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HORSE- BREEDING;

BEING THE

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY

APPLIED TO

THE BUSINESS OF BREEDING HORSES,
W PDE
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT
~
Stallions, Brood Mares and Young Foals,
AND THE

SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK.

( f°
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7 ee
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c =: =
J. = SAN LoS
‘
Editor of **The Breeder's Gazette,’’ ‘Breeders’ Trotting Stud Book,’’ ‘Percheron Stud Book,”’

Honorary member of the Chicago Eelectic Medical Soc iety vs
u
Illinois Veterinary Medical Association ue oi F COW Nene ~

MAR 5 1995.
bg oo ay
CHICAGO: rwase
J. H. SANDERS & CO.
1885, r

S

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885,
BY J. H. SANDERS,

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

lia TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE 5

illciik 'eleh'a-e) bbls! el nllv/'s's oie) (e)s).e my #0, 0) <\(s) eb) 6. Sep (a) 0) a w10) 9 6) a) 0 (pie) a) @, fem eee a6! Sin) a0) 6) (ole

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.—General Laws of Heredity—
Causes of Variation from Original Types — Modifications
from Changed Conditions of Life—Accidental Variations or
‘““Sports””— Extent of Hereditary Influence—The Formation
of Breeds—In-Breeding and Crossing—Value of Pedigree—
Relative Size of Sire and Dam—Influenee of First Impregna-
tion—Effect of Imagination on Color of Progeny—Effect of
Change of Climate on the Generative Organs—Controlling the
aN gr Sete Os, WR ON one, ERC, RE ek 9 tee ee As Ree St Mae

CHAPTER II.

BreEeps or Horses.— Thoroughbreds — Trotters and Roadsters —
Orloffs or Russian Trotters—Cieveland Bays—Shire or Cart
Horses—Clydesdales—Percherons—Other Breeds .............. 68

CHAPTER III.

STALLIONS, BRroopD MARES AND Foaus.— Selection of Breeding-
Stock—General Management of the Stallion—-Controlling the
Stallion When in Use—When Mares Should be Tried—The
Number of Mares to be Served—Effect of Age on the Fertility
of the Stallion—Effect of Age on the Quality of the Get—
Percentage of Foals to Mares Served— Management of the
Stallion After the Season Closes— Effects of Castration on
Stallions— Fighting Between Stallions—The Brood Mare—
Causes of Barrenness in Brood Mares—The Productive Period
in Brood Mares—Time of Foaling and Period of Gestation—
General Suggestions as to Food and Nursing—Feeding the
Young Foal—Weaning the Foal—Effect of Exercise on De-
velopment-—Breaking the Foal—Views of Dr. Reynolds, of
Liverpool, on Horse-Breeding........ ccc scene eens ener ceer eee ee 131

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING-STOCK.— Hygiene of the Eye—

The Eye as Affected by the Teeth— Umbilical Hernia in Young
Foals—‘‘Scours’’ or Diarrhoea in Colts—Strangles or Dis-
temper.—THE STALLION.—External Injuries—Inflammation
of the Penis—Inflammation of the Testicles—Cancer of the
Penis and Sheath—Prolapse or Paralysis of the Penis—Scrotal
Hernia—Waterbag, So-Called — Excessive Yenery—Non-emis-
sion of Semen; ‘“ Proudness,”’ So-Called—Sexual Sluggishness
—Spermatorrhcea—Vesicular Fiuptions on the Penis— Foul
Sheath—Masturbation—Cryptorchids (Ridglings, So-Cailed).
—TuHE Broop MARrrE.—Barrenness—Nymphomania Tumors
Within the Vagina and Uterus— Leucorrhcea, or So-Called
Whites—Colt-Founder, So-Called—CGidema During Pregnancy
—Superimpregnation— Heat During Pregnancy— Laceration
of the Rectum—Abortion—Difficult Parturition—Laceration
Gfsbhocke Grin seul sg volta sales Gee ea eee eee EE ee

Pik h AC EB.

A very large proportion of the matter contained
in this volume was prepared for publication several
years ago when I had more leisure to study and write
upon the topics herein considered, and when I was
fresher from the field of practical experience than
now. Much of it has since been printed in frag-
ments at various times, some of it in the form of
editorial articles for the monthly journal that was so
long under my management, some in essays or
addresses at meetings and conventions of breeders of
live stock, and still other portions of it in the weekly
stock-breeders’ paper that for more than three years
past has occupied my almost constant attention. A
little more than four years ago [ thought myself
about ready to gather up the fragments that were
already prepared and give them to the public in book
form; but other and more pressing duties intervened,
and it is only within a few months past, having been
relieved from official duties that had for three years
claimed all the time that I could possibly spare from
the management of THE BREEDER’S GAZETTE, that
I have found leisure to look over and arrange the

6 PREFACE.

matter which has been gradually accumulating for
so long a period. I give it now to the public, realiz-
ing that, in common with all human effort, it must
needs be far from perfect, but with a feeling of satis-
faction in knowing that the work has at least been
conscientiously done; and that such parts of it as are
not derived from a knowledge bought with my own
personal experiences have, for their foundation, the
teachings of others who are regarded as eminent
authorities in the specialties upon which I have
quoted them. ‘To the introductory chapters, wherein
the general principles of breeding are discussed, |
have given much thought; and I am confident they
may be studied with profit, not only by horse-
breeders, but by all who are disposed to investigate
the laws which govern the transmission of hereditary
qualities from parent to offsprmg, whether it be in
the human species or in the lower orders of animal
life. In the descriptions of breeds I have endeavored
to be judicially candid and fair; to ‘nothing exten-
uate nor set down aught in malice;’ and where con-
troverted pomts have been touched upon, while I
have endeavored to state my views plainly, and to
sustain them by such arguments and facts as to my
mind are conclusive, yet I have tried to do so ina
manner that would not prove offensive to those
whose opinions and conclusions may differ from my
own.

Aside from the introductory chapters on the gen-
eral principles of breeding, which are applicable alike

~I

PREFACE.

to all breeds and all varieties of live stock, | have
endeavored to make the work a practical guide to the
management of the breeding stud—a book which
any farmer or farmer's boy, or any novice in the
business of horse-breeding, may read and study with
profit. In the course of my long experience as
editor of a live-stock paper, covering a period of
about sixteen years, the constantly recurring ques-
tions that have been sent in for answer have served
to direct my attention especially to the pomts upon
which information is most frequently sought, and
these pomts I have endeavored to most fully answer
in the pages which follow.

While [ have not intended that this book should
in any sense be regarded as a veterinary work, yet |
have thought I might add greatly to its practical use-
fulness by incorporating with it the material portions
of several articles, prepared at my request, by Prof.
Janies Law, of Cornell University, N. Y., and previ-
ously published under my direction, wherein he treats
of some of the diseases to which stallions, brood
mares and young foals are especially subject. And [
have also added a number of pages of matter of a
sunilar nature, prepared especially for this work by
N. H. Paaren, M. D., State Veterinarian of Illinois,
whose high scientific attainments and many years of
extensive practice have especially fitted him to give
valuable counsel upon such topics.

In the belief that the book will be found inter-
esting to all students of the science and art of breed-

8 PREFACE,

ing, and especially helpful to those who have the
care and management of breeding studs, whether on
a large or small scale, it is given to the public with a
full consciousness of the fact that it does not con-
tain a tithe of what might profitably be written or
said upon the subject.
J. H. SANDERS.
Cuicago, Keb. 1, 1885.

be

GHAP TER. L&

—————

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

It is stated in Holy Writ that “God made man a little
lower than the angels,” and by common consent the horse
is voted next highest in the scale of created beings. It
will not be inappropriate then, in a treatise mainly devoted
to the breeding of this, the noblest of the brute creation, to
discuss some of the general principles which govern the
transmission of hereditary qualities from parent to off-
spring and which are beyond a question substantially the
same throughout animal life. Through the practical appli-
cation of these laws to the business of breeding domestic
animals, which for many years past has so largely occupied
the attention of intelligent men in Europe and America,
the great mass of our agricultural population have become
familiar with their inexorable power and force; and with a
knowledge of the immutability of these laws has come a
realization of the stern fact that the human species fur-
nish no exception to their operation.

The passage in the Decalogue, which declares that the
iniquities of the fathers are visited upon the children unto
the third and fourth generation, is clothed with a new and
startling significance since it has come to be generally
understood that this declaration is a concise statement of

the operations of a physiological law, from which there is
2

10 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

absolutely no escape. That the physical, as well as the
mental and moral infirmities and peculiarities of the father
and mother, are visited upon their children, even beyond the
third and fourth generations, is as true when applied to the
human family as it is of cattle, horses, sheep and swine.

It is not my purpose to attempt to controvert the prin-
ciple that “all men are born free and equal,” which stands
as the corner-stone of our political system. Undoubtedly
this is true when applied to “rights before the law,” but
that all men are born physically, morally and intellectually
equal will scarcely be claimed by the most ardent admirer
of our democratic institutions. There is a solid foundation,
in physiological fact, for the admiration with which the
“first families of Virginia” have been regarded in some
parts of our country, and the same may be said of many of
our old families in New England and other parts of the
country. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes makes his “ Autocrat
of the Breakfast Table” give utterance to his belief in this
great truth and his faith in the value of pedigree in the
human family when he says: “I go always, other things
being equal, for the man who inherits family traditions and
the cumulative humanities of at least four or five genera-
tions.” ‘To know that a man or woman is descended from
an old family whose record has been honorable, beyond re-
proach and without taint, is the very best possible evidence,
next to his own individual record, that he is also worthy of
confidence and respect ; and a taint in the blood of an op-
posite character should certainly be regarded with as much
distrust as a similar taint in the blood of any of our do-
mestic animals, and for the same reasons. What is “bred
in the bone” will be transmitted. Beauty of form and
feature, strength and force of intellect, elegance and grace
of motion, integrity and honesty of character, susceptibility

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. i

of culture and refinement or boorish stupidity, as well as
all the virtues and vices, are as clearly transmissible and
inheritable qualities in man as is the color of the hair or
the shape of the body in horses or cattle.

A subject of such vast importance, involving as it does so
much for weal or woe to the human race, and which places
in the hands of the intelligent stock-breeder such power ~
over the animal kingdom, may well command the attention
of thinking men, aside from its practical value as an aid to
an intelligent reproduction of desirable forms and qualities
in our domestic animals. It has been said of Bakewell,
one of the first great improvers of live stock in Great
Britain, that he regarded the animals upon his farm as wax
in his hands, out of which in good time he could mould
any form that he desired to create. In fact all our domestic
animals have been, to a great degree, moulded and fash-
ioned by the hand of man. The same uniformity that now
characterizes the bison, the elk and the deer probably be-
longed to the horse, the cow, the sheep and the hog, in a
state of nature. The ponderous English Cart-horse, the
fleet courser and the diminutive Shetland pony, are ail sup-
posed to have descended from originals that were as uni-
form in their characteristics as are the members of a herd
of bison upon our western prairies. The Short-horn, the
Hereford, the Devon, the Jersey and all of the various
breeds into which our cattle are now divided, are de-
scended, it is believed, from the same original type.

CAUSES OF VARIATION FROM ORIGINAL TYPES.

That the changed conditions of life to which animals
have been subjected by domestication—the variety of uses
to which they have been put, the food upon which they have
subsisted, the climate in which they have been reared, and

12 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

selection for especial uses—have produced the variations
which are now so apparent, is generally admitted. Very
much of this divergence is due to climatic influences, which
alone are sufficiently powerful, in the changes of food and
of habit which necessarily follow, to account for nearly all
the varieties which have been produced. A warm climate
and a bountiful supply of nutritious food from birth to
maturity promotes growth and development, while a scanty
supply of nutrition and a rigorous climate have a positive
tendency in the opposite direction. A knowledge of the effect
of heat and cold upon growth and development has been
taken advantage of by breeders for the purpose of producing
dwarf specimens. The breeder of Bantam fowls is careful to
have his chicks hatched late in the season, so that the early
approach of cold weather may arrest development. The
bleak, barren and tempestuous islands—lying in the high
latitude of 59 and 60 deg.—north of Scotland, with their
scanty subsistence and long winters, have dwarfed the horse
of that country until he appears as the diminutive Shetland
pony, while, from probably the same original, the rich herb-
age, nutritious grains and mild climate 10 deg. further
south, on the European coast, has given us the immense
draft-horses of ancient Normandy and Flanders.

But while climate and the necessarily accompanying in-
fluences have done much to cause the divergence which
now exists in races that were once uniform, selection by the
hand of man has also been actively at work, in some cases
co-operating with the influences of climate, thereby accele-
rating the transformation, and in others counteracting its
effect. We have an illustration of this in the horses of
Canada. It is quite evident that the causes that have given
us the tough, shaggy pony of Lower Canada, if continued
without interruption for a succession of generations, and

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 13

accelerated by the efforts of breeders in selecting animals
for the purpose of reproduction, with the same object con-
stantly in view, would in course of time give us a race as
diminutive as the ponies of the Shetland Islands. But this
climatic influence has been retarded and counteracted by
Canadian breeders, who have rejected the smaller speci-
mens for breeding purposes, and have constantly drawn
upon the large draft breeds of Europe for fresh crosses.
To such an extent has this infusion of fresh blood been
carried for twenty-five years past, especially in Upper
Canada or Ontario, that the influences of climate have been
overpowered and the progression has been decidedly in
the opposite direction. The efforts of Canadian breeders
in this direction have been aided materially by the im-
proved condition of agriculture in the Dominion, which
has led to a more liberal system of feeding and more
thorough protection from the rigor of the climate. And
thus the forces and influences of nature, in some cases aided
and in others counteracted by the efforts of man, have con-
stantly been at work breaking up the uniformity which
originally characterized all our domestic animals, until
divergence from the original type has become, in many
instances, truly wonderful.

The influences of selection, in creating divergence from
a type singularly uniform, finds a most striking illustration
in the case of the domestic pigeon, of which there are now
nearly 300 known varieties, more or less distinct, and all
probably descended from the common wild rock pigeon.
Among these varieties the divergence is remarkable, not
only in the color of the plumage, which in the orignal is
uniform, but in the shape and markings of the various
parts. Who would imagine, at first thought, that the pout-
ers, the carriers, the runts, the barbs, the fantails, the

14 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

owls, the tumblers, the frill-backs, the jacobins, the
trumpeters, etc., and all their sub-varieties, with differ-
ences so strongly marked, are descended from one common
parent stock! Yet, that this is true, and that all the varie-
ties from the original type have resulted from changed con-
ditions of life, climatic influences and artificial selection
and crossing, is generally admitted by naturalists.

It is one of the principles of heredity, that when there
is a great uniformity in a species divergences from the usual
type in the offspring are slight and rare; but when this
uniformity, from no matter what cause, has been broken
up, divergences in the offspring are frequent and great,
although there is always present a tendency, more or less
powerful, to revert to the original type. This tendency is
most frequently manifested when breeds or races, widely
differing in their present forms, are crossed upon each
other. In such cases, or violent crosses as they are called,
it frequently happens that the progeny resembles neither
parent, but shows strong marks of the type from which
both of its ancestors originally sprung. Darwin gives
numerous illustrations of this tendency to reversion in his
experiments with pigeons of various breeds and colors, one
of which I quote, as follows:

I paired a mongrel female barb-fantail with a mongrel male
barb-spot, neither of which mongrels had the least blue about
them. Let it be remembered that blue barbs are excessively
rare; that spots, as has been already stated, were perfectly char-
acterized in the year 1676, and breed perfectly true; this likewise
is the case with white fantails, so much so that I have never heard
of white fantails throwing any other color. Nevertheless, the off-
spring from the above two mongrels were of exactly the same blue
tint as that of the wild rock pigeon, from the Shetland Islands,
over the whole back and wings; the double black wing bars were
equally conspicuous; the tail was exactly alike in allits characters,
and the croup was pure white; the head, however, was tinted with

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 15

a shade of red, evidently derived from the spot, and was of a
paler blue than in the rock pigeon, as was the stomach. So that
two black barbs, a red spot and a white fantail, as the four purely-
bred grandparents, produced a bird of the same general blue
color, together with every characteristic mark, as in the wild
Columba livia, or rock pigeon.*

This tendency to reversion in different breeds of domes-
tic animals when crossed accounts for many of the disap-
pointments which breeders experience in their efforts to
improve their stock, and serves greatly to complicate the
breeding problem.

MODIFICATIONS PRODUCED BY CHANGED CONDITIONS OF LIFE.

It is quite certain, from what we know of the effect of
climate and of changed habits upon animals in a state of
domestication, that if two branches of the same tribe or
species, essentially alike in every feature, should, by some
chance, become separated and compelled to subsist under
widely differing conditions of life, being left entirely to
themselves and the operations of natural laws, in course of
time a very marked difference would occur in their struct-
ure or habit. There is a tendency in all animal life to
adapt itself to the conditions under which it must exist;
but a change may be so abrupt and complete as to over-
come this tendency; and, under such a condition, the race
would speedily become extinct, or gradually die out with a
few generations of sickly and enfeebled descendants; but,
under circumstances less abrupt and unfavorable, a few
might survive, being those individuals that, from some

* Those who have a desire to investigate this subject, as illustrated
by the breeding of pigeons, will find a very full history of the various
breeds, their processes of formation, and the effects of selection and
crossing of breeds, in Darwin’s ‘‘Variations of Animals and Plants
under Domestication,’’ Vol. I, pp. 163 to 272.

16 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

peculiarity of organization, suffered least from the change.
These animals, in their turn, would reproduce the peculiar-
ities of their race, modified, to some extent, by the new
conditions which environed them; and these again would
produce animals still better adapted to the new order, until,
in course of time, we should have a race widely differing
from the original type, created or evolved by a survival of
those best fitted to exist under the new order of things, and
remoulded and refashioned by the changed conditions of
life.

If we accept the commonly-received doctrine of the
origin of the human race—that is, that all mankind are
descended from a common parentage—we are driven to the
conclusion that all the differences which are so apparent in
the human family at the present day are the result of the
operation of the law of adaptation to changed conditions
and of climatic influences, to which I have just referred.
And yet there is as great a divergence from a uniform type
in the human race as in any of the lower orders of animals
that are recognized as belonging to a single species.

An illustration of this law of adaptation may be found in
the cattle of Texas. These animals, which we call “native
Texans,” are undoubtedly descended from the Spanish cat-
tle, brought at a very early day to Louisiana and [exico,
but in form and habit they have been greatly changed from
their Spanish ancestry. They roam over the plains of
Texas, eat its grasses and drink its waters with impunity,
and, under these conditions, increase and multiply at a
prodigious rate, enjoying a remarkable degree of immunity
from disease of any kind. But let the cattle of any other
region be taken to that State and serious losses result from
what is commonly known as Texas fever. It is not my in-
tention, at this time, to go into an account of the nature or

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 17

cause of this disease ; it is sufficient for my purpose to state
the simple and well-known fact that all attempts at the in-
troduction of a new race of cattle upon the plains of Texas
have been attended with very serious losses. The proportion
that have been found able to survive, under the conditions
to which they are there subjected, has been found to be so
small that few breeders or herdsmen will take the risk of
bringing valuable cattle into the State. And yet a few do
survive ; and their descendants are as frea from liability to
the disease as are the native Texans themselves. The Span-
ish cattle, when first brought to that region, undoubtedly
had to submit to the same fatal ordeal, and the thousands
upon thousands of their descendants which today are found
in that State afford us a striking illustration of the ability
of a race to adapt itself to conditions which at first threat-
ened it with extinction. The silent and invisible processes
of nature so change the system and adapt it to the new
order of things that what was a deadly poison to the an-
cestor is comparatively harmless to the progeny.

I might multiply illustrations of a like character, from
the human race as well as from the lower orders of animals,
but the principle is so well known and so universally recog-
nized that it is useless to discuss it farther; and I have
only alluded to it here as tending to show how numerous
and powerful are the agencies that are constantly at work
producing variations and changes in animal life.

In the practical business of breeding domestic animals it
is important that due prominence be given to the operation
of the laws to which I have alluded; for it follows that a
race or breed most perfectly adapted to a certain locality, a
certain mode of life, conditions of climate, and character of
subsistence, may, in time, when transported to a distant
clime, or even when subjected to changed conditions of life

18 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

in the same locality, lose all its distinguishing character-
istics and become practically worthless. On the other
hand, a race of but little value in its native state may be so
modified by a change in climatic conditions, or by the char-
acter, quality and quantity of the aliment furnished, as to
become of the highest value to the breeder; and these
modifications, although frequently so slow as to be almost
imperceptible in a single generation, are accelerated by the
powers of inheritance under a continuation of the condi-
tions which inaugurated them. A high or low temperature,
and abundant or scanty nutrition, will, as before stated,
affect physical development either favorably or unfavorably.
Elevated plains, low marshes, and mountain ranges are each
adapted to support a species of animal life in some respects
distinct from the others; and hence a knowledge of the
effect of the various climatic conditions, and of the different
kinds of food, becomes of the utmost importance to the
breeder in determining the kinds of stock that he can
produce with profit.

There is perhaps no variety of animals that has been
domesticated by man in which the effects of climate and
nutrition are more apparent than in horses. Temperate
regions, grassy plains, and, consequently, abundant nutri-
tion, produce increased size and strength; mountain ranges,
with bleak, cold climate and scanty subsistence, dwarf the
frame and produce the hardy, diminutive pony. The fertile
plains of Germany and Flanders, with their salubrious
climate and abundant herbage, have been the home, from
the very earliest period of history, of the ponderous draft-
horses which still distinguish that region, and have been
the source from which all the countries of the world have
drawn the foundation for their draft breeds. The bleak
and barren Shetland Islands, and the mountainous tract

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 19

which lies between the plains of India and the crest of
the great Himalaya range, are the homes of races of dimin-
utive ponies, rough, shaggy and hardy. The highest in-
habited land of Asia, which forms the source of the Gan-
ges, the Indus and the Brahmapootra—a country as rugged
and bleak as can well be conceived—contains immense
numbers of small, sinewy and agile horses. The extreme
regions bounded by the mountains of Siberia on the north,
the Sea of Okhotsk on the east, and the Little Altaic Moun-
tains on the west—the home of the Kalmucks—abounds in
a tough and hardy race of ponies.

I have not been able to find an exception to this law
of nature in the history of the world. Wherever the horse
has existed for centuries on rich, fertile plains, and in a
temperate climate, we find him distinguished for size and
strength; wherever he has been the inhabitant of inhospit-
able, mountainous regions he becomes diminutive and
hardy. Of course these results have obtained where the
horse is left largely to take care of himself. Man may do
much by supplying warm stables and abundant food, and
by selection, to counteract the influence of climate, but in
spite of his utmost care the tendency will constantly be as
nature has pointed out. Mountainous regions and a rigor-
ous climate will produce the toughest, hardiest horses—as
we have seen in the New England Morgans and the Cana-
dian ponies of our own country—while our rich and fertile
prairies and luxuriant valleys are adapted by nature to be
the home of the ponderous draft-horse.

Prof. Low, in his great work, “The Domesticated Ani-
mals of the British Islands,” has a very interesting chapter
on the effect of climatic influences upon animal life, from
which I quote the following :

The effect of heat is everywhere observed, as it modifies the

20 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

secretions which give color to the skin, and the degree of cover-
ing provided for the protection of the body, whether wool or hair.
In the case of the human species the effects of temperature on
the color of the skin, and, with this, on the color of the eyes and
hair, are sufficiently known. We can not pass from the colder
parts of Europe to the warmer without marking the progressive
diversities of color, from the light complexion of the northern
nations to the swarthy tinge of the Spaniards, Italians and
Greeks; and when we have crossed the Mediterranean into Africa
the dark color, which is proper to all the warmer regions of the
globe, everywhere meets the eye. The Jews, naturally as fair as
the other inhabitants of Syria, become gradually darker as they
have been for a longer or shorter time acclimated in the warmer
countries; and in the plains of the Ganges they are as dark as
Hindoos. The Portuguese, who have been naturalized in the
African colonies of their nation, have become entirely black. If
we suppose, indeed, the great races of mankind to have been called
into existence in different regions we must suppose that they
were born with the color, as well as the other attributes, suited to
the climates of the countries which they were to inhabit. It
accords with this supposition that the Negro remains always
black, even in the highest latitudes to which he has been carried;
and that the black races of the Eastern Islands retain the color
proper to them in the mild temperature of Van Diemen’s Land.
The Mongolian, even in the coldest regions of Northern Asia,
retains the hue distinctive of his family, but with a continually
deepening shade as he approaches to the intertropical countries.
The native of China, of a dull yellow tint at Pekin, is at Canton
nearly as dark as a Lascar. The American Indian retains his dis-
tinctive copper hue amid the snows of Labrador, but on the
shores of the Caribbean Sea becomes nearly as black as an
African.

Temperature likewise affects the size and form of the body.
The members of the Caucasian group towards the Arctic Circle
are of far inferior bulk of body to the natives of temperate coun-
tries. The Central Asiatics, in elevated plains, are sturdy and
short, the result of an expansion of the chest; the Hindoos are of
slender form and low physical powers, so that they have almost
always yielded to the superior force of the northern nations from
the first invasion of the Macedonians to the ultimate establish-

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. PAL

ment of European power in the Peninsula. The Negro, on the
other hand, in the hottest and most pestilential regions of the
habitable earth, where the Caucasian either perishes or becomes
as slender as a stripling, is of a strength and stature which would
be deemed great in any class of men—affording a strong pre-
sumption in favor of the opinion of the distinctness of his race
and its special adaptation to the region in which it has been
placed.

In quadrupeds the effects of temperature are everywhere
observable in the covering provided for their body, whether wool
or hair, and which in the same species is always more abundant
in the colder than in the warmer countries. In all quadrupeds
there is a growth of down or wool underneath the hair, and more
or less mixed with it. In warm countries this wool is little if at
all developed; but in the colder it frequently becomes the prin-
cipal covering of the skin, forming along with the hair a thick
fur. In the warmest regions the domestic sheep produces
scarcely any wool; in temperate countries he has a fleece properly
so called, and in the coldest of all his wool is mixed with long
hair which covers it externally. The wool, an imperfect con-
ductor of heat, preserves the natural temperature of the body,
and thus protects the animal from cold, while the long hair is
fitted to throw off the water which falls upon the body in rain or
snow. But in the warm season the wool, which would be incom-
modious, falls off, to be renewed before winter, while the hair
always remains. The dog, too, has a coat of wool which he loses
in countries of great heat, but which in colder countries grows so
as to form along with the hair a thick fur, so that in certain cold
countries there have been formed breeds of dogs to produce wool
for clothing. The dogs of Europe conveyed to warm countries
frequently lose even their hair and become as naked as elephants,
and in every country their fur is suited to the nature of the
climate.

Similar to the effects of temperature is that of humidity, the
hair becoming longer and more oily in the moister countries.
Even within the limits of our own islands, the ox of the western
coasts, exposed to the humid vapors of the Atlantic, has longer
hair than the ox of the eastern districts. Even the effect of con-
tinued exposure to winds and storms may modify parts of the
animal form. ‘There are certain breeds of gallinaceous fowls

22 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

which are destitute of the rump, so-called. Most of the common
fowls of the Isle of Arran, on the coast of Scotland, have this
peculiarity. This little island consists of high hills, on which
scarcely a bush exists to shelter the animals which inhabit it
from the continued gales of the Atlantic. The feathers of a long
tail might incommode the animals, and therefore, we may sup-
pose, they disappear; and were peacocks to be reared under sim-
ilar circumstances it is probable that, in the course of successive
generations, they would lose the beautiful appendage which they
bring from their native jungles.

The effects, likewise, of altitude are to be numbered among
those which modify the characters of animals. In general the
animals of mountains are smaller and more agile than those of
the same species inhabiting plains. In man the pulse increases
in frequency as he ascends into the atmosphere, so that, while at
the level of the sea the number of beats is 70 in a minute, at the
height of 4,000 feet the number exceeds 100. The air being rarer
a greater quantity of it must be drawn into the lungs to afford
the oxygen necessary to carry off the excess of carbon in the
system. But gradually, as man and other animals become natu-
ralized in an elevated country, the digestive and respiratory or-
gaus, and with these the capacity of the chest and abdomen,
become suited to their new relations. Humboldt remarks on the
extraordinary development of the chest in the inhabitants of the
Andes, producing even deformity; and he justly observes that
this is a consequence of the rarity of the air, which demands an
extension of the lungs.

The effects have been referred to of use or exercise in modify-
ing certain parts of the animal ferm. The limbs of many ani-
mals inured or compelled to speed become extended in length, as
of the dogs employed in the chase of the swifter animals. The
limbs of an animal deprived of the means of motion become fee-
ble and small, as the wings of domesticated birds. In the natural
state the cow has a small udder, yet sufficient to contain the milk
which her young requires; in the domesticated state, by milk-
ing her, the organ becomes enlarged so as to contain a quantity
of milk beyond what the wants of her own offspring demand.
Nor are the characters thus acquired confined to the individuals
on which they have been impressed, but may be transmitted to
their posterity,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 23

The lessons taught by these illustrations are obvious.
None of our improved breeds are adapted to all climates
and all conditions of life. To be at their best they must
each be kept, as nearly as possible, under the same condi-
tions of food and climate as those under which they have
attained their excellence. Any material change in either of
these conditions is lable ultimately to make a material
change in the character of the breed. These changes are
usually unfavorable ones, although not necessarily so.
Change of itself, when in the direction of better care, more
generous feeding and more genial climate, will tend to pro-
duce greater size, a more graceful form and greater excel-
lence. At the same time improvement in these particulars
is quite likely to be at the expense of what is termed hardi-
ness, or ability to withstand exposure and rough usage.

ACCIDENTAL VARIATIONS OR “SPORTS.”

When animals in a state of nature are not disturbed in
the enjoyment of the conditions under which they have ex-
isted for ages, as the American bison or buffalo, the elk, the
deer, the wolf, etc., the uniformity which prevails among all
the individuals of the race is remarkable; and all the pecu-
liarities of structure, color and character are transmitted
from generation to generation with almost unerring cer-
tainty; and here the maxim of the breeder, that “like pro-
duces like,” scarcely ever meets with an exception. Such
animals are, in the truest sense of the word, thoroughbred,
or purely bred. There has been no commingling of blood
or crossing of various strains to give the race a composite
character, and hence when we have seen the sire and dam
we can tell with certainty what the progeny will be. Were
any of our domesticated animals thoroughbreds, in the
sense that the bison, the elk or deer are thoroughbreds, the

24 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

breeding problem would be a simple one, and like would
invariably produce like so long as the conditions of life
remained the same. The same principle holds true in the
reproduction of vegetable life. An absolutely pure seed
reproduces its kind, but when cross-fertilization has once
taken place the result is uncertain. If the flower of the
Baldwin apple tree be fertilized by the pollen of a Winesap
the seed from this union will produce neither the one nor
the other. It will be an apple, because both of its parents
were apples; but as they were of different varieties, or
forms or character, so the produce will have a character of
its own, differing from both of its ancestors. And even if
the stigma of the Baldwin be fertilized by pollen of its own
kind, the result is uncertain, because the parent is itself the
result of cross-fertilization. The application of this prin-
ciple to the crossing of different races of domestic animals
is evident, and I shall have occasion to refer to it hereafter.

But, notwithstanding the uniformity of which I have
spoken, in the produce of absolutely pure or unmixed races
there arises occasionally what is termed an accidental varia-
tion from the established type—a sport, as it is frequently
called. The color of the American deer is of a fixed type,
and a departure from uniformity in this particular is very
rare—yet a white deer is occasionally found—and so of other
animals in which the color is an equally well-established
characteristic. Man has five fingers on each hand and five
toes on each foot, and in this particular the race is uniform;
yet a “sport” is occasionally found where the number of
fingers or toes is increased to six. When these accidental
variations once occur they are liable, under favorable con-
ditions, to be transmitted by inheritance; but under the
ordinary operations of Nature’s laws, when the conditions
of life remain unchanged, these anomalies usually disappear

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 25

within one or two generations, and the normal and charac-
teristic type of the race is resumed. A well-authenticated
instance of the transmission of accidental variations is
found in the oft-quoted case of Edward Lambert, whose
whole body, with the exception of the face, the soles of the
feet and the palms of the hands, was covered with a sort of
horny excrescence, which was periodically moulted. His six
sons all inherited the same peculiarity, and the only one of
the six that survived transmitted it, in turn, to all his sons.
This abnormal character was transmitted through the male
line for six generations, and then disappeared.* It is a
very remarkable illustration of the peculiarities of heredity
that the female members of this family should have failed
to inherit this peculiarity. Another very remarkable case
of this nature which came under my own observation was
that of a family residing in Iowa, where the mother and
three grown daughters were entirely destitute of hair, but
the sons all had quite as much as the average of men. We
have also several well-authenticated cases of the transmis-
sion, for a few generations, of an abnormal number of fin-
gers or toes, as in the case of the Colburn family, where
each of the ‘members had a supernumerary toe and finger,
which anomaly was transmitted, although irregularly, for
four generations before it entirely disappeared. The writer
is personally cognizant of a case in which the second and
third toe of each foot were united, and which anomaly has
been transmitted for three generations to one only out of
an average of eight descendants in each family. But, as
before remarked, when the conditions of life remain
unchanged these anomalies almost invariably disappear,
and the descendants ultimately resume the typical charac-
ter of the race.

* “Philosophical Transactions,” Vol. XVII, p. 23,

26 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

From the fact that these accidental variations have
shown themselves to be, in a limited degree, transmissible
by heredity, we may infer that if selections were made with
a view to their perpetuation they might ultimately become
fixed characters. Indeed, there is a considerable weight of
evidence tending to show that even variations produced by
mutilation, or by other artificial means, are sometimes
transmitted, especially when the mutilation has been inti-
mately connected with the nervous system. Dr. Prosper
Lucas gives numerous well-authenticated instances of this
character, and is decidedly of opinion that variations or
mutilations that are the result of disease are transmissible.
That eminent scientist, Dr. Brown-Sequard, gives an inter-
esting account of some experiments with guinea pigs. By
an operation upon a certain nerve he produced epileptic
convulsions; and the produce of the animals upon which
this operation was performed manifested the same symp-
toms.* But, notwithstanding the numerous instances given
by the eminent authorities above quoted, I am of the opin-
ion that the cases of the transmission of these artificially
produced variations are so rare as to be practically of no
account in the calculations of the breeder.

The law which governs the transmission of these acci-
dental variations, whether they be the result of a “sport” or
of external influences, appears to be, that when such varia-
tions from the common type are in antagonism to the con-
ditions of life to which the individual is subjected, the
variations are not perpetuated; while, on the other hand, if
they are in conformity to the existing wants or conditions,
thereby better fitting the individual to succeed in the strug-
gle for existence, natural selection and a survival of the
fittest will tend to perpetuate them.

* “Proceedings of the Royal Society of Great Britain,” Vol. X, p. 297,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 27

From the foregoing it is evident that the laws of hered-
ity tend to reproduce in the progeny the character of the
ancestors, and that when the ancestry is of a fixed and uni-
form type the maxim that “like produces like” admits of
few exceptions. Yet there are exceptions even here, as we
have seen in the case of sports; and the modifications pro-
duced by changed conditions of life, adaptation to new
uses and new modes of subsistence, tend to vary what,
under the operation of the unrestricted laws of heredity,
would fix a given type and leave the breeder’s art power-
less to effect change or improvement.

Heredity, which makes of every individual the sum, or
essence, of that which has lived before him, is essentially a
conservative force, and opposes all change, all progress, all
improvement; but evolution, which compels heredity to
give way to internal and external causes, and modifies both
the physical and mental organism, places in the breeder’s
hands the means of effecting wonderful changes.

EXTENT OF HEREDITARY INFLUENCE.

I have spoken of two forces that, in their effects, appear
to be diametrically opposed to each other—heredity, which
makes of every individual the sum or essence of that which
has preceded it, and evolution or spontaniety, which con-
stantly tends to give to animal life new forms and to each
individual peculiarities which belong to it alone. Of these
heredity is unquestionably the stronger force, because, as
I have before remarked, when uniformity has once been
established the general principle that like produces like
finds very rarely an exception. In fact the influence of
heredity is always present, and in the reproduction of ani-
mal life never fails to assert itself in a greater or less
degree, Every living thing brings forth young after its own

28 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

kind-——in some cases the exact counterpart of the parent,
and in others slightly modified ; but always showing more
or less of the parent type. Men do not gather grapes of
thorns nor figs of thistles, neither do Short-horn cows
bring forth buffalo calves nor draft-mares produce thor-
oughbred race-horses. Hence, although we may frequently
meet with very apparent differences between the parents
and the progeny, yet a moment’s reflection will show us
that the points of resemblance are always very much greater
than those of difference. We are so accustomed to look at
the operation of this law in its details that we overlook the
aggregate of results. We mate a purely-bred Essex sow
and boar, and look upon it as a matter of course that the
pigs produced will all be black and possess the general
characteristics of the Essex breed ; but if, having selected
our breeding pair with a view to the transmission of a pecu-
liar form of the head or shape of the ear we find in the
produce that few, and possibly none, possess the peculiarity
which we have sought to perpetuate, we are apt to lose faith
in the power of heredity. And yet it would be an argument
against the uniform operation of this law were the produce
all to possess the peculiarity which distinguished the sire
and dam, for this was in them an exceptional feature ; and
the fact that the pigs possessed, in lieu of this peculiar
mark, the character that belonged to their ancestors in gen-
eral is rather a testimony to the inherent power of heredity
than otherwise. Were our pair of pure Essex swine to pro-
duce Poland-China or Berkshire or Yorkshire pigs there
would be room for suspicion or for complaint that the laws
of heredity had been violated ; but such a transgression of
Nature’s law so rarely occurs that when it does take place
we may properly call the result a “sport.” Hence, the fail-
ure of an individual to reproduce features that are peculiar

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 29

to itself, or of a pair of individuals distinguished for the
same peculiarity, to transmit it to the offspring should
excite no surprise in the mind of the breeder. Let it be
remembered always that heredity transmits with certainty
only what has become a fixed character in the race. Sports,
accidental variations and individual peculiarities only occur
in opposition to this law, and their transmission is at best
uncertain. Heredity may be depended on to govern the
general characteristics which determine the species and the
less general ones which distinguish the breed, but when
we come to individual characteristics, which have never
acquired a general character in the ancestry, it frequently
fails. In short, the transmission of the greater share of all
the characteristics is a thing of universal occurrence, but
their transmission in toto is an ideal conception that is
never realized ; and only in proportion as the ancestry has
assumed a fixed and unvarying type do we find this ideal of
the effect of heredity approximated.

That peculiarity called atavism, or reversion, so often
noticed in our domesticated animals, and which has so fre-
quently set at naught the calculations of the breeder, has
often been quoted as an illustration of the failure of the
law of heredity; but it is in fact only a tribute to its power.
By selection, change of climate or of nutrition, or by cross-
ing, or by all of these means combined, we may succeed in
obliterating certain well-defined characteristics, and in
modifying a given type, until the new form or character
that we have created will, in its turn, be transmitted with
reasonable certainty ; but suddenly the germ that has lain
dormant for so many generations asserts itself, and, greatly
to our surprise, the characteristics .of the original stock will
reappear. As I have before remarked, these cases of rever-
sion most frequently occur when cross-breeding is resorted

30 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

to. The counter currents of hereditary influence, which
ear by this means brought into contact, having a common
origin, awaken to life the germ which has for generations
been a silent factor in each of the newly-created breeds, and
enables it to again assume control of the organism.

In addition to the general and well-defined operation of
the laws of heredity to which I have alluded, its operations
in the transmission of individual characteristics, although
not clearly defined, and never to be depended upon, are
often wonderful. The son is frequently, in some respects,
the exact duplicate of the father, and the daughter of the
mother. Sometimes a peculiarity which belonged to the
grandsire lies dormant in the son, but crops out as strong
as ever in the second or third generation. Again, we find
peculiarities transmitted from father to daughter, and from
mother to son, and even especial sexual characteristics
transmitted by the father through a daughter to a grand-
son, or by the mother through a son to a granddaughter ;
but it is worthy of remark that in no case are all the
peculiarities of any one individual transmitted. Indeed, it
would be strange were it otherwise, because each individual
is the joint product of two other individuals, each endowed
with peculiarities of his own; and that each should trans-
mit itself as an entirety is absolutely impossible. Rarely
do we find in the individual so produced a blending of these
peculiarities in exact proportion—as one might theoretically
argue would be the result were the parents of equally well-
established types—but rather that in some respects the off-
spring resembles the father, in others the mother, in some
forming a partial or exact mean between the two, and in
still others we find the produce utterly unlike either, but
possessing an individuality or character peculiarly its own.
I might illustrate this by instances from the experience of

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 31

every breeder, but it is not necessary. The effect has been
observed by all who have given any attention whatever to
the subject of breeding.

THE FORMATION OF BREEDS.

I have spoken of the uniformity which characterizes
animals of a given species in a state of nature, and of the
various causes that serve to disturb this uniformity in our
domesticated animals when subjected to changed condi-
tions of climate or nutrition. I have aiso treated of the
effect of heredity, which makes of the offspring the sum or
essence of the qualities that existed in its progenitors, and
of the opposing law of evolution or spontaniety which tends
to give to each animal a character of its own. I now pro-
pose to consider how these known laws and forces may be
utilized in the formation of breeds; and, at the threshold
of this division of my subject, it is necessary that we should
understand what is meant by the terms used.

The animal kingdom is divided by naturalists into four
great branches, Radiata, Mollusca, Articulata and Verte-
brata. These branches are again divided into classes. The
Vertebrata, to which branch all our domesticated animals
belong, are divided into eight classes, the last of which are
the Mammalia, embracing all animals that give suck to
their young. These classes are divided into genera, and
these again into species. For example: we have the genus
Equus, of which the horse, the ass, the zebra and the
quagga are species; and these different species are again
divided, with reference to certain peculiarities, into breeds.
A breed, therefore, is a classification by which we dis-
tinguish a group of animals possessing qualities which are
not common to all animals of the same species, and which
peculiarities have become so firmly established that they

ae A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

are uniformly transmitted by heredity. Thus, we have the
Shetland ponies, a breed of horse possessing all the general
characteristics of the species to which they belong, but
especially distinguished from other breeds by their diminu-
tive size; and the Devons, a breed of cattle uniformly of a
deep red color, and possessing other distinctive features
that are not uniformly found in any other breed of cattle.

It will be observed that these divisions, from first to
last, are more or less arbitrary; and, as it is impossible to
define exactly the point where the mineral kingdom leaves
off and the vegetable kingdom begins, or to distinguish
positively the line of demarcation between vegetable and
animal hfe, so throughout the entire animal kingdom the
various divisions or classes approach each other by almost
imperceptible gradations, until in many cases it is impossi-
ble to locate the dividing line. This is especially true of
breeds. We may assume any standard that our fancy may
dictate, as the color or texture of the hair; the shape or size
of any particular part of the body, as the head or the ear;
any particular function, as the quantity or quality of the
milk in cattle; peculiarities of locomotion, as the trot or
pace in the horse; of habit or instinct, as exemplified in the
Setter or in the Shepherd dog, ete.; and classifying with
reference to the possession of any of these assumed peculi-
arities we may divide a species into breeds. Theoretically
there is no hmit to the extent to which this division into
breeds might be carried; but practically it is confined to
marked differences in appearance, function, use, disposi-
tion or quality. And whenever we have, by any means,
produced a group or family of animals that possess and
transmit uniformity in any particular, in which there is a
lack of uniformity in the species to which they belong, they
are fairly entitled to be classed as a breed.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. on

Taking advantage of the almost numberless shades of
divergence from the original type to be found among the
different species of domesticated animals, the laws of hered-
ity and spontaniety enable man to work wonderful trans-
formations and improvements by selecting such individuals
as most nearly approximate to his ideal and which mani-
fest a tendency to assume the desired form. By coupling
such individuals there is a probability that the quality for
which they were selected will be reproduced in the off-
spring, and that it will be even more prominent than in the
parents. I say there is a probability that this will be the
result, but it is by no means certain, for, as I have re-
marked, only the general and firmly fixed characteristics
which distinguish the species are transmitted with absolute
certainty, and the transmission of accidental qualities or
especial excellence in any given particular, while always
possible, can never be depended upon with certainty. If,
however, we select parents both distinguished for the same
accidental variation or accidental excellence the chances
that it will be transmitted to the offspring are, theoreti-
cally, twice as great as when only one of the parents is in
possession of the desired quality; and if in the produce
from this coupling we see manifestations of the desired
tendency we may unite animals so bred with an increased
probability that they, in turn, will transmit it to their off-
spring. It is mainly by this process of careful selection
and coupling, with a view to the possession of certain desir-
able qualities, persevered in for many generations, that all
noted breeders have succeeded in moulding the forms or
establishing the breeds that have given them celebrity.

It must be borne in mind that the very processes of
nature which make it possible for man to effect improve-
ment in any species of domesticated animals conspire to

34 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

make the work of creating a new type from heterogeneous
materials extremely difficult. In making selections with a
view to perpetuating any variation from an established type
we must always begin with such individuals as have mani-
fested a tendency to assume the desired form and transmit
it to their offspring. With a mixed and heterogeneous
ancestry, representing various shades of divergence from
the original type of the species, progress in any given direc-
tion by selection will, under the most favorable circum-
stances, be slow, and the results will frequently be anything
but satisfactory. There is always a tendency in the off-
spring of a mixed or improved race to revert to the original
form of the species from which it is derived. This I have
shown is most apparent where animals of a widely different
character are coupled, as in the case of cross-breeding
with distinct varieties or breeds, which, although not with-
out its compensating advantages in many cases, introduces
new elements of divergence. Hence the breeder will often
find failure where he most expected success. The force of
heredity is usually exerted to compel the progeny to adhere
to the character which has become fixed in the species,
rather than to follow variation from the established type
that was accidental or spontaneous in the immediate ances-
try; but when, through selection of both parents with refer-
ence to this particular for several generations, the influence
of heredity has once been enlisted in the transmission of an
accidental variation it lends its powerful aid in favor of the
perpetuation of the improved form. Spontaniety may occa-
sionally interpose a new feature or atavism turn us back
toward the original, but by continuing to select from the
families which have been bred with reference to the desired
form we shall eventually succeed in fixing the new type so
firmly that its transmission will be the rule and failure the

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 35

exception; and when this point has been reached we have
succeeded in forming what may justly be called a breed.

IN-BREEDING AND CROSSING.

It has been claimed by many that success in establish-
ing desired forms or qualities may be obtained with the
greatest certainty, and in the least possible time, when
selection is confined to the same family. Thus, we find a
certain male that manifests an unusual degree of excellence
in some particular, and which, it has been found, he usually
- transmits to his offspring. We select a female manifesting
the same tendency, and the two are coupled. Possibly the
offspring may not show a trace of the unusual excellence
we have sought to perpetuate. We reject this, and couple
the same sire and dam a second time, and perhaps we are
rewarded by offspring possessing the desired quality. This
produce, if a female, when of proper age is coupled with
her own sire, and this produce again, if a female, is bred to
the same male, that was her sire as well as her grandsire.
This process is sometimes resorted to for three or four suc-
cessive generations, with a view to intensifying or perpetu-
ating a quality for which the sire is especially noted, and
which it is found he transmits with certainty; for it is a
well-known, although inexplicable fact, that of two animals
bred precisely alike, and manifesting the same spontaneous
variation, one will transmit the peculiarity with consider-
able certainty, while not a trace of it will appear in the
produce of the other. The same course of breeding is often
resorted to by coupling the son with his own dam, and then,
if the produce be a female, using upon her the same male,
that is both brother and sire. This process of coupling
near relatives, which is known as breeding in-and-in, is un-
questionably very effectual, and is frequently the only avail-

36 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

able source from which breeding-stock can be obtained that
possess and transmit the desired quality. But there is
always danger that such a course of breeding will result in
a loss of constitutional vigor and fertility in the produce,
and it should be practiced with great caution. As soon as
any constitutional defect or weakness is noticed as the re-
sult of breeding in-and-in an infusion of fresh blood must
be obtained by resorting to a male or female not closely
related, but possessing as nearly as may be the desired qual-
ity. It should be borne in mind that defects are quite as
liable to be transmitted as good qualities, and while we are
fixing a type of superior excellence in one particular we
should be careful that we are not, with equal certainty, per-
petuating a serious defect.

It is believed by many that breeding in-and-in has a
refining tendency—that its effect is in the direction of fine-
ness of texture, lightness of bone, smoothness, evenness
and polish, at the expense of robustness, strength, vigor
and power; hence, it is one of the most potent of agents in
the production of dwarf breeds, and the main reliance of
breeders of Bantam fowls and other diminutive races. It
is certainly a powerful and invaluable agent in the hands of
an intelligent person in the formation or modification of
a breed, but can never be successfully followed by general
farmers, who must produce hardy, prolific and vigorous
animals.

The great number of intermarriages which took place in
the royal family of Egypt during the reign of the Ptolemys
has occasionally been referred to by the advocates of close
in-breeding; and the magnificent personal appearance of
these rulers, their close resemblance in form and feature,
and especially the widely-famed beauty of countenance and
form, as well as the mental vigor displayed by Cleopatra,

*

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 37

the last of the line, have often been quoted as a strong
argument against the theory that breeding in-and-in neces-
sarily produces physical deterioration; but a close examina-
tion of the line of descent leaves the balance of the argu-
ment rather on the other side. Galton, in his “Hereditary
Genius,” in speaking of this family, says:

This race of Ptolemys is at first sight exceedingly interesting,
on account of the extraordinary number of their close intermar-
riages. They were matched in-and-in like prize cattle; but these
near marriages were unprolific—the inheritance mostly passed
through other wives. Indicating the Ptolemys by numbers, ac-
cording to the order of their succession, IT married his niece, and
afterwards his sister; IV his sister; VI and VII were brothers,
and they both consecutively married the same sister—VII also
subsequently married his niece: VIII married two of his own
sisters consecutively; XII and XIII were brothers, and both con-
secutively married their sister, the famous Cleopatra. Thus
there are no less than nine cases of close intermarriages distrib-
uted among the thirteen Ptolemys. However, when we put them
into the form of a genealogical tree we shall clearly see that the
main line of descent was untouched by these intermarriages, ex-
cept in the two cases of III and of VIII. The personal beauty
and vigor of Cleopatra, the last of the race, can not therefore be
justly quoted in disproof of the evil effects of close breeding. On
the contrary, the result of Ptolemaic experience was distinctly to
show that intermarriages are followed by sterility.

Galton then proceeds to show that nearly all of these in-
cestuous marriages were unfruitful, the only exceptions
being that of Ptolemy IT with his niece, from which was
produced Ptolemy ITI, and Ptolemy VII with his niece, the
produce being Ptolemy VIII, the grandfather of Cleopatra,
the descent in all other cases passing through wives that
were not nearly related to this family.*

The testimony of experienced naturalists and of intelli-

*‘* Hereditary Genius,” by Francis Galton, p. 152,

38 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

gent and careful observers among practical breeders is uni

formly in favor of the proposition that a cross in the blood
gives increased size and vigor to the produce. It is an
equally well-established fact that cross-breeding, or the
pairing of animals of distinct varieties, usually results in
increased fertility; but it is rather singular that, while this
result usually attends the pairing of distinct varieties of
the same species, yet if cross-breeding be carried so far as
to unite distinct species, although increased size and vigor
are still attained, fertility is almost entirely lost. A familiar
illustration is seen in the produce of the horse and the ass.
The mule, resulting from such a union, is often larger than
either parent, and is noted for its hardiness and powers of
endurance, but the power of reproduction is totally want-
ing. The same is true of most other hybrids. It is a sin-
gular fact that a loss of fertility is also one among the very
first bad results manifested from long-continued breeding
in-and-in—which is the converse or opposite of violent out-
crossing; and yet all experience proves this to be true.

