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OF HOPEWELL WORKS, ROSS COUNTY, OHIO

Field Museum of Natural History
Publication 2 1 1
Anthropological Series Volume VI, No. 5

THE HOPEWELL MOUND GROUP

OF OHIO

By

Warren K. Moorehead

Curator of Museum of American Archaeology
Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.

48 Plates and 68 Text-Figures

Berthold Laufer
Curator of Anthropology

Chicago

192:

FA

CONTENTS

Page

List of Illustrations 76

Preface 79

I. Work in the Hopewell»Mound Group 82

Relation of the Hopewell Group to Other Mound Groups 82

Detailed Description of the Hopewell Group 82

Clark's Work; North Fork of Paint Creek 83

Our Survey and Measurements ; Comments on Changes since

1845 86

Exploration of Mound No. 1 88

Exploration of Mound No. 17 90

Excavation of Mound No. 18 92

Excavation of Mound No. 19 94

Excavation of Mound No. 20 94

Excavation of Mound No. 21 95

Excavation of Mound No. 2 95

Excavation of Mound No. 24 96

Excavation of Mound No. 23 97

Excavation of Mound No. 3 and No. 9 101

Mound No. 5 102

Excavation of Mound No. 8 102

Mound No. 11 103

Excavation of Mound No. 25 103

II. Studies of the Objects Found in Hopewell Mounds . . 116

Metal: Copper Objects 116

Chipped Stone; Objects of Quartz, Crystal, and Obsidian . . 130

Ground and Polished Stone 134

Pipes 140

Mica 142

Fossils 143

Objects of Shell 1 43

Objects of Bone, Teeth, and Claws 149

Carvings on Bone 158

Pottery 165

Objects of Burned Clay 167

Textiles 168

Wooden Objects 170

Seeds 170

Conclusions 173

Bibliography of the Hopewell Group 179

Index to Volume VI 183

75

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT-FIGURES

Page

9. Serpent Tablet from Mound No. 1 88

10. Cut Human Jaws and Perforated Cranial Bones from Mound 18 . . . 93

11. Head-dress on Skeleton 248 108

12a. Head-dress of Copper from Skeletons 260 and 261 109

12b. Ornament of Tortoise Shell Found with Skeleton 281 112

13a. Outline of Copper Hatchets and Adzes 117

13&. Three Copper Hatchets from Skeleton 176 118

14. Copper Awl or Pointed Tool from Mound 25 118

15. Outlines of Plates 120

16. Buttons of Clay and Wood Covered with Copper 121

17. Construction of Ear-Ornaments 123

18. Problematical Form in Sheet Copper 126

19a. Design from a Sheet Copper of the Hopewell Group 127

igb. Design from the Cincinnati Tablet 127

20. Bone Object from a Skeleton in Mound 25, Showing a Figure with Cop-
per Head-dress 128

21. Same Object as Fig. 20, the Design being Taken Apart 128

22. Copper Cylinder 129

23. Meteoric Iron Adze Blades in Antler Handles from Altar 1 .... 130

24. Cones of Quartz Crystal 130

25. Cone of Quartz Crystal 131

26. Obsidian Implements from Altar 2 132

27. Two Sandstone Tablets from Altar 1 134

28. Seven Sandstone Tablets and Celt -like Objects from Altar 1 135

29. Hematite Plummet from Altar 2 136

30. Worked Object of Slate from Altar 2 137

31. Problematical Form in Stone from Altar 2 137

32. Problematical Form from Altar 1 138

33. Bar Amulet of Stone from Altar 1 138

34. Bird Stone 139

35. Bear's Tooth Carved from Stone from Altar 2 140

36. Stone Effigy of Tadpole (?) 141

37. Effigy of Serpentine (Owl?) 141

38. Effigy of Human Thumb Made of Cannel Coal from Skeleton 278. . . 142

39. Mica Ornament from Altar 1 143

40. Parts of Mica Ornaments 144

41. Fossil Sharks' Teeth Ornaments (a from Altar 2, b from Mound 17, c from

Mound 18) 145

42. A Fossil made into an Ornament from Altar 1 145

43. An Ornament of Shell from Altar 2 146

44. Pearl Beads Showing Methods of Perforation 147

45. Three Bone Awls from Mound 25 149

' 76

List of I llus i r vtions

77

46.

47-
48.

49-

50
51
52

53

54
55

50
57
&
59
60
61
62
63a

64.
6&
66.

67.
68.
69.
70.

71.

72.

Perforated Needles from Post-Hole in Mound 25 150

Fragment of a Bone Shuttle 150

Bear's Tooth Split and Made into an Ornament 151

Bears' Teeth Ornaments with Pearls Inserted (Specimen on the Left
from Skeleton 248, Specimens in Centre and on the Right from Skele-
ton 209) 152

Bear Teeth Ornaments, Both Sides Illustrated 153

Bear Tooth Ornament 153

Bear's Tooth Ornament Imitated in Shell 154

Cut and Ground Bears' Teeth Ornaments 155

Sectional Drawings of Teeth (a from Skeleton 241, b from Skeleton 277) . ^56

Cut and Worked Panther's and Bear's Teeth 157

Outlines Showing Perforations in Bear's Teeth 158

Imitation Bear's Tooth in Wood Covered with Copper from Skeleton 177 . 159

Imitation Bear's Tooth Carved from Antler from Skeleton 278 159

Carving Incised on Bone from Mound 25 160

Bird's Head Carved from Bone 161

Bird's Head, Probably a Raven, with a Pearl Inserted in the Eye . . 161

Decorated Bones from Altar 2 162

Tracing of a Bird's Head on Bone 163

Both Sides of the Engraved Bone 164

A Drawing of an Ocelot upon Bone 165

Effigy of a Bird Carved from Bone from Altar 2 166

Human Effigy in Antler from Altar 1 167

Human Effigy in Antler from Altar 2 168

Human Effigy Carved from Ivory or Shell from One of the Altars. . 169

Shell Ornament Found with Skeleton 278 170

Restored Pottery Vase from Altar 1 171

Clay Buttons or Beads from Mound 25 171

Fragments of Textiles from Hopewell Mounds 172

PLATES

frontispiece: Plan of Hopewell Works.

XXXVIII. View of the Terrace Occupied by the Hopewell Group;
Camp of the Survey in the Foreground.

XXXIX. Layer of Mica in Mound 17.

XL. Plan of Mound 17.

XLI. Altar in Mound 19.

XLIa. Plan of Mound 20.

XLII. Pile of Disks from Mound 2.

XLIII. Flint Disks from Mound 2.

XLIV. Plan of Mound 24.

XLV. Mound 23.

XLVI. Plan of Mound 23.

XLVII. Plan of the Sections in Mound 25.

XLVIII. Plan of Section 2 in Mound 25.

XLIX. Skeleton 248 as It Was Found in the Mound.

L. Perforated Teeth, Beads, and Broken Copper Plates Lying on the
Chest of Skeleton 248.

78

List or Illustrations

LI.
LII.

LIII.
LIV.

LV.
LVI.

LVII.

LVIII.

LIX.

LX.

LXI.

LXII.

LXIII.

LXIV.

LXV.

LXVI.

LXVII.

LXVIII.

LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI.
LXXII.

LXXIII.

LXXIV.

LXXV.

LXX VI.

LXXVII.

LXXVIII.

LXXIX.

LXXX.

LXXXI.

LXXXII.

LXXXIII.

1-3, Adze Blades; 4-8, Copper Axes.

Axe from Deposit over Skeletons 260 and 261.

Large Copper Celt-Shaped Object from Skeletons 260 and, 261.

1, Battered Disintegrated Celt; 2, Typical Copper Hatchet from

Mound 25; 3, Copper Hatchet Showing Corrugated Surface.
Copper Plates.
1-6, Copper Disks and Spoon-Shaped Objects from Mound 25; 7-10,

Four Different Ear-Ornaments from Mound 25.
Specialized Ear- Ornaments: 1-2, Ear-Ornaments Showing Repousse

Work; 3, Ear-Ornaments with Strings Around the Centre.
Bracelets.

Anklets or Bracelets.
Copper Disks.

1-4, Winged Buttons of Copper; 5-9, Unknown Forms in Copper.
1, Unknown Design in Copper; 2, Probably Serpent Head in Copper.
Designs in Copper, Probably Representing Serpents' Heads.
Unknown Designs in Copper.

1-2, Cosmic Symbols in Thin Copper; 3, Design of Sheet Copper.
Objects of Sheet Copper, Designs Unknown.
1-2, Swastikas in Copper; 3-4, Copper Objects in Open Work.
1-3, Copper Objects in Open Work; 4, Sheet Copper, Probably

Representing Head of Serpent.
1, Bear Effigy or Bear's Foot; 2, Fish Effigy; 3, Eagle Effigy, All in

Sheet Copper.
1-2, Concave Copper Objects; 3-5, Bear's Teeth in Copper, Broken

Problematical Form, and Copper Ornament.
Top View of Head- Dress.
1, Large Mass of Copper Partly Hammered; 2-3, Masses of Copper

Slightly Hammered; 4-7, Fragments of Copper Showing Effects of

the Heat.
Copper Pieces Melted by the Heat of the Altars.
Fragments of Meteoric Iron Partly Worked.

1-2, Large Obsidian Blades from Altar 2 ; 3, Obsidian Blade Restored.
1, Specialized Obsidian Blade; 2-3, Probably Knives.
1-4, Stone Rings from Altar 1; 5, Outlines of Rings.
1, Engraved Pipe from Altar 2; 2, Duck-Fish Pipe from Altar 2.
Mica Ornaments from Altar 1 in Mound 25.
Strings of Pearl Beads from Mound 25.
Copper Plate Showing Imprint of Cloth.
1, Portion of Human Femur with Carving Found with Skeleton 278;

2, Portion of Human Femur Carved, from Skeleton 281.
Effigies Found with Skeleton 281.

THE HOPEWELL MOUND GROUP OF OHIO

BY WARREN K. MOOREHEAI)

PREFACE

In view of the height of aboriginal culture attained by the Hopewell
people and the importance of the collection secured from these mounds,
it seems advisable to present a brief historical sketch. The activities
of the Department of Anthropology of the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion, Chicago, were wide-spread and known throughout the length and
breadth of the scientific world. Yet, notwithstanding the magnitude of
its operations — researches carried on by a score of workers — no report
was ever published. As a matter of record, therefore, there should be
this brief account of the Department and how the Hopewell survey
came into being.

About 1890, shortly after the Exposition was organized, Professor
Frederick W. Putnam of Harvard University was appointed Chief of
Department M, as that branch of the Exposition was called officially.
Eight or ten young men, who had done work in American archaeology
and ethnology, were employed as field assistants by him, and they were
assigned different sections of the North and South American fields.
The young field assistants, as well as older and more experienced men,
carried to completion studies and explorations which were important.
At the end of the Exposition, all this material was presented by Pro-
fessor Putnam to Field Museum of Natural History, in order that it
might be permanently preserved.

Professor Putnam appointed me field assistant for Ohio about
January, 1891. I organized a force of eleven or twelve men, located at
Fort Ancient, Warren County, Ohio, and later at Oregonia, distant four
miles, and carried on explorations for four or five months. These two
sites were dominated by what is known as the Fort Ancient culture,
which is quite the opposite of the Hopewell culture. The collections
made at Fort Ancient and Oregonia, together with skeletal material,
are now in Field Museum of Natural History.

The work at Oregonia was a repetition of that at Fort Ancient ; that
is, we found and opened a hundred stone graves similar to those of
Tennessee and Kentucky, yet containing few artifacts.1

!The exception was one of those Tennessee flint "swords" or ceremonial knives,
14 inches in length.

79 \

80 Hopewell Mound Group

I had in our camp Squier and Davis' volume "Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley." This work had been studied and consulted
by me frequently. Notwithstanding some inaccuracies, or lack of
definite knowledge on the part of the authors, I still consider it the
ranking pioneer- work on the antiquities of the Ohio Valley. I wrote to
Professor Putnam that, according to Squier and Davis' volume, there
were several unexplored mound groups in the Scioto Valley, and as field
assistant I strongly urged that the survey move over to the Scioto
Valley, where we could secure an exhibit of both educational and
archaeological value for the Columbian Exposition. Professor Putnam
was very busy directing many expeditions, but he referred me to Dr. C.
L. Metz of Madisonville, Ohio, whom he had asked to take charge of all
Ohio Valley explorations. Hearing nothing further from Dr. Metz, we
secured two large wagons, loaded our camp outfit, and moved across
country to Mr. M. C. Hopewell's farm on the North Fork of Paint
Creek, Ross County, reaching there about the end of August, 1891.
Squier and Davis had spoken at considerable length of the importance
of this group of mounds, which they called "Clark's Work, distant some
seven miles from the city of Chillicothe." From reading their volume,
it was my firm conviction that here we would find one of the principal
if not actually the largest, settlement of the Scioto Valley mound-
building tribe. Thus Squier and Davis' work more than anything else
brought about the exploration of the Hopewell group. It was not
chance, as some have intimated.

The exhibits of copper, obsidian, shell, bone, and clay artifacts
attracted the attention of thousands of visitors at the Exposition.
Many letters were received in subsequent years from both institutions
and individuals asking for a report.

Few collections have had more "experiences" than these objects
from the ancient Ohio mounds, and it might be well to mention a few
points of interest. When the collection was boxed, ready for shipment,
it was attached by a fanner living near the group, who claimed he had
a contract to fill the large pits. This suit was fought by me, the collec-
tion saved and shipped to Cambridge, Mass., where it was studied and
then re-shipped to Chicago. After the Exposition, it was again for-
warded to Cambridge, studied, and returned to Chicago. Professor
Putnam expected to write the report, but failed to do so; and Dr.
George A. Dorsey made some preparation toward publication. Finally,
after some twenty-nine years, thanks to the courtesy of the Trustees
of Field Museum of Natural History, I am able to present this report.

I desire to state that, while the original photographs, some of the

Preface 8i

maps, Dr. Thomas Wilson's field report, G. A. Dorsey's copy of the
original field-notes, and studies made during two visits to Field Museum,
lie before me, yet, since the work ended about February ist, 1892,
many years have elapsed. Much that occurred during the course of
explorations has been forgotten, and must necessarily be omitted.
Some of the ground plans are absent. The drawings of the mosaics
or boulder effigies are gone; and the original notebook, which my
friend, Mr. Willoughby, tells me he saw and examined, cannot be
found. However, this does not affect the accuracy of the report as a
whole, although it is manifest that a better report might have been
presented had the field-notes been expanded within a year or two after
the completion of the field-operations.

In addition to the Trustees of the Museum, I desire to thank Mr.
C. C. Willoughby, director of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge,
Mass., for cooperation, assistance, and advice. Mr. Willoughby per-
sonally studied the Hopewell collection, shortly after the exploration
was completed. He has very kindly placed at my disposal some three
hundred pages of notes and drawings which he made at that time.
His familiarity with American prehistoric art-forms has enabled him to
point out certain comparisons of interest and value. All of his notes
and observations might have been submitted by him in a valuable
memoir of his own; yet he unselfishly placed them at my disposal, and
I hereby wish to tender him my most sincere appreciative thanks.

The late Dr. Thomas Wilson, for many years curator of prehistoric
anthropology in the Smithsonian Institution, visited the Hopewell
group on two occasions. .He prepared an article setting forth his
observations for Dr. Holmes, who very kindly sent me the original
document, together with some photographs. Dr. Holmes also visited
the Hopewell group, and I am indebted to him for his kindness. Pro-
fessor W. C. Mills has, during the past years, offered several suggestions,
or furnished information concerning his studies of the Hopewell culture
in sites other than the Hopewell group itself, and I desire to record full
appreciation of his kindness.

I. WORK IN THE HOPEWELL MOUND GROUP

Relation of the Hopewell Group to Other Mound Groups. —
The archaeological map of the State of Ohio presents 5,396 mounds,
village sites, enclosures, fortifications, etc. This map was begun by
me about 1894, but was brought to completion by Professor Mills in
1 91 4. There are about 992 of these ancient monuments in the Scioto
Valley. Further reducing our number to the earthworks, enclosures or
mound groups lying in the main Scioto Valley and not ascending trib-
utary streams into the uplands, where the Fort Ancient culture obtains,
there probably are two hundred or more groups of ancient structures of
earth varying from a few to many mounds. Finally, narrowing the total
to larger sites such as the Hopewell on the North Fork of Paint Creek,
there are some large groups above and below the city of Chillicothe
on the main Scioto, and a group at Circleville, which was destroyed
at the time that town was built; also some between Chillicothe and
Portsmouth. These mound groups represent the culture which Pro-
fessor Putnam seems to have sensed to some degree in his early work
in the Ohio Valley. Squier and Davis consider it quite different from
that of the later Indians. The work at Fort Ancient and Hopewell
emphasized the difference between these two cultures, and finally
Professor Mills gave the cultures concrete terms, "Fort Ancient and
Hopewell."

Detailed Description of the Hopewell Group. — The first
mention of the Hopewell group is made in Caleb At water's "Archae-
ologia Americana" (1820). This and other accounts will be found in
the bibliography, which appears as an appendix to my report. Atwater
was a resident of Circleville, Ohio, for many years. I made inquiry in
1892 among the older residents of Circleville, one or two of whom
remembered him; but nothing concerning his work could be learned,
except that he spent considerable time examining the mounds. In his
map he omits a number of mounds, but presents a circle enclosing six
large mounds, which were shown on my first map as the Effigy, but
which we now call Mound 25. Atwater speaks of this Mound 25 as 35
feet high and 400 feet at the base (longest diameter). Squier and
Davis mention seven mounds surrounded by this circle, three of which
constituted Number 25. Of these three (joined together) they stated
the elevation as 33 feet, the length as 500 feet, the width as 180 feet.

82

Description of Hopewell Group 83

It must be remembered that the Hopewell group lies on very rich soil,
and has been cultivated continuously. From Atwater's description it
would appear that the three mounds forming No. 25 were built on a
terrace or platform. It is not necessary to quote Atwater's description,
but what Squier and Davis said might well apply to the work as we
found it. With the exception of a few omitted mounds, I herewith
append same, but present Mr. Cowen's map instead of theirs. It will
further be observed that we followed their numbering as far as possible,
but added numbers to mounds not recorded by them. In honor of the
owner, M. C. Hopewell, we changed the name from Clark's Works to
Hopewell Group.

Clark's Work; North Fork of Paint Creek.1 — The work here
presented is one of the largest and most interesting in the Scioto Valley.
It has many of the characteristics of a work of defence, and is accord-
ingly classified as such, although differing in position and some other
respects from the entrenched hills just described. The minor works
which it encloses, or which are in combination with it, are manifestly
of a different character, probably religious in their design, and would
seem to point to the conclusion that this was a fortified town rather
than a defensive work of last resort.

It is situated on the North Fork of Paint Creek, on the estate of
W. C. Clark, and occupies the entire width of the second terrace, which
here presents a broad and level plain, of exceeding beauty and fertility.
Its general form is that of a parallelogram, 2,800 by 1,800 feet, with
one of its corners somewhat rounded. On the side next the creek, it is
bounded by a wall four feet high, running along the very edge of the
terrace bank, and conforming to its irregularities; these, however, are
slight. Its remaining sides are bounded by a wall and exterior ditch;
the wall is 6 feet high, by 35 feet at the base, and the ditch of corre-
sponding dimensions. The lines ascend the declivity of the tableland
back of the terrace, and extend along its brow, dipping into the ravines,
and rising over the ridges into which it has been cut by the action of
water. Wherever the ravines are of any considerable depth, the wall
has been washed away; but in all cases leaving evidences that it once
extended uninterruptedly through. The bank of the terrace is 30, that
of the tableland 50 feet in height.

The area thus enclosed is one hundred and eleven acres. To the
right of the principal work, and connecting with it by a gateway at

!This plan is from an original, minute survey by the authors. A plan and descrip-
tion of the same work were published by Atwater in the Archaeologia Americana.
It will be found to differ in some important respects.

84 Hopewell Mound Group

its centre, is a smaller work of sixteen acres area. It is a perfect square,
its sides measuring respectively 850 feet. It has gateways at the middle
of each side, 30 feet wide, and covered by small mounds, which are
placed 50 feet interior to the walls. There are gateways also at the
two outer corners, which are unaccompanied by mounds. The opening
which leads to the principal enclosure is twice as wide as the others.
The walls of the smaller works are much lighter than those of the larger
one and have no attendant ditch.

Within the area of the great work are two small ones; one of them
is a perfect circle, 350 feet in diameter, bounded by a single slight wall,
with a gateway opening to the west ; the other is a semi-circular enclos-
ure, 2000 feet in circumference, bounded by a slight circumvallation
and ditch, as represented in the plan. Within this last enclosure are
seven mounds ; three of which are joined together, forming a continuous
elevation, 35 feet high by 500 feet long, and 180 feet broad at the base.
The ground within this work appears to be elevated above the general
level of the plain, whether designedly or by the wasting of the mounds
it is impossible to say. There are other mounds at the points indicated
in the plan, most of which have been explored; with what results,
will appear in the chapter on mounds. It may nevertheless be proper
to remark that nearly all the mounds examined were places of sacrifice,
containing altars, thus confirming the opinion already confidently
expressed, respecting the character of the work.

Where the defences descend from the tablelands to the left, is a
gully or torrent-bed, which, before the construction of this work, kept
the course indicated by the irregular line. It was turned by the builders
from its natural channel into the ditch, along which it still runs for a
considerable distance; but at one place it has broken over the wall,
obliterating it for nearly 200 feet. It is dry at most seasons of the year;
and, unless much swollen by the rains, keeps the course of the ditch,
terminating in a deep gully, formed by the flow of water from a copious
and unfailing spring. This gully is made to answer as a ditch, for the
space yet intervening, to the edge of the terrace. It is 15 feet deep,
by 60 or 70 feet wide. In several other instances, this artificial change
in water-courses has been observed.

The gateways of this work are six in number; one opening into the
smaller enclosure to the east, two upon the tablelands, one to the spring
first mentioned, and two others toward the creek. Two considerable
springs occur within the walls. It is not necessary, however, upon the
hypothesis already advanced in respect to this work, to suppose its
ancient population wholly dependent upon these sources for their

Clark's Work. North Fork of Paint Creek 85

supply of water, inasmuch as it is very evident that many centuries
have not elapsed since the creek, now 100 rods distant, washed the
base of the terrace upon which it stands. Indeed, until recently, and
until prevented by dykes above, the creek at its highest stages continued
to send a portion of its waters along its ancient channel.

The slight wall along the terrace bank is composed chiefly of smooth,
water-worn stones, taken from the creek, and cemented together by
tough, clayey earth. The wall of the square is wholly of clay, and its
outlines may be easily traced by the eye, from a distance, by its color.
It appears, as do the embankments of many other works, to have
been slightly burned. This appearance is so marked as to induce
some persons to suppose that the walls were, in certain instances,
originally composed of bricks partially baked, but which have in
process of time lost their form, and subsided into a homogeneous
mass. That they have in some cases been subjected to the action of
fire, is too obvious to admit of doubt. At one point in the lower wall
of the square, stones and large masses of pebbles and earth, much
burned, and resembling a ferruginous conglomerate, are turned up
by the plough. May not this feature be accounted for by supposing
the walls to have been originally surmounted by palisades, which were
destroyed by the action of fire? Such a cause, however, seems hardly
adequate to produce so striking results.

