nia

The Home Life of
Wild Birds

A New Method of the

Study and
Photography of Birds

By
Francis Hobart Herriek

Revised Edition

With 1 60 Original Illustrations from Nature
by the Author

G. P. Putnam's Sons

Cbe fmtcherbocher press

New York and London

1905

COPYRIGHT, igoi

BY
FRANCIS HOBART HERRICK

REVISED EDITION

COPYRIGHT, 1905

BY
FRANCIS HOBART HERRICK

Ubc fmlcftetbocher prew. Hew fiock

3723%

HST7

TO THE MEMORY

OF

MY FATHER AND MOTHER

COME LET US LIVE WITH THE BIRDS !

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

IN revising this work on The Home Life and Activities of Wild
Birds, much has been re-written, and forty-eight new illus-
trations have been added to the text in place of a smaller number
omitted. The first three chapters have been materially changed;
Chapter XI. on Nest-Building is entirely new, as are also in large
measure those which follow on The Development and Care of the
Young and on Life and Instinct.

These observations were chiefly made in central New Hamp-
shire, in the towns of Northfield and Tilton. Precise names
of all species mentioned in the text are given in the Index.

The semi-technical parts will naturally appeal most to stu-
dents, but I hope they will not be without interest to the general
reader.

The field of animal behavior in the direction of both observa-
tion and experiment is of boundless extent, while on the side of
inference it is full of pitfalls. Even if I have not successfully
avoided the latter in every case, I have been continually on my
guard.

My thanks are specially due to the publishers of this volume,
who have forwarded my wishes in every possible way. I am
also indebted to the editors of the Century Magazine, and of Bird
Lore for permission to use certain material which has already
appeared in their pages, and to all critics of the earlier edition
who have appreciated my efforts.

WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY,

CLEVELAND, OHIO, March, 1905.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

Preface ......... v

List of Illustrations . ...... ix

Introduction ........ xvii

I. — A New Method of Bird Study and Photography . i
II.— Illustrations of the Method: The Cedar-Bird; The
House Wren; The Redwing Blackbird, and the
Kingbird ........ 36

III.— Tent and Camera: The Tools of Bird-Photog-
raphy . . . . . . . -56

IV.— The Robin at Arm's Length . . . .72

V.— The Cedar-Bird . . .'".-. . .86
VI. — Vireos: Awake and Asleep ..... 103

VII.— The Nest-Hole of the Bluebird . . . . 115

VIII. — Minute Observations on Catbirds . . . . 122

IX. — The Rearing of the Night Hawk . . . .129

X. — The Kingfishers and their King Row . . .136
XI. — Nest-Building '. . . . . .- .- . 146

XII. — Development and Care of the Young . . . 167
I.— Egg and Chick.

II. — Brooding and Feeding the Young.
III. — Growth of the Nestling.
IV.— Cleaning the Nest.

XIII. — Life and Instinct 194

XIV. — Fear in Birds 214

XV. — Taming Wild Birds without a Cage . . .228
Index ......... 245

viii

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Robin family. — Lens 9T7ff inch focus; speed |; stop 32;
time ^ second; plate, Seeds' No. 27 "gilt edge"; dis-
tance of object 4 feet; full sun; July 28, 1900

Frontispiece

Adult Cedar-bird ....... Title

Footprints of Kingfisher when thirty-three days old.

Imprint from living bird ...... ii

Head of Cock Robin with large katydid and angleworm
in bill .......... iv

In the hill country of New Hampshire, overlooking
Northfield and Tilton, which is screened by the hill in
foreground. To the south, on the left, stands Mt.
Kearsarge; toward the northern horizon Ragged Mt. vi

Red-eyed Vireo inspecting nest ..... viii

Young of the Spotted Sandpiper, barely dried off, and

but a few hours old. June 12 . . . . . xvi

The home-life of wild birds as depicted in Egypt three
thousand years ago. Drawing of detail from wall
painting recently discovered at Kurna, on site of an-
cient Thebes, near Luxor ...... xxiii

Automatic sign-language of a young bird, illustrated in a

Cedar Waxwing 12 days old. X 2^ . . . . xxv

Head of Red-tailed Hawk with frill erect. Four months

old ......... xxvi

FIG. i. — Observation tent beside Cedar-bird's nest, which was
taken with its branch from pine tree and carried to open
field. At this nest the series shown on pages 8, 94-99
was made ......... 2

FIG. 2. — Tent in bushy pasture, marking position of nest of

Chestnut-sided Warblers ...... 3

FIG. 3 . — Nearer, view of same tent and nest, showing brooding bird, 4
FIG. 4. — Cedar-bird about to feed young by regurgitation. Photo-
graphed at the nest shown in Figs, i, 12, and 13. Zeiss
Anastigmat, Ser. ii a, 6^ inch; speed |; distance about
30 inches, in full sun . . . . . . 8

ix

x Illustrations

PAGE

FIG. 5 .^-Kingbird's nesting tree, and nesting branch — removed
and mounted on stakes — with tent. The tent-cloth is
laid in position at one end of peak, and ready to be
drawn over frame. The Kingbird pictures were all
made on this spot . . . . . . .9

PIQ 6. — Female Kingbird astride nest, — in "shielding" attitude, 10

FIG. 7. — Kingbird family, the female partly hidden at the back.
It was an easy matter to focus directly upon the head
of the standing or brooding bird . . . . . i r

pIG g. — Female Bluebird with cricket at converted nest-hole of

Flicker i»

FIG. 9. — Outdoor observatory for the study of wild birds — com-
plete. See Figs. 16-30 . . . . . .16

FIG. 10. — Chestnut-sided Warbler "shielding" on a warm day. See

Figs. 2 and 3 . . . • 19

FIG. ii. — Red-breasted Nuthatch taking an insect to nest; white

photographic screen at back . . . . .26

FIG. 12. — Cedar-bird's nest in pine, 15 feet from the ground. Up-
stretched neck of the old bird could be seen at a point
just beneath the upper arrow-head. Nesting bough
carried to field beyond, and mounted as shown in
Figs, i and 13 ...... '. . 30

FIG. 13. — Nesting branch of Cedar-bird set up in field and tent

pitched beside it. Compare Figs, i and 12 . . . 31

FIG. 14. — Family of Great Herring Gulls on their preserve, which
includes the nest, the perches, the feeding spot and
cover of the young. Great Duck Island, Maine, July,

1903 34

Kingbird on its favorite perch in the treetop . . -35

FIG. 15. — The Cedar- bird stands like a statuette, while inspecting

her family . . . . . . . . -37

FIG. 1 6. — Wren climbing to nest-hole, with the plump abdomen of
a dismembered spider in bill. In the running series,
which follows, the female invariably appears. See
Fig. 9 . ... 40

FIG. 17. — A black cricket is the next victim offered ... 40-

FIG. 18. — Then appears the limp body of a grasshopper or moth . 40-

FIG. 19. — Pinched between the sharp points of its mandibles, the
Wren now carries a moth, from which the outer wings
have been torn . . ' . . . . . .40

FIG. 20. — The Wren takes a glance around before entering her dark

cabin . . . . . . . . . .41

FIG. 21. — Cleaning the nest . . . . . . . .41

FIG. 22. — The trunk sawn open; at the nest with food . . .41

Illustrations xi

PAGE

FIG. 23. — The white sacs which are removed from the nest are im-
paled against the bark of trees . . . . .41

FIG. 24. — Scenes on the stage above nest. Wren scolding — or

"turning on the alarm" . . . .- .42

FIG. 25. — Serving a large moth minus wings . .. . . .42

FIG. 26. — The grasshopper in this instance was only partially dis-
membered ......... 42

FIG. 27. — With tail cocked, the Wren prepares to descend to the

nest . . . . . . . . .42

FIG. 28. — Successive positions assumed by Wren in descending to

the nest. In this case the prey was a spider . . 43

FIG. 29. — The same bird has secured a grasshopper . . . 43

FIG. 30. — The spider or other insect was not in every case dis-
membered .......... 43

FIG. 3 1 . — Young Wren ready to fly; from a nest which was removed

nearly eight hundred feet from its original position . 43

FIG. 32. — Tent in swamp, fronting Redwing Blackbird's nest shown

in Figs. 33 and 34 44

FIG. 33. — Male Redwing Blackbird feeding a nestling ... 45

FIG. 34. — Female "bristling," while shielding the young on morn-
ing of a hot day. July n, 1900 ..... 46

FIG. 35. — Baltimore Oriole inspecting her young after feeding them . 48

FIG. 36. — Unequal contest between Kingbirds and a dragon-fly.

This insect was crushed and served up piecemeal . 50

FIG. 37.— Kingbirds serving a dragon-fly, whose wings and stick-
like body are seen protruding from the mouth of one
of the young . . . . . . . 5 1

FIG. 38. — Female Warbling Vireo bringing large immature dragon-
fly to nest 53

FIG. 39. — Kingbird eighteen days old, with power of flight well

developed. July 13, 1900 ...... 54

Spotted Sandpiper at birth, resting on note-book. (See

Record of Observations, p. 70) . . . . -55

FIG. 40. — The tools of bird-photography — tent folded for carriage,

cameras, and plate-bag . . . . . . 58

FIG. 41. — Closing scene in the home-life of a Chebec family, shortly

after which the young were on wing . . . . 61

FIG. 42. — Observation tent on raised platform and white photo-
graphic screen for studying a nest of the Red-eyed
Vireo in its natural position. Northfield, N. H., July
2, 1902 ......... 64

FIG. 43. — Flicker, probably the female, at entrance of nest where

she is met by a nestling whose bill only is shown . 67

FIG. 44. — Brown Thrush entering her nest ..... 69

xii Illustrations

PAGE

FIG. 45. — Female Robin brooding . .'.... 73

FIG. 46. — Cock feeding cluster of earthworms . . . . 75

FIG. 47. — Cock standing at nest immediately after serving food,

and ready for the duty of inspection and cleaning . 78
FIG. 48. — The female also inspects her young at every visit to the

nest . . . . . . . . 8 i

FIG. 49. — Female Robin cleaning the nest . . . .84

Young of European Blackbird (Merula atra), Lucerne,

Switzerland, July 4, 1904 . . . . . .85

FIG. 50. — Cedar-bird standing at nest with full gullet, after one of

the young had left .88

FIG. 51. — Young Cedar-birds responding in chorus to the silent

mother . . . . . . . .89

FIG. 52. — Scene at the same nest taken a little earlier in the day;
the mother approaches the young, which are nearly
ready to fly . . . . . . . -91

FIG. 53. — The Cedar-bird approaches with closed bill but full

throat ...../.... 94

FIG. 54. — After feeding the young she inspects them ... 95
FIG. 55. — She tosses up her head, and produces a cherry . . 96
FIG. 56. — She is startled at a strange sound .... 97

FIG. 57. — She devours what is sometimes removed from the nest . 98
FIG. 58. — The sac is taken directly from the cloaca of the young

bird . . . . . . . . . .99

FIG. 59. — A young Waxwing from this nest on the morning of
flight, in natural attitude expressive of fear. July 19,
1900 . . . . . . . . . ' . 101

FIG. 60. — Red-eyed Vireo and her young interlocked. In order to
start the swallowing reflex the food must be pressed
down into the sensitive throat . . . . .105

FIG. 61. — The mother Vireo has a large insect ready . . . 106
FIG. 62. — The same bird, on the same perch, is testing the throat

of a nestling . . . . . . . .107

FIG. 63. — "The attitude of inspection is prone." Inspection fol-
lows feeding with the regularity of clock-work . .108
FIG. 64. — Female Red-eyed Vireo from another nest gingerly in-
specting her brood . . . . . .109

FIG. 65. — The young of this nest when ready to fly . . . in
FIG. 66. — The Vireo shown in Fig. 60 asleep on her nest. Compare

also Fig. 42 113

FIG. 67. — Female Bluebird on point of leaving her nest . . .115
FIG. 68. — The same bird carrying a grasshopper to her brood . 117
FIG. 69. — The Bluebird engaged in house-cleaning. Photographed

at a distance of eighteen inches . . . . .119

Illustrations xiii

PAGE

FIG. 70. — A similar attitude . . . . . . . .119

FIG. 71. — The same bird at the point of flight . . . .119

FIG. 72. — Taking a final glance around before entering nest-hole

with grasshopper . . . . . . .120

FIG. 73. — Female Catbird bringing to young a limp dragon-fly, the
large ALschna heros, which has just issued from its
pupa-skin . . . . . . . . -123

FIG. 74. — Catbird inspecting her young . . . . . -125

FIG. 75. — Catbird cleaning the nest . . . . . .127

FIG. 76. — Night Hawk on bare ground, and eggshells from which it

emerged three days before . . . . . .129

FIG. 77. — Young Night Hawk in enclosure where it remained until

able to fly . . . . . . . . . 130

FIG. 78. — Night Hawk approximately three days old . . . 131
FIG. 79. — Night Hawk about nine days old . . . . -131

FIG. 80. — Night Hawk about twelve days old .... 133

FIG. 81. — Night Hawk about sixteen days old .... 133

FIG. 82. — Eggs of the Night Hawk, laid on the bare ground . . 134
FIG. 83. — Kingfisher taking a fish to its young. Lens 9T7g- inch;
speed |; stop 8; time -gV second; distance 9 ft. 8 in.;
full sun. July 24, 1900 . . . . . 137

FIG. 84. — Kingfisher backing out of tunnel. A stream of sand is

started from the opening at every entrance and exit . 137
FIG. 85. — Five Kingfishers from chamber at end of tunnel — ap-
proximately nine days old. July 19, 1900 . -139
FIG. 86. — The same birds placed in line, biting and pulling . . 139
FIG. 87. — Posed in row to illustrate habit of sitting still . . . 141
FIG. 88. — King-row at a later stage — birds thirteen days old . . 141
FIG. 89. — Kingfisher at nine days, showing feather tubes and

tracts . . . . . . . . . .142

FIG. 90. — At thirteen days. The wing-quills show one half inch of

the blue-black, white-tipped feather-shafts . . .142
FIG. 91. — Kingfisher at fifteen days. Nearly all feathers partly

unsheathed . . . . . . . . . 143

FIG. 92. — Kingfishers eighteen days old. The bright blue of the
upper parts and the white and chestnut bands across
the breast are now very prominent . . . 143

FIG. 93 . — Kingfishers twenty-two days old. To illustrate how they
break ranks and walk backwards, when placed in line.
The second on the left has already taken a few back-
ward steps . . . . . . . . .144

FIG. 94. — Nest of Cedar Waxwing as seen from above . . .147
FIG. 95. — Female Robin brooding. See page 76 . . .150

FIG. 96. — Baltimore Oriole feeding her nurslings . . . 151

xiv Illustrations

PAGE

FIG. 97. — Typical nest of Robin, the mud-mold of which is con-
cealed by fine grass . . . . . . .154

FIG. 98. — Female Brown Thrush brooding in displaced nest . . 157

FIG. 99. — Very elaborate nest of the Great Herring Gull nicely
modeled and built up several inches from the surface
of the ground . . . . . . • . .162

FIG. 100. — The builder of the nest sitting over her eggs . . -163

FIG. i oi.— The Common Tern brooding a little chick which is able

to run about and has left its nest . . . .166

FIG. 102. — The Great Herring Gull frequently turns the eggs with

her bill upon entering the nest . . . . .169

FIG. 103. — Domestic chick at the thirty-third hour of incubation;
enlarged nearly ten times. Photomicrograph by Mr.
Carl B. James . . . . . . . 171

FIG. 104. — The Herring Gull when nearly ready to break out of the
egg. Great Duck Island, Maine, July 6, 1903. Di-
mensions of egg 2^| by 2 inches . . . .172

FIG. 105. — The brooding Chestnut-sided Warbler . . . .174

FIG. 106. — The same bird shielding the young and bristling at the nest 175

FIG. 107. — Female Chestnut-sided Warbler brooding with throat

puffed out and head-feathers erect . . . .176

FIG. 108. — Female Kingbird astride nest in the characteristic in-
stinctive attitude of shielding her brood from the
heat of the sun . . . . . . . 177

FIG. 109. — The oldest pictures of the home-life of birds. Detail of
hunting scene in stone-relief from tomb of Mereruka,
Sakkara, Egypt, over four thousand years old; the
conventional representation of a papyrus thicket,
with many nesting birds and occasionally a mongoose
attacking them. The birds are usually represented
as spreading, and in sitting posture. Compare Figs.
10 and 108 ... .... 178

FIG. no. — Gull yawning like a dog or cat; photographed at the
close of respiration showing the uplifted tongue and
puffed-out cheeks . . . . . .179

FIG. i ii. — Eggs of the Cedar Waxwing, and its young in various in-
stinctive attitudes — crouching, and the typical reflex
response to sound or vibrations of any kind . .180

FIG. 112. — Female Redwing Blackbird placing food in the throat of

its nursling . . . . . . . .182

FIG. 113. — The same bird awaiting the reflex response of the throat
and gullet of young. If not forthcoming, the food is
withdrawn, and another is tested . . . -183

FIG. 114. — Kingbirds rending an unruly grasshopper . . . 184

Illustrations xv

PAGE

FIG. 115. — Female Brown Thrush placing food well down in the

throat. Point of bill is on level with external ear of

young . .-, . .-.-.. . . . . . 185

FIG. 1 1 6. — Kingbird helping a robust grampus down the throat of

one of its young ... . . . . .186

FIG. 117. — The male grampus, Corydalus cornutus. Full size, from

life 187

FIG. 1 1 8. — The male Chestnut-sided Warbler brings food to his

mate, who passes it on to the children . . .190
FIG. 119. — The Flicker removes packages of extraordinary size

from its nest . ..... . . . 191

FIG. 120. — The Brown Thrush engaged in house-cleaning . . 192
FIG. 121. — Typical reflex response of the altricial bird. Young

Cedar Waxwing. Life-size . . . . .199
FIG. 122. — Red-shouldered Hawk standing with the shank of one

foot resting on the perch ... . . . ' . 200

FIG. 123. — Young Red-shouldered Hawk in the instinctive attitude

of spreading wings and tail around the prey . .202
FIG. 124. — Cock Robin with bill loaded aiming at a yellow target . 204
FIG. 125. — Mother Robin standing at inspection .... 205
FIG. 126. — Male Redwing Blackbird cleaning the nest . . . 208
FIG. 127. — Similar pose of the same bird engaged in the same act,

illustrating the force of habit ..... 209
FIG. 128. — Female Kingbird balancing with raised wings while

serving food . . . . . . . .210

FIG. 129. — The young Kingbirds struggle with a large harvest-fly,

which the male has delivered . . . . .211

Hatful of young Kingfishers . . . . . .213

FIG. 130. — Brown Thrush at nest in attitude expressive of fear . 215
FIG. 131. — Young Kingfishers, twenty-four days old, shortly before

the development of fear . . — -. . . .217
FIG. 132. — Red-tailed Hawk worried. Instinctive attitude expres-
sive of fear, and serving to inspire fear . . 218
FIG. 133. — Young Cowbird standing at nest of Magnolia Warblers,

its foster parents . . . . . . .220

FIG. 134. — Young Cowbird, as it appeared when found, completely

filling the nest . ... .221

FIG. 135. — Young Cowbird attended by its nurse, a Chipping

Sparrow . . . . . . . . .222

FIG. 136. — Male Robin startled by alarm call of his mate . . 223
FIG. 137. — Male Flicker beginning to regurgitate the food before

entering nest . . . . . . . .225

FIG. 138. — Flicker's nest opened at the back and showing the feed-
ing operations which are going on inside . , . . 226

XVI

Illustrations

FIG. 139. — Female Red -eyed Vireo inspecting cautiously

FIG. 140. — Male Red-eyed Vireo waiting for inspection .

FIG. 141. — Male Kingbird ready to perform the same duty

FIG. 142. — Characteristic attitude of young Cedar-birds during

latter days of life at the nest . . . .
FIG. 143. — Female Chestnut-sided Warbler taking a Icok at the

eggs . ..'••.

FIG. 144. — The same bird inspecting her brood

FIG. 145. — Offering food to a Chestnut-sided Warbler .

FIG. 146. — Scene at the same nest. The hen broods, while the

cock supplies the larder v .

PAGE

230
231
233

235

236
237
239

241

INTRODUCTION
I

TO describe and illustrate a new means of studying animal
behavior, and to record what has been learned by its aid
concerning the strenuous life of the wild bird, are the main pur-
poses of this volume. It is a popular study of birds in action
and is chiefly concerned with the homes or nests and their
occupants.

While the desire has been present to make these pages read-
able, no effort has been spared to render them accurate. Many
of the observations are new; nearly all are original, and every
statement of fact is believed to be true as it stands.

The wish to give a human interest to every phase of animal
activity is of very ancient origin and has done too much already
in spreading the seeds of popular error and superstition concern-
ing animal life and lore. Animals should be studied as animals
which they are, and not as human beings which they have never
been and are not likely ever to become.

The constant reading of human attributes into the activities
of animals is to begin at the wrong end, and is a drag on the
progress of accurate knowledge. We should first study the
animal as far as possible from its own standpoint, and learn with
exactness the facts of its life, taking care not to press analogies
farther than the observed facts will warrant. Ignorance of
anatomy as well as of physiology, and the desire to find in the
doings of animals a marvelous counterpart of human powers of
intelligence and reason, have already stocked our libraries with
fables, anecdotes, and stories, which make pleasant reading, but
possess little value for the modern student.

xvii

xviii Introduction

The first duty of the narrator of natural as well as civil his-
tory is to tell the truth, and to the naturalist belongs also the
privilege of showing that the lives of the higher animals, when
fully and clearly revealed, possess a more vital interest than the
puppet dressed in human clothes, however admirable the latter
may be as a work of art.

I trust that the reader will not misunderstand these remarks.
What is criticised is the gross anthropomorphism which charac-
terizes much that is written upon the actions of animals. If I
am an offender in this direction, I hope it is only in a minor
degree. I am anxious to attribute to the animal every power
which it is actually known to possess, and look for the roots of
human instinct and intelligence all along the line of animal
evolution. "Go to the ant, thou sluggard!" is good advice, but
one should bring from the ant a trustworthy account of how it
performs its wonderful works.

II

Although this is not a treatise on Animal Behavior, a general
working theory has been adopted, and is given in the chapter
on Life and Instinct. If it were possible to add a select bibli-
ography on the instincts and intelligence of animals, the list
would include the names of more than a dozen modern writers,
whose works abound in fertile suggestions and ideas. To have
quoted from their experiments or technical essays would have
taken us far from the scope and purpose of the present volume,
and to a study of forms as far removed from Birds as the higher
Mammals on the one hand, and the Insects or the Protozoa on
the other. In such a list, however, would occur the names of Karl
Groos, Lloyd Morgan, Edward Thorndike, and Professors Whit-
man and Loeb, to mention those to whom I am most indebted,
and whether we accept their theories or not, they must com-
mand our respect, because they are based on the secure ground
of observation and experiment.

All earnest students should ponder well the words of Karl
Groos, who maintains, in his admirable work on The Play of

Introduction xix

Animals, that the interpreter of the animal mind should unite
to a thorough training in physiology, psychology, and biology
the experience of a director of a zoological garden, and the lore
of a forester, besides being a student of aesthetics. Such versa-
tility is practically unattainable, but even if he magnifies his
office, it is not surprising that much has been written to So little
purpose on a difficult subject.

Ill

A number of years ago I became interested in the photog-
raphy of wild animals as a means of securing better pictures
for book-illustration, but it was not until the summer of 1899
that time was found for experiments in the field. Taking up
the specific problem of how to photograph the free wild bird,
it was at once apparent that the nest or home was the focal point
of interest to both bird and observer, since during the period of
nesting or home life the range of the adults is limited as at no
other time, and to a comparatively small area. For a month
or more they are chained to a given spot. It was also evident
that for the study of any nest, situated near the ground and
within reach of the camera, a convenient and perfect means of
concealment was necessary. A glimpse now and then, or a
"lucky shot " obtained by means of attaching a long rubber tube
with pneumatic bulb to the shutter of the camera, which must
be worked at a distance, is not of much value. What was
needed was a means of watching at the closest range the whole
life of birds at the nest.

For concealment I first decided to try a house made of light
boards and painted green, but soon discarded this impracticable
idea and made a tent of green cloth instead. This was used at
a nest of Redwing Blackbirds, situated a few feet above the
water of a swamp, and was a success from the first. However,
the task was only half completed with the introduction of a
convenient blind, since most nests of wild birds are inaccessible
from the ground.

The next experiment was made with Chipping Sparrows,

xx Introduction

whose young left their nest the moment it was disturbed. The
branch which held this nest was thereupon sawn off, and
mounted in a convenient spot beside a barn which happened to
be near, one of the young being used as a lure. While this nest
was being moved, I placed the fledgling under an old-fashioned
wire screen used to cover food, when the mother, true to her
parental instinct, came promptly with an insect and alighted on
the wire net. Some photographs were later made, but, although
in this case parental instinct was the force employed, the dis-
placement of the nest had no significance.

The first experiment in moving the nest, branch and all, was
made upon Cedar Waxwings, August 3, 1899. Two days later
the tent was pitched before their nest, and in a few minutes I
had the pleasure of seeing both birds approach and feed their
young with choke-cherries by regurgitation, as if nothing had
happened. The scenes were as fascinating as they were novel,
and a number of photographs were made from the tent, one of
which is reproduced on page 89 of this work. It thus became
evident that an important principle was involved, and that the
key to the problem of approaching the wild bird had been found.
Every subsequent experiment tended to confirm this conclusion.

The method is based on the solid ground of animal instinct,
is capable of many refinements, and in judicious hands will add
wonderfully to our knowledge of birds during that most interest-
ing of all periods— life in the home.

IV

With the opportunities of closest approach which this method
affords, it has been possible to give an exact analysis of nest
life. Attention will be called to the chain-like relation of the
different serial acts performed at the nests, such as the capture
and delivery of the prey, the inspection and cleaning of the nest,
and brooding and spreading over the young. We have found
the same type of behavior recurring with striking regularity in
those orders of birds already studied, which feed their young
for a considerable period, but the field is wide and unexplored

Introduction xxi

in many directions, and we must look for much variation in all
minor details.

The strength of parental instinct, especially in the higher
animals, has been recognized from early times, but the subject
has not been previously subjected to careful experiment and
analysis in birds.

I have found but few references to even casual experiments.
In speaking of the Catbird, Audubon observes that it will sit on
its eggs after the nest has been displaced, or even after it has
been carried from one bush to another (Ornithological Biography,
vol. ii., p. 173). Blackwall, in a later English work (referred to
on page 189), gives a good example of the strength which the
parental instinct in even a foster-parent sometimes attains. He
relates that in August of the year 1825 a neighbor took a young
Cuckoo out of a Titlark's nest, carried it home, and put it in a
cage, which was hung in a pear-tree in his garden. The foster-
parents quickly discovered their nursling, notwithstanding that
it had been carried three quarters of a mile from its home, and
continued to feed it until it was killed by a cat.

In another instance, mentioned by Montagu (Ornithological
Dictionary, p. 203), a nest of Golden Crested Wrens was moved
from its original position, and the old birds were enticed to his
study- window, and finally inside the room. The male would
never enter, but his mate fed her young — in their nest which was
placed in a basket — on the table at which he sat, and even when
he held the nest in his hand, provided he was perfectly motion-
less. Such stories no longer occasion surprise, and will receive
ample illustration in the pages which follow.

V

This study of the activities of birds, which was further
undertaken as a relief from the confinement of a laboratory,
soon developed from a holiday recreation into most serious work,
but the chief difficulty under which I have labored is lack of
time.

The season most valuable to the student of the life and

xxii Introduction

instincts of birds is definitely fixed in this latitude, and extends
from the middle of April to the middle of July, while two or
three weeks could be advantageously added at either end of
this quarter-year period. My professional duties have always
kept me at my post until most of the golden opportunities of the
year were lost, so that the work had to be done at the lag end
of the season.

In no other study is continuous effort at a particular time
more essential. A rare chance may come in May or June, but if
one is interrupted or called away for a day or even for an hour,
it maybe lost and never return. To obtain the best results, the
student of the life and instincts of animals must be a free lance,
and unhampered by the burdens and conventions of life. At
some future time, I hope to offer a fuller account of my ob-
servations.

VI

For comparison with the modern results of photography, I
am able to present reproductions of the most ancient pictures of
the home life of birds which have come down to us.

The oldest representations of nesting birds introduce us to
the celebrated hunting scenes of the ancient Egyptians, in
which their spirits are pursuing the favorite sport of hunting
in the reeds and the marshes of the Nile. These were cut in
stone-relief and colored, on the walls of famous tombs in the
neighborhood of Memphis. They date from the Fifth Dynasty
and are considerably over four thousand years old. In the
papyrus thickets fly birds of many kinds, while others sit on
conventional saucer-shaped nests, which are balanced on the
flowers of this plant. (See Fig. 109.)

But more interesting than these is a painting in colors on the
wall of a tomb, probably of the Eighteenth Dynasty, and over
three thousand years old, recently discovered at' Kurna, Thebes,
and first placed on exhibition in March, 1904. (See p. xxiii.)

The drawing which is here given represents the detail of a
remarkable tree, in which the artist has represented in different
registers the foliage, the trunk and branches, and a vine (grafted

Introduction

XXlll

on to the tree), bearing large clusters of purple grapes. In the
branches we behold birds' nests with eggs, while higher up is
this nest containing four young birds nearly full-fledged. The
spirited original, which is better than many drawings produced
in modern times, represents the nestlings at the critical moment
of being fed. The parent, doubtless a Pigeon, is coming full tilt
toward the nest, while her young, with their necks upstretched,
mouths agape, and wings a-quiver, are calling eagerly.

Nest life of birds as represented in Egypt seven
hundred years before the traditional founding of
Rome.

Three other birds, and five other nests, containing either two
or three eggs, appear in this or adjoining trees. Since Pigeons
lay but two eggs, our ancient artist has overstepped the bounds
of ornithological accuracy, but the picture is of remarkable in-
terest, and is the oldest elaborate drawing of nest life yet re-
corded, and the best to be seen on the Egyptian monuments.

The conventional form of the birds' nest (a saucer, or cres-
centic figure with rounded horns), which had been in use for
nearly fifteen hundred years, as is proved by existing remains,

xxiv Introduction

has been retained, with cross-hatching added, while the drawing
of both young and adult birds is taken direct from nature. The
picture was the work of a man competent to observe, and skilful
with the brush, but without the motives of scientific accuracy,
and hampered by those curious conventions of art which the
ancient Egyptians were never able to wholly shake off.

VII

Nearly all the illustrations of this volume are from photo-
graphs of adult birds, and in some cases are arranged in series,
and portray certain actions which are performed in routine.
With very few exceptions all were made by means of the method
— that is to say, the photographs were taken deliberately and not
by chance. My plan is to watch the life at the nest very closely,
hour by hour, and day by day, and I often make a large number
of photographs to illustrate typical and unusual scenes at a nest.
The observer has the advantage of being on the spot, of being
able to see every act performed, and to seize every opportunity
which may arise. Many of the photographs here shown could
not have been obtained by any other means.

Among the water birds, this method has been most fully ap-
plied to the Great Herring Gull, the communal life of which,
with the many singular attitudes assumed on the perches and
about their preserves, can be represented in the fullest detail,
but the results of these studies will be offered at some future
time.

For portrayal of animals in action the camera is of value,
because of the very exactness with which we are able to catch
and register a fleeting attitude or expression as well as the varied
series of bodily acts which are the momentary witnesses of the
instinct and intelligence of animals. The camera is an impartial
observer and taker of notes, and a kind of third eye to which we
may appeal when in doubt. However great its limitations, they
are of a different character from those of the actual observer.
The photograph is not to be foolishly vaunted over the work of
the artist, for the camera supplants or replaces nothing; it is a

Introduction xxv

tool, a trusty servant and recorder, which the artist can use to
as good advantage as any one else. Scientific books dealing
with the anatomy and development of animals will always re-
quire good drawings for the illustration of their subjects, and
these are preferable to poor photographs ; but for the study of
animal behavior in both the invertebrates and vertebrates the
camera is at times immeasurably superior to brush or pencil.
Popular natural -history books have already a large body of in-
valuable material to draw upon for illustrative purposes, and
the often crude, impossible, or imperfect drawings, which "have
long done service in the past, will gradually give place to truthful
delineations of animals at home, and in the midst of that nature
of which they form a part.

THE HOME LIFE OF
WILD BIRDS

CHAPTER I

A NEW METHOD OF BIRD STUDY AND PHOTOGRAPHY

THE method of studying the habits of wild birds which this
volume illustrates consists in bringing the birds to you and
then camping beside them, in watching their behavior at arm's
length and in recording with the camera their varied activites.
By means of such a method one may live with the birds for days
at a time, and watch the play of their most interesting habits
and instincts. The actors are not confined in cages; they suffer
indeed no restraint, excepting that only which their nature
imposes. They come and go at will, and their life is as free and
untrammeled as ever.

The method enables one to see with his own eyes at a distance
of a few inches or feet, more or less, what birds do in and about
their nests, and at the same time affords the rare opportunity
of making photographs, not a single picture or a chance shot
now and then, but an unlimited series of pictures to illustrate
the behavior of birds in the fullest manner and at the most
interesting period of their lives. It is often an easy matter to
focus the camera directly upon the bird itself and to give a time
exposure when desired. Moreover, you can approach as near
as you wish, and make photographs of any required size.

2 Wild Birds

I will now give the reader a less enigmatical account of the
method, first considering its psychological basis or the scientific
principles on which it rests, and then recording in a separate

Fig. i. Tent in front of Cedar-bird's nest, shown in its original position
in Fig. 18. One of the birds is feeding its young.

chapter, as practical examples of its working, the exact history
of a few of the cases in which it has been applied.

The method in use depends mainly upon two conditions :

(1) The control of the nesting site, and

(2) The concealment of the observer.

By nesting site is meant the nest and its immediate sur-

Method of Bird Study and Photography 3

roundings, such as a twig, branch, hollow trunk, stem, or what-
ever part of a tree the nest may occupy, a bush, stub, strip of
sod or tussock of sedge, that is — the nest with its imme-
diate settings. If the nest, like that of an Oriole, is
fastened to the leafy branch of a tree.the nesting bough
is cut off, and the whole is then carefully lowered
to the ground and set up in a good light, so that the branch with

Fig. 2. Tent in bushy pasture beside
Warbler, shown in detail in Fig. 3.

st of Chestnut-sided

the nest shall occupy the same relative positions which they
did before. The nest, however, is now but four instead of forty
or more feet from the ground.

The nesting bough is carried to a convenient point, and firmly

4 Wild Birds

fastened to two stakes, driven into the ground and placed in a
good light. If the nest is in a tussock in a shaded swamp, the

Fig. 3. Tent beside nest of Chestnut-sided Warbler. The female
broods, while the male is foraging.

whole is cut out and taken to the nearest well-lighted place ; if
in the woods, it is carried to a clearing where the light is favor-
able for study. Again, when a nest like that of the Brown

Method of Bird Study and Photography 5

Thrush occupies the center of a dense thorn bush which no
human eye can penetrate and much less that of the camera, its
main supports are cut off, and the essential parts are removed
to the outside of the clump or to any favorable point close at
hand. If the nest is but five or ten feet up, the main stem is
severed, and the nesting branch lowered to the four-foot mark,
a convenient working height.

I wish to emphasize the fact that the nest itself is usually not
moved or disturbed, or rather that it is moved only with its
supports. The change is one of space relations, which may
change with every passing breeze, but the relation of nest to
support remains undisturbed.

This sudden displacement of the nesting bough is of no
special importance to either old or young, provided certain pre-
cautions are taken to be dwelt upon a little later. It is as if an
apartment or living room were removed from the fourth story
of some human abode to the ground floor, or in the case of the
ground-building birds as if the first story were raised to a level
with the second. The immediate surroundings of the nest re-
main the same in any case. The nest might indeed be taken
from its bough or from the sward, but this would be inadvisable,
chiefly because it would destroy the natural site or the exact
conditions selected and in some measure determined by the
birds themselves.

For an observatory I have adopted a green tent which effectu-
ally conceals the student together with his camera and entire
outfit. The reader will find this fully described in
the chapter on the tools of the bird-photographer. Conceal-
The tent is pitched beside the nest, and when in opera- observer
tion is open only at one point marked by a small
square window, in line with the photographic lens and the tent.

It seems at first thought strange and almost incredible that
one may take such liberties with wild birds, without principies
wreaking destruction upon the young or introducing which un-
such unnatural conditions as would be intolerable derlie the
to every true student and lover of birds, but this Method
is by no means the case. No injury is wrought upon old or

6 Wild Birds

young. The former nesting conditions are soon forgotten, while
the new are quickly adopted and defended with all the boldness
and persistence of which birds are capable.

This method of studying birds depends mainly upon the
strength of the parental instincts which bind old to young by
an invisible chain, and upon the ease with which a bird learns
to adapt itself to new conditions. Upon more complete analy-
sis we' recognize the following psychological principles :

(a) The strength of an instinct increases through exercise, and
may be reenforced or temporarily replaced by habit;

(b) An instinctive impulse may be blocked or suppressed by
any stronger or contrary impulse ;

(c) The instinct of fear is often temporarily suppressed by
the fighting instinct, or permanently overcome by the repetition
of any experience leading to the formation of new habits or
associations.

We may also add:

(d) New habits are readily formed and reenforce or supplant
those of older growth;

(e) Abstract ideas, if they form any part of the furniture of
the average bird -mind, are extremely hazy and fleeting;

(f) Finally we must recall the physiological fact that birds
are guided in most of their operations by sight and hearing, not
by scent. Their olfactory organ is very rudimentary at best,
and avails them neither in finding food nor in avoiding enemies.

After a brief analysis of the parental instincts we will en-
deavor to show how the principles just given are applied to the
problem of approaching wild birds in the way described.

The parental instincts begin to control the life of the adult
with the periodic revival of the reproductive functions, and vary
greatly in their scope and intensity at the different stages of
their reign as well as in different species of birds. They are
periodic, recurring at definite intervals during sexual life and
in serial form, one kind of act usually leading to the next in
sequence, and so on until the series is complete.

When more than one litter is produced in a season, the
series of events is repeated with minor changes. If we include

Method of Bird Study and Photography 7

the typical migratory movements, the principal terms of the
reproductive cycle may be expressed more fully as follows:

(1) Spring migration of the summer residents to the place
of birth ;

(2) Courtship and mating, often with the accompaniment
of song ;

(3) Selection of nesting site and construction of the nest;

(4) Egg-laying;

(5) Incubation;

(6) Care of the young in the nest, including feeding, brood-
ing, shielding or "spreading," and cleaning nest and young;

(7) Care and "education" of young from time of flight;

(8) Fall migration to winter quarters.

The number of species of birds already described exceeds
twelve thousand; they are distributed over the entire globe, and
while all conform closely to a single anatomical type their vari-
ability, which is expressed in instincts, as well as in color and
form, is almost without limit.

The emotional life, and consequently the parental instinct is
greater in birds than in any other class of animals excepting the
mammals. Their body temperature (100-112° F.) exceeds that
of all other animals, and is an index of their great vitality and
consequent activity. In the breeding season their emotional
behavior reaches its climax. This implies profound seasonal
changes in the body, especially in the nervous system, although
the precise nature of these changes is not known, — and more
obviously in the reproductive cells, the vocal organs, and the
plumage. All birds are in full dress at this season, and they all
molt immediately after it. In many cases a prenuptial molt
further occurs. The succession of molts varies in different
species, but it is always of a very definite character. While
singing may be exceptionally heard at other times, it is richest
in the breeding season; it is always best in the male, and often
developed only in that sex.

Birds seem to follow one line of conduct, whether it be build-
ing nests, sitting over eggs, or brooding and tending the young,
until their instinct in any given direction has been satisfied, thus

8

Wild Birds

normally completing one term of the series before passing to the
next in sequence. The machinery, however, rarely works with

Fig. 4. Cedar-bird at nest shown in Figs, i, 12, and 13, prepared to feed young
by regurgitation : a characteristic attitude. The parallel outlines of the neck
show that the gullet is full.

absolute precision. Perturbations are sure to arise whenever
a contrary impulse comes into the field, and either blocks the
path or struggles for supremacy.

Method of Bird Study and Photography 9

Each term of the cycle is capable of analysis into many
minor components, differing not only in the sexes, but in different
species, and subject to change in different individuals. Thus

Fig. 5. Nesting bough of Kingbird removed from apple tree in background
at a point where extended arrows meet, and fixed to upright stakes. Tent-
cloth thrown over frame which is set in position.

in feeding the young at the nest, in such a bird as the Robin,
there is a complicated routine, involving many different acts —
the search after prey and its capture, the approach to the
nest which is attended with more or less caution according to

10

Wild Birds

circumstances, the distribution of the food which is again subject
to varying conditions, a special call-note being often used when
the reaction of a fledgling is slow, the inspection and cleaning of
the nest, and the brooding or shielding of the young. Thus not

Fig. 6. Female Kingbird astride nest, protecting young from heat. This and Figs. 7,
36-39, from photographs made at nest shown in Fig. 5.

only do the many subordinate instincts overlap, but their ex-
ercise is modified by circumstances. In cool or wet weather a
bird will brood her young in order to keep them warm, but on
hot days she will stand astride the nest and with spread wings
shield them from the heat.

The surge of parental feeling is often marked by an inbred
pugnacity, which begins to show itself in certain species at the

Method of Bird Study and Photography 1 1

very beginning of the breeding season. This fighting mood,
which is an adaptation for the protection of the home and all
that it contains, is by no means a measure of the other parental
impulses. It has a gradual rise, reaches a maximum when the

Fig. 7. Kingbird far
hidden behind him.

The male with grasshopper in bill,— his mate, partly

young are ready to leave the nest, at a time when protection is
most needed, and then gradually subsides, like a fever which has
run its course.

One instinct may be overdone, as when a bird like the
Phcebe builds more than one nest, in which case her building
instinct is apparently not satisfied by the usual exercise, or
another may be scamped, as when Swallows, House Martins, or

12

Wild Birds

Swifts desert their young in order to start on their migrations.
When one instinct has been satisfied, wild birds must obey the
next in sequence, which seems to possess them with the force of
a resistless passion. Some instincts appear to be diffused, or
what may be really different emotions lead to similar conduct,

FemalC Bluebird witl> cricket in bill, ready to enter nest-

as when Gulls, which may have dependent chicks, are con-
mually picking up grass and sticks. They will even carry
them to a definite spot and settle over them, as if actually
intent upon building a nest.

The reproductive cycle is repeated in many wild species
some of which, like Robins and Bluebirds, rear two or three

Method of Bird Study and Photography 13

broods in the same season. The semi-domesticated and gre-
garious House Sparrow, which often builds lodges or large bag-
shaped nests for winter use, is credited with from four to six
broods, according to circumstances. The domestic Pigeon,
which spends seventeen days in incubation and two weeks in
tending its squabs, will sometimes rear upwards of ten broods,
while the domesticated fowl in the hands of skillful breeders has
been known to produce over 200 eggs (in one case 251 eggs) in
a single year.

While the number of eggs to the litter is approximately
determinate, the actual number which even some wild birds
are capable of producing is surprisingly great, and cases of
apparent discontinuous laying have been observed. Thus the
Flicker ordinarily lays from four to nine eggs, but by removing
one egg at a time and leaving one as a "nest egg," this bird was
in one case stimulated to the production of seventy-one eggs in
seventy-three days. In most cases the instinct "runs down"
before this stage is reached — if the physical powers are not
actually exhausted, — and the process is interrupted by fear or
some other disturbing factor. A new nest may be built for
each litter, when the old is not repaired and made to do service
a second time, but, as often happens, no constructive work is
undertaken, the eggs being laid in a natural cavity or in the
converted nest of some other bird.

In dealing with birds in general, and more particularly with
the wilder and more timid individuals, the net balance of their
conduct appears to be the result of a series of conflicting in-
stincts, although the disturbing factors may be few in number.
Chief among these is fear, which must be constantly reckoned
with in the analysis of animal behavior. Again, an important
place must be assigned to habit, or associative memory, and
possibly to emotions whose character is doubtful. Yet, when-
ever we attempt to measure animal behavior by rule and have
to deal with intelligence, we must expect to meet with individual
exceptions at every turn.

