THE HORSE nS'TREAITVlENT'IN HEAmi'®] r*rn „>_^ ^.ii ®l|p i. B. BtU Sltbrarg JJortlt (Carolina g'tatp Imopraitg SF285 A8 V.7 NORTH CAROIIM STATE UMVERSITVL S02245029 O THE HORSEMAN'S BOOK SHOP Old-ikoui and Tbuv SookA 122 NORTH CHICAGO AVE. FREEPORT, ILL. This book is due on the date indicated below and is subject to an overdue fine as posted at the Circulation Desk. APR 2 im' l/l t i -> 1981 THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/horseitstreatm07axej POISONOUS PLANTS-I A. Yew. I. Male. a. Male flower. 3. I'ruit. B. Aconite, i. Plant. 2. Roots. C. Indian Hemp. i. Male. 2. Female. 3. Female flower. 4. Fniit. 5. Male flower. D. I-'oxglove. THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE WITH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT Edited by PROF. J. WORTLEY AXE, M.R.C.v.s. Ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and Wye Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association Author of ' ' The Mnre and Foal " ' ' Abortion in Cattle " ' ' Anthrax in Farm Stock " " Examination of Horses as to Soundness" "Glanders, its Spread and Suppression" "Swine Fever" " Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse" DIVISIONAL VOLUME VL LONDON THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND CONTENTS DIVISIONAL-VOLUME VII Section IV.— HEALTH AND DISEASE {Continued) 23. Medicines (conimued)— Drugs and their Uses -----.-.. i Drugs and their Doses 9 Weights hing is undertaken as a curative measure in skin diseases, or as a sanitary process, there are certain precautions to be observed to make it eftectual, and others to prevent the animal from taking cold. Parasitic diseases, as mange, may have to be treated with greasy appli- cations to the skin, which must be afterwards removed by soap and water for appearance and comfort, or washing may be prescribed to cleanse the skin preparatory to the application of remedial agents. An abundant supply of warm water should be secured before commencing the operations — a "water" or "dandy" brush, a sponge, scraper, straw wisps, and a sunny morning should be selected if possible. In nearly every case it is well to begin with the face and head, as in any skin affection due to living parasites it is essential that no " cities of refuge ", such as the ears and eyelids afford, should be left unassailed. If the washing begins at the head, the parasites are forced backwards and are eflfectually cut off, or they are washed off the body. The forelock and mane require to be well soaked and brushed down to the roots of the hair, as there is always, even in well-groomed animals, a good deal of desquamated cuticle and other debris accumulated here to harbour the offender. Soft soap, with its excess of alkali, more readily " lifts " this material than the ordinary soaps. If, for this purpose, the soap is rubbed in first, there must be very copious rinsing with w^arm water afterwards — and a free use of the brush. The same remarks apply to the tail. The neck, shoulders, and front legs are partially washed during the time the mane is receiving attention, the back and loin being wetted last to avoid unnecessary exposure of the body to cold. The belly and legs require the least manual labour, as they have become saturated by the lather running down them from other parts. When the cleansing process has been efficiently performed, a cold douche should be given and the scraper freely applied, to relieve the coat quickly of the greater part of the fluid; then the sponge should continue the work. Exercise should then be given to establish a glow, and the dry wisps should finish the operation when the horse is brought back to the stable. Clothing should not be replaced until the skin feels warm as well as dry. 36 HEALTH AND DISEASE BANDAGES AND BANDAGING Bandages are used for a variety of purposes: to give support to or restrain a limb, to maintain splints and dressings in position, to restrain bleeding, exert pressure, promote healing, and remove swelling. To effect the three last-named purposes a good deal of pressure may be necessary, and while the bandage has to be applied tightly, a considerable amount of care should be exercised to make the pressure even and avoid interference with the circulation. Preparation and Application of Bandages. — There is no small amount of art in the proper applica- Fig. iW. -A Simple Apparatus for Kolling Bandages 1, Wood framework. 2, Screw fixing to table or weight. 3, Bent stout wire crank. 4. Wire to guide and flatten bandage. tion of bandages, as the reader may see for himself if he will compare the performance of the novice, whose bandage will not remain in po.sition on a horse at rest, with the work of the expert which will continue intact when galloping and jumping have put it to every test. Both woollen and linen bandages are employed for horses, the latter being suitable only in those cases where evaporation from their surface and cooling of the part is the chief object desired. Woollen bandages are used for a very great variety of purposes, and practice alone can render the attendant expert in their application. A few hints may here be given that will be found to bear fruit. In preparing a bandage for application to the lini1>. the tapes attached to one end will require to be gathered together and the bandage rolled round them so as to make a small cylinder, which is to be held between the thumb and middle finger of the right hand, whilst the free portion of the bandage rests upon the index finger of the left hand (fig. 448). Thus held BANDAOES AND BANDAGING 37 and supported it is rolled up iiiln a firm rt'gtilai' cylinder. The most common position in which a bandage is recjuired to be applied is below the knee and hock, and very little practice is needed to render a person efficient in the performance of this simple operation. With the patient standing still, and a free end of about twelve inches of the bandage unfolded, we may proceed to make a cast round the limb. The free end is first placed upon the leg and the banthigc unrolled over it. The bandage held in Fig. 450. — Bandaginu; a Fore-Leg, showing the method of applying the bandage over a pad of cotton-wool 431. — Bandaging a Fore-Leg, showing the bandage completed and tied. A, End of bandage with tapes the right hand is then carried round the limb again and again until the whole is payed out. It is then secured by means of the tapes which are now set free. The chief point to be observed in going down the limb is to keep the top edge of the bandage tight, while permitting the lower edge to be slack; the reverse conditions being necessary in coming up again. In this manner the hollows and the eminences receive equal pressure, and the tapes are tied upon a double portion where their pressure is not likely to be objectionable. If bandaging the leg of a dog we should begin at the toes, but the horse having an unyielding hoof (so far as the pressure of a bandage goes) we do not do so, and for convenience usuallv begin above 38 HEALTH AND DISEASE the fetlock, but do not put any great pressure on until we reach the pastern and Ix'gin to ascend the leg. Starch Bandages. — To give support in cases of fracture, starch or glue l)andages are sometimes employed. The former are either dijjped in a basin of freshly-made warm starch and then loosely rolled before being applied, or spread upon a table and pasted over with a brush. Glue may be employed in the same manner, but the fingers need to be dipped in warm water to prevent them from sticking, as the licpiid cpickly cools. A starch bandage is more easily dealt with when the time comes to remove it, but glue sets more quickly at the time of application and may be preferred with a restless patient. A better bandage than that formed of either starch or glue may be made by mixing the white of eggs with flour in such proportion as to form a paste that will readily spread upon a strip of calico or other suitable material. It requires no heat and quickly sets, remaining firm until softened by warm water when it is desired to remove it. Plaster of Paris Bandage. — This form of bandage aflfords a greater degree of support than any other, luit its rigidity necessitates more precau- tions against the production of sores when it has to be retained for a long period on the limb. It is essential that the plaster should not have been exposed to the air, and tins containing it should be sealed or it may be found to have lost its " setting " power when required for use. To carry the plaster a loosely -woven material is to be preferred. When this has been unrolled, dry plaster of paris is rubbed into it by an assistant. It is then slowly rolled again and each fold carefully filled. Before wetting it, the part of the animal to be bandaged should be covered by a plain bandage, or be padded with cotton-wool, wood-wool, tow, or spongio-piline. Every- thing being ready, the plaster bandage is dipped in water, and as soon as it is wet through, applied as quickly as possible, consistently with uniformity and neatness. The outside is smeared all over with more plaster of the consistence of cream. A dry roll of bandage is made to cover the whole, and the patient restrained from all movement for half an hour, by which time it should be set and cjuite hard. BLISTERING Blistering is an operation frequently resorted to in the treatment of horses, and many permanent blemishes result from the use of improper materials and the neglect of simple after-precautions. As a preliminary measure the hair on the part to be blistered should be first closely clipped and the scurf brushed out of the skin. BLISTERING 39 If a front limb is to be treated, the animal should be turned round in the stall and secured to both pillar-reins in such a manner that he cannot bring his muzzle into contact with an uplifted leg. When a hind limb is to be blistered, the animal should be racked up short. Even in this position some irritable horses will injure themselves in front when suffering pain behind, and it may be necessary to keep such a one under observation for a few hours after the application is made. If only one limb is operated upon, its fellow may be enveloped in a soft bandage for the protection of both, for the patient is sometimes disposed to rub the suffering member against the other leg. Only sufficient bedding should be used to prevent the patient from slipping down, long loose straw causing unnecessary annoyance when brought into contact with the blistered surface. Damp used straw is to be preferred to moss litter or saw-dust, which gets upon the blistered surface and is very objectionable. Horses disposed to "filling" of the legs, and mares "in season", are specially susceptible to the action of vesicants, and these should be modified in strength if other reasons prevent the postponement of the application. An unnerved horse should on no account be blistered. The hollow of the heel should in no case receive any portion of the blister, and the space should be filled up with lard previous to the application being made. About ten minutes of hand rubbing is usually sufficient to produce the desired effect, and the morning should be chosen for this operation, as aftbrding opjiortunities to watch the patient and keep him out of trouble, besides which, the more acute stage will be past before leaving him for the night. If the application has proved effectual, there will be vesicles or bladders upon the part next day, with some swelling of the limb though abatement of the pain. On the third day it is usual to bathe with warm water and soap, and when dry apply some emollient ointment or sweet-oil. It may be doubted whether this is a desirable course to pursue. Better results, we think, would be obtained by allowing a hardened scale to form and remain, but humane considerations make most of us desire to relieve the suffering beast as soon as possible and give him the opportunity to lie down. To prevent the patient from gnawing the member when released, an apparatus known as a " cradle " (fig. 452) is put on his neck in such a manner as to give him the maximum amount of liberty without the power to injure himself. If a horse is turned out to grass with a cradle on, the pieces of wood of which the cradle is composed should be held together with nothing stronger than " fillis ", as fatal accidents have occurred through an 40 HEALTH AND DISEASE animal getting a hind foot caught up when trying to scratch the parts covered, a risk which is increased if the shoes have not previously been removed. SLINGS AND SLINGING Horse life is frequently saved by the timely use of slings. These differ in construction, and are often extemporized out of very crude appliances. Country veterinary surgeons, accustomed to all sorts of shifts and ex- pedients, will make a fiirm cart or a pair of wagon shafts serve the purpose in the absence of more suitable means. The improved slings (Plate L), by their great strength and the endless chain and pulley, make