The broken tableland upon which the main work extends forms
natural bastions at the north, which have gateways opening to them.
At a certain point in the enbankment, a quantity of calcined human
bones are observable.

Such are some of the features of this interesting work; and if their
detail has been tedious, it may be urged in extenuation of such minute-
ness, that descriptions have hitherto been quite too vague and general.
Minute circumstances are often of the first importance in arriving at
correct conclusions. The comparative slightness of the wall and the
absence of a ditch, at the points possessing natural defences — the
extension of the artificial defences upon the tablelands overlooking
and commanding the terrace, — the facilities afforded for an abundant
supply of water, as well as the large area enclosed, with its mysterious
circles and sacred mounds, — all go to sustain the conclusion that this
was a fortified town or city of the ancient people. The history of its
fall, if its strange monuments could speak, would perhaps tell of heroic
defence of homes and altars and of daring achievements in siege and
assault.

The amount of labor expended in the construction of this work,

86 Hopewell Mound Group

in view of the imperfect means at the command of the builders, is
immense. The embankments measure together nearly three miles in
length; and a careful computation shows that, including mounds, not
less than 3,000,000 cubic feet of earth were used in their composition.
Within this work, some of the most interesting discoveries recorded
in this volume were made.

Our Survey and Measurements; Comments on Changes Since
1845. — The map of our survey (Frontispiece) was drawn by Clinton
Cowen, civil engineer. There is one error to be noted, and this is that
Mr. Cowen copied Squier and Davis' cross-section, which makes the
highest point in No. 25 thirty-three feet. During the course of explora-
tion, we found the highest point from the base line to the summit to
be twenty-three feet.

Attention has been called once or twice to discrepancies in the
measurements of this large mound. When the survey located on Mr,
Hopewell's farm, the mound was covered with a heavy growth of clover.
Since Squier and Davis' visit (1844-45) it had been cultivated continu-
ously, and the diameter and length extended. The trenches or cuts
made through it show that the original diameter was far less than at
the present time. The discrepancies in measurements relate solely to
the "wash" or "feather edge." The slope of the mound where it meets
the surrounding surface, or area, is very gentle; and this slope is extended
by ploughing and natural wash or erosion. Mr. Cowen, Dr. Wilson,
Dr. Cresson, and myself differed from three or four to as much as ten
feet as to where the feather edge ended, and the natural surface began.
It seems to me that the general statement made in the notes, and in
one or two preliminary publications, that mound No. 25 was 550 feet
long and 220 feet wide, is as near the exact as can be determined.
Nothing was found in the cuts beyond a point where their walls were
five or six feet in height. The exploration indicated that the original
area covered by this mound must have been approximately 400 by 160
feet. Thus it will be seen that the discrepancies in the measurements
are confined to the disturbed or extended edges, and are of little con-
sequence.

Squier and Davis have given such a good description that I will only
call attention to the points overlooked by them. The entire space
enclosed was occupied as a village site, but the indications are most
numerous where the words "village site" have been placed on the map.
We examined the point in the wall, where they found calcined human
bones, but could discover no traces. The burned wall of the eastern
square also is so obliterated that accurate observation could not be

Survey and Measurements 87

made. The change of the stream's course (west side of the enclosure)
is interesting and quite unusual in Indian works.

Although manifestly a work of defence, yet I cannot understand
how the Hopewell group could have been used as such. The north
section of the wall mounts from the second to the third terrace some
thirty-five or forty feet in height. The wall is low. The ground a
hundred feet north (or back) from the wall commands a plain view of
the mounds and village site below. An arrow could be shot from this
tableland as far as Mound 18. Dr. Holmes, Dr. Wilson, and other
visitors to our camp, could not understand how the works afforded any
protection whatever to the inhabitants. The range of high ground to the
north, commanding the entire area below, was at least a quarter of a
mile in length. The wall, except in the woods, does not appear to have
ever been very strong, and even if it was surrounded by palisades, I
am of the opinion that a party of warriors could break through at any
desired point. A heavy fire from this commanding position would
drive the inhabitants as far south as a line drawn between Mounds 16
and 18. Part of the besieging force could continue such a fire, while
others made a breach in the walls or oalisades. and, entering, deploy
along the base of the terrace. They would have a great advantage over
the inhabitants, being then upon the same level with them, and protected
by a fire from their friends on the higher land above.

This peculiarity is observed in other Indian works. We should not
always judge these people's works from our point of view as to proper
defensive works. Much that they did seems inconsistent to us; yet
there may have been protective features of which we are not aware.
I merely offer opinions based on a residence and study of several months.

The forest cutting and draining of land everywhere in southern
Ohio has unquestionably affected the water flow. There are heavy
freshets and floods in the spring, low water in the summer. The springs
mentioned by Squier and Davis do not flow strongly to-day. In fact,
save the one in the northeast corner, where our tents were pitched,
all the others have nearly dried up.

The distance from the southern edge of the group to the North
Fork of Paint Creek is about a third of a mile, being a little farther
than indicated by Squier and Davis upon their map.

The central, and, of course, the most interesting feature of the
entire work, is Mound 25, formerly known as the Effigy. It is shown
by Atwater, as well as by Squier and Davis, as a union of three mounds;
four other mounds were situated just south of it, and they are all
surrounded by a semicircular enclosure. The circle and the square

!

88 Hopewell Mound Group

(farther east) may represent cosmic symbols, such as the sun and four
corners of the earth, or they may have surrounded the dwellings of
certain clan elders. This is more or less speculative; yet the squares
and circles so frequently found associated with larger mound groups
unquestionably were erected for some special purpose. Future explora-
tions and study may more specifically determine their nature. We
cannot, after explorations, consider Mound 25 as being composed of
three mounds, but rather hold that it is formed by the grouping together
of a number of small mounds, and that over their irregular contour
was heaped a great mass of earth and gravel, giving it its present
appearance. At first, we called it the "Effigy," because, externally, it
represents the human trunk; but, internally, its contents give us no
authority for such a name.

The morning of September 1, 1891, we spent in looking over the
group very carefully. We counted twenty -four mounds. On our map
there is no No. 13, but I think it is the one in the right-hand corner,
just below the road and above the word "Hopewell." The four mounds
within the square to the east were so disturbed and reduced in height
that we did not number them. We tested them and found practically
nothing.

Plate XXXVIII shows the plain or terrace occupied by the Hopewell
group, with our camp in the foreground. Being in high clover, the
mounds do not appear clearly in the negative. The view was charming.
Often on moonlight nights we looked down upon the mounds and
speculated as to the builders, their life, and wondered whence they
came, and whither they went.

Fig. q.
Serpent Tablet from Mound No. i.

Exploration of Mound No. 1. — This mound has entirely dis-
appeared, although there were traces of disturbance, such as burnt
earth, etc., on its site. Squier and Davis found some remarkable
tablets in this mound, one or two of which suggested the famous
"Cincinnati tablet." In Fig. 9 their illustration of the serpent tablet
is reproduced. In regard to the mound, they write as follows: —

Mound No. i 89

"From one of the mounds, numbered 1 in the plan of the great
enclosure on the North Fork of Paint Creek, were taken several singu-
larly sculptured tablets, of one of which the figure here presented is a
copy, so far as it has been found possible to restore it from the several
fragments recovered. It represents a coiled rattlesnake: both faces of
the tablet being identical in sculpture, excepting that one is plane, the
other slightly convex. The material is a very fine cinnamon-colored
sandstone, and the style of the sculpture is identical with that displayed
in the tablet from the Cincinnati mound already noticed. The original
is bYs inches -long, i^g inches broad, and a quarter of an inch thick.
The workmanship is delicate, and the characteristic feature of the
rattlesnake perfectly represented. It is to be regretted that it is im-
possible to restore the head, which, so far as it can be made out, has
some peculiar and interesting features — plumes or ornamental figures
surmounting it. Previous to the investigation of the mound by the
authors, an entire tablet was obtained from it by an individual residing
near the spot, who represents it to have been carefully and closely
enveloped in sheets of copper, which he had great difficulty in removing.
Incited by a miserable curiosity, he broke the specimen, to ascertain
its composition, and the larger portion, including the head, was subse-
quently lost. The remaining fragment, from its exceedingly well-
preserved condition, confirms the statement of the finder respecting
its envelopment. It seems that several of these tablets were originally
deposited in the mound ; the greater portions of four have been recovered,
but none displa}Tmg the head entire. The person above mentioned
affirms that the head, in the specimen which he discovered, was sur-
rounded by 'feathers;' how far this is confirmed by the fragment,
the reader must judge for himself. The tablets seem to have been
originally painted of different colors; a dark red pigment is yet plainly
to be seen in the depression of some of the fragments; others had
been painted of a dense black color."

We hoped to find something of interest hc:C, but the mound had
been completely ploughed down. At the time of their visit, about
1845 or 1846, it was three feet high. A Civil War veteran, living in
the neighborhood, had earnestly begged for work. He was unable to
use the shovel, but he was set to work with a hand trowel, and for six
weeks he dug to a depth of six to ten inches on the site of No. 1 over an
area a hundred yards in diameter. This man found more than two
hundred fragmentary bone carvings, some fragments of graphite or
terra-cotta rings, and other interesting objects. This indicated that
Squier and Davis had not taken all the objects out of the mound, but

90 Hopewell Mound Group

that during forty-five years of cultivation of the soil these carved bone
tubes, rings, and other objects had become destroyed. It is most
unfortunate that no complete specimen could be secured. They show
precision of line work and a high degree of artistic ability.

Exploration of Mound No. 17. — The mounds were not opened in
consecutive order, but according to the convenience of our survey and
operations. While the old soldier continued his hand trowel work for
many days, the men opened other mounds. Often, after the first five
or six feet had been removed from the top of one mound, a part of the
crew was transferred to another mound, and the most competent
workmen finished the exploration. After opening a few mounds of
the Hopewell group, it was discovered that no burials (save an occa-
sional intrusive) would be found above the base line. There was
therefore no danger of disturbing burials, if the upper part of the mound
was removed by means of teams and scrapers. After the teams had
reduced a mound to within four or five feet of the base line, the lower
trench was dug out by hand. We used from four to six scrapers, and
seven to ten laborers and shovelers. The smaller mounds were dug
by hand, and no scrapers were used.

Mound 17 was a hundred yards from camp. It is not numbered by
Squier and Davis. It was about 4 feet 3 inches high, 89.4 feet northwest
and southeast, 79.10 feet northeast and southwest. Careful plans
were made as the work progressed. These are thirteen in number.

A few stones were noted on the south end of the mound, but these
could not be considered a layer. The original surface or base of the
mound was reached, when the wall of our excavation was three feet
and one inch in height. When we proceeded about nine feet, a burnt
area appeared on the west side, and charcoal and mica layers to the
east. A portion of the field-notes of this mound is herewith reproduced
but it is not necessary to insert in this report all the field-notes on the
other mounds, much of which would be repetition of Ohio mound
exploration in general, that is familiar to most students of archaeology.
These notes are preserved in Field Museum of Natural History, and I
presume, will be accessible to students who care to go into the details
of our explorations. Certain of the drawings, sketches or photographs
are not reproduced in this publication.

Wednesday, September 2, 1891. Work was resumed this morning
at 6.30 a. m. Careful drawings were made of the north-section wall of
the excavation, and the depth of the top soil noted as 2 feet 1 inch on
the west side and 2 feet 2 inches on the east side. Beneath this was a
layer of burnt limestone 3 inches in depth and extending clear across

Mound No. 17 91

the excavation. Underlying this was 3 feet of dark earth on the west
side, and 2 feet on the east side. A post-hole was encountered on the
east side, trending east northeast. It measured 2 feet in depth and 8
inches in width ; beside it was a fragment of an earthen vessel and just
beyond, toward the east corner of the excavation, lay a charred log of
oak wood. This log was covered on its south end by plates of mica
placed on edge. A careful sketch of the position of this peculiarity was
made, and other notes taken of the mica layer. Mr. Smith also made a
photograph of this mica layer (Plate XXXIX). A circular depression
being encountered on the east side of the excavation, and fragments
of bone awls of about 1 inch in length, very narrow, also being found;
it was deemed best to follow the dark soil downward; and still another
trench was made at a lower level, and the work again pushed north,
exposing two post-holes on the hard pan level, and the outline of the
burnt area in profile was determined (see Plate XL). A layer of burnt
limestone was observed on the east side.

September 3, 1891. A copper implement was discovered in the
position designated G. The letter H shows the log end, heretofore
mentioned, and the continuation of the mica layer. Attention has
already been called to the fact that the south side of this log was faced
by plates of mica placed upright, leaning against it. A similar arrange-
ment was noted on the north side. A skeleton found with the copper
implement is No. 167. Skeleton 168 was found near copper awls.
Skeleton 169 was near the altar.

September 4, 1891. The principal feature of the day's work was the
discovery of several large sheets of mica, which by their position
illustrated admirably the manner in which this layer had been laid
down. Small fragments of bone awls and bones of animals were added
to the collection.

Tuesday, September 8, 1891. A sectional drawing of the mound at
the centre stake was made. This drawing gives the exact position of
the galena found yesterday and to-day. Some of the galena was covered
by the mica layer. As the work progressed still another sketch was
made to show where the mica layer terminated on the east side. A
layer of small stones is also shown, together with an ash bed and post-
hole. A number of bone awls were secured. These were so calcined by
fire that they were in several hundred fragments. The thick ends of
these needles generally lay toward the north. In the afternoon a skeleton
was discovered. It was calcined by fire; near it were copper ear-orna-
ments, or busks, a copper celt, and a large copper plate. Sketches
were made and photographs taken of the copper implements by Dr.

92 Hopewell Mound Group

Cresson and Mr. Smith. A small clay altar in which lay some calcined
human bones was discovered about 2 p. m. Mica ornaments of circular
shape were found near the copper implements (to east side).

September 9, 1891. Work continued on Mound No. 17. Much of
interest was found, such as fossil shark teeth and bone disks. Some of
the former were saved entire, but others, having been burnt, broke in
pieces. Some of the shark's teeth were perforated. The ground plan
will give all the necessary details of the work and show the exact
position of objects found within the mound. Excavation of this mound
was completed this afternoon. The mound is remarkable in that
it contained so much mica. The sheets have been estimated at three
thousand in number. They filled two barrels when packed for ship-
ment to Chicago. In 19 18, one or two of these large crystals, or books
were measured by me in Field Museum. Some of them were 50 cm
in diameter and 15 cm thick. Many of them were 26 cm by 20 cm.
There are also twelve lumps of galena weighing from 12 to 15 pounds,
which came from Mound No. 17. Plate XXXIX shows a part of the
floor of No. 17 with the mica layer in position.

Excavation of Mound No. 18. — Dr. H. T. Cresson had joined our
party a few days previously, and on the morning of September 9 he
staked off this mound. It was found to be about 75 feet longest dia-
meter by 55 feet east and west, and 3 feet 8 inches in height. There was
an altar in it, the base of which was 1 foot 4 inches long, by 1 foot 3
inches in width and 2^4 inches deep. The slope leading from the
base up to the basin in this altar varied from two to as much as four feet.

On September 10, Dr. Metz and Marshall H. Saville came to camp.
Dr. Mete represented Professor Putnam, and Mr. Saville took photo-
graphs. In this mound there were some incised human maxillaries
(Fig. 10), a platform or monitor pipe, and various layers of different-
colored earth. Except calcined bones and a fragment of a skeleton,
nothing else of consequence was found. Dr. Cresson made a study of
these cut human jaws, giving me the following observations : —

"It will be interesting to mention a peculiar habit of the people who
erected the tumuli at Hopewell's farm, that of placing alongside of
their dead, ornaments made of the superior and inferior maxillary
bones. In Mounds Nos. 3, 18, and 23 at the above mentioned earth-
work, the upper jaw was placed alongside of the left humerus about
four inches below the articulation of the glenoid process of the scapula.

Measurements of objects in the collections of Field Museum of Natural History
are given in the metric system. The field-notes follow the English system, and it
is thought best to retain them as originally made.

Mound No. 18

93

The specimens in question have been in two cases cut across the alveoli
a little below the level of the incssior and bicuspids, and in another
instance, just above. The work of cutting across the bone and teeth

Fig. io.
Cut Human Jaws and Perforated Cranial Bones from Mound 18.

had evidently been done by some sharp instrument, probably of metal,
It has been suggested that the specimens had been sawed across and
then ground down, but the incisions are so sharp, and the marks of the

94 Hopewell Mound Group

instrument with cutting edge so plain, that we deem this to be im-
possible.

The mound had apparently been examined, and the altar contents
removed by Squier and Davis. The number of the skeleton was 170.
We had begun at Fort Ancient to number skeletons for Professor
Putnam, and continued the series through the Oregonia work and at
Hopewell, in order that there might be no confusion as to where the
skeletal remains were found.

Excavation of Mound No. 19. — September 14.. The men dug
out Mound No. 19, which appears to have been disturbed. This was a
small mound 54 by 53 feet and 3 feet high. It contained a rude stone
layer and an altar of clay (Plate XLI) in the depression of which were
carbonized bones, some human, some mica and galena, fragments of
bone implements, and two flake knives. The altar was taken out entire.
As it was only partly burnt and not much harder than sun-dried brick,
no little difficulty was experienced in removing it. It was not shipped
and still lies in the mound, boxed, and covered with three feet of earth.
This is mentioned, since the boxed altar may be discovered by some
future explorer.

Excavation of Mound No. 20. — This mound is one of a group of
four, numbered 9, 10, 11, and 20, which form almost a square. It is
shown in Plate XLIa. It was about 56 by 50 feet, and did not appear
to have been disturbed. On the first day of exploration five skeletons,
four adults and a child, were discovered. Two large flat stones, placed
side by side, were found just northwest of one of the skeletons, which
was badly burned. Copper ear-ornaments and other copper objects
were found with several of the skeletons, also circular mica ornaments
or disks, and copper cones. No. 176 was the skeleton of a child, said
by Dr. Cresson to be about nine years old. With it were found two
shell cups, a copper celt, a crescent-shaped copper implement, and
copper ear-busks or spools. The positions of the eight copper ornaments
found with this child were listed by Dr. Cresson as follows : —

"The first discovered lay on the left iliac bone; the second, 5 inches
below the trochanter of the left femur, on the outer side. Another lay
just above the left patella. Three others lay around the hand bones,
viz., one on the metacarpals of the hand, another on the wrist, and
another at the base of the ulna. On the outer side of the left patella
was found a busk of copper. Others lay on the metacarpals of the
right and left hands. Around the right wrist was a copper bracelet.
Outside the left wrist lay a copper celt, with a second half way up the
left ulna. Beads, about 250 in all, were found around the neck and at

Mounds Nos. 19, 20, 21, 2 95

the base of the right humerus. The head of the skeleton was toward
the north. The bones were much decayed and could not be saved."

Large bear's teeth, plated with copper, were found on either side of
the lower jaw of skeleton No. 177.

Excavation of Mound No. 21. — This mound was examined on
September 17. It was small, and had been previously opened. Nothing
was found.

Excavation of Mound No. 2. — According to Squier and Davis,
this mound was about 80 feet in diameter and 6 to 7 feet high. Its
diameter had been greatly increased by ploughing; and, at the time of
our exploration, I should say, it was about 100 feet wide and 4 feet high.
Mr. Poole, the oldest resident in the vicinity, informed me that he was
there when Squier and Davis opened it in 1845-46, and that they took
out about two bushels of disks. In their account (p. 158) they estimate
that there were about four thousand of the disks deposited. They
removed six hundred. The survey worked from September 17 to 21,
removing these disks. In Plate XLII they are shown stacked by
headquarters' tent. In Plate XLIII a large, shouldered spear and
several disks are shown. This shouldered spear-head, which was given
to Mr. Hopewell, was the only specialized implement in the entire
mound.

Dr. Thomas Wilson of the Smithsonian Institution visited the Hope-
well Group in October, 1891, and January, 1892. At that time I had
written out a description of the finding of the disks. Dr. Holmes, as
stated above in this report, loaned to me Dr. Wilson's notes, which
were compiled by him immediately on his return to Washington, but
were never published. The following description is taken from Dr.
Wilson's report: —

The present or modern height was scarcely two feet above the sur-
rounding level.1 The ground surrounding it was in Indian corn which
had to be purchased and cleared off before operations could be com-
menced. This being done, the teams, ploughs, and scrapers were
turned in on Thursday morning. Before noon, they had scraped away
all the surplus earth, and began to find flint disks. The description of
Squier and Davis, and what they had found, was soon verified, together
with their prophecy as to what would be found. Flint disks were found
as they had said; the teams were stopped, and the digging began by
hand, when the disks were thrown out on the ground around the mound
They were found piled, a half dozen, more or less, in each pile or handful

!He means it was 2 feet high, after our exploration was completed.

g6 Hopewell Mound Group

and were arranged after the fashion of herringbone masonry. The
first pile of a half dozen were set flat on the ground, the disks being
placed horizontally; the next pile set on edge, but at an angle at prob-
ably 45 degrees; the third would be set in the same way, but cast in
the other direction, and the fourth would be again horizontal, and so
this was continued over the surface occupied by the plan of the mound.
There were two, one atop the other. It is not to be supposed that they
were laid with regularity indicated; many of them were thrown out of
place, and had destroyed the regularity, but this was the general plan
on which they had been placed at the making of the mound. The
bottom of the two strata of flint disks was about two feet below the
surrounding surface."

We commenced taking out disks Thursday noon and continued
until Saturday afternoon, removing the enormous number of 7,232 by
actual count. Squier and Davis estimated the number at 4000. The
work had been completed at my arrival, and the flint disks were laid
out preparatory to marking and boxing, as shown in the photograph.

The following table gives the total of disks from the mound :

Excavated from the mound by our own men 7232

Taken out by Squier and Davis 600

Taken out by Mr. Steel 200

Given Mr. Hopewell, prior to official count 80

Later found upon the surface near the mound 42

From other sources 31

Total 8185

Excavation of Mound No. 24. — This was not a large mound, and
seems to have been disturbed (Plate XLIV). Several skeletons were
found by us. No. 191 lay about ten feet southwest of the centre stake
with the head pointing west. A detached skull was found about two
feet from it on the south side. This detached skull (No. 192) was a
different type and much inferior in contour with a lower facial angle.
The contrast between them was marked. A large shell, probably
Buscyon, lay near the left arm of No. 191, and two shells perforated
in the ends, shell ornaments, and bear's teeth were found with it. The
Cat. No. of this skeleton is 40873; that of the detached skull, 40169.
A charred skeleton, near whose wrist-bones were two copper ornaments,
was found on September 25, and the next day two more skeletons were
discovered. The latter were on the base line of the mound, 3 feet, 6

Mounds Nos. 24 and 23 97

inches from the surface. The lower jaw and right radius of one of these
(No. 195) were missing. Two other cremated skeletons were found in
this mound, likewise some small shells and mica ornaments.