When a pair are robbed during the breeding season, or in any
way disturbed in mind or property, three courses are open to

i4 Wild Birds

them, either to desert and begin operations anew, to stay by
the nest and save what is left, or, having done this, to fill up
the gap by laying more eggs. The course eventually followed
depends upon the nature of the bird, or upon the relative
strength of fear, the parental instincts, and habit.

The parental instinct,1 reenforced by habit, gradually in-
creases until the young are reared. It is therefore safest to
change the nesting surroundings when this instinct is approach-
ing its culmination.

The general feeling of fear is gradually or quickly suppressed,
according to the value of the different factors in the equation,
by the parental instinct, which impels a bird at all hazards to
go to its young wherever placed. This impulse, though it be
weak at first, is strengthened by exercise, or what amounts to
the same thing — by the growth of habits or associations.

After a bird once visits the nest in its new position, it returns
again and again, and in proportion as its visits to the old nesting
place diminish and finally cease, its approaches to the new
position become more frequent, until a new habit has been
formed, or, if you will, until the old habit is reinstated.

When the birds approach the nest, any strange objects like
the stakes which support the bough, or the tent which is pitched
beside it, arouse their sense of fear or suspicion, and they may
keep away for a time or advance with caution. If very shy,
like most Catbirds, they will sometimes skirmish about the
tent for two hours or more before touching the nest. The
spell is usually broken, however, in from twenty minutes to
an hour, and I have known a Chipping Sparrow and Red-eyed
Vireo. to feed their young in three minutes after the tent was
in place.

At every approach to the nest in its new position, the birds
see the same objects which work them no ill. The tent stands

1 This phrase will be used for the sake of brevity and convenience in
nearly the same sense as parental attachment or parental love. As we
have seen, there is no single parental instinct, but a complex series or
chain of instincts belonging to the reproductive period, and subject to
marked sexual differences.

Method of Bird Study and Photography 15

silent and motionless, unless it happens to be windy, but the
young are close by, and fear of the new objects gradually wears
away. Parental instinct, or in this case maternal love, for the
instinct to cherish the young is usually stronger in the mother,
wins the day. The mother bird comes to the nest and feeds her
clamoring brood. The spell is broken; she comes again. The
male also approaches, and their visits are thereafter repeated.

Possibly the fears of the old birds are renewed at sight of
the window which is now opened in the tent-front, and of the
glass eye of the camera gleaming through it, but the lens is also
silent and motionless, and soon becomes a familiar object to be
finally disregarded. Again there is the fear which the sound of
the shutter, a sharp metallic click, at first inspires, unless you
are the fortunate possessor of an absolutely silent and rapid
shutter, an instrument which is unknown to the trade, at least
in this country. At its first report when two feet away, many
a bird will jump as if shot, give an angry scream, and even fly
at the tent as if to exorcise an evil spirit, while after a few hours,
or on the second day, they will only wince; finally they will
not budge a feather at this or any other often repeated sound,
whether from shutter, steam whistle, locomotive, or the human
voice. This illustrates the effect of the alarm clock over again.
At our first experience with this nerve-wracking machine, we
start from deep sleep and promptly heed its summons ; then we
are apt to mind it less and less until we sleep on serenely in
spite of it. If we were to place an alarm clock on or near the
nesting bough, and let it off at regular but not too frequent
intervals, the birds would soon learn to disregard it as we do,
and as some of them disregard the babel of a city street.

It is the young, the young, always THE YOUNG, in whom the
interest of the old birds is centered, and about whom their lives
revolve. They are the strong lure, the talisman, the magnet to
which the parent is irresistibly drawn. The tree, the branch,
the nest itself, what are these in comparison with the young,
for whom alone they exist?

With some species it is possible to make the necessary
change without evil consequences when there are eggs in the nest;

I6 Wild Birds

with others we must wait until the young are from four to nine
days old. It is all a question of the strength of the parental
instinct, and this varies between wide limits in differ-
When to ent Species, and very considerably between different
change the individuals' From the nature of the case there can be
:mg no infallible rule. If we know little of the habits of the
birds in question, it is safest to wait until the seventh to the
ninth day after the young are hatched, or when in many passerine

Fig. g. Outdoor Observatory for the Study of Wild Birds— complete,
showing the observation tent, the nesting trunk (in this case belonging
to the House Wren) mounted on a pivot and surrounded by the protective
wire net, with white photographic screen at back. The running series of
Wren pictures fFigs. 16-30) were made at this nest, Northfield, N. H.,
July, 1901.

birds, as Robins, Orioles, and Waxwings, the feather-shafts of
the wing-quills begin to appear in the young, or, better, when
they project from one quarter to one half inch beyond the
feather-tubes. At this period the parental instinct is reaching
its maximum, and, what is equally important, the sense of fear
has not appeared in the young.

When we try to formulate a rule, however, we at once en-
counter numerous exceptions. Thus in Cuckoos the feathers

Method of Bird Study and Photography 1 7

do not shed their envelopes gradually as in most birds, but
remain sheathed up to the last day in the nest. Of greater
importance is the understanding of the principles involved,
and with these in mind and judiciously applied very few mis-
takes should be made.

At the beginning of observations a nest with eggs should be
watched, but not disturbed. When the period of incubation
has been determined, and the time of hatching
known, the young may be examined and photo- proce(jure
graphed if it is desired. At all events, they should
be watched until the critical time arises for closer study. This
decided upon in the manner already suggested, circumstances
must determine the course to be followed.

If the nest, like that of a Robin or Kingbird, is saddled to
the branch of a tree, saw off the whole limb and nail it to stakes
driven into the ground, so placed as always to give the best
light. The nesting bough, in case there is one, should be set
with its long axis parallel with the course of the sun, but the
position of the bough or tent may be changed during the day
when exceptional conditions render it necessary.

Either a dark foliage or a sky background may be chosen for
the nest, according to the desire of the operator or the possi-
bilities of the situation. In the first edition of this work it was
suggested that whenever a suitable natural background could
not be obtained, it would be possible to place either light or
dark screens behind the nesting bough, but that no experiments
in this direction had then been made. I have since adopted a
white photographic screen, and often find it a most useful
adjunct to the outdoor observatory. The birds pay little heed
to it, except to find in it a useful perch and vantage point for
their own observations. The tent is then to be placed in
position, or it may be pitched and left overnight beside the
nest.1 In other words, operations may begin at once or be
postponed until the following day, the better plan for a beginner
until he has mastered minor difficulties, which, though small in

1 Directions for the construction and use of tent and screen are given
in Chapter III.

1 8 Wild Birds

themselves, are far from unimportant. When the tent is closed
absolute silence must be maintained, for while this is not always
necessary it is the best rule to follow during the first days of
observation.

The best time to begin is from eight to nine o'clock in the
morning, because the young will then have been fed, and the
sun will be getting high enough for the most rapid photographic
work. One may spend as many hours a day, and as many days
at one nest, as time permits or inclination decides. I will only
suggest that the second day is always better than the first, and
that the third or fourth is always sure to bring something new.
If one would learn the nesting habits of any species thoroughly,
it will hardly do to rely upon one nest. The more you see of
different nests and different birds the better.

I usually spend five or six hours in the tent, from nine in the
morning until three in the afternoon, when the weather is fine.
If the camping ground is near my house, as it often is, I leave
the tent for half an hour at noon, but if it is far, I carry a lunch
and spend the day. When possible, I am always on hand during
the last day of life at the nest, to see the young leave it, usually
one at a time, and to witness the manoeuvres of the parents in
conducting them to the nearest trees.

Under some circumstances, as when studying Gulls and other
sea fowl, I have found it distinctly advantageous to use two
tents, occupying one in the morning and the other in the after-
noon, or setting the second tent one or two days in advance, so
that when required it will have become a familiar object to the
birds, and no time need be lost.

Young birds from one to five days old cannot, as a rule,
stand excessive heat. Even when fed and brooded they will
sometimes succumb, and here lies the serious danger
tionTtobe to be guarded against. A nest of very young birds
observed we^ shaded by foliage cannot be safely carried into
the direct sunshine of a hot summer's day, hence the
importance of beginning operations at the proper time when
the weather is suitable, and, further, of not allowing your en-
thusiasm to get the better of your judgment.

Method of Bird Study and Photography 19

The morning of a clear, mild day is preferable, but since we
cannot order the weather it is better to leave the birds to them-
selves if it promises to be excessively hot or windy.

Fig. 10. Female Chestnut-sided Warbler shielding the young on a warm day
Photographed from tent shown in Figs, a and 3.

The young may be fed or handled as much as one wishes,
provided the instinct of fear has not developed. If you are un-
certain as to this and your aim is to study the nesting habits,

20 Wild Birds

it is better to avoid approaching, touching, or in any way dis-
turbing the young after the flight feathers have appeared.
The cutting of leaves or twigs which obstruct the light or cast
undesirable shadows should be done before this time.

On the other hand, investigations of the young which require
accurate weighing, measurements, or photographs of the birds
themselves, place the matter in a different light. With these
objects in view the nest must be frequently approached and
the young taken out, and for such studies the change of the
nesting site offers such obvious advantages that it is needless
to dwell upon them. In taking down the nesting bough it is
often necessary to touch the nest, but this does no harm.

Young birds eight or nine days old stand the heat well, pro-
vided they are fed, but on very hot days they should not be
allowed to go without food for more than two hours at the
longest. Should the parents bring no food during this time, it
is better to feed the young in the nest, or to return the nest to
its original site, and suspend operations until the next day.

Sudden storms of wind and rain or equally severe blasts of
torrid heat are liable to arise on any summer's day in the
country, but their evil effects can be greatly mitigated, if not
overcome, by careful watching. Special care should always be
taken not to cut away too much foliage around a nest of very
young birds. As already suggested, one should follow the rule
of leaving the birds to their own devices in days of unusual heat
or humidity.

As has been already said, the old birds may be expected to
come to the nest in from twenty minutes to an hour, when the
tent is brought into immediate use after removal of the nesting
bough. It is naturally impossible to predict exactly what will
happen in any given case until the experiment is tried, since the
personal equation or individuality of the birds themselves is
an unknown and variable factor. One thing only is certain,
that the parental instincts, reenforced by habit, will win in the
end, that they will cast out fear, and draw the birds to their
young. If proper precautions are taken, everything should go
well, and the young leave their nest in due course.

Method of Bird Study and Photography 21

When the first edition of this work was published in 1901, I
had used the tent, with or without changing the nesting site, in
the case of twenty-six nests, belonging to fifteen Extent of
species of birds; the list is now extended to embrace Application
fifty -nine nests, belonging to thirty species, and the of the

experiments, which have been continued through Method
five successive seasons (1899-1903), may be regarded as fairly
establishing the value of the method. That the extent of its
application is wide is equally clear.1 In the entire list, which
is now tabulated for the benefit of future workers, the age of
the young is in most cases estimated from the data at hand,
which are only approximately accurate.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE USE OF OBSERVATION TENT AND IN THE CHANGE
OF NESTING SITE.

BIRDS AND NESTS.

TIME.

NUMBER

OF

YOUNG.

AGE

OF

YOUNG.

r

Redwing Blackbird (Nest un-

disturbed)

July 14, 1899

3

ii days.

a

Redwing Blackbird (Nest

3

swayed down one foot)
Catbird (Nest undisturbed) . . .

July 19, 1900
July 23, 1899

3

2

5 days.
8 days.

4

Catbird (Position of nest un-

5

changed)
Catbird (Nesting bough dis-

July 26, 1899

3

3-4 days.

placed ten feet)

Aug. 4, 1899

3

7-8 days.

6

Catbird (Nest undisturbed) . . .

June 21, 1900

4

7 days.

1

Cedar-bird (Nesting bush

moved twenty feet)

Aug. 3, 1899

4

9- 10 days

8

Cedar-bird (Nesting bough

displaced forty feet)

Aug. 21, 1899

4

6 days.

1 Mr. John B. Parker, of Cleveland, Ohio, has further successfully
applied the method to ten additional species, including the Field, Vesper,
and Grasshopper Sparrows, the Acadian Flycatcher and Wood Pewee, the
Goldfinch, Cardinal Bird, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and the Cooper's Hawk, a
bird of an exceedingly shy and suspicious nature.

Mr. Ned Dearborn, of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, has also
used the method with valuable results. (See Birds in their Relation to
Man, by Clarence M. Weed and Ned Dearborn; the J. B. Lippincott Co.,
1903-)

22

Wild Birds

BIRDS AND NESTS.

TIME.

NUMBER

OF

YOUNG.

AGE

OF

YOUNG.

9 Cedar-bird (Nesting bough
cut off and moved fifty feet)
10 Cedar-bird (Nest in pine tree
bough moved fifty feet) ....
1 1 Cedar-bird (Nest in apple tree
fourteen feet up; branch
moved twenty feet)
12 Cedar-bird (Nest built of
bright-colored yarn in apple
tree, fifteen feet from ground
moved thirty feet to point
opposite porch, where it was
constantly in view)

Aug. 23, 1899
July 14, 1900

July 6, 1901

July 9, 1901
Aug. 3, 1899

July 5, 1900
July 2, 1902

June 23, 1902
Aug. 9, 1899

July 25, 1900
June 13, 1901
July n, 1901
Aug. 15, 1899

Aug. 5, 1901
[une i <;, 1900 1

2

4
4

5

2

4
3

3
3

3
3
3

4

5
4 eggs

10 days
7-8 days.

9 days.

5 days.
8 days.

9 days.
5-6 days.

9 days.
7 days.

6 days.
7 days.
6 days.
5 days.

7 days.

13 Red-eyed Vireo (Nesting twig
lowered one foot)
14 Red- eyed Vireo (Nesting tree
cut down and taken from
woods forty feet to open)...
1 5 Red-eyed Vireo (Nest in maple
ten feet up ; tent pitched on
staging beside undisturbed
nest) . .

1 6 Warbling Vireo (In apple tree
seven feet from ground;
moved to an adjoining field
near house one hundred and
sixty feet) . .

17 Robin (Nesting bough cut off
and moved thirty feet) . . .
1 8 Robin (Nest in oak thirty feet
up; branch moved to open
field sixty feet away)
19 Robin (Nest in pine fifteen feet
up ; branch removed twenty-
five feet) . ...

20 Robin (Nest in apple tree
twenty feet from ground;
moved one hundred feet)
21 Bluebird (Nest-hole in apple
tree; moved fifty feet to
open field)
22 Bluebird (Cavity in dead
apple-branch twelve feet
up; whole moved twenty
feet) *
23 Chestnut -sided Warbler
(Bushes cleared in front of
nest)

Method of Bird Study and Photography 23

BIRDS AND NESTS

TIME.

NUMBER

OF

YOUNG.

AGE

OF

YOUNG.

24 Chestnut - s i d e d Warbler

(Bushes cleared in front of

nest)

June 28, 1900

4

4 days.

25 Night Hawk (Nesting site with

young enclosed with wattled

twigs)

June 29, 1900

i

r davs

26 Baltimore Oriole (Nesting

J V1C*JO.

branch in apple tree ; moved
twenty-five feet)

June 25, 1900

3

8-9 days.

27 Baltimore Oriole (Nest in elm

fifty feet from ground;

moved with limb weighing

several hundred pounds) . . .

June 25, 1901

3

10 days.

28 Kingbird (Nesting branch

moved twenty feet)

July 2, 1900

2

6 days.

29 Kingbird (Nesting branch

moved twenty-five feet) ....

July 2, 1900

4

7 days.

30 Kingbird (Apple tree fifteen

feet ; moved forty feet) ....

July 23, 1901

3

8 days.

31 Wilson's Thrush (Nest in tus-

sock; whole moved from

swamp to open fifty feet) . .

July 9, 1900

3

10 days.

32 Chipping Sparrow (Nesting
bough moved twenty feet) . .

July ii, 1900

4

4-5 days.

33 Chipping Sparrow and Cow-

bird (In apple tree twenty

feet ; removed sixty feet) . .

July 23, 1901

i

8 days.

34 Brown Thrush (Nest in thorn

bush; moved fifteen feet). .

July ii, 1900

3

4 days.

35 Song Sparrow (Nest in dead

sapling ; moved forty feet to

open)

July 17, 1900

3

5 days.

36 Kingfisher (Nest in bank;

opened at rear)

July 23, 1900

5

9 days.

37 White-bellied Swallow (Nest

box lowered to height of

four feet)

July n, 1901

4

10 days.

38 Sand Martin (Nest undis-

turbed)

June 21, 1901

—

—

39 Chebec (Nest in apple tree

fifteen feet from ground;

nesting branch moved thirty
feet)

June 29, 1901

4

8-9 days.

40 Chebec (Nest in pine eighteen

feet from ground; branch

displaced twelve feet)

June 10, 1902

3

9 days.

41 Chickadee (Nest in stub five

feet high; moved twenty

feet)

June 12, 1901

6

10 days.

Wild Birds

BIRDS AND NESTS.

TIME.

NUMBER

OF

YOUNG.

AGE

OF

YOUNG.

42

Chickadee (Converted Wood-

pecker's hole in stub four

feet tall)

July 22, 1901

—

—

43

Rose-breasted Grosbeak (Nest

in thorn-apple twelve feet

up ; moved forty feet)

June 13, 1901

4

7 days.

44

Towhee Bunting (Ground-nest

with young enclosed by
twig-fence)

June 21, 1901

4

10 days.

45

House Wren (In abandoned

nest-hole of Woodpecker

eight feet up ; moved twenty

five feet) . .

July 1 8, 1901

—

—

46

House Wren (Nest, abandoned

hole of Chickadee in dead

apple-limb twelve feet from

ground ; removed thirty

feet)

Aug. 13, 1901

4

7 days.

47

House Wren (Nest in horizon-

tal prong of apple tree five

feet from ground; moved

7 60 feet to a point where its

original site was completely

hidden by an intervening

house and orchard)

Aug. 26 1901

1 2—13 days

48

Red-breasted Nuthatch (In

dead branch of apple tree

ten feet from ground; re-

moved thirty feet)

June 7, 1902

—

lo-n days

49

Spotted Sandpiper (Ground-

nest undisturbed)

June 4, 1902

4 eggs

—

50

Flicker (Nest-hole drilled in

dead trunk of apple tree ;

moved fifteen feet, set up on

pivot in field, and screened

with wire netting; large

white photographic screen

51

placed at back)
Crow (Nest seven feet from

June 16, 1902

6

5 days.

apex of sapling pine twenty

feet from ground; ten feet

of tree holding nest cut off,

set up thirty feet away, and

protected with wire screen).

June 4, 1902

4

Nearly full-

fledged.

5*

Arctic or Common (?) Tern

(Matinicus Rock, Maine ;

rock-nest undisturbed). ....

July 12, 1902

2 eggs

—

Method of Bird Study and Photography 25

BIRDS AND NESTS.

TIME.

NUMBER

OF

YOUNG.

AGE

OP

YOUNG.

53 Wilson's Tern (Weepecket
Islands, Buzzard's Bay,

Massachusetts ; ground-

nest undisturbed)
54 Great Herring Gull (No-Man's-

Aug. i, 1904

3 eggs

—

Land Island, Maine; rock-

nest undisturbed) . .

July 14 1902

2 youn g

i—2 days

and i

'pipped"

55 Great Herring Gull (Great

egg

Duck Island, Maine ; ground-

nest undisturbed)

July 18, 1902

2 eggs, i

"pipped"

56 Great Herring Gull (Great

Duck Island, Maine; rock-

nest)
57 Great Herring Gull (Great

July 21, 1902

3 eggs

—

Duck Island, Maine ; ground-

nest)

July 6, 1903

3 eggs

58 Great Herring Gull (Great

Duck Island, Maine; family

on "preserve ")
59 Great Herring Gull (Great

July 7, 1903

3 chicks

3-4 weeks.

Duck Island, Maine ; ground-

nest)

July 7, 1903

3 eggs

—

In only four or five cases when the nest with its supports has
been displaced (Nos. 8, 20, 21, 35) have the young come to
grief, in the course of five years' work. In addition, a young
Cowbird was, as I supposed, stolen by a cat. These accidents
were due, moreover, in all but possibly two cases, to preventible
causes. A nest of Cedar Waxwings, though fed by both birds
and shielded almost constantly, were overcome by the heat and
humidity. Some Bluebirds and Robins, both of which fed their
young, were interfered with by hay-makers and workers in the
field. A brood of Song Sparrows also succumbed to the heat on
a day which the Weather Bureau in New England reported as
the hottest ever recorded. In addition to this, their nest,
which was moved to the open, happened to be placed in the
crotch of a dead sapling, so that the birds were exposed on all

26

Wild Birds

sides. There was doubt in the case of a nest of House Wrens
(No. 45), the young of which were not seen. They became so

Fig. ii. Red-breasted Nuthatch carrying insect to nest in dead
trunk of apple tree. The bird has the singular practice of smear-
ing the entrance with drops of pitch, some of which are seen just
above the opening. This Nuthatch always entered right foot first.

tame that they would come boldly within reach of the hand, and
if their young were destroyed the culprit must have been a
squirrel or a weasel.

Kingbirds have remained in the nest eleven days after the
change, Robins a week, Cedar-birds six days. A glance at the
table will show that in the case of the Chestnut-sided Warbler
(23), the Spotted Sandpiper (49), and a number of Gulls and
Terns, observations were begun when there were eggs, and no
doubt there are many species or individuals in which it would
be possible to watch from the tent the whole family-life, from
hatching to flight from the nest, but only careful and experi-

Method of Bird Study and Photography 27

enced students should experiment in this direction. It all
depends on the strength of the parental instincts at the period
in question. As was said in a former edition, where the attach-
ment to nest and eggs is strong, as in Owls, Fish Hawks, Flickers,
Kingbirds, and the Chipping Sparrows, to mention a few cases,
we might look for success, but the subject does not admit of this
simple analysis. Setting aside individual variation which con-
fronts us at every turn, we must remember that what we call
for convenience parental instinct, as has been explained, is a
complex of instincts, embracing many distinct kinds of activities,
such as nest-building, egg-laying, incubation, brooding, feeding,
and care of the young, in the course of which fear is a variable
factor. Thus, the sense of fear is completely blocked in the
Flicker by the brooding instinct; when possessed of this im-
pulse you may knock loud and long at her door, saw open her
house, and even take her in the hand, but she will not budge a
feather ; yet a few days later, after the young need this attention
less, the same bird becomes very shy. The persistency of the
sitting hen is proverbial, and in attempting to thwart her plans
the beautiful precision of her instinct, which is apt to be re-
garded as an index of total depravity, is not sufficiently ap-
preciated.

Having early expressed my confidence in the future of the
movable tent as an observatory for the study of nesting birds,
I am pleased to find that many field-ornithologists have adopted
it with success in various parts of the country. As a blind for
watching the scenes at the nest it fulfils every requirement, and
all questions of accessories, or even of color, for the purpose of
concealment, are of minor importance, as students of animal
behavior will soon learn. The tent may prove serviceable in
watching the building of the nest, in such species or individuals
as have a strong attachment to chosen sites, and whose plans
are not easily disturbed by trifles; in many cases, however,
no blind is needed, perfect quiet being the only requisite. If
experiments in this direction are made, care should be taken
not to place the tent too near, at least on the first day. No
doubt many kinds of birds may be attracted by food and other

28 Wild Birds

lures to the tent, which soon commands no more attention from
them than a rock in the landscape, but the possible rewards of
sedentary experiments in this direction are too uncertain to
arouse much enthusiasm in the mind of the active bird student.

This method of studying the daily life of wild birds is recom-
mended chiefly to those careful students who are making a study
of the habits and instincts of animals, and who are
Objections prepared to devote much time and energy in the
field. The indiscriminate use of any method of
studying the home-life of birds is fraught with
danger to the young, and to displace a nest at the wrong time
in order to photograph it, or to leave it unprotected, may often
open wide the door of destruction. When the study of birds
with the camera is pursued' as a recreation, the rule should be
to disturb the nest and its occupants as little as possible.

Since an account of the method was first published, the
chief objections which have been raised against it are: (i) that
the displacement of the nest is liable to expose the young to new
dangers, especially when it is removed from a place of con-
cealment to a conspicuous point in a field, and (2) that the in-
experienced, ambitious to use their cameras, would be tempted
to move a nest, without serious intent, and thus invite that
destruction to our birds, which is already far too great, and
which every lover of nature should do his utmost to prevent.

Under the first head would fall the liability of the parents to
desert, exposure of the young to heat, cold, storms, and above
all to that inveterate enemy of the nestling bird — the remorseless
cat. Enough has already been said about the weather, which in
all protected nests does not enter into the question, and in all
exposed ones must be guarded against in the ways suggested.
The nesting bough, when firmly fixed to supports, is more secure
than it could have possibly been before. The designs of the
cat may be completely frustrated by the wire-screen, or when the
branch or trunk holding the nest (as in the case of a Wood-
pecker or Bluebird) is mounted on a pivot, by a simple device
to be later described. In referring to this subject in the earlier
edition it was said that predacious animals of all kinds seemed

Method of Bird Study and Photography 29

to avoid the displaced nest as if it were a new means to entrap
and slay them. It is best, however, not to stake too much upon
this assurance, for no nest of young birds is ever safe, however
perfectly concealed. We must also be aware that cats and all
wild depredators, like the birds themselves, soon become ac-
customed to new objects and surroundings. Whenever it is
possible, the displaced nest, or indeed any ground-nest which
is not disturbed, should be protected by a wire net, which can
be easily constructed so that it will stop both feline and rodent,
and even the snake. It is impossible to overestimate the im-
portance of this screen, especially in a country overrun by cats.

The only depredator of whom I stand in fear is the irre-
sponsible or malicious small boy, and to anticipate his possi-
bilities for evil it is best to take a look at the nest now and then
when not encamped beside it.

The possible failure of parental instinct and consequent de-
sertion of the young is the most important objection with which
we have to deal. While it is impossible to predict what in-
dividual variation may sometimes effect, experience has now
amply proved that in the large number of cases already dealt
with (see table of experiments) this seldom or never happens
at the height of the breeding season, provided the precautions
already suggested are taken. To ensure success, the parental
instincts must be approaching their climax, and not on the
wane. The remarkable fact, not unknown to breeders of
domestic Pigeons, has already been noticed, that certain birds
will occasionally desert their young, when passing under the
sway of a new impulse. While the attunement of the instincts
must be fairly perfect for the average individual, whether adult
or young, exceptions abound, and are of course liable to be
encountered at any moment in the field. The best answer to
this question, however, is given by the record of actual ex-
periments (see table and comment).

The second objection, which refers to the possible harm done
by the young or inexperienced observer, need give us little
concern, for novelty soon wears away and the practice requires
a far greater expenditure of patience, energy, and time than an

3o Wild Birds

amateur would willingly give. I would not vaunt the patience
of the naturalist, who is accustomed to work in the field or
laboratory for weeks or months to attain his desired ends, and

Fig. I!

arrows.

. Cedar-bird's nest— No. 10 of table— in original position marked by
See Figs. 4 and 13.

those ends he will attain provided they can be compassed by
intelligence, industry, and skill, for patience is the stock in most
successful trades, but, while success may never come because
of it alone, none can be assured without it.

In the ten days or two weeks or more of life at the nest
events move rapidly and the question of time is important.

Method of Bird Study and Photography 3 r

Any interruptions are therefore opportunities for the display of
patience rather than for the increase of knowledge.

We have already seen that the displacement of the nest or
nesting branch does not introduce unnatural conditions of any

Fig. 13. Cedar-bird's nest in its new site. Nesting bough moved fifty feet to open field.
Compare Figs. I, 4, and 12.

importance into the life of the birds. Of course every change
wrought by man is in a certain sense unnatural. If we pluck a
single leaf from a tree, that tree is no longer in its natural state,
but the change counts for nothing. If we keep on plucking
leaves, however, a time will come when the arm of the balance
is disturbed, and the denuded tree is sure to suffer. The re-
moval of a leaf or twig about a nest is of no practical conse-
quence, but this should not be carried too far, both on account of

32 Wild Birds

the young which need the protection of shade, and for the sake
of natural appearances which we wish to preserve.

It might be supposed that when a branch is lopped off, its
foliage would at once wither, and unduly expose the nest or
detract from the artistic value of a picture. The fact is, how-
ever, that there is commonly enough sap in a hard wood bough
of moderate size to keep the leaves fresh for several days, and
towards the close of life at the nest the young need no protection
from this source. As to this point, however, the illustrations
in this book will speak for themselves. When the nesting
branch is vertical and not too large, it can usually be kept fresh
for a sufficient time by setting it in a can of water, which should
be sunk in the ground.

Evergreens like the pine and spruce hold their leaves bright
for a long time after cutting, and in this respect the various
deciduous trees and shrubs differ greatly, those with a hard,
close grain keeping fresh the longer.

As to any injury to trees which the method may be supposed
to entail, it is not worth considering, since no valuable tree
should be mutilated without first obtaining the permission of
the owner, for however trifling the damage may appear, his
point of view is likely to be different from your own. The
cutting of an occasional twig or branch, even if it does not trim
the tree, is not regarded as an important event in this country
at present. If every farmer who owns orchards and woodlands
did his duty, he would cut out more useless wood in a year than
a student of birds would need to do in a decade. It should be
unnecessary to add that no one should set up a nest in a field,
and leave the trouble of removing it to the owner of the land.

When the nest is completely exposed and the weather is
very hot, the young may be tempted to forsake it a day or two
earlier than they would naturally do, but this does not usually
happen and is not necessarily serious. Some Kingbirds, already
referred to, spent eighteen days in the nest, and were a week
old when it was moved. This was probably longer than com-
mon, and certainly longer than necessary.

The tent not only conceals the observer but protects his

Method of Bird Study and Photography 33

camera, an important consideration, since the prolonged action
of the sun is liable to spring a leak in the bellows. As to the
portability and general convenience of the tent I shall speak
elsewhere.

With notebook in hand you can sit in your tent, and see and
record everything which transpires at the nest, the mode of
approach, the kind of food brought, the varied
activities of the old and young, the visits of intruders, Adva **^*
and their combats with the owners of the nest, the Method
capture of prey which sometimes goes on under your
eye. No better position could be chosen for hearing the songs,
responsive calls, and alarm notes of the birds. You can thus
gather materials for an exact and minute history of life at the
nest, and of the behavior of birds during this important period.
More than this, you can photograph the birds at will, under the
most perfect conditions, recording what no naturalist has ever
seen, and what no artist could ever hope to portray. The birds
come and go close to your eye, but unconscious of being observed.

I have watched the Night Hawk feed her chick with fireflies
barely fifteen inches from my hand, the Kingfisher carrying live
fish to its brood whose muffled rattles issued from their sub-
terranean gallery a few feet away. When near enough to count
her respirations accurately, I have seen the Redwing Blackbird
leave her nest on a hot day, hop down to the cool water of the
swamp, and after taking a sip, bathe in full view, within reach
of the hand; then, shaking the water from her plumage, she
would return refreshed to the nest. I have seen the male
Kingbird come to his nesting bough with feathers drenched from
his midday bath in the river, the Orioles flash their brilliant
colors all day long before the eye, and Chestnut-sided Warblers
become so tame after several days that the female would allow
you to approach and stroke her back with the hand. Again,
when camping on an island by the shore, I have seen the Tern,
on coming to her nest, an egg of which had exploded during her
absence, the heat of the midday sun being more than it could
stand, bend over, insert her lower mandible in the blow-hole,
and, gradually lifting the heavy egg in her bill, bear it slowly

34

Wild Birds

to the sea and drop it in the water. Upon her return, she
gathered up every fragment which might defile the nest and
bore it away.

When encamped on a rock-bound shore, above the surge of
the waves, I have watched hour by hour and day after day the

Fig. 14. Family of Great Herring Gulls on their "preserve," with one
chick a day old and two eggs. The male at the right has just dropped
from the perch on the log above ; the brooding mother immediately rose
from the nest and is seen sounding the scream of defiance, which is evi-
dently not a danger signal. The male then summoned the chick to the
feeding spot, which is at the side of the nest, and his mate retired to the
perch.

comic and the tragic scenes in which the nurseries of the Great
Herring Gull abound, and from such vantage points have been
able to follow in every detail that remarkable polity which has
grown out of the communal life of these splendid sea fowl.

It is difficult to describe the fascination which this method
of study affords the student of animal life. New discoveries
or unexpected sights wait on the minutes, for while there is a

Method of Bird Study and Photography 35

well-ordered routine in the actions of many birds the most
charming pictures occur at odd moments, and there is an endless
variety of detail. It is like a succession of scenes in a drama,
only this is real life, not an imitation, and there is no need of
introducing tragedy. From the tent one may read the life of
the nesting bird as out of an open book.

CHAPTER II

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE METHOD

IT is always interesting to see how birds actually behave when
put to the test, and as illustrations of the method applied I
have selected four common birds, the Cedar Waxwing, the
Wren, the Redwing Blackbird, and the Kingbird. The choice
might have fallen, however, upon any others in my list, for the
principles are in every case the same.

For the present we are chiefly concerned with the change of
nesting sites and with the behavior of these birds in the face of
new surroundings.

On the third day of July a Cedar-bird's nest (No. 10 of table
on page 22) was discovered in an unusually attractive situation.
It was fastened to the horizontal branch of a white
. .^ e r" pine about fifteen feet up, in the line of an old stone
wall that bounded an open field. In passing beneath
the tree almost daily during the following week, I was sure to find
one of the old birds, the female as I supposed, always on the nest
and sitting in the same alert attitude, engaged either in in-
cubation or brooding. With upstretched neck she would sit
motionless and silent as a statue, as if listening intently, her
dark eye shining like a jet black bead against the background of
pine needles. I was waiting for the propitious time to move
this nest to the open field. This time arrived on July i4th,
when the heads of the young began to appear over the rim of
their nest. The bough was then sawn off, carried fifty feet from
the tree, and set up in the newly mown field, in an east to west
line at a height of four feet from the ground, and in such a way
that the birds could be "skyed," and the light would be good
from nine o'clock in the morning until three in the afternoon.

36

Illustrations of the Method

37

The tent was then pitched and closed; the whole operation
lasted longer than usual owing to some difficulty in getting
stakes of the right height. Fifteen minutes is usually long
enough for this work.

Fig. 15. Cedar Waxwing standing at inspection : a characteristic pose.
Compare Pigs, i and 4.

From peep-holes the old birds could be seen in the nesting
tree, and you began to hear their faint z-e-e-e-e-e-t ! in response
to calls from the young. In twenty-four minutes the female
was on the bough and fed her brood with red bird cherries by
regurgitation. At this point I was obliged to leave the tent and
ask some curious boys to keep away, but the mother bird was
back in a moment. In a short time the old birds began to alight
on the peak of the tent, which was an observatory for them as

38 Wild Birds

well as for the person inside. Taking a look about, they would
drop down to the nest only a step away. This was done more
than ten times in the course of the day. Observations began
at 8.40 in the morning and closed at 4.40 P. M., so that, with an
intermission at noon, they lasted nearly seven hours and twenty
minutes. During this interval the young were fed with wild
red cherries, blueberries, and insects,— mainly grasshoppers, and
nearly always by regurgitation. The nest and young were
regularly cleaned, and the new conditions seemed to have been
completely adopted. The young, whose wing-quills now showed
half an inch of the feather shaft, were entirely fearless.

On July 1 6th, the second day of observation and the third
after the removal of the nesting bough, the old birds began the
work of feeding in exactly twelve minutes after the tent was in
place. I will add here that I have usually removed the tent at
the end of the day's work, although in some cases it has been
found advantageous to leave it overnight. In a little more than
three hours the old birds came to the nest eighteen times, bring-
ing abundant stores of fruit and insects.

On July 1 7th, the third day at this nest, feeding began in
three minutes after closure of the tent. It was the hottest day
of the summer, but life at the nest went on without accident or
interruption. The young now sat or stood with heads upturned
in the characteristic attitude shown in one of the illustrations.
They flew on the morning of the ipth of July, when thirteen
days old, seeking the cover of a thicket of birches close by, where
they were cared for by their parents until ready to leave the
neighborhood. They were scattered over an area of several
square rods, and kept calling in their monotonous way, z-e~e-e-e-t!
z-e-e-e-e-t! One of their number, shown in a photograph (Fig.
59), was not touched or posed, but occupied a natural perch
chosen by himself in his flight from tree to tree.

About the middle of July I noticed the neatly drilled circular

The House openin& of a Chickadee's nest on the underside of a

Wren ' small dead apple branch, about twelve feet from the

ground. It was so admirably adapted for study that

I remember the feeling of regret at being so late in the field.

Illustrations of the Method 39

I determined, however, to save the nest; but, upon coming
to take it down, on the 24th of July, discovered that it was
occupied, after all, and by a family of House Wrens. After the
Chickadees had moved out, the Wrens had evidently moved in.
The Wren is a close sitter, and when incubation is well ad-
vanced it is difficult to drive the female from her eggs. In the
present case nothing short of a violent shaking of the whole tree
would suffice. Finally a sleek little bird would appear at the
window, showing a sharp bill and clean-cut profile, and in a
moment go off scolding, or giving its harsh rattle, which is really
a signal of alarm — ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek ! Then, with tail
cocked and with rapid, jerky movements, it would hop along
the fence or over the branches of a tree, turning on its shrill
rattle every few seconds, until confidence was restored. The
Wren's tail, though a very sensitive register of emotion, is not
invariably cocked, as might be inferred from the picture-books.

When it seemed likely that the little Wrens were a week old,
I cut off the dead branch below the opening, carefully lowered
it to the ground, and mounted it on a pivot in the field. The
stump was then surrounded by a protective wire screen of
ample height (see page 63), and the tent was set up on the
morning of the following day, August 24th, at twenty minutes
after nine o'clock. In order to secure a clear background, a
white photographic screen (see p. 62) was later placed behind
the stump, and our outdoor observatory was complete (Fig. 9).
By its means the home life of old and young could be studied
and registered with a precision hitherto unknown. Though the
birds would now come and go within reach of the hand, they
were quite unaware of being observed.

I watched this Wren family during parts of five days, and
altogether for eleven hours and five minutes. On the fourth
day the stump was sawn open, so as to expose the young, which
were then well feathered and able to crawl to the opening.
The illustrations of the scenes at this nest were selected from
a series of nearly one hundred photographs, which represent a
complete pictorial analysis of the behavior of this bird.

In just a minute after entering the tent on the first day,

Wild Birds

Figs. 16-19. House Wrens climbing to
nest-hole with food. For description see
List of Illustrations.

Mother Wren was on the stump
and sounding her alarm, ek-ek-
ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek! In giving
this harsh rattle the bill does
not close, but the lower mandi-
ble moves rapidly and the
whole body quivers, as the air
is expelled in little puffs from
the throat. A few minutes
later she was crawling up the
bark like a mouse, with a field-
spider pinched between the
sharp points of her bill. Her
next victim was a black bee-
tle, but, frightened at some ob-
ject or sound, she brought it to
the stump many times, reeling
off her harsh rattle, or giving
her incisive kek! kek! before
venturing inside.

The work of feeding was
borne wholly by the female,
both at this and at another
nest studied earlier in the sea-
son. She would come and go
quietly, unless disturbed, when
her rattle would sound until
every suspicion was allayed.
Sometimes she would fly first
to the tent roof, then to the
stump, running up or down to
the hole. Again she would
alight on the screen, and then
go to the stump by way of the
wire net, always pausing at the
entrance to the nest before
venturing inside. It was some

Illustrations of the Method

time before a definite course
of approach was adopted, and
this was necessarily modified
whenever the stump was ro-
tated to improve the light.
The young chirped briskly as
the mother approached, and,
like the young of other birds,
were keenly alive to every
sound. After inspecting and
cleaning the nest, she would
return to the entrance, often
with the excreta in her bill,
survey the field for a moment,
and be off.

This bird had the peculiar
habit of tearing the legs and
wings from large grasshoppers
and moths before bringing them
to the nest. The photographs
demonstrate this clearly. The
effect of such rough treatment
was certainly to prevent the
escape of the prey. I was sur-
prised to find that small spiders
were also subjected to a similar
ordeal, only their plump, spheri-
cal abdomens, which I at first
mistook for egg-cocoons, being
served to the young (Fig. 16).

I once drove this bird away
with my hand four times in
rapid succession, until the in-
sect which was finally delivered
could be observed and a photo-
graph obtained. This was a
good illustration of the force

Figs. 20-23. House Wrens, entering,
leaving, and cleaning nest.

Wild Birds

Figs. 44-27. Attitudes of the House
Wren exhibited on stage over nest ; the
trunk is sawn open.

of habit, and a good index of
the degree of familiarity already
attained.

On the second day a high
wind shook the tent, and the
screen napped like the sail of a
vessel at sea, but life at the
nest went forward without a
break. Even when the wind
tore up the screen and carried
it with a crash against a neigh-
boring fence, the bird hardly
noticed it, and two minutes
later came bringing to its young
a large moth, minus wings.

In order to expose the nest
itself, the stump was sawn open
on the fourth day, but the rou-
tine of nest life was interrupted
for only seven minutes. A con-
venient platform, or stage, was
thus made just above the nest,
and upon this many lively
scenes were enacted in the
course of the day. A series
of pictures (Figs. 1 6-30) shows
many attitudes of this little
Wren, as she strode up or down
to the nest-opening, as well as
the variety of insects carried,
and the treatment which many
of them had received.

I once photographed this bird
as she stood on the stage over
the nest with a large grass-
hopper in her mouth, and her
behavior suggested some con-

Illustrations of the Method

43

nection between bulb and bill,
for at the click of the shutter
she promptly swallowed the in-
sect and was off.

The Wrens have a peculiar
way of disposing of the excreta.
The sac is taken direct from
the body of the young and car-
ried to a tree, where it is de-
posited or impaled on the bark
of a limb. The sac is rarely, if
ever, eaten, and never allowed
to fall to the ground.

During the whole period of
observation, which lasted
eleven hours and five minutes,
the young were fed one hun-
dred and one times, at an av-
erage rate of once in six and a
half minutes (on the first day
once in two and a half min-
utes) , and the nest was inspected
and cleaned twenty-eight times.
The bill of fare, as far as re-
corded, consisted of nine differ-
ent articles, served in respect
to abundance in the order
named as follows: grasshop-
pers, thirty-three times ; spiders,
twenty-five; moths, fourteen;
black crickets, six ; green larvae,
two ; brown larvae, two ; besides
field cricket, green katydid, and
black beetle, each served once.

During the last day of study
at this nest the young crawled
to the opening and took their

••I

Figs. 28-30. Descending to nest.
Fig. 31. Young Wren leaving nest.

44

Wild Birds

first flight, landing in the grass not many feet away. They would
run like mice, and their brown protective coloring, exactly like

Fig. 32. Tent over raft in water of swamp beside Redwing Blackbird's
nest. See Figs. 33 and 34, No. a of table.

that of the old birds, made it no easy matter to recover them
when once at liberty.

On the fifth day of July a nest of three young Blackbirds
(No. 2 of the table), aged five days, was found on the edge of
what was once an alder swamp, close to the town and the " Cove "
made by the Winnipiseogee River in Northfield. It was fixed

Illustrations of the Method

45

to several slender stems of Spiraea, amid a dense tangle of Ceph-

alanthus, wild roses, and purple milkweeds. The situation was

so attractive and offered such fine opportunities for

studying these birds that, notwithstanding the water

and mud, I determined to make careful prepar- B-

ations. A space four feet square was at once

cleared of bushes at one side of the nest. In order to skv the

The Red"

Fig- 33- Male Redwing Blackbird feeding young.

birds, the nesting twigs were slightly raised, but none of these
were severed or otherwise displaced.