The space that can be devoted to a discussion of this
branch of the subject will not admit of an elaborate investi-
gation of the principles of genesis by which this apparent
contradiction is explained. The majority of my readers are
more concerned with facts and results than with theories
and philosophical abstractions. But, at the risk of giving
more of theory than will be relished, I will venture to state
that, in order to produce a sexual union which shall be
fruitful, and call into life a new organism, according to the
opinion of most scientists, it is essential that the sperm-cell
and the germ-cell, which, united, form the source of life to
the new being, shall each proceed from a different organ-
ism; and that breeding in-and-in, as usually practiced—
being the selection of individuals of as nearly as may be a

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 39

similar organization, with the avowed purpose of creating
uniformity of character—will, in course of time, if not
counteracted by opposing influences, produce such a unity
of organism in the members of a given family as will result
in a loss of that differentiation which appears to be neces-
sary to insure the fusion of the sperm-cell of the one with
the germ-cell of the other.

In commenting upon this aspect of genesis, Herbert
Spencer says:

Remembering the fact that among the higher classes of organ-
isms fertilization is always effected by combining the sperm-cell
of one individual with the germ-cell of another, and joining with
it the fact that among hermaphrodite organisms the germ-cells
developed in any individual are usually not fertilized by sperm-
cells developed in the same individual, we see reason for think-
ing that the essential thing in fertilization is the union of
specially-fitted portions of different organisms. If fertilization
depended on the peculiar properties of sperm-cell and germ-cell,
as such, then in hermaphrodite organisms it would be a matter
of indifference whether the united sperm-cells and germ-cells
were those of the same individual or those of different individ-
uals. But the circumstance that there exist in such organisms
elaborate appliances for mutual fertilization shows that unlike-
ness of derivation in the united reproductive centers is the desid-
eratum.*

After explaining at some length the apparent contradic-
tion of this theory which is found in plants that are self-
fertilizing, Mr. Spencer further remarks:

There is reason to believe that self-fertilization, which at the
best is comparatively inefficient, loses all efficiency in course of
time. After giving an account of the provisions for an occa-
sional, or a frequent, or a constant crossing between flowers, and
after quoting Prof. Huxley to the effect that among hermaphro-
dite animals there is no case in which “‘the occasional influence
of a distinct individual can be shown to be physically impossi-

* “Principles of Biology,” Vol. I, p. 279,

AQ) A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

ble,’”?’ Mr. Darwin writes: ‘‘From these several considerations,
and from the many special facts which I have collected, but
which I am not here able to give, Iam strongly inclined to sus-
pect that, both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, an occa-
sional intercross with a distinct individual is a law of nature.
* * * Jn none, as I suspect, can self-fertilization go on for
perpetuity.’”’ This conclusion, based wholly on observed facts, is
just the conclusion to which the foregoing argument points.
* * * Tf, then, in a self-fertilizing organism, and its self-fer-
tilizing descendants, such contrasts as originally existed among
the physiological units are progressively obliterated—if, conse-
quently, there can no longer be a segregation of different physio-
logical units in different sperm-cells and germ-cells, self-fertili-
zation will become impossible; step by step the fertility will
diminish, and the series will finally die out.*

A similar view of this subject is presented by Mr. Dar-
win in a letter published in the London Agricultural Ga-
zette, of May, 1878, from which I extract the following:

I will venture to add a few remarks on the general question of
close interbreeding. Sexual reproduction is so essentially the
same in plants and animals that I think we may fairly apply con-
clusions drawn from the one kingdom to the other. From a long
series of experiments on plants, givenin my book ‘‘ On the Effects
of Cross and Self-Fertilization,’’ the conclusion seems clear that
there is no mysterious evil in the mere fact of the nearest rela-
tions breeding together; but that evil follows (independently of
inherited disease or weakness) from the circumstance of near
relations generally possessing a closely similar constitution.
However little we may be able to explain the cause, the facts
detailed by me show that the male and female sexual elements
must be differentiated to a certain degree, in order to unite
properly and to give birth to a vigorous progeny. Such differ-
entiation of the sexual elements follows from the parents and
their ancestors having lived during some generations under
different conditions of life. ;

The closest interbreeding does not seem to induce variability,
or a departure from the typical form of the race or family, but

***Principles of Biology,” Vol. I, pp. 281, 282,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 4]

it causes loss of size, of constitutional vigor in resisting unfavor-
able influences, and often of fertility. On the other hand, a cross
between plants of the same sub-variety, which have been grown
during some generations under different conditions, increases to
an extraordinary degree the size and vigor of the offspring.
Some kinds of plants bear self-fertilization much better than
others ; nevertheless it has been proved that these profit greatly
by a cross with a fresh stock. So it appears to be with animals,
for Short-horn cattle—perhaps all cattle—can withstand close
interbreeding with very little injury ; but if they could be crossed
with a distinct stock without any loss of their excellent qualities,
it would be a most surprising fact if the offspring did not also
profit in a very high degree in constitutional vigor. If, therefore,
anyone chose to risk breeding from an animal which suffered
from some inheritable disease or weakness, he would act wisely
to look out, not merely for a perfectly sound animal of the other
sex, but for one belonging to another strain, which had been bred
during several generations at a distant place, under as different
conditions, as to soil, climate, etc., as possible, for in this case he
might hope that the offspring, by having gained in constitutional
vigor, would be enabled to throw off the taint in their blood.

The view of the case presented by Darwin and Herbert
Spencer in the foregoing extracts affords an explanation of
many apparent contradictions which result from breeding
in-and-in. The farmer who permits his stock to pair mis-
cellaneously, without infusing fresh blood for many genera-
tions—as is the case with some—must necessarily practice
breeding in-and-in ; but, as in such cases the stock is almost
invariably, at the beginning, of a heterogeneous character,
it will require a much greater period of time before breeding
in-and-in shall have produced a sufficient degree of unity of
organism to interfere with fertility or to cause a loss of
vitality than in cases where the stock, to begin with, is of a
uniform type, or “purely-bred.” In such eases, also, there
is no effort on the part of the farmer to produce uniformity

by selection of individuals for coupling. If there be any
4

42 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

selection at all the standard by which it is made is a capri-
cious one, changing from year to year; and it is a well-
known fact that in such hands uniformity of type is never
reached, neither have any bad effects usually been observed
from in-breeding in such cases.

If the theory above advanced be correct no bad effects
will necessarily result from breeding in-and-in until uni-
formity of type, which implies unity of organism, is attained;
and this, as we have seen, when breeding from a mixed
stock, is a very slow process.

Upon this aspect of the case Herbert Spencer remarks :

Relations must, on the average of cases, be individuals whose
physiological units are more nearly alike than usual. Animals of
different varieties must be those whose physiological units are
more unlike than usual. In the one case the unlikeness of the
units may frequently be insufficient to produce fertilization; or,
if sufficient to produce fertilization not sufficient to produce that
active molecular change required for vigorous development. In
the other case both fertilization and vigorous development will
be made probable.

Nor are we without a cause for the irreguiar manifestation of
these general tendencies. The mixed physiological units com-
posing any organism being, as we have seen, more or less segre-
gated in the reproductive centers it throws off, there may arise
various results, according to the degrees of difference among the
units and the degrees in which the units are segregated. Of two
cousins who have married the common grandparents may have
had either similar or dissimilar constitutions; and if their con-
stitutions were dissimilar the probability that their married
grandchildren will have offspring will be greater than if their
constitutions were similar. Or the brothers and sisters from
whom these cousins descended, instead of severally inheriting
the constitutions of their parents in tolerably equal degrees, may
have severally inherited them in very different degrees; in which
last case intermarriages among the grandchildren will be less
likely to prove infertile. Or the brothers and sisters from whom
these cousins descended may severally have married persons very

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 43

like or very unlike themselves, and from this cause there may
have resulted either an undue likeness or a due unlikeness
between the married cousins. These several causes, conspiring
and conflicting in endless ways and degrees, will work multiform
effects. * * * Hence it may happen that among offspring of
nearly-related parents there may be some in which the want of
vigor is not marked, and others in which there is decided want
of vigor. So that we are alike shown why in-and-in breeding
tends to diminish both fertility and vigor, and why the effect can
not be a uniform effect, but only an average effect.*

It follows, then, as a practical deduction from the fore-
going, that the more purely bred and uniform in type our
stock becomes the greater is the danger from breeding in-
and-in. That while, as before remarked, it is a powerful
agent in the hands of a skillful and intelligent person in
the formation of a breed, it must be used with the greatest
of caution with animals of a uniform type, and that with
miscellaneously-bred stock its evil effects are comparatively
slow in showing themselves.

Many who have given the subject of breeding as a sci-
ence only acasual investigation—who have studied only the
methods of a Bakewell, a Colling, a Booth, or a Bates, with-
out taking into account the circumstances under which
these methods were practiced—have hastily adopted the
conclusion that what was successful in such hands as theirs
must still be correct in practice; that because Bakewell and
Colling bred in-and-in to fix a desired type, and by con-
tinuing that process for a time succeeded in effecting sub-
stantial improvement in their cattle and sheep, it must
necessarily follow that the surest method of preserving the
excellence attained by them is to continue in precisely the
same road. Or, to put it rather more mildly, because in
the formation of a breed these men experienced little if

*“Principles of Biology,’ Vol. I, pp. 283 and 284,

44 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

any damage from the practice of breeding in-and-in to the
extent to which they carried it, modern breeders of thor-
oughbreds can continue to breed in-and-in with impunity!
There is no one point upon which practical breeders, as
well as scientists, are more perfectly agreed than that the
ultimate tendency of breeding in-and-in is injurious—that
when carried to excess it will always result in a loss of con-
stitutional vigor in the produce; that while its tendency
may be in the direction of fineness of texture, lightness of
bone, smoothness, evenness and polish, it is invariably at the
expense of robustness, strength, vigor and power. On the
other hand, scientists as well as practical breeders, with
perhaps equal unanimity, concur in the belief that a cross
in the blood usually gives increased size and vigor to the
proauce, and that cross-breeding, or the pairing of animals
of distinct varieties, usually results in increased fertility.
The belief has largely obtained among practical farmers
and feeders that all purely-bred races or breeds are lacking
in hardiness and stamina, and that when breeding for the
dairy, the shambles or for practical use on the farm the
greatest measure of success is attained through the medium
of cross-breeding. The first of these assumptions is not
necessarily true. When the breeding and management of
purely-bred races have been in accordance with Nature’s
laws there is no foundation for the assertion that they are
deficient in hardiness; and the wide-spread belief to the
contrary has resulted mainly from the bad effects which in-
evitably follow long-continued incestuous or in-and-in
breeding. That with certain kinds of purely-bred stock
this course of breeding has been so extensively practiced as
to very greatly impair the vitality of the animals so bred
no intelligent, careful observer will deny ; while in others,
where selection has constantly been made with reference to

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 45

hardiness, strength, and endurance—where close in-breed-
ing has been avoided, and where there has been no unnatu-
ral forcing and pampering, the pure races or breeds have
no peers in these valuable qualities. The lack of hardiness
complained of in purely-bred stock is an accident, due to a
peculiar course of breeding or treatment, not justly charge-
able to the simple fact that the animal is a purely-bred
one, and not necessarily following the course of breeding
essential to the creation of a thoroughbred. The thor-
oughbred race-horse, or “blood-horse,” as he is often called,
the purest and best established of all our breeds of domes-
ticated animals, is a pointed illustration of this fact, and
the reason is obvious. With the breeder of the race-horse
vitality has always been a paramount consideration, as upon
this depends the ability of the horse to last in a long and
closely-contested race ; hence a course of breeding that had
a tendency to impair the vital forces has never found favor
with breeders of these horses. None of the practices that -
have combined to impair the strength and vigor of purely-
bred cattle, sheep, or swine, have been resorted to by them.
In-breeding and pampering have both been frowned upon.
Selection of the stoutest and best specimens of the breed
has been the touchstone of their success. Once in and
twice out has been as near an approach to in-breeding as
has ever found favor among them ; hence we find the thor-
oughbred horse of today the superior of all the other repre-
sentatives of the equine race in speed and endurance.

It appears evident that if the laws of heredity are as I
have here stated—that is: that the tendency of in-breeding
with established races or breeds is to weaken the vital
forces, and that cross-breeding gives increased vigor and
vitality—we have here a lucid explanation of why the gen-
eral farmer finds it most profitable to raise grade or cross-

46 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

bred stock for the dairy or for feeding purposes. The
purely-bred races or breeds, as a rule, have been perfected
to a wonderful degree in certain qualities; and when the
general farmer, desiring to improve his flocks and herds in
any of these particulars, procures a purely-bred male to use
as a sire, even though such animal may be suffering some
of the bad effects of in-breeding himself, the excellence that
characterizes the breed to which he belongs, reinforced and
reinvigorated by contact with the current of fresh blood
that he meets in the farmer’s mixed stock, gives a produce
of greatly increased value for everthing except the purposes
of reproduction. All intelligent breeders agree in condemn-
ing close in-breeding ; but they are not agreed as to what
constitutes close in-breeding. May we not, upon the theory
herein advanced, base arule which will safely govern
our practice? With purely-bred stock, or well-established
breeds, keep as far from in-breeding as is compatible with
uniformity of type and purity of blood. In the formation
of a breed from heterogeneous materials use it as the most
potent of all agents, without fear of bad results, provided
the parents are healthy, vigorous and well formed, until a
considerable degree of uniformity has been reached ; bear-
ing in mind the cardinal fact that in proportion as unity of
form and organism is attained constitutional vigor and fer-
tility is endangered by such a course of breeding. May we
not, also, find in this theory an explanation of the well-
known fact that in-bred animals which are barren when
coupled with each other frequently prove fruitful when
united with individuals of a different breed ?

THE VALUE OF PEDIGREE.

A pedigree is the genealogy of an animal. As usually
understood it consists of the names of the ancestors for a

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 47

greater or less number of generations. Its value consists,
not so much in the number of generations through which
the ancestry can be traced to some distinguished progeni-
tor, as in the quality or character of the ancestry; and in
proportion as we approach the “top” of a pedigree—that is,
the immediate progenitors of a given animal—the more
important does the character of the ancestry become.

As has been clearly shown in the preceding pages, it is a
well-settled fact in breeding that, as a rule, the longer the
line of descent in unbroken succession through ancestors
uniformly distinguished for unusual excellence the greater
is the probability that that peculiar excellence will be trans-
mitted. Hence, as I have before said, the true test of the
value of a pedigree is not so much in its length as in the
merits of the individuals that compose it. Four or five
“top crosses” with animals of rare individual merit make a
pedigree of much greater value to the practical breeder
than ten, twenty or as many more as you like of animals of
no special excellence. The farther back this genealogy of
good animals extends, and the more uniform the quality of
the ancestry, the better; but the more immediate the
ancestry in any given case the more important does its
quality become. Each immediate parent contributes one-
half of the blood or pedigree inheritance of the individual,
while each great-grandam or sire contributes one-eighth
only ; and the farther the removal the more unimportant
does any given factor or cross become for good or evil in a
pedigree. However desirable it may be to have a record
connecting our horses with Flying Childers, Eclipse or Mes-
senger, and our cattle with Hubback or Favorite, at a
distance of ten to twenty generations, it is manifestly of
far greater importance to know that our own cattle and
horses are good, and that their ancestors for the last four

48 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

or five generations were of surpassing excellence. If our
own animals are good, and the top crosses have been uni-
formly of the same character, we may reasonably expect
the progeny to be satisfactory; while, on the contrary, if
we have no special merit in the sire and dam, or their im-
mediate ancestors, we may show as many lines as we like to
some great ancestor ten or fifteen generations removed and
it will not wipe out the stain of the defective recent
crosses.

No pedigree can be a good one that does not usually
produce good animals ; no pedigree should be prized above
other pedigrees unless it usually produces better animals.
If, tried by this test, any pedigree fails, no matter how
much it may have been idolized, its value is fictitious and
its effect is hurtful rather than beneficial. The only true
aristocracy of blood is one that brings superior merit ;
without this it is a delusion and a snare. No matter what
it may have been eight or ten generations ago, if from a
wrong system of breeding, if from a lack of care in selec-
tion, if from incestuous breeding, or from any other cause,
any particular strain has ceased to be uniformly superior,
in itself, it has lost its patent of nobility. et all young
breeders, and old ones too, for that matter, try “pedigrees,”
and “families,’ and “strains” by this test, without being
dazed by some imaginary halo that attaches to a name
handed down from the misty traditions of the past, and it
will be the better for them, no matter what particular line
of breeding they may be engaged in.

RELATIVE SIZE OF SIRE AND DAM.

The relative size of sire and dam is a subject upon
which much has been written, and upon which I am satis-
fied there has been much wrong teaching. It is true that

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 49

nearly all writers upon the subject have laid down the
rule that, in coupling, the male should be smaller than the
female; but it is also true that very many persons write
dogmatically upon subjects which they know but little about;
and it is further true that writers upon heredity, for years
and years past, have done little more than to repeat each
other, accepting what has been said by others as true with-
out question, not knowing or caring to know anything
about the facts in the case. I imbibed the doctrine that
the male should be smaller than the female from my early
reading upon the subject, and began writing from the same
standpoint; but very early in my career as a writer upon
stock-breeding my esteemed friend, Judge T. C. Jones, of
Ohio, from whom I have taken many valuable lessons,
called my attention to the manifest unsoundness of this
theory, and said that he was fully convinced that the teach-
ing of the books upon this subject was all wrong, and that,
while he did not advocate great disparity in the size of
parents, he was satisfied that when there was a difference it
should be the reverse of what the books taught—that the
sire should, as a rule, be larger than the female. Jt wasa
startling proposition to me, but it set me to thinking and
watching the subject closely; and now, looking back over
more than a quarter of a century of experience, I say em-
phatically that Nature’s plan, as exemplified in all mam-
malia, is that the male parent shall be the larger of the two.
In all animals, from the horse down to the pig, wild as well
as tame, the male, as a rule, is larger than the female of the
same breed. No observant man can have failed to notice
this. What pure breed or race of animals, in any country,
can be named as an exception to this rule? And is not this
also true of the human race? How many of my readers are
there who can call to mind numerous instances of hand-

50 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

some, well-formed and robust children the offspring of a
large father and a small mother! The same result has been
observed in hundreds of other cases where large draft-
horses have been coupled with small or medium-sized
mares. In fact it is the almost universal testimony of those
who have watched closely the result of the cross of the im-
ported draft stallions brought to this country from France
and Great Britain, that the very best results have been ob-
tained, not from large, coarse, and loosely-made mares, as
theorists would have us suppose would be the case, but
from those of medium size, compactly made and highly
bred.

The excellent results obtained by crossing bulls of the
large breeds upon our small, native cows—also the health,
vigor, and fine form of the lambs got by large Cotswold
rams out of small ewes of the Merino breed, all go to prove
that this supposed law of nature is no law at all. In fact,
if we study Nature, we shall be compelled to admit that her
law is just the reverse of what has been claimed ; for, with
scarcely an exception, through all the stages of animal life,
the males of any given species, race or breed are larger
than the females. It is, therefore, safe to assume that the
results are more likely to be satisfactory where large males
and small females are coupled for breeding purposes than
where the reverse is the method practiced.

I would not recommend, neither does it follow as a legit-
imate deduction from this general law, that great extremes
of size should be coupled. In fact, nature has herself in-
terposed many obstacles to prevent such a course of breed-
ing.

There is not, as has often been alleged, any increased
danger in parturition from the use of sires larger than the
dams. It is the dam that determines the size and growth of

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 51

the foetus, and not the sire. Wrong presentations, faulty
construction of some parts of the organs of generation or
of the pelvic bones of the female, an emaciated or too
plethoric condition of the dam at the time of parturition, .
an unnatural or deformed foetus, are the usual causes of
difficult parturition, and these conditions are brought
about independent of the relative size of sire and dam.

Tt goes for nothing to say that improvement in any breed
has resulted from the use of males of a smaller breed upon
females of alarger. If one desires to bring about improve-
ment in any direction he must select with a view to that
quality, independent of other considerations. Were I de-
sirous of improving the butter-producing quality of the
Holstein cow I should use a Jersey bull, notwithstanding
the male might be smaller than the female. I would couple
large, coarse-wooled ewes with a Merino ram if I desired to
increase the density of the fleece; and I would breed large
draft-mares to thoroughbred or trotting sires if I desired
to procure fine style, better action and greater powers of
endurance. But all of this is independent of, and does not
conflict with, the general law of relative size, and does not
disprove the proposition that it is nature’s plan that the
male should be the larger of the two parents.

INFLUENCE OF FIRST IMPREGNATION.

One of the most interesting as well as one of the most
stoutly-disputed questions connected with the business of
stock-breeding is this: Does the first impregnation of a
female have any influence over the character of the produce
from subsequent impregnations? Experienced practical
breeders have been arrayed on opposing sides in discussing
this question, and each has been ready to maintain his
position by illustrations from his own observation. Prof,

52 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

James Law, of Cornell University, who is one of the most
learned and eminent of living veterinarians, and whose
reputation as a patient, conscientious, painstaking investi-
gator of problems of this nature is second to that of no
other man in the world, was requested by me some
years ago to prepare an exhaustive article upon this
subject. He complied with this request, and the article,
which was published at the time in a monthly journal which
was then under my charge, I herewith reproduce as the
most thorough treatise upon this interesting subject I have
yet seen :

Physiologists and breeders have long noticed that the influence
of the sire is not always confined to his immediate offspring, but
that the subsequent progeny of the same female by other males
often reproduce in a remarkable manner the personal traits of
the first sire and his produce. All quadrupeds show this tendency
in a greater or less degree.

We find the statement made by the immortal Haller: that
where a mare had borne a mule by an ass and afterwards a foal
by a horse, the foal exhibited traces of the ass. The same thing
has been noticed by Becker, Haussman, Low and others. Lord
Moreton bred a hybrid between a young chestnut mare (seven-
eighths Arabian) and a quagga. The hybrid had the bristly
mane, striped body and large head of its sire. One and two
years later this mare was covered by a black Arabian horse, and
the resulting foals had the erect, short, bristly mane, the dun
color, and the stripes on neck, body and limbs of the quagga. A
third foal, produced two years later, got by the same Arabian
horse, still showed the same marks of the quagga. This case is all
the more striking that the mane of the Arab is especially soft and
silky and lies flat on the side of the neck, and that the Arabian
horse has never been known to show a striped marking of the
body. A case entirely similar is recorded by Harvey. A mare
of Sir Gore Ouseley’s was bred to a zebra, producing a hybrid,
and in the two succeeding years was put to two thoroughbred
horses, but the foals in both cases were striped and partook of
the character of the zebra. In the Royal Stud at Hampton Court

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 53

a number of mares were bred to the horse Colonel, and the fol-
lowing year to the horse Acteon, but the progeny of the last
horse bore unequivocal marks of the horse Colonel, the sire of
their half-brothers and sisters. Again, a colt belonging to Earl
of Suffield, got by Laurel, strongly resembled the horse Came]
by which his dam had had a foal the preceding year.

McGillivray records the following cases: A polled Angus
heifer bore her first calf to a Short-horn bull, and was then
served by a black polled Angus bull; but the calf resulting from
the last connection approached the Short-horn bull in color and
shape, and grew horns. Another polled Angus cow was served
by a cross-bred bull (one-fourth polled Angus, three-fourths
Short-horn) and bore a cross. Next year, though served by a
pure black polled Angus buil, the result was still a cross, as
shown by shape and color.

Dr. Wells, of Grenada, put a flock of white ewes to a choco-
late-colored, hairy ram, and the following year to a white ram
of their own breed, and yet the lambs got by the last had the
fleece more or less of a chocolate hue and largely mixed with
hair. Mr. Shaw, of Leochel Cushnie, Aberdeen, divided his flock
of black-faced Highland ewes, and had one part served by a
Leicester ram and the other by a Southdown. The next year he
had all served by a ram of their own race, but the lambs showed
the persistent influence of the English rams in their hornless
heads and brownish faces. Again, in the following year, they
were served by a pure black-faced ram and there still resulted
two hornless lambs, two dun-faced, with very small horns, and
three white-faced, with horns quite rudimentary.

Mr. Giles put a black-and-white Essex sow to a wild boar of a
deep chestnut color, and obtained a crossed litter, with the color
of the wild boar predominating in several. After the wild boar
had been some time dead this sow was put to a black-and-white
boar of her own breed and produced a litter of pigs, some of
which were distinctly marked with chestnut. A second litter, by
a boar of her own breed, again showed the chestnut markings,
which had hitherto been unknown in the pure Essex.

Among dog-fanciers it is a matter of notoriety that an en-
tire litter of pure-bred puppies can not be expected from a thor-
oughbred bitch which has once been lined by a dog of another
breed. This was noted by the French poet Jacques Savary as

54 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

early as the middle of the 17th century, and is confirmed by
writers on dogs generally. I will quote but one example from
Harvey: A pure Skye terrier, of a dark brown color, with red
legs, bore two litters of puppies to a mongrel cur, all of which
were colored like the sire—black, with red legs and white feet.
On the third occasion she was lined by a pure Skye terrier, of a
grey color; and, to avoid accidents, was locked up with this dog
during the whole continuance of the heat. The issue was two
puppies closely resembling the mongrel cur in color, shape and
general appearance. Instances of the same kind have fallen.
under the observation of almost every dog-fancier.

Many have sought to explain the phenomenon as a simple
result of the strong impression made upon the mind of the dam
by the sire of her earlier offspring; and, doubtless, this may
sometimes co-operate, but is altogether inadequate to account for
the frequency of the occurrence. The imagination affects the
progeny of a very limited number of females, whereas the phe-
nomenon we are considering—among the domestic quadrupeds—
is the rule rather than the exception, so that a more satisfactory
cause must be sought for.

McGillivray advances the theory that the elements from the
blood of the foetus, absorbed into that of the mother, contami-
nate her blood, and reduce her to a cross, thus rendering her for-
ever after incapable of producing a pure-bred offspring. Not
that he supposes the blood of the fcetus, as such, to circulate
within the veins of the mother, but that fine particles from the
blood of the offspring pass through the intervening layers of
cells, and thus reach the maternal blood and reproduce them-
selves there. But the whole theory is an assumption. We know
that the placenta, or after-birth, by which the foetus is connected
with the mother, serves the purposes of both stomach and lungs.
From the glands in the walls of the womb a milk-like liquid is
constantly secreted, which, being absorbed by the foetal vessels
branching in the placenta, is carried into the blood of the young
animal and serves to nourish it, just as the milk from the udder
does after birth. Again, from the blood of the offspring circulat-
ing in the placenta carbonic acid is given off and taken into the
maternal blood, while oxygen supplied by the blood of the dam
is taken up by the blood of the foetus. So far these membranes
fulfill the functions of stomach and lungs to the young animal.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 55

But we have no proof of living particles from the blood of the
foetus entering the circulation of the mother, unless we accept as
such the very phenomenon we are endeavoring to find an expla-
nation for; and this would only be admissible if no other or
more reasonable explanation could be found.

A slight modification of McGillivray’s theory is that of Dar-
win, advanced in his doctrine of pangenesis. He teaches that
throughout the blood and system of every animal there are liv-
ing particles, infinitesimally minute, but with certain plastic or
formative powers, by virtue of which they can build up particular
forms or produce peculiar characteristics in the animal economy.
That such particles may remain dormant for months or years,
or even for anumber of successive generations of animais, being,
meanwhile, transmitted from parent to offspring through the
microscopic ovum and spermatozoon, and will only be roused to
activity and growth and build up the forms and beings, like those
from which they were derived, when there occurs a change of
circumstances favorable to their development. By this means
he explains many cases of apparent “‘sports,’’ or variations from
the type of the known ancestors; many sudden advances in
excellence and retrogressions.

As applied to the phenomenon under consideration it is taught
that these infinitesimal particles (gemmules), passing through
the membranes from the blood of the fcetus into that of the
mother, circulate with it, affecting the ovarium of the female,
so that the ovules and offspring subsequently produced by her
when impregnated by other males are plainly affected and
hybridized by the first male.

It will be readily conceded that such particles circulating in
the blood of the mother will be much less likely to affect her own
system, already matured, insusceptible and undergoing the
changes of nutrition only, than the growing elements of the
ovum or the tissues of the embryo in active process of growth,
and with a power of development equal in some cases to the
reproduction of an organ accidentally lost. Much, indeed,
might be said in favor of the theory; yet, as in its less elaborate
form propounded by McGillivray, it is founded on pure assump-
tion and supported by no clear proof. The gradual extinction of
the influence of the first male in successive pregnancies by other
males is what would scarcely be expected if the blood was

56 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

charged with gemmules from the first capable of reproducing
themselves and especially prone to rapid increase and develop-
ment in connection with the development of offspring. Again,
similar elements must be introduced into the maternal blood
when the vital fluid has been transfused into her veins from those
of another person or of a beast, and the ovules then in course of
development in her ovaries must be ‘‘ affected and hybridized ”’
if such blood is not exactly identical in composition with her
own. But though transfusion of blood into the female system is
not uncommon, and though that blood has been repeatedly taken
from a person of a widely different race, no complaint has ever
been made that the children have been thereby affected.

A more satisfactory explanation is that advanced by the
present writer, in a paper read, in 1875, before the American
Public Health Association:

It is a well-known pathological fact that adjacent cells tend to en-
graft their plastic or formative powers upon each other. I prick my
skin with a needle. Immediately the injured cells and nuclei undergo
a rapid increase in size and numbers. Butthe effect does not end there;
those adjacent take on a similar action, and the extent of the resulting
inflammation is only limited by that of the injury and the susceptibility
of the parts. Again, in placing a slice of scarf skin in the middle of a
raw sore we inoculate the cells of the adjoining granulations and em-
power them to develop scarf skin. How, then, can we avoid the con-
clusion that the impregnated ovum impresses its own characters on the
mass of the decidua, and through this on the maternal mucous mem-
brane, and that this in its turn impresses its characters on the mem-
brane and embryo of the next succeeding conception ?

It has been opposed to the theory of contamination of the
mother’s blood, that in the case of woman the father of the first
child rarely affects the appearance of those by other fathers.
Mr. Allen has known instances in which white women had their
first children by negroes, and afterward marrying white men
had children as purely white as those of their neighbors. In-
stances in which an opposite result has ensued he attributes to
the effect of imagination. Now, the theory I offer will perfectly
explain the infrequency of the occurrence in the human subject,
as compared with the lower animals. In the mare the connec-
tion of the after-birth with the womb takes place over the entire
surface of the latter. The points of intimate attachment, there-
fore, in successive pregnancies, are the same. In the cow and

. = ye a ae

,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 57

ewe the womb is studded with button-like processes, to the num-
ber of fifty or sixty, containing the uterine gland, and forming
the points of attachment for the foetal membranes in all preg-
nancies alike. In the sow the foetal membranes of each pig are
attached to the whole adjacent uterine mucous membrane, as in
the mare. Lastly, in the bitch each foetal membrane has a
broad, circular, villous belt embracing almost its entire surface,
and connecting it to the mucous membrane of the womb. In all
of these animals the foetal membranes are connected with the
same parts of the uterus in each successive pregnancy, so that the
ingrafting or inoculation between membranes and womb, and
between womb and membranes and fcetus, can not fail to take
place. It must be borne in mind that these membranes are out-
growths from the ovum or embryo, and thus, through the male
and female generative elements, partake of the nature of both
sire and dam. In other words, like the young animal, the pro-
duct of conceptions of which they are a dependency, the mem-
branes have been produced by the union of the male and female
elements; and where they lie in direct contact with the womb,
separated only by a thin layer of cells in part produced by the
womb and in part by the membrane, an inoculating, engrafting
or modifying action is effected by the one on the other. In
woman the arrangement of the foetal membranes is altogether
different. Their intimate connection with the walls of the womb
is confined to one circumscribed portion of the surface of each;
and as the point of attachment can hardly fail to be different in
successive pregnancies, the chances of a former child influencing
the characters of the next are correspondingly reduced. Yet it
is evident that this may occur, and, as a matter of fact, we find
cases in which the bearing of a mulatto by a white woman has
affected the appearance of some of her later children by a white
man. But such a result is very exceptional in the human family,
and this is precisely what is to be expected if our explanation of
its cause is the right one.

It has been objected that a similar phenomenon has been ob-
served in pigeons, and that in them this law of cell-inoculation
could not take place. But this is, manifestly, a mistake. The
eggs of birds are impregnated even as high up as the ovary.
Says Owen: “In coitu spermatozoa enter the cloaca and pene-
trate the oviduct, ascending to the ovarium.’’ The impregnated

5

58 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

egg goes on enlarging by subdivision of its cells in the ovary
and upper end of the oviduct, and, being as yet destitute of shell,
its cellular structure is in direct contact with the maternal tissues.
There is, therefore, a similar opportunity for cell-inoculation as
in the mammal, although more limited in duration.

But our manner of viewing this subject is still further sup-
ported by a series of phenomena observed in hybridized flowers.
Darwin quotes instances from Wiegmann, Gartner, Berkley, and
others, to show that where the flowers of the white pea had been
fertilized by pollen of the blue pea the resulting pods contained
a mixture of blue and white peas. And this coloration was not
confined to the cotyledons of the seed (the true embryo), but ex-
tended to the skin as well. More remarkable still: Mr. Laxton,
of Stamford, ‘‘fertilized the tall sugar pea, which bears very
thin, green pods, becoming purplish-brown when dry, with pollen
of the purple-podded pea, which, as its name expresses, has dark,
purple pods with thick skin, becoming pale, reddish-purple when
dry.”’

Mr. Laxton has ‘“‘cultivated the tall sugar pea during twenty
years, and has never seen nor heard of it producing a purple pod;
nevertheless, a flower fertilized by pollen from the purple pod
yielded a pod clouded with purplish red, which Mr. Laxton kindly
gave to me. A space of about two inches in length, near the
extremity of the pod, and a smaller space near the stalk were thus
colored. On comparing the color with that of the purple pod,
both pods having been first dried and then soaked in water, it
was found to be identically the same; and in both the color was
confined to the skin lying immediately beneath the outer skin of
the pod.”’

Some of the peas were also clouded with purple, whereas the
tall sugar pea is a pale, greenish brown—never purple. Darwin
collects a number of other instances in which the fruit or seed
capsule was affected by fertilization with strange pollen, in the
case of stocks, palms, oranges, lemons, cucumbers, maize, daffo-
dills, rhododendrons, cress and apples. Perhaps the latter fur-
nish the most important examples. ‘The fruit here consists of
the lower part of the calyx, and of the upper part of the flower-
peduncle in a metamorphosed condition, so that the effort of the
foreign pollen has extended even beyond the limits of the ova-
rium. Cases of apples thus affected were recorded by Bradley in

—_—— a

he

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 59

the early part of the last century; and other cases are given in old
volumes of the ‘Philosophical Transactions.’ In one of these a
russeting apple and an adjoining kind mutually affected each
others’ fruits; and in another case, a smooth apple affected a
rough-coated kind. Another instance has been given of two very
different apple trees growing close to each other, which bore fruit
resembling each other, but only on the adjoining branches. It is,
however, almost superfluous to adduce these or other cases after
that of the St. Valery apple, which, from the abortion of the
stamens, does not produce pollen, but, being annually fertilized
by the girls of the neighborhood, with pollen of many kinds,
bears fruit differing from each other in size, flavor and color, but
resembling in character the hermaphrodite kinds by which they
have been fertilized.”’

Mr. Darwin evidently sees that his system would demand that
the gemmules from the strange pollen should serve to fertilize or
modify other and distant flowers and buds then being formed on
the same tree, for he remarks: ‘‘There is not the least reason to
believe that a branch which has borne seed or fruit directly modi-
fied by foreign pollen is itself affected so as subsequently to pro-
duce modified buds; such an occurrence, from the temporary
connection of the flower with the stem, would be hardly possible.”’

Yet, if the gemmules were given off by the pollen it would be
quite reasonable to expect such to be carried on with the descend-
ing sap, and to modify the buds then in process of formation, as
they are represented to do the ovules in the female ovary. But,
as in the case of the blood, so in that of the vegetable sap—we
have no evidence that it contains particles possessed of plastic
powers equal to the development of tissue. This is effected only
by the nuclei or cells present in the substance of the tissues them-
. selves; and as these nuclei communicate or are continuous with
each other through minute branching processes, they easily affect
those immediately adjacent, but have comparatively no influence
upon those that are somewhat remote. The modification, there-
fore, of the fruit capsule, pod, fleshy drupe and fruit stalk sur-
rounding the seed, is only what is to be expected from the contact
of the male pollen with the cells of the female flower, and of
these in their turn with those adjacent, while all other parts of
the plant are entirely unaffected by the act. In the animal the
process is identical in every respect; the continuous cells—mater-

60 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

nal and foetal—rendered continuous or placed in direct opposition
with each other through their minute branching processes mu-
tually influence the vital processes and formative powers of each
other, and thus it comes that the nuclei of the womb, but one step
removed from its contained embryo, acquire certain new char-
acters from it, and in due time transmit these to later progeny.
The efficiency of this new inoculating process will, of course, be
greatest where the vascular connection is the most intimate; and,
as we have seen, the effect on the progeny is most patent when
these points of intimate vascular connection between mother and
offspring are the same in successive pregnancies.

A correct view of this subject is of more practical importance
than may at first sight appear, for, although the animal modified
by the influence of the sire of an elder half-brother is necessarily
a cross, whatever the mode of exerting such influence, an impor-
tant question may arise regarding the purity of other offspring
that bear no evidence of having been subjected to such modify-
ing cause. If Mr. Darwin’s theory is correct, that the whole
blood of the mother is charged with gemmules from the embryo,
which gemmules pass into all future ova, then all future offspring
are essentially crosses, as will appear in their progeny, even if
they themselves show no sign of modification. But, on the other
hand, if the result is only due to the mutual influence of adjacent
cells in the womb and foetal membranes, as vegetable as well as
animal physiology seem to imply, then the general system of the
dam is unaffected, and her progeny, which have personally
escaped such influence and show none of the modified characters,
may be held to be of pure lineage, and may be bred from without
fear of degraded offspring.

While there are many instances in history which go to
confirm this theory, as presented by Prof. Law, yet I am
inclined to the opinion, from long years of close observa-
tion, that the cases where the first impregnation of mam-
mals affects the subsequent progeny are so rare as to make
it practically of but little account in the calculation of the
breeder. Indeed the cases where such resemblances are
noticed in horses, cattle, sheep and swine are so few and
obscure as to lead me rather to the conclusion that they are

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 61

accidental, or owing to an inherited similarity in the remote
ancestry, rather than to some occult influence exercised by
a first impregnation. The case of Lord Moreton’s mare and
the quagga foal has been pressed into service by every man
who has written upon this subject within the last half cen-
tury, and yet it proves nothing. The black stripe is a dis-
tinguishing mark that belonged to the feral dun horses in
general, and which to this day occasionally crops out in all
breeds of horses. And if the influence were as potent as
some writers have claimed, especially when applied to the
breeding of horses, it is time some more modern case might
be cited. Hundreds upon hundreds of excellent mares,
many of them thoroughbreds, in Kentucky and Tennessee,
have produced their first foals to a jack and have afterwards
produced beautiful offspring from highly-bred sires. I can
recall many illustrations upon this point that have come
under my own observation. In fact the whole theory of
gestation, the manner in which the foetus is attached to and
nourished by the womb of the female, seems to make the
commingling of the blood of the latter with that of the
former an impossibility. In the case of the bitch there is a
marked difference from all other domestic animals in the
manner in which the placenta is attached to the womb—as
is very clearly shown by Prof. Law in the foregoing article—
and here alone, among domestic animals,.do we find any
considerable number of results which tend to confirm the
theory that a first impregnation affects subsequent ones.
It is noticed so frequently, however, here, that dog fanciers
almost universally recognize it as a rule, and exercise the
greatest possible care lest a bitch should first be lined by a
mongrel or a dog of some other breed. But aside from this
single exception I do not think the cases are sufficiently
well authenticated or sufficiently numerous to justify the

62 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

practical breeder in paying any especial attention to it,
especially when to do so would require a departure from
plans that would otherwise be followed.

EFFECT OF IMAGINATION UPON THE COLOR OF PROGENY.

The question has frequently been asked, Does a sudden
fright, or any peculiarities of association in a pregnant ani-
mal, have any effect upon the color or markings of the pro-
geny? and the answer given has sometimes been “yes,” and
sometimes “no.” In fact both sides of the question have
been stoutly maintained by intelligent gentlemen, who have
claimed to speak from extensive personal observation and
experience. Ever since the days when Moses wrote the
account of the method employed by Jacob to over-reach his
father-in-law in the division of his cattle (see Genesis,
chap. XXX), there have been those who believed it possible,
through a strong mental impression, to affect the color and
otherwise mark the offspring; and ever since the day when I,
then in my early boyhood, first read the account of Jacob’s
success in breeding cattle that were “ring-streaked, speckled
and spotted,” I have been on the lookout for evidence bear-
ing upon the old patriarch’s theory.

The result of these observations has been to confirm me
in the belief that, while color, as well as all other peculiari-
ties, wsually follows the ordinary laws of heredity, it is
nevertheless true that strong mental impressions do some-
times set aside the ordinary laws of Nature and produce
surprising results. One very clearly-defined case came
under my observation when a lad on my father’s farm. A
flock of sheep had been bred on this farm, without any
infusion of fresh blood, for many years. Not a black sheep,
nor one with a black spot or mottled face, had ever been
known among them. On one occasion, after most of the

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 63

ewes had been bred, a black ram was turned into a small
lot with them. Had a strange dog, a wolf, or any other
wild animal, been suddenly let down among them they
could not have been more terribly frightened. They circled
round and round the lot, and made the most frantic efforts
to escape from the supposed monster, while he kept turning
round and round in the center of the circle, in vain trying
to approach the ewes, that seemed almost ready to die with
fright. This was kept up until from sheer exhaustion the
ewes began to slacken their pace; but it was a long time
before the flock became reconciled to the presence of the
stranger. Now what was the result? Every ewe that was
pregnant at the time of this fright dropped offspring more
or less marked with black, while some of those that were
served by this ram a few weeks later, after they had become
accustomed to his presence, dropped lambs that were pure
white. The case attracted much attention in the neighbor-
hood at the time, and has often been referred to since as a
convincing illustration of the effects of color-marking from
severe fright.

Other instances have come under my observation; none
of them so convincing as the one above narrated, but show-
ing unmistakably the effect of imagination or association.
I once knew a grey mare that was bred to a grey Percheron
horse for four years in succession, and produced four foals.
During her first impregnation she had for a stable com-
panion and working-mate a bay mare, and the foal was a
bay. The next year her mate was a chestnut and the foal
was a chestnut. Afterwards she was worked and kept with
several different animals, of various colors, and her foals
were all greys, like herself and the sire.

These cases, with many others of a similar character,
that have come under my own observation, as well as hun-

64 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

dreds that have been noted by others and reported to me,
have, as before stated, confirmed me in the belief that
“markings” do sometimes occur from strong mental impres-
sions; but the precise conditions under which this phenome-
non takes places are unknown. The effect is so uncertain
that, practically, it may be entirely ignored by the breeder
with impunity, until some modern Jacob shall arise who
can tell us just how and when to use the “peeled rods.”

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF CLIMATE ON THE GENERATIVE
ORGANS.

It has often been remarked that a change of climate
appears at times to have a serious effect upon the organs of
reproduction, especially those of the male. A well-informed
writer in an English journal not long since stated that ex-
perience had taught him that no water-fowl will breed the
same year that its home is changed, referring, I presume by
the context, to a material change as to distance or climatic
conditions. I have noticed the same result with quadru-
peds, more especially with horses imported from France,
England and Scotland. Several horses that, within my
knowledge, have totally or partially failed to get foals for a
year or two after importation, have, after becoming thor-
oughly acclimated, proved themselves very sure foal getters.
I have also had many cases of a similar nature reported to
me concerning bulls of the various breeds, and a still
greater number, perhaps, of rams and boars.

It is quite reasonable to suppose that a material change
in climate, or even in the mode of feeding, may so derange
the organs of reproduction as to cause partial or total loss
of sexual power. We know that a change in climate, or
even in food or water, often completely upsets a race-horse;
and that they are never considered fit to do themselves

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 65

credit upon the turf when taken from this country to En-
gland, and vice versa, short of a year’s acclimatization. It
is not strange, therefore, that the effect should be equally
as marked upon the generative organs as upon the motor
apparatus, and upon cattle, sheep and swine as upon horses.
And. breeders should not be in too great haste to declare an
animal a non-breeder under such circumstances. Ample
time should be given for thorough acclimatization in all
cases of this nature.

CONTROLLING THE SEX.

It has been said that there is nothing new under the
sun, and that each succeeding generation spends most of its
time in shoveling over the same earth that has been exam-
ined in vain by its predecessors in search of hidden treas-
ures. Theories that have been advanced, investigated and
abandoned, come up again year after year to be discussed,
investigated and again cast aside as unreliable. They ap-
pear periodically; and the lapse of a decade is sufficient to
pass in review, through the agricultural press, the whole
brood upon any given subject bearing upon agriculture.
That of controlling the sex of offspring has, ever since the
days of Aristotle, been one of the most fruitful topics of
discussion, and the various theories that have been advanced
appear and reappear with perennial vigor. These theories
may be briefly summarized as follows:

ist. A strong mental impression on the part of the parents,
but especially of the mother, at the time of conception, will
determine the offspring.

2d. The concentration of the attention of the dam on her
peculiarly feminine qualities, at the time of sexual union, will
secure female progeny.

3d. If the amorous desires of the male are stronger than
those of the female the progeny will be a female, and vice versa.

66 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

4th. The development of the foetus in the right side (horn) of
the womb will secure a male, and in the left side a female.

5th. The point of origin of the artery of the testicle from the
main abdominal trunk (aorta) will determine the sex of the
majority of the offspring, the male sex predominating in propor-
tion as the origin is more anterior.

6th. The male germ is supplied by the right testicle or ovary,
and the female by the left.

7th. The excitation of one side or the other of the system of
the male at the time cf coition will détermine the sex of the
young. 4

8th. The persistent selection for breeding purposes of females
which yield one sex mainly, and of males from females of the
same kind, will finally secure a race producing a great excess of
the sex in question.

9th. In uniparous animals every successive ovum that reaches
maturation is of the opposite sex from that which immediately
preceded it. Hence, by serving on the second occurrence of heat
we may secure the same sex as in the last foetus.

10th. The stage of development attained by the ovum at the
period of impregnation determines the sex of the product of
fecundation, the less developed proving females, the more
mature males.

lith. The personal preponderance in strength and vigor of the
one parent will determine an excess of its own sex in the progeny.

12th. The nature of the food of the parenis, and particularly
of the mother before conception, will influence the production of
the different sexes.

Several other theories have been advanced, but the fore-
going includes the principal ones. It may be that several
of these causes have some influence in determining the sex,
but it is quite certain that some of them, notably the 4th,
6th and 7th, can have no influence whatever, and that none
of them can be depended upon. Nature has wisely pro-
vided, in order to preserve an equilibrium in the sexes, that
their determination should be placed beyond the control of
any single cause. It is known that some males get a large
preponderance of one sex or the other, and some females

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 67

will produce one sex only; sometimes for a series of years
the observation of one man will tend to confirm a certain
theory of sex production, while in other hands the same
theory will utterly fail. It may be that we shall ultimately
discover the circumstances under which these various
causes operate upon each other, so that we shall be able, in
many cases, to produce a given sex at will, but at present
we know but little if any more upon the subject than was
known to our grandfathers.

The theory that just now appears to be more generally
believed in than any other, is the 9th in the foregoing list.
This is based on the belief that, naturally, animals which
usually bring forth but one at a birth will produce the
sexes alternately—that if the first ovum produces a male,
the next ovum, if impregnated, will produce a female; con-
sequently, if a cow or mare, after having produced a female,
is impregnated at the first period of heat thereafter, the
produce will be amale. If female produce only is desired,
one period of heat should elapse after the birth of a female
before the dam is again served by the male. This is what
has been known as the Stuyvesant theory, and many cattle-
breeders of my acquaintance firmly believe that it can be
relied upon in a majority of cases.

68 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

CHAPTER 11.

THE BREEDS OF HORSES.

THOROUGHBREDS.

In undertaking to write upon the breeds of horses we
very naturally commence with the thoroughbred, because
that is the oldest and best established of the breeds of
Europe and America. The term thoroughbred, often used
in America, but seldom in England, as a synonym for well-
bred or purely-bred, was originally used exclusively as the
name by which the English race-horse was designated. The
same horses are sometimes denominated “blood horses,”
from the well-established purity of their lineage.

The thoroughbred horse is peculiarly a British produc-
tion. Ata very early period the attention of the rulers of
Great Britain was earnestly directed to the work of improv-
ing the breeds of horses of that kingdom. These horses
were notoriously deficient in size, and the earliest efforts
were directed towards improvement in that particular by the
importation of heavy horses from Normandy, Flanders and
Germany. It would be interesting to trace, step by step,
these efforts, but our space will not admit of such detail.
The era of improvement commenced with the conquest of
the islands by the Saxons; but it was many years before
there appears to have been any clearly-defined or well-
settled purpose, the object at one time appearing to be an
increase of size by large importations of the heavy horses

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 69

of Flanders, and again, to give gracefulness of motion and
beauty of form, by the introduction of what is known as
Oriental blood—that of the Arab, the Turk and the Barb.
It is evident that from a very early period the blood of the
Barb and of the Turk was held in higher esteem than that
of the Arab, the latter being regarded as undersized, and to
be esteemed rather for beauty of form and graceful action
than on account of any real superiority.

For several years preceding the reign of Charles IJ,
horse-racing appears to have been rapidly growing into
favor as an amusement and recreation among the English
people; and from that time until the present, contests for
supremacy upon the turf have stirred the British heart
as no other amusement has ever done. ‘lo the constant
growth and great popularity of this sport, which for nearly
two hundred years has been regarded as the national amuse-
ment of that country, are we indebted for persistence in
a course of breeding which has given us this race of horses
so pre-eminently distinguished throughout the world for
speed and endurance upon the race-course; and which, on
account of the great care taken in their breeding, and their
consequent purity of lineage, were the first race of animals
to which the term thoroughbred was applied.