Excavation of Mound No. 23 (Plate XLVI). — This, except for
No. 25, was the largest mound opened. It was reduced to within four
or five feet of the base line with teams and scrapers. It was originally
150 feet long and from 10 to 12 feet high. Plate XLV shows the mound
just before we began exploration. The excavation of this mound
occupied the expedition from September 23 to October 10, while work
upon it was continued until the 20th of October.

On the 23rd of September, seven skeletons were discovered, as
follows :

No. 184. Head west, no ornaments. Bones could not be saved.

No. 185 (Cat. No. 40170). Female, head S. S. E.

No. 186. Boy. Bones crushed by weight of earth. With this
skeleton were five stone celts, an arrowhead, cut jaws of the fox and
lynx, and some bone points.

No. 187. Old man, head southeast. No ornaments; one bone awl.

No. 188 (Cat. No. 40171). Brachycephalic head. Head E. N. E.,
left humerus perforated.

No. 189 (Cat. No. 40166). Head S. E.

No. 190 (Cat. No. 40172). Head S. E.

September 24. As the excavation proceeded downward, one noticed
the difference in color between the different layers of earth in the
mound, and these patches of different-colored earth suggest that it had
been dumped in small quantities. Ashes are noticeable at the west
end of the mound. Some skeletons were found in gravel. This gravel
predominated in quantity at the east and especially toward the south
side.

September 25. Large holes or pits were discovered in the north side
of the west end of the mound. Another was found near the centre of
the east end. Whether these are due to previous excavation, we are
unable to say; but they do not appear to have been made by Squier
and Davis. During the time between September 25 and October 1, a
number of finds were made. Two altars, shown in Plate XLVI, were
discovered 10 feet below the surface. One measured 27 by 22 inches,
being \}4 inches deep. These altars contained nothing, which is unusual
in a mound so large.

98 Hopewell Mound Group

A number of skeletons were found at the following depths :

Cat. No.

Field No.

Depth below Surface
Feet

40190

197

10

198

8.9

40187

199

10

200

10

203

10.9

204

10

40185

205

10

40186

206

9-9

207

9-9

208

10

209

11

It was remarked that many of these skeletons were charred. Some
of them had been laid on stone hearths, others directly in the fire, and
still others upon baked clay, which was sufficiently hot to char the
parts, the parts underneath leaving the chest and upper bones intact.
Skeleton No. 199 (Plate XLVI) was found near an altar. A large ocean
shell and two copper plates were with it. A portion of a leather garment
sewed with twisted fibres was still sticking to one of the plates. Mr.
Willoughby observed a mould of the cord of leather or sinew between
the holes in the plate. He thinks that this will shed light on the method
of fastening plates to the person. Skeleton No. 207 had copper orna-
ments near the radius on each side, and a number of pierced wolf and
fox teeth (506) around the neck. It required at least one hundred and
twenty-seven of the animals to make such a necklace. With skeleton
No. 209 were found a copper plate, two pipes, pearl beads, two bear's
teeth ornamented with pearls, and others with holes which may have
originally contained pearls.

It is worthy of note that skeletons Nos. 197,203, and 206 had been
charred by fire and the bones covered with a dendritic deposit from the
iron in the soil above. Some of this deposit resembled breccia from
European caves. The iron breccia of this mound was so hard that we
were prevented from removing skeletons except in fragments.

On the 1 st of October thirteen skeletons were unearthed by the
workmen, viz., Nos. 210 — 222 inclusive. No. 213 was especially
noticeable on account of the objects found near it. One bone bead
and a quantity of pearl and shell beads were recovered, while a number

Mound No. 23 99

of very small pearl beads, about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter,
were still retained upon the original string of twisted vegetable fibre.
Two uncut bear's teeth and three cut ones, one of which had been cut
in several pieces, were found. A copper plate was also found, likewise
four ear-ornaments, one on either side of the head and one in each
hand. Pieces of finely woven textile had been preserved by contact
with one pair of these ear-ornaments, the cloth adhering to one side
of the ornaments, being coarser than that on the opposite side. Upon
one side of the plate, the curling hair of some animal, probably the
buffalo, has been preserved by the salts of copper, and a mould of what
may be human hair is seen on the other side. Near the head of the
skeleton was a set of teeth (superior maxillary), which had been cut
across just above the alveoli. It will be remembered that another pair
of jaws was found in Mound No. 18 in which the same peculiarity was
remarked. Mr. Acton, who gave many specimens to Squier and Davis,
states that he also remarked this peculiarity, and that thigh-bones were
also "decorated with queer designs and plated with copper." The
skeleton (No. 213) was covered by an immense bed of clay and gravel
at least 10 feet thick, and was so badly crushed that it could only be
removed in fragments. The feet were missing. Some of the skeletons,
on the lower level, rested on stones showing traces of hot fires, and were
slightly charred on the side in contact with them. This suggests that
they were laid on the hearths after the stones had been considerably
heated and the ashes raked away. Other skeletons were found in the
same condition noted in a previous day's work, being covered with a
cinder-like incrustation and very brittle. In the afternoon, Mr. Williams
found a shell cup 4 feet, 6 inches east of the centre stake at a depth of
8 feet, 9 inches. ,

On the 2nd of October, five fragmentary skeletons were found; all
according to Dr. Cresson, of brachycephalic type. Between October 10
and 20 the exploration of this mound was completed. Skeletons Nos.
223 — 236 were discovered together with a number of objects which it
is not necessary to describe. It was observed that practically all the
skulls were crushed, probably because the bodies rested on the hard
floor to which we have previously referred. In some instances the
crania was absolutely decayed, leaving an oval white streak in the
ground. The teeth, however, were preserved. Dr. Wilson was present
during the exploration of this mound, being particularly interested in
the numerous depressions commonly known as post-holes. He says of
these, "Although there was none or but slight appearance of posts, the
holes were such as would have been made had the posts been stood

ioo Hopewell Mound Group

up or driven in ; then being covered by the mound in the course of time
they rotted away, leaving the holes. The earth had not caved in
around them. A few traces of decayed wood were to be observed.
These post-holes were from 4 to 6 and 8 inches in diameter and from
2 to 3 feet deep. They were in groups of five or six, and apparently
two rows of them. It was difficult to determine their position with
exactness. The appearance of these post-holes indicated or suggested
that logs or posts of wood had been driven in to make a surrounding
vault or protection for the body, and for the funeral objects which
were deposited with it. Following the trench as it was cut down, it
was remarked that this particular mound showed that which was
remarked of other mounds by Squier and Davis, and others, that at
two or three feet from the surface, apparently extending all around the
conical form of the mound, there had been a layer of white sand or fine
gravel from one to three inches thick, and then the mound had been
heaped over this to a depth of three or four feet. In the centre at the
top of the mound, this white sand or gravel was about 2 feet below the
surface, but at the edges it was as much as 5 feet below the surface,
due probably to the ploughing and erosion. This streak of gravel was
regular and continuous, and could only have been made by spreading
the gravel over the mound, after it was thus far completed. The layer
of earth which was on top of the sand or gravel, the stratum which was
2 and 5 feet> as mentioned, must have been put on at some subsequent
time, but how long subsequent, no one can possibly tell. For the most
part, this strip of sand or gravel showed the mound to have been a
complete or perfect cone, but in some places on the sides and around
the edges there were depressions and changes from the regularity of the
cone. Other mound investigators have remarked this layer of sand or
gravel. Squier and Davis mention various instances. Like many other
peculiarities of the mounds, they are alike in general features and yet
differ much, in details. The layers of sand and gravel differ naturally
with the various localities from which they come. They differ in num-
ber, for sometimes there may be only one such layer, and other times
three or four. Sometimes they extend in a regular and continuous
layer over the mound, and at others they are broken and irregular.
Sometimes they are of sand, other times of gravel, and again are of
small boulders, etc."

Students unacquainted with the exploration of large mounds would
naturally suppose that in numbering a series of skeletons or deposits we
would begin at one end of the base line and number the skeletons in
order of their position. This was done wherever practicable, but it is

Mounds Nos. 23, 3, and 9 101

sometimes impossible. Many interments are made in loose soft soil,
and, in case of rain, the water collecting in the trench seeks the depres-
sions in which the skeletons lie, and is liable to ruin the skeleton and
the more fragile objects with it. The skeletons were therefore removed
as soon as possible and numbered in the order found. At times when
teams and scrapers were being used on Mound 25, later to be described,
the shovelers were employed in digging out several small mounds.

Excavation of Mound No. 3. — In this mound we found an altar
whose contents had been removed, probably by Squier and Davis, a
copper celt, small knives, and a few other objects. The celt was con-
cave on one side and convex on the other, and so finely made that it
seems almost impossible that it could have been fashioned by the cold
hammering process. The metal shows the peculiar reddish orange color
of copper that has been fired. Other copper implements found in the
group are very highly finished and show the same color below the
incrustation. In most cases the laminar structure of cold beaten copper
seems to be absent. These celts, however, may have been associated
with charred human bones.

Excavation of Mound No. 9. — The road had been cut through
this mound so that little was left. Squier and Davis' finds in it are
interesting, particularly their discoveries of obsidian. In their report
(p. 155) they write as follows: —

"It will be seen that this mound has several peculiar features. The
altar A, instead of occupying the centre, is placed considerably toward
one side; and a layer of charcoal (C) fills the corresponding opposite
side. Over the altar curves a stratum of sand, and over the layer of
charcoal still another, as exhibited in the section. This altar was the
smallest met with. It was round, not measuring more than 2 feet
across the top. It was nevertheless rich in remains. Within it were
found :

(1) Several instruments of obsidian. They were considerably
broken up, but have been so much restored as to exhibit pretty nearly
their original form. Too large for arrowheads, and too thin and slender

•for points of spears, they seem to have been designed for cutting
purposes.

(2) Several scrolls tastefully cut from thin sheets of mica. They
are perforated with small holes, as if they had been attached as orna-
ments to a robe of some description.

(3) Traces of cloth, small portions of which, though completely
carbonized, were found, still retaining the structure of the thread.

102 Hopewell Mound Group

This appeared to have been made of some fine vegetable fibre. It
was what is technically termed 'doubled and twisted,' and was about the
size of fine pack-thread.

(4) A considerable number of ivory or bone needles, or graving-
tools, about one-tenth of an inch thick. Their original length is not
known. Several fragments were found two and three inches long.
Some have flat cutting points, the points of others were round and
sharp ; some were straight, others slightly bent.

(5) A quantity of pearl beads; an article resembling the cover of a
small vessel, carved from stone; also some fragments of copper, in thin,
narrow slips.

"There were no relics of any kind found amongst the charcoal. The
layer of this material was not far from six feet square. It had been
heaped over while burning."

Mound No. 5. — In this we found nothing of consequence. Yet in
1845 ^ was an important mound, on which Squier and Davis report as
follows : —

"In this instance the altar was covered with stones; and instead of
the usual sand stratum, there was found a layer of large flat stones, cor-
responding to it. The altar A was composed of earth elevated two and
a half feet above the original level of the soil, and was five feet long by
three feet four inches broad, the sides sloping at an angle- of nearly 30
degrees. It was faced on the top and on the sides with slabs of stone,
quite regular in form and thickness, and which, although not cut by
an instrument, were closely fitted together, as shown in the supple-
mentary section of the altar A. The stone is the Waverly sandstone,
underlying the coal series, thin strata of which cap the hills bordering
these valleys. The altar bore the marks of fire; and a few fragments of
the mound-builders' ornaments, a few pearl beads, etc., were found on
and around it. The original deposit had probably been removed by
the modern Indians, who had opened the mound and buried one of their
dead on the slope of the altar. The stones composing the layer corre-
sponding to the sand stratum were two or three feet deep, presenting the
appearance of a wall which had fallen inwards."

Excavation of Mound No. 8. — Three fragmentary skeletons were
found in this mound. The field-notes mention that more than half the
bones were missing. With skeleton No. 241 there were large sheets of
mica. A short distance away was found a nodule of Tennessee flint
which weighed between 20 and 30 pounds. The disks found in Mound

Mounds Nos. 5, 11, and 25 103

No. 2 were of this material, but this was the only complete nodule
found during the exploration of the Hopewell group.

Mound No. 11 — This mound was not explored, as it was in the
yard of Mr. Beard, tenant of the Hopewell estate, and he requested that
there be no disturbance of his lawn.

Excavation of Mound No. 25. — It was well toward the middle of
October when we completed the exploration of Mound No. 23 and filled
the excavation. I find in the field-notes that the owner, Mr. M. C.
Hopewell, was exceedingly kind and courteous. Our teams dropped
earth about his clover fields and destroyed crops, yet he entered no
complaint. It had been stated by one or two archaeologists and, I
believe, by a geologist as well, that Mound No. 25 was too large to
have been the work of human hands. When Dr. Wilson visited our
camp for the first time, we discussed whether it should be explored.
At Dr. Wilson's request, a large shaft was sunk in the centre of the
mound. In his report he states that it was 6 feet deep; but, as I recall
it, it was about 10 feet deep. At the bottom of the shaft we found
charcoal and ashes, proving that the elevation was artificial.

It is very easy in these days of liberal appropriations for field opera-
tions to negotiate the examination of large mounds, but up until the
time of the Hopewell survey no mound more extensive than No. 23
had been fully excavated by any one. In fact, more actual work was
done on the twenty-two mounds of the group than has since been
applied elsewhere by other observers. This does not imply that single
tumuli, or even several of them, have not been trenched and hand-
troweled more extensively. On the contrary, Mr. C. B. Moore's work
in the south and much of Professor W. C. Mills' labors in Ohio were
carried out more slowly and in greater detail.

While the men were leveling Mound No. 23 and excavating Mounds
3, 9, and 5, the teams were put to work on Mound 25. The larger
end, which was 23 feet high, lay to the east. Plate XLVII is a copy
of the original outline map prepared by Dr. Wilson and Clinton Cowen,
after exploration. The only change I have made is to call the elevation
of section 1, 23 feet. This is exact, and was obtained by measuring
from the bottom of our trench to the highest point. In view of the heavy
expense involved and the uncertainty as to what the mound might con-
tain, it was decided to work No. 25 in sections or trenches, beginning
at the eastern end. After running the first trench, we would skip the
next sector (7) and trench 2, omit the next, and take 4. In this way we
would be able to determine the character of the mound and not expend
money without results. After completing trench 4, which was some

104 Hopewell Mound Group

distance from the western end of the mound, we dug out trench 6,
which lay between sectors 3 and 2. The last sector, 7, which was
between 1 and 2, was not excavated, neither was section 5. About one
third of Mound 23 thus remains unexplored. This explanation is
necessary in case the Ohio State Archaeological Society should complete
the exploration at some future time. Rain and snow caused great
inconvenience in moving the earth, particularly at the north and south
ends of the cuts. Here the earth became mud, and it is quite possible
that we did not remove some burials in the southern extension of one
or two trenches.

From October 24 to 28 I was called to Cincinnati and Xenia. Dur-
ing this period Dr. Cresson had charge of our work. This is here
mentioned, since there is some uncertainty with reference to the extent
of the two bowlder mosaics or effigies found on the south and southeast
slope of Mound No. 25. The first section in No. 25 was made at the
highest point (23 feet), and the cut was about 50 feet wide at the top,
and varied from ^3 to 38 feet wide at the bottom. It was necessary
to make the sides sloping, otherwise the earth would cave in, as it
was loose. The scrapers turned up a number of bowlders, such as
had been previously found in Mound 23, and some layers of coarse
gravel appeared. The persistent number of these bowlders and their
more or less uniform size led Dr. Cresson to examine more carefully.
They lay from 18 inches to 3 feet below the surface. The bowlders
themselves were evenly laid, but the variation in the thickness of
covering soil was due to the cultivation of the mound by fanning. In
the light of modern scientific work, one may say that the top soil should
have been removed for a distance of two hundred by a hundred feet,
and these bowlder mosaics uncovered and studied in detail. Yet, this
could not have been done for the reason that it would involve great
expense and delay. Furthermore, as stated above, Cresson did not
realize their importance until they had been considerably damaged by
the teams. Dr. W. H. Holmes visited the site when they had been
partly removed, and again on his way east about October 29. On my
return I saw such as remained of these, being a portion of the leg, tail,
and neck of the animals. Cresson states that they were about a hundred
feet in length. He executed a drawing of them with detailed measure-
ments. Two or three local newspaper notices of our work, published at
the time, refer to the bowlder mosaics. An outline sketch was pre-
sented by me in the Antiquarian of September, 1897, but is not suffi-
ciently accurate to warrant reproduction here.

On November 3, the bottom of cut 1 in Mound No. 25 was reached;

Mound No. 25 105

nothing was found, save a unio shell and fragments of human tibia.
The field-notes state, "The bowlder mosaics have, however, amply-
repaid for the trouble and expense." It is most unfortunate that a plan
of them is not available for reproduction. The work in the first section
in Mound No. 25 was expensive, and there being no results, I at once
consulted with my friend, Dr. Thomas Wilson. He advised that we
omit the next cut (No. 7) and take No. 2, which lay some distance
toward the west (Plate XLII). This was done. Teams were put to
work, and the shovelers transferred to smaller mounds.

November 12. The second cut in Mound 25 had reached a point
but three feet from the base line. Decayed skeletons noted in several
places in the course of sinking experimental shafts led us to exercise
great care. Abandoning teams, we put in the men with shovels, and
completed the examination of the remainder of the cut by hand. In
this cut (as in the east-end section) , hundreds of small masses of various
colored earths were observed: short, irregular layers of sand also extend-
ed in various directions. A very singular feature in the mound (alike
in detail with No. 23) was the partially hollow pits or holes having
dome-like roofs. It seems that the builders erected little frameworks
of small poles, bent together at the top, and enclosing a space of the
size of an ordinary tobacco hogshead, over each skeleton. The earth
was heaped above. In the case of weaker domes, the weight of the
earth above would crush them flat; but some of the structures were
composed of two or three inch saplings, and resisted the pressure for
many years. Then they caved in. As the earth above had become
more or less caked or hardened, an arch was thus formed; and in many
instances the earth had not completely filled these hollows. The horses
engaged in scraping broke through one of these holes, and were impris-
oned up to their necks for several minutes, as some of the peculiar
dome-shaped affairs were several feet in height and diameter.

We now present the notes on excavation of cuts 2, 3, 4, and 6.
With few changes or expansion, these were taken from Dr. Dorsey's
copy of the original field-book. It is possible that all of the material
was not taken out of cut No. 6 or cut No. 4. The fact will be deter-
mined when the exploration of the mound is completed at some future
time. The walls frequently caved in, due to winter rains, and the work
from November 20 to February 10 was carried on under great diffi-
culties. Previously, no survey had conducted explorations through an
Ohio winter.

On November 12 about 8 a.m., the second cut reached a depth of
about eighteen feet. This was near the bottom, and four skeletons

106 Hopewell Mound Group

(as shown in Plate XLVIII) Nos. 242, 243, 244, and 245, were uncovered.
At this point we reached a concrete of small gravel stones which had
been cemented together by the infiltration of iron from the soil above,
forming thick sheets and slabs through which it was almost impossible
to penetrate. This being removed by dint of hard labor, what may be
termed a mosaic of red, yellow, and purplish colored earth was encoun-
tered. These masses of earth were so numerous, and of such definite
shape, that, after a careful examination, we have come to the conclusion,
that they were intended to represent certain forms and, although larger
and much cruder, were probably not unlike the sand paintings made by
the Navajo and some other tribes.

When this earth had been removed, three skeletons, Nos. 242, 243,
and 244, were found. Nos. 242 and 243 lay together upon a raised
bench of hard baked clay 8 feet, 5 inches long and 5 feet, 10 inches wide.
The bench was surrounded by a gutter which varied in width on the
different sides. Its maximum width was 1 foot, 4 inches; and its mini-
mum, 7 inches, with a depth of from 3 to 8 inches. This gutter was
filled with a peculiar mixture of brown clay and ashes. Outside the
gutter were four post-holes, irregularly arranged, which were 6-8 inches
in diameter and 2-3 feet deep. Skeleton No. 244 lay on a similar bench
which was connected with the one just described. The dimensions of
this bench were 8 feet, 4 inches by 3 feet, 9 inches, and it was surrounded
b}r a gutter of baked clay filled with clay and ash, as in the preceding
example.

An interesting series of implements were found in connection with
the two burials. No. 242 had a large pile of beads, pearl and other-
wise, lying beside the head, a round ball and spoon-shaped ornament
of copper in the right hand, and a spool-shaped ornament of copper
near the left femur. No. 243 had a large copper plate, badly broken,
on the left side of the head, a number of beads on the right side of the
body, a spool-shaped copper ornament near the left femur, and a ball
and spoon-shaped ornament of copper in the left hand. A few beads
were found on the left side of skeleton No. 244. It was evident from
the position of the post-holes associated with the benches that small
structures had been erected over them, probably to protect the dead
during the building of the mound. A little south and west of the
benches there were, traces of a fireplace 7 by 7 feet, the cinders being
about 6 inches deep. West of this fireplace, upon its outer edge, there
was a small mosaic of fine stones. About 4 feet, 8 inches south of the
fireplace was a layer of stones in the form of a semi-circle. 9 feet
southwest of this was discovered still another layer of istones which had

Mound No. 25 107

been laid with so much regularity that it was impossible not to remark
its intentional shape. It seems evident that mosaics of many definite
shapes were built at the base of these mounds, although hitherto these
have been generally overlooked by archaeologists.
Other skeletons found in this section were : —

No. 245. This lay beside No. 246, the heads of both being toward
the west. A flint knife lay under its head, many beads around the
neck, and a few on the wrist. A beautiful bone awl and some polished
bone piercers lay beneath the hand. With No. 246 were two spool-
shaped copper ornaments and many beads. Both skeletons lay in soft
earth, on the base line.

No. 247 (Cat. No. 40167) lay with the head toward the west. With
it were found a copper spool, cut and polished bear's teeth, many large
beads, peculiar bark, and some other objects of interest.

No. 248 (Cat. No. 4015 1) lay with the head southeast. Another
skeleton, with the head in the same direction, lay to the west of it.
The skeleton, which was badly decayed, was 5 feet, 11 inches long.
Associated with it were some very remarkable objects. At the right
shoulder lay a large platform pipe and a beautiful agate spear-head.
A copper plate lay on the breast, and another on the abdomen, while
a third lay under the hips. These plates, when lifted, were found to
have preserved not only cloth and sinews, but portions of the muscles
of the individual. Cut, sawed and split bears' teeth covered the chest
and abdomen, and several spool-shaped ornaments and buttons of
copper were found among the ribs. The body had apparently been
dressed in a cloth garment, extending from the neck to the knees, upon
which had been sewn several thousand beads, some of pearl and others
of shell. Upon the skirt of the garment had been sewn some of the
largest and most beautiful pearl beads found in any of the mounds,
together with bears' teeth, etc.