On the ninth of July I built a raft or platform on the cleared
area, and painted it green, which was soon found to be an un-
necessary precaution. When weighted with the observer and

46

Wild Birds

his apparatus, the flooring was barely clear of the water. On
the following day, the tent was pitched over this stranded raft
and guyed to the bushes, the tent poles having been previously
lengthened to suit the depth of mud and water. Everything
was ready for observations at half-past nine o'clock. At first
the birds fluttered around the nest chucking and whistling in-

Fig. 34. Female Redwing Blackbird with feathers erect, keep-
ing cool while shielding young from heat.

cessantly, but in less than an hour the warble of the male was
heard, which is a sure sign of growing confidence. Then both
birds went off for food, returned, reconnoitred the tent and nest,
and after precisely one hour and twenty-three minutes from
the beginning of observations the female came and fed her

Illustrations of the Method 47

clamoring young. Again she was off and back three times in
rapid succession. Three minutes later she was brooding, and
remained on the nest thirteen minutes. Leaving it again, she
examined the tent anew, then brooded ten minutes more. A
little later the young were fed and the nest cleaned with great
care.

The male was more cautious and did not actually feed his
young until twenty-seven minutes after eleven. His fears were
then dispelled and life at the nest went on without interruption
At about noon the old birds were using the tent as a half-way
house, alighting on its peak and guys, and foraging about it for
food. In the space of four hours on the first day, during which
the birds were watched at a distance of about twenty-seven
inches, fifty -four visits were made and the young were fed forty
times. The female brooded her young over an hour, fed them
twenty-nine times, and cleaned the nest thirteen times. The
male made eleven visits, attending to sanitary matters but
twice. This example illustrates as well as any which could be
given the advantage which attends the use of the observation
tent.

On the following day, July nth, the female was at the nest
and brooding her young in five minutes after the tent was in
position. Presently she left to hunt for insects, alighted on the
tent, and five minutes later was feeding her young and cleaning
the nest. In the course of nearly three and one half hours,
fifty-five visits were made and the young were fed collectively
or singly forty-three times. At about half-past eleven o'clock
one of the fledglings left the nest and was fed by the old birds
in the surrounding bushes of the swamp. The female brought
food thirty-two times, cleaned the nest eight times, and brooded
eighteen times for intervals varying from thirty seconds to
eighteen minutes. This bird cut a queer figure while standing
or sitting in the sun, with wings spread and bristling like a
turkey-cock with every feather erect, and with mouth agape,
trying to keep cool while shielding her family from the heat.
Her breathings were at the rate of 150 to 160 times a minute.
The male bird served food eleven times and attended to sanitary

48

Wild Birds

matters once. In the course of forty-two minutes the first
young bird to leave the nest was fed eight times, seven times by

Fig- 35. Baltimore Oriole inspecting young after having fed them.

the mother and once by the father. Three days later the
swamp was visited at just after sundown, when the young
birds suddenly arose from the nest and flew off with ease and
precision.

Kingbirds pose so well, especially about their nests, that I

Illustrations of the Method 49

was anxious to see how they would stand the test of a sudden
change in their surroundings. Accordingly I watched

with unusual care two nests which were found near

Kingbird
my house. On the thirteenth day of June one had

two and the other four eggs all freshly laid, and these appeared
to be the full complement. Young were hatched in each nest
on or near the twenty-fifth of the month.

The first nest was built at the top of a hill, about a rod from
an Oriole's nest (Figs. 35, 96), on the horizontal limb of a small
apple tree twelve feet from the ground, and was a conspicuous
object to all who passed that way. The nesting bough was
removed and mounted in a good position on the morning of
July 2d, and the tent was closed at half-past eight o'clock. At
this time the two young were six days old and covered with
light gray down. While the operation was in progress the old
birds hovered over the nest, and with their usual boldness
swooped down close to my head, snapping their bills and utter-
ing their piercing alarms.

After the tent was closed, much to my surprise all became
quiet, and I could see both birds — the female with insect in bill
— exploring the nesting tree twenty feet away. She would fly
to that point in space which the nest formerly occupied, and
hover over it repeatedly, a characteristic action of many if not
all birds under such circumstances, and is a good illustration of
the force of habit. Ten minutes later the female was again at
the nesting tree with insects. For an hour afterwards all was
quiet. The old birds were sitting by in silence, probably not
far away. At ten minutes before eleven o'clock one of the pair,
probably trie ''female, came with a swoop to the nesting branch,
and I believe fed her young. In this case the observer had to
wait two hours and twenty minutes before having the birds
close to his eye, but he was well repaid for the delay as the
sequel will show. In one minute the mother had returned and
now both began to make up for lost time. In five hours and six
minutes (from 10.50 A.M. to 4.36 P.M., allowing for an inter-
mission of forty minutes when the observer was away), the old
birds made seventy-five visits to the nest. Not only had they

50 Wild Birds

become accustomed to the tent, but soon paid little heed to
anything about it, and one could photograph them at will,
focusing directly upon the brooding or standing bird. After I
had entered the tent, they would be at the nest in five minutes

Fig. 36. Kingbirds rending an unruly dragon-fly. The female, who stands in
front, was brooding when the prey was brought by the male.

or even less time, and the young were often fed at half-minute
intervals. Occasionally both birds were at the nest together,
but this seldom happened unless the female was brooding.

On the second day the male came to the nesting branch in
twelve minutes after the tent was in position, and the panoramic
scenes of life at this nest went on without disturbance for the
rest of that day. The birds were before your eye, literally at

Illustrations of the Method 5 1

hand, and the observer had only to watch and record the rapidly
shifting scenes with pencil and camera.

On the third day, July 4th, the female was on the bough in
six minutes, and in six and a half minutes from the beginning of
operations fed her brood.

Fig. 37. Kingbird family. The male — to the right — has captured a dragon-fly,
whose stick of a body is seen projecting from the mouth of a young bird.

The fourth day of study at this nest, or the sixth from the
time of displacement, was the most interesting of all. There
were now two foster children in addition to the two born in the
house, for I had transferred two birds from a former nest (No.
29 of table). No protest was made at this intrusion, but the
strangers were adopted almost immediately and fed and guarded
with all the care given to their own offspring.

5 2 Wild Birds

In the space of four hours (8.54 A.M. to 12.50 P.M.) the parents
made one hundred and eight visits to the nest and fed their
brood ninety-one times. In this task the female bore the larger
share, bringing food more than fifty times, although the male
made a good showing, having a record of thirty-seven visits to
his credit. During this long interval the young were thus fed
on the average of once in two and one half minutes. At each
feeding usually one and but rarely two birds were served. Dur-
ing the first hour the young were fed on an average of once in
one and a half minutes. The observer was kept on the alert
in recording what took place, and the scenes would often shift
so quickly that it was difficult to decide which bird came to the
nest. The mother brooded eighteen times, and altogether for
the space of one hour and twenty minutes. The nest was
cleaned seven times, and the nest and young were constantly
inspected and picked all over by both birds, although the female
was the more scrupulous in her attentions.

Whenever the male brought a large dragon-fly to the young,
an exciting scene was sure to follow. If the female happened
to be brooding at the time, she would seize the struggling insect
and try to start it down one of the hungry throats. If she
failed in this, the male would snatch it from her to try his skill,
and usually with as little success. In this way the prey would
be passed back and forth, until it was crushed between the bills
of the two birds, or torn limb from limb. Some of these un-
equal contests between birds and insects are illustrated by the
photographs.

When the male brought a moth miller and accidentally
dropped it close to the tent, he went after it like a flash, and to
place its security beyond doubt swallowed it himself. Again,
one of the birds while perched near by was seen to disgorge the
indigestible parts of its insect food, a common practice with
flycatchers, both old and young.

I have added the foregoing details in order to show with what
harmony life at the new nesting site proceeds when once the
severed threads have been united. A knowledge of former
conditions seemed to have been completely effaced. The nest-

Illustrations of the Method

53

ing bough was defended with the same bold spirit for which
this bird is celebrated. The young Were brooded night and
day, while birds of other species were constantly assailed and
driven from the premises.

At noon on the ninth day of July one Kingbird, then full-

Fig. 38. Warbling Vireo bringing insect to young. The rod-shaped
body between the head of the bird and the branch is not a part of the
tree, but the abdomen of a dragon-fly, which was dragged from its
pupa-case, before its wings had unfolded.

fledged, was standing on the branch beside the nest. When
touched he was off like a shot, and at this signal the others
tried their wings for the first time and landed in the grass.
After being replaced many times, two consented to remain, and
spent that night in the old home, but forsook it the next morning
when two weeks old. The first nest, which had been displaced
in a similar way and which as we have seen eventually contained
two birds, was occupied eighteen days. The last to leave flew
easily two hundred feet down the hillside on the thirteenth of
July. After taking this one home to secure a photograph, I
carried him to the hilltop and tossed him in the air. In his
second flight, which was long and good, he made a distant apple

54

Wild Birds

tree Both old and young birds remained in the neighborhood
for several weeks, and were still there when I went away in
early August.

As an appendix to this chapter, it might be interesting to
add a few notes on other birds. On the twenty-third day of
July a nest of Warbling Vireos was moved sixty feet to an

adjoining field,
and to a point
close to my
house. In five
minutes both
birds were at
the nest with
food, the little
Vireos giving
their peculiar
whining call in
chorus, and the
old ones their
equally harsh
and characteris-
tic r e f r a i n —
kech-ech-ech-ech!
kech-ech-ech-ech!
Observations
were begun at once; the birds were remarkably active, and the
amount of food consumed by the young was astonishingly great.
During the first hour the nestlings were fed forty-five times and
during the second thirty-two times, the feedings sometimes oc-
curring, for a period of a quarter of an hour, at one-minute in-
tervals. A Bluebird even came to the bough, took a perch close
to the nest, and tried to hold its ground, but it was finally driven
off by the male Vireo, who charged at it fiercely, with erect
feathers and snapping bill.

At No Man's Land Island, Maine, I placed my tent beside a
rock-nest of the Great Herring Gull, which contained two chicks
and one pipped egg, amid the loud uproar of a panic-stricken

Fig. 39. Young Kingbird eighteen days old. "The last
to leave flew easily two hundred feet down the hillside."

Illustrations of the Method 55

community. Forty minutes later, when the storm of this ex-
citement had blown over, one of the Gulls came to its nest,
and the strong smell of herring called attention to several
families of chicks which were being fed close to my tent. Never-
theless, for two and a half hours the old Gulls stormed about
their nest. With a loud explosive squeal one would suddenly
descend like a bolt, striking the tent with both feet and with
great force. Finally the male, closely followed by his mate,
walked up boldly to the nest, and with piercing squeals called
out his chicks and fed them on regurgitated fish. The nest
was then inspected and the excreta carefully removed. Even
then their fear had not wholly abated, for their mandibles kept
wagging, as with mechanical repetition they uttered their less
incisive alarm — wak-wak-wak! wak-wak! wak-wak! This grad-
ually ceased, but, like the pendulum of a clock running down,
the mandibles continued to work without emitting any sound.

I have camped beside the nests and preserves of five other
families of Gulls with both eggs and chicks, but on the first day
have usually found the old birds especially wary. On the
second or third day, however, they would usually come to the
perch or to the nest in from one to ten minutes. In order to
save time in such cases, it is best to place the tent in position
the day before observations begin.

CHAPTER III

TENT AND CAMERA: THE TOOLS OF BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHY

T")HOTOGRAPHY has become so essential to the practice of
1 the other arts and sciences that the student need not
suffer from lack of advice, or of detailed manuals which treat
every branch of the subject.

In the notes which follow I shall confine myself mainly to the
results of personal experience in working with the tent.

The Observation Tent. — To satisfy the student and photog-
rapher of birds, the tent must not only afford a perfect means
of concealment, but must be light, portable, easily adjusted,
and to the fastidious — a most important consideration — com-
fortable for the worker.

The first tent constructed which meets these requirements
fairly well, and has seen service for five seasons, will now be
described. It is made of stout grass -green T denim, and with
the frame weighs only six and one half pounds. It can be
pitched in ten minutes almost anywhere, and may be com-
pactly rolled, and carried for miles without serious inconvenience.
It is 6i ft. tall, 3 ft. 8 in. long, and 3 ft. wide, dimensions which
will be found suitable for a person not much above the average
height. One may spend any number of hours in it by day or
night, and with a fair degree of comfort, excepting in very hot
or sultry weather, when exposed to the sun on all sides. I
have suspended operations but once on account of the heat,
but there have been occasions when to have done so might have

1 Brown or gray might answer as well. The green color serves to
render the tent inconspicuous to both animals and men.

56

Tent and Camera 57

been better. More than once I have found it a welcome shield
from the rain.

The tent frame is in three pieces, two upright poles or stakes
with folding cross-bars, and an adjustable ridge-pole. The
stakes should be from six to six and a half feet long, and may
be easily lengthened at any time, as when the tent is to be
pitched in a swamp or over mud and water. They are pointed
at the lower ends which are set in the ground, and capped
above with an arch of sheet iron to receive the ridge-pole. The
latter is held in place with two pins or wire nails, which are
pressed through a hole in the iron cap, and through the end
of the ridge-pole into the upright stake. The eaves of the
tent consist of a double fold of cloth projecting half an inch,
to each corner of which is sewn a covered brass ring. When
in position the tent is firmly guyed by small cords fastened to
each ring. The flaps are placed at one of the corners, and may
be pinned together when in use. The free lower border of the
tent is fixed to the ground by wire pins, which may be pushed
through the cloth at convenient places. From four to eight
of these pins are needed, and each should be seven or eight inches
long, and have a large soldered loop at one end.1

The tent may be ventilated from above and made more com-
fortable on hot days by cutting out a large flap on each side of
the roof, extending this a foot or less, and then guying each
comer separately, at such an angle as to admit a free passage

'For the benefit of the worker in the field I will add the following
additional details: Frame of smaller tent; poles, 6£ ft. long, i inch wide, f
inch thick ; cross-pieces, joined to upright pole 2 1 inches from top by a screw
on which they have full play, — to be folded when not in use, — 3 ft. £ inch
long, f inch wide, and \ inch thick; ridge-pole, 3 ft. 8 inches long, f inch
wide by f inch thick, with flat top, rounded only where they fit into the
arched iron caps of poles.

Larger tent. A second and somewhat larger tent, which is more con-
venient for the use of larger cameras, was later made of green and white
poplin, and is 6 ft. loj inches tall, 3 ft. 4 inches wide, and 3 ft. 8 inches
long; peak 21 inches in vertical height from eaves. Tent-poles, 6$ ft.
tall; cross-pieces, 3 ft. 4 inches long; ridge-pole, 3ft. 8 inches long, all
made of pine and slightly heavier than in smaller tent.

Wild Birds

of air under the peak. For convenience I prefer the simpler
form.

Fig. 40. The tools of bird-photography : the tent rolled up in portable
form at right.

After working during the summer of 1899 with the tent I saw
for the first time the interesting work of the brothers Kearton,1 in
which a different kind of blind is used. They devised an imitation

i Wild Life at Home: How to Study and Photograph It. By R. Kearton,
illustrated by C. Kearton. Cassell & Company, 1899.

Tent and Camera 59

tree-trunk, having a skeleton of bamboo rods and a covering
of galvanized wire and green cloth, large enough to hold the
photographer standing erect with his camera. The outside
was painted in imitation of bark and decorated with moss
and leaves. This was used in cases of nests placed on or near
the ground in favorable situations. Mr. Kearton says it would
hardly do to set this up beside an exposed nest like a lark's "in
the middle of a bare ten-acre field," and to suit such a case they
constructed an artificial rubbish heap, from which photographs
were successfully made.

Such devices are of course unnecessary when the nesting
site is brought under control, since in this case the birds must
become accustomed to a changed environment, and the addition
of the tent is a factor of no great importance. Then again, the
great heat of summer would prohibit their use in most parts of
this country. No decoration of the tent is commonly needed,
and its color is a matter of minor concern. Aside from the
question of comfort, however, the advantages of the tent lie
in its convenience and portability. It is a simple means of at-
taining what is chiefly sought, perfect concealment. The reason
it had not been adopted before possibly arose from the fact that
the readiness with which many birds become accustomed to
strange objects, or form new habits, had not hitherto been
appreciated. What wild animals chiefly fear are strange sounds
and strange objects in motion. All things at rest, whatever
their form or color, are soon disregarded by birds, of which
fact the reader will find abundant testimony in the course of
these pages. On the other hand, it is well to remember that
individual and specific differences are very great, and one should
not be surprised if some cases are found in which the tent or any
similar blind will not work with success.

The Tent in Use. — Some difficulty may be experienced in
pitching the tent in exactly the right position with reference to
the nest, without the necessity of further change. The factors
to be borne in mind are the height of the sun, the focal length
of the lens, and the position of the window to be made in the
tent-front directly opposite the nest. The front of the tent

6o Wild Birds

should be parallel with the nesting bough (when there is one),
and the long axis of the latter should be parallel with the sun's
course. The tent is so placed that the nest is in direct line, not
with the middle of the tent, but with the window to one side.
When the observer stands within, facing the nest, the window
lies to his left, at one side of the vertical pole, and either just
over the cross-piece or somewhere below it, depending on the
height of the nest from the ground. The tent will not over-
shadow the nesting bough when once set in proper position.

If the focal length of the lens be 6£ inches, and the nest that
of a Cedar Waxwing, which is mounted at the height of four
feet, and the tent be so placed that the front of the lens is
twenty-eight inches from the rim of the nest, we shall get a
picture with adequate setting on a 4 x 5 plate, like many shown
in the engravings. With lenses of longer focus, which it is
advisable to use if possible, it is not necessary to approach so
near.

When the position has been determined, the tent-poles are
set firmly into the ground, the ridge-pole adjusted and the tent-
cloth thrown over it. It saves time to lay one end of the peak
in position and draw the other over to its proper place. The
cross-pieces are then lowered from the inside and the guys
loosely set. A flap about six inches square is then cut with
scissors in the front of the tent, to the left of the pole opposite
the nest, which can be viewed 'through the opening. Should
the position subsequently prove to be wrong, the poles may be
raised both together and reset. When everything is right the
guys are tightened, and the free edges fixed to the ground with
wire pins, which will hold the walls taut and prevent excessive
flapping when there is wind. It is often convenient to have
the flap at the front on the operator's left so that one leg of the
tripod may project through it.

The proper adjustment of the camera follows, the nest being
the object focused until the old birds appear. I have found it
advantageous to pin the focusing cloth firmly around the
camera so that it is always in position for use, and to stretch a
piece of green denim on the side of the camera next the observer,

Fig. 41. Last hour of life at the n
and three young birds, only two of

st of a Chebec family, consisting of the mother
vhich can be seen. June 25, 1903.

61

62 Wild Birds

fixing it between the front fold of the focusing cloth and the
tent so that it hangs vertical, and effectually conceals the
operator when standing upright and setting the shutter. Peep-
holes are made to command all directions, and of course the
nesting bough to which attention is mainly given. It is con-
venient to make small V-shaped openings which can be pinned
up or down. A bird will sometimes detect some movement of
the eye when close to such openings, so that they should not
be made larger or more numerous than necessary.

When a photograph has been made and the shutter is to be
reset, the vertical flap is released from the focusing cloth and
carefully drawn over the window, if the birds happen to be at
the nest, as when the female is brooding. Otherwise, if timid
or unaccustomed to the new conditions, the movement of the
hand may be a source of alarm. I have successively photo-
graphed family groups without disturbing them, when at a
distance of twenty -eight to thirty-six inches, after they had
learned to disregard the click of the shutter. When a window
in a different position is wanted, the old one is patched up and
a new one made.

Photographic Screens. — -The advantages offered by white or
neutral screens are most appreciated where no good natural
background is available, and especially when birds of dull or
spotted plumage are to be photographed against a background
which is spotted by foliage or by undesirable objects of any
kind, which strongly reflect the light.

To be of much service the screen should be fairly large, and
with frame and supports it is too cumbersome to be carried in the
hand, except for short distances. Yet, one is often repaid for the
extra trouble involved in its use by a series of clear-cut portraits,
which could not be obtained in any other way. (See Figs. 1 1 , 1 6,
43-)

For ordinary purposes a sheet of white cotton, seven to eight
feet long by six to seven feet wide answers well. This is tacked
on a folding deal frame, and erected at a distance of from five
to six feet behind the nest, or at a point sufficiently out of focus
of the lens.

Tent and Camera 63

Protective Screens or Nets. — Whenever the nest is in a ver-
tical trunk of wood, as in the case of Woodpeckers, Chickadees,
or the little House Wrens, and this is mounted on a pivot, the
whole may be easily defended from cats and other enemies by
means of a flange of zinc or tin-plates, encircling the stump at
the proper height, or projecting from the block to which the
trunk is secured.

A circular enclosing net may also be used, and this is neces-
sary whenever a horizontal branch is supported on stakes. For
this purpose there is nothing better than the common galvan-
ized iron wire-cloth netting of one quarter inch mesh. It
should stand at least three feet high, and should be pinned
close to the ground by wire staples. To this an overhang one
foot wide (of looser " poultry " netting), must be added all the
way round. Such a screen is warranted to stop the cat, as
well as every rodent and snake, large or small.

Camera. — Any good long-bellows camera with reversible back
will answer, the size and weight being the considerations of
greatest moment. Most naturalists and sportsmen, who travel
long distances and carry their own traps, find a camera which
takes a 4 x 5 plate the most convenient and economical. I
commonly use this when working with the tent, but often
prefer the 5x7 size because it gives a larger and better picture
of the object sought. The large camera with a heavy lens may
be a drag on the mind and body of the most enthusiastic pedes-
trian, but one is usually amply repaid for the greater trouble
involved. For long journeys, however, the lightest possible
outfit is decidedly preferable. In general field work, moreover,
a hand-camera, carrying film of the 3^x4^ inch, size, is always
in demand.

In working at short range with lenses of moderate focus the
long bellows is a necessity, and at the same time enables one to
take full-sized pictures of small objects, as well as to use the
telephoto lens should this be desired. The reversible back,
making it possible to reverse the position of the plate without
moving the camera and often without disturbing the bird, is
an adjunct of the greatest convenience.

64

Wild Birds

While the best tools are always to be desired, excellent
pictures can be made with a cheap outfit, provided the lens is
rapid enough.

Nearly all of my own work has been done in the

Fig. 42. Observation tent on raised platform, and photographic screen for
studying a Red-eyed Vireo's nest in its natural position. See Figs. 60 and 66.

tent with the birds at hand, but in taking quick shots of birds
or quadrupeds when there is no lure to chain them to a given
spot a hand-box camera is needed. The lens should be of long
focus, and the adjustments such as to enable the operator to

Tent and Camera 65

focus and expose as nearly simultaneously as possible. To
meet these requirements the twin -lens and reflecting cameras,
both of which are old inventions,1 have in recent years been
placed on the market in improved and serviceable forms.

The "twin-lens" consists of two cameras, set one above the
other, the bellows of which move as one. The lower takes the
picture, while the upper gives the image which is reflected on
a glass plate set in the top of the box. Besides being expensive
and heavy, the trade sizes of these cameras are apt to be of too
short focus to be of much service to the animal photographer.

The reflecting camera does the work of the two lenses with
a single lens and bellows, and in the recent designs 2 is provided
with a focal plane shutter, which is the best for exposures
quicker than the TJ)(i second mark of ordinary shutters. Like
the upper half of the "twin-lens," it has a movable mirror, set
at an angle of 45°, which casts the image made by the lens on a
plate of ground glass set in the top of the box and shielded by
an adjustable hood. The mirror is so placed between the plate
and lens that the distance from lens to sensitive plate equals
the distance traversed by light in passing from lens to mirror
and ground glass. When the object is focused, a lever is
pressed which raises the mirror and automatically releases the
shutter. One must expect to find the image on the ground glass
somewhat dimmer than when no interposing mirror is used. To
be most serviceable this camera should have a long bellows.

The Lens. — In animal photography, short- and long-focus and
telephoto lenses are available. My own experience has been
mainly limited to the following: Zeiss Anastigmat, Series ii a,
6£inch., speed -£; Convertible Anastigmat, Series vii a, combined

1 The principle of the reflecting camera was applied as early as 1860,
and various forms of the reflex type were devised during the next thirty
years. In 1891 Dr. Kriigener of Frankfort brought out his "Normal
Reflex-Camera," in which the construction, though somewhat compli-
cated, was much improved. The principles are essentially the same in
the later designs : see Ausfuhrliches Handbuch der Photographic, by Josef
Maria Eder, Halle, 1891.

2 The improved Graflex camera, manufactured by The Folmer and
Schwing Mfg. Co., New York, is excellent in design and workmanship.

s

66 Wild Birds

equivalent focus 8 inches, speed £ ; Extra Rapid Universal
Lens, Series D, gTV inch., speed ^; Plastigmat, No. 4, gi inch.,
speed ^j.1

The convertible anastigmats are convertible in two or three
lenses of different foci, according as the single anastigmats are
of equal or different foci. They thus combine in a single lens
the possibilities of working with short and long foci, the
greatest speed being obtained when each system of the doublet
has the same focus.

The cheaper plastigmat lenses are equally serviceable for
work in the field. In these the rear lens, which has twice the
focal length of the doublet, may be used separately, but of
course with a greatly reduced speed. Those who have worked
also with the Goertz lenses of similar focus and speed will find
little to be desired in the possibilities of the best photographic
instruments.

In photographing animals close at hand, the anastigmatic
qualities of a lens count for little. It is depth of focus com-
bined with high speed which are most needed, consequently any
lens possessing these qualities will answer.

One of the most difficult problems in bird-photography has
hitherto been that of approach within "shooting" distance.
The control of the nesting site and the use of the tent offer a
solution so far as life at the nest is concerned, in at least many
species, and the tent in its general use does away with the need
of the very long-focus or telephoto lenses.

In photographing birds sitting, brooding, or standing at the
nest there is no difficulty with a lens of speed -5-, which requires
•2*5- second to fully expose the plate, at a distance of twenty-
eight inches with full lens and strong light. With scenes in
which the actors are in constant motion, however, we require
a much faster lens, which will reduce the exposure to at least
FV of a second. But little is gained, however, in attempting to
use long-focus lenses at such short distances, since in stopping
the lens to ensure the proper depth of focus we are certain to

1 These lenses are made by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester,
N. Y.

Tent and Camera 67

sacrifice too much light. When large pictures are desired,
better pictorial results are obtained by increasing the distance

Fig. 43. Female Flicker entering nest. Compare with picture of
mate (Fig. 137), in which regurgitation of food is in progress. The
spotting of the under parts is very different, and in this bird the black
crescent on the breast is divided in the middle. July 25, 1902.

and using lenses of moderate focus. Having once obtained per-
fect negatives, enlargements on bromide paper are easily made.

68 Wild Birds

For photographing inaccessible nests, and birds which pose
well but are unapproachable under ordinary conditions, we
must resort to the long-focus and telephoto lenses. The long
exposure required for the telephoto lenses now on the market,
from one half a second to a second or more, restricts their use
to comparatively rare and lucky chances.

The Tripod. — When two cameras are carried of the 4x5
and 5x7 size, a single tripod will answer for both, provided it
is moderately stiff about the head. A two-length tripod of
medium weight will serve most purposes, but a shorter one is
also required for nests on or near the ground. This is best
made by cutting down one of the ordinary kind, rather than
resorting to those of the multifolding type, which, unless made
of metal, are constantly spreading and slipping at critical
moments.

The "Graphic" ball-and-socket clamp, used as a camera
holder for the bicycle, has been strongly recommended as a
substitute for the tripod or as an adjunct to it, as in photo-
graphing nests in trees, when the clamp, which is screwed to
the camera, is fastened to a convenient limb, but since my own
work has been of another kind I have had little occasion for its
use.

The Shutter. — In photographing birds whose sense of hear-
ing is well known to be acute, next to a good lens a silent
shutter is most needed, especially when the camera is less than
three feet away. The shutter which is silent not only in name
but in actual use and at all speeds is still one of the greatest
needs in the close-at-hand photography of animals, and es-
pecially of birds.

Birds will often jump into the air as if shot, at the first
click of the metallic shutter. Fortunately, however, the force
of habit now conies to our aid, since they gradually learn that
it is harmless, and may be safely disregarded.

The "iris diaphragm shutter," which I have mainly used,
is often troublesome in that some part of the sound arises at the
very beginning of the exposure, so that a startled bird in the
course of -£5 of a second may be all over your plate. The

Tent and Camera

69

marks on all such shutters, which are conventional rather than
exact time measurements, differ in different shutters of the
same or different make, and their limit of rapidity does not

Fig. 44. Female Brown Thrush stepping into her nest to brood.

exceed "y^ second." For greater speeds the focal-plane or
some other very rapid shutter must be used.

Plates. — For animal photography the most rapid plates are
none too fast, and any of the best brands can be recommended.

7o Wild Birds

It is always a good plan to adhere to one kind which has proved
satisfactory. One piece of advice should not come amiss, which
is to always use fresh plates, and all of the same emulsion if
possible, and if any doubt as to their age exists, to test them
before starting on an expedition. Old plates blacken along
their edges in a characteristic manner when placed in the de-
veloper, and if deterioration passes this stage the whole plate
will fog. The dusting of plates, slides, and holders before
reloading, and the carriage of all unused plates in a dust-proof
bag, are as much a necessity now as ever.

Much of my own work has been done in the country with
dark room and base of supplies close at hand. Under these
conditions it is not necessary to carry more than two or three
dozen plates at a time. By developing on the day of exposure
it is possible to correct errors or fill up the gaps on the day
following.

When time exposures can be given, orthochromatic plates
offer advantages which should not be neglected, but when the
exposure is necessarily rapid, the ordinary and cheaper plate
is equally good.

Flash Light. — The Ideal Flash Gun (size No. 2) has been
highly recommended for use either at night or on dull days. It
burns luxo powder, a powerful compound, which should never
be confined in an ordinary flash-lamp, and must be handled
with exceptional care.

Record of Observations. — It is perhaps unnecessary to suggest
that all records of observations should be systematically made
on the spot and with great care. Experienced students gener-
ally develop a system of their own, which in many cases suits
their needs so well as to leave little to be desired. I venture,
however, for the possible benefit of a few, to describe my
own plan, which has the merits of extreme convenience and
simplicity.

All field records and notes of every description are made on
punched, and generally ruled, sheets, of uniform size, measuring
3| by 6J inches. These are temporarily "bound" in stiff card-
boards so as to open the long way, by means of adjustable rings

Tent and Camera 71

or simply with strings, the ends of which are joined to prevent
the knots from running into the book. When in use the book
is turned inside out, so that the covers, which are brought
together, afford a firm support for the pen or pencil. The size
of the book is adjusted to the needs of the day, and is always
comparatively light. When the pages are full, the notes are
filed and the sheets are renewed. At the end of the day, week,
or year the notes are assorted, and those pertaining to a given
subject, falling into their proper place and in chronological
order, are "bound," or tied up, with proper titles, in a series
of booklets. A book is devoted to every important subject,
while all miscellaneous notes are temporarily gathered into a
single "volume." The only rule required is to use separate
pages for each subject. The system is perfectly elastic, and
combines the advantages of a card index and ordinary note-
book, without their defects. In the course of time, in place of
a series of cards, scraps, or records of observations buried in
notebooks, an orderly series of "volumes" appears. The
notes upon a given subject are always in their proper place, and
that place can always be found. This method can be used
with equal advantage, whatever the nature of the subject.

Accessories. — The minor articles which are needed to com-
plete the photographer's outfit, all of which can be rolled up
with the tent or, better, carried in a hand-bag, will be suggested
by a little experience in the field. A saw, hatchet, and nails
are often required, as well as scissors, pins, the supply of which
is always liable to run out, and a small hand-mirror for use in
setting the shutter from the rear. A toilet hand-mirror which
can be turned at any angle is a convenient means of inspecting
the interior of nests inaccessible to the hand, but within reach
of the mirror attached to a pole.

CHAPTER IV

THE ROBIN AT ARM'S LENGTH

NO bird is better known in America than the Robin who
annually visits nearly every part of the continent. Upon
the whole it shuns the forest and comes to the haunts of
man, to the farm, the village, and the city street, with their
attractive orchards and parks, their long lines of shade trees
and green lawns.

Is it possible to say anything new about such a familiar per-
sonality? Not much, you may think, yet it will be interesting
to study our friend at a closer range than is usually possible.
In this case we shall "make the mountain come to Mahomet,"
or bring the nest from the tree top to a point nearer the ground,
where there is no foliage to obscure our vision, and where we
can see everything that transpires within reach of the hand.

Birds differ slightly in every bodily character, as well as in
every mental trait, arid while we commonly meet with average
types, extremes of temperament are by no means rare. This
fact is illustrated by the Robins whose history follows.

One pair dwelt in the woods and was exceedingly wary,
while the other was comfortably settled in town, and lived on a
familiar footing with man. The town Robins had, I suspected,
already led forth a brood from a pine tree on the bank close to
my house, but at all events there was a new nest in the apple
tree on the top of the hill, and on the twenty-fifth of July the
mother bird was sitting on three blue eggs. Incubation lasted
about two weeks, and life at the nest about twelve days.

When the young were eight days old, the entire bough was
sawn off, carefully lowered to the ground, and set up on the

72

The Robin at Arm's Length

73

hillside. In exactly fifty -five minutes from the beginning of
operations the mother appeared with a large grasshopper, which
she gave to the young, and afterwards cleaned the nest. The

Fig. 45- Female Robin brooding on a hot day — her left wing pushed up by a
young bird.

male came also, when the comparative safety of the new con-
ditions had become apparent, but approached with more cau-
tion. At first both birds flew to the tree by their accustomed
paths, and examined the place where their bough had been

74 Wild Birds

lopped off, and in their admirable and fearless manner blustered
about for a while, taking no pains to conceal their anger. Of
course they knew where their young were all the time, for in
certain directions their vision is keener than any man's.

We know well with what confidence the Robin flies to its
nest when no danger threatens, but under the present circum-
stances their suspicions might well have been aroused. The
absence of sound and motion in strange objects is always re-
assuring, and soon Mother Robin could be seen perched on the
top of an apple tree, surveying the field. She called seetl seetf
while the grasshopper in her bill squirmed to get free, and the
young chirped loudly in reply.

When their behavior is free and spontaneous it is pleasant
to see these birds act promptly without apparent hesitation.
They haggle over nothing, but follow the bent of their strongest
instincts. In the present case, the fear which controls them for
a time and overpowers their strong parental love is gradually
worn away. Suddenly down comes one of the old birds with
all its weight on the limb. The young have felt similar vibra-
tions before and know what to expect. Up go the three heads
at once, each mounted on a slender stalk, and each bearing at
its apex what might suggest a full-blown, brilliant flower, for, as
is well known, the extent of their gape is extraordinary and the
inside of the mouth has a bright orange hue. The young
tremble with violent emotions as they jostle, struggle, and call
with undiminished zeal even after being fed.

After the first visit had proved successful, and confidence
was established, the female and later the male came to the
young at intervals of about five minutes, bringing grasshoppers,
and occasionally removing the excreta or devouring it on the
spot. They frequently carried five or six insects at one load,
when their bills would suggest a solid stalk of grasshoppers, all
struggling to get free.

They waste nothing, and rarely allow a cricket or grass-
hopper to escape, but, releasing one at a time, see it safely down
an open mouth. Then after inspection is over they fly to the
nearest perch and make haste to clean their bills and set their

Fig. 46. Male Robin serving a cluster of angleworms and a grasshopper. Notice
his position here on the right as in all other pictures of this nest. See Chapter XIII.

75

76 Wild Birds

dress in order. This done, there is often a pause of a few mo-
ments, as if in doubt whether to hunt more grasshoppers, to dig
angleworms in yonder cornfield, or to try the cherry trees along
the fence-row. They will take everything which their sharp
eyes discern, and often pick up an insect close to the nest.

One Robin at the age of eleven days left the family circle
early on August i3th, and at nine o'clock the two which re-
mained were standing up and napping their wings. The old
birds would come near, displaying tempting morsels in their
bills, but with no intention of feeding their young so long as
they remained on the nest. By such tantalizing methods they
soon drew them away. Both old and young hung about the
apple trees for several days, when they disappeared and were
not seen again.

At the stage of flight the young Robins have several distinct
call and alarm notes like those of the adult birds. They can
take short, low flights, can hop briskly, and go to cover in-
stinctively whether with or without warnings from their parents.
They will also lie quiet in the grass, as in hiding, a common
instinctive act.

The second family of Robins nested high in an oak, and
whenever they were approached the old birds made an ad-
mirable show of pugnacity, scolding, screaming, erecting their
feathers, snapping their bills, and darting straight at your head.
Their nesting branch was taken from the woods to a bare, open
field, and set up sixty feet from the tree in the way already
described. The first morning's experience was rather dis-
couraging, for neither bird would come to its nest while the
tent was in front of it. They called plaintively from the trees,
and circled about the nesting bough again and again, but al-
ways kept at a distance. Accordingly, after feeding the young,
I decided to strike tent and wait until next day. There was a
heavy thunder storm in the afternoon, but when I visited the
nest towards evening I was pleased to find the young as lively
as ever, and the old birds on guard with their usual spirit and
tenacity unimpaired.

The next morning they stormed vigorously about the tent

The Robin at Arm's Length 77

and the male even came to the nest while I was standing near.
After closing the tent I was under the cross-fire of their wrath
for seven or eight minutes, when the alarm calls suddenly
ceased, and in two minutes more the mother was on the nesting
bough. The female actually came to the nest or to the branch
which held it eight times in succession, in the space of twelve
minutes, with insect ready but without delivering it. Matters
did not altogether please her yet, and with a shrill seet ! seet !
away she would go, but only to return a half minute later.
Finally she came boldly to the nest's brim, uttered a sound like
cuck! cuck! which means "Open wide!" and produced a number
of sturdy-looking grasshoppers. Two minutes later the mother
came again, and after feeding the young, picked them all over,
spending a minute and a half in the duties of inspecting and
cleaning. It was a hard task to conquer these birds, but they
had to submit to the inevitable, and I have no doubt but a few
days more would have brought them to the hand.

The greater strength of parental instinct in the mother was
well illustrated by the behavior of these Robins. The female
was always first at the nest, and came at forty minutes after
nine o'clock on the second day. The male, though constantly
skirmishing about with bill loaded, was not on the branch with
food until two hours and ten minutes later. Meantime the
mother had been giving the young her constant attention. The
cock, though at the nest or on the bough several times, did not
actually have the courage to feed his little ones until long past
noon. In the performance of this duty he was three hours and
four minutes behind his mate.

When the male did come at last and deliver food, he gave
the nest a good cleaning, and flew off to a corn patch a hundred
yards away. In thirteen minutes, during which interval the
female had brought grasshoppers twice, the male returned
triumphantly with a great cluster of writhing angleworms.
After safely dispensing them, he went the rounds of inspection,
devoured the excreta, then stood for a full minute on the rim of
his nest and with crest erect called, wit! wit! wit! as if to cele-
brate a victory and announce his bravery to the world. Now

78 Wild Birds

and again the cock came to the nesting bough but without food.
He wished only to take a look and see that all was well. At one
of these visits he stood on silent guard for full ten minutes, then
sped away, calling loudly, wit ! wit I wit !

Fig. 47. Cock Robin standing at inspection, after having fed his young.

When eight days old, on July 26th, the young began to
present their spotted breasts over the walls of the nest and to
spread, stretch, and flap their wings, the quills of which now
showed half an inch of feather at the tips. At every visit of
their elders the whole brood went wild with excitement, but
soon quieted down, and the intervals were spent in preening

The Robin at Arm's Length 79

their sprouting feathers, calling for more food, or dozing with
heads hanging down over the edge of the nest.

The third day opened warm and clear, and towards noon
became very hot. Mother Robin began to brood at twelve
o'clock and for the space of three hours was on and off the nest
constantly, rarely remaining longer than ten minutes at a time
either at her post or away from it. On the fourth day, July
28th, which was destined to be hotter still, brooding began at
exactly eighteen minutes before ten o'clock, and the mother was
quietly sitting over the little ones when the tent was struck
long past noon.

Many charming scenes were enacted at this nest during the
day, but colored phrases or colorless pictures do them scant
justice. You must fill in the backgrounds of soft blues and
greens, and add the touch of life and color to the actors on the
stage.

The following extracts from my notes of this day may give
some idea of the panoramic character of the scenes, in which the
element of repetition is not wanting.

July 28, 4th day in tent. 10 A.M. The female comes to the
back of the nest, delivers food and goes the rounds of in-
spection and cleaning, devouring the excreta on the spot,
then settles down on the margin of the nest, steps in, and
gradually tucks the young under her breast and wings.
10.12. A whirring sound announces the coming of the male.
He approaches always on the observer's right, and de-
liberately hops down to the nest. He is bringing a big
cluster of earthworms. The young get the message the
moment the branch is touched, and poke their heads out
from under their mother's tail, wings, and head, some-
times raising her bodily, and almost tipping her over.
However, she holds her place until her mate is close by,
then hops up and stands to one side, finally leaving him
to deliver what he has brought.

10.15. The mother is back with food, but it was down the
throat of a young one before I could tell what it was.
Cleaning and brooding followed in due course as before.

8o Wild Birds

10.18. Cock Robin comes again, but my eye was again off the
nest, and in a moment the business was done. Mother
Robin stays and broods. I change the shutter, open
and close the tent window, without giving her any ap-
parent anxiety.

10.30. Another visit from the male, who comes quickly, de-
livers a grasshopper or two and departs, while his faith-
ful mate resumes her post of duty.

10.45. The cock brings another coil of angleworms, and the
hen, leaving her charge just long enough for the business
of feeding, drops back on the nest.

10.55. The male is taking it easy. This time he has an un-
usually large grasshopper, which is not cut in twain, but
delivered whole. At the signal of his approach the
mother leaves, having brooded forty minutes by the
watch.

10.57. Two minutes elapse. Back comes the alma mater,
loaded to the muzzle with blueberries, which are shot
out one by one, and strike the yellow targets in the
bull's eye every time. She comes to the farther side and
broods at the moment the preliminary work of feeding
and inspection is over.

11.16. The male has now brought a load of bright red choke-
cherries. He hops down the branch by the usual path
and up to the nest, but the female, who is brooding,
strangely keeps her position and, whether from absent-
mindedness or caprice, refuses to budge. When the
male gives an impatient cuck! cuck! the mother can keep
her position no longer, for the young upset her equi-
librium in their struggle, and she hops to one side. Re-
suming her place she sits there in the bright sunshine,
with back to the tent, mouth agape, and crest erect.
Twenty inches away are the tent, the camera, and the
eye of the observer, but for none of these things does she
now care a straw. They have been thoroughly tested
and found harmless.

11.43. Cock Robin is on hand with a beak full of grasshoppers,

Fig. 48. Female Robin inspecting her household immediately after the young have
been fed: a characteristic attitude.

6 81

82 Wild Birds

coming, as is now his invariable custom, to the right
side. On this occasion the mother hopped up promptly
and received a part of the food into her own bill. Did
she eat it ? Not a particle ! The young got it all. The
male then retired, followed closely by his mate. In one
minute she has captured prey and is back to her brood.
The young erect their crests like their elders, and flapping
their half -fledged wings, try to climb to the edge of the
nest, but without success.

The last day of July opened hot and sultry, and when I ap-
proached the nest one young Robin was already out, and making
for the highest point of the nesting bough. He cheeped aloud
for food, and looked uncomfortable, for the heat was already
strong. The male only was in attendance as on the previous day,
the female being occupied, as I suspected, in starting a new nest.
It was difficult to get any food past this enterprising fledgling,
who stood in the path and took everything that was brought.
Several times the bird would make a move as if intending to fly
to the peak of the tent, and might have done so, had I not
decided to replace him in his nest. The expected certainly
happened, for all tumbled out, shrieking and squealing. Put
them back and out they would go again, and flop down on the
grass. At last two birds consented to remain for a few minutes,
when the male came with an angleworm and a large green
katydid. He paused a moment while I photographed him, and
this proved to be the closing scene. The curtain dropped
suddenly, when first one bird and then the other left their
home forever, not even waiting to get the katydid. The old
bird at once led his brood to the woods, and being able to take
short flights they had no difficulty in finding safe quarters.

The number of times the young are fed in the course of the
day depends upon their age and the weather. The older they
are the more food they require. At this nest the labor of feed-
ing and cleaning was shared about equally by both birds, but
on hot days the female was necessarily less active since there
was much brooding to be done, and the instinct of the male is
but feebly developed in this direction.

The Robin at Arm's Length

The following table illustrates the relative activities of this
pair in caring for their young, the time of observation being ap-
proximately from nine o'clock until three in the afternoon.

