces

Oats, ground 0 pound, 12 ounces

Wheat, whole 1 pound, Hounces

Wheat, ground 1 pound, 13 ounces

Wheat middlings. . . 1 pound, 12 ounces

Wheat bran 0 pound, 10 ounces

Rye bran 0 pound, 10 ounces

Gluten meal 1 pound, 11 ounces

Gluten feed 1 pound, 3 ounces

Linseed-meal 1 pound, 2 ounces

Cottonseed-meal... 1 pound, Bounces

Separator milk 2 pound, Oounces

Water 1 pound, 12 ounces

252

THE HOG BOOK

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS.

In the following table, taken from a Farmers'
Bulletin published by the United States Department
of Agriculture, breeders and feeders will find infor-
mation of much value, if it is intelligently applied.
We can never feed economically or wisely unless we
know something about the composition of the ma-
terials used.

DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE FOOD INGREDIENTS IN 100 POUNDS
OF FEEDING STUFFS.

Feeding stuff.

Total

dry

matter

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates

Fat.

Fuel
value.

Green fodder:

Corn fodder

Kaffir-corn fodder

Rye fodder

Oat fodder

Redtop, in bloom

Orchard grass, in bloom

Timothy, at different stages

Kentucky bluegrass

Hungarian grass

Red clover, at different stages .

Crimson clover

Alfalfa, at different stages

Cowpea

Soybean

Rape

Hay from—

Redtop

Timothy (all analyses)

Red clover

Alsike clover

White clover

Crimson clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soybean

Roots and tubers:

Potatoes

Beets

Mangel-wurzels

Turnips

Rutabagas

Carrots

Grains and other seeds:

Corn (average of dent and flint)

Kaffir-corn

Barley

Oats

Rye

Wheat (all varieties)

Cottonseed (whole)

lbs.
20.7
27.0
23.4
37.8
34.7
27.0
38.4
34.9
28.9
29.2
19.3
28.2
16.4
28.5
14.3

91.1
86.8
84.7
90.3
90.3
91.4
91.6
89.3
88.7

21.1
13.0
9.1
9.5
11.4
11.4

81.1
87.5
89.1
89.0
88.4
89.5
89.7

lbs.
1.10
0.87
2.05
2.44
2.06
1.91
2.01
2.66
1.92
3.07
2.16
3.89
1.68
2.79
2.16

4.82
2.89
7.38
8.15
11.46
10.49
10.58
10.79
10.78

1.36
1.21
1.03
0.81
0.88
0.81

7.14
5 78
8.69
9.25
9.12
10.23
11.08

lbs.

12.08
13.80
14.11
17.99
21.24
15.91
21.22
17.78
15.63
14.82

9.31
11.20

8.08
11.82

8.65

46.83
43.72
38.15
41.70
41.82
38.13
37.33
38.40
38.72

16.43
8.84
5.65
6.46
7.74
7.83

66.12
53.58
64.83
48.34
69.73
69.21
33.13

lbs.
0.37
0.43
0.44
0.97
0.58
0.58
0.64
0.69
0.36
0.69
0.44
0.41
0.25
0.63
0.32

0.95
1.43
1.81
1.36
1.48
1.29
1.38
1.51
1.54

0.05
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.22

4.97
1.33
1.60
4.18
1.36
1.68
18.44

calories.
26,076
29,101
31,914
42,093
. 45,785
35,593
45,909
40,930
34,162
36,187
23,191
29,798
19,209
29,833
21,457

100,078
92,729
92,324
98,460

105,346
95,877
94,936
97,865
98,569

33,089
18,904
12,889
13,986
16,497
16.999

157,237
116,022
143,499
124,757
152,400
154,848
160,047

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS.

253

DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE" FOOD INGREDIENTS IN 100 POUNDS
OF FEEDING STUFFS— ^Continued).

Feeding stuff.

Total

dry

matter.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Fat.

Fuel
value.

Mill products:

Cornmeal '

Corn-and-cobmeal

Oatmeal

Barley meal

Ground corn and oats, equal parts. . .

Pea meal

Waste products:
Gluten meal —

Chieaso

Kinir

Cream gluten (recent analyses) . . .
Gluten feed (recent analyses)

Buffalo (recent analyses)

Rockford( Diamond)

Hominy chops

Malt sprouts

Brewers' grains (wet)

Brewers' grains (dried)

Distill. grains(dried), principally corn
Distill, grains (dried), principally rye
Atlas gluten feed (distill, by-product)

Rye bran

Wheat bran, all analyses

Wheat middlings

Wheat shorts

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat middlings

Cottonseed feed

Cottonseed meal

Linseed meal (old process)

Linseed meal (new process)

Sugar-beet pulp (fresh )

Sugar-beet pulp (dry)

Milk and its by-products:

Whole milk

Skim milk, cream raised by setting . .
Skim milk, cream raised by separator

Buttermilk

Whey

lbs.
85.0
84.9
92.1
88.1
88.1
89.5

90.5
92.8
90.4
91.9
91.0
91.3
88.9
89.8
243
92.0
93.0
93.2
92.6
88.2
88.5
84.0
88.2
88.5
88.2
92.0
91.8
90.8
90.1
10.1
93.6

12.8
9.6
9.4
9.0
6.2

lbs.
6.26
4.76

11.53
7.36
7.01

16.77

33.09
30.10
30.45
19.95
22.88
20.38

8.43
18.72

4.00
19.04
21.93
10.38
23.33
11.47
12.01
12.79
12.22
19.29
22.34

9.65
37.01
28.76
30.59

0.63

6.80

3.38
3.10
3.01
2.82
0.56

lbs.
65.26
60.06
52.06
62.88
61.20
51.78

39.96
35.10
45.36
54.22
51.71
54.71
61.01
43.50

9.37
31.79
38.09
42.48
35.64
52.40
41.23
53.15
49.98
31.65
36.14
38.57
16.52
32.81
38.72

7.12
65.49

4.80
4.61
5.10
4.70
5.00

lbs.
3.50
2.94
5.93
1.96
3.87
0.65

4.75

15.67
2.47
5.35
2.89
3.82
7.06
1.16
1.38
6.03

10.83
6.38

11.88
1.79
2.87
3.40
3.83
4.56
6.21
3.37

12.58
7.06
2.90

3.70
0.90
0.30
0.50
0.10

calories.
147,797
132,972
143,302
138,918
143,202
130,246

155,918

187,399
151,420
160,533
150,933
155,788
158,952
120,624

30,692
119,990
157,340
125,243
159,818
126,352
111,138
136,996
131,855
113,992
134,979
103,911
152,653
144,313
141,155

14,415
134,459

30,829
18,139
16,351
16.097
10,764

WHEN TO MARKET.

Some men say that it costs more to produce a
pound of gain on a hog of large frame than on a
close, compact, fine-boned animal. In pig or hog
feeding the first step is to first establish a frame
for the meat and fat that it is to carry. Breeders
who attempt to create the upholstering before build-

254 THE HOG BOOK

ing the skeleton are putting the cart before the
horse. Only one general rule can be given: When
your hogs are ready, sell. Hogs that have been fed
continuously from pighood should be sold just as
soon as they reach the full bloom of tiuish, which
will be at about eight or nine months of age, and
weighing from 225 to 300 pounds. It is not profit-
able to continue feeding hogs that have been fed for
a long period. Feeders must not forget that the fin-
ishing feed should be of short duration. Fall pigs
that have been properly cared for and developed
during the winter can be made to finish under a year
of age weighing from 250 to 400 pounds, generally
reaching a marketable age before extreme hot
weather, say some time in June. Some feeders even
carry such hogs for a longer period. If they have
an abundance of forage and a limited supply of fat-
tening feeds this method may be profitable.

Every breeder is familiar with the quick and
easy-fattening qualities of thin brood sows and big-
framed older hogs. Such hogs often gain 3 to 4
pounds daily and at a much lower cost than the aver-
age cost of pork. They should be finished out even
and round, in which case they will be wide and
broad of back and weigh from 400 to 700 pounds.

My aim is to develop frame first, feed to matu-
rity and finish and then sell, regardless of market
prices.

MARKETING.

The general practice is to sell to the country
shippers, who collect, grade and ship hogs in car-

MARKETING FAT HOGS 255

loads to the packing centers. More extensive breed-
ers are in position to ship carloads of their own, or
to secure additions from neighbors to make the re-
quired weight of a carload. In some localities it is
more convenient and profitable to sell directly to
local butchers. Many farmers kill hogs of their
own raising and cure and sell the finished products
to merchants or consumers in their own locality.

In marketing, the manner in which hogs are
cared for prior to and during their journey to mar-
ket is of importance. To owners who dispose of fat
hogs to local shippers the following suggestions
may be found of value : If the hogs are but a short
distance from the scales, it will be better to drive
them in the early cool of morning. In weighing
hogs to buyers it is not honest to gorge or fill them
just before weighing. Where the distance to scales
is too grea't to warrant driving the hogs, hauling
is necessary; the time to do this is in the cool of
the day. The hog wagon should be prepared the
night before. Air spaces should be made between
the upper and lower bed, if an ordinary farm wag-
on is used. A hog-rack will oftentimes pay for
itself in a single instance of use. Wet sand as a
bedding keeps hogs cool enroute, although hay or
straw well wet will answer the purpose. Should
the sun be exceedingly warm, leafy limbs of trees
or sacking may be spread over the top, and water
thrown in at intervals will tend to maintain an even
temperature among the hogs. Care should be taken
to prevent fat hogs from getting into cramped po-

256 THE HOG BOOK

sitions. Many amateur shippers think that hogs
should be filled at home or enroute to market. The
main thing is to manage so that the hogs will have
good appetites when they leave the cars at the mar-
ket, as they will then get all the fill that it is pos-
sible to give them. So in feeding them prior to
loading the feed should be of a light, dry nature.
Many shippers have found that liberal allowances
of charcoal or other gritty material with small
amounts of salt or lime promote a condition in which
the hogs ship well, and gives them a good appetite
and thirst for water when they arrive at market.

In bedding a car for use in warm weather, sand
is ideal bedding; it should be thoroughly wet be-
fore the hogs are placed in the car. Coal cinders
or slack coal may be thrown in with the sand. In
the winter wheat or rye straw or slightly soiled
bedding from horse barns, millet hay, or mown for-
age are satisfactory for bedding. In no case is it
advisable to use too much of any one kind of bed-
ding.

In loading hogs. in cars it is well to have them
accustomed to the car nearly an hour before the
train leaves. See to it that they are not switched
about too much enroute.

FITTING SHOW HOGS.

No hard and fast rule can be given, but the se-
lection of a candidate is of first importance. The
intending exhibitor should be a good judge of in-
dividual merit. Hogs that are either hard or quick
to mature or are ravenous or dainty feeders should
be rejected. Hard-maturers generally are late in
acquiring bloom, and are nearly always rough in
quality and finish. Quick-maturers usually are stale,
have an excess of fat, are wrinkled or creased, their
feet and legs are out of line and they are undersized
for their age at show time. Moreover, they almost
invariably -become unreliable breeders. Ravenous
feeders gorge today and fast tomorrow. This makes
firm, healthy, even fleshing impossible. Dainty
feeders are difficult to get in show form.

Most of my winning show animals have come
from matings that were planned largely for breed-
ing purposes. I have found it difficult to secure
many show animals from one litter; as a rule only
one or two of exceptional merit occur in a litter. In
selecting show animals family pedigrees are a guide,
and if they show a line of good individuals of show
merit a guarantee is given for the reappearance of
individuals of as good or better merit.

Years of experience develops an instinct in a

(257)

258 THE HOC ROOK

breeder of show animals which enables liim to se>
lect future winners. There is no greater pleasure
for me than to analyze and compare the qualities
of hogs from pighood to old age. When pigs are
four to eight weeks old I examine them carefully.
Day by day I study, pick to pieces this or that pig
and make comparisons; in visits to other herds I
carry mental portraits of my own hogs to compare
with the best that I see in such collections. In this
way I learn ; I ascertain what I need, and long be-
fore the high-feeding time comes I have my aged,
yearling, under-year and pig herds selected.

The individuals selected, care and feeding are
next in importance. Show animals should never be
allowed to become stunted. Sanitary care, whole-
some feed and continuous development are the fac-
tors on which success largely depends. Separate the
selected individuals from the herd and confine them
where there is plenty of pasture and shade. There
is no mystery about feeding show hogs. Any man
who can put the finish on hogs for pork can finish
hogs for show. Pigs intended for the six-months
class should be fed, as soon as they begin eating, an
abundance of muscle and bone-building feed until
30 days before showing. Then corn, shorts and milk
should be used almost exclusively, with but little
green feed. My practice for years has been as
follows :

Before breakfast, water, followed by soaked corn.
While I am at breakfast the pigs are out on alfalfa.
After breakfast, a slop of shorts and bran, with

FITTING FOR SHOW 259

separator milk, is given, and all pigs are driven to
the ends of the pastures. This will be about 7 :30
a. m. As the day advances, the pigs will come back
for shade, and at noon, water and soaked corn are
given; then they are allowed to rest until the cool
of the evening, when they are again given water and
soaked corn. After I have had my supper they are
slopped with shorts and bran with separator milk
added or alone, as a ''good night cap." All the feed
they get should not be more than they will clean up ;
the idea is to underfeed just a trifle, and go around
with the corn or slops two or three times each feed-
ing time, giving a small quantity each time, espe-
cially after supper, until their appetites are ap-
peased. They then have a soft bed to lie in for the
night. Thus the processes of digestion and assimi-
lation go on while they rest.

Oilmeal, blood or bonemeal or some other high-
protein feed is sometimes mixed in the ration, as
occasion may demand. Oats and oatmeal are also
beneficial to use as a part of the ration, and barley-
meal or soaked oats is an appetizing change, when
tliey become tired of the usual diet.

As to older hogs, much the same practice is fol-
lowed. If they have strong frames a finishing feed
is given in small amounts but frequently, and plenty
of exercise compelled so that the finish shall be laid
on evenly. We are careful not to burn up the ap-
petite on any one feed. If additional development is
needed feeding for it is continued till there is just
time to put on the finish, which for under-yearlings

260 THE HOG BOOK

can be done in about 60 days, and for yearlings GO
to 90 days. Hogs over two years old, if of good
frames and easy feeders, generally take 60 to 90
days to acquire bloom. Boars as a rule are slower
to finisli tlian sows, and need more exercise in order
that fat may be placed without creases or wrinkles.

Oilmeal helps to make a glossy live coat and an
egg every day in slop aids in the same direction.
Some men have difficulty in getting hogs to shed thei»*
old coats of hair. In such case get the hogs to grow-
ing and responding to feed; rub them daily with
corncobs or a brush, rubbing in olive oil, lard and
glycerine mixed with a little of some kind of para-
site-killing preparation. Give them a good soap
scrubbing at least once a week, followed with anoint-
ing with olive oil, lard, glycerine and a coaltar dip.
After the scurf is removed, the hide in a healthy
condition, and the frame and body are growing, na-
ture will throw off the old coat and supply a new
one. Creases and wrinkles can be rubbed out by
the hands or with cobs, and by forcing considerable
exercise.

To repel flies that attack the ears and nose apply
fish oil mixed with crude oil or axle grease; apply
daily.

In feeding, appetites, amount of feed consumed
and digested and exercise taken should be studied
by the feeder. One man should do the work. It
takes a single mind properly to develop and feed
show hogs.

Just how high the finish should be is hard to de-

EXHIBITING HOGS 261

cide, but wherever an extreme condition impairs
any organ of the body, it is high time to remove the
animal from the showring and such an individual
should be disqualified by every judge. A hog show
is not an all-pork show ; fully one-half or more of it
should be made up with breeding qualifications.

Breeders wishing to retain the fecundity of a
show sow should breed her to farrow two or three
weeks after the fair. This will also reduce her ex-
cess of fat and bring her into good breeding con-
dition for a spring litter. Pigs from such sows gen-
erally are deficient in bone and vitality, and are often
unprofitable to raise.

In feeding for showing build flesh with plenty
of exercise, for firm flesh is the healthiest, the least
detrimental to, the hog and the easiest to take off.

' EXHIBITING HOGS.
The wise exhibitor begins to exhibit at home.
Long before the show opens he has accustomed his
hogs to handling, taught them to recognize his voice,
and made them so tractable that they can be handled
with ease when they reach the exhibition grounds.
A good finish should be obtained two weeks before
the show, but the finishing touches in care and feed
—the things that produce what may be termed bloom
— should be given for a week or so before the trip
to the show grounds. The idea being to arrive at the
fair with "bloom" at about its fullness, so that it
may improve instead of deteriorating. So a good
hardfinish shouldbegiven the hogprevious to itsleav-

262 THE HOG BOOK

ing home, and the last few daj's' feed should be ap-
proximated to that which will be given on the
gromids. While at the exhibition warm cows' milk
should be fed the hogs twice a day, as an appetizer
and a stimulant to their general condition. Very
little feeding, but plenty of water to avoid over-heat-
ing, is the rule to be observed in traveling to the
grounds. Upon arrival, the pens should be given a
bottom bed of clean sand, with a straw or hay top-
bed. To minimize soreness from shipping, hogs
should not be brushed or washed the first day, but
allowed to rest and given a light thin short or bran
slop, a light feed of corn, and a small dose of Epsom
salts. The next morning the wet hay should be
cleaned out of the pens, a stronger feed of corn
given and the slops more like the home mixture, con-
taining some milk. Each hog should now be washed,
dried and rubbed with dressing, and then replaced in
the clean, re-bedded pen. At noon a little water
should be given, and at night light slops with corn
and milk, amounting, however, to little more than
half the home ration. The next day is generally show
day, and the hogs should be given plenty of milk,
a good fill of corn, a slop of creamy consistency con-
taining milk, and a reserve supply of milk should
be on hand for the hog to fill up on just before he
enters the ring. This latter precaution not only
gives a fullness in the flanks, but a full stomach
makes the hog easier to handle. The hogs must be
rubbed and given a slight re-dressing; have a man
near all day with a brush.

EXHIBITINT. HOGS 263

In the ring the exhibitor should not pay any at-
tention to the crowd, but should watch the judge,
and have his animal in show shape every time the
judge looks his way. Some judges make a point of
catching the exhibitor off his guard, and while the
hog is loafing, so to speak, they will catch a defect
that they would not have seen if the exhibitor had
been keeping the hog at attention. But this should
not be overdone. The hog must not be kept on his
feet and moving all the time. When the judge is
down the line the hog should be given a few mo-
ments' rest. The exhibitor should answer any ques-
tions the judge asks but should not attempt to con-
verse with him or tell him the hog's family history.
While no attempt should be made to tell the judge
his business or to point out the good qualities of the
hog to him,- it is equally unwise to speak or act in a
manner that would emphasize the other points of
the animal — the undesirable ones. Something de-
pends on the showman as well as on the show hog.

A ribbon should be appreciated even if its color
is not what one had looked for. In a strong class
any ribbon is better than the first ribbon in a very
poor class.

Attention has already been called to dressing be-
fore the exhibition. Many preparations are used for
this purpose. For black breeds some showmen use
dressings containing lampblack, but I think any such
preparation quite inadvisable. A formula which I
can recommend from many years' exyjerience is the
following, in which the proportions may be varied

264 THE HOG BOOK

according to the effect desired. For a gallon take:
Olive oil, 1/4 ; pure linseed oil or machine oil, 14 >
gasoline, i/^; coal oil, i/g ; turpentine, i/g.

The gasoline makes this a very inflammable
liquid, and care should therefore be taken to keep
it away from all fires or lighted matches. The mix-
ture may be applied with a brush or spray pump.
It imparts a pleasing gloss to the hair and so
heightens the effect of natural bloom.

THE HOG JUDGE.

The hog judge should have learned his business
through actual breeding experience supplemented
by thorough theoretical knowledge of the character-
istics which breeding in certain directions produces.
As a rule his position is not appreciated by the ex-
hibitor who expects from him a greater infallibility
than is altogether human. The strong judge is
guided wholly by considerations of type, and in spite
of the fact that many exhibitors gather friends
around them in the hope that such demonstrations
of popularity will influence the award of prizes, no
judge worthy of the name will let either that, or
the desire to distribute ribbons among as many ex-
hibitors as possible, bend his judgment. The judge
who carries a definite type-ideal clear through the
show will not only gain in the end the confidence
of the greatest number of breeders, but he helps to
better the type, as his awards are really a comment
on type that the breeder can assimilate and put into
practice.

HOG HYGIENE.

To keep hogs in vigorous health is of prime im-
portance. Disease in any form is a drawback that
reduces profits. To prevent diseases and conserve
health should be every breeder's constant aim. This
requires that sanitary conditions shall be set up and
maintained. It means that filth, bad drainage, open,
wet houses and dusty sleeping quarters must be
avoided. Keep an eye on the individuals in the
herd; when ailments are detected apply treatment
or consult a veterinarian. Charcoal, ashes, lime,
turpentine : and pine tar are among the old reliable
remedies for minor troubles. In pigs the more com-
mon diseases can usually be checked by proper care
and treatment. Most hog diseases spring from small
causes. Success in removing causes depends largely
on an intelligent, experienced caretaker's attention
to lice, water and sanitary conditions. Cholera and
tuberculosis are practically incurable. To prevent
such diseases means the mastery of the art of sani-
tation. The Bureau of Animal Industry has prob-
ably solved the problem of preventing hog cholera
by the serum treatment. No other treatment for this
disease is worth trying. Pure water, sunlight, ven-
tilation of hoghouses, exercise and rational feeding
are the factors on which health depends. Dr. R. A.

i266)

266 THE HOG BOOK

Craig, Veterinarian at the Purdue University Ex-
periment Station, Lafayette, Ind., has contributed
the following on hog hygiene and the common dis-
eases of hogs expressly for this work:

genekaIj symptoms of disease.

In order to recognize disease it is necessary to
be acquainted with the functions and structure of
the different organs of the body of the healthy ani-
mal. Stockmen have ample opportunity to study
the appearance and habits of the animals in their
care, and if they are careful observers should be
able to determine the presence of disease by the
changed appearance and behavior of the animal.
These signs or symptoms that enable us to recognize
disease may be classed as general, when the entire
body is affected, and characteristic or direct when
they characterize the nature of the diseased process.
The general symptoms are especially important be-
cause they inform us as to the condition of the
animal at the beginning and during the progress
of the disease. These symptoms relate to the condi-
tion of the pulse, respirations, body temperature,
visible mucous membranes, skin and coat, secre-
tion from glands, urine and feces, and the nervous
system.

The body temperature is a very important
symptom, especially in infectious diseases. In this
class of disease a feverish condition usually precedes
all other symptoms, and when recognized enables

SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 267

the stockman to use corrective and medicinal treat-
ment sufficiently early to do good. The normal body
temperature of hogs yaries from 100.5° to 105.0°.
The average is about 102.5°. Young hogs show a
higher body temperature than do older animals.
The common causes of extremely high or low normal
temperatures are cold, draughty quarters, drinking
cold slop, exercise and close quarters. Usually a
body temperature above 104° may be considered ab-
normal.

Symptoms relating to the respiratory system
may be considered next in importance to the body
temperature. During rest the normal respirations
vary from 10 to 20 per minute. If the hog has been
exercised and is warm or excited the number of
respirations per minute may vary from 60 to 100.
In the different diseases of the air passages and
lungs, nasal discharges, coughing, wheezing or other
abnormal sounds and quickened, labored breathing
form prominent symptoms.

A dry, hard, scurvy skin and a thin, rough,
harsh coat commonly occur when the hog is un-
thrifty or affected with a chronic disease. In
parasitic diseases of the skin its structure may be
greatly changed.

Changes in the appearance of the mucous mem-
branes lining the mouth, nose and eyelids are not
considered as important in the recognition of dis-
ease in hogs, as they are in the larger animals. How-
ever, the appearance of these membranes should be

268 THE HOG BOOK

noted. In hog cholera and other serious febrile
diseases the changed appearance of the eyes and the
increased secretions from the lids form prominent
symptoms. In digestive disorders the membrane
lining the different parts of the mouth may appear
soapy, dirty or ulcerated.

The body secretions and excretions may be
greatly changed in certain diseases. These changes
may be characteristic of the disease, as is the case
of inflammation of the kidneys, bladder and intes-
tines.

The condition of the nervous system is indicated
by dullness, excitability or delirium. The hog may
stagger, walk stiffly, drop the head or turn it to
one side, walk in a circle, have convulsions or show
a local or general paralysis of the body, as a result
of a diseased condition of some part of the nervous
system.

METHOD OF DOSING HOGS.

The most common method of giving medicine to
hogs is with the feed or in the form of a drench.
The more convenient method of the two is to mix
the medicine with the feed fed the animal. This
method may be objected to because of the possibility
of each hog not securing the proper quantity of the
drug or mixture, when a number of hogs are given
treatment and the dose is small. This danger can
be eliminated to a large degree by thoroughly mix-
ing the medicine with the feed, separating the herd
into small bunches and dosing each bunch separately.

METHOD OF DOSING 269

If the drugs are soluble, milk or water should be
used. If insoluble, they may be mixed with ground
feed. In dosing young pigs we may take advantage
of the fact that some drugs are excreted in the
milk and administer them to the mother.

If the hog is too sick to eat or refuses to take
the medicine in its feed, it is necessary to give' it
in a drench. This is not difficult if we go about it
properly. It is advisable to handle sick hogs as
quietly as possible, and avoid exercising or exciting
them. In order to hold the hog a noose of sash cord
or small rope may be placed around the upper jaw
and well back toward the corners of the lips. When
the hog pulls back the medicine can be readily thrown
into the mouth with a syringe. The hog should be
allowed to quiet down before giving the drench. It
it not advisable to use a glass drenching bottle, as
it may break and cut the mouth. A long-necked
metal bottle, a funnel carrying about 2' of rub-
ber tubing and nozzle, or a heavy-barreled metal
syringe may be used in administering bulky
drenches. Milk or water may be used as a vehicle
for such drugs as go into solution readily, but for
irritating and insoluble drugs, syrup and oil are
best. In drenching a herd, if the treated hogs can-
not be placed in a separate pen, they should be
marked with paint or in some other way before al-
lowing them to mix with the untreated animals.

Drugs may be administered by injecting them
into the tissues beneath the skin. This method is

270 THE HOG BOOK

little used in hogs. It is indicated in special cases,
when prompt energetic results are required. The
place of injection should be in a region where the
skin is thin and near or into the muscular tissues,
otherwise absorption occurs very slowly. The
hypodermic syringe and needle should be clean, the
skin over the point of injection scrubbed with a dis-
infectant, and the drug used non-irritating in order
to prevent the infection of the part with germs and
the formation of an abscess.

Eectal injections or enemas are useful in the
treatment of intestinal disorders in hogs. In giv-
ing an enema it is best to use some form of a foun-
tain syringe. A cheap and convenient syringe for
this purpose is a funnel carrying 2' or 3' of
rubber tubing with a wooden nozzle attached. It
may be advisable to elevate the hind parts and re-
move the feces from the rectum before administering
the injection. To avoid irritating the rectum the
nozzle of the syringe should be smeared with vase-
line. Two quarts or more of water may be slowly
injected into the intestinal tract of a grown hog

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.

Sore Mouth. — Inflammation of the mouth is com-
monly met with in young pigs. The infectious or
ulcerative form is more common and of greater
economic importance than the simple form. The
latter inflammation is perhaps more common than
we are aware of, as a hog having a slight soreness

SORE MOUTH IN PIGS 271

of tlie mouth may not develop noticeable symptoms
and the condition is not recognized. A simple in-
flammation of the lining membrane of the mouth is
directly due to insanitary conditions and mechan-
ical irritation. The ulcerative inflammation is
caused by a specific germ, but filth and mechanical
irritation are important secondary causes. Age is
an important predisposing factor, as this latter form
of the disease is commonly met with in pigs under
two months of age. The mechanical causes of in-
flammation of the mouth are eruption of the teeth,
sharp teeth, feeds containing barley or wheat beards
and wire or rope loops used in holding hogs.
Wounds or injuries to the mouth parts facilitate
the entrance of germs into the tissues. The drink
ing of water; from foul wallows, which receive the
drainage from filthy hog-lots, and the feeding of
putrid decomposed slops are important causes. Such
feeds contain irritating germs that may produce in-
flammation and ulceration, especially if the hog is
unthrifty or tlie lining membrane of the mouth
broken or abraded.

The bacillus that produces ulcerative sore mouth
in pigs is said to be widely distributed. This dis-
ease is highly contagious. The infectious agent is
distributed in the usual way through the dust and
filth from infected yards, and by pigs atfected with
the disease. When introduced into a herd it spreads
rapidly from litter to litter, unless careful preven-
tive measures are resorted to early in the outbreak.

272 THE HOG BOOK

Filth, sharp teeth and irritation to the gums from
the eruption of the teeth are important predispos-
ing factors in the production of this disease. The
early symptoms of the inflammation usually escape
notice, and it is not until the pig shows difficulty in
nursing or eating that the condition is recognized.
Large hogs may champ the jaws and endeavor to
relieve the pain by running the snout into cold
water. Saliva may dribble from the mouth. They
usually stay on feed, but prefer slops. If corn is
fed there is difficulty in chewing it, and a large part
drops from the mouth. In ulcerative sore mouth
the ulcers form the characteristic symptoms. In
the early stage of the disease inflamed patches,
deep red in color, are found on the gums and inside
of the lips. Later these parts become whitish or
yellowish-white in color with inflamed thickened
margins. This dead tissue soon sloughs away and
deep ulcers form. The sloughing tissue may involve
several teeth, or a large portion of the lips and
snout. Ulcers may form on the face, and the snout
and lips become so badly swollen as to interfere
with breathing. In the advanced stage of the dis-
ease the pig refuses to nurse, and becomes dull and
weak. It is only in young pigs and in the infectious
form of the disease that death commonly occurs.
The treatment is largely preventive. Irritating
feeds such as putrid slops, hot feeds and grains con-
taining beards should not be fed to hogs. They
should not be allowed access to filthy drinking

SORE MOUTH IN PIGS 273

places and feeding floors, not so much because of the
irritating effects on the mouth, but the injury that
may result to other parts of the digestive apparatus.
The mouth may be washed daily with a 4 per cent
water solution of boric acid or powdered alum.
Plenty of the solution should be used, and it is best
to apply the wash with a syringe. Soft feeds
should be fed.