The head had been decorated with a remarkable head-dress of
wood and copper (Plates XLIX and L, and Fig. 11). The mass of
copper in the centre was originally in the form of a semi-circle reaching
from the lower jaw to the crown of the head. It had been crushed flat
by the weight of the earth, but part of the original contour was still
apparent. The antler-shaped ornaments were made of wood encased
in sheets of copper, one-sixteenth of an inch thick. They originally had
four prongs of nearly equal length. Willoughby says with reference to
this object : —

"The carved head-plate had been flattened and broken, and the

io8

Hopewell Mound Group

antlers turned back by the superincumbent weight of earth. The head-
plate was originally of the form illustrated in Fig. 12a, and covered the
head from the forehead to the base of the skull, and the branching
antlers probably rose perpendicularly. In the construction of the
antlers the aboriginal artisan first selected limbs having the proper
curve and the required number of branches similarly arranged. These

Fig. 11.
Head-dress on Skeleton 248.

were cut to a suitable form and carefully covered^ with thin copper.
The bases of the antlers were perforated laterally and secured beneath
the head-plate." v

Eleven skeletons (Nos. 249-259) were found in Section 2, with
which there were no objects. All were extremely decayed and could

Mound No. 25 109

not be preserved. Section 3 was reduced to within 5 feet of the base
line with scrapers. Various patches and masses of colored earth were
observed, as in previous excavations. There were many layers and
deposits of gravel, some long, some short, and all more or less curved.
Near the centre of the section, 4 feet from the base line, were found one
hundred and twenty pieces of sheet copper. They were all laid flat,
and occupied a space 3 feet long by 2 feet wide, with layers of bark
above and below. There were no skeletal remains connected with this
deposit, nor was any altar found near it. The bark was exceedingly

Fig. 12a.
Head-dress of Copper from Skeletons 260 and 261.

fragile and crumbled, notwithstanding our efforts to preserve fragments.
Many of the plates were worked into various patterns. Very few of
them were of forms known to exist in Ohio, the greater part of the
designs being unique. The field list is as follows: A long mass of copper
covered with wood on one side, squares and five other traceable things
on the reverse; eighteen single copper rings, two of which are small;
double copper rings; one set of three and one set of two; five saucer-
shaped disks; saw-shaped design, arrowhead, and other unknown things
massed together; one combination design of circles and bars; smaller
mass of copper, wheels, etc.; two fragmentary fish, and one whole fish
resembling the red-horse ; two diamond-shaped stencils of copper ; three
long copper plates, one of them perforated; two swastika crosses; four

no Hopewell Mound Group

copper spool-shaped ornaments, two with four holes in each; one mass
of ten little copper circles; four comb-shaped or bear effigies; two
spoon-shaped pieces of copper; forty pieces of copper, squares, circles,
etc., many fragmentary; eleven pieces showing semi-circles, straight
edges, squares, etc., one small cross (with two arms).

The deposit was photographed in mass, as the edge of a scraper had
caught and turned over several of the plates, but a careful examination
indicated that they were not placed in any special position, being simply
put down after some interments below had been placed. Two skele-
tons, Nos. 260 and 261, lay together near the base line with the heads
west. The mass of material deposited with them exceeds that associated
with any other burial so far discovered in the United States. The
objects were laid so as to form a rectangle 7 feet long and 5 feet wide,
and were frequently so closely spaced as to overlap one another. The
most remarkable find was a copper celt 22 inches long, which weighed
38 pounds. In spite of its size it was very symmetrical.

The objects covering the two skeletons were as follows: Sixty-six
copper celts, ranging in length from i}4 to 22^2 inches; one stone
celt, n inches long; twenty-three copper plates, mostly fragmentary,
and a great number of pieces; one very large jaw; a curious copper
head-ornament; a broken shell; some very fine pearls, pearl and shell
beads, and teeth; carved bones and bone fragments; effigies; meteoric
iron, partly worked copper, etc. ; and colored earth. Several other burials
were found in Section 3. No. 264, an adult, lay with the head east. A
copper celt la}7 under the head, and another under the right hand. A
flint drill lay beside the head, and a number of beads around the neck.
A mass of partly hammered copper lay by the left side. The finding
of a drill with a burial seems to be unique. Finely woven cloth and
fragments of bark adhered to one of the celts.

Skeletons Nos. 265 and 266 lay side by side on blocks of earth
surrounded by trenches. Their heads were west, but the skull of No.
266 was missing. Under the head of No. 265 there was a fragmentary
bird-like (eagle?) effigy of copper. Fine fur adhered to its surface.
Several of these bird effigies of thick sheet copper were found in Mound
25, but cannot be restored. Willoughby thinks they consisted of a head
and neck, the latter ending in a handle. Skeleton No. 267 lay with
the head west. A copper ear-bob and a few beads were found with it.
Skeleton No. 268 (Cat. No. 40178) lay with the head to the west. A
few beads were found, while a copper plate lay under the hips. On the
perforations of this plate were a few small mica scales, possibly remains
of ornaments fastened to the plate.

Mound No. 25 in

"Above and below the perforations is a crescent-shaped mark
caused by the contact of some substance other than mica. To the
inner edge of one of the perforations a cord of sinew still adheres, and
near the corresponding edge of the other hole the marks of a similar
cord appear. This cord of sinew may have attached the plate to the
person, or may have served to fasten the small ornaments to the copper
plate. Upon the reverse side of this plate pieces of leather adhere, and
the impressions of cloth are to be seen in the copper salts. This speci-
men shows very clearly the laminations caused by hammering."

Other burials were :

No. 269 (Cat. No. 40179). Head west. Shell, copper plate, and
beads near head.

No. 270. Head west. Around the skull a copper axe, two hundred
beads, cut mica ornaments, bear's teeth with pearls inserted in them,
decayed bark, and a copper plate.

No. 271. Head west. A few beads and a piece of mica.

Partially cremated. No objects.
No objects.
Two copper ear-bobs and a stone celt.
No finds, but pieces of coal, sheets of mica,
and a small pipe were found in an ash pit near it.

No. 277. Head north. Copper plate under head.

No. 278. Head east. The remarkable incised portion of a human
femur, shown in Plate LXXXII, No. 1, was taken from beside the head
of this skeleton. A pair of shell ear-pendants was found near the neck.
It is interesting to note that a similar ornament is represented in the
lobe of the ear of the carved human figure illustrated in Fig. 68. A
number of small pearl beads, two copper ear-ornaments of the usual
form, several perforated bear's teeth, two of which were inlaid with
pearls, and the large, finely executed imitation bear's tooth of antler
(Fig. 58, on p. 159) were also obtained with this skeleton. There was
also a remarkable human effigy of cannel coal.

Five additional skeletons were found in the banks of Section 3 on
the base line. The banks had to be considerably undermined to get
them out ; and for this reason one of these burials is shown in the edge
of Section 6, three in the edge of Section 5, and one in the north end of
Section 3. No. 279 lay with the head west. Three sheets of mica were
under the skull, three lumps of galena on the shoulders, and a small
pyrula shell near the hips. No. 280 lay with the head south. The
skeleton had almost disappeared, but was evidently that of an adult.
A number of beads were around the neck. No. 281 lay on the edge of

No.

272.

Head north.

No.

273-

Head north.

No.

274.

Head west.

No.

275-

Head north.

112

Hopewell Mound Group

Section 5, near No. 283. The following objects were found with the
former: Three copper plates, one of which lay beneath the hips,
another below the shoulders, and a third under the head, two of these,
being the largest found; a copper helmet-shaped head-dress; copper
ear-ornaments; a clay hemisphere covered with metal; a number of
copper beads, the first found in this mound; a finely carved section of
a human femur; a portion of a delicately wrought ornament of tortoise
shell (Fig. 126). The same carved form appears upon both sides of this
fragment, which represents but a small portion of the object. Unfortu-
nately, the remaining portion of the carving is so badly disintegrated
and broken that it is impossible to ascertain its original outline. Articles
cut from tortoise shell have also been taken from the Turner group of
mounds, and from the stone graves of Tennessee. A number of other
objects were scattered irregularly over the chest.

Fig. 126.
Ornament of Tortoise Shell Found with Skeleton 281.

A bird effigy and an effigy of an otter or beaver, both carved in
bone, were found by the side of the head. The following description of
these objects is taken from the notes and observations of C. C. Wil-
loughby.

The hollow effigies of the same class, as those later to be described
and illustrated, were taken from near the head of the skeleton. The
one shown in Plate LXXXIII, No. i, has the notched raptorial beak and
uncovered cere of the hawk. The eye cavities are large, and probably
contained pearls. The incised lines indicating the feathers of the wings
and tail are even and well cut. Unlike most of the carvings of this kind,
the back is not perforated, but a hole was drilled upon each side, about
one-eighth of an inch from the lower edge, near the outline of the wing.
Plate LXXXIII, No. 2, is a drawing of the other hollow carving. It
represents a quadruped carrying in its mouth a roseate spoonbill

Mound No. 25 113

(compare the head of the bird with that in Plate LXXVIII, No. 2 and
Fig. 63). Two incised ovals are cut in the back of the animal, and
another is present upon the upper side of the tail. These oval figures
are probably analogous to similar elliptical forms common upon the
backs and above the head of animals which appear in the incised carv-
ings of the Ohio Mound Builders. The head and beak of the bird, its
somewhat conventionalized wing, and a part of the tail appear on the
side shown in this drawing. Two perforations extend through the back
of the animal and open into the interior cavity of the effigy. The
relative size of the cavity is shown by the oval line in Plate LXXXIII,
No. 3. The bird wings are turned back between the animal's legs. The
neck of the bird extends along the quadruped's head and neck, and
disappears beneath its body. The continuous outline of the spoonbill is
indicated by wide incised lines upon the under side of the carving and
within the cavity. These lines are represented by heavy lines, and the
broken lines show that portion of the bird appearing upon the sides of
the carving."

Skeletons 283 and 284. Nothing was found with either of these.
They lay in the edge of Cut No. 5, with heads to the north. As in the
case of nearly all skeletons in the moimd, they were utterly decayed.

The first altar found was in Section 3, about 28 feet north of the
copper find and upon the base line of the mound. It was evident that
a quantity of wood had first been placed in the basin of the altar, and
that the earth had been heaped over it and the objects, while it was still
burning. Thus, although the contents of the altar were badly charred
and burned, not all the objects had been destroyed. The objects had
been heaped in the cavity of the altar without any regularity of position,
and included mica ornaments, spool-shaped copper ornaments, copper
balls, many other copper objects, large beads, bear's and panther's
teeth, carved bones, several effigies carved out of stone, stone tablets,
slate ornaments, beautiful stone and terracotta rings, quartz crystals
worked in various forms, flint knives, and cloth. The heat of the fire
had evidently been intense, for much of the copper was melted and run
together.

Section 4. Skeleton 262 was found only 18 inches below the surface
in this section. A large stone celt lay near the neck. It is highly
probable that it was an intrusive burial. Skeleton 263, that of a child,
was found near the surface on the north side.

Skeleton 276 was found on the base line. There were no objects
with it. The floor of this section presented the same appearance as that
of Sections 2 and 3, being burned hard, but no platforms surrounded by

ii4 Hopewell Mound Group

trenches were found. Ash-pits about 10 by 12 inches and post-holes
full of decayed wood were numerous.

Section 5. Skeleton 285 lay in the bottom of Section 5, head to the
north. There were no objects with it. Skeleton 286 lay upon the east
side of Section 5, somewhat under the bank of Section 3. There were
between two and three hundred beads around the neck, and ocean
shells at the head.

Section 6. This section lay between Sections 2 and 3, and promised
to be very rich. The following skeletons were found on the base line:

No. 288. West side of section. Badly decayed. No objects.

Nos. 289 and 290. Centre of the section. Both lay with the head
toward the east. Bowlders to a thickness of 14 or 15 inches had been
laid over the bodies. At the heads, bowlders the size of a man's fist
had been arranged in arch, sheltering the skulls, which were fairly well
preserved. A peculiar substance similar to resin or gum was found
upon the shoulder blades of one skeleton. The earth below the skele-
tons was burned hard and covered with a thin layer of charcoal. Several
hundred beads were found around the neck of No. 289.

Second Altar. This altar was found in Section 6, and its removal
completed the work at Hopewell. The objects found in it had been
heaped above the fire, as in the altar previously described. It was
somewhat larger than the latter, and included more objects. Most of
the finds were of the same character, but in addition it contained
obsidian and some fine pipes.

Most of the skeletons were found on the north side of Sections 2
and 3, only 8 to 12 feet from the surface and under layers of gravel or
earth. The centre of the mound contained gravel and clay strata
which, for a certain distance, did not conform to the slope of the struc-
ture. The proportion of the different materials in the mound was
estimated to be as follows: Clay 45%, loam 20%, gravel 13%, sand
5,% white clay 5%, burnt earth 5%, charcoal 1%, stones 1%.

Our first inspection of Mound 25 led us to believe that it represented
the human trunk; but we later concluded that its form was due to
additions, which had been made to the mound at various times, and
that it was not intended for an effigy.

It seems to me that Mound 25 was the result of gradual develop-
ment. It is probable that a number of interments were first made, the
small wooden pens or dome-shaped structures erected, and mounds
built over these. The first completed structure was approximately
150 feet long, 80 feet wide, and about 14 feet high. Later it was made

Mound No. 25 115

into an elevated platform, as the earth layers indicate that the top was
flat for a considerable distance.

The deposits of sheet copper, and also the deposits of axes and celts,
were apparently made after the original smaller mounds were com-
pleted. Indeed, they were placed on the hard burnt floor subsequent
to some of the burials. It seems also that No. 248 and a number of
other skeletons north of the centre of the mound were placed there,
after these first interments had been made. This is based on the fact
that many of the layers seemed disturbed or broken, as though the
Indians had dug down four or five feet through the original slope of
the first mounds on the north side. Having made these interments,
they heaped dirt above to a height of from 8 to 14 feet. How long a
period elapsed between these various interments it is impossible to state,
but the evidence indicates that the Hopewell group was occupied for
a considerable length of time. The number of mound interments and
objects is of such character as to indicate that the place was occupied
for at least a hundred years. I do not think that the peculiar character
of Mound 25 can be explained on the theory that all the interments and
the amount of labor necessary to erect such a structure were due to
concentrated effort on the part of the villagers during a few years of
occupation.

II. STUDIES OF THE OBJECTS FOUND IN THE
HOPEWELL MOUNDS

A study of the various objects found in the mounds of the Hopewell
group will be presented under fourteen subdivisions. It has not been
possible to always adhere strictly to the material under discussion in a
given section, as, for example, when speaking of copper, it is some-
times necessary to refer to bone and shell also.

Metal: Copper Objects. — In the course of a general review of the
bulk of the material found during these explorations, the observer is at
once struck by the profusion of copper objects. While no one has as
yet counted the multitudinous objects in the Field Museum collection,
it is estimated that there are about two thousand one hundred copper
ear-ornaments or busks in storage. Taking into consideration the many
perfect objects on exhibition, the masses of copper fused together, and
the fragments, it seems probable that there were in the neighborhood
of five thousand copper objects in the twenty-eight mounds of the
Hopewell group. This, further, does not take into account the copper
removed by Squier and Davis. The objects include not only those
common in Ohio Valley mounds, such as celts, small plates, and ear-
ornaments, but there are also copper plates, axes of unusual size, and
many designs cleverly wrought from sheet copper. Nothing like these
geometric figures of thin copper had been previously found in Ohio,
except a few specimens from the Turner group, near Cincinnati. The
whole series included such abnormal forms, so different from those
found in other mound explorations, that some of our most eminent
archaeologists stated that it was impossible for Indians working with
stone tools to have produced such delicate and finished work. It was
not until the publication of a detailed report upon analysis of mound
copper by Clarence B. Moore,1 that it was established beyond doubt
that the Hopewell copper was prehistoric. Moore has set forth the
fact that Europeans traded copper ornaments to the Indians, but that
these were usually made of an alloy, and that the metal was not nearly
as pure as that obtained by the Indians from the drift or mines in
Wisconsin and Michigan. Additional evidence of the aboriginal origin
of these objects is furnished by the presence of many fragments and

1 American Anthropologist, Vol. V, 1903, p. 27.
Il6

Copper Objects

117

partly worked nuggets of copper, which certainly would not have been
given to the Indians by traders or travellers. To present a technical
study of this wealth of copper would require a special monograph, but
it is not my purpose to consider in detail everything found in the mounds.

The axes and adzes found range in size from very small examples,
4 or 5 cm long and 3 cm wide to the very large example shown in Plate
LIII, which weighs 38^2 pounds. A distinction must be drawn between
the adzes, which are concave on one
side and convex on the other, with
flaring edges (Plate LI), and the
axes, whose edges do not flare
(Plate LII).

It is well to compare these copper
implements with the stone imple-
ments of the ungrooved axe class.
The same types have been found,
in stone, in village sites and graves
in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Most of the better stone axes and
adzes have one side flat with the
other convex and an edge which
is often sharply beveled or curved.
The makers of the copper imple-
ments probably patterned the adzes
after the specialized stone adze-
blades, and the ordinary axes after
the stone ungrooved axe or celt.
Fig. 13a, drawn by C.C.Willoughby,
shows the outlines of copper adzes
and axes found in the Hopewell
mounds. The copper adzes and axes
seem to be particularly corroded.
Traces of the cloth were still visible
on some specimens, and of what was

apparently fur on others. Willoughby thinks that most of the hatchets,
adzes, and celts had not been used. The suggestion naturally follows
that these objects, notwithstanding their form, were treasured valu-
ables rather than tools for every-day use. In Fig. 136 Willoughby has
drawn three specimens found with skeleton 176. The upper ends of
the two at the left are battered, and all show laminations, indicating
that at least some of these objects were used as tools. It is rather

Fig. 13a.

Outline of Copper

Hatchets and Adzes.

n8

Hopewell Mound Group

curious that the skeleton with which these were found is that of a child.
The larger copper tool shown in Plate LI 1 1 is one of the most inter-
esting of the Hopewell finds. The circumstances attending its dis-
covery have been mentioned above. On it lay portions of textiles and
traces of wood or bark. It seems impossible that such an object could
have been put to any use. There seems to be no special differences
between the copper tools found with skeletons and those from the copper

Fig. 13b.
Three Copper Hatchets from Skeleton 176.

deposits. As a general rule, the former show more signs of use. Some
of the copper is very much oxidized or disintegrated. This is illustrated
in Plate LIV, No. i, which shows one of the copper hatchets nearly
full size. The copper accompanying skeletons Nos. 260 and 261 was
more disintegrated than that from other burials, although it is difficult
to determine the cause thereof. A few small, pointed copper tools
were found, but scarcely enough to constitute credit by themselves
Fig. 14 shows an awl or pointed tool of copper 17.5 cm long, found

Fig. 14.
Copper Awl or Pointed Tool from Mound

in Mound 25. There was also a somewhat heavier pointed tool, which
was almost pick-shaped. Someone has cleaned and polished half of it,
removing the oxidization. Students of prehistoric copper artifacts have
been unable to understand why the Hopewell people did not make use

Copper Objects 119

of the awl and needle forms common in Wisconsin and Michigan, when
they possessed so many axes, plates, and designs in sheet copper. It
has been the experience of both C. B. Moore and Professor Mills that
the mound copper of the Ohio Valley and the South is confined exclu-
sively to ornaments, plates, and axes. The utility tools, such as awls,
needles, and gouges, do not seem to have passed beyond the confines
of Michigan and Wisconsin.

Next to axes and adzes, plates were the most numerous of the larger
pieces. At least fifty more or less perfect examples were obtained, and
counting the many fragments, it seems probable that over a hundred
were originally placed with the various burials and deposits. The
largest plate was about 24 cm long and 14 cm wide, while the smallest
observed was 12 cm long and 6.5 cm wide. I should judge the average
size to be about 15 by 10 cm. The plates were not quite as thin as the
sheet copper designs, but varied considerably in thickness, the heaviest
being about 3 mm thick and the thinnest about 1.5 mm.

One would like very much to know why the heavy axes and adzes
over skeletons 260 and 261, and the thick copper plates and eagle
effigies, were often badly oxidized, while the thin sheet-copper designs
of the other deposits were (for the most part) well preserved. The
surfaces of numbers of the copper tools are much pitted, whereas many
of the thin sheets retain nearly their original form. One would naturally
suppose that the frail geometric designs would disintegrate more rapidly.
Possibly the quantity of bark surrounding them and the absence of
contact with human remains aided in their preservation. Willoughby
suggests that the thin sheets were of purer copper and more highly
finished, which made them less liable to decay.

A plate of typical form, found with one of the skeletons, is shown
in Plate LV, No. 1. Willoughby has drawn outlines of some of the
plates illustrating variations in sizes (Fig. 15). The central plate e was
found with skeleton 199. Plate LV, No. 2, shows a more specialized
form of plate found in the sheet-copper deposits. It is a rather narrow
rectangle, with three small holes drilled at either end. While classed
with the plates, it is somewhat different and much thinner and, as
stated, lay with the deposit of copper designs. On many of the plates
there were traces of cloth, and on others slight indications of fur or hair,
as though they had been wrapped in skins. Most of the plates were
perforated, and appeared to have been worn on the person. On one
side of the smallest copper plate found, which was with skeleton 199,
there were remains of a fringe made of twisted fibre of some kind.
Sinews, running from one hole to another, showed the method of attach-

120

Hopewell Mound Group

ing this plate to the cloth. When found with skeletons, the plates were
usually on the breast or abdomen. It is very easy to distinguish the
copper plates from the designs and other material. There is, however,
such a quantity of copper worked in unusual form that much of the
collection is difficult to classify.

Small copper beads were found with several skeletons, also a few
large beads. A few objects, probably very large beads, were found in
the altars, although, as they had lain directly in the hottest part of the
fire, it was impossible to determine whether they had been beads or

Fig. 15.
Outlines of Plates.

small cylinders. They were 3-4 cm long and 2-3 cm in diameter. I
believe that they were made by rolling small copper sheets, 2-3 mm in
thickness, together, and overlapping and hammering down the edges.
Many buttons and cones were found in the altars and with certain
skeletons. They were shaped like European buttons, and were 12-20
mm in diameter and 5-10 mm thick. The largest examples, which
have been classed as cones, were sometimes as much as 5 cm in diameter,
and 2-3 cm high. Some of these objects were of copper ; others, of wood
or clay, were covered with silver or copper. In these the metal plating
was thin, and appeared to have simply been hammered in place upon
the non-metallic base. A number of these buttons and cones are shown
in Fig. 16. The two largest (a and b) are about 5 cm in diameter and
are covered with silver; c and d show two of the small buttons with
the convex side up; and e and/, the reverse of the same specimens.

Copper Objects

121

In e a small piece of carbonized twine still protrudes from the upper
perforation. About two hundred of these buttons and cones were found,
one or two of which were of metoric iron. Plate LVI, Nos. 1-6, shows
two disks of thin copper, two quadrangular, and two spoon-shaped,
copper objects. There were originally handles to the two spoon-like
specimens, but these have been broken off. The copper disks, if found
under other conditions, would probably be considered European, as
they are of the same form as a modern washer. The two quadrangular
perforated objects have two minute perforations in the smaller end, as
if intended for suspension.