The foundation upon which this now well-established
breed was built was a promiscuous mingling of the native
horses of the Island of Great Britain—first with the larger
races of Europe, especially of Normandy, Flanders and
Germany, and subsequently with the lighter, more agile
and graceful horses of Spain, which were themselves almost
identical with the Barbs on the other side of the Mediter-
ranean. Frequent importations were also made direct from
Egypt, Morocco and Tunis, and likewise from Arabia and
various parts of Turkey, until this Oriental blood, to a con-

70 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

siderable extent, permeated all the horse stock of Great
Britain, excepting those bred especially for agricultural
purposes. So thoroughly had the passion for turf sports,
or horse-racing, taken possession of the English people as
early as the reign of Charles IT, that ability to run and win
in a race was even then regarded as the principal test of
merit in horses, and those most successful on the turf were
most highly prized for breeding purposes. From that time
down to the present, embracing a period of more than two
hundred years, the selection of breeding stock has been
constantly made with this as the primary object.

With the advent of Charles II, in the last half of the
seventeenth century, breeding for speed and endurance
upon the race-course began to be conducted on something
like a definite plan; the records of turf performances were
carefully kept, especial attention was paid to the pedigrees
of horses designed for the turf; and an aristocracy of blood
came to be recognized in the horses of England. This
monarch sent his “master of the horse” to the Levant for
the purpose of procuring horses for breeding purposes,
with which he proposed to found a breeding stud. His
purchase comprised three very famous Turkish stallions
and some mares that, in the equine literature of the day,
were called the “royal mares,” and these royal mares are by
many supposed to be the foundation of the strict thor-
oughbred. This origin is, however, more mythical than
real, as it is well known that several other mares were, from
time to time, introduced from the Orient, and that the pro-
duce of many mares, not descended from nor related to
these royal mares, have been distinguished upon the turf
and recognized as thoroughbreds.

About the middle of the eighteenth century, one hundred
and thirty-five years ago, the publication of the English

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 71

Racing Calendar was commenced. In this the names of all
the horses that participated in the regular races were pub-
lished, and in a very few years it became the custom to give
also the name of the sire in each case. This publication
has been continued, with very little change in form or
matter, down to the present day, and the records of per-
formances and names of performers therein contained
furnished the basis for the stud book. A collection embrac-
ing all the pedigrees of distinguished horses that could be
obtained was published as early as 1786. Subsequent to
this several attempts at a compilation of pedigrees from the
Racing Calendar and other sources was made, but it was not
until 1791 that the English Stud Book took its present
form.

The standard of admission to the first volume of the
Stud Book appears to have been simply creditable perform-
ance upon the turf, as shown by the Racing Calendar, it
being taken for granted that no horse could be a creditable
performer that was not well bred—an assumption that has
never yet been found at fault. The first volume compiled
upon this basis has furnished the foundation for all sub-
sequent ones, and few names have been admitted to registry
that do not trace, without admixture, on both sides, to an
ancestry that is recorded in the first volume, or to sub-
sequent importations of Oriental blood.

Prof. Low, in his great work upon the “ Domesticated
Animals of Great Britain,’ in commenting upon the various
importations of foreign blood that went to make up the
foundation for the English blood horse, says :

The lighter horses for speed, introduced previous to the reign
of James I, were Spaniards, Barbs and Turks. But King James,
on his accession to the English crown, resolved to iry the Arabian,
with which his reading had probably rendered him familiar. He

72 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

purchased a horse of that race, imported from the east by an
English merchant, Mr. Markham, for which he paid the sum,
great in those days, of £500. This horse, however, in no way
distinguished on the turf or for his stock, attracted little atten-
tion. The Duke of Newcastle, who afterward wrote a remarkable
work on horses, took an especial dislike to this Arabian, abused
him as a bony creature, good for nothing, because being trained
to the course he could not run. This opinion seems to have exer-
cised a great influence on the breeders for the turf, and it was
not until after the lapse of more than a hundred years that the
neglected Arabian was again resorted to. During this long
period Barbs and Turks from the Levant were the horses chiefly
imported and mingled in blood with the pre-existing race.

Of the foreign horses early introduced into England, one
familiarly known as the White Turk was the property of Mr.
Place, the stud groom of the Lord Protector Cromwell. Another
was brought by the Duke of Berwick from the siege of Budy in
the reign of James II; and a third, the Byerly Turk, became the
most distinguished of all the foreign horses of that period. He
was the charger of Capt. Byerly in the wars of William in Ire-
land about the year 1689. Of the lineal descendants of this
horse one was King Herod, born in 1758, bred by his royal high-
ness William, Duke of Cumberland, brother of George II. This
fine horse, on retiring from the turf, was employed as a stallion,
and got 497 winners at our various race-courses, computed to
have gained to their owners £201,505.

In the latter years of Queen Anne an Arabian had been brought
to England which tended to impress a new character on the En-
glish turf. This animal, the progenitor of some of the finest
horses that have perhaps existed in the world, was purchased at
Aleppo by a merchant, the brother of Mr. Darley of Yorkshire.
He was supposed to have been of the Desert breed, although his
precise lineage was not determined. He got the Devonshire or
Flying Childers and another horse termed Bartlett’s Childers,
who was never trained, but who was the ancestor of Eclipse, one
of the most remarkable horses of which we have any record.

The Devonshire, or Flying Childers, born in 1715, was so named
from his breeder, Mr. Leonard Childers, of Carr House, near Don-
caster, from whom he was purchased when young by the Duke
of Devonshire. He was a chestnut horse, with four white legs.

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 73

He was of noble form, of matchless courage, and the fleetest
horse that had ever been upon the English turf.

Eclipse was got by Marske, a grandson of Bartlett’s Childers,
out of Spiletta. He was foaled in the year 1764, during the eclipse
of that year, from which circumstance he took his name. He
was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and, on the death of that
prince, sold to Mr. Wildman, a salesman at Smithfield; and after-
wards he became the property of Mr. O’Kelly. Eclipse had not
the grandeur of form of the Flying Childers, and might have
escaped notice but for the accidental trial of his stupendous
powers. He was about fifteen hands and one inch high. His
shoulders were very low, oblique, and so thick above that, accord-
ing to the observation of the time, a firkin of butter might have
rested upon them. He stood very high behind, a conformation
suited to his great power of progression. He was so thick-winded
as to be heard blowing at a considerable distance. In the lan-
guage of honest John Lawrence: ‘‘He puffed and blowed like an
otter, and galloped as wide as a barn-door.’’ No sooner were his
powers exhibited on the turf than every eye was set to scrutinize
his form, and he was then admitted to possess in perfection the
external characters indicative of great speed. A volume was
written on his proportions by M. Saintbel, a veterinary surgeon,
whose investigations showed that his figure differed greatly from
the conventional form which speculative writers had assigned as
the standard of perfection. He was of an indomitable temper,
and his jockeys found it in vain to attempt to hold him, but con-
tented themselves with remaining still on the saddle while he
swept along, his nose almost touching the ground. His full speed
was not determined, since he never met with an opponent suffi-
ciently fleet to put it to the proof. He not only was never beaten,
but he was able to distance some of the best horses of his time;
and the fleetest could not keep by his side for fifty yards together.

This remarkable horse first appeared on the turf at the age of
five, in 1769. In the first heat he set off of his own accord, and
easily gained the race, his rider pulling him in vain with all his
force for the last mile. O’Keliy, observing this and being aware
of his horse’s powers, offered in the second heat to ‘‘place the
horses,”’ and he took heavy bets that he did so. When called upon
to declare he said: ‘‘Eclipse first, the rest no place.’’ He gained
his wagers. Eclipse was first, and all the others were distanced,

6

74 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

or, in the language of the turf, had no place. From this time
Eclipse was continually on the turf, and gained every race. No
horse daring to contend with him he closed his career of seven-
teen months by walking over the Newmarket Course for the
King’s Plate, in October, 1770. During this brief period it is
said that he gained £25,000 for his owner. He was then employed
with prodigious profit as a stallion. He got 324 winners at our
numerous race courses, who are computed to have gained about
£160,000 to their owners, besides cups and plates. He died in
1789 at the age of twenty-five.

Another horse of foreign lineage, scarcely inferior to the
Darley Arabian in the fame and value of his descendants, and by
many supposed to have exercised a yet more important influence
on the horses of the turf, is the Godolphin Barb, who lived a
short time later than the Darley Arabian, having been born about
the year 1724. This splendid horse was long regarded as an
Arabian, although his characters approached to those of the
Barb. He was found dragging a water cart in France, and was
probably one of those neglected presents of horses, frequent at
that time, from the Barbary powers to the French court. He was
brought to England and finally presented to Lord Godolphin, in
whose stud he remained a considerable time before his value was
suspected, and then only it was discovered in consequence of the
excellence of one of his sons, Laih, out of Roxana, who proved to
be the fleetest horse, Childers excepted, that had till then appeared
on the English turf. His grandson, Matchem, was in a peculiar
degree noted for the excellence of his stock. This latter horse is
supposed to have yielded his owner, Mr. Fenwick, upwards of
£17,000 as a stallion alone. He died in 1781, having had 354 sons
and daughters, all winners at our numerous race-courses, and
computed to have gained to their owners £151,097.

It is the general opinion of the best-informed English
turfmen, that the Oriental stallions which contributed most
largely to the formation of the English thoroughbred were
Place’s White Turk, the Byerly Turk, Lister’s, or the Strad-
dling Turk, the Darley Arabian, Curwen’s Barb, Lord Car-
lisle’s Turk, the Godolphin Arabian (a Barb), the Leeds
Arabian, Honeywood’s White Arabian, Combe’s Grey Ara-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 75

bian, Bell’s Grey Arabian, D’Arcy’s Turk, Selaby Turk, the
Ancaster Turk, Compton’s Barb, the Toulouse Barb, Stan-
yan’s Arabian, Lowther Barb, Taffolet Barb, Hutton’s Grey
Barb, Honeywood’s Arab, Sedley Barb, and Wellesley’s
Arabian. Of those above mentioned, Lister’s Turk got
Brisk and Snake; Darley Arabian got Flying Childers; Car-
lisle’s Turk got the Bald Galloway, and Godolphin Arabian
got Blank, Regulus and Cade. The “Royal Mares” were
imported Barbs.

Of these Oriental sires it is generally admitted that the
Godolphin Arabian—imported one hundred and sixty-two
years ago—is the last that has proven of any benefit to the
English stock ; and while this blending of the blood of the
Orient with the old races of England furnished the founda-
tion, there can not be the slightest doubt that the care and
skill of English breeders in selecting and coupling with the
stoutest, best and fleetest for successive generations has
been a more potent agent in the formation of the breed, as
it now exists, than the Arabian and Barb blood, to which
tradition has ascribed its superiority. Many importations
of the choicest blood of the Orient have been made both to
this country and England within the last half century, and
yet scarcely a name among them can be found in the pedi-
gree of a horse that has distinguished himself upon the turf.
The Arabian horses possess undoubted beauty of form and
grace of motion, but they are notoriously inferior in point
of size to the average thoroughbred, being rarely over 14
hands high ; and their produce from the best of mares have
been failures both in the stud and on the race course. In
every instance in which the speed and stoutness of our
thoroughbreds have been tested side by side with the Ara-
bian they have proven superior to their eastern competitors.
Hence, recent crosses of Oriental blood, while they do not

76 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

warrant exclusion from the stud book, are not looked upon
with favor by the best breeders of England or America.
The thoroughbred of today is greatly superior to his Ori-
ental ancestor in size, speed, endurance, and every other
useful quality, excepting, possibly, that of docility. So
thoroughly have our people been imbued with the idea that
Arabia was the fountain-head from which all modern equine
excellence has been drawn that to venture an opinion to the
contrary has been equivalent, in the mind of the average
horse essayist, to writing one’s self down as an ignoramus
upon equine history. And yet it is doubtful if ever a race
of horses has been more thoroughly overrated.

The greater portion of Arabia is, in point of fact, illy
adapted to the rearing of horses, and prior to the days of
Mahomet horses were scarcely recognized as a part of the
possessions of the Arab, their riches consisting chiefly in
camels, oxen, sheep and goats. But Mahomet was an en-
thusiastic lover of the horse, and while he succeeded in en-
grafting upon so large a proportion of the inhabitants of
the eastern world his own peculiar religious tenets he also
imbued his followers with a great degree of his enthusi-
astic admiration for the horse. Indeed, kindness to and
love for this noble animal was made a part of the religious
duty of all true Mussulmans, and from the days of Mahomet
down to the present time the Arabian has held his stud,
and especially his mares, in a sort of superstitious reverence.
Mahomet selected for himself a magnificent stud, and his
followers to this day seek to trace the genealogy of their
choicest horses to the mares that were his favorites. But
their pedigrees, divested of all the high-sounding flourishes
with which they are accompanied, mean but little and are
altogether unreliable.

The following is a copy of one of these documents, which

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. fig

accompanied Hamdan, a grey stallion imported by A. Keene
Richards, in 1856, as we find it recorded in Bruce’s Ameri-

can Stud Book:
RAMADAN 21, 1272.
This is to certify that, at the date of this document, Messrs.
Keene and Troye bought from Sheik Hammed-Es-Sohiman, the
son of Shalan, the grey horse, even the horse of Hammed, the
son of Sohiman, who is the son of Shalan, even the sheik of the
Arabs of Anayza. The said horse is Koheylan, the son of the
old Koheylan father, and of an old Koheylan mother. We
declare this by fortune, to which God and Mahomed, the apostle
of God, are witnesses. There is no better horse, being from the
side of both father and mother a blood horse. He is a Koheylan,
the son of a Koheylan, and his mother is a Koheylan purer than
milk. He was born and brought up in the land of Nesjd.
This is the genealogy of the said horse. God is omnipotent.
The sale was made at the land of Sophira.
| SEAL. | Hammep-Es-Souman, the son of Shalan.
Witnesses:
The writer of this document, who stands in need of God.
Arp-ALLAgH, the son of Nowphal, the lecturer.
Mawammap, the son of Mashial.
AKHBIEF, the son of Mashaul.
Iso-SHE-Ra-Tau, agent of Fysal-Ish-Shalaa.

As before remarked, Arabia was one of the latest of the
Oriental countries to engage in rearing horses; and there
can be no question but that the enthusiasm of the followers
of the Prophet had as much to do in creating the great rep-
utation that the Arabian horses soon thereafter attained,
and which they hold to this day, as the quality of the ani-
mais themselves.

The thoroughbred having been for so many generations
bred. with especial reference to his capacity as a race-horse,
it is not surprising that he should have acquired peculiari-
ties of form and temper that render him undesirable for the
more sober and steady uses of every-day life. He has been

78 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

bred to run, and the form best adapted to speed, and the
mental qualities that most certainly insure the pluck, and
energy, and determination so essential to success in a hard-
fought race, have been the qualities aimed at by breeders
and the standard by which selections have been made.
Such a course of breeding has made the thoroughbred, as a
racer, rather too lithe and light in form, and too nervous
and excitable in temper for ordinary business uses; but in
speed, endurance and resolution they surpass all other
breeds, and there is scarcely a race of horses in existence
but may be improved by a cross with them. This fact
is almost universally recognized, and nearly all countries
upon the civilized globe have for many years regarded. the
English thoroughbred, or “blood horse,” as the basis of all
substantial improvement.

Our American horses are largely permeated with the
blood of the English thoroughbred. Many of the best
stallions and mares of England have been imported to this
country, and their influence is seen on every hand. It
enters largely into the ground-work of all our trotting
strains, and it is doubtful if a single great road horse or
trotter has been produced in this country that did not pos-
sess a large share of this royal blood as a foundation upon
which the trotting superstructure has been built.

There exists great ignorance, even among many who
pass for intelligent, well-informed horsemen, as to what
constitutes a thoroughbred horse. Nearly every agricult-
ural society in the land has a class in its premium list for
thoroughbred horses; and yet many of the managers of
these societies have a very indefinite idea as to what is
requisite to render a horse eligible in this class. Questions
of this nature are referred to me almost every year for a
decision as to eligibility; and many of these are of such a

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 79

nature that a very slight knowledge of the subject ought to
enable the officers of these societies to decide for them-
selves. On this account I beg pardon of the well-informed
reader while I briefly recapitulate.

In the first place, it should be understood that we derive
the term, as well as the breed of horses to which it applies,
from our British cousins across the water, as has been
fully set forth in the preceding pages; and that the word,
when applied to horses, is used to designate one particular
breed, and that is the running horse. All our American
thoroughbreds are, therefore, imported from England, or
are descendants of animals so imported. A recent cross
with an imported Arab or Barb, while it does not vitiate the
blood nor render an animal ineligible as a thoroughbred, is
not usually regarded as desirable, from the fact that the
course of selection which has been practiced by the breed-
ers of thoroughbred horses in England and America, for
the last hundred years, has given us a race that is generally
considered to be far superior to the Oriental horse of today
in speed, size and stoutness. The compiler of the stud book
for thoroughbred horses in this country has relaxed the
English rule somewhat, and admits to registry animals that
show an unmixed descent for five generations of pure blood;
and while, under this rule, many animals may be admitted
that are not, in the strict sense of the word, thoroughbreds,
yet if for five generations nothing but thoroughbred sires
are to be found in the pedigree, the quantity of alien blood
remaining must necessarily be infinitesimally small; and by
usage, the animal so bred is, in this country, ranked as a
thoroughbred. The American Stud Book for thoroughbred
horses, four volumes of which have been issued, is edited
and published by Col. 8S. D. Bruce, of the Turf, Field and
Farm, New York.

80 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

If our agricultural societies would bear in mind that
none of our American trotters, no matter how long the
pedigree, and none of our imported or native draft horses,
are eligible to compete for premiums offered for thorough-
breds they would spare themselves much trouble. No ped-
igree that has Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, Abdallah, Morgan,
Bellfounder, Hiatoga, Mambrino Chief, Royal George,
Patchen or any other of our prominent trotiing sires in it
can belong to a thoroughbred. It may appear strange to
some that it is necessary to make this statement; yet I
have seen premiums awarded in the thoroughbred class
to trotting stallions at both State and county fairs; and I
have known some cases where imported draft horses have
been entered in this class, and were supposed to be eligible.

TROTTERS AND ROADSTERS.

We have as yet no distinctive breed of driving horses
or roadsters. The horses used for light driving, fast trot-
ting, ete., are largely a conglomeration of all breeds and
types. Some approximate the French Canadian pony in
form and action, while others possess most of the charac-
teristics of the thoroughbred; but so popular have trotting
races become in this country, and so universal is the fancy
for fast driving horses, that at almost all our horse shows
and fairs the roadster class will be found more largely
represented than any other, and usually more largely than
all others combined. Indeed, the roadster is more distinctly
an American feature than any other in our equine product;
and we are fast approaching the time when the American
trotting horse will be classed as a distinct breed. It is the
creation of an American fancy—the result of a fashion that
has demanded the fastest and stoutest trotting horses in
the world for driving on the road; and to this end we have

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 81

selected and bred until our horses surpass all others in this
particular. Among these horses we have several recognized
families of especial prominence, all more or less related, but
each possessing features that are to some extent peculiarly
its own, but none of them entitled to be separately classed
as a breed.

Of these we may mention the Hambletonians, descended
on the paternal side from imported Messenger (a thorough-
bred) through his son Mambrino (also a thoroughbred), and
Mambrino’s son Abdallah, out of a mare of unknown blood,
who in turn got Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, out of a mare by
Bellfounder (an imported Norfolk trotter), and her dam
probably having two direct crosses to imported Messenger.
Through Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, on the paternal side, we
have the Volunteers, the Edward Everetts, the Alexander’s
Abdallahs, the Almonts, the Messenger Durocs, the Senti-
nels, the Happy Mediums, the George Wilkeses, the Dicta-
tors, and all the various so-called Hambletonians of the
present day. This celebrated horse was bred in Orange
Co., N. Y., foaled in 1849, and was kept in that county until
his death, which occurred March 26, 1876.

Then we have the Mambrinos, that take their name from
Mambrino Chief, who was got by Mambrino Paymaster, a
son of the Mambrino above referred to as the grandsire of
Rysdyk’s Hambletonian. The dam of Mambrino Chief,
like the dam of Abdallah, was a mare of unknown blood.
He was bred in Orange Co., N. Y., foaled in 1844, and when
ten years old was taken to Kentucky, where he died in 1861.
Upon the highly-bred and thoroughbred mares of that
region he was very successful as a sire of fast trotters, and
the mares got by him have been especially noted as pro-
ducers of great trotters when coupled with other trotting
strains.

82 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

The Clays constitute another trotting family of note.
The original Henry Clay was a famous trotting stallion,
foaled 1837, got by Andrew Jackson (also a famous trotter),
who was a grandson of Bashaw (an imported Barb), and
related to imported Messenger through the second dam of
his sire, who was by that horse. The dam of Henry Clay
was a great trotting mare, whose blood is unknown. From
this horse we have the various families of Clays of the pres-
ent day, and also the Patchens—the trotting stallion Geo.
M. Patchen, the greatest trotting stallion of his day, and
the original of the name, being a grandson of the original
Henry Clay.

The Morgans are perhaps our oldest trotting family;
and if they have not produced our very fastest trotters,
their produce undoubtedly deserve to take the very highest
rank as good-tempered, hardy and pleasant roadsters.
They are descended, in the paternal line, from a horse called
Justin Morgan, who was bred in Vermont, foaled 1793, and
died 1821. His blood has never been positively known,
although it is pretty well established that the thoroughbred
predominated. From him we have the Morrills, the Fear-
naughts, the Ethan Allens, the Black Hawks (not including
the descendants of Long Island Black Hawk, who was by
Andrew Jackson, grandson of Bashaw, above alluded to,
and had none of the Morgan blood in his veins), the Daniel
Lamberts, the Knoxes and the Golddusts. The popularity
of this family at one time was unbounded; and no blood,
excepting that of the thoroughbred, has been so generally
disseminated and so highly esteemed throughout the United
States. At present it is not so highly prized by those who
place speed above all other qualities ; but go where you will
among livery-stable keepers or horse-railroad managers and
ask them what type of horse they have found most profit-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 83

able to use and wear out on the road, and they will almost
invariably answer, “The old-fashioned Morgan.”

The Bashaws, another popular family of trotters, are
very closely related to the Clays and Patchens, having a
common ancestry in Young Bashaw, who was the sire of the
Andrew Jackson above referred to. Young Bashaw was by
the imported Bashaw, his dam was by a thoroughbred sire,
and his grandam was by imported Messenger. The most
celebrated of the Bashaw family proper come through Long
Island Black Hawk, who was by Andrew Jackson, out of a
mare by Mambrino, son of Messenger. Through him we
have Green’s Bashaw (so well known in the west), the
Mohawks, and many others of note.

The Pilots: The blood of the old black pacer Pilot, who
was of French Canadian ancestry, has mingled kindly with
our best trotting strains, and many of our very best and
fastest trotters trace to him, mainly through his son Pilot
Jr. (a horse bred by the late R. A. Alexander, of Kentucky),
out of a mare that was nearly thoroughbred. Old Copper-
bottom, also a Canadian pacer; Hiatoga, a horse bred in
Virginia ; Columbus, and Royal George, both from Canada,
have all been very popular sires, and no compendium of the
origin of the American trotting horse would be complete
without reference to them.

In no department of stock-breeding is the influence
of heredity and of patient selection with a view to the
transmission and improvement of a desired quality more
apparent than in the breeding of the trotting horse. Fifty
years ago the American trotting horse, as a breed, was
unthought of; and one that could trot a mile in less than
three minutes was a wonderful animal! But the ability to
trot fast was a desirable quality, and breeders sought to
perpetuate it. Animals that excelled the average of the

84 —(C«j. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

species as trotters were selected to breed from, with a view
to perpetuating and intensifying this quality; but as its
possession was at that time an accident—a spontaneous
variation—it was found that but few of the immediate
descendants of the animals first chosen with a view to
breeding fast trotters could trot faster than their remote
ancestors. But when such of them as did show improve-
ment in this direction were again selected for breeding pur-
poses and coupled together it was found that, while there
were still many failures, the proportion of the descendants
that showed improvement in the trotting gait beyond the
average of their ancestors was materially increased. And
so by selecting from generation to generation from such
families as have shown a tendency to improvement in this
quality we have made considerable progress toward found-
ing a breed of trotting horses.

So generally is the attention of the breeders of trotting
horses directed to the “bright, particular stars” in the trot-
ting firmament each year that we lose sight of the immense
numbers of horses that trot in 2:30 to 2:50—a gait that
twenty-five, and even fifteen years ago, was fast enough to
entitle a horse to rank as a creditable performer on the turf;
and in our admiration for these great performers we have
failed to note the extent to which the average speed of the
so-called trotting families has been improved. What horse-
man who has reached the age of fifty years can not remem-
ber how very rare three-minute trotters were when he was a
boy! And yet what a large proportion of our Hamble-
tonians, Clays, Bashaws and Mambrinos now trot faster
than three minutes!

The progress made by American trotters during the
past fifteen years, as demonstrated by the average speed
of the animals which compete at our prominent trotting

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 85

meetings, is something very often overlooked by those who
do not give the subject particular attention. Year by year
there have been vast accessions to the list of horses with
records of 2:30 or better, and of course the influence of this
constant influx of fresh speed can not but be made mani-
fest upon the turf. Taking the records of the oldest prom-
inent trotting track—that at Buffalo, N. Y.—as a guide, we
find the average time of all the heats trotted there during
the summer meetings, from 1866 to 1884, inclusive, to have
been as follows :

Year. Average time. | Year. Average time.
AGE ced dose hie sae iie pate O oil) WETS ees oi Saale LB i Cis a OLR
Thay Sone Co beisoetos deco DOS mOnO 2:34% | 1877.. 2:24%4
1868 PATS: | ISIS c< cos. ose ont Menem ane 2:21%
BGG eae ooo een salen cistecte 2:2914 | 1879 2:2314
1870 DIRS, | ASD 5. ox aicinla aie a'e enicreie ae sete 2
1871 2:25% | 1881. 2:2094
ASTD eine Aes eclowiooreeiee seiste 2:26 ASBO NS rice eee eatin ereetnia “esevers 2:2134
POT ec salen eee Oe ee rE tc1s eee ease Seam U gS Ti, Se rt
PSG cc bec ec sade ehore core inn ta RM | EBB Tso chee: ofa mista aie iharamete cee: 2:21%
PATS tee en been cmmwndeeedee

These figures speak volumes. From 2:3814 in 1866 to
9-20 in 1880 and 2:2034 the following year is a tremendous
stride, and it will be seen that the reduction has been a
steady as well as a notable one. Of course, it is not every
season that such flyers as Maud 8. and St. Julien appear at
the same meeting, as was the case at Buffalo in 1880, while
the following year half a dozen of our best trotters were out
at once, which accounts for the exceptionally low average
for these two years ; but, taking the average of the Buffalo
track for the first five years of its existence, we find it to be
9:3214, while for the five years from 1880 to 1884, inclusive,
it is reduced to 2:2114!

While much of this increase in the average speed of our
trotting horses should, in justice, be attributed to improve-
ment in our vehicles and tracks, and to increased skill in
the trainer, yet it is undeniable that by far the greater por-

86 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

tion of it has resulted from increased capacity in our horses,
bred for two, three or four generations especially with refer-
ence to this quality. It is also worthy of especial remark
that over ninety per cent of all the horses with records of
2:25 or better, whose breeding can be traced even as far as
the sire, are more or less closely related to one or more of
our recognized trotting families.

Hence, while chance trotters may occasionally be pro-
duced, as of yore, through spontaneous variations, our
breeders and trainers have found that by confining them-
selves to the descendants of three or four well-known fami-
lies the probabilities of producing fast trotters are infinitely
greater than by going outside; for within these families the
trotting gait has been cultivated by selection and use until
heredity has begun to lend its powerful aid in transmitting
what was originally a spontaneous or accidental superi-
ority; and the breeder who introduces a single cross in
which the trotting gait has not become an inherent quality
only adds to the probabilities of failure and postpones the
day when we shall be able to breed fast trotters with cer-
tainty. We have still much to do before we can claim to
have established a breed of trotting horses, and the more
closely we confine ourselves to judicious selections from the
families that trot and produce trotters the more rapid will
be our progress in the formation of a breed in which supe-
riority in the trotting gait shall be an inherent and trans-
missible quality.

It may possibly become necessary to resort to crosses
outside of these trotting families for improvement in some
other quality; but there is no out-cross that we can possi-
bly make without danger to the transmission and improve-
ment of the trotting gait. ven those of our trotters that
belong to none of the recognized trotting families are al-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 87

most invariably the result of selection with a view to this
faculty. In almost every case of “breeding unknown” we
have found that the dam was “a fast trotter.” In short, the
more thoroughly we investigate the course of breeding that
has produced our trotting horses the more completely does
it confirm the theory of breeding from animals that possess
the quality we wish to perpetuate.

Those who tell us that we must infuse more of the blood
of the thoroughbred into our trotting strains, because that
blood is the foundation of all modern excellence in the
horse, find their counterpart in those gentlemen of the old
school—-old fogies I had almost said—who used to be con-
tinually arguing for more of the blood of the Orient in the
thoroughbred. The argument in each case is identical.
The blood of the Arab and of the Barb was the foundation
for the more modern thoroughbred. The Oriental horse
represented the very highest type of speed and endurance;
and from this source the thoroughbred derived all its orig-
inal excellence. To keep up these good qualities, and to
improve the English race horse, these good old gentlemen
argued that we must constantly draw from the fountain-
head—the source of all improvement. But, by and by, the
time came when all horsemen were compelled to admit that
a further infusion of this material—which constituted a
most excellent foundation—was no longer needed, because
the thoroughbred horse of the British Isles had become im-
mensely superior to his Oriental ancestor. English breed-
ing, training and selecting has done the work, and the man
who now introduces a cross of the Arab or Barb in his
thoroughbred stud is very justly considered blind to his
own interest.

And so with breeding trotters. Granted that the endur-
ance, and vim, and energy that makes the great trotter

88 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

come from the thoroughbred ; and granted, even, that the
form for speed at the trotting gait comes from the same
source; we have selected, and trained, and bred with an
especial view to adaptation to this especial purpose, until
we have a fixed characteristic—an inheritance of speed at
the trotting gait, and an inheritance of mental quality,
adapting the horse to this especial use, in which the modern
American trotter is as much superior to the average thor-
oughbred as is the best race horse that ever struck hoof
upon the Epsom Downs to the average Arab of today.
Manifestly, the principal valuable qualities that our
trotters have derived from the thoroughbred are courage
and endurance. No one will claim that, as a breed, the
thoroughbreds are fast trotters ; and more, no one will claim
that a single thoroughbred has ever excelled at that gait,
judged by our standard of speed. The trotter is an American
product—a creature the result of our own selection, breed-
ing and training. What, then, can we gain by a stronger
infusion of the blood of the thoroughbred? Certainly not
more speed at the trotting gait, because it is not there, and
can not come from that source! We may, and doubtless can,
in some cases, get more courage and greater powers of endur-
ance from this quarter, but beyond these two qualities I can
not conceive of a single point in which the American trotter
can be improved by a fresh infusion of racing blood. It is
against reason, and against the experience of breeders the
world over; and the man who rings the changes on “high
breeding,” and the “form for speed,” and the “disposition to
go fast,” and the “foundation of all equine excellence,” as
arguments in favor of breeding from thoroughbreds to pro-
duce trotters, voluntarily shuts his eyes to the experience of
the world in stock-breeding. ‘The intelligent gentleman
who breeds horses for the running turf selects his breeding-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 89

stock from the choicest running strains—the families that
can show upon their escutcheon the longest roll of mighty
performers—and by pursuing this course he steadily im-
proves his stock ; and so the intelligent breeder of trotting
horses will select from families in which speed at the trot-
ting gait has become an inherent and transmissible quality.
I can see no reason why this great principle, which forms
the correct basis of all good stock-breeding, should not
apply to the breeding of trotting horses as well as to setter
dogs. The get of a bulldog out of a setter bitch would
probably possess more courage than a purely-bred setter,
and a puppy so bred might possibly act well in the field ;
but no man accustomed to the business would back a litter
so bred, in a field trial, against a litter of pure setters!
And go, if it is a trotting horse we are after, it has always
been my advice that the breeder should get as deeply into
the trotting lines of blood as possible. The exceptional
cases quoted by the advocates of the thoroughbred prove
nothing. We can not go very far as yet into any of our
trotting strains of blood without running into a thorough-
bred cross, or else running into obscurity. I should cer-
tainly very greatly prefer that my trotting brood mare or
stallion, after showing a few crosses of Hambletonian, Pilot,
Mambrino Chief, and Clay blood, should trace to a thorough-
bred ancestry than to the dunghill, because in the former
case we know that we are anchored upon a solid foundation.
of courage and endurance. But we have our trotting
structure already reared to handsome proportions upon this
foundation ; why then should we overturn what has already
been done and commence again to build on the same rock ?
To do so is, in my opinion, a step in the wrong direction.
This position is so self-evident—so perfectly in accord

with the known laws of heredity—that I am surprised that
7

90 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

it should be questioned by any man of ordinary intelli-
gence. That mares with one or two trotting crosses on a
thoroughbred pedigree are preferable, even for breeding
trotters, to mongrels of no individual merit and no pedi-
gree, no one in his sober senses will deny ; and that mares
by Hambletonian, or Geo. Wilkes, or Mambrino Patchen,
or Pilot Jr., or Mambrino Chief, or any other noted trotting
sire, out of thoroughbred dams, should themselves produce
great trotters when coupled with a well-bred trotting sire,
as in the case of the dam of Maud S., is no surprise, and no
argument whatever against my position, but confirms it.
That the next remove from the blood of the race horse, if
the remove be with choice trotting blood, will produce a
still greater proportion of fast trotters, is what I assert.
We want good, tried and approved trotting blood upon this
foundation ; and the more of this material we can put there,
and the further we are pushed away from that foundation
by such material, the better for certainty in producing fast
and reliable trotting horses.

ORLOFF TROTTERS.

Although the Orloff trotters of Russia have been but
sparingly introduced into this country, yet they are so fre-
quently referred to in discussions upon horse-breeding, and
especially in those pertaining to the breeding of trotting
horses, that a history of the breed and a comparison of their
merits with our own trotters can not fail to be interesting.
The breed takes its name from Count Alexis Orloff T'schis-
mensky, an enthusiastic horseman of Russia, who, in 1775,
imported from Arabia a grey stallion named Smetanxa, said
to have been of unusual size and strength. A Danish mare
was bred to this imported Arabian stallion, and the produce
was a horse known as Polkan Ist, From a union of this

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 91

half-blood with a Dutch mare sprang a stallion known as
Bars 1st, who is generally regarded as the progenitor of the
Orloff race of trotters. The fame of this quarter-blood,
Bars Ist, was chiefly perpetuated through his sons Lubeznay
1st, Lebed 1st and Dobroy Ist.

It is worthy of especial note that we have an almost
exact parallel of the course of breeding which laid the
foundation for the Orloff trotting horse in the case of the
imported Barb, Grand Bashaw, a grey stallion, imported to
the United States from Tripoli by Mr. Joseph C. Morgan.
This horse got Young Bashaw (also grey), out of Pearl by
First Consul, and he in turn got Andrew Jackson, out of a
mare of unknown blood. It will be observed that the Rus-
sian trotter Bars Ist and Andrew Jackson were each three
removes from their Oriental ancestry, and that in this third
remove the trotting excellence first began to manifest itself.
Bars Ist laid the foundation for the Orloff trotting horse,
and was himself a distinguished trotter; Andrew Jackson
was the most noted trotting stallion of his day, and from
him are descended the Bashaw, Patchen and Clay trotters
of the present time. We have no positive knowledge as to
the breeding of the Danish mare, the dam of Polkan Ist, or
of the Dutch mare that produced Bars 1st, while Pearl, the
dam of Young Bashaw, was a weli-bred mare, she being by
a thoroughbred sire, out of Fancy by imported Messenger.
As to the blood of the dam of Andrew Jackson we are left
to conjecture. The similarity of the foundation of these
two races of trotting horses is therefore quite apparent.

Count Orloff and his successor, V. T. Shiskin, devoted
themselves assiduously to the improvement of these horses,
selecting their stallions exclusively from the foundation
above alluded to, but resorting frequently to English and
Dutch mares of known excellence; so that the Orloff trot-

92 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

ter, like the American, is of a mixed origin, and neither the
Arab, the Barb nor the English thoroughbred can claim
exclusive paternity in either case. Selection and crossing,
with a view to adaptation for a specific use, has accom-
plished the work of creating in both countries a race of trot-
ting horses. Count Orloff was an intelligent enthusiast in
the business—as all successful breeders have been—and he
persistently refused to part with any of his entire horses,
preferring that he alone should dictate the choice of sires
to be used to perpetuate and improve the race. After his
death the stud was scattered; a considerable portion of it
passed into the possession of the crown, but several private
studs were founded, and a stud book was instituted to
aid in the work of keeping the race free from further ad-
mixture, although with the Russians, as with us, the ques-
tion is not very well settled as to what constitutes the best
trotting pedigree, and purity of blood is a rather vague and
indefinite term when applied to the Orloff as well as to the
American trotter. The Count had been an enthusiastic
patron of the race course as a means of developing and
testing the powers of his horses, and since his time the goy-
ernment has given its powerful aid to promote the same ob-
ject, not only by establishing breeding studs, but by fur-
nishing more than one-half of the prize money that is con-
tested for at these trotting races, which have been held reg-
ularly in that country for the last sixty years. Russian
trials of speed are regulated by law, and the driver or owner
who violates any of the rules which have been laid down to
secure fair contests is liable to take an unceremonious trip
to Siberia at government expense—a punishment that, as
might be supposed, is much more effectual in suppressing
fraud than is that of an edict of expulsion issued by our
National Trotting Association,

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 93

I had the pleasure, a few years ago, of meeting Mons.
Jules Goujon, who has long been a resident of Moscow, and
who is intimately connected with the turf sports of that
country. From him I learned many interesting particulars
concerning the Orloff horse and the methods of breeding,
training and driving in that country. He states that

The entries for the races are according to age qualifications,
except that for horses past six years old—they are free for all.
The heats are never less than three versts, and the deciding heat
is at the same distance. In races of four and one-half versts the
deciding heat is at three versts. Races of six and twelve versts
are decided in one heat. The first prize is not given to the horse
that comes in first in the race, but in the deciding heat. The
number of horses entered in each race is unlimited, but they are
started three at a time, and the two horses out of the entire num-
ber of starters that trot the distance in the least time, according
to the watch, take part in the deciding heat. If the horse win-
ning in the first trial comes in second in the second trial then
a third heat settles the question of supremacy. Only two moneys
are given. There are three tracks, of oval shape, inclosed one
within the other, one for each horse. The outer is one and a half
versts (one mile) long; the two others are shorter, one by twelve
sagenes (eighty-four feet) and the other by twenty-three sagenes
(161 feet). The first horse is started on the exterior track, in
front of the stand, and the two others, in order to equalize the
distance, are started in the rear, on their respective tracks, which
are selected by lot.

The horses come up at a jog, each one to his place. A judge
is placed beside each horse whose duty it is, by waving a bit of
cloth, to notify the starter, who is in the stand, that the horse
under his charge has arrived at his position. The horses are
started from the stand by the stroke of a bell, which sets in
motion at the same time the hands of a great dial which mark
minutes and seconds. At the instant the first horse passes the
winning score the judge strikes a blow which stops the first hand
of the dial, and in the same way for the second horse. This
automatic system gives the time of the race, by means of the
clock, without error, and enables the judge, who is placed at the
distance post to decide which of the horses are distanced, to

94. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

better know the precise instant when the race is finished. A dis-
tance in Russia is thirty sagenes (210 feet) for a race of three
versts, and seventy-five sagenes (525 feet) for a race at a greater
distance. Only three false starts are allowed; after that number
the judges can fine the driver of the horse that is responsible for
the false starts, or can refuse to allow him to go the course. In
case a driver does not try to win with a horse the judges may fine
him, and on a repetition of the offense he is liable to visit Siberia
for a couple of years—a punishment which I imagine, from what
I hear, would be salutary for some of your American drivers.

A horse is allowed to make but three breaks during a heat
of three versts, and the same number in the deciding heat. If
he makes more he is out of the race, and so is he if he makes
more than thirteen jumps in one gallop. Each horse in the race
has a judge especially assigned to watch his movements, whose
decision as to whether the horse makes more than three breaks
or more than the permitted number of jumps in one break is
without appeal; he has only to touch a button of an electric
machine designating the offending horse, and a groom on horse-
back in front of the stand at once rushes off to notify his driver
to quit the track.

For all the prizes given by the societies anyone can trot, as
he pleases, to a droschka (the national Russian vehicle, four-
wheeled, and very clumsy and heavy as compared with the sulky)
or to a sulky with two wheels and four reins. The weight of the
vehicle and of the sulky is equally ad libitum for all the prizes
given by the societies. The government, for prizes which it
gives, specifies for itself the kind of vehicle, its weight, the
weight of the driver, and the distance to be trotted.

There are two seasons for racing. The summer races occur in
May and June, and are trotted twice a week, on Sunday and
Wednesday. They are started at 6 o’clock in the evening, the
days being so long in Russia that it is light until 11 o’clock at
night, and thus the heat of the day is avoided, which is an
advantage for both the horses and the spectators.

In winter the races are always trotted on Sundays, and on the
ice. But two horses are started at a time, and on the opposite
sides of the same course, which is but one verst in length.

The droschka of which Mons. Goujon speaks, although
a rather clumsy-looking vehicle to American eyes, is really

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 95

a very light and easy-running road wagon, weighing only
about seventy pounds. The verst is 3,500 feet in length,
being a fraction less than two-thirds of a mile.

T have before me, as I write, a statement of the best time
made at all distances, in Russia, each year, from 1861 to
1876, inclusive, from which it would appear that no improve-
ment was made in the speed or endurance of the Orloff
trotter during the last five years embraced in this period.
The fastest time ever made for one verst was 1:40, by Poi-
tieshnoy, in 1869, which rate of speed, if kept up for one
mile, would be a very little below 2:31. This rate of speed
has never been reached by any other Russian horse—the
nearest approach to it being 1:421s. The same horse has
the best record at three versts, being 5:00, equal to two miles
in 5:0134. This appears to have been an exceptional case,
however, as the next best performances are three versts in
5:06 once, and 5:07 twice. The best time for four and a half
versts is 7:52, equal to 7:5434 for three miles. For seven and
a half versts the best time is 13:49, equal to 13:5634 for five
miles. For thirty versts the best time is 1:08:30, equal to
twenty miles in 1:08:5314, which is by over 3:00 minutes the
best performance by a Russian horse at that distance. Com-
paring these records with those of our American trotters we
find the following:

Best Russian time. Best American time. Difference.
Onountlessnaceaseen cess 2:31 One mile....... 2:09144—21%s.
Muro milestsen se a: cscs *5:013% | T'wo miles..... 446 —15%s.
Dhmresamnilesy. assess «0c steels 7:521%4 | Three miles.... 7:21144—314s.
Hive mA ESincce soci deities 13:5634 | Five miles..... 13:00 —56%s.

IB Wentymllesas. ce cscs seis 1:08:53% | Twenty mites.. 58:25 —10m. 28%s.

From the foregoing, the superiority of American trot-
ters, at all distances, is very clearly shown; as I do not
share in the often-expressed opinion that our system of

* Exceptional time ; 5:073%{ being the best with this single exception,

96 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

training, our tracks and our vehicles are materially better
than the Russian. More than 2,000 American trotters have
beaten the best one-mile time made in Russia; and al-
though two-mile races are not common in this country, the
exceptionally fast time of 5:0134 for that distance made by
Poitieshnoy has been beaten by nearly all of our great
trotters; and I have no doubt but that we have fifty trot-
ters in training today that are capable of beating that time
by several seconds. No Orloff trotter has ever succeeded
in trotting twenty miles within an hour by nearly nine min-
utes, while five American horses have accomplished that
feat. Another point of contrast, in which the American
trotter shows at a great advantage over his Russian com-
petitor, appears to be in campaigning qualities. The oldest
reported Orloff winner is twelve years. Goldsmith Maid
was in her prime at twenty. Pietel, the most noted Orloff
campaigner, was a winner for four successive years; the
Maid was a winner for thrice that length of time, while
most of our great trotters have steadily improved until they
were fifteen or sixteen years of age.

It is also worthy of note that while the Russian trotter
appears to have attained his maximum of speed several
years ago, the improvement on the part of our American
horses in this respect, within the past ten years, has been
truly wonderful. Certainly the showing for speed and en-
durance of the Orloff trotter does not compare favorably
with the American, although the former undoubtedly pos-

sesses both of these qualities to a high degree. It is.

claimed, however, that in beauty of form the Orloff is
greatly the superior of our American production ; but here,
again, L must be permitted to put in a demurrer ; for, if the
animals that I have seen may be taken as fair specimens of
the breed, the facts are certainly the reverse of this state-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 97

ment. Our breeders will undoubtedly object to the prevail-
ing color of the Orloffs, as upon an analysis of the winners
in that country we find that fifty-five per cent are greys,
twenty-four per cent blacks, fourteen per cent bays or
browns, and six per cent light bays.

CLEVELAND BAYS.

Many years ago, before railways came into general use,
there was recognized in England a breed of horses called
Cleveland Bays; but with the general application of steam
to the uses of locomotion the breed fell into disuse, and all
English authors, with whom I am conversant, who have
written within the past thirty years upon the horses of
Great Britain have treated the breed as extinct. Within
the past three years, however, there has been a determined
effort upon the part of Yorkshire breeders to gather up
whatever may be yet remaining of this once popular blood
and to resuscitate the breed. To this end a society was
organized about a year ago, and Vol. I of the Cleveland Bay
Stud Book has just been issued as a result of this effort.
How much of the old blood has been found, and what were
the conditions essential to admission in this initial volume,
I am not able to state, as I have not yet seen a copy of the
work.

Following modern English authors and the English
agricultural press, I have repeatedly within the past ten
years expressed the opinion that the Cleveland Bays were
no longer regarded as a distinct breed in that country, and
for expressing such an opinion I have been subjected to
much ill-natured criticism. I certainly had no reason to
misrepresent the facts, and I only aimed to give accurate,
reliable information, to those who asked for it, wpon a sub-
ject that interested all horse-breeders, Within a year or two

98 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

past the English agricultural press have begun to again
speak of the Cleveland Bay as a breed, but as late as Nov.
18, 1881, I find the London Live-Stock Journal, the only
distinctively live-stock serial publication in Great Britain,
stating that:

The Cleveland that some people write about is not a Cleve-
land; it is only the nearest approach to what the Cleveland was
like. If there is such a thing as a pure Cleveland the owner
should stick to him; the breed, it is possible, may be resuscitated.

The Mark Lane Express of about the same date quali-
fied a reference of the same sort by the remark, “if there be
such a breed ;” and Mr. Frederick Street, who as late as
1883 wrote “The History of the Shire Horse” in England,
speaking of the heavier classes of horses, says: “The only
distinct breeds now recognized are the Shire horse or Eng-
lish Cart horse, the Clydesdale and the Suffolk, the Cleve-
land Bay being well-nigh extinct.”

The standard writers upon the horse for many years
past, such as Youatt & Burn, Youatt & Spooner, Prof. Low
and “Frank Forrester,” have all treated of the Cleveland
Bay as an extinct breed. “Frank Forrester” (Henry Wil-
liam Herbert), the most recent of these writers, in Vol. IT,
p- 20, of his great work, speaks as follows of the course of
breeding which has rendered the Cleveland Bay extinct:

The first gradation, when pace became a desideratum with
hounds, was the stinting of the best Cleveland Bay mares to good
thoroughbred horses, with a view to the progeny turning out
hunters, troop-horses, or, in the last resort, stage-coach horses,
or, as they were termed, machiners. The most promising of
these half-bred colts were kept as stallions; and mares, of the
same type with their dams, stinted to them, produced the im-
proved English carriage horse of fifty years ago.

The next step was the putting of the half-bred fillies, by thor-

oughbreds out of Cleveland Bay mares, a second time to thorough-
bred stallions; their progeny to become the hunters, while them-

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 99

selves and their brothers were lowered into the carriage horses;
and the half-bred stallions, which had been the getters of carriage
horses, were degraded into the sires of the new, improved cart
horse.

From this, one step more, brings us to the ordinary hunter of
the present day of provincial hunting countries, for light weights,
and persons not willing, or able, to pay the price of thorough-
breds. These are the produce of the third and fourth crosses of
thorough blood on the improved mares, descended in the third or
fourth degree from the Cleveland Bay stock, and are in every
way superior, able and beautiful animals, possessing speed and
endurance sufficient to live with the best hounds in any country,
except the very fastest, such as the Melton Mowbray, the North-
amptonshire, and, perhaps, the Vale of Belvoir, where the fields
are so large, the land all in grass, and the scent so fine that fox-
hunting in them is in fact steeple-chasing; so that no fox can live
before the hounds on a fine scenting day above half an hour, nor
any horse, except a thoroughbred, live even that time with the
hounds, having fourteen stone or upward on his back.

No sort of breeding in England is so profitable as this. The
breeder is comparatively secure against anything like ultimate
loss, while he has a fair chance of drawing a capital prize, in the
shape of a first-rate hunter or a carriage horse of superior qual-
ity; and it is to the breeding of such a class of animals that the
attention of the farmers, in horse-breeding counties, is wholly
directed at this date.

For this reason one has no more pure Cleveland Bays, the use
of the stallion of that breed being entirely discontinued; large,
bony, slow thoroughbreds of good form and great power, which
have not succeeded on the turf, having been substituted for them,
even for the getting of cart and farming-team horses; and the
farmers finding it decidedly to their advantage to work large,
roomy, bony, half or two-third-bred mares, out of which, when
they grow old, or if by chance they meet with an accident, they
may raise hunters, coach horses, or, at the worst, chargers or
machiners, rather than to plow with garrons and weeds, the
stock of which would be valueless and worthless, except for the
merest drudgery.

It must be conceded, therefore, that if I was wrong in
stating that the Cleveland Bays were no longer recognized

100 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

in England as a distinct breed I was at least in good com-
pany.

About three years ago I addressed a letter to Mr. Geo.
T. Turner, editor of the Mark Lane Express, of London,
asking for his opinion as to whether the Cleveland Bay still
existed as a distinct breed in that country. He replied in
substance that of late a demand for the old sort of Cleve-
land Bays had sprung up, and the breed was in a fair way
to be resuscitated. He thought there was material enough
left to operate on, and stated, to quote his exact words, that
“the Cleveland is undoubtedly the produce of the thorough-
bred horse (race horse or hunting stallion) on the North
country cart mares; this was the origin of the breed, and it
was created for coaching purposes. The coaches, toward
the last, required faster horses, and these were superseded
by the railway. So the Cleveland fell into disuetude. Now
they are wanted again for fast, heavy town work. If a stud
book were started we should see that material was in exist-
ence.” He added that he would agitate the question in
England.

A week or two later there appeared in his paper, the
Mark Lane Express, the following:

In reply to a question from a correspondent in the United
States as to the present status of the Cleveland breed of horses in
this country, we are of opinion that there is material enough left,
especially in Yorkshire, to form the basis of a herd book anda
very profitable breeders’ industry. The railway locomotive
drove the old Cleveland Bay horse off the road, but the more
modern type of Cleveland horse, or, at all events Yorkshire-bred
horses of the Cleveland stamp, with rather more of the thorough-
bred stallion’s influence apparent, are precisely the cattle that are
to be seen in the use of railway companies for their lighter work,
especially the newly-appointed omnibuses which have been started

by the railway companies in London, and for which the cheaper
French horses hitherto used are neither strong enough nor fast

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 101

enough. It is remarkable that the railway companies, which took
the old Cleveland horse’s occupation away, should be among the
first to give it back again in a different form; but it is plain
enough to anyone who will give the necessary attention to the
subject that the light van work of the new heavy omnibus work
of the metroplis is bringing to London a lot of very superior and
valuable horses from the northern breeding districts, which to all
appearances have the old Cleveland blood for their basis, and
which obtain their speed and style from the judicious use of the
blood of the thoroughbred stallicn.