it possible to raise a heavy horse from the ground with the assistance of but few men, while the old-fashioned rojies and pulleys need much more power. The method of adjustment, presuming that the patient is down, is to get the middle piece or suspender first under the body. To accomplish this, one or two men will elevate the head and neck, while two others are employed in passing the suspender as far as possible under the shoulder. The fore limbs are now raised by means of a cord applied to the under one, and while in th'S position the sling is forcibly drawn in a backward direction PLATE XLIX SIMPLE SLINGS GARGLES AND MOUTH-WASHES 11 towards the middle of the body. The pulleys are now hooked ou to the suspender, and the body being slightly eased off the ground, the breastplate and breechings are buckled on by raising the legs in the manner above described. Horses in slings require constant vigilance to prevent undue pressure and the production of sores on particular parts of the body with which they are brought into contact. A careful survey of the apparatus should be made two or three times a day, and, if necessary, a hole or two should be let out here, and one taken up there, so as to distribute the weight as equally as possible. If the animal, owing to the nature of his injuries or from other causes, persist in resting heavily upon one particular portion, that part should be padded or stuffed with hay, or a sheep-skin or pieces of rug may be interposed between the body and the. susjaender; but hay will, as a rule, be found the best stuffing, since it permits of more or less circulation of air. GARGLES AND MOUTH-WASHES Liquid preparations intended to act upon the mucous membrane of the throat by contact are commonly spoken of as gargles, although it is not supposed by anyone that horses can perform the act known to human patients as gargling. Advantage, however, is taken of the horse's reluc- tance to swallow, and small quantities of the medicine are poured into the back of his mouth, and when it has been retained there for a short period the head is lowered and the ffuid allowed to escape. It may be remarked that gargles are seldom composed of any ingredients that would be hurtful if carried into the stomach. Applications intended to produce their effect upon any part of the mouth are frequently described as mouth-washes, and the directions gener- ally require the affected parts to be dressed with a soft sponge. If the back of the mouth has to be so treated, the sponge may be attached to a flexible cane. SUPPOSITORIES These are substances introduced into the rectum for medicinal purposes. They usually take the form of a cone-shaped mass, and are compounded with such agents as cocoa-butter. This substance is solid at ordinary temperatures outside the body, but slowly becomes liquefied by the heat of the part. Suppositories are more particularly employed as anodynes and antiseptics, and occasionally for their astringent properties. 42 HEALTH AND DISEASE LINIMENTS AND EMBROCATIONS These are prescribed for application to certain parts with different degrees of friction — according to their strength, and the j^urpose for which they are employed. There are few medicaments more often mis- applied by the amateur than popular embrocations, which unscrupulous advertisers recommend with equal confidence for a broken knee or an inflamed tendon. When used, the friction to be applied over the surface to be healed should be equally distributed, and not applied vigorously at one part and lightly at another. LOTIONS LTnder this term is included almost any outward application that is not used with friction. The methods of application differ according to the purpose to be served. An eye lotion may have to be simply dropped on the affected part, a wound lotion to be applied on lint, an evaporating lotion may be most useful when freely and repeatedly applied to the surface either by simple irrigation or by means of a bandage. The full effect of an anodyne bandage is best obtained under oiled silk, and the value of remedies prescribed in this form very largely depends upon the intelligent use of them by the nurse. OINTMENTS There are many agents of value in medical treatment which by their nature are unsuitable for application except in the form of unguents. These, however, are much less in vogue now than was formerly the case, and the bases used by the advanced pharmacist are no longer the same; lard and goose-grease have given place to vaseline and lanoline, which do not become rancid. Whenever an ointment is prescribed, except for application to a wounded surfiice, it is generally understood to require gentle but con- tinuous inunction for several minutes. PLASTERS OR CHARGES Mustard plasters or poultices have been already spoken of under the heading of poultices. Plasters or charges are either simple or medicated. The former are used to afford support to an injured or weakened part. PI.ATH L PATtNT SLINGS POISONING 43 Tlie latter, besides perfonniug this service, are intoiuled to effect the removal of enlargements, especially in connection with the legs. Chamois-leather adapted to the leg, and neatly sewn on with stitches known to ladies as "herring-bones", are often called plasters in racing stables, but they do not properly belong to that order of applications. The medical plasters employed in veterinary practice have a base of pitch, resin, wax, or a mixture of these substances, with which the drugs to be used are incorporated by first melting the former and stirring in the latter until the whole is cool enough to be applied to the skin. Instead of being spread on leather, as is often done in human practice, they are directly applied to the part by means of a spatula or knife, and then tow is cut into lengths of about half an inch and stuck on to the plaster while warm. They may be employed upon any part of the body, but their use is for the most part confined to the limbs, where they are used for the purpose of giving support to sprained and weakened tendons, joints, and ligaments, or to fractured bones. 25. POISOI^mG INTRODUCTION A poison is a substance which in small quantities is capable of impair- ing health and destroying life. Animals in the feral state would appear to be largely endowed with an instinct which teaches them to avoid poisonous plants and other deleterious substances. The fox, lynx, and all the mem- bers of the feline tribe are suspicious to a degree in all that concerns their safety, and by the highly-developed sense of smell and taste they readily detect poison when introduced into flesh; though it be the "kill" or carcass they have reserved for a future meal. Ages of domestication would appear to have so blunted these senses in horses that they will voluntarily take in their food many medicines which we are accustomed to regard as extremely nauseous. (See Methods of Administration.) It occasionally happens, therefore, that horses are poisoned, either by accident or personal malice, by the consumption of some toxic agent to which they have access in the stable or pasture. General Symptoms of Poisoning. — Sudden and serious illness, with symptoms rapidly increasing in severity and without obvious reason, in animals apparently in good health up to the moment of seizure, is incon- sistent with the majority of well-defined diseases, and affords sufiicient cause 44 HEALTH AND DISEASE to suspect some extraordinary or poisonous influence at work. Taylor, Stevenson, and others, femous by their special study of poisons, warn us that, tliough indicating a direction in which to make enquiry and search for the cause, such acute illnesses are not inconsistent with certain rare, but nevertheless well-known, causes for sudden and painful disease and death. The rupture of some large blood-vessel or abdominal organ, as the stomach, may lead to symptoms very similar to irritant poisoning. Suspicions of poisoning may be justly entertained, and investigation pursued, although it might be unwise to express them, and at the same time calculated to defeat the object in view, e.specially where foul play has been practised. AVilful poisoning is happily infrequent in the present day, and its rarity tends rather to disarm suspicion. Moreover, sudden deaths among horses without previous "complaint" are quite common in large studs. What to do in Cases of Poisoning. — A comparison is again forced upon us, and we have to lament that as horse doctors our opportunities of combating ftital doses of drugs are very much fewer than those of a medical man. <_)ur patients do not commit suicide, or drink carbolic acid by mis- take, and seldom indeed do they get drenched with a poisonous liniment intended for outward application. The mistake is seldom discovered in time when accidental poisoning takes place in horses, and the wilful poisoner has le.ss to fear from the dying depositions of the patient, who can only tell his wrongs by symptoms which may be difficult to distinguish from those of disease otherwi.se induced. For a variety of reasons the veterinarian has not the same chances of counteracting poisonous doses as the medical man. The human patient can tell his attendant the mistake, and the most suitable treatment may be instantly adopted, while the veterinary surgeon has to wait for the effects before he can ascertain the pos.sible cause. In nearly all cases the poison is taken into the stomach, and thence passes into the circulation. If we are. fortunate enough to be early on the scene we may employ a stomach-pump and evacuate the contents of tlie organ, in the hope of removing the remaining unappropriated poison therein contained. As such an instrument is not likely to be found in possession of the ordinary horse-owner, it is the more necessary to seek the aid of a qualified veterinary surgeon. Again, we are at the disadvantage in regard to this animal that we cannot freely excite vomition, as in the dog or cat, so that it nearly always happens in cases of poLsoning that reliance must be placed upon chemical or physiological antidotes, and such general measures as may be indicated in order to combat particular conditions. POISONING 45 Since we can scarcely hope to evacuate tlie contents of the stomach either by a pump or vomition, we liave usually to begin the treatment by an ertbrt to arrest the action of the toxic agent upon the walls of the stomach. If poisoning is due to an acid irritant, copious draughts of alkaline bicarboiiates are administered, those of potash, soda, magnesia, and lime being most suitable; and in the absence of such pharmaceutical products we may giA^e chalk or whiting, or the scrapings of whitewashed ceilings or walls. Where caustic alkalies have produced the mischief, we resort to dilute acids, as vinegar or lime-juice in small but oft-repeated doses. In addition to those agents calculated to neutralize chemically acids or alkalies, we administer copious draughts of bland Huids in the shape of milk, linseed-tea, whipped eggs, oil, butter, gum, barley-water, &c. While these measures are calculated to save the mucous membrane and walls of the stomach from destruction by an irritant poison, and retard its effects, they will not influence that which has already entered into the circulation of the blood. We have said that in the case of horses, the poison has usually entered the body by means of the mouth and stomach, but there are other gates by which toxic agents may have gained access. The skin, as has been pointed out in connection with the subject of kidney diseases and local applications, may have been the means by which the body has suffered injury. The deleterious agent may have been absorbed by a wound, or passed into the circulation by subcutaneous injection, while the lungs may have inhaled the poisonous gas of mine or factory. From the foregoing remarks the importance will be seen of ascertaining, if possible, the actual poison to be dealt with. Antidotes (antidotos, a remedy) are agents which neutralize and arrest the action of poisons. In the stomach and some portion of the intestinal canal this effect may be counted on where the nature of the poison is known and a suitable antidote soon enough administered. In the case of chemical antidotes, their action on the poison frec[uently results in its decomposition and the formation of a harmless compound. As an example we may mention white of eggs as forming an insoluble albuminate when given to an animal whose stomach has been the receptacle of an overdose of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate). Arsenic may be made insoluble in like manner by dosing the poisoned patient with freshly- prepared hydrated peroxide of iron. Other chemical antidotes convert destructive poisons into harmless salts, as in the case of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), which may be decomposed by an alkaline carbonate producing a harmless sulphate and liberating carbonic acid gas. Examples of physiological