PERIOD OF OBSERVA-
TION.

SECOND DAY.

THIRD DAY.

FOURTH DAY.

Age of young
Fed by male

8 days
15 times

9 days
24 times

10 days
15 times

Brooded by female. . .
Rate of feeding
Period of observation .

Once in 11-12 min.
9.30 A.M. to 3.53 P.M.

6 times (44 min.)
Once in 7-8 min.

Q.OS A.M. tO 3.44 P.M.

3 times (2 hours 41 min.)
Once in 8-9 min.
9.1 1 A.M. to 1.58 P.M.

The nature of the food, which depends much on the local
supply or the condition of the market, consisted mainly of
grasshoppers and angleworms, to which we must add a few
insect larva?, beetles, locusts, and katydids, while the list of
fruits included blueberries — most in favor, — choke-cherries, and
raspberries.

As to the sanitation of the nest, inspection, as we have seen,
follows each feeding. The nest was cleaned during the period
given in the table every fifteen minutes, and mostly by the
female, who devoured a part of the excreta at the nest and
carried the rest away.

The Robin has been known to pass the winter in Nova
Scotia, where it feeds on wild dry fruits, like dogwood berries,
and at all intermediate points between its northern and southern
ranges, wherever the food supply is good. Thus in the cold
valleys of the White Mountains, where there is snow during the
greater part of the year, and where the mercury sometimes
freezes, flocks of Robins are said to spend the winter, feeding
on the wild berries which are cached above the snow. The
winter birds are probably in most cases migrants from farther
north.

The food of the Robin consists, as we have seen, of small
animals, mainly insects and worms, and of wild fruits in about
equal quantity. It has been shown * that cultivated fruits are

1 By Beal who found forty-two per cent, of animal matter in three
hundred and thirty stomachs of these birds.

84

Wild Birds

eaten only as a makeshift and mainly in the months of June
and July.

Spring Robins reach Cleveland, Ohio, on the last days of
February or the first of March, central New Hampshire the

Fig. 49. Female Robin in act of cleaning the nest.

third week in March, and I have seen them in Burlington, Ver-
mont, on March 3oth. A few Bluebirds are usually reported on
the same day. In 1900, Robins were heard or seen in different
parts of Cleveland on the ninth of March, a mild, bright day,
while but a week before the country was in the grip of one of
the worst ice-storms ever known in this region. Every ex-

The Robin at Arm's Length 85

posed object was incased in solid ice for days and the birds
fasted or starved.

In the choice of a nesting site, the Robin, as we have seen,
obeys no law. The apple tree, which from its mode of branch-
ing yields wide open crotches and safe horizontal supports, is
generally chosen, but they also resort to the leafy elm, the ever-
green, the dense and remote woods, or, like the Phcebe, accept
the hospitality of barn, porch, or shed.

Where the nest has already begun to crumble into ruins by
the time the young fly, it is often abandoned and a new one built
for the second brood, but whether a new nest shall be built or
not depends more upon the strength of the building instinct or
individual caprice than actual need. The old nest is sometimes
repaired, or even occupied without change during the same
season. On the other hand, three nests are sometimes built
in line and under cover, where a single one if put in good repair
would have answered the purpose. I once saw a Robin's nest
fixed to the end of a stick of wood that leaned against the side
of a barn, and the stone -gray color of the background formed
an excellent screen for its concealment.

Young of the European Blackbird
or Ousel, first cousin of the Ameri-
can Robin.

CHAPTER V

THE CEDAR-BIRD

ON the twenty-seventh of May, I saw a small company of
birds settling in the topmost branches of an elm. You
might infer from their behavior that they were new arrivals.
They keep together, sit prim and erect, and move about as if
under discipline. With a glass you can see their erected crests,
their sleek drab plumage, and recognize at once the familiar
Cedar- or Cherry -bird.

At Northfield, New Hampshire, the earliest nests have eggs
by the first or second week in June, but the breeding season is
not at its height until the last of July or August. A few still
have young in the nest in early September, when many are nock-
ing or have already started southward. Professor Baird speaks
of finding these birds sitting on their unhatched eggs as late as
the twelfth day of October.

The winter flocks of Cedar Waxwings, which are occasionally
seen in northern New England, are probably migrants whose
summer home is farther north.

The Cedar-birds borrow no trouble from their neighbors, and
seem to lead a life of ease and pleasure, lessening their denomi-
nator when the times are hard, but living high when cherries
are ripe. The nesting season, which brings much that is sweet
and bitter to the lives of most birds, appears to give them the
least anxiety. The immaturity of their eggs at a time when
most of our birds have already reared their first broods is a
striking fact, and is due to some unknown cause which retards
the growth of the ovaries. It is evidently not caused by a lack
of suitable food as some have supposed for the seed-eating

86

The Cedar-Bird 87

Goldfinch, whose wants are well supplied, is equally dilatory in
its nesting habits. The young Cedar-bird gets about the same
kind of food as the young Robin or Oriole, and it is not likely
that a greater or less amount of fruit in the diet of old or young
would sensibly alter their condition. The Goldfinch, whose
eggs hatch in late July or in August, feeds its young on the seeds
of thistles, but this does not prove that the seeds of other plants
would not do as well, or that young Goldfinches, if hatched in
June, would starve. Almost equally remarkable is the early
nesting of Crossbills and Ravens.

So quiet and retired is the Cedar-bird, it may live in com-
parative seclusion although not a rod from your house,. and may
remain on your grounds for the whole summer unnoticed, unless
some one is on the watch, so that the name "chatterer," for-
merly applied to the family, can have only an ironical signifi-
cance in this least garrulous of birds. The fondness of this bird
for the berries of the red cedar and for cherries is responsible for
two of its commonest names, while the term "waxwing" has
reference to the peculiar horny scales of the secondary wing-
quills, which look as if tipped with red sealing-wax. Less com-
monly, the tail also bears similar appendages, but there is much
variation in their appearance in both old and young. Most of
the birds which I have studied at the nest have been entirely
lacking in appendages of this kind. In some cases all the
nestlings show the red tips at about the eighth or tenth day,
or at the moment the feather-tubes of the secondaries burst,
while more frequently only one or two in the nest are thus
ornamented.

Late in spring the Cedar-birds are seen coursing about in
small squads, selecting some treetop for an observatory, and
always showing the most marked uniformity, there being little
to distinguish the sexes in either size or color. Their plump
oval forms and easy undulating flight are characteristic, and
their manner of flying and perching in compact bodies as one
bird should not escape the observer. Apple trees of moderate
size are in high favor, since they afford such fine opportunities for
nest-building, and are usually surrounded by good feeding grounds.

88

Wild Birds

When they do not come to orchards and the neighborhood
of houses, Waxwings usually frequent scrubby pastures, selecting

Fig. 50. Female Cedar-bird prepared to regurgitate food from the gullet.
Notice the outlines of the neck, which mark the full throat. ' ' Twenty min-
utes later, the last fledgling had left the nest." August 25, 1899.

the witch-hazel or thorn-apple bushes by preference, and
occasionally a small sapling oak or maple. The nest is either
set in a fork or saddled to a spreading branch, at a height of

The Cedar-Bird

89

from five to twenty feet. It is nicely wrought from vegetable
and animal material such as dead grass, roots, fine twigs, weed-

Fig. 51. Cedar-bird chorus at the most exciting moment just before food
is served, August 6, 1899, two days before flight and the development of the
sense of fear. First picture made by method described in this book. Life-
size.

stems, pine needles, wool, yarn, and twine. One of many nests
built in an orchard was composed of dead clover stems, witch
grass, with thistle-down and the fluffy heads of the Indian

90 Wild Birds

tobacco, a plant growing close by, worked over its rim and
interior.

Four or five eggs are ordinarily laid, but the total product
of ten nests which I examined in 1899 was only thirty-six eggs,
out of which about twenty-five young were hatched and from
sixteen to twenty reared.

The parental instincts during the early days of nest-building
and incubation are often weak, and this is shown to a marked
degree in the Cedar-bird, which is easily robbed and ever ready
to take fright and abandon its eggs.

One year, in July a pair began to collect nesting material
in an apple tree in full view from our porch, and I frequently
watched them at work through an opera-glass, and once or
twice passed under their tree. This inspection of their private
affairs pleased them so little that they left their completed nest,
and moved to the adjoining field a few rods away, where there
was less publicity, and where five eggs hatched out on the
twenty-sixth of August. A nest built in a young oak tree in a
remote clearing was discovered on August 7th, when it con-
tained a single egg. I did not see the old birds on this occasion
and heard but a faint sound, which was evidently a murmur
of remonstrance since their nest was promptly forsaken.

I have camped beside five different nests of the Cedar Wax-
wings, and after having spent more than a week in watching the
behavior of both old and young birds at short range, feel that
I know by heart most of their nesting habits.

There is a certain routine which is observed by all birds at
the nests. Certain duties must be performed over and over,
such as the capture of prey, bringing it and distributing it to the
young, inspecting and cleaning the household, besides brood-
ing or shielding the young, especially during the early days of
life in the nest. To record each visit made and every recurring
act performed by the birds would make tedious reading, but
strange to say it never seems monotonous to the observer.
As the young birds grow older and begin to stand on the rim
of the nest they furnish ample excitement, and while their theme
is always the same it is delivered with innumerable variations.

The Cedar-Bird 91

The method of controlling the nesting site was first sug-
gested by some Cedar-birds, whose nest of four eggs was in a

Fig. 52. Tantalizing the young. The mother Cedar-bird has come with food,
but hesitates to advance and deliver it. Compare with Fig. 50.

thorn-apple bush, and about seven feet from the ground. The
main stem supporting the nest was cut off, and fixed firmly in
the soil at a height of three to four feet. On returning to the
spot two days later I was pleased to find that all had gone well.

92 Wild Birds

After getting the tent up it was not many minutes before a
low-murmured tr-e-e-e-e-k ! or ze-e-e-e-t ! was heard, to which
the young always responded in a similar strain. Approaching
cautiously, with throat loaded to the brim with choke-cherries,
the mother bird delivered them one by one, and then inspected
and cleaned her household.

After a longer interval the pair came and stood on the edge
of the nest. There was nothing in their bills, but their gullets
were crammed full of blueberries, and after tantalizing the
supplicating young for a moment, up went a head, and presto!
out came a berry, which was quickly placed in an open throat,
and passed around until it was promptly swallowed. Up went
the head again, and the performance was repeated. It was like
a magician shaking eggs from a bag, and there seemed to be
no limit to its capacity. Many who have witnessed such
actions have supposed that the old birds were attempting to
distribute the food without partiality to their hungry children,
but this is not the case. It is all a question of nervous reaction.
The food is not simply placed in the mouth, but pressed well
down into the sensitive throat, which promptly responds unless
the gullet is already full. The old bird watches the result in-
tently, and if the food is not taken at once it is passed from one
to another until a throat with the proper reaction time is found.
The movements of the bird are so rapid, and the berry is so
often quickly withdrawn, that it is difficult to make an ac-
curate count. Usually from six to eleven blueberries and al-
most as many choke-cherries are thus carried in the gullet.
Wilson, who noticed the distensibility of the gullet of this bird,
which will take from twelve to fifteen cedar berries at a time,
thought that it served as a crop to prepare the food for digestion.
The berries and insects, it is true, often come up crushed to a
pulp and reeking with slime, but it is not likely that the oesopha-
gus serves any other purpose than a temporary receptacle for
the food.

When the berries had gone the rounds, both birds would
suddenly leave the nest with a whisk. Again one would hear
their murmuring call, tr-e-e-e-e-k ! growing more distinct as they

The Cedar-Bird 93

came nearer. Then both would alight on the nest-rim, and
stand there a moment like statuettes with heads erect. After
regurgitating the food and distributing it, they keenly eye
everything in the nest, snap up the excreta from each bird in
turn, swallow it, and are off. The young sat or stood on the
nest with heads up and all pointed one way. Presently, every
black bead-like eye was alert; four scarlet-orange mouths
opened at the same moment, and four necks were stretched
now to this side, now to that, whence came the least sound.
When their parents actually approached with their low-whis-
pered call, they would huddle together and stretch their legs,
wings, and whole bodies to the utmost. Then would arise such
a chorus of supplicating cries as no parent could resist. Touch
but a twig and the nest presents an even livelier spectacle.
The young fairly tumble over each other, while their wings,
heads, and bodies vibrate with an intensity of desire which
their eager voices can only feebly express. Two days ago
these young lay quietly in their nest, and when touched showed
absolutely no fear, but to-day the instinct of fear had possessed
them, and when approached, all hopped off the nest and hid in
the grass.

The Cedar-bird will pant with mouth agape when uncom-
fortably warm, but is never seen to erect the feathers generally,
as many birds do in order to keep cool.

While watching this nest, one day in July, I happened to see
a Cedar-bird tugging at the frayed ends of a cord which had been
fastened to a branch of one of the fir trees, close by our house.
Taking the hint, I placed a quantity of red and blue yarn on
the branches, and on some bean poles near the nesting site.
Every thread was taken from the fir and worked into what
became a very gay mansion. It was placed on a spreading
apple bough, at a fork in the limb and between upright shoots,
fifteen feet from the ground. The blue yarn was in excess of
the red, but I am sure that this meant nothing to the birds.
They simply took what was provided, and had all been red it
would have been accepted.

These birds were most expeditious, for in two days the last

94

Wild Birds

straw was in place, and in six days from the start four eggs had
been laid and incubation begun. Ten days later three of these
eggs had hatched into young birds, while one was addled.
Born blind, naked, and helpless, the Cedar-bird begins to see
when three days old, through narrow horizontal slits which

Fig. 53. Female Cedar-bird ready to feed young by regurgita-
tion — gullet stuffed with cherries.

gradually open, and expose the eyes to full light. When this
nest was touched, the young would raise their tremulous heads
aloft, and with red mouths opened wide, express in silence the
simple sign language of newly hatched birds. One of the
brood mysteriously disappeared, so that eventually only two
were raised, and this recalls the loss of a young bird from the
first nest which was built by the same pair. When evil befalls

The Cedar-Bird

95

a nestling, the parents either remove its body or abandon the
whole family. The latter course is seldom, if ever, followed
after the eggs have all been hatched.

At this nest the young gave the call-notes repeatedly, but
the old birds usually approached without a sound, and were

Fig. 54- After feeding the young— the gullet empty. Notice
the " sitting " posture, and compare curves of throat in Fig. 53.

never both at the nest at the same time. On the second day of
observation the mother bird was feeding the young before I could
set up the tent. Both birds came frequently, bringing black
cherries and grasshoppers. At each feeding the following order
of events was usually observed : the parent sounds the call-note
at a distance, to which the young reply, but observes strict

96

Wild Birds

silence in drawing near; the young are fed, inspected, and
cleaned; the old bird flies to a convenient perch, rubs the bill
clean, plumes, and speeds off to the nearest cherry trees.

In the course of the morning these fledglings became very
restless, and as the heat from the sun increased, one crawled

Fig. 55. Regurgitating food. Up goes the head, and presto !
out comes a berry.

out, sat in the shadow of the leaves, and finally dropped to the
grass. Here it was immediately fed, and then hopped away
surprisingly fast. The male enticed it along, and thereafter
took care of it, while the mother returned to her remaining
nestling. Twenty minutes later the last fledgling had left the
nest, never to return, and the curtain was immediately rung
down. The young had spent exactly two weeks in their tern-

The Cedar-Bird

97

porary home, and had the weather been cooler they might have
tarried at least two days longer.

At this age the crest is not very prominent, and instead of the
jet-black, triangular band which surrounds the eye in an old
bird, the flat crown of the head is encircled by a light band

Fig. 56. She hears a suspicious sound.

passing above the eye. This fillet appears at about the eighth
day, and at this age also the tubes of the wing-quills burst, and
the red wax-like tips of the secondaries, when present at all,
also appear, as was the case with the young from this nest.

When about ready to fly and waiting to be fed the young
exhibit the peculiar instinct already noticed of standing erect
with upturned heads. A nest of these birds in this attitude

98 Wild Birds

makes a curious picture. Any danger signal is now likely to
bring them off in an instant. This particular brood had their
abode in a pine tree close to our house. On July iyth, shortly
before the picture was made, the family of five was standing
bolt upright, all facing one way, as if under military discipline.

Fig. 57. Devouring the excreta : an unusual attitude.

When their branch was touched, all but the two shown in Fig.
142 gained the nearest trees in their first flight and escaped.
This pair came to the ground, and were replaced in the nest.
In their second attempt, made ten minutes later, the larger of
the two birds was more successful. It flew to the roof of the
barn, not far above it, and after hopping to the ridge-pole,
made the upper branches of a tall elm. In the larger of the

The Cedar-Bird

99

two birds the band of velvety feathers, which traverses the eye,
and is jet black in an adult bird, had begun to darken, while
the fawn-colored fillet already mentioned was perceptibly re-
duced, a striking and characteristic change which is usually
noticed at the fourteenth day. Compare Figs. 52 and 59.

Fig. 58. Cleaning the nest. 'When the young are fed, the duty of
the old bird is but half done.

That peculiar attitude of the young just described, in which
they stand silent and motionless on their nest with heads up-
raised, is a form of instinctive behavior which in the adult
may be considered in the light of protective mimicry. We
have already seen how the timid Cedar-bird, when surprised,
will throw up its head and with its bill pointing to the zenith
will sit immovable like a statue, in this way simulating a short

ioo Wild Birds

upright branch. But the same instinct may be observed at
other times when it is even more striking. I once moved a
nest of a pair of these birds and mounted it in front of a porch,
where it could be easily seen by all the members of my family.
While watching the feeding operations one day with a friend,
we walked leisurely towards the nest. To our great surprise
the old bird did not leave, but stood bolt upright on the main
branch, and with head up-turned awaited our coming. She
maintained this extraordinary attitude while we stood by at
a distance of a few feet and admired the exhibition. It could
not be denied that the olive -gray, rod-like body of this bird
might under other circumstances, as when surrounded bv
foliage, have been readily mistaken for a short stub or a trun-
cated branch of the tree.

Another, and in many ways the most interesting, nest was
built in a pine, some account of which has already been given,
in illustrating the change of the nesting site. I watched these
birds over ten hours from the tent, saw a great many interesting
sights, and made a long series of pictures.

The young at this nest were visited and fed forty-seven times
during an interval of exactly ten hours and forty -seven minutes,
on three different days. On the last day they were fed on the
average once in ten minutes. The food consisted of choke -cher-
ries and red bird-cherries, varied with raspberries, blackberries,
and blueberries, together with insects which, during the last days
of life at the nest, constituted about one quarter of the fare. At
one half the number of visits recorded, fruit alone was served.
From six to ten cherries were brought in the gullet at a time,
and once by count eleven blueberries. Feeding was effected
almost always by regurgitation in whole or part, and rarely
was any food visible when the birds came to the nest. Now
and then, however, a bird would approach loaded to the muzzle,
with a berry or insect in the bill to round out the measure.
Soft fruits like raspberries were crushed to a pulp, and insects,
which are commonly served with the berries, came up covered
with saliva, and often in an unrecognizable state. The staple
animal food was grasshoppers, and I have seen the large cicada

The Cedar-Bird

101

or harvest-fly brought to the nest, but never dragon-flies, butter-
flies, or moths. The cicada made a lively struggle for a few
minutes ; it was placed
in one open throat af-
ter another and with-
drawn eight different
times, before a gullet
was found capable of
the proper reaction
time. If a bird was
slow he lost his chance,
and another was tried.
The key was at last
fitted to the lock, and
the bruised and bat-
tered cicada was taken
in, but the old bird had
not finished her task.
She began tossing up
her head and producing
bird-cherries. Then
she gave the nest a
thorough renovation.
In doing this the
mother often walks
around the rim, and
attends to each nest-
ling in succession,
sometimes even in-
specting one bird more
than once.

At first I found it
difficult to tell the old
birds apart until I

noticed a distinguishing mark on the female, who had a little bare
spot where the feathers had come out, on the right side in front
of the wing. This shows plainly in many of the photographs.

Fig. 59- Young Cedar-bird from nest shown in
Figs. 53-58: photographed on the morning of flight,
July 19, 1900. The bird was not touched, but occu-
pies a natural perch, chosen by himself.

102 Wild Birds

As I have said in another place, the female would often fly
direct to the tent and alight on the end of the ridge-pole just
above the nest. Here she would pause a moment, then go to
her young. Should they fail to respond promptly, she gives
a peculiar clucking sound, a habit common to many species,
which is the stimulus applied as a last resort. At this signal
every mouth is opened wide, even if the gullet is already full.
Indigestible substances pass through the alimentary canal, and
are never regurgitated in either young or adults.

Cedar Waxwings have been seen in the act of sipping maple
sap in March, either standing near a broken twig and reaching
round to pick off the drops from the underside or hovering over
the spot and taking sips while on the wing.1

Towards the last of August, small flocks of Cedar-birds are
moving about in search of food, the low murmur of their call-
notes being audible for a moment only as they pass overhead.
They know when the wild cherries are ripe, and never fail to
visit the trees skirting the fields. The black cherry tree is most
attractive when laden with the pendent racemes of black
cherries, its tremulous foliage shining in the sun, with Robins
and Cedar-birds fluttering about it. Every good tree is an
aviary when its fruit is ripe in late summer and early autumn.
Both old and young are on hand. Then you may see one sidle
along a bough, stretch its neck, wag its tail, and fondle another
with its bill. Their fine breezy call-notes suggest the bleating
of the insects in the grass below. Tent caterpillars spin large
nests in these trees, but the birds prefer the acid-bitter fruit to
the insects. Occasionally a bird will leave its perch, and dive
for an insect in the air with the ease and precision of a pro-
fessional flycatcher. I have seen the Cedar-bird either taking
the spider from his web or possibly robbing him of his prey.
The birds peck at the cherries, pull them off, suck up the juicy
pulp, but drop the hard stone. The ground under the trees,
as well as beneath their favorite perches, is covered with cherry
stones. Suddenly there is a swirl of wings, and the band moves
off rapidly to try the fruit in some other -quarter.
1 For this note I am indebted to Mr. Robert J. Sim, of Jefferson, Ohio.

CHAPTER VI

VIREOS AWAKE AND ASLEEP

THE moment I touched the spreading branch of a witch-
hazel bush out flew a bird, and the next instant my eye
rested on the nest of a Red-eyed Vireo. It was suspended be-
tween the forks of a twig about six feet from the ground, and
was well protected and concealed by the leaves. It then con-
tained two young birds, four or five days old. After examining
it carefully I retired, but before doing so fixed a cord to the
branch and drew down the nest so that its brim was horizontal,
and the whole about four feet from the ground, a convenient
height for future study.

The young were quite naked, save for a sprinkling of light
down on their heads and backs. They had yellow-rimmed
bills, bright yellow throats, and were just beginning to see
through the narrow slits, which admit light gradually to the
eyes. The old birds betrayed no unusual anxiety, but uttered
their unobtrusive piort! piort! and the female soon approached
with an insect. This nest was surrounded by tall bushes with
barely space to pitch the tent in front of it, and as I decided to
make no further changes, a spotted leafy background was un-
avoidable in the pictures. Coming again on July 3ist, the
tent was soon in place. The female, who was brooding at the
time, flew off quickly, but returned in a few moments.

These Vireos soon became quite unaware of being observed,
although literally as near the eye as one would hold a book to
read. I spent parts of three days on this spot watching a most
fascinating panorama of bird -life. On the third day the tent
was moved up to within eighteen inches of the nest, but ex-
perience has amply proved that the best pictures of the nesting

104 Wild Birds

scenes, in which the objects are usually in rapid motion, cannot
be obtained at such close range.

On the first day it required forty minutes to restore perfect
confidence, before the affairs of the nest were conducted with
their usual regularity. The young raised their heads aloft and
called loudly for attention, or hung drowsily over the brim of the
nest. At this time their skin was dotted with the fine rapidly
growing feathers, and the wing-quills looked like slender paint
brushes, having just burst the tips of the cylindrical horny
tubes in which they grow.

The old birds examined the situation carefully. Their
mournful piort ! piort ! was heard again and again, the male
answering his mate as she deliberately approached the nest.
After advancing many times, and turning back as often through
fear or distrust, the mother hopped up briskly with a bee in her
beak. Her instinct to care for her young was stronger than the
male's, and she almost invariably approached in the same way,
by the path of the twig in the fork of which hung the nest. A
smaller division in the fork gave off a still smaller branch close
to the nest, and upon this the birds always perched, and thus
stood directly over their brood. Any vibration of the nest, as
when the feet of the old bird touched the main stem to which
it was fixed, or any sound above or below, electrified the young,
and up popped their heads like two jacks in a box. With
mouths wide agape, they would clamor and quaver, expressing
their emotions not only by the vibration of the wings but by
the shaking of the whole body. But the young at this tender
age are unable to discriminate with any exactness. The quiver-
ing of a leaf, or the stirring of a twig close at hand, a puff of wind,
the nutter of a wing or the voice of any passing bird would
throw them into the same state of excitement. But this was
only for a moment. Their heads would again drop listlessly
over the wall of the nest, and with open mouths they would
doze in the sunshine. Something would then suddenly arouse
them, when they would instinctively go to preening themselves
just like old birds, although they had at this time no feathers
which needed this attention.

Vireos Awake and Asleep

105

Quite often you would hear a huic! huic! which always aroused
the young, who would tsip! back in earnest. While the mother was
again coming slowly towards the nest with a bee in her mouth,
another bee happened to cross her path. She darted after it,
but missed her aim. Then, disposing of the first insect, she

showing the depth to which food is inserted in the throat. Photographed from an ele-
vated tent with white screen at back,— illustrated in Fig. 42.

watched her young intently for a moment, stooped, picked up
a small white package, and hurried away.

At one o'clock the old birds took a midday rest, and it was
full twenty minutes before that reassuring piort! piort! was
heard. Then as, step by step, the mother came nearer the
magnet, the drawing power of which was irresistible, her livelier
huic! huic! awoke the young, who started and replied swit!
swit! Thereupon the old bird quickly hopped along the branch,
straddled the fork, and tucked a large grasshopper into one o"

io6

Wild Birds

the open mouths. In three minutes she was back with another,
this time stopping to clean the nest again. Five minutes by the
watch had passed when she returned with a brown-gray-winged
insect over an inch long, which an entomologist might be able
to name from the photograph. She paused for a moment while
the young called eagerly and stretched their necks to the ut-
most; then she helped the insect down the throat of the lucky
bird. However, it stuck at the gullet, and the little one gulped
hard before its protruding wings had disappeared.

Fig. 61. Female Red-eyed Vireo ready to deliver a large insect. Photo-
graphed against natural background. Compare Fig. 60.

As is well known, the young bird has wonderful powers of
digestion and assimilation, and after the first week the rapidity
of its development becomes even more striking. A lapse of
twenty-four hours now means a great stride in growth. It
takes food almost constantly throughout the day, and digests
it quickly, though imperfectly. The adult Vireo, like the Fly-
catcher, is known to regurgitate the indigestible parts of its food
in pellets.

The male Vireo seldom came with food, and then always with
an extra degree of caution. Twice he followed swiftly after his

Vireos Awake and Asleep 107

mate, acting as her guardian while she quickly went the rounds.
The role of the old birds in feeding was almost invariably the
same, as I have in part described. They trace a zigzag line to
the nest, a straight one from it. ' You hear first their responsive
call-notes. The mother "bird with insect ready is in a bush a
rod away; then she comes a step nearer, and pauses; her piortf
is now more -distinct. She slowly advances, until the twig
which holds the nest is touched. Up go the heads of the young;
they call aloud, stretch their necks to every side, gaze up to the

Fig. 62. Placing it well down in a hungry throat.

clouds and around upon the leaves. Then, as the mother hops
nimbly along the twig, and stands over them, what a picture of
eager desire, tremulous impatience, and keen rivalry they
present! The food is sometimes quickly placed in the throat
of one, and as quickly withdrawn, to be given to another, and
when there are more than two it may go the rounds before it is
allowed to remain, a common practice the true meaning of
which we have already seen.

After inspection is completed and the nest cleaned, the
parent bird flies to any convenient spot, carefully wipes the
slime from her bill, stretches her wings, and smoothes out all

io8 Wild Birds

the ruffles in her dress. These birds always look as sleek as a
new silk hat, every feather lying smooth in its place.

One day while in my tent, a small bird of another species
suddenly darted down upon this nest. There was a momentary
flutter, a clash of beaks and claws, and the intruder was promptly
driven away.

It was always interesting to watch the behavior of the
young between the intervals of feeding. The moisture would
fairly glisten in their wide-open mouths. They snapped at
every ant and flying insect which came within their reach, but

Fig, 63. Standing in characteristic prone attitude of inspection.

I never saw a single capture. The preying instinct is undoubt-
edly one of the most ancient among animals, and young birds
peck instinctively at all kinds of small objects, but precision
of aim which leads to success in capturing their prey must be
acquired by practice. These young Vireos would often hang
their heads down over the nest, and doze until aroused by the
piping of the Robin, or by the call of some other bird. Then
the mother would appear, with a huge green katydid, its wings
crumpled and held tightly in her sharp bill. It was surpris-
ing how quickly and gently it was assisted down one of the
hungry throats.

At one of his visits, the male, after cleaning the nest and

Vireos Awake and Asleep 109

young with great care, stepped in and began to brood, when
two downy heads popped up from under his breast. He
showed unmistakable signs of discomfort and uneasiness,
repeatedly erecting and lowering his crest, and puffing out his
throat. With mouth wide open he gazed keenly about him,
and after a few moments dashed off as if in pursuit of an enemy.
When a large grasshopper which had been given to a young
bird had made good its escape, the mother darted after it,
seized it before it had touched the ground, and you may be
sure that there was no possibility of escape this time. A
grasshopper was sometimes divided between the two young, but

Fig. 64. Drawing back through timidity.

usually a single bird only was fed at a time. The male warbled
his pleasant strains from a branch hard by, while the mother
hunted for insects in the grass below. A large brown locust
with yellow and black wings was soon brought in. The adult
Vireos glean most of their animal food from the foliage and, as
might be expected, are great caterpillar destroyers, but while
feeding their young I frequently saw them exploring the grass
as any Robin or Song Sparrow might do, snapping up every
insect which came in their path.

no Wild Birds

On the third day, when my tent was but eighteen inches from
the nest, the old birds came to it even more readily than before.
They would still occasionally start at the click of the shutter,
but they did not mind the shrill scream of a locomotive across
the river, or the rumble and splash of logs which were momen-
tarily being set free and sent tumbling headlong down a steep
slide into the river below. They had become used to these
sounds and had learned from experience that they were harm-
less. On this day, a great change seemed to have come over the
young. They had become almost transformed in appearance,
and were very restless. Their bodies were now well covered
with feathers, and they were beginning to show the first traces
of fear. Their snow-white breasts gleamed through the thin
walls of their cup-shaped nest, or from over its rim. Grass-
hoppers, katydids, green larvae, beetles, and bugs of many
kinds were served again and again, but it would be a mistake
to suppose that there was no fruit to vary this diet. Upon the
third day the mother brought a ripe red raspberry, its juice
fairly streaming down her bill, and after a few beetles had been
taken she appeared with a large blackberry. Fruit was served
to the young about half a dozen times in the course of four
hours during which watch was kept on this particular day, but I
had not seen a single berry brought to the young before this time.

On the first two days of observation the young were fed on
the average of once in fifteen minutes, but upon the third day
food was brought every nine minutes.

Hitherto I had taken pains not to touch the nest, but as I
approached for a final look at the young at about two o'clock
they immediately took alarm, and popped out one at a time.
The larger of the two disappeared, and was never seen again by
me, and although I replaced the smaller bird in its nest time
after time, it positively refused to stay. Like the young of so
many wild birds, when once they have tasted the freedom of
the world they seem to look with disdain upon their old home.
Although these birds could only flutter in their first attempts at
flight, they could hop nimbly from branch to branch, and thus
ascend readily to the tops of high bushes.

Vireos Awake and Asleep

i n

Upon visiting the site of this nest on the following day, one
of the young birds was discovered in the grass less than two
rods from its empty nest. It was calling loudly for food, and
the old birds were tending it. A few hours later I returned in
the nick of time to save its life by the capture of a large garter
snake, which in some way had discovered its opportunity.

Fig. 65. Young Red-eyed Vireos, shown in Fig. 64, leaving the nest. No.
14 of table, Chapter I.

Another Red-eyed Vireo's nest was detected by the sharp
eyes of a little girl beside our house, and close to a well-trodden
path. It was suspended to a forked twig of the sugar maple,
and in order to disturb it as little as possible the tent was
mounted on a raised platform five feet from the ground, while
a tall photographic screen was erected at the back (Fig. 42).

When the young Vireos were a week old I began to watch
their nesting habits at night more closely, and found that,
while the male apparently roosted near by, the female invariably

112

Wild Birds

slept on the nest. At from fifteen to twenty minutes after
sundown she was regularly at her post, and even at this hour
usually fast asleep. So profound, indeed, were her slumbers,
that I could often enclose her in my hand and stroke her feathers
without awaking her. She slept with her head twisted back
and buried deep in the feathers between the shoulders. An
apparently headless trunk or a little ball of feathers was all that
could be seen, and the only motion discernible came from the
regular pulsations of breathing.

In this manner the mother apparently passed the night,
unless disturbed. When aroused by a ruder movement of the
hand, she would peck feebly at a raised finger, but if not molested
the eyes would gradually close, and the heavy head turning
slowly on its axis settle down on the soft cushion again. If
actually driven off she would return in a second, and in another
moment would be fast asleep.

On a quiet evening, just after sundown, the camera was set
on the platform, and two photographs were made of this sleep-
ing bird without awaking her. In the first the plate was ex-
posed for five and in the second for twenty minutes (Fig. 66),
both yielding good prints, allowing for the regular movements
of respiration.

The sleeping habits of birds do not appear to have received
much attention, and are often difficult to observe. That they
vary not only in different species but with the season and other
conditions is obvious. When not breeding, many of the smaller
perching birds seek the dense coverts or foliage, which afford
protection from cold as well as from enemies. Grouse .are
sometimes found enclosed in light snow; Quail hover in dense
covies on the ground, where they pass the night; birds of prey,
like Hawks and Eagles, sleep at odd intervals by day or night,
with the head buried in the feathers of the back. The diurnal
sleep of Owls and Goatsuckers is more readily observed. The
male Robin has been known to pass the night at a long distance
from its nest. In a community of Great Herring Gulls, which
knows no repose by day or night, the old birds take frequent
naps at all hours, and either while on the perch or the nest.

Vireos Awake and Asleep 113

This Gull will occasionally doze with head drawn in and eyes
closed, but usually conceals its head in its feathers like a Hawk
or Vireo. But if at such times the Gull is dull of sight its
hearing is keen, for at an alarm it will suddenly throw up its
head and with outstretched neck scream loud enough to be

Fig. 66. Female Red-eyed Vireo, asleep on nest. Pho-
tographed after sundown, with an exposure of twenty min-
utes, July 5, 1902, 7 : 10—7 : 30 P. M. The head of the bird
is twisted to the left side— the bill pointing to the right of
the picture — and is buried up to the eyes in the feathers of
the back.

heard for half a mile. Some of the Pheasants sleep with the
head either drawn in on shortened neck, or turned back and
concealed. In calm seas Duck and other water-fowl often sleep
when afloat. So far as I have observed, the same bird always
turns its head to the same side in sleep, and this seems to follow
as a matter of course from the force of habit.

ii4 Wild Birds

The snow and storms of winter usually knock the bottom
out of the Vireos' pendent nests, but some remain whole for over
a year. Wilson speaks of finding the nest of the Yellow Warbler
built inside of an old Vireo's nest. The deer mouse sometimes
takes possession of an abandoned nest in fall, and converts it
into a snug globular house for itself and young. I remember
the feeling of astonishment which the discovery of one of these
converted nests gave me when a boy at school, and of wondering
to what animal those black lustrous eyes, which appeared at
the entrance, could belong. In this case the original frame-
work was concealed by a symmetrical dome of thistle-down, a
substance used also in lining and covering the original walls.
There was a small round hole or side entrance, just above the
old rim. When disturbed, this sleek little mouse left its warm
house, ran down the branch, and disappeared.

CHAPTER VII

THE NEST-HOLE OF THE BLUEBIRD

THE mellow note of the Bluebird is a welcome sound on
March mornings when the air is yet wintry, and the snow
stands deep in the woods. Its meaning is unmistakable, but
to appreciate it, one must live in the North where spring means
literally "turning over
a new leaf. ' ' a new order
of existence. Should
cold weather or heavy
snows return, the birds
retire for a time, but
promptly reappear
with better days.

The males are first
to arrive, coming singly
or in small straggling
companies. As we
walk along the desolate
country roads, they
rise from wall and
fence-row, displaying
their brilliant azure
wings, or when flying
overhead the cinnamon

brown and white of their under plumage. Their almost ven-
triloquial phee-ur note which is heard as they fly is not peculiar
to any season.

When the females come a little later, the males are in full
"5

Fig. 67. Female Bluebird taking a look outside,
as if hesitating before going in search of food.

1 16 Wild Birds

song, and the period of courtship, which is very ardent in the
Bluebird, begins. The affection and gallantry of the Bluebird
have aroused the enthusiasm of many observers. Unfortu-
nately, we are obliged to add that a case of polygamy in this
species has been reported.1

The choice of a nesting site is made with great care and de-
liberation. If they accept the house or box prepared for them,
they often have to defend it against the Wren, the Martin, and
the House Sparrow. Wrens and Martins are easily driven off,
but the pugnacity of the Sparrow and the greater numbers
which he can usually muster render resistance hopeless. An
abandoned Woodpecker's hole is not disdained, since it forms
a safe, cozy house which needs little furnishing. This snug
cavern is sheltered from sun and rain, and secure from most
birds and beasts of prey. The rotten fence-post and the many
holes in the decayed apple trees may also contain the secret of
the Bluebird's nest.

On August n, 1899, I saw a pair of Bluebirds paying
marked attentions to an old "auger-hole" in an apple tree, made
by Golden-winged Woodpeckers. It was plainly a case of nest
within nest. The female was carrying insects to her invisible
young, which I supposed at this late day were ready to fly, but,
as it afterwards appeared, they were only five days old. This
hole had been nicely drilled beneath the springing branch of
a truncated and now dead prong of the tree, fifteen feet from
the ground.

When an opportunity was offered on August isth, I sawed
off the limb, two feet from the opening, and set it up in a con-
venient spot fifty feet away. It was so arranged that the whole
trunk could be rotated, and the circular entrance of this nest
turned directly to the sun at any time of day. I had barely
left the place to fetch the tent when the mother bird flew from
the apple tree to the stump, entered the hole, and having fed
the young, came out with a small white parcel in her bill. This
bird had her eye on the nest, and was ready to visit it in its new
situation, when free to do so. The tent was placed two feet
1 Bulletin Nuttall Ornithological Club, vol. viii., p. 63.

The Nest-Hole of the Bluebird

117

away, but later drawn up to a distance of about eighteen inches.
After concluding these operations, I had to wait longer for the
parent bird to come again. When one considers that the nest-

Fig. 68. Female Bluebird carrying grasshopper to young.

ing branch was suddenly moved fifty feet from its original
position and fixed on the ground, and that a tent was then
pitched so close to it that the birds could not fly straight to the
entrance but had to flit first to the trunk and then go around

ii8 Wild Birds

to the hole, it is not surprising that they held aloof. I waited
exactly one hour and twenty-five minutes before the mother
again brought food to her young. Meanwhile it was interesting
to see what was happening, from a peep-hole of the tent. Both
birds would fly to the tree which they had known as their home,
and mechanically go through their usual motions in approach-
ing the nest, hopping first to this branch, then to that, following
a well-defined path, which they had traveled hundreds of times,
and finally hover over the spot which was once occupied by the
nest, as if to become assured that their eyes had not deceived
them.

These actions, which afford an excellent illustration of the
force of habit, were repeated by both Bluebirds many times,
while they uttered their responsive phee-ur note. Again, calling
eagerly, both would fly towards the new position of the nest.
Finally, the female, who in this case assumed the whole task of
feeding the brood, came to the stump, paused a moment,
quickly entered the hole, and came out in hot haste. The
absolute stillness, however, had restored confidence, for in
five minutes she returned with a huge green grasshopper and
in ten minutes was back again with another. In the course of
each visit the plaintive call would announce her presence as she
approached with insect in bill, and alighted on a half -dead
peach tree close by. After a momentary survey of the situation
she would flit to the stump, sit for a few seconds on a dead
branch at one side, then hop down, fly to the hole, and catch on
the bark or cling to the rough edge of the circular opening with
her sharp claws, pausing there a tenth of a second, or long
enough to cast a swift glance backwards. In this position she
was photographed many times, with grasshoppers, crickets,
green larvae, katydids, and once with a large robber fly in her
beak, the profile of her head being sharply vignetted by the dark
circular entrance. The young must have been all a-quaver at
the sound of their mother's wings, for the old stump seemed to
become suddenly alive with brisk chirping sounds the moment
she touched any part of it. The bird used her tail to help sup-
port her weight against the side of the tree, like a Woodpecker,

The Nest-Hole of the Bluebird

119

and I noticed that the tail feathers were frayed and worn
at the points.

The male during the
numerous visits which
followed came two or
three times and sat
above the door, but
never actually entered
it, and never brought
to the young a single
morsel of food in the
course of the entire day.
He would warble very
sweetly, however, and
probably encouraged
the exertions of his
mate. The next time
this bird appeared with
a grasshopper she did
not trust herself inside,
but stood at the en-
trance, put her head in
and as quickly drew
back to take another
glance around, then
leaned far down and fed
her clamoring brood. At
this moment a flock of
Goldfinches flew over-
head, and were heard
calling be-be ! be-be ! at
which the young Blue-
birds were instantly
aroused, and made the
old stump resound again

With their cries. After FiZ- 6^1- Bluebi«'d engaged in nest-clean-

ing, representing three visits, at each of which
many grasshoppers and food is served. Nearly one half life-size.

I2O

Wild Birds

crickets had been dispatched, another Asilus, the hairy robber fly,
already mentioned, was brought in. Then another bright green
katydid, with its wings half spread in its vain effort to get free, was
served to the young. If frightened in an attempt to enter the nest

Fig. 73. Standing at entrance with large grasshopper in bill.

this bird invariably returned shortly, and after the feeding was
over, would take the excreta, and fly some distance before drop-
ping it. In no case was it known to be eaten at the nest. During
the afternoon, when these birds had become more at ease in their
new surroundings, the nest was cleaned six times in two hours.
I saw this bird bring to her young no less than twenty grass-
hoppers, four cone-headed katydids, two black crickets, besides
larvae and many small insects. During the forenoon, in the

The Nest-Hole of the Bluebird 121

space of nearly three hours, the young were fed on the average
of once in six minutes, and for two hours in the afternoon once
in nine and a half minutes.

The Bluebird is one of the most unobtrusive of our wild
birds. It goes about its business quietly, and seems never to
fight except in defence of its home, but we must not be sur-
prised to find that individuality can assert itself even in the
Bluebird. In the case just described the female led the way,
while the male was extremely timid. At another nest, on the
contrary, the conditions were quite the reverse. Not only was
the male always first in bringing food, but his pugnacity reached
an unexpected pitch in a bird whose gentle and confiding
manners have been praised by many enthusiasts. This nest
was boldly defended when the stump was moved, and for more
than a week thereafter the male fiercely assailed every person
who ventured upon his domain. With the speed of an arrow,
and with angry snapping of the bill, he would dart straight at
the intruder, who involuntarily ducked his head, and felt no
desire to repeat the experiment. This bird would also dart at
the tent, and at the observer the moment he showed himself
outside. In short he was constantly at the nest, which he de-
fended most admirably, and was unremitting in the task of
providing for his family.

According to one authority, there are usually three broods,
and before the first set of young can shift for themselves the
female repairs the nest and gets ready for the second. The
male continues to care for the first brood after the second has
appeared, will feed his mate, and even take her place at the
nest.