This seems to leave no room for doubt that the so-called
Cleveland Bay of today is being created, as was the breed
when it was formerly considered a breed, by a mingling of
the blood of the thoroughbred race horse with that of the
large bay mares of Yorkshire ; hence, while I adhere to the
opinion that, properly speaking, the old Cleveland Bay has
become extinct, as a breed, yet I am free to admit that there
is still much stock remaining in that region possessing the
old Cleveland Bay characteristics, and perhaps much of the
blood that formerly belonged to this breed; and it is evi-
dent that the same course of breeding which originally
formed the breed might speedily restore it from the mate-
rial now remaining in that country, as well as in this, viz.:
the use of stout, strong and stylish thoroughbred sires upon
large, active and stylish bay mares. Whatever of this mate-
rial there may yet be in existence in Yorkshire and else-
where in England will no doubt be utilized for this purpose,
and to this end the new Cleveland Stud Book will doubtless
be of great service.

ENGLISH SHIRE OR CART HORSES.

No point in equine history is better established than is
the fact that to the regions bordering on the western coast
of Europe, once known as Normandy and Flanders, the

102 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

world is indebted for the basis of its various breeds of
draft horses. Flanders especially was famed, away back in
the middle ages, for its famous breed of black horses; and
this race appears to have been the prevailing one through-
out the north of ancient Gaul and of Germany, from the
mouth of the Rhine, eastward, and Prof. Low thinks, “in-
habited in the wild state the vast region of marsh and forest
which stretched all through Europe, eastward, to the
Euxine sea.” It was from this source that the rulers of
Great Britain drew in large numbers for the purpose of in-
creasing the size of the horses of the Island. How or when
this breed originated is a subject upon which history throws
no light; but as early as the eleventh century they were
largely imported into England, and royal edicts and regula-
tions were repeatedly issued. for the purpose of encouraging
the use of the large stallions of this breed. King John
imported at one time 100 choice stallions from Flanders,
Edward ITI followed in the same course, and it would seem
that in the time of Henry VIIT these Flemish horses were
inseparably associated in the British mind with the idea of
immense size and massive proportions, for we are told that
when King Henry first saw the Princess Anna of Cleves, a
remarkably large coarsely-formed woman, who was to be his
fourth spouse, he expressed his opinion of her by the ejacu-
lation: “Egad, she is built like unto a great Flanders mare!”

It is not my purpose to follow up, step by step, the
several importations that were made, from time to time, of
these heavy horses from Germany, Holland and Flanders,
nor to recount the various stages of development which
resulted in the formation of what is now known as the Shire
horse or English Cart horse. One of the early Earls of
Huntingdon is mentioned by Prof. Low as having been
especially active in his efforts to improve the British breeds

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 103

of heavy horses; and Robert Bakewell, who first taught the
world the great principles of good stock-breeding, brought
his great genius and skill to bear upon the same object. He
went himself to Holland, where he selected several mares
which he brought back with him to England; and by pur-
suing the same methods of careful selection, mating and
feeding by which he had achieved such distinguished suc-
cess with other kinds of stock, he showed the English
people how to form a breed of draft horses which has since
become famous the world over. Other breeders followed
his example, and as late as the beginning of the present
century importations of both stallions and mares from
Flanders were by no means uncommon.

At this time the black color was still a characteristic and
distinguishing feature of the heavy horses of England, as
it was of the parent stock from across the channel. They
were of immense size, with great strength, but were heavy,
dull and sluggish in temperament, and slow and awkward
in motion. Prof. Low, writing of these horses in his “ Do-
mesticated Animals of the British Islands,” says :

The modern English Black horse retains the general charac-
teristics of the pre-existing race, but greatly modified. His color
is usually a sooty black, with frequently a white lozenge-shaped
mark on the forehead; and he has very generally one or more of
the feet and part of the legs, and not unfrequently the muzzle,
white. His body is massive, compact and round; his limbs are
stout, his chest is enormously broad, and his neck and back are
short. His mane is thick and somewhat frizzled, and his legs
below the knee and hock are hairy down to the heels. His whole
aspect conveys the idea of great physical power without corre-
sponding action. The main defects of his conformation and
temperament are his too great bulk of body and want of action
and mettle. For a pull with a heavy weight he is admirable; but
he steps out short, and is slow in all his motions.

These powerful horses are in extensive demand, not only in
the midland counties, where they are reared, but over all the

104 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

south of England, for the labors of the field, and for wagons and
heavy carriages of all kinds. They are everywhere to be seen,
moving at a slow pace, in the numerous heavy wagons by which
merchandise is conveyed inland, and in great numbers in all the
larger cities and sea-port towns, where they are used for trans-
port of heavy goods at wharfs, for the carriage of coals, timber,
building materials, and for a thousand purposes. In London,
where the largest and finest are in demand for the carts of brew-
ers, the wagons of coal merchants, and other uses, the stranger
sees with admiration the vast number of enormous carriages in
endless motion through the crowded streets, drawn by teams of
the largest horses in the world; and, doubtless, there is something
noble in the aspect of these huge creatures, yoked in lines, and
obedient to the voice amidst all the tumult of a great city; but
examination shows that there is an excessive waste of power, both
in the unnecessary bulk of the animals and in the manner in
which their services are performed. They are. usually attached
in lines, which causes them to pull by sudden jerks and with un-
equal force; and, in turning the corners of narrow streets and
lanes, it is often seen that the entire weight of the enormous car-
riage is thrown, for a time, upon the shaft horse. It is contended
by many that extreme weight and bulk of body are necessary for
these horses to enable them to resist the jolting and sudden
obstacles encountered on the rough payement which they never
leave. But, in truth, it is habit and a species of pride which lead
the owners of wagons to prefer the largest and most showy horses
to those of moderate size and more useful action; for experience
can not but show that it is muscular force and not the vis inertice
of great weight of body which best enables a horse to overcome
continued obstacles. The mere gratification of taste, however, in
the employment of these splendid horses would scarcely require a
passing censure were it not that this gratification exercises
a really hurtful influence in the breeding districts, causing atten-
tion to be directed to size and appearance rather than to useful
properties, and tending to perpetuate that unnecessary bulk of
body which constitutes so great a defect in the breed. Nor is this
influence unimportant in degree; for it is to be observed that the
demand for horses of the largest class is not confined to the
capital, but extends to all the numerous cities and populous towns
where drays and wagons are in use, When animals of the largest

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 105

size are in demand, and the highest prices are paid for them, it
becomes the interest of breeders to employ large stallions and
use every means to favor the development of size in individuals.
In the counties of Lincoln and Cambridge, whence the great Lon-
don drays are chiefly supplied, a breeder measures his success
by the stature of the individuals which he is able to rear. At the
age of two and one-half years the colts are often seventeen hands
high. They are bought at this age by graziers near the capital
and used in the light work of the plow until four years old,
when they are fit for the services to which they are destined, and
disposed of at high prices.

In 1879 a society was organized in England for the pur-
pose of preparing and publishing a stud book of the Shire
or Cart horse of England, and in February, 1880, the first
volume of the work, which has since grown to five volumes,
was issued. In an introduction to this first volume by R.
S. Reynolds, M. R. C. V.S%., it is stated that:

The draft horse of the present day undoubtedly, and unfor-
tunately, is one of mixed and impure breed; there exist few,
if any, whose genealogy on both dam/’s and sire’s side can
be traced for even four generations. The assumption of an ad-
mixture of extrinsic blood is made more evident by comparison
of the conformation and color of the existing race with the Shire
horse of seventy years ago. Authorities upon horse-breeding
forty or fifty years since were ceaseless in their objections to the
slow, ponderous movement of the draft horses of their day, and
strongly urged the necessity for crossing them with animals of
more slender build, in order to attain increased activity and
quicker pace. A large section of the horse-working community
is now suffering from a too extended application of this crossing,
possibly because breeders did not pursue an intelligent and syste-
matic course in the selection of suitable animals for the attain-
_ment of their intended object, leaving too much to fortuitous
circumstances, and probably attaching too much importance to
activity, which, if attained at the expense of deterioration in
strength, becomes a defect for the purposes of town work.

For the business of commercial centers like Liverpool, for
instance, where the team work is subordinate to the dock, ware-

8

106 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

house and railway regulations, rapidity of movement is found to
be a very secondary desideratum to the possession of individual
strength. Under these conditions a team (two) of dray horses
must be fully capable of working a net load of five tons, the
task of shafting which it is obvious no lightly-built animal can
accomplish satisfactorily.

A written description of a high-class Shire stallion of sixty
years ago may, for the purpose of comparison, possess consider-
able interest to breeders of the present time. Such a sketch can,
of course, but very imperfectly convey to the reader’s mind an
idea of the conformation of one of these old sires, but it may
possibly afford a framework whereon his imagination can build
those features which a literary representation fails to make clear.

With very few exceptions (and those exceptions chestnut),
black, dark brown and grey are the only colors met with in the
descriptions of draft stallions living in the first quarter of the
present century. To account for this limitation two reasons may
be advanced: firstly, fashion in color may have been considered
a very important element in the selection of a sire; secondly, the
light browns, bays, chestnuts and roans of the present day are
probably due to extensive infusions of light-horse blood.

Whichever of the two reasons is accepted as the correct one,
inquiry among old horsemen leaves no room for doubt that
black, brown and grey were by far the most common colors of
draft horses. It is further ascertained that black predominated
over the two other colors, so much so that the eastern counties
horse was known and described as the ‘‘ Black Lincolnshire
horse,’’ also that the highly-esteemed brood mares of Derbyshire
were chiefly of that color. The color of the black horse was not
remarkable for intensity, but partook more of a very dark slaty
hue, some few specimens of which are now occasionally seen in
Lincolnshire. In the majority of cases these black horses were
marked to avery considerable extent with white upon the legs
and face. In Derbyshire the white facial markings often gave
rise to the names of horses; for instance, the numerous ‘‘Blazes”’
were undoubtedly so called from the possession of a blaze face;
other appellations, as ‘“‘Ball,’’ ‘“Bald horse,”’ ‘‘Balled-faced horse,’’
more rarely met with, possibly implied a greater suffusion with
white than the title ““Blaze.”’

In Staffordshire the prevailing color appears to have been

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 107

brown; as early as 1806 horses are described as descendants of
the ‘“‘old brown Staffordshire breed.’’ Grey horses appear to
have been more common in counties south of Derbyshire and
Staffordshire, but it is probable that the coats of many of the
so-called black horses had interspersed therein a considerable
sprinkling of white hairs, and that they were occasionally
described as greys; there is one instance, about forty years ago,
of an Oxfordshire horse being sometimes described as a black
and at another period a grey.

The head was large in all its dimensions, well placed on the
neck by strong, broad and deep attachment; the forehead and
face wide, expressive and intelligent ; a side-view of the jaws and
muzzle represented those parts to be remarkable for depth; the
ears were small and carried slightly outwards; the eyes somewhat
small, not prominent, but generally mild and moderately intelli-
gent in expression; the nostrils and mouth large, firm and well
closed; the neck was long, arched and remarkable for its depth,
and for the strength of its insertion between the shoulder-blades,
not as it is now frequently seen, badly placed, by having the
appearance of being fused, as it were, upon the front edge of the
blade-bones, a conformation affording insufficient room for the
collar, and therefore one most defective for the purposes of
heavy draft. The shoulders were massive, muscular, upright,
low and thick at the withers, thrown well outwards beyond the
insertion of the neck by the front ribs being properly arched.
The fore arm was long, strong and muscular; the knee broad and
flat in all its aspects; the fore and hind canons short and thick,
frequently measuring upwards of twelve inches in circumference,
covered with coarse skin, and having a ‘‘beefy”’ appearance and
touch, more marked in advanced age than in youth. The pastern
bones of the fore leg were very short, strong and upright, those
of the hind leg being much more obliquely placed. The feet, as
a rule, especially the fore ones, were large, flat, weak at the heels,
and invested with horn of somewhat soft and spongy texture.
Thighs narrow, being insufficiently clothed with muscle on their
inner aspects to prevent the appearance of what is vulgarly but
characteristically termed ‘split up.’? The hocks were of rather
defective formation, but showing little predisposition to disease,
generally too short, too round, and not sharply defined ; for these
reasons it may be inferred that the hind action was limited and

108 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

comparatively wanting in elasticity. The general contour of the
hind legs was considerably bent, the hocks being thrown back-
ward and the feet forward. The breast wide and full of muscle,
indicative of great strength rather than quick movement; the
back longer, narrower and ‘‘dipping’’ rather too much behind
the withers. The heart-ribs were well arched, but not very deep:
the hinder ones were also rounded, but short, the last one placed
too far forward, giving to the body an appearance of undue
length and ‘“‘lightness.’’ The croup bent at considerable angle,
denoting what would now be considered want of quality. The
dock strong and thick, with powerful broad attachment to the
trunk.

The tout ensemble of the stallion exhibited grand development
of the fore-hand, which rendered the appearance of the hind
parts very mean by comparison—a conformation, however, that
a moment’s reflection will show to be in perfect accord with nat-
ural ordination; from mankind downward, in the scale of mam-
malian creation, the entire male is deficient in that development
of the posterior parts so notable in the perfect female of each
species, and for apparent reasons.

The growth of hair upon these old stallions was remarkably
luxuriant, that of the mane and tail being abundant, strong in
texture, glossy, and very often several feet in length. The can-
ons, fetlocks and coronets, both fore and hind, were garnished
with a profusion of coarse long hair, distinctive of the Cart horse
breed. The silky growth in corresponding situations of the pres-
ent day has probably become thus modified from the admixture
of extrinsic blood, from local influences, from altered methods
in the system of rearing and managing young stock, or from a
combination of two or all these causes.

It is perhaps worthy of observation that there were, and still
remain, some specimens of three apparently distinct types of
draft horses exemplified by differences in the local distribution
of long hair:

First. Horses having the upper lip garnished with a long,
thick mustache, considered at one time a distinguishing charac-
teristic of the Lincolnshire horse. The color of these appendages
is always black, white, or a mixture of the two, and invariably
corresponds with the hue of the skin from which they spring.

Second. Horses having the lips, muzzle and eyelids destitute

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 109

of hair. The skin in these situations, being either entirely bald
or covered with exceedingly fine down, is almost invariably flesh-
colored, sometimes marked with small dark spots and blotches.
Specimens of this type may possibly have originated the appella-
tions ‘‘bald horse”’ and ‘‘balled-faced horse.”’

Third. Horses having along tuft of hair growing from the
front of each knee, and rarer examples having also a similar
growth (quite distinct from the ordinary hair of the back of the
canons) from the hind part of the hock, just below its point.
Animals of this type are now seldom seen. In my experience
they are more frequently met with in Wales than in the English
shires, though no reason can be assigned why that is so. It is
found that these peculiar hirsute growths invariably accompany
a luxuriant development of long hair in its ordinary situations,
and generally a more than ordinary strength of bone below the
knees and hocks. Sex does not appear to exert any influence in
determining the special characteristics of any of the three types,
stallions, mares and geldings being equally prone to inherit these
peculiarities from progenitors similarly possessed.

These horses have long been extensively bred in Leices-
tershire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Lancashire,
Yorkshire, Cheshire, Nottingham, Northampton, Lincoln-
shire and Cambridgeshire; the last two counties named
perhaps producing the most thoroughly characteristic and
representative animals of the breed.

The importation of this great breed of heavy horses to
America has not been pushed with as much energy, nor car-
ried on to anything lke so great an extent, as the merits of
the breed would have justified. Occasional importations of
one or two individual animals have been made from time to
time, but it is only within the past five or six years that
they have been imported in any considerable numbers.
They are growing rapidly in popularity, however, in the
great agricultural States of the Mississippi valley, and
steps are now being taken to secure the publication of a
stud book for the breed in the United States,

110 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

CLYDESDALES.

To recount the origin of the Clydesdale breed, now so
popular and so extensively diffused throughout the United
States, would simply be to recapitulate much of what has
been written in the preceding pages concerning the origin of
the draft breeds of England, for they have been evolved
from the same original stock and by substantially the same
course of selection and breeding. We have the same origin
for both breeds in the great Black horse breed of Flanders.
We hear of their introduction first in Lanarkshire, the orig-
inal home of the Clydesdale breed, when William, Earl of
Douglas (one of the ancestors of the Duke of Hamilton, who
in later years became so famous as a breeder of Clydes-
dales), obtained an especial edict of “safe conduct’ from
King Edward I to take “ten grooms and ten large horses
from certain places in Scotland to certain places in Teviot-
dale in the King’s dominions.” This safe conduct was
issued July 1, 1352, and is the earliest positive mention we
have of great horses in Scotland. The editor of the Clydes-
dale Stud Book, commenting on this document, says:

Unfortunately it does not say where the horses came from; but
as Baliol held the Douglas estates it would appear as though
they were to be taken from Lanarkshire into Teviotdale, then in
possession of the English. Douglas’ quarrel with his kinsman,
William of Douglas, the Knight of Liddesdale, whom he slew,
taking possession of his estates; his rupture with King Edward
of England, and his turning of Baliol out of the ancestral] estates
of the Douglas family in Liddesdale, Annandale and Clydesdale,
leave little room for doubt that, if large horses did not exist in
Lanarkshire previous to this date, as the extensive trade done
with Flanders by the Scottish merchants lead us to believe they
did, some, if not all, of the black stallions found their way to
Douglas Castle, in the Upper Ward of Lanarkshire.*

* Clydesdale Stud Book, Vol, IJ, p. xvi.

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. Eish

Scotch authorities generally concur in naming the Upper
Ward of Lanarkshire as the place where the Clydesdale
breed was first brought to any considerable degree of per-
fection, and in the “Retrospective Volume” of the Clydes-
daie Stud Book we read that:

Some time between 1715 and 1720, John Paterson, of Loch-
lyoch, on the estate and in the parish of Carmichael, grandson
of one John Paterson, who died at Lochlyoch in 1682, went to
England and brought from thence a Flemish stallion, which is
said to have so greatly improved the breed in the Upper Ward as
to have made them noted all over Scotland. The Lochlyoch
mares were famous in the Upper Ward during the latter half of
the last and the first two decades of the present century; and a
Mrs. Paterson, of Lochlyoch, mother of the present tenant of
Drumalbin, now ninety-seven years of age, still has recollection
of a noted black mare from which many of the best stock in the
Upper Ward are descended. The family tradition is strongly
supported by the fact that the Patersons were in the habit of
noting down important agricultural items from a very early
period; and the present representative of the family, Mr. Pater-
son of Drumalbin, has in his possession a family tree of all the
descendants of that John Paterson who died in 1682. In the
year 1836, in reference to a day’s plowing given to one of the
Patersons on leaving Lochlyoch for Drumalbin, the following
remarks appeared in an Edinburgh newspaper, from which it
will be seen that their claim to being the founders of the breed
was then recognized. After descanting on the merits of the family
and kindred topics, the writer proceeds: “And it may be here
worthy of remark, that it was a brother of Mr. Paterson’s grand-
father who brought the notable stallion from England to
Lanarkshire—the sire of the famous Clydesdale breed of horses
of which the county has been so long and justly proud.”’

What were the distinguishing features of the native breed
previous to the introduction of the Flemish horse, about 1715,
can not now be definitely determined, but there can be little doubt
that they were mostly of English origin, and of a mixed char-
acter. The old drove road from Scotland to England crosses the
Clyde at Hyndford Bridge, and leads across the hills by Car-
michael and Crawfordjohn—the very center of the then horse-

149 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

breeding district; and the intercourse which the farmers would
thus have with their neighbors from the south, and the amount
of traffic done by pack-horses, would doubtless allow of many
opportunities for selecting animals calculated to improve the
breed.

The Lochlyoch mares were generally browns and blacks, with
white faces and a little white on their legs; they had grey hairs in
their tails, occasional grey hairs over their bodies, and invariably
a white spot on their belly, this latter being recognized as a
mark of distinct purity of blood. The mares died out at Loch-
lyoch about thirty years ago.

The Lochlyoch stock having been long noted in the Upper
Ward and largely drawn upon by breeders, there is no doubt that
to them, or, more correctly, to the black horse of 1715, the
Clydesdale horse owes its present distinctive character.*

There can be no question as to the fact that there has
been an almost constant mingling of the blood of the Shire
or Cart horse of England with that of the Clydesdale
of Scotland, and that at the present day the differences
between the two breeds are so very slight that many intell-
gent breeders of both England and Scotland have urged,
and continue to urge, that they should be classed as a sin-
gle breed, and that but one stud book should be maintained
for them. It is a well-known fact that the “English cross”
can be clearly traced in the pedigrees of some of the most
successful prize-winners and sires of Scotland. In 1877
the Clydesdale Society of Great Britain and Ireland was
formed, and the compilation of the Clydesdale Stud Book
was at once begun. The work has been vigorously followed
up until six volumes have been issued. This fact, taken in
connection with the organization of the English Cart-Horse
Society and the publication of its stud book, clearly indi-
cates that the lines are to be more closely drawn hereafter,
and that henceforth crossing between the heavy horses of

* Clydesdale Stud Book, Vol. I, p. xvii.

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 113

England and Scotland will not be regarded with favor.
Hence we may expect to see the draft horses of the two
countries each gradually assuming a more distinct type
within a few generations of equine life.

Further interesting information concerning the early
history of Clydesdale breeding in Scotland I quote from
the introduction to Vol. IL of the Clydesdale Stud Book,
as follows:

From the articles in a large and handsome work on our
“National Breeds of Animals,’’ published under the auspices of
the Highland and Agricultural Society, with beautiful illustra-
tions by Howe, it would appear that the Upper Ward farmers
brought several animals from England which bred well. Thus
in an account of Meg, which won first prize at the Highland and
Agricultural Society’s Show at Glasgow in 1828, it was said that
she was by a grandson of Young Britain, by James Thompson’s
(of Broomfield, Glasgow) Britain, a grandson of Blaze, a horse
belonging to Mr. Scott, of Brownhill, Carstairs, Lanark, which,
as mentioned in the history to the retrospective volume, won
the first prize at a show held in the Grassmarket, Edinburgh, in
1785. Blaze, which traveled in the Lothians and Berwickshire,
is described as a beautiful jet black, his legs silvery white to the
knees and hocks, and a broad white stripe or blaze down the
face. In a letter from Mr. French, of Burnhouses, who, at the
request of the editor of the volume, waited upon Mr. Scott, then
eighty-nine years of age, the sire of Blaze is said to have been
an English draft horse. This may possibly have been the case;
but from the description given of the heavy, black horses of
England of that period it is not likely to have been one of them,
but more likely a Cleveland, if not one of the lighter-legged
pack horses used in Yorkshire and other parts of England at
the commencement of the present century. The dam of Young
Briton is also reported to have been a Derbyshire mare. Meg,
which is a brown with white markings, the same color as her
dam, is a stylish, upstanding, lengthy mare, with an exceedingly
neat head and clean legs; in fact, she is what would nowadays
almost be described by west-country dealers as “gyp.’’ A por-
trait is also given in the work of a noted horse, Young Clydes-

114 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

dale, a stallion of considerable reputation at the time in the
Lothians and Berwick. He is represented in plow harness, with
collar and ‘‘breeching,’’ a costume now rarely seen on a stallion.
Like Meg, he seems to possess a thoroughbred look about the
head, in which is set a very full, vigorous eye, has a shoulder well
sloped, and an apparently clean fore leg, with a slight fringe.
His fault on the portrait, which, it has to be remarked, is drawn
from life, is want of muscular development in the hind quarters
and thighs. There is a total absence, as in the case of Meg,
of superfiuous hair, the pastern-joints and foot being clearly
defined. In color Young Clydesdale was a jet black, with white
markings. He is said to have been descended from Blaze, the
colors of the most successful progeny of which seem to have
been blacks and greys—colors not now in favor, the latter being,
as regards entire colts, very unfashionable. This is, no doubt,
owing to the action of the Highland and Agricultural Society in
restricting their competition to black-bays and brown-bays, and
Mr. Frame’s practice of castrating all grey colts.

Probably the directors thought grey an unsuitable color at
the time for horses for agricultural purposes. As the ban is now
removed in competition, and as grey horses look particularly
stylish in street lorries, little objection can be taken to them.
Grey horses, it may be remarked, are of a different original
stock to either blacks or bays, Campbell Smith, in his work,
being of the opinion that they are part of the original grey or
white stock of the Euxine, and that they are always of higher
stature than the bays, which are from Africa, the Teutonic word
bayard, from which, in his opinion, the word bay is derived,
signifying ‘‘a horse.’’ It is worthy of notice that the latter word
is never used to denote colors of animals other than horses. The
greys are always, too, it will be observed, strong, handsome
horses, and in days when the color was more fashionable among
breeders were preferred as cavalry chargers, hence those mag-
nificent horses of the Scots Greys which evoked the admiration
of Napoleon I at Waterloo. That the breed was distinct in
descent, till mixed within the past 150 years or so, may be noted.
from the fact that you rarely, if ever, get a grey unless the sire
or dam is grey, while the fact that you can get a brown from a
grey or with a grey stallion shows that the strain has gradually
been overpowered by the denser blood of the blacks and browns,

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 115

It has been remarked that the Clydesdale has been improved
as regards size and strength during the past thirty or forty years,
or since the period when Young Clydesdale’s type was fashion-
able. A good deal of this is due to the admixture of blood from
the south, which has, however, been done at the risk of losing
ancient important characteristics of activity and quality. Those
breeders who have worked in this direction have generally, how-
ever, kept the Clydesdale type in view, and no doubt many of the
animals brought back were crosses from the Scotch horses or
mares, which the south-country buyers purchased from time to
time at the Scottish fairs, but the pedigrees of which could not
unfortunately be traced. The breed, therefore, has not been so
much improved as some writers would try to make out, and at
Kilburn Show the merest tyro in horses could distinguish in their
classes the Clydesdales from the more ponderous but less active
draft horses of th2 English shires.

It is well known that the Clydesdale owes its quality and other
good characteristics to the pasture; sluggishness and coarse,
greasy legs being the characteristics of animals reared in Jow-
lying lands with moist pastures; while on dry hill or mixed sandy
lazds, the grass of which contains pienty of lime, active animals,
with sound, clean legs and healthy, durable hoofs, are bred and
grazed to advantage. * * * Indeed, to the rich sand-mixed
jands of Kintyre, the healthy herbage which covers the thin soils
of the Galloways, and the nourishing blades of grass which cover
the lime-containing hills of Lanarkshire, the Clydesdale of the
present day greatly owes his activity and quality, characteristics
which have always rendered him superior in the eyes of the
foreigner when viewed alongside his more massive market com-
petitor in the south, reared on the ‘‘wershy”’ herbage of the fens.

Modern Clydesdales are of all colors, bays, browns and
blacks predominating, although there are some greys and
chestnuts, while white markings on face, feet and legs are
quite common with all the colors. They have been exten-
sively imported into the United States and Canada, and have
exercised a very powerful influence upon the horse stock of
our country. No other breed of draft horses, saving the
Percherons, has been so extensively introduced, and be-

116 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

tween these two breeds the contest for popular favor has
been waged upon very nearly equal terms for several years
past. The question of color has always been a strong point
in favor of the Clydesdales with American breeders as
against their French rivals, the latter being usually grey,
while with the former dark colors are the prevailing ones.

The Clydesdale Society of America was organized in
1877. The first volume of the American Clydesdale Stud
Book was issued in 1882, and Vol. II of the work has just
been printed. Col. Chas. F. Mills, of Springfield, Il., has
been secretary of the society from its organization, and
has done a valuable service to the Clydesdale interest in
America by compiling the records of the early importations
and preparing for publication the two volumes of the stud
book that have been issued. The rules governing. entries
in this stud book require that American-bred stallions and
mares must trace to recorded sires or dams, or have four or
five recorded top crosses respectively, and in case of impor-
tation to be recorded in the Clydesdale Stud Book of Great
Britain and Ireland.

PERCHERONS.

The Percheron is an ancient French breed, originally
famed for its capacity for rapid locomotion with a heavy
load, and especially adapted to drawing the heavy diligences
or post-coaches used in France before the days of the rail-
way and locomotive. Tradition has long attributed to the
Percheron—confessedly among the most active and powerful
of the heavy breeds of the European continent—an Oriental
origin; but it was not until the researches recently made
in the compilation of pedigrees for the first volume of the
Percheron Stud Book of France that the extent to which
the blood of the Orient had entered into the formation of

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. ET

the Percheron race was fully realized. What the Darley
Arabian was to the English thoroughbred, and the Grey
Arabian Smetanxa to the Orloff, the Grey Arabian Gallipoli
has been to the Percheron horse of France. Diligent and
persistent inquiry in the family records and traditions of
the best breeders of La Perche has enabled the compiler of
the Percheron Stud Book of France to trace definitely a
large proportion of the most noted Percheron horses of
modern times to this Arabian sire, that was imported about
1820. In fact, this Oriental blood, wherever introduced, in
all nations and all climates, has been a powerful factor in
effecting improvement in the equine race.

There is every reason to believe that this breed, like the
draft breeds of England and Scotland, derived its size orig-
inally from the large Black horse breed of Flanders; but
from the fact that grey has for many generations been the
prevailing color it is evident that some very powerful
agency has been at work, modifying the type until it has
but little in common with this old parent stock except size.
In Vol. I of the American Percheron Stud Book it is stated
that:

The little of history that can be found touching this breed
definitely points to an eastern origin. Some French authorities
date its beginning as far back as 732, when France was invaded
by the Saracens, 300,000 strong, under the command of the
famous chief Abdérame. The utter defeat and overthrow of this
barbarian host by the French, under Charles Martel, on the
plains between Poitiers and Tours, left the fine Arab and Barb
steeds upon which many of the invaders were mounted in the
hands of the victors; and these horses, crossed upon the large,
strong native mares of that region, if they did not form the
starting point for the breed which, since that time, has become
so famous, undoubtedly had much to do with creating the
foundation upon which it was ultimately built.

Another large infusion of the same Oriental blood took place
upon the return of the Crusaders, who brought with them many

118 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

of the finest of Arabian stallions; and these were also extensively
used upon the already excellent stock of La Perche, and served
to stamp upon them the form and other distinctive marks of the
Arab to a still greater degree than they already possessed. The
infusion of fresh Arabian and Andalusian blood was kept up for
many years, at irregular intervals; the Lord of Montdoubleau,
Geoffroy IV, Rotrou, Count of Mallart, Count of La Perche,
Count Roger of Bellesmer, and many others of the nobility,
having been distinguished for the importations made by them
and the interest which they took in the subject of breeding
horses; and as late as about 1820 we find that two famous
Arabian stallions, Godolphin and Gallipoli, both grey, were im-
ported and extensively used under the direction of the govern-
JOAN 2) 0p Raa

Aside from the history and traditions of the country the
Percheron horse himself furnishes unmistakable evidence, in his
form, disposition, color and general characteristics, that he is
closely allied to the Arab. These characteristics have been mate-
rially modified, it is true, and the size has been greatly increased;
but, in the hands of the excellent horsemen of La Perche, and
under the careful and fostering supervision of the government,
which exercised a direct control over the selection of sires, he
seems to have retained many of the excellent qualities of his
Oriental ancestry; and this, added to the greatly-increased size
which had been attained, made the horses of La Perche many
years ago the wonder of the world for their specialty of rapid
draft—their ability to move a heavy load at a rapid gait.

It was this acknowledged superiority of the Percheron horse
in the diligences, post-coaches and omnibuses of France that
first caused the attention of the outside world to be directed to
them. It was not simply as draft or cart horses that they were
distinguished; on the contrary, had they possessed no excellence
beyond this they would searcely have attracted any attention;
for other countries possessed horses that, for the purposes of
heavy draft alone, were certainly their equals, if not their
superiors; but it was in that happy combination cf size and
form, which gave them activity, quickness of motion, strength
and endurance, that they were found to excel the horses of
all other countries. * * * But, with the introduction of rail-
roads, the use of the post-coach and diligence was practically

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 119

abandoned; and as this was the specialty for which the Perche-
rons we have described had been bred, so, with the new order of
things, came a demand for horses of larger type—greater weight,
a heavier bone and more substance were required—and since that
time the improvement of the Percheron in this direction has
especially engrossed the attention of the French breeder. eecey -

As the immense draft horses of the North (Flemish) were
closely allied to, if not identical with, the large breed that pre-
vailed in Normandy and La Perche prior to the modifications
produced by the introduction of the blood of the Arabian and
the Barb, heretofore alluded to, it was very natural that, when
the Percheron breeders found it desirable to increase the size of
their horses, their eyes should be turned towards this kindred
race, from which other countries had already drawn so heavily
for the same purpose. Accordingly, we find that mares in large
numbers were taken from these northern departments, and from
Belgium, under the various names of Belgians, Boulonnais,
mares of Picardy, etc., and were bred to the stallions of La
Perche. Stallions from the same countries were also extensively
introduced, under various names, and of slightly differing types;
but, notwithstanding the multiplicity of names arising from the
different departments in which they had been bred, and the slight
variation in form that existed, they were, after all, nothing more
nor less than the Flanders draft horses—the same blood that
had already exercised so potent an influence upon the horse stock
of Great Britain.

The new infusion of this ancient kindred blood has been so
general throughout the entire district which was once the home
of the Percheron horse, that it is now difficult to find a pure
Percheron as they were bred in that region fifty years ago. The
old type that once made these horses so famous has been sacri-
ficed to the demands of commerce for greater size; and for many
years past it has been the chief aim of the Percheron breeder to
produce a horse that should comply with this demand, without
sacrificing the activity, hardiness and docility for which the
ancient Percheron race was famed.

Subject to the change above alluded to, the Percheron is still
extensively bred in the departments of Eure, Orne, Eure et Loir,
Loir et Cher and Sarthe; and they have also found their way
further north and toward the sea coast in the departinents of

120 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

Seine-Inférieure and Calvados, embracing almost the entire
ancient province of Normandy; but nowhere are they found so
purely bred, and so nearly allied to the original Percheron type,
as in the five departments first above mentioned—their original
home. In that part of Normandy lying along the coast, espe-
cially north of the Seine river, the Flemish element seems to
have made its influence more strongly felt, and there the horses
possess more of the Flemish and less of the Percheron character-
istics than those bred farther south, in the heart of La Perche;
which will account for the diversity in the character of the horses
brought to this country by our importers. Those who have pur-
chased near the coast, or north of the river Seine, have usually
obtained horses that leaned strongly toward the Flemish type.
They are larger, coarser and more sluggish, with less energy,
endurance and action, than those bred in Eure et Loire and the
adjacent departments. They are better adapted to heavy draft
purposes than their lighter, but more hardy, active and stylish
relations of the interior, frequently weighing from 1,700 to 2,000
pounds in high flesh, and producing larger horses when crossed
upon our common stock.

In the report which I made to the Department of Agri-
culture in 1888 of my observations on the live stock of
Europe I spoke of the Percheron as follows:

I went first to the sales stables of Paris, fortified with what
knowledge I had been able previously to obtain upon the subject,
beginning with that of M. Vidal, a noted horse-dealer of Paris,
who has undoubtedly sold more stallions to American importers
than all the other horse-dealers of Paris combined. In reply to
my question he said: ‘‘Fully ninety per cent of the horses that I
buy to sell to Americans, for stallions, come from beyond Char-
tres, in the Perche; the others are picked up here and there,
wherever we can find one good enough for the market; but we
sell them all as Percherons.’’ The other dealers all told substan-
tially the same story. After spending a few days in Paris, talk-
ing with horsemen and gathering what information I could, I
determined to see the Percheron breeding district for myself.
All authorities agreed in pointing out Nogent-le-Rotrou, situated
about one hundred miles southwest from Paris, in the ancient
Province of La Perche, as the heart of the Percheron breeding

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 121

country. * * * On the day of my arrival at Nogent-le-Rotrou
a large number of Percheron breeders had met to consult upon
the propriety cf establishing a Percheron Stud Book, in order to
preserve the purity of the race and to protect themselves from
unscrupulous dealers in Paris and elsewhere. I was much inter-
ested in the discussion which took place. The gentlemen present
represented the principal breeders for some twenty or thirty
miles around, and I was told that they owned at least one hundred
stallions that had been kept for service this season. I questioned
many of them. Among others the statement of Mr. Ernest
Perriot, one of the most noted of the breeders present, is a fair
sample of what all had to say. He isa very intelligent gentle-
man, and has sold many horses to American buyers. I should
judge him to be about fifty years of age. His statement was in
substance as follows:

I have been breeding horses right here all my life, and my father
and grandfather were in the same business before me. We never breed
or sell any other than pure Percherons. We have usually kept six or
seven stallions each year for service. They travel around the country,
serving mares owned by the farmers at about twenty-five francs each.
We keep an eye on these mares, know where the best ones are, and when
the foals are weaned we buy many of the best ones each year and keep
them until we can sell them at a fair profit. I am sure there has been
nothing but recognized pure Percheron stallions used in our stud since
the time of my grandfather, and nothing else has been used in this whole
Percheron region within my knowledge. There isa tradition that about
the time my grandfather engaged in the business some Boulonnais blood
was introduced into this country for the purpose of increasing the size
of the Percherons, but certainly there has been none since about fifty
years ago. The true Percherons will now average as large or larger than
the Boulonnais. Neither Mr. Dunham, Mr. Dillon, nor any other Ameri-
can importer, has ever bought any Norman horses here. We don’t have
any such horses. You can see plenty of Normans in Paris; they are
small horses, mostly bays, and are used in the cabs and carriages. They
are generally half-bloods, got by English thoroughbred sires, and some
of them are out of Percheron dams, and they are usually calied Anglo-
Normans.

The same statements, substantially, in regard to purity of race
and the name, were obtained from all the breeders interviewed,
notably Auguste Tacheau (Province of Sarthe), Pierre Sagot
(Province of Eure et Loir) and Celestin Caget (Province of
Orne). In fact, so far as I could learn, it was almost an insult to

9

123 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

ask one of the breeders present if he bred or sold any other than
Percheron horses, and they spurned the term ‘‘Norman”’ with
contempt. * * * It was an agreeable surprise to me to learn
that so much pains has been taken by these Percheron breeders
to preserve the purity of the race. I had often heard it asserted,
even by some importers, that nobody knew anything about it;
that the Percherons were mongrels, and that no man in France
could give the pedigree of his horse. JI found, on the contrary,
that, while they have not paid much attention to preserving the
maternal genealogy, many of the sires can easily be traced six or
eight generations.

This breed has been extensively imported into the
United States, and has been variously known as Perche-
rons, Normans, Percheron-Normans, Norman-Percherons
and French horses; and inasmuch as this multiplicity of
names is very perplexing to the uninitiated, and has led to
no small amount of controversy (not always in the best of
temper), itis proper that certain well-established historical
truths should be placed upon record in this volume for the
information of such persons as may resort to it to learn the
facts.

The first importations of these horses that attracted
anything like general attention in this country were those
brought to Union and Pickaway counties, Ohio, in 1851,
and these were by their importers simply called French
horses. Another importation to the same region followed
in 1856, and yet another in 1857 ; but they were known only
as French horses. In 1865 J. H. Klippart, secretary of the
Ohio Board of Agriculture, went to Europe; and these
horses having become very popular in that State he made
their origin and history an especial object of study while in
France. On his return he submitted a report to the Ohio
State Board, in which he gave an exhaustive account of the
horses of France, and stated that our so-called French
horses were Percherons. In 1853 Col. Charles Carroll, of

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 1S

Baltimore, Md., imported from France a stallion which he
called a Percheron. In 1866 Mr. S. W. Ficklin, of Char-
lottesville, Va., made an importation of these horses, and he
also brought with him the use of the name Percheron. The
Hon. Wm. T. Walters, of Baltimore, Md., spent several
years during and just after the close of our late war, in
France, and while there he became so enamored of the Per-
cherons that, returning in 1868, he brought with him quite
a number of horses, which he called Percherons in this
country. He also caused to be translated and published an
interesting work entitled the “Percheron Horse,” written
by Du Huys, Master of the Horse to Louis Napoleon. This
book, together with the writings of Mr. Klippart and Mr.
Walters, and the usage of the importers before named,
served to fix the appellation of Percheron quite firmly upon
these horses throughout the middle and eastern States, so
far as they were known. Twelve years prior to the first
Ohio importation mentioned above Mr. Edward Harris had
imported four horses from France which he called Nor-
mans. These horses were considerably smaller than the
Percheron importations of a later date, and, although they
were extensively noticed in the newspapers of that day,
they failed to attract public attention to any considerable
degree.

In the autumn of 1854 Louis Napoleon, one of the two
French horses imported to Ohio in 1851, was taken to Ili-
nois, and, in 1858, was sold to E. Dillon & Co., of Normal.
This horse soon attained great notoriety, the Messrs. Dillon
showing him and his get at many State and County fairs as
Norman horses, and this name soon became quite generally
applied to them in Illinois and the adjoining States. From
1868 down to the present time the importations of these
horses have been very numerous, and importers and breed-

124. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

ers have used various names by which to designate them;
some calling them Percherons, some Normans, and others
combining the two names, some placing the Percheron first,
and others beginning with the Norman.

Matters were in this shape when the movement for a
stud book was inaugurated. At the first meeting called for
that purpose, which was held at Chicago in February, 1876,
and was attended by about a dozen persons, nearly all re-
siding in central Illinois, it was voted to adopt the term
Norman; and in pursuance of arrangements placed on foot
at that meeting I was entrusted with the work of compiling
a stud book of the breed. But when the book appeared, in
September, 1876, contrary to the original plan, it was called
a Percheron-Norman Stud Book. This action created a
good deal of opposition from those who insisted on drop-
ping the term Percheron entirely; and at the next meeting
of the association, held after the first edition of the book
was published, the subject was very fully discussed. This
meeting was held at Peoria, Feb. 14, 1878, and was attended
by nearly one hundred persons, about fifty of the number—
representing eight different States and Territories—being
active members of the association, which, at its former
meeting, when the movement was inaugurated, only had a
total membership of fourteen. The first motion made at
this meeting was one by Dr. Ezra Stetson, to change the
name of the association from “Norman” to “Percheron,”
which brought up the question of the name of the stud
book, and I was called upon to give the reasons which in-
duced me to depart from the original order of the society.
In response to this inquiry I stated, in substance, that:

When, in pursuance of an arrangement with the society, I set

about the work of preparing a record of imported French draft
horses, fully intending to carry out the instructions of the society

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 125

in reference to the name, I was met at the very threshold by
decided opposition on that point. I found the use of the term
Norman confined exclusively to the west. The society which had
inaugurated the enterprise comprised but fourteen members, and
these nearly all resided in central Illinois, while those interested
in these horses were scattered throughout all parts of the United
States and Canada. The stud book, to be of any service, must be
such as to commana the support of all sections. More than half
of those who were interested designated these horses as Per-
cherons. Those east of Ohio used this term almost exclusively.
In Ohio they were usually called French horses. In Illinois, Iowa,
Wisconsin, and elsewhere in the west, breeders generally desig-
nated them as Percheron-Normans, or Norman-Percherons, in
their advertisements, catalogues, etc., while the people in the
west, in talking of them, almost universally called them Nor-
mans. In the literature of France they were always called Per-
cherons, and so far as we had any literature in this country upon
the subject the same name was used. I stated my conviction that
it was the breed universally known and designated in France as
Percherons that gave name and fame to the French draft horses
that are imported to the United States. And that I had been very
much disposed to drop the use of the term Norman entirely, and
to call the book the Percheron Stud Book, several recognized
authorities, notably Hon. A. B. Allen, of New York, and Hon. J.
H. Klippart, of Ohio, having recommended that course. But, on
account of the previous action of this society, and the extent to
which the word had been used by breeders and others in the west,
either by itself or in combination with Percheron, I felt that its
rejection would work an injury to such as had advertised their
horses exclusively as Normans, and would tend to increase the
prevalent confusion. Accordingly I had adopted the compound
Percheron-Norman as the only one that would give general satis-
faction, in the full belief that my action would be endorsed by
this society upon a presentation of the facts. In compiling this
stud book I found myself acting for a constituency more than ten
times as large as the association in its membership, and I had
gone contrary to the instructions of the society at its inaugural
meeting simply because I had felt myself obliged to~do so in the
interest of harmony and by a decent regard to historical accu-
racy. Before taking this action I had consulted with leading

126 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

members of the society, and I felt sure that my course would be
endorsed.

The matter was extensively discussed by the members
present, and finally by a unanimous vote my action was
endorsed, the compound Percheron-Norman was adopted,
and the name of the association changed to correspond with
this action.

Very few were satisfied with this unwieldy compro-
mise name; people continued to call them Percherons,
French horses or Normans, as habit dictated, and the con-
fusion continued as great as ever. Finally the organization
of the Société Hippique Percheronne in France, in July,
1883, and the publication of the Percheron Stud Book of
France, seemed to offer a simple and easy solution of the
difficulty, and the American Society at its next meeting
thereafter, held in November, 1883, wisely decided to adopt
and adhere to the only name by which the breed is recog-
nized in its native country. The name of the society and
of the stud book was altered to conform to that used in
France, and it is henceforth the Percheron Society and
the Percheron Stud Book of America. At this meeting it
was also ordered that no animals imported after Jan. 1,
1884, should be recorded in the stud book of the society
unless previously recorded in the Percheron Stud Book of
France. All draft horses imported as Percherons or as
Normans prior to that date are eligible, and all animals
bred in this country showing five top crosses to recorded
stock may also be recorded. Foals from recorded dams,
got by recorded sires, are also eligible.

This society, which was formed in February, 1876, is the
oldest association of draft-horse breeders in existence, and
its stud book, the first volume of which appeared in Sep-
tember, 1876, was the first stud book ever issued for any

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. i

breed of draft horses. Three volumes have been issued,
and the fourth is now being prepared.

But there was always a party in central [llinois that
opposed the use of the term Percheron as a name for this
breed; and, notwithstanding the concessions made to them
by the Percheron party at the meeting in Peoria in Feb-
ruary, 1878, heretofore alluded to, in which they took an
active part, they eventually decided upon a separate organ-
ization; and finally, about three years ago, they organized
the “National Norman Horse Association,” and began the
publication of the “National Register of Norman Horses,”
two volumes of which have appeared. All draft horses
imported from France are eligible to record in this work.
At a meeting of this association, hela at Chicago in Novem-
ber, 1883, 16 was voted that from and after Jan. 1, 1884, no
imported horse should be registered that was not previously
registered in the “Norman Stud Book of France;” but as
there is no such stud book in existence, and as no such
breed of draft horses as Normans is recognized anywhere
in France, the absurdity of this regulation was so apparent
that at the last meeting of the society, November, 1884, this
action was rescinded, and the society resolved to ignore all
French stud books and pedigrees, and decided to base regis-
_ tration, as formerly, upon the simple fact of importation.

The organization of the Percheron Society of France
and the publication of a stud book for the breed in that
country will doubtless do much toward preserving its
purity; and if this book shall be honestly and carefully
managed, as I have every reason to think it will be, it will
afford a guarantee as to purity of lineage which has hitherto
been sadly lacking. Most of the horses bought by Ameri-
can importers from dealers in the large cities of France
have doubtless possessed a good share of Percheron blood,

128 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

but there has hitherto been no means of ascertaining the
facts. Our importers have had to rely solely upon their own
eyes and the integrity of French horse-dealers; and the
dealers of Paris, Rouen, Dieppe and Havre are no more re-
liable and scrupulous than the average horse-dealer in
other parts of the world. Those who have gone direct to
the district which was once known as La Perche, now com-
prised in the Departments of Eure et Loir, Loir et Cher
and Sarthe, where Percheron horses have for generations
been bred in their purity, and where the fame of the Per-
cheron race is still guarded as a priceless treasure, have
always been reasonably sure of obtaining Percheron horses.
But the Société Hippique Percheronne, which is managed
by able men of high reputation, and under very strict rules,
will hereafter furnish a directory of blood which few honest
importers will care to ignore, and the result can not fail to
add to the popularity of the breed in both France and
America.
OTHER BREEDS.

There are several other breeds that should be noticed in
detail, if it had been my purpose to include in this chapter
a complete description of all the known breeds of the world,
but I have chosen rather to confine it to such as are recog-
nized and known in our own country. Among these I may
mention briefly:

The Suffolk Punch, of England, especially distinguished
as an agricultural horse in that country, uniformly of a
chestnut or sorrel color, not so large as the Shire horses
or Clydesdales, but compactly built, round-bodied, short-
legged horses, rather light-boned for their weight, and with
the general reputation of being rather defective in the feet,
especially when used upon hard roads or stony streets, but in
this respect greatly improved of late years. This is perhaps

THE BREEDS OF HORSES. 129

the best established of all the heavy breeds of Great Brit-
ain, but they are not so universally popular even there as the
Clydesdales and Shire horses. It is possible that the fact
that other countries, especially our own, have not appeared
to demand horses of this type has had something to do with
their popularity in their own country. Very few of them
have been brought to the United States, and such as have
been imported appear to have attracted but little attention.
A stud book has been instituted for this breed, and several
volumes have been published within the past six years.

The Boulonnais is a heavy draft breed, found prin-
cipally north of the river Seine, and near the sea coast in
northwestern France, once the home of the old Flemish
breed, and evidently possessing much of the old Flemish
character. They are generally grey, like the Percherons, and
are usually larger, coarser and less active than their relatives
of La Perche; but there is no doubt of the fact that when
the demands of commerce began to call for greater size
and heavier bone than was characteristic of the ancient
Percheron race, the Boulonnais blood was largely called
upon to furnish it. Very little has been said or written
about this breed, even by the French people themselves ;
but taking counsel from the example of their more enter-
prising neighbors of La Perche, those interested in the
Boulonnais breed have set about the compilation of a stud
book and a history of the breed. The author of that work,
which we understand is about ready for the press, states
in his introduction that the Boulonnais and the Percheron
are the only breeds of heavy horses recognized in France.
It is quite probable that many of the French horses brought
to this country and sold as Normans or Percheron-Nor-
mans more properly belong to this Boulonnais breed.

The Shetland Ponies, too well known to need any

130 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

description in a work of this nature, take their name from
the Shetland Islands, where they originated, doubtless
through the effect of the bleak climate and scanty subsist-
ence to which the original specimens of the race have been
for ages subjected upon these islands. They are also bred
in considerable numbers in the north of Scotland. There
are other comparatively diminutive races, as the Welsh or
Exmoor ponies, the Norwegian ponies, and others of Europe
and Asia, but a deseription of each and all of them would
be more interesting to the student of natural history than
to the practical American breeder.