antidotes may be seen in strychnia and chloroform or chloral. The tetanic spasms resulting from the former are 46 HEALTH AND DISEASE allayed by the directly opposite effect upon the spinal cord which the two last-named drugs are so well known to produce. The veterinarian is at a disadvantage throughout the treatment of poisoning, as he cannot evacuate the stomach of the horse at first, as has been already mentioned, and is further unable to get rid of any new compounds formed by the administration of antidotes; they must pass through the intestinal canal. He cannot provoke vomition, and repeated washings of the stomach are scarcely practicable, except in a few instances and under specially favourable circumstances. In addition to the use of antidotes there are other aids to restoration from the shock and particular symptoms resulting from poisoning: suit- able hygienic conditions, fresh air, cold douches, friction to the skin, bandaging and clothing, bedding and protection of the patient from his own violence by bolsters of straw, and the usual methods of restraint. In a case of narcotic poison it may be necessary to rouse the animal to muscular effort and compel him to walk about. Suitable treatment in cases of poisoning by each of the chief toxic agents known to affect horses will be found briefly stated farther on in this chapter. Poisonous Food and Water. — On the C|uestion of ptomaine poison- ing in horses we have no experience as yet, but disease and death from the ingestion of food and water in certain unwholesome conditions are by no means rare events. CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS To this group belong many symptoms in common, and it is therefore convenient to consider them together. The following list comprises all of the class of substances whose compounds are likely to be the cause of poisoning in horses: — Arsenic. Lead. Antimony. Mercury. Copper. Silver. Carbolic Acid. Phosphorus. Croton Oil. Zinc. Creosote. Gamboge. Caustic Potash or Soda. Spanish-fly. Caustic Ammonia. Elaterium. Hydrochloric Acid. Oxalic Acid. Nitric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Symptoms common to this class of poisons are the result of their irritating or caustic action upon the membranes of the digestive tract, in some cases beginning with the lips, and in the majority affecting the stomach and intestines. The mouth and gullet, although first (after the lips) to have contact with the irritant, are frequently less affected, as it will be remembered that some parts of the digestive tract are provided with COREOSIVK OR IRRITANT POISONS 47 thick and comparatively resistant coverings. Tiie tongue on its upper surface is i^rotected with a dense membrane of cpitlielium, and the (bso- phagus or gullet is likewise lined with a thick and tough membrane capable of resisting puncture from such prickly or spinous plants as gorse and comfrey. The fauces, being less guarded, more frequently suffer irritation, and the bowels, with thinner and more highly vascular walls, are more readily acted upon ])y poisons of the class we arc considering. AVhile the symptoms are the result of pain, the tissues are damaged or destroyed by chemical action. Though our equine patient is not able to state in words the burning anguish he feels, there is a language of pain which it is the veterinarian's business to learn. It has a large vocabulary, with many shades of meaning to him who understands it by intimate association with the objects of his solicitude. The common symptom — loss of appetite — will hardly be observed, as poisons of this class are so rapid in their eti'ects that the la.st meal may have been partaken of in perfect health. Amongst the earliest .symptoms are rigors and fidgetiness, staring coat, colicky pains, evinced by stamping and scraping the feet, crouching and looking round at the fiank, trembling of the body and shaking of the tail, sweating profusely over scattered patches, staggering, and either falling or going down recklessly. The lips are sometimes swollen, and from between them may issue great cjuantities of frothy saliva, which hangs in ropes from the corners of the mouth. Inside, the tongue may also be swollen, the lining membrane discoloured, the gums and mouth generally being of a purple hue, Avith, in certain cases, patches of sloughing tissue and a most offensive odour. The cavity seems filled with sticky mucus, and the animal can with difficulty close his mouth owing to the swelling of the tongue. The blood-shot eyes and anxious countenance bespeak intense pain and fear. There is an agonized look of such intensity as is seldom observed as the result of ordinary illness. Eespiration is hurried, nostrils dilated, the pulse small and almost indistinct, the extremities having an icy coldness. Vomition, .so rare in the horse, is sometimes effected, the stomach contents passing through the nostrils. The bowels may be either purged or consti- pated, urine very high-coloured, and evacuated with groans. Such are the symptoms common to this group of poisons, but they ^-ary with the particular agent as well as in individuals. Some poisons declare themselves by their odour, as in carbolic acid, or the lesions of the mouth may point to corrosive sublimate or a mineral acid as the particular poison. 48 HEALTH AND DISEASE Irritant poisons are not all corrosive, in the sense of quickly destroying and perforating the tissues. Ammonia is an example of an intense irritant, and corrosive sublimate the most immediately destructive of living tissues. The mineral acids show some difference in their local action. A yellow staining results from nitric acid, sulphuric acid whitens the membranes, and hydrochloric acid imparts a whity-brown appearance to the injured parts. Carbolic acid, we have said, leaves a tell-tale odour, but it and the caustic alkalies also make a white, drawn, or puckered surface of the membrane with which they come in contact. Patches thus injured become presently detached, or slough, leaving a raw surface and the expectoration of blood- stained mucus. In dogs and other animals the vomit indicates to some extent the amount of mischief in the stomach, but with the horse vomition is uncertain and accomplished with so much difficulty that we are unable to place any great reliance upon the appearance of ingesta ejected via the nostrils, and probably stained in the effort to get rid of it. If death does not follow irritant poisoning in a few hours, the animal may pass into a condition of fever with variable results. If the toxic agent was of the corrosive class the patient may die of perforated stomach or intestine when a general improvement in his condition has raised false hopes of recovery in those interested. Gradual recovery is probable when a week has passed, in the case of merely irritant poison, but not in those of a corrosive nature. Permanent constrictions in the oesophagus, stomach, or bowels may result from the healing scars where large areas of tissue are destroyed. ARSENIC This drug is employed in agricultural operations of various kinds, and is a frequent cause of poisoning in horses and other animals. Ignorant carters and grooms persist in using it to destroy worms and produce a glossy coat, with little regard to its dangerous properties. Teamsters often give it with antimony, and without causing any mischief at the time. Arsenic, however, is one of the cumulative poisons, and ill consequences may follow long after its habitual use has been discontinued. Cases of wilful poisoning by the drug are found recorded in veterinary literature, but many occur also from the careless employment of sheep- dipping compounds and " weed -killers", which in various ways gain entrance to the food and drink of animals. These preparations, composed of arsenic, with caustic alkalies to fiicili- tate their solution, have a saline taste attractive to horses, and particularly to cattle, which will lick an open packet of arsenical powder with evident CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS 49 relish, and no season passes without deaths resulting from such compounds being left within their reach. Weed -killer is poured upon garden-paths and carriage-drives, and animals have been known to succumb after eating the weeds before w-et weather has washed it into the soil. Refuse paints, containing emerald green, Scheele's green, Brunswick green, where cast upon pasture land in manure, are sometimes followed by fatal results. The death of some valual)le horses was caused in one instance by a tin of this Huid being upset and becoming mi.xed with the corn. Arsenic is used also as a dressing for wheat, and a poison for vermin, and less frequently as a cure for warts and foot-rot. Symptoms. — Although there is much difference in the susceptibility of animals, as proved by the experiments of Hertwig, Percival, Gerlach, and others, the action of this poison is largely governed by the condition of the stomach as to the presence or absence of food. The quantity of food in the stomach has also a great influence in delaying the toxic effects of the drug. In one of Percival's experiments upon a glandered horse an increas- ing daily dose was given with food until, on the seventeenth day, it had reached 380 grains, making a total of 7 ounces in all. Even this large quantity failed to produce any physiological effects. On the other hand, the fatal effects of much smaller quantities were seen in the case of eleven cart-horses which were poisoned at Edgware by drinking out of a bucket that had previously been used for sheep-dip, one of the animals dying in ten minutes, and several more within the hour. The quantity taken by each horse in this case must have been small, but there is reason to think that the empty condition of the stomachs had rendered them more sus- ceptible of its action. Poisoning by arsenic is sometimes very sudden, and at others slow and progressive; the one being spoken of as acute poisoning, the other as chronic or cumulative. In the chronic there may be an appearance at first of improved tone, shiny coat, strong pulse, and good spirits; these being maintained by Avhat would be called the " arsenic habit " but for the fiict that it is involuntary on the part of the animal. After using it for a time it fails of effect, and the carter is tempted to increase the dose, until presently appetite fails and is ultimately lost, the coat stares, shivering-fits follow, colicky pains set in, and are succeeded by purging, prostration, imper- ceptible pulse, staggering, falling, and death. In the acute form of the disease there is sudden and desperate illness without premonitory signs, those even who are quite unaccustomed to animals recognizing the rapid approach of death by the haggard countenance, quick breathing, and violent trembling of the body, and general distress. The skin is bathed in sweat, the ears and legs are very cold, the eyes are protruding and bloodshot; 50 HEALTH AND DISEASE tears run down the face, the lining membrane of the nostrils is intensely red, and a watery fluid or vomited matter flows from them. In some instances the lips may be greatly swollen, the gums inHamed, and the tongue so enlarged as to be contained in the mouth with difficulty; frothy saliva of a ropy consistence and offensive odour hangs from the lips. The patient will frequently throw himself down in his agony, but towards the end he will endeavour to stand, and when no longer able to keep his feet he falls and dies with a few painful struggles. Treatment and Antidotes. — In the chronic or accumulative form of arsenical poisoning not much can be hoped of antidotes, as the drug is already absorbed or out of the reach of chemical agents which might ■counteract it. Attention should therefore be directed to minimizing its ■effects and sustaining the patient with suitable nourishment until the poison is eliminated from the system. Milk and eggs, gruel, linseed, barley-water, and alcoholic stimulants may all be employed to support the animal until the vis medicatrix natures can assert itself Iron in combination with nux vomica, given in small repeated doses, will aid in bringing about this much- desired result. In the acute form of the disease a dose of the peroxide of iron should be promptly administered. This agent is most effectual when precipitated from a solution of persulphate of iron by the addition of ammonia, and afterwards washed with warm water and given at frequent intervals until enough has been taken to neutralize the poison. The pro- portion of peroxide of iron required to produce this effect is estimated by Mr. Finlay Dun to be twelve times the amount of the arsenic taken. Epsom salts in solution, mixed with liquid cau.stic potash (liquor potassae), produce a gelatinous hydrate of magnesia, which greatly retards the solubility of arsenic, and may therefore be given with advantage. The yolk of eggs, linseed and other fixed oils, charcoal, clay, and starch all help