CHAPTER VIII

MINUTE OBSERVATIONS ON CATBIRDS

WHILE the Catbird has a strong attachment for its young,
especially during later days of life at the nest, when
any intrusion will arouse its fighting instinct to the highest
pitch, it is under ordinary conditions exceedingly wary, sus-
picious, and hard to approach. In the account which follows I
shall describe only what was seen while camping beside two
nests of these birds.

The first of these attractive nests rested on a spray of the
sweet viburnum, in a little clearing in dense bushes, and about
four feet from the ground, so that no change in its position was
necessary. It contained a single addled egg and two young with
the feather-shafts of the wings barely exposed.

For an hour or more after the tent was in position, the old
birds kept up a perpetual din, in which their exasperating
tschaying note was most pronounced. They would circle round
and round the tent, often coming close as if to discover the way
in, or fluttering and screaming at it, as if it were a demon to be
exorcised. After this they gradually became more quiet, and
began to alight on the tent's guys and roof. At last the female
was seen stealthily to approach and quickly feed her young.
After a fresh reconnaissance both birds went to the nest to-
gether and with rapid, jerky movements stuffed red cherries
into the hungry throats, inspected and cleaned each young bird,
and then darted away.

While in a state of mind wavering between fear and assur-
ance, the Catbird passes rapidly to a branch, and spreading and
pumping the tail, pauses in an attitude of attention before
making another movement.

122

Minute Observations on Catbirds 123

Both birds now began to bring an abundance of insects and
fruit, as if making up for lost time. The female came with

Fig. 73- Female Catbird bringing in a large limp dragon-fly
—the

two cherries in her bill and promptly gave one to each of the
birds. Then a grasshopper was served, and still again a dragon-
fly, with blue body and spotted wings (the Libellula pulchella).

i24 Wild Birds

The insect was swallowed, wings and all, but only after pro-
longed efforts. As confidence was gradually regained, the
birds would remain longer and longer at the nest, pick the
young all over, and clean everything with care and deliberation.

At this time (July 23d) the young were about eight days
old, and could be easily approached. Two days later, when their
nest was touched they tumbled out in an instant, disappearing
as if by magic amid the leaves. I succeeded in finding one of
them, but it refused to remain in the old nest. Its wing-quills
now showed a half inch of the feather-shaft, which represented
two days' growth, while the tail feathers were still in the stub-
brush stage.

There were four young in the second nest, which was dis-
covered in some bushes close to the river bank on the nineteenth
of June. It rested in the crotch formed by the crossing of
shoots of the dogwood and alder. The young were in pin-
feathers, but not a tube had burst. Both old birds happened
to be off -foraging, but quickly returned with food in their
mouths, and began to alarm the neighborhood.

The tent was pitched in front of this nest at eight o'clock on
the morning of June 23d. After it was closed both birds began
their cautious explorations in the vicinity, tschaying incessantly
and with nerve-rasping vehemence. A male Redwing Black-
bird was soon attracted to the spot, and added his note of
alarm to the general outcry, but after rinding that the matter
did not concern him, returned to his nest in the flags farther
away.

In twenty minutes the Catbirds had become more quiet, and
began to pay close attention to the tent. The Redwing was
heard con-quer-eeing in the distance. Song Sparrows were
singing merrily. Veeries called from the woods close at hand,
and the be-be I of the Goldfinches could be heard as these birds
passed leisurely overhead. The conditions were all reassuring,
and presently the Catbirds became silent, and went off for food.
In a few moments a rustling of leaves was heard close to the tent
and the male could be seen coming boldly in its direction.

Up to this time the young lay quietly in the nest, but were

Minute Observations on Catbirds

I25

alert to every sound whether from the wind or any passing
bird. Their wing-quills had become exposed in the course of
two days to a length of three quarters of an inch.

Fig. 74. Female Catbird inspecting after having fed the young.

Suddenly a jubilant song burst from the throat of the
male, and his mate thus encouraged approached the nest with
insect in bill, but her fears were not allayed, for after beating

126

Wild Birds

about she swallowed the insect herself and went in search of
another.

The young now began to yip in earnest and to stretch their
scantily feathered transparent necks. One of the lustiest of
the four even climbed to the edge and sat in the shade. They
would erect their scanty crest-feathers and pant in the sun,
which, though not excessively hot, was, with the added feeling
of hunger, beginning to make them restless.

The sense of fear was at last overcome in the mother, who
came, fed and cleaned the young, and flew off again. After
another pause a huge dragon-fly was brought to the nest. The
observer had to wait long at the beginning, but his reward was
now quick in coming. The young were then fed every five or
six minutes, but the male rarely went to the nest himself. Still
cautious to a degree, he would follow after the female, but stop
a few feet short of the nest. Then after delivering her insect
she would go at once to her mate, take the food from his bill,
and bear it to the young.

The following table gives the number of visits at which food
was brought during eight consecutive hours from 8 A.M. to 4
P.M., and illustrates how the parental instincts, aided by habit,
gradually overcome the feeling of fear in a very shy and
suspicious animal.

HOUR.

NO. OF TIMES
YOUNG ARE FED.

NEST CLEANED.

REMARKS.

I )

2 f

I

I

Young fed by female.

3

I

n n *( it

4

5

I

n i* it tt

5

8

2

Young fed once by male.

6

10

I

Young fed twice by male, who
also brings food which fe-

male delivers.

7

ii

3

Old birds begin coming to nest

together.

8

i?

4

Young fed twice by male, who

also brings food for female

to serve.

Minute Observations on Catbirds 127

Five times in rapid succession the mother brought in dragon-
flies of extraordinary size (the large ALschna hews), of a light

Fig. 75. Female Catbird cleaning the nest.

greenish-yellow color, and limp as wet paper, having just
issued from their pupa cases. This bird presented an interesting
sight as she approached with one of these long insects hanging
from her bill, for she always held them by the head. The

128 Wild Birds

dragon-fly was as long as the young bird, but it was invariably
swallowed wings and all, though only after a hard struggle.

The young, always on the alert, huddle to this and that side
of the nest, and stretching to the utmost limit their transparent
red necks display the yellow target of the open mouth as they
tsit I tsit ! to the approaching mother, who sounds her well-
known call.

On one occasion I saw the female deliver a black dragon-fly,
and afterwards take from the bill of the male, who was standing
near, a carrion beetle, and pass it to the young. Then keenly
eying her brood, she deliberately .bent over, and as the body of
one was raised took from it a small white package and flew away.
Many of the photographs show the birds performing this sanitary
act, a practice common to many other species. During her
first visits the female ate the excreta, but thereafter it was in-
variably removed from the nest.

The food served to these young Catbirds consisted of dragon-
flies, which were brought to the nest thirteen times, insect
larvae, beetles, moth millers, and a great variety of smaller
insects, varied with liberal courses of strawberries. At first the
old birds approached quietly, fed their young hurriedly from the
farther side, and were off in a few seconds, but as confidence in
their surroundings was gradually restored, they would come to
the nest-front, with the camera but three feet away, remain
there for a full minute, and after assisting the young to dispose
of their harder subjects, inspect everything with the greatest
care.

When this nest was visited two days later the young looked
bright and hearty. They were now in full feather, and about
ready for flight. When the tent had been cautiously set up, I
noticed that a number of leaves cast undesirable shadows on
the nest. Though knowing well what to expect, I decided to
take the risk, and reached out to cut them off. This was the
fatal spark which fired the train of gunpowder, for all went off
in an instant in a panic of fear, and the game was up, for Cat-
birds when well out of their nest at this stage are out for good.

CHAPTER IX

THE REARING OF THE NIGHT HAWK

IN crossing a clearing one day in June I flushed a Night Hawk,
who showed by her behavior that the little depression from
which she rose contained something of great interest to both

Fig. 76. Night Hawk and eggshells from which it emerged. Three days old,
June 27, 1900.

the bird and myself. She was indeed incubating a single
marbled gray egg, which lay on a marbled gray patch of earth
still covered with ashes and cinder. The bird retired quietly,
dropping with a thud to the ground a few feet away.

Two days later, if my estimate is correct, a young Night
Hawk cracked his shell neatly in two and emerged to the light
of day. When first seen on the twenty-sixth of June he was
well clothed in down, and looked like a little flattened ball of

129

130

Wild Birds

fluffy worsted, of a dark cream color mottled with brown, colors
which harmonize well with the usual tints of the soil. You had
to look a second time to detect the stub of a beak at the base of

Fig. 77. Young Night Hawk in enclosure on spot where it was born, and where it
remained until able to fly when eighteen days old.

which the large round nostrils were sufficiently prominent.
Whenever this bird was aroused from its all-day slumbers the
eyelids would gradually open and disclose a pair of large, soft,
deep blue eyes, the lower lids showing decided angular contours
which became more striking as the bird grew.

The mother brooded during the heat of the day or sat as if
dozing beside her charge. When surprised at such times she
rose and with feathers erect and tail spread fluttered off in a
slow shambling manner as if to encourage pursuit. With her
feathers raised and her huge mouth wide open, or the mandible
vibrating up and down with an audible snapping sound, as if
set on springs, this bird presented a curious appearance, recalling

Fig. 78. Night Hawk three days old. Nearly life-size.

Fig. 79. Night Hawk nine days old, July 3d. Length in sit-
ting posture, 3j inches.

131

1 32 Wild Birds

the not wholly dissimilar behavior which Eagles display when
stirred by similar emotions. When the young Night Hawk is
exposed to a hot sun, its lower jaw also begins to vibrate but at a
much higher rate of speed, when it will toddle off and crouch in
the shade of a leaf. It begins to walk when three or four days
old, but rarely emits a sound, except under circumstances which
will be presently described. Fearing lest the old bird should
entice it away, I corralled it in a small enclosure of wattled twigs
on July 3d. In this pen it remained a week longer or until
able to fly, at the age of about eighteen days.

Wishing to witness the feeding habits of these birds, which
I believe have never been described, I spent parts of three days
and nights camped beside the enclosure and was the witness
of some interesting and curious sights. On the first day I set
up the tent at three o'clock in the afternoon, but heard no
sound for an hour, when the young began to pe-up ! At five
o'clock the pisk ! of the male sounded for the first time. During
the interval a single incident occurred to vary the monotony. A
green snake in the course of his rambles had discovered the
young Night Hawk, and when first seen was watching the bird
intently from a stump close to the tent. The snake after re-
maining with head erect, and keenly eying the bird for a long
time, slowly advanced, putting out his tongue, but when a few
inches away hesitated again, and as if deciding not to experi-
ment further, turned to one side and disappeared. The bird
paid no attention whatever to these advances of the snake. At
this juncture I left the tent for an hour, and returned as the sun
was setting at half-past seven o'clock.

At dark a change begins to come over the Night Hawk
family. The young bird shows signs of life, moves about calling
for food, and grows livelier as the darkness increases, making
a sound like pe-ur ! pe-up ! Both old birds are now alert and
gyrating overhead. You hear their pisk ! pisk ! and the startling
sound caused by the vibration of the wings, as an old bird de-
scends like a bolt toward the earth. As these sounds increase
with their nearer approach, the nervous excitement of the
young is curious to behold. He is all a-tremor, moves now in

Fig.So. Night Hawk twelve days old, July 6th.

Fig. 81. Night Hawk sixteen days old, July loth. Length in sitting posture, 4f inches.

133

134

Wild Birds

one direction, now in another, and his pe-ur-note reaches a pitch
unknown before. Presently you hear a thud as if a clod of
earth had dropped. Then the mother bird, crawling over the
leaves, begins calling ke-ark I ke-ark ! This sound, however un-
couth to the human ear, corresponds to the cluck! of the hen to
her chicks, and awakens an immediate response in the young
Night Hawk. He does his best to go to his mother, but the

obstacles being in-
surmountable, she
comes to him. She
is loaded with fire-
flies,1 and as her
great mouth opens
you behold the wide
jaws and throat
brilliantly illumin-
ated like a spacious
apartment all aglow
with electricity.
With wings erect
and full-spread the
old bird approached
to within fifteen in-
ches of my hand, making an electric display at every utterance
of her harsh ke-ark I Then standing over her young, with raised
and quivering wings, she put her bill well down into his throat
and pumped him full. His down-covered wings were also
spread and a-quiver. In this position they remained interlocked
and silent for one or two minutes. When the feeding was over she
tucked the little one under her breast and began to brood. It
was not long before she was off again in the darkness, and upon
returning the performance was repeated, after which she settled
down to brood as if for the night. This young bird was fed
but twice each evening between the hours of eight and nine
o'clock, and always, as I believe, by the female. It is probable
that another feeding time also occurs at dawn. During the
1 Undoubtedly the little beetle Photinus pyralis.

Fig. 82. The Night Hawk builds no nest, but lays its
eggs on the bare ground or rocks.

The Rearing of the Night Hawk 135

earlier hours the male would sometimes swoop down with
terrific wing-blast as if to drive away intruders, and he once
came and sat by his chick for ten minutes after dusk without
causing any excitement. The task of feeding was borne by
the mother, and her presence never failed to excite the young.

I tried to make a flash-light picture of the old and young
bird interlocked in the feeding process, and could easily have
succeeded had my lamp been of a kind which showed no light
before the flash.

In two weeks the mottled down of the Night Hawk chick
has given place to mottled feathers, in which the tints range
from dark to light brown or buff. The wing-quills are almost
black with buff edges. The fifth quill or primary has a pure
white transverse spot near the point of emergence from the
feather-tube, the first trace of what becomes a conspicuous mark
on the wings of an adult bird. The fledgling is more lively in
the daytime, runs about easily, will utter his pe-ur-note, and
can flv short distances.

CHAPTER X

THE KINGFISHERS AND THEIR KING ROW

THE Kingfisher has a strong attachment for particular nest-
ing places, and will occupy the same bank for years, if
unmolested, and sometimes even when robbed. The Belted
Kingfisher, though widely distributed, seems to be nowhere
very abundant. In New Hampshire one rarely finds more than
a single pair nesting in the neighborhood of any village or town.

The nest now to be described was drilled into a sand bank
beside a country road. It had a straight four-inch bore, which
four feet from the opening expanded into a low-vaulted chamber
six inches high and ten inches across. When this dark sub-
terranean abode was opened at the rear, on the nineteenth day
of July, 1900, I put in my hand and drew forth in succession five
very strange-looking creatures. They had huge conical bills,
short legs, and fat squatty bodies, which bristled all over with
steel-gray "quills," the feather-tubes, which had not yet burst,
suggesting an antediluvian monster or reptilian bird on a re-
duced scale.

These five young Kingfishers which were then about nine
days old had already acquired some curious habits. They, like
the adult birds, stand not on the toes simply, but on the whole
tarsus, which corresponds to the scaly part of the leg of a fowl,
so that the "drum-stick" rises from the heel. They can be
posed in any position like toy soldiers, but if placed in line they
will soon break ranks and walk backwards, even moving up in-
clined planes or against obstacles set in their paths. They are
rarely seen to take a single forward step for many days after
reaching this stage.

136

^Cfis^T^W ban, with fish. July «,

ope.

every entrance and exit.

137

138 Wild Birds

The human infant and vertebrated animals generally in-
stinctively walk forward; how then does it happen that the
young Kingfisher early acquires the grotesque habit of walking
backwards? The anomaly is readily understood. From the
time of birth the young lie huddled in a cluster in their dark
underground chamber, which opens to the outside by means of
a single narrow tunnel. As they grow in size and strength the
monotony of sitting still, often with legs and wings interlocked,
must become very great, and whether for diversion or not, at
all events they soon begin to bite and tease one another like
young puppies. Should one be hard-pressed, the only way of
escape lies along the narrow passage, which they naturally
traverse head first; but the instinct to return to the warm
family cluster is strong, and to do this they are obliged to walk
backwards. Again when the rattle of the alma mater announc-
ing the capture of another fish is heard, each struggles to get
down the narrow passage-way first, but when the parent enters
the hole she hustles them all back. With each backward
movement the young Kingfishers thus come to associate pleasant
things, — food and warmth. Thus the habit is temporarily
fixed.

Wishing to see these birds take fish to their young, I decided
to try the tent, although it was impossible to get nearer than
eight feet, and the hole was in full light for only a part of the
forenoon; besides, being situated on a roadside, one was in
constant danger of interruption. The experiment succeeded,
however, even better than I had anticipated; ten visits' were
recorded, and the old birds were photographed in the act of
both entering and leaving their tunnel. They brought a single
fish each time, usually what appeared to be a small chub or
dace, and. I once recognized a good-sized sunfish.

When the tent and camera were ready at nine o'clock on the
morning of July 23d, the parent birds were away on a fishing
excursion, and did not return for half an hour. At last a series
of warning rattles, at first faint, but momentarily becoming
more shrill, announced the approaching bird, who came at full
tilt with fish in bill. Hesitating at sight of the tent she perched

The Kingfishers and their King Row 139

on the dead limb of a pine, flew to and fro from one side of the road
to the other, and made the woods resound as never before. Even

Fig. 85. Five Kingfishers from chamber at end of tunnel ; nine days
old. July 19, 1900.

Fig. 86. Posed in line,— biting, pulling, and crowding one another.

the depths of the earth seemed to respond, as the muffled rattles
of the five young Kingfishers issued from their subterranean

140 Wild Birds

abode. From whatever point of view we regard this singular
note, it certainly carries well and is admirably adapted to
arouse the fish under water and the young bird under ground.

When the wriggling fish nearly slipped from her grasp, the
bird would shift it about until her forceps had a firmer grip at a
point just back of its head. At every reel of the rattle, each of
which seemed more shrill and more impatient than the last, she
would start as if to go to her nest a few yards away. Occa-
sionally a peculiar creaking sound escaped her, suggesting the
grating of dead limbs when swayed by the wind. Suddenly
with rattle in shrillest crescendo she bolted straight into the
hole, delivered the fish, remained for half a minute, then came
out backwards, turning in the air as she dropped from the en-
trance, and with a parting rattle was off to the river. During
these visits the Kingfishers usually remained but a quarter or
half a minute in the tunnel, and always came out backwards,
except on one occasion when I saw the bird turn near the en-
trance, and shoot out head first. The longest visit recorded
lasted three and a half minutes. When a youngster was en-
countered near the mouth of the tunnel he was driven back to
the chamber, where the food was distributed. Once only did
I see an old bird pause at the entrance for a hasty glance back-
ward, and thus give a good profile view of head with fish in
bill. Unfortunately the plate had already been exposed, and
before it could be changed the opportunity was lost. The old
birds, however, must have often turned about at the entrance
on both entering and leaving the hole, as shown by the deep
furrows plowed by the bill at either side of the opening.

When the young are ten days old, the feather-tubes have
begun to burst at the tips, and their horny substance is gradually
shed in the form of powdery scales. The feathers grow slowly,
but at the age of two weeks the characteristic colors of the adult
are becoming apparent, — the slaty -blue of the upper parts, and
the white of the breast which is -traversed by a bluish-brown
belt, with rusty brown along the sides. As they rattle when
taken from the nest their whole body quavers. They will hiss,
bite one another, huddle together, and erect their crests of long

The Kingfishers and their King Row 141

stiff feathers. They attain to full plumage or nearly so when
three weeks old, at which time their bright fresh colors and

Fig. 81. "The King Row." Five Kingfishers in line, illustrating habits of
sitting still. July 19, 1900.

The same birds four days later ; thirteen days old, July 23, 1900.

docile natures make them most attractive. They can fly but
little, and show no fear. At this stage their habitual expression
suggests a peculiar sardonic grin.

Fig. 89. Kingfisher nine days old, showing feather-tubes and tracts.

Fig. 90. At thirteen days ; many of the feather-tubes burst. The blue-
black, white-tipped wing-quills project half an inch. Notice that these
birds always stand, not on the toes only, but on the short shank or tarsus.

142

Fig.gi. Kingfisher fifteen days old, with nearly all feathers partly un-
sheathed. July 25, 1900.

Fig. 92. At eighteen days. The bright blue tints of the upper parts, and
the white and chestnut bands around the neck and breast are now very
prominent. July 28, 1900.

143

144

Wild Birds

On the fourth of August I took these birds home in a basket,
when twenty-five days old, if their age was correctly estimated.
They were about ready to fly and would have voluntarily left
their nest in a short time. The nesting chamber had been
gradually opened up in front and filled at the rear, until it had

Fig. 93. Kingfishers twenty-two days old. Placed in line to illustrate habit of
walking backwards. The second bird at the left has already broken ranks and taken
a few backward steps. August i, 1900.

advanced a foot and a half toward the mouth of the tunnel.
At this time fear was possessing them, and a day later it was
impossible to handle them without throwing them into a panic.
When quiet they would still pose well, would strike with open bill,
and walk backwards.

During captivity I fed them on fish which, however, they

The Kingfishers and their King Row 145

would never seize of their own accord. It was necessary to
open their bills and press the food well down into their dis-
tensible throats. They would perch on a branch placed in their
cage, drink water and sit in it by the half-hour, but never touch
the most tempting morsels of food. Raw meat was rejected,
but they throve on fish if fed by the hand. When perched they
stood as before on the whole tarsus or shank, and would sit
together in silence, with breasts thrown out, for hours. You
heard only an occasional rattle, and that usually in the morning.
The Kingfisher's oesophagus is very distensible and the throat
is lined with inwardly projecting papillae, so that when a fish is
once taken in the throat it is impossible for it to escape.

The bill of the Kingfisher is grooved on the inside, thus
giving the mandibles sharp cutting edges and a firm gripe on
the prey. A fish once seized rarely makes its escape, to prevent
which the bird has other resources. I once saw a curious trick
performed by a Kingfisher, who having made a good capture
was perched on a dead tree over the water. In the course of
its struggles the fish nearly got free, and for a moment was held
only by its tail. The bird with a quick movement of the head
tossed the fish in the air, and as it descended caught it by the
head and proceeded to swallow it.

When liberated on August i2th, at the age of thirty-three
days, the young Kingfishers were suddenly thrown upon their
own resources, and it was questionable whether they would be
able to recover the instinct to seek and capture prey. How-
ever, they were strong and healthy, and I hope that nature came
to their aid not only in prompting them to find food, but in
starting them south later in the autumn.

CHAPTER XI

NEST-BUILDING

NEST-BUILDING had a very early origin and, as every one
knows, it is not confined to birds. Even fishes among
the lowest vertebrates are not wanting in builders of nests, and
the pile of leaves, sticks, and rubbish which the female alligator
heaps over her eggs, tier after tier, will at least compare favor-
ably with the mounds of earth raised by the Megapodes or
Brush Turkeys. If Audubon is correct, the bird is in this case
behind the reptile, for, according to his account,1 the alligator
guards the premises with unusual ferocity, while the Megapode,
like the turtle, when the proper time arrives, deposits her eggs,
covers them, and goes her way, her "maternal instinct" being
perfectly satisfied by the performance of this simple duty.

In that inbred pugnacity which characterizes the breeding
season of birds and higher animals generally, we possibly see the
origin of the instinct of incubation. The stages of its evolution
in the reptilian ancestors of birds may have been as follows:
first, burying the eggs, like the turtle or mound-building bird;
secondly, burying or concealing the eggs and guarding them,
the necessary warmth being furnished by decomposing vege-
table debris, as in the alligator, and not directly from the sun;
thirdly, laying the eggs and sitting over them to conceal as well
as to protect them, in a secluded place, the necessary heat now
being furnished by the body of the sitting bird.

In the first instance, the eggs may not have been concealed

1 " Observations on the Natural History of the Alligator," New Philo-
sophical Journal, vol. 2, Edinburgh, 1826-27.

146

Nest-Building 147

at all, but it seems probable that the instincts of both con-
cealment and pugnacity were contemporaneous as they cer-
tainly were very early in origin, According to my idea, the
guarding, evoked by the fighting instinct, and supplemented
by the instinct to cover or hide the eggs, is responsible for the

Fig. 94. Nest of Cedar Waxwing seen from above, illustrating simple
construction ; composed of dead grass and weeds. Little more than one
third natural size. •

origin of the incubating instinct, which is usually strongest in
the female, and often confined to that sex.

At all events it has been left for the modern bird to develop
an ancient practice on a wider if not on a newer scale, since no
other animals have ever possessed their special tools in their
present form, — breast, bills, feet, and wings, — and with them
the nesting instinct has become not only more general but more
highly developed than in any other great order of the animal
world.

The building of the nest usually follows courtship more or

148 Wild Birds

less promptly, according to the necessity of the female for
dropping her eggs. An imperfect nest does not necessarily
imply youth and inexperience in the builder, for when this need
is urgent the work is likely to be scamped.

While a few birds lay their eggs on the bare ground, or
deposit them in a natural cavity, most gather some kind of
nesting material. Many build very elaborate structures, which
are often cradle and home combined, securing for the egg an
equable distribution of warmth, protecting the young during
infancy, and affording the tending parent some degree of com-
fort, when it does not shield her from sun and rain.

Amid all the endless variety in the position, form, size, and
materials of the nest in the different species of birds, or resulting
from the vagaries of different individuals, we recognize a certain
type-form characterized by the cup or saucer-shaped inner
wall, as in the Sparrows, the Crow, the Gull, and in by far the
largest number which build nests at all. Such true circular
rims, such symmetrical deep or shallow molds, as perfect as if
thrown on a potter's wheel, what marvels of art and intelligence
do they not suggest! But as we shall see, this stereotyped
form is their most mechanical characteristic, and in its essence
is as purely ingrained as the form of the egg.

We shall strike the root of the matter most surely by follow-
ing closely the actual process of construction of a single nest
from start to finish. Under the head of nidification, which many
writers seem to have forgotten means nest-building, much has
been written about the completed product — the nest, — but so
little concerning the builders at work that fresh observations
should not come amiss on the most common birds.

Certainly among those which perch and sing no better
average representative could be chosen than the Robin, and on
June 24th, I was fortunate in finding a pair which had made a
beginning, and were not averse to being watched.

At the moment my record began, a few minutes before five

Nest-Building 149

o'clock in the afternoon, the rain which was slowly falling
promised well for the work of those builders, for whom wet
weather is a direct advantage and they are seldom slow to
profit by it. At this time a few wisps of dead grass lay on the
horizontal crotch of an apple tree which they had chosen, and
which I was permitted to survey at a distance of eight or ten
feet. The actions at this critical stage are worthy of the closest
attention, for they give us the key to much of the later con-
duct, and as I believe to the essential nature of the actions
performed.

It is important to notice that on the first day both cock and
hen had an equal share in the building operations, but each
worked silently and alone, in perfect freedom and independ-
ence. It was impossible for one to observe and therefore
to imitate the other, yet their actions were in perfect accord.
Indeed so rapid and decisive were all their movements, and so
stereotyped and similar were all their acts, it was impossible to
decide which bird was engaged unless a paler or more deeply
colored breast was presented to view.

The materials were gathered from the ground, from far and
near, and consisted of the usual substances, — dead grass,
often pulled up by the roots, with the adherent earth, weed-
stems, and yarn which I had strewn over the ground. They
would sometimes try different objects, rejecting this straw or
selecting that weed, and, gathering a full load or as often a
ridiculously small quantity, fly straight to their tree, drop their
burden, and set briskly to work. As much energy was ex-
pended over a few spears of grass as over a larger quantity, and
their actions whether necessary or not were the same. They
settled upon the first straws and with swaying body, beating
wings, and vibrating tail, tended at first to scatter rather than
to mold the scant materials. Though as much often fell to the
ground as stuck to the limb, such losses were disregarded.
Again the bird would turn about, and beat the handful of un-
yielding weed-stems with the wrists of her wings, or with the
bill draw them under the breast, settle down upon them and
shake as if in an ague-fit, attempting to use the breast as a

150

Wild Birds

form, when as yet there were no plastic materials to be shaped.
With such molding movements one might compare the preen-

Fig. 95. Female Robin brooding: ache
to any unusual sound.

ing actions of nestlings, which begin before there are any feathers
to preen.

From one to seven minutes was commonly spent in this
round of actions. Only a subdued cut-cut ! was occasionally

Nest-Building 151

heard, but when another Robin or other strange bird tres-
passed on their preserve the alarm was promptly sounded, and

Fig. 96. Baltimore Oriole hurriedly feeding her young before
all fear has been subdued and behavior is free.

with shrill squeals of defiance the harmless visitor was assailed
and driven away. The intruder was taken unawares, and
seemed glad to escape from such fiery outbursts of pugnacity.
At each successive visit the characteristic molding and

152 Wild Birds

turning movements were repeated, and thus the work of addi-
tion, subtraction, arrangement, and re-arrangement would go
on for hours, with serial repetition, and often with needless
expenditure of energy. Since, however, more was eventually
gained than lost, a stable foundation was gradually reared.

On the first day I watched the progress of building for two
hours and thirteen minutes, during which thirty loads of material
were delivered by the two birds. In the first half-hour of this
period I recognized the female only, who came eight times to
the nest-site at intervals of from two to six minutes. Then
after a lull of full half an hour the male suddenly appeared, at
a few minutes before six o'clock. Twenty-one visits followed
at intervals of from one to nine minutes, during the last eighteen
of which the cock was positively identified. The last stroke of
the day's work was performed by the male at 7.07 P.M., when
it was growing dark, and he disappeared. After over four hours
of such industrious labor it was truly surprising to find how little
had been accomplished ; only a slight basis for the proper nest
had been laid, for with all of those turning and molding move-
ments so faithfully practiced, no plastic material had yet ap-
peared, and no true nest-form was visible. Could one want
better proof of the instinctive character of such actions?

On the second day my record began at 5.20 in the morning,
and closed at 4.30 in the afternoon. The actual work of the
builders, however, was probably resumed at dawn, for when
at more than three hours thereafter — at seven o'clock — the nest
was examined, thin walls had arisen, and the proper nest-form
was determined.

The building instinct in the male seemed to have been com-
pletely satisfied, for while he guarded the premises his mate
carried the work to completion. From neighboring trees he
watched her labors, sounded the customary signals, and gave
chase to casual visitors.

At seven o'clock in the morning of this day, or after eight
hours of constructive work, mud began to appear among the
building materials. Hitherto the only earth used was that which
accidentally clung to the roots of the dead grass and weeds in-

Nest-Building 153

corpora ted, most of this being shaken out by the treatment
which these received. For many hours after, this bird brought
mud alone about as frequently as wet or muddy grass. No
mortar was deliberately made either at the nest or away from
it, but much mixing of mud and grass was effected by the
kneading or molding movements, which follow each visit, and
as we have seen begin before they are required. That mud and
grass alone or mud and grass together are taken at varying
intervals can have no special significance. This bird would
bring a beakful, dispose of it, and depart so quickly it was im-
possible to distinguish the sex of the builder or the nature of
the substance carried, if the eye wandered but a moment from
the nesting place. Sometimes the brown grass would be drip-
ping wet, and the ball of earth carried in the bill larger than a
filbert. Once I saw a sprig of green grass taken with a large
lump of soil clinging to its roots. Again, a large package of
sodden grass would be stuffed crosswise in the full beak, or long
streamers of white or colored yarn trailed behind as she flew
to the tree, and often caught on twigs or leaves. After troubles
of this kind the Robin would now and then fly first to a bean-
pole and take up a little slack before proceeding.

On the second day a definite habit of entering the nesting
tree and the nest had been acquired, a subject which the reader
will find more fully treated in Chapter XIII. With loaded bill
the bird steered straight for her tree, dropped to the horizontal
branch about a foot from the nest, and came to attention; then
if all was well she walked nimbly to the nest, stepped into it,
and lost no time in getting to work. After spending two or three
minutes or more at the molding and arrangement, she popped
out on the branch, brought up to attention, and slid down
quickly to the ground, or flying low made off for a distant field.
Once when a dog came sniffing through the grass, the cock from
his bean-pole perch gave a sharp alarm, but paid no further
attention and proceeded to erect and shake out his feathers.

At every addition to the structure, as we have already seen,
the materials are churned and worked over afresh, and so
violent are some of the beating and shaking movements that

154

Wild Birds

the nest and leaves about it are all set to vibrating in unison.
After the circular wall was up and well plastered with mud, this
Robin would occasionally pause and sit perfectly quiet for
several seconds, apparently resting from the fatigue of her
efforts. Sometimes it even seemed as if she were trying the fit of

Fig. 97. Nest of Robin against side of stump, two feet from
ground. From photograph by Mr. J. B. Parker. Cleveland,
Ohio.

the nest, or was adapting it to her breast-form, but this was
uncertain. After such pauses she would turn about and re-
sume work again; then, giving a low wit-wit ! or cut-cut ! note,
she went off in haste. Once while this bird was busy at mold-
ing, a loud tseet-tseet ! from a neighboring Robin family elicited
a quick response in corresponding key, while she went on with
her work. When fully alarmed, whether carrying burdens or

Nest-Building 155

not, they fly to a high or advantageous perch, and listen at-
tentively before making another move.

On leaving the nest the female was rarely joined by her
mate, who escorted her to the spot where materials were sought,
but his efforts stopped at this point. In bringing a ball of mud
in the course of the morning, the hen came to the branch in the
habitual way, walked straight into the nest, and spent ten
minutes, the longest recorded time, in the work of molding.
She sat deep down, her head and tail only being visible under
the rim, shaking and turning most of the time. Suddenly,
with a low cut-cut ! she was off and in less than a minute returned
with another lump.

In the course of the afternoon of the second day, dry grass
was added as a lining to the nearly completed nest, when the
same turning movements were repeated; but now the custom
of sitting quietly for a few seconds at a time, as if laying or
incubating an egg, became more frequent, after which would
follow more pulling at the materials, and shaking until every-
thing was all a-quiver again. The mud which was brought
after this time was apparently incorporated into the nest's rim.

Operations were resumed early in the morning of the third
day, and continued about four and a half hours. At half-past
8 o'clock I found this Robin sitting quietly in her nest. After
adding a few more touches, and uttering a subdued note as if
expressive of her satisfaction in the work, she flew away. When
an hour had passed, and she had not returned, I decided to
inspect the new abode. It was evidently finished; the walls
were firm and true, the rim perfect, and the whole was lined with
dry brown grass of a rather fine quality, according to the ancient
rules of this guild.

Three eggs were laid June 28-30, between 10.30 and 11.30
A.M. Incubation began June 29, after the appearance of the
second egg, and lasted thirteen days; two young were hatched
and one egg was addled. At each recorded visit material was
brought and incorporated into the nest. The rate of building
and the total number of loads of materials which went into this
nest are estimated from exact records extending over nine hours.

156

Wild Birds

The building records of these birds may be tabulated as
follows :

BUILDING RECORD OF ROBIN.

1903

JUNE 24-26.

TIME.

BIRDS
ENGAGED.

HOURS OF
WORK.

RATE OF
DELIVERY
IN
MINUTES.

NO. OF
VISITS OR
LOADS

CHARACTER
OF MATERIALS.

ist day

2 P.M.
7.07 P.M.

Male and
female.

5

3i

86

Stubble,

yarn , and

dead grass.

sd day

4 A.M. tO 7
P.M.

Female

14

7i

112

Dead grass,

wet or dry,

and mud.

3d day

4 A.M. tO

8.30 P.M.

Female

4i

i3i

20

Fine dry

grass, and

little mud.

Totals.

23i

2x8

From the time of completion to the laying of the first egg
two days elapsed, and during this interval all was so quiet about
the premises I even feared that they had abandoned their nest;
but they probably continued to guard it, and certainly did after
the first egg was laid.

According to our computation, 218 loads or increments went
into this building; it was wrought in about twenty -three work-
ing hours, and four fifths of the work was performed by the fe-
male. At the nest each bird worked alone and out of sight of the
other, so that the possibility of imitation was excluded. It is in-
teresting to see how the rate of building, starting with an average
of seventeen visits to the hour on the first day, gradually slowed
up to eight visits on the second day and to five on the third,
when a new habit was gradually developed, that of sitting
quietly in the nest for longer and longer intervals. Later these
resting periods become even longer, when the bird stays to lay
her eggs and finally to incubate them.

Whenever instinct leads the way, and actions are often

Fig. 98. Female Brown Thrush brooding her young. Lens, Extra Rapid g/s inch ;
speed, |; stop, 32; time, £ second; plate, Seeds' No. 27 "gilt edge"; distance, four
feet ; in full sun. July 13, 1900.

157

158 Wild Birds

repeated, a habit is sure to follow. Instincts are thus con-
stantly being overlaid or replaced by the results of experience.
This is seen in the merest trifles as well as in the more important
or pronounced activities. Thus, it was not long after incuba-
tion began before this bird had adopted a definite position,
while sitting on her eggs — her head being always turned in the
same direction. Since she faced the path of approach, this
habit may have been determined by the habit of approach
already referred to, or have been dictated by convenience or the
ease by which the avenue of approach could be surveyed.

Many of the details which we have recorded, such as the rate
of building, the amount of materials used, the time of dropping
the eggs, which according to some observers are laid in the
early morning, are relatively unimportant, for they vary with
the individual. Far more significant is the general stereotyped
character of the actions, which being so nearly the same produce
in all Robins so nearly the same results. Few more typical
examples of instinctive behavior can be witnessed in higher
animals than the serial acts by which the adaptive and often
beautiful nest of the wild bird is produced.

The proof of instinct lies in the molding, beating, and
turning movements, which are not under the effective control
of a guiding intelligence, since they are begun before they are
required, are often continued longer than necessary, and with-
out economy of effort. As much energy is often spent over a
few straws as over a much larger load, even when the move-
ments tend to scatter rather than to consolidate the materials
already gathered.

While instinct holds the reins in nest-building, the actions
of the builders are more or less modified or irradiated by
gleams of intelligence, although this does not as a rule carry
them very far. Here is a small instance in point : when red, white,
and blue yarn was thrown on the ground, the white was taken
almost immediately, probably because it was the more con-
spicuous, but it often bothered them to carry a long streamer
clear. Once when Cock Robin with his beak full of yarn
alighted on the branch and started to walk to the nest, several

Nest-Building 159

loops caught on a stub and brought him up at a short turn.
The situation afforded a good opportunity for the display of
intelligence (a good chance, too, for an animal romancer to
spin a yarn), and the bird was not wholly wanting. He first
tried to force matters by putting his whole weight into a lateral
strain, but failing in this he faced about, back to the nest, and
pulled with the same result. Then he advanced a step or two,
gathered up a little slack, and pulled again, this time losing
his hold except on a few strands which were drawn up and in-
corporated into the nest. After seven minutes spent in mold-
ing he walked out on the branch and picked up another thread
of yarn, but the rest was left clinging to the stub, and no further
attempt was made to remove it. While a start was made in the
right direction, the simple solution of the problem, to release
the yarn with the bill, did not occur to this Robin. From long
observation, I am convinced that birds seldom comprehend the
conditions of what seem to us the simplest situations, but excep-
tions no doubt occur. I have seen a young Chipping Sparrow
swallow a horsehair, and the mother remove it, while I have
known of an Oriole becoming entangled in its nest and allowed
to die without any attempt at rescue being made by its mate.

While watching the Robins, my attention was often diverted
by a pair of Chebecs, which early began to appropriate the yarn
and carry it to a certain tree where I knew that a nest was well
under way. They were so greedy with this material that I
determined to satisfy them, and getting a quantity of cotton
cloth I tore it in ribbons from one to two feet long, and with a
quantity of white hens' feathers strewed it on the ground. We
soon witnessed some curious sights, and the nest which was
later completed was in some respects the most remarkable
I have ever seen.

Ordinarily this little flycatcher uses the finest grade of
vegetable fibers which have been swingled by wind and rain,
and bleached to that neutral gray tint which to the ordinary
eye passes for lichens or gray bark when implanted in the

160 Wild Birds

crotch of a tree. It has, I believe, never been shown how this
bird makes the wall of its nest so compact and smooth. This
pair worked two days at building, during which the character-
istic molding movements, which we have seen in the Robins,
were repeated in the same mechanical manner, but when the
walls were up a peculiar smoothing process was applied to the
outside. Standing within the nest and leaning over its brim,
this bird would "iron" the outside with her head. Bending
down, she drew alternately the left and right side of the head
and neck over the outside, in one continuous movement, as you
would strop a razor. The little bird practices this "ironing"
process frequently, turning about until every part of the outer sur-
face has been reached. While thus engaged you would hear only
an occasional chick-chick! When the walls were up, the smooth-
ing movements were repeated at each visit, whether any material
was added or not, after which the bird would sometimes settle
down, turn, and shake like a Robin. Once while engaged with
the lining, and a feather accidentally stuck in the mouth of the
worker and refused to move, the bird flew to a branch and
energetically rubbed its bill until relieved. In gathering the
nest material, a regular course of action was generally adopted.
Coming first to a bean-pole, at least one of them — probably the
male — would call in his incisive way chebec ! chebec I look about
cautiously, drop to the ground, select something, and fly by easy
stages from tree to tree to the nest-site two rods away. The
streamers being difficult to manage often caught on branches
or dropped to the grass, so that a regular trail was eventually
established, leading up to the very nest itself.

This nest was placed high in an apple tree, and when finished
was almost wholly composed of white yarn, cotton cloth, and
the hens' feathers, which I had supplied to the birds. They
were compacted as well as their nature would admit, but all
about the nest and hanging from every part of it were streamers
of white cloth from one to two feet long, making it in all prob-
ability the most conspicuous if not the most curious piece of
nest-building ever executed by these birds. Since there was
three times as much material as was needed, and most of this

Nest-Building 161

not of the proper sort, one is at a loss to explain such a de-
parture from their usual custom. However, whatever may
have been the previous experience of these birds, this nest,
though completed, was never occupied, and in three days it
was torn down and the materials disappeared.

The nests of Chipping Sparrows are notoriously defective in
point of stability, and frequently suffer from this cause, as
well as from a lack in the proper materials of construction.
Although the hair lining is well modeled, a proper foundation
is seldom laid, and the whole fabric is often so thin that the
eggs can be seen through its walls. The winds frequently
knock the bottoms out of such nests, but the Sparrows are
incapable of profiting from such experiences, and persist in fol-
lowing a stupid instinct which in this case is veritably a blind
and inefficient guide.

While watching the Robins and Chebecs, I could also follow
the behavior of a pair of these Sparrows who were engaged in
the same operations. The same molding movements which we
have described were repeated in the Sparrows. After this nest
was essentially finished the behavior of both birds was most
suggestive of the instinctive character of all their actions, and
of their chain-like relation. The female would drop to the
ground, twittering all the while, and with wings spread and
quivering await the approach of her mate; the action was
usually quickly repeated, when the female at once repaired to
the nest, sat in it for a few minutes, and then flew off. In the
course of a little over two hours, these actions were repeated
four times. At eight o'clock in the morning of the following
day there was a repetition of this performance, the female
always going to the nest and remaining about three minutes;
at times there would be a recurrence of the molding movements,
but nothing was added to the structure. These actions were con-
tinued until the first egg appeared, and illustrate in the clearest
manner how one set of serial instinctive acts shades into another
series, which are also instinctive, but of a different character.

162

Wild Birds

In the home and nursery of the Gull we see how commu-
nal life has affected their behavior at every turn, and especially
the nest and all that concerns it.

When pairing has been accomplished in the Great Herring
Gull, the nests are built either on the ground or in trees, both

Fig. 99. Eggs of the Great Herring Gull, in ground-nest, composed of
grass, sheep's wool, and feathers. Great Duck Island, Maine. July 23, 1903.

birds having a share in the work.1 They take any materials
which come to hand, pulling grass and weeds, splitting up the
dead timber into chips with their powerful chisel-shaped bills,
gathering sticks, feathers, or sheep's wool from the ground, or
fresh seaweeds from the rocks. A last year's nest is sometimes
repaired, but whether by the original owners or not is not
certainly known, or a new site is chosen. To this point the
1 This is at least true later in the season when sporadic attempts at
nest-building are going on.

Nest-Building

'63

materials are brought and dropped when the bird immediately
settles upon them, very much like the Robin, and scratching
with its great webbed feet, and pressing with its beautiful
white breast, it practices all the typical molding movements
upon the inchoate mass. But whatever the material, whether
green and brown seaweeds freshly plucked from the rocks, or

Pig. too. Gall sitting on the nest shown in Fig. 99.

chips inlaid with fresh grass and weeds, they build a symmetrical
and often beautiful nest, with a shallow bowl, about ten inches
in diameter.