In the infectious form of this disease the two
lines of preventive treatment consist in keeping the
hoghouses and yards in a sanitary condition, and
using all possible precautions against the introduc-
tion of the disease into the herd. If the disease
breaks out in a litter the mother and the pigs should
be completely separated from the herd. The pens
should be disinfected and all litter removed. The
mouths of the pigs should be examined daily, and
advanced cases treated by cleaning and scraping
the ulcerated parts, and then rubbing the surface of
the ulcer with lunar caustic. The pigs may be
treated by dipping them head foremost twice a day
into a disinfecting wash. It is better, however, to
inject the wash directly into the mouth with a
syringe. A 2 per cent water solution of a reliable
tar disinfectant may be used. A one-half teaspoon-
ful of permanganate of potash crystals dissolved in
about one gallon of water is an effective wash, which
many breeders employ with good results.

It is usually more economical to kill the badly-
diseased pigs than to treat them, as they are apt to

Z/4' THE HOG BOOK

spread the infection and usually either die or be-
come badly stunted.

Diarrhoea and Scours. — Diarrlioeal discharges
from the intestines form a common symptom of
irritated and inflamed conditions of the lining mem-
brane of the stomach and intestines. This dis-
order is usually the result of a faulty diet and in-
sanitary surroundings. Age is a predisposing fac-
tor. As is the case in other species, diarrhoea is
quite common among young litters. Pigs a few
days or a few weeks old may develop a diarrhoea,
and at times it may take on the form of an in-
fectious or contagious disease. Changes in the
mother's milk resulting from a feverish condition,
or faulty diet, such as sudden changes in the feed,
fermented slops and mouldy corn, are common
causes of scours in pigs. Insanitary conditions, such
as poorly-lighted and ventilated, filthy, damp pens
and houses that interfere with the general health
of the young, may produce unthriftiness, digestive
disturbances and scours.

Sudden changes in the ration, especially to suc-
culent green feed and from a light to a heavy ration,
are common causes of indigestion and diarrhoea in
hogs. Eating a large quantity of feed in a short
time may also cause it. Hogs fed in filthy pens may
become affected with an inflammation of the stomach
and intestines caused by the irritating, disease-pro-
ducing organisms present in the filth that enters the
digestive tract with the feed. Wash waters con-

SCOURS AMONG PIGS 275

taining washing powders, salt and lime are fre-
quently mixed with the house slops, and when fed
greatly irritate the lining membrane of the stomach
and intestines. Diarrhoea is a prominent symptom
of hog cholera.

As a result of the irritated condition of the in-
testinal tract, the secretions from the intestinal
glands are interfered with or abnormal and the feed
is improperly digested. This condition produces
changes in the intestinal excreta, and it becomes thin
and foul-smelling. If the irritation to the intestines
is severe, there is evidence of abdominal pain, the
animal refuses feed and is feverish and dull. In
case the diarrhoeal discharges persist for several
days, weakness is a prominent symptom, the hind
parts and tail become badly soiled and the discharges
become more watery and foul-smelling than at first.
The severe form of the disease commonly ends in
the death of the animal, especially pigs. This class
of disease is largely due to unhygienic conditions
and a faulty diet ; hence preventive measures are of
more importance than medicinal treatment. The
opinion that hogs can eat any kind of spoiled feed
and live in filth without suffering injury is too
common.

At the time of farrowing the sow should be kept
in the best possible physical condition. Exercise,
pure air and sunshine are essential to the health of
young pigs. The house or pen should be clean and
dry. If the mother is feverish she should be fed a

276 THE HOG BOOK

liglit diet and given a physic in order to correct her
condition. If the jjigs show evidence of scouring,
tincture of opium in from one to two teaspoonful-
doses may be given the mother two or three times
a day. Pigs several weeks old should be treated
by drenching with from one-half to one tablespoon-
ful of olive oil, followed in six or eight hours by a
few drops of tincture of opium twice daily for a
few days, if necessary.

Older hogs should be taken off feed for at least
one day, and given a physic of castor oil, from one
to four ounces. If the diarrhoea persists the fol-
lowing mixture may be given in from one-half to
one teaspoonful-doses in a milk drench three times
a day: Bismuth subnitrate, i/j^ ounce; salol, 14
ounce, and bicarbonate of soda, 1 ounce.

DISEASES OF THE EESPIRATORY ORGANS.

Bronchitis, — This is a common disease of young
growing hogs. Usually the inflammation of the
bronchial mucous membrane is mild, and it is only in
severe forms of the disease that it becomes of eco-
nomic importance. It is frequently associated with
sore throat and cold in the head. Two common
causes for the disease in pigs are dusty quarters
and lungworms. In addition to the mechanical irri-
tation produced by the inhalation of dust, disease-
producing germs present in the dust may cause a
serious inflammation of the irritated parts. Ex-
posure to cold, especially if the hog is overheated, or

BRONCHITIS 277

wet with snow or rain, may result in tlie animal
taking cold. This frequently occurs during the fall
and winter, when hogs are allowed to pile up in
small, poorly-ventilated sleeping quarters or around
strawstacks and manure heaps. When hogs are
allowed to sleep in such places they partially bury
themselves in the litter, or are covered by the bodies
of the animals on the outside of the pile. This re-
sults in overheating. Under such conditions the
body becomes covered with moisture and chilling
occurs. The air that the animal breathes becomes
charged with foul odors and poisonous gases and
dust emanating from the bodies of the hogs, the
surrounding filth and the air given oif from the
lungs. It is under such conditions that the most
serious forms of bronchitis develop. What to do to
prevent future attacks is therefore perfectly obvious.
In the mild form of bronchitis the only noticeable
symptom is a cough. These coughing spells usually
occur shortly after the animal leaves its bed or after
exercise. In the severe form of the disease the
sjTnptoms are marked. These are fever, quickened
breathing, coughing, depression and loss of appe-
tite. Violent coughing spells accompanied by dis-
charge of mucus from the mouth occur. If sore
throat and cold in the head occur as complications
of the disease, there is a discharge from the nose.
The acute symptoms, such as high body temper-
ature and quickened breathing, last but a few days.
Unthriftiness and paroxysms of coughing are cliarac-

278 THE HOG BOOK

teristic of the chronic form of the diseiase. It may
terminate in pneumonia.

T]ie feeding of a well-balanced ration and good
care are the lines of treatment indicated in this
disease. The preventive treatment consists in
avoiding such conditions as may cause irritation of
the lining membrane of the air passages. Because
of the habits of hogs, their inclination to pile up
when large numbers are allowed to sleep in uncom-
fortable, small quarters, and the manner in which
they burrow into litter around strawstacks and ma-
nure heaps, and breathe in the dust from dirty floors,
it is of greater importance to provide them with
proper sleeping quarters than any of the other farm
animals. That is, hogs suffer more from insanitary
sleeping quarters than other animals. This is es-
pecially true of growing pigs.

Pigs rapidly recover from the mild form of bron-
chitis, if fed a nourishing, well-balanced ration and
given good care. In the more serious form of the
disease it is best to feed a light diet during the acute
stage and give a physic. Castor oil in from one-
half to two-ounce doses may be given. In addition
to this treatment the animal may be allowed to in-
hale steam. This greatly relieves the inflamed, irri-
tated condition of the respiratory membranes. The
following method may be practiced : A vessel con-
taining a one-half per cent boiling hot water
solution of turpentine, or tar disinfectant, is held
within a few inches of the hog's nostrils and the ani-

CONGESTION OF LUNGS 279

mal allowed to inhale the medicated steam for about
10 minutes three or four times a day. It is advis-
able to throw a light cloth over the pan and head in
order to direct the steam toward the hog's nostrils.
This treatment is of course practical for individual
cases only.

Congestion and Infammation of the Lungs. — Con-
gestion or engorgement of the lungs is more com-
mon than pneumonia in hogs. Inflammation of
small areas of lung tissue or a lobular pneumonia is
common in young hogs. This occurs as a compli-
cation of bronchitis. Inflamed conditions of the
lungs and pleural membrane are commonly met with
in such specific diseases as hog cholera and infec-
tious pleuro-pneumonia.

The same insanitary conditions mentioned as fac-
tors in the production of bronchitis may be included
among the causes of lung diseases. Young, pam-
pered hogs and fat hogs because of their high con-
dition are predisposed to engorgement of the lungs,
and when given exercises to which they are not ac-
customed frequently develop this disorder. Any
condition that leads to chilling of the body may pro-
duce pneumonia or pleurisy. Moving pampered
hogs from warm comfortable quarters to cold,
draughty pens; washing and dipping hogs during
the cold weather, unless special precautions are
used ; sudden changes from a warm to a cold climate
during the cold months of the year; and exposure
in stock cars during severe cold weather are com-
mon causes of this class of disorders.

280 THE HOG BOOK

The symptoms occurring in engorgement of the
lungs are acute in character. Immediately after the
hog has been exercised or handled it appears greatly
exhausted. The visible mucous membranes are deep
red in color, the breathing is labored and the body
temperature elevated. Death may occur within a
few hours. The early symptoms of pneumonia re-
semble those occurring in engorgement of the lungs,
but are more mild. The character of the breathing
is changed. Quickened, labored respirations may
be met with in severe cases. Abnormal lung sounds
may be heard in the diseased portions by placing
the ear against the wall of the chest. The early
stage is characterized by crackling sounds; later
these become deadened as a result of the air cells
becoming filled with the inflammatory exudate.
When these exudates become broken down fluid rat-
tling sounds are heard. Over the healthy areas of
lung tissue the respiratory sounds are louder than
normal. If the pleural membrane is inflamed during
the early stage of the inflammation friction sounds
occur and the hog shows marked evidence of pain
when pressure is applied to the chest wall. The
course of the disease is from one to three weeks.

The preventive treatment consists in avoiding
such conditions as may predispose the animal to
this class of disease or act in any way as an exciting
cause. In an engorgement of the lungs the treat-
ment indicated is to keep the animal quiet and as
comfortable as possible. In severe cases treatment
of any kind is of little use. Good quarters and care-

THUMPS IN PIGS 281

ful nursing are highly important in the treatment
of pneumonia. As the sick hog can use but a part
of its lungs the pen should be well ventilated, clean,
free from dust, odors and draughts. In severe cold
weather the animal must be protected from the cold
by covering it with a blanket or by artificial heat.
A light diet should be fed, and the animal given a
mild physic. This may be repeated, if the animal
is constipated. The medicinal treatment is of little
importance. During the early stage of the disease
and after recovery begins the following mixture
may be given : Alcohol, 6 ounces ; and ciuinine I/3
ounce. The dose is from one-half to one table-
spoonful, repeated three or four times a day. A
liniment of turpentine 10 parts and croton oil 1 part
may be applied to the chest wall.

DISEASES OF THE XERVOUS ORGANS.

Thumps. — This is a very common ailment of pigs.
The exciting causes of the disease are lack of exer-
cise and irritation to the stomach and intestines re-
sulting from irritating feed, overeating and changes
in the diet. This irritation to the gastric and in-
testinal nerves results in secondary irritation to
the nerves that go to the diaphragm, and spasmodic
contractions of this muscle occur. Short, jerky
contractions of the flank muscle are the principal
e^^dence of this condition. Young pigs lose flesh
rapidly. Older pigs become unthrifty and stunted.
The short, jerky breathing in lobular pneumonia is
sometimes mistaken for the thumps.

282 THE HOG BOOK

The treatment is both preventive and curative.
The preventive treatment in young pigs consists in
feeding the mother a proper diet and giving the pigs
good care and plenty of exercise. Growing pigs
should be fed a ration that meets the needs of the
system, and allowed plenty of exercise. After the
disease develops exercise and a light diet are indi-
cated. Young pigs may be exercised by turning the
mother into a large lot or placing the litter in a box
or pen away from the mother. It is also advisable
to physic the pigs. In severe cases, 3 to 15 drops
of tincture of opium may be given three times a
day until the spasms are relieved. If the pig is
unthrifty and has indigestion saline and bitter ton-
ics may be given in the feed.

Paralysis of the Posterior Part of the Body. — The
loss of control over the movement of the hind parts
is usually attributed to a diseased condition of the
spinal cord. Local inflammation of the spinal cord
and its membranes may result from injuries such as
blows, kicks, becoming crowded in doorways and
piling up in pens. It is not uncommon for young
hogs that are fed and handled in such a way as to
expose them to such injuries to become paralyzed in
their hind parts. Pressure on the cord from tumors
and encysted parasites may also cause this disease.
It is said that when pigs are fed a ration that does
not meet the needs of the system their bones be-
come fragile and easily broken. Such animals may
suffer from fracture of both thigh bones. The
symptoms resulting from this condition resemble

PARALYSIS

283

that resulting from injury to the cord. Sows that
have suckled large litters of pigs and are in a poor
physical condition may develop a paralysis of the
hind parts. However, this usually terminates in a
general paralysis. This condition seems to be due
to poor care and the feeding of an improper ra-
tion. It is most common during the late winter and
spring.

In the large majority of cases this disease can be
prevented. Pigs should not be handled in such a
way as to predispose them to injury. Fracture of
the thigh bones as a result of a rachitic condition
may be mistaken for a paralysis of the hind limbs,
hence it is advisable to mention with other prevent-
ive measures the feeding of a proper ration and the
necessity of exercise. As soon as the symptoms de-
velop the animal should be separated from the rest
of the litter or herd and given a separate pen. A
light diet should be fed. As constipation is a prom-
inent symptom in this disease the bowels should be
kept loose by giving physics of oil or Epsom salts.
If necessary this may be supplemented by a rectal
injection of glycerine and water in the proportion of
about one teaspoonful to the quart. The most use-
ful drug for the relief of paralysis is nux vomica.
From 5 to 15 drops of the tincture may be given
three times a day. The animal must be kept
quiet and after becoming able to use its hind parts it
should be kept away from the other hogs until a
complete recovery has occurred. This may require
a considerable period of time.

284 THE HOG BOOK

Heatstroke. — Hogs that are crowded into close
quarters or exercised during the hot months often
suffer from heat-stroke. The crowding together or
exercising of hogs during extremely hot weather re-
sults in the accumulation of the body heat, an ex-
tremely high body temperature and a derangement
of the heat-regulating centers. Exhaustion occurs,
followed by collapse, unconsciousness and death in
the severe form of the disease. Treatment largely is
preventive. During extremely hot weather fat hogs
that are not used to exercise should not be crowded
together or handled during the hot part of the day.
An occasional sprinkling of the pen and hogs with
cold water helps greatly in keeping them cool.
Shades should be built in hog-lots and pastures
where there are no trees.

When a hog shows evidence of heat exhaustion
it should be moved to a cool shady place, the head
and neck wet with water and gradually the entire
body. Tincture of nux vomica may be given in from
5 to 15-drop doses every two or three hours until
the animal shows evidence of recovery.

DISEASES OF THE EEPEODUCTIVE ORGAN'S.

Impotency of the male and barrenness of the fe-
male are more common among the large farm ani-
mals than among hogs. These conditions are more
common among breeding hogs that have been fitted
for fairs and stock shows than among stock hogs.
The most common causes of impotency and barren-
ness are lack of exercise, the feeding of an im-

DISEASES OF SEX ORGANS 285

proper ration or one that tends to produce fat and
old age. Too free use of the male in service may re-
sult in his failing to get but a small per cent of the
sows with pig. This is especially true of young
boars. Injuries to the penis at the time of service
often result in the animal becoming impotent. A
very common cause of sterility in females is leucor-
rhoea. In this disease the abnormal secretions that
form and collect in the womb and maternal passages
leading to it destroy the fertilizing elements in the
seminal fluid, hence impregnation cannot occur.
Sometimes the entrance into the womb is closed by
fatty or scar tissue and the seminal fluid does not
enter the organ. Diseased conditions of the ovaries
and testicles, lack of development of the maternal
organs and old age are causes of failure to breed in
both sexes.

Breedingliogs should not be pampered or confined
in small pens. In order to keep them in a good
physical condition they should not be fed a ration
high in fat-producing ingredients. Exercise is an
essential part of the care and should not be over-
looked. Too free use of the male should be avoided
at all times. Young breeding animals that are ster-
ile because of their fat, pampered condition can very
often be induced to breed by cutting down the ration
and allowing plenty of exercise. Wlien the sow does
not come in heat properly, or the male does not act
as freely as he should, a stimulating ration should
be fed and plenty of exercise given. If the essential
structure of the testicles or ovaries is destroyed it

286 THE HOG BOOK

is impossible to relieve tlie sterility. In such cases
it is a waste of time to experiment.

Leucorrlioea is frequently met with in sows. It
is usually present in sows that have aborted or have
suffered from inflammation of the womb following
the birth of young. Usually a noticeable discharge
occurs and the sow may show marked evidence of
unthriftiness. The treatment of this disease con-
sists in irrigating the maternal passages with an
antiseptic wash. This may be injected with a foun-
tain syringe, and about one quart of the wash used.
The better grade of coaltar disinfectants may be
used in about i/o per cent solutions. This treatment
should be used daily for two or three weeks. In
slight cases irrigating the maternal passages with
an alkaline wash (about one teaspoonful of bicar-
bonate of soda in about one-half gallon of water)
one hour before breeding the sow may relieve the
condition.

CAKE or PEEGNANT SOWS.

There is no special time during the period of
pregnancy in which to practice special lines of car-
ing for sows. Although attention to the physical con-
dition of the sow is of the greatest importance dur-
ing the latter period of pregnancy or within two or
three weeks of birth, special lines of hygiene, feed-
ing and care must be practiced throughout the per-
iod. This is necessary in order to insure an easy
and normal birth, relieve the irritable, feverish
condition so common at this time, and put the sow in

sows AT FARROWING TIME 287

proper physical condition to secrete plenty of good
wholesome milk. It is more difficult to keep an
animal in good physical condition when she is preg-
nant than at any other time. Animals in this con-
dition show a tendency to pnt on fat, a most fatal
condition to a normal birth, especially in young
sows. Careless handling results in injury to the sow
and death of the foetus. Large herds and small
sleeping quarters where the hogs pile up, crowding-
through holes in the fence, becoming crowded in
doorways and at the feed trough, and injuries re-
ceived when allowed to run with other animals, are
to be avoided. The ration fed must contain the nec-
essary elements to meet the needs of the developing
foetus and keep the sow in a proper physical con-
dition. Exercise is essential. Insufficient exercise
leads to a .diseased condition of the pregnant ani-
mal, and is the most common cause of complications
occurring toward and at the end of the pregnant
period. Wlien the time of birth approaches it is ad-
visable under the conditions present in most herds
to give the sow separate quarters, where there is no
danger of injury to herself or the newly-born pigs,
and the necessary help and attention can be given.
Dieting the sow at the time of parturition is a very
important part of her care.

ATTENTION AT BIETH.

A normal birth occurs when no outside assistance
or interference is necessary, and the young is suf-
ficiently developed to live outside of the mother.

288

THE HOG BOOK

Because of the artificial conditions of feeding,
breeding and care that the sow is subjected to birth
or the act of parturition is often difficult and com-
plicated. If this is the case it becomes necessary to
offer assistance in order to save the life of the
mother and young. In giving intelligent assistance
at this time practical experience and good judgment
are necessary. Obstetrical forceps, small blunt
hooks with long shanks, cords and the like must be
used intelligently. The help or interference should
not be offered too early or before it is necessary
and we should handle the sow quietly so as not to
cause her unnecessary irritation. In young sows
it is more difficult to make a complete exam-
ination and determine the condition of the parts
than it is in old sows. One of the first conditions
noted is the dry, congested condition of the mater-
nal passages. If the act of birth has been greatly
prolonged this is very marked. In such cases the
pig is dead, sometimes greatly swollen and
well back toward the entrance into the pel-
vic cavity. The dry, congested passages should be
lubricated by injections of warm soapy water or
olive or linseed oil. It may be advisable to use a
large swab that has been dipped in oil and repel or
shove the pig forward. This will greatly facilitate
its removal, and very often no further interference
is necessary.

Immediately after a difficult birth the womb and
maternal passages leading to it should be irrigated
with a 1 per cent warm water solution of a reliable

AIDING FARROWING SOWS 289

disinfectant. In case the parts are badly irritated
and inflamed, and a discharge occurs, the irrigation
of the parts should be repeated daily, using a l^
per cent water solution of the disinfectant until the
unhealthy condition is relieved. In addition to the
irrigation of the parts it is advisable to give the sow
a physic after the birth of the litter and feed her a
light diet for a few days.

The infectious diseases most common in hogs are
hog cholera and tuberculosis. Hog cholera causes
an enormous loss yearly and is a menace to the
swine industry in this country. Tuberculosis is
more important in some localities than hog cholera,
and is increasing from j^ear to year. This fact is
not evident to the stockmen, as the symptoms of this
disease are not of an acute character, the progress
is slow and Kttle evidence of the diseased condition
is shown until it has reached the latter stages and
has become generalized. Septicaemia hemorrhagica
should be mentioned among the other hogyard in-
fections. Scattered cases of this disease occur and
the yearly loss from it is by no means small.

The more dense the hog population and the
greater the traffic in hogs the greater the loss from
this class of disease. Acute infectious disease is
more prevalent among hogs than among other
classes of live stock. This condition indicates and
emphasizes the fact that hogs are kept under more
insanitary conditions than other farm animals. In-
sanitary^ conditions are secondary factors in the pro-
duction of germ diseases. Filth favors the spread

290 THE HOG ROOK

and propagation of infections organisms. Hog
cholera, tuberculosis and septicaemia liemorrliagica
are produced by specific organisms, but tliese dif-
ferent organisms cannot develop from filth alone.
They may live for a longer time outside of the ani-
mal body under such conditions, but the specific
germ must first be introduced into the yards and
houses before it can infect healthy herds. It is in
this way that diseases spread.

Disease-producing germs enter the body with the
feed and water taken into the digestive tract, the
air breathed into the lungs and through wounds.
From the digestive and respiratory tracts and sur-
face of wounds they may enter the tissues and pro-
duce lesions of disease. Infection is more apt to
spread rapidly and become permanent in overcrowd-
ed hoghouses and yards than in roomy hoghouses
and pastures that allow the animals plenty of range,
because of the close contact between them and the
insanitary surroundings usually present under such
conditions. Feeding in the mud or on filthy feeding
floors, and a water supply coming from ponds and
streams, are common sources of disease. Streams
running through an infected section may distribute
the disease to all hoglots bordering on its banks.
The smaller the stream the greater the danger of
its spreading disease.

Hogs exhibited at fairs and shows frequently be-
come diseased as a result of exposure to infection in
the pens and cars. Buying hogs from diseased
herds or shipping them in infected cars and unload-

INFECTIOUS DISEASES 291

ing in public stockyards are common sources of hog
cholera infection.

The most important factor in the production of
tuberculosis in hogs is the presence of the disease
among dairy cattle. Milk from a single herd of tu-
bercular cattle, when taken to the creamery, may in-
fect a large number of hogs in a neighborhood
through the skimmilk, buttermilk and slop fed them.
This fact has been proved by the greater prevalence
of tuberculosis among hogs fed these by-products.
Another source of infection occurs when hogs are
allowed to follow tubercular cattle and feed on the
feces. Young hogs are more susceptible to germ
diseases than old animals. This susceptibility to-
ward disease may be increased by close pens, filthy,
dusty sleeping quarters, the feeding of an improper
ration and unnatural bringing up. Such conditions
act unfavorably on the constitution of the pig and
cause it to lose vigor and become unthrifty.

CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES.

Hygienic Measures. — An important measure for
the prevention of infectious diseases in hogs is the
feeding of clean feed and water from clean feeding-
floors and troughs. Small streams running through
the hog pasture or yards that receive drainage from
other yards are a frequent source of infection.
Yards bordering on a pubhc highway are exposed to
infection because of the practice of hauling sick
hogs to market. It is therefore not advisable for
the hoglots and houses to border on streams or main

292 THE HOG BOOK

traveled roads. Hogyards should be well-drained
and kept free from litter, manure heaps and wallow
holes. Overcrowding should be avoided. It is ad-
visable to remove the hogs from part of the lots for
a few months in the year, plow them and if possible
plant to forage crops. This helps greatly in keeping
them in a sanitary condition.

There is no place on the farm where there is as
great need of frequent cleaning and disinfecting as
in hoghouses and yards. Whitewash, lime, chloride
of lime and stock dips are the common disinfectants
used. Whitewash is most effective when applied
with a spray pump, as the rough surfaces and cracks
can be well covered and filled in. Chloride of lime
may be used in the proportion of 6 ounces to the
gallon of water. The tar disinfectants should be
used in from 2 to 4 per cent water solutions.

Police Measures. — In most states very little effort
is being made toward the enactment and enforce-
ment of sanitary laws controlling infectious dis-
eases of hogs. This neglect is costing stockmen sev-
eral million dollars annually. All possible precau-
tions against the introduction of infectious material
or an infected animal into the herd should be taken.
Hogs coming from other herds or stock shows
should be excluded from the herd until thev have
been proved free from disease. They should be
quarantined in pens set off for this purpose. The
quarantine pens should not communicate in any way
with the regular yards. Cleaning hogs by dipping
or washing them with a water solution of a reliable

TREATING A CHOLERA HERD 293

disinfectant before bringing them into tlie herd pre-
vents any possibility of the infection being carried
in the dnst and dirt on their bodies. Persons caring
for infected animals should observe the necessary
precautions against the distribution of the disease.
As tubercular cattle may communicate the dis-
ease to hogs measures should be taken against in-
fection from this source. The presence of this dis-
ease in cattle can be determined by the use of the
tuberculin test. Tubercular dairy herds should be
tested, and the diseased animals cared for in such
a way as to eliminate all danger of the infection
spreading. Skimmilk and buttermilk from a cream-
ery should be properly pasteurized before feeding
to hogs. Hogs known to have tuberculosis should
be destroyed, and their carcasses cremated. If a
large percentage of the animals in the herd are
found infected the entire herd should be disposed
of. In case the herd is particularly valuable the
tuberculin test should be made, and the diseased
hogs destroyed. After freeing the herd of the dis-
ease new yards should be built, as it is impossible
to clean up the old yards and eliminate all danger
of infection.

TREATMEXT OF CHOLERA HERD.

TMien an outbreak of hog cholera occurs on a
farm the herd sliould be quarantined and all pos-
sible precautions taken against the spread of the
infection in the neighborhood. The separation of
the herd into small bunches of about a dozen ani-

294 THE HOG BOOK

mals is sometimes practiced. This is not advisable,
as the work of caring for the animals is greatly in-
creased and infection scattered over a wide area,
proportionately increasing the opportunity for in-
fecting neighboring farms.

If the houses and yards are well-arranged and
can be cleaned and disinfected it is not advisable
to move the animals, but if the quarters are old
and more or less tumbled down, and the yards lit-
tered with corncobs, manure piles and strawstacks,
it is advisable to provide better quarters. Such
yards should be well-drained. During the warm
months of the year plenty of range and protection
from the sun and rain are necessary. A recently-
mowed meadow or a bluegrass pasture and a low
shed open on all sides and amply large for the herd
to lie under, give the animals a clean range and
comfortable, cool quarters. Eoomy, dry, well-ven-
tilated sleeping quarters and yards that have good
surface drainage are best when the weather is cool
and wet. In most outbreaks it is advisable to sep-
arate the sick from the well hogs. Early in the
outbreak and in the subacute form this is practical.

A very light ration consisting of a thin slop of
shorts or other ground feed should be fed. Powdered
copper sulphate may be given in the feed and drink-
ing water. For convenience of mixing with the feed,
8 ounces of tlie powdered drug may be dissolved in
one gallon of warm water and one pint of the solu-
tion added to each 10 gallons of slop and water
fed. This method of feeding should be used as soon

HOG CHOLERA SERUM 295

as symptoms of disease are noticed and continued
for a time after recovery. The entire herd should
be dieted and made to clean np their feed quickly.
Water and slop should not be left in the troughs
for the hogs to wallow in, and the troughs should be
disinfected and turned bottom side up as soon as
the hogs have finished feeding and drinking.

A disinfectant should be sprayed or sprinkled
daily about the feed troughs, floors and sleeping
quarters. The care and treatment of the herd re-
quire work and close attention to details on the part
of the attendant. Indifferent, careless treatment is
of no use in this disease.

Dead hogs should be burned. This is not a diffi-
cult task if the bodies are placed on top of a pile
of wood that burns, quickly and makes a hot fire.
If the body "is disposed of by burying it should be
covered with a few inches of lime. At the end of
the outbreak everything should be cleaned and dis-
infected. After a few weeks the yards should be
plowed. If the herd has been moved from old to
new quarters it is of course unnecessary to wait un-
til the end of the outbreak before giving the old quar-
ters a thorough cleaning and disinfecting.

Hog Cholera Serum. — The medicinal treatment of
infected herds has proved unsatisfactory or a fail-
ure, and many of the commercial "hog cholera
cures," ''antitoxins" and ''vaccines" that the far-
mer has spent his money for and thereby increased
his personal losses may be classed as "fakes."
For years investigators have endeavored to pro-

296 THE HOG BOOK

duce a successful serum and vaccine for the treat-
ment and prevention of cholera. The credit of de-
veloping the first and at present only successful
hog cholera serum and method of vaccination be-
longs to Drs. Dorset and Niles.

The hog is the only animal available for the pro-
duction of a protective cholera serum. The virulent
material used in producing the hog or the hyper-
immune from which the anti-hog cholera serum is
secured is hog cholera blood. This blood must be
very virulent or from a hog that has acute cholera.
If not highly virulent the serum is lacking in po-
tency or protective properties, and when used in the
field may result in heavy losses among the vacci-
nated herds. After the hog has recovered from the
injection of virulent blood it is bled by cutting oi¥
the end of the tail. From two to four tail bleedings
at intervals of one week are made, when the hog
is re-injected with cholera blood. The tail bleed-
ings and re-inforcements with cholera ])lood are
repeated until the tail has become so short that it
cannot be handled, when the animal is killed and the
final bleeding made.