to hinder mechanically the effects of arsenic upon the walls of the stomach and intestine. Long and careful nursing is needed, and the tem- perate use of diuretics is calculated to assist nature in getting rid of the poison by the natural channel of the kidneys. ANTIMONY This potent drug, which has played so great a part in ancient and modern times as a poison to human beings, is comparatively innocuous to horses. Its uses are referred to in another chapter (see Alteratives, page 12), but poisonous doses have rarely been given, and when this has happened it has been from drenching by mistake with the liquid chloride CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS 51 or "butter" of antimony, as it is called. The effects then are of a cor- rosive character, hydrochloric acid being the active ingredient. Symptoms. — Those of corrosive poisoning, sweating, purging, and prostratii)n being the most marked. Treatment. — Should be the same as for corrosive or irritant poisons. If a sufficient dose of antimony were taken to prove jjoisonous to a horse, the treatment would consist in giving tannin and gallic acid, which would form with it insoluble and harmless compounds. Decoctions of oak or elm l)ark, which contain tannin, may be used in the absence of the active principles themselves. LEAD Lead poisoning in animals is usually the result of feeding on tainted pastures, or inhaling the fumes of chemical works, and manifests itself in impaired digestion, capricious appetite, colicky pains in the bowels, followed by constipation. After a variable lapse of time, the diagnostic symptom appears, a greyish or blue discoloration along the margin of the gums. It is deposited lead, which becomes more or less blackened by hydrogen sulphide in the mouth, or by the administration of sulphur in the food. Cramp and paralysis of the muscles, followed by wasting, choreic move- ments, and convulsions, ending in blindness (amaurosis), commonly jjrecede death. Treatment. — If lead poisoning or plumbism is diagnosed before any very serious wasting has occurred, an effectual antidote will be found in dilute sulphuric acid, and sulphate of magnesia, given in repeated small doses, as these have the effect of converting the lead into harmless insoluble sulphate. The sulphate of magnesia assists also in regulating the bowels, which, as we have seen, are disposed to constipation and to cramps; sulphur and potassium iodide are also employed as eliminants, given separately and at short intervals. An occasional laxative dose of oil is advised when the sulphate of magnesia is not being administered, as this hastens the removal of lead salts excreted into the bowels. OXALIC ACID Death has been caused by the wilful administration of this acid, and by horses eating the leaves of mangel-wurzel, in which it is generated by fermentation while lying in heaps. The symptoms are similar to those produced by corrosive mineral acids (p. 46), and it is besides a powerful cardiac depressant. Treatment. — Frequent doses of saccharated carbonate of lime, lime- water, or whitewash. These are chosen because they form insoluble salts 52 HEALTH AND DISEASE with oxalic acid, while those alkaline ])icaibonates recommended for poisoning by other acids are forbidden because combining to form soluble oxalates, which are little less injurious than oxalic acid. Oleaginous aperients and alcoholic stimulants to counteract symptoms of collapse are desiral^le. Friction, bandaging, and clothing to keep up the superficial circulation should be resorted to. ACETIC ACID Concentrated lotions containing a large proportion of this acid have been given in error, with poisonous results. Symptoms. — Unless somewhat dilute, the symptoms are those of corrosive acids (p. 46), when colicky pains, inflammation of the tongue and buccal membranes, sore lips and gums are manifested, and occasion inappetencc and refusal of food, and discharge of saliva from the mouth. Treatment. — Solutions of alkaline bicarbonates should be given inter- nally, and a soothing wash of glycerine, myrrh, and borax applied to the mouth three or four times a day. CAUSTIC ALKALIES Of these ammonia, in the form of strong liquid, given in mistake for aromatic spirit or solution of acetate, is the only likely form of poisoning to occur in horses. This mistake has frequently happened in the careless dispensing of ammonia compounds. Symptoms. — Blistered lips and mouth, patches of epithelium slough- ing oft" in ragged shreds. Ropy and offensive mucus dribbling from the mouth and from the lips, and hanging in ropes more or less straw-coloured or tinged with blood, swelling of the tongue, sore throat, difficulty of deglutition, coughing, and dyspnoea. Intestinal disturbance with loose eructations and apparent soreness throughout the canal. Pained expression and listlessness. Treatment. — Copious drauglits of dilute vegetat)le acids, as lime- juice, citric or tartaric acid, vinegar and water. These should be given at frequent intervals to neutralize the caustic ammonia, and form harmless combinations. Inhalation of steam to relieve the irritated air-passages and soothe the inflamed mouth; where suffocation threatens, tracheotomy will require to be performed. Linseed -tea, barley-water, thin gruel, bran mashes, and soft food only for several days should be allowed, as any dry, hard substance is calculated to injure the abraded surfaces of the mouth. Where the patient refuses all sloppy food, he may be cautiously drenched CORROSIVE ()i; IRRITANT POISONS 53 with eggs beaten up in milk. If constipation follows, aperients must not he given, but reliance placed on the nature of the diet, and at most, a glycerine enema administered from time to time. NITRATE OF I'OTASH Although in such general use among stablemen, nitrate of potash is nevertheless an active irritant poison in excessive doses. Symptoms. — Trembling, more or less abdominal pain, restlessness, convulsions, and collapse. Treatment. — The same as for irritant poisons generally. NITRATE OF SODA This substance is not used in equine medicine, but has occasioned the death of several animals through being injudiciously spread over the pas- tures as a manurial agent, and given in mistake for salt, and allowed to get into drinking-water. Symptoms are tlio.se of irritant poisoning, and the same line of treatment should be adopted (p. 4fi). IODINE Iodine poisoning usually occurs by the accidental administration of compounds, prescribed for external application, as a medicine. Symptoms are those of an irritant poison, with sighing, trembling, convulsions, and collapse. Treatment. — There is no direct antidote to this drug. Starch and white of egg retard absorption, while an oily purge may be given to expel the oflendiuo' material through the bowels. PHOSPHORUS The employment of this element for the destruction of vermin has led, in careless hands, to horses being seriously injured. A very small quantity of phosphorus paste concealed in forage may be taken into the mouth by a gross feeder, although it is such an offensive substance that most horses would detect and reject it. Symptoms. — Abdominal pain, simulating ordinary colic, is followed by ineffectual efforts at vomition, and subsequent purging. There is a tendency to htemorrhage from the natural outlets of the body, either nose, mouth, rectum, or urethral canal. The liver is invariably more or less deranged. 54 HEALTH AND DISEASE Treatment. — Although this drug is of the nature of an irritant poison, we are precluded from giving oily substances, phosphorus being readily soluble in fixed oils. Solutions of gum-arabic or tragacanth and small doses of turpentine are reputed to have beneficial effects in alleviating suffering from this form of poisoning. Post-mortem Appearances. — These are fairly constant, but differ in degree. A large amount of foul-smelling gas is released when the abdomen is opened, and the stomach, especially in its villous portion, is reddened, much softer than when the organ is healthy, and considerably thickened. Inflamed patches and areas of extravasation are observed extending into the small intestine, and maybe into the large bowel. The air-passages and lungs are congested, as are the urino-genital organs. It is remarked that in phosphorus poisoning a lardaceous or fatty infiltration of the liver, brain, and other organs appears to take place in a short time after administration of the drug, a pathological condition usually associated with other causes of an enduring nature. Rodents and other small animals do not, when killed by phosphorus, undergo the ordinary processes of putrefaction, but dry up. AVhether such effects would follow with horses is not at present ascertained. NARCOTIC POISONS The next group of poisons are spoken of as narcotic, but there are toxic agents having both irritant and narcotic effects, the classification being more or less arbitrary, and followed only as convenient for reference. General Symptoms. — Some of these are common to the class, and such as are occasioned by Indian hemp may be taken as typical. With this drug, given in excessive quantity, there is often some nervous excite- ment, but not invariably. This is followed by drowsiness, which passes on to stupor, and the standing posture is maintained with difficulty, the knees and hocks giving way from time to time. The animal under its influence becomes dead to external objects, and can only be awakened with difficulty. Sudden noises rouse him with a start, but he lapses into a state of lethargy again the next moment. The head hangs low, the eyes are half-closed, and the ears pendulous. Snoring sounds are emitted in breathing, the extremities are cold, altogether indi- cating the effects of a poisonous dose of a narcotic drug, of which further evidence may be found in the reduced force and frequency of the pulse. A symptom peculiar to Indian hemp is a galloping movement when compelled to walk; the power of controlling the muscles of locomotion is NARCOTIC POISONS 55 partially lost, and the patient uses his limbs, as Captain Rutherford has said, like an animal " going upstairs ". Opium and belladonna in poisonous doses may be followed by delirium, but the condition of intoxication, the staggering gait, and final stupor are common to all drugs of this class. YEW Having regard to the number of animals killed by this evergreen, one might ask if its place in arboriculture could not well be taken by some equally beautiful and less deadly plant. No season passes without Vitalities to horses or cattle as the result of eating it. A tree may have been left untouched for years by animals pastured in its vicinity, until the stock -owner is lulled into a sense of security, and finally forgets its presence; or animals may bethought safe in a paddock, free from no.xious plants, when a neighbour sets about lopping his overgrown yews, and the fatal branches fall within reach of animals, whose curiosity ^jrompts them to eat the leaves. There is reason to believe that in certain con- ditions and circumstances yew may be partaken of with impunity, while at other times its effects are rapidly fatal. The green shoots have been experimentally fed to animals, and the results were very indefinite. If taken upon a full stomach, its toxic influence would seem to be more or less neutralized, while hungry animals have rapidly succumbed. Whether this latter result has come about from the larger quantity consumed, or from the empty state of the stomach, or from both causes combined, cannot be definitely stated. Symptoms are those of a narcotic irritant poison. The animal is found dazed, and stumbles when made to move, falling down and showing the ordinary signs of intoxication. Respiration is shallow, the pulse op- pressed, and the extremities are cold. Digestion would appear to be dis- ordered or arrested, and, as a result, more or less tympany is present. Post-mortem examination is satisfactory only in so far that it reveals the Fig. 453.