Fig. i 6.
Buttons of Clay and Wood Covered with Copper.

Spool-shaped ear-ornaments of copper are common in the Ohio
mounds, and I have estimated that there must have been originally
four thousand of these objects deposited in the Hopewell group. The
greater number of these were of the simple type shown in Plate LVI,
Nos. 7-10. Squier and Davis do not report the position of the copper
spools found by them in relation to skeletons. Putnam was the first
to identify them as ear-ornaments, as he found many of them in pairs,
one on either side of the skull. They have also been found upon the
hands or wrists. The diameter of these ornaments varies from about
3 to 6 cm with 4 cm as an average. A few specimens were covered
with silver or meteoric iron, but these were quite rare. One or two of
this sort were reported by Putnam from the Turner group.

The late Frank Hamilton Gushing experimented with reference to
the manufacture of these objects, but students of archaeology are
especially indebted to Willoughby for his additional and more com-
plete observations. With suitable stones and one or two bones of firm
texture, obtained on the sea-shore, he fashioned an ear-ornament equal
to those produced by the Hopewell people. The copper used was a free
nugget, which he secured from a copper mine. He took as a pattern one

122 Hopewell Mound Group

of the finest ornaments from the Hopewell mounds. In fact he selected
one on which there was a symbolic design. In the paper detailing at
length his experiment he records that, as the nugget was hammered,
the outer edge of the sheet became hard and brittle, and showed a
liability to crack and break. The cracks usually extended toward the
centre. He therefore placed the copper on a fire made of drift wood
and, after heating the metal, allowed it to slightly cool, then continued
the hammering. By repeating this process he was able to reduce the
copper to proper thinness. After the sheet of copper had been prepared,
he pointed a stone and drew a circle of the required diameter. With
the aid of his bone implement he made a groove around this circle,
producing a corresponding ridge on the opposite side. He ground this
ridge away with a flat rubbing-stone, and had a flat circular disk of
nearly uniform thickness. Believing that the Indians had a model of
either wood or clay over which they pressed the thin sheet copper, he
constructed a form from pine-wood with the aid of stone implements
and fire. He carved the circle with its radiating arms (which was on
the original Hopewell ornament) upon the form with a stone knife.
He bent the metal over the form and forced it into the grooves with
his narrow bone tool and a small water-worn pebble which he used as
a hand hammer. He found it necessary to anneal the copper, as the
bone implement tended to harden or temper the metal. He finished
the edges of the disks by rubbing them upon a flat stone, and then
polished the object. He concluded that a number of plates could be
thus fashioned over the same mould or form. He states that sheet
copper can be readily drilled with a pointed stone, provided the point
is not too sharp. He made a careful study of the construction of these
ornaments, and his drawings illustrating the various steps in the manu-
facture are reproduced in Fig. 17. He may well be satisfied with the
results of his labor, as the ear-busk made by him is very much like the
one in Plate LVII, No. 1, of the Hopewell collection, although it is, of
course, brighter and fresher.

Thirty to thirty-five copper anklets, bracelets, and disks were
found with skeletons 260 and 261 and in the other copper deposits and
altars. The small washer-shaped disks have been described elsewhere.
The bracelets and anklets are made both from solid copper and from
sheet copper rolled. They vary in thickness. Two are shown in Plate
LVIII, — one solid, the other of sheet copper, edges turned over. The
largest one is 9.5 cm in diameter. In the one made of sheet copper it
will be observed that there is an opening extending entirely around.
The edges are made smooth, so the bracelet could be worn conveniently.

Copper Objects

123

Plates LIX a and B show several more of the ordinary single (solid) wire
bracelets and the rolled sheet ones. There is great diversity in the
manufacture of the anklets or bracelets. The thickness of the strip
varies, and in some of the hollow ones a solid bracelet was found inside.

Fie. 17.
Construction of Ear-Ornaments.

Copper bracelets have been found in man}'' mounds with skeletons,
but the disks, six of which are shown in Plate LX, are most unusual.
A photograph does not bring them out clearly. They are saucer-shaped.
If one took an ordinary saucer and cut out the bottom, leaving the rim
concave within and convex without, one would have an exact duplica-
tion of these objects. All of them are very nearly true circles. They
were found fitted one within the other. It has been suggested that the
form was probably produced by placing a thin sheet of copper over a
rounded wooden object or stone ball, and the copper was thus hammered
into shape. It would be easier to cut out the hole first, while the copper
was flat. They are smoothly finished. These objects are of the same
form as the large silver disks worn by Navajo Indians at the present
time on their belts.

The majority of these objects were found in a single deposit about
25 feet from the first altar discovered and 15 feet below the surface.
They were laid horizontally, occupying a space approximately 3 by 2
feet, and were protected above and below by layers of bark. The
objects found in this deposit, 118 in all, were the most remarkable
found in the Hopewell group. In fact, their counterpart had not pre-
viously been reported. Studies of them made by Putnam and Wil-

124 Hopewell Mound Group

loughby lead observers to believe that most of them are cosmic symbols.
They show great variation in form, ranging from small objects with an
elevated circular centre and expanding wings (Plate LXI, Nos. 1-4) to
the large complicated designs shown in Plate LXVIII, No. 4.

In Plate LXI, Nos. 5-7, are shown three prong-like objects, made of
very thin copper, which were 25 cm long. The base of the most perfect
one shows a perforation. In Plate LXI, Nos. 8-9, are illustrated two
other objects whose form suggests that of Nos. 5-7, although with
marked differences. The figures of Plates LXII and LXIII suggest
the head of a serpent. Those in Plate LXIII are not tmlike the oval
and wing walls or "plumes" lying at the head of the Serpent Mound in
Adams County, Ohio. Plate LXIY illustrates three similar objects,
much corroded. Plate LXVIII, No. 4, is probably the best and most
interesting of all the stencils. It evidently represents the head of a
serpent. The two perforated disks a little back from the pointed end
probably represent the eyes. The object has been mended in two places,
but the repairs do not come out well in the photograph. Willoughby
in his article published in the Holmes Memorial Volume, suggests the
placing of the forked objects (Plate LXI, Nos. 5-7) above this head,
representing the forked tongue or fangs. In Plate LXV, Nos. 1-2, are
shown two designs of unknown significance, cut from very thin metal
and beautifully made. We will assume that in the design of No. 1 the
maker first cut out the three oval perforations. This left the three
projections, and small circles were then cut in the centre of these.
Thus the symbol "three" occurs three times, although I am unable to
say whether this has any significance. In the other design there are
four arms, each of which is turned at the end, leaving a small opening.
Between these arms there are four leaf -like projections each of which
is perforated with a circle. At the base of each of these projections
there is a small perforation which probably served for the attachment
of the object. Thus the symbol "four" occurs four times.

One of the large stencils which seems to have been divided into
four parts is shown in Plate LXV, No. 3. The proportions of the
different parts are nearly perfect. All around the margin of this object
are small perforations, probably for attachment. Plate LXVI, Nos.
1-2, must be classed as one of the designs of unknown significance.
It seems probable that they are the halves of large double ornaments.
In Plate LXVII, Nos. 1-2, are shown two swastikas. A number of
these, large and small, were found. In Plate LXVI, Nos. 3-4, are
represented thin, toothed strips of copper, very naturally called saws.
They are too small and thin to have been used as tools, however. They

Copper. Objects 125

may have been intended to portray lightning. There were a number of
objects of the sort which are shown in Plate LXVII, Nos. 3-4. They
are diamond-shaped, containing four perforated ovals. In the top and
bottom ovals the perforation is round ; in those at the sides, oval. This
is particularly mentioned, because it affords evidence that the artistic
proportions were usually preserved by this people. This is true of their
bone carvings, as well as of their copper work. In Plate LXVIII,
Nos. 1-3, are figured designs evidently cut with the aid of patterns.
The central cosmic symbol is not uncommon in Mexico and Asia, and
has been variously interpreted. Putnam and Willoughby1 have
compared these designs with the serpent designs found on the Cincinnati
tablet and with similar designs from the Turner and Hopewell groups
They have made a study of these symbols and published an abstract of
their observations.

An object which apparently represents the claws of a bear is shown
in Plate LXIX, No. 1. Several specimens of this sort were found with
the sheet-copper deposit. Apparently they were made by hammering
sheet copper over narrow convex wooden forms. On two of them the
lamination is visibile. In one specimen, a claw which had been broken
off is mended with a piece of copper fastened underneath and attached
with small rivets. It is possible that these objects were used as combs.
Combs of bone have been found in Iroquois sites and at Madisonville,
but I am unable to state whether any of these were of this form. In
Plate LXIX, No. 2, is shown a fish effigy, four of which were found in
the deposit. These were not all of the same size, and there are variations
in the length of the body and the shape of the mouth and fins. The
gills, and the juncture of the fins with the body, are shown by curved
lines. There are, two small perforations above and below the eye, and
another pair at the base of the dorsal fin. The tubercals at the mouth
are shown by repousse work. These effigies appear to represent the
large sucker, locally known as the "red horse," which is common in the
Scioto River. I do not know why this fish should have been selected,
as one would think the Indians would have preferred the bass, catfish,
or even the perch, for these designs. It is possible that the effigies repre-
sent the buffalo fish instead of the "red horse" or common sucker.

Two slender slightly hollowed copper objects are shown in Plate
LXX, Nos. 1-2. They have two small perforations at the wide concave
end. But for these perforations they might be considered utensils of
some sort; but as it is, they must be placed in the unknown class.

Symbolism in Ancient American Art, Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, Vol. XLIV, 1896.

126

Hopewell Mound Group

Plate LXX, No. 5, is almost hatchet-like in form. At first it suggests
the spatulate forms in slate and granite found in Wisconsin and Tennes-
see, but it clearly shows three small perforations which indicate that it
was fastened flat to some surface. It seems to me, in studying these
problematical forms of sheet copper, that the perforations are of primary
importance. Nearly all of them contain these minute holes for rivets
or pins, which would seem to indicate that they were either fastened to
wooden bases or upon garments. In No. 5 we have a- broken object of

the same form as Fig. 18. No. 3 on
Plate LXX is a small copper oval
with two perforations. No. 4 on
the same Plate is an imitation
bear's tooth in copper.

A number of copper head-dresses
were found, all, but two of which
were in fragmentary condition. The
antlers (described above) found at
the head of skeleton 248 are shown
in Plate XLIX. It is well in
this connection to reproduce some
designs from bone and stone, as
well as copper. Fig. 196 is taken
from the Cincinnati tablet, a from a
sheet-copper design of the Hopewell
group. These two designs, found
about go miles apart in mounds sur-
rounded by earthworks, suggest the
earthwork symbol. In some Hope-
well designs we have the circle or
symbolic eye in the centre sur-
rounded by the square earthwork.
Willoughby says of this, "The indentations or spaces in the human ser-
pent head of the Cincinnati tablet are represented in the copper design
by the seven notches above and below, as shown in the illustration."

Figs. 20 and 2 1 show how the copper head-dress was worn. In the
former Willoughby 's drawing taken from one of the bone objects found
with a skeleton in Mound 25 is reproduced. In the latter he has taken
the design apart in order that it may be conveniently studied. Plate
LXXI shows a head-dress, or rather a curved cap or helmet of copper
which was found at the head of skeleton 243. It is fragmentary, but
was probably 16 cm long and 10.5 cm wide. It has short horns, and

Fig. 18.

Problematical Form in

Sheet Copper.

Copper Objects

127

may represent the head of the deer after the horns have been shed.
The projections are not unlike certain stone objects which have been
found in the Ohio Valley.1 With reference to this specimen, Willoughby
states, "The copper portion of this head-dress is made in one piece.
The copper projections surrounding the wooden cores have crumbled
off at about one half their height. The broken tops of the copper at
that place show it to have been made of thin pieces of metal hammered
together. The head-dress is so corroded that it is impossible to work
out the process with exactitude. No mark of junction with the main

a

Fig. 19b.
Design from the Cincinnati Tablet.

Fig. 19a.

Design from a Sheet Copper

of the Hopewell Group.

plate shows on account of corrosion. The wooden cores have been
almost perfectly preserved by the salts of copper. They were very
carefully made, and probably served as forms over which to mould
the copper. Judging from the preservation of their tops, it is quite
evident that the copper still covered them when the mound was opened,
and crumbled when the earth was removed. The plate is nearly straight
across the forehead and round at the base."

Several sheet-copper effigies, apparently representing eagles, were
found. One of these is shown in Plate LXIX, No. 3. They range from
26 to 35 cm in length, being about 5 mm thick and somewhat thicker
than the sheet-copper designs. Most of the specimens were fragmen-
tary, but one or two have been restored. In some cases the entire body

•Cf. Stone Ornaments in Use among the American Indians, pp. 104, 106, 390.

128

Hopewell Mound Group

of the bird does not seem to have been shown. The head is exaggerated,
the wings are indicated above the back rather than at the sides, and the
tail is spread. These effigies may have been carried on a staff or placed

on the corners of the ceremonial
lodge, as were the eagle effigies which
Tonty saw on the corners of build-
ings in the lower Mississippi Valley.
Two wooden bear's teeth plated with
copper were found with skeleton
177. They had apparently been
worn as ear-pendants. They were
badly broken, but the wood seemed
to have been maple. The plating
was neatly done, and the seams
where the sides joined were care-
fully rubbed down, and the whole
surface made smooth and even.
There were several copper cylinders,
one of which is shown in Fig. 22.
These originally covered bone tubes.
They were badly decayed, and all
but the one shown were in frag-
ments. Usually they appear to be a union of three cylinders. Similar
copper cylinders have been found by other explorers in the mounds.

Plates LXXII— LXXIII show
fragments of pure copper, hammered
and unhammered, and also copper
fused by the heat of the altars. Fully
thirty copper nuggets of all sizes were
found, these having undoubtedly
been brought from the Lake Superior
region. Most of them were found
in altars, but a few were with the
deposit covering skeletons 260 and
261 . Before describing these objects,
it is well to offer some suggestions
as to the source of the material.
Meteoric iron was found by Putnam

in the mounds of the Turner and Liberty groups, and a few specimens
have also been discovered by Mills. I found a small ear-ornament of
this material in the Porter Mound in Frankfort, Ohio, and it is probable

Fig. 20.

Bone Object from a Skeleton in Mound 25,

Showing a Figure with Copper Head-dress

Fig. 21.

Same Object as Fig. 20,

the Design being Taken Apart.

Copper Objects

129

that the oxidized iron objects mentioned by early writers upon Ohio

archasology were of meteoric iron. All this would indicate that there

was some considerable supply of this metal. Inquiry seems to indicate

that few fragments of meteoric iron were discovered in southern Ohio

in recent years. Indeed, one might venture the assertion that there

was more meteoric iron in the Hopewell group alone than in all these

recent finds. This seems to be more or less

significant. Either the fall of meteorites

was more frequent, or the Hopewell people

had access to some good-sized meteoric iron

deposit the location of which is at present

unknown. Meteoric iron is malleable, but

not so easily worked as copper. The natives

must have reduced it to the desired form

by hammering and grinding. There are in

the Hopewell collection thirty or forty

fragments of meteors and iron artifacts.

These include fragments of plates, hatchets,

cones, beads, and small chisel-like objects

about 10 cm in length. While searching the

ashes and debris from Altar 1, Willoughby

found a shell bead in the perforation of

which was a slender meteoric iron drill,

broken, but identifiable. Nearly a hundred

iron beads were found in the two altars,

but most of them were damaged, and it

was impossible to count accurately.

Fig. 23 shows Willoughby 's drawings of four of the meteoric iron
objects. Three of these are evidently cutting tools inserted in stag-
horn handles; a indicates that the chisel-like blade was curved, but it
is badly corroded. In b the handle is better preserved, the inner end of
the shank being rounded. The back is nearly flat. In c the iron blade
is well preserved, and the edge is still sharp enough to cut soft wood.
The upper part of the handle has been almost entirely burned away.
Plate LXXIV shows five fragments of meteoric iron, which do not seem
to have been worked.

Lumps of galena were found in a number of the mounds, and a few
pieces were picked up on the surface in the group. Little or no surface
galena is found in the State of Ohio, and geologists have stated that it
probably came from farther west, possibly Illinois or Missouri. The
Indians seem to have regarded it as valuable and, placed large lumps

Fig. 2z.
Copper Cylinder.

130

Hopewell Mound Group

in the mounds, without attempting to either work it or melt it into lead.
Chipped Stone; Objects of Quartz, Crystal, and Obsidian. —
Numbers of small unworked quartz crystals, which were practically-
perfect, were found in the altars, but the objects made of this material

Fig. 23.
Meteoric Iron Adze Blades in Antler Handles from Altar 1.

Fig. 24.
Cones of Quartz Crystal.

seem to have suffered more from the heat of the altar fires than those
of any other class. Nearly a bushel of fragments were obtained, but it
is impossible to restore most of the objects. There were large numbers
of very fine knives and spear-heads, some of which were 9-1 1 cm in

Ouartz, Crystal, and Obsidian

131

length. As there is considerable waste in the manufacture of an imple-
ment, a crystal of large size must have been required. No quartz of
this size occurs in the Ohio Valley, except perhaps in upper Tennessee
or Cumberland, where crystals may occur large enough for the manu-
facture of points 8 or 9 cm long. The Hopewell people must have
either known of deposits of crystal now exhausted, or have obtained
them by trade from some Indians, who lived in mountainous regions,
where large crystals occurred. Fragments of slender drill-like objects
were found, also plummets and cones. One object is about 8 cm long
and 1 cm in diameter. The ends have been polished, and there is a
groove around one end similar to the groove at the head of a plummet.
Another slender crystal has been worked into plummet form and drilled
from opposite sides, the
perforation being 3 mm in
diameter at the openings
and * 2 mm wide in the
centre. In regard to the
cones, shown in Fig. 24,
Willoughby says, "These
two cones, taken from
Altar 1, were cut from
transparent quartz. They
had been cracked into many
fragments, but these were
matched, and the outlines
of both specimens are now
perfect. Some of the cracks
of the large cone are stained
with green carbonate of copper, but the small one shows little staining.
From the same altar was taken another quartz crystal, practically
perfect (Fig. 25). It appears to have been originally a core from which
quartz knives were thrown off by pressure. It has been partially ground
down, and evidently was to be worked into a form similar to the others
described. From Altar 1 was taken also a portion of a large crystal of
brown or black tourmaline." It seems to me that the delicate work in
quartz adds emphasis to the high character of Hopewell art. Crystal
is much more difficult to work than either quartzite or hematite,
although all these are hard and refractory materials.

An inspection of the obsidian implements from the Hopewell group
now in Field Museum of Natural History indicates that there are 262
blades, knives, spear-heads, etc., together with a great number of frag-

Fig. 25.
Cone of Ouartz Crystal.

132

Hopewell Mound Group

ments. It seems probable that about five hundred implements were
originally placed on the altar. After much painstaking work, C. L.
Owen of Field Museum has restored a number of these knives and
blades. The largest, broken by the heat of the altar, was originally
38 cm long and 14 cm wide, and they range from this down to small
objects 5.5 cm long. The average dimensions of the larger implements
are: Length 25 cm, width, 8-1 1 cm, thickness, 0.5-1 cm. Most of
them are of the forms shown in Plates LXXV — LXXVI, and in
Willoughby's drawings (Fig. 26). The points of several of them are

Fig. 26.
Obsidian Implements from Altar 2.

curiously curved, after the manner of knives. Almost all of them belong
to three or four patterns, which are distinctively western, and da not
compare with types common in the Mississippi Valley. In most of them,
the notches or barbs are cut diagonally. There is a slight widening in
the upper part of the stems. The bases of the unbarbed ones are often
angular, coming almost to a point. In some of the more slender ones,

Obsidian 133

the bases are rounded. Some are double knives, being pointed at both
ends. The work is no better than that of our best artists in flint craft
in Ohio, Kentucky, or Tennessee.

Putnam informed me that the obsidian came from Yellowstone
Park, not from New Mexico or California. If such was the case, it must
have been brought by canoe at least three thousand miles down the
Yellowstone, thence down the Missouri, up the Ohio, and up the Scioto
to the Hopewell group. Viewed from our present ease and convenience
of travel, this statement carries no significance to the reader. In pre-
historic times it was necessary for the Indians to go on foot or in canoes
to the localities where obsidian could be obtained, all of which meant a
journey of several months duration. They would be compelled to pass
through regions occupied by hostile tribes and to delay their journey, in
order to obtain food. The objects were not made on the Hopewell site,
for no chips have been found there, or anywhere in the Ohio Valley.
If these objects were not obtained by means of a journey on the part of
the Hopewell people, they must have come in through trade. I do not
believe that they were bartered from village to village from the Yellow-
stone to the Scioto, else we would have found obsidian implements in
mounds of Illinois, Missouri, and elsewhere. Although hundreds of
tumuli have been explored, little obsidian has been found outside the
State of Ohio, although I understand a little has been found in Illinois
mounds. Although great numbers of arrow-points, drills, knives, and
spear-heads of obsidian are found in the Northwest, none of the small
points occur in the Hopewell group. The offerings were confined to
large and rare types, which were for the most part specialized forms.
It is rather curious that the smaller points of carnelian, agate, etc., were
not brought to the Hopewell site.

It is surprising that there were so few chipped objects of either Flint
Ridge stone or Tennessee chert. Most of the chipped material from
the mounds was obsidian and quartz, except the large number of disks
from Mound 2, which seem to have come from the quarries on Little
River, Tennessee.1 It does not seem possible that the Indians carried
the 8,185 disks overland from Tennessee to the Hopewell group. More
likely, they brought them by canoes, which necessitated the following
journey — down Little River to the Cumberland, thence to the Ohio
River, up the Ohio to the Scioto, then up to Paint Creek to the North
Fork of same, and then to the Hopewell group. This is a distance of
eight hundred miles. All the flint material made use of by the Hopewell

'These workings are described in Bulletin of Phillips Academy, Vol. Ill,
pp. 126-132; also in the writer's Stone Age of North America, p. 218.

134

Hopewell Mound Group

people could have been secured from Flint Ridge, distant less than one
hundred miles from this place. The chalcedony of Flint Ridge is superior
to the Tennessee chert. Why, then, should the Hopewell people have
brought a large mass of material so great a distance? Was it because
they were in closer touch with southern people than with northern ? Or
were the Flint Ridge quarries in the territory of a hostile tribe ? These
questions may have a bearing on the migration or origin of the Hope-
well people.

Fig. 2j.

Two Sandstone Tablets from Altar i.