Anti-hog cholera serum may be used with cholera
blood as a vaccine, or for the purpose of preventing
further development of the disease in recently-in-
fected herds. It is advisable before vaccinating
hogs to take the body temperature in order to deter-
mine whether the animal is infected or not, as this
symptom may occur several days before visible
symptoms of disease are manifested. If the body

PARASITES OF HOGS 297

temperature is normal, cholera blood and serum are
used, or the serum-simultaneous method of vacci-
nation is practiced. If the body temperature is above
normal, serum alone is used. Infected and sick hogs
require larger doses than do the non-infected ani-
mals.

PARASITES OF SWINE.

Animal parasites of hogs may be classed as ex-
ternal and internal. The hog louse is the only com-
mon external parasite. The common internal para-
sites are lung and kidneyworms, and the several
different species of intestinal worms. The hog
louse is larger than any of the other species of lice
found on domestic animals. Its mouth parts are
adapted for puncturing the skin, and it feeds on the
secretions and blood that result from the irritation
and puncture. It has well-developed foot parts that
enable it to cling to the hair, but the thin coat of
the hog offers little protection to the lice. They are
rubbed or scratched off in large numbers and infest
the yards and beds.

The lungworm is the most common of the in-
ternal parasites. It is usually found in the small
bronchial tubes, especially near the margins of the
lungs. Its length varies from one to one and one-
half inches, and in appearance it is white and t]iread-
like.

The most common of the intestinal parasites is
the common roundworm. Tlijs worm is found in
the small intestines and when present in large num-

298 THE HOG BOOK

bers may form twisted eloni^ated masses that fill
the lumen of the intestinal canal. It is yellowish-
white in color, from 6" to 10" long and taper-
ing toward the extremities. After a hog is killed
or dies from disease these worms may migrate from
the small gut to the stomach and on into the gullet.
Sdmetimes they burrow into the liver. During the
life of the hog the only organ that they may in-
vade, other than the intestine, is the bile duct.

The thorn-headed worm is the most dangerous
of all intestinal parasites. It can be recognized by
the thorn or proboscis present at its anterior ex-
tremity. The parasite attaches itself to the intes-
tinal wall by imbedding its proboscis in the lining
membrane of the canal. This produces severe irri-
tation and inflammation at the point of attach-
ment, and, if a large number are present, results in
unthriftiness and nervous disturbance.

The whip and pinworms are found in the large
intestine, and probably do very little harm.

The kidneyworm is found in the fat around the
kidney, in the kidney and sometimes in the abdom-
inal cavity. This parasite does not seem to cause
any marked diseased changes of the part, unless a
large number of parasites are present.

The animal parasites that do the least harm
usually have a simple life history. When there are
several different stages in the development of the
parasite and one or more intermediate hosts are
required there is a better opportunity to destroy
them. If the outside conditions are such as to en-

INTERNAL PARASITES 299

able the eggs or larvae to live for a long time para-
sitic diseases are more prevalent. Wet years, muddy
yards, undrained pastures and ponds are favorable
conditions for the development of this class of dis-
ease. Dirty drinking troughs, filthy feeding floors,
and pastures and yards that have been in use for
years, are common sources of infection.

Unthriftiness predisposes hogs to invasion from
large numbers of parasites. Healthy, vigorous,
young hogs seldom suffer seriously from lice or in-
testinal worms. Age is also an important predis-
posing factor, and as is the case in other species
parasitic diseases are most common in young, im-
mature animals. In young or unthrifty hogs lice
are a serious menace and marked sj^mptoms of
lousiness occur. The irritation resulting from the
bites of the lice make it almost impossible for the
animal to test. This together with the loss of the
l)lood that is sucked up by the parasites results in
marked interference in general nutrition, and the
hog becomes thin and weak.

Unless there is a large number of roundworms
present in the intestines no marked symptoms of
disease occur. If present in large numbers the
common roundworm may obstruct the intestine and
irritate the lining membrane, causing it to become
inflamed. Sometimes the inflammation extends to
the bile duct or the parasite may work into the
duct and the flow of bile is obstructed. The symp-
toms resulting from intestinal worms are very
much the same as in chronic indigestion. The

300 THE HOG BOOK

thorn-headed worm, when present in large numbers,
may produce nervous symptoms, such as marked
restlessness, convulsions and spasms. Death may
occur.

The kidneyworm is supposed to cause a paralysis
of the hind parts. There is no relation between this
disease and the kidneyworm.

The lungworm seldom causes symptoms of dis-
ease in thrifty, well-cared-for pigs. In serious cases
paroxysms of coughing and unthriftiness form the
principal symptoms of disease.

There are a number of diiferent remedies and
methods of applying them for the treatment of
lousiness in hogs. If a herd becomes infested with
this pest it is difficult to free the hogs from it. The
remedy must be applied frequently in order to pre-
vent the lice multiplying in such numbers as to in-
terfere with the health of the hogs. Stock dips or
coaltar disinfectants are largely used for destroying
lice. They are used in from 1 to 2 per cent water
solutions. Spraying, sprinkling and dipping the
hogs in a tank are the common methods of applying
the remedy. Sometimes the disinfectant is poured
into wallow holes and wallowing pools and the lice
are destroyed when the hogs wallow or bathe in
them. Crude oil is an effective remedy for lousi-
ness. It is best used in a dipping tank. A thin
layer of oil is poured on top of the water in the
tank and the hogs are driven through it.

Preventive measures are of the greatest impor-
tance in the treatment of intestinal and lung para-

HOGS AND CLEANLINESS 301

sitic diseases. This consists in avoiding conditions
favorable to infection in the pastures and pens,
and keeping the sleeping quarters, feeding floors
and drinking troughs clean. Keeping the pig in a
growing, thrifty condition is an effective preventive
measure.

A number of different drugs may be given for the
purpose of destroying the worms or driving them
from the intestine. Turpentine given in a milk emul-
sion is a common remedy. The dose is one teaspoon-
ful for every 80 or 100 pounds live weight. The
treatment should be repeated daily until three doses
are given. A very efficient remedy for the removal
of intestinal worms is a mixture of santonin and
calomel. From 3 to 5 grains of santonin and 5 to
8 grains of calomel should be given for every 100
pounds live weight in pigs and young hogs. Powders
of this mixture large enough for 10 or 15 animals
should be prepared. The herd is then divided into
bunches containing this number. Ground feed is
placed in a trough and one of the powders sprinkled
over the feed. The hogs are then turned into the
pen and allowed to eat it. It is advisable to keep
the hogs off feed over night and dose them in the
morning.

CLEANLINESS AND THE HOG.

^Miile hogs will eat almost anything they should
be defied carrion, putrid offal and all grossly un-
clean stuff. Avoid highly-seasoned feeds and dos-
ing with tonics. An exclusive diet of anything is
unprofitable. The hog is cleaner than is generally

302 THE HOG BOOK

believed, the primitive specimen being as clean in
its habits as any other wild or domestic animal.
Even today the domestic hog when given a natural
environment daily demonstrates the possession of
cleanly instincts. Its filthy habits may be attributed
to the conditions of existence to which it has been
subjected by man. No other farm animal is so use-
ful, measured by the unit of production, as the hog.
Cleanliness of feeds for hogs pays. Whatever the
nature of the feed, it should be of known cleanliness.

CASTRATION AND SPAYING.

Castration of boars is necessary before they can
be profitably developed into pork, and the earlier
in the pig's life the operation is performed the bet-
ter. Boars that have not been castrated until they
have been used for some time in breeding will al-
ways as a result show certain undesirable masculine
traits. Such animals are termed ''stags" or
''roughs," and they are docked 80 pounds per in-
dividual at all markets and range in price about $2
per cwt. less than smooth, well-finished barrows and
sows. The best age at which to castrate is shortly
after weaning. While some raisers castrate and
wean at the same time, it is best to let a week or so
intervene before performing the operation. Cas-
tration should take place, however, before the pig
has reached over 100 pounds or thereabouts. In
timing the operation local conditions should be taken
into account. The weather should not be extreme

CASTRATION AND SPAYING 303

and the operation should be delayed if the pig is not
in good condition. There are cases, however, when
pigs are not apparently well but improve rapidly
after a little blood-letting incidental to the operation.
But unless they are in fairly normal condition, and
responding to their feed by an evenly-balanced
growth, the shock should not be imposed upon them.
In the case of healthy pigs the operation has prac-
tically no disturbing effect on the system.

The following method of castration is one that I
have practiced for the last sixty years: The
requisite instrument is a good castrating knife
which should be freshly sharpened for each opera-
tion and sterilized by dipping into an antiseptic, or
into boiling water, immediately before using. The
hogs to be operated on should be secured in small
pens away^from other hogs, so that they can be
caught easily. ' The catching and holding during the
operation should be clone by a strong, intelligent
man who will not injure the animals in catching
them. If he be careless in the matter he may cause
lameness or other injury. The pig may be caught
either by the ears or by both hind legs, and with a
little practice the helper will become expert in doing
this and in throwing the pig. The pig should be
thrown upon its left side, and the helper should place
his left knee upon its neck, hold the right foreleg
with his left hand, and the right hind leg with his
right hand, and draw the right hind leg forward
until the operator has room to work.

The operator then takes hold of the scrotum over

304 THE HOG BOOK

the lower testicle and works it out until the scrotum
is fully distended. Then, beginning at a point on
the scrotum low enough to insure subsequent drain-
age of the wound, he makes a firm, quick, upward
incision, cutting through the outer and inner skins
of the scrotum and exposing the testicle. The pres-
sure of the left hand will force the testicle out and
as it emerges it is grasped by the left hand and
drawn slowly away fror. the body. At the same
time, with the right hand and using the back of the
knife blade, the cord is scraped in the direction of
the body and just before reaching the point of
emergence from the scrotum it is bruised a trifle.
The knife is then turned and the cord cut at a point
just beyond the bruised part, so that the bruised part
may remain as the end of the cord. The other tes-
ticle is removed in the same manner. If the opera-
tion is performed in very hot or cold weather an
antiseptic treatment should be given after it is over.
For tliis purpose crude carbolic acid, a coaltar dip,
turpentine and pinetar are generally used. Care
should be taken not to use them in too strong solu-
tions, however.

In castrating older boars the same method of
holding may often be used, but a better way is to
secure a ringed rope over the snout and fasten the
other end to a post or tree. Then, with one man
holding the rope, the operator can work from be-
hind. In the case of older boars the bruising of the
cord should be more thorough than in the case of
young pigs, and the antiseptic treatment after the

CASTRATING AND SPAYING 305

operation should always be applied. In every case
it is important that the incision should be made so
low that the scrotum will drain perfectly. The
operation of castration is much complicated if the
boar is ruptured, as that condition makes necessary
the removal of the sac which encloses the testicles.
Where the rupture is serious a veterinary surgeon
should be employed for the operation. Such boars
should be kept off feed for 12 hours before the oper-
ation. They should be secured as already described
except that the hind parts should be elevated. The
incision is made in such a manner as to include only
the outer skin of the scrotum and large enough to
permit of the emergence of the sac containing both
testicles. When the sac is well clear of the body an
antiseptically-treated string should be tied around
the cord behind the sac, and as the sac is worked out
the protruding intestine should be worked back into
the body of the hog. Then the sac may be cut away,
seeing that the string is securely tied around the
cord, and the string should be left hanging a few
inches on the outside of the wound, thus insuring
proper drainage by keeping the wound open until it
heals from within. Finally an antiseptic treatment
should be given to the cut parts. This method will
work in the case of simple ruptures, but in the case
of many kinds of rupture different steps will have
to be taken.

Spaying was practiced by many hograisers in
the past, but under the present methods of caring
for swine its use is not generally considered profit-

306 THE HOG BOOK

able. It is a delicate operation, requiring the serv-
ices of an experienced operator or of a veterinary
surgeon, and so its use is not likely to become gen-
eral. Instead of it, the raiser can arrange the feed-
ing of his sows so that the periods of heat will in-
terfere very little with their growth. It is custom-
ary with many raisers to breed their sows at the
beginning of the finishing period or about 60 days
before marketing.

A Veterinarian's Method. — Dr. A. S. Alexander
of the Wisconsin Experiment Station gives the fol-
lowing instruction on castrating: A great many
men who castrate pigs find out to their cost that they
did not do the work properly, but just where the
mistake has occurred they are not sure. The evi-
dence of something wrong is seen in a large, hard
swelling of the scrotum. The pig walks stiffly and
in some instances loses flesh and appetite. In time
flies begin to bother and the tumor becomes a raw,
angry, discharging mass, having an offensive odor.
This is technically termed a ''champigon" or
''scirrhus" cord or tumor and the cause is as fol-
lows : When the incision was made in the scrotum
it was too small and through it the testes merely
popped out and were removed. Healing took place
quickly and the cords, left too long, were caught and
healed between tlie lips of the wound. A tumor now
commenced to grow, and, blood vessels feeding it,
increased in size. A fungus spore called "botryo-
myces" now found this favorable breeding place,
took root and commenced to luxuriate, giving rise

THE ART OF CASTIL\TING 307

to the aggravated condition often seen in the worst
type of these tumors, which are not always due to
or invaded by the fungus. Such growths are easily
prevented, but difficult and dangerous to treat be-
cause hogs do not successfully withstand operations
causing loss of blood or shock.

Prevention is to be sought in making a wide, free,
long incision in the scrotum at time of castration.
Simply split right open from one end to the other
of the scrotum and right down to the testicles and
through their envelopes at one gash. Sever the
cords high and when this is done if there is the
slightest pocket left in the scrotum split it open
to prevent its acting as a receptacle for pus or
clotted blood. When this is done the wound will
not heal so quickly but it will be impossible for the
cord to become attached to the scrotal walls and
scirrhus cord will never happen.

On farms where this trouble has been experienced
it is further well to put something in the wounds
to prevent healing by "first intention" (immediate
healing) and for this purpose we would recommend
turpentine ointment of a mixture of one drachm
each of iodoform and turpentine to an ounce of lard
or lanolin. When a case is experienced, despite all
precautions, the sooner it is operated on the better,
for the longer it is postponed the more danger there
will be in operating. The operation consists in
turning the pig, washing the tumor and surrounding
parts with a 2 per cent solution of creolin or other
effective antiseptic, then carefully dissecting the

308 THE HOG BOOK

cord free from its attachments with the. scrotal walls
and tying the large blood vessels met with. When
the cord is cleared apply the emasculator or ecrasenr
chain and slowly sever the cord, insert some of the
iodoform ointment and the operation is complete.
Should the animal seem weak give at once a stimu-
lant, such as brandy in ounce-doses once an hour
and give a sniff or two of ammonia. Starve the pa-
tient for 12 hours before operating and allow a soft
mash or slop just after the work is finished. Keep
the pig in a clean pen for a few days and see that the
bowels are kept open with succulent cooling diet.

So-called ''water seed" (a collection of serum
in the scrotum after castration) will not occur if
these precautions as to cutting and after treatment
are followed. Where the pig is ruptured in the
scrotum it must be castrated by the covered opera-
tion, which consists in splitting open the scrotal wall
alone, making a small incision, and taking care not
to injure or cut the envelopes of the testicles. This
done, press back the bowel, gather the testicle in its
envelopes into the hand and put on wooden clamps,
which may be allowed to slough off. Some remove
the testicles and sew up the incision in the envelopes
and then in the scrotal skin, but this is a poor plan,
and a little experience will enable any intelligent
man successfully to operate in the other way.

DRENCHING HOGS.
Drenching is an easy matter if properly carried
out. While there are several methods, the follow-

VERMIN AND PESTS 309

ing is the easiest : To drench mature hogs, a rope
with a ring in the end is secured around the hog's
upper jaw, and the other end is hitched to a post
at such a height as to elevate the hog's head. A
li/o" or 2" round stick, 2' or 3' long, is held cross-
wise in its mouth between the grinder teeth.
Drenching can then be given in perfect safety with
a long-necked bottle. The dose should have been
measured into the bottle beforehand, and care
should be taken not to strangle the hog, either by
giving the liquid too fast or by giving it while the
victim is struggling or squealing. If the hog refuses
to swallow, the throat should be gently kneaded. In
drenching pigs, they should be held up by the front
legs in a sitting position between the holder's knees,
with their backs to him, while another man operates
the drenching bottle, keeping their mouths open
with a stick meanwhile.

VERMIN AND PESTS.

Eats, mice, pigeons and crows are among the
pests of which the hograiser must beware. Rats and
mice nest among the hogs' bedding, eat there, and
contaminate their sties and feed. Rats are espe-
cially dangerous because they are afflicted with
trichina. Hogs should be guarded against eating
either rats or mice. Corn that has been visited by
either should only be used for hogs after it has been
soaked in a light lye water or given some other
sterilizing treatment. Crows and pigeons feeding in
hogyards often carry disease germs from one to

310

THE HOG BOOK

another, especially hog cholera. Dogs, ducks, geese
and other wandering animals and birds should be
discouraged for the same reason, and last, but not
least, the common house fly or "typhoid fly," is a
very prolific spreader of disease.

SORE TAILS OF PIGS.
A few days after a litter is farrowed inflamma-
tion usually occurs at the roots of the pigs' tails,
due to scours, bad bedding and lack of sunshine.
The circulation being weak in this appendage, re-
lief cannot be secured by internal doctoring, so na-
ture removes the diseased part by checking and
cracking the skin around the tail base, and if local
treatment is not given in time the circulation of
blood will cease past the affected point, and in a
few days the tail will slough off from the living or
stub part. As a preventive, avoid scours, keep the
bedding sanitary and at the first sign of trouble ap-
ply pure sewing machine oil or mentholatum sev-
eral times daily. Peroxide of hydrogen or boric
acid will cleanse the sores. Pigs are rarely troubled
with sore tails after two weeks old.

BLACK TEETH.

Pigs at birth have little tushes or teeth that stick
straight out at the fore part of both the upper and
lower jaws, two on each side, generally of a yellow
or brown color. The youngster often uses these
teeth in contending with other members of the litter
for the possession of a teat. Since the teeth are
very sharp, fighting causes sores to develop on
their jaws, lips, noses, and occasionally on their

PREPARED FEEDS 311

tongues. Filth that collects in their quarters in-
fects the wounds and sores develop. Pigs in their
fighting also cut the sow's teats, causing inflamma-
tion and soreness which cause her to injure tlie pigs.
Soon after pigs are farrowed examine them for vi-
cious teeth, and if they promise to be any great
source of danger remove them with a small pair of
pliers. Antiseptic and healing lotions should be ap-
plied to noses and udders.

EEMEDIES xlND CONDIMENTAL FEEDS.

Condimental feeds are often sold under a guar-
antee to give greatly increased gains, to aid in main-
taining perfect health, tone up the entire system and
in some cases to prevent or cure nearly every known
hog disease. Analyses of these feeds do not bear
out the claims of manufacturers. The basal in-
gredients generally are of cheap materials and the
majority of them are made up of charcoal, salt, ep-
som salts, sulphur, glauber salts, limes, sodas, gen-
tian, fenugreek, with an over abundance of inert
matter, such as mill sweepings, corncobmeal and low
quality feeding stuffs. The analysis of stock pow-
ders oftentimes show the presence of many high
value ingredients, but the contained quantities are
usually so small that the claim is misleading and er-
roneous. Wood ashes, charred corncobs, charcoal,
sulphur and salt will excel any stock food from
both economical and result standpoint. Most feed-
ers can prepare feed or tonic mixtures on their
own premises at '^ mrOQjJ lower cost. Wliile proprie-

312 THE HOG BOOK

tary feeds may improve the health and condition of
animals that are in a run-down state, hogs in form
generally will not give profitable returns for the use
of condimental feeds bought at the average price.
My judgment is that few remedies can be relied on
to cure or to prevent any disease, none except serum
for hog cholera.

SUNLIGHT AND VENTILATION.

The value of sunlight and ventilation in hog-
houses is not fully appreciated by most hogmen.
That both are as essential as feed may seem in-
credible, but this is true. A few hours of sunshine
will tone up a young litter wonderfully. Sunlight
also destroys disease germs. Arrange all houses
and yards so that a few hours of sunshine may be
enjoyed daily by the pigs and their mothers. Next
in value to the sunlight in hoghouses is ventilation.
The benefits derived by hogs from oxygen-charged,
sun-kissed air is incalculable. We cannot expect
hogs to thrive in dark, foul, ill-kept, unventilated
places, in which disease is propagated. Clean, sun-
lit, well-ventilated houses should be provided.
DIPS AND DISINFECTANTS.

On account of contagious diseases, lice and para-
sites, it is necessary to adopt preventive and reme-
dial measures. Although it is not practicable to ab-
solutely protect against disease, it is a breeder's
business to control conditions so that dangers will
be reduced to the minimum. A corrosive sublimate
solution sprayed or sprinkled over the infected

TREATMENT FOR LICE 313

premises or crude carbolic acid, a 2 to 5 per cent so-
lution, in water sprayed or sprinkled over the prem-
ises, are best germ destroying agencies. Lime, either
slacked or unslacked, scattered over the yards, in
houses, runways, collections of ofTal and water holes,
also crude oil and kerosene, give economical and sat-
isfactory results. Coaltar preparations are also ef-
fective.

Lice. — The hog louse would seem to be a creation
of domestication, as the primitive wild hog was not
afflicted by it. It feeds on the skin, and unchecked is
a serious drain upon the hog, especially suckling or
young pigs. Hog lice multiply rapidly. To kill
them use crude petroleum or medicated oil. In my
experience there is no dip or preparation so effective
and economical as crude oil or petroleum. It can
be used in mudholes, water-holes and on rubbing
posts. Dipping is too expensive for the generality
of farmers to practice. In using crude oil in a dip-
ping vat, it is only necessary to keep the surface of
the water well covered with the oil to give satisfac-
tory results. My method of applying crude oil is
to confine the hogs in close quarters and sprinkle
them over the backs and heads with about one gallon
of crude oil to 40 head, using an old sprinkling pot
or broom. The oil will soon spread over nearly the
entire body. Houses and bedding should be fre-
quently disinfected. Small spray pumps will suc-
cessfully apply dip crude oil and medicated dip oil
solutions. Practical experience with a cheap tin
spray pump demonstrates that for small hograisers

314 THE HOG BOOK

tliey are practical for nearly all uses of disinfecting
liog's and premises. A popular mixture for use by a
spray pump is as follows: i/4 crude oil, 14 extra
paraffine oil, i/4 gasoline, y^ kerosene. Mix well and
see that the oils are cut before placing in the spray
pump.

DISPOSAL OF DEAD HOGS.

The government and all states should pass laws
regulating the disposition of dead carcasses. Defi-
nite, prompt action often checks the spread of dis-
ease. Carcasses of diseased hogs should be burned.
Dig a trench 14 to 18" wide, 12 to 18" deep and 6 or 8'
long, in some slope or side hill, so one end is open
to give a good draft. Place iron bars across the top
every 6 or 8" and lay a few kindling boards or dry
wood on the bars and place the hog on lengthwise
of the hole. Have some cobs and wood in the trench
upon some rocks or a slight elevation of dirt. Start
a fire, using a little kerosene if necessary, and with
an axe or knife make long slits in the sides of the
hog so the fire can get at the fats. Replenish the fire
from time to time and the hog will cremate thorough-
ly. Hogs may eat the charred and burned ashes, but
no hog should eat any part of an unburnt carcass.
In burying hogs put the carcasses at least 4' under
the surface and throw in quite a quantity of lime.
Never throw carcasses in streams or bodies of water
and do not leave them where any animal or scaven-
ger can get at them. Any man who does otherwise
is an enemy to society and should be prosecuted.

PORK PRODUCTS.

In chemical composition hogs vary according to
size, age, breed and how they have been fed. Analy-
ses of hogs in thrifty growing condition show about
50 per cent of the weight of the carcass is water,
varying with the age and condition of the hog. In
protein the percentage is given as from 11 to 15.
Protein is found throughout the body, its preponder-
ance being in the muscles or lean meat. The amount
of fat in a hog's body varies more than any other
constituent. Extremely fat hogs sometimes show
almost one-half their weight in fat, which is entirely
too much ; while hogs that are in extremely poor con-
dition will not test out more than 20 per cent. Good
thrifty hogs should show about 30 per cent, with
market individuals around 40 per cent. Ash is
found mostly in the bones, although like protein it
is contained in other parts, constituting in all about
3 per cent of the total weight of the hog.

From an official in one of the large packing
houses I have the following notes :

''Opinions vary greatly as to the best breed of
hog from the packers' standpoint. The writer is
inclined to favor Berkshires, as, when marketed at
proper ages and weights, they make fancy light lean
cuts, when these cuts are in demand; and again,

(315)

316 THE HOG BOOK

when heavy fat cuts and lard command a premium,
this breed can be fattened and put on the market
as heavy fat hogs, making the cuts and lard desired.
The type looked for by all packers should show good
dressed yield on the hooks and the minimum of
waste in dressing, having small compact internal
organs and a minimum of waste matter, small feet,
head and shoulders, the weight running to sides, and
hams wide, firm, lean and fat, with smooth thin skin.
The objectionable types from the packers' stand-
point are those where the weight runs to head, feet
and shoulders, with heavy weight in the internal or-
gans, affecting the dressed yield ; or the type fed so
as to produce soft or oily meats, for which there is
always difficulty in finding a market."

I am indebted to Prof. Louis D. Hall of the Illi-
nois Experiment Station for the following admirable
illustrated treatise on the market classes and grades
of pork. The matter and pictures prepared by Prof.
Hall are from Bulletin No. 147 of that institution :

Hog products may be described under three
heads: (1) Dressed Hogs, (2) Pork Cuts and (3)
Lard. As a rule, not more than one or two per cent
of the number of hogs slaughtered in large packing
houses are sold as whole carcasses. Approximately
three-fourths of the trade in hog products consists
of various cured meats and fresh cuts, the remainder
consisting principally of lard and a small percentage
of sausage and canned meats. Further, fresh pork
is of much less importance, relatively, than fresh
beef or mutton, only about one-fifth of the domestic

DRESSED HOGS 317

trade and 5 per cent of the export trade in pork
products (other than lard) consisting of fresh meat.
Thus the classification of pork consists largely of
cured and manufactured products, the number and
variety of which render the outline of this subject
quite complex.

DRESSED HOGS.

The classification of hog carcasses is based on the
uses to which they are adapted, or the products into
which they can be converted. The classes generally
recognized and average weights included in each
are as follows:

Carcass weights

Smooth heavy or heavy loin hogs 240 to 400 lb.

Butcher or light loin hogs 160 to 240 lb.

Pacliing hogs 100 to 400 lb.

Bacon or marked hogs 90 to 170 lb.

Shippers 100 to 200 lb.

Pigs ; 20 to 100 lb.

Different styles of dressing are characteristic of
the different classes of carcasses except heavy and
light loin hogs, and shippers and pigs. Dressed hogs
of all classes are cut open along the underline and
through the aitch-bone and brisket, but the method
of splitting and trimming varies with the class, as
follows : Loin hogs are split down through the cen-
ter of the back-bone (loin-split or centre-split) in
order that pork loins may be cut from the sides.
They are dressed packer style, that is, head off, leaf
out and hams faced. The jowls or checks are left as
part of the carcass. Facing consists in trimming
a strip of fat from around the face of the ham, so
as to expose a larger lean surface. Packing hogs

318 THE HOG BOOK

are usually split like loin hogs, but are sometimes
split on one side of the back-bone, making a hard
and soft side. In either case they are dressed with
head off, leaf out and hams faced. Bacon hogs are
usually cut (marked) with a knife on each side of
the back-bone, then split on one side and the back-
bone taken out, making sides suitable for English
bacon cuts. The head is taken otf and leaf out, and
the hams are either faced or not, according as they
are intended for short-cut or long-cut hams. Ship-
pers and pigs are dressed shipper style, that is, with
head on, leaf in, back-bone not split and hams not
faced. Only shippers and pigs are extensively sold
as dressed hogs. The other classes are cut up di-
rectly after being chilled, except relatively small
numl)ers of butcher and packing hogs that are
handled by jobbers or sold to retail dealers for fresh
use.

Grading Dressed Hogs. — The grades of hog car-
casses are much less numerous and complex than
those of carcasses of beef or mutton, owing to the
greater variation in the latter with respect to age
and general development. Standard grades are rec-
ognized only in the bacon and packing hog classes.
In a broad sense, however, the six general classes
may be regarded also as grades, since they are dif-
ferentiated largely by shape, finish, quality and
weight as well as by styles of dressing. The shape
desired in loin and packing hogs is great width of
side and back in proportion to length of body,
straight, even lines and well-filled hams and shoul-

GRADING DRESSED HOGS 319

ders. In bacon liogs length of side is more impor-
tant, with less width and thickness of back in pro-
portion to that of the side than in the grades of fat
hogs. Finish is indicated by the depth and even-
ness of fat covering the carcass, especially along the
back and over the sides; also by the amount and
quality of leaf fat. The leaf is the internal fat of
the carcass. It includes the kidney fat and extends
down to the flanks and skirt (diaphragm). It is es-
sential that the fat be white and firm. Quality im-
plies firm, bright, smooth-grained flesh and solid,
white fat evenly distributed over the carcass;
smooth, thin, mellow skin free from wrinkles,
blotches or bruises; moderately small, fine shanks
and head ; soft, red chine-bones, back-bone and bris-
ket ; and an absence of coarseness in general. Points
of special importance in selecting dressed hogs are
the development and quality of loins and sides, and
the size, shape, firmness and covering of the hams.
Coarse or extremely large shoulders, neck and jowls,
are indications of stagginess, and '^ seedy" sows are
classified as packing hogs because of their coarse
quality. The term ''seedy" refers to the nipples or
teats of sows that have borne pigs or reached an
advanced stage of pregnancy. In general, weight is
an important factor, and in the case of loin hogs it
determines not only the grade but also the class to
which a carcass belongs.

Smooth Heavy or Heavy Loin Hoys. — These are
prime smooth hogs, either barrows or good, clear

320 THE HOG BOOK

(not seedy) sows, weighing 240 to 400 pounds, with
from four to six inches of fat on the back; thick,
wide, level sides without depressions in the back;
heavy hams, filled out even with sides, full at the
rump and well rounded down toward hocks, without
wrinkles or flabbiness ; smooth shoulders ; short, full
neck; and full but not coarse jowls. The skin must
not be thick, hard, nor wrinkled. The flesh and fat
must be deep, firm and even, the flesh bright-colored,
the fat white and bones not coarse. As their name
indicates, such hogs are especially suitable for mak-
ing heavy loins, the remainder of the side being
made into a heavy fat-back and dry-salt belly. How-
ever, under certain market conditions they are cut
into the same products as heavy packing hogs. The
hams are usually skinned and the shoulders cut into
picnics, butts and plates. Hogs of this class are a
very small per cent of the supply.