— Yew {Ta.rus 56 HEALTH AND DISEASE presence of twigs and leaves of the plant; there is, however, invariably more or less congestion of the stomach and bowels, sometimes more espe- cially marked in the former, at others in the latter. Beyond this there is seldom any noticeable change referable to the poison. Treatment. — No direct antidote is known, but the symptoms of collapse may he combated by diflusible stimulants, as alcohol and ammonia, while friction to the skin, bandages to the legs, clothing to the body, and every effort to restore the circulation should be attempted. An aperient is essential to get rid as quickly as may be of any portions of undigested poison, linseed- or castor -oil being the most suitable. Liability for yew poisoning has been tested in the High Court of Justice, and Mr. Justice Charles decided that it is the business of an owner to prevent his animals from eating yew when growing on a neighbour's land. RHODODENDRON The effects of this plant [Ehododendron liyhridum) are much the same as those of yew (see Yew Poisoning), save that attempts at vomition are a pro- minent symptom, and slight colicky pains are also evinced by striking at the belly with the hind-limbs. Treatment is more likely to be attended with success here than is the case in yew poisoning, since the action of rhododendron is more irritant than narcotic, the pain being more under control by opium and alkaline carbonates, while an aperient of linseed-oil may be employed to clear out the bowels and expel the offending matter. Fig. 454. — Rhododendron (R. /ii/bridnm) FOXGLOVE (DIGITALIS PURPUREA) This well-known drug is largely used in equine jjracticc, and toxic effects occasionally follow on the administration of excessive doses. When NARCOTIC POISONS growing it has been cut in mistake for comfrey and given to horses, with fatal eli'ect. The death of liorses from digitalis is recorded by Mr. Pauer of Exeter in the summer of 189G. In this case the animals were led V)y natural instinct to refuse the plant while it was whole, but readily partook of it when cliopped and mixed with corn. Symptoms. — These are genei\al stupor, swelling of the eyelids, dila- tation of the pupil, enlargement under the jaw, dry mouth, and loss of control over the hind extremities. The pulse increases up to 60 or 70 beats per minute, but the heart sounds become more or less in- distinct, or one becomes inaudible or merged into the other. The breathing is hurried and difficult. There is swelling of the head and tongue, which latter cannot be contained in the mouth. In some cases the body temperature rises three or four degrees, while in others it is normal. The visible mucous membranes are red and injected. Post-mortem examina- tion shows tlie lungs to be filled with dark venous blood, the right auricle of the heart is also dis- tended, and a gelatinous fluid fills up the loose connective tissue under the throat. The kidneys are noticeably congested. Treatment. — In this disease aconite is the most suitable physio- logical antidote, as its action u^ion the heart is opposed to that of digitalis. Alcoholic stimulants, as the aromatic spirit of ammonia, freely diluted, are also recommended. Fig. 455.— Foxglove {Di'yilalis jmv/mye NUX VOMICA AND STRYCHNIA When horses are poisoned by strychnia it is either the result of malicious administration, or brought about by an overdose, or by the accidental admixture of .some preparation with food, which was intended for the destruction of rats and other vermin on infested premises. Hor.ses 58 HEALTH AND DISEASE vary in their susceptibility to strychnia, some being acted upon by very small doses, which others take with impunity; this being so, the greatest care should be observed in its use, and none but the professional man should undertake to prescribe it. Again, indifference to plainly printed instructions or written labels is so common, and not confined to the wholly illiterate, that entire packets of " vermin -killer" have been given in a mash in lieu of alterative powdei's, some of which are very similar in colour and appearance. Symptoms. — Unless the stomach is quite empty, and the drug taken in solution, its effects are not manifest for some twenty minutes. Rest- lessness and excitement, with an exalted sense of hearing and vision, are observed in the first instance, the movements of the animal are spas- modic and involuntary, suddenly terminating in fits of tetanic spasm, in which the animal falls to the ground and becomes perfectly rigid; relaxa- tion of the spasm and a state of quiet may follow, but if touched ever so lightly a new paroxysm is commenced. After a variable period, according to the amount and intensity of the poisoning, the spasm is relaxed, and beyond the hurried breathing and appearance of having undergone some recent extraordinary excitement, the patient appears to be nearly well. The remission is, however, but temporary, similar seizures follow again and again, and in one of them the animal may die, or, the intervals between them becoming longer, and the paroxysms less violent, recovery follows. Treatment. — The most potent antidote to this form of poisoning is chloroform, inhaled to the point of insensibility, and repeated with the recurrence of each spasm. It may be truly said that there is absolutely no danger of overdoing it until complete relaxation of the spasm indicates its withdrawal. In the intervals, if practicable, large doses of animal charcoal and tannic acid may be given in the form of a drench, with water, and alter- nated with bold doses of chloral and bromide of potassium. It is quite possible with these remedies at hand to effect a cure even when a fatal dose has been taken, but it seldom happens that skilled professional assistance can be soon enough obtained. Soot and water may be used in place of charcoal, and absolute quiet enjoined until a veterinary surgeon arrives. INDIAN PEA. DOG-TOOTH PEA "We have employed the popular term for this dangerous food-stuff, but it is not a pea; it is a vetch, and its botanical name is Lathyrus sativus. In India this seed has been used as a food-stuff among the lower-caste POISONOUS PLANTS~II A. Nux X'omica. i. Section of fruit. 2. Seed. B. Rhododendron. C. I)L-lladonna. i. Fruit. P. Indian I^ea. i. Fruit. NARCOTIC POISONS 5» natives, among whom it lui.s produced from time to time considerable mortality; but when thoroughly cooked it is consumed in moderation without producing any deleterious effects. It does not appear to have been known in this country until the year 1889, but is now generally recognized by veterinary surgeons as a highly dangerous grain to form any part of a horse's diet. In shape it somewhat resembles a tooth without the fang, having two flat sides and a serrated edge, hence the name "dog-tooth" pea. Very serious losses among large studs of horses have occurred in Glasgow, Liverpool, Bristol, and other places as a result of mixing this Indian vetch with oats and other horse food. Symptoms. — The injurious eftects of this grain are not immediately ap- parent, and this has frequently led to the real cause of the malady being overlooked. In the case of the Bristol tramway horses the drivers were at first blamed for the number of horses that fell and broke their knees, the real cause being vertigo produced by the food. Where the poisonous grain had long been in use, some of the animals fell in their stalls, but, as a rule, they appeared to be well until taken out, when they were seized with paroxysms of diflicult breathing and threatening suftbcation, roaring, stag- gering and falling, some few dying on the spot, wdiile others became paralytic and the subjects of chronic- roaring. The effects in some instances were not observed until eight weeks after the food was discontinued. Treatment. — The cause being discovered will of course suggest a dis- continuance of the grain, but no antidote or even palliative has been so far discovered. Many of the horses referred to above were only saved from immediate suffocation by opening the windpipe and inserting a tracheotomy tube. Laxative food and medicine to clear the bowels, and rest in a loose-box> Fig. 456. — Indian Pea (Lathp-v.s sathus) 60 HEALTH AND DISEASE followed by a run at grass, have in some cases eft'ected a cure. In others, however, permanent paralysis or want of control of the muscles has resulted, rendering the animals worthless. The heavy damages given against vendors of this poisonous grain will, it is hoped, deter shippers in the future from importing it into this country. CANTHARIDES OR SPANISH-FLY This substance was formerly in more general use by veterinarians than is the case at the present day, and many horses have shown symptoms of poisoning through its agency, both by internal administration and through absorption by the skin when injudiciously employed in the form of blisters. (See Kidney Diseases.) Entire horses entrusted to ignorant leaders are sometimes made ill by the administration of this drug with the intention of exciting the sexual instinct. Mares refusing service have also been injured by its use. Symptoms. — Purging and l)loody urine, Fig. 457. -Spanish-Fly ( an, rtn.is aTchino' tlic back, and nausea; colicky pains, cesialtoria) /»i.^ i i i l _c ,„„,,,. , frothino- at the mouth, restlessness, and tever. 1, Fully -developed insect. O ' ' 2, Larva, much magnified. j^ ^jie casc of stallious and of gcldings, frec[uent The measuring line at side . „ , . i -.i .■ shows natural size. protrusioii oi the pcnis, and with mares, erection of the clitoris and elevation of the tail. Fatal doses may be preceded by delirium, convulsions, or paralysis. Treatment. — Mucilaginous drinks, as a solution of gum-arabic, or tragacantli, barley-water, white of eggs, milk, and linseed-tea may be given. Poultices over the loins, injections of warm water with belladonna extract, and repeated small doses of opium in the shape of draughts are also beneficial. TURPENTINE Turpentine, although sometimes administered in large doses without any bad effects, may also become a poison when given in excess. Symptoms. — The effects of a poisonous dose of turpentine are intoxication and those more generally described under the head of narcotic poisoning. (See Opium.) Treatment. — Mucilaginous drinks, eggs, milk and barley-water, and a saline purgative. Pain may be relieved by poultices over the loins, and some of the irritant effects upon the kidneys mitigated by belladonna. (See Can- tharides.) NARCOTIC POISONS 61 POISONING BY THE STINGS OF BEES AND WASPS By the accideutiil upsetting of, aud disturbiug of, nests of wasps or hives of bees, horses are occasionally attacked by the rudely-evicted tenants, and there are several instances on record where death has resulted from this cause. The face, head, and neck are chieHy selected by the infuriated insects, and the pain and shock re- sulting from the attack may be very great. Treatment. — AVhere possible the stings should be removed with fine pointed forceps, but this is \'ery diffi- cult of accomplishment on the hairy Fig-. 458.— Sting of Bee 1, General view. 2, Extremity of dart. 3, Section through sheath and darts, pg, Poison gland. ps, Poison sac. M, Mem- brane joining sting to abdomen. L, Levers to remove darts. SH, Sheath. v. Vulva. SP, Sting palpus. D, Darts. b, Barbs. P C, Poison channels, o, Opening for poison to escape into wound. Fig. 459.— Wasp Sting 1, General view. 2, Section of sheath to show situation of darts. 3, Extremity of sheath with darts. 4, Front view of sheath. E, Eppygium. H, Hypopygium. PG, Poison gland, p D, Poison duct, s. Sheath. D, Dart. parts of animals. Bearing in mind the chemical reaction of the poison, the best antidote is to be found in alkaline bicarbonates. A wash of carbonate of soda or ammonia may be repeatedly applied to the injured part, and in the intervals, soothing applications of glycerine, belladonna, and borax. Much of the suffering is caused by the inflamed and tense state of the skin where it most closely adheres to bony prominences, and some relief may be afforded to these parts by the free use of oily apjjlications. The symptoms of shock are best treated by diffusible stimulants and removal of the patient to a quiet, dark box. In one or two instances the nostrils and lips have been so much swollen that death from suffocation «2 HEALTH AND DISEASE has only been averted by the introduction of a tube into the trachea (see Tracheotomy). The stings of most poisonous insects have an acid reaction, and treatment on the lines above indicated will usually be found successful. HAY Cases of poisoning due to hay feeding, crop up from time to time. Now it is Dutch, and next Canadian, but mostly foreign food-stuffs that cause illness in horses in this country. The deleterious in- gredient has not always been jy^' traced, but it would seem that animals bred upon a particular pasture gain im- Fig. 460. — Colchicum autumnale Fig. 461.— Alfalfa [Mrdkaga saliva.) munity from the effects of herbage which causes illness in others, or else develop a power of selection which enables them to reject certain poisonous plants even when compressed in form of hay. In the low pastures of Flanders we have seen much colchicum (fig. 460) growing, and observed that native stock carefully avoid it, but when made into hay and imported into this country it may be that animals in our great cities, drawn from all sorts of sources, are not able to distinguish it. The dry, hard grasses, chiefly alfalfa (fig. 461), upon which American NARCOTIC POISONS 63 horses are fed, are not acceptable to home-bred animals until the taste is acquired, but horses imported from the United States and Canada eat it and thrive upon it. The presence of a large portion of Starwort {Stellaria Holostea) (fig. 462) in imported hay has been said to occasion poisoning in a number of cases of horses fed upon it. Symptoms. — There is much resemblance in the symptoms of poison- ing arising out of deleterious legumes or grasses, the commonest being staggering or want of co-ordination of the muscles, particularly of the hind-limbs, weakness amounting to prostration, swelling of the lower portions of the limbs, fever, redness of the membranes, sweating, and an inability to walk straight or endure any exertion. Treatment. — Beyond change of diet there is little to be done in these cases, as we have to deal with an unknown quan- tity and can only attempt the amelioration of symptoms. It is good practice to give a mild aperient, with the object of getting rid of the offensive matter contained in the alimentary canal, and to follow it up with stimulants and tonics. Tn this con- nection nux vomica is especially indicated when inco-ordination persists after appetite returns and febrile symptoms have dis- appeared. In these cases the hay in use should be subjected to the closest scrutiny in order to determine, if possible, the actual ingredient giving; rise to the trouble. Fig. 462.