A curious fact, however, with these Gulls is that the nest-
building instinct is so diffused that they are pulling grass and
picking up chips all summer long, sometimes dropping this ma-
terial, sometimes carrying it to their nests. They will frequently
repair old nests and incubate addled eggs, and I have seen the
dead body of an unfortunate chick treated as so much building

1 64 Wild Birds

material in such a nest, from which no young had been success-
fully reared. Very often, too, late in July, when some chicks
have taken to the water, nest-repairing is not only kept up,
but many brand-new nests are begun which can never be oc-
cupied. In some of these, which are rarely finished, eggs are
even laid, but it is too late for the successful rearing of chicks.
When we see a Robin with stubble in its bill, the meaning is
clear and infallible. The nesting season for Robins is on, and
that bird has eggs to be laid and probably to be hatched. Only
the other day, October 30, I saw a House Sparrow fly up towards
the window with a sprig of dead grass. No doubt it was build-
ing its bag-shaped winter house or lodge ; but when you see a
Great Herring Gull toying with sticks, grass, or feathers, it is
impossible to say what it means. You must watch and see, and
the sights which are likely to follow are often well worth watching.

I have seen a Gull standing on the rocks pick up and drop
several times a stick one and a half feet long, as if listlessly
playing with it, or seeking an outlet for its energies. I have
seen a timid Gull, when approaching its nest of eggs, hesitate,
and then picking up a chip, advance a few steps nearer, as if
gaining assurance by such actions. I have seen an old Gull,
while sitting on eggs, repeatedly reach out and pull up grass by
the roots and incorporate it into the nest. In sparring bouts,
which are sometimes the prelude to desperate encounters, these
birds will stand facing each other like fighting cocks, cats, or
dogs, when suddenly one will give the other a vicious lunge.
Very often such sallies come to nothing, when one or both birds
seem suddenly to lose all interest in the quarrel, and begin to
pick up chips, pull grass, or stab a rotten log with their strong,
chisel-pointed bills. At other times the encounter is more friendly,
and probably corresponds to what in other species, like the
Albatross, has been described as a dance. Bending until the
breast touches the ground, and bringing the head up and down
with quick jerks, they give a peculiar crooning note. Then they
begin to play with chips and grass, and after indulging in fre-
quent screams finally separate, or begin their elaborate toilets.

It is curious to see a pair of birds attended by chicks whining

Nest-Building 165

for food, repeatedly offer them grass and sticks before producing
the fish which they carry in their stomachs or after having fed
them, gather a mass of grass, carry it away, and deposit it at
the foot of a stump, as they do when actually building a nest.

It is thus plain that in such actions we have the expression
of a great variety of emotions. In some cases they lead to the
repair and temporary occupation of old nests at the close of
the season, when for days at a time the old birds, as if with
instincts imperfectly satisfied, will incubate an addled egg. It
is not improbable that in such sporadic actions, as in the more
serious work of actual nest-building, similar emotions are ex-
pressed in a similar way.

At all events this behavior of the Gull sheds light on the
reputed intelligence and forethought of the Ospreys, which are
said to repair their nests at the close of summer in anticipation
of the coming year. This casual return of the nest-building
instinct is undoubtedly the same in the Hawk, Eagle, or Gull,
and implies no more forethought in one than in the other. I
think we can understand why some birds, like Robins and
Phoebes, occasionally build more than one nest, and, unlike the
Gulls, build them together and in the same spot. Their instinct
is not satisfied with the building of a single nest.

The philosophy of nest-building is set forth in a new light
by the study of the Gulls and Terns. Mr. Wallace once main-
tained that the young of wild birds learned enough about their
nests in infancy to enable them to reproduce the same type of
architecture when they came to rear offspring of their own.
It was also affirmed that the beginner in this art received aid
by mating with an older bird. The first notion is not to be
taken seriously, and in support of the second the testimony
is insufficient. It is now almost universally admitted that
the initial steps in nest-building are in every case instinctive, or
independent of experience.

It is impossible to suppose that young birds have concep-
tions of any kind, or are able to distinguish their artificial nest

1 66

Wild Birds

from such natural objects as leaves and trees. We might go
even a step further and maintain that some adult birds, like
certain of the Terns, have no knowledge of the use to which
the nest is put.

A nest like that of the Oriole or the Robin, the building of
which we have watched, is composed of hundreds of pieces or
increments — fibers of grass, roots, strings, pellets of earth or

what not — molded
into a compact and
symmetrical whole,
which serves a defi-
nite purpose, and
serves it so admira-
bly that it is difficult
to avoid the conclu-
sion that the bird
knows what that pur-
pose is.

If, while some
Robins built a per-
fect nest, and others
built none at all,

still others should make a beginning but stop short at every stage
of incompletion, it would be occasion for surprise, to say the least.
Yet, this is precisely what the Terns do on Matinicus Rock, Maine.
Some lay their eggs in a rocky crevice or depression, where they
often drown in the water which collects after rains, or are rolled
out by the wind and perish; others gather half a dozen bits of
mussel shell not larger than a dime from pools a few yards
away, or bite off a few bits of green leaf or weeds, and this
answers for a nest; still others carry the building to completion,
and fashion a really commodious nest. Every stage in the pro-
cess is represented after operations have ceased and the eggs
have been laid. Surely were mankind to conduct their build-
ing affairs in this indecisive, haphazard manner, they could
not be credited with any intelligent sense of the use which
houses or even temporary shelters are intended to serve.

Fig. 101. Common Tern brooding a chick away
from the nest. Matinicus Rock, Maine. July, 1902.

CHAPTER XII

DEVELOPMENT AND CARE OF THE YOUNG

I

EGG AND CHICK

THE nest or the spot on which the eggs are laid becomes in
most birds the center of the home-life, and is the focal
point of our interests, because it is there that the young are
born. We have briefly analyzed the principal terms of the
reproductive cycle (Chapter I.), and have seen the rise and
interplay of a series of commanding instincts, which develop
in a definite order and run a definite course, one, if unchecked,
leading to the next in sequence. When the young are hatched,
a complicated routine of nest-life is developed. The parental
instincts reach a climax and then, gradually yielding to im-
pulses of another kind, subside.

Each term of the cycle invites us to renewed study and
observation in all the great families of birds, but we can men-
tion only a few of the interesting facts which have been gathered,
or were already known.

The size, form, and color of the eggs, as well as the time
when they are laid, are subject to great variation, not only in
birds as a class, but in a lesser degree in the same species, and
even in the same individual.

The ovarian tube is no respecter of particular eggs or egg-
fragments, but treats all alike. Double- or triple-yolk eggs are
occasionally seen, but still rarer cases are recorded in which a
normal egg of the domestic fowl or goose, with one or even two
yolks, was enclosed in a shell of colossal size. Again, a small egg or

167

1 68 Wild Birds

only parts of one may get a shell in due course, thus producing
the "runts" occasionally seen in nests. Indeed, I have known
in the common hen a single instance in which a small and im-
perfect egg with a shell was incased in the yolk of a large and
normal egg, so that the curious anomaly of egg within egg was
produced in a most striking manner. In such rare cases the
small egg, though possessing a shell, is imperfect.

Spots of pigment, when present, are often blurred, or, as in
the Orioles and Blackbirds, drawn as with a fine pen around the
shell, clearly showing, if other proof were lacking, that the egg
not only rotates on its long axis, but often oscillates in the
downward course in the ovarian tube.

The delicately colored eggs of many wild birds are among
the most beautiful objects in nature, but what this wonderful
display of color really means is doubtful. The pale greenish-
blue, brown-mottled eggs in the open nest of the Song Sparrow
seem to be protectively colored, because they match their sur-
roundings so perfectly, yet the Crow also lays mottled eggs, and
the European Magpie, which produces eggs of the same pattern,
effectively conceals them by building an arched roof over its
nest, which is entered at the side.

A long time ago it was observed that the eggs of many birds
which are laid in dark holes are often white, as in Parrots, Wood-
peckers, Kingfishers, and Swifts. It was only natural to sup-
pose that the lack of pigment might be due to the absence of
light, and further that it was a useful adaptation, since the
whiter and more conspicuous the egg the more likely was it to
escape injury from the owners when entering their dimly lighted
apartments. Here also many exceptions occur, which may be
due to the fact that the color of the egg is a more stable character
than the nesting habit.

As in all other animals, the relative size of the egg is directly
proportional to the degree of development attained by the
young at birth, the altricial Robin or Cedar-bird laying a rela-
tively smaller egg than the praecocial Snipe or Grouse, which is
able to run about from birth or as soon as dried off.

The eggs are usually laid on successive days, and in definite

Development and Care of the Young 169

numbers, subject to variations, some of which have been already
noticed (Chapter I.).

The Chipping Sparrow mentioned in the last chapter laid
three eggs on successive days, very punctually at about half-

Fig. 102. Great Herring Gull turning eggs with bill, on entering her
nest.

past four o'clock in the morning. The molding movements
and habit of sitting for a few minutes in the nest were con-
tinued until close upon the time when the first egg was laid on
the 27th of June. At 4.40 A.M., June 28th, the female was on
the nest and came off at 4.49 A.M., leaving two warm eggs. In-
cubation began early in the afternoon of the second day. So
strong had the instinct already become that the bird even clung
to her eggs when I climbed into her tree and shook the limb
which held the nest. On the third day, June 29th, the Sparrow
left her nest, now containing three eggs, at 4.56 A.M. At three
o'clock in the afternoon the sitter was absent, but three quarters
of an hour later, when it was raining, the Sparrow returned.

1 7o Wild Birds

On the fourth day the incubating instinct was then fully de-
veloped, and lasted until two of the eggs were hatched, on about
the tenth day of July. The period of incubation was approxi-
mately twelve days, and when three days old the eyes of the
little birds had begun to open, and the feather-tubes of their
wings had appeared. In still another nest of this Sparrow, in
which two eggs only were laid, incubation did not begin until the
third day.

For ages the greatest secrets of the living world have been
securely locked in the egg, and it is only in recent times that sci-
ence, with any degree of success, has succeeded in partially open-
ing them to view. Development begins in the warm body of the
parent bird, and in most cases comes to a stand the moment
the egg is laid. The physiological zero-point of temperature at
which no further development takes place has been accurately
determined in the domestic fowl.1 When heat is again applied
by the brooding hen or the artificial incubator (the normal
temperature for development of the fowl's egg being about
103° F.) the engines of cell -life are again started, and the won-
derful process of orderly growth, with the ensuing changes, is
taken up anew. If the fires are again banked and the engines
stopped by withdrawal of the heat for any length of time, it is
impossible to start them again, so we kill the egg, and perhaps
the goose which might have laid another, at the same time.
The strong brooding instinct in birds, which often supplants the
usually strong instinct of fear, is thus adapted to meet a very
urgent need.

The yolk, and later the white or albumen, furnishes a natural
store of food and energy, which, like money in the bank, can be
drawn upon by the growing cells or embryo, until, enclosed in
the stomach of the little bird, it is gradually exhausted, when
the latter is ready to receive food from another source.

Owing to some perversity of instinct, the domestic fowl will

occasionally eat its own eggs; wild birds often desert theirs

through fear, or, as more commonly happens with sea fowl, lay

them in places of insecurity, but as a rule these fragile objects

1 According to Professor C. L. Edwards, this lies between 68° and 70° F.

Development and Care of the Young 171

are treated with the greatest care. When broken open they
are either eaten or carefully removed by all birds which possess
the cleaning instinct, an illustration of which we have already
seen in the Common Tern. (See p. 33.)

The Herring Gull upon entering her nest usually turns her
eggs with her bill, and if you change their position she will in-
variably turn them
again. The domestic
hen stirs up her eggs
with her feet. There
is something more
than the comfort of
the sitting bird in-
volved in such acts,
for the eggs need
damping, and by this
means each side of the
egg is exposed to the
moisture of the ground
or bottom of the nest.
Then, in a full nest,
constant rolling tends
to equalize the distri-
bution of warmth,
bringing all the eggs Fig io3 Photomicrograph of the chick in the egg)

Successively into the at the thirty-third hour of incubation. The vesicles

j_ 1 /pi of the eyes and brain, the delicate, tubular heart, and

LCG- 3 the primitive segments of the body are plainly seen.

turning is even more Embryo, one-fifth inchlong; enlarged nearly ten times.

useful in preventing

the germ or embryo from sticking to the shell, a necessity recog-
nized by the breeder of domestic fowls, who twice daily turns
the eggs in his incubators.

The embryo appears first as a thin disc on the surface of the
yolk, over which it gradually spreads until the whole is enclosed
as within a sac. It always lies uppermost, next to the warm
breast of the mother, for in the first place the egg is lightest at
its growing pole, and in the second the spherical mass moves

172

Wild Birds

freely in its liquid envelope, so that whenever the entire egg
is rolled, the yolk, becoming top-heavy, quickly adjusts itself,
always keeping right side up.

The embryo, which at first rests upon the huge mass of yolk,
lies across the long axis of the egg, but later it gradually shifts
to a lengthwise position, until, bent and twisted, it becomes
compactly folded within the narrow confines of the shell.

In the common fowl the heart begins to beat at the begin-
ning of the second day, and earlier in most wild birds. A pro-
tective water-jacket is early
formed around it, and a tem-
porary "lung" is developed.
The latter is in the form of a
thin -walled sac, which closely
underlies the shell. Mean-
while an air-chamber has
slowly made its appearance
at the larger end of the egg,
between the hard shell and
underlying membrane, in
consequence of evaporation
of the white ; into this the bill
of the little bird is unerringly
thrust, and with its stout
spur or "egg-tooth" is soon
pressing against the shell.
Invigorated by the air which is now drawn into the true lungs,
the chick presses hard against the walls of its prison, and its
first muffled bleats are faintly heard. The egg is starred,
pipped, and finally cracked open, usually into two unequal
halves, by a fissure extending around the larger end. Wet and
trembling, the little chick slowly crawls forth into the world
of light and action, and its new life begins.

The whole process of development in the egg is wonderfully
rapid, lasting from two weeks or less in the common land birds
to seven weeks in the Ostrich.

The cast-off shells are carefully removed by many birds and

Fig. 104. Egg of the Great Herring Gull
with part of the shell chipped away to show
the chick inside. The bill is thrust into the
air-chamber at the larger end, and bears a
large spur or "egg-drill." The head is twisted
about so as to lie under the right wing, and
the remains of the yolk-sac can be seen be-
neath the folded webbed feet.

Development and Care of the Young 1 73

dropped at a distance from the nest, while in others they are dis-
regarded altogether. At an early period of development the
slightest crack is likely to addle the egg, but unless it is actually
broken open it is usually allowed to remain in the nest. Many
wild birds will "incubate" stones, or addled eggs, showing in
this respect hardly more discrimination than the domesticated
hen, and the Great Herring Gull, after wasting much time over
a barren egg, will often use it as so much building material in
preparing a new nest.

In one instance I have seen this Gull pick out the soft re-
spiratory sac from the shells, and devour it on the spot, a curious
and sporadic act, which is probably not confined to this species.
It suggests the well-known and useful instinct in many of the
higher mammals of eating all such parts as might betray their
presence to an enemy.

II

BROODING AND FEEDING THE YOUNG

When the callow young are hatched, brooding is the order
of the day as well as of the night, and in some species the young
seem to require this kind of protection as much as food. During
the first days of life in the nest it is not easy to distinguish a
brooding from a sitting bird, but this is not the case when a
little later the mother begins to rest her wings over the rim, or,
spreading wings and tail stands astride the nest with back to
the sun. The young must be protected from heat, cold, and
rain, and the instinct to perform this duty is as strong with old
birds as that of bringing food.

Cedar Waxwings and Kingbirds which I have watched,
brooded regularly at night, but I have known young Robins to
be left alone in the nest. Should the day be cloudy but with no
rain, or sunny but not too warm, little or no brooding has been
observed among the various species which I have studied, but
let the sun bea,t relentlessly upon the young, or the air become
laden with moisture, and the faithful mother is promptly at
her post. I have seen the Robin brood the young when eleven

Wild Birds

days old for forty minutes at a time, while her mate brought an
abundance of food. As he approached with an insect or cluster
of worms, she would step aside, but immediately settle back on
the nest when the food had been safely disposed of. As a rule,
however, she would brood for five or ten minutes, leave at the

approach of the
male, return
promptly with
food, and brood
until her mate
again appeared.
On several oc-
casions I have
seen a brooding
bird leave the
nest when the
sun be came
temporarily ob-
scured, and re-
turn when the
clouds lifted.
It was not quite
certain, how-
ever, that the
element of
chance did not
vitiate the ob-
servation.

While camped

beside a nest of Brown Thrushes (see Figs. 44 and 98), the
young of which were approximately four days old, the fe-
male came to the nest for inspection frequently on the first
day of observation, and brooded intermittently, but fed her
young only once in the space of three and a half hours. When
I frightened this bird off with the hand thrust through the
tent-window, she would dart at it, scold emphatically, but in
a few moments return to her brooding again, as if her young

Fig. 105. The Chestnut-sided Warbler in her common
brooding attitude.

Development and Care of the Young 175

required this attention more than food. In some cases the
chicks of the Great Herring Gull are not fed until two or three
hours after birth. The strong brooding instinct of the Flicker
will be noticed later.

The Chestnut-sided Warbler, who is represented in many char-
acteristic atti-
tudes about
the nest, was a
most devoted
brooder for
days. She
would stick to
her charge until
driven off by
sheer force or by
hunger. I have
often seen her
drop down in
the grass, pick
up a morsel on
her o wn ac-
count, and be
back to the nest
in a fraction of
a second before
the insect was
fairly swal-
lowed. Again
she might leave

the nest twenty times in the course of an hour to procure food
either for herself or her children. Her mate would often alight
above the nest, bend far down, and deliver the insects into the
mouth of the brooding hen, who would promptly hop up and
give every morsel to the young.

This little warbler would sometimes sit well down in the nest,
and erect some of her feathers, and apparently innate the throat
so that the bird's head appeared as if swollen to twice its

Fig. 106. Female Chestnut-sided Warble
brooding on a hot June day.

1 76

Wild Birds

natural size. She made the most comical picture, however, when
on a hot day she stood or sat over the young, with every feather
erect, as if striving to keep them cool and to be comfortable
herself meanwhile.

The female Kingbird broods constantly when the heat is

severe, and at
the approach of
the male will of-
ten assist in dis-
patching unruly
insects and in
seeing them
safely down a re-
sponsive throat.
The persistence
of the Redwing
Starling in this
line of conduct
is admirable. I
have seen one of
these birds stand
with drooping
wings, erect
feathers, and
mouth agape, in
the strong heat
of a July day for
hours though

not continuously, for she invariably left at the approach of her
mate for a few moments' respite, and then usually returned
with food.

This spreading over the young, often with erect feathers, has
been witnessed in Blackbirds, Flycatchers, Warblers, and Cedar-
birds (see Figs. 10, 34, 108), but, so far as I am aware, it had
never been described until the former publication of this work.
So common a practice must, however, have been often observed,
yet I was somewhat surprised to find that it had been noticed

Fig. 107. The same brooding bird, with feathers partially
erect and the throat inflated.

Development and Care of the Young 177

by the early Egyptians more than 4000 years ago, and was de-
picted by their artists on the walls of many tombs at Sakkara
and elsewhere in Egypt. Moreover, their birds are usually

Fig. 108. Female Kingbird astride nest with drooping half-spread wings, shielding
her brood from the hot sun. Notice the characteristic attitude of the young.

represented as resting on the whole shank or proper foot, as is
often the case (Fig. 109).

After taking a bath, it is the custom of many species, like
Pelicans, waders, and birds of prey, to spread in a similar man-
ner to dry off, as may be seen in any zoological garden, but
many are inordinately fond of the sun-bath alone, and the hotter
the day the better they seem to enjoy it. I have seen the re-
markable Shoebill Crane or Whale -headed Stork in the gardens

1 78

Wild Birds

at Cairo, sitting on the grass in the blaze of an African sun, with
full-spread wings, in the attitude depicted on the Egyptian
tombs, when shade in plenty was close at hand.

Again, at Lucerne, Switzerland, on a hot day in July, I
saw a female Thrush (Merula atra), the first cousin of the
American Robin, lie stretched out in the sun, on a bare patch of
earth in a garden, not far from its nest, with wings spread and

Fig. 109. The earliest pictures of the home-life of birds. Detail from hunt-
ing scene in marshes on the Nile, from the tomb of Mereruka, at Sakkara,
Egypt, over 4000 years old. Birds are nesting in the papyrus reeds, and a
pair are defending their young from the threatened attack of a mongoose.
Notice that the birds sit on their saucer-shaped nests, and "spread " as they
do when taking a sun-bath.

feathers on end, for two or three minutes at a time, and then go
to a branch and preen. This was repeated four times in succes-
sion, the sun-bath lasting from two to three minutes each time,
and the bird always going to precisely the same spot. The same
act was, -moreover, observed on successive days. It is there-
fore suggested that the spreading is a typical reflex (see Chapter
XIII.), or motor response to heat, and that it is not necessarily
a signal of distress. The return to the same place day after day
to sun or dust the feathers, or to favorite perches to preen or

Development and Care of the Young 179

devour the prey, are only additional illustrations of the force
of habit. (See Chapter XIII., n.)

While possessed by the incubation or brooding spirit many
birds, as is well known, are indifferent to danger and will hug
their eggs at any cost. In this respect few can excel the "tame
villagic fowl," who displays greater docility than most wild
birds, lor they rarely sit on an empty nest, and have been known
to reject strange eggs. The hen will peck vigorously at the in-

Fig. no. Great Herring Gull yawning, while engaged in the prosaic task of
incubation.

truder, and if hustled off the nest will soon return. Some birds,
like Song Sparrows and Brown Thrushes, will remain immovable
as if hiding until you come dangerously near, when they glide
off silently, but usually remain quiet for a moment only. The
Robin flies off in a passion. The Tropic Bird fights but sticks
to her egg. The Woodpeckers are close sitters and may be
taken in the hand, as we shall see later. A Chickadee which I
worried with a straw would peck angrily at it, but remained on
the nest. The Cedar-birds retire in silence. In this state birds
become passive merely through the temporary suppression of
the sense of fear.

i8o

Wild Birds

The Cedar-bird gapes persistently when uncomfortably
warm, but only the crest feathers are ever erected, and then not
to the extent usually shown in drawings of this species. Both
Robins and Catbirds bristle up when their nests and well-
fledged young are assailed, and general erection of the feathers
may be occasionally seen in the brooding bird, but their emotion
is usually expressed by raising the feathers of the crown.

While the practice of gaping is as common with many birds
as with the dog, comparatively few, of which I can now mention

Fig. in. The eggs of the Cedar Waxwing, and its young in various instinctive at-
titudes when about a day old. " Rising upon its pliant stomach as upon a pillar, with
neck up-stretched and trembling like a tuning-fork, it opens wide its mouth. Press the
button, and up goes its head again and again, until fatigue comes to its aid." Nearly
one half life-size.

with certainty only the Pelican and the Gull (Fig. no), are
capable of indulging in a genuine yawn. In this act the Gull
derives the same sort of relief as dog or man, and is no more
graceful in its performance. At the close of expiration in the
gull the throat expands, and the tongue, which is up-raised,
draws with it the larynx, and thus gives free passage to the air.

The duty of brooding rests mainly with the female in our
common land birds, but the male in some species either regu-
larly or intermittently takes his turn at the nest.

Passerine birds feed their young at brief intervals from early
morning until nightfall, but apparently seldom if ever after
dark. The Night Hawk, as has been seen, broods by day, and

Development and Care of the Young 181

feeds its young at dusk, or just after dark, and probably again
at dawn. Both sexes usually share in bringing food to the nest,
but this rule is by no means universal.

The young require animal food during the early days of life,
and in the interior of the country this consists mainly of insects in
the larval or mature stages, spiders, earthworms (at least in the
Robin), and possibly slugs. Even snakes and frogs, to which
Hawks and other birds of prey devote much attention, no doubt
at times fall a prey to smaller adversaries. In the hills above
Lucerne, Switzerland, on the tenth of July I once surprised a
Thrush (Merula atra) hammering at a small snake. The ani-
mal, when whole, measured only seven inches in length, and
this bird had already cut off two inches of its tail, which was
possibly intended for its young. Aside from the habits of the
adult, the nature of the food brought depends much upon the
character of the supply. If food is plenty a wide choice is
possible, but at the pinch of hard times every rule is broken
and nothing is refused. When the Kingfisher finds crayfish
abundant they are carried to the nest, and this species has also
been known to go to the fields for insects. Along the coast
various other invertebrates undoubtedly contribute to the food
supply of both young and adult birds of many species. Birds
which never taste of fruit themselves naturally do not give it
to their young, while Robins, Orioles, Vireos, and Waxwings, to
mention but a few of the berry -pickers, vary the diet of their
fledglings with a liberal supply of fruits of various kinds.

The food is placed not simply in the mouth of the young but
well down into the sensitive throat, and if the bird does not
immediately respond, it is withdrawn and passed to another,
and often to a third, until a throat is found which has the proper
reaction time. If the gullet is already full, the swallowing
reflex is inhibited, and the bird must wait. If the experiment
of feeding a young bird like a Robin at the nes.t is tried, it will
be found that the food passes slowly down the oesophagus, and
when this is filled no more can be taken until the channel is clear.
The gullet thus acts as a brake to the tendency of the greedy
young bird to gorge itself to suffocation. Cedar-birds, however,

182

Wild Birds

according to Audubon, will sometimes eat to such excess as to
be unable to fly, and a number of wounded birds of this species
which he kept in a cage ate of apples until suffocated. When
opened they were found to be filled to the mouth.

The automatic response given by the young is the signal
awaited by the old bird, though often with impatience. The

Fig. us. Female Redwing Blackbird placing food in the throat of
a nestling.

insect, after being placed in a nestling's throat, is watched until
it disappears. Should it stick at the gullet it is withdrawn and
replaced time and again, or given a gentle pull, until it is safely
down. Sometimes the insect is deprived of its legs or wings,
bruised against a twig, beaten into a pulp, or crushed and torn
asunder between the bills of the parent birds before it can be
safely delivered. As has already been seen, many birds utter a
peculiar note as a special stimulus to the young. At such times

Development and Care of the Young 183

even the silent Cedar-bird finds a voice and gives an impatient
cheet ! If this premonitory call passes unheeded it becomes ex-
tremely shrill, especially in Kingbirds, with whom failure on
the part of their young to quick response seems to be peculiarly
exasperating.

While watching a Kingbird's nest from the tent, a moth

Fig. 113. The same bird watching the food in the throat. If not
immediately swallowed, the insect is withdrawn and passed around
until a bird with the proper reaction time is found.

miller was once brought in by the male. It was passed to each
one of the young in turn, but even under the spur of his shrill
chitter they were unresponsive, and he devoured the prey
himself. This sharp economy is often practiced at the nest,
and I have even seen the leg of a grasshopper picked up and
eaten by an old bird. Not a crumb is allowed to go to waste.
If an insect gets away it is usually pursued and immediately
snapped up. Once, however, I saw a female Kingbird fooled by

1 84

Wild Birds

a fiy who owed its life to its small size. As she opened her bill
in her attempt to land it safely in an open throat, the fly darted
off. The bird seemed dazed for a moment, and stood gazing at
the departing fly as if in mute astonishment.

Exciting scenes usually follow at the nest of the Kingbird

Fig. 114. Kingbirds bruising a too active grasshopper between their bills prepara-
tory to serving it to the young : the female in front with tail full-spread.

when a large dragon-fly, cicada, or grampus is brought to the
family circle. The insect often struggles hard, but escape is
out of the question, especially with both birds at the nest, who
at once begin to rend and crush it with their bills.

The male grampus (Corydalus cornutus), better known as the
larval hellgamite of which black bass are sometimes extremely
fond, has long gray wings folded back over the body when at

Development and Care of the Young 185

rest, and the head is armed with horns an inch long but formi-
dable only in their appearance. I have seen these huge insects

Fig. 115. Brown Thrush feeding a nestling. " The food is placed
not simply in the mouth of the young, but well down into the sensi-
tive throat."

measuring four inches from tip of the jaws to the extremities of
the folded wings fed to a single bird, and they were swallowed
— wings and all. The operation is shown at an incomplete
stage in figure 116, where the wings of the grampus can be

1 86

Wild Birds

seen projecting an inch or more from the mouth of the strug-
gling bird.

The cicada is even tougher and harder to manage, but is

beaten into sub-
ject i o n , and
served up in a
limp condition.
One day in Au-
gust I watched
a street combat
between one of
these cicadae
and a House
Sparrow. The
insect was
bounding up
and down on
the ground and
sounding its
crescendo at an
alarming rate,
but unable to
avoid the blows
which rained
from the Spar-
row's bill. As
the music of the
dying cicada fi-
nally ceased, the
Sparrow picked
up his victim
and bore it off
to his brood.
Ill

GROWTH OF THE NESTLING

The phenomenal growth of the young bird at the nest will be
appreciated when we reflect that in two weeks it increases in

Fig. 116. Female Kingbird assisting a grampus down the
throat of a nestling. The long gray wings of this insect are
protruding from the mouth.

Development and Care of the Young 187

weight twelve-fold; it develops keen senses and complex in-
stincts, acquires a serviceable and comely dress, and is ready for
flight.

This was well illustrated by a nest of four Cedar-birds, one
of which hatched _
in my hand on
the twelfth day
of August; three
which lived to
grow up we re
weighe d and
measured daily
for a p e r i o d of
fifteen days, from
birth to the time
of flight. The
eggs from which
these birds were
born were nearly
of the same size
and weight (a t
time of hatching
weighing 38^
grains or nearly
TV ounce ), but
by the end of the
first day marked
differences in rate
of growth had ap-
peared, and were
constantly main-
tained.

The weight of

the most vigorous nestling was doubled on the first day, more
than trebled on the second, and nearly quadrupled on the third.
On the twelfth day, when it weighed approximately one and one
fifth ounces, and had increased in weight thirteen-fold, it left

Male grampus, Corydalus cormitus : full size,

1 88 Wild Birds

the nest. When captured at the age of fifteen days, it had
grown one half inch in length, but had lost one twelfth of an
ounce in weight.

The next in point of vigor increased twelve times in weight,
or on the fifteenth day attained the stage reached by the first
bird when from eight to nine days old. Nestling number three
increased eleven times in weight in the same period. The
horizontal slits of the eyes opened on the fifth day in the first
bird; at a week old the feather-tubes had burst all over the
body excepting the quills of the wings and tail which began
to emerge from their horny sheaths on the eighth day, and
on the twelfth day the first unmistakable signs of fear were
exhibited.

At a corresponding rate of growth a ten-pound baby, when
one day old, would weigh twenty -one pounds, and at the age of
twelve days one hundred and thirty -four pounds.

From the first to the fifteenth day the strongest of the three
birds had increased in length nearly three times (measurements,
if and 5i inches).

IV

CLEANING THE NEST

The sanitary condition of the young is a matter of great con-
cern to most birds, who as a class are extremely neat and clean.
This is especially true of the many species breeding in holes or
cavities of any kind like the Woodpeckers and Chickadees, the
young of which are crowded in close quarters or even piled
up in more than one layer. The Woodpecker's hole and the
Bluebird's nest are always sweet and clean, and the nestlings
immaculate.

The duty of inspection and, if necessary, nest-cleaning
follows each feeding with clock-like regularity, and is one of the
most characteristic and important activities to be observed in
the nesting habits of a large number of the smaller land birds,
yet apparently it is not mentioned in the standard treatises of
ornithology, and I have found but few references to it in works

Development and Care of the Young 189

of any kind.1 Audubon, who has probably recorded more facts
on the behavior of American birds than any other writer, does
not, I believe, mention this important function. The reason is
not far to seek, for without the possibility of close approach to
the nest, and the use of a convenient blind, such acts are difficult
or impossible to observe.

The instinct of inspecting and cleaning the nest is mainly
confined to the great passerine and picarian orders represented
in this country by hundreds of species. It is a well-marked
trait in Thrushes, Waxwings, Vireos, Warblers, Orioles, Black-
birds, Woodpeckers, Wrens, and Titmice, to mention those
families in which it has been regularly observed. Gulls and
Terns, however, possess the cleaning instinct in a minor degree,
as I have observed on one or two occasions.

The excreta of the young of most land birds leave the cloaca
in the form of white, opaque or transparent, mucous sacs. The
sac is probably secreted at the lower end of the alimentary canal,
and is sufficiently consistent to admit of being picked up without
soiling bill or fingers. The parent birds often leave the nest
hurriedly bearing one of these small white packages in bill, an
action full of significance to every member of the family. I
have seen the Oriole carry these packages a few rods from the
nest and drop them before alighting. The Bluebird and Red-
wing Blackbird take them a long distance before letting them
fall. Crow Blackbirds sometimes drop them in the water, and
House Wrens and Nuthatches implant them on the bark of
trees.

Removing the excreta piecemeal and dropping it at a safe
distance is the common instinctive method not only of ensuring
the sanitary condition of the nest itself, but, what is even more
important, of keeping the grass and leaves below free from any
sign which might betray them to an enemy.

Many other birds, of which I can now certify the Robin,
Catbird, Cedar Waxwing, Red-eyed and Warbling Vireos, King-
bird, Redwing Blackbird, Brown Thrush, Chickadee, and

1 See the original and excellent Researches in Zoology, by John Black-
wall, 2d Ed., London, 1873.

190

Wild Birds

Chestnut-sided Warbler, devour a part and often the major
part of the excreta at the nest. This is a very common practice

with the War-
bler, Robin,
Waxwing, and
Vireos, but was
only casually
observed in the
others.

The Robin
hasundoubtedly
been seen b y
many in the
characteristi c
pose shown in a
number of the
photographs,
standing on the
rim of the nest
with the head
erect, or inclined
as if doting on
her young ones
and thinking
what fine child-
Fig. 118. A common scene at nest of the Chestnut-sided ren they Were,
'Warbler. The male brings food, while his mate, who is i pac fVii<; at

brooding, receives it into her own bill and passes it on to the Wn

children. titude is really

one of sanitary

inspection. When an old bird of any of the species mentioned
above has fed one of the brood, its duty is but half done; it
pauses, bends over, and keenly scrutinizes each young bird in turn
and every part of the nest. Shortly after being fed, the nestling
becomes very uneasy, and raises its body as if to drop the sac over
the edge of the nest. The old bird follows every movement, snaps
up the package as it leaves the body, and either swallows it im-
mediately or carries it off. When seen flying from the nest with

Development and Care of the Young 191

head depressed, the Robin is usually engaged in errands of this
kind. The Robins and Cedar-birds have frequently been seen to
take the sacs from two or three birds in rapid succession, in which
case they are always devoured on the spot. The Robin will
often convey the package to
any convenient perch, and,
after examining it, devour a
part, or reject the whole. While
watching Robins from the tent,
I have seen them carry the ex-
creta thirty rods away before
letting it fall or alighting to ex-
amine it, and have tried to find
the sac but usually without
success. One day I saw a
male Robin drop the "white
marble " in the grass about fifty
feet from the nest, and proceed
to peck at it. Upon going to
the spot a little later I found
the sac covered with dirt but

not opened. It had a tenacious opaque white wall, was per-
fectly odorless, and contained, besides a few small pellets, a
whole blueberry which had survived the digestive process. The
actions of the old bird were thus explained. He was looking
for food on his own account, but in this case missed it.

Not only are the young carefully tended in the way ex-
plained, but the old birds often put the head down in the nest
and rummage about for any stray particle of food or fragments
of any kind which it is desirable to remove. While standing at
the nest they will sometimes pick energetically their own legs
and toes, and the heads and bodies of the young, a very im-
portant function where the nest is infested with those minute
swarming particles known as lice and mites. Every straw and
fiber in the Cedar-bird's nest shown in one of the photographs
(Fig. 50) was literally covered with parasites, in this case a
species of mite which is a poor and degenerate relation of the

Fig. 119. Flicker cleaning the nest.

192

Wild Birds

spider. When the nest or anything in it was touched they would
swarm up the hand by hundreds, but they are barely visible
to the eye, and apart from a slight tickling sensation between the

Brown Thrush cleaning the nest.

fingers are scarcely felt. They do not seem to trouble the old
birds much, but must give discomfort to the young, especially
if from any other cause they happen to be weakly.

The cleaning of the young and nest is instinctive in a very
large number of birds, and so also is the care with which they

Development and Care of the Young 193

avoid any defilement of the nesting site. The use of the excreta
as food, however, is not to be regarded as due to inheritance.

Much light is thrown on this question by the behavior of the
Chestnut-sided Warblers, whose habits will be referred to again
in the concluding chapter. Both sexes in this case fed, brooded,
and cleaned the young and nest. The male regularly removed
the excreta but was never seen to eat it. The female on the
contrary often ate of it, and brooded so constantly that she was
obliged to leave the nest to satisfy her own hunger. She would
often be back in half a minute, having taken only a bite as it
were. When the female had received the food which her mate
supplied and had seen it safely delivered, she would inspect,
devour everything which needed removal, and then continue to
brood. If a sac should accidentally fall, she would snap it off
the ground, return to the nest, and brood as before. At other
times when the male approached she would stand aside and
allow him to deliver the food and make the inspection. Twice
I saw the male take a sac to carry it away, and the female snatch
it from him, swallow it, and settle down on the nest. Again
another sac was torn asunder, and each bird went off with a
half in its bill. In a moment the female returned but without
bringing food, showing that she had been satisfying her own
hunger. This not only proves that the excreta is used as food
but illustrates how the habit of eating it may be forced upon a
hungry brooding bird.

Since digestion in the young is an imperfect process at best,
it is easy to understand how any kind of pre-digested or partly
digested food might be acceptable in times of stress when the
staple article was not easy to procure. The fact that a bird
only casually devours a pellet or swallows one and removes an-
other is easy to understand. It is a question of the hunger of
the moment, and another illustration of the economy which
birds display in all such matters.

While the removal of the excreta is an instinctive act, the
use of it as food is probably an acquired habit, the strength
of which depends on the force of circumstances, and may be

limited in some cases to one sex alone.
13

CHAPTER XIII

LIFE AND INSTINCT
I

FROM the earliest times the activities of animals or what
they do has been a subject of universal interest, yet until
recently accurate knowledge of animal behavior has made little
progress, considering the richness of the field which is offered
to the student, its singular attractions, and ever present oppor-
tunities.

It is easy, however, to understand why popular interest in
natural history has not advanced our knowledge of animal life
in a greater degree. The successful study of animal behavior
requires continuous and exact observation, often extending over
considerable periods of time, not to speak of thorough training
in the natural sciences. It is true that in the analysis of the
most elementary phenomena of life and action biology has not
advanced beyond the stage of description and suggestion, but
this should serve as an incentive to even greater care in experi-
ment and observation in so wide and difficult a field. In the
study of behavior there is certainly no danger of exaggerating
the importance of scientific method. If only as a balance-
wheel to speculation, both anatomy and physiology can do
good service for the student of the animal mind.

The modern method of studying animals is to go to nature
direct, to experiment, and to use every means which promises
to yield valuable returns.

If the observer is properly equipped, he should be able to
ascertain the facts and conditions of animal life with a fair de-
gree of accuracy, but when he attempts to analyze his facts the

194

Life and Instinct 195

difficulties grow apace. From the operation of our own minds
we infer by analogy what takes place in the minds of animals, —
a form of reasoning which is apt to lead us astray, but since it is
possible to study animal life only objectively and as it were at a
distance, such a course is in some degree inevitable. It is best,
therefore, not to press analogies farther than the observed facts
will warrant. A good rule is to discard second-hand informa-
tion, and to remember that isolated, disconnected, and therefore
imperfect observations are often a fruitful source of false ideas.
We must further guard against the popular tendency of reading
into the actions of animals the whole gamut of human feeling
and capacity, that fatal pitfall which claims so many incautious
writers.

Life implies action and movement, and response is its most
striking characteristic. The study of the animal which re-
sponds, and of the theater of its response — the world about it, —
leads up to the most interesting if not most important study of
all — the activities or behavior of the 'living, going machine,'
and to the successful interpretation of behavior every science
must be made to contribute.

That the movements of living things, unlike those of arti-
ficial machines, are mainly adaptive, or that they tend to pro-
mote their welfare or that of their offspring, cannot be denied.
In some cases the responses of the higher animals are without
doubt useless or indifferent, but it is obvious that in all important
matters they cannot persist in a harmful course without serious
results.

Every animal at birth inherits with its bodily organs the
power to use them in a more or less definite way, and all the
higher animals, as far down the scale as the insects at least,
learn to do things in the course of their lives, and thus display
a form of memory. Their equipment therefore embraces: (i)
unlearned or inherited powers, and (2) learned or acquired
abilities, which are the results of experience — often very bitter.
The animal's powers, in other words, consist of free gifts at its
start in life, and of later acquisitions gained through its own
efforts in the struggle for existence.

196 Wild Birds

All animals, moreover, test their surroundings by a method
of trial, and error or success, but differ amazingly in the ability
to profit by the experiences thus gained. The lower forms act
quickly, but with great uniformity; consequently they stumble
through life until they finally pay the penalty of their mistakes
and inability to learn. The higher animals make the same tests,
but apply the knowledge thus gained by varying their conduct
to meet the needs of the moment. They control their actions,
exercise choice, and display originality, all of which are marks
of intelligence.

In the catalogue of inherited powers, the first place (i) should
be reserved for all the general responses or physiological prop-
erties of living things, — the activities of the cells, upon which
the life and growth of the body depend ; to these must be added
(2) those direct, and remarkably uniform responses of lower
organisms to light, gravity, pressure, and other forms of energy,
which determine their orientation or general movements, and
may be called trial movements, or tropisms, as well as the closely
allied (3) reflex actions, or motor responses, and (4) the still
closely related but more complicated and more variable re-
sponses, to which the name instinct has been applied. In the
voluntary or intelligent response, which is far more variable than
instinct, and often very complex, we pass the boundary line be-
tween hereditary possession and individual attainment.

The trial movements, or tropisms, play a great role in the
life of the lower animals and plants, and physiologists have
shown that many actions formerly ascribed to instinct can be
resolved into a series of simpler tropisms (or reflexes, in the wider
sense), the number of which is very great. Even the lowest
beings in the living world respond to light and other forms of
energy in a very definite way, and the kind of response depends
not alone upon the nature and intensity of the exciting force, but
upon the condition of the animal or plant as well, or the at-
tunement of their bodies at a particular time.

In the nocturnal habits of the earthworm we have an ex-
cellent illustration of response to an external force. It remains
in its dark burrow by day, and issues forth in the darkness of

Life and Instinct 197

night to feed. When stimulated by the light of returning dawn,
it retires again to its darkened subterranean chambers. Ex-
periment has shown that the worm responds to light of a certain
intensity, even crawling away from the light of a dull day, but
towards the much feebler light of an ordinary night. Such
movements, which were formerly assigned to instinct, are thus
seen to be prescribed by the direction and intensity of the rays
of light. That such responses are adaptive, or useful, is shown
by the fact that it is only "the early bird" that catches this
worm.

The attraction of the candle for the moth and other night-fly-
ing insects is proverbial, and, as often happens, they will return
to it again and again until, singed in the flame, they fall to the
floor. In this case experiment has also proved x that the moth
always flies towards the source of light, and that it is more
sensitive at night. Moths pass the day in a kind of sleep, but
become very active at the approach of dusk.

Earthworms, as well as many other animals, also creep into
the crevices of solid bodies, which for the time holds them like
a trap. They will crawl the whole length of a crevice before
leaving it, and the response in this case is not to light, but to
the mechanical friction of a solid body against their skins.
These are but a few of hundreds of illustrations which could
be given of the tropisms, or trial movements of an animal,
which are influenced by the direction and intensity of light or by
energy of some other form. While much still remains to be
explained, this is a step in advance of the former custom of
ascribing all such actions to "blind instinct." Changes in the
nervous system may determine the character of the response,
but the fact that the animal moves at all is due to an outside
cause.