Butcher or Light Loin Hogs. — The term butcher
refers to butcher shop or retail family trade. A
large proportion of the fresh pork sold in retail
markets is pork loins, which are cut into chops and
roasts; hence light loin or pork loin hogs are those
from which these cuts can be obtained to best ad-
vantage. To yield loins of the proper size and qual-
ity, a hog carcass should weigh about 160 to 240
pounds and have the same shape, smoothness and
general quality already described with reference to
lieavy loin hogs. Thick, firm flesh, smooth, soft skin
and solid, white fat are especially important. The
covering of fat should be two to four inches thick

PACKING HOGS 321

on the back. This class is composed of barrows and
smooth, clear sows. The weights most preferred for
butcher hogs are 200 to 220 pomids. They are prin-
cipally cut up by packers, the loins being sold to
retail dealers or jobbers. Besides loins, fat-backs,
clear bellies, extra ribs and extra short clears are
commonly made from sides of butcher hogs. The
hams are cut short and the shoulders principally
made into picnics, New York -cut shoulders and Bos-
ton butts. In some instances, carcasses of this class
are sold to retail markets for fresh trade, in which
case they are dressed either head on or head off, as
ordered.

Packing Hogs. — This class includes mixed hogs
of all weights which are too coarse in quality, rough
in shape or soft and uneven in finish to be suitable
primarily for fresh pork products or smoked meats
and are therefore principally packed in such forms
as barreled pork and dry-salt meats. About one-
half the hogs handled in Chicago packinghouses be-
long to this class.

Heavy packing hogs, also known as rough heavy
or mess pork liogs, consist of rough and seedy sows,
coarse barrows, boars and stags averaging 240 to
400 pounds. All heavy hogs that are too rough to
be classed as loin hogs are included in this grade.
Defects common to these carcasses are thick, rough
and wrinkled skin, dark-colored and coarse-grained
flesh, soft, oily fat, large bones and carcass bruises.
They are more largely cut into sliort ribs and mess
pork, and less into loins, fat-backs and bellies than

322 THE HOG BOOK

heav5'' loin hogs, and consequently are more fre-
quently "marked" and side-split, although at times
a large proportion of them are loin-split and pork
loins taken out. The hams are sweet pickled and
shoulders made into picnics and Boston butts.

Medium packing hogs are sows and barrows
averaging 200 to 240 pounds that are inferior to
butcher hogs in quality; they also include a small
proportion of stags and boars. The cuts made from
this grade are dry-salt sides, mess pork, clear backs,
dry-salt and English bellies, pork loins, short-cut
hams, and New York-cut and picnic shoulders.

Light packing hogs are mixed hogs of 100 to
200 pounds' weight that are too deficient in shape,
quality and finish to be classified as either bacon,
butcher or shipper hogs. This grade consists large-
ly of light sows. They are cut into prime mess pork,
short clear backs, clear bellies, short-cut hams, and
picnics. New York and skinned shoulders.

Bacon or Marked Hogs. — Bacon hogs are those
that are suitable primarily for sugar-cured break-
fast bacon bellies and English meats. Since such
meats must be comparatively lean, firm and of good
quality, the leading features of bacon hogs are long,
deep, smooth sides with a light, even covering of fat
over the entire carcass and especially uniform on
the back and sides. The hams should be full but
lean and the shoulders light and smooth. The flesh
must be firm and not watery, the fat solid and the
carcass sufficiently mature to insure proper curing.
Hogs which fulfill these conditions weigh 90 to 170

BACON HOGS 323

pounds dressed. Low grades of bacon are made
from pi^-s as light as 60 to 70 pomids, but the most
desirable weights are 120 to 150 pounds. They
consist principally of barrows, but for most grades
of bacon smooth, clear sows that resemble barrows
in general quality and finish are used to some extent.
Only a small percentage of the dressed hogs handled
at Chicago are of this class. The products prin-
cipally made from them are "English" middles,
backs and bellies, domestic breakfast bacon bellies,
long-cut and short-cut hams. Bacon hogs vary from
choice to common in quality, finish and shape, and
although no fixed grades are universally recognized
among packers, they are usually designated as
choice, good and common, respectively. Choice
bacon hogs must be evenl}^ fleshed and covered with
a smooth laj^er of fat over the loin, shoulders and
sides. Firm flesh, solid, white fat, and a white,
smooth skin are especially important in this grade.
The depth of back-fat is from one and one-fourth to
two inches. It must be evenly distributed, however,
not varying more than one-fourth or three-eighths
of an inch at ditferent points on the back and shoul-
ders. Large sides of even width are also essential.
This grade is used for the manufacture of Wiltshire
and Staffordshire sides, English backs and bellies,
and fancy breakfast-bacon bellies, also Cumberland
sides to some extent. They weigh about 120 to 160
pounds, and only barrows are generally used. Good
bacon hogs include those that either lack the prime
finish required of the highest grade or are too thick-

324 THE HOG BOOK

ly or unevenly covered with fat ; also tliose that are
slightly deficient in length and depth of sides, or
firmness and quality of flesh and fat. This grade
therefore contains a much larger variety of car-
casses than the choice grade, but they must neverthe-
less be reasonably well suited to the manufacture
of smoked bacon and English meats. The thickness
of back-fat must not be less than one nor more than
two and one-half inches. Average weights vary
from about 110 to 170 pounds. Cumberland, Wilt-
shire and long clear sides, English bellies and do-
mestic breakfast-bacon bellies are made from this
grade. Common bacon hogs are below the average
in finish, quality and weight. Though a hog may
have the proper amount of fat, if it is unevenly
distributed over the back and belly and not well
mixed with the lean, the sides are not adapted to
making good bacon. Carcasses that are too fat to
grade as good bacon hogs are classified as packers
rather than common bacons. The latter are princi-
pally light unfinished carcasses, the poorest of which
are so thin as to be known as skippy or skinny hogs.
The grade also includes some that have sufficient fat
and weight but are soft and dark-colored in their
flesh and fat and coarse in general ajjpearance. Av-
erage weights of this grade are 90 to 110 pounds but
a few range from 60 to 130 pounds. Common to
medium bacon hogs weighing 90 to 130 pounds are
used for long rib sides, and 60 to 110-pound aver-
ages are made into Dublin middles. The latter,
though of the same weights as heavy pigs, are gen-

SHIPPERS 325

erally distingiiislied from tliem by darker-colored
flesh and harder, whiter bones.

Shippers. — Shippers are similar to Butcher Hogs
in shape and quality but are lighter in weight and
generally not so highly finished, having only a mod-
erate covering of fat and a comparatively small
amount of leaf fat. As compared with Bacon Hogs
they are shorter and thicker-bodied, have a deeper
and less even covering of fat, heavier jowls and
show less age in proportion to their weight and gen-
eral development. They average 100 to 160 pounds
and are dressed head-on. Since their chief use is for
fresh retail trade they must be carefully selected,
and carcasses of this weight that show a marked
lack of quality such as thick, rough skin, coarse
bones, dark color or very uneven covering are clas-
sified as light packing hogs. This is the only class
of hogs that is extensively sold in the whole car-
cass. They are shipped in carlots to eastern points,
especially New York City, Boston, Buffalo and vari-
ous New England cities, where they are used both
for fresh retail trade and for the manufacture of
liome-packed- meats. The term shipper is also ajj-
plied by some packers to all other carcasses that are
dressed shipper style, and they are quoted in weights
from 40 to 280 pounds. In this case, carcasses
heavier than 160 pounds are selected from Loin
Hogs, and those lighter than 100 pounds are the
class described as Pigs. Heavy hogs quoted in this
way are bought principally by retailers in small cit-
ies and towns, but the trade is very limited and has

326 THE HOG BOOK

been largelj^ replaced by pork loins. Shippers of
all grades are sold most extensively during the win-
ter months, when demand for fresh pork is greatest.
Pigs. — Pigs are carcasses of light yomig swine
that are comparatively lean and light-colored in
flesh, with thin, soft skins, soft red bones, and weigh-
ing from 20 to 100 pounds. They are dressed ship-
per style and are often quoted together with Ship-
per Hogs. Thin and coarse or staggy pigs are fre-
quently termed "throw-outs." Pigs are chiefly used
for fresh trade in small retail markets, where the
heavier grades are cut into chops, pork steaks, hams
and other fresh cuts, and the smaller carcasses are
retailed to certain laboring classes by whom they are
used for boiling purposes. New York is the leading
shipping point for 80 to 100-pound pigs. The mining
districts of Pennsylvania take many of the lighter
averages, 60 pounds and under. Export pigs are
selected carcasses of choice quality averaging 80 to
100 pounds, dressed "head off" and wrapped in
muslin. Roasting Pigs are dressed sucking pigs
which are fat and smooth, with white skins and flesh,
indicating a well-nourished condition. They are
country-dressed, as a rule, with head on and the car-
cass opened only from the crotch to the brisket.
Roasters are principally shipped like winter lambs
direct to the hotels and restaurants that use them.
The most desirable size is 15 to 20 pounds, but pigs
weighing 10 to 30 pounds are used.

Pork Cuts. — The various cuts made from dressed
hogs may be divided into the following general

DRFSSED HOG CUTS.

zn

PORK CUTS.

English Cuts — A, Long-out ham. B, Long side or middle.
Domestic Cuts — 1, Short cut ham. 2, Loin. 3, Bellv.
Boston butt. 6. Jowl. 7, Hock. 8, Fat back. 9.

Back. 2. 3, 8. Side. 4, 7. Picnic shoulder.
Long fat back. 4, 5, 7, 9, Rough shoulder.

4, Picnic butt.
Clear plate. 2,

5, 9. Shoulder butt. 8, 9,

'328 THE HOG BOOK

classes: Hams, Sides, Bellies, Backs, Loins, Shoul-
ders, Butts and Plates, and Miscellaneous. See the
preceding page.

These products are quoted and handled according
to the manner in which they are prepared or packed,
viz.. Fresh Pork Cuts, Dry-Salt and Bacon Meats,
Barreled or Plain-Pickled Pork, Sweet-Pickled
Meats, Smoked Meats, "English" Meats and Boiled
Meats. It will be necessary to define these terms
before attempting to describe the grades and uses
of the different classes of cuts.

Fresh Pork Cuts are sold either chilled or frozen.
The l)ulk of the uncured product is disposed of
within a few days after slaughter, during which time
it is chilled at temperatures slightly above the freez-
ing point. Freezing is employed for the storage of
pork loins and other fresh cuts and edilile offal when
supply exceeds demand, and in some cases for keep-
ing bellies, hams, shoulders and other cuts intended
for future curing. Frozen pork, however, is not
quoted nor handled to the same relative extent as
frozen beef and mutton. Cut meats may also be kept
without curing by packing in brine and storing at
about 15° F., until it is desired to cure them in the
regular manner. Cuts packed in a light brine and
kept slightly above the freezing point for a short
time are sometimes sold as ''partly cured" meats.

Fresh pork cuts are taken more or less from all
classes of hogs. Since the pork is by far the leading
fresh cut, light loin hogs are more extensively used
for fresh pork than any other class. The varying

DRV SALT MEATS 329

demand for loins determines to a considerable ex-
tent the method of cutting other classes of hogs from
time to time. Tenderloins and spareribs are also
primarily fresh cuts. Skinned shoulders, shoulder
butts, hams, bellies, fat-backs, and raw leaf fat are
sold fresh to a small extent. Some packers purchase
their raw material in the form of fresh cuts, such as
bellies, hams, picnics, leaf and back fat, and convert
them into smoked meats, lard and other products
bearing the trademark of the packer.

Dry-Salt Meats are domestic cuts made from
heavy fat packing and loin hogs, cured and shipped
in coarse salt, and with a few exceptions pumped
before salting. Brine is injected into the meat by
means of a perforated hollow needle attached to a
force-pump. . These are distinct from English meats
both as to selection and packing. The cuts that are
sold in this form are heavy sides, bellies, shoulders,
fat-backs, plates and jowls. The same cuts, and par-
ticularly bellies and short clear sides, are also quoted
as bacon meats, which, after being cured in dry salt,
are smoked before shipping. The term Bacon, when
used as a prefix, refers to dry-salt meats, while
Smoked Meats, as described below, are cured in
sweet pickle. Dry-Salt and Bacon Meats are gen-
erally shipped loose, but are sometimes put up in
boxes containing 25 to 500 pounds.

Barreled or Plain-Pickled Pork is packed in plain
salt ^:^rine in tight barrels (18" x 29") at 200 pounds
net weight of cured pork per barrel (355 pounds
gross). The strength of brine is varied somewhat

330 THE HOG BOOK

according to the cuts of pork and their destination.
The regulation of the Chicago Board of Trade gov-
erning standard barreled pork (except prime mess)
is as follows: "Between Oct. 1 and the last day
of February, inclusive, 190 pounds, and between
March 1 and Sept. 30, inclusive, 193 pounds of green
meat * * * shall be packed in each barrel, with
not less than 40 pounds of coarse salt and barrel
filled with brine of full strength; or 40 pounds of
coarse salt and in addition thereto 15 pounds of salt
and barrel filled with cold water," This period of
five months is known in the pork trade as the "win-
ter packing season," and the rest of the year as the
summer season. Formerly, wholesale pork-packing
was limited almost entirely to the winter season,
but with improved facilities packers now handle
about threcTfifths of the annual supply during the
summer season. Standard prime mess pork is
packed 20 pounds salt and 12 ounces of saltpetre per
barrel, otherwise as above. Barreled pork is made
largely from sides of Packing and Heavy Loin Hogs,
and consists principally of mess, fat-backs and belly
pork of various grades. A much smaller proportion
of the pork supply is barreled than formerly.

Sweet-Pickled (S. P.) Meats are cured in sweet
brine. Standard cuts of this class are packed as fol-
lows for delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade :
"300 pounds block weight shall be packed in each
tierce with either 22 pounds of salt, 3 quarts of
good syrup, 12 ounces of saltpetre and tierce filled
with water, or tierce filled with sweet pickle accords

SMOKED MEATS 331

ing to above standard." Various modifications of
this formula are used for meats not intended for
regular delivery. After curing, sweet-pickled meats
are commonly packed in slack barrels or boxes, or
sold loose, but are also sold in tierces (21" x 32"),
either *' pickle on" or ''drained." The bulk of
sweet-pickled and other sugar-cured meats are
smoked before they reach the consumer. A percent-
age of heavy sweet-pickled hams, picnics and loins
are also boned out and sold as boiled meats. The
cuts that are quoted as sweet-pickled meats are
hams, picnics. New York-cut and skinned shoulders,
boneless butts, light bellies, and spareribs. This
class of meats is cut principally from Butcher Hogs
and from medium and light Packing Hogs ; hams and
picnics from all classes of hogs are generally sweet-
pickled.

Smoked Meats are sweet-pickled and smoked
after curing. They also include light breakfast
bacon bellies that have been dry-cured in salt and
sugar. In packing smoked meats, fancy hams and
breakfast bacon bellies are wrapped in parchment
paper or canvas and packed in 50 and 100-pound
boxes and crates. Other grades are sold either un-
wrapped, canvased, or wrapped in burlap, and
either loose, boxed or crated (100 to 500-pound pack-
ages) or packed in slack barrels or burlap sacks.

English Meats is a term applied to certain cuts
that are dry-cured in English salt and saltpetre, and
primarily adapted to English trade, being given a
milder cure than domestic meats. Thev are made

332 THE HOG BOOK

priiieipallv from Bacon Tlogs. Tlie leading cuts of
this class are English bacon sides, long-cut hams,
clear backs and bellies, and square shoulders. After
curing, these cuts are packed in borax or salt in 500
to 550-pound boxes for export. Borax is principally
used, but a small proportion of English cuts such
as long clears are shipped in salt, which continues
the curing process during shipment. English meats
are generally dried or smoked lightly after their ar-
rival at British ports before being sold. Meats
cured by this process are used to some extent in
this country, being quoted as English-cured. Sweet-
pickled meats are also shipped in borax to England
in considerable quantities at times, particularly
short-cut hams and picnic shoulders ; but cuts packed
thus are termed Sweet-Pickled rather than "Eng-
lish" meats. The formerly extensive export of
"English" meats from this country has undergone
a marked decline during recent years, owing to
increase in domestic demand.

Boiled Meats consist of hams, picnic shoulders
and loins cured in sweet pickle, cooked in water and
lightly smoked. The cuts are usually boned and the
fat trimmed otf within one-half to one inch of the
lean before cooking. Boiled hams and shoulders are
generally quoted as "rolled boneless" cuts, which
are pressed in a cylindrical form, or rolled and tied
with cord. Three loins are tied together for boiling,
making a loin roll. Boiled meats are made princi-
pally from the heavier cuts, but various averages
are used, including 12 to 30-pound hams, 10 to 14-

GRADING PORK CUTS 333

pound picnics and 14 to 24-poimd loins. The bon-
ing and fatting reduce the weight of hams about
25 per cent and of loins about 60 per cent.

GRADING PORK CUTS.

The grading of pork cuts is more complex than
that of other meats since it involves not only their
quality, shape, proportions of fat and lean, and
weight, but also the styles of cutting and methods
of packing by which they are prepared for different
classes of trade. Many of the grade names refer
merely to different methods of cutting and curing;
but since they are applied only to cuts of specified
quality, thickness or weight, the grades are in reality
l)ased on the latter factors to a large extent. The
various cuts differ considerably as to methods of
grading; consequently an adequate explanation of
the factors' involved and their relative importance
can be presented only by describing the grades of
each class.

Hams. — Hams are of two general kinds, short-cut
and long-cut. The former are made from compara-
tively fat, plump hams, trimmed short and round at
the butt, and the shank cut off at the hock joint.
They are sold either as Regular Short-Cut, Skinned,
or Boneless Rolled Hams. Long-cut hams are lean,
long hams, with the butt left full and the foot taken
off at the first joint below the hock. The principal
grades are Regular Long-Cut, Stafford Cut, Man-
chester Cut and Italian Cut Hams.

Short-Cut or American Cut Haras are out from

334 THE HOG BOOK.

the side midway between the hench-bone and slip-
bone, trimmed romid at the butt, cushion-faced full,
not undercut on the skin side, and shank cut off in
or above the hock joint. The hench-bone is the flat
portion of the hip-bone that remains attached to the
socket joint of the ham when the hog is split. The
slip-bone is the portion of the hip-bone that lies in
contact with the back-bone near the end of the loin.
The cushion is the fat butt of the ham where the tail
piece is cut off. Until 1909 tlie Board of Trade re-
quired that the shank be cut above the hock so as to
expose the marrow. Practically all hams are sold
as sweet-pickled or smoked meats. For regular de-
livery on the Chicago Board of Trade as sweet-
pickled hams they must average, in lots, not to ex-
ceed 16 pounds, with no ham to weigh less than 12
pounds and none to weigh over 20 pounds. The
short-cut ham is the leading ham cut and has to a
large extent taken the place of the long-cut ham in
export trade.

Short-Cut Hams are graded by packers accord-
ing to the brand of smoked hams for which they are
suitable. For the first brand (known as extra se-
lected or fancy sugar-cured hams), they are selected
for thickness and firmness of lean meat, plump, well-
rounded shape, solid, white fat of medium thickness
(1% to 2 inches on a medium-weight ham), smooth,
soft skin, bright color, small shank and absence of
bruises. The bulk of this grade weigh 10 to 16
pounds, 10 to 12 pounds being most desirable for
family trade, and 14 to 16 pounds for hotels and

GRADING HAMS

335

336 THE HOG BOOK

restaurants. They are cut mainly from Butcher
Hogs. Especial care is taken in curing and smoking
to secure the proper flavor and color. Second-brand
or second-grade hams (frequently termed No. I's)
are deficient in one or more of the points just men-
tioned, hut must be reasonably good in general qual-
ity and not exceedingly deficient in any particular.
Many of them are too fat for the first brand. They
may be cut from am^ class of hogs, but the majority
are made from Packing hogs. The third brand (also
known as seconds) includes those from which a skin-
bruise has been removed, also thin, light hams and
any others which lack the shape and quality required
for regular meat market trade. They are cut from
Packing and Common Bacon Hogs. Easter Hams
are light, lean hams (6 to 10 pounds) of good shape
and quality but cut from smooth young pigs. They
are sugar-cured and smoked and are in season during
the spring and early summer.

Skinned Hams are cut short, as already explained,
the skin is removed down to the shank and the fat
trimmed off within one inch of the lean. Until 1909
the Board of Trade regulations required the fat to be
trimmed off within one-half inch of the lean. They
are made from fat hams of first and second-grades,
weigliing from 12 to 30 pounds, but the bulk weigh
16 to 22 pounds. Many skin-bruised hams are also
skinned in order to remove l)ruises. This style is
especially adapted to making boiled hams, which are
in favor witli restaurant trade for slicing. From
one-tenth to one-fourth of the wholesale supply of

GRADING HAMS

337

338 THE HOG BOOK

hams are skinned under usual market conditions.
They are quoted both as smoked, sweel-pickled and
boiled meats.

Boneless Rolled Hams are made from sweet-
pickled short-cut hams by lifting the skin, removing
the surplus fat and the bone, and pressing or tying
in the form of a roll with skin on. They are also
made from skinned hams; 15 to 26-pound hams of
first and second-brands are used, and they are sold
as boiled meats.

Regular Long-Cut Hams are lean, long hams with
only one-half to one and one-half inches of outside
fat, and are ''cut from the side by separating with
a knife the hip-bone from the rump, properly
rounded, foot un jointed at first joint below the
hock." They are not faced; and the butt end is left
full, which gives it a flat, lean appearance. Aver-
age weights are 10 to 20 pounds but usually above 14
pounds. This cut is made from good and choice
bacon hogs. It is no longer extensively used but
was formerly the leading export ham. Yorkshire
or York Hams are cut slightly longer at the butt than
regular, but are otherwise as descrilied. Both are
packed as explained under English Meats. Smith-
field or Virginia Style Hams are long-cut and very
lean, cured liard, spiced, and aged for several months
before using. They weigh 9 to 18 pounds.

Stafford Hams are cut about two inches shorter
at the butt end than regular long-cut hams, hench-
bone taken out exposing the socket joint, and foot
cut off at the first joint below the hock. They are

GRADING HAMS

339

340 THE HOG BOOK

cut from good and clioiee bacon hogs and cured for
Englisli trade. This grade is made principally from
1-i to 18-pound hams.

Manchester Hams are a very lean grade of long-
cut hams, comparatively fiat in shape, hutted like
Staffords, and averaging 14 to 18 pounds.

Italian Hams are very thin, long hams, of 9 to
18 poimds average, and of common to good quality.
The hench-bone is removed as from Staffords, the
leg left extra long, the butt trimmed like American
or short-cut hams, the ham pressed flat, dry-salt
cured, smoked dark and seasoned with pepper.

Numerous other styles or grades of hams which
were formerly packed in large quantities, especially
for exjjort trade, are no longer made or used suffi-
ciently to be regarded as standard products.

Sides. — This class includes various grades and
cuts of Short Ribs, Short Clears and English Bacon
Sides.

Short Rib Sides are middles of hogs from which
short-cut hams and regular or New York shoulders
have been taken off, with back-bone and tenderloin
removed, hench-bone and breast-bone sawed or cut
down smootli and even with face of side, feather of
blade not removed and no incision made in the side.
This is a regular Board of Trade cut and is quoted
in provision reports simply as Ribs. It is made from
medium to heavy packing hogs, in averages from
25 to 80 pounds but principally from 45 to 65 pounds.
On the Board of Trade regular ribs averaging not
less than 30 nor more than 60 pounds are deliver-

GRADING SIDES 341

able at a discount of 20 cents per 100 pounds ; those
over 70 and not over 80 pounds are discounted 30
cents i)er 100 pounds. Reg-ular ribs are mainly
shipped south either as dry-salt or bacon meat. The
manufacture of this cut is confined largely to the
winter months. It is used less extensively in pro-
portion to other cuts tlian formerly but is still the
leading side cut, over one-half the stocks of sides
generally consisting of short ribs. Many are after-
ward converted into other cuts, as extra ribs, extra
clears, backs and bellies, as determined by current
prices of the various cuts. About one-fifth of the
number of heavy hogs packed are cut into short ribs.

Jobbing or Rough Short Ribs consist of short
ribs with the back-bone left in, the hog being centre-
split, leaving equal parts of the back-bone on each
side. They are sold at a discount of 2 per cent under
regular ribs and must average not less than 30 nor
more than 50 pounds for Board of Trade delivery.

Hard Short Ribs are made the same as Jobbing
Ribs except that the hog is split so as to leave the
back-bone all on one side. The side containing the
back-bone is known as the Hard Side or Hard Short
Rib and tlie other as the Soft Side, the latter being
the same as the Regular Sliort Rib. They usually
weigh 50 to 70 pounds, are cut from heavy packing
hogs and are sold principally in the South as dry-
salt pork.

Extra Short Ribs or Extra Ribs are made from
Short Ribs ])y removing the loin. They average 35

342 THE HOG BOOK

to 50 pounds ; 20 to 30 per cent of the stocks of sides
usually consist of Extra Eibs.

Square Cut or English Short Ribs are the mid-
dles of hogs from which square shoulders and long-
cut hams have been cut, thus making the side shorter
than a regular rib, square-cut and with the feather
of the blade-bone out. They are selected from the
better grades of medium-weight packing hogs, and
average 20 to 30 pounds. They are cured in English
salt and handled like other English meats.

Short Clear Sides are made from regular short
ribs by removing the ribs and cutting reasonably
square at each end. They are graded and handled
in the same manner as short ribs. Short Clears aver-
age 30 to 70 pounds and to grade regular must aver-
age not less than 35 pounds. Their use has declined
to a large extent in recent years as compared with
certain other cuts, and only 1 to 5 per cent of the
stocks of sides are of this kind. It is primarily a
domestic cut but is exported to some extent. Square-
Cut Short Clears are the same as Square-Cut Short
Ribs except the ribs are taken out.

Extra Short Clear Sides or Extra Clears are
made the same as short clears except that the loin
is also removed. They may l)e made from extra
short ribs l)y cutting out the ribs. The pieces weigh
25 to 60 pounds, and must average not less than 30
nor more than 60 pounds to grade regular; 10 to
20 per cent of the stocks of sides are usually made
up of this cut.

ENGLISH r.ACOX SIDES 343

Englisli Bacon Sides or long middles include both
the side and shoulder, and in one instance (Wilt-
shires) the ham is also included. They are cured
and packed as described under English Meats, and
after arrival in Great Britain are usually made into
rolled sides, which are dried for English trade, but
in Scotland are usually smoked. American packers
have discontinued manufacturing several cuts not
mentioned below which were formerly used quite
extensively.

Wiltshire Sides consist of the side, ham and
shoulder left together in one piece; the blade-bone
is taken out, foot cut off, the shoulder trimmed the
same as Cumberlauds, hip-bone taken out, not back-
strapped, the belly trimmed smooth and even, and
leg of the ham cut off below the hock joint. These
sides average 40 to 70 pounds and are selected
especially for thickness of lean meat with a light,
even covering of fat from I14 to 2 inches thick, not
exceeding I34 inches in the best grades. They are
made exclusively from choice lean bacon hogs, and
are the highest grade of English bacon sides. The
use of Wiltshires has greatly declined in recent
years. They are shipped principally to the south
of England.

Cumberland Sides ''have the end from which the
ham is taken cut square; the leg cut off below the
knee joint; the shoulder ribs, neck-bone, back-bone
and blood vein taken out; breast-bone sawed or cut
down smooth and even with the face of the side ; and
should not be back-strapped or flanked." They are

344

THE HOG BOOK

made from good and choice bacon hogs and average
20 to 60 pounds, but the bulk run 25 to 40 pounds.
This is by far the leading export side cut, and being
made in various grades and averages is suitable for
converting into other English side cuts, such as

Wiltsliiri'. Cumberland. Dublin.

LONG SIDES.

Yorkshires, Birminghams, Staffords and others
which are no longer generally made in this country.
Long Rib Sides are made the same as Cumber-
lands except the shoulder bones are taken out and
the leg cut oif close to the breast. The average

GRAniNG Sini". MEATS 345

weiglit is 18 to 25 pounds. They are made from
common to good bacon hogs, and shipped to Liver-
pool for distribution to Ireland and AVales.

Long Clear Sides are cut the same as long ribs
and in addition have the ribs taken out. For
English trade, they are made from good bacon hogs
weighing 120 to 160 pounds dressed, and the sides
weigh 18 to 26 pounds. For regular Board of Trade
delivery they must average not less than 45 pounds.
The latter are used in domestic trade and Continen-
tal Europe, and are made from the heaviest bacon
hogs and from comparatively lean butcher hogs.
This cut is used to some extent lioth in export and
domestic trade, but much less than formerly. Extra
long clears are made like long clears except that the
loin is also i*.emoved. They are seldom used.

Dublin Middles are thin lean sides cut like Cum-
l)erlands and in addition the leg cut off close to the
l)reast. They are made from light, common bacon
hogs and pigs. The sides weigh 12 to 20 pounds.

Bellies. — The grades of this cut are Dry-Salt,
Sweet-Pickle, Breakfast-Bacon and English Bellies.

Dry-Salt Bellies are made from short rib sitles
of mixed packing hogs by cutting off the back. For
delivery on the Board of Trade they must be ' 'well-
cut and trimmed ; no bellies that are coarse, bruised,
soft or unsound shall be accepted." However, they
are not so closely trimmed as sweet-pickle bellies.
They are made in averages from 10 to 45 pounds.
A])out two-thirds of the stocks of bellies at Chicago
usually consist of this grade. They are quoted as

346

THE HOG BOOK

GRADING SIDE MEATS 347

Dry-Salt Rib and Dry-Salt Clear Bellies, tlie latter
having the ribs removed and being made usually
from bellies weighing less than 25 pounds. When
smoked they are known as Bacon Meats.