— starwort (Stellaria Holostea) ACONITE POISONING Preparations of the plant Aconitum Ncvpellus, or Monkshood, are much used in veterinary medicine, both internally and for outward application, and mistakes occur now and again in consequence of an overdose being given, or a liniment intended for external application is administered in mistake for a draught, with fatal consequences to the patient. The plant grows freely in wayside gardens, and has produced poisonous eflects on horses nibbling the leaves and flowers even in small quantity. 64 HEALTH AND DISEASE Symptoms. — Frothing at the mouth from excitation of the salivary glands, champing and movements of the head suggesting the burning sensation in the throat which is a well-known effect on human sufferers, purging, frequent and violent attempts at vomition. The heart's action is so depressed as to make the pulse almost imper- ceptible, paralysis of the hind extremities super- venes, and the animal reels and falls about until he abandons the attempt to stand or an amelioi'ation of his condition follows. Treatment and Anti- dotes.— Perfect quiet and freedom from all causes of excitement should be provided. Digitalis, the action of which is directly counter to that of aconite, affords a valuable antidote, and should be promptly administered. Diffusible stimulants, as for example alcohol and arrimonia, may be given alternately with the above, and a laxative of linseed-oil early in the attack, despite the usual symptom of purging. Linseed-oi! is said to allay the violent attempts at vomition above mentioned. Fig. 463. — Aconite (Aconiliim A'apellns 26. VETERINARY HYGIENE Everything which relates to the maintenance of health in the animal body is included in the word " Hygiene", or in the term which the late Dr. Chas. J. B. Williams preferred, " Hygienics". A perfectly accurate definition of health can hardly be formulated in words, at leaist, which will convey the exact idea existing in the mind of the physiologist. A sufficiently clear view of the condition is, however, present to the common VETERINARY HYGIENE 65 intelligence without the veil)!il formula. Every horse-owner, for example, knows whether his animals are well or ill, and usually he will be able to give an intelligent explanation of his reasons. In general terms health may be said to consist in the regular performance of the functions which are relegated to the various structures and organs of the body; these are simple or complex according to the position which the living being occupies in the animal world, and it is interesting to note that a vast number of organisms only visible with the aid of optical appliances live in a condition of ceaseless activity and perform their functions of respiration, circulation, nutrition, and locomotion — in fact everything wdiicli contributes to the completeness of organic life — in the most perfect way by the aid of very simple apparatus, so long as the conditions in which they are placed remain favourable to their existence. For example, myriads of living organisms, animals and plants, are found in stagnant water, and so long as the medium in which they live remains unchanged their activity continues. Should any serious alterations occur in the conditions of the medium on which their life depends, they become inert, all their functions cease, and the simple tissues of which they are composed become shrivelled, and the once active, living creatures are to all appearance dead. It is only necessary, however, in a large number of instances, to supply, to apparently dead creatures, the medium, water, which is favourable to their life, to enable them to resume their form and functions. The illustration is one of the most simple that can be offered of the physiological maxim that life depends upon the correspondence of the organism with its environment; when the coi're- spondence ceases, either from failure on the part of the organism, or on the part of the environment, then life or health, or both, can no longer be maintained. The science of Hygienics may be shortly defined as the maintenance of the relation which exists between the organism and its surroundings, and the important question arises in the case of the higher animals: What are the conditions which have to be maintained in order that the organism may perform its functions? In considering the surrounding circumstances or environment in which an animal lives, it has to be borne in mind that the organism itself may be at fault, while the conditions of life may be in perfect order. When, therefore, it is assumed that if the conditions of life are maintained in pei'fect order the organism will remain in health, it must also be possible to aflSrm, with equal reason, that the organism was in a perfectly normal state to begin with. It is hardly necessary to add that in the greater number of cases this perfect correspondence does not VOL. 111. 70 66 HEALTH AND DISEASE exist, and, to use a common expression, there may be feults on both sides. It becomes necessary, therefore, to take into consideration the fact that what may be called perfect surroundings absolutely adapted for the preservation of health in one animal may prove to be quite in- suiiicient to secure the same results in the case of another. Indeed, the favourable conditions in the first case may have a tendency to induce disease in a subject which, from previous habit, or as a consequence of the influences of heredity, may be predisposed to contract certain dis- orders. A single illustration will make this proposition clear. In the case of one animal, the power to sustain extreme cold or extreme heat without suffering may be developed in a high degree. In another animal the system may be particularly obnoxious to cold or heat, and such an animal may suffer from catarrhal diseases which the first animal would entirely escape. ORDINARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH Hygiene, although especially concerned with the maintenance of liealth, by a liberal interpretation may be made to include the means of prevention of certain diseases. It is, however, considered to be more convenient to apply the word " prophylaxis" to the science of pre- vention, although it is impossible to escape the conviction that every care that is taken to keep an animal in a healthy state necessarily in- cludes the adoption of precautions to prevent the inroads of disease, whether common or sj^ecific. Starting with the presumption that the science of Hygiene is to be applied to animals in a healthy condition and with the object of preserv- ing health — in other words, prolonging the animal's life and keeping it in the highest state of efficiency for the work it is called upon to per- form,^ — the question arises: What are the ordinary means by the agency of which this desirable end may be secured? The first thing which .suo-o-ests itself relates to the function of nutrition. Even in a state of perfect animal idleness the ordinary physiological processes continue; oxidation, that is to say destruction, of tissues is always going on. Every movement of the animal, whether voluntary or involuntary, causes an appreciable amount of tissue waste; the waste products have to be ex- creted, as many of them are of a poisonous character, and the waste has to be replaced by new material. This repair of tissue demands a regular supply of solid and liquid food, containing the necessary materials for purposes of nutrition. Pure food and pure water in appropriate quan- tities are among the first essentials for the maintenance of life and health. OKDIXARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH 67 Closely connected with food and water, botli being free from im- purities as for as possible, is the air which tlie animal breathes. Even for tlio life of the most simple organisms air is necessary, and in the case of the higher organisms its withdrawal would be immediately fatal. And even when supplied in sufficient quantity it is capable of carrying with it deleterious constituents, some of them quite inappreciable ])y the senses under ordinary circumstances, but deadly in their influences to the animal's vital functions. The supply of a sufficient quantity of pure air at a proper temperature, and at the same time the elimination of stagnant air, is absolutely essential to the maintenance of health. Be- cause, just as the process of nutrition implies the deposit of new material in place of the worn-out structures, which, if they had been allowed to accumulate in the system, would have poisoned the animal; so, on the other hand, the function of respiration is associated with the introduc- tion into the system of fresh vitalizing air, and excretion of effete materials in a gaseous form, which, mixed with the air in the lungs, are exhaled at every expiration and discharged into the external atmo.sphere. These products of the respiratory process are poisonous, and if, owing to the absence of any means of escape from the building in which an animal is kept, they were permitted to accumulate, they would soon render the air contained therein effete and incapable of maintaining life and health. So it appears that food, water, and air, in proper quantity, and, so far as possible, in a state of purity, are the three primary conditions for the healthy environment. It must be evident tbat the conditions above referred to are essentially concerned with the functions of organic life, and for the purpose of keep- ing a horse in the state of usefulness it may be further necessary that certain special organs should receive particular attention. The animal is required for purposes of locomotion. It is, therefore, indispensable that the feet should be kept in perfect condition; in other words, they cannot be left, as other parts of the organism may, to be maintained in a normal state under the influence of the ordinary reparative processes, because in domestication they are subjected to an excessive degree of wear and tear, from which in a state of nature they would be exempt. The feet are protected by a covering of dense, but elastic, horny substance, which grows in proportion to the amount of wear which takes place under natural conditions, when the animal's movements are under its own control. In domestication, however, the experiment, which has been repeatedly tried, of working horses without some additional protec- tion to the hoof has invariably failed, and the early practice of protect- ing the soles of the feet, or some portion of them, with iron plates or 68 HEALTH AND DISEASE rings, is still continued with certain modifications, or, as they may be called, improvements. Still, the admitted value of the artificial protection is vitiated by the necessity for the use of nails as the means of fastening. The feet of the horse are, therefore, placetl at a disadvantage in com- parison with the rest of the organism, in consecpence of the unavoidaljle application of artificial protection in the form of shoes which are attached to them by nails driven through a considerable portion of the hoof. Added to the necessarily injurious conse(|uences of shoeing are those which arise from the hardness of the roads; and the two adverse con- ditions will account for the failure, to a greater or lesser extent, of the feet during some period of the horse's life, in spite of all the care exerted for their preservation. Under exceptional circumstances it has not unnaturally been con- sidered that the feet require exceptional treatment, and numerous devices in the form of " stoppings" and hoof-dressings have been employed at various times for. the purpose, it is alleged, of keeping the feet in a healthy condition. Of most of these appliances it may be said that the feet may be very much better without them. MoLsture is very necessary for the maintenance of a healthy condition of the horn, and this is naturally absorbed by the horn tubes, of which the hoof is composed, when they are kept in a natural condition. But