The Mustangs, or wild horses, that were found upon the
plains of Texas and New Mexico, and elsewhere on our own
continent, are a tough, hardy and usually ill-tempered race
of small horses, remarkably agile and sure-footed, and have
descended from the original Spanish stock brought to Mex-
ico by the Spaniards in their early efforts at the conquest
of that country. The Indian ponies, so common in our
western Territories, have undoubtedly the same origin,
and many of them, especially those that have been bred in
the higher latitudes, approximate very closely the form and
size of the Shetland pony. The hardiness and powers of
endurance of many of these horses are simply marvelous ;
but these valuable qualities are largely neutralized by ill-
temper and lack of size. Thoroughbred sires, as well as
stallions of the various draft breeds, have been used upon
these mustang mares with excellent results in most cases.
When tamed and broken they are especially adapted for use
in herding cattle upon the great ranches of our western
plains, and for this purpose the genuine mustang is the
chief reliance of the herdsman. They are bred, herded and
branded in about the same manner as that practiced by our
western ranchmen with their immense herds of cattle,

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 131

CHAM LER Hi:

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS.

If the reader has given any thought to the general sub-
ject of stock-breeding he must be well aware of the fact
that he can not gather grapes from thorns nor figs from
thistles. The general principle that “like produces like” is
true throughout all animal and vegetable life. Everything
brings forth after its kind. We sow pure seed and expect
the produce to be of the same kind. Wheat does not
produce rye; neither will oats produce barley. The rule is
just as true in animal life. The great principle that each
begotten creature is but the sum or essence of what has
preceded it admits of very few exceptions. We have only
to apply this general principle, with a knowledge of the
special characteristics of the various breeds and families of
horses, as portrayed on the preceding pages, and the
business of breeding horses of any given type becomes
greatly simplified. No man would breed to a Shetland
pony with the expectation of producing a draft horse, nor to
the ponderous Shire or Clydesdale with the hope of the
produce turning out a winner on the race course. The
general characteristics of the breed to which the parents
belong will be transmitted to the progeny ; and in propor
tion as the breed is firmly established and uniform in its
characteristics so will the produce be uniform in its char-
acter, Whatever has been “bred in the bone” will be

132 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

transmitted. A pair of Shetland ponies will produce a
Shetland pony with unerring certainty ; because in all the
characteristics which distinguish the ponies from other
breeds of the horse kind they are uniform; but we can not
count with certainty upon the color of the hair or the in-
dividual peculiarities in many minute details, because in
these minor points uniformity in the race has never been
established. But whatever has been firmly fixed as a char-
acteristic of the breed, whether it be peculiarity of gait,
form, color, size, disposition, or speed, will be transmitted
with a certainty in proportion to the degree of uniformity
which has been attained in that particular in the ancestry.

I have often referred to the heterogeneous character of
the horse stock of our country, which is a conglomeration
of every breed and type of the horse kind in the known
world. Until very recently no intelligent effort has been
made to keep any of the breeds pure except the thorough-
bred. We have crossed in and out without rhyme or reason
until, with the single exception of our thoroughbred horses,
it is scarcely possible to trace the pedigree of any given
animal four generations back without finding an admixture
of all the various breeds and types that have ever been
known. With such an ancestry it is not to be wondered at
that disappointments meet the novice on every hand. He
selects a fine-looking bay mare that will weigh nearly 1,500
lbs., in moderate flesh, clean-limbed and strong, and he
looks about for a stallion possessing the same character-
istics that he may couple the two together to produce a
first-class draft horse. He has been told that “like produces
like” so often that he believes it; and this theory leads him,
very properly, to think that from such a pair his hopes of
producing good draft horses will be realized. But he is
disappointed; the produce is not like either of the parents;

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 138

and he pronounces breeding a lottery, and the doctrine of
the transmission of the peculiarities of the parents to the
progeny a humbug. He forgets that heredity transmits
with certainty only what has been firmly fixed in the ances-
try; and he loses sight of the fact that his large, fine bay
mare was herself the produce of a mixed ancestry—perhaps
of a bay Clydesdale stallion and a little sorrel mare of un-
known blood, and that his stallion was probably got by a
half-blood French draft horse, out of a dun pacing mare,
whose dam in turn was a Mexican mustang... The posses-
sion of the desired qualities in the sire and dam selected
was an accidental circumstance; and intelligent breeders,
with a knowledge of this fact, would not expect that these
accidental qualities would be transmitted with certainty.

SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK.

In the application of these general laws which govern
the transmission of hereditary qualities to the business of
breeding horses the first step is for the breeder to decide, in
his own mind, what sort of horse he wishes to produce. If
his faney or interest leads him to breed horses for the race
course he must keep constantly in mind the fact that for
this purpose, whether for running or trotting, speed and
endurance of the very highest order are indispensable; and
here the least unsoundness will prove fatal. In order to
live through the severe ordeal of training, and the still
more trying one of the bruising campaign, which taxes the
utmost powers of the horse day after day, there must be
no weak spots in his composition. There must be no soft,
spongy bones and joints; no brittle or contracted feet; no
tendency to curbs, spavins or ringbones; no weak tendons
nor feeble lungs in the horse that is to prove a profitable
campaigner. No matter how much of mere speed the get

134 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

of any stallion may have shown, if, as a rule, they have
proven seriously defective in any part of their machinery,
he should be avoided as a sire by those who are breeding
for the turf, whether runners or trotters; for the race course
will speedily search out and bring to light the least taint of
unsoundness or weakness in any part of the organization.
Feet and legs, and bones and tendons, and joints and mus-
cles, and heart and lungs, and brain and eye, must each do
its part thoroughly in the great race horse. There must be
that nice adaptation of the machinery, and that firmness
and fineness of texture in the material of which the machine
is built, which shall enable it to withstand the tremendous
strain that is put upon it,and which distinguished the great
campaigners, like Lady Suffolk, Flora Temple, Goldsmith
Maid, English Eclipse and his great American namesake,
from the flashy ones that blaze out for a single season like
a brilliant meteor and then sink into obscurity.

It is this perfection of organism which enables the horse
to stand up, under preparation and training, year after year,
profiting by his education and improving with age, that
makes the really valuable turf horse. It is a quality more
valuable than speed, because whatever measure of speed it
possesses can be depended upon and improved. In short,
it is the quality which distinguishes the thoroughbred from
the dunghill; the great race horse that, ike a Goldsmith
Maid or a Lexington, will always be in condition to struggle
for aman’s life, from those band-box race horses and newspa-
per trotters that are never heard from outside of private
trials and breeders’ catalogues.

These are the considerations that should influence
breeders of horses for the turf; and no blind devotion to
a fashionable pedigree, nor mere promise of speed in the
youngsters got by any stallion, should induce us to over-

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 135
look a prevailing tendency to any unsoundness or lack of
endurance in his get. The number of heats and races
won, and the number of successful years upon the turf,
are more reliable lamps by which the breeder may guide
his footsteps than the record of colt stakes and mere tests
of speed.

The ordeal of the race course, and more especially the
trotting course, is very trying upon the legs and feet, and
here soundness and quality of the highest order is essential.
The turf horse that is always troubled with “a leg” is a
nuisance. Curbs, spavins, ringbones, weakened or sprained
tendons, “bucked” knees and stiffened joints are some of
the troubles that affect the legs of the horse and greatly
impair his usefulness.

The indications of a good leg are firmness, hardness and
smoothness to the touch, showing an entire absence of adi-
pose tissue; large, well-defined joints, entirely free from
abnormal appendages; firm, but elastic, cords; a short
pastern, short from knee and hock to pastern-joint. The
shape of the bone should be broad and flat, and the legs
should stand squarely and firmly under the horse, the toes
turning neither in nor out. The bone should be of good
size just below the knee, and flat; but large-sized canon-
bones, with strong, clean back sinews and suspensory liga-
ment are of great importance. “Curby hocks,” “cow hocks,”
“bowed legs,” “calf knees” and “over on the knees” are indi-
cations that are always unfavorable.

All these points are to be examined mainly when the
horse is not in motion; and when fully satisfied in these
particulars it is very essential to see that, having four good
legs, the horse has the ability to use them properly; that he
steps with a firm, free, elastic tread ; that the legs and feet
do not get in the way of each other when he is in motion,

136 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING. ©

but move freely, without interference, and yet without any
paddling or straddling motion. Stiffness of the joints will
be most readily detected by causing the horse to step back-
wards, and by seeing him in motion when first taken from
the stall, before he has been warmed up.

The feet, are, of course, a very important appendage to
the legs. In shape, a medium between a flat foot and a
mule-shaped one is to be preferred; and it should always
be of good size, with a large degree of concavity in the bot-
tom. The frog should be full and lively, free from thrush
or canker; and the hoof must be hard and elastic, with-
out cracks, and free from brittleness.

If all these details were looked after by breeders in se-
lecting brood mares, as well as stallions, we should soon
note a marked improvement in the legs and feet of our
horses; for there is not a single good point or defect among
those above enumerated that is not liable to be transmitted
to the offspring. It is too often the case that mares espe-
cially, after having broken down through some inherent
defect in the feet or legs, so that they can no ionger be prof-
itably used, are relegated to the breeding stud to transmit
again the malformation that made them worthless to their
progeny. Like does not always beget like in every feature
and detail, but in general terms the saying is a true one,
and defects are just as likely to be transmitted as good
qualities. Mares or stallions disabled or crippled by acci-
dent, and not from constitutional tendency or weakness in
any particular, may be safely used for breeding purposes ;
but those that have given way through weakness or defects
in any part of the animal machinery should always be re-
jected. Breeders of trotting horses have been especially
neglectful of these sound principles, and thousands of mares
with some speed, but with legs and feet so unsound as to

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. iY

cause them to break down under very slight training, have
been used for breeding purposes.

And so with any other form or type of horse that may
be mentioned. If draft horses are desired select breeding
stock from some of the best-established draft breeds. The
distinguishing characteristics of weight and strength—
which are the chief essentials in a cart or draft horse—are
quite firmly fixed in the Clydesdale, the English Cart horse
and the Percheron, imported to this country from Europe,
however much they may differ in other particulars; and they
may all be relied upon, with a good degree of certainty, to
reproduce their kind when judiciously coupled. But to
this must be added docility, soundness and endurance.
Given all these qualities, and then the more of action and
style the animal possesses the better. He may be in pos-
session of all these characteristics except the first, but
being deficient in that he is not a good draft horse. On the
other hand he may weigh a ton, but if he be ill-tempered,
unsound or lacking in endurance his value is materially
lessened. He may possess all the good points above enu-
merated, and yet be so deficient in energy and so heavy and
sluggish in his movements as to come very far short of a
perfect draft horse. Each of these qualities being desira-
ble, it follows that the horse possessing all of them in the
highest degree is the most desirable one. I do not propose
to enter into a discussion as to the comparative merits of
the various draft breeds. All have crossed kindly with our
native mares, and all have marked substantial improve-
ment, at least in the size of our draft stock, and some of the
very best results have been attained by a commingling of
the blood of two or more of these imported strains.

I do not believe it is possible that a horse can be bred

combining all the desirable qualities; the horse-of-all-
10

138 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

work is a myth that can not be realized. The general
farmer needs a horse that combines a good degree of both
action and weight, but the horse that suits him is not the
heavy draft horse that is required in the trucks and drays
of our cities, the demand for which is at present very imper-
fectly supplied. On the other hand there has always been,
and always will be, an active demand for fast road horses,
too light for general farm work, and with speed, style, docil-
ity and endurance as the qualities principally sought after.
Each of these types it will pay to breed, just as it pays to
raise the various kinds of grain; but if all the resources of
our country were directed toward producing wheat to the
neglect of other grains we should very soon find the market
overstocked and the business unprofitable. And _ so, if
everybody catches the draft-horse fever we shall, after a
while, have an oversupply of heavy horses and prices will
go down. There is room for all, and a steady demand at
good prices for good specimens of each type of horses; and
breeders of the best of ary breed need have no fears of a
serious decline in price.

There are several styles of horses that sell well at pres-
ent; and, in the breeding of any of these, farmers may,
under favorable circumstances, engage, with a fair prospect
of finding the business profitable. First, and highest-
priced, are the very fast trotters and runners; but these
very fast ones are not produced with certainty by even the
most experienced breeders, with the best of breeding stock
to work upon and the best of trainers to develop them.
But there is a fascination about it which attracts many
gentlemen of wealth and leisure to the business, the ques-
tion of profit and loss being with them a secondary con-
sideration. It affords them enjoyment and recreation,
and it is indulged in mainly to that end; and into such

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 189

hands the breeding of horses for speed alone, whether run-
ners or trotters, should be left.

The next class, in the scale of prices, is the large, stylish,
high-stepping carriage or coupé horse. Such horses may
be bred with a good degree of certainty, with the proper
stock to breed from, and there is but little expense attend-
ing the breaking and training. Such as prove rather defi-
cient in size, style and action may make very serviceable
farm horses; but to command the best price for the car-
riage or coupé there must be rather more of spirit, and
they must be rather more “rangy” and “leggy” than is
desirable for the farm. Such horses may be produced by
coupling large, stout mares with a good-sized, highly-bred,
stylish, high-stepping trotting stallion, or a stylish, large
thoroughbred. The latter is the course of breeding by
which the so-called coach horses of England are usually pro-
duced. For the better class of horses of this type there is
an almost unlimited demand, and they could be raised
in this country and exported to England at a very hand-
some profit. If thoroughbred or very highly-bred mares
are used to produce such horses, I would recommend
the use of a well-bred trotting sire always; and even
with cold-blooded mares deficient in trotting action the
trotting sire should be used. But if the mares are low-
bred, and yet possess a fine trotting gait, I should, as a
general rule, prefer a thoroughbred sire, the object being to
combine, so far as is possible, size, style and fine, high-step-
ping action.

Another class of horses, for which the demand is almost
unlimited, is the blocky, compact, low but quick-stepping
and active draft horse. For use on our farms and for our
city street-cars they are wanted of from 1,100 to 1,300 Ibs.
weight. For our omnibuses and express wagons the de-

140 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

mand is for the same style of horse, but heavier, weighing
1,300 to 1,500 Ibs., while for carts and for heavy freighting
they can scarcely be too large, provided they are sound,
hardy and active. The great trouble with horses of this
class is a lack of endurance. Too many of them have
broad, flat, brittle hoofs, or the opposite extreme of con-
tracted, narrow heels; both are to be avoided. Many of
them have unsound joints, especially the hock jomt; and
the bone is round, beefy, and of a coarse, porous nature.
In selecting breeding stock to produce this class of horses
especial regard should be had to these points. The hoof
should be of good size—neither flat nor contracted at the
heel. The legs should be clean and flat; the joints firmly
corded, free from curbs, spavins and beefiness. The flank
should be full and low, for that indicates a good feeder.
The chest should be wide and the girth large, for that indi-
cates lung-power and what is termed “constitution.” The
fore legs should set wnder the horse, and not be stuck on
the outside, “like a pin in a log.” He should be short on
the back, long on the belly, slightly arched at the coupling,
ribbed up closely in the flank, heavy-boned, short-legged,
compact, blocky, gentle, good-tempered, active, wide-awake,
but not nervous or restless. Such a horse will sell, and sell
readily at all times and at a good price, no matter what his
color may be; and his price will increase in proportion to
his size, from 1,100 lbs. un to 1,700 Ibs. The general farmer
can not afford to breed for speed; he must leave that to
gentlemen of means, who, with the choicest brood mares as
well as sires, and with every appliance for successful train-
ing, can engage in the lottery of breeding for speed, because
he can afford to take the chances, and because he finds a
considerable portion of his reward in the relaxation from
other cares which this business affords. But the general

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 141

farmer must raise horses that he can sell. He must do the
work of the farm mainly with mares that, while performing
their labor satisfactorily, will each year produce colts which
at four or five years old will be salable horses. He must
keep such brood mares as, when coupled with good stall-
ions, will invariably produce horses that answer the de-
mands of commerce.

There is no practical difficulty in breeding horses of this
class. If the mares be quite large, with a dash of good
blood, they may be coupled with a well-bred, large trotting
stallion or thoroughbred with a considerable degree of cer-
tainty that the produce will be good coach or carriage
horses, that will sell. But, as a general rule, our western
farmers, with their miscellaneously-bred mares, will be most
successful if they confine their breeding to draft horses.
With good French, English or Scotch draft horses for sires,
seventy-five per cent of the foals from ordinary mares will
make horses that, in fair flesh, will weigh 1,400 lbs. or over
at maturity ; and such horses, unless seriously defective,
will sell at good prices. There is no expense for training ;
the colts are broken by the farmer in doing the farm work,
and, as soon as they are old enough, they are ready for the
market ; and such horses can be raised as cheaply as a steer
to the same age. It will cost a little more at the outset for
the service of the stallion, because good, imported horses,
such as I have described, can not ordinarily be bought for
less than $2,000, and such stallions can not be kept at less
than $20 service fee. But this small additional outlay is
scarcely worth taking into account, when it makes all the
difference there is between a colt that will sell, as a four-
year-old, for $150 or more, and one that can not be sold at all.

I have said that the best available means for producing
such horses in this country is by a cross of the Percheron,

142 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

the Clydesdale or English Shire stallion upon our common
mares; but good judgment must be exercised in the selec-
tion of a sire. Many of those imported are unworthy of
the name—they have been brought here because they could
be bought cheaply and afforded the dealer a better margin
for profit than a higher-priced horse. The time has gone
by when the mere fact of importation should sell a horse
or commend him to patronage. Defects are quite as likely
to be transmitted as good qualities, and breeders must
learn to discriminate closely if they would breed success-
fully any class of horses.

Many people imagine that there is some great mystery
—gsome occult science—involved in the selection and man-
agement of horses for breeding purposes, but there is noth-
ing of the kind about it. It is only the application of good,
common sense and perfect familiarity with the points of a
horse, joined to a thorough knowledge of the best methods
of feeding and managing horses in general; because the
rules that apply in the selection of a foal that is designed
to be used for breeding purposes, so far as the appearance
of the animal is concerned, are precisely the same as if it
were to be selected for other uses; and the general rules for
the feeding, breaking and training for other purposes apply
here as well.

T will presume that the breeder has definitely decided in
his own mind what breed or strain or family he proposes to
select from. He ought then to try to find a colt that has
the longest possible ancestral line uniformly distinguished
for the quality upon which he bases his selection, and then
he should look carefully to see that no constitutional infirm-
ities have been inherited. If there is blindness—not the re-
sult of accidental injury—in the near ancestry, although
the colt himself may be apparently free from any defect in

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 143

his organs of vision, it is a point against him. And so of
any other constitutional defect, weakness, or infirmity,
whether of form, structure or disposition. Infirmities of
temper are especially liable to be transmitted. It is very
desirable that the breeder should know, to the minutest de-
tail, the character of the ancestry on both the paternal and
maternal sides; and the farther back they can be shown to
be free from constitutional defects of any kind the better.
The colt may himself be free from any serious defects; but
if they are known to have existed in his near ancestry
there is always more or less danger that he will transmit
them to his progeny. Every observant horseman of experi-
ence can call to mind numerous instances confirming the
truth of this position. The writer once owned a grey stall-
ion that was got by a grey stallion, out of a grey mare.
When placed in the breeding stud it was found that he
quite often got dun colts, even out of grey mares. Investi-
gation into the ancestry of this horse developed the fact
that his second dam was a dun mare. Here we had the
inherited quality of color lying dormant through two gen-
erations, and reappearing under the most unexpected cir-
cumstances in the third.

But while all these points are important it may not be
out of place to remind the reader that the man who expects
to find all the good qualities and perfect immunity from
fault of any kind, in any one animal, will look a long
time in vain. This ideal can only be approximated, never
reached, in any race or breed.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION.

The most frequent mistake made by inexperienced per-
sons, and even by many who ought to know better, is the
endeavor to have the stallion in fine show-condition by the

144 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

time the season opens. ‘To this end various drugs, nos-
trums and roots are recommended; the horse is kept care-
fully housed and closely blanketed; he is loaded with fat;
his muscles become soft and flabby for want of exercise,
and, although he may come out in the show yard at the
opening of the season, looking “as sleek as a mole,” and
apparently in the very pink of condition, he is in reality not
nearly so well fitted for service in the stud as he would have
been had this fitting-up process been entirely dispensed
with.

It may be laid down as a general rule, that a healthy
horse needs no medicine whatever to put him in condition
for the stud. The whole secret of successful preparation
hes in afew words. Let him be well and regularly fed on
healthy, nutritious food, with plenty of exercise every day, to
keep his muscles firm and hard, and let him be well groomed,
so that his coat may present a fine appearance. The skin
should be kept thoroughly clean by occasional washing
and frequent brushing and rubbing. The mane and tail
should be especially looked after, with reference to cleanli-
ness of the skin. If very dirty, soap may be freely used in
the cleansing process; and when this is faithfully attended
to there will be but little danger of having a fine tail or
mane ruined by rubbing.

The food should mainly be good, sound oats—-nothing is
better; but this should be varied by an occasional ration of
corn or barley; for horses, like men, are fond of variety in
their food, and an occasional change of diet is conducive to
health. Wheat bran is an invaluable adjunct to the grain
ration, and can never be dispensed with. It is the cheapest,
safest and best of all regulators for the bowels, and it is
especially rich in some of the most important elements of
nutrition, No specific directions as to the quantity of food

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 145

can be given. Some horses will require nearly twice as
much as others; and the quantity that may be safely given
will depend somewhat upon the amount of exercise in any
given case. Some horsemen recommend ‘feeding three, and
others four times a day; but in either case no more should
ever be given than will be promptly eaten up clean. If any
food should be left in the box it should be at once removed
and the quantity at the next time of feeding should be
reduced accordingly. As a rule, it will be safe to feed as
much as the horse will eat with apparent relish; and then,
with plenty of exercise, he will not become overloaded with
fat. The hay, as well as the grain feed, should be sound
and free from mould and dust, and the stall should be
kept clean, well lighted and perfectly ventilated.

The amount of exercise to be given will vary somewhat
with the condition and habit of the horse. If he be thin in
flesh, and it is thought best to fatten him up, the exercise
should be lighter than it otherwise would be; and, on the
other hand, if there is a tendency to become too fat this
may be corrected by increasing the amount of exercise that
is given. Draft horses should rarely be led or driven faster
than a walk in taking their exercise, and they will require
much less of it than the roadster or the running horse—a
moderate “jog” daily will benefit them. Iam clearly of the
opinion that in no one particular is there more faulty man-
agement on the part of lazy grooms and stable hands than
in the matter of exercising stallions while doing service in the
stud. They should not be walked nor jogged so long that
they will become jaded or wearied, but should have enough
of it daily to keep the muscles hard and firm, the appetite
good and to prevent them from laying on an undue amount
of fat. No draft horse, under ordinary circumstances,
should have less exercise than five miles a day, and the

146 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING

roadster and running horse may safely have six miles,
which in some cases should be increased to eight or even
ten.

The point to be aimed at in the stable management of
the stallion is to so feed, groom and exercise as to keep the
horse to the very highest possible pitch of strength and
vigor. The idea which prevails among many stable grooms
that feeding this or that nostrum will increase the ability. of
a horse to get foals is sheer nonsense. Anything that adds
to the health, strength and vigor of the horse will increase
his virility or sexual power, simply because the sexual
organs will partake of the general tone of the system; and,
on the contrary, whatever tends to impair the health and
vigor of the general system will have a deleterious effect
upon the sexual organs. A healthy horse needs nothing
but good food, pure air, plenty of exercise, with due atten-
tion to cleanliness and regularity in feeding and watering;
and when all these things are attended to properly the
drugs and nostrums that stable lore prescribes as “good for
a horse” would better be thrown to the dogs.

For the use of the stallion I like a box stall not less
than twelve by eighteen feet, without any manger or rack
whatever for the hay, and with a box snugly fitted in the
corner for the grain. Many prefer that the feed boxes
should be entirely. detached from the stall, to be removed as
soon as the horse is done eating. The hay is put on the
floor in one corner of the stall, and thus there is nothing—
no projections, boxes, racks, mangers, sharp angles, ete.—
upon which a spirited, restless horse may injure himself.
If, in addition to these precautions, the sides of the stall be
lined all around—doors and all—with stout boards, stand-
ing out at the bottom about one foot from the wall, and
sloping upward and towards the wall for a height of three

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 147

and a half feet, you will have a stall in which it will be well
nigh impossible for a horse to injure his mane or tail by
rubbing. In such a box the horse need not be kept hal-
tered, and the owner may feel assured that the liability to
injury is reduced to a minimum.

One of the most pernicious and dangerous of all prac-
tices, especially among breeders of draft horses, is that of
over-feeding in order to produce great weight. Draft
horses are not exactly bought and sold by the pound, like
hogs and steers; yet frequently the first thing one of these
draft-horse breeders will speak of is the weight of his horse.
“That stallion weighs 1,900.” “This filly weighed 1,400 at
two years old,” and similar remarks are specimens of the
“horse talk” most common among breeders of draft horses;
and they feed to produce weight, just as the man does who
is feeding hogs or cattle for pork or beef. It is an easy
matter to add 200 pounds weight to a fair-sized horse when
in ordinary flesh; and a draft horse that has less than two
inches of adipose tissue on his ribs is not fit to show any-
where—at least so the fashion runs.

Tt is not strange that horses so overfed and loaded
down with fat should be unable to work in warm weather,
or that their reputation for endurance should suffer. A
good roadster weighing 900 pounds when in condition for
work will make his mile in 2:30 or go for hours at the rate
of ten miles per hour; but load the same horse with fat,
until his weight is 1,200—which can easily be done—and
you can “break his heart” in three minutes on the road.
Goldsmith Maid was a marvelous trotter, and her easy, cat-
like strides carried her to the front in 2:14, when she was in
good condition to trot; but if she had been made as fat as
a show-yard Clydesdale, she would have waddled like a
duck, and a “four-minute horse” could have beaten her.

148 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

Endurance, as well as procreative powers, are largely matters
of condition, and draft-horse breeders seldom have their
horses in that condition which is favorable to great excel-
lence in either’ For the reputation which has, to some
extent, attached to them as soft and unable to stand up
under hard work, and as being rather uncertain foal-getters,
the breeders of these horses have only to thank their own
pernicious system of extravagantly high feeding; and unless
they abandon or considerably modify their position in this
regard the reputation of all our draft breeds is likely to
suffer still further. Liberal, and even generous feeding,
with plenty of exercise, is necessary to perfect development;
but feeding horses as we do hogs or steers, merely with a
view to adding so many pounds to their weight, is a per-
nicious custom, and should be condemned.

A well-informed writer in the North British Agricult-
urist some years ago animadverted very severely upon this
pernicious system of overfeeding, which prevails in Great
Britain to even a greater extent than in this country; and
his remarks are so pertinent that I quote from the article
as follows:

The number of useful horses sacrificed to forcing and feeding
for show and sale appears to be on the increase alike in England
and Scotland. Old Citadel, and other frequent prize-winners
among thoroughbreds, hunters and cobs stand the wear and
tear of show-yard preparation better than most of the agricult-
ural horses. A considerable number of promising young cart
horses and mares at the Royal Meeting at Bristol were overlaid
with beef and fat to the detriment of usefulness and soundness.
Abundant illustration of the evil is seen at every large show.
Several of the Bristol contingent were sadly gummy and itchy
about their legs; several were puffed and full in their hocks, look-
ing as if they had been strained, and had got both bog spavins
and thoroughpins; from the same senseless high feeding several
had early developed sidebones. Yet, eyen with these notable

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 149

defects—doubtless regarded by the judges as temporary, and not
hereditary—several horses at Bristol managed to gain the coveted
rosettes. Can judges and stewards at important meetings do
nothing to carry into effect the sensible rules generally laid down
in their printed programme as to overfeeding, but systematically
ignored? Can not symmetry, style and usefulness be fairly esti-
mated without dangerously overloading the animal with beef and
fat? Should it be essential to the successful exhibition of a good
horse or bull that for months he should drink, as many do, two
or three gallons of cow’s milk daily? This artificial treatment
greatly improves the looks of plain, flat-sided, weak-loined sub-
jects; but it can not give the essential shape, style and action, and
besides the ailments already mentioned it engenders in horses,
as in other animals, liability to anthrax or blood poisoning, of
which quarter evil and splenic apoplexy in cattle are the most
familiar examples. Many gross overfed horses suffer from simi-
lar conditions; they take what at first appears to be a simple cold;
the throat becomes very sore, congestion, rapidly followed by
extravasation of blood, occurs throughout the lining membrane
of the air passages; treatment in such gross overfed subjects is
singularly unsuccessful, and in fifteen or twenty hours the patient
dies, suffocated from pulmonary apoplexy. Among the young
horses got up for town sale, as well as those sacrificed to showing,
it is wonderful to observe the amount of fat laid on, not only
externally, but around the internal organs. The omentum of a
four-year-old cart horse is sometimes overlaid with four or five
inches of firm fat. Heart, kidneys and other organs are propor-
tionally loaded. Amidst the fibres of the heart and other muscles
the enfeebling fat is also laid down, interfering with muscular
capability. Woe betide the unfortunate animal which, in such a
state of obesity, is put to severe exertion. Sudden death may
result from the giving way of some organ or vessel weakened by
the fatty degeneration, or dangerous disease of the air passages
or laminitis is established; whilst eight or ten months of careful
feeding and regulated exercise are required before such an over-
fed horse is fit for really hard work. Surely the reprehensible
fashion of forcing and overfeeding animals intended for work or
for breeding should be held somewhat in check by the considera-
tion of the dangers of such a practice, and by its serious inter-
ference with successful breeding!

150 A TREATISK ON HORSE-BREEDING.

It has been noticed that draft stallions imported to this
country are frequently troubled with what appears to be
chronic grease or scratches, which causes ugly, itching
sores on the legs; and, so far as my observation goes, the
horses thus attacked have almost universally been such as
have been kept in very high Hesh, with but little exercise.
From this fact I several years ago adopted the theory that
this diseased condition was usually the result of the course
of feeding and management pursued, and that no treat-
ment would avail to cure the disease so long as the cause
remained.

Acting on this theory I undertook the treatment of a
stallion that was affected as above described. Commencing
soon after the close of the season, he was turned out in a
small pasture lot, which was so securely fenced that there
was no possibility of his breaking out. From this time on,
so long as the grass remained good, no other food was given
him. His stable door opened into this pasture, and it was
at all times left open, so that he could go in and out at his
pleasure. When the grass began to fail, on the approach of
winter, he was given each day as much corn-fodder as he
would eat, but no grain whatever; always giving him the
run of the pasture. This treatment was kept up until the
ist of February, the horse being confined to his stable only
during the night, and not then except in extremely cold or
stormy weather. He was thus kept about four months
without any grain whatever, but with all the corn-fodder he
would eat, after the grass failed. As a result of this treat-
ment, without the administration of medicines of any kind,
he was completely renovated and cured, and no symptoms
of the disease ever appeared afterwards.

Another case, which affords a striking practical illustra-
tion of the effects of overfeeding and lack of exercise in

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FoALs. 151

the stallion, is that of an imported Percheron stallion,
owned for many years by the late Hon. Z. T. Chandler, of
Michigan. In July, 1876, the man in charge of Mr. Chand-
ler’s stables wrote me concerning the horse as follows:

This horse was imported to Baltimore in 1868. Two years
after he was purchased by Mr. Chandler and sent to this farm,
where he has ever since been. But he was put under very bad
management—kept in his stall, with very little exercise, some-
times for months not stepping out of his stall, not even to be
watered, loaded with fat—and of course he became a very un-
certain foal-getter. He came into my charge late in the spring of
1873 in this condition. That season he only got seven colts, three
of which died from premature birth. After the season was over,
not believing in that way of treating a stock horse, I put him into
the team, worked him steadily, fed sparingly, got his flesh off
from him, brought him to the next season in spare flesh, hard as
a plow-horse, required his groom to give him at least twelve miles
of good active motion a day, and he produced that season a very
fair proportion of colts. I have continued to handle him in the
same way, and he is now about to close his season, having booked
a hundred mares, very few of which have been returned to him.
His flesh is as hard as that of a plow-horse; indeed he is able, if
I chose to put him to it, to go into the plow, and, to all appear-
ance, do the best day’s work of his life.

CONTROLLING THE STALLION WHEN IN USE.

While the temper and disposition of the stallion are
largely matters of inheritance, yet much depends upon the
breaking and management. It is easier to spoil a horse
than it is to cure him of bad habits, after these are once
formed. If there is any appearance of a disposition to be
“headstrong” and unruly he should never be led out ex-
cept by a bridle that will enable the groom to exercise the
most perfect control over him. The one that I have found
most effectual is made by taking an ordinary “snaffle” bit, —
with rings of moderate size, and with the head-piece made

152 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

in the usual way; get a blacksmith to attach a well-polished,
round iron bar to the right hand ring, by means of a small
link connecting the bar and the ring; to the other end of
the bar attach the usual sliding rein used on stallion bri-
dles. Put the bridle on the horse in the usual way, and
then, with the right hand on the bar and the left on the
bridle-ring next to you, press the bar back and the ring for-
ward until the bar will pass through the ring in the left
hand. This bar should be made just as long as it can be to
admit of its being passed into the other ring in this manner,
and the bit and rings should be so adapted to the size of
the mouth and under jaw that, when a little pressure is
brought to bear upon the rein attached to the end of the
lever formed by this iron bar, the rings of the bit will be
brought within an inch of touching each other. The lever-
age given by this appliance, when well fitted, will enable
anyone to hold the most unruly and headstrong horse in
check. It is not necessarily severe when the horse behaves:
himself, and when he is not disposed to do this he can very
suddenly be brought back on his haunches by a moderate
touch on the rein. When the bar is not needed the rein to
which it is attached may be passed over the head and down
through the ring on the near side, instead of under the
jaw. I have described this device fully because it is cheap,
simple and effective, and yet it does not appear to have
been extensively used.

It requires some skill and a good deal of patience to
teach a stallion how to behave himself properly when
brought out to serve amare. He should never be allowed
to go onto her with a rush; but he should be led up on the
near side of the mare to within about ten to fifteen feet of
her, and made to stand with his head towards the mare,
about opposite her head; and when he is ready he should

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 153

be led towards her, and made to commence the mount when
at her side, instead of going for a rod or so with his fore
feet sawing the air, as is often the case. By observing these
directions there will be but little danger of injury to the
stallion by a kick from the mare when he is mounting,
especially if a good man is at her head to prevent her from
wheeling towards the horse when he approaches. The dan-
ger to the horse is always greatest when he is coming off,
because many mares will kick then that will stand perfectiy
still when he is mounting. To obviate this it is always
better for the groom who holds the horse to seize the mare
by the bits with his left hand at this moment and bring her
head around towards him by a sudden jerk as the horse is
coming off,

But in most cases, indeed in all cases where there is not
an absolute certainty that the mare will stand perfectly quiet,
the hobbles should be used, and then there can be no danger.
To make these, prepare two straps of very strong but soft
harness leather, two inches in width, and long enough to
buckle comfortably around the mare’s hind pasterns. The
buckles must be strong and well made, and in each of these
straps there should be sewed a strong, flattened ring. Next
prepare a collar-piece of two-inch leather, and about as
large as an ordinary horse collar, so that the mare’s head
will readily pass through it; to this collar fasten securely
two stout straps, each an inch and a half wide, and just
long enough to pass down between the fore legs and reach
the straps on the hind legs; attach stout buckles near the
ends of these straps, but far enough from the ends to leave
room to adjust them to different-sized mares; buckle these
straps to the rings in the straps that are fastened to the
hind legs, and buckle up short enough to effectually prevent

the mare from kicking, if she should be disposed to do so.
11

154. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

All this can be adjusted in a moment’s time, and by its
use all danger from kicking is avoided.

WHEN MARES SHOULD BE TRIED.

A point upon which there is great diversity of opinion
is when and how often a mare should be tried after she has
been served by the stallion. A mare will almost invariably
be “in heat” on the ninth day after foaling, if she is healthy
and has received no injury in giving birth to her foal; and
in most cases it is best that she should receive the horse at
that time, if it is desired that she should be kept for breed-
ing purposes. J can remember when it was the almost uni-
versal custom to try mares every week after they had been
served, but that is not the present practice of experienced
horsemen. The rule that now receives the most general
sanction is, not to try the mare again after service before
the lapse of two weeks. I have taken a great deal of pains
during the past four years to ascertain the views of promi-
nent, intelligent and experienced breeders upon this point,
and I find them, with very great unanimity, agreeing that
after the ninth day from foaling there is no regular period
for the return of heat, neither is the period uniform in dura-
tion. Some mares will appear to be in heat nearly all the
time, while with others it recurs but rarely and lasts but a
very short time; consequently if the mare, after service,
goes out of heat within a few days she should be served
when she comes in again, even if that should be within
nine days; but should the period not pass off she should
not be served again under eighteen days. As a rule, it
is best to try the mare again within from two weeks to
eighteen days after service, and then, if she refuses the
horse, she should be tried every week for some four weeks;
and if she fails to come in within that time it will be rea-

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 155

sonably certain that she is in foal. She ought to be closely
watched, however, for some weeks afterwards, because in
some cases mares will pass over a period of one or two
months, or even longer, without any appearance of heat,
and yet not be pregnant. Again, there are other mares—
and they are more numerous than one would suppose—that
will appear to be in heat and will freely receive the horse
when they are in foal, and even almost up to the time of
foaling. Such mares are always very annoying both to
their owners and to the keepers of stallions.

For convenience in trying mares it is best to erect the
barrier parallel to and about four feet distant from a solid
fence or wall, so that the mare will be compelled when be-
hind it to stand with her left side toward the horse; and
the barrier should be so substantially built that it can not
be kicked or pushed down. In many cases the only barrier
used is a strong pole fixed about three and a half feet from
the ground; but it is much safer and better to build up the
space to that height, close and solid, with strong material
of some kind, so as to lessen the danger from kicking and
striking. This may be conveniently done by setting three
posts firmly in the ground, about four feet apart, and nail-
ing strong oak or other hard-wood boards to these posts, on
both sides, from the ground up to the required height, and
then capping them over with a board of the same material.
When trying the mare keep the horse well in hand, by the
use of the bit, previously described, if necessary, and do
not let him get his nose further back than to the mare’s
flank. If the stallion is a valuable one, and is expected to do
much service, it will be best to have another horse of but
little value for a teaser, but when the service required is but
light it will work no injury to the horse to let him do his
own teasing. Occasionally a horse will be found to have a

156 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

peculiar aversion to a certain mare to such an extent that
he will refuse to serve her. In such a case it is well to
bring into the same inclosure another mare that is in heat,
and when his amorous desire is aroused by her presence he
can usually be made to serve the one that he had formerly
refused.

THE NUMBER OF MARES TO BE SERVED.

The number of mares that a stallion may safely be per-
mitted to serve during a season has long been a subject of
discussion among horse-breeders. It is generally held that
the two-year-old stallion will be all the better for not serv-
ing any mares at all, that a three-year-old should be limited
to fifteen or twenty services, and that a four-year-old should
not go beyond twenty or thirty. There can be no question
that the use of the procreative powers by the unmatured
horse tends to retard his physical development, and as a
general rule it may be stated that there is no horse but
would be the better for absolute continence until he is fully
matured.

But while this is unquestionably based upon sound
physiological law, and is the true theory of perfect physical
development in the male, there are advantages attending
the earlier use of the stallion to a moderate extent that per-
haps more than compensate for all the damage that may
result from it. It is very desirable, at the earliest possible
stage in the life of a stallion, to ascertain what his qualities
as a foal-getter are likely to be, and with this object mainly
in view I consider it wise to let the two-year-old serve a few
choice mares, merely enough to show the character of his
get. I should, with the same object in view, permit him, as
a three-year-old, to serve a rather larger number, which may
thereafter be increased with each succeeding year until he

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 157

is fully matured, when, if properly taken care of with refer-
ence to food and exercise, one hundred mares may be safely
served during the season. With the young stallion that is
to serve but a few mares I should prefer that these should
all be served within the space of a few weeks—say two or
three a week until his limit for the season has been reached
—and then let him be withdrawn entirely from the breed-
ing stud. He will soon forget all about it—will cease to
fret after mares, and will have nothing to do but to grow
until the next season. But when it comes to doing business
with the stallion he should rarely be permitted to serve
more than twice a day; and even this should not be kept up
for any great length of time. One a day during the season
is better; but the groom can not always do as his judgment
dictates in this matter. If the horse has had a period of
comparative abstinence. he may, if convenience demands it,
serve three times in one day for a few days in succession;
but this should not be kept up long, and a season of com-
parative rest for recuperation should follow this extraordi-
nary demand. In the great breeding studs of Germany,
under government direction, it was long held that from
fifteen to twenty mares was enough for a stallion during
the season; but the number has gradually been increased
without perceptible detriment, until now the number fre-
quently exceeds one hundred.

The number of mares that a horse serves during a season
appears to have but little effect upon the percentage of foals
begotten. We have no statistics bearing upon this subject
in this country, but such as we have from the books of pri-
vate keepers of stallions abundantly prove this position.
The condition of the stallion appears to be the controlling
consideration, and so long as he is strong and vigorous his
powers of reproduction continue. There may come a time,

158 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

however, when from overtaxing this power, partial or entire
loss of virility may ensue. The books of stallion service
of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian show the following remarkable
result:

Mares Per cent Foals

Years. Age. covered. of foals. dropped.
Teh be aS Re UV CALS Soaeeec ene Ob SN ah SN NETS is Lod eee ee
ILSb Psyc cero SHVCATS sy. ae Raaceee ees Shae aA Antara ee PO oea heaton 13
1 bola Hate eck Ie AV OQTB stole oeee oe eee es IGiLess oeoeMenrmer Listener rots ® 78
TS T5 Be Ce ees ae 5 years.. (ole eta ERIN ae ise eo eee 62
ICH coer eae 6 years.. BOD tee bier Go Se: eee 64
1856 TVOdrS see were 87 (Enea fos dis = 64
IESE a cree ear tcs Sr PAIS: ateee Moe ee BIBER ae eee ee (i pete cons 03 63
Gite aeoanoosEe OV CATS ans erect TiC onoatee ceo 1D 3 eee 54
TCH ae ie ees Ea TOSVeamsratas eee 95 Oe: ony ee 66
TOO Hse ee ks 1 Vears\ 7 fae eee coe TNO Clee neks Srartark SOS G8rc0 An eee 72
JECT le hee ee ae 2 VeOursn. one see OG Pe eset ie eens O92 Ro eee 68
1 TA eet LSIVGATSE ne. See DO nie reemie HOS cok eee 111
MSHS en secs e oils HAV Oarsoren. acne 150 Gill coe ee 92
Tete bees ena ae 1 DRY CASE maicms bea ioe es Gare ioe c OBL 0 POP REOR eR cc 148
SOD en tee Se 16syears? heen AIS Bia epcan tas aan AG Gio eee 128
SOO Roa eee 17 years. 105 ee eee 75
Lehi ee eee cae ESPVOCATS 27 eee rie taatey Tce he Pact cles see DS rhea ane 42
S68 eee cae LOCATON ieee. eae None

SOO teeta cr enc ADV CARS ts atv. caeecsyen 7p A Sa ARSE tae Sil Be eee ras Sixo.c 18
1870 DASVECASE Sse ene see DREN Ce sate tate Tile ee RE, Bi 16
TST licexsiraa en PPE Gs opeag Go DIOe ocd 2 SUR ee es eta coe Slide. ccraseeuaes 26
EL Siaiezaysvtne eavacreeys QOWVCATS: sect eee CUA Gs a aGoucho SU) ears. ere 24
die ocgeeomereeter DASVOATE,. cc beas ae tae vas aeeko saa ee re GD. cpa alate 20
heyy: eee Ree a ane ADV GALSiaacn tere 30 fed eectosanidads (ievrt apne Sess 24
TU Bo apiee rete ear AD VOATSaie sts econ A ees AS aa, eka A Sie ttanc seer 2

This table makes the remarkable showing of 1,331 foals
begotten by a single horse out of 1,930 mares served—an
average of 69 per cent of foals to mares served. His
average of mares served from the time he was three years
old up to the year of his death (not including 1868, when he
did nothing) was about 83 mares per year.

The statistics of horse-breeding in Saxony, from 1856 to
1862, inclusive (seven years), also confirm the position above
advanced. The returns for 1856 show that the stallions that
served 90 to 100 mares each produced a greater percentage
of live foals than those that served any other number, ex-
cept those that served from 30 to 40. In 1857 those that
served over 110 mares each produced 25 per cent more foals
than those that served a less number. In 1858 those that

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 159

served 60 to 70 mares got a larger percentage of foals than
any other, except one that served less than 10. In 1859 the
highest percentage belonged to those that served 50 to 60
mares. In 1860 the highest belonged to those that served
over 90 mares; while those bred to 10 or less stood lowest.
In 1861 those that served 80 to 90 mares lead, while those
below 20 show the smallest percentage of foals. In 1862
60 to 70 were the most productive, while those below 10 were
the lowest in the percentage of foals produced. From this
data, as well as those derived from the statistics of horse-
breeding in France and the general results attained in this
country, so far as we can approximate them, it is safe to
conclude that the number of mares served has no influence
on the percentage of foals got, and that a horse properly
treated may serve from 80 to 110 mares in a season with as
large an average percentage of foals as one limited to less
than half that number.

EFFECT OF AGE UPON THE FERTILITY OF A STALLION.

Another point upon which there has been much discus-
sion is the effect which age has upon the fertility of a stall-
ion; and here again we are left without any official statis-
tics of horse-breeding in our own country, and will resort to
those of Saxony. For the years above quoted, 1856 to 1862,
inclusive, we find the returns disclosing the following state
of facts: In 1856 the average get of the stallions, aged six,
nineteen, twelve, eighteen and fourteen respectively, and in
the order named, was the highest, while those aged eight,
nine, seventeen, sixteen, five and seven were the lowest. In
1857 those aged four, twenty, fourteen, seven and eight got
the largest percentage, in the order named, while those aged.
five, nine, eighteen, seventeen and six were the lowest; and
those aged twenty-one and twenty-two got more foals than

160 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

those aged five, six, nine, ten, seventeen and eighteen. In
1858 the highest average was produced by stallions aged
nine, ten, five, six, eight, fourteen, seventeen, twenty and
twenty-two years, and the lowest by those aged eighteen,
nineteen, four, three, thirteen and seven. In 1859 the per-
centage was nearly uniform for all ages. In 1860 those
aged seventeen, eighteen and nineteen led the columns,
while those aged four, twelve and nine were last. In 1861
the percentage was quite uniform. In 1860 a stallion aged
twenty begot twice as large a percentage as one aged four;
one aged ten stood the highest, while sixteen, six and four
stood at the bottom of the list. The table above given of
the get of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian also shows that in his
case age apparently had nothing to do with his fertilty.
Hence we conclude that, as in the number of mares served,
so in the matter of age, the reproductive powers of the stall-
ion appear to be almost entirely a matter of condition, and
that age has no effect whatever upon the percentage of foals.
EFFECT OF AGE UPON THE QUALITY OF THE GET OF THE
STALLION.

There has also been much speculation as to the compar-
ative value of the foals got by a given stallion at different
periods of life. The statistics of European horse-breeding
throw but little light upon this subject, but our own turf
and trotting statistics furnish us with abundant evidence to
prove that here also the age of the sire has no effect.

To illustrate this point I give the following list of
celebrated running and trotting horses, among the most
distinguished, either as sires or performers, that have ever
been produced in America, with the age of sire and dam.
The age of sire is given at the time of copulation, and that
of the dam at birth of foal. The list is taken at random
from names that suggested themselves to me on account of

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 161

their reputation either as sires or performers, and without
reference to what the figures might show:

Age Age Age Age
Name of horse. sire. dam.| Name of horse. sire. dam.
Sir Archy . Steenrod 9) Olitipa. .... an melo 10
American Eclipse. Gado? 9 12 Seendtiatt SUN Sa peed 17 15
Mexan tony .c.. see eve 16 14 | Duke of Magenta....... 24 8
BOBUOM Ete ee eee ae 18 19 |PParoleeere eee 18 11
HashiOnr wes 2222. saeecee il 10) Harry Bassettcess sose ened 8
ID INOG tees sree cee 28 6) |Sonefellowss-sonceeeee 13 12,
Weel art oenicncaor ily) (alereakneOssac sigan seo 14
Greyatiacleyns eee 6 Tiiord2 | MeWihirters =). o....s...2 6 9
NomuBowline ..7.t.... 5. 19 Seb raniolee) oo oeeee eae 21 8
Tenvbroeckessanc kee 6 10)) Melloweraftic. ssccence 11 9
IAGIStIC ES 558 bom. e 18 il MONSON: amc eae at 9
Leo S-< a We ay Se eae 5 ig | Inaquoisie- eis eS 24 11
Lita qblshs Saeeeratneie ae eee AS 13 10 | Lucille Golddast Be Fn ee 10 Pre
Sedmlteniae ch sone ae 14 SisEuntresss ata gancheeeeen) 29 12
Goldsmith Maid ........ AS SOr 9) Voltas oa 4 sere 4 12
Alexander’s Soeattan a A es | PProspeLrolnese cae 3 7
WMolunteent.e. ssch eel ee AS Dam eelero tive eee. sence 4 8
WExXtene se te. crt eee 8 LOPE aines eee os nen 8 ile
adyeMhornet: ssc. 11 Se Walkulit@hieiw: 2s... 15 7
UC Vee scien te ea ee 6 = | OraneerGirle ss 2e ee ee 21 13
Nutwood ene. 5 Indvanapolis) 0-22 -2ee. 4 12
Mages atts ees ee 9 9 | Woodford Mambrino ... 18 8
Hannay Ai. be.- cow baw os 10 -« |) Wedgewood. vo.ec6/scl.253 5 16
Mamilbrino Gilt 2.50.2 6 7 | Rysdyk’s Hambietonian. 23 #3
Scotlands ps eee 15 10 | Mambrino Chief........ 18 Ne
TTI Tas caine exons cise 4 AOS Damioy: ote nay nee tenee reel 6
STA ey ee ee ke OP (ee 14 Oh PeTedmiontep cess eee 6 11
Clingstone..... pthie sae os 9 6) Hdwin homens. ceee 7 fi
Daniel Lambert.... .... 9 Din Geos Wilkes ©.) “eae 6 8
JAVECYVC=“SCCas ciaele is onkeek 14 10;|\:Dictatorjseccn ect ee eee 14

Of the foregoing, Prospero, Dame Trot and Elaine have
the same sire and dam; Nutwood and Maud S. are half-
brother and sister; Mambrino Gift and Szotland are both
out of Waterwitch—the former by a six-year-old trotting
sire and the latter by a fifteen-year-old thoroughbred.
Woodbine at eight years old produced Woodford Mam-
brino by a horse of eighteen, and when herself sixteen she
produced Wedgewood by a five-year-old stallion. Hamble-
tonian got Dexter, his best son, at eight years old; Nettie,
his next fastest by the record, when he was sixteen, and
Orange Girl, who comes next, when he was twenty-one.
Volunteer got St. Julien (2:11144) at twelve years, Gloster
(2:17) at nine, and Huntress (2:2034) at seven.

162 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

PERCENTAGE OF FOALS TO MARES SERVED.