Sweet-Pickle Bellies are made from butcher,
bacon and good packing hogs, being "well-cut and
trimmed, to average, in lots, not to exceed 14
l)ounds." The edges are "squared and trimmed more
closely than Dry-Salt bellies. They are made in 6
to 14-pound averages, packed the same as sweet-
l)ickled hams and sold either as sweet-pickled or
smoked meats. About one-third of the supply of
Ijellies are sweet-pickled. They are quoted both as
Rib and Clear Bellies, the latter having the ribs re-
moved.

Breakfast Bacon Bellies are clear bellies cut
from bacon or light butcher hogs and selected witli
reference to tirmness, color, proportions of fat and
lean, smooth skin and general quality. They are
trimmed still more closely than the regular sweet-
pickled bellies. Selected bellies of this class weigh-
ing 4 to 10 pounds are known as Fancy or Special
Breakfast Bacon Bellies and are made into the best
l)rands of sugar-cured breakfast-])acon. They are
carefully selected, dry-cured in air-tight boxes and
smoked lightly. The second brand includes bellies
that are too fat for fancy bacon, or which lack the
necessary firmness of flesh and thin smooth skin.
Thoy weigh 4 to 16 pounds. The third brand is
made from bellies weighing 6 to 18 pounds that are

348

THE HOG BOOK

GRADES OF BACKS 349

either slightly bruised, or too deficient in general
([iiality for the second brand.

English Bellies are clear bellies weighing 10 to
20 pounds, cut from choice heavy bacon hogs and
light butcher barrows, and selected for firmness and
a large proportion of lean. They are cut square on
all edges and packed as explained under English
]\[eats.

Backs. — The grades of backs are Short Rib, Short
Clear, Short Fat and Long Fat Backs.

Short Rib Backs are made from short rib sides
by cutting off the belly; they therefore contain the
loin, back fat and back-ril)s but not the back-bone nor
tenderloin. It is a dry-salt cut, weighing 25 to 45
pounds and is not commonly made. Hard Backs
are made from hard rib sides, thus containing the
back-bone. ' English Rib Backs are made from
Square Short Ril)S, and average 12 to 20 pounds.

Short Clear Backs are "made from the sides of
smooth hogs from which the bellies have been cut,
back-bone and ribs taken out and the lean left on,
tail-bone sawed off even with the face of the meat,
and trimmed smooth and square on all the edges."
They are cut from medium and heavy packing hogs,
dry-salted and sold largely in Continental Europe.
The weights run from 16 to 40 pounds. English
Short Clear Backs are lighter than regulars, averag-
ing 10 to 20 pouuds, and are shorter at the butt end,
being cut off in front of the hip-bone. They are
packed like other English meats. Pickled Clear
Backs are short clear backs of light weight and lean

350 THE HOG BOOK

quality. They weigh 6 to 10 pounds and are sweet-
pickled, sinoked and sold as Loin Back Bacon or
Breakfast Bacon Backs.

Short Fat Backs are "made from the sides of
heavy, well-fatted hogs from which the bellies have
been cut, back-bone and ribs taken out and all the
lean taken off, to be trimmed smoothly and properly
squared on all the edges." This is one of the lead-
ing back cuts. It is made from packing and loin
hogs when cutting pork loins, and is usually quoted
as a dry-salt cut in 8 to 20-pound averages.

Export Short Fat Backs have the blade-bone
taken out, are more closely trimmed and squared
than domestic backs and are made principally in
heavy averages, 16 to 40 pounds. Paprika Fat Backs
are thin, light fat-backs, weighing 4 to 8 pounds.
They are dry-salted and seasoned with paprika.

Long Fat-Backs consist of "the upper half of the
side cut through the centre of the ribs from the ham
to and including the shoulder, with the loin and
blade-bone taken out, trimmed smoothly and squared
on all edges." It is a dry-salt cut, not so commonly
made as formerly and used only for export trade.

Lows. — Loins, consisting of the back with the fat
trimmed off, are sold either as Regular Pork Loins
or as Loin Polls.

Pork Loins are made from sides of loin hogs,
with the belly and back-fat cut off; they contain the
back-bone, back-ribs and tenderloin, and have but a
small amount of fat (one-fourth to one-half inch)
on the outside. The loin is the leading fresh pork

GRADES OF RACKS

351

352 THE HOG ROOK

{?ut, and as it is retailed entirely in the form of chops
and roasts, it must have reasonably good shape,
bright color, firm, fine-grained flesh and good qnality
of bone. Loins are made principally from butcher
hogs, but also to some extent from good packing and
heavy bacon hogs. The weights of regular pork
loins are 8 to 18 pounds and the price usually varies
inversely with the weight, except occasional loins
that are graded No. 2 on account of dark color or
coarseness of flesh and bones ; 14 pounds is the heav-
iest average generally used for fresh trade, and a
few are made as light as 4 to 6 pounds. Extra or
Long Pork Loins include, in addition to the regular
loin, the top or lean butt of the shoulder, but this
cut is seldom made.

Tenderloins consist of short round muscles lying
underneath and on each side of the back-bone; they
are attached to the slip-l)one and extend from the
loin butt almost to the last ril). They weigh one-
fourth to one pound each, but those weighing three-
fourths pound or over are most extensively used.
They are cut from hogs that are too heavy and rough
to yield regular pork loins, and from which short
ribs, mess pork and boneless loins are made. The
tenderloin is sold only as a fresh cut, and .commands
a higher price than any other fresh pork product.

Loin Rolls are made from heavy loins (15 to 22
pounds) l^y boning them completely, tying three
boneless loins together lengthwise in the form of a
roll, curing in sweet pickle, smoking and boiling.
Light No. 2 loins are also packed in this manner in

MARKET STIOULDFRS. 353

smaller quantities. Loin rolls are used by restau-
rants and delicatessen shops.

Shoulders. — The standard grades are Rongh,
Regular, Picnic, New York-cut, Skinned, Square,
New Orleans-cut and Boneless Rolled Shoulders.

Rough Shoulders are untrimnied shoulders as
cut from the hog, separated from the side between
the first and second ribs and with the jowl cut off
square. They are quoted as fresh meats but are
not extensively used.

Regular Shoulders are ''cut as close as possible
to the l)ack part of the forearm joint without expos-
ing the knuckle (leaving 2 ribs on the shoulder),
Initted off square on top, the neck-bone and short
ribs taken out, neck squared off, blood vein lifted
and cut out, breast flap cut off and foot cut off on or
above the knee joint." They are made principally
from hogs that are too heavy and rough for New
York style shoulders, and at times when the supply
of Picnics exceeds the demand. About 15 per cent of
the stocks of shoulders generally consist of Regu-
lars, of which about one-third are handled as dry-
salt shoulders, averaging 15 to 20 pounds, and about
two-thirds as sweet-pickled shoulders averaging 12
to 16 pounds. Sausage Shoulders are regular-cut
shoulders which are unsuitable for dry-salt or sweet-
pickle because of being trimmed to remove bruises,
cut from shoulder-stuck hogs, or otherwise deficient,
and are used for the purpose which their name indi-
cates. Bladed Shoulders are cut the same as Regu-
lars except the shoulder-blade is taken out and the

354 THE HOG BOOK

corners rounded. Comparatively few are cut in this
manner.

Picnics or Galas (formerly termed California
hams) are cut 2^2 ri^^s wide, trimmed and packed as
follows: "Shank cut off above the knee joint,
trimmed as full on the face (lean surface) as pos-
sible, butt taken off to the edge of the blade, well,
rounded at the butt in the shape of a ham, breast
flap taken off, and trimmed close and smooth, rea-
sonably uniform in size, and to average, in lots, not
to exceed 12 pounds; 300 pounds block (green)
weight shall be packed in each tierce. Pickle the
same as used for hams." They are cut from good
packing and butcher hogs, averaging 4 to 14 pounds,
but principally 8 to 12 pounds, and are sold almost
entirely as sweet-pickled, smoked and boiled meats.
The lighter averages (4 to 8 pounds) are sometimes
termed Boston Shoulders, and were formerly butted
shorter than Calas and only slightly rounded; but
Chicago and other western packers now trim them
like Calas and designate both as Picnics. About 85
per cent of the wholesale supply of shoulders is
made into Picnics. Skinned Picnics are made from
the fatter grades of Picnics by remo\'ing the skin and
trimming the fat off within one-half inch of the
lean. They average 6 to 10 pounds, and are sold
largely as Boiled Meats.

New York-cut Shoulders are cut two ribs wide,
butted one inch from blade-bone, trimmed smooth,
neck and breast flap cut off, shank cut off between
knee and l)risket; 8 to 14-pound grades are made

GRADES OF SHOULDERS

355

356 THE HOG BOOK

for domestic trade and the bulk weigh 10 to 12
pounds, but heavier weights up to 18 pounds are
exported. They are made principally from butcher
and packer hogs, and are quoted as fresh, smoked
and sweet-pickled meats. They are not as exten-
sively used as formerly in proportion to other cuts.

Skinned Shoulders are cut similar to New York-
cut Shoulders and in addition the skin is taken off
down to the shank and the fat trimmed off close to
the lean. They weigh 6 to 16 pounds, and are sold
fresh, sweet-pickled and smoked. They are the lead-
ing fresh shoulder cut used in city retail trade.
Skinned shoulders with the shank cut off close to the
l)reast are termed Chicago Shoulders, or Skinned
Shoulders, hock off.

Square or 3-Rib Shoulders are cut three ribs
wide, squared on all sides, neck -bones out, breast flap
off, foot cut off at the knee joint, butted just above
blade-bone, and so trimmed as to expose the lean
as much as possible. This is the leading English
shoulder cut, and is made in averages from 10 to 20
pounds.

New Orleans-cut Shoulders are made II/2 I'ibs
wide, smooth and rounded on neck end, part of
shoulder l)utt left on and neck-bone out. They are
cut principally in 12 to 14-pound averages, but are
also made from 10 to 16 pounds, from shoulders that
are too rough and fat to make New York-cut or
Picnic Shoulders. This is a dry-salt cut.

Boneless Rolled Picnics are made from heavy
Picnics by lifting the skin, removing the surplus fat

BUTTS AND PLATES 357

and the bone, pressing or rolling and tying witli cord
in the form of a roll in the same manner as rolled
hams. They are also made from skinned Picnics.
Boneless rolled shoulders are made similarly from
regular shoulders. They are sold as boiled meats.

Butts and Plates. — Butts are cut from the end
or top of the shoulder and from the jowl. Plates are
made from shoulder butts. The various grades of
these cuts are Boston Style, Milwaukee Style, Bone-
less, Buffalo Style, Xew York Style, Picnic, Dry-Salt
and Square-Cut Butts ; Regular Plates, Clear Plates
and Back Plates.

Boston Style Butts are the ends or top pieces cut
from heavy shoulders when making Picnics, the
neck-bone, rilis and surplus fat being removed and
the piece trimmed smooth. They include the end
of the shoulder blade. Average weights are 3 to 7
pounds. They are principally l)arreled and exported
to Germany, Denmark and other European countries,
but are also sold fresh for domestic retail trade.

Milwaukee Style Butts are the same as Boston
butts with the neck-bone and rib left on.

Boneless Butts or Lean Butts (also termed Cala
Butts) consist of the lean, boneless portion of Bos-
ton butts between the blade-bone and neck-bone.
When sweet-pickled and smoked like hams this cut
is known as a Cottage Style butt.

Buffalo Style Butts are cut the same as boneless
butts except that the neck-bone is left in. They are
used fresh.

New York Stvle Butts are shoulder butts cut

358 THE HOG BOOK

from Picnics of the tliiimer and lighter grades. They
contain the neck-bone, fat and lean, and are mainly
plain-pickled.

Picnic Bntts are Picnics from which the surplus
fat and the skin are removed and the shank cut off
close to the breast. They are not trimmed as closely
as regular Picnics,

Dry-Salt Butts are made from the jowl (lower
part of the neck and cheek), with the edges trimmed
smooth and the piece pounded flat. They weigh 3
to 5 pounds and are usually packed as their name
indicates but are sometimes barreled. Virginia
Style jowls are made from the smaller end of the
lower jaw including the teeth, and are made both
tongue in and tongue out. They are sugar-cured
and smoked, but are not extensively made.

Square-Cut Butts are also made from the jowl
but are more closely trimmed and squared. They
average 2 to 4 pounds and are dry-salted or barreled.

Eegular Plates are made from shoulder butts by
removing a boneless butt, thus making a fat piece
with a facing of lean, containing the end of the
l)lade-bone, and weighing 6 to 12 pounds. They are
packed either as dry-salt or barreled pork. When
made with the blade-bone out they are known as
Antwerp Backs.

Clear Plates are made from shoulder butts by
removing a Boston Imtt, and are a clear fat cut,
weighing 4 to 8 pounds. They are generally dry-
salted but are barreled to some extent.

GRADES OF BUTTS AND PLATES

359

360 THE HOG BOOK

Back Plates are made from long- fat-backs, cut
into keystone-shaped pieces weighing 314 to 10
pounds. They are both barreled and dry-salted.

Miscellaneous. — The cuts described under this
head consist principally of barreled pork and other
products made from sides and shoulders of packing
hogs. They may be grouped as follows : Mess Pork,
Belly Pork, Back Pork, Shoulder Pork, Spareribs,
and Trimmings.

Eegular Mess Pork is described as "made from
sides of well fatted hogs, split through or one side
of the back-bone, and equal proportions on both
sides, cut into strips of reasonably uniform width,
properly flanked and not backstrapped." Back-
strapping refers to trimming a strip of fat from the
edge of the side, above the back-bone. The regular
proportion of flank and shoulder cut must be in-
cluded. The strips average about six inches in width,
and not over sixteen pieces rnay be packed in a
Ijarrel for regular delivery. Mess Pork is made
from rough and heavy packing hogs and occasionally
from heavy loin hogs. During the early years of the
packing industry about one-third of the wholesale
pork product consisted of mess pork, but it has been
largely replaced by other cuts during recent years,
and is now only two or three per cent of the supply.
Approximately one-half of the Barreled Pork sup-
ply is Mess Pork. On the Board of Trade it is
quoted simply as Pork. Mess pork packed between
Oct. 1 of one year and Sept. 30 of the succeeding
year is new pork until Jan. 1 of the following year,

MESS PORK

361

362 THE HOG BOOK

and is thereafter termed old pork. Mess pork made
during December, Januar}^ and February must have
been packed at least ten days l)efore delivery, and
that delivered during the period from March to No-
vember, inclusive, must have lieen packed at least
80 days before delivery to grade regular. It is
l)arreled and shipped principally to the southern
states, northern lumber camps and South America.
Short-cut Mess Pork is described in connection with
Back Pork.

Light Mess Pork is "made from the sides of rea-
sonably well fatted hogs; and in all other respects
to be cut, selected and packed the same as mess pork,
except that as many as 22 pieces may be put into
each barrel." It is made principally from medium
packing hogs.

Prime Mess Pork is made from the shoulder and
side, containing the back-bone and ribs, cut into
square pieces of about 4 pounds each. The shank
is cut off close to the breast. In making this cut the
side is split lengthwise, the back cut into about six
pieces and the belly into four. It is made from light
packing hogs.

Extra Clear Pork is "made from the sides of
extra heavy, well-fatted hogs, the liack-bone and ribs
to be taken out (the same as short clear sides), the
number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed 14, and
in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in
the same manner as mess pork." This cut is not
extensively made.

GRADES OF PORK 363

Clear Pork is "made from the sides of extra
heavy, well-fatted hogs, the back-bone and half the
ribs next the back-bone to be taken out, the number
of pieces in each barrel not to exceed 14, and in all
other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the
same manner as mess pork." It is no longer in
general use.

Loin Clear Pork is "made from the sides of
medium-weight packing hogs, the loin, back-bone and
back ribs being removed and belly ril)s left in." It
consists of extra short ribs cut into strips, and is also
known as Long-Cut Clear Pork. The pieces average
five inches in width. It is barreled like mess pork
and sold especially to Xew England trade.

Regular Belly Pork consists of heavy, fat rib
bellies cut into 5-inch widths and packed as plain-
pickled pork in barrels containing 50 to 60 pieces.
This pork is made from the same grade of bellies
as Dry-Salt Rib Bellies.

Brisket Pork Rib is made by cutting a 5-incli
strip from the brisket end of heavy rib bellies (14 to
20-pound average) and packing like other barreled
y)ork. The pieces average about 4 pounds each.
This cut is made only when it is desired to reduce
the weight of heavy bellies. Clear Brisket Pork is
made in the same manner as the above except the
pieces are cut from clear bellies. Fancy Clear Pork
is a strip cut from the l)risket end of fancy breakfast
l)acon bellies, averaging i to ly^ pounds per piece.
It is either barreled or sugar-cured and smoked.

364 THE HOG BOOK

Lean Belly Pork consists of lean clear bellies,
13 to 15 pounds averag"e, cut into three pieces each
and barreled in plain pickle.

Eegnlar Back Pork (Short-Cnt Mess, or Family
Back Pork) is descril)ed as ''made from the
backs of well-fatted hogs, after bellies have been
taken off, cut into pieces of about 6 pounds each, and
in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed
in the same manner as mess pork." This cut con-
tains the loin, back-bone and back ribs, with tender-
loin out, and the pieces are cut 6 inches wide, averag-
ing 4 to 6 pounds.

Clear Back Pork is ''made from the backs of
heavy, well-fatted hogs, after bellies have been taken
off, and back-bone and ribs taken out, cut into pieces
of about 6 pounds each, and in all other respects to
be packed in the same manner as mess pork." In
other words, it consists of Short Clear Backs cut into
strips about 6 inches wide, and is the same as Regu-
lar Back Pork with the rib removed. It is sometimes
called Loin Clear Pork. The pieces average 2 to 7
pounds.

Fat Back Pork or Short-Cut Clear Pork is made
from short fat-backs l)y cutting them into 5-inch
strips. The pieces average from 2 to 7 pounds and
are packed like mess pork. Speck is made from
fat-backs, cut into strips, cured in plain pickle and
seasoned with pepper.

Ham Butt Pork (Loin End or Rump Pork) con-
sists of triangular pieces cut from the ham end of
short clear backs or sides and includes a portion

SPARERIBS 365

of tlie tail-bone. It is made when cutting sliort-ciit
hams and English sides, or when it is desired to re-
duce the weight of heavy side or backs. It is packed
iu barrels, the pieces averaging 3 to 4 pomids.

Shoulder Pork consists of the following j^roducts
made from shoulders and butts :

Extra Prime Pork is ''made from heavy un-
trimmed shoulders cut into 3 pieces ; the leg to be
cut off close to the breast, and in all other respects
to be cut, selected and packed in tlie same manner
as mess pork." The pieces average about 4 pounds.
This and the jDreceding cut are not used as exten-
sively as formerly.

Boston Style Butt Pork is made from Boston
Style Butts averaging 4 to 7 pounds, packed in plain
pickle.

Bean Pork or Clear Butt Pork is made from the
jowl or fat cheek of the hog, cut square, trimmed
smooth and averaging 3 to 4 pounds, packed in plain
pickle.

Spareribs consist of the ribs trimmed from the
carcass or side with as little lean as possible. They
are termed full-sheet, half-sheet and back-bone
spareribs according as they are cut from full sides,
l)ellies or backs respectively. They are essentially a
fresh pork product and are sold in retail markets
especially in fall and winter, for which purpose half-
sheet ribs are principally used. Spareribs are also
quoted as sweet-pickled, smoked and dry-salt meats.
They are packed in limited amounts in sweet pickle
at times when tlie demand for fresh spareribs is dull ;

366 THE line. r.ooK

dry-salt spareribs are taken from dry-salt sides and
bellies when making' them into clear cuts after cur-
ing. Both pickled and dry-salt spareribs are smoked
to a limited extent.

Various other meats are handled and quoted
similarly to spareril^s. Hocks consist of the shank
or foreleg cut from the shoulder, including the por-
tion between the breast and knee. They are sold
either fresh or barreled. Back-bones, neck-bone,
and blade-bones are to some extent sold fresh like
spareril)s, but are usually tanked.

Trimmings are of two grades : Special Lean, or
A grade, and Regular or B grade. Special Lean or
Berliner Trimmings consist of the larger pieces of
meat with fat cut off and are used esfjecially for
making Berliner sausage. The regular grade is
made up of small pieces of fat and lean, miscel-
laneous in shape and quality, and contains about 40
to 50 yjer cent fat. Both grades are almost entirely
utilized in sausage manufacture.

LARD.

From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass
is made into lard in large packinghouses, the pro-
portion varying with the relative price of lard and
grade of hogs. The standard grades are Kettle-
Rendered Leaf, Kettle-Rendered Neutral, Prime
Steam, Refined and Compound Lard. They differ
as to the kinds of fats they contain, methods of ren-
dering, color, flavor and grain.

COMMERCIAL LARDS 367

Kettle-Rendered Leaf Lard. — This consists of
leaf fat only, rendered at about 248° F. in open-
jacketed kettles, without the addition of water and
without subsequent refining. It is the whitest in
color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades of
lard. Kettle-rendered lard is distinguished from
other kinds by the wavy or fluffy appearance of the
surface, known as a crinkly top, and this is charac-
teristic especially of leaf lard. It is sold principally
in pails of various sizes for retail trade. Most pack-
ing firms do not render pure leaf lard but make the
leaf into Neutral. Eaw leaf is also sold fresh to
butterine manufacturers and is used to some extent
by retail trade.

Kettle-Rendered Lard. — This grade is made from
back fat with or without a proportion of leaf
or "leaf scraped" lard (seldom exceeding 20 per
cent), and not over 5 per cent of lard stearin. Lard
stearin is the residue left after pressing the oil from
lard. Having a high melting point, it is usually
mixed with lard during the summer months or when
sliipping to a warm climate. Ham-facing fat and
fat trimmings are also used at times. It is rendered
in either open or closed kettles but not under pres-
sure nor in contact with live steam. The open-kettle
product is sometimes branded Country Style Lard.
Tliis is the highest grade of lard made in most pack-
inghouses, and is excelled in whiteness, grain and
crinkly appeai^^nce of the surface only by genuine
leaf lard. Kettle-rendered lard more readily be-
comes rancid than refined lard, hence flavor and

368 THE HOG BOOK

keeping qualities are especially important in this
grade. It is made in comparatively limited quanti-
ties, and is packed in 3 to 50-pound pails for retail
trade, 50 to 80-pound tubs, and tierces.

Neutral Lard. — Neutral Lard is made from leaf
or back fsit melted in water- jacketed open kettles at
about 128° F., at which temperature the fat partially
liquifies without cooking. No. 1 Neutral is made
from leaf fat only. When drawn off and strained the
melted fat is tasteless, free of acids and impurities,
smooth-grained and remains unchanged in odor and
color. It is sold in tierces and is used principally in
the manufacture of butterine or oleomargarine.
This grade of lard is largely exported, Rotterdam
being the principal foreign market for it. No. 2
Neutral lard is made from back fat melted in the
same manner as the No. 1 grade. It is not as white
in color nor as fine in grain but is used for the same
purposes when No. 1 Neutral is high in price.

Prime Steam Lard. — Prime Steam Lard is made
from fat trimmings (ham, shoulder, belly, jowl and
head fats), internal or killing fats and other fat
parts, sometimes including entire fat-backs and
jowls, rendered in closed tanks under about 40
pounds direct steam pressure (240° F.) without re-
fining, stirring or bleaching. It is darker-col-
ored and coarser-grained than other grades of lard,
and is the form in which hog fats can be most eco-
nomically stored and shipped. It is stored in tanks
and tierces, and shipped in tierces or tank cars.
Prime steam lard is refined before using, being con-

COMMERCIAL LARDS 369

verted into other grades of lard or used in Com-
pound. Nine-tenths or more of the lard made at
Chicago is of this grade. For delivery on the Board
of Trade *'it must have proper color, flavor and
soundness for keeping, and no material which has
been salted must be included. Prime steam lard of
superior quality as to color, flavor and body may be
inspected and labeled as 'Prime Steam Lard, choice
quality.' " When rendered from cured fats such as
sweet-pickled ham and shoulder fat, or for other
reasons defective in color, flavor or grain, it is
graded as No. 2 Steam Lard, being darker in color
and coarser in grain than the regular grade.

Refined Lard. — Refined Lard is made from Prime
Steam Lard by a bleaching and stirring process, con-
sisting of rapid agitation with fuller's earth at about
180° F., followed by pressing through filter cloths
and chilling. A proportion of lard stearin, not ex-
ceeding 5 per cent, may also be added. If oleo
stearin, tallow or more than 5 per cent of lard stearin
be added, the product may not be labeled Pure Lard,
and the added fats must be named on the package.
It is sold in tierces, barrels, cans and pails, and is
packed in 28 and 56-pound boxes for export.

Compound Lard. — Compound Lard or Lard Com-
pound is a mixture of lard, stearin or other animal
fat, and vegetable oil (usually cottonseed oil). All
the ingredients must be named on the label, and the
proportion of lard must equal or exceed that of any
other one of the ingredients. Compounds, or lard
substitutes, diflPer from compound lard in that they

370 THE HOG BOOK

contain little or no lard but are composed of oleo
stearin, lard stearin and tallow mixed with refined
cottonseed oil. The proportion of cottonseed oil is
usually 80 to 85 per cent. The amount of this prod-
uct manufactured is approximately equal to that
of lard. It is packed in the same kinds of receptacles
as refined lard.

Small Parts or Offal. — The head is sometimes
marketed fresh or cured in pickle. It is, however,
generally tanked for lard. The cheek meat is the
lean portion of the head next to the cheek bone. It
is trimmed out when the heads are tanked and used
for sausage meat. The tongue is usually cured in
pickle and sold as pickled tongue, or canned and
marketed as Canned Luncheon Tongue. The snouts
and ears are usually sold fresh. If there is no de-
mand they are tanked for lard.

The brains and kidneys are sold fresh. The
pluck, comprising the liver and heart, is sometimes
sold fresh. Wlien there is no demand the liver is
tanked for fertilizer and the heart used in sausage
meat. The lungs are tanked for fertilizer. The
intestines are cleaned and used as sausage casings.
The feet are usually pickled, cooked and spiced and
sold as cooked and spiced pigs' feet. At other times
they are tanked for lard. The hair and bristles are
usually sold to brush or mattress manufacturers.
The blood is tanked and afterwards dried out for
fertilizer. The neck-bones and back-l)ones are sold
fresh or tanked. The spareribs and tails are sold
fresh or pickled.

BUTCHERING AND CURING.

The following is from 0. W. Browning, of
Iowa : Hogs should be killed with a knife and hung
up with pulleys before or immediately after stick-
ing. Have the water at about 155° F. After remov-
ing the hair hang the hogs up on a singletree and
thoroughly wash and scrape the carcasses, using a
scrubbing ' brush. After cutting remove the leaf
fat and split out the back-bone. This leaves the sides
in nice shape to cool and handle. Allow the carcass
thoroughly to cool before cutting up. To make
choice lard remove the rind and cut the fat into small
pieces or run it through a chopper. Remove every
bit of lean from the fat. Cook the fat on the kitchen
stove in common dinner pots. The rinds can be
cooked in the oven in a roasting pan. Five pounds
of pork fat will make 4 pounds of lard.

Sausage. — To season sausage use 1 pound of salt,
2 ounces of pepper and 1 or 2 ounces of sage. The
sage should be dried and pulverized. Mix the salt,
sage and pepper before adding to the sausage. The
quantity given is for 45 to 50 pounds of meat. Meat
or sausage fried down fresh should be well-cooked
and covered with melted lard. Hams and shoulders
that have been cured and smoked may be fried down
for summer use, but do not require so much cooking;
they should be well covered with lard to exclude air.

(371)

372 THE HOG BOOK

Sugar-Curing Pork, — Water, 9 gallons ; sugar, 4
pounds; salt, 14 pounds; saltpetre, Si/o ounces; lye,
4 teaspoonfuls. Boil together water, salt and lye;
after skimming, add the sugar and saltpetre. Pack
the meat in a barrel, rubbing each piece with salt
and sprinkling some between the layers. After three
days put on the brine. The meat should remain in
brine from three to six weeks, according to the size
of it. After the meat is taken from the brine it
should be allowed to dry several days before smok-
ing.

To Make Liver Wurst. — Boil the liver with about
an equal weight of head meat, including the fat.
After it is fairly well done, run through a food chop-
per while yet warm, season with salt and pepper and
pack it in a crock or into rolls. It should be sliced
and fried for use. Boil the tongue ; when it is cold,
slice and pack in a jar with alternate layers of sliced
onions. Cover with vinegar.

BACON CURING.

There are many causes of failures of farmers and
their wives in curing meats and making sausage and
other toothsome viands from well-bred, well-fed
pigs, writes L. N. Bonham in The Beeeder's Ga-
zette. The runts and scalawags, the stags and worn-
out old sows go to the packer, and yet with choice
thrifty young pigs available on the farm it is no
credit to us farmers that we call for bacon with that
flavor with which the big packers tickle our palate.
The farmer who raises the pigs, good, bad and in-

HOME-CURING OF BACON 373

different, that go over the scales to the packiughouse
should be able out of his selects to make bacon and
hams that are as much better than the packer's out-
put, as selected pigs are better than the average o£
the drove. Be the skill of the killer and curers ever
so great, they make their best products out of
selected animals. For best bacon they do not want
the biggest producer of lard, but lard is such a rul-
ing article in the cuisine of many families that they
butcher only those with age and weight to yield lard
in abundance. From such hogs even the most skill-
ful curers can not make the choicest cuts of highest-
priced bacon. "We hear therefore of the two classes
of hogs — the bacon hog and the lard hog. But as
the latter is the hog that brings the farmer the best
market for his corn, the market is often short of
first-class bacon hogs. They come from the light
type, be they young of the lard hog or older of the
bacon type.