Physiology has also given us the term re-flex action, which
was first applied to vertebrates, and suggests a comparison be-
tween a mirror and the spinal cord. This was supposed to
receive sensory impressions from the surface of the body and to

1 See especially the Studies in General Physiology of Professor Jacques
Loeb. Chicago, 1905.

198 Wild Birds

reflect them back on the muscles, which were made to contract.
It thus implied a complicated mechanism of sense-organs at the
surface of the body, central cells in the cord, and conducting
nerves. The closing of the eyelid in response to a sudden move-
ment of any object towards the eye, and the adjustment of the
pupil by which the intensity of the light which falls upon the
retina is regulated automatically and with wonderful precision,
are typical illustrations of adaptive or useful reflex responses.
The tropisms usually involve more or less complicated reflex
movements, and between these forms of response no sharp dis-
tinctions can be drawn. Moreover, when reflex action is re-
duced to its essential qualities, — the receipt and dispatch of
impulses, — we must allow that the same type of response is seen
in plants as well as in the simplest unicellular animals, in which
the refinements of an elaborate system of conducting nerve-
fibers and distributing centers are unknown. In this wider sense
the simple, and uniform reflex response may be regarded as the
unit, as well as the most primitive type, of activity.

For a still more complicated kind of behavior metaphysics
has given us the venerable term instinct, which has proved a
veritable apple of Sodom, and has been the source of more in-
effectual discussion than almost any other subject with which
modern biology has to deal. It is properly applied to a com-
plicated series of actions, which are useful to the individual or
to its progeny, but which are performed without any foresight
of the ends attained or the choice of means. The performance
of the most complex instincts, as in building the nest and caring
for the young, calls into play the whole body with all its powers,
rather than single parts or organs alone, in this respect agreeing
with tropisms but differing from most reflexes in the narrower
sense.

We have already seen many illustrations of the feeding in-
stincts displayed at the nests of many wild birds. Old and
young seem to move like one being, so nicely adjusted are the
give-and-take reactions between mother and child. Such a bird
as the Cedar Waxwing, though blind at birth, possesses the
senses of hearing and touch. When stimulated by hunger,

Life and Instinct

199

sound, or vibrations of any kind, it rises upon its pliant stomach
as upon a pillar, and with neck up-stretched, trembling like a
tuning-fork, it opens wide its mouth, thus exposing its sensitive
throat like a pink, yellow-rimmed target to the eye of the parent.
The whole body is taxed in the performance of this act, which is
done to perfection for the first time and without a teacher. It
seems to be a typical reflex response, as automatic as an electric
bell. Press the button, — that is,
jar the limb, or make any kind of
sound, — and up goes the head
again and again, until fatigue
comes to its aid. That the act
is adaptive or purposeful the se-
quel presently shows. When the
parent is at hand with food in its
gullet, it immediately tosses back
its head; visible waves of con-
tracting muscles are seen passing
upward from the invisible stom-
ach, when it regurgitates a crushed
berry or insect ; then bending low
it aims for the center, placing a
few drops or pieces well down in
the throat. Here another
"spring " is suddenly touched, and
note the result. The swallowing
reflex is started, and the nestling enjoys its first meal. By a
reversal of the process already witnessed in the adult, the food
is carried downward to the stomach, where a complicated series
of changes awaits it. The comparison of such instinctive acts in
the nestling, to a " chain" of reflexes would seem to be justified.
In this case the actions of the parent bird imply a long
series of nicely related and orderly movements : the search after
prey and its capture, the varied and often strange treatment
which this sometimes receives, its transportation to the nest and
disposition among the young, — the general trend or form of
which may remain the same from generation to generation,

Fig. 121. Cedar-bird about thirty-six

teristic response to any sound or vi-
bration. Notice that the bird rests on
its pot-belly, and uses both wings and
legs for support. Enlarged to life.

2OO

Wild Birds

while in minor details it is subject to endless change. No doubt
many reflexes are called forth by the sight of food, of the nest,
_ 1 and the quaver-

ing young; but,
as in the case of
hunger and other
forms of desire,
the real prompt-
ings to such be-
havior, which are
needed to weld
the links of the
chain, seem to
come from within
the body and not
from without.
In feeding her
nestlings, the
mother seems to
be really pleasing
herself and satis-
fying her keenest
desires, which
are, however, in-
tensified at the
sight of her
young and at the
sound of their
cries. When a
distinction is
sought between
reflex action and instinct, we must repeat that while the power
of coordinated response is the chief hereditary gift in both cases,
in the latter it may be called forth by internal states or emotions
as well as by external agents, and is more complex and variable
in character.

In the complex behavior of the wild bird, we see the outlines

Fig. 122. The Red-shouldered Hawk often stands on the
toes of one foot, with the ' heel' or end of the bare shank of
the other resting on the perch.

Life and Instinct 201

firmly drawn in by instinct, but altered and refined in many
places by intelligence, and paralleled and shaded at every point
by reflex action or the power of motor response. It does not
seem probable that such actions can be completely resolved into
a number of simple reflex components, but even should this be
done the historic and much-abused term instinct could still be
used to advantage.

Many instincts mature at birth, while others are delayed
until needed; some are called forth but once only, others re-
peatedly. As we have seen (in Chapter I.), the parental in-
stincts are periodic in appearance and serial in character.

The catalogue of instinctive acts which even the higher
animals perform is so great that one is not at a loss for illustra-
tions. To those already given I will now add the following, from
animals both high and low in the scale.

When the spring comes, the young bird, who returns to the
place of its birth, is prompted to find a mate, and with her soon
begins to build a nest. Though unattended by instructors, and
unprepared by practice, it uses the inherited tools of its guild —
bill, breast, and feet — with nice precision, and be it Oriole,
Robin, Flycatcher, or Vireo, follows with wonderful closeness
the type of architecture which its ancestors have used for
ages.

Why does the Robin, in its first attempt at nest-building,
begin by laying a foundation of dry grass or stubble, and add
to this mud softened with water, which it then heaps about
its breast, and with repeated turnings and shakings gradually
molds into a symmetrical cup, often selecting a rainy day for
the purpose, and why does it finally finish the whole with a
lining of fine grass? One might as well ask why the Robin lays
blue eggs, or why it utters its well-known call. It acts in these
ways because it must, because Robins have been doing these
things for hundreds of generations. It not only inherits tools,
but a certain aptitude for their use. Its organization compels
or determines its actions.

If the young of a viviparous shark be taken from the body
of its mother and cast into the sea, they will swim off, without

202

Wild Birds

previous experience or practice,1 as some water birds have been
known to do at the very moment of breaking the shell. There
is nothing more remarkable about this than that the swarm
spores of a Protozoan should swim at the moment the mem-

Fig. 123. Young Red-shouldered Hawk spreading about its prey, which is held in
its talons.

brane of the mother cell which encloses them bursts. Indeed,
their movements may be most active long before they are set
free.

Why does the young Hawk (Fig. 123), when introduced for
the first time to prey which is alive and can move, crouch, rivet

1 See Audubon, Ornithological Biography, vol. iii., p. 52.

Life and Instinct 203

its eye on the victim and, like a flash, strike it with its mailed
foot; then squealing all the while, spread wings and tail to the
ground, thus making a complete enclosure about the quarry,
with only one way of possible escape, that beneath its bill and
watchful eye?

Again, how is it possible for hive-bees, working in the dark
and all crowded together, to produce the exquisite comb, com-
posed of a double layer of regular hexagonal prisms, which will
contain the greatest amount of honey with the least expenditure
of wax, for the making of which precious honey must be sacri-
ficed? Or, again, what prompts certain ants to capture and
bring into their nests ants of other species which are held as
slaves, and in this capacity not only procure food for their
masters, but even feed and clean them? The worker bee and
the worker ant are sterile, and therefore unable to transmit
anything which they either inherit or acquire.

How is the larva of the butterfly or moth able to spin its
cocoon? It does it alone, but once in its life, and does it
perfectly.

No learning of such initial actions is required or possible
since all this has been attended to, as one might say, centuries
before the animal was born. All such instinctive activities are
spontaneous, and when the right button is pressed, or the right
stimulus applied from within or without, the reaction follows as
a matter of course. Of course the Robin must knead and mold
its rude nest-materials of mud and straw; of course it must lay
blue eggs, and after incubating them, feed and rear its young.
To be denied the privilege would cause sore distress. Had its
ancestors been Cowbirds, it would have made no nest at all, but
filched another's, and foisting its eggs upon some simple-minded
nurse, shirked the duties of parents to their offspring. The
Cowbird was thus very early to enter the field of experimental
psychology.

Every bird must follow the laws of its nature, and its
inherited instincts are no more wonderful than its inher-
ited organs, — its vocal cords, its keen eyes, and its wonderful
feathers.

204

Wild Birds

In popular language, by the "habits" of an animal, we mean
its manner of life in general, while a habit in the restricted sense
is something which the animal learns or acquires. It is asso-
ciated with pleasure, and by frequent repetition may become
fixed or stereotyped.

Fig. 124. Cock Robin taking a

Under some conditions habits are formed with surprising
quickness. The habit may be of trifling significance and have
only a brief reign, but no habits are absolutely rigid, and the
genesis of all is probably the same, — pleasurable consequences
following repeated actions which may be forced or accidental.
The result is in all cases similar, — a mental association of certain
things with certain actions.

Life and Instinct

205

While watching hour by hour the Robins described in
Chapter IV., and recording their visits to their young, I began
to notice on the third day that the male usually approached on
the right side of the nest — that is, on the observer's right as he

Fig. 135. Inspecting the household. The female approaches on
the left.

stood facing it, while the female frequently came to the back
or on the left. From that time I recorded the manner of each
approach, and found that the male invariably came to the
right side, and hopped down the limb to his nest.

In the table given on page 206 in which the visits of both
birds are recorded for two consecutive days, R is for the right,
L for the left, and B for the far side of the nest with reference to
the tent, while the dashes represent visits the character of which

2o6 Wild Birds

was undetermined. Each sign represents a visit to the nest
at which food was usually served.

| Female RR — RRLBRRRRRB
July 27th. Third day of ob- I ^ ~ ^ L R

servation-6^ hours. RBRRRRRRRR_RR

B — RRR -- RR —

{ Female LB B LB — B— — BB
July 28th. Fourth day of ob- J

servation— 4 hours. | Male RRRRRRRRRRRRR

— RRR

For the fourth day I have no record of the female approach-
ing by the right side, and no record of the male coming in any
other way. On the two following days the female did not
appear, and, as I had reason to believe, was engaged in building
a new nest. The male at this period always approached his
nest in the habitual manner. Now whether the male bird had
formed this habit shortly after the nest was built or shortly
after the nesting bough was removed is of little consequence.
At all events a definite mode of behavior had developed in a
short space of time. On the fourth day the young had to be
brooded often, owing to the heat, which accounts for the ap-
parent inactivity of the female in providing food.

Birds form definite habits in the manner of approach to the
nest, entering on a certain side, or flying to a certain twig,
following the path suggested in the first instance by convenience
or dictated by caution. As we have already seen (in Chapter
XI.), the habit may arise at the very beginning of nest-
building. A pair of Red-eyed Vireos with whom I spent parts
of three days followed a definite course in approach with sur-
prising regularity. They would fly to the main branch, hop
along toward the fork in which the nest was suspended, and
finally perch on a small convenient twig just over their young.
Out of sixty recorded visits they deviated from this habitual
method but three times, and then only before they had re-
covered from their first feelings of fear. In this case the nesting

Life and Instinct 207

branch had been drawn down about a foot by means of a cord,
but was not otherwise disturbed.

In sitting over the eggs or young, birds quickly acquire the
habit of facing the same way, in the direction of habitual ap-
proach, and in going to sleep, of twisting the head habitually to
the same side.

In cleaning the nest the attitude is frequently the same in
successive visits, the birds often clasping the same twigs, so
that a number of photographs of the act taken without moving
the camera may be so nearly identical that only the most careful
inspection will reveal the least difference in pose or position.

While engaged in studying some Redwing Blackbirds in
July the weather was hot, and the young had to be brooded
almost constantly. The female would sit on the nest, often
with back to the tent, with feathers erect and mouth open in
her efforts to keep cool. Suddenly the shriek of a steam whistle
sounded the hour of noon at a mill scarcely three rods away.
It startled me, but the bird did not budge a feather. It is not
difficult to imagine that her first experience with this instrument
of torture was quite different in its result, but the case illus-
trates the ease with which birds become quickly accustomed to
strange and uncouth sounds, when, as sometimes happens, they
place their nests in a saw-mill a few feet from the buzzing saw
or above the grinding trolley cars of a city street.

Every animal must adapt itself in some measure to changes
in its surroundings, and with birds this necessity is well ex-
pressed in the nest, the position, materials, and construction of
which are subject to incessant change, and in the diet. The
change in nesting habit may be slight or of a very marked
character, as when the common type of architecture is aban-
doned, or a distinct nest-structure wanting. Only a single ex-
ample of change in nesting habits need now be considered since
the facts are matters of common observation.

The Swift of this country is often quoted as one of the most
remarkable examples of birds whose nesting habits have changed
in recent times. Formerly breeding in hollow trees and still
doing so in places remote from mankind, it now attaches its little

208

Wild Birds

wicker crates to the inside of chimneys. From the standpoint
of the Swift the change has really been very slight, and had it
not become so widespread it would have attracted little atten-
tion. This bird was probably drawn to the town and open
country by the greater abundance of its insect prey, and to the

Fig. 126. Male Redwing Blackbird cleaning the nest.

mind of the Swift a chimney cannot be very different from a
hollow tree. Its instinct probably does not lead it to select a
dead tree for its roosts or nests because it is a tree, any more
than it leads it to prefer a sycamore to an oak. What is prob-
ably inherited is the tendency to seek a dark or cavernous place
with easy entrance and exit. The chimney which emits no
smoke in summer and usually stands in the open, fulfils every
requirement in places where hollow trees are scarce.

Life and Instinct

209

The Swift is yet capable of adapting its needs to conditions
far more unlike those of the ancestral tree, and cases are occa-
sionally reported in which it has nested in barns and other dimly
lighted buildings.1

In at least one respect birds resemble men in their ordinary

Fig. 127. Male Redwing Blackbird cleaning the nest; photo-
graphed under the same conditions as Fig. 126, and illustrating the
formation of habit in the daily routine.

building operations. They make use of the materials at hand,
but in the selection of the site for the nest many seem to obey no
rule, being ever on the alert to adapt themselves to their lot,
and a habit once formed often leads to a steady line of conduct.
The diet of an insectivorous bird is extremely varied at all

* See p. 114 of the first edition of this work.

210

Wild Birds

times, depending much upon the locality and the season of the
year. While a few kinds of insects may be avoided because
of a repugnant taste, they capture, as a rule, whatever comes
in their way. The Robin commonly brings to its nest grass-
hoppers, crickets, katydids, and angleworms, because in its cus-

Fig. 128. Female Kingbird balancing herself with raised wings while feeding young.

tomary manner of search it finds and is able to secure these
forms in abundance. The Kingbird, which takes most of its
prey on the wing, discovers a far greater variety. When certain
species of insects are abundant, they are often eaten by many
birds who under ordinary conditions would never touch them.
Thus during a plague of Rocky Mountain locusts which visited
the Western States, these insects are reported to have been eaten

Life and Instinct

211

by nearly every bird in the region, and to have served as a staple
for most of the species. Birds of prey such as the smaller Hawks
and Owls devoured them eagerly. The food habits of most birds
are exceedingly plastic and liable to sudden change under the
spur of necessity.

The simplest acquired powers, which are the fruits of ex-

Fig. 129. Male Kingbird seeing a cicada safely down a hungry throat.

perience, are the marks of intelligence also. As a result of trial,
error, or success, the animal soon learns to do certain things;
it develops a memory, and forms habits.

The young and inexperienced chick, at birth or shortly after,
will peck indiscriminately at all sorts of objects, as the nestling
bird responds to sounds of every kind; but it soon learns to

212 Wild Birds

select agreeable insects and dabs of meal, but to reject shining
tacks, burnt match ends, and stinging bees. It learns to asso-
ciate a definite experience with a definite object, and by con-
trolling its actions to profit by the experiences thus acquired.
In other words, it displays associative memory, which marks the
dawn of intelligence, and, as some students believe, of conscious-
ness also. Any animal which can learn or be taught accord-
ingly possesses memory of this kind.

The wild bird learns to eat certain things, to avoid certain
enemies, to start at certain sounds, to ignore others; the young
Kingfisher even acquires the habit of walking backward (see
Chapter X.), while its instincts lead it to walk forward. It learns
to drink by first getting its bill wet, possibly by picking off
drops of dew from the grass, and by raising its head starts the
swallowing reflex.

The mental life of animals is like a piece of fine weaving, in
which the original strands have been so often replaced by others
of different quality that the texture and pattern have been
essentially changed, and this change is going on all the time.
In animals standing as high as the birds, experience quickly
modifies the instincts, which, as we have seen, may be changed
or virtually replaced by habits. It should not therefore sur-
prise us if a bird's second nest were more nearly perfect than
its first, or if the third should prove better than the second, but
this would also depend upon other conditions.

The power of forming habits is a sign of intelligence, but not
necessarily of reason in any of its higher grades or levels. The
intelligence may be a small grain and never destined to grow
into a flourishing tree of knowledge, but it must exist along with
the power of putting any experience to profitable use.

The habits acquired by one generation are probably never
handed on to the next, but this is a subject about which the
dust of argument has not yet cleared away.

The life of birds is one of instinct irradiated by gleams of in-
telligence. Their mental faculties exhibit a wide range of grada-
tion from excessive stupidity to a fair degree of intelligence, with
strong associative powers, — rarely if ever the association of ideas

Life and Instinct

213

but of things with actions, — and often with wonderful powers of
imitation.

In the order of evolution the simple reflex responses were the
precursors of instinct, and instinct of intelligence. The degrees
of the latter are not sharply denned, and it is possible that all
types of response intergrade. Yet, according to the later views
of evolutionary progress, the forward steps may be rapid as well
as slow, and intelligence may mark one of those sudden advances,
which have appeared in the past history of life on the earth.

CHAPTER XIV

FEAR IN BIRDS

BIRDS as a rule are possessed of fear, which is primarily an
instinct, but, as we shall see later on, many species in their
natural adult state are entirely devoid of this sense. With
others it may wax or wane according to their environment or
individual experiences. Again, the nature of the fear manifested
varies with age or the period of life. It is a generalized sense of
fear, or fear of the strange and unusual, which comes over the
young bird, while later it learns to dread particular objects or
sounds with which some bitter experience is associated. Further-
more, the time of the appearance of the instinct varies in different
species, coming late in some and early in others. Generally
speaking the manifestation of fear is well timed, and is an adap-
tation for the good of its possessor.

Let us first see how fear enters into the life of the young.
Birds are sometimes roughly classified into altricial species,
which feed their young for days or weeks at the nest, and prseco-
cial birds, whose young are born clad in soft down, and are able
to walk, run, or swim at once or very soon after hatching. The
Altrices, like the Robin, Woodpecker, and Humming-bird, are
hatched from eggs which are small in relation to the size of the
parent, and the young are at first blind, helpless, and more or
less completely naked. In all such the nest is only a temporary
home, but is often very elaborate, while the instinct of fear is
delayed or deferred until the time of flight, a period varying
from a few days to three weeks or more. The Praecoces lay eggs
with big yolks, upon the stored energy of which the unhatched
young subsist until they step forth into the world, seeing, able

214

Fear in Birds

215

to walk or swim, and in some degree their own masters. The
common domestic fowls, Partridges, Ostriches, Geese, Loons,
Plover, and Snipe, are some of the better known representatives

30. Brown Thrush startled while at nest : attitude of keen attention.

of this group, but the dividing line is never sharply drawn, and
there are innumerable gradations between the extremes in
either class. In the praecocial birds the feeling of fear is either
present at birth, or appears in a very few hours or days.

216 Wild Birds

As an illustration of the development of fear in the altricial
kinds, one might select any of the common passerine birds,
Thrushes, Warblers, Finches, or Flycatchers, but we should
bear in mind that the development of this instinct is not always
uniformly timed, even in the same species. We will choose the
Catbird, the Chestnut-sided Warbler, and the Kingfisher.

When I first camped beside a Catbird's nest (No. 6 of table,
Chapter I.) in June, the young, who were then about a week
old, were incapable of fear. They would shift about the nest
to get into the shade, pant, and erect their growing head-
feathers. When a breeze rocked the cradle, or a Redwing
Blackbird sang his conquer-ee, or the parent came with meat or
fruit, they stretched necks, opened mouths, each struggling to
get some advantage over the other, and uttered their sharp tsit!
tsit! notes. You could handle them at will; they were abso-
lutely fearless. If such a nest is overturned they will cling to it
but never cower or crouch.

As we have seen, the clipping of a leaf at this nest two days
later sent them off in a panic, and all hurried to the nearest
cover. Should you succeed in catching them under such cir-
cumstances, which is doubtful, and try to replace them in the
nest, they will pop out repeatedly as if mounted on springs, and
if you try to hold them in the hand they will struggle, squeal, and
fairly shriek in their endeavors to escape. They are now covered
with a coat of slate-colored feathers, but fly with difficulty.
When placed on open ground, they hop off at once toward the
nearest bush. No greater change in the behavior of a wild
bird is ever witnessed than that which the sense of fear brings
to pass.

I have seen a young Chestnut-sided Warbler jump out of its
nest, when unable to stand erect and much less to use its wings.
In this case the pin-feathers of the wings had barely burst, and
the body was nearly naked. When the bird was returned to its
nest, it refused to remain until the operation was many times
repeated and it was finally overcome by fatigue. I have known
the young of the Redstart to leave the nest remarkably early,
but the case just recorded appears to be somewhat exceptional.

Fear in Birds

217

The instinct of fear comes with a certain maturity of the
nervous system, with comparative suddenness, as we have just
seen, but is usually timed to correspond with the development
of the wing-quills and the power of flight.

Fig. 131. Young Kingfishers twenty-four days old. They are capable of flight but
show no fear.

At the age of twenty-four days the Kingfisher is in full feather,
but shows no fear. He will perch comfortably on your hand or
shoulder, and pose in any desired position, as the photographs
made at this period will show, but the instinct soon appears
after this stage is passed. In from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours later, when these birds not only possess the power of
flight but use it at the first intimation of danger, their docile na-
ture has completely changed. With them the late development

218

Wild Birds

of this instinct is most opportune, since they are not tempted
to leave the security of their tunnel in the ground until they can
make long excursions and follow their parents to the favorite
fishing grounds.

Fig. 132. Red-tailed Hawk, four months old, in attitude of fear. The
young bird at the nest will spread its wings as well as erect its Eliza-
bethan fiill, and hiss at intruders.

Turning now to the praecocial birds, according to the best
testimony, fear in the domestic chick hatched in an incubator is
at first very slight, and is soon checked by contrary impulses
such as to nestle in a warm place, unless the instinct be brought
into immediate exercise.

Mr. Charles A. Allen says that the newly hatched young of
the Black Duck (Anas obscura) show no fear, but will "cuddle

Fear in Birds 219

under one's hand very confidingly." I once saw a nest of this
species on the shore of Lake Champlain, near Burlington, Ver-
mont, on the very verge of a high, overhanging cliff. It was
set against the stems of a slender shrub, the pulling of which
would doubtless have precipitated the entire clutch fifty feet
into the water below. A little delay in the instinctive reaction
of fear could hardly come amiss to young in such a nest. On the
other hand when the ducklings have been led to the water no
birds show a keener sense of fear than they or respond more
promptly to the alarm signals of their parents. I was greatly
impressed when a boy at the sight of a Black Duck leading her
trim little fleet of yellow sail up the mouth of a small sedge-
bordered stream. The old bird quickly gave the alarm, rose,
veered, and flew towards the river, while the young scrambled
to the bank and hid in the rushes. I hunted long but succeeded
in finding only one that lay flat in the marsh and kept perfectly
still, true to its inherited instinct. These ducklings had not
been afloat many hours, and had this action been repeated
before, the lesson could not have been taught, since, as we have
seen, the young under such circumstances are left to their own
devices.

I have seen a young chick while feeding quietly close to the
house suddenly turn its head, look straight at the zenith, and
then run off in a panic of fear. Looking up also I saw a Hen
Hawk sailing aloft like a toy kite, a mere speck against the blue
heavens. I think it probable that the bird got an alarm signal
from some other fowls in the yard ; at all events it knew where
to look, and its response was not slow. This chicken may have
been three weeks old, and so had ample time to learn its lesson,
if such it was. Had the dark object been a paper kite, it is not
likely that the fear evoked would have been appreciably less.

In altricial birds the sense of fear usually comes, as we have
seen, with the development of the flight feathers, but it is often
premature, thus indirectly causing the death of thousands of
birds every year. In July and August how many helpless
Sparrows and Thrushes are found on the ground, having left
their nests too early! Sometimes they tumble out by accident.

220

Wild Birds

are drawn off by hunger or .are blown out in a gale, but I be-
lieve that by far the greater number of such strays are driven
forth by fright, and when this perilous step has once been taken

it can seldom be
retraced. The
young of such
birds as the Wil-
son Thrushes,
whose nests are
on or near the
ground out of the
reach of storms,
are often found in
this predicament.
It is an interest-
ing fact that the
huge pot-belly of
the young altri-
cial bird has a use
quite apart from
the function of
digestion. It an-
chors it to the
nest, and as in
the modern
"Brownie " keeps
it right side up.
The pliant vis-
cera conform to
every movement,
and form a cen-

y filling the nest of
lothered : fearless,

Fig. 133. Young Cowbird comforta
its foster parent, whose children it
though nearly ready to fly.

t r a 1 supporting

pillar long before the legs can sustain the weight of the body.
(See Fig. in.)

Many immature birds which I have watched at the nest
show no precise powers of discrimination in any direction. You
will see them respond as promptly to the nutter of a leaf or the

Fear in Birds

221

call -note of any passing bird as to their own mother's voice, but
a more curious spectacle may be witnessed when a fledgling of
one of our common species, like the Baltimore Oriole, climbs
to the top of its
nest. All the
others immedi-
ately salute it as
if it were an old
bird, and with
open mouths
beg vainly to be
fed. If a young
bird within a
day of taking
flight cannot
distinguish one
of its brothers
from its mother,
it can hardly be
expected to
"know a hawk
from a hand-
saw,'' or an
enemy from a
friend.

After taking
flight, the young
of altricial birds
are fed by one
or both parents
for a period of
days or weeks,

and much is quickly learned by imitation and individual ex-
perience. Their ingrained sense of fear becomes in the course
of time gradually specialized in certain directions. Fear of
man, guns, hawks, snakes, cats, and the various agents of de-
struction with which each species must contend in the course

Fig. 134. Young Cowbird on
which it was reared.

t of Magnolia Warble

222

Wild Birds

of its life, seems in every case to be acquired or learned rather
than inherited.

The instinct of fear seems to be longer deferred in the Cow-
bird than in many other species. This was true of a bird which
was nursed by a Magnolia Warbler (see Figs. 133, 134), whose nest

Fig- 135. Young Cowbird, being nursed by a Chipping Sparrow, whose own young
it had destroyed.

it completely filled. Standing with erect feathers on the rim of
the nest, he would squeak and call vehemently for his foster
parents. I took from beneath him the dried mummy of a little
Warbler and one addled egg, which illustrates the advantage
nature gives this bird over his competitors in early life. He
showed no fear, but clung like a monkey to the nest, while I
carried the branch several hundred feet to find a quiet place out

Fear in Birds

223

of the wind. In this instance I did not see the Warbler, but am
fortunate in being able to illustrate, in the devotions of a Chipping
Sparrow to another Cowbird (Fig. 135), the strength of those
parental instincts, which often demand satisfaction at whatever

Fig. 136. Cock Robin startled while at nest by a quick, decisive alarm call from
his mate. His head shot up like a flash, and in a moment he was off.

cost. This bird's family was also sacrificed, but in favor of a
pair of Song Sparrows, from whose nest I had taken the

egg-
Many birds have alarm calls or signals of distress, which
attract or arouse other species, as every one knows who has
studied birds in the country. When a Robin hears the alarm
call of his mate, his head goes up instantly, and he stands for a
moment with outstretched neck, listening intently to see if he
is needed. I was fortunate in catching the male bird at the

224 Wild Birds

nest in just this attitude, expressive of attention and wariness,
bordering on fear. (Fig. 136.)

A hawk, owl, crow, cat, snake, or any well-known or dreaded
enemy of birds will set the community in a hubbub in a very
short time. Birds of other species hurry to the scene out of
sympathy or curiosity, as some would say, but probably more
from instinct of a different character. The smallest spark often
kindles the largest blaze. Thus while passing through a pasture
last June I happened to encounter a Robin with mouth stuffed
with food, as if on the way to her nest. She at once set up a
loud cry, and mounting the bare branch of a dead apple tree, in
five minutes drummed up eleven different birds, among which I
recognized the Baltimore Oriole, Brown Thrush, two Catbirds,
Chestnut-sided Warbler, Red-eyed Vireo, Maryland Yellow
Throat, Song Sparrow, Chickadee, the Redstart, and a Goldfinch,
many of which became excited and joined in the general outcry.

To return to a subject which has been mentioned more than
once in this work, — the brooding instinct of the Flicker fur-
nishes a beautiful illustration of how the strong sense of fear may
be checked by a stronger and contrary impulse. When a nest
of these birds was discovered on the third of June, a gentle tap-
tap on the hollow apple tree was quickly answered ; a polished
chisel-shaped bill was thrust through the window and quickly
withdrawn; another tap, and the graceful form of this Wood-
pecker appeared, and spreading to view the black, white, and
gold of her ornamental quills, she went off like a flash, without
a sound. There were seven eggs in the nest, and fear was still
in control.

Compare her actions a week later, when there were young
about four days old. The tree giving no sign of life on the
morning of the eleventh day of June, I cut a square block from
its side well below the circular door which had been already
chiseled out by the bird (Figs. 43, 137), and was astonished to
see the Flicker sitting motionless as the Sphinx. She had not
moved a feather, not even to shake off the sawdust which had
rained over her handsome back and head. I stroked her with
my finger, enclosed her in my hand, lifted her up, and unfolded

Fear in Birds

her lovely wings, but there was no unfriendly response,
was absorbed, and clung to her young like iron to a magnet.

225

She
No

Fig. 137. Male Flicker regurgitating the food at nest-hole, before
entering to deliver it. The closed artificial window is shown at the
lower end on the right.

better illustration could be given of the brooding instinct at the
flood, blocking and completely banishing the sense of fear

It is difficult to leave this nest without lifting the curtain for

226

Wild Birds

a moment to reveal a picture of unusual interest. Under this
bird lay five blind, naked, long-necked, taper-bodied creatures,
heaving and swaying like a bed of writhing serpents, suggesting
the true relationship and origin of birds.

Five days later the Flicker had recovered her sense of fear,
and was exceedingly wary in all her movements. The young

.

Fig. 138. The window open, showing the Flicker pumping food into a
nestling.

were fed regularly by both parents at intervals of one half hour,
and by regurgitation, on a grayish paste which may have been
pulverized ants' "eggs," and suggested a cooked cereal of the
breakfast-food variety. One of the illustrations (Fig. 138)
shows this bird clinging to the wooden walls of the nest, head
downwards, and pumping this concentrated mixture into the
throat of an excited nestling.

Fear in Birds 227

The preceding pages on this important and difficult subject
may be summarized as follows: The instinct of fear is inherited,
and often delayed, where it is a special adaptation, not only
leading the young, as Lloyd Morgan remarks, to accept a foster
parent and not to shrink from her, but what is more important,
keeping the young in the nest, barring accidents, until they
can in some degree help themselves. Fear of particular objects
is learned, or becomes grafted on to the original stock. The
instinct may gather force or disappear, at least in adult life,
according to the nature of the environment and the new habits
formed in consequence. The strongest sense of fear may be
partially or completely blocked by the brooding and other
parental instincts. The instinctive basis of fear is apparently
handed down from generation to generation, but in the life of
the full-grown bird it is probably largely replaced by habit or
the formation of associations. The innate or latent capacity
remains, but the definite association of certain actions with par-
ticular objects or experiences is probably handed down by
tradition rather than by heredity.

CHAPTER XV

TAMING WILD BIRDS WITHOUT A CAGE

MANY illustrations could be given of birds which in most
parts of their range are wild or shy while in others they
are very tame, and the same principle underlies them all. Wild-
ness is due to fear, which is partly inherited and partly learned
by experience with this wicked world. Tameness, on the other
hand, comes with the casting out of fear, and may be brought
about by the formation of new habits which are either spon-
taneous or forced.

The House Sparrows of the Tuileries, and the pious Stork of
Holland, Germany, and France, are familiar examples of birds
whose near or remote ancestors are shy and wary. The Stork
when migrating in vast flocks along the borders of the desert
and in the valley of the Nile is wary and hard to approach, yet
it comes with confidence to the village and town, builds its nests
upon housetops and steeples, and struts about the streets and
door-yards in search of food.

It would be interesting to know how long the Doves of Venice
have enjoyed the freedom of the Piazza del Marco. They are
probably the best fed pigeons in the world, and few hours pass
in the course of the day when their guardian, the vendor of sacks
of corn, is not surrounded by his flock. They will alight all over
you, and take the grain from hand or mouth. The Pigeon, it
is true, has been long domesticated and responds more readily to
friendly influences than the wild stock from which it has sprung.

Strange and possibly true stories are told of persons who have
won the confidence of beast or bird. The wild bird responds
to their call, and the quadruped comes forth from his den and

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 229

takes food from their hand. Such persons are popularly sup-
posed to possess a mysterious power of fascination or a superior
knowledge of woodcraft, but all this belongs in the catalogue of
vulgar errors. It depends less upon the individuality of the
person than that of the animal. Individual variation knows
hardly a limit, whether in man or beast. Some birds are natu-
rally tame and confiding, while their next-door neighbors of the
same kin and living in the same field may possess a temperament
of such an opposite character as to baffle every attempt to
dispel their fears.

The power of remaining motionless like a stone or stump in
the woods is often enough to win the temporary confidence of
both mammal and bird, and many will doubtless recall illustra-
tions of this fact from their own experience. This suggests an
early episode which impressed itself rather strongly at the time.
With raised fishing-pole in hand I was sitting quietly by the
river, possibly watching the common sunfish or bream standing
guard over their nests, which they defend with such fiery pug-
nacity, when I suddenly had a "bite." Looking up, I saw a
Kingbird comfortably perched on the end of my rod. He
doubtless had a nest in the alders close by.

It is easy to conceive a state in which all animals would be
tame, but it would not be the state of nature known to us which
has developed under the laws of battle, the survival of the
strongest, the wariest, the best protected or concealed, or the
most intelligent. The higher animals either prey on one an-
other or on the helpless invertebrates, or are preyed upon, and
with most, tameness would soon lead to extinction. Wildness
or wariness is not only the law of their nature, but the very
condition of their existence. The animal which fails to profit
by experience, or at least to the extent of learning caution, and
thus displaying the rudiments of intelligence, must go to the
wall, unless the conditions of its life are exceptional or nature
grants it some extraordinary favor in the form of instincts,
great reproductive powers, or protective coloring.

While most animals are wild in the state of nature and
many are almost untamable, a comparatively large number

2 30

Wild Birds

submit to the taming process, and a few become tame in the nat-
ural state. Whatever principles of evolution shall eventually
prove to be true, we may safely regard the higher vertebrates
which are now tame in their natural state as the descendants of
wild ancestors.

As a rule, no wild mammal or bird approaches man without
some inducement. Unless some other instinct be aroused, it
comes, if at all, to defend or feed its offspring, to appease its

Fig. 139. Red-eyed Vireo cautiously approaching her nest. Compare
such attitudes with Figs. 60-63, which express no fear.

hunger, or in very rare cases to find protection from danger.
The taming process depends, as we have just seen, upon the
ability to form new associations, and may be brought about
artificially by restraint as when a wild animal is caged and new
habits are, as it were, forced upon it, or by means of strong lures.
Of the latter, one of the best is food in the presence of hunger,
but the strongest of all are the young at a certain stage of
growth. In order to tame a wild animal without recourse to
restraint there must be some means of breaking the ice, or begin-
ning a course of instruction, by chaining it to a fixed point. In
case of birds with young the invisible chain is parental instinct,
which inhibits fear and holds the animal to a given spot. We

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 231

will attempt to analyze the taming process by the use of food
and young birds as lures, and finally consider the similar ex-
periments which nature occasionally conducts independently
and on a larger scale.

I throw some cracked corn out of my window, and it is soon

Fig. 140. Male Red-eyed Vireo prepared to inspect and clean nest.
Notice that in this series-Figs. 6l-*3-the birds uniformly occupy the
same perch.

discovered by the ubiquitous Sparrows. When they see me
standing behind the pane they are afraid to approach, but they
are also hungry. At last the impulse to get the food overcomes
their fears, and they are rewarded by the feeling of pleasure and
satisfaction. When they come repeatedly, each time reaping a
reward without evil consequences, a new habit is gradually
formed by the repetition of the act. The pleasure of getting
food is gradually associated with flying to a certain spot in the

232 Wild Birds

presence of objects which in the course of time become familiar.
If the contrary impulse, due in this case to hunger, is sufficiently
strong, the process may be carried forward step by step until
the birds come to the hand for food. With the gregarious
Sparrow, however, life in a populous town is usually too com-
plicated to admit of carrying out the experiment with success
in any reasonable time.

There are many species which respond more readily than the
wily Sparrow, such as the Chickadees and Nuthatches, the Wild
Goose and the Canada Jay. The Chickadee has to work harder
for a living in winter than the Sparrow, is far less gregarious and
wary by nature, and is seemingly endowed with a keen sense of
curiosity. The little Tits or Chickadees become very tame when
hard pressed by hunger in the remote woods, and I have no
doubt that the following account, which was given to me by a
man who worked at a woodchoppers' camp in New Hampshire
during the winter, is strictly true. He said that at meal times
the Chickadees would come about and pick up any crumbs that
were left over or were thrown to them, and that they soon be-
came so bold as to al ght on the hand, or hat, and even to take
pieces of bread from the mouth ; that he would often amuse him-
self by trying to "close over them " with his hand, and that while
they were usually too quick for him, he had caught them in this
manner.

The familiarity of the Canada Jay or Meat Bird is known to
everybody who has hunted or camped in the northern woods;
its fear is allayed by hunger even more promptly than in Chicka-
dees and Nuthatches. Audubon says of these birds that "when
their appetite is satisfied they become shy, and are in the habit
of hiding themselves among close woods or thickets; but when
hungry they show no alarm at the approach of man." While
his friend was fishing in a canoe on one of the Maine lakes in the
summer of 1833, "the Jays were so fearless as to alight in one
end of his bark, while he sat in the other, and help themselves to
his bait. . . . The lumberers or woodcutters of this State,
. . . frequently amuse themselves in their camp during the
eating hour with what they call 'transporting the carrion bird.'

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 233

This is done by cutting a pole eight or ten feet in length, and
balancing it on the sill of their hut, the end outside of the en-

Fig. 141. Male standing at nest after having fed his young. Notice the char-
acteristic instinctive pose of one of the fledglings.

trance being baited with a piece of flesh of any kind. Immedi-
ately on seeing the tempting morsel, the Jays alight on it, and
while they are busily engaged in devouring it, the woodcutter
gives a smart blow to the end of the pole within the hut, which

234 Wild Birds

seldom fails to drive the birds high in the air, and not infre-
quently kills them. They even enter the camps and would fain
eat from the hands of the men while at their meals.'.'

Possibly no bird has keener vision or sharper ears than the
Canada Goose, which in its wild state is said to be vigilant,
suspicious, and hard to be surprised, yet it is often easily and
quickly tamed. There were in Cleveland nearly forty of these
geese, which were descended from a smaller number introduced
about thirty years ago. Their migratory impulse was com-
pletely lost, and their sense of fear subdued, but their other wild
instincts remained. They lived mostly in the parks, going from
one to another as the spirit moved them, and bred on the small
artificial islands in artificial ponds. I often heard their honk !
as they flew over the city at night or in early morning, and saw
their "harrow" or "triangle" which plowed the air by day
often within bow-shot from Euclid Avenue.

When the birds were feeding on a lawn you could walk
among them and drive them like a flock of tame geese, but they
hated dogs and took to wing or water the moment one was seen
to approach. They once had the habit of alighting on the roof
of a tall building near Wade Park, but after one of their number
met with the mishap of falling down a ventilating shaft this
practice seems to have been abandoned.

On one of his shooting excursions Audubon shot a wild goose,
and on his return sent it to the kitchen to be prepared for the
table. The cook brought him an egg ready to be laid. This
was placed under a hen, and in due time produced a bird, which
became very gentle and would feed from the hand. When two
years old it mated and reared a family.

We have seen how fear may vanish before the surge of the
parental impulse which impels a bird to seek, nourish, and
defend its offspring, even at the risk of life itself, and will now
consider how this instinct may be used in taming wild birds at
the nest and in bringing them to the hand.

If young birds of those species in which the parental in-
stincts are very strong are taken from the nest when nearly
ready to fly, the old birds, especially if they be among the class

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 235

of tamer individuals, may be brought direct to the hand in a
short space of time. To their excited vision men are as walking

Fig. 142. Young Cedar-birds in displaced nest standing in characteristic at-
titude with upturned heads. Photographed on day of flight, July 17, 1899,
when possessed of fear. For account, see page 98.

trees. Their attention is riveted on the young, and the man is
nothing to them, provided he remains quiet, or moves about
with caution. Whatever fear remains is blocked by the stronger
instinct to go to their young.

236

Wild Birds

Every occasion on which the tent described in these pages is
brought up to a nest of young birds is a direct experiment in the
taming process. No matter how far the discipline is carried or

how little perman-
ency it may pos-
sess, the principle
is always the same.
By this method
wild birds, while
the parental in-
stincts are at their
height, can be
tamed to a degree
without use of a
cage. In illustra-
tion of the process,
we will choose the
Chestnut-sided
Warbler, although
the experiments to
be described were
not carried out
with this end es-
pecially in view.
In any case paren-
tal instinct was
the chief agent
employed.

Two nests of the
Chestnut-sided Warbler, each containing fresh eggs, were found
in a pasture on the twelfth day of June. The behavior of the
birds at both nests was at first essentially the same, so far as
it was tested. While the eggs were still fresh, the nests were
often visited without seeing or hearing a bird, but during in-
cubation the female, who is a close sitter, would allow me to
approach within a yard or two feet. Then as I extended my
hand slowly toward her she would hop out and cling with head

Fig. 143. Female Chestnut-sided 'Warbler approaching
nest and looking in. At this time there were eggs, or the
young had barely pipped the shell.

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 237

down on the farther side of the nest, so that only her little tail
was visible over its rim. Any one prone to discover protective
mimicry in such cases would find a striking example of it in
this attitude, —
the little gray
tail of the bird
simulatingso
well one of the
twigs which
helped to sup-
port the gray
wall of the nest.
It was rather
the case of an
alert animal ly-
ing still or in
hiding until a
present danger
might be past.
If you kept your
position long
enough, the bird
would drop to
the ground,
where joined by
her mate both
would hop
about in the

grass chipping nervously, but keeping well out of sight. On
approaching one of the nests still later when there were young,
the female was usually overtaken in the act of brooding. At
such times it was easy to walk slowly to the nest and place your
hand close to the brooding bird. But before allowing you actu-
ally to touch her, she would flit to the grass, and with spread
wings and tail practice that "art of feigning" as it is usually
called, although it is not an art or anything learned or practised
for the occasion, but an inherited instinct, the end and advantage

Fig. 144. Female Chestnut-sided Warbler inspecting her
young after having served food.

238 Wild Birds

of which is to distract your attention from the nest to the moving
bird. One day I stood by and watched the little mother to see
how long her antics would last. She would come within a yard
of my feet when I remained perfectly quiet, and trail her wings
along the ground, making repeated sallies back and forth, flying
only when close pressed, and then always away from her nest.
On one occasion this was kept up from ten to fifteen minutes,
and did not cease until I withdrew.

My experiments at the first nest were begun on June i2th,
by clearing away the bushes in front. The tent was set up two
feet away on the morning of the isth, while the little hen was
still sitting over the eggs. She would dart out of the nest
return and take a peep inside, sit for a few minutes and be off.
When all was quiet, she could be seen jumping in and out re-
peatedly, as if equally uncomfortable whether away from her
treasures or hugging them close. In the course of half an hour
it was easy to photograph the sitting bird, who now paid little
heed to the shutter, and remained undisturbed on the nest
during my preparation for leaving.