Still another question of great interest to horse-breeders
is this: What is the actual average percentage of live foals
that a given stallion will get under average circumstances?
In other words: What percentage of foals must a stallion
get to entitle him to be classed as a reasonably sure foal-
getter? And upon this there is often much loose assertion
without any real array of facts to back it up. It is to the
interest of stallion-keepers to make the largest possible
showing in this respect; hence they often talk at random,
and not infrequently misstate facts. Perhaps in most cases
actual falsehoods are not stated; but the parties do not care
to know the exact truth lest they may be compelled by self-
interest to state an untruth. Hence they find it convenient
never to make an exact estimate, and content themselves by
saying: “Oh, he got nearly everything with foal.” Now,
from a very extensive correspondence with reliable breeders
who keep accurate accounts of results, as well as from my
own observation, based upon an experience of thirty years
with many different horses, I am decidedly of opinion that
the average indicated in the table of the get of Rysdyk’s
Hambletonian is considerably above the general average of
stallions in this country.

But this question is removed beyond the realms of con-
jecture by the recorded results in the government breeding
studs of Germany. I give herewith a table which was com-
piled by myself a few years ago from the statistics of horse-
breeding in the government studs of Germany, as given -
by the late Hon. J. H. Klippart in his report to the Ohio
State Board of Agriculture. These statistics run back to
1859, and inelude all the intervening years up to 1874, except
1869, in which are shown the results at eleven different
points. The first column under each locality named shows

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 163

the number of stallions employed for that year; the second
gives the average number of mares served by each horse,
expressed in whole numbers and decimals; the third gives
the percentage of mares served that proved in foal, and the
fourth gives the percentage of mares served that produced
live foals. The table is full of interest, and may be studied
by horse-breeders with profit. It will be observed that the
percentage of mares that proved in foal, as well as the per-
centage of live foals dropped, varies considerably in the
different establishments. The highest percentage of mares
in foal was at the great Trakehnen establishment, in 1860,
when the average was 80.2; and here we also find the high-
est average throughout the entire series of years. But we
find the average running as low as 40 per cent in 1874, at
Wickrath, with only 33.3 per cent of live foals, while several
localities report as high as 62.6 of live foals. It would be
interesting to know the causes which produced the great
differences in these averages, and why it is that the stall-
ions in the Trakehnen establishment were so much surer,
or else a smaller percentage of the mares barren, than at
at Wickrath and some others? But the average result ob-
tained from this great number of stallions and mares for so
long a period may safely be accepted as establishing a gen-
eral law or rule that can be depended upon under like cir-
cumstances. (The tables above referred to will be found on
the two following pages.)

Taking the entire career of all the establishments re-
ported from 1859 down to 1874, with an average of over
1,000 stallions and 42,000 mares per year, as above stated,
we find the results as follows:

Aversace nerecenta7e) Of mares im TOAL, coq5 2c os emcee acl -+ eee -te ee le ese 67.
Average percentage of live foals dropped..................-eeee e005 Ode

Average percentage of mares aborted or miscarried........-..++se+- 4
Average percentage of mares dying or not accounted for............ 9,

A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

164

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166 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

If the foregoing may be accepted as the general rule, we
may state that the average stallion will make as much
money for his owner by standing at $10 the season, as he
will at $14.75 to insurs a mare with foal, or $18.75 to insure
a living foal; and that a horse that can show 53 living foals
to 100 mares served, is an average foal-getter. Whether
these figures will apply exactly to horse-breeding as man-
aged in this country or not is of course not definitely
known; but they are so nearly in accord with the results of
my own experience and observation that I have no hesita-
tion in accepting them as substantially correct.

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION AFTER THE SEASON CLOSES.

The condition of the stallion for the next season’s busi-
ness will depend largely upon the manner in which he is
kept from the close of the present one until the next season
commences. In most cases the period from the Ist of
October to the Ist of March is one in which the stallion is
not called upon to do duty in the stud, and usually but
little is done after July 1. It is a period of rest, of recu-
peration from the drain upon the functions of the sexual
organs which service in the stud has required; but it should
not be a season of pampered and overfed indolence, as is
too often the case. When it is convenient to do so, the very
best possible treatment that can be resorted to during this
period is to use the stallion at light work. If a draft horse
that has been—as they all ought to be—broken to work, let
him be driven moderately by the side of a quiet mare or
gelding, and worked regularly up to the Ist of February,
and fed enough grain to keep him strong and healthy, but
not fat. Oats will be much better food for him than corn;
but if it is found that he is becoming too thin, or if the
work is comparatively heavy, corn may be used part of the

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 167

time with good results. If the stallion is a trotter or a
roadster by all means drive him on the road. If you can
use him regularly as a business horse so much the better;
and, as in the case of the draft stallion, feed him enough to
keep him strong and hearty, and work him right along, as
though you intended that he should earn his living. This
I am satisfied from experience is the best treatment for
stallions of any breed, and will result not only in bringing
the horses to the beginning of the next season in better
condition than any other, but the probabilities are that a
horse so treated will get more and better foals than one that
is not worked during this period.

But in very many cases, and especially in large breeding
establishments, and with thoroughbred stallions, the course
recommended above is practically out of the question. The
next best thing, then, if the horse must perforce remain in
comparative idleness during the period mentioned, is to
provide him with a large paddock—the larger the better
always—ana let him have the run of it at all times during
pleasant weather, stabling him only at nights and during
storms; and, when kept under these conditions, it will be
best to dispense almost entirely with grain food of all
kinds. A run to grass during the late fall, if it can pos-
sibly be provided, will be one of the very best things that
can be had; but this will rarely be the case. The main
reliance in most cases must be good hay; but I very greatly
prefer corn-fodder when it can be had, as it furnishes a
complete change of diet from what the horse has been
accustomed to—a change that will prove highly beneficial
to the general health of the horse. Tt reconstructs him, as
it were, and makes a new horse of him, after a few months
of such treatment, and is certainly the next best thing to
the run at grass, before recommended. But while he is

168 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

kept on this food due attention must be paid to his bowels
lest he should become constipated—-a condition that can
usually be prevented or remedied, should it occur, by the
use of an occasional bran mash.

The necessity for this change in diet from grain to coarse
and bulky food, like hay or corn-fodder, is increased in pro-
portion to the degree of confinement to which the horse
must be subjected. There is nothing that will so soon
destroy the health and vigor of the horse, and especially of
his genital organs, as close confinement and high feeding;
and the man who expects to keep his horse in show-condi-
tion the year round will find that he has undertaken a diffi-
cult job. It will work in some cases for a year or two; but,
like constant indulgence in intoxicating liquors in man, it
will, in the end, sap the strongest constitution. A strong,
vigorous horse may be able to withstand the deleterious
influence for a few years, but it is only a question of time
with the best.

EFFECT OF CASTRATION ON STALLIONS.

It may be proper to supplement what I have written
upon the management of the stallion by a few remarks con-
cerning the effect of castration and the time at which it
should be performed. It frequently happens that it is
found desirable to castrate a stallion after he has performed
several seasons of service in the breeding stud, but many
owners are deterred from doing so from mistaken notions
as to the dangers of the operation and its probable effect
upon the temperament of the horse. So far as the danger
is concerned it is very slight with any horse in good health
and not enfeebled by age, if performed in pleasant weather
and by one competent to do the work properly; and the
idea that castrating a stallion after he has arrived at ma-

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 169

ture years will make him dull, sluggish and lazy, is alto-
gether erroneous. Such displays of animation as are ex-
cited purely by his sexual desires will of course be wanting,
but aside from these little change in his temperament will
be noticed. Any horse that is kept closely stabled and
given but little exercise, as is the case with most stallions,
will, when brought out, show a playful disposition; but
when put at regular work much of this will disappear.
Very few horses are gelded on the European continent, and
yet the stallions that are used for work are found to be as
tractable and quiet as geldings would be under similar cir-
cumstances.

Stallions are usually greatly superior to mares and geld-
ings in courage. It is a rare thing to find a stallion that is
“skittish,” or easily scared. In this particular castration
produces a great change in most horses. The horse that, as
a stallion, was not afraid of anything, could not be fright-
ened, and was never known to shy or run away from any ob-
ject, often becomes a timid, flighty creature when gelded.
The stallion in a herd of wild horses appears to consider
himself the protector of the herd, and, instead of flying at the
approach of danger, is rather disposed to stand his ground,
and in many cases even to act on the aggressive, and never
deigns to fly until the females of his herd are in motion.
This same cool indifference to danger appears to attach to
the domesticated stallion, and makes him much less lable
than a mare or gelding to take fright and shy or run away.

It is the opinion of most experienced breeders that keep-
ing a horse entire has a tendency to develop his shoulders;
and it certainly does increase the size of the neck. It also
gives a different expression to the head, so that the expe-
rienced horseman can usually distinguish between a stall-

ion and gelding, simply by seeing the heads, almost as
12

170 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING,.

readily as a cattle-dealer can tell a steer from a bull by the
head and horns. Itis also thought by most breeders that
this unusual development of the neck and shoulders in the
stallion is at the expense of development of the hind
quarters.

While it is the usual custom to castrate at two years old,
if the colt appears to be timid and skittish a greater degree
of courage will be developed by leaving him entire for a
longer period. If he is inclined to be vicious the earlier
the operation is performed the better; and horses, that as
stallions were so vicious as to be positively dangerous,
usually become docile and obedient after having been cas-
trated.

FIGHTING BETWEEN STALLIONS.

When several stallions are kept on the same farm or in
the same stable great care should be taken to prevent them
from breaking loose and doing serious injury to one another
by fighting; but in spite of all the usual precautions such
accidents are liable to occur. J recently read an account of
a combat of this nature where various means of separating
the horses were tried in vain, when it was resolved to
try the lasso. At the first cast one of the stallions was
securely caught, but it was only after three unsuccessful
attempts that the other one was secured. With a few men
at each rope the infuriated beasts were easily choked down
and separated. I have seen several conflicts of this nature,
and know by experience something of the difficulty and
danger of attempting to separate the combatants; but this
is the first instance in which I have heard of the use of the
lasso, and it occurs to me that it may frequently be found
to be the very best possible means of accomplishing the
difficult and dangerous task. The horses must be fearlessly
approached, however, to succed even with the lasso; for,

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. i Wf

while the fight is progressing, they are usually on their
knees attempting to bite each other on the legs. The
noise which attends such a combat is positively terrific, and
usually paralyzes the spectators with terror. The horses
rush at each other with a roar, and, when about to come in
contact, they usually wheel about and receive the shock on
the haunches. After a few seconds of contact at this point,
when the roaring is usually most terrible, they again wheel
about, endeavoring to grasp each other’s fore legs with their
teeth. To ward off this mode of attack each stallion usually
sinks to his knees, and then the battle begins in earnest.

When a jack attacks a stallion he almost invariably
makes for the throat of his antagonist; and when once his
teeth are closed with a firm grasp there is no means of
releasing his hold except to lay the infuriated beast sense-
less by a blow upon the head; and even then mechanical
appliances often have to be used to unlock the clenched
Jaws. Such a contest as the one last described usually
results in the death of the stallion; and when both stallions
and jacks are kept in the same stable the greatest care
should be taken to avoid the possibility of a combat
between them.

THE BROOD MARE.

The influence of the dam in the transmission of hered-
itary qualities is, in my opinion, usually very much under-
estimated, and it is frequently ignored entirely by horse-
breeders. Instead of writing or speaking of horses, or
classing them with reference to the female ancestry, as is
the custom with cattle-breeders, the female element in the
pedigree of a horse is almost entirely lost sight of, while to
the male is given especial prominence. This can not be other
than a serious mistake; and the man who keeps a worthless
animal in the breeding stud, simply because he can not

172 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

sell her, will not be able to compete with his neighbor who
reserves the very best mares of his raising for breeding pur-
poses, even though they both patronize the same stallion.
The mare certainly exercises as potent an influence upon
the progeny as the stallion; and while in exceptional cases
a very inferior one may produce a good foal, yet if we ex-
amine the records of the trotting turf we shall find that in
nine cases out of ten, even when the pedigree of the dam
is unknown, she was “a great road mare.” Greatness
springs from greatness, and every living thing brings forth
young after its kind. And especially in the matter of
soundness do I insist that the mare which is selected for
the breeding stud should be unobjectionable. There is
searcely an ili to which horse-fesh is heir that is not trans-
missible by inheritance. The precise disease itself may not
be inherited, but the constitutional weakness that makes
this or that organ peculiarly susceptible to disease is
clearly a transmissible quality. No one will pretend to say
that flatulent colic is an inherited disease; but we have the
very best of evidence that some horses are more subject to
this disease than others, and that they transmit this tend-
ency to their offspring. Acute laminitis may not be a con-
stitutional infirmity; but the peculiar formation of joint
that falls an easy prey to this disease is as clearly trans-
missible as are color and form.

CAUSES OF BARRENNESS IN BROOD MARES.

I have spoken at considerable length elsewhere of the
dangers to stallions from overfeeding. All that was there
said concerning the harmfulness of this practice as applied
to stallions might well be repeated here with increased
emphasis. It is undoubtedly one of the most frequent
causes of barrenness, and the dangers attending parturition

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 173

are more than trebled in cases of excessively fat animals.
Deaths from parturient fever, or milk fever, are almost
unknown in mares that are kept actively at work and are
in only moderate flesh at the time of foaling. A case well
illustrating this point came under my own notice recently
of a farmer who had four mares that dropped foals in one
season. The mares were all very fat and had been kept in
high show-condition for a year or more. One of the mares
died of parturient fever, and he lost three out of the four
foals.

I have had occasion heretofore to quote from that most
excellent authority, Prof. Law, of Cornell University. A
few years ago he prepared, at my request, for publication in
a journal which was then under my control, an article on
the causes of difficult impregnation and barrenness, and
from this article I quote so much as relates to brood mares:

Females that are not put to the male until long after they have
reached maturity are often difficult to impregnate for the first
time. This is frequently noticed in mares that have spent a
good part of a lifetime at hard work; and in these cases it may
often happen that the long inactivity of the generative organs
has produced an inaptitude for procreation. As a rule the dis-
used generative organs fail to acquire that permanent develop-
ment which attends on habitual impregnation; and even after a
single conception a long period of non-breeding leads to a strik-
ing diminution of the womb and passages.

But difficulty is often experienced in securing the impregna-
tion of heifers that have reached full maturity but are neither
old nor hard-worked, and the same difficulty is met with in com-
paratively young and idle mares. In such cases the trouble may
often depend on undue sexual excitement, which leads to a spas-
modic and rigid closure of the neck of the womb during copula-
tion, or to excessive expulsive contractions of that organ and the
vagina, and the rejection of the semen before impregnation has
been effected.

Another occasional cause of sterility in such cases is the de-

174 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

generation of the fallopian tubes, which have become blocked
by the abnormal fatty product, and no longer allow of the de-
scent and impregnation of the ovum.

The obvious preventive of these conditions is to maintain the
functional activity of the organs from the time of full maturity
onward. Itis a fundamental law of organic nature that struct-
ures and functions are developed in ratio with their use, so long
as this is kept within natural bounds, and the generative system
is no exception to this law. The cow or mare that is bred every
year is a more certain breeder than the one which is allowed to
skip three or four years between successive conceptions. The
faulty conditions resulting from this deferred or irregular breed-
ing will be individually considered below.

There is not a Scylla but has its Charybdis. We should keep
this in mind in avoiding the danger just mentioned, and not be
driven to the opposite extreme of breeding from very young
females, whose development and stamina will be impaired by
the constant drain upon it for the nourishment of the coming
progeny. It is notorious that females who breed too early fail to
attain the full size and development of their family. * * *
Females should not be put to the male until they are at least
verging on maturity. Above all, the system of breeding from
very immature animals should not be continued in the same line
from generation to generation, as that can only tend to accumu-
late and intensify the evil. In the exceptional case of a very for-
ward animal, where an early conception is especially desirable,
and where the young dam is either not allowed to suckle her
offspring, or is allowed to skip the following year without breed-
ing, the course may sometimes be profitable; but, as a rule,
breeding from immature animals should be avoided, for the
reasons above mentioned.

An excess of rich and stimulating food, and consequent ple-.
thora, is a common cause of non-breeding. In some such cases
there is an accumulation of fat, as referred to above; but this
condition is seen also in rapidly induced plethora, and where no
time has been allowed for the development of fatty degeneration.
Among others, the following conditions will serve to explain
these: With an extra tension of the liquid inside the blood-ves-
sels the tendency is to secretion rather than absorption; the rich
and stimulating quality of the circulating blood maintains an

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 175

unusual activity in the glands of the womb, and the result of
these combined causes is an excessive production of uterine
mucus, among which the semen is expelled before impregnation
can be effected. The rich blood is, further, a stimulant to the
muscular walls of the womb and vagina, and leads to their con-
traction under slight exciting causes, so that here again we have
an efficient cause of the rejection of the semen and its failure to
impregnate.

The correction for this state of things is to reduce the richness
and stimulating qualities of the blood. Many accomplish this
by bleeding the plethoric animal before putting her to the male.
This often succeeds, for it promptly reduces the pressure of the
blood within the vessels, and, by determining the absorption of
liquid from all available sources, dilutes that fluid and renders it
less stimulating. There is one objection to this course—that a
moderate abstraction of blood from a system full of constitu-
tional vigor acts as a stimulus to a still more rapid formation
of blood for the purpose of supplying the waste, and thus the
present success may be gained at the expense of a still greater
and perhaps dangerous plethora in the near future.

A preferable course is to place the animal on a spare diet for
some weeks before she is to be put to the male, and to further
deplete the system by the administration of one or two doses of
laxative medicine. For the mare, four or five drachms of Bar-
badoes aloes; but care should be taken that the laxative be given
early enough to avoid having it still operating when the animal
is put to the male.

In certain animals and breeds there is a responsive activity of
the generative organs, independently of plethora or other diseased
condition, and in animals of this kind impregnation often fails
to take place, because of the ready rejection of the semen. Such
excitement is, of course, greatest during the most active stage of
heat, and lessens as the period approaches its end. Animals of
this kind may often be got to breed if put to the male when the
heat is passing off, and when they will only just receive him,
though it would have proved a failure had they been served while
at the height of the sexual passion.

Closure of the mouth of the womb may often happen from
the unnatural excitability just referred to, the muscle which
closes the neck of the womb being so rigidly contracted that it

176 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

is impossible for the semen to enter. This may be easily cor-
rected in the large animals, by steady pressure with the fingers
and thumb, drawn into the form of a cone, until the tension
gives way and the hand passes freely into the womb. Just before
putting to the male, let the oiled hand be introduced into the
vagina until it reaches the round, projecting, puckered promi-
nence—the neck of the womb—at the farther end of the canal.
In the center of this projection will be felt the depression leading
into the opening. Into this it may be only possible at first to in-
troduce one finger; this is to be followed by two, three, and
finally by the four fingers and thumb, brought together into a
point so as to form a cone. When the passage has been suffi-
cently dilated the animal should be at once served by the male,
as delay may allow the relaxed muscle to recover its tone and
close the opening as at first. The same end may be attained by
introducing an instrument, with smooth, rounded blades, fash-
ioned after the manner of a glove-stretcher, and gradually dilat-
ing the passage. It is an easy process in the mare, on account
of the shortness and dilatability of the mouth of the womb.

Acute disease of the ovaries may prevent conception in two
different ways: ist. It may prevent the development of the
ovum or germ of the future animal; and, 2d, it may cause such
sympathetic excitement and contractions in the womb that the
ovum can not be fertilized and retained.

Ist. The failure to develop ova is met with when the whole of
both ovaries are involved in certain diseases. When, for exam-
ple, these organs have undergone complete fatty degeneration,
or when they are the seat of extensive cysts, tuberculous deposits
or cancer. The fatty change is extremely common in the im-
proved breeds of cattle, sheep and swine. The tuberculous and
cancerous taints run in certain families, and are to be mainly
obviated by rejecting from breeding such as are strongly pre-
disposed. To prevent fatty degeneration we should avoid excess
of all foods that are especially rich in oil, or that tend greatly
to the production of fat. Among these may be named Indian
corn, linseed cake, sorghum and beet. The females should fur-
ther have a full allowance of exercise to keep the lungs in full
activity and favor the oxidation of the fat-producing elements of
the food. Absolute rest in hot, close buildings is to be espe-
cially avoided.

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. PUG

2d. Sympathetic Excitement of the Womb.—When one ovary,
or only a portion of an ovary, is affected, the ovum may still be
produced; but such is the sympathetic excitement of the womb
that the fertilizing semen or the impregnated ovum is invariably
rejected. Cases of this kind usuaily come in heat at irregular
intervals, and, in some instances, sexual excitement is almost
continuous, so that the subject will neither breed nor fatten.
They can usually be recognized by their history and by the ex-
amination of the ovaries by the hand introduced through the
straight gut (rectum). Unless in the case of slight congestions,
or other removable disorder, such ovarian disease can only be
treated by the removal of the diseased ovary, and, if both are
affected, the animal is necessarily rendered barren. The opera-
tion does not differ from ordinary spaying of a healthy animal.

The tortuous tubes through which the ovum passes from the
ovary to the womb are frequently the seat of fatty degeneration,
so that they become at once blocked by the morbid product and
incapable of their normal contractions, and the ovum fails to
reach the matrix. When remediable at all, which is only in the
earlier stages and slighter forms of the change, this is to be met
by the measures advised for fatty degeneration of the ovaries.

Nearly all active diseases of the womb unfit it for retaining
the product of conception. Tumors, inflammations and eatarrhs,
or mucopurulent discharges, usually lead to the destruction or
expulsion of the semen or the product of conception, so that in
all alike the restoration of a healthy condition of the womb is a
prerequisite to breeding. We can not enter further into this
subject at present than to say that, in simple catarrhal inflamma-
tion, benefit may be derived from a daily injection of one-half
drachm of sulphate of zinc, one-half drachm of carbolic acid,
one ounce of glycerine and one quart of water—to be used tepid.

Certain kinds of food prevent conception, or, what is equiva-
lent, lead to an early abortion. Among these may be named
ergoted grasses, smutty wheat and corn, musty grain, and ali-
ments which produce scouring, indigestions, colics and diseases
of the urinary organs. In the same category may be included
the free drinking of iced waters when thirsty.

It has been frequently noticed that the persistent breeding of
near relations has resulted in a sexual incompatibility, which
rendered a male and female of the same family incapable of

178 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

breeding together, though each was perfectly fertile with stran-
gers. When we must breed close this should be guarded against
by having two or more branches of the same family kept ina
different locality and climate, the influence of which may thus be
obtained without changing the blood.

THE PRODUCTIVE PERIOD IN BROOD MARES.

The most fertile period in the mare’s life is usually at
from five to fifteen years of age. They may in exceptional
cases be put to breeding as early as at two years old, but
I do not recommend such a course, as it seriously interferes
with a symmetrical development. If from any cause a two-
year-old filly has been served by the stallion and become
pregnant it will be every way better to let her pass over her
third year without breeding, so that she will not produce
her second foal until she is five years old; but a well-devel-
oped three-year-old may be safely put to the horse, and she
may then be kept at breeding without intermission so long
as she remains fertile. At about twelve years the reproduc-
tive powers of some mares will begin to wane, but a large
proportion of them are quite as reliable breeders up to
about fifteen years of age as at any earlier period, especially
if they have been kept at breeding from their maturity.
Above this age they usually become more uncertain; and
regular breeders well up in ‘the teens” are comparatively
rare. There have been, however, well-authenticated in-
stances of mares up to twenty-six years of age producing
healthy, living foals. Old Fanny Cook, the dam of the
noted trotting stallions Daniel Lambert and Woodward’s
Ethan Allen, produced fifteen foals, and dropped twins
(one of which is still living) when she was twenty-two years
old. The great English race mare Pocahontas lived to be
thirty-three years of age and produced fifteen foals; her last,
Auracaria, being dropped when she was twenty-five years

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 179

old, and, contrary to what might have been expected, this
daughter of old age herself became a great brood mare,
producing, among others, the grand race horses Chamant
and Rayon d’Or. Many other very remarkable cases have
been reported to me—one by Mr. G. W. Henry, of Burling-
ton, Ia., of a mare, still living at the date of his letter (July,
1882), which then, at twenty-six years of age, had produced
nineteen foals, and was supposed to be again in foal.*
Several other cases have come under my observation where
mares have produced from fourteen to eighteen foals. But
these are exceptional cases, and no breeder can safely base
his calculations upon them.

T think most experienced breeders will agree that a suf-
ficient amount of exercise and work or training to thor-
oughly develop the physical powers of both sire and dam is
desirable; and, having this point in view, I would not rec-
ommend that a filly be relegated to the breeding stud until
she has been trained and raced for a year or two, if race
horses are desired. With ordinary road horses and farm
horses the young mares may be used sufficiently to effect
the same object while they are being bred. I am a firm
believer in the tendency of animal life to adapt itself to its
surroundings and conditions; consequently, I believe in
working the sires and dams that are to get and produce
work horses, and in trotting or running those that are to
produce trotters and runners. It is a law of nature which
should not be ignored. The famous old pacing mare Poca-
hontas produced her best foal (Mr. Bonner’s trotting mare
Pocahontas, record 2:2634) about five months after pacing
the greatest race of her life. Blink Bonny, the dam of
Blair Athol, ran many races in her younger days. The same

* THE BREEDER’S GAZETTE, Vol, II, p. 71,

180 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

is true of Seclusion the dam of Hermit, and of Marigold
the dam of Doncaster, and of Little Lady the dam of
Camballo, and of Pocahontas the dam of Stockwell, Rata-
plan, King Tom, ete. But itis needless to specify further;
the history of the turf furnishes incontestable evidence of
the correctness of the propositions announced at the begin-
ning of this paragraph.

On the other hand, I would expect but little, as a brood
mare, from one that had been kept continuously on the turf
or at hard, wearing labor, without breeding until past the
prime of life. The sexual powers must necessarily become
dwarfed, if’ not entirely lost, from long-continued disuse
after having reached maturity; and mares so treated have
usually proved barren, although some notable exceptions
to this rule may be named. But exceptions are not safe
euides for the breeder to follow. It is the general average
of results that marks the road to success in any given line
of business.

TIME OF FOALING AND PERIOD OF GESTATION.

When the time of foaling approaches the mare should
be turned loose in a large and strongly-made box-stall, or
if the weather is mild, in a lot or paddock. Everything
should be removed from the stall that would be likely to
entangle or injure the colt in its struggles to get on its feet.
There should be no openings under the manger or elsewhere
into which, in its struggles, it might chance to force itself—
many dead colts are taken every year from such traps as
these. If the weather is warm it is decidedly better to give
the mare the run of a good-sized lot, for it is noticeable that
when parturition approaches they usually have a decided
aversion to confinement. If confined in a stall or small
paddock the inclosure should be so secure as to prevent
any attempts at breaking out, as these would be liable to

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 181

result in injury to the mare, and possibly to the foal. The
writer recalls one occasion in his own experience where a
favorite mare, that was thought to be near the time of foal-
ing, was brought from her accustomed pasture and placed in
the stable for the night on account of a probable storm.
The mare was left, as was supposed, securely fastened in her
box-stall, but to my surprise the next morning she was found
in her accustomed pasture with a foal by her side. Al-
though usually quiet—never before known to Jump a fence
—she had broken open the door of her stall and jumped
two good fences to get back to her accustomed haunts be-
fore dropping her foal.

The average periods of gestation in the mare is popu-
larly placed at eleven months, but a careful comparison of
statistics gathered from the books of several extensive
horse-breeders of my acquaintance, whom I know to be ac-
curate and painstaking in their methods, places the average
period at about 340 days. Itis a popular belief that male
foals are carried longer than females, but the statistics do
not bear out this conclusion. The observations of Dr. W.
H. Winter, of Princeton, Ill., covering seventy-two cases,
make the average period for males about 341 days, and for
females 338 days, the longest being 370 and the shortest 317
days. Mr. M.A. Brown, from thirty foals in one year, found
the average to be slightly greater for males than females,
while on the following year, from thirty-two foals, the fe-
males were carried longest. He also reports a perfectly well
authenticated case where a two-year-ola half-blood Perche-
ron filly was bred to an imported Percheron stallion and
produced a strong, healthy horse foal at just 300 days.*
Mr. Brown has no doubt as to the accuracy of this state-

* THE BREEDER'S GAZETTE, Vol. V, p. 556.

182 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING,

ment, the filly having been served but once. This is the
shortest period that I have ever known to be well authenti-
cated, although immature foals at shorter periods have been
reported. Veterinary writers generally place the extremes
at from 300 to 400 days, but the longest period that has been
reported to me was by a correspondent at Chatham, O., who
states that a mare belonging to him was served May 7, and
did not drop her foal until May 17 of the following year,
being a period of one year and ten days.*

In view of the indefiniteness of the period of gestation
the mare should be closely watched, as there are certain
signs of the near approach of parturition which rarely fail.
The udder frequently becomes greatly distended sometime
before foaling, but the “teats” seldom fill out full and
plump to the end more than a day or two before the foal is
dropped. Another sign, which rarely precedes the dropping
of the foal more than a week or ten days, is a marked
shrinking or falling away of the muscular parts on the top
of the buttocks back of the hips. In some cases, however,
the foal may be dropped without any of these premonitory
signs. I remember a case on my father’s farm, where a roan
mare that had been purchased, and was not supposed to be
in foal, was worked hard at the plow up to about the middle
of May. She was fed and turned out to pasture one
evening, as was the custom, after having been worked hard
all day, and nothing unusual was noticed in her appearance.
The udder was not perceptibly larger than usual, but next
morning we found her with a good strong foal by her
side. She was a sorry nurse, however, and the foal lived
only a few weeks, dying from “scours,” brought on by
careless feeding.

* THE BREEDER’S GAZETTE, Vol. I, p. 735,

%

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 185

When the mare is a valuable one, and the prospective
foal is looked for with a good deal of interest, it is quite
well to watch her closely, as many valuable animals have
been lost which by a little attention at the right moment
might have been saved.

Moderate work is not only harmless but positively
beneficial to mares in foal, provided proper care be taken
not to overload them. It is certainly better than keeping
them tied up in the stable, or permitting them to run at
large in the yards or fields with many other horses. In
the former case they suffer from want of exercise, and, in
the latter, they are exposed to numberless accidents, result-
ing from racing, playing or fighting with each other. In
my own experience in horse-breeding, more abortions have
resulted from mares being kicked or otherwise injured by
other horses when in the pastures than from all other
causes put together. Exercise is essential to good health;
and, when moderate work is given—care being taken to
avoid overloading, and proper attention being paid to the
shoeing, so that there shall be no danger of strains from
slipping—the mare will get plenty of exercise without the
exposure consequent upon running at large with other
horses. If proper care be taken the mare can safely be
used in the ordinary work of the farm up to the very hour
of foaling; but as this time approaches it is important that
the weight be not heavy nor the pace rapid. After the foal
is dropped the mare ought to have at least two to three days
of rest and quiet, although many farmers who are hurried
with their work and can not very well dispense with the
services of the mare in the field, find no evil results follow-
ing from working the mare moderately from the day after
the foal is dropped. This practice, however, is not to be
commended.

184 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AS TO FOOD AND NURSING.

Many mares are at best but poor nurses. Under the
head of “Feeding the young foal” will be found some
suggestions as to the best food to be used in case the milk
of the dam is not sufficient, but the food of the dam may be
made to greatly influence her yield of milk. The foods that
have been found useful in increasing the flow of milk in the
cow will have the same effect upon the milk of the mare.
Wheat bran is especially valuable for this purpose if mixed
with other and more nutritious foods. It may be made into
a sort of slop and fed with ground oats or rye, mixed with
cut hay or sheaf oats. Plenty of good fresh grass is one of
the very best of aids to healthy and abundant nutrition for
both mare and foal. Whatever grain ration is used I would
recommend that it be ground and fed wet, mixed with cut
straw or hay.

When mares are worked while suckling it is better that
the foal should be left in the stable and that the mare be
taken to the foal for it to suck at least three times during
the day, ample time being given for her to cool out thor-
oughly before the foal has access to her, otherwise a gorge
of the overheated milk may produce serious disturbances
in the digestive organs of the foal. Many farmers, however,
find little inconvenience from permitting the foals, espe-
cially when quite young, to accompany the dams to the
field and follow them while at their work. This gives them
an opportunity to empty the udder of the mare as often as
it may be deemed desirable, and obviates all danger from
overgorging that arises when the mare and foal are sepa-
rated.

FEEDING THE YOUNG FOAL.
It sometimes happens that the milk of the dam is quite
insufficient to promote healthy, vigorous growth in the

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 185

young foal, and occasionally it becomes necessary to raise a
foal entirely independent of the dam. In such cases the
best possible adjunct or substitute for the milk of the dam
is cow’s milk. It should be sweetened at first, as the milk
of the mare is sweeter than that of the cow. A little patient
effort will soon result in teaching the colt to drink milk
readily, but be careful not to give him too much at a time.
A half pint is quite sufficient for a colt two or three days
old; but the ration should be repeated often—not less than
six times a day, the idea being to give the colt really all it
will drink, but to feed so often that it will not require very
much at atime. As the colt grows older the amount should
be increased, and grass, with oats, should be added as soon
as the colt is old enough to eat. No ration is better for a
colt than cow’s milk with these adjuncts. After the colt is
two months old skimmed milk should be substituted for
the fresh cow’s milk. Should there be any trouble from
constipation it will be well to add about one pint of oil-
meal per day to the ration; in fact, I would recommend
the use of oil-meal in all cases, as it furnishes a large pro-
portion of muscle and bone-forming food. If the oil-meal
is not obtainable flax-seed may be used. A half-pint of flax-
seed boiled with two quarts of bran will make two good
feeds for a colt, and this ration may profitably be alternated
with the other food. Indeed, it will be well in all cases
where, from lack of an abundance of milk of the dam, or
from scanty nutrition of any kind, the foal is low in flesh, to
early supply the deficiency with a good allowance of cow’s
milk in addition to what it gets from the dam. The effect
of such a ration upon the growth and condition is wonder-
ful, and in all cases where the foal is likely otherwise to enter
winter low in flesh I can not too highly recommend its use.

A quart of milk morning and evening, in addition to the
13

186 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

grain ration, will be sufficient; and if it be sweetened a little
at first the colt will take to it all the more readily, as the
milk of the mare is much sweeter than that of the cow.

WEANING THE FOAL.

When the colt is to be taken from the dam it should be
tied in an adjoining stall, with the partition so open that
they are in plain view of each other, and the food of the
mare should be reduced to a very small ration of dry oats
and hay. When her udder becomes so full as to cause her
uneasiness a part of the milk should be drawn off, but she
should not be milked dry. This first milking may be done
by the colt itself, but afterwards it should be done by hand,
as the milk in the drying-off process soon becomes unfit for
the colt; and, besides, the drying off will be more speedily

accomplished than when the colt is occasionally permitted
tosuck. After the milk has entirely dried up the mare and
her foal may be separated, and she may safely be turned
out to grass.

Skimmed milk may still be given to the colt, especially if
it is not in good condition to enter the winter; but clean,
sound oats, ground or unground, constitute the best of all
grain foods for the colt. I prefer to have them ground;
and as cold weather approaches, about one-fourth in weight
of corn-meal may profitably be added, as it helps to lay on
fat and keeps up the animal heat. A little oil-meal—say a
pint a day—may also profitably be given with the oats for
some time after weaning. Don’t be afraid of feeding too
liberally. More colts are injured the first six months after
weaning by too scanty a supply of food than from the
opposite extreme. As soon as the mare and foal can be
separated the foal should have the run of a good pasture,
as there is no food better than grass, no medicine so good

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 187

as exercise, and no exercise so profitable to young animals
as that which may be taken just when they feel like it.

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON DEVELOPMENT.

I wish to call especial attention to the importance of
open air exercise as absolutely essential to a healthy, sym-
metrical development of bone, muscle and the vital organs.
The idea prevails to a very great extent among practical
farmers that high feeding and good care will cause an
otherwise good colt to grow up into an unsound, “weedy”
horse; and, on the other hand, that there is nothing like
“roughing it” to,develop hardiness and endurance. I am of
opinion that the practical results in many cases have been
such as to warrant this belief. Not that there is anything
bad in generous and liberal feeding, nor good in starvation
and exposure; but that with the latter the colt always has
pure air and abundant exercise, without which there can be
no sound and healthy development. This I regard as a
factor in horse-raising second only in importance to that of
blood, which is purely an inherited quality, and for lack of
which no after-care can ever compensate.

Abundant opportunity for exercise in the fresh, pure air,
uncontaminated by stable odors, is an absolute essential to
a healthy development in all young animals. It is not suffi-
cient that the colt be led out at stated intervals for exercise.
He needs the opportunity to romp and play, that he may ex-
tend his muscles to their utmost capacity, expand his lungs
to their very depths, and send the blood coursing through
every vein with fiery vigor. All this is essential to a
healthy, robust development of heart and lungs, and bone
and muscle; and nowhere can it be obtained in so great a
degree of perfection as in the freedom of the open field.
A colt that is kept in the stall and fed highly on heating

188 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

grains is seldom afforded an opportunity for this health-
giving exercise. Like the tender hot-house plant, he grows
up deficient in stamina and vigor—a victim to his artificial
surroundings, which do violence to every want of his
nature. To the exhilarating race in the fields and past-
ures—which colts as well as boys so heartily enjoy—he is
a stranger; and he grows up a stiff, clumsy brute, with only
a tithe of the development of lungs and other vital organs
that he might have possessed under more favorable circum-
stances.

This I believe to be all there is of truth in the idea that
colts brought up roughly make the hardiest horses; and
there is so much in it that it should attract the careful
attention of men who have thousands of dollars invested in
the business of breeding horses.

But while I plead for this wild freedom in behalf of the
growing colt I would not lose sight of the fact that gen-
erous feeding and protection from inclement weather are
also essential. I condemn in toto the starving process as
unnecessary and hurtful. A stunted, half-starved animal
will never attain to so perfect a physical development as one
that has been well fed and cared for. There is a definite
period in life allotted to growth, and if during that period
only a scanty supply of nutriment is afforded a stunted,
dwarfed animal is the inevitable result, which no amount
of after-care can remedy. The true policy is to promote
the growth of the colt by an abundance of nutritious food,
and to secure a healthy and perfect development of heart
and lungs, and bone and muscle, by permitting him to
romp, and race, and play at will. By following this prac-
tice all there is of good in “roughing it’ will be attained,
and all that is bad or dangerous in generous feeding will
be avoided.

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 189

“BREAKING” THE FOAL.

Wherever it is practicable the colt should be broken
to halter while yet a suckling, and the earlier in life this
process is commenced the more easily will it be accom-
plished. He may soon be led by the side of the dam with
out difficulty, and when once accustomed to being guided
by the halter it will be an easy matter to lead him any-
where. He may also be tied by the side of the dam as the
preliminary step in teaching him to stand quietly when
hitched alone. The first step in “gentling” a colt is to over-
come his natural timidity by gradual approaches, and when
he finds that he has no reason to fear the work is half done.
All the subsequent lessons given him through all the vari-
ous steps of breaking and training should be based upon
this plan of gradual approaches—a species of sapping and
mining that will subdue the most vicious and tame the
wildest colt if perseveringly followed. He should be accus-
tomed to the bridle by means of the “bitting rig” before
any attempt is made to ride him; and the mounting should
always be first attempted in the stall or the lot where the
colt is perfectly familiar with all the surroundings. When
it is desired to break him to harness the same principle of
gentleness and care to avoid giving fright should be prac-
ticed. Place portions of the harness on him at a time, and
Jet it remain on him in his stall until he finds that it will
not hurt him; then lead him out with the harness on, alone,
and again by the side of another horse also in harness.
Accustom him perfectly to the use of the lines, and then let
him make the acquaintance of the sulky or break-cart.
Push it along after him; and when he has found that it also
is harmless get him between the “thills,” and finally hitch
him to it and drive him. It is the most convenient of all
vehicles for use in breaking colts for driving, as the weight

190 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

is but little, and there is no danger to be apprehended from
sudden turning around. Many trainers provide themselves
with a stout two-wheeled vehicle, constructed like a sulky,
but with very heavy “thills,’ so strong that the colt can
not possibly break them, let what may happen. Such an
arrangement is especially desirable for wild or vicious colts
that have not been “gentled” when young, or for such as
from improper handling have formed bad habits that must
be cured.

THE VIEWS OF DR. REYNOLDS, OF LIVERPOOL.

In the introduction to Vol. IT of the Shire Horse Stud
Book of Great Britain is a paper upon Horse Breeding,
which contains so much good, sound, practical instruction,
that I cannot do my readers a greater service than by sup-
plementing what I have given on the preceding pages with
so much of Dr. Reynolds’ work as relates to the brood
mare and the young foal, as follows:

Fillies served at two years old, and so coming in to profit as
reproductors at three, wil] rarely develop into very high-class
animals, and when it is considered advisable to breed from them
thus early they should not be subjected to work, beyond that re-
quired to break them in, until their first foals are a couple of
months old. The best age to put a mare to the horse is at three
years old, so that when she is sold in the autumn of her seventh
year the owner will probably have obtained two foals, the value
of which, added to the earnings of the mare as a team animal,
will leave her full sale price to represent the proprietor’s profit.
Subject to the influences previously considered, the alliance of
strong young mares with aged and robust stallions is the most
certain method of obtaining a yearly production of good foals.
Mares that have been worked up to ten or twelve years old in
towns, and acquired at that age for breeding purposes, seldom
fulfill the desires of the purchaser; by the maintenance of high
condition for a prolonged period they are rendered prone to
sterility and if fecundated they are apt to experience difficulties
in labor. When moderately well nourished, comfortably lodged

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 191

and unfatigued by excessive and long-continued labor, mares
are apt to breed at all seasons of the year, thereby affording the
owner an opportunity to secure the dropping of his foals at a
period when the exigencies of team labor are not very pressing,
and when a fresh and abundant supply of green food can be as-
sured for the mutual benefit of mare and offspring. Mares which
are regularly worked, or those having to seek their food in the
spring from poor pastures, are much more certainly fecundated
than their idle or stable-fed sisters supplied with rich and
abundant provender.

The appearances of that physiological condition termed “cest-
rum,” ‘‘heat,” ‘in use,” etc., are usually manifested in the mare
by general signs, and by particular phenomena presented by the
generative organs.

The intensity of the objective signs varies very much in
different individuals; in some all the Symptoms are evinced by
inappetence, increased thirst, agitation, impatience, frequent
neighing, and efforts to urinate; the vulvze are swollen — the
lining membrane reddened, and a white glairy discharge issues
therefrom; in others no signs are recognizable by which the con-
dition of ‘“‘heat’’ can be inferred. Its presence is not apparent
until the mare is ‘‘ tried’ by a stallion.

The most opportune time for a matron mare to be again
served is the ninth day after foaling; for subsequent proof that
she has conéeived to a former service the twentieth or twenty-
first day is usually selected. Many usages are still had recourse
to in the endeavor to insure conception by mares that have pre-
viously shown an indisposition to be fecundated, but the bar-
barous customs much practiced in former years by ignorant
persons for the attainment of that object are now happily
becoming of less frequent occurence.

Acting upon the knowledge that exercise has the effect of
provoking the evacuation of the excreta, and also of rendering
petulant females more tranquil, the Arabs gallop their mares to
excess, and submit them to the stallion fatigued and inclined for
rest. The most novel practice in this respect is the administra-
tion of about two-thirds of a pint of vinegar to the mare imme-
diately after service. I have no experience of this mode of
treatment, and I fail to see any physiological reason why it
should be successful. Complaints of the infecundity of a stallion

192 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

are ever frequent, and often so when the cause is entirely due to
the unfit state in which the mare is presented; unless she is
served at the moment in the plenitude of heat her owner should
attach no blame to the horse if the essay proves unfruitful. The
abstraction of blood has in some cases been followed by success-
ful results; but the most rational practice that can be adopted is
to reduce the condition of mares, refractory to conception, by
submitting them to a prolonged course of cooling diet, of which
corn should form no constituent, and, after completion of the
act, to leave them in a state of perfect quietude for several hours.

Sterility in the mare may be due to age or prolonged conti-
nence, especially where associated with high condition, or it may
arise from abnormal conformation, or diseases of the womb, or
the existence of painful wounds, or diseases in the regions of the
feet; it is, however, usually induced in mares prone to accumu-
late fat, by a superabundant supply of highly-stimulating food
and the absence of sufficient work.

Medicinal treatment or surgical operations in some rare cases
may cure sterility arising from a suspension of the uterine
functions or abnormalities of the organ; and the operation of
neurotomy has been adopted with success upon mares rendered
sterile by acutely painful foot diseases. The treatment for over-
plethoric mares must be that of reduction to low, or even poor
condition.

With the exception that the venereal excitement usually
diminishes or disappears, and the animal becomes lazy and
quiet, the signs that a mare has been impregnated do not become
apparent for some time, nor is the periodical reappearance of
‘“heat’’ to be regarded as a conclusive evidence of non-
conception. It is not impossible for cestrum to co-exist with
impregnation. The inconstancy in appearance of the objective
symptoms of pregnancy renders that condition but problematical
(especially in mares which ordinarily show little appearance of
“cestrum’’) until the sixth or seventh month, when the fcetal
movements may usually be discerned in the flank, unless manual
exploration of the uterus by vaginal examination is adopted for
the purpose of ascertaining whether conception has taken place.
Valuable as the operation is for determining the state of the
uterus during the primary months of gestation, it should never
be employed except in cases of urgent necessity, on account of

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 193

the danger and possible death of the foetus, which may be appre-
hended to follow its adoption with an irritable mare.

The period of gestation in the mare occupies, as a rule, from
330 to 860 days, during nearly the whole of which time it is of
great importance that opportunity is afforded for a sufficiency
of daily exercise, especially needful for mares which are not
suckling a foal.

When intelligently organized, in regard to the different
periods of gestation, ordinary farm work is exceedingly bene-
ficial to both mare and foetus. Throughout the whole period it is
better that the labor should be continued and uniform than
violent or irregular. Shafting heavy loads, especially when
much backing or turning is required, should not be permitted.
Towards the end of pregnancy all work necessitating unequal
movements, or even excessive effort, should be discontinued, and
with the appearance of the signs that partuition may be expected
to take place within a week or ten days, it is advisable, but not
essential, that work should be entirely suspended. Pregnant
mares should be stabled with due regard to security against
annoyance, compression, or injury by other horses, and especially
guarded against the accident of being ‘“‘cast’’ in their stalls.
Medical or surgical treatment should, as far as possible, be
avoided; when absolutely necessary, the utmost possible care in
its administration is required.

The food and feeding of mares in foal are of great and
important interest, the science and practice whereof must be
carefully studied by breeders who would be successful in main-
taining their mares healthy throughout the period of gestation,
and over the act of foaling, and reap the reward of stout and
vigorous foals. The quantity and nutritive quality of provender
supplied to a pregnant mare should be in strict accord with her
individual requirements; the establishment of a just balance
between food and the demands for it can be determined by an
accurate perception of condition, as exemplified by the possession
of vigor and evidences of efficient nutrition.

The two opposite extremes of obesity or plethora and exces-
sive leanness or debility are to be avoided; the former predisposes
to abortion and difficult labors, the latter (of the two the least
evil) prejudicially influences the nutrition of the foetus and
deteriorates the subsequent secretion of milk. Grass, unaided

194 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

by artificial food, is insufficient for the sustenance of breeding
mares subjected to labor; to insure the yearly production of
strong foals a daily allowance of corn should be continuously
supplied to them; but, except in the depth of winter, or for very
young or very aged mares, green food, chop and pulped roots
suffice for the requirements of non-workers.

Most farmers usually keep their pregnant mares, when not
suckling, on the same ration as that supplied to the other work-
ing horses. With good keepers the practice suffices to maintain
adequate condition, but when the ordinary provender is of low
quality the mares should receive an auxiliary allowance.

Mashes or bruised oats or barley associated with pulped roots
and chopped hay or straw, moistened with linseed-cake water,
are the best adapted foods for working mares in foal—so con-
stituted they afford a substantial, at the same time anon-exciting
and easily assimilated diet. Maize is not a suitable article of
diet for in-foal mares when it constitutes a chief part of their
corn allowance— their newly dropped progeny always exhibit
general weakness of muscle and abnormal relaxation of the liga-
ments of the joints.

For mares pastured during the day a short supply of rack
or manger food given in early morning renders their digestive
organs less susceptible to the possibly deleterious influences of
dew-saturated grass. More than any other farm animals brood
mares require to be supplied with diet of the best obtainable
quality; every description of food likely to undergo rapid
fermentation, or to produce indigestion, must be scrupulously
avoided. Long fasts are exceedingly prejudicial, and in cases
where they are unavoidable or have been occasioned through
neglect, small quantities of tepid water and equally diminished
rations of easily digestible food should only be allowed at inter-
vals until the hunger and thirst have been reduced to their nor-
mal standards.

Pregnant mares should not be exposed to the influences of
very excessive heat nor very severe cold, nor be pastured or
folded with store oxen or young horses.

Abortion is produced by any cause operating to disconnect
the union of the foetal membranes with the uterus. These causes
are very various and may obtain at all periods of pregnancy.
Predisposition to abortion is to be found in peculiar conforma-

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 195

tions of the pelvis, enlargements of the iliac bones, diseases of
the womb, constitutional irritability, the influences of too stim-
ulative diet or the the reverse, wet seasons, a previous miscar-
riage, and all circumstances opposed to efficient nutrition and
respiration.

The more direct mechanical causes are falls, blows, compres-
sions of the abdomen, violent and spasmodic exertion. Func-
tional disorders, severe illnesses, large draughts of cold water or
eating iced grass may be considered as the most frequent physio-
logical causes.

The symptoms of abortion vary with the term of gestation at
which it occurs. When it follows shortly after conception the
precursory signs, as well as the fact itself, are frequently unno-
ticed, and the proprietor is led to believe that the mare has not
been fecundated; on the other hand, when miscarriage takes
place towards the end of the gestative period the premonitory
symptoms are almost identical with the signs of normal parturi-
tion, but the pains of abortion invariably precede the changes
in the appearance of the external organs of generation, which
in normal foaling are noticeable some time before the labor
pains come on. The usual signs of the foetus being dead, and
not expelled immediately afterwards, are symptoms of ill-health
in the mare, accompanied by a puriform and offensive bloody
discharge from the vulve.

The prevention of abortion is the avoidance of all causes
which may have a tendency to produce it. In advanced preg-
nancy when a symptom of approaching miscarriage has been
manifested the greatest care in the subsequent management of
the mare is necessary. She should be placed in a roomy, dark-
ened loose box, left perfectly unmolested, and the services of an
experienced veterinary surgeon immediately sought. Whenever
a mare has ‘‘picked her foal’? the cause should, if pessible,
be determined, and means adopted to prevent other pregnant
mares being exposed to similar conditions. They should also
be removed to a distance from the place, on account of the mys-
terious sympathetic influence exercised upon the organism of
pregnant animals by the mere occurrence of abortion in one of
their companions. The attention required by a mare after abor-
tion materially depends upon the indications of her general
health. It very frequently happens that the placental mem-

196 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

branes are retained in the uterus; these should be removed
before decomposition of their component parts is possible, and
the mare should not be covered again until every appearance
due to the mishap has entirely subsided.

The characteristic signs that the gestative period has been
fully and naturally completed, and that parturition may be
shortly expected to take place, are very pronounced and so
familiar to all persons who have had any experience in the man-
agement of brood mares that they need not be enumerated.