If the claims of the breeders of the bacon breeds
are correct, it follows that if we are to have in our
farm smokehouses the best bacon we must raise
hogs of the bacon type. Fortunately, however, for
the raisers of the more growthy hogs very choice
bacon and hams can be made from them if they are
killed before they get too heavj^ — say at five to six
months old, weighing after six weeks' feeding from
150 to 190 pounds. Unless the family believes no
bacon is good that is more than an inch thick it can
find just as delicious and nutty cuts from sides of
young hogs weighing from 200 to 250 pounds, but

374 THE HOG BOOK

in every case the quality of the bacon depends on the
feeding as well as on the curing. Farmers seeking
bacon with the flavor the packer turns out should be
careful to select for family use the kind of pig that
can furnish desirable cuts for bacon. The next step
is to kill and cure as skillfully as the successful
packer. There are scores of recipes by which tooth-
some bacon is cured. There is not so much in the
recipe as the inexperienced imagine. The right kind
of a pig properly killed and handled with scrupulous
neatness, and the meat well cooled out before going
into a clean cask or jar, skin-side down, and covered
with a brine made according to a simple old recipe,
may turn out bacon and hams to suit even the most
fastidious. The cure may be as mild as desired
simply by leaving the meat in a shorter time; the
time may vary from three weeks to six, according to
the thickness of the cuts and the degree of mildness
desired. There is a limit, however, to this mild cure,
if the bacon is to be kept long, in which case the
meat must remain in pickle five weeks or even six
weeks, if the bacon is to be kept all summer.

Packers can make a quicker turn of their prod-
ucts by shortening the time to cure it, and this mild
curing has appealed to jjopular taste, so that both
packer and consumer are pleased. This extremely
mild cure would be all right if the grocer or butcher
could turn it over to the consumer soon enough to
be consumed before it begins to lose that delightful
sweetness so much like the taste of cracklings our
mothers turned out after making lard. The farmer

HOME-CURING OF MEATS 375

who seeks the flavor of the thin, mild-cured bacon
''the packers tickle the palate with" can have it in
highest excellence by killing a choice pig every
month and giving the mild cure; but if he tries to
keep such bacon into the summer months he must
keep it in cold storage. Tastes differ. Before pack-
ers created this taste for their mild cure of thin
bacon some tastes called for the rich old cure that
resulted in bacon that tickled their palates, even
after it hung in the kitchen or smokehouse all sum-
mer or fall.

The meat must be properly dressed and cooled
before going into the packing barrel or jar. The
receptacle must be so thoroughly cleaned, scalded
and disinfected as to be absolutely free from taint
or mold. One germ is enough to start ferment, or
the fresh meat may have lacked the clean handling
which is essential to highest success. Gilt-edged
ham and bacon, like gilt-edged butter, only comes
from proper handling of the meat from sound
liealthy properly-fed hogs. Eough handling of the
animal sometimes causes bruises, or twisting the
hind leg in scalding may break a ham bone and cause
the loss of the bruised cut or the injured ham; and
the ferment starting in these places may lead to in-
jury or taint of all the cuts in the pickle. Because
of this danger many have had better success in dry-
curing, in which process each cut is treated by itself
and its juices do not enter other cuts.

Electricity has been found so thoroughly to de-
stroy any germ that may enter the packing vat with

376 THE HOG BOOK

the meat that the meat will keep sweet indefinitely
and flies or ham beetles will not attack it. Unfor-
tunately the outfit costs too many hundreds of dol-
lars for farmers to adopt it. Salt enough will save
even carelessly-handled meat, but it may make the
finished product unpalatable and hard; hence the
need of a recipe to limit the salt and other ingre-
dients to the right amount.

THE RECIPE.

The recipe here given has proved adequate where
the packing vessel and meat are not at fault and are
kept at even and rather low temperature during the
curing: Well or cistern water pure enough to
drink will do for making brine. For every gallon
of water needed to cover the meat, add II/2 pounds
of salt, 1/2 pound of granulated or New Orleans su-
gar, 1/, ounce of saltpeter and l^ ounce of crude pot-
ash. The saltpeter is used to give a pink color to
meat. Crude potash is made from wood ashes, and
is not often carried by druggists, since concentrated
lye has become a staple form of potash for family
use. Potash breaks down fibre and is supposed to
make meat less hard that is saturated with salt.
Heat, skim and cool before pouring over the meat.
The meat must be weighted down before pouring on
the brine, and there must be enough brine to cover
the meat so the top layer may be at least an inch
under the surface of the brine. As evaporation will
reduce this, it is better to have the brine two inches
deep over the meat. The choice of a weight to hold

S-MOKING CURED MKATS 377

dowu the meat is important, as it is easy to intro-
duce a foreign substance that will affect the flavor
or start fermentation. Never use pine boards. If
any board is used to carry the weight let it be of oak
— some staves of a packing barrel. Scald the board
or weight to disinfect it thoroughly. We use vitrified
bricks, as they are easily kept clean and aseptic. If
stone is used, scour with a brush and scald it before
putting it on the meat. Leave the meat in the brine
five weeks, unless the hams are very heavy, in which
case leave another week. Bacon and lighter hams
may be lifted after four weeks, if a mild cure is de-
sired. IIea\y hams must have more time. Let the
meat hang in the smokehouse a day or so before
starting the smoke.

SmoJi'iug Ctired Meats. — Use hickory and corn
cobs to make smoke for the best flavor ; never permit
enough heat to make grease drip from the hams.
Low fires, smothered down, give best results. If the
smokehouse is fly-proof, the meat will keep as well
there as any place ; but a fly-proof smokehouse is so
rare that the meat must be covered before the flies
or ham beetles appear. Wrapped in paper free
from printer's ink, and slipped into a muslin sack
and hung in a cool place, they will be good until
used. Here is the rub: they will mold on the sur-
face. The only sure way to prevent that is to dip
in a preparation which prevents mold and evapora-
tion. This, we are unfortunately compelled to say,
has not yet been proved successful. It is there-
fore evident that we have a great deal to learn about

0/» THE HOG BOOK

the art of curing and preserving meats on the farm.
Here is an inviting field for some of our experiment
station people.

LIQUID SMOKE.

Liquid smoke may be satisfactory to some per-
sons, but if gilt-edged products are aimed at the
curer will take a little more time and smoke in as
low a temperature as possible to keep up a smoke
from sound hickory or sugar tree replenished with
corncobs as needed to keep a slow fire. Granting
that the liquid creosote is as palatable as that de-
rived from the smoke of sweet sound hickory, the
liquid cannot be applied as evenly with a brush as
with smoke.

Fried-down meat molds. To prevent mold and
injury by flies and ham beetles some housekeepers
slice, fry and pack in jars and cover with fryings
or melted lard. This is a success when there are no
airspaces left between the slices, as there will be if
the slices are allowed to cool and the lard is not hot
enough to fill between the slices. If the slices are
placed in the jar directly from the skillet and enough
hot lard poured over at once to cover the layer, the
lard will enter between the slices to exclude the air.
The loss of weight in hams, bacon and other cured
meats by evaporation varies from 5 to 20 per cent.
This shrinkage the consumer pays and it is one of
the inevitable losses which fortunately does not tell
of depreciation of the food value of the cut. The
covers of hams and bacon are inedible and expensive

RECORD ASSOCIATIONS 379

to the consumer and are of questionable value as
conservers of quality. The packer has yet to learn
how to cover his meats to prevent mold and shrink-
age. These coverings are tolerated by the consumer
as a necessity for protecting the meat against the
carelessness of middlemen and from ever-present
insects whose end seems to be to defile edibles and
spread disease.

Keeping Lard. — To prevent lard getting fatty
keep in a cool place and keep the surface of the lard
in the vessel as even as possible, free from pits or
holes which expose a large surface to the atmos-
phere. Pure hog's lard melts at a lower tempera
ture than compound lards in which stearin may be
used to prevent ready melting.

RECORD ASSOCIATIONS.

Following is a list of the associations which reg-
ister pure-bred hogs, and the names and addresses of
the secretaries :

American Berkshire Association — Frank S. Springer, Spring-
field, III.

American Chester White Record Association — Ernst Freigau,
Dayton, O.

American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Association — T. B
Pearson, Thorntown, Ind.

American Essex Association — F. M. Srout, McLean, 111.

American Poland-China Record Co. — W. M. McFadden, Pedi-
gree Record Building, Union Stock Yards, Chicago.

American Tamworth Swine Record Association — E. N. Ball,
East Lansing, Mich.

American Hampshire (Thin-Rind) Swine Record Associa-
tion— E. C. Stone, Armstrong, 111.

380 THE HOG BOOK

American Yorkshire Club — H. G. Krum, White Bear Lake,
Minn.

Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association — E. S. Hill, Freeville,
N. Y.

Improved Small Yorkshire Club of America — F. B. Stewart,
Espeyville, Pa.

National Chester White Record Association — Thos. Sharpless,
West Chester, Pa.

National Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Association — J. R.
Pfander, Peoria, 111.

National Mulefoot Hog Record Association — W. H. Morris,
Indianapolis, Ind.

National Poland-China Record Association — A. M. Brown,
Winchester, Ind.

0. I. C. Swine Breeders' Association — J. C. Hiles, Cleve-
land, O.

Standard Chester White Record Association — W. H. Morris,
Indianapolis, Ind.

Standard Poland-China Record Co. — George F. Woodworth,
Maryville, Mo.

Victoria Swine Breeders' Association — H. Davis, Dyer, Ind.

RATIONS IN MANY STATES.

In response to a letter sent to each agricultural
experiment station in the United States asking for
details of the most resultful and economical rations
for (1) weanling pigs, (2) brood sows during preg-
nancy and after farrowing, (3) boars prior to and
during service, and (4) fattening shotes up to 200
to 300 pounds, the following replies were received:

Florida. — By Prof. John M. Scott of the Florida Experiment
Station, Gainesville: The feeding of young pigs in Florida does
not differ much from the method followed in other states. The
Florida farmer has quite a variety of feeds to choose from.
Apart from the feed one of the first considerations for the suc-
cessful raising of pigs are cleanliness and healthfulness of the
place in which they live. This means supplying them with good
shade and water, running water by preference, during the sum-
mer season. A hog is no better than its surroundings. The
farmer who compels his pigs to live in a little filthy pen will pro-
duce only a few hogs and scrubby ones at that. After giving
the hog a good home supply it with plenty of good nutritious
feed. The feed for young growing pigs should be concentrated.
A pig has a comparatively small digestive tract, and cannot
handle bulky feeds to good advantage. For pigs weaned when
from 8 to 10 weeks old the fcllowing feed should prove satis-
factory for rapid gains; skimmilk, crushed corn and shorts, in
equal parts by weight. This is to be fed at the rate of about 1
pound of the mixture for every 10 pounds of live weight. Add
to this all of the green material the pigs will eat. As they be-
come older shelled corn or ear corn can be substituted for
crushed corn. Cowpeas, peanuts, ground velvet beans and soy-
beans will be found good substitutes for the skimmilk and shorts.

(381)

382 THE HOG BOOK

Of course the pigs should be supplied at all times with all the
green forage they will eat. For this purpose sorghum is one
of the best crops, for it comes on early in the spring and will
supply green feed until frost. Other good forage crops that
can be had during the summer, fall and winter are cowpeas,
corn, beggarweed and Dwarf Essex rape. The rape planted in
September will furnish grazing in from 8 to 10 weeks and should
continue to give good pasturage until about April 1. Japanese
cane will furnish an abundance of succulent feed from the mid-
dle of November until early in March.

In feeding green forage it should be remembered that it
cannot be used to replace all of the grain. In fact it will replace
but a small amount of grain. It will stimulate the appetite,
and keep the digestive organs in good working order, which
are two important considerations to keep in mind, if we are to
obtain good results in feeding.

Idaho. — By Prof. E. J. Iddings of the Idaho Experiment
Station, Moscow: The feeding of pigs should begin long before
weaning time. We have found it a good plan in Idaho to
start them to drinking skimmilk and nibbling at nubbins of
corn. As weaning-time approaches a good pasture of clover,
alfalfa or rape is provided and the pigs given all they will eat
of a grain ration. Shorts, middlings, barley, sifted oats, corn,
some tankage and feeding flour are excellent pig feeds. The
pigs have all the grain they care to eat along with the pasture
and are kept growing at the age when gains are secured most
cheaply.

We have had excellent results in wintering brood sows on
a steamed mixture of one-half alfalfa hay, one-fourth corn and
one-fourth barley. Summer pasture should form a large part of
a sow's ration. Bran, shorts, barley and tankage are excellent
concentrates for brood sows. During pregnancy the sow must
be well-fed but not fattened. After farrowing no feed must be
given for from 36 to 48 hours. After this period she should be
gradually brought to a full ration of nutritious milk-producing
feeds. A combination of barley and shorts with alfalfa pasture
has been found successful in Idaho.

During the last two years the Idaho station has tried out
a number of concentrated feeds for fattening hogs. The com-
bination found most successful consists of 2 parts barley, 4

THE DIETRICH SYSTEM 383

parts shorts, and Yj part digester tankage. In an extensive
experiment last winter tankage used as a supplement to shorts
and barley proved more economical than corn, peas or soybean-
meal used in similar capacity. In preparing this ration the
barley should be ground and the mixture fed wet. A 200-pound
pig will eat from 7 to 8 pounds daily of this feed.

Illixois. — By Prof. Wm. Dietrich of the Illinois Experiment
Station, Urbana: One must familiarize one's self with the na-
ture of the thing that is to be made, that is, the body of the hog,
and, second, the source from which the material for the structure,
that is, the feeds, are to be obtained. Pigs of all kinds need for
proper development of their bodies various materials such as
water, protein, corbohydrate, ether extract and mineral matter,
all of which are supplied in greater or smaller quantities by the
various natural farm feeds. Young and growing pigs need a
larger quantity of water, protein and mineral matter than do
mature hogs that are simply being maintained after having
been developed. It is evident, therefore, that the feeding should
be varied according to the age of the pigs in question. To take up
the other side, feeds are classified as roughages and concentrates,
and then accordiiig to the amount of the various nutrients, such
as water, protein and carbohydrate, that they contain. Green
feeds, such as clover, alfalfa, pumpkins and roots, that contain a
large percentage of water, are called succulent feeds. Feeds that
contain a smaller percentage of water, such as corn, oats, barley,
middlings and soybeans, are called dry feeds. Feeds that are
rich in protein, such as skimmilk, soybeans, peas, oilmeal and
tankage, are classified as nitrogenous concentrates and the rough-
ages; such as clover and alfalfa, that are rich in protein are
classified as nitrogenous roughages. Skimmilk besides being rich
in protein is also classified as a liquid, as it contains nearly 90
per cent water. In order to make up the best kind of ration for
pigs it should contain the right combination of water, protein
and carbohydrate, in accordance with the age of the pig and the
purpose for which it is being fed. Mature brood sov/s need not
be fed a very large quantity of protein, because they are not grow-
ing and need only enough for maintenance and for the produc-
tion of the offsrring. The latter need not be very great. A good
ration for mature brood sows, therefore, can be made from a
variety of carbohydrate feeds, such as corn, barley, oats and rye,

384 THE HOG BOOK

together with a considerable allowance of roughages, such as
clover and alfalfa. The latter if available will supply an abund-
ance of protein in such a case. Apart from this they should
have the required amount of water. This factor will take care
of itself during the summer season, if water is available. During
the winter season, however, in cold climates there is a tendency
for hogs not to drink water enough, consequently it must be fed
in the form of a .thin slop so that sufficient will be taken.

For about one week before and two or three weeks after far-
rowing the sow should be fed lightly. About a week before far-
rowing a decrease in the ration should be started, which should
be continued up until farrowing time, when very little feed
should be given. After farrowing the sow need have very little
if any feed the first day. Beginning with the second day a light
ration should be given which should be increased gradually dur-
ing two or three weeks' time, getting a mature sow on full feed
three or four weeks after farrowing and the young sow two or
three weeks. After this time during the suckling period when
the sow is producing a large quantity of milk a little more of the
protein feeds should be given. Young sows should be fed the
same as old sows, except that they should have a little more pro-
tein in their ration and possibly be fed a little more heavily.
Boars are fed the same as sows, but it is sometimes a very diffi-
cult matter to keep them on feed, especially during service.
Great care should at all times be exercised that all feeds are con-
sumed before the individual, whether it be boar or sow, leaves
the place of feeding.

Pigs usually learn to eat when they are four or five weeks
old, and can be allowed to eat with their dams. The ration at
this tinie should contain plenty of water, which will answer the
purpose for both brood sow and pig. After weaning time the
pigs should be divided. Those intended for breeding purposes
should not be fed quite so highly as those intended for market.
Furthermore, as the feeding period continues the market pigs
should have less water than the pigs intended for breeding pur-
poses. The only practical and scientific basis according to which
pigs should be fed is the digestible nutrients that enter into the
different feeds.

Young and growing pigs after weaning time need a compara-
tively large quantity of water. A practical solution of this prob-
lem, and without going into detail, is as follows: If all the grain

THE DIETRICH SYSTEM

385

feeds used are ground into a fine meal and mixed with the re-
quired amount of water that pigs should have at tliis time, it will
make a very thin slop of about the consistency of buttermilk. As
the pigs grow older the amount of water should be reduced; those
that are being fed for market should receive a slop of about the
consistency of a thick mush when the pigs are eight months old
and in prime condition. For those that are intended for breed-
ing purposes the amount of water is not reduced to so great an
extent and the slop will remain comparatively thin. Young and
growing pigs also need a considerable quantity of protein. This
being true, care should be taken not to feed them exclusively on
carbohydrate feeds, but be sure to include a considerable quantity
of protein feeds in the ration. The pigs should if possible have
free access to either clover or alfalfa, but since these are rough-
ages the pig cannot get enough of them into its small stomach to
furnish the necessary protein for maximum growth. It is there-
fore necessary to add a small quantity of some nitrogenous con-
centrate like milk, soybeans, peas, oilmeal and tankage. This
manner of feeding should be kept up during the growing period
or until the pig is about six months old. During the last two
months of the feeding period less protein, consequently less of
the nitrogenous feeds, need be given, and relatively more carbo-
hydrate feeds, such as corn, can be supplied to good advantage.

POUNDS OF FEED PER 100 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT PER DAY.

Feeds.

Age of pig in months.

Ground corn (fine) j 2.6

Soybean-meaUgTound fine). .8

Skim-milk 6.0

Water ! 6.6

2.8

6.0
5.1

3.0
1.0
6.0
3.8

3.2 3.3

6.0
2.6

6.0
1.4

3.0
.4
.0

2.6
.4
.0

5.5 1 4.0

It must be remembered also in this connection that one of
the easiest ways to spoil a pig is to overfeed it on protein feeds.
If a young pig during the third or fourth month of its life is
given all the milk it can drink, it is undoubtedlyibverfed on
protein, and will never thereafter make as good a feeder as it
■would had this not happened. The more highly concentrated

386 THE HOG ROOK

the protein feed, as for instance, soybeans, oilmeal and tankage,
the more carefully it should be handled. It should be fed in such
a manner that each individual pig of the bunch gets its portion
of the feed. As a sample of a practical ration for pigs that are
being fed from weaning time to eight months of age for market
the tabulation on the preceding page is given.

This of course is only one set of combinations from an innu-
merable number that might be suggested, and only a few feeds
out of a large number that are available.

Indiana. — By Prof, F. G. King of the Purdue Experiment
Station, Lafayette, Ind.: It is impossible to give a single ration
that would produce both the most rapid and the most economical
gains under all conditions. There are numerous combinations of
feeds that will produce a ration of practically the same value, so
far as rate of gain is concerned. On the other hand, the cost of
these feeds varies so much that some years one combination may
give the most economical gains while during other years another
combination would prove the most profitable. Neither is it neces-
sarily the case, however generally it may be true, that the ration
that will produce the most rapid gains will also produce them
most economically. With these facts in mind the rations them-
selves may be considered.

For the most rapid and economical gains on any class of
hogs a good leguminous pasture is essential. The best pasture
is clover when the heads are forming. This period in the life
of clover pasture is so short, however, that it cannot be seriously
considered. Alfalfa furnishes by far the best pasture for any
considerable length of time. Growing clover is not far behind
alfalfa. For a short time when the pods are ripening cowpeas
or soybeans furnish a pasture superior to either alfalfa or clover,
but it is the grain rather than the forage that produces the
good results with these two plants.

The feeding of sows during pregnancy and the feeding of a
breeding boar are so nearly the same that the ration to use for
best results with one can be used with equal success for the
other. The question of feeding, however, is so closely associ-
ated with that of management that it is hard to separate the
two, and Ae ration that will be the cheapest will not neces-
sarily be the most economical in the end. The most economical
as well as the most desirable results can be obtained only when

INDIANA RATIONS 387

good leguminous pasture is available. When such is the case, and
the sows are mature, a ration consisting of 2 pounds of corn
per 100 pounds live weight will give the most economical
results, and be as good as costlier rations. If the sows are not
mature the ration should be somewhat heavier and contain
8 per cent tankage or 12 per cent linseed oilmeal in addition
to the corn. When in drylot the ration should consist of grain
and what alfalfa or cowpea hay the hogs will eat. The grain
ration should consist of 6 parts corn, 3 parts shorts and 1 part
tankage in amounts varying from 2 to 4 pounds per 100 pounds
live weight, depending on the age and condition of the animal.
If no hay is available the ration should consist of Vs corn, %
ground oats and % shorts, into which mixture has been added
5 per cent tankage or 10 per cent linseed oilmeal. If milk is
available 1 part of corn to 2 parts of milk wall be equally desir-
able.

Pigs until they reach the weight of 100 to 125 pounds re-
quire a well-balanced mixed feed to give the most economical
as w^ell as the most rapid gains. A mixture of 2 parts of corn,
1 part of shorts and 6 parts of skimmilk will give the most
satisfactory results, provided skimmilk is available. If the milk
is not available a mixture of equal parts cornmeal and shorts
to which has been added 8 per cent tankage will be most
economical until the pig has reached the weight of approxi-
mately 60 pounds, when the proportion of cornmeal to shorts
should be changed to make the proportion 2 parts of the former
to 1 part of the latter, the percentage of tankage remaining the
same. Weanling pigs will usually eat about 4.5 pounds of this
mixture per 100 pounds live weight. The amount eaten in warm
weather will be slightly less than this, and also the amount
consumed per 100 pounds live weight will gradually decrease
as the pigs get larger. The substitution of linseed oilmeal for
tankage gives practically as good results, except that the amount
of linseed fed will have to be twice as much as when tankage
is used.

After pigs have reached the weight of 125 pounds the best
ration to use depends primarily on the cost of feeds and the
availability of pasture. Leguminous pasture is a requisite of
the fastest and cheapest gains. On clover or alfalfa pasture
the most rapid gains can probably be made with a mixture of
corn 10 parts, shorts 5 parts and tankage 1 part, but in order for

388 THE HOG BOOK

this ration to be tlie most economical, corn must be worth
more than 50 cents per bushel. With corn from 40 to 50 cents
per bushel the best ration would be corn 15 parts and tankage
1 part or oilmeal 2 parts. With corn below 40 cents per bushel
and supplementary feeds at present prices corn alone would
give the most economical results. The amounts of the feed
consumed daily per 100 pounds live weight will be about 4
pounds at the early part of the feeding period, to be gradually
decreased as the hogs get fat. With a ration of corn alone
slightly smaller amounts than of the mixed feed will be con-
sumed.

When the hogs are in a drylot a mixture 6 parts of corn,
3 parts shorts and 1 part tankage will give best results, when
corn is worth more than 50 cents per bushel; otherwise corn
and tankage will be most economical. The amount of tank-
age fed daily should be ^^ of a pound until the hogs weigh
150 pounds, when it should be gradually increased to % of a
pound daily per hog with corn fed to the limit of the appe-
tite. If skimmilk is available at 15 cents per 100 pounds a ration
of 1 part corn to 3 parts of milk will give the fastest gains,
but milk is not available for most hog feeders in the cornbelt.

Iowa. — By Prof. W. J. Kennedy of the Iowa Experiment Sta-
tion, Ames: There is no one best ration for any class of animals.
Locality and cost of feedstuffs are important factors. Every
animal requires certain proportions of the various food nutrients
to meet its needs. These proportions vary with the age and
purpose for which the animal is kept. Economy is a very impor-
tant factor in the ration of all market animals, but other things
are fully as important in the case of breeding stock. The results
of five years' work at the Iowa station in feeding weanlitig pigs
for market and breeding purposes indicate that where good
clover pasture, alfalfa pasture or mixed forage crops are avail-
able nothing gives much better results than the pasture, ear
corn and plenty of pure water. This seems to furnish a very
good balanced ration, all of which is home-grown. Where protein
forage crops are not available, some form of protein supple-
mental feed, such as oilmeal, shorts or the packinghouse by-
products, should be added to the corn ration. Pigs averaging
33.4 pounds on June 4, fed on ear corn and clover pasture till
Oct. 8 and on ear corn 10 parts, meatmeal 1 part and clover pas-

IOWA FEEDING METHODS 389

ture till Nov. 16, made an average daily gain of 1.12 pounds at a
cost of $3.49 per cwt. Corn was 50 cents per bushel, meatmeal
|45 per ton and clover pasture $6 per acre.

For pigs weighing 200 to 300 pounds soaked shelled corn 8
parts and meatmeal 1 part give good results in drylot feeding.
This ration has produced very heavy daily gains and very eco-
nomical gains. For pigs weighing 100 to 150 pounds during Sep-
tember and the early part of October the most economical gains
have been secured by ''hogging down" corn. A very good bal-
anced ration was obtained on lots in which either cowpeas or
soybeans had been planted with the corn. On these lots the
gains were made at a cost of less than $2.60 per cwt. Where
corn alone was planted the addition of 2/3 of a pound of meat-
meal per pig per day gave very much better returns than where
corn alone was fed. We heartily commend the practice of "hog-
ging down" corn to every man producing hogs in the cornbelt. It
is the most economical way to produce pork on an Iowa farm.

Brood sows during pregnancy should receive rations fairly
rich in protein. This is especially true in the case of gilts or
one-year-old sows. During the past three years a great deal of
work has been done at the Iowa station along these lines. Corn
alone and cowi combined with some ten other combinations of
feedstuffs have been used. One of the most satisfactory ra-
tions used, both from the standpoint of economy and the weight
and strength of pigs produced, was composed of ear corn 7I/2
parts and meatmeal 1 part. Five gilts fed on this ration far-
rowed 44 pigs. Vigor of pigs at birth: 41 strong, 2 medium, 1
weak. Condition of pigs at birth: 1 prime, 12 choice, 22 good, 7
medium and 2 fair. At weaning time, when the pigs were eight
weeks old, there were 35 live pigs. The same ration was fed
during the suckling period. It would have been better if the corn
had been ground and soaked during the suckling period. This
would have increased the palatability of the ration, and the sows
would have eaten more. During the suckling period the more
the sow eats of the right kind of feed the more milk she will
give; hence the heavier the pigs.

The boar should be fed on a ration containing a liberal al-
lowance of protein. Corn should not constitute more than half
of the grain fed. A ration composed of wheat shorts 4 parts,
corn 4 parts, and oilmeal 1 part is a good one. For a full-grown
boar corn 3 parts, oats 3 parts, shorts 3 parts and meatmeal or

390 THE HOG BOOK

tankage 1 part will give good results. When the boar is fed a
liberal protein ration and allowed plenty of exercise, and the
sows are fed a ration similar to the one described, our experi-
ence indicates that the sows are much more likely to settle to
the first service than when corn constitutes the whole ration or
even three-fourths of the ration of the sows.

Kansas. — By Prof. P. N. Flint of the Kansas Experiment
Station, Manhattan: Just before weaning and after farrow-
ing is a very critical period in a pig's life. It is easy at this
time to stunt a pig by injudicious feeding and care. There is
just as much danger in overfeeding a pig as in underfeeding,
or in giving feed of an improper character. Whenever skim-
milk is available it should be fed to pigs of this age because
it furnishes nutrients for growth in a very palatable and nutri-
tious form. Along with skimmilk, a concentrate ration com-
posed of equal parts by weight of cornmeal and wheat middlings
is resultful in producing growth. Better still is a ration com-
posed of equal parts of cornmeal, ground oats (free from
hulls), wheat middlings and skimmilk. If skimmilk is not
available a mixture composed of 30 pounds of ground oats, 30
pounds of wheat middlings, 30 pounds of cornmeal and 10
pounds of oilmeal is excellent. The oilmeal keeps the diges-
tive organs in good condition and imparts a healthy appearance
to the skin and hair. The pigs should be started on this ration
when three or four weeks of age, so that they will learn to eat
before weaning, and if they are being developed for breeding
purposes this ration may be fed until they reach a weight of
from 250 to 300 pounds. However, it is more economical to
provide alfalfa, bluegrass or clover pasture and feed about one-
half of a full feed of the grain mixture. If the end in view
is the production of pork, it is more economical to leave out
the oats and oilmeal, after the pigs reach the age of three or
four months, and feed a half of a full feed of the concentrates
in addition to pasture until the finishing period begins. Per-
haps the most economical ration for pigs that are being devel-
oped for the market is one of an alfalfa, bluegrass or clover
pasture and a half of a full feed of ear corn until the pigs
reach a weight of 150 pounds, after which they should be fed a
full feed of ear or shelled corn, in addition to pasture or some
of the legume hays. If it happens that the pigs have not made

KANSAS FEEDING METHODS 391

a good growth on the pasture and corn ration, better results
will follow, when fattening, to furnish a variety ration com-
posed of a mixture of 62 pounds of ground corn, 30 pounds of
shorts and 8 pounds of tankage. On account of the increased
cost of producing gains after the 200-pound mark is reached,
and also because pigs of that weight will bring top prices, it
does not pay to feed them to a weight of 300 pounds or more.
Even hogs that are being finished will usually make greater
gains if fed some protein feed in addition to corn, and alfalfa
or clover hay or pasture is perhaps the cheapest source of pro-
tein.