if the tubes are blocked by sticky or greasy substances, they cease to be able to absorb the moisture on which their elasticity depends. The hygienics of the foot demands that the organ should be left, as far as may be, in a natural state; the evils which are attendant on the application of shoes are in some measure unavoidable, and under the present improved state of the farrier's art they are reduced to a minimum. For the rest, it can only be said that the less the horny covering of the foot is interfered with the better. Next to the feet the legs, or, as they are termed, lower extremities, as far as the knees and hocks, deserve consideration. These parts are exposed more than other parts to contact with irritating grit and dust and mud in the ordinary course of travel. Cracked or chapped heels or " grease" and other eruptive diseases are the consequences of this exposure, and some animals are susceptible in a high degree to influences which would leave other less-susceptible subjects untouched. The skin over the whole of the body requires special attention in the horse to keep it in a healthy state, and the difference between a sensitive and insensitive skin has to be recognized in relation to a horse as much as in the case of the human subject. Peculiarities of temperament have also to be taken into account as STABLES 69 predisposing causes of disease of tlie nervous system, the digestive organs, and, in fact, the organs of tlie body as a whole. Some kinds of food, again, tend to induce disorders of the integuments, and otliers to disturb the kidneys. To detect and remove tlic various and often unsuspected causes wliich act in upsetting the bahxnce of health in various ways is a task wdiicli necessitates close observation, and generally an amount of energy which is exhibited constantly by sanitarians in regard to the public health, but is rarely exerted for the l)enefit of the lower animals. STABLES CONSTRUCTION The owner of the horse has often no voice whatever in the structure and general arrangements of the stable in which his horse is to be kept. In those cases, however, where the owner of the horse 1)uilds the hal)i- tation for the animal, he may select, within certain limitations, the site on which the stable is to stand and the materials which are to be used in its construction. The principal points to be observed are dryness and cleanliness. To secure dryness the building must not only be weather-tight, })ut damp must be prevented from rising through the walls and Hoors; an impervious damp-course must therefore be laid in the w-alls at the floor- level, and it is a good plan to spread a layer of brick or stone rubble under the flooring. The use of iron for stable fittings, and, as far as possible, in the construction of the partitions between stalls and boxes, in sub.stitu- tion for timber, is certainly desirable. The material is non- absorbent, and lends itself readily to processes of cleansing and disinfection. The timber which is absolutely indispensable should be well-seasoned, hard material, and be rendered as little absorbent as possible by being saturated with some of the tar products, or by a coating of paint or varnish. Bricks should be of the best quality, and for the inside of the walls bricks with a salt-glazed or with an enamelled surface are to be preferred. The salt- glazed bricks, which are of a reddish-brown colour, are more suitable for those walls which may be liable to damage, but at the heads of stalls, and above the level of the mangers in boxes, enamelled bricks or tiles may be used. Bright colours and pronounced patterns must be avoided ; a grayish- green colour is the best, and an "egg-shell" glaze is better than a bright glos.sy surface. The cjuestion of material for the flooring is rather a diffi- cult one. It is easy to see that certain conditions must be complied with — the flooring must be sufliciently hard, non-absorbent, and, above all things, 70 HEALTH AND DISEASE of a kind to afford a good foothold. Blue Stafl'ordshire bricks, and butf adamantine clinkers, grooved in various ways so as to assist in the drainage of the surface, are commonly used for the purpose, but a good floor can also be made with Portland cement and granite chippings laid hy expert workmen on a bed of l)rick or stone rubble. The division of the stable into stalls or boxes will l^e arranged according to the number of animals to be kept, and the necessity which may arise from the limitation of space. There is no doubt at all of the advantages of boxes where space and cost are not paramount considerations. From 12 to 14 feet square are the ordinary dimensions, but smaller boxes down to about 10 feet square are often used; they must be large enough to allow the animal to alter its position as much as it chooses. The animal may lie tied by the head, as in a stall, whenever necessary. Stalls from 6 to 7 feet wide and 10 to 11 feet long are economical in space and cost, and it is usual in the case of small stables to have one or two boxes for special use, and three or more stalls, as may be required. One or more sick-boxes, enclosed with walls and entirely disconnected from the other stalls and boxes, are necessary in all large stables. In connection with the construction of stables, lighting, ventilation, and drainage are matters of supreme importance. LIGHTING The arrangements for lighting will depend upon the aspect of the stables and their surroundings. Stables which are Ijuilt on to houses, or in proximity to them, commonly have very little choice in the matter. When it is possible to choose, the .south would generally be preferred, but some authorities prefer east, and others west, and certainly there are many very good stables with a northern aspect. In arranging the windows, care should be taken that every portion of the stable is well lighted; means of cutting off the light from any part to some extent may be considered necessary, but nothing can be lost by having sufficient light to commence with, and windows are supplied now with S23ecial arrangements for ventila- tion, on which subject more has to be said in another place. (See chapter on Stable Architecture.) Probably the best position for stables is one in which the front of the building has an aspect between south-west and south-east; the back wall forming the heads of the stalls will thus face between north-east and north-west, and the amount and brilliance of the sunshine admitted through the windows over the mangers will be very small, and will not injuriously affect the eyesight of the horses. An ample measure of sunlight will be admitted through the windows STABLES 71 in the opposite or front wall, and will assist in keeping the stable bright and sweet. The importance of hiuing windows on both sides of a range of stables cannot be overestimated. VENTILATION AND AIR SPACE It will not bo (questioned that a supply of pure air is absolutely essential to health, and accordingly the subject of ventilation has always attracted a large amount of attention from sanitary authorities. In theory nothing can be more simple; it is only necessary to provide openings through which pure air may pass in at one point, and other openings, in a different position, out of which the contaminated air may escape. This is, un- doubtedly, the true jJrinciple of ventilation, but in practice it has been found extremely difficult to attain the results which are desired. The pure air is commonly found to enter with sufficient rapidity, and often in sufficient quantity, not only at the point through which it was intended to enter, but also at the opening which was intended for the escape of the contaminated air. The down-draught, as it is called, is the great trouble of the sanitary engineer, and it has not up to the present time been found possible to avoid this and to create an upward current with perfect cer- tainty and regularity except by the use of machinery, or the employment of heat to rarefy the air at the intended point of exit, so that the air con- tained in the building may be induced to rise and escape as required. Some interesting experiments were performed by Veterinary Major Fred Smith of the Army Veterinary Department, and described Ijy him in his work on Veterinary Hygiene. The object was to ascertain the direction of currents, after entering a building by the means of windows, tubes, shafts, perforated bricks, or holes in various parts of the walls. The first thing which was noticed was the diminution in the rate of motion of a current of air in the act of passing through a shaft or tube, owing to the friction against the sides of the passage. It follows, therefore, that the loss of motion in the air will be considerably less in a wide than in a narrow passage. A further cause of diminution of velocity and interference with escape of air exists in the bends or angles in the passage, and it is impor- tant to remember that in such bends accumulation of dust is inevitable, and that when bends are unavoidable some method must be devised for the purpose of keeping them clean. A very common device for ventilating a building is that of the shaft divided into two by a diaphragm running down the centre. By this method it is presumed that one side of the shaft will act as an inlet, and the other side as the outlet ; but in practice the operation is by no means always satis- 72 HEALTH AND DISEASE Fig. 464. -Direction taken by Air-currents witli the Windward M'indows open factory. The same may be said of a somewhat similar arrangement, the double tube: a large one for the outside, and a small one passing through it. In this plan the larger tube is intended to act as an inlet, and the smaller one as the outlet. But it is very commonly found that the result is a down-draught always in full action, while the outlet either has the opposite to the intended effect, contributing to the down-draught, or other- wise does not act at all. It must be obvious that the force and direction of the wind mu.st always be powerful factors in ventilation, and one difficulty which is not easily overcome arises from the frequent changes which they undergo, at one time a super- abundance of air being driven forcibly into the building, while at another a scarcely calculable quantity will pass in. To meet this diffi- culty, to .some extent, the author of Veterinary Hygiene is in favour of openings being made on opposite sides of the building; and he insists that to get the full benefit of such an arrangement the buildings must not be more than from 25 feet to 30 feet wide. He found that a current entering through an inlet will cause the air in the stable to set in towards it in a direction more or less at right angles; and if the velocity of the incoming current is great, it may pa.ss out again at the opposite opening before it has properly mixed with the air in the stable. The results of the experiments made by the author of Veterinary Hygiene will be best understood with the aid of the accompanying diagrams, which are taken from his work. In the first illustration the wind is supposed to enter at a window which is opened to windward (fig. 464). Soon after entering, the current is described as spreading out fan-shaped and passing towards the ground; and in the case of a powerful current it may be measured 18 .or more feet from the point of entry, but under ordinary conditions its speed rapidly decreases owing to the pressure of the air in the stable at about 6 or 8 feet from the inlet. The current is further described as striking the ground on the opposite side of the stable, much of it escaping by the leeward side of the ridge, or by the Fig. 465.