Ground and Polished Stone. — Forty-eight objects made of the
same fine grained sandstone of which the Cincinnati tablet is composed
were found in the group. Most of them were in Altar No. i, but one
rattlesnake tablet (Fig. 9, on p. 88) was found in Mound No. 1. Nine
of these sandstone objects may be classified as tablets, but the others
are almost celt-shaped, although they have not been brought to a cutting
edge. The largest of the tablets is 15.5 cm long, 9 cm wide and 1.5 cm
thick. The largest of the celt-shaped objects is 10 cm long and 3 cm

Ground and Polished Stone

135

wide. A few of the smaller specimens of this type are sharpened at one
end. Two of the largest tablets, drawn by Willoughby, are shown in
Fig. 27. None of the rectangular tablets are polished, and they show
no traces of carving or other decoration. Fig. 28 shows several of the

Fig. 28.
Seven Sandstone Tablets ami Celt-like Objects from Altar i.

celt-shaped objects. Those on the left appear to be of limestone instead
of sandstone, and are rather highly polished. The use to which these
objects was put, is of course, problematical. In their present state the
larger ones appear unfinished, and it is possible that they would have
eventually been decorated or carved. A number of plummets, which
do not differ from those found in the village sites of the Ohio Valley,
were found in Altar 1 . Squier and Davis also found numbers of these
in their explorations. As a rule, these objects are rather long and slender,
well polished and symmetrical (Fig. 29).

The objects commonly known as "problematical forms," that is,
banner stones, boat stones, bird stones, etc., are almost absent in the
Hopewell group. We did find one or two slate ornaments and gorgets,
but none of the pendant or crescent forms were found, and no stone
tubes. Fig. 33 has the general form of the short bar-amulets from the
Ohio Valley, but differs from them in that it has a groove across the
back and notches on the ends. The ordinary bar-amulet is also longer

136

Hopewell Mound Group

and more slender. The material is probably cave gypsum. Fig. 31
shows a problematical form from Altar 2. It is 7.25 cm long and 4.5
cm wide, Math a perforation of 14 mm in diameter. Similar objects
occur in Kentucky and Tennessee, and are occasionally found in Ohio
and Indiana, but are usually from ancient village sites, not from mounds.
Fig. 32 represents a small bowl-like affair that can scarcely be classed
as a boat stone. It has been badly damaged by the heat of the altar
fire. Fig. 34 is the nearest approach to a bird
stone from the Hopewell group. It is 7 cm
across the base and 5.5 cm high. The material
is mottled granite. It has the protruding cars
characteristic of the short-winged bird stones
of northern Ohio, western New York, and
southwest Wisconsin. There are perforations
on either side of the base in the same position
as on ordinary bird stones. It may possibly
portray an owl. It is interesting to note that,
so far as I am aware, the plain bird or saddle
stone has not been found in the Ohio mounds.
Fig. 30 illustrates a highly polished, hollow
object of slate which was found in Altar 2. It
suggests a growing horn. It is clearly a
problematical form, and might be classed as a
boat stone but for the fact that the lower part
is almost pointed. A stone ornament shaped
like a bear's tooth (Cat. No. 56551) is shown
in Fig. 35.

If the builders of the Hopewell group made
use of ornamental problematical forms in shell,
slate, and other materials, it is to be supposed
that they would have placed them with
burials or in altars. C. B. Moore has found
them with burials in Kentucky, and Mills
discovered them at the Tremper mound, which is of Hopewell culture.
It is curious therefore that they should not have occurred at Hopewell,
where the culture seems to have reached its highest artistic develop-
ment. It is not advisable to enter here into a lengthy discussion of
this problem, but the subject seems to be of considerable importance,
as the problematical forms apparently represent a special development
of art in stone.

Fig. 36 shows a curious effigy, probably of serpentine. It has been

Fig. 29.

Hematite Plummet

from Altar 2.

Polished Stone

137

much discolored by exposure to the altar fire. It is difficult to deter-
mine the creature represented, but one observer suggests that a tadpole
is intended. The lower part, or base, is hollowed out as in a'boat stone.
There are four perforations ranging from 4 to 6 mm in diameter. Half

Fig. 30.
Worked Object of Slate from Altar 2.

of a pearl bead was found in one of the eye cavities. Fig. 37 shows one
of the most carefully executed carvings from the Hopewell mound. It
is made from dark green serpentine, and is highly polished. The body
is hollow, and is ornamented with six longitudinal grooves. There are
eight perforations. In one of these a close fitting, neatly made plug
of serpentine had been inserted. C. C. Willoughby describes this
object as follows : —

Fig. 31.
Problematical Form in Stone from Altar 2.

"It seems probable that the carving (Fig. 37) represents an owl,
somewhat conventionalized. The ear-tufts appearing over the eyes,
and the curved lines which extend backwards and downwards from the

138

Hopewell Mound Group

eyes marking the outer border of the ruff, seem to indicate this bird.
The surfaces of the eye cavities are unpolished. Through the centre of
each eye-depression is a small perforation opening into the hollow of
the head. Pearls may have been inserted to represent eyes, being held

Fig. 32.
Problematical Form from Altar 1.

in place by thread fastened inside the cavit}T. The incised lines upon
the head of the carving still contain a small quantity of the red pigment
which originally filled the lines, wholly or partially. Along the back
are four perforations, less than 2 mm in diameter. There are two
perforations on each side, one near the front, the other near the back.

Fig. 33-
Bar Amulet of Stone from Altar i.

This carving has been highly polished. The lines are of uniform width
and depth, and evince a great deal of skill on the part of the artisan."
Fig. 38 shows the effigy of a human thumb made from cannel coal,
which was found with skeleton 278. A number of other objects of this
material were found in the mounds, although those placed in altars had

Polished Stone 139

been almost completely destroyed. Cannel coal could have been secured
at Flint Ridge, the nearest outcrop, or in West Virginia.

A remarkable series of stone rings were found in Altar 1 . Fourteen
complete specimens were recovered together with several scores of
fragments. The largest is 6.5 cm wide and 1.75 cm thick, while the
smallest is 5.5 cm wide and 1.75 cm thick. In Plate LXXVII, Nos.
1-2, are shown two of the best specimens. It will be observed that
melted copper still adheres to one of them. Plate LXXVII, No. 3,
illustrates the ordinary form of these rings. "These rings are made
from varieties of what appears to be slate, some containing mica, one
apparently from the same material as one of the pipes from Altar 2.

Fig. 34.
Bird Stone.

One of them is evidently made from bituminous slate, the inside polished.
The exterior groove is much less finely finished than the rest of it or the
other rings. This shows marks of an implement, apparently of rough
stone, where the groove has been worked out. The groove shows
irregular depressions, also marks of the stone tool, running lengthwise,
but not parallel. This is the only specimen which shows marks of the
stone tool used in forming it before polishing."

Plate LXXVII, No. 5, as described by Willoughby, shows "out-
lines of four rings, exhibiting symmetry of form. Some rings are not
pierced; some are pierced with four, and others with eight holes, always
in pairs placed opposite each other. The rings vary in size, the largest
being 6 cm in diameter. In several specimens, the drilling seems to

140

Hopewell Mound Group

have been done from both sides with the holes meeting in the centre.
Usually the inner hole is at only a slight angle, which shows that the
drill must have been small, probably made of meteoric iron. Two rings
formed of a soft slate or similar substance, one of which is shown in
Plate LXXVII, No. 4, possibly cannel coal, are unsymmetrical, and
evidently were worked out by hand. These rings are perforated by
four pairs of holes placed opposite each other."

Plate LXXVII, No. 4, shows a ring, or rather band, without flanges.
It seems to be made from graphitic slate. It has four pairs of holes.

Pipes. — About forty pipes were taken from the
Hopewell mounds, although some of these are frag-
mentary. The prevailing form is that of the monitor
or platform pipe common in the Ohio mounds.
This needs no description. An angular-shaped pipe
of soapstone was, however, found in one of the
ash-pits. The materials used for the monitor pipes
are fine grained sandstone, graphitic slate, a marly
limestone, or a hard clay stone. One or two
specimens were made from a stone quite similar to
catlinite. Mills1 calls this material Ohio pipestone,
and gives an analysis. The color of some of the
pipes had been changed to a deep brownish black
by smoking. Four nearly identical pipes were found
in Mound 25. They vary in length between 10 and
11 cm and in width between 4 and 5 cm. The
bowls are 3-3.5 cm high.

Plate LXXVII I, No. 1, shows a very fine pipe
of hard black stone. A series of small holes encircle
the bowl a short distance below the rim; 4 mm
below these is a corresponding series of small
projections. On the body of the pipe con-
ventionalized roseate spoon-bill heads are carved
in pairs. The finest pipe in the entire collection is shown in Plate
LXXVIII, No. 2. It was found in Altar 2. Although the technique of
this pipe is not quite equal to that of some others, it ranks as one of the
best examples of aboriginal carving from the mounds Of the Mississippi
basin. The two effigies have been carved from a solid piece of fire clay,
and great skill was necessary to preserve the proportions and to carve
out the narrow space between the end of the bill and the head of the

Fig. 35.
Bear's Tooth
Carved from
Stone from

Altair 2.

Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio, Vol. I, p. 132 (Columbus, 1917).

Stone Effigies

141

fish. The bowl extends through the back and body of the bird and
into the fish. The stem hole, about 5 mm in diameter, runs through
the mouth and body of the fish. Undoubtedly pearls were inserted in
the eye-cavities of both figures, but these were not found in position.

The bird represented is probably the roseate spoon-bill. The neck
is disproportionately short, and the legs and feet are not shown. The

■^^B^y^WM^^^^^^^^lW^^^^^^

Fig. 36.
Stone Effigy of Tadpole (?).

feathers of the wings and tail are indicated. The bill is carefully
executed. The line extending from the nostril to the hooked end of the
beak, which is characteristic of the spoon-bill, is faithfully shown.
The fish is conventionalized, and its species cannot be determined.
The scales are not indicated, and possibly the artists had in mind the
channel catfish, common in the Scioto. It may represent one of the
large salamanders common in the southern Ohio streams. Willoughby's

Fig. 37.
Effigy of Serpentine (Owl?).

observations on this specimen are here presented in condensed form.
It was not moulded, but was evidently carved from soft clay. There
are several little depressions or indentations upon it, apparently made
by striking it with some implement while administering the finishing
touches. The bill had been broken off and mended before the pipe
was placed on the altar. The Indians had bored into the head through

142 Hopewell Mound Group

the broken part of the beak, made a corresponding hole in the fragment,
and doweled the two together. The pipe is dark brown, but has prob-
ably been darkened by the altar fires, as fresh surfaces show light gray
or clay color. Part of the beak, where a sliver has broken off, is reddish.
It is evident that the pipe had been wrapped in, or placed upon, cloth;
for a few small pieces of the fabric still adhere to it.

Mica. — Mention has already been made of the great find of mica
in Mound 17. There was so much of it that when packed for shipment
it filled two barrels. Some of the larger masses or books were 50 cm
in diameter and 1.5 cm thick. Mica of this size must have come from
surface outcrops in North Carolina. The West Virginia mica blocks are
smaller; and New Hampshire, the nearest other possible source, is too

Fig. 38.
Effigy of Human Thumb Made of Cannel Coal from Skeleton 278.

far away. It was not difficult for the Indians to cut mica with flint
knives. An experiment proved that squares and circles could be cut
from thin sheets with comparative ease. A number of objects of cut
mica, most of which were found in Altar i , are shown in Plate LXXIX
and Figs. 39 and 40. Those in Fig. 40 were probably fragments of
larger designs. There were about two hundred of these designs includ-
ing circles, scallops, knife forms, ovals, human heads, and unknown
designs. Willoughby says that a study of these objects and of the
designs in copper, as well as on shell and bone, proves that the Mound
Builders of Ohio had attained a high degree of skill in free-hand drawing,
and that they employed as aids guidelines, straight edges, and some
form of artificial aid in drawing circles.

BfiC 28 192:2

Mica and Fossils

143

Fossils. — Fossils were found in Altar 2 and with a few burials.
Geologists who examined them tell me they are foreign to Ohio. The
shark teeth, ranging in length from 20 mm to 10 cm, are probably from
the phosphate beds of North and South Carolina. Three of them are
shown in Fig. 41. Fig. 42 shows the most interesting fossil found,
described by Willoughby as follows: "The beautiful iridescence of the
fossil, before it was burned, is suggested by a portion upon one side
untouched by fire. The fossil was cut across forming a flat base.
On the upper side near each end is a countersunk depression, communi-
cating with a hole about 3 mm in
diameter, running downward and
slightly outward towards the ends,
and penetrating the fossil. Pearls
were probably inserted in the
countersunk depressions. Two small
holes, a little over 2 mm in diameter,
penetrate the fossil laterally near
the lower edge, intersecting the
other perforations. This fossil was
evidently used for the same purpose
as some of the carvings, being
perforated in like manner."

Objects of Shell. — The usual
cups or vessels cut from buscyon and
pyrula shells were found at Hope-
well. They are of common forms,
varying in length from 15 to 28 cm.
Quantities of beads were found in
the altars and with burials. Those
of shell do not differ from the shell
beads commonly found in the
mounds of the Ohio Valley, so that a

detailed description is not necessary. Shell gorgets and shell ornaments
were placed in the altars, but were almost completely destroyed by fire.
A few fragments were found, but the painstaking attempts at restora-
tion have failed. There are fragments of elaborate relief carvings of
birds, animals, and other objects, and of gorgets bearing geometrical
or highly conventionalized designs carved with consummate skill. The
shell pendant shown in Fig. 43 was found in Altar 2. It is about 4 cm
long, and is made from the thick part of a large shell. It would be
interesting to know the exact number of pearls recovered from the

Fig. 39.
Mica Ornament from Altar

144

Hopewell Mound Group

Fig. 40.
Parts of Mica Ornaments.

Fossils

145

Hopewell mounds. They have never been counted, but I estimate the
number at over a hundred thousand. They range in size from minute
examples 1 mm in diameter to some nearly 15 mm in diameter. Many

Fig. 41.

Fossil Shark's Teeth Ornaments

(a from Altar 2, b from Mound 17, c from Mound 18).

' ■^jt'K f ^iS^^f^lpi :|^J^P?w*^?,^

Fig. 42.
A Fossil made into an Ornament from Altair 1.

are perfect, but others are of the inferior grades known as slugs or hinge
pearls. G. F. Kunz once informed me that the Hopewell pearls in

146

Hopewell Mound Group

their original condition, before they were buried, were worth at least
one million dollars. Some of the pearls are shown in Plate LXXX.
Many of the specimens were drilled very carefully. There is no evidence
that they were perforated by means of a strip of heated copper wire, as
has been suggested. A portion of a small drill or meteoric iron was found
in one specimen. The drilling of these thousands of beads was certainly
a long and laborious process. Willoughby's study of how pearls were
drilled is presented in Fig. 44. He makes the following comments: —
"The diagramatic drawings shown in Fig. 44 illustrate the various

ways in which the pearls were perforated :
a, b, c, and d have single perforations.
In a, the hole is low upon the side, and
the pearl was probably sewn to some
object, not strung as a bead. E and /
have a single perforation made by two
holes drilled at angles, meeting in the
interior of the pearl; g has two oblique
perforations; h has a lateral perforation,
and meeting it at right angles is another
hole drilled from the bottom of the speci-
men; i, /, and k have two perforations
intersecting almost at right angles. The
pearls represented in /, m, n, 0, and p,
have cut surfaces which are indicated
by dotted lines. In n and p the bottom
is flat, and the edges carefully beveled as
though for insertion into a corresponding
cavity in some object. Pearls inlaid in
bear's teeth occasionally have the lower
side cut to fit the cavity in the tooth.
Many of the pearls are perforated by
drilling from opposite sides, as indicated
by the countersunk holes which usually meet near the centre of the
bead. It is evident that a large number of the small and medium-
sized beads were penetrated from one side only by a slender drill of
copper or meteoric iron, for the holes in many instances are so small
and regular they could not have been made with a flint point."

A complete study of this interesting subject has been published by
G. F. Kunz,1 from whose book the following is quoted: —

Fig. 43.
An Ornament of

Shell from Altar 2

!The Book of the Pearl, pp. 485-489 (New York, 1908).

Pearls

147

"The use of pearls by the aborigines of the territory now comprised in the
United States is proven by their appearance in the mounds and certain graves of
pre-Columbian date. This is of great interest in view of the unique system of burial
and the great variety of objects buried with the pearls. It is evident from the quanti-
ties discovered in some of the mounds that a very great number of pearls, many of
large size, must have been owned by these aborigines, and they were evidently
quite expert in the art of drilling them. Pearls must have been freely used for
ornamental purposes, and it is clear that many rivers in this region must have
produced them in great numbers, when we consider that in all probability the mussels

/

J

77V

Fig. 44.
Pearl Beads Showing Methods of Perforation.

were taken only as they were required for food or for bait in fishing, and had probably
reached their full growth.

"It is not unlikely that pearls were used on this continent for a long period,
and they may have been in use centuries before any employment was made of them
in Europe. In the age of the mound-builders there were as many pearls in the posses-
sion of a single tribe of Indians as existed in any European court. We have no
means of ascertaining the precise date of any of these burials, and there are no histori-
cal records relating to this region, such as were kept in Mexico, as well as in Europe
and Asia. No trace has been found of the employment of pearls, either for decoration

148 Hopewell Mound Group

or ornament, by the aborigines of Europe or Asia; either they did not use them,
or else the pearls have entirely passed away in the course of twenty or more centuries.
We do know, however, that neither pearls nor Unio shells were used by any of the
lake-dwellers of Switzerland or the adjacent countries.

"It is not unlikely that the Indians of the Atlantic coast may have known of
pearls from the common clam, as well as from the edible oyster. The former may
have often contained pearls weighing from fifty to one hundred grains each, as at
that period the mollusks were permitted to attain their full growth, and perhaps
were not eaten, except when they were as small as little-neck clams; the larger
ones were sought for the purple spot which held the muscle, and was used for wam-
pum. We have no record of the finding of pearls in any graves north of Virginia,
as the many graves opened in the past century have failed to reveal them, nor has
the use of pearls been mentioned by any of the early writers. They may have been
worn, but if so, they have passed away, or may have been mistaken for ashes if
they had decrepitated.

"The first English settlers found the Indians of the tidewater region of what
now constitutes the Middle States using pearls quite freely and esteeming them
among their favorite treasures and ornaments. Captain John Smith, and all the
early chroniclers of the Virginia colony, have given many accounts of this aboriginal
use of pearls.

"Pearls of various shapes and sizes were comparatively common, but symmetrical
pearls of uniform size were more rare. Strachey writes of having seen 'manie chaynes
and braceletts (of pearls) worne by the people, and wee have found plentie of them
in the sepulchers of their kings, though discoloured by burning the oysters in the
fier, and deformed by grosse boring.' One of Hariot's companions obtained from
the Indians about five thousand pearls, from which a sufficient number of good
quality and of uniform size were obtained to make a 'fayre chaine, which for their
likeness and uniformitie in roundness, orientness and pidenesse of many excellent
colours, with equalitie in greatnesse, were verie fayre and rare."

"Those who have examined the thousands of pearls from Ohio mounds, to be
mentioned later, can readily understand these conditions. The pearl beads from
the mounds vary in diameter from about an eighth of an inch to nearly an inch,
the great majority being small and irregular, although there are many among them
of good form and value. It is probable that most of the Virginia pearls were obtained
from the fresh-water mussel {Unio); not unlikely from the common marine clam
{Venus mercenaria) , or the common oyster {Ostrea virginica).

"As regards the burial of pearls with the dead and their use in religious rites,
curious and quite full accounts are given by Strachey, Smith, Hariot, and Beverley.2
There was a 'temple,' also occupied as a residence by one or more priests, in the
territory of every chief. This building was usually some eighteen or twenty feet
wide, and varied in length from thirty to one -hundred feet, with an entrance at
the eastern end, and the western portion partitioned off with mats to form a sort
of sanctuary or 'chancel.' Within this were kept the dried bodies of deceased chiefs,
and an image of the god, called, Okee, made in the shape of a man, 'all black, dressed
with chaynes of perle.' Full descriptions of these idols and their manufacture are
given by Hariot and Beverley, also of the process of preserving the remains of the
chiefs.3 After the body had been disemboweled, the skin was laid back, and the
flesh was cut away from the bones. When this operation was completed, the skeleton,
held together by its ligaments, was again inclosed in the skin, and stuffed with white
sand, or with 'pearle, copper, beads, and such trash sowed in a skynne.'4 It was
then dressed in fine skins and adorned with all sorts of valuables, including strings
of pearls and beads. The same kinds of treasures were also deposited in a basket
at the feet of the mummy.

1Thomas Hariot, A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of
Virginia, p. 11 (Holbein edition).

2Willoughby, American Anthropologist, Vol. IX, 1907, pp. 61, 62.

3Beverley, History of Virginia (1722), pp. 167, 186.

4Strachey, Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannica, p. 89 (Hakluyt Soc,
London, 1849).

Pearls and Bone Beads

149

"Captain John Smith describes the temple of Powhatan, at Uttamussack,
which was in charge of seven priests, and was held in great awe by 'the salvages.'
At a place called Orapaks, was also his treasure-house, fifty or sixty yards long,
frequented only by priests, where he kept a great amount of skins, beads, pearls,
and copper, stored up against the time of his death and burial. A vivid account
is given of the four grotesque images that stood guard at the corners of this building,
all made 'evill favouredly according to their best workmanship.'1

In the province called Catifachique, De Soto captured an Indian
woman who seems to have had authority over the other Indians. He
questioned her as to pearls and other valuables. Concerning great
numbers of pearls in use in her province, his journal states as follows :2

"The Cacica, observing that the Christians valued pearls, told the Governor
that, if he should order some sepulchres that were in the town to be searched, he
would find many; and if he chose to send to those that were in the uninhabited
towns, he might load all his horses with them. They examined those in the town,
and found three hundred and fifty pounds weight of pearls, and figures of babies
and birds made of them."

Objects of Bone, Teeth, and Claws. — A number of bone beads
were found, 325 being obtained from Altar 1. The total number was

Fig. 45.
Three Bone Awls from Mound 25.

probably about 3,600. Considering the number of skeletons found,
they do not appear to have been very popular, probably because they
were too common. The beads seem to have been made chiefly from the
slender bones of small animals or birds. 690 foot-bones of small animals
were recovered from the ashes of Altar 2. They were not perforated,
and their use is problematical. A large number of pointed bone tools
were discovered, but very few of these could be classed as ordinary bone

^mith, True Travels, p. 143 (Richmond edition, 1819).

2Narratives of De Soto, translation of Buckingham Smith, Vol. I, p. 66 (New
York, 1904).

i5o

Hopewell Mound Group

awls. They were long and slender, or small and delicate, and had very
sharp points. Many of them had been broken while still in the ground,
while others had been badly damaged by the altar fires. Fig. 45 shows
three of the ordinary bone awls. It is unfortunate that none of the very
slender implements were well enough preserved to be studied. Fig. 46
shows fragments of needles. Ten or twelve objects, which were
probably used in weaving, were recovered, but all were badly broken.
A restoration of one is shown in Fig. 47.

Fig. 46.

Perforated Needles

from Post-Hole

in Mound 25.

Fig. 47-
Fragment of a
Bone Shuttle.