During pregnancy and after farrowing, the brood sow should
be kept in good thrifty condition, but this condition should not
be the result of heavy corn feeding. She needs protein and min-
eral matter to develop the foetus and young after birth, as well
as to maintain her own body. Good pastures or legume hays
should be the first consideration in feeding the brood sows be-
cause they furnish the nutrients in the cheapest form. Skim-
milk holds the same important place as a feed for the brood
sow that it does for the growing pig. A ration composed of
equal parts of ground corn, shorts and bran should be fed in
quantities suflScieht to keep her in good thrifty condition. Dur-
ing the early ^ages of pregnancy the concentrate feeds may
compose a very small part of the ration, say 2 to 4 pounds per
day, depending on the quality of the pasture, but as farrowing
time approaches the amount fed may be as high as 6 or 7 pounds
per day. After farrowing, and when the pigs begin to take a
great deal of nourishment, the concentrates may be increased to
from 7 to 10 pounds per day, depending on the size of the sow
and litter. In order to insure a good strong litter the sow and
boar should be thrifty and in good condition at the time of
service. The mistake is often made of keeping the boar in a
small yard or pen. Whenever possible he should have the run
of a pasture. During the breeding season he needs strength-
producing feed and his ration should not be different from
that of a brood sow during pregnancy. All hogs that are being
kept in pens where there is not much chance to graze should
be given access to boxes or troughs containing salt, charcoal,
lime and bonemeal, and it is best if each of these is placed
in separate compartments so that the animal can select accord-
ing to its appetite.

392 THE HOG BOOK

Since conditions vary with localities, it is not necessary to
feed exactly as here set forth. Roots may be substituted for
bran, and barley, milo and Kaffir-corn may be substituted for
corn. Cowpeas, soybeans and peanuts will take the place of
any of the protein feeds to supplement corn. The great thing
to bear in mind is that successful pork production means the
utilizing of forage crops so far as possible.

Louisiana. — By Prof. W. R. Dodson, Director of the Louisi-
ana Experiment Station, Baton Rouge: At the time the pigs
raised for meat are weaned they are grazing with their mothers
on fall-sown oats, for the fall litters, and on Bermuda for spring
litters. We feed them rice polish at the rate of % to 1 pound
per day per pig, with a very small quantity of corn. Brood
sows are maintained principally on Bermuda grass in the spring
and summer, on oats in the fall and early winter, and red clover
in the late winter and early spring. Boars are kept on Ber-
muda grass sod during the entire summer and fed a small
quantity of rice polish, wheat bran and corn, varying the mix-
ture and amounts to suit requirements. During the winter they
have but little pasturage and are fed corn, rice polish and root
crops. Fall litters of pigs go onto red clover about the middle
of February, and are grazed on this crop until about June 1,
depending on circumstances, and are fed approximately at the
rate of 1 pound of corn per day for each 100 pounds of animal.
From the clover they go onto Bermuda grass and are fed rice
polish at the rate of 1 pound per day to each 100 pounds of ani-
mal. In August they go with March and April pigs onto cow-
peas and corn grown together and allowed to eat at will. About
Sept. 15 they go onto peanuts at will and are fed about %
pound of corn per day per 100 pounds of animal. About
Nov. 1 the pigs go onto sweet potatoes and are fed rice polish,
cottonseed-meal and corn at approximately the ratio of 2 parts
of polish, 2 parts of corn, and 1 part of cottonseed-meal, feed-
ing about 11^ pounds per animal. The cottonseed-meal is not
fed more than three weeks without an interruption, and the
hogs are fed corn and polish only for about 10 days before they
are put on the market. This gives us one set of hogs a little
over a year old and one set about eight or nine months old,
and permits us to furnish the maximum amount of the cheap-
est feed at the time they reach their maximum capacity of con-

MARYLAND AND MICHIGAN RATIONS 393

sumption. Also it enables us to rotate crops so as to have some-
thing growing on the land almost continually both winter and
summer. In this way we can produce from 600 to 1,000 pounds
of pork per acre per year.

Maryland. — By Prof. A. L. Stabler of the Maryland Experi-
ment Station, College Park, Md.: Wheat middlings is an excel-
lent feed as the basis of a ration for young pigs. Where the
pigs can run on pasture, and milk is available, a slop made of
1 to 3 pounds of milk for each pound of middlings is a suitable
mixture. If no milk is at hand we may expect to get good
results by feeding 1 pound of linseed-meal to 6 pounds of middlings
mixed with water to make a thick slop. Brood sows which are
pregnant should above all have some succulent feed which may
well be grass or roots. An orchard where they have pasture and
get the windfalls is an ideal place. A light ration of 1 pound of
bran to 1 pound of middlings fed as slop in sufficient quantity
to keep the sows gaining weight will be found a simple but good
combination. If desired corn may be fed but should be given
sparingly. When a sow is on full feed after farrowing a good
mixture is the following: 3 pounds each of cornmeal and mid-
dlings, and 1 pound each of bran and linseed-meal. The boar's
feed may be similar to that for pregnant sows. During periods
of service the proportion of middlings should be increased. For
fattening shotes the following are all good: corn with pasture;
corn, 2 pounds and middlings and linseed-meal each 1 pound;
or corn, 8 pounds and tankage 1 pound. Pasture, either of
legumes or other grasses, and dairy by-products make valuable
additions to any of these rations. Always give hogs charcoal,
ashes and salt.

Miciiig\x. — By Prof. R. S. Shaw, Director of the Michigan
Experiment Station, East Lansing: It is well to have wean-
ling pigs on feed before separation from their mothers. Be-
gin by offering some sweet skimmilk in a separate inclosure
at three or four weeks of age; then begin to add a little mid-
dlings, gradually increasing the amount till 1 pound is used
along with 3 or 4 pounds of milk. After a few days add corn-
meal until that and the middlings are used in equal propor-
tions. Later corn may be fed whole. If skimmilk is not avail-
able, add 1 pound of tankage to each 5 pounds of middlings and

394

THE HOG BOOK

cornmeal and add water. Skimmilk is very . desirable for the
start at least.

The best place for the pregnant brood sow in winter is in
the barnyard working over the manure for her living in part
unless there is too much corn in the manure, or the yards are
too crowded with animals likely to injure her. The general
farmyard is of course preferred to the feedlot. In addition to
feed thus secured, supply a suitable quantity of a mixture in
equal parts of bran, ground oats and corn or wheat or barley.
She will relish in addition a few mangels, carrots or beets daily.
During the summer she should procure her maintenance feed"
from forage crops, such as clover, alfalfa and rape. The feed
mixture already given may be used in such quantity as condi-
tions require.

During early life, the boar should have as much freedom
as possible and suitable feed to produce a strong, vigorous,
growthy condition devoid of fat. Prior to and during' the breed^
ing season provide some succulent feed if possible as green
clover, alfalfa or roots. For concentrates middlings or bran,
ground oats and ground wheat make a very desirable combina-
tion mixed in equal parts.

Shotes may be finished on corn, barley or wheat in a
combination with a nitrogenous concentrate such as tankage,
forming at least one-tenth of the ration. Of the three grains
corn is preferable because of its greater palatability. Ft is hard
to keep hogs on a long feed successfully, when wheat or bar-
ley forms the bulk of the ration. When these grains are used
it is desirable to mix them with corn where possible.

Missot-Ri.— By Prof. F. B. Mumford, Director of the Missouri
Experiment Station, Columbia: We have found a mixture of 6
parts of corn to 1 of linseed oilmeal to be a very 'satisfactory
grain ration for weanling pigs on rape, alfalfa or clover pasture.
The same ration may be fed to brood sows during pregnancy
and at farrowing time. The cost of feeding pigs and sows may
be reduced about one-half by depending largely on clover, rape
or alfalfa pasture. It is not too much to claim that when pork
is 5. cents a pound and corn 50 cents a bushel it is not profitable
to feed hogs in a drylot. It may be very profitable to feed the
same hogs under similar conditions if on pasture. The most
profitable ration that has been fed at this station to fattening

MONTANA HOG RATIONS 395

hogs has been shelled corn, fed to hogs weighing from 100 to 200
pounds on clover pasture. We have determined that the most
economical method of utilizing the clover and corn is to feed
just enough corn to cause the hogs to gain % of one pound
each per head per day. If fattening hogs weighing 100 pounds
each at the beginning are to be pastured on clover the amount
of corn fed during May and June should be 2 pounds per day
per head, during July 3 pounds and during August 4 to 5
pounds per head per day.

Montana. — By Prof. Frederick B. Linfield, Director of the
Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman; In our northwestern
mountainous country there are certain natural conditions which
in a measure determine the feeds we can give to our stock. In
the higher valleys particularly corn is not a profitable grain
crop, but barleys, both the brewing and huUess varieties, do very
well. The only grain by-products are shorts and bran. Alfalfa
and the clovers do well, and so do roots of various kinds. Bar-
ley will vary from 80 cents to $1.25 per 100 pounds. Bran and
shorts will vary from 90 cents to $1 per 100 pounds. On this
basis of local food supply our best ration for weanling pigs is
shorts and skimmilk, fed in the proportion of 1 pound of shorts
to 4 or 5 pounds of skimmilk. As the pigs increase in size
ground hulless barley may be substituted for a part of the shorts.
For brood sows during pregnancy and after farrowing the method
of feeding during the winter has been to give plenty of roughage,
as roots and alfalfa hay, with a light grain ration, sufficient to
keep the sow in a good thrifty condition with ample flesh, but
not fat. After farrowing the grain is increased, usually feeding
a mixture of barley, bran, shorts and some skimmilk, if avail-
able. Roots and alfalfa are provided as a side dish. In the sum-
mer the ration is not very different from that of the winter,
except that pasture is substituted for the roughage. The boars
are fed very similarly to the sows, giving them plenty of rough-
age, as alfalfa and roots, with enough grain (barley, bran and
shorts) to keep them in good condition.

In fattening shotes our experience has been that an exclu-
sive grain ration was not satisfactory. In addition to the grain
some supplemental feed was needed to get rapid and economical
gains. Skimmilk with grain has given us the best returns.
Next to this come pasture and roots, and :f they are not avail-

■^^^ THE HOG BOOK

able we use alfalfa or clover, both of which are dependable crops
in various parts of the state.

We have usually fed about 3 pounds of skimmilk to 1 pound of
grain, though to the larger hogs the proportion of grain to 2
parts of skimmilk is frequently a mixture used. The grain fed
IS usually ground barley, bran and shorts, the proportions vary-
ing with the price, but usually one-fourth to one-half of the ra-
tion of the bran and shorts. With this ration the hogs weighing
150 pounds usually eat from 5 to 6 pounds of grain a day and
12 to 15 pounds skimmilk, and they will gain from 1% to ''
pounds per day, using about 3 pounds of grain and gi/. pounds
of skimmilk for each pound of gain.

In feeding roots or alfalfa the animals are permitted to
eat what they will of them, and we give them at the same time
all the grain they will eat. A 150-pound hog will usually eat
5 to 6 pounds of grain a day, about 1 to ^ pounds of roots,
and 1 to 3 pounds of alfalfa. It will gain from 1 to ly^ pounds
per day, and requires about 3% pounds of grain and 1 to 2
pounds of roots or 1 to 2% pounds of alfalfa for each pound of
gain.

NEBRASKA.-By Prof. E. A. Burnett, Director of the Nebraska
Experiment Station, Lincoln, Neb.: The mature sow is gener-
ally fed too much rather than too little during pregnancy, espe-
cially in winter. Some corn may be fed, but it should not be
the principal ration. Mature sows turned on alfalfa pasture
after weaning their litter will gain about % pound per day on
pasture alone. If they are not to farrow fall litters this is quite
sufficient, and they will come up to breeding time in the fall in
the best possible condition. The farmer with alfalfa hay of
good quality has the problem solved. Here is the programme-
One bushel of shelled corn daily for about 15 brood sows and all
the good alfalfa they will eat, a field of winter wheat or rye
a dry bed, and room for exercise. Watch the herd and vary
the ration so that they will come to farrowing time in nice
smooth condition. Farmers not favored with high-grade alfalfa
hay should feed light grain rations of oats, shorts and corn-
not more than half corn. Whole grain should be fed on a feed-
ing floor and not wet in a trough, as hogs bolt whole grain and
do not properly grind it when fed wet in a trough.

At the North Platte station brood sows were wintered in

NEBRASKA FEEDING METHODS 397

1909 and in 1910 on 10 bushels of corn and 600 pounds of alfalfa
hay each, from Nov. 1 until farrowing time, or about 2 bushels
of shelled corn daily for 25 brood sows. The hay was fed in
racks. These sows gained 112 pounds during the winter, and
weighed 430 pounds at farrowing. They farrowed an average
of 9.S pigs and weaned an average of 6.5 pigs. These pigs were
brought to a weight of 50 pounds at a cost of $2.25 each or
$4.50 per 100 pounds. This, however, is above the average cost
of pigs at 50 pounds. When both old and young sows are in-
cluded this cost has been about $2.13 each, or $4.26 per 100
pounds.

Gilts must be fed more generously. From breeding time
to farrowing they should receive nearly a full i-ation, but this
should be made up of such feeds that they will not become over-
fat. At our North Platte station in 1909 and 1910 25 gilts were
bred each winter, and were fed a ration of y^ chopped alfalfa
hay and % grain. The grain was one-half barley and one-half
corn. They got 3 pounds daily for each 100 pounds of their live
weight. In January the ration was decreased, because the pigs
were getting too fat. These gilts came to farrowing time weigh-
ing 310 pounds each, farrowing an average of eight pigs and
weaning six pigs each. They were fleshy enough to have gone
to market, but had no corn fat on them and none of them suf-
fered from over-fatness. They shrank 39 pounds each while
suckling.

After farrowing, the sow should have no heating feed for
several days — nothing but water for the first 24 hours, but plenty
of water to allay fever. A warm house in which the pigs do
not chill is important. Most sows are best let alone and not
worried by an attendant. The pen should have guards to keep
the sows from lying on their pigs. Cut the bedding if possible
and use but little. Feed only a light ration for two or three
weeks. At the slightest appearance of scours or of thumps cut
the feed off from the sow. As a ration, use shorts 50 pounds,
ground barley or corn 40 pounds and 10 pounds of oilmeal to
make 100 pounds of feed. Add shelled corn after two weeks and
increase it when the pigs begin to draw heavily on the sow. Do
not limit the feed of the sow during the latter part of her suck-
ling period. Our records show that the cheapest pork is pro-
duced while the pig is sucking, and it should be given a good
start and a full dinner pail. Do not hurry to wean it unless

398 THE HOG BOOK

you must rebreed the sow. Pigs which suck 12 weeks have an
advantage over those which sack eight weeks. When ready to
wean the pigs should be eating a full ration from their own
troughs. Take the feed away from the sow, and allow her to
go dry before completely shutting the pigs away; then take the
sow from the pigs and give her good pasture. After she has
recovered a little from the heavy strain of suckling the litter,
cut off all grain. She doubtless feels like the mother of many
a large and hungry brood. She is ready for a long rest. Only
mature sows should raise two litters per year, and when re-
quired to do this some grain should be fed continually and the
sow kept in higher flesh than where she raises but one litter.

New Hampshire.— By Prof. J. C. Kendall, Director of the
New Hampshire Experiment Station, Durham, N. H.: The
brood sow should be compelled to take exercise. Her feed
should be such as to keep her in good flesh, not fat, and to
supply a sufficient amount of proteids to make possible a full
and proper development of the foetus. Just before farrowing
the sow should be in sufficient flesh and condition to withstand
the unusual strain of farrowing, and the subsequent feeding
of her litter with the least tax to her constitution. The feed
supply should be reduced in quantity just previously to far-
rowing, and be of a laxative nature, such as is to be found
In roots, small amounts of alfalfa grass or hay, wheat bran or
small amounts of linseed-meal. For a day previously to farrow-
ing the sow should receive only a thin slop of wheat middlings.
The first two or three days after farrowing the sow should
be fed sparingly of some appetizing feed like skimmilk con-
taining some bran or preferably wheat middlings or ground
oats. If possible the sow should receive skimmilk after
farrowing and liberal quantities of middlings, ground oats,
cowpeas, oilmeal or other milk-stimulating feeds. They must
be liberally fed at this time or the young pigs will not thrive.

During the growing season a cheap and efficient ration may
be made up of about 2 pounds of grain per cwt, consisting of
1% pounds of cornmeal or its equivalent of ear corn and i/o
pound of wheat bran or middlings, the rest of the feed to be de-
rived from clover, alfalfa or other leguminous pasture. During
the winter the brood sow may be fed per 100 pounds of live
weight, 8 pounds of skimmilk and 3 pounds of cornmeal, or 1%

NEW HAMPSHIRE RATION'S 399

pounds of cornmeal and 2\2 pounds of middlings as slop, sup-
plemented with roots and cut alfalfa or clover hay.

When not over three weeks old the pigs should be encour-
aged to eat by providing them with a little whole milk or skim-
milk containing some ground oats or middlings in a small shal-
low trough accessible only to them. The weaning should be a
gradual process for the benefit of both the pigs and sow. There
is nothing better for young pigs than skimmilk to keep them
growing and in a healthy condition. Feed not over 4 pounds of
skimmilk to 1 pound of grain and not over 3 pounds to 1 pound
of grain when on good leguminous pasture, grain to consist of
2 parts cornmeal and 1 part wheat middlings. Grass should be
supplied for summer and leguminous hay, roots or silage, during
winter. Plenty of exercise for the growing pigs is essential at
all times.

Shotes should be so grown that they will be in the best of
health when the forcing season arrives. They should possess
good digestion and a strong healthy muscular framework upon
which to construct the finished carcass. Sixty days in which
to condition the hog should be a sufficient time if properly done.
Restrict exercise, decrease gradually all bulky feed, reduce
the amount of -protein feed and increase the amount of carbo-
hydrates. Grain should be ground and in such condition that it
will require the least energy possible to digest it. Pouring
boiling water on cornmeal or corn and cob meal makes one of
the best and most economical feeds for putting fat on a hog.
Feed as much as the animal will eat three times a day; pro-
vide charcoal and salt where the hogs may eat it at will.

Boars should be fed and cared for in much the same man-
ner as brood sows. It is of the utmost importance that they
take plenty of exercise and do not become too fat. A summer
ration should consist of pasture or other green feed supple-
mented with the grain mixture of wheat bran, shorts and corn-
meal equal parts by weight, amount to depend on the kind and
quality of pasture. Boars should be provided with warm com-
fortable quarters with yard adjoining where they should be com-
pelled to take exercise. Succulent feed should be supplied in
the form of roots, clover or alfalfa hay. If plenty of rough-
age of a leguminous nature is supplied V/j pounds of corn-
meal and ^2 pound of wheat middlings in the form of a soft

400 THE HOG BOOK

warm mash, per 100 pounds of live weight, should keep the boar
in good condition.

New York. — By Prof. H. H. Wing, Cornell University Ex-
periment Station, Ithaca: For weanling pigs we consider the
ideal ration skimmilk supplemented with cornmeal and wheat
middlings. If the pigs have been well suckled they will do
very well on 1 pound of the grain mixture to 8 or 10 pounds
of milk. As the pigs increase in size the proportion of grain
may be increased until, when the pigs weigh 100 pounds, they
can use economically 1 pound of grain to 5 pounds of milk.
If the pigs are to be fattened for market, for fancy, light pork,
the grain mixture should be: equal parts by weight of corn-
meal and middlings, up to the time the pigs weigh 50 pounds,
and after that clear cornmeal can be used. If the pigs are to
be grown to a large size or are to be raised for breeding stock
the proportion of wheat middlings should never be less than
%, and it may be from % to % by weight. The ideal ration
for brood sows before farrowing is to furnish them enough
good clover or alfalfa hay so that the part that remains un-
eaten will afford them ample bedding. In addition to this they
should have what they will eat readily of mangels or carrots,
and this may be supplemented with sufficient grain to keep the
sow in good thrifty condition. A good grain mixture is 60 pounds
of wheat middlings, 30 pounds of cornmeal and 10 pounds of lin-
seed oilmeal. After farrowing, the sow should have a slop and,
if it is available, there is nothing better than skimmilk for this.
If skimmilk is not available the same grain mixture that was
used before farrowing can be used, made into a slop thin enough
BO that it will run freely. For service boars the grain mixture
recommended for sows can be used, but it is not nearly so neces-
sary or even desirable that boars should have so much sloppy
feed, and it is perhaps desirable that they should eat their grain
dry or nearly so, and drink what water they need by itself, taking
care that the bowels are kept in good condition. For fattening
shotes there is nothing better than cornmeal and skimmilk, using
1 pound of cornmeal to 4 or 5 of skimmilk, fed with great regu-
larity all the animals will eat up clean three times a day. If
skimmilk is not available, 10 pounds of digester tankage to 100
of cornmeal or 70 pounds of cornmeal, 20 pounds of wheat
middlings and 10 pounds of linseed oilmeal will make a satisfac-

NORTH CAKOLINA RATIONS 401

tory ration, except that the oilmeal should be cut out for at
least three weeks before slaughtering. I do not believe that tha
skillful feeder of swine can depend on weighed amounts of feed,
since the individual capacity of hogs varies widely, and since
they grow and develop rapidly. The rations given are of course
intended very largely for New York conditions, where hogs are
kept confined or in rather small yards and where skimmilk
rather than corn forms the basal ration.

North Carolina. — By Prof. R. S. Curtis of the North Caro-
lina Experiment Station, West Raleigh: In the southern states
the methods used in feeding weanling pigs, breeding stock and
fattening hogs are not radically different from the methods and
feeds used in other sections of the country. This is especially
true as to weanling pigs. The large breeders and feeders espe-
cially of pure-bred swine use a ration for weanling pigs com-
posed of cornmeal, wheat middlings and in certain cases digester
tankage and skimmilk, when it can be obtained at a reasonable
figure. The ration used on the experiment station farm for
weanling pigs consists of cornmeal l^ pound, wheat middlings i/4
pound and tankage Vs of ^ pound, the whole mixed with water
or skimmilk, if it can be obtained. Soaked wheat can be used
to good advantage, and later corn, when the pigs are large
enough to crack it. It is the aim always to furnish pasture, such
as rye, oats, rape, or the latter two combined, cowpeas, soybeans
and vetch. A large variety of these green crops can be grown,
the kind depending on local conditions.

Brood sows during pregnancy are fed with a mixture of
cornmeal 2 pounds, wheat middlings 1.25 pounds, wheat bran ^4
pound and linseed meal i^ of a pound. This ration will supply
a large mature sow. Pasture such as already suggested is given
in connection with this ration, also a small amount of ear corn.
After farrowing this same ration is used. It is increased grad-
ually, however, to 7 or 8 pounds, depending on the size of the
sow and the number of pigs farrowed. Boars prior to service
are fed the same ration as the brood sows prior to farrowing.
During service the quantity of the ration is increased about
one-half.

Fattening shotes, weighing from 200 to 300 pounds, can be
fattened on a ration of 6 pounds of ear corn, % pound of tank-
age, and grazing crops such as peanuts, mature cowpeas or soy-

402 THE HOG BOOK

beans and sweet potatoes. This ration has been used very suc-
cessfully. There is a great variation in the kind and quantity
of feeds used throughout the state. Much depends on the finan-
cial condition of the farmer, and the number of hogs kept.
Where only a few hogs are raised for fattening purposes, kitchen
refuse, grazing crops and corn largely are used. With the breed-
ers of pure-bred stock, however, more of the wheat by-products,
tankage and skimmilk are used.

Oregon. — By Prof. James Withycombe, Director of the Oregon
Experiment Station, Corvallis: A weaning pig should have
6 pounds of some grain equivalent, preferably middlings, to each
100 pounds live weight. A better ration, if available, would be 4
pounds of grain and 10 pounds of skimmilk, or ^2 pound of tank-
age to each 100 pounds live weight. Brood sows will do well
on good pasture of clover, alfalfa, rape and the like for the first
two months of pregnancy without grain; the next month pasture
should be supplemented with 1 pound of grain for each 100
pounds live weight; during the last month 3 pounds of grain
for each 100 pounds live weight. During the first week after
farrowing they should be fed lightly, then gradually increase
the feed up to 4 pounds of grain to each 100 pounds live weight.

Boars while growing and during service should receive 5
pounds of grain for each 100 pounds live weight.

Fattening shotes will require approximately 5 pounds of
grain for each 100 pounds live weight. Supplemental feed of
skimmilk or tankage will be very helpful.

Pennsylvania. — By Prof. W. A. Cochel of the Pennsylvania
State College, State College, Pa.: A profitable brood sow is al-
most invariably quite thin when her pigs are weaned, even when
heavily fed. In order that she may produce large litters it is
advisable to have her gaining in weight when bred, and to con-
tinue this development throughout pregnancy. Care should be used
to see that she does not become too fat and inactive, which will
cause her to kill her pigs, either by accident or design, at farrow-
ing time. During summer a good clover or alfalfa field wherein
there is an abundance of shade and water would be an ideal
place for her. At this time she should be given a sufficient
amount of corn to get her in best possible condition for farrow-
ing. In winter it is a problem to feed in such manner as to

PENNSYLVANIA IL-\TIONS 403

satisfy her appetite witliout causing her to become too fat. An
excellent method is to feed from l\-> pounds of bran or middlings,
with access to all the bright clover or alfalfa hay cut at an
early stage which she will consume. Add to this a sufficient
amount of corn to get her in proper condition for farrowing.
After farrowing she should not be given anything but water
for 24 to 36 hours, when a thin slop of bran and middlings should
be fed for a couple of days, after which corn may be added. At
the end of two weeks she should be given a full feed of a ration
made up of equal parts by weight of corn, bran and middlings,
which may be continued until the pigs are weaned. Any evi-
dence of scouring on the part of pigs should be regulated imme-
diately by reducing the feed of the sow.

Corn is undoubtedly the most efficient and generally the
cheapest feed that can be used for fattening purposes. Its de-
ficiency in both protein and mineral matter is easily overcome by
the use of feeds rich in these ingredients. The results secured at
various experiment stations throughout the United States indi-
cate that skimmilk is the best supplement to corn for fattening
purposes. The amount of supplement used should be governed
by the age and condition of the hog and the supply of milk.
Young hogs- or those that are very thin should be fed approxi-
mately 10 gallons of skimmilk to each bushel of corn; as they
fatten the proportion of milk should be reduced to 6 or 7 gallons
per bushel of corn. Under ordinary farm conditions, exclusive
of dairy sections, such a ration is impracticable. If buttermilk
can be secured regularly it will make the next best supplement
and should be fed the same as skimmilk. When neither of these
by-products is available tankage or meat meal containing 60
per cent protein is the most efficient supplement at prevailing
prices. It should be fed at the beginning of the feeding period
at the rate of 6 pounds per bushel of corn. The proportion of
corn can be increased as the hogs fatten until only 4 pounds of
tankage is fed to each bushel. These rations are recommended
for drylot or winter feeding. In summer when there is an
abundance of clover the amount of supplement can be reduced
one-half, as the forage crops will largely replace it.

The feeding of spring litters is comparatively simple when
the object in view is to grow stock hogs for late fall and early
winter feeding. If a good clover or alfalfa pasture is available
they can be allowed to graze at will and be given a limited

404 . THE HOG BOOK

amount of corn to keep them in proper condition, thus making
their growth on very cheap feed. When they are to be grown
and fattened at the same time it is necessary not only to increase
the corn fed but also to furnish protein in some concentrated
form. If skimmilk is used from one-half to three-fourths of a
gallon per head daily is sufficient, up to 100 pounds live weight.
When this is not available from 1/5 to 1/6 of a pound of tankage
would be satisfactory or % of a pound of middlings per head
daily in connection with what corn they will eat will make a
very satisfactory ration on grass. With fall litters the amount
of feeds rich in protein would have to be about doubled when the
pigs have no access to leguminous forage crops. Unless there is
some reason to believe that hog values will be much higher the
following summer it is impracticable to attempt to grow fall
litters on concentrated feeds. It is better to increase the quan-
tity of feed in order to both fatten and grow them at the same
time. Where growth without fat is made profitably it is made
on cheap feeds.

The feeding and handling of a herd boar in such manner
that he may be active, eager for service and not become either
too fat or too thin is one of the most difficult problems which the
stock-farmer must solve. In the first place he should have the
opportunity to take an abundance of exercise. This is best
accomplished by giving him a large lot with housing facilities
as far from the feeding trough as possible. If it is convenient he
should be allowed the company of a number of young pigs of
the same sex which will help him in securing exercise. He
should be brought up to rather high condition on feeds rich in
protein and full of succulence. If possible have a leguminous
crop in his lot and feed i.^^ pound of tankage, from 2 to 4 pounds
of middlings and a limited amount of corn, according to the size
and condition of the individual. Skimmilk can be used to replace
the tankage where available and will make a better ration. These
feeds can be used during the breeding season, after which the
ration should be reduced to such a point that he will not increase
too rapidly in flesh during the idle season.

Texas. — By Prof. J. C. Burns of the Texas Experiment Sta-
tion, College Station, Tex.: One of the most effective and as a
rule economical rations for weanling pigs, those from two to
three months old and weighing from 50 to 60 pounds each, con-

TEXAS FEEDING METHODS

405

sists of 1 pound cornmeal, 1 pound wheat shorts or mid-
dlings and about 6 pounds of skimmilk or buttermilk. It is
well thoroughly to mix the grain feeds together and allow them
to soak in the skimmilk or buttermilk for about 12 hours, thus
making a thick slop. The pigs, particularly if intended for the
open market, should receive about as much of this mixture as
they will clean up readily twice or three times daily, the amount
necessarily increasing with their weight. As they approach the
100-pound mark, soaked, shelled or ear corn may be gradually
substituted for the cornmeal and a part of the shorts or
middlings, making the ration for each pig about 3 pounds of corn,
1 pound of wheat shorts and about 12 pounds of skimmilk or
buttermilk.

Shotes from five to six months old and weighing from 100
to 125 pounds are in nice shape to finish at 8 to 10 months old
weighing from 200 to 300 pounds. Some excellent rations for
this purpose may be mentioned, each being stated approximately
for 100 pounds of live weight:

(1) 4 pounds of corn and 12 pounds of skimmilk or butter-
milk; (2) 3 pounds of corn and 1 pound of wheat shorts or
middlings; (5) 4 pounds of corn and tankage or meatmeal
in the proportion of 9 pounds of corn to 1 pound of tankage or
meatmeal; (4) 4 pounds of rice-bran or rice polish and tank-
age or meatmeal in the proportion of 9 pounds of rice-bran or
rice polish to 1 pound of tankage or meatmeal; (5) 2 pounds of
corn and cowpea or peanut pasture; (6) 3 pounds of corn or
KafBr-corn or milo maize and alfalfa pasture. It would be well
to soak the grain of each of these rations in water (or milk
when it is used) about 12 hours, as by so doing the feeding
value is usually increased. The tankage or meatmeal should
not be soaked, but mixed thoroughly with the grain at the time
of feeding. The economy of feeding these different rations will
of course depend largely on the locality in which the feeding is
done. For instance, in the ricebelt region of the southern states,
rice-bran and rice polish may be often substituted for corn
with profit. They have been found to be practically equal pound
for pound to corn for the production of gain and are usually
lower in price. It will be well to state, however, that the quality
of the pork of straight rice-bran-finished hogs is inferior to that
of corn-finished hogs, as indicated by a soft, oily texture. This

406 THE HOG BOOK

defect can be prevented by substituting corn for one-balf of the
rice-bran in the ration.