The natural instinctive desire for shade and solitude expe-
rienced by the mare at this crisis should be indulged by placing
her in a warm, roomy and well-littered loose box, so arranged
that the progress she makes can be constantly ascertained with-
out causing her annoyance by interruption. Normal parturition
in the mare is very rapid; at her full time and with the foetus
naturally placed the act is generally accomplished in a short
space of time and without assistance.

The sense of uneasiness created by the presence of the fully-
developed foetus determines contraction of the abdominal mus-
cles and diaphragm, as well as the walls of the womb itself; at
the same time the orifice of the latter organ becomes dilated,
succeeding efforts of expulsion push the muzzle and fore feet of
the foetus further through the neck of the uterus, in which situa-
tion they may be recognized immersed in the fluids of the yet
unruptured membranes. More violent pains then force the head
and shoulders through the pelvis, and another last contraction
expels the posterior parts and completes the act.

If the labor is prolonged and the pains are very strong, a quiet
and careful examination should be made, for the purpose of
ascertaining whether there is sufficient room for the foetus to
pass through the pelvic arch, and also to determine whether the
foal occupies a natural position. In the first case more time may
be allowed; in the second the foetus will be required to be
adjusted. To judge accurately of either of these conditions the
attendant must be an experienced man, and know the exact time
when interference is necessary. Very great harm is occasioned
by premature and unnecessary meddling. He should make
re-examinations from time to time, and if increased room is but
tardily provided, he must take care, by securing the parts pre-
sented, that the foetal position does not become changed from a

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 197

natural to a malpresentation through the continued and violent
throes of the mare. Dilatation of the passage may be assisted
by gentle and well-applied traction upon those portions of the
foetus that are naturally presented. The causes of difficult labor
and the means to be adopted to overcome obstructions to delivery,
with the treatment of the patient after parturition, are so
numerous and belong so intrinsically to the science of veterinary
surgery, that they have no place here. Whenever serious
obstacles to delivery exist the aid of an experienced veterinary
obstetrician should be promptly sought, and no violent tractile
efforts employed until his arrival; but if the membranes are
ruptured, as they probably will be before it is considered neces-
sary to obtain skilled aid, it is wise to secure with cords the head
or legs of the foal when easily practicable. It sometimes happens,
especially with old and debilitated mares, that the act of parturi-
tion becomes protracted from weakness alone. Such cases not
only demand the administration of powerful internal stimulants,
but require the employment of well-timed, gentle and firm trac-
tion upon the foetus made to coincide with the throes of the
mare; spasmodic, jerking efforts, which do not correspond with
the parturient pains, in all cases do much harm, and are of little
or no assistance to the act.

After an easy labor strong mares require nothing but attention
to their comfort and ordinary wants, and protection from cur-
rents of cold air, but if the accouchement has been prolonged
and painful a stimulant should be immediately given; debilitated
mares under the last-named circumstance require frequent
alcoholic stimulants, nourishing gruel and good nursing.

The foetal envelopes, or after-birth, are usually expelled in a
short time after natural labor; when retained for a day or two no
danger need be apprehended, so long as the mare does not strain
and her health continues unimpaired; but surgical interference
for their removal becomes necessary when retained sufficiently
long to render putrefaction probable.

Aged mares, haying very large and pendulous abdomens,
derive much comfort from a wide bandage passed several times
round the body, adjusted evenly, and with a view of affording
support without exerting undue pressure.

After-pains continued for more than an hour are to be regarded
as evidence as possibly some important derangement of the womb

198 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

and requiring skilled aid. The application of a mustard and
linseed poultice over the region of the loins is always consistent
treatment in these cases and may be adopted at once to economize
valuable time before the arrival of the veterinary surgeon.

When a mare foals in a standing position the foetus glides
down the thighs and reaches the ground unhurt; the umbilical
cord is severed and dangerous hemorrhage thereby prevented.
When the act is accomplished in a recumbent attitude, and the
mare remains down, the cord must be divided between two
ligatures previously tied round it a couple of inches apart, but if
the mare rises immediately the cord will be ruptured in a safe
and satisfactory manner.

Many foals are lost through want of attention at the moment
of birth. When the functions of respiration are not promptly
established in the new-born foal, efforts must be made to excite
them by blowing violently upon the muzzle and into the mouth,
and by briskly rubbing the body with a wisp. If breathing is
but slowly promoted a few teaspoonfuls of brandy and water,
given after the first few respirations, will be of material service
to invigorate the low vital powers. ;

As soon as the mare has recovered from the shock the maternal
instinct should be encouraged by allowing her to perform the
office of nurse to her progeny, which will be physically benefited
thereby. If the dam refuses to dry and caress her offspring, a
little flour sprinkled over the back of the latter will sometimes
attract her kindly to it; should this means fail the foal must be
dried with soft flannel, conducted to the teat, and assisted to
obtain its first aliment.

It is sometimes necessary to protect the foal from ill-intention
by a peevish dam, but after the mare has permitted the foal to
suck, and has evinced maternal solicitude for its welfare by lick-
ing and caressing it, no fear need be entertained that she will
subsequently injure it wilfully.

All the means briefly reviewed as necessary for the preserva-
tion of the newly-born foal and comfort of the mare are to be
continued for a period more or less prolonged, as their conditions
and surrounding circumstances indicate. If both mare and foal
are healthy, and especially if the mare has been pastured up to
the time of foaling, they will be benefited by being turned to
grass during fine weather, in a week or so after the birth; but

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 199

they must be sheltered from rain and cold, particularly at night,
so long as the weather continues unfavorable.

At this early period the mare should never be permitted to
graze until she has had a small allowance of sweet hay, or some
other nutritious dry food, nor should she be subjected to work
for at least three weeks after parturition. Some mares, especially
primiparous ones, do not furnish sufficient milk for the susten-
ance of their offspring. In these cases the mammary glands
must be frequently stimulated by the foal and subsequently sub-
mitted to gentle friction, and a supply of succulent, easily-
digestible food allowed. In the absence of a plentiful supply of
grass, boiled barley made into a sloppy mash, with the addition
of some treacle and a little salt, is a palatable, nourishing diet,
tending to increase the lacteal secretion. If these means fail to
excite a sufficient flow of milk the foal must be periodically
suckled by a foster mare, or be artificially nourished. Should
the season not admit of mares being pastured, barley mashes,
pulped roots, scalded oats and hay of the best procurable quality,
should be liberally supplied. A plentiful allowance of water, or,
for bad milking mares, nutritious gruel is necessary.

Most mares, however, secrete a plentiful, and many a super-
abundant supply of milk. Such do not require, soon after
foaling, a more liberal allowance of food than they previously ~
received. The provision of rich but close herbage suffices for
their general requirements. In early life, too, foals are prone to
contract dangerous diseases of the digestive organs, and on that
account it is undesirable that they should be allowed, until
several days old, to take the whole milk supply of a free-nourish-
ing or well-fed dam. Under such circumstances the foal should
not have access to the mare until part of the contents of the
udder have been drawn off. After some days, when the foal has
become stronger, the above-named precautions are unnecessary.
A more liberal allowance of food may then be supplied, to be
regulated by the demands made upon her nutritive functions by
the growth of her foal and the wear and tear of labor to which
she may be subjected.

In districts where the mare is not required to work until the
foal is weaned grass suffices for all her requirements. The best
old pastures should, however, be reserved for her use. When
these cease to afford sufficient green food by reason of drouth or

200 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

overstocking the deficiency must be made up by an allowance of
cut artificial grasses, lucerne or clover, given with discretion.

If at any time during the period of lactation the udder be-
comes inflamed, hot or tense, the diet must be promptly reduced,
the milk reservoir very frequently emptied, and warm fomenta-
tions adopted, to be followed by very gentle friction with soap
and water (greasy substances ought not to be rubbed upon the
glands, or if used, the residuum should be carefully removed by
subsequent washing). If the foal is dead, or can conveniently be
weaned, a dose of physic may be administered to the mare. Un-
der other circumstances it may be necessary to put the mare un-
der medical treatment of less drastic character.

The usual time for weaning is when the foal has arrived at the
age of five or six months, when, if the mare has reconceived, or
has been or is about to be severely worked, it is for her benefit
that the separation should not be longer delayed.

If the milk secretion is not excessive no danger need be ap-
prehended from the process of weaning, which it is desirable in
all cases to effect gradually. On the contrary, the separation of
the foals from free-nourishing mares must be accomplished by
degrees. For some days prior to final removal of the foal the
intervals of allowing it to suck must be increased in length,
and the food-allowance of the mare reduced in quantity and
quality for a corresponding time.

If practicable also the mare should be more severely worked.
After ultimate severance of ihe foal the glands must be periodic-
ally hand-drawn, and a brisk purgative administered. Restricted
diet, particularly in regard to fluid and succulent provender,
should be enjoined until the secretion of milk is completely sus-
pended. Mares kept only for breeding purposes, if in good con-
dition and not enfeebled by age or other circumstances, may
continue to nourish their foals for a much longer period—until,
in fact, a natural weaning takes place and the milk secretion
ceases. The weaning of foals from mares not subjected to labor
and furnishing a full lacteal secretion must be accomplished
with the exercise of all the hygienic and medicinal precautions
previously indicated, and rendered especially necessary by absti-
nence from work.

Throughout the period of lactation, and very especially during
that portion of it when the foal receives the whole of its suste-

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 201

nance from the dam, it is requisite for the mare to be supplied
with good food calculated to furnish material for the elaboration
of wholesome milk.

The first milk after parturition, called “colostrum,” differs
materially in composition from the subsequent secretion. It
contains principles adapted to remove the mecomium (as the
effete matters collected in the foal’s intestines during fcetal life
are technically termed); on that account it is highly necessary
that the newly-born foal should be supplied with the milk from
its own dam, at least until the mecomium has been expelled and
the bowels have assumed their natural function.

Until the approach of the time for weaning, a foal should be
permitted to have access to its dam at intervals of not exceeding
four hours.

It is frequently alleged that ‘‘heated milk’’ is extremely prej-
udicial to the foal. I admit there is a probability of trouble-
some skin disease being caused by allowing a foal to partake of
the milk of a mare when she is overheated, but I think the dan-
ger of ‘‘heated milk”’ producing diarrhcea or “‘scour”’ is exagger-
ated, or, rather, that the evil consequences in this particular re-
spect are as much attributable to the fact that the young animal,
pressed by hunger, partakes too greedily and too plentifully, and,
as a consequence, is primarily attacked with acute indigestion.

It is always better to be on the safe side and allow the mare
to become cool and to bathe her distended glands with lukewarm
water before the foal is admitted to her.

It is not always that a mare which secretes a copious supply
of milk is a good nourisher; some, especially old mares, or those
subjected to very heavy work and inefficiently fed, elaborate a
fluid deficient in nutritive quality, a circumstance rendered evi-
dent by the condition of the foal, which will become wasted and
probably attacked with diarrhoea.

In such cases the mare must be especially well nourished, and,
in instances of extreme necessity, the foal assisted by artificial
lactation; it should also as soon as possible be encouraged to
take manger food, of which boiled beans should constitute the
basis, in order that the advantage of an early weaning may be
secured.

Notwithstanding the purgative effects of the colostrum, the

young foal frequently suffers from constipation of the bowels,
14

202 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

and especially so if the dam is or has been during the later peri-
ods of pregnancy fed with dry or indigestible food; certainly so
if the mare has had an acute attack of dyspepsia near the end of
the gestative term. Many persons establish the rule that every
foal shall have a dose of oil shortly after birth. The practice is
generally good—none but beneficial effects are Jikely to result
therefrom, and the life of the foal must be regarded as unsafe
until free evacuation of the bowels has been effected. When pre-
ceding circumstances have rendered it probable that the foal will
be constipated, the exhibition of a full dose of castor oil is im-
peratively indicated, and, in addition, frequent enemata of warm
soap and water are recommended.

It can not be expected, nor is it desirable, that the numerous
diseases incident to breeding animals of the equine species and
their progeny can be even very briefly reviewed in an essay of
this kind; the consideration of such a subject properly apper-
tains to veterinary science. There is, however, one malady af-
fecting young foals which, on account of its frequency and fatal-
ity, may be glanced at.

No disease is more prevalent among sucking animals, and
few so fatal, as diarrhcea. Although less subject than calves,
foals are often carried off by it within a short space of time.
The causes have not been accurately determined, but the most
eminent veterinarians attribute it to changes of unknown char-
acter, and brought about by unascertained causes in the compo-
sition of the milk.

Two facts relating thereto have, however, been proved, viz.:
that the causes are often widely diffused; and, secondly, that
their potency is increased by defective hygienic surroundings,
especially unwholesome stable accommodation and overcrowd-
ing of animals. Unless curative treatment is very early adopted
an unfavorable issue is almost certain, and the generally fatal
nature of the disease gives little hope of cure when the symp-
toms have become fully developed. At the outset a full dose of
castor oil ought to be given, the action of which is to be followed
by repeated small doses of carbonate of iron and carbonate of
soda, with laudanum and brandy, given in cold rice-meal gruel.
As food, bean-meal made into the consistency of milk, and given
at short intervals, is extremely beneficial, and should take the
place of a large proportion of the mare’s milk. The diet of the

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES AND YOUNG FOALS. 208

mare is to be completely changed, and the foal and dam
promptly removed to other quarters. As curative treatment is
so rarely successful, efforts must be made for preventing the
disease. The provision of good, dry, clean lodgings, pure water,
and the occasional administration of alkaline carbonates to the
mare, the diet of which should be wholesome, and be partly
composed of leguminous seeds, are the means most likely to be
attended with beneficial results.

Dr. Reynolds’ remarks upon brood mares lead me to
speak of the effects of pasture upon mares at the time of
service. Itis the general opinion of those who have given
close attention to this subject that mares, when first turned
to grass, after having been kept stabled, and on dry feed
for a considerable period, are not so likely to get in foal ag
those that have been on grass for some time previous to
service by the stallion; or as those that are not on grass at
all. The theory is that turning mares to grass produces,
for a time, a sort of general muscular relaxation, or soften-
ing, that is not favorable to conception. I have always ad-
vised that mares which have been kept stabled previous to
being sent to the stallion should be kept on dry food for at
least four weeks after the service. On the other hand, I
have thought it best when mares that had been kept on
grass for a considerable previous period, were sent for ser-
vice, that they should be go kept for some time afterward.
At such times I would avoid any material change in the
food or treatment. If the mare has been kept on grass let
her so remain for at least a month; if she has been kept
stabled and in idleness let her remain go for a few weeks;
if she has been worked continue to work her moderately,
Of course these directions apply to such mares only as have
not proven hitherto barren. In case a mare has been served
repeatedly, and has failed to conceive, a radical change in
food and management may bring about the desired result,

204 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

CHAPIEE 1Y.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK.

PART I.

The following extracts from articles prepared at my re-
quest, by Prof. James Law, of Cornell University, for publi-
cation, at various times, under my direction, have a strong
bearing upon the subject matter to which this chapter is
devoted and will, I am sure, be found highly interesting
and valuable to my readers:

HYGIENE OF THE EYE.*

“‘As ye sow so shall ye reap,”’ is as true of the propagation of
animals as of the propagation of grain or weeds. In the case of
sightless or partially blind horses it is especially true. In what-
ever country or district we find blind mares and stallions used
for breeding, there we find a large proportion of even the young
horses with faulty eyes. In whatever country, on the other hand,
we find all horses with impaired eyesight rejected for breeding
purposes, there we find the number of blind horses steadily de-
creasing. This depends not alone on the fact that “like produces
like,’’ but upon this additional one, that the greater part of the
blindness in horses depends on a specific disease which is as
surely hereditary as gout or rheumatism. This is the too famil-
iar ‘‘moon-blindness,’’ or recurring inflammation of the eyes.
Formerly this was very prevalent in England, but the systematic
rejection of the diseased animals as breeders has greatly reduced

* The Breeder’s Gazette, Vol. I, p. 508.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 205

the number of blind horses in later years. In America there is
still a very wide margin for improvement. The blind stallion
and the blind mare should be alike discarded, and it is well to
avoid the progeny of horses that have suffered from this ‘‘recur-
ring ophthalmia,’’ even though their own eyes may still be appa-
rently sound.

Among the indications that an animal has suffered from the
disease are the following: A slight bluish opacity around the
margin of the transparent cornea; a sunken appearance of the
eye, which seems smaller than natural; the existence of an angu-
lar interruption in the regular curve of the upper eyelid about

‘one-third from its inner end; and a tendency to shy from imper-
fect sight. If in addition to this there is a less of the clear luster
of the iris (around the pupil), and an undue feeling of tension
and resistance when the eyeball is pressed through the lid, or if
there is a cataract the evidence becomes the more conclusive. A
cataract is recognized by a whitish opaque spot behind the pupil.
It is best seen when the horse is led toward the stable door, so
that the light may fall on the eyes from above and behind, while
the interior of the stable forms a dark background. In bad
cases the entire pupil is filled up by the opaque spot and the horse
becomes blind on that side. An animal showing such features,
or one which suffers at intervals from swelling or watering of the
eyes, should never be used for breeding.

Nearsightedness is another quality which is derived from pa-
rents, and which is specially dangerous, by causing the horse to
shy. Itis further manifested in most cases by a peculiar bulging
appearance of the eye, by reason of an extra convexity of the
cornea.

The foals of horses that have suffered from moon-blindness
are not all equally subject to its attacks. Much of the difference
depends on the varying activity of the disease in the parent at
the time of conception or during the period of pregnancy. A
case strongly illustrative of this may be noted: A mare, not pre-
disposed to recurring ophthalmia, had a burdock entangled in the
forelock so as to be directly upon the eye, which was thus kept

206 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

inflamed and running for a length of time during the course of
pregnancy. The progeny—a filly—had the eye on the same side
defective, and represented by a small opaque black mass. The
dam recovered, and afterward bore colts with sound eyes, as did
also the one-eyed filly in due course of time. This but expresses
a general law—that the disorder which is active and causes suffer-
ing at the time of reproduction is most likely to tell injuriously
on the progeny. When, therefore, all the progeny inherit a con-
stitutional predisposition to moon-blindness, those which are be-
gotten or borne during a period of active disease and suffering
on the part of one or both parents are most likely to become per-
manently blind. Another dominating cause of moon-blindness
is the occurring in the predisposed animal of debility or weak-
ness from any influence. It may be safely assumed that what-
ever undermines the general health or lowers the hardy vigor of
such predisposed animals tends to bring on the disease. Thus,
coarse, fibrous or unnutrious fodder often acts in this way. An
exciting, over-stimulating diet acts in the same way. An animal
that keeps sound on a diet of oats or barley may fall a victim if
fed on Indian corn. Overwork, or the combination of hard work
and a diet insufficient to repair the excessive waste, is equally in-
jurious. Debilitating diseases of all kinds are equally liable to
superinduce the malady. An attack of influenza, a chronic indi-
gestion, or the presence of worms in the stomach or bowels, may
be the immediate cause of moon-blindness, one without which
the hereditary tendency might have remained latent. Some
causes, however, deserve more special mention, because of their
general operation or more wide-reaching effects.

It is notorious that certain countries and districts suffer more
from recurring ophthalmia than others. Ina general way it isthe
more moist and relaxing that furnish the most victims. The
west of England and the whole of Ireland furnish more subjects
of opthalmia than does the dry eastern coast of Great Britain.
The damp, marshy and cloudy region to the north of the Pyre-
nees suffers badly, while in the dry, clear atmosphere of Catalo-
nia, to the south of these mountains, the disease is almost un-

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 207

known. So notorious is this that dealers are in the habit of
buying in Southern France, at a low price, horses that have had
but one attack of ophthalmia, and of transporting them to Catalo-
nia, where, as a rule, they escape any further seizure.

The effect of a damp, sunless, relaxing climate, however, is
productive of a heavy, lymphatic stamp of horse, which is always
more predisposed to affections of this kind than the horse of fine
fiber and nervous temperament. In this respect the North Amer-
ican continent should be more favorable to the horse than the
moister climate of England, being an approximation toward the
climate of Syria and North Africa, the cradle of all that is excel-
lent in horse flesh; yet, even in the United States, a low, marshy,
damp and cloudy region is to be avoided when it is wanted to
develop the highest speed or the greatest vigor and endurance.
Places and climates that prove most favorable for the raising of
meat-producing animals are most likely to deteriorate the horse
by developing a loose, open texture of bone, a bulky but soft,
flabby muscle, and an undue tendency to sluggishness and fatten-
ing. The lymphatic temperament thus indicated is that which
especially predisposes to ophthalmia, and if such young animals
are retained in such a climate they are particularly liable to
suffer.

Close stables are hurtful in various ways. The relaxing effect
of the stable upon the young horse is always marked; but this is
especially so when, as in dealers’ stables, the air is kept extra hot
to produce a fine coat. The damp rising from the lungs and
skin of the animals, and from the dung and urine, is especially
injurious, because of its relaxing effects, but still more so because
of the active decomposition which it maintains in the organic
matter floating in the air, or lodged on the walls, floors and wood-
work. The effect of this is seen in the great predominance of
diseases of the air passages in young horses that have been re-
cently stabled; and upon animals predisposed to ophthalmia the
same disturbing influence tends similarly to the development of
that affection. Apart from the debility and fever which this
change brings about, it will be observed that the air of the stable

208 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

repeats, on a small scale, the damp, hot, cloudy, relaxing climate
which we have seen to be the most favorable to the development
of the disease we are dealing with.

For breeding and growing horses, therefore, it is all-impor-
tant to secure dry, airy, roomy stables, and to keep these clean
and sweet. A naturally porous or well-drained soil, a sunny ex-
posure and a sufficiency of ventilating orifices above and below,
so disposed as not to create cold draughts, are points of especial
value.

Stables should be so constructed as to avoid darkness on the
one hand and a full glare of sunshine striking the eyes on the
other. Darkness is usually associated with uncleanliness, damp
and close air; but, apart from these, it is injurious in hindering
the proper development of red blood globules, which are so es-
sential to sound and vigorous health. It further tends to weaken
the eyes, and to expose them to suffering and inflammation when
suddenly taken out into the full glare of sunshine. When the
sunlight is reflected from snow, from white walls, or from the
white dust of a limestone soil, it becomes increasingly injurious.
It is well to have a stable well lighted, but the sunlight should be
made to enter behind or to one side, and not to fall directly on
the eyes of the animals.

How common an occurrence is the presence of hay seed or
chaff in the eyes of animals. Nothing can conduce more to the
development of a latent predisposition to ophthalmia. The sen-
sibility of the eye is adapted to its situation, which is protected
by the margins of the orbit against solid objects of large size,
while it is especially liable to be invaded by fine particles of sand,
dust, etc. A smooth marble or finger may be made to touch the
eyeball without great suffering, while a grain of sand or ashes
produces exquisite torture. To avoid these smaller and more
hurtful bodies hay racks should be made no higher than the ordi-
nary manger, and, if filled from above, it should be through a
closely boarded chute, so that neither seed nor dust may readily
drop into the eyes.

The above remarks are equally applicable to the dust of the

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 209

highway in summer. With breeding-animals especially it is
dangerous to drive in the cloud of dust raised by a leading
wagon, but how much more so if the horse is hereditarily predis-
posed to ophthalmia. In the same way we should guard the
horse against the cinders flying into open railway cars, from the
dust of a threshing machine blowing upon the horses engaged in
driving it, the dust of a harrow driven in the same direction as
the wind, the smoke of burning rubbish, etc.

In addition to the bad effects of insufficient, faulty or too
stimulating food, already referred to, it is well to note that the
consumption of too much sugar is liable to induce disease of the
eyes. This is especially likely to result from a too exclusive diet
of sorghum, or from the large admixture of molasses with the
food. It may, indeed, be questioned whether the notoriously evil
effects of a diet of Indian corn on the eyes is not partly due to
the abundance of starch in its composition, and to the conversion
of that starch into sugar in the system.

THE EYE AS AFFECTED BY THE TEETH.*

The process of teething is calcalated to rouse into activity a
latent predisposition to disease of the eyes in horses. The rapid
progress of teething in the horse, and the completion of the pro-
cess at an early age, determines much vascular and nervous ex-
citement about the head, and the weakest point, in many cases,
being the eyes, these are too often the parts to suffer. To illus-
trate the influence of teething it need only be said that at three
years old the horse acquires eight new grinding teeth and four
front ones. A year later he acquires eight additional grinders,
four front teeth and four tushes. It is small wonder that at these
ages the gums and soft pad of the upper jaw swell; that the
horse refuses his food, or eats with littie appetite; that he drops
morsels half chewed, and that he appears at times sluggish, dull
and feverish. Nor is it surprising that at this age the progeny of
horses that have suffered from recurring ophthalmia themselves

* The Breeder’s Gazette, Vol. I, p. 536.

210 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

show symptoms of the same disease. Itis this tendency to dis-
eases of the eyes during the eruption of the permanent teeth
which has drawn horsemen’s attention to the wolf teeth as the
supposed cause of the evil. The wolf teeth, however, come up
with the first set of molars, and are therefore in the mouth dur-
ing the whole of early life, and until the adjacent teeth—the
front upper grinders—are shed. Whenever, therefore, a young
horse suffers from diseased eyes, the owner or attendant opens the
mouth, and finding wolf teeth concludes that these are the cause
of the trouble. The wolf tooth is imbedded not more than half
an inch in its socket, while the adjacent grinders, and even the
front nippers, extend into the bone for about two inches. These
other teeth are, therefore, far more likely to produce irritation
than are the wolf teeth, and, asa matter of fact, the congestion
of the palate, familiarly known as lampas, occurs close behind
the front teeth, and not near the wolf teeth. In the shedding of
the back grinders, too, it is not at all uncommon to have so
much irritation caused that it extends to the throat and causes
sore throat and cough. But around the insignificant wolf teeth it
is rare to find any irritation at all, and that only when they devi-
ate from their true direction. The temporary recovery from sore
eyes after the extraction of the wolf teeth is just what would
have happened had the teeth been left in place, and proves only
that the disease appears and disappears alternately.

The excitement attendant on teething is natural, yet it is well
to check this when it threatens to become severe, or to rouse
sympathetic inflammation of the eyes. If cositiveness appears
during the process, the substitution for a portion of the diet of
soft mashes of wheat-bran, of fresh, succulent grass, of roots,
apples, or ensilage will prove beneficial. If these are not avail-
able or are ineffective, one or two ounces of Glauber’s salts may
be given daily in the feed. If the old teeth do not fall early and
spontaneously, but remain entangled on the crowns of the new
ones after the latter have cut the gums, they should be removed;
if the gums become red, swollen and tender, a slight scarifying
of the suface so as to let a little blood will usually relieve; and if

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. PAA

new teeth, and especially the tushes, produce tension and pain
by their pressure before cutting the gums, their eruption should
be assisted by a deep incision with the lancet, down to the hard
tooth substance.

UMBILICAL HERNIA IN YOUNG FOALS.*

This condition is usually very easy to recognize. A pouched
or pyriform swelling appears in the median line of the abdomen,
immediately below the navel, which, on manipulation, is felt to
contain movable contents, which glide readily on each other and
can be easily returned into the abdominal cavity by pressure.
Then in the center of the navel can be felt an opening of variable
size, which may admit one, two or four fingers. On relaxing the
pressure the sack fills up again more or less promptly and fully.
When manipulating the contents, and during their return, there
will usually be felt, and even heard, some gurgling from the
admixture of liquids and gases in the contained intestine.

It is needless to mention here more than one mode of treat-
ment that should serve every purpose in the very young, in
which the tissues of the navel are still embryonic cells, and the
opening, therefore, easily closed. Procure a piece of sole leather
from four to six inches square to apply upon the navel after the
mass of the intestines has been passed back into the belly. To
each corner of the leather pad attach an elastic band, and bring
the same upward around the body, tying them over the spine.
Pass a band around the lower part of the neck to act as a collar.
From the lower part of this collar carry an elastic band between
the fore legs and attach it to the anterior border of the leather
pad. From the same collar, on each side of the shoulder, carry
an elastic band back on the side of the chest and tie it succes-
sively to the two elastic bands which encircle the body. The
essential point is that all of the bands should be elastic, so that
they yield and accommodate themselves to the movements of the
abdomen in breathing and of the body in all its varied motion.

*The Breeder’s Gazette, Vol, I, p. 281,

DAY A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

If a similar bandage is applied with inelastic bands drawn tight
enough to keep the pad in contact with the umbilicus in all the
breathing movements it is liable to cause severe, and even fatal,
straining. As an accessory to the pad and elastic bands may be
applied on the umbilicus a liberal amount of melted pitch, or
pitch and wax, which will bind the band and skin and still fur-
ther secure against any descent of the hernia. If by these means
the bowels can be prevented from descending through the open-
ing, the walls of that opening will speedily contract and become
fibrous, and the possibility of future protrusion will_be obviated.

In cases of longer standing—in colts, for example, of several
months old—the embryonic cellular tissue around the navel has
already been developed into fibrous material, so that the contrac-
tion and closure is not so speedy, and in such cases it may be
desirable, when the hernia is small, to leave it to nature—at least
until the colt is one or two years cld. In such cases a sponta-
neous cure often ensues; but the opening is rarely so completely
effaced, nor so strongly closed, as when effected by bandage
immediately after birth.

The explanation of the spontaneous recovery is this: The
lower part of the abdomen in the adult horse is occupied by the
large intestines to the utter exclusion of the small. In the young
foal these are scarcely larger than the small intestines, and easily
protrude through any natural or artificial orifice. As the foal
grows, however, and subsists more and more on coarse and solid
food, the large intestines gain in size, and in mature life they
vary from four to twelve inches in diameter, at different points.
The blind gut, which is one of the largest, lies obliquely across
above the navel, and by its great bulk forms an internal pad,
which most effectually shuts off the small intestines from this
region.

‘* ScOURS’’ OR DIARRHG@A IN COLTS.

In all young animals there is a certain amount of secretions
from the liver, pancreas, stomach and bowels prior to birth, and
when the new being comes into the world these products are ac-
cumulated, in the form of firm, tenacious masses, in the last gut.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 13
At first the bowels are torpid, and the stiff, tenacious contents,
or meconium, obstructs all progress. The natural laxative, which
nature has furnished to clear away this product, is the milk first
secreted, and when abundant this usually serves every purpose.
But from various causes this milk may be deficient in amount or
altered in quality, and may fail to produce free evacuation of the
bowels. Then follow cositiveness, impaction of the bowels with
the waste products of the digestion of milk, decomopsition of
these products, impairment or alteration of the secretions of the
whole digestive apparatus, and, finally, irritation, excessive
watery secretion, unnaturally active movements of the bowels,
perhaps even inflammation, and, of course, scouring. For this
condition, which is a very common one, the preventive is to
watch the foal closely for the first twenty-four hours, and, if the
bowels are not freely moved, to give a dose of three ounces of
castor or olive oil, with a tea-spoonful of laudanum. =
In the young the liver is relatively far larger and more active
than in the adult. As might be expected, it is at the same time
more liable to disorder. In many cases of indigestion in young
foals the extreme fcoetor of the discharges, the coated appearance
of the tongue, and the yellowness of the membranes of the eyes
and nose, testify to the existence of this derangement. In such
cases, after the operation of the oil, much good may often be
derived from one grain of calomel and twelve grains of chalk,
intimately mixed, and repeated two or three times a day.
Anything that affects the general health of the mare is liable
to modify the milk. When mares are used in harness during
lactation, it occasionally happens that a fretful animal becomes
so fevered that the quality of the milk is materially altered, and
the foal, coming to her hungry, gorges itself with what acts like
a veritable poison, inducing indigestion, with skin eruptions or
diarrhea. So it is with other unhealthy conditions of the mother.
In all febrile, wasting, or disordered states, the milk is more or
less altered, and every such alteration is a threat to the sound
digestion of the foal, and may prove a proximate cause of
scouring. With some it is acommon practice, after the mare has

214 _ A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

been excited by work, to keep the foal apart until all the milk
found in the bag has been drawn off, since they justly conclude
that what is secreted later, when the period of excitement is past,
will prove more wholesome. In the same manner we ought to
correct, as far as possible, any alteration of health on the part of
the dam.

We know that the relative amount of water and solids in the
milk is greatly affected by the nature of the food. A suckling
animal, in good health, has a richer and more concentrated milk
when fed on dry hay, and especially with a liberal supply of grain.
Now, the very richness of this milk may unduly stimulate the
digestive organs of the young animal, and any such undue
stimulation borders on disease. A slight congestion of the
stomach, or a temporary suspension of its secretions, may lead
to the formation of larger masses of curd, which are difficult to
dissolve, and lie but as permanent irritants in the abused organ.
Although the best course is to prevent the formation of these, it
is often needful to treat them, and perhaps nothing will serve our
purpose better than a dose of castor oil, as above advised, to be
repeated in three days; and in the interval two table-spoonfuls of
a solution of rennet in wine, repeated morning, noon and night
of each day. To prevent recurrence of the indigestion the ren-
net may be continued for some time, and the mare should be
allowed an abundance of water, not too cold, and one or two soft
mashes daily. The rennet solution may be prepared by taking
one-eighth of the fourth stomach of a calf and steeping in a pint
of wine. Water may be substituted for wine, if a sufficient
amount of salt, or a few drops of carbolic acid are added, to
prevent putrefactive change. *

For the suckling mare grass is unquestionably the natural
food. Left to nature she brings forth her young at the period
when pastures are luxuriant, and on this diet her milk is abun-
dant and good, but not too rich nor concentrated; and yet even
green food is not always most conducive to the health of mare
and foal. Occasionally in early spring the fresh grass is so
rank, and its growth so rapid, that it contains an excess of water;

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 915

and even its constituent organic elements appear to differ from
those of a less rapid growth, and the result is acute indigestion
and violent diarrhcea. This, which shows itself primarily in the
mare, may be propagated in the foal as well, by the morbid prod-
ucts secreted in the milk. Nothing is more certain than that
very many chemical agents, introduced into the system of the
mother, pass out largely by the milk. It is an old practice to
give a dose of salts or other purgative to the mother, with the
view of acting on the bowels of the offspring. Poisons, too,
taken into the system of the mother, will often pass out in the
milk, and affect the more susceptible offspring rather than the
less impressible nurse. Hence it is that green food that has been
grown under unusual conditions, fodder that has been spoiled in
harvesting, impure waters with an excess of decomposing organic
matter, and mineral waters containing laxative salts, may appear
to act even more severely on the sucking animal than on its dam,
through which these were derived. The notice of these things is,
perhaps, sufficiently suggestive to lead to their correction when
they are found to exist. It need only be stated that green food,
which is actively irritant when used alone, will often prove harm-
less when employed in connection with grain or other dry food;
but occasionally this will fail, and each case must be judged by
its own results.

Confinement in close buildings is inimical to mare and foal
alike. In both it induces a relaxed, weakened condition, which
lays the system open to health-disturbing causes. The effect
on the mare impairs the quality of the milk, and this in its turn
reacts on the foal, which, thus placed between two fires, is
doubly liable to suffer. But close confinement is too often asso-
ciated with impure air and filthy surroundings, and nothing can
well be more hurtful to health than this unhygienic combination.
After foaling, as before, mares should have the means of taking
free exercise, and if in early spring they can not do this in
the pasture each ought to have the run of a yard connected with
a dry, comfortable shed, where she and her foal may use and de-
velop their locomotive organs and strengthen their constitutions.

216 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

Perhaps nothing is more hurtful to the young than a cold,
damp bed. Suddenly transferred from a warm medium to the
cold of early spring, it is of no small importance that the young
animal should be protected against the excess of cold which
comes of damp and evaporation, or even freezing. The sym-
pathy between the skin and the bowels is of the most intimate
kind, and in earliest youth, when the susceptibility of the bowels
is so great, the chilling of the surface often leads to disastrous
congestions of the bowels and fatal scouring.

Similar to the above is exposure to cold rain storms. A pass-
ing shower may do no harm, even if cold; but a prolonged ex-
posure to rain, with a low temperature, is terribly trying to the
system of the new-born foal, and often leads to disorders of the
digestive organs, with persistent and fatal diarrhea.

Only two more conditions may be referred to, and both are
connected with a more advanced period of colthood than are
those already mentioned. When the foal begins to feed he may
suffer from all those conditions of the food that prove noxious
through the milk of the mother. A feed, for example, of a too
stimulating grain, or of a too rank and aqueous grass, of fodder
that has been badly harvested and rendered musty or bleached
and fibrous, of grain or hay that has been altered by ergot or
smut, and of roots and tubers that have been frosted or diseased
—these and others may at times give rise to irritation in the as
yet comparatively inhabituated stomach, and scouring is a not
distant consequence.

The second evil result of faulty food and water is the presence
of worms in the intestines. All the round worms of the intes-
tines of the horse can live in water and moist earth, or in fresh
vegetation, in their early and immature condition. Thus they
are liable to be taken in continually with the food and water, and
developing in the intestines they lay eggs almost without limit as
to numbers, to be hatched and sped on the same noxious course.
Hence it is that in pastures that have been grazed by horses year
after year, and with drinking ponds and shallow wells into which
the washings of the surface can find their way, the colts are par

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 217

ticularly liable to worms; and diarrhoea from this cause is by no
means unfrequent. In such a case there is the general unthrifty
appearance of the wormy animal, and the rubbed, frizzled ap-
pearance of the hair at the root of the tail which bespeaks the’
itching of the anus. The most marked symptom, however, is
the presence of the worms in the dung, and these can usually be
found if carefully sought for. In such a case it is well to give a
dose of physic to clear away the mucus in which the vermin live;
and if this is associated with a vermifuge the majority of the
parasites may be expelled at once. Six table-spoonfuls of castor
oil, with two or three tea-spoonfuls of oil of turpentine, accord-
ing to the size of the foal, should be well shaken together and
given as one dose. After this has operated twenty grains of
powdered sulphate of iron and ten grains of santonin may be
given daily for a week, when the dose of oil and turpentine may
be repeated, which will usually clear away all the parasites that
remain in the bowels.

In conclusion, a caution is needed against a too common
method of treating diarrhcea from the outset with opium and
astringents, with the view of cutting short the discharge. Asa
rule, scouring is but an indication of the presence in the stomach
or bowels of some cause of irritation; and all attempts to quiet
the irritation by opium or astringents serve but to imprison the
cause of trouble, and thus to prolong its irritant action. The
soundest policy in all such cases is to expel the disturber with a
bland laxative like castor oil, guarding its action, if need be, by
a little laudanum or other soothing agent; and only later, when
the irritant has been expelled, to check the discharge and shelter
and protect the irritated bowel by weak solutions of gum arabic,
of slippery elm, or by well-boiled linseed tea or starch. But even
then these must be used in moderation lest they should produce
a secondary constipation, which will prove even more hurtful
than the diarrhoea. A good prescription for this stage, and
which may be repeated once, twice or thrice a day, as may be
necessary, is eight grains of kino, one ounce tincture of cinna-

mon, one-half drachm of gum arabic and two drachms of chalk.
15

218 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

To sucking animals this may be given along with the preparation
of rennet, and should only be continued so long as the bowels
are loose and irritable.

STRANGLES OR DISTEMPER.

However strangles may be produced, or whatever acces-
sory causes may favor its development, there can be no doubt
that once in existence it can be propagated by contagion. We
frequently see all the young horses on a number of adjacent
farms suffering at once from this malady, while a farm entirely
surrounded by these, but which has had no direct equine com-
munication with them, maintains a clean bill of health. But let
one of the sick colts be introduced into the latter, and speedily
all the horses unprotected by any antecedent attack present the
unequivocal symptoms of strangles. Lastly, in many different
cases the malady has been conveyed from horse to horse by inocu-
lation, thus attesting in the most undoubted manner the presence
of contagion. We are the more particular in enforcing this fact
of contagion that most English authors deny its existence, and
thus blind their readers to a most important measure of precau-
tion. In many seasons the affection assumes a uniformly mild
and regular form, and passing promptly through all its stages, is
invariably followed by a satisfactory recovery. In other seasons
it shows the greatest tendency to an irregular course—ito a tardy
and imperfect maturation of the swellings, to inflammation and
abscess in unwonted situations, and to secondary formations of
matter in distant and vital organs, with most injurious or fatal
results. . If we conclude that the disease is in the air, or in the
system only, as English authors assert, we may well decide that
we can do little to hinder its appearance in the more fatal
seasons, or to favor it in the safer and milder ones. If, however,
we recognize the truth that the disease may be to a great extent
prevented by seclusion and disinfection, while its development
can be secured by exposure to contagion, we can protect our
studs in the less favorable outbreaks, and even pass them through
the malady in the milder ones, thus saving many lives and many

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 219

more cases of roaring, thick wind, chronic coughs, and other
affections of the air passages.

Strangles is usually preceded by a period of incubation, mani-
fested by a staring coat, loss of condition, dullness and languor,
with perspiration and fatigue under slight exertion. These are
followed by rise of the body temperature, heat and clamminess
of the mouth, redness of the eyes and interior of the nose, and a
watery distillation from both, driveling of saliva from the mouth,
accelerated breathing and pulse, costiveness, scanty, high-colored
urine, and increased thirst. Now the characteristic swellings ap-
pear in front of the throat and between the two branches of the
lower jaw. This is a uniformly rounded swelling, hot and tender,
firm and resistant in the center, but softer, more doughy and
pitting on pressure on the surface and around the margins.
After two or three days, in the regular cases, the center of the
swelling softens and fluctuates from contained pus, and a few
days later still it bursts, discharging an abundant white, creamy
matter, and speedily heals up, this being accompanied by a resto-
ration to vigorous health.

Sometimes the swelling is situated in the throat, and may
press inward on the pharynx, preventing swallowing, and caus-
ing a rejection of water and food by the nose. In other cases it
presses on the larynx, shutting off the air from the lungs and
causing the most difficult stertorous breathing, or even proving
fatal by suffocation. At other times the swelling beneath the
lower jaw is replaced, or supplemented, by similar swellings in
distant parts of the body, but mainly in the groups of the lym-
phatic glands, in the neck, shoulder, groin, chest, abdomen, or
elsewhere. - In these cases the danger is always greatly enhanced,
but it will be proportionate to the vitality of the organs in which
the inflammation and suppuration supervenes. In some in-
stances the swelling first appears in its natural situation under
the jaw, but fails to come to a head, remaining hard and indolent
for an indefinite length of time. In all such cases the strength is
much run down, and there is a great tendency to the formation
of matter in important internal organs, and especially in the

220 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

brain, with fatal results. In such cases, too, there is a great
tendency to enormous dropsical and bloody effusions in the head
and limbs, as the result of debility and a very depraved condition
of the blood.

Suggestion has already been made of the great importance of
guarding against exposure to contagion, to change of locality, or
to any of the exciting causes of the disease, when that shows any
tendency to assume an irregular or fatal form in a district. Dis-
infectants even may be used in the stables, such as fumes of
burning sulphur diluted so as to be breathed without irritation,
or the exhalations from shallow basins of carbolic acid and alco-
hol. We may add the further precaution, not to expose to cold,
wet, nor exhaustion during convalescence from this affection, as
many cases of irregular course and untoward results have cc-
curred from the lack of just such care.

In the treatment of the affection much more reliance is to be
placed on sound hygienic measures than on medication. The pa-
tients should be fed liberally on scalded or boiled grain, or wheat-
bran, and if this can be given from a nose-bag it will soothe and
relieve the air passages, and greatly hasten the formation of
matter and recovery. This should be done at least twice a day.
No less important is the continuous application of warmth and
moisture to the swelling between the jaws. This may be accom-
plished by persistent fomentation with warm water, by the appli-
cation of a poultice in a bag of thin cotton, or, better and more
conveniently, by enveloping the head in a sheet, with holes cut
for the ears and eyes, and laced down the middle of the face, and
inserting a large wet sponge, so that it may lie in contact with
the swelling. This can be kept saturated with warm water, by
pouring a little into it occasionally. When the matter ap-
proaches the surface, and appears to be separated from the finger
by a thin layer of skin only, it should be freely opened with a
sharp knife; and the fomentations may be kept up until the sur-
rounding hardness has entirely disappeared. The swellings in
unwonted situations should be similarly treated, so as to seek a
discharge of the matter externally. The formations in internal

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 21

organs are too often fatal, because of the vital importance of the
structures involved.

This is a malady through which most horses pass once in their
lives. In this respect it resembles measles, scarlatina and other
eruptive fevers of*children. Precisely what are the conditions
which leads to its development it may be difficult to state in so
many words, but there can be no doubt that among the many
predisposing causes change of locality holds a very high place.
Horses moved from one county or State to another, from a hilly
to a flat region, or the reverse, from inland to the seaside, or
from the country to the town, are those in which the disease is
most apt to be developed. So strong indeed is this influence of
altered climate that a second and even a third attack may be de-
termined in the same animal by extensive change of residence.
In horses, on the other hand, kept continuously in the same local-
ity, a second attack is very rare.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK.

PART II.

Prepared expressly for this work by N. H. Paaren, M. D.,
State Veterinarian of [linois.

THE STALLION—EXTERNAL INJURIES.

The accidents and ailments to which the stallion may be said
to be especially liable are comparatively few. Among the exter-
nal injuries to which he is exposed are those he may receive
while he is about to serve the mare; such as bruises, lacerations,
sprains, injuries of the sexual organs, etc., and which may be
caused by the mare’s resistance, from want of proper assistance
of the keeper, or by the too great eagerness and impatience
of the stallion himself. Among the requirements to his early
restoration to service, as well as to successful treatment,
when injured in this manner, is total abstinence from sexual
intercourse. Minor wounds, or slight hemorrhage may be

222. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREED!NG.

treated with frequent applications of cold water or mild
astringent lotions. Considerable bleeding, consequent upon
more extensive lacerations, may require the use of hot iron
or ligatures, and that the wounds be closed by stitching
or by strings of sticking-plaster. Where inflammatory action
exists, besides internal sedative remedies (aconite, belladonna,
fifteen to twenty drops of either) use locally either cold or warm
applications; and when cedemic or dropsical swelling exists ap-
ply warm aromatic decoctions, frequently renewing the same,
and exercise the animal several times daily. Extensive or per-
sistent dropsical swelling of either the sheath or the penis may
be relieved by longitudinal free lancing and continued warm
bathing. In cases of profuse suppuration apply astringent lo-
tions (alum, sulphate of zinc, or acetate of lead; strength, one
to twelve of water). Fistulas should be slit open to give free
escape of matter and facilitate applications of remedies (nitrate
of silver) to destroy false membrane; thereafter, zinc ointment,
carbolized cosmoline, etc.

INFLAMMATION OF THE PENIS.

It is evidenced by pain, heat, swelling, more or less inability
to extend or retract the organ, painful urinating, a straddling
gait, more or less depression of spirit and loss of appetite. Most
frequently caused by kicks from the mare, injury by hairs of the
mare’s tail obstructing free entrance to the vagina, etc. After
cleansing the penis and the sheath with warm water and soap,
apply zine or lead ointment, or, if much swelling prevails, use
frequent bathing with hayseed tea, or decoction of other aro-
matics with vinegar. In case of abscess-formation, besides fre-
quent attention to cleanliness, use injections of solutions of
sulphate of zine or sulphate of copper (from one to two drachms
to a half-pint of water). If the stallion is unable to retract or
retain the penis within the sheath, it will be necessary to sup-
port the member in a horizontal position by means of a broad
linen bandage or sling fastened over the loins. The diet should
be loosening and spare.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 293

INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES.

This is evidenced by a stiff, straddling gait, or more or less
lameness; swelling and pain of one or both testicles, including the
testicular cord; total loss of spirit and ability to service, and
which latter condition, in severe cases, may become permanent
on account of structural disorganization of the testicles. Treat-
ment should be conducted as indicated in the previous case. The
testicles should be supported by the use of a suspensorium.
Scarification must never be employed in enlargement of the
testicles, except in the case of abscess-formation. Chronic
enlargement or induration should be counteracted by the use of
weak mercurial ointment, to which may later be added a small
proportion (one to twelve or sixteen) of iodine; but this latter
should never be used while local pain or inflammation remains.

CANCER OF THE PENIS AND THE SHEATH.

This condition is generally mistaken for warts, on account
of some similarity of appearance. It is generally located at
the edges or inside of the sheath and at extremity or spongy
body of the penis. In appearance it is a tumor of varying size,
with a granulated or sprouting surface, of a dirty red color, the
edges of which bleed on slight provocation, and from which a
fetid ichor is discharged. The skin and underlying tissue sur-
rounding these tumors are generally more or less thickened
and knotty. When located near the course of the urethra
there may be more or less difficulty in urinating. There is a
possibility of this disease being transmitted by the genital parts
of the stallion to the mare, and vice versa. The best course
of treatment consists in the entire disintegration of the tumor
by aid of the red-hot iron, and the subsequent application of
ordinary healing remedies. There is a kind of tumor affecting
the genital organs, which is of a non-contagious nature, called
sarcoma, and which may be removed by the same means.

PROLAPSE, OR PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS.

Prolapse may exist without a paralytic condition of the
organ, or it may be due to paralysis, either local or affecting

224. A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

other portions of the posterior part of the body. We will, how-
ever, confine our attention to the local condition. Prolapse,
with or without co-existing paralysis, may be caused by various
local injuries of a mechanical nature, and it may co-exist with,
or be due to inflammation of the penis, to rheumatism, ete.
Depending upon possible complications of a more general or
extensive nature, the condition may be either of temporary
duration,, amenable to treatment, or it may result in perma-
nently disqualifying the animal for stud services. One of the
first requirements to successful treatment consists in the use of
& suspensorium or loin bandage. To the dorsum and sides of
the penis apply tincture of iodine, or turpentine, once daily, by
light penciling of the parts, and internally administer spinal
stimulants, such as nux vomica (fifteen grains to a scruple,
twice daily) with valeriana (one ounce of the powdered root).

SCROTAL HERNIA.