On the following day the old bird was still persistently sitting,
and even allowed me to erect the tent close beside her without
budging. When finally driven off by the hand, she uttered a
few tseeps and returned in a moment. Once the male came,
and as I supposed placed an insect in the nest, when his mate,
who stood close by, hopped to the brim, put down her head, and
as I thought ate the food, but no, she was feeding the little ones,
for she was now a mother. Four young birds, scarcely bigger
than bumblebees, had just emerged from their shells. They
must have been hatched since noon of the previous day.

On the third day these Warblers paid no attention to either
the tent or the operator, and before going away I was able to
touch the bird on the nest, though not without sending her off.
The fourth day found their confidence undiminished, for the
sitting bird eagerly seized a grasshopper which I offered from
the hand stretched through the tent window. Four days later
still I spent nearly seven hours with these Warblers, and in the
afternoon began to test more systematically the strength of the

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 239

intimacy which we had cultivated. Taking a long twig in the
hand and reaching through the window in the front of the tent,
I touched the old bird. She resented this but little, and when
her back was scratched seemed to like the sensation. Then I
left the tent to look for insects, and after a long search returned

Fig. 145. Offering grasshopper to a Chestnut-sided Warbler who has been tamed
without use of a cage. It was possible to approach this bird and stroke her back
with the hand, without giving alarm.

with a few small grasshoppers. When one of these was offered,
the bird would eye the squirming insect and try to seize it when
held within reach. Wishing to economize, I held on to the
insect and nearly pulled the bird off the nest.

After discarding the tent I was able to walk up to this bird
and stroke her back with my hand without disturbing her in
the least. Setting up the camera outside and attaching a tube
with pneumatic bulb at the end, I made a number of photographs

240 Wild Birds

which show the Warbler sharply eying an insect and prepared
to seize it when held a few inches away. It would have been
an easy matter to take her in the hand, though possibly not
without injury to the young. Their early flight from the nest
cut short any further experiments, but what could not have
been done with a bird who had become so tame and confiding
in the course of a few days ?

The foregoing account does not necessarily imply that a
wild bird can be induced to remain docile in the presence of man
for any great length of time while still enjoying the freedom of
its wild life. If the lesson learned is to be a permanent acquisi-
tion, it must be often repeated, and no other teachers allowed
to interfere. To effect this the animal must, as a rule, be placed
under restraint or in a cage, where its experiences are more uni-
form, more limited, and under perfect control.

In free life a new habit must struggle with other competitors
and is liable to be suppressed quickly. However, I think it has
been clearly shown that in the beginnings of the taming process
which have been illustrated, where no physical restraint is used,
the sense of fear must be combated by a stronger and contrary
impulse, such as hunger or the parental instincts, which will
lead the bird to undergo new experiences, and finally to adopt
new habits.

That many birds become tame in a state of nature is well
known and the subject is full of interest. The Pine Grosbeak is
as good an illustration of the fact as may be found in this part of
the world. I remember meeting a flock of these plump, stalwart-
looking birds in a grove of sapling pines on the last day of
February. The woods on every side were hoary with snow
which had been falling for hours. When a young pine drooping
under its weight of snow suddenly blossomed with a bright com-
pany of these birds, you might travel far to find a more attractive
winter picture. A bird would sometimes drop on a branch, and
settle down as if going to sleep. Then suddenly aroused by the
desire for food he would sidle to the end of the bough, pick out
the terminal or largest bud, twirl it between his stout cone-
shaped mandibles to get rid of the scales, and then swallow the

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 241

resinous morsel. After seeing this experiment performed a good
many times, I selected a handsome male, walked up to him,°and
caught him with my hat, as if he were a butterfly. When I
stooped to pick him off the snow, he squeaked and struck vio-

Fig. 146. Chestnut-sided Warbler family. The male, perched
above, has just delivered an insect to his mate, who quickly
passed it to the young and continued to brood.

lently with his beak, uttering a peculiar car-r-r-r-r! When
placed on the snow again he flapped about for a few moments
resisting every attempt to take him, and finally rose and dis-
appeared among the snow-laden trees. There were about fifty
birds in this flock and the grove resounded with their clear
whistled notes. They were easily approached at all times and
in all weathers, during the early weeks of their visit, agreeing in

242 Wild Birds

this respect with the Bohemian Waxwing, the Arctic repre-
sentative of the Cedar-bird.

This tameness found among many Arctic species has been met
with on a much wider scale in remote oceanic islands, where man
is almost unknown and where the conditions of life are very
different from those of the mainland. Darwin remarks I that
the most anomalous fact on this subject which he had met was
the wildness of certain small birds in the Arctic portions of
North America, while some of the same species were said to be
tame in their winter quarters in the United States. "How
strange it is," says he, "that the English wood-pigeon, generally
so wild a bird, should very frequently rear its young in shrub-
beries close to houses!"

Respecting the wildness which birds exhibit towards man,
Darwin could find no way of accounting for it except as in-
herited habit, but in another work, he thus refers to the same
subject 2: "If we look to successive generations, or to the race,
there is no doubt that birds and other animals gradually both
acquire and lose caution in relation to man and other enemies ;
and this caution is certainly in chief part an inherited habit or
instinct, but in part the result of individual experience."

The observations which have been made on the behavior of
old and young birds do not support any theory of the inheritance
of habits to account for tameness in animals, but as already
shown afford a better clue of how this has been brought about.
Let us go back to the Pine Grosbeak which, when fresh from his
sub-Arctic home, can be approached and caught with your hat
as could many of the birds in the Galapagos Islands when
Darwin visited them in 1835. So far as I know, no one has
studied the young of this species in the nest and ascertained
whether they show the same instincts of fear in general toward
strange sights and sounds, as we find in passerine birds nesting
farther south. Assuming that they do, and there can be little
doubt of it, the instinct has lapsed through disuse in adult life,
although the capacity of expressing fear remains and may be

1 Journal of Researches, chapter xvii.

2 The Descent of Man, p. 80.

Taming Wild Birds without a Cage 243

quickly aroused and directed towards particular objects. The
timidity of this bird in March after a brief experience with the
ways of men is therefore virtually an acquired character, and
there is no evidence that it is handed down by inheritance.

The breeding range of many northern birds covers a vast area,
and in different sections there is reason to expect much variation
in the habits of the same species. The timidity of the Arctic
birds referred to may have been due to local conditions affecting
a relatively small number, or the birds may have been young
individuals whose intuitive fear had not been worn away, or old
ones possessed of a wisdom derived from extensive travel south-
ward. Among birds which are reputed to be shy, tamer indi-
viduals are to be found, and many acquire the habit of nesting in
gardens and often close to houses. In the Galapagos Islands,
where birds had lived in comparative security for ages with no
fierce and relentless enemies to mar their tranquillity, the in-
stinct of fear had not only lapsed, but the power of forming new
habits had weakened. It is therefore not surprising that they
should be slow in acquiring a fear of man, but any animal which
finally fails in the face of constant persecution to profit by ex-
perience has touched the lowest depths of stupidity, and its
days are numbered.

INDEX

Abdomen, size and secondary use
of, in young, 220

Accessories, or bird-photographer's
outfit, enumerated, 71

Alarm calls, in House Wren, 39 ;
in Great Herring Gull, 55; in
Catbird, 122; in Robin, 223; ef-
fect of, upon birds of other spe-
cies, 224

Allantois, or respiratory sac, eaten
by Gull, 173

Allen, Charles A., 218

Alligator, nest and guarding in-
stinct of, 146

Altrices, definition of, 214; devel-
opment of fear in young of, 219;
fate of young due to premature
development of fear in, 219-220;
specialization of fear in young of,
221

Animal behavior, qualifications of
the student of, xix; interest and
difficulties in study of, 194; gen-
eral theory and analysis of, 195-
196

Animal photography, general re-
quirements of, in birds, 63-68

Animals, the evil of anthropomor-
phism in study of, xvii; duty and
privilege of student of, xviii; the
responses and hereditary equip-
ment of, 195-196; vulgar error
concerning, 229; variable per-
sonalities of, 229; winning con-
fidence of, 229-232; origin of
natural wildness and tameness
of, 229, 243; conditions of tam-
ing, 230-231

Anthropomorphism, evil of, in
study of animal behavior, xvii

Approach to the wild bird, the
problem of, and its solution, 66

Audubon, John James, xxi, 146,
182, 189, 232, 234

Baltimore Oriole. See Oriole
Bees and ants, the instincts of, 203
Bird-photography. See Photog-
raphy
Bird-study, history of new method

of, xix

Birds, guiding senses of, 6; rudi-
mentary condition of olfactory
organ in, 6 ; number of species of,
7 ; emotional life of , 7 ; tempera-
ture of body of, 7; routine in
home life of, 9, 90, 199; pug-
nacity of, 10 ; actions of, when
nest is robbed, 13-14; attach-
ment to nest, eggs, and young in,
15, 27; effect of noise of photo-
graphic shutter upon, 15, 68; ef-
fect of sounds upon, 15, 207;
maternal instincts of, 15; appear-
ance of feather-shafts in young
of, 16; behavior of, after change
of nesting site, 20, 49, 74, 118;
individualities of , 20, 72; interest
in watching nesting habits of, at
short range, 33-34; respiration of
(Redwing Blackbird), 47; diges-
tion, assimilation, and growth of
young of, 106, 186-188, 193;
sleep of, 112; effect of alarm calls
of, on birds of other species, 124,
224; care of eggs by, 170-171;
treatment of cast-off shells by,
172; care of young in nest of, 173;
discrimination of eggs by, 173;
brooding attitudes of, 175-180;
spreading of, in sun, 177-178;
behavior of, during incubation,
179, 224; gaping and yawning

245

246

Index

Birds — Continued.

of, 1 80; automatic response in
gullet of young of, 181, 182, 199,
economy of food in, 183, 193;
struggles with insects at nest of,
184; inspection and cleaning of
nest in, 188-193; use °f excreta
of young as food by, 189-193;
force of habit displayed in, 204;
adaptability of, 207; change of
diet in, 210; mental life of, 212;
fear in old and young of, 214-
227; use of pot-belly in young of,
220; lack of discrimination in
young of, 221; taming of, 230;
tanieness of, in nature, 240; at
Galapagos Islands, 242; wild-
ness of, in Arctic America, 242;
(see under names of species)

Blackbird, Crow, or Purple Grackle
(Quiscalus quiscala) , nest-clean-
ing instincts of, 189

Blackbird, European (Merulaatra),
habits of, 178; food of, 181

Blackbird, Redwing (Agelaeus phce-
niceus), preparation of nesting
site of, for use of tent, 45 ; be-
havior of, 47 ; erection of feathers
in female of, 47; respiration of,
47 ; flight of young from nest of,
48; eating of excreta of young
by, 189; force of habit displayed
in, 208-209

Black cherry tree as aviary in late
summer, 102

Blackwall, John, xxi, 189

Bluebird (Sialia sialis), feeding
young in, 73 ; arrival of, at Cleve-
land, O., 84; call-notes of, 115;
choice and care of nesting site in,
1 1 6 ; displacement of nest of, 1 1 6 ;
general habits of, 116-121; nest-
hole of, 116; polygamy in, 116;
behavior of, after removal of
nest, 1 1 8 ; strength of parental in-
stincts in, 1 1 8, 121 ; use of tail
for support in, 1 1 8 ; food of young
of, 120; nest- cleaning of, 120;
defense of nest of, 121; individu-
ality and pugnacity of, 121; num-
ber of broods of, 121; rate of
feeding young in, 121; repair of
nest in, 121

Breeding season, lateness of, in
Cedar-bird and Goldfinch, 87

Brooding in Robin, 46, 47, 173-
174; in Redwing Blackbird, 47;
in Red-eyed Vireo, 112; in Night
Hawk, 134; in Cedar-bird, 173;
importance of, 173; in Brown
Thrush, 174; in Kingbird, 174—
175; in Chestnut-sided Warbler,
175; behavior of birds in, 179;
in Flicker, 224

Broods, number of, in Robin and
Bluebird, 12; in House Sparrow,
13; in domestic Pigeon, 13

Brown Thrush. See Thrush

Burlington (Vt.), arrival of Robins
at, 84; nest of Black Duck at,
219

Cairo, Shoe-Bill in zoological gar-
dens of, 178

Call- notes of Cedar-bird, 37, 92;
of House Wren, 40; of Robin,
77; of Red-eyed Vireo, 103; of
Bluebird, 115; of Night Hawk,
134; of Kingfisher, 139—140

Camera, value of, in portrayal of
animals in action, xxiv; its rela-
tion to the work of the artist,
xx v; size, construction, best
forms of, for field work, 63 ; the
twin lens, 65 ; the reflecting, in-
vention, and history of , 65

Cats; as enemies of young birds, 28 ;
how to protect young birds from,
29, 63

Catbird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis),
shyness of, 14, 122; alarm notes
of, 122; minute observations on,
122-128; behavior of young of,
124, 126, 128; development of
wing-quills in young of , 125, 128;
rate of feeding young in, 126;
suppression of fear in, 126; cap-
ture_of dragon- flies by, 127; eat-
ing of excreta of young by, 128;
attracted by alarm of Robin, 224

Cedar-bird, Cedar- Waxwing (Am-
pelis cedroruni), the nesting of,
36,87-91,93; removal of nesting
bough of, 36, 91; call-notes of,
37,92; care of young by, 38, 92,
100; flight of young of, 38, 98;
winter flocks of, 52; spring and

Index

247

Cedar- Bird — Continued.

fall behavior of, 86, 87; late
breeding of, 86; breeding season
of, at Northfield, N. H., 86; quiet
nature of, 87; appendages to
feathers of wings and tails in
young and adult of, 87; food of,
87, 102; favorite nesting trees
and bushes of, 88; position, ma-
terials, and construction of nest
of, 88-89, 147; eggs, and num-
ber of young of, reared, 90; early
weakness of parental instincts of,
90; desertion of nest in, 90; the
hatching of, 90, 187; routine in
nesting habits of, 90, 95; re-
gurgitation of food for young in,
92, 100; number of berries car-
ried in gullet of. 92; function of
gullet in, 92, 181; inspection and
cleaning the nest by, 93 . 1 89 ; sud-
den appearance of sense of fear in
nestlings of, 93, 98 ; time occupied
in building nest by, 93; laying,
incubating, and hatching of eggs
in, 93, 94; young of, at birth,
94; age of young of, when eyes
open, 94; development of black
line through eye in, 99 ; upright
postures in young and adult of,
99. 100; rate of feeding of young
in, 100 ; similarity in sexes of,
101; nocking of, in August, 102;
habit of sipping maple sap in,
102; gaping habit in, 1 80; glut-
tony of, 181-182 ; peculiar signals
at nest of, 183; rate of growth
and weight of young of, 187-188;
eating excreta of young by, 190;
parasites in nest of, 191; reac-
tions of mother and child in,
198-199

Chebec or Least Flycatcher (Em-
pidonax minimus) , nesting scene
of, 61; nest-building and re-
markable nest of, 159

Cherry Bird. See Cedar-bird

Chick, domestic, development and
hatching of, 170-172; instincts
of, 218-219

Chickadee (Pants atricapillus),
during incubation, 179; cleanli-
ness of, 188; attracted by Robin's
alarm, 224; habits and tameness
of, 232

Cicada, eaten by young of Cedar-
bird, 10 1 ; struggles of King-
birds with, 184; of House Spar-
row with, 1 86

Clamp, the "Graphic" ball-and-
socket, 68

Cleaning instinct, 188. See In-
stinct

Cleveland, O., spring arrival of
Robins and Bluebirds at, 84;
Canada geese at, 234

Color, discrimination of, in Cedar-
bird, 93; in Robin, 158

Cowbird (Molothrus ater), young of,
in Warbler's nest, 222; nursed
by Chipping Sparrow, 222

Crossbills, American (Loxia cur-
virostra minor), early nesting of,

87

Crow (Corvus americanus) , dis-
placement of nest of, 24

Cuckoo (Coccyzus) , young of Eng-
lish, reared by Titlarks, xxi; ap-
pearance of feather-shafts in, 1 6

Cycle, the reproductive, in birds,
7; minor components of, 9;
repetition of, 12, 13

D

Darwin, Charles, 242

Dearborn, Ned, 21

Development, of chick, 170; length
of period of, in birds, 172; and
growth of Cedar Waxwing, 187-
188

Dragon-fly, capture and killing of,
by Kingbirds, 52, 184; as food of
young Warbling Vireos, 53; as
food of young Catbirds, 123, 127

Duck, Black (Anas obscura), ab-
sence of fear in newly hatched
young of, 218; nesting of, 219;
behavior of young of, when pos-
sessed of fear, 219

Eagle, behavior of, when nesting,

compared with that of Night

Hawk, 130-131
Earthworms, fed to young Robins,

75, 79; habits and tropisms of,

196, 197

248

Index

Economy of food, in Robin, 74;
in Red-eyed Vireo, 109; in the
Kingbird 1 83

Edwards, Professor C. L., 170

Eggs, by Flicker, 13; largest num-
ber of, produced by domestic
fowls, 13 ; strength of attachment
to, 27; treatment of, when ad-
dled, by Tern, 33-34; of King-
bird, 49 ; incubation of, in Robin,
72; lateness of laying of, in Ce-
dar-bird, 90; laying and incuba-
tion of, in Cedar-bird, 93-94;
hatching of, in Night Hawk, 129;
treatment of, by Gulls, 165;
' ' runt ' ' and abnormal variations
of, 167; color and size of, 168;
the turning of, by Gull, 169,-! 71;
time of laying of, in Chipping
Sparrow, 169; development of,
in fowl, 170; physiological zero-
point of, in fowl, 170; treatment
of, by domestic and wild birds,
171; treatment of cast-off shells
of, 172; behavior of birds when
incubating, 179; relation of size
of, to condition of young at birth,
214; of Canada Goose hatched
under hen, 234

Egg-tooth, 172

Egypt, ancient illustrations of
bird-life of, xxii, 177-178

Embryo, growth of, in fowl, 170-
172

Excreta, disposition of, by House
Wren, 43 ; actions of Cedar-birds
in taking, devouring, or remov-
ing, from nest, 98, 99, 191; dis-
posal of, by parents, 188-193;
character of, in young passerine
birds, 189; use of, as food by
adult birds, 189-190; nest-clean-
ing in Flicker, 191; use of, as food
in Chestnut-sided Warblers, 193

Experiments in change of nest-
site tabulated, 21

Eyes, opening of, in young Cedar-
birds, 94, 1 88; in young Red-
eyed Vireo, 103

Fauna of Galapagos Islands, pe-
culiar character of, 242, 243

Fear, the suppression of, 6, 14; de-
velopment of, in relation to ap-
pearance of feather-shafts of
wings, 1 6; in Cedar-bird, 37, 95,
102; suppression of, in House
Wren, 39-41; in Redwing Black-
bird, 47; in Kingbird, 49; in
Catbird, 76, 78; in Robin, 77;
appearance of, in young Cedar-
bird, 97, 98; in young of Red-
eyed Vireo, no; suppression of,
in adult Bluebird, 116, 117; de-
velopment of, in young Catbirds,
128; checked by brooding in-
stinct, 179; nature, time of ap-
pearance, sudden ^manifestation,
and adaptive value of, 214-217;
in Kingfisher, 217; instinct of,
in domestic chick, 218; in duck-
lings of Black Duck, 218; of
Hawk in sky, expressed by chick,
219; distinction between inher-
ited and acquired, 221; expres-
sion of, in Robin, 223; in the
Flicker, 224; checked by hunger,
240

Feathers, development of, as guide
in controlling nesting site, 16;
development of, in Cuckoos, 16;
in Cedar-bird, 87, 99; develop-
ment of, in Red-eyed Vireos, 103,
no; in Catbirds, 125, 128; in
Kingfisher, 140, 141; in Night
Hawk, 129, 135; development
of, relation to fear, 217

Feather-shafts, appendages of, in
Cedar- bird, 87

Field-notes, method of recording,
70

Fighting instinct. See Pugnacity

Fireflies as food of young Night
Hawk, 134

Fish, captured by Kingfisher, 138;
resources of Kingfisher to pre-
vent escape of, 145

Flash Gun, 70

Flicker (Colaptes auratus) , the egg-
laying capacity of, 13; sense of
fear blocked by brooding in-
stinct in, 27; strength of brood-
ing instinct in, 224; feeding
young of, 224-226

Fly, robber (Asilus), fed to young
of Bluebird, 118, 120; escape of,
from grasp of Kingbird, 183-184

Index

249

Focusing-cloth, adjustment of, in
tent, 60-6 1

Food, of young Cedar-birds, 38, 92,
100 ; of the House Wren, 43 ; econ-
omy of, in Kingbird, 52, 183; of
Kingbird, 52, 183, 184, 209-210;
of young Robins, 74, 82, 210; of
Robin in summer and winter,
83-84; of Cedar-bird, 87, 102;
distribution of, to nestlings ex-
plained, 92; and its distribution
in Red-eyed Vireos, 108-110;
economy of, in Red-eyed Vireos,
109; of young Bluebirds, 120; of
young Catbirds, 127-128; of
young Night Hawk, 134; of young
Kingfishers, 140, 144; of Euro-
pean Blackbird, 181 ; economy of,
in Chestnut-sided Warbler, 193;
of birds under exceptional con-
ditions, 2 1 1 ; of young Flicker, 226

Foster-children, treatment of, by
Kingbird, 51; treatment of, by
Chipping Sparrow, 222-223

Fowl (Callus bankiva var. domes-
tica), production of eggs in, 13;
strength of incubating instinct
in, 27, 179; physiological zero-
point in development of, 170;
normal temperature in develop-
ment of, 170; eating its eggs,
170; turning its eggs, 171

Fruits, fed to young by Cedar-
birds, 38, 100 ; fed to young, by
Robins, 83; eaten by Robin in
winter. 83; cultivated, eaten as
makeshift, 83-84; served to
young of Red-eyed Vireos, no;
served to young, of Catbird, 128

Galapagos Islands, observations of

Darwin on fauna of, 242, 243
Gaping, habit of, in birds, 180
Gluttony in Cedar-birds, 181-182
Goldfinch, American (Spinus tris-
tis) , lateness of breeding and food
of young of, 87; attracted by
Robin's alarm, 224
Goose, Canada (Branta canaden-
sis), tameability and breeding of,

Grampus (Corydalus cornutus), as

food of young Kingbirds, 186,
187

Grasshoppers, treatment of, by
Wrens, 41, 74, 100, 118

Groos, Karl, xviii

Grosbeak, Pine (Pinicola enuclea-
tor), habits, and relative tame-
ness of, in winter and spring,
240; capture of male of, with
hat, 241; character of fear in,
242-243

Gull, Great Herring (Larus argen-
tatus smithsonianus) , diffusion of
nest-building instinct in, 12; ap-
plication of method to the study
of, 34; nest-cleaning of, 55;
alarm calls of, 55; sleeping hab-
its of, 112; significance of grass-
pulling and wood-splitting habits
of, 163-165; repair of nests in,
164-165; turning of eggs by,
171; the eating of the allantois,
or respiratory sac, by, 173

Gullet, automatic response of, in
young birds, 92, 182, 198, 199;
distensibility of, in the Cedar-
bird, 92, 100 ; effect of full, in
young, 181

H

Habit, definition and illustrations
of, 204-207; of sipping maple
sap in Cedar-bird, 101; manner
of approach to nest of Red-eyed
Vireo, 206; of walking backward
and sitting still in young King-
fishers, explained, 136; of eating
excreta, how acquired in a
hungry bird, 193; illustration of ,
in nest-cleaning, 208; plasticity
of, in reference to food, 210, 211;
of fear of special obiects, 221,
227; inheritance of, 212; evolu-
tion of, 213

Hawks, instinct of spreading over
prey in, 202; feeding on locusts,
2ii ; effect of, on chicks, 219

Hunger, effect of, on nestlings, 198-
199 in relation to fear, 230-23 1

Incubation, period of, in Kingbird,
49; in Robin, 72; in Cedar- bird,

250

Index

Incubation, period of, — Continued.
93-94; in Chipping Sparrow,
170; origin and evolution of in-
stinct of, 146; behavior of birds
during, 179

Insects, treatment of, by Wrens, 41 ;
struggles of birds with, 184-186;
instincts of, 203

Inspection of young and nest, the
importance and significance of,
188-193; {see also under names
of species)

Instincts and life of birds, the needs
of the student of, xxi ; Select
bibliography of, xxiii; the build-
ing (see Nest- Building) ; as key to
problem of approach to wild
birds, 6 (see also under names of
species); the parental, analysis
of, 6, 7; the fighting, 10 (see Pug-
nacity); of fear, suppression of,
by parental instincts, 14-15 (see
Fear); in Great Herring Gull, 55;
of preening in young, 104; prey-
ing, in young Red-eyed Vireos,
1 08; of hiding or concealment in
relation to eggs, 147; of shield-
ing or spreading over young,
176-178; of inspection and sani-
tation in birds, 188-193; defini-
tion and analysis of, 196-198;
illustrations of , 198-203; of nest-
ling, 198, 199; relation of, to re-
flexes, 199-200 ; of Chimney Swift
in nest-building, 208; use of par-
ental, in taming birds, 234-240;
of "feigning" in Chestnut-sided
Warbler, 237

Intelligence, the marks of, 211-
212; evolution of, 213

J

Jay, Canada, Moosebird (Perisoreus
canadensis) , tameness and habits
of, 232-233

K

Kearton, the brothers, blinds de-
signed by, 58-59

Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus}, the
time spent by young of, in dis-
placed nest, 26; the breeding of,
49; habits and nest-life of, 49-

53; disposal of excreta by, 105;
economy of food, in 183 ; exciting
scenes at nest of , 184; attracted
by alarms of other birds, 224;
perched on fishing-rod, 229
Kingfisher, the Belted (Ceryle al-
cyon), general habits and home
life of, 136-145; dimensions of
subterranean nest of, 136; use
of tarsus of foot of, 136; habits
of young of, 138-145; habit of
walking backward, how acquired
in young of , 138 ; use of tent before
tunnel of, 138-139; notes of adult
and young of, 139, 140; colors in
young of, 140-141; the feeding
habits of young of, 140; peculiar
expression in young of, 141; de-
velopment of fear in young of,
144; habits of young of, in cap-
tivity, 144-145; moving nesting
chamber by, 144; structure of
oesophagus and bill of, 145 ; trick
of, 145

Leaves, plucking or cutting of,
about a nest, 20, 31; keeping
fresh on branches cut from trees
of various kinds, 32; result of
cutting of, at Catbird's nest, 128

Lenses, kinds of, available for pho-
tographing wild animals, 65-68;
the Anastigmat, 66; qualities of ,
most needed in animal photog-
raphy, 66; long focus, 66-67;
telephoto, 68

Life, the most striking characteris-
tic of, 195

Locust, Rocky Mountain, eaten by
birds during plague, 211

Loeb, Jacques, xviii, 197

Lucerne, Switzerland, habits of the
Ousel or Blackbird at, 178; cap-
ture of snake by Blackbird at,
181

Lures, the young as, 15, 1 6; as a
means of taming, 230

M

Maple sap, sipping of, by Cedar-
birds, 102

Index

251

Matinicus Rock, Maine, the Terns
of, 1 66

Megapode or Brush Turkey, nest-
ing habits of, 146

Methods of bird-photography, the
old, xix; the new, 1-35; analy-
sis of the new, 6-16; application
of, 1 6-2 1 ; precautions to be ob-
served in use of, 18-21; extent
of application of, 21-25; table
of experiments in, 21-25; ob-
jections to, 28-33; advantages
of, 33-35; fascination of, 34;
illustrations of, 36-55; history
of development of, xix, 91-92;
see also under names of species

Mirrors, use of, 71

Mites, parasitic, on young of Cedar-
bird, 191

Montagu, Col. G. (Ornithological
Dictionary of British Birds), xxi

Morgan, Lloyd, xviii, 227

Moths, habits and tropisms of,
197

Mouse, Deer- or White-footed (Hes-
peromys leucopus), nest of Red-
eyed Vireo occupied by, 114

X

Naturalist, duty and privilege of,
xviii; patience of, 30

Nest, of House Sparrow, 13; dis-
placement of, in Common Tern,
33; in House Wren, 43; in Great
Herring Gull, 55; photographing,
when inaccessible to tent, 68; of
Cedar-bird, 88-89, 93, 147; de-
struction of, in Red-eyed Vireo,
113; of same, used by Deer-
mouse, 114; of Red-eyed Vireo,
occupied by Yellow Warbler, 114;
of Night Hawk, 129, 134; of
Kingfisher, 136; function of, 148;
imperfect, 148; of Robin, 148-
159; variety and type-form of,
1 48 ; movement of nesting cham-
ber in Kingfisher, 149; remark-
able example of, in Chebec, 160;
of Great Herring Gull, 162; of
Phoebe, 165; inspection and sani-
tation of, 188-193 ; parasites of, in
Cedar- bird, 191, 192; of Chimney
Swift, 207-209; adaptation in

character, and position of, 209;
of Black Duck, 219; of Magnolia
Warbler, 222; of Chestnut-sided
Warbler, 236

Nest-building, in the Phoebe, n,
165; in Great Herring Gull, 12,
162; in Alligator, 146; in Mega-
pode or Brush Turkey, 146; in
Robin, 148; proof of instinctive
character of, 158; in Chebec, 159;
in Chipping Sparrow, 161; phil-
osophy of, 165; (Sporadic and
diffuse character of instinct of,
in Great Herring Gull, 165; in
Terns, 166

Nest-life in birds, the best period
for student of, xxi; the oldest
illustrations of, xxii, 177-178

Nesting site, displacement of, in
Chipping Sparrow, Redwing
Blackbird, and Cedar Waxwings,
xix; control of, 2-5; when to
change, 16-17 ; the choice of new,
by operator, 1 7 ; accidents due
to change of, guarded against,
18-20; experiments in change
of, tabulated, 21-25; attachment
of birds to, 27; of Kingfisher to,
136; importance of cleanliness
of, in passerine birds, 188; un-
usual, in Chimney Swift, 207-209

Nestling, rate of, growth and de-
velopment of, 1 86; comparison
of growth of, with that of human
infant, 188

Nidification. See Nest-Building

Night Hawk, Bull-bat (Chordeiles
virginianus) , behavior of, during
incubation, 129; hatching of,
129; nest life and habits of, 129-
134; expression of fear in old
and young of, 130-131; the
growth of, 131-134; call and
alarm notes of, 132, 134; coral-
ling the young of, 132; en-
counter of young of, with snake,
132; feeding habits in young of,
132, 134; the feeding of young
of, 132-133; illumination of
throat of, 134; fledgling of, 135

No Man's Island, Maine, Hernng
Gulls at, 54

Northfield, N. H., breeding of,
Cedar-birds at, 86; nesting of
Kingfisher at, 136

252

Index

Objections to method considered,
28-33

Observations, from tent, the best
time for, 18; method of record-
ing, 70

Observatory, outdoor, for study of
life and instinct of birds, 16;
see Tent

Oriole, Baltimore (Icterus balti-
more), cleaning instinct in, 189;
lack of discrimination in young
of, 220-221; summoned by
alarm of Robin, 224

Osprey, the American, or Fish
Hawk (Pandion haliaetus caro-
linensis), attachment of, to nest,
27; reputed intelligence of , 165

Ostrich (Struthio camelus), period
of incubation in, 172

Ovarian tube, treatment of eggs by,
167

Owls, change of feeding habits in,
211

P

Parasites on nest and young of
Cedar- bird, 191, 192

Parental instinct, as key to problem
of approach to wild birds, xx;
early recognition and illustra-
tions of, xxi; analysis of, 6-16;
definition of , 14; possible failures
of, 29

Parker, John B., 21

Pelican, spreading habit of, 177;
yawning habit of, 180

Pheasants, sleeping habit of, 113

Phcebe, duplication of nests by, n,
165

Phosphorescence, display of, in
Night Hawk, 134

Photography of birds, develop-
ment of new method of, xix;
new method of, described, 1-6;
its conditions, 2 ; its principles
analyzed, 6; mode of procedure
in, 17; precautions in use of, 18-
2 1 ; extent of application of, 21;
experiments in, tabulated, 21—
25; objections to, considered, 28;
advantages of, 33; illustrations
of, 36-55; the tools of, 56-71;
of birds after they have been

tamed, in House Wren, 41; in
Chestnut-sided Warbler, 239

Pigeons, domestic (Columba livia,
var. domestica) , incubation and
broods of, 13; desertion of
young by, 29; tameability of,
228

Pigeon, English Wood, habit of,
242

Plates, photographic, exposure, de-
terioration of, carriage and care
of, 70; orthochromatic, 70

Polygamy in Bluebirds, 116

Popular natural history, defects of
xvii

Prascoces, 214

Precautions to be observed in
change of nesting site, 18

Precision in instinctive acts of
young birds, 108, 211, 212

Preening instinct in young Vireos,
104; favorite perches for, 178

Pugnacity, the instinct of, 10, n;
in Kingbirds, 49; in Great Her-
ring Gull, 55; in Robins, 76; in
Red-eyed Vireos, 108; in Blue-
bird, 12 1 ; of Kingfisher, 13 8; role
of, in development of instinct of
incubation, 146; in domestic
fowls, 179; in Tropic Bird, 179

Quail, Bob White (Colinus vir-
ginianus), sleeping habits of, 112

Reaction. See Response

Red-eyed Vireo. See Vireo

Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla), de-
sertion of nest by young of, 216;
attracted by Robin's alarm, 224

Redwing. See Blackbird

Reflex action, in spreading, 178; in
swallowing, 181; definition and
illustrations of, 197-198; in
young of Cedar-bird, 199

Regurgitation of indigested food in
Kingbirds, 52; in Gulls, 55, 165;
in Cedar- birds, 92, 100; in
Vireos, 106

Reproduction, cycle of, in birds, 7,
9

Index

253

Respiration, in Redwing Black-
bird, 47

Response, of throat and gullet of
nestling, 92, 198-199; as charac-
teristic of life, 195; the signifi-
cance and analysis of, 195—196

Robin (Menila migratoria) , history
of, 72-85; egg-laying and incu-
bation of, 72, 155; disposal of
excreta of young by, 74, 190-191;
economy of food in, 74; feeding
young in, 74-80; flight from nest
of, 76, 82; instincts of young,
76, 82; pugnacity of, 76, 179;
notes of, for arousing young, 7 7 ;
parental instincts of, 77, 79-82;
panoramic scenes at nest of, 79-
82 ; food of nestlings of, 83 ; fruits
eaten by, 83, 84; in winter, 83;
spring arrival of, 84; nests of
second broods of, 85 ; nest-build- .
ing of, 148-159; building record
of, 156; illustration of intelligence
of, 158; formation of habits in,
205-206; effect of alarm of, on
cock at nest, 223

Sac, the yolk, 170-172; disposition
of excreta by birds, 188-193;
of excreta, 1 89 ; peculiar actions
in dealing with, in Robin, 191;
in Chestnut-sided Warbler, 193

Sakkara, pictures from tombs of,
xxii, 177

Sanitation of nest, 188-193

Screens, for protection of nests,
their construction and use, 16,
63; photographic, construction,
use, and advantages of, 17, 39,
62, in

Shark, swimming instinct in young
of, 20 1

Shielding or spreading, instinct of,
at nest, and in sun, 176-177;
ancient Egyptian pictures of,
177; reflex character of , 178

Shoe-bill or Whale-headed Stork
(Bal&niceps rex), sun-bath of,

J77

Shutter, concealment of observer,
while adjusting, 60, 62; a desid-
eratum in, 68; iris diaphragm, 68;

time marks and rapidity of, 68
69 ; focal plane, 69

Sim, Robert J., 102

Sleep, habits of, in birds, 112

Snake, rescue of Vireo from, in-
encounter of young Night Hawk
with, 132; capture of, by Euro-
pean Blackbird, 181

Sounds, effect of, upon birds, 15,
no, 207

Sparrow, Chipping (Spizella soci-
alis) , winter lodges and broods of,
1 3 , 1 64 ; suppression of fear in, 1 4 ;
House (Passer domesticus) , pug-
nacity of, 16; nest-building of,
1 6 1 ; egg-laying and incubation
of, 169-170; habits of, during in-
cubation, 179; combat of, with
cicada, 186; song (Melospiza
fasciata), attracted by alarm of
Robin, 224; tameabillty of, 228,
231

Spiders, treatment of, by House
Wrens, 41; eaten by Cedar-
birds, 102

Stork (Ciconia alba), habits of, 228

Swallows and Martins, desertion of
young by, in fall, 1 1

Swift, Chimney (Ch&tura pelagica),
significance of change of nesting
habits in, 207—208; nesting in-
stinct in, 208; nesting of, in
barns, 209

Tameness, analysis and illustra-
tions of, 228-235; °f Canada
Jay, 232-234; of Canada Goose,
234; of Pine Grosbeak, 240-242;
of Bohemian Waxwing, 242; of
birds in the Galapagos Islands,
242-243

Taming process, conditions of, 231;
by Chestnut -sided Warblers, 236-
240; use of tent in, 236; illus-
trated by House Wrens, 238-244

Tarsus, use of, in Kingfisher, 136;
in other birds, 177

Temperature, of body, in birds, 7;
physiological zero point of, in
domestic fowl, 170; normal, in
development of fowl, 170

Tent, as an observatory for the
study of the life and instincts of
birds, 5, 15, 33; window of, 5, 60;

254

Index

Tent — Continued.

time to employ, 7 ; time required
for birds to become accustomed
to, 14-15 ; precautions in use of,
18-19; experiments in use of,
tabulated, 21-25; protection af-
forded by, 32-33; illustrations in
use of, 36-55; as an observatory
for birds, 37, 38; mounted over
water, 44-46; dimension and con-
struction of, 56-57 ; directions for
use of. 59-62; on elevated plat-
form, 64, in; as means of tam-
ing birds, 236-240

Tent-cloth, material and color of,

56, 57, 59

Tent-frame, dimensions and con-
structions of, 56-57

Tent-pins, form and use of, 57

Tent- window, position of, 60

Tern, the Common (Sterna hir-
undo), remarkable scene at nest
of, 33-34; nest-building instinct
of, 1 66

Thorndike, Edward, xviii

Throat, inflation of, in Red-eyed
Virep, 68; color of, in young
Robin, 74; response of, in young
birds, 92, 198-199; in Chestnut-
sided Warbler, 175; as target for
the parent, 199

Thrush, Brown (Harporhynchus
rufus), camping beside nest of,
174; brooding of young in, 174-
175; excreta of young eaten by,
189; attracted by alarm of
Robin, 224; Wilson's or Veery
(T Urdus fusee scens) , premature
development of fear in young of,
220

Titlark, English, illustration of
parental instinct in, xxi

Trees, keeping cut branches of,
fresh, 32

Trial movements. See Tropisms

Tripod, best forms of, 68

Tropic Bird (Phcethon flavirostris} ,
pugnacity of, during incubation,
179

Tropisms, definition and illustra-
tions of, 196-197

Venice, "doves" or pigeons of, 228
Vireo, Red-eyed (Vireo olivaceus),

coming to tent, 14; calls and
voracity of young of, 54; War-
bling (Vireo gilvus), displace-
ment of nest and habits of, 54;
habits and home-life of, 103-
114; behavior of young of, 107-
108; preying instinct in young
of, 1 08; food of young of, no;
rate of feeding at nest of, no;
by deer-mouse, 114; old nest of,
utilized by Yellow Warblers, 114;
call-notes of, 183; disposal of
excreta of young by, 189-190;
habit of approaching nest in,
206; attracted by alarm of
Robin, 224

W

Walking, instinct of, in verte-
brates, 138; peculiar habit of, in
young Kingfishers, 138

Wallace, Alfred Russell, 165

Warbler, Yellow (Dendroica (estiva)
appropriation of Red-eyed
Vireo's nest by, 114; nesting
habits of, 175-176; Chestnut-
sided (Dendroica pennsylvanica) ,
excreta of young of, eaten by,
189-190; fate of rightful young
of, 222; Magnolia (Dendroica
maculosa), as foster parent to
Cowbird, 222-223; attracted by
alarm of Robin, 224; Maryland
Yellow Throat (Geothlypis tri-
chas} , attracted by alarm of Rob-
in, 224; taming of, 236-240;
photographing without tent, 239-
240;

Waxwing, Bohemian (Ampelis gar-
rulus), tameness of, 242; Cedar,
see Cedar-bird

Whitman, C. O., xviii

Wildness, origin and nature of, 228,
242-243

Woodpecker, cleanliness of nests
of, 188; Golden Shafted, see
Flicker

Wren, House (Troglodytes aedon),
habits and home-life of, 38-44;
displacement and protection of
nest of, 39; dismemberment of
prey by, 41 ; opening nest of, 42 ;
disposal of excreta in, 43 ; bill of
fare of young of, 43; Golden

Index

255

Wren — Continued.

Crested, illustration of parental
instinct in, xxi

Young, desertion of, by Swallows
and Martins, n; of birds, as
strong lure, 15; proper age of,
for change of nest-site 16; ex-
posure of, to intense heat, 18;
danger to, from insufficient food,
20; study of, at nest, 20; cats,
as enemies of, 28-29; by Pigeons,
29; rate of feeding of, in War-
bling Vireo, 54; protection of, 63;
food of, in Goldfinch, 87; auto-
matic response in gullet of, 92,
198 ; peculiar posture of, in Cedar-
bird, 99; feeding habits of, in
Night Hawk, 132, 134; walking

backward habit of, in King-
fishers, 136, 138; habits of, in
captive Kingfishers, 145; lack of
discrimination in, 165, 166, 220-
221; development in the egg, and
hatching of, 170-172; brooding
and feeding of, 173-186; rate of
growth of, 186-188; inspection
and cleaning of, 188-193; char-
acter of excreta of, 189; use of
excreta of, as food by adults,
189-193 ; instinctive behavior of,
199; instinct of fear of, 214-220;
in domestic Chick, 218-219; fear
in Black Ducklings, 219; prema-
ture development of instinct of
fear in, 219-220; use of pot-belly
of, 220; acquisition of fear of spe-
cial objects in, 221-222; feeding
of, in Flicker, 226
Yawning in birds 180

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size of life. 8°, net, $3.00.

FIELD BOOK OF AMERICAN WILD FLOWERS

With a short description of their Character and Habits, a
Concise Definition of their Colors, and References to
the Insects which Assist in their Fertilization. By
F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS, Member of the New Eng-
land Botanical Club, and author of "Familiar
Flowers of Field and Garden," " Familiar Trees and
their Leaves," etc. 16°. With 24 Colored plates
and 200 full-page illustrations in the text, net, $1.75.
' By mail, $1.85. Full leather, net, $2.25.

NATURE STUDIES IN BERKSHIRE

By JOHN COLEMAN ADAMS. With 16 illustrations in
photogravure from original photographs by Arthur
Scott. 8°. Gilt top, in box, $4.50.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING

Notes and Suggestions on Lawns and Lawn-Planting, Lay-
ing out and Arrangement of Country Places, Large
and Small Parks, etc. By SAMUEL PARSONS, Jr., Ex-
Superintendent of Parks, New York City. With
nearly 200 illustrations. New edition. 8° . $2.00

ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS

For Garden, Lawn, and Park Planting. With :M Account
of the Origin, Capabilities, and Adaptations of the
Numerous Species and Varieties, Native and Foreign,
and Especially of the New and Rare Sorts Suited to
Cultivation in the United States. By Lucius D.
DAVIS. With over 100 illustrations. 8°, $3.50.

FIELD BOOK OF WILD BIRDS AND THEIR
MUSIC

Being a Description of the Songs and Coloring of Wild
Birds, Intended to Assist in the Identification of
Species Common in the Eastern United States. By
F. SCHUYLER MATHF.WS, author of " The Field Book
of American Wild Flowers." "Familiar Trees and
their Leaves " " Familiar Features of the Roadside,"
etc. 16°. With 53 full-page illustrations (of which
38 are colored) and numerous musical diagrams.
Cloth, net, $2.00. Full flexible leather, net, $2.50.
(Postage 15 cts.)

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