The brood sow during pregnancy must not only have feed
to keep her own body built up, but also properly to nourish
and develop the young she carries. She can be most cheaply
maintained on pasture with some grain, as for example 2 pounds
of corn per 100 pounds of live weight, and clover or alfalfa or
rape pasture. Oats, wheat, barley, rye, Bermuda grass and
sorghum afford good pasture, but with any of these some con-
centrated feed rich in protein, such as wheat shorts, middlings,
skimmilk, buttermilk, tankage, or meatmeal, should be fed in
addition to corn. On such pastures the rations may be propor-
tioned in about the same way as recommended for fattening
shotes, and the daily amount of grain necessary for a sow in
average condition will be from 2 to 2% pounds per 100 pounds
of live weight. The same feeds may be used for the sow after
farrowing, except that on account of milk production the ration
should contain a larger proportion of one of the protein feeds,
and should be gradually increased in amount until a sow in
average condition is receiving from 3 to iy^ pounds of grain
per 100 pounds of live weight, depending on whether she has
access to pasture and what kind of pasture. Rations would be
about right in which the feeds are proportioned as follows: (1)

1 pound of corn to 4 or 5 pounds of skimmilk or buttermilk; (2)

2 pounds of corn to 1 pound of wheat shorts; (3) 8 pounds
of corn to 1 pound of tankage or meatmeal.

Prior to service the boar should be fed and handled in prac-
tically the same way as recommended for the brood sow before
farrowing. As the breeding season approaches the quantity of
concentrated feed should usually be increased, as it is important
that the boar be in good flesh and strong and vigorous during
the period of service.

ViRGixiA. — By Dr. N. S. Mayo of the Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg: Here we consider green forage an im-
portant ingredient in a ration for breeding sows, boars and
growing pigs. The exercise they get in foraging is an important
factor. For weanling pigs 15 pounds of oilmeal, 60 pounds of
middlings, 20 pounds of shelled corn and 5 pounds of tankage
mixed with skimmilk is an excellent ration. For a brood sow
suckling pigs I would add 10 pounds more of corn and only 50

WISCONSIN RATIONS 407

pounds of middlings and feed wet with skimmilk or good dish
water. I would keep shotes intended for fattening growing every
minute, putting them on a soybean or cowpea pasture and giving
them some corn in addition, then gradually changing them to a
ration composed of 80 pounds of corn, 10 pounds of middlings
and 10 pounds of tankage. When on full feed they should have
but little range. In all cases an abundance of fresh water should
be supplied, also salt, coal, charcoal and wood ashes. I would
utilize natural pasture and forage crops to the utmost and aim
to market fat hogs at 225 to 250 pounds.

Boars and sows for breeding purposes I would try to keep
in moderate flesh but thrifty. I do not like clean, coarse, west-
ern bran for hogs, preferring country mill bran, or middlings.
A little tankage or similar animal feed added to any hog ration
is economical. A variety of feed is important. The animals
should be closely watched, and if they do not do so well as they
ought, we try to mix more brans with the ration.

WiscoNSix. — By Prof. James G. Fuller of the "Wisconsin Ex-
periment Station, Madison: We have secured uniformly satis-
factory results at the Wisconsin station the last few years by
feeding weanling pigs the same ration as that fed to their
mothers while 'the pigs are sucking. There are two distinct
advantages in this plan: (1) It avoids digestive troubles that
often result from feeding little pigs on rich rations specially
prepared. (2) It saves the trouble of preparing and handling
extra mixtures of feed. Young pigs before weaning feed with
their mothers in the same trough or in creeps near by, and when
weaning-time approaches the allowance for the pigs is increased
and that for the sows gradually cut down. Our nursing sows
are fed liberally on a thick slop ration composed of equal parts
of cornmeal, ground oats and flour middlings, with about 6
pounds of oilmeal for every 100 pounds of the grain mixture.
The liquid part of the ration is usually water. When skimmilk
is available for part of the liquid, the amount of oilmeal fed is
cut down to 2 or 3 pounds per 100 pounds of mixed feed.

Growing pigs after weaning continue to get this same ration
in connection with pasture and rape. Pigs like a variety of
feed, and for rapid growth and fattening we feed in addition
about all the corn they will clean up. If the corn is hard we
soak it 10 or 12 hours before feeding. There is but little danger

408 THE HOG BOOK

in giving young pigs too much corn, when it is fed in connection
with the slop ration already described. We plan to get the pigs
gradually onto new corn in the fall, and during the latter
stages of fattening the slop ration is cut down and more new
corn fed to good advantage.

Our boars prior to and during service are fed the slop ration
described, with two or three ears of corn per day. They have
a grass paddock to exercise in, and we plan to keep them muscu-
lar and not fat. The last few years we have experimented with
several different rations for pregnant sows. The sows that give
the best results with their litters this last spring were fed on
a slop ration composed of equal parts of cornmeal, wheat
middlings and wheat bran. Their average weight during preg-
nancy was a little over 350 pounds and they were fed on the
average Z^ pounds of feed per day.

INDEX.

Advertising. 16, 164, 107-169.

Age of brood sows, 124.

Agriculture, 18-2U.

Alexander, Dr. A. S., metliod of cas-
tration. 306.

Alfalfa, 126, 128. 129, 132, 140, 142,
199, 214, 215, 220. 222, 238-242,
382.

Alfalfa, cured. 140, 242. 396.

American breeds, 10.

American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breed-
ers' Association, 58, 379.

American bams, 333.

American Hampshire Swine Record As-
sociation. 70, 379.

American Poland-China Record Asso-
ciation, 13. 14, 379.

Antwerp Backs, 358.

Apples, 235.

Articholies, 235.

Ashes. 147, 211.

Auction Sales, 169.

Back plates. 360.
Back-strapping, 360.
Backs, 328. 349.
Bacon curing, 372. •
Bacon hogs. 322-325.

dressing, 318, 3.32".
Bacon meats, 328, 329. 347.
Bacnn t.vpes. 44. 54, 70, 70, 192, 373.
Bakewell, Robert. 74.
Balanced rations, 214.
Baldridge, Rankin. 14.
Barlfy. 199. 214. 215-222, 229, 382.
Barns and houses. 88.
Barreled pork. 328, 329, 330.
Barrenness. 186, 284.
Barrows, 144.
Bates. 181.
Beans. 214. 215, 222.
Bedding. 112.

in shipping. 255.
Bedfordshire, 30. .32, 33, 35, 36, 37. .50.
Beets. 237, 394.
Bellies, 328. .345.

Berliner trimmings and sausage. 366.
Berkshire. 12, .32. 33, 35, 36. 40. 48-55,

182. 183. 198. 205, 206, 315.
Bermuda grass, 392.
Birth, attention during, 287.
Blad<d shoulders. 3.53.
Bloodlines, 173.
Bloodmeal, 2.34.

Board of Trade regulations concern-
ing pork, 330, .334. 345. 360.
Boars, feeding of breeding. 386.

care of, 12.5-127.

selection of. 120.
Boiled meats, .328. .331, 354.
Bone structure, 183.

Boneless butts. 357.

Boneless rolled hams, 338.

Boneless rolled picnics, 356.

Bonemeal. 211, 233, 391.

Bones, fragile, 282.

Bones, fracture of thigh, 282.

Bonham, L. N., 372.

Boston shoulders, 354.

Boston style butt pork, d65.

Boston style butts, 357.

Bran, 215, 222, 225, 382.

Branson, Z, S., 16, 109.

Breachy hogs, 149.

Breakfast bacon backs, 350.

Breakfast bacon bellies, 347.

Breeder's type, 14, 198, 205-207.

Breeding crates, 92, 187.

Breed histories. 27.

Breeding hogs, buying and selling, 101.

care of, 285.
Breeding, operation of, 187.

best time for, 128.

problems, 171-177.

services, frequency of, 126.

with crates, 187.
Brine, 330.

Brisket pork rib, 363.
Bronchitis, 276.
Brood sows, care of, 127-131.

feeding, 146.

segregation of. 130.

selection of. 121-124.
Browning. O. W., 371.
Buckwheat, 238.
Buffalo style butts, ,357.
Buildings, 88.

Bureau of .\nimal Industry, 265.
Burnett, Prof. E. A., quoted en ra-
tions, 396. .
Burns. Prof. J. C, quoted on rations,

404.
Butcher or light loin hogs, 320.
Butchering, 371.
Butler County hog, 40.
Buttermilk, 402. 405.
Butts, 328. 357.
Buving breeding hogs, 161.
Byfield, 37.

Cala butts, .3.57.
"Calas" hams, 354.
California hams, 354.
Callahan, "Tom" C 16.
Calomel for worms, .301.
Carbohvdrates. 21n.
Carrots. 235, .394.
Castration. .302-.S08.
Cattle, followed by hogs, 143, 291.
tuberculosis in hogs from following,
291, 293.
Cement floors, 105.

(409)

410

INDEX

Centralized system, 100.

Charcoal. 147, 211, 227, 391.

Creeks, 317.

Cheshires, 32, 83-84, 193.

Chester, 32.

Chester White, 11, 32, 63-68, 182, 183,
205, 206.

Chicken-eating, 149.

Chicago shoulders, 356.

China, Big Spotted, 35, 37.

Chinese stock, 50, 72.

Chloride of lime as disinfectant, 292.

Cholera, 186. 217, 265, 268, 289, 293.

Cholera serum, 295.

Clark, C. A., 83.

Clay, Henry, 56.

Clay Rock hogs, 56.

Cleanliness, 214, 301.

Clear back pork. 364.

Clear bellies, 347.

Clear plates, 358.

Clear pork, 363.

Clover, 199, 215, 248. 382.

Clover hay, 140.

Cochel, Prof. W. A., quoted on ra-
tions, 402.

Colony system, 100.

Combination type, 199-204.

Commercial feeds, 232.

Composition of feeds, 252.

Concentrates, 383.

Concrete for floors, 96, 107, 110.

Condimental feeds, 311.

Conformation, of brood sow, 122.

Constipation. 132. 139, 283.

Copper sulphate for cholera, 204.

Corn, 126, 128, 129, 140. 142, 186. 199,
214, 216, 219-222, 243, 309, 381.

Corn, sweet, 236,

in breeding herds, 214.

Cost of feeding, 216.

Cottonseed meal, 216, 232, 392.

Coughing, 277.

Cowpeas, 230, 381, 385.

Craig, Dr. R. A., on diseases of hogs,
266.

Cross-breeding, 122, 138, 181.

Cross-breds defined, 178.

Crude nil for lice, 300, 313.

Cruickshank, 181.

Cumberland sides, 343.

Curing, 371, 376.

Curing recipe for ham and bacon, 376.

Curtis, Prof. R. S., quoted on rations,
401.

Dairy cattle, tuberculosis in, as affect-
ing hogs, 291.

Dairying, 19, 87, 216.

Damia, extract of, 186.

Darwin, Charles. 179.

Davis, G. F., 80.

Dead hogs, disposal of, 295, 314.

Developing feeds. 194.

Diarrhoea (see also scours), 274-276.

Dietrich, Prof. Wm., quoted on ra-
tions, .383.

Digestion, 211.

Digestive diseases, 270.

Dipping, 292, 313.

Dipping tanks, 93.

Dips, 312.

Disinfectants, 312.

Disposition of the hog, 212, 314.

Dodson, Prof. W. R., quoted on ra-
tions, 392.

Dorsey, B. F., 14.

Dosing sick hogs, 268.

Drenching, 308.

Dress of average hog, 212, 315.

Dressed hogs, 317.

Dressing for exhibition. 263.

Dressing records of leading breeds, 182.

Drook. Daniel, 14.

Dry salt bellies, 345.

Dry salt butts, 358.

Dry salt clear bellies. 347.

Dry salt meats. 328, 329.

Dry salt ribs. 347.

Dublin middles, 345.

Duffleld. J. B.. 14.

Duroc-.Iersey, 32, 55-63, 182, 183, 198,
205, 206.

Ear-marking hogs, 1.52.

Electricity in curing vats, 375.

Ellsworth. W. W., 11, 14.

Emmer, 230.

English bacon sides, 343.

English bellies, 349.

"English" meats, 328, 331.

English rib backs, 349.

English short ribs, 342.

Ergot, 224.

Essex hog, 32, 35, 40, 78-80, 205.

Excretions, as signs of disease. 268.

Exercise, 129, 146, 211, 282, 284, 285,

287.
Exhaustion from heat, 284.
Exhibiting hogs, 201, 290.
"Expansion," 16.
Experimentation, era of, 10.

ignorant, 171.
Export short fatbacks, 350.
Extra clear pork. 362.
Extra pork loins. 352.
Extra prime pork.
Extra ribs, 341.
Extra short clear sides, 342.

Facing, 317.

Fairs, 165.

Fake cholera cures. 295.

Fall litters, 127, 141-144. 174.

feeds throughout vear in Louisiana,
392.
Fall pigs, weights of. 144.
Fancy clear pork, 363.
"Farm Buildings," 88.
Farm equipment, 87.
Farmers' type of hog, 16, 207.
Farrowing, proper age for, 128.

best periods for, 176.

diet in. 218, 382.

points on, 133-1.S8, 397.

signs of, 130.
Fatback pork, .364.
Fat. characteristics of good, 319.

excessive. 212. 214, 220, 315.

production of, 214.
Fattening and pedigree, 86.

feeds, 143.

of breeding animals, 186.
Fecundity of brood sow, 122.

INDEX

411

194, 199.
N.. quoted on rations,

Feed, cooking, 228.

distribution, 91.

grinding, 225.

lioiise, 91.

steamers, 93.
Feoiliug. 210-253.

and cleanliness, 290.

brood sows, 146.

facilities, 87.

farrowing dam, 137.

floors, 90. 105-107.

sow after service. 128.

the herd. 131-133.
Feeds, composition of, 252.
Fencing. 114, 126.
Fever, 139. 148. 18G.
Field corn, hogging, 221.
Finch, David. 14.
Finish defined, 118.
Finishing, 260.
Finishing feeds,
Flint. Prof. P.

390.
Flumes, 117.

Forage, 129. 143, 214. 382.
Frank hogs, 58.
Fresh pork cuts, 328.
Frozen pork, 328.

Fuller, Prof. J. G., quoted on rations,
407.

Gamett, Major, 68.
Gentry, X. H., 52, 54.
Germs, entrv of into body, 290.
Gestation. 128.

feed during. 126, 130.
Gilmore. John, 14.
Gilts, 124.

Glutenmeal, 222. 234.
Grades, definition of, 177.
Grading dressed hogs, 318.
Grading pork cuts, 333.
Grains, 129, 142.
Grazing, 215.
Great Britain. 29.
Green corn, 236.
Guinea Reds, 32, 55, 58.

Hall. Prof. L. D., on grades of pork,

316.
Ham butt pork, 364.
Hampshire, 68. 72. 193, 205.
Hams, ,328, 333-340.
Hankinsou. Father, 84.
Hard backs, .S49.
Hard short ribs. 341.
Harkrader, 11. 42.
Hav. 126. 142.
Hazktt, W. P.. 14.
Heat, period of, 128, 285.
Heat-producing feeds, 132.
Heat-stroke. 284.
Herd management, 118.
High-grades, definition of, 178.
Hog, ancestry of, 27.
Hog business. 18. 24.
Hog houses, individual, 89, 100-105,

145.
l.'irge. 93-100. 107-110.
Hog louse, 297.

Hogging field corn, 221.

corn, 389.

rye, 246.
Hogs, classes of dressed, 317.

bacon or marked, 322.

first arrival, 29.

heavy loin, 319.

in the colonies, 30.

light loin, 320.

packing, 321.

profitable, 22, 23.

shippers, 325.
Holding device. 111.
Hygiene, 265-314.

Iddings, Prof. E. J., quoted on ra-
tions, 382.
Identification marks, 151.
Impotency. 284.
Impregnation. 285.
Improved Chester White, 65.
Inbreeding. 138, 180.
Indian stock, 48.
Infection, control of, 291.
Iiirtammatlon of spinal cord, 282.
Injection of drugs and water, 269.
Injections for constipation, 148, 283.
Injuries, as cause of disease, 282.
Intestinal worms, 297.
Irish Graziers, 32, 35, 38.
Italian hams, 340.

Japanese cane, 382.
Jefferson County hog, 83.
Jeffries, Capt. James, 63.
Jersey Red hogs, 58.
Jerseys, 32, 55. 56.
Jobbing short ribs, 341.
Johnson, J. A., 12.
Judging hogs, 264.

Kaffir corn, 236, 392.

Kendall. Prof. J. C, quoted on ra-
tions, 398.

Kennedy, Prof. W. J., quoted on ra-
tions, 388.

Kentucky, 9.

Kidney worms, 297, .300.

King, Prof. F. G.. quoted, 386.

Kinzer, Prof. R. J., on rations, 247.

Knapp, S. A., 14.

Labor, 1.30.

difiiculties in, and their treatment,
137.
Lard, 366, .369.

to keep, 379.
Lard, type of hog, 54, 60, 65, 70, 199,

204, 373.
Large Yorkshire, 72-76, 183, 193.
Laxative feeds, 128, 147, 234, 237.
"Leaf" refined. 319.
Lean belly pork. 364.
Lean butts, .357.
Leanness, 212.
Leucorrhoea, 285, 286.
Lice on fall pigs, 143.

in hogs, 313.
Light mess pork, 362.
Lime, 137, 211, 228, 313, 391.
Line breeding, 180.

412

INDEX

Linfield, Prof. F. B., quoted on ra-
tions, 395.
Linseed meal, 392.
Liquid smoke, 378.
Litters, size of, 144.

and barrenness, 187.

transferring, 139, 141.
Liverwurst, 372.
Loin back bacon, 350.
Loin clear pork, 3C3, 364.
Loin rolls, 352.
Loins, 328, 350.
Long-cut hams, .338.
Long clear sides, 345.
Long fatbacks, 350.
Long pork loins, 352.
Long rib sides, 344.
Longfellow family, 54.
Lousiness in hogs, 297.
Lovejoy, A. J., 52.

on ear-marking, 152.
Lungs, congestion of, 279.
Lungworms, 276, 297.

McClung, W. W., 85.

McCracken, D. P., 14.

McCreary, J. N.. 14.

Magie, David, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 42.

Magie hogs, 11, 42.

Maize, mllo, 236.

Manchester hams, 340.

Mangels, 237, 394.

Marked hogs, 322, 325.

Marketing, 254.

Mating, hints on, 173.

Maturity, 193.
early, 208.

Maturity in breeding, 174.

Mayo, Dr. N. S:, quoted on rations,
406.

Meatmeal, 222, 233, 389,

Mess pork, 360.

Miami Valley hog, 4ii.

Miami Valley and Poland-Chinas, 33.

Mice, 309.

Middle Yorkshire, 193.

Middlings, 382.

Milk, 126, 128.

and tuberculosis, 291.
for runts, 139, 140, 142. 144, 199,
206, 222, 249-251, 381.

Millet, 215. 249.

Milliken, .Tohn, 11, 14, 42.

Millings, 224.

Milo maize, 2.36.

Milwaukee style butts, 357.

Minerals, 227, 383.

Mucous membrane, appearance in hogs
in health and disease, 267.

Miscellaneous cuts, 328, .300.

Mumford, Prof. F. B., quoted on ra-
tions, 394.

National Duroe- Jersey Record Associa-
tion, 60, 380.

Xational Poland-China Record Asso-
ciation, 44, .380.

Neapolitan hog, 48, 50, 80.

Nebraska, 12.

Nervous diseases of hogs, 281.

Nervous system, svmptoms of disor-
ders of, 268.

New Jersey, 32.

New Orleans-cut shoulders, 356.
New York-cut shoulders, 354.
New Y'ork style butts, 357,
Nuts, 2.51.

Nux Vomica in paralysis, 283.
in heat stroke, 2t>4.

Oatmeal, 215.

Outs, 120, 128, 132, 199, 216, 215, 220,

222, 224, 382.
Obstetrics, 288.

Ohio Improved Chester hog, Co.
Offal, 370.

Ohio Imijroved Chester hogs, 65.
Ohio Poland-Chi.ia Record, 42.
Oilmeal, 126, 128, 132, 142, 222, 233,

234, 259, 385.
Old English hog, 36, 37, 48.
Opium in thumps, 282.
Overfeeding, 216.

Packers' type of hog, 195-199, 316.
Packing hogs, 321.
Paprika fatbacks, 350.
Paralysis of posterior parts, 282,
Paralysis, prevention of, 283.
Parasites, encysted, as cause of pa-
ralysis, 282.
Parasites on hogs, 297-301.
Parturition, 129, 135.
Pasturage, 126, 139, 140, 147, 186,

199, 214, 215, 247, 381.
Peanuts, 381, 391.
Peas, 214, 215, 222.
Pedigree books, 150.
Pedigree stock, 85-86.

of brood sow, 122.
Pens, 94. 114.
Pests, 309.

Petroleum as skin dressing, 143.
I'ickle for ham and bacon, 376.
Pickled clear backs, 349.
Picnic butts, .358.
Picnic hams, 354.
Pig bacon, 176, 192.
Pig-eating sows, 147.
Pigs, 326.

piling up, 143,
Pinworm. 298.

Plain-pickled pork. 328. 329.
Plank floors, disadvantages of, 106,
Plates, 328, 357.
Pneumonia. 281.

Poland-China, 9, 11, 12. 13, 14, 32,
30. 37, 40-48, .'■)2, 64, 85, 182,
183. 198. 205, 206.

"Big type" 15, 17.

records, 13, 40, 44,
Poland Queen, 13.
Poland Queen 2d, 13.
Police measures for sanitation, 292.
Pork cuts, .326.

grading of. 333.
Pork loins, 350.
Pork production, C4, 74, SO, 193, 211,

315.
Pork products, 315-370.
Potatoes. 235.

Pregnancy. 1.30, 215, 286. 3S2, 386.
Preprotency. 173, 177, 179.

of Berkshires, 54.

of mature sows and gilts, 125.

INDEX

413

Prices of breeding bogs, 163.
I'rime mess porl;, 302.
Prime mess porii, standard, 330.
Prolificacy. 174, 184.
Protein. 139, 210, 3S3.
Public sales, 15, 16.
Pumpkins, 142, 238, 383.
Pure-bred, detiuitiou of, 177.

Qualit.v, defined, 118.

t^ualitications of hog raiser, 23, 25.

Quarantine, 292, 293.

••yueens," 11.

Quietness, necessity of, 213.

"Ranters." 144.
Bape, 215. 231, 382.
Rations, in Kansas, 247.

in various states, 381.

in Wisconsin, 247.
Rats, 309.
Record associations, purpose of, 177.

list of, 379.
Eecording bogs, 150.
Records, 131.

Chester White. 65.

Poland-China, 13.
Reii Berkshires. 55, 50.
Red Graziers, 58.
}{e<l hogs, 55, 56.
Red Rocks. 32, 55.
Regular back pork, 364.
Regular belly pork, 363.
Regular plates. 358.
Regular shoulders, 353.
Remedies, proprietary. 311.
Reproductive organs,; 186.

diseases of, 284.
Respiration of hogs "in health and dis-
ease, 267.'
Respirator}- diseases, 276-281.
Reversion, 22. 172.
Rib bellies. 347.
Ribbons won, 17.
Rice, 11.
Rickets, 217.
Ringing, 148.
Roasting pigs. .320.
Robl)er pigs. 141.
"Root hog or die" policy, 23.
Rooting. 148.

Roots, 120. 129, 14(1. 142, .383.
Rough short ribs, 341.
Rough shoulders. 3.53.
Roughage, 132, 230. 383.
Round Worm, 297, 299.
Rump pork. .364.
Runts, 1.38-140.

Ruptured hogs, castration of, 305.
Russian. 35, .38.
Rutabagas. 2.38.
Rye, 214, 215, 222, 223, 244, 246, 401.

Salmon. John, 14.
Salt. 211, .391.
Santonin for worms, 30.
Sausage. 371.
Sausage shoulders, 353.
Score cards. 84-85.

Berkshires, .54.

Cheshires. 84.

Chester White, 66.

Score card, Duroc- Jersey, 00.
lissex, SO.

Iluni|isliiro, 70.
Unge Y.irkshire. 74.
I'oiaud-t'hiua. 46.
TamwoitU, 76.
Victoria, 82.
Scott, Prof. J. M., quoted on rations.

Scours, '217, 274, 276.

Scrubs, 151, 178.

••Seedy" sows, 319.

Selling breeding hogs, 161.

Serum treatment of cholera, 265, 295.

Shaw, Prof. R. S., quoted on rations,
393.

Sheds for shelter, 115.

Shippers, 325.

Shipping hogs, 166, 253.

Slioit clear backs, 349.

Short clear sides, 342.

Short-cut hams, 333.

Short fatbacks, 350.

Short rib backs, 349.

Short rib sides, 340.

Shorts, 126, 128, 142, 222, 224, 381.

Shotes, finishing feed for, 394, 399.

Shoulder pork, 365.

Shoulders, 328, 353.

Showing hogs, 257-264.

Siamese. 32, .35, 38, 48, 50.

Sides, 328, 340-345.

Silver, L. B., 05.

Sisson, H. M. and W. P., 14.

Size of pigs, 193.

Skin condition in fall piga, 143.
condition in diseased hogs, 267.

Skinned hams, 336.

Skinned picnics, 354.

Skinned shoulders, 356.

Sleeping quarters for farro.ving sow,
132.
for health, 277, 278.

Slops. 140, 199, 212, 215.

Smoke, liquid, 378.

Smoked meats. 328, 330.

Smoking cured meats, 377.

Soaking, 215, 226.

Soda as preservative, 214.

Sore mouth, 270.

Sorghum, 215, 249, 382.

Soybeans, 231. 381.

Spareribs, 329, 365.

Spaying, 302.

Speltz. 2.30.

Spinal cord, inflammation of, 282.

Spray pumps. 313.

Spring litters, 127. 141, 176.

Spring litters, feeding, 403.

Square shoulders, 356.

Stabler, Prof. A. L., quoted on ra-
tions, 393.

Stafford hams, .3.38.

Streams and disease, 290, 201.

Sucking, length of time of. .397.

Sucking, as cause of paralysis. 283.

Sucking pigs, treatment at and after
birth, 137.
capacity, 138.
spring pigs, 145.

Suffolks. 32.

Sugar beets, 237.

414

INDEX

Sugar-curing pork, 372.
Summer packing season, 330.
Sunlight. 312.

for sucking pigs, 137.
Survival of the fittest, 179.
Sus Indica, 28.
Swallow, W. Z., 14.
Sweet corn, 236.
Sweet-pickle bellies, 347.
Sweet-pickled meats, 328, 330, 331.
Sweet potatoes, 392.

Tables of pasturage crops, 248.

dry matter and digestible feed in
100 pounds of feeding stuffs, 252.

pounds of feed per 100 pounds live
weight per day, 385.

Quart weights of feed, 251.

weights of dressed hogs, 317.
Tails, sore, 310.
Tamworth, 76-78, 183, 193.
Tankage, 129, 142, 147, 149, 222, 232.

382
Tar disinfectants, 292.
Teeth, back, 310.

Teeth, troubles arising from, 271, 310.
Temperature, for suckling pigs. 145.

of hogs in health and disease, 266.
Tenderloins, 329, 3.52.
Terms used In breeding, 177.
Thin-rind hog, 68, 70.
Thorn-headed worm, 298, 300.
Three-ribbed shoulders, 356.
Thumps, 139, 281.
Tilford, 11.
Timothy, 248.
Todds. the of Ohio, 65.
Tom Corwin 2d. 14, 42.
Todd's Improved Chester, 65.
Trimmings, 366.
Troughs. 91, 116, 126.
Tuberculin test. 293.
Tuberculosis, 289.

from cattle, 293.
Tumors, as cause of paralysis, 282.

Turnips, 237.

Turpentine for worms, 301.

mixture for use after castration, 307,
Types, early Western, 34.
Types of breeds, 160, 191-209.

Udders of brood sows, 123.
Underfeeding, 216.

Vaccine treatment for cholera, 29C.

Vegetables, 129.

Velvet beans, 381.

Ventilation, 312.

Vermin, 309..

Vetch, 401.

Victorias, 80-83.

Warren County hog, 40.

Water, drinking. 88, 129, 142, 211, 218,
291, 381, 383.

"Water seed," occurrence after cas-
tration, 308.

Weaning pigs, 140.
diet in, 382, 397.

Webster, Daniel, 56.

Weight in pork production, 194.

What's Wanted, jr., 16.

Wheat, 132, 142, 199, 214, 215, 220,
222 223.

Whipworm, '298.

White Leicester, 74.

Whitewash, 292.

Wild hogs, 27.

Wiltshire sides, 343.

Wing, Prof. H. H., quoted on rations.
400.

"Winter packing season," 330.

Wisconsin Experiment Station, 247.

Withvcomb, Prof. J., quoted on ra-
tions, 402.

Wolfe, J. v., 85.

Worms, 296.

Yards. 113-115, 126.
Yorkshires, 32.

Date Due

IL- 1)

Mx.

. i^T^-*<.-\ ,

\M

. k

^7

febi

6 0 4'&

^

^yea

\f(V" 'J

>^v

'j^

y^

-S&-

''"V -a ^ j^

DCT 2 6

i9Fr

:2

-e^^

-^a:i'5Sr

IIBRARY BUREAU CAT. NO. IIS7 LOWE-MARTIN HAN'F'RS

AGRICULTURE

FORESTRY

LIBRARY