The descent of a portion of the intestines, through the inguinal
canal, into the scrotum or bag which contains the testicles, is
sometimes met with in entire males of all ages. It may be con-
genital, or acquired soon after birth, or at any time in after life
from a variety of causes, such as violent efforts, jamping, kick-
ing, violent throwing or rolling during attacks of colic or
bloating, too frequent and excited copulation, violent exer-
tions in pulling heavy loads, especially up-hill, etc. Some-
times the descent of intestine into the scrotum is not due to any
of the causes named, but may occur from a relaxed condition of
the abdominal muscles, or a too spacious inguinal canal (abdomi-
nalring). In young colts scrotal hernia does not always mani-
fest itself by sudden or violent symptoms; in fact, the animal
may to all appearance suffer no inconvenience; but as there will
always be danger of strangulation, with its sequels of inflamma-
tion of the bowels, gangrene of the incarcerated portion and
death of the animal, such cases should be attended to as soon as
they are discovered, both in young and old. Whenever colic
occurs in stallions a careful examination of the contents of the

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 225

scrotum should never be omitted. It will be evident to any think-
ing man that, in a case where violent symptoms of colic are in-
duced by strangulation of a portion of intestine in the scrotum,
the administration of medicines, instead of remedying the case,
will only tend to hasten a fatal termination. The cause of the
symptoms being of a mechanical origin and nature, can be
remedied only by mechanical means, aided by proper medicinal
adjuncts. In young colts, when no untoward symptoms exist in
connection with scrotal hernia, the return of the intestinal con-
tents of the scrotum may be effected by taxis; that is, by laying
the animal on its back, raising the hinder part of the body from
the ground as far as possible, and by gentle manipulation of the
scrotal contents cause their return to the abdominal cavity. The
animal should then be laid on its side and allowed to rise as
quietly as possible. A return of intestine into the scrotum may
not occur again; but should it happen more than twice it will be
best to castrate the animal without unnecessary delay, the removal
of the testicles being done by the so-called covered operation. It
would be highly improper and dangerous to castrate such an ani-
mal in the usual manner by opening the tunica vaginalis (so-
called striffing or white sack), which is in direct connection with
the abdominal cavity. Scrotal hernia in older animals should be
treated in a similar manner; that is, the animal should be
made resistless by the proper administration of anesthetics,
probably the least dangerous of which is the following combina-
tion, which is almost invariably used by myself in all animals,
viz.: One part of alcohol, two parts of chloroform, and three
parts of sulphuric ether, administered by saturating a sponge,
which should then be held close to (not against) the lower nostril,
while a towel or an empty sack is laid loosely over the sponge
and half of the head. Both nostrils should never be covered by
the sponge. When entirely under the influence of the anesthetic
the animal should be laid on its back; sacks filled with oats or
packed with hay should be placed under the crupper and loins to
raise that part of the body from the ground; equilibrium of the
body being maintained by strong hands holding the four limbs;

226 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

the oiled hand and arm inserted through the rectum; and by
manipulation of the intestines, simultaneously with judicious
manipulation of the contents of the scrotum, the intestinal con-
tents of the latter may be entirely returned to the abdominal
cavity. Should, however, these efforts prove unsuccessful nothing
remains but to resort to a surgical operation, the particulars of
which I omit describing, as such an operation could be success-
fully performed only by a veterinary expert. Should the contents
of the scrotum be successfully returned, without surgical opera-
tion, it would be prudent to castrate the stallion by the covered
method, to avoid future similar occurrence. Many a fine stallion,
supposed to have been affected with spasmodic colic, undoubtedly
suffers the most excruciating pains of strangulated scrotal hernia,
and dies in the hands of unsuspecting owners or attendants, with
the real cause of suffering and death undiscovered, for which rea-
son I have discussed this subject at length.

WATERBAG, SO-CALLED.

This condition may exist as a simple dropsical (cedematous)
infiltration of the connective tissue of the scrotum, and as one of
the sequels of influenza or other internal diseases. Water or
serum, contained in the scrotal sac, together with the testicles,
may be the result of local injury or abdominal dropsy. In old
stallions this condition may, and does often, co-exist with degen-
eration or chronic diseases of the testicles. It is also met with in
young. weakly colts, as a result of general debility. Simple drop-
sical infiltration may be treated locally by stimulating applica-
tions, and internally by the administration of diuretics, suc-
ceeded with tonics, liberal keep and proper daily exercise. Ac-
cumulation of water in the scrotal cavity may be returned to the
abdomen by placing the animal on its back and raising the
hinder quarters; and the absorption and elimination of the fluid
may then be accomplished by the administration of laxative or
diuretic remedies, succeeded with tonics, liberal keep and exer-
cise. When the aqueous accumulation in the scrotum is due to,
and co-exists with, degeneration or enlargement of one or both
testicles, castration may be resorted to.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 227

EXCESSIVE VENERY (Satyriasis).

A condition in which excessive sexual excitement occurs at
frequent intervals, even almost uninterruptedly, may exist in
both sexes. In the stallion ejaculation of semen may occur dur-
ing the paroxysm of erection and excitement, or just before
sexual connection. The condition manifests itself mainly when
the stallion is kept within the sight or smell of mares, or in the
same stable; seldom when he is kept absolutely secluded. It
may be a consequence of idleness, together with a want of sexual
intercourse, and especially when the animal is kept on very rich
and stimulating food; otherwise, a constitutional predisposition
to excessive virility may exist. The evil may be remedied by
seclusion, more frequent sexual intercourse, less nutritious food,
the administration of occasional laxatives; also, by the use of
bromide of potassium in two-drachm doses; or camphor with
nitrate of potassium, respectively one and two-drachm doses.
Castration as a last resort.

NON-EMISSION OF SEMEN—‘‘ PROUDNESS,’’ SO-CALLED.

The question is frequently asked: ‘‘What causes a stallion to
dismount proud?” or ‘‘What can be done for a ‘proud’ stallion?”
This condition is a variety of sterility in which sexual inter-
course is not finished with an ejaculation of semen, either
because that fluid does not enter the urethra, or because its
forcible expulsion is prevented by some obstacle in the course
of the urethra. Non-emission may be congenital or acquired,
and permanent or temporary. It may be, and probably most
frequently is, the result of either masturbation or over-taxation
of the sexual organs. Dr. Howe says on this subject: ‘‘ The
power of erection remains intact, but the patient exerts himself
in vain to produce an orgasm. This condition may continue a
few weeks, disappear and then return. It is by no means a per-
manent condition, but it may lead to sterility and impotence.
Some writers say that it is due to spasm of the orifices of the
ejaculatory duct, which prevents the passage of the seminal fluid
into the urethra; others, that it is due toa lack of secretion in

228 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

the various glands. This latter view, however, is not tenable,
because such patients are subject to nocturnal pollutions as a
result of lascivious dreams. It is more than probable that there
is a temporary paralysis of sensation existing in the prostatic
portion of the urethra, in the ducts, and perhaps in the vesicles.
This lack of sensation prevents the reflex muscular action neces-
sary for the propulsion of the semen.”’

This latter view coincides with my opinion stated above as to
the most frequent causes of this condition in stallions, namely:
sexual abuse or over-taxation; and the treatment which I have
generally recommended, and which has been most successful, has
had for its object to restore the sexual powers to their normal
condition by remedies which tone up the system at large and
excite the reflex activity of the genito-spinal center. Thus the
following combination may be used twice or thrice daily during
one week, viz.: Half an ounce each of tincture of iron and
Fowler’s solution of arsenic, and two drachms of tincture of nux
vomica, given in half a pint of flaxseed tea or water sweetened
with molasses. During the following week may be given, twice
or thrice daily, half an ounce of fluid extract of damiana and
one ounce of tincture of valeriana, in half a pint of sweetened
water. Meanwhile, frequent bathing with cold water should be
applied along the urethra, from the anus downwards; and the
stallion should be withheld from service during at least one
month.

SEXUAL SLUGGISHNESS.

Among the causes of sexual indifference in the presence of
the opposite sex in heat may be mentioned too long continued
abstinence or sexual restraint, over-taxation of the male sexual
organs, abnormal condition of these, other internal diseases,
insufficient or innutritious food, general debility, obesity, ete.
Treatment consists in the removal or avoidance of the causes;
when indicated, nutritive and stimulating food, liberty out-doors
with mares. To force sexual activity by stimulating or irritating
nostrums does not generally prove permanently successful.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 299

SPERMATORRHGA.

This is a condition in which the semen is discharged without
friction of the male organ. It is one of the consequences of
masturbation, and may also result from debility of sexual organs
from over-taxation of these. Treatment consists in the preven-
tion or avoidance of the causes, isolation, frequent cold applica-
tions locally, and the administration internally of tonic and
astringent remedies, such as iron, sulphate of zine or sulphate of
copper, in one-drachm doses.

VESICULAR ERUPTIONS ON THE PENIS.

Phlyctenoid vesicular eruptions on the penis are sometimes
met with in stallions, and are by some regarded as a non-
malignant species of chancre. It is a pellucid vesicle containing
a serous fluid. which sometimes also occurs in young stallions
that never have been used for service. The vesicles, after burst-
ing, leave small ulcers, which readily heal when cleanliness of
the parts is attended to. Otherwise they may become more or
less aggravated, and incapacitate the animal for service. During
the eruption of the vesicles more or less local pain and inflam-
mation exists. An animal thus affected should not be used for
service. Treatment consists in frequent bathing, first with a
solution of one part of Goulard’s extract and ten parts of water.
When inflammation has subsided use frequent applications of a
solution of alum in water, and cleanse the parts with soap and
water. In aggravated or protracted cases use frequent bathing
with a solution of one part of chloride of lime in twelve to
fifteen parts of cold water. Internal remedies are generally not
necessary.

FOUL SHEATH.

Accumulation of sebaceous matter, cuticular desquammation
and other deposits within the cavity or folds of the sheath, often
cause considerable local irritation and consequently more or less
swelling of the sheath. This latter condition may also be due to
accumulation of serum in the areolar or subcellular tissue, in
consequence of local or general debility, or from some consti-

230 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

tutional cause; and the swelling of the sheath, from whatever
cause, may exist to such an extent as to impede the extension or
protrusion of the penis, and cause the animal to acquire the habit
of discharging the urine within the sheath. The irritation
already existing within thus becomes aggravated; decomposition
of the accumulated greasy substances is thereby enhanced and
putrescence and fetor ensue. During summer this may at-
tract flies, which ‘“‘blow’’ the parts and cause accumulation of
myriads of maggots within the sheath. Continued irritation
may produce more or less local inflammation and ulceration, and
ultimately impair the general condition of the horse. When
soap is used in cleansing the parts they should be rinsed with
clean water thereafter. Oil or greasy substances should never be
applied after cleansing, as is frequently done, for these substances
are apt to decompose and cause renewed irritation. If the parts
were for some time daily cleansed and then bathed with a solu-
tion of chlorinated lime, in the proportion of two ounces to a
quart of cold water, gradual improvement and a subsequently
permanent healthy condition would be likely to result. The use
of this solution would also prevent the appearance of maggots.
The horse’s general condition should be improved by liberal
keep, the administration of tonic remedies internally, and, if he
is used for work, by lessening or discontinuing the same for a
sufficient length of time.

MASTURBATION.

It occurs to me that I should not close my remarks on the
most common ailments to which the stallion is subject without
referring to an evil with which I presume all of my readers are
familiar. In fact, the subject of masturbation, or self-abuse, is
one of considerable interest and importance, not only to horse-
men, but to all breeders of live stock. It is a remarkable fact
that our literature on live-stock matters almost entirely ignores
the subject. There certainly can not be any impropriety in dis-
cussing this matter in a work entirely devoted to the interest of
breeding, especially when we consider the often serious results

a

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. Dd f

of the practice and the inconvenience and trouble it often causes
during the season of training or when, for other reasons, the
stallion is withheld from service. I remember several instances
where the result upon the health and usefulness of stallions was
of so serious a nature that castration was resorted to as the only
effective remedy. The too frequent practice of masturbation
by, and its evil effects upon, the little stallion King Phillip, with
a record of 2:21, was the reason given for castrating him.

There are various causes of this habit. ‘‘Idleness begets vice,”’
is an adage applicable to a great extent in the case of self-abuse in
the males of our domestic animals, many of which, especially the
better-bred and more valuable ones, being fed on stimulating
food and kept idle most of their time. But besides idleness
and restraint of sexual intercourse, there are other causes of
the habit, among which may be mentioned special generic dis-
turbances and excessive generic potency, and which are more
frequently met with in the bull than in the stallion.

When masturbation is practiced frequently organic disease of
the testicles may result; also, weakness of the loins, loss of power
of propulsion, loss of fiesh and general emaciation; spermator-
rhoea, as well as so-called clap, besides impotence, may super-
vene, and these so much the sooner if the animal is kept on low
diet, with the idea of thus lowering his sexual excitement.

'The subject of prevention is of course one of great impor-
tance. If the animal practices masturbation by the aid of his
own body or limbs, it is next to impossible to prevent the same.
Chastisements are of no use, and shame is out of the ques-
tion. Among the remedial measures are unrestrained liberty
outdoors, but which, especially with the stallion, is not generally
practicable; also moderate work in the field or on the road, and
regular but moderate use in the stud or herd. The main object
is to prevent the exercise of the habit, if possible, but no means
have been devised by which this can always be done successfully,
especially when the habit has been long indulged in. The means
adopted in human practice can not very well be carried out with
the same result. Among these we may, however, mention occa-

Vt A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

sional blistering of the prepuce, or ringing it with silver wire,
somewhat similar to ringing of the nose in swine. While the
habit, by these or similar means, and by constant watching, or
by applying a straight-jacket during the night, may prove suc-
cessful in the human family, such stringent measures can not be
effectually applied in the case of animals, as the chances are
that when the restrictions or applications are omitted, or after
awhile, the animal will return to its old habits. Internal reme-
dies, such as bromide of potassium, continued for some time,
reduces sexual desire and potency, but it is also apt to produce
great weakness and emaciation, and could not be continued
without danger for any length of time. Faradization of the
spine has in some instances been used with benefit against self-
abuse, but this is also likely to be of only temporary benefit;
and, so far as I know, there is no sure cure for the evil. In in-
veterate cases, where the effects of masturbation have extended
so far that the animal refuses to notice the opposite sex in heat,
nothing remains but to castrate him and thus preserve his use-
fulness for other purposes.

CRYPTORCHIDS (‘‘RIDGLINGS,’’ SO-CALLED).

In common parlance, the appellation of ridgling is given toa
stallion in which either one or both testicles have failed to de-
scend into the scrotum. In the cases where one testicle has
descended, the animal may serve the purposes of a sire and prove
as fertile as if both testicles had descended. But the testicle or
testicles that fail to descend into the scrotum, and are retained in
the abdomen or the groin, are generally small and undeveloped,
and now and then atrophied through fibrous or fatty degenera-
tion. As a result of these malpositions or morbid changes,
cryptorchids have generally been considered to be absolutely
sterile, although they were known to have strong sexual desires
and enjoy the capacity for copulation and ejaculation. While as
a rule the ejaculated fluid is devoid of the fecundating germs,
termed spermatozoz, exceptional instances have occurred where
such males have proved fertile, and where consequently the fluid
must have contained spermatozoz.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 233

THE BROCD MARE—BARRENNESS.

A mare should not be considered barren because she does not
get in foal, even after repeated service by one certain stallion,
for it often occurs that a change of stallion proves effective.
The causes of barrenness in mares are numerous, and among the
most frequent are a phlegmatic temperament, or the reverse, ex-
cessive sexual excitement; also, reduced vitality, due to poverty
of constitution, overwork, innutritious food; or the reverse con-
dition, that of obesity; too great sexual excitement and violent
efforts in the approaching stallion, especially if he is large and
powerful, while the mare is young and this her first experience; or
the reverse, when the mare is small, old, overworked, in poor con-
dition and low-spirited. Among causes of a mechanical nature
may be mentioned obliteration or stricture of the vagina; super-
sensitiveness, with spasmodic closure of the vagina; vaginal or
uterine tumors; engorgement or induration of the neck of the
womb; obliteration or great narrowing of the canal of the neck of
the womb, or its closure by glutinous exudation; occlusion of the
fallopian tubes (which connect the womb with the ovaries); mor-
bid or abnormal condition of the ovaries. All morbid dis-
charges, due.to retention of a portion or all cf the after-birth, or
to catarrh or leucorrhcea (so-called whites), effectively prevents
pregnancy. I coincide with the opinion of experienced breeders,
that pasturage upon red clover is among the fertile causes of
barrenness in mares; and I believe that impotence in mares in
this case is due to the honey contained in the flowers, this opin-
ion being based upon the fact that a continued consumption of
pure honey will produce impotence in both sexes of mankind.
Nymphomania is also a cause of barrenness.

Many of the conditions named above are of a permanent
character; others are amenable to treatment, and may be suc-
cessfully avoided, remedied or removed. Thus, too great excit-
ability in the mare may be overcome by starving her during
twenty-four hours (not withholding drinking water), and driving
her till she begins to tire, just before service. The removal of
tumors should he effected by surgical means; closure of the neck

16

234 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

of the womb may be overcome by digital manipulation, which is
best effected during heat. The cases of barrenness which are
most likely to yield to treatment are those where signs of heat
occur at regular intervals, as here the cause is generally of a
mechanical nature. But when the animal never shows any sign
of heat the prospects of its appearance are very unfavorable.
Sexual energy may be restored in mares that have been over-
worked, or are in a poor condition from want of proper nutri-
tion, by a reversal to freedom from work and liberal keep upon
nutritious and stimulating food. In phlegmatic mares, or such
where sexual sluggishness or indifference exists, if not due to
obesity, they should be fed on rich and stimulating food, often
changed, occasionally steamed or cooked, among which may be
mixed a handful of hempseeds, twice daily. By way of experi-
ment, fluid extract of damiana may be tried in half-ounce doses,
together with tincture of cantharides in half-ounce doses, mixed
with half a pint of flaxseed tea, and such a dose given twice or
thrice daily during a week, and repeated with intervals of one
week during three weeks; meanwhile letting the mare once or
twice weekly come near the stallion, or be placed near him in the
stable. The medicines may be bought at wholesale price by buy-
ing a pound or pint of each; otherwise the experiment will be too

costly.
NYMPHOMANIA.

Excessive venery exists in the female as well as in the male,
and is evidenced by an insatiable desire for sexual intercourse.
the mare appearing to be almost constantly in heat. This condi-
tion has several causes for its existence, among which may be
mentioned undue irritation or congestion of the ovaries, the
fallopian tubes, or the womb, which causes the secretion of a pe-
culiar irritating fluid. Scrofulous affections of the generative
organs, or tuberculosis, especially of the body of the womb and
its divergences, are known to be frequent causes of nympho-
mania. The state of the generative organs, under the last-named
causes, is such as to render conception impossible; while at the
same time the irritation induced by the morbid secretions con-

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 235

tinually induces an excessive and unnatural sexual desire. Under
the existence of any of these conditions gestation could not
exist, neither could conception be accomplished. A mare affected
with nymphomania is a continual disturber of the peace and
quiet in the stable, and often dangerous while in harness. When
this condition has existed only a short time conception may be
brought about by spare keep, loosening food and laxative medi-
cines. Two drachms each of camphor and saltpetre, given
morning and evening during a we2k, often allays the excitement
and the irritation, when the stallion should be admitted; but it is
totally useless to admit the stallion while the excitement of nym-
phomania exists. In some exceptional instances the amputation
of the clitoris has proved successful. In old offenders the last
remedy is spaying, and with that the nuisance is abated; but the
operation is often dangerous to the life of the mare.

TUMORS WITHIN THE VAGINA AND UTERUS.

These may occur of various kinds and sizes, and frequently
have a narrow neck. Their presence may be productive of slimy
or bloody discharges of more or less offensive odor. When nu-
merous or large they may cause prolapse of the vagina, difficult
urinating, more or less frequent straining, and may hinder or
obstruct copulation. Their successful removal, by twisting, liga-
tion, dissection, or by means of the ecraseur, will of course de-
pend upon their location, their shape, form of basis or attach-
ment, ete.

LEUCORRH@A, OR SO-CALLED WHITES.

This consists of a more or less copious slimy or purulent dis-
charge, originating in the vagina or in the womb, and may be
acute and catarrhal or chronic. Among its causes may be men-
tioned exposure to cold after foaling, other acute or chronic dis-
eases, such as influenza, glanders, etc., or the presence of poly pus,
melanotic or other kinds of tumors within the vagina or uterus,
the existence of recto-vaginal fistula, cancer of the womb, atrophy
of the womb, ete. Depending upon the cause, the treatment should
be either local or general. If the animal is in poor condition,

236 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

treatment should be assisted by liberal keep on nutritious food.
Among internal remedies may be mentioned juniper berries,
savin, ergot, resin, common turpentine, muriatic acid, oak bark,
of which the following formula may serve as an example: Take
half an ounce of common turpentine. twenty drops of muriatic
acid, two drachms of powdered ginger, and ten ounces of decoc-
tion of oak bark. Give such a dose once a day during a week.
In cases where the discharge is very profuse sugar of lead and oil
of turpentine may be used, as follows: Take one drachm of
sugar of lead, dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of warm water,
add thereto two drachms of oil of turpentine, previously beaten
into an emulsion with one yolk of egg; shake this mixture well
together with half a pint of flaxseed tea, and give such a dose
morning and evening during a week. The local treatment
should be conducted as follows: By inserting the hand it may be
ascertained whether the discharge proceeds from the womb,
which is likely to be the case if the cervix or neck of the womb
is wide open. In this case injection of warm water should be
made into this organ by means of a long, flexible catheter, with
a view of washing out the contents; after which, by the same
means, make injections twice or thrice daily of tar water, clear
lime water, or a solution of sulphate of zinc (half an ounce to
each pint of water). A change of remedy often hastens the cure
of such cases; wherefore, a solution of sugar of lead (two
drachms to each pint of water) may be used every second week.
The contents of the womb should, as far as possible, be with-
drawn before the remedies are injected. In case the disease is
confined to the vagina the cleansing and application of medicine
may be done by the use of an ordinary syringe that will hold at
least half a pint. For uterine application the capacity of the
syringe should be from a pint to a quart. If the morbid dis-
charge from the genital parts is due to the presence of polypi,
or any other kind of tumors, of course the internal as well as
local treatment above suggested will be useless, as a permanent
cure under such circumstances would wholly depend upon
whether these tumors were removable or not.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. Dot

COLT FOUNDER, SO-CALLED.

Laminitis, or so-called founder, after foaling, is generally
more troublesome or dangerous than the same disease occurring
at other times, and from other causes. It is sometimes compli-
cated with metritis, or inflammation of the womb, or some other
excitant malady, which should be ascertained, and treatment of
such complications directed according to their nature. (See in-
flammation of the womb.) Among the causes of colt founder is a
plethoric condition, resulting from improper diet and regimen
during the last months of pregnancy. Mares subjected to
moderate work and light, nutritious diet, are seldom affected with
this malady, while those kept idle and fed largely on corn or rich
food are more commonly affected. In some instances breeders
are known to have given their brood mares large and nutritious
mashes, with the intention of promoting a large flow of milk.
When such a diet is combined with total inactivity, as is common,
with a mistaken view of avoiding abortion, a state of plethora is
readily induced, which has a great tendency to the development
of local inflammations, and among these the so-called colt
founder. The treatment should, from the beginning of the evil,
be like that adopted for the same disease generally, but more
energetic, both locally and internally. Saline laxatives (a pound
of Epsom or Glauber’s salts, etc.), succeeded with sedatives
(aconite, fifteen to twenty-drop doses, not exceeding six doses at
intervals of two hours), and poultices applied to the feet, after
the shoes have been removed and the edge of the hoof has been
pared down, leaving the sole and the frog intact, so that the
bearing of the animal’s weight comes most upon the central part
of the foot. Not the least effective remedy is that of allowing
the colt to suck, and, if necessary, additional stripping of the
udder, with a view of promoting increased secretion of the
mammary glands. In some cases, with acute inflammation and
high fever, no milk is secreted; nevertheless the sucking should
never be omitted. The return of milk generally indicates a
successful issue. A mare subject to such affection should not be
bred so as to have her colt too early in the year; for if she could

238 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

be turned out on a good pasture before foaling the trouble would
most likely be entirely avoided. She must not be fed so as to
become plethoric or fat. Give good oats, occasional soft mashes,
with bran and flaxseed-meal, say at least once a week, and avoid
corn during the last six weeks. Keep constantly some common
salt placed within reach, in a separate small trough, and do not
mix it among the food. The quantity consumed may safely be
left to the animal’s instinct, but access to good drinking water,
at least thrice daily, should be given. When too early for grass,
a roomy, well-littered box-stall, or comfortable, closed shed,
should be allowed during the last two months of pregnancy.
Give gentle exercise daily, or liberty out-doors during daytime,
when the weather is moderate and dry. Accidents from company
with other horses, by kicking, etc., may be avoided by provid-
ing a small inclosed dry yard adjacent to her shed or box-stall.

GEDEMA DURING PREGNANCY.

During the latter part of the period of gestation the mare is
subject to dropsical swelling, especially of the udder and along
the under surface of the chest and abdomen. Such local accu-
mulations, and consequent more or less stiffness, generally disap-
pear after foaling; but sometimes they are apt to become quite
extensive, and may call for treatment. Such mares should never
be kept tied up in a stall, but should be given the same facilities
and liberty as recommended in the preceding paragraph, with
access to common salt, as stated. Friction by hand-rubbing, or
a stiff brush, and the application of highwine, or spirits of cam-
phor, are among the remedies employed in such cases. Laxative
remedies, as well as remedies to excite the kidneys to action, are
not safe to employ during the latter part of gestation, as they are
apt to produce abortion. Vegetable tonics, such as powdered
gention root, may be given among food once or twice a day dur-
ing a few days to a week, in one-ounce doses.

SUPERIMPREGNATION,

According to its nature, superimpregnation is divided into
two forms, technically termed superfcetation and superfcecunda-

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 239

tion. Cases of the first form occur after one or more sexual
connections during the period of one and the same heat, and the
consequence is the production of twins or triplets. The second
form appears after coital connection during the time of any sub-
sequent period of evolution or heat; and though there may, in
such a case, be two or more foetuses developing within the uterus
at the same time, they can not be regarded as twins or triplets,
because their natural term of gestation terminates unequally, the
difference depending upon the length of time that passed be-
tween the two different acts of conception; and, besides, if no
accidental or detrimental influences should occur during the
original term of gestation, they would be born of two entirely
independent acts of parturition. Superimpregnation, in its two
forms, may occur after sexual connection with one or with sev-
eral males. The difference in time between the two acts of
parturition, in cases of superfcecundation, in recorded cases, has
been from two to six months.

HEAT DURING PREGNANCY.

As a rule, when conception has taken place, the regular periods
of heat terminate, and do not reappear till after parturition.
But there are exceptions to this rule, and these are due to the fact
that during gestation an ovule may mature, and, as a conse-
quence, heat will appear. This may happen in all species of
animals, and during any period of gestation. If during such
heat sexual intercourse should happen, conception may take
place again, constituting superfoecundation.

LACERATION OF THE RECTUM.

Occasionally reports have come to hand concerning cases
where, during the service of the stallion, the rectum became
lacerated. These reports invariably contained statements of a
fatal termination. While laceration of the rectum may happen
during the normal performance of coition, it is, however, more
likely to occur when, as sometimes happens, the penis enters the
rectum instead of the vagina. Laceration of the rectum during

240 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

coition may be considered as incurable and generally causes
death of the mare.
ABORTION.

The causes of abortion are numerous. Among these may be
mentioned colic, violent external injuries, violent exertions,
heroic medicines, musty food, rancid oil-cake, rich and stimulat-
ing food in liberal quantities, impure water, etc.; also, disease
of the foetus and its enveloping membranes, and a predisposi-
tion after previous abortion. Abortion does not always occur
immediately, but frequently after several weeks of prepara-
tion; and treatment to prevent abortion is useless after the act
has commenced. When it is known that an animal bas received
an injury, or an exciting cause has been in operation that might
produce abortion, some preventive treatment may be adopted,
such as small doses of camphor (a seruple to half a drachm)
with opium (one scruple) twice or thrice daily during one to
three days; or half-drachm doses of powdered sulphate of iron;
this latter mixed among food twice a day for a few days.

DIFFICULT PARTURITION.

As before stated the mare should, towards the time of foaling,
be placed in comfortable, roomy quarters by herself. She should
not be interfered with when foaling, unless there should appear
to be unnatural presentation, unusual length of time or other
difficulty; and when assistance appears to be necessary prepara-
tions should be made to facilitate the same. All stable imple-
ments, loose troughs and buckets should be removed, and clean
bedding should be furnished. A bucket of warm water and sponge,
and oil to lubricate the hand and aim before insertion, should
be at hand, as well as a few flat and pliable light ropes, and
such obstetrical instruments as may be required. A few strong
hands, that may be necessary for assistance, should also be
present. The mare should be haltered and held by an assistant.
The hand and arm should be oiled, for the purpose of first
emptying the rectum of possible contents, as should also the uri-
nary bladder, by gentle compression or by the aid of a catheter,

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 241

The hand and arm should then be washed, and it should be
remembered that if finger rings are worn they should be removed
before the hand is introduced into the genital parts; and if the
finger-nails are long they should be shortened.

The complications or unnatural presentations are very vari-
ous; but a few of the most common will be considered here, as
the more complicated cases will require skilled veterinay assist-
ance. The usual and proper presentation of the foal is with b<th
fore legs first, and next, resting upon these, the head will appear.
In such a case help is not called for, unless the colt be a very
large one, or the mare small with a narrow pelvis, when a little
assistance may be carefully given, by gently drawing upon the
legs after the head is well forward. But if there should appear
only one fore leg, or one or both hind legs, or the head is pre-
sented without the legs, or if the legs appear with the head bent
down and inwards between them, or is bent backwards, assist-
ance should be rendered without delay. It is generally necessary
in such cases to return the foal, but this should be done only
between the throes of the mare, and with care not to injure the
foal.

One of the most common forms of irregular presentations is
the one in which both fore feet appear, with the head doubled
back or to one side. Before returning the foal a flat or pliable
rope should be fastened to each of the fore legs above the fet-
locks. Pressure should then be made against the breast of the
foal, and usually the head will then come into line, if the foal is
pushed far enough in. The ropes on the feet are applied to
secure them in case they should slip into a wrong position, and
actual pulling, if any should become necessary after the foal is
brought into position, should never be done by these ropes, but
by the feet and the head, and not between the labor pains, but
only when the mare herself helps.

Should the head be presented without the fore legs a slip-
noose of soft cord should be applied around the lower jaw. The
head should then be pushed inwards as far as possible, and the
feet, one by one, drawn forward into position and secured with

2492 A TREATISE ON HORSE-BREEDING.

soft rope, as above stated. The head should then, by aid of the
hand and partly by the rope, be secured and placed upon the fore
legs, when gentle traction, not by the ropes, should be proceeded
with as in the foregoing case. It will be useless to attempt to
bring the foal forth with the head alone protruding, nor should
the attempt be made, as the life of the colt will thus be
endangered.

In the case where only one fore leg is presented, the other one
extending inwards, and the head pressed against the pelvic bone,
the soft cord should be applied around the protruding leg; then
the hand, armed with a soft slip-noose, should secure this around
the lower jaw, after which pressure should be made against the
breast and the foal pushed in so far as to allow the head to be
placed in position by an assistant gently pulling on the rope
attached around the jaw. Then the other fore leg is to be secured
and brought forward, whereupon moderate traction may be made
upon both legs and the head, but not by the ropes. If the expul-
sive pains of the mare are strong the tightly impacted state of
the head will offer considerable difficulty in manipulation.

It will be useless to describe the more difficult presentations,
as they will require for their safe delivery, where such is possible,
a variety of instruments and appliances, with which, and their
proper use, the breeder can not be expected to be familiar. In
all difficult cases the farmer or breeder will find it to nis advan-
tage to send without delay for a properly educated veterinary
surgeon, who alone is capable, from his knowledge of the anat-
omy of the genital organs, of rendering efficient assistance in
complicated and difficult cases. But it is to be regretted that
the scarcity of this class of men is so great, wherefore much suf-
fering and considerable loss must unavoidably be sustained.

LACERATION OF THE PERINEUM.

To a mare which such an accident has happened the queer
name of a ‘‘gill-flirt’’ is vulgariy applied. The injury consists in
a laceration of the space between the anus and the genital organs,
caused by difficult parturition, especially in cases where the foal

DISEASES PECULIAR TO BREEDING STOCK. 943

is very large and the labor pains excessively strong. Treatment,
by way of uniting the parts by sutures, generally proves unsuc-
cessful if not instituted immediately after the accident. When
the laceration has not included the anal sphincter a partial heal-
ing sometimes occurs with surgical assistance. The condition
does not unfit a mare for future breeding; but special care is
required at the time of service to so direct the stallion (who
should stand on higher ground than the mare if she is large) that
the vagina proper, and not the rectum, be entered; that is, if the
entire extent of the perinzeum is lacerated, including the anal
sphincter. In this latter event there is also the unpleasant feat-
ure of the dung passing from the rectum into the vagina, mak-
ing the voiding of the same to some extent difficult and more or
less incomplete and offensive.

INDEX.

Abortion, 183, 194, 240.
Accidental variations, 23.
transmissible, 25.
Adaptation to changed conditions, 15.
to locality, 17.
Age, effect of, upon stallions, 159.
for castration, 170.
quality of the get of stallions not
affected by, 160.
suitable for breeding, 190.
Altitude, effect of, 22.
American thoroughbreds, 78.
Arabian horses, 75.
Assistance in parturition, 196.
Atavism, 14, 29.
Attention to foal at birth, 198.
Average period of gestation, 181.
Aversion to mare, how remedied, 156.

Bakewell’s Holland importation, 103.
skill as a breeder, 11.
Barrenness, causes of, 172, 233.
Barrier for trying mares, 155.
Bashaws, 83.
Black horses of Flanders, 102.
Black Lincolnshire horses, 106.
Bleeding mares before service, 175, 192.
Blindness transmissible, 142, 205.
Boulonnais, 129.
Bowels of the foal, 202, 212.
Breaking the colt, 89.
Breed, definition of, 31.
Breeding draft horses, 137.
for sex, 65.
from unsound stock, 136.
general principles of, 9.
Breeding in-and-in, 35.
contradictions of, explained, 41,
Darwin on, 40.
effect of on hardiness, 44.
Galton on, 37.
Herbert Spencer’s views on, 39, 42.
how far it may be practiced, 46.
tendency of, 36, 44.
when not dangerous, 42.
Breeding stock, selection of, 133.
Breeding trotting horses, 86.
Breeds, formed by selection of, 33.
Breeds, how formed, 31.
modified by locality, 17.
modified by temperature, 18.
of horses, 68, 80, 90, 97, 101, 110,
116, 128,

Bridle for unruly stallion, 151, 243.
Brood mares, 171, 190, 214, 233.
Brood mares at time of foaling, 198.
Brood mares, diseases and accidents
of, 233.
abortion, 183, 194, 240.
colt-founder, 237.
difficult parturition, 240,
heat during pregnancy, 155, 239.
laceration of the perinzeum, 242.
laceration of the rectum, 239.
leucorrhcea or whites, 235.
nymphomania, 234.
cedema of pregnancy, 238.
superimpregnation, 238.
tumors of the vagina, 235.
Brood mares, confinement of, 215.
effect of general health of on milk,
218.
drying the milk, 186, 200.
exercise for, 179, 193.
food to produce milk, 184, 214.
productive pericd of, 178.
stallions and foals, 131.
working, 179, 183, 193.
Buffalo trotting course, 85.

Canadian horses, climatic effect on, 13.
Cancer of the penis and sheath, 223.
Cart horses, English, 101.

Castration, effect of, 168.
effect of on development, 169.
when it should be performed, 170.

Causes of abortion, 1838, 194, 240.

Causes of barrenness, 172.

Changed conditions, adaptation to, 15.
effect of, 11, 15, 23.

Change of climate, effect of, 11, 19.
effect on generative organs, 64.

Clays, 82.

Cleopatra, in-breeding illustrated by, 36.

Cleveland Bays, 97.

Cleveland Bays resuscitated, 101.

Cleveland Bay Stud Book, 97.

Climate, effect of on the eye, 206.
effect of on the generative organs, 64.
influence of, 11, 19, 18.

Climatic influences, Prof. Low on, 19.

Clydesdales, 110.
and Shire horses blended, 112.

Clydesdale Stud Book, American, 116.
Scotch, 112.

Close stables hurtful, 207,

246 INDEX.

Coach horses, how to breed them, 139
Color, infiuenced by imagination, 62
Color markings from fright, 62.
Color of Clydesdales, 115.

Percherons, 117.

Shire horses, 106.
Color transmitted, 1438.
Colostrum, or a milk, 201.
Colt-founder, 2°
Colts, accidents aaa diseases of, 204.

attention to at birth, 198.

diarrheea or scours in, 202, 212.

effect of exercise on dey elopment
of, 187.

gentling the, 189.

teaching to eat, 185

umbilical hernia in, 211.

the weaning of, 186.

worms in the intestines of, 216.
Condition of stallion for the stud, 144.
Constipation of the bowels, 201.
Controlling the sex, 65.
Controlling the stallion when in use, 151. |
Coupe horses, how to breed them, 139.
Courage of stallions, 169.
Cows’ milk for foals, 185.
Cross-fertilization, 24.
Crosses, top most important, 47.

violent, effect of, 38
Crossing and in-breeding, 35.
Cryptorchids or ridglings, 282.

Dam and sire, relative size of, 48.
Danger from kicking-mare, 153.
from over-feeding, 147.
Darley Arabian, 74.
Darkness injurious to the eye, 208.
Darwin, Chas, F., on in-breeding, 40.
on reversion, 15.
Detects transmitted, 136.
Definition of terms, 31.
Degeneration of the ovaries, 176.
Development affected by exercise, 187.
by food and climate, 12.
by castration, 169.
Diarrhea in foals, 202, 212.
Difficult parturition, 196, 210,
Diseases peculiar to breeding-stock, 204.
Diseases of brood mares. See brood |
mares, diseeses of, |
of stallions. See stallions, diseases |
of.
Diseased tendencies transmitted, 172.
Distemper or strangies, 218.
Draft horse, qualities of 2 gocd, 137, 140. |
how to breed the, 139.
Drugs and medicines for stallions con-
demned, 144.
Drying off the brood mare, 186, 200.
Dwarf breeds, produced by climate, 12

Eclipse, 73.

Effect of age on fertility of stallion, 159.
age on quality of the get, 160.
castration on the stallicn. 168,
change of climate on breeds, 11, 19,

Effect of change of climate on gener-
ative organs, 64.
climate on the eye, 207.
exercise on development, 187
first impregnation, 51.
imagination on color, 62.
over-feeding, 147, 151.
pasture upon breeding-mares, 203.
teething on the eye, 209.
English Shire and Cart horses, 101.
Eruptions on the penis, 229.

| Evacuation of bowels of foal, 202.
| Evolution, effect of on heredity, 27.

Exercise for brood mares, 179.
Excessive feeding dangerous, 147.

| Excessive venary, 227
| Exercising the stallion, 145.

Extent of hereditary influence,
External injuries to stallions, is
Eye, hygiene of the, 204.

Eye, the, as affected by the teeth, 209

Family, value of, 10.

| Farmers’ horses, 138, 141.

Fatty degeneration of ovaries, 176

Feeding the stallion, 1438. ‘

Feeding to increase flow of milk. 184,

194, 199.
to produce weight, 147.
the young foal, 184, 186.

Feet and legs, 135.

Fertility, affected by in-breeding; 38.
affected by violent crosses, 38.
affected by condition of, 159.

Fighting between stallions, 170.

Fillies, when old enough to breed, 180.

First impregnation, influence of, 51,
may be ignored, 60.

Prot. Law on, 52.
First milk or colostrum, 201.

| Flanders, black horces of, 102.

Flemish blood in Clydesdales, 110.
in Shire horses, 102.

Flemish horses, 102.

Flying Childers, 72.

Foaling, period of, 180.
rest after, 1838.
signs of, 182, 196.

| sont » aC ‘cidents and diseases of, 204.
cow’s milk for, 185.
mieten or scours, 202, 212.
hernia or ruptur eet:
etfect of mill on stomech of, 214.
strangles or distemper, 218.
worms in intestines, 216.
attention to at birth, 198, 201.
feeding young, 184.
following the dams, 184,
per cent of to mares served, 160,
weaning, 186.

Food for mares while suckling, 184, 214.
for the stallion, 144.
for young foals, 184, 214.

Formation of breeds, 31.

Foul sheath, 229,

Foundation for trotting pedigree, 89,

INDEX.

Frank Forrester on Cleveland Bays, 98. |

OAT

Inflamed udder, 200.

| Influence of first impregnation, 51.

Galloping mares before service, 191.

Galton, Francis, on in-breeding, 37.

General management of stallions, 143.

General principles of breeding, 9.

Generative organs affected by change
of climate, 64.

Gentling the foal, 189.

Gestation, period of, 180,

Godolphin Arabian, 74.

Good families, importance of, 10,

Good pedigree, what is a, 48.

Grass, effect of on breeding mares, 203. |

Gresse or scratches in stailions, 150.

Hambletonians, 81.
Hambletonian (Rysdyk’s), number of
mares served by, 157.

Headstrong stallion, pridle for, 151.

Heat during pregnancy, 154, 239.

Heat or cestrum of mares, 154, 191, 239.

Herbert, H. W., ou Cleveland Bays, 98.

Hereditary influence, extent of. 27,
how far it may be depended on, 29.

Hereditary qualities, transmission of, 9.
Hernia, umbilical, 211.

scrotal, 224.
High-feeding, dangerous, 147.
Hobbles, to prevent kicking, 153. |
Holland, importations from, 103.
Horse-breeding statistics, 158, 163, 165.
Horse-of-all-werk, 137,
Horses, adaptation to locality, 19.

for farmers, 141.

modified by climate, 19,

that will sell, 141.

the breecs of, 68.
Humidity, effect of, 19.
Hygiene of the eye, 204.

|

|

Imagination, effect of on color, 62.
Hinportation not a guarenty of excel- |
lence, 142.
Impregnation, causes of failure of, 173.
influence of first, 51.
may be ignored, 60.
In-breeding, 35.
as illustrated in the Ptolmeys, 36.
contradictions of, explained, 41,
Darwin on, 40.
Galton on, 37,
Herbert Spencer on, 39, 42.
effect of on hardiness, 44.
how far it may be practiced, 46.
tendency of, 36, 44.
when not dangerous, 42.
Increase in speed of trotters, 85,
Increasing tlow of milk, 184.
Indian ponies, 130.
Individual quality, transmission of, 3).
Inheritance in the humen tamily, 10.
Inherited blindness, 205,
Infirmities transmitted, 142,
Inflammation of the penis, 222,
testicles, 228,

of the dam, 172.

| Iniquities of fathers visited upon the

children, 9.
Injuries, external, to the stallion, 221.

Jacks fighting with stallions, 171.
Kicking by mares, how to prevent, 153.
Laceration’of the perinzeum, 242.

of the rectum, 239.
Lanarkshire, horses of, 110.

| Lassoing stallions, 170.

Law, Prof. James, on barrenness, 173.
diarrhcea or scours, 212.
influence of first impregnation, 52.
the eye, 204.
strangles or distemper, 218.
umbilical hernia, 211.
Legs and feet, 135.
Leucorrhea or whites, 235.
Lighting the stable, 207.
Limits of service of stallion, 156.
Live foals, percentage of to mares
served, 162.
Live-Stock Journal (London) on Cleve-
land Bays, 98.
Low, Prof. Dayid, on climatic influ-
ences, 19.
draft horses, 103.
thoroughbreds, 71.

Mahomet, influence of, on horse-breed-
ing in Arabia, 76.
Male should be larger than female, 49,

| Mambrines, 81.

Management of the stallion, 142.
Mares, abortion in, 194.
aversion to by stallion, 156.
attention to at foaling, 182, 196.
diseases of. See brood mares,
feeding while suckling, 184, 194, 199,
how to prevent from kicking, 153.
influence of on progeny, 171.
means to insure impregnation, 191,
number to be servea, 156.
suckling, food for, 184, 194, 214.
when in heat, 154, 191,
when should be bred, 154.
when suckling, 213.
when should be tried, 154.
working when in foal, 179, 1§3, 192.
Markings from imagination, 62.
Mark Lane Hxpiess on Clevelands, $8,
Masturbation, 230.
Milk affecting the foal, 214.
effect of first, 201.
for colts, 185.
effect of general health on, 213.
heated, effect of, 201, 213.
increasing the flow of, 184.
Moon-blindnegss, 205.
Morgans, 82.
Mustangs, 130,

248

Nearsightedness, 205.

Ninth day after foaling, best for breed-
ing again, 154.

Norman Horse Association, 127,

Norman Horse Register, 127.

Non-emission of semen, or
ness,’’ 227.

Norman-Percheron controversy, 122.

North British Agriculturist on high
feeding, 148.

Nostruims injurious, 146.

Number of mares to be served, 156.

Nymphomania, 234.

** proud-

(Edema of pregnancy, 238.

(strum or heat, 154, 191.

Oil-meal for colts, 185.

Old work or road mares not desirable,

180, 190.

Ophthalmia, 205.

Opening mouth of the womb, 175.

Oriental sires, influence of on thor- |

oughbreds, 75.

Original uniformity of type, 11.

Origin of Cleveland Bays, 97.
Clydesdales, 110.
English Shire or Cart horses, 102.
Orloff trotters, 91.
Percherons, 116.
Thoroughbreds, 68.

Orloff trotters, 91.
and American trotters compared, 95.
trotting rules, 93.

Ovaries, diseased, 176.

Overfeeding and lack of exercise, 151.
dangers from, 147.

Paaren, Dr. N. H., on abortion, 240.
barrenness in mares, 233.
cancer of the penis and sheath, 223.
colt-founder, 237.
cryptorchids or ridglings, 282.
difticult parturition, 240.
enlargement of the penis, 222.
excessive venery, 227.
external injuries to the stallion, 221.
foul sheath, 229.
heat during pregnancy, 239.
inflammation of the testicles, 223.
laceration of the perinzeum, 242.
laceration of the rectum, 239.
leucorrhoea or whites, 235.
masturbation, 230.
non-emission or **proudness,’’ 227.
nymphomania, 284.
cedema of pregnancy, 238.
paralysis of the penis, 223.
prolapse of penis, 223.
scrotal hernia, 224.
sexual sluggishness, 228.
spermatorrhm@a, 229.
superimpregnation, 238.
tumors of the vagina, 235.
vesicular eruptions of penis, 229.
waterbag, so-called, 226,

Paralysis of the penis, 223,

| Reynolds, Dr. R.

INDEX.

Paris, horse dealers of, 120,
Parturition, difficult, 196, 240.
signs of, 182, 196.
Pasture, effects of on brood mares, 203.
Per cent of foals to mares served, 162.
Pedigree in the human family, 10.
tests of, 48.
value of, 46.
Percherons, 116.
early importations of, 122.
Percheron-Norman controversy, 122.
Percheron Stud Book, Amer’n, 124, 126.
Hrenceh, 117, 120, 126.
Perinzeum, laceration of, 242.
Periodic ophthalmia, 205.
Perriott, Ernest, on Percherons, 121.

| Pilots, 88.

Ponies, 129, 180.
Pregnancy, heat during, 155, 239.

signs of, 154, 192.
Principles of breeding, 9.
Productive, period in brood mares, 178.
Progress in breeding trotters, 84.
Prolapse of the penis, 223.
Ptolmeys, an illustration from the, 36.
Puerperal fever, caused by over-feed-

ing, 173.

Pure air essential, 187.

Qualities of a good draft horse, 137.
Quality of mare’s milk, 201.
of get not affected by age of sire, 159.

Records of Buffalo trotting course, 85.
rectum, laceration of, 239.
Relative size of sire and dam, 48.
Remarkable productiveness, 178.
Reversion to original type, 14, 29.
S., on English draft
horses, 105.

views of, 190.
vidglings, 282.
Roadsters and trotters, 80.
toughing it, effect of on colts, 181.
tupture at the naval, 211.

of the scrotum, 224.
tussian trotters, 90.

trotting rules, 98.

Scours or diarrhea, 202, 212.
Scrotal hernia, 224.
Season, fitting the stallion for the, 143.
stallion after the close of, 163.
Selection, influence of, 11.
in forming breeds, 33.
of breeding stock, 133, 142.
Service of mare, managing the stallion
eateloes
Sex, controlling the, 65.
Sexual sluggishness, 228.
Sheath, foul, 229.
Shetland ponies, 129.
produced by climatic influences, 12.
Shire and Clydesdale, blended, 112.
Shire horses, English, 101.
Shire Horse Stud Book, 105.
Signs of approaching parturition, 182,196

INDEX.

Signs of heat or cestrum, 191.
pregnancy, 192.
Size of sire and dam, relative, 48.
Skimmed milk for colts, 186.
Sluggishness, sexual, 228.
Soundness, importance of, 133.
Speed of American trotters, 85.
Orloff trotters, 95.
Spencer, Herbert on in-breeding, 39, 42.
Spermatorrheea, 229.
Sports, 23.
Stables, how they should be lighted, 146.
Stable management of the stallion, 146.
Stallions, accidents and diseases of, 221.
cancer of the penis and sheath, 223.
cryptorchids or ridglings, 232.
excessive venery, 227.
external injuries to, 221.
foul sheath, 229.
“crease heel,’’ 150.
inflammation of the penis, 222.
inflammation of the testicles, 223.
masturbation, 230.
non-emission or ‘*proudness,’’ 257
paralysis of the penis, 223.
scrotal hernia, 224.
sexual sluggishness, 228.
spermatorrhcea, 229.
vesicular eruption of the penis, 229.
waterbag, so-called, 226.
bridle for, described, 151.
Stallions, brood mares and foals, 131.
Stallions, controlling, when in use, 151.
cries of to mare, how remedied,
condition for the stud, 144.
danger trom overfeeding, 147.
effect of castration on, 168.
exercise for, 145.
fighting, 170.
management of, 143.
management of the, after season
closes, 166.
nostrums not good for, 144.
number of mares to be served by,
156.
should not be drugged, 144.
stalls for, 146.
sureness of, not affected by number
of mares served, 157.
superior to mares and geldings in
courage, 169.
teaching to mount, 152.
stalls for, 146.
Starving process condemned, 188.
Statistics of breeding, 158, 163, 165.
Sterility, causes of, 173.
Strangles or distemper, 218.
Street, Mr. F., on Cleveland Bays, 98.
Stud Book, Cleveland Bay, 97.
Clydesdale, American, 116.
Scotch, 112.
Percheron, American, 124, 126.
French, 117, 121, 126.
Shire horse, American, 109.
English, 105,

7

249

Stud Book, Thoroughbred, Amer’n, 79.
English, 71.

Suffolk Punch, 128.

Sugar, effect of on the eye, 209.

Superimpregnation, 238.

Sure stallion, what is a, 162.

Teaching the foal to drink, 185.
Teazing by the stallion, 155.
Teeth, effect of on the eye, 209.
Temper transmitted, 143.
Temperature, effect of, 19.
Testicles, inflammation of the, 223.
Test of pedigree, 48.
Theories of sex production, 65.
Thoroughbreds, 68.
blood of in trotters, 87.
hardiness of, 44.
in America, 78.
origin of, 68.
peculiarities of, 77.
Thoroughbred Stud Book, Amer’n, 79.
English, 71.
Time of foaling, 180.
Top crosses most important, 47.
Transmission of accidental qualities, 25.
individual character, 30.
Trotters and roadsters, 80.
Trotting blood, foundation for, 89.
Trotting horses as a breed, 88.
how to breed, 86.
progress in breeding, 84.
Trying mares, 154.
Tumors, vaginal and uterine, 235.
Turner, G. T., on Cleveland Bays, 100.
Types that sell, 138.

Udder, inflamed, 200.
the, as a sign of parturition, 182.
Umbilical hernia, 211.
Uniformity of type, 11.
transmitted, 27.
Unsoundness transmitted, 136.
Uterine tumors, 235.

Vaginal tumors, 235,

Variations, accidental, 23.
accidental, transmissible, 25.
from uniformity, causes of, 11.

Value of pedigree, 46.

Venary, excessive, 227.

Vidal’s views on Percherons, 120.

Violent crosses, effect of, 38.

Waterbag in stallion, 226.

Weaning the foal, 186.

Wolf teeth, 209.

Womb, closure of the, 175.
sympathetic excitement of, 177.

Working brood mares, 179, 183, 193.
stallions, 166.

Worms in the intestines, 261.

Young mares, should not be bred, 174.
stallions, number of mares to be
served by, 156.

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