A few other bone tools were recovered. One of these was a fragment
of a human ulna over one end of which there was a small piece of meteoric
iron. A band of the same material, i cm wide, encircled it a short
distance below this. About four hundred bears' claws were found,
principally in the altars.

About five hundred cut and perforated bear incisors were originally
placed in the various mounds of the Hopewell group. Willoughby made
a careful study of these ornaments, and his observations are herewith

Bone Objects and Teeth

151

given: "Judging from the number of cut or perforated canine teeth of
the bear found with skeletons or taken from altars of the Hopewell
group of mounds, it would seem that they were highly prized as orna-
ments, and that much time was employed in drilling, cutting, and
ornamenting these trophies of the chase. They may be divided into
three classes: the whole teeth perforated and ornamented in various
ways, as illustrated in Figs. 49 — 5 1 ; the teeth split lengthwise (Fig. 48) ;
and those cut laterally (Figs. 53 — 55). Of twenty-eight teeth of the
first class found with six skeletons, the majority had two diagonal holes

Fig. 48.
Bear's Tooth Split and Made into an Ornament.

drilled so as to meet in the interior of the tooth, as illustrated in the
sectional drawing (Fig. 56, a, b, and c) and in the left drawing of Fig.
49. In a few examples the two holes were drilled more at right angles to
the length of the tooth, and penetrated the natural nerve cavity. These
teeth may have been attached to the clothing as toggles or used as
pendants for necklaces. In Fig. 49 are shown three bears' teeth of this
class, found with skeleton 248. The central and right drawings illustrate
the front side of the teeth, which were ornamented by inserting pearls.
The cavity near the upper end of the central drawing probably con-
tained a pearl. Near the centre of the drawing at the right, a deep
countersunk hole opens into a similar hole drilled from the opposite
side. Both teeth have the perforation for suspension upon the back.

"The tooth represented at the left in Fig. 49 has three countersunk
perforations extending to the natural pulp cavity. Below are the two

152

Hopewell Mound Group

diagonal holes for suspension. A little to the right of the junction of
the diagonal holes is a single perforation into the interior cavity. Near
the upper end of the opposite side is a cavity into which a pearl had
probably been inserted. In Fig. 56, / and h, are cross-sections of the
two outer teeth represented in Fig. 49, and show the relative position of
holes upon opposite sides. Fig. 50 represents both sides of a tooth,
taken with several others from skeleton 270. Upon one side are two

Fig. 49.

Bears' Teeth Ornaments with Pearls Inserted (Specimen on the Left from

Skeleton 248, Specimens in Centre and on the Right from Skeleton 209).

countersunk holes opening into the natural cavity. Into these holes two
smaller perforations enter obliquely. It is doubtful if pearls were
inserted in the larger openings, as the cavities are much deeper and of a
different form than those usually drilled for pearls. There are three
transverse grooves near the upper end, which do not encircle the tooth.
Several of the teeth had become cracked or broken while in possession
of the Indians, and had been neatly mended by inserting a bone plug

Tooth Ornaments

153

or dowel. One of these repaired teeth is shown in Fig. 51. The sharp
edges caused by the break were carefully rounded and polished. In

Fig. 50.
Rear's Tooth Ornament, Roth Sides Illustrated.

Fig. 51.
Rear's Tooth Ornament.

another example the tooth was split for nearly its entire length, and had
been repaired by inserting a dowel which penetrated the tooth laterally

154

Hopewell Mound Group

and held the two halves firmly together. This was found with skeleton
278.

"The sectional drawings in Fig. 56 show the various ways in which
the teeth are drilled. Usually there is a small perforation extending
through the tooth from the bottom of the cavity in which the pearl is
placed, as shown near the upper end of c, f, and g. All the pearls found

inserted in the teeth are perforated. It is
probable that they were held in place by
threads passed through the pearl and the
small perforation in the tooth, and fastened
there by inserting a small plug. In other
specimens the small perforations extend
into the diagonal holes through which the
suspending cord is passed as in d and a.
This also would allow the pearl to be
fastened by a thread. In a few instances,
the pearl must have been cemented into
the cavity, as there is no perforation in the
tooth for the thread ; b and the lower cavity
in g are examples. The second class consists
of teeth that have been split, or ground
upon one side until less than half of the
tooth remains. They were found associated
with the teeth already described. In Fig. 48
are shown two views of a typical specimen.
The cut side is carefully polished, and is
perforated by three holes, of nearly the same
diameter throughout. There are usually
three holes, rarely four; and in a single
instance, one small perforation appears near
the upper end. The third class consists of
bears' teeth cut in the various ways illus-
trated in Figs. 53 — 55. The interior of each
specimen has been hollowed out, and there
is a lateral perforation near the upper end.
A similar object, made from the point of a tooth instead of the root, is
shown in Fig. 53 c. The interior has been hollowed as in the preceding
specimen, and a very small perforation extends through the point.
This and the following specimen (d) were found with skeleton 271.

"The object illustrated in e was discovered with skeleton 209. The
two diagonal holes, forming the perforation by wdiich the ornament was

Fig. 52.

Bear's Tooth Ornament

Imitated in Shell.

Tooth Ornaments

155

suspended, are shown in the drawing. Upon the reverse side is a cavity
for the insertion of a pearl. The cut end of the tooth has an oval counter-
stink depression, and from this a hole extends into the tooth, one and
one- fourth inches. F and g are cut from the root-ends of teeth, and the
entire surfaces of both are highly polished. Each specimen has a small
lateral perforation at its upper end. F also has the longitudinal per-

Fig. 53-
Cut and Ground Bears' Teeth Ornaments.

foration and countersunk depression in common with c. G has the
depression of the reception of the pearl upon the side shown in the
drawing, and the perforation for suspension upon the other side. It is
apparent that e and g originally belonged to the first class of ornaments,
and were subsequently cut into the form shown. The purpose for which
these objects were used is, of course, merely conjecture ; but it is probable
that they formed a part of ornaments composed partially of perishable
material. Fig. 54 shows a sectional drawing of portions of two teeth
having peculiar perforations. Fig. 55 illustrates a series of pairs of cut

156

Hopewell Mound Group

teeth found with various skeletons. The first pair (a) are probably the
teeth of the panther, and are cut in a peculiar manner. B and c accom-
panied skeleton 213 of Mound 23. With this skeleton were found
fragments of a remarkably fine textile fabric. The interior of the pair
of teeth, shown in b, has been removed, and opening into each of these
cavities are four perforations. On the reverse side from that shown, the
cut ends of the teeth are semicircular instead of straight; and when
the teeth are placed together, a hole is formed, about one-half an inch
in diameter, into which a pearl may have been inserted. It is probable
that these teeth, with cut ends joined, were sewn to cloth or leather.
In c, the teeth are cut diagonally, and a hole is drilled into the cut end
of each tooth at one side of the pulp cavity. D and e were taken, with

other canine teeth of the bear, from
the skeleton having the copper head-
dress in the form of deer antlers. In
d, the teeth are simply cut across, as
shown in the drawing, exposing the
natural pulp cavity. In e, the interior
of each tooth has been removed, and
the cut edges are somewhat disinteg-
rated. The pair indicated at/ have the
natural pulp cavity enlarged, and the
cut ends somewhat rounded. There
is a small perforation into the cavity through the wall of each tooth.

"More than one hundred and twenty canine teeth of the bear, cut
and ornamented in a similar manner to the specimens illustrated, were
taken from the altars of the large mound. These ornaments are frag-
mentary, and are colored black throughout by the confined smoke of
the altar fires. In two specimens, the cavity for the pearl is surrounded
by a circular row of small, shallow holes. Not only were the canine
bears' teeth cut, sawed, and ornamented in various ways by the builders
of the great Ohio earthworks, but they were so highly prized as orna-
ments that their form was copied in antler, shell, stone, copper, and
wood. In a few instances, the counterfeit was so well executed that it
deceived professional archaeologists. ' '

Fig. 35 (on p. 140) is an imitation bear's tooth made of what
appears to be limestone. Fig. 57 is one of a pair of ornaments made of
wood, carefully covered with thin copper. One side is imperfect, and a
few fragments are missing; but a diagonal perforation still remains
which shows that they were fastened or suspended in the same manner
as genuine teeth. Fig. 52 is a drawing of an imitation tooth made of a

Fig. 54-
Sectional Drawings of Teeth (a from
Skeleton 241, b from Skeleton 277).

Panther and Bear's Teeth

157

very compact shell that has been cut across diagonally. A hole, 15 mm
deep, was drilled in the cut end. This specimen was taken from one of
the altars of the large mound, and was blackened by the penetrating
smoke of the smothered fires.

"The most perfect counterfeit tooth in the collection is made of a
piece of deer antler, and was taken from skeleton 278 (Fig. 58). Accom-

Fig. 55-
Cut and Worked Panther's and Bear's Teeth.

panying this ornament were several genuine bears' teeth, two having
inserted pearls. Near the upper end of the counterfeit tooth are two
rows of eight shallow holes. Near the centre of the ornament is the
cavity for a pearl, and upon the other side appear the two diagonal
holes for suspension or for fastening the object to cloth or dressed skin.
The root ends of the two genuine bear's teeth, with inserted pearls,

i58

Hopewell Mound Group

found with this specimen, are decorated with similar double rows of
dots, one specimen having fourteen of these shallow depressions, and
its companion sixteen. These dots do not encircle the ends of the teeth,
but appear only upon the side having the pearls. Here I should like to
call attention to the number of well-executed carvings on both bone and
antler, which were found with this same skeleton 278. Many of the
canine teeth of the wolf, fox, opossum, and other mammals, with one
perforation near the end of the tooth, were taken from the two altars in
the large mound. Some of these small teeth have the two diagonal
holes upon one side for the passage of the thread, which probably secured

Fig. 56.
Outlines Showing Perforationrs in Bears' Teeth.

them to the ancient dress of their owner. Over five hundred of the canine
teeth having a single perforation were found with skeleton 207 in Mound
23. Several are still held in place by a lump of clay, which shows them
to have been strung upon a cord when deposited with the body.
Fragments of the cut jaws of the bear, deer, lynx, fox, and man, were
taken from the altars or found with skeletons."

Carvings on Bone. — The number of effigies and bone tracings
found leads us to conclude that the Hopewell people possessed many of
these artistically carved objects. Those placed in the altars had suffered
more than any other objects, except possibly the shell gorgets, and most
of those shown "in Figs. 59 — 68 have been restored. The specimen in
Fig. 59 has been partly broken, but enough remains to show a design
similar to some of those upon sheet copper. At one end are what appear
to be bears' claws, or a bear's-foot symbol. The broken end appears to
have borne a different design. Fig. 60 shows a bird's head carved from
either bone or antler. There is a small perforation for suspension at

Bone Carvings

159

the back of the neck. Fig. 61 is a bird's head, quite raven-like in
character. It probably formed part of a hollow object, the rest of which
was destroyed by the fire. A pearl had been inserted in the eye-socket.
Fig. 62 shows three examples of bone carving; a is made from the
femur of some large animal, and was probably the handle of a ceremonial

Fig. 57.
Imitation Bear's Tooth in Wood Covered with Copper from Skeleton 177.

implement. The surface has been scraped, and the joint cut in the form
illustrated. The interesting feature is that a thin strip of meteoric iron
was placed across the end, and a band or ferrule of the same material
fastened around and riveted. A portion of the iron which still adheres
is shown in the drawing. Fig. 62 b is a fragment of a delicately incised
bone object of unknown use, while c is the end of a well-polished object.

Fig. 58.
Imitation Bear's Tooth Carved from Antler from Skeleton 278.

Fig. 63 a represents a bird whose species cannot be identified. It is
one of the most spirited designs found. Fig. 63 b shows the complete
design of the same object. Fig. 64 is a carving of an ocelot of which
Willoughby says, "This carving, only a portion of which could be found,
is beautifully executed upon what appears to be human bone. The

i6o

Hopewell Mound Group

larger end is cut and ground. The design appears to have been carried
beyond this present end, and it may have been broken and ground
down by the aborigines. The opposite end shows fractures caused b}'
the altar fires. The design does not appear to have been carved further
on this end; but, as several pieces are missing, it
is impossible to tell this with certainty."

With reference to Fig. 65, Willoughby states,
"The most interesting carving in antler is here
shown. This is probably intended to represent a
bird of the hawk family, judging by the notch in the
upper mandible. A conventionalized human face
is drawn on the head. This might be considered
merely the indication of a crest, but I do not think
that it was so intended. The terminations of the
wing covets are conventionalized, the carving is
hollow; and the perforation on the back, shown in
the drawing, communicates to this opening. This
specimen is finely finished, and doubtless had pearls
inlaid for eyes. A fragment of another very inter-
esting antler carving, shown in Fig. 61, represents
the head and shoulder of one wing of a raven.
Enough of the body of the bird remains to show the
hollow opening usually present in this style of work.
The perfect specimen represented the body and
head of this bird. A portion of the reverse side of
the head from that shown is missing. A pearl still
remains in the eye-cavity. It is probable that the
eyes of most of the carvings that have a hollow
eye-cavity were inserted or represented in the same
manner. Single fragments of several objects of the
same character were found, the rest being utterly
ruined by altar fires." Figs. 20 and 21 on p. 128
(the latter illustrating the separation of the design
into parts) show one of the most interesting
objects found. Willoughby observes in regard to it, "This is the most
remarkable incised carving recovered during the exploration and one
of the most interesting yet obtained from the mounds. The bone,
probably a portion of a human femur, has been artificially shaped and
polished, the upper end scalloped, and its natural cavity enlarged.
This specimen accompanied a skeleton in the great mound. The draw-
ing illustrates the back of the carving (Fig. 20). An analysis of the

Fig. 59.
Carving In-
cised on Bone
from Mound 25.

Bone Carvings 161

complete design appears in Fig. 21. Unfortunately the bone was
broken, and a few pieces were not recovered. A small part of the
design, the lower central portion, could not be wholly restored. The

Fig. 60.
Bird's Head Carved from Bone.

restored part is indicated by broken lines. It is difficult, at first, to
discover any intelligible design in this medley of lines. A strange mixture
of human and animal faces appears in company with circles, ovals, and

Fig. 61.
Bird's Head, Probably a Raven, with a. Pearl Inserted in the Eye.

other forms. A careful study of the carving, aided by tracings and bv
comparison with similar objects from the great mound, shows that an
elaborate mask, or a combination of masks, is represented. The mask

1 62

Hopewell Mound Group

proper is surmounted by a pair of antlers, in form very much like the
copper antler, illustrated in Plate XLIX, which was probably a part
of a similar mask.

The two copper head-dresses found in the large mound have already
been mentioned. The other one, with the horns just sprouting, or in
the velvet, is shown in Plate LXXI. Willoughby states, "Both of these

Fig. 62.
Decorated Bones from Altar 2.

forms are indicated in the incised carvings shown in Figs. 20 and 21.
These tracings show that the carving is not merely a mixture of
meaningless lines, but is a combination of several heads drawn within
a prescribed limit, so arranged that the outline of one face forms parts
of other heads or faces."

Many incised carvings of the same character of those recovered were

Bone Carvings 163

placed on the altars of Mound 25. None of these can be restored, which
is unfortunate; for, if we had them restored, we could form much better
and more complete conclusions concerning these people.

Fig. 66 shows one of the largest carvings of human figures, the face
being partly destroyed by contact with a mass of copper. It is ebony
black from the fire. Willoughby thinks that this was the head of a
baton, but the lower part is missing. There appears to be a head-dress
of some sort, and it is interesting that the human heads found show
several different methods of hair-dressing. Fig. 67 shows another head,
probably also from a baton. The top of the head is apparently covered
with a flat object. The ear is perforated in four places, probably for
the attachment of ornaments. At the back of the head is a perforation

Fig. 630.
Tracing of a Bird's Head on Bone.

less than 3 mm in diameter in which a plug of bone or antler is inserted.
Some of the heads illustrated by Squier and Davis have a similar
perforation.

In regard to Fig. 68, Willoughby observes, "The most noteworthy
striking carving of the human figure recovered during the exploration is
wrought from ivory, and like all of the ivory (fossil mammoth ivory)
carvings from the altars, is very badly injured by the heat. A portion
of the face is missing, the arms and other parts of the body are broken
and the lower extremity of the sculpture destroyed. A convolute
tattoo mark appears upon the cheek. An incised line across the upper
part of the forehead marks the hair line, or indicates the front edge of
a head-dress. Back of this line are two ear-like ornaments, one of
which has been broken. An appendage analogous to the same feature
in Fig. 67 projects from the back of the head. This is also broken.
The hair is gathered into a large chignon, and is apparently confined
in a net. The meshes of the net seem to be represented by incised lines.

164

Hopewell Mound Group

From the bottom of the chignon, and extending downward along the
back, is a nearly flat projection which widens as it descends, and upon
this falls a cue-like object with its lower end missing. The lower lobe
of the ear is much distended by the insertion of a long curved ornament,
evidently of the same form and material as the ear-pendants obtained
from each side of the neck of a skeleton in the large mound (Fig. 69).
A scarf -like object hangs from the neck with its lower end broken. Upon
the uninjured portion is delineated a zigzag line; upon either side are
two dots; below are two horizontal lines, and between these lines are
three additional dots arranged in a row."

Fig. 636.
Both Sides of the Engraved Bone.

While many artifacts have been recovered from the Ohio mounds,
models or representations of human figures are few. Therefore, those
of terracotta from the Turner group, together with the ones illustrated
above from the Hopewell group, give us some little insight into the
mode of dress, method of wearing the hair, and the use of certain
ornaments among the ancient people of that region. The lines on all
the bone objects are well executed. This is particularly true of the
many fragments recovered from the site of Mound 1, and it is most
unfortunate that the many bone tubes evidently placed in it were
destroyed. The numbers of effigies and bone tracings found lead us to

Bone Carvings, Pottery

165

conclude that the Hopewell people possessed many of these artistically
carved objects.

Comparisons might be drawn between the Hopewell design and some
of the carvings found in Florida and on the Northwest Coast. One of
the interesting features, however, is the parallel between many of these
carvings, containing the square and circle, and the earthworks of the
Ohio Valley. It has been suggested by many writers that the works

Fig. 64.
A Drawing of an Ocelot upon Bone.

were of a religious or symbolic character, and certainly their form gave
little protection to the villages enclosed. Sufficient numbers of carvings
have been obtained from the Turner, Hopewell, and other groups to
indicate quite clearly that, while many of these designs represent con-
ventionalized human beings or animals, others indicate the form of the
earthworks or enclosures themselves.

Pottery. — Pottery was not common in the Hopewell group,

1 66 Hopewell Mound Group

although a number of fragments were found on the village site and
scattered through the mounds. The amount recovered is not to be com-
pared with that from the Baum site, ten miles distant, or from sites of
the Fort Ancient culture. We cannot determine from the field evidence
whether the utensils of the Hopewell people were made from wood,
basketry, etc., but they seem not to have used pottery as extensively
as the other tribes of the Ohio Valley. We have not sufficient Hopewell
pottery to positively determine by what tribe it was made, but such as
I have seen seems to indicate that it is early Algonkin. The pottery
jars found by Squier and Davis in other mounds do not appear to be of

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Fig. 6j.
Effigy of a Bird Carved from Bone from Altar 2.

Madisonville or Fort Ancient type. The Hopewell pottery is certainly
not southern, and none of the southern forms of bottles, effigies, etc.,
are found in the Scioto Valley. This is significant as indicating that
although the Hopewell people obtained flint, mica, sharks' teeth, and
ocean shells from the south, their art was not effected by the prevailing
southern forms.

An ordinary cooking-pot was found in the village site. Restored, it
is about 14 cm in height and 13 cm across the top in diameter. .It is
the ordinary village site type and carries no significance. Willoughby
states that "fragments of a number of pottery vases were taken from
Altar 1. Enough pieces were found of one to show the original form
(Fig. 70) . The walls of this vessel have a nearly uniform thickness of a
little more than 6 mm. The clay had been mixed with pounded quartz.
The bottom is slightly rounded, and the upper part of the rim is orna-
mented by notches. For a depth of 24 mm the outer edge of the rim is
ornamented with parallel incised lines, and these are crossed at intervals
by a group of other lines drawn at right angles with the first. Beneath
this band is a single row of depressions encircling the vase, probably

Pottery

167

made by pressing the end of a small twig into the soft clay. Less than
an inch below, three shallow grooves, about 5 mm wide, encircle the
pot, and under these are the zigzag lines found so often in the archaic
Algonquian pottery of New England.
The unornamented portion of the exterior
shows careful smoothing. The height of
this vase is 22 cm, and the rim is 21 cm
in diameter. Fragments of two other
vessels were taken from this altar, but
too few to restore the vases. Judging
from portions of the rims, one was about
20.5 cm in diameter at the top, and was
very rudely made, with no attempt at
decoration, of the ordinary round-bottom
form. Some of the fragments had indis-
tinct cord-markings. A third vessel was
somewhat smaller. The curvature of the
rim fragments would indicate a vessel
with a diameter of about 15.5 cm at the
opening, with walls averaging less than
6 mm in thickness. With the exception
of a space of 3 cm below the rim, the
fragments were thickly covered with
marks of twisted fibre cords. In these
pots the clay had been tempered with
powdered stone."

The northernmost place in which a
cemetery containing typical middle Mis-
sissippi Valley pottery was found, is that
at the mouth of the Wabash River,
southern Indiana, where a survey con-
ducted by the Phillips Academy found
about a hundred jars, bottles, and bowls.1

Objects of Burned Clay. — Eight
objects of burned clay are shown in Fig.
71; a is probably a form on which
sheet copper for ear-busks was worked.
The groove was made by pressing a thin, straight shaft of some
sort into the clay before baking, and extends about half-way

Fig. 66.

Human Effigy in

Antler from Altar i.

^Bulletin of the, Phillips Academy, No. 3, pp. 72 — 86.

1 68

Hopewell Mound Group

through. Fig. 71 b is a similar, but small form, with a shallow groove
and flat base. Fig. 71 c is still smaller; and the groove, which appears
to have been gouged out, does not run clear across. Its ungrooved
side is slightly convex. Fig. 71 d and e have a flat base and cone-
shaped top. Fig. 71 / is perforated, and is probably a large bead,
although it could have been used as a form to work copper on. The per-
foration is larger at one end than the other as though a bone awl had been

Fig. 67.
Human Effigy in Antler from Altar

pushed through it, while the clay was still soft. Fig. 71 g is an ordinary
globular bead, and h is a flattened bead. All the objects are hard burned
and brick-like in solidity. Traces of copper still adhere to some of them.
Textiles. — Both in the altars and with burials, there were numerous
traces of textiles which had been preserved either by charring or by
contact with copper or meteoric iron. From these we may gain a slight
clew to the character of the garments worn by the ancient people.

Objects of Burned Ct.ay and Textiles

169

Skeleton 248 had been dressed in a skirt of finely woven cloth extending
from the waist to the knees, to which had been sewn pearls, bears'-
teeth, and other ornaments. Plate LXXXI shows a copper plate which
is entirely covered with imprints of cloth. Some of the threads and
fibres are still adhering. Fig. 72 illustrates various examples of textiles.
Those in a-e inclusive represent the fabric in approximately actual
size. The left-hand drawings show the details of the weaving consider-
ably enlarged. The specimens a, b, g, h, and i, are all twine-woven.
In a the method of holding the warps in alternating pairs produces a
lattice-like open-work effect. In g and h an open texture is achieved

Fig. 68.
Human Effigy Carved from Ivory or Shell from One of the Altars.

by a relatively wide spacing of the warps. The "watered" appearance
of i is due, as is brought out in the illustration, to a skilful weaving of
warps during the twining process; c is twilled, the order being over one
and under two; / is a plain close weave with primitive re-entering
selvage, which lacks an edge cord; b and e are fine examples of coiled
netting.

Willoughby has made a stud}*- of the weaving of the Hopewell people.
Concerning one fragment from Altar 2 he remarks, "Judging from the
finished upper edge, it would seem that, in weaving, the upright lines
of the warp were carried back and forth in pairs, the loops at each end

170

Hopewell Mound Group

passing around pins set at equal intervals. By this method, two con-
tinuous threads of sufficient length would constitute the warp, and the
loops at each end would form the ornamental edge shown in the draw-
ings."

Comparing the Hopewell cloth with that from other mounds, but
more particularly with the few examples of prehistoric cloth we have,
and with similar cloth in use among the historic
Indians, the suggestion has been made that for the
coarser grades the bark of the cedar, willow, or other
trees was used. For the finer varieties they may
have used milkweed or nettle, or possibly the fibres
of the dogbane. I do not believe that cotton cloth
was used in the Scioto Valley.

Wooden Objects. — As copper was melted, bone
greatly damaged, and shell destroyed by the heat
of the altar fires, wooden objects were completely
destroyed. Carbonized fragments of wooden bowls
were found in both altars, and a careful examination
of these indicates that they were carved with designs
similar to those upon the engraved bones. There
were also a few fragments of wooden rings, very
much like the stone rings.

The wood used was probably maple or cherry,
but identification is difficult, as the grain is almost
destroyed. One cannot doubt that the Hopewell
people made use of wood even more freely than of
copper, bone, or shell; and it is unfortunate that
none of their wooden utensils or artifacts have
survived.

Seeds. — Several hundred small seeds, many of
which had been perforated as if for use as beads,
were found in a matrix of charred bone and melted
copper. It is hard to understand why they were
not consumed by the heat of the fire.

rw

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Fig. 69.

Shell Ornament

Found with

Skeleton 278.

We are placed at a disadvantage since our studies of prehistoric
artifacts are confined to those of metal, stone, clay or bone, including
few shells. Wood was much more easily workable. We should not
conclude that the Hopewell people's art was confined to objects
wrought from refractory materials. Many fine examples of primitive
wood carving doubtless existed.

Pottery

171

Fig. 70.
Restored Pottery Vase from Altar 1.

Fig. 71.
Clay Buttons or Beads from Mound 25.

172

Hopewell Mound Group

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a,

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Wd" 'i^frtth* VHflbiiM

d

Fig. 72.
Fragments of Textiles from Hopewell Mounds.

CONCLUSIONS

Since the Hopewell explorations, extensive researches have been
carried on among the mound groups in the Mississippi Valley and the
South. Although several archaeologists have lamented the delay in the
Hopewell publication, there is this to be said in favor of a long-deferred
report. We are now able to make comparisons between the Hopewell
and other mound cultures, whereas, had this report been published
shortly after the end of the Columbian Exposition, observations would
naturally have been limited to Madisonville, the Turner group, and
Fort Ancient.1 Practically every one agrees with reference to the two
sharply defined cultures of southern Ohio, which are now designated as
the Fort Ancient and Hopewell cultures. An admirable study of these
was published by H. C. Shetrone.1 In addition to these I think we
should recognize a third, the glacial-kame culture. This may be closely
related to the Fort Ancient culture, yet insufficient work has been done
to positively identify it. It is based upon numerous interments found
in gravel hills of glacial formation, common in central and southern
Ohio. Most of the artifacts found with these seem somewhat different
from those of the Fort Ancient culture. None of the gravel knolls near
the Hopewell group contained burials, but it might be well for some one
to extend researches in this direction to points several miles distant
from it.

Though the length and breadth of the State of Ohio the Fort Ancient
culture seems to have obtained. In fact, it surrounded the Hopewell
culture. The latter was highly developed locally in the various sites,
where the great earthworks of the valleys are situated, but was compact
or concentrated, while the Fort Ancient culture was widely distributed.
All the great groups belonging to this culture are within a hundred
miles of Hopewell. The great works at Newark are at about this dis-
tance by Indian trail. All the characteristic Scioto Valley enclosures:
Mound City, High Banks, Liberty, Circleville, etc., are from eight to
twenty-five miles away. Runners could reach most of them in one and
a half to five hours time, and even the most distant in two days.

Attention is called to the very able report recently published by Hooton and
Willougiibv, Indian Village Site and Cemetery near Madisonville, Ohio (Papers
of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University,
Vol. VIII, No. I, Cambridge, 1920).

1 American Anthropologist, 1920, p. 144.

173

174 Hopewell Mound Group

Mound city, where Squier and Davis made their famous discovery
of two hundred pipes is only eight miles east of Hopewell by trail.

Since this report was written, Mills has examined the remaining
tumuli. His observations are not yet published, but it is known that he
recovered a wealth of material much of which was an exact duplicate of
the Hopewell finds. He also found forms in copper not discovered
elsewhere. Notable among these are human heads and double-headed
eagles. We found in the Hopewell altars some small mushroom-shaped
objects of copper; and several, which were larger and with longer stems,
were discovered by Mills at Mound City. Mills concludes that they
portray the deadly Amanita, and we concur with him in this theory.

Whether all the villages of the Hopewell culture grouped in Ross
County, where most of them are located, were inhabited at the same
time, is not positively known, but I believe that they were. Their
inhabitants were probably of the same stock, speaking a common
language, as their art -forms are identical. I was formerly under the
impression that the famous Serpent Mound did not belong to the Hope-
well culture, but apparently it does, and my former statement to the
effect that its builders are connected with the Fort Ancient culture
may be incorrect.

Whether the Hopewell people were exterminated by the Iroquois
previous to the coming of the French into Canada, and were the people
variously mentioned in Leni Lenape and other traditions as the Snake
people or "earthwork people," is not positively known, but I believe
that they were. Apparently they asserted great influence, and dom-
inated aboriginal life in southern Ohio. While there is no positive
evidence that they were at war with the Fort Ancient culture people,
it is not beyond the bounds of probability.

I do not believe that the Hopewell people were in existence, when
certain mound-building tribes of the south were seen by La Salle and
Tonty. So far as it is possible to reconstruct Hopewell life, it would
appear to have been more or less parallel to that of one of these tribes.
Tonty speaks of large dwellings placed in regular order around an open
area, and he refers to treasures, such as pearls and copper eagles. In
the centre of a large structure he observed an ocean shell and other
things of interest. It is my opinion that the dwellings were grouped
about a common square at Hopewell, although this cannot be positively
determined. The soil has been continually cultivated for more than a
century ; and traces of these dwellings, as well as of sun-dried bricks (if
such were used), have long since disappeared. Squier and Davis men-
tion remains of burnt clay or sun-dried bricks in connection with some

3 JSZi

Conclusions 175

of the earthwork ; and it is quite likely that the walls of certain of the
squares, octagons, and circles were faced with small masses of dried clay.

Undoubtedly there were surface indications to be observed in
Atwater's time which have long since disappeared. He speaks of
strange things which were observed on the surface of the enclosures
about the year 1800, when they were first brought under cultivation.
Whether he means fire-places, or primitive shrines, or accumulations of
stone, we do not know. It is unfortunate that he was not more specific.

The length of occupation of the Hopewell site is unknown. It has
always been my impression that the culture developed there during a
number of generations. I do not believe that there was a large popula-
tion, but rather a village of closely related clans, fratries or families,
which occupied the site for a considerable time. The length of occupa-
tion of the Hopewell site naturally cannot be determined. It might
have been sometime between the years 1400 and 1500. I have always
been inclined to think that it was prior to 1550, but am not disposed
to place the date before the year 1400. It was naturally abandoned
before the French and English explorations, otherwise such an important
site would have been visited by Europeans. Taking into account the
way Indians lived, there was probably room within the walls for 1500
to 2000 persons.

The question has been asked whether it is possible to make a dis-
tinction between the dates of the burials in different mounds. This
cannot be done, except in the case of intrusive burials. The central
burials in each case were probably the oldest, others being added on the
base line, as the mound was extended. The exploration of Mound 25
indicates that it was sometime, before this structure reached its greatest
dimensions, probably two or three generations, and possibly three or
four.

It is generally supposed that the Hopewell people were brachy-
cephalic. This cannot be determined positively until accurate
measurements are made. Dr. H. T. Cresson advanced a statement
to that effect, but his observations were based upon a hasty field exam-
ination. He pointed out to us, however, a few crania which, as any
observer could see, were longer than the prevailing short types. With
these long-headed burials there were no copper ornaments, pipes, or
other objects of value. From our field observations it seems probable
that these long-headed people were slaves or enemies, and were buried
without honor. Careful tabulation of the crania and a checking up of
the objects found with each might settle this point.

Squier and Davis worked for years in southern Ohio, and it now

176 Hopewell Mound Group

appears that they were right in their contention that the life and
customs of the Hopewell culture people were quite different from those
of the later Indians. At this time we may not subscribe to their enthu-
siastic claim that it was a civilization, but we must accord them a full
meed of praise; for more than seventy-five years ago they discerned
that the culture was peculiar and distinctive. When describing the
various art-objects found, attention was called to the skill and art-
sense evinced in their manufacture. Some of them seem beyond the
ability of a barbaric people. Some of the quartz crystals, for instance,
are perforated with holes a scant millimeter in diameter. M'cGuire was
able to drill in stone and metal with aboriginal tools, and his observations
are of great value; but I doubt his ability to drill quartz crystals.

It is not necessary in these pages to enter into a discussion of cosmic
symbols, }.ret there is abundant material for such study in both the
Hopewell and other mound collections. Many of the early writers on
American archaeology thought that works of the type described on these
pages were erected for religious purposes. One author suggested that
within the square enclosure a certain clan resided, or perhaps the clan
elders, and that another clan lived within the large circle. Several
writers have observed that the Hopewell walls, mounting as they do
from one terrace to another, did not afford protection against an assault
by enemies. Other enclosures are so constructed as to give little pro-
tection to the village within. In the light of modern explorations it
seems safe to assume a religious character for most of these squares,
circles, and geometric figures. It is difficult for us to always grasp the
Indian's point of view, but it seems to, me that the people who built
the Hopewell, Turner, Liberty, Mound City, and other groups depended
upon the potency of their "medicine," quite as much as on the strength
of their walls or the courage of their warriors. In brief, they erected
around their village clan groups or sacred buildings, these squares,
circles, and other combinations, all of which were suggested by their
religious beliefs.

There is no evidence that the Hopewell people had domestic animals,
and no bones of the prehistoric dog were found in the village site.

The most interesting question, that with reference to the origin of
the Hopewell people, cannot be answered. We cannot at present assign
to them positive classification under the Algonkin; yet their pottery
and other artifacts seem to indicate that they were quite likely of that
stock. At one time I was of the opinion that these Indians came from
the south and moved northward. I now believe that after their defeat
by the Iroquois the remnant of them moved to the South, and mingled

Conclusions 177

with the Indians of the Tennessee or Cumberland Valleys. This belief
is based on the following observations: Had the Hopewell people
come from the south, they would probably have brought with them a
knowledge of the construction of stone graves, and as limestone slabs
are common in Paint Creek, some of the burials would have been made
in these stone coffins. Also, they would have brought with them knowl-
edge of southern pottery, which is superior to northern pottery, and is
of different form. Further, they would have introduced the southern
form of tubular pipe, as well as some of the small clay and stone disks
so common in Tennessee and Kentucky. Shell disks or tablets would
also have been in evidence. Several of the long, highly-specialized
"swords" or flint maces, of which numbers have been discovered in the
burial places of Tennessee and Kentucky, would undoubtedly have
been present at Hopewell. None of these things were found. The
Hopewell pottery is distinctively northern, not southern. In the mounds
and graves of Kentucky and Tennessee, we find pipes similar to the
Scioto Valley forms and other objects, indicating that some people
came in who were familiar with the northern art, or that such art-
objects were obtained by exchange. It will be immediately suggested by
students that the presence of mica, sharks'-teeth, and ocean shells
indicate southern migration or origin. I think not, but, on the contrary,
am convinced that these foreign objects came in by exchange or by
traders, who travelled considerable distances.

The reports covering Mills' extensive and important explorations
in the State of Ohio clearly indicate that the culture is northern rather
than southern; yet, that a great deal of material was brought in from the
south. In brief, the Hopewell culture was somewhat affected by a
knowledge of the south, whereas the mound groups of the south do
not appear to have been influenced by knowledge of the culture of the
north. There were more southern objects in northern mounds than
northern -made artifacts in southern mounds.

During September-October, 192 1, and March-April, 1922, I made
preliminary inspection of the Cahokia mounds near East St. Louis,
Illinois. A number of these tumuli were explored. Fifty-two skeletons
and numerous artifacts were recovered during the course of exploration
in the mounds, villages-sites, and cemeteries. Researches have not
progressed to a sufficient extent to draw definite conclusions, but it
appears that Cahokia is the largest group of mounds indicating dominant
southern culture north of the Ohio river. That is, at no other point
in the north is southern culture so evident. An examination of six or
eight of the mounds, two of which were of considerable size, would

178 Hopewell Mound Group

indicate that the Cahokia people were quite different from the builders
of the Hopewell group. There are some indications of a mingling of
northern and southern cultures, yet it is premature to make the state-
ment positively.

Mound 25, as seen by Atwater, and Squier and Davis, was the
nearest approach to the pyramid type that existed in the State of Ohio ;
yet it is scarcely probable that its form was due to a knowledge of the
southern pyramids, as is evinced in the case of the Cahokia pyramids.

Hopewell is a very highly developed local culture, very much
specialized and confined to an area approximately 150 by 125 miles
in extent. Notwithstanding the fact that ceramic art was more highly
developed in the south, it is safe to assume that in copper, quartz
crystal, bone and pipe effigies the Hopewell people were not surpassed
and seldom equalled by any other tribe of Indians, either ancient or
modern, within the area embraced by the United States.

It is my belief that Hopewell itself was the metropolis of this ancient
people, where resided the chief traders or merchants, as well as the
most skilled artisans.

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FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. XLVI.

PLAN OF MOUND 23 (pp. 97, 98).

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FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LI.

1-3, ADZE BLADES; 4-8, COPPER AXES (p. 11 7-.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL VI, PL. Lll.

AXE FROM DEPOSIT OVER SKELETONS 260 AND 261 (p. 117).

W.rM

'&■■'$&?'

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LV.

COPPER PLATES (p. 119'..

B^

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LVII.

SPECIALIZED EAR-ORNAMENTS: 1-2, SHOWING REPOUSSE WORK; 3, WITH STRINGS
AROUND THE CENTRE (p. 122).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LIXA.

ANKLETS OR BRACELETS (p. 123).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LIXb.

ANKLETS OR BRACELETS (p. 123).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LX.

COPPER DISKS (p. 123).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXI.

J§ m ^^^ H*$^8

1-4, WINGED BUTTONS OF COPPER; --9, UNKNOWN FORMS IN COPPER (p. 124).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXII.

I, UNKNOWN DESIGN IN COPPER; 2, PROBABLY SERPENT HEAD IN COPPER (p. 124).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXIII.

DESIGNS IN COPPER PROBABLY REPRESENTING SERPENTS' HEADS (p. 124).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXV.

1-2, COSMIC SYMBOLS IN THIN COPPER; 3, DESIGN OF SHEET COPPER (p. 124).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXVI.

▼ ▼ ▼

OBJECTS OF SHEET COPPER, DESIGNS UNKNOWN (p. 124)

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROFOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXVII

3 4

1-2, SWASTIKAS IN COPPER; 3-4, COPPER OBJECTS IN OPEN WORK (pp. 124, 125).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXVIII.

mms:

1-3, COPPER OBJECTS IN OPEN WORK; 4, SHEET COPPER, PROBABLY
REPRESENTING HEAD OF SERPENT (pp. 124, 125).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXIX.

1, BEAR'S FOOT; 2, FISH EFFIGY; 3, EAGLE EFFIGY, ALL IN SHEET COPPER (pp. 125, 127) .

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXX.

1-2, CONCAVE COPPER OBJECTS; 3-5, BEAR'S TEETH IN COPPER, BROKEN PROBLEMATICAL
FORM AND COPPER ORNAMENT (pp. 125, 126).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXII

-

1-2, MASSES OF COPPER SLIGHTLY HAMMERED; 3, LARGE MASS OF COPPER PARTLY
HAMMERED; 4-7, FRAGMENTS OF COPPER SHOWING EFFECTS OF THE HEAT (p. 128- -

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXIIL

COPPER PIECES MELTED BY THE HEAT OF THE ALTARS (p. 128).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXV.

wr -

1-2, LARGE OBSIDIAN BLADES FROM ALTAR 2; 3, OBSIDIAN BLADE RESTORED (p. 132).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXVI.

I, SPECIALIZED OBSIDIAN BLADE; 2-3, PROBABLY KNIVES (p. 132)

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXVII.

1-4, STONE RINGS FROM ALTAR 1; 5, OUTLINES OF RINGS (p. 139)

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY VOL. VI, PL. LXXVIII.

1, ENGRAVED PIPE FROM ALTAR 2; 2, DUCK-FISH PIPE FROM ALTAR 2 (p. 140).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXIX.

MICA ORNAMENTS FROM ALTAR 1 IN MOUND 25 (p. 142).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXX.

STRINGS OF PEARL BEADS FROM MOUND 25 (p. 146).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXXII.

1, PORTION OF HUMAN FEMUR WITH CARVING FOUND WITH SKELETON 278;
2, PORTION OF HUMAN FEMUR CARVED, FROM SKELETON 281 (p. 111).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. VI, PL. LXXXIII.

EFFIGIES FOUND WITH SKELETON 281 (pp. 112, 113).

flfllVWMTV OF HlWWlt LIBRARY

DEC a 8 1922

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HOPEWELL GROUP

Atwater, Caleb, Archasologia Americana. American Antiquarian
Society, 1820, p. 182.

Fowke, G., Archasological History of Ohio. Columbus, Ohio, 1902,
PP- 343-347-

Holmes, W. H., Areas of American Culture Characterization Tenta-
tively Outlined. American Anthropologist (n.s.), Vol. XVI, 19 14,
P- 4*3-

Hooton, Ernest A., Indian Village Site and Cemetery near Madison-
ville, Ohio, with Notes on the Artifacts by Charles C. Willoughby.
Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. VIII, No. 1. Cambridge, 1920.

Kunz, George Frederick, The Book of the Pearl (New York, 1908),
pp. 485-510.

Mills, W. C, i. Exploration of Baum Prehistoric Village Site. Ohio
Archasological and Historical Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 1 (Columbus,
O., 1906), pp. 13, 96.

2. Exploration of the Edwin Harness Mound. Ohio Archaeological
and Historical Quarterly, Vol. XVI, No. 2 (Columbus, O.,
1907), pp. 54, 70, 83, 85.

3. Exploration of the Seip Mound. Ohio Archaeological and His-
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4. Exploration of Seip Mound. Putnam Anniversary Volume

(New York, 1909), p. 125.

5. The Tremper Mound. Holmes Anniversary Volume (Washing-

ton, 1916), pp. 339, 340, 347, 356.

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Sites in Ohio, Vol. II, pt. 3 (Columbus, O., 1916), pp. 115, 116,
126, 217, 222. Also printed in Ohio Archaeological and Historical
Quarterly, Vol. XXV, No. 3, July, 19 16.

7. Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound. Certain Mounds' and
Village Sites in Ohio, Vol. II, pt. 4, 1917. Also printed in Ohio
Archasological and Historical Quarterly, Vol. XVI, April,
1917, No. 2.

179

i8o Hopewell Mound Group

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!

INDEX TO VOLUME VI

117.

of, 107.
11, 94. 97, 101, 102,

0, 20, 46.
-, 122.

iOth, carved from,

■3, 87.
18.
117, 11

8; of stone.

19.

my, 7.

06.

11, 107, 109.

>f Hopi, 18, 20, 21,

112, 120.

[opewell, no, 125.

opewell, 150, 156;
:8, 136, 156.

Hopewell, 106.
Dpper, no, 112.
158; disks of, 92.

at Hopewell, 149.

-well, 114.

, 32.

er, 122.

veil, 98.

11, 174, 175-

ell mounds, 90; in-

tive age of, 175.

ects of, 167.

r, 120.

109.

f. 177.

0.

f, among Hopi, 49,
.Tiing of 54, 57, 59;
in. 55, 60; painting

I Hopi, 47, 48, 51.
)pi, Agave, 92; Bad-
80; Blue Bird, 76;
iwing Owl, 89; But-
)ud, 94; Coyote, 81;
;le, 91; Juniper, 78;

Katchina, 83; Lizard, 89; Macaw,

81; Magpie, 101; names given by,

74; Rabbit, 109; Rattlesnake, 112;

Reed, 75; Sage, 105; Sand, no;

Skeleton, 93; Sparrow Hawk, 85;

Spider, 88; Squash, 74; Sun, 109:

Tave, 108; Tobacco, 99; Young

Corn-ear, 96.
Clark's Work, 83.
Columbian Exposition, 79.
Cones, of copper, 120, 131.
Consecrating Ceremony, among

Hopi, 7.
Copper, of Hopewell mounds, 101,

116.
Cord, of sinew, ill.
Cosmic Symbols, 88, 124, 125, 176.
Cover, of stone vessel, 102.
Cresson, H. T., 92, 94, 99, 175.
Crier, in Hopi Ceremony, 8.
Cylinder, of copper, 120, 128.

Dancing, in Plaza, 42, 45; practice
for, among Hopi, 22-24.

Defences, at Hopewell, 84, 87.

Delivery, among Hopi, 47, 50.

Discharming, end of Hopi ceremony,
43; purpose of, 44; song for, 44.

Disks, of copper, 109, 121, 123; of
flint, 95, 96.

Ditch, at Hopewell, 84.

Dog, figured on Etruscan sarco-
phagi, No. 4, 69; bones of, not
found in Hopewell, 176.

Drill, of flint, no; of iron, 129.

Eagle effigies, at Hopewell, 127.

Ear-bob, of copper, no.

Ear Ornaments, of copper, 121.

Ear-pendants, of shell, in.

Effigies, of Hopewell, human, 163; of

bone, 112; of copper, no; of stone,

136.
Enclosures, in Hopewell mounds,

84.
Erosion, of Hopewell mounds, 86.

Femur, carved, of Hopewell, 112.
Fire, effects of, on objects in mound,

113.
Fish Effigies, of copper, 109, 125.
Flint Ridge Stone, 133.

183

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