— Direction taken by Air-currents with Wind- ward and Leeward Windows open STABLES 73 Double Currents from opposite ^^'in^lo\vs opening by which it entered. The windwiird side of the ridge opening is also presumed to act as an inlet. In the next illustration (fig. 465) tlu' windows on opposite .sides of the building are shown open. With this arrangement the air which rushes in at the windward side was observed to proceed very much in the same way as in the first instance. Some of it, however, is driven straight across to the leeward window and escapes at once. Sometimes the movements in- dicated in fig. 465 are disturbed by a backward current suddenly coming in through the outlet window, meet- ing the current which comes from the windward window (fig. 466). The two currents then spread out toward.s the centre of the stable, strike the ground, and then rise to escape at one side of the ridge. This con- dition is one which, as a matter of course, depends on a change in the direction of the wind, and is, there- fore, only temporary. A different set of movements occurs when the opposite windows ^'s- *^' are half-open in such a way (fig. 467) that the current of air is directed upwards. By this arrangement the entering air is delayed sufficiently long to allow it to mix with the air in the stable before it escapes from the leeward window. It was observed that if the windward window re- mains half-open, and the leeward one fully open, the air escapes from the stables without mixing properly. A further change was noticed when the windward windows were half-open and the leeward entirely closed. The current passed upwards to the ceiling, and then descended and mixed with the stable air — the ridge in this case constituted the outlet. When all the windows were closed, and the door opened, the ridge appeared to act as a regular outlet; with both the doors and windows shut the ridge openings acted as inlets and outlets, as shown in fig. 468. This summary of the description given by Major Fred. Smith will -Direction taken by Air-currents when opposite Windows are lialf-oi)en -Direction taken by Air-currents whe and Windows are closed 74 HEALTH AND DISEASE convey to the reader a fair idea of the intiuence wliich the opening of doors and windows can be made to exercise upon the distribution of air throughout a stable. The great value of these observations lies in the fact that they refer to the very simple appliances which are at everyone's command, consisting merely of ordinary doors and swing windows, placed opposite to each other in walls not more than 30 feet apart. Writers on ventilation describe artificial ventilation as distinct from the " natural " ventilation obtained by ordinary appliances such as doors, windows, and holes in buildings. Artificial ventilation may be arranged to operate in one of two ways, namely, (l) by "extraction" of the air which is already in the building, and (2) by " propulsion ", which consists in the driving out of contaminated air by the forcible introduction of fresh air. Extraction is effected by heat, by steam-jet, or by fan or screw. The most simple instance of " extraction " by heat is that of the common fireplace, with its open chimney, in which the upward current is in proportion to the amount of heat and the area of the chimney. Dr. Parkes refers to a room which he frequently examined where the area of the chimney was 1*5 square foot. There was no down-draught, but a constant upward current of 4 feet per second; the discharge per second was then 6 cubic feet, or 21,600 cubic feet per hour. The capacity of the room was 2000 cubic feet, so that a quantity eijual to the total air in the room passed up the chimney nearly eleven times per hour. Notwithstand- ing this, the room became close wdien shut up with two or three persons. The explanation given is, that when the windows were shut the fire was chiefly fed with air which entered below the doors, and, flo\ving near the ground to the chimney, was never properly diffused through the room. It was found that the current near the ground moved from TG foot to 2 '6 feet per second, and chilled the feet. A few feet above the ground no move- ment could be discovered. No better example than this could be given of the great importance of arranging for the proper entrance and distribution of air as well as for its exit. When a fire is lighted, all places in the room through which air can pass act as inlets, and as the necessary result currents in various directions come from places which were meant to be outlets, causing what are so very much dreaded by people in general, so-called draughts. The common remedy for this state of things is the blocking up of all the cracks in doors and windows which can be reached, and the plugging of any ventilating tubes or shafts by the aid of dusters or any other material at hand. In a stable a mass of hay forms a convenient plug for any hole through which the air passes too freely for the comfort of the persons employed about the stable. In a room so treated, it is noticed that when all the openings through STABLES 75 which air can enter are plugged, the chimney itself becomes an inlet at intervals, and consequently sudden rushes of downward currents occur, bringing with them a quantity of smoke; but when the inlet of air is properly regulated and provided for, the open fireplace with its chimney is undoubtedly a very useful method of ventilation. It may be urged that the method is not generally applied to a stable, but in the case of new constructions there certainly is no reason why it should not be, provided that a suitable wire screen is placed around the hearth to prevent any risk of straw, &c., catching fire. Extraction of air by a steam jet requires apparatus not in common use, and is not likely to be employed for the ventilation of stables. Extraction by means of fans is a method which has been employed successfully in the ventilation of mines, and to a smaller degree in buildings, but the plan involves cumbersome machinery, and can hardly be called a practical method of ventilation for stable use. The place of the fan may be, to some extent, supplied by means of different forms of cowls, the chief objection to which is their uncertainty, owing to changes in the direction of the wind, and in perfectly calm weather the absence of any currents in the outside air. These appliances, however, form part of the apparatus used in so-called " natural " ventilation. Ventilation by propulsion, although a powerful method of delivering a (juantity of air, is not one which is likely to be generally used in stables. According to Dr. Parkes, the plan is an old one, invented indeed by Desaguiliers in 1734. The machinery consisted of a fan or wheel, enclosed in a box. The air passed in at the centre, and was driven by the vanes of the fan into a conduit leading from the box to the building to be ventilated. The principle of this system, which is now generally known as the " Plenum" system, is that of pressure from behind, the external air being forced in at a pressure proportionate to the speed of the revolution of the fan, thus driving out the fouler air through the openings provided for the purpose. Where expense is no object the plan is no doubt an eflfective one, as air can be passed through water and thus washed, or through heated tubes and thus raised to any temperature which may be desired, but in practice its use has hitherto been confined to very large establishments, town-halls, hospitals, &c. Where electric current is available, an electric fan, which can be installed at a trifling cost, is the simplest method of applying the system. It must be admitted that all methods of ventilation whi(;h necessitate the use of .special apparatus are encumbered by the objections that they are costly and in various ways inconvenient. Among others is the very important one, that skilled attendance is necessary. 76 HEALTH AND DISEASE For practical purposes the method of ventihation whicli has beeu described, by the aid of openings at opposite sides of the buikling and at the ridge, is the most simple, and, if properly arranged, the most effectual. A certain quantity of fresh air is absolutely indispensable for the maintenance of life. A horse requires something over 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour. But the question is not one of quantity only; there can be no doubt at all that the exact amount of air which a horse requires may be fully provided and yet be in such a condition as to destroy the animal in a short time. The difficulty of ventilating a stable is increased by the objection which the groom entertains to a current of cool air, which, however pure, will make his horse's coat rough, or cause the warmly-clothed animals, which have been habitually kept in hot stables, to shiver. This is a fact which the groom will demonstrate without any difficulty, to ensure conviction in the mind of his master, by opening a window behind one of his horses and causing the animal to shiver forthwith as soon as the unaccustomed cool current touches its skin. After this demonstration, with which stablemen are perfectly familiar, the question is settled at once, without any further argu- ment, and the owner of the animal, if not convinced, is at least silenced. The demonstration, although utterly fallacious, contains a valuable suggestion, to the effect that the air of the stable should, by some means, be properly regulated to a moderate temperature, so that the horses should not be subjected to either hot or cold currents of air. If open fii'e-places with warm-air chambers are not provided, perhaps the most satisfactory way is to heat the stables (or the air entering them) by means of a low-pressure hot-water heating apparatus. Contamination of Air. — -A very large number of causes of contami- nation of air by physical and chemical agents are given by Dr. Parkes in his work on practical hygiene. Among the mineral substances which are suspended in the atmos- phere are particles of coal, sand, steel or other metal, and everything which is included in the term dust, flocks of cotton, flax, hemp, all of which may be either inhaled or swallowed. It is perfectly well known that many trades are distinguished as unhealthy in consequence of the inevitable mixture with the air of various products which are connected with manufecturing processes. The effect of the air of mines appears to be particularly deleterious to the health of the miners. It was stated many years ago, by the chief medical officer of the Privy Council, that 30,000 miners in England break down prematurely every year from pneumonia and bronchitis. At that time one exception only was given: the colliers of Durham and Northumberland, where the mines were well STABLES A-- ventilated, and the miners did not sufler from pulmonary affections, excepting in an ordinary tlegree. The evidence of tlie extent to which the air of mines is contaminated with coal-dust is of a very emphatic kind. In the next illustration a specimen of a miners lung is given, showing the enormous accumulation of coal-dust in the lung structure. Stone-masons and metal-workers, also workmen in potteries, grinders, button-makers, cotton-spiiniers, match-makers, and others have all been mentioned as suffering from the effects of the contaminated air which they habitually breathe. Horses are often looked upon as animals which, to a great degree, are exempt from the action of air con- taminated in the manner described, but the evidence in proof of this belief is extremely meagre, in fact it is mainly negative; indeed it does not seem, to have occurred to any- body that tlie condition which we have just illustrated of the coal- miner's lung would be found in the lungs of the hor.ses working in the same pits if it were looked for, and there cannot be any doul)t whatever that horses working in positions where the air is largely mixed with dust, or otherwise contaminated with mechanical impurities, would exhibit traces of injury from these causes in their pulmonary organs on post-mortem examination. Occasional outbreaks of disease have occurred among horses grazing in the neighbourhood of brick-kilns and smelting-works, and chemical investigation has demonstrated the existence of poisonous products in the air which the animals had to breathe, and also in the pasture on which they were feeding, and it is quite possible that in many instances of unexplained outbreaks of affections of the resjiiratory organs the cause might be found in the condition of the atmosphere, the presence in it of either mechanical or chemical matters. Substances of a much more deleterious character than ordinary dust undoubtedly obtain an entrance into the air; these come under the head of organic impurities. Organic Impurities. — Contamination of the air constantly occurs, and to some extent at least is inevitable ; the process of respiration, for example, has the effect of charging the atmosphere with carbonic acid Fig. 4t.>il. — Section from Upper Lohe of a Collier'.s Lung Deposits of coal dust in the air-vessels (higlily magnified). 78 HEALTH AND DISEASE (carbon dioxide), as well as various organic impurities or products of •decomposition given out with the expired air. How deadly these mixtures ■of the products of respiration may become is illustrated by the con- stantly-quoted case of the Black Hole of Calcutta, in which, out of 300 men who were imprisoned, 260 died very quickly from the poison which they breathed from their own lungs. Carbon dioxide, which is one of the products of combustion, is extremely poisonous, and contamination of the air with more than 1 per cent is rapidly fatal to animals. Sulphuretted hydrogen, a gas set free in the decomposition of organic matter, is highly deleterious to animals. Ammoniacal vapours, which are constantly present in badly ventilated stables, exercise an irritating effect on the sensitive membrane of the eyes, a.nd the comparative rarity in the present day of ophthalmia and other serious diseases of the eyes among horses is ascribed to the improvement which has taken place in the methods of construction and ventilation. Admixture of sewage gas with the atmosphere is probably responsilile for the occurrence of many forms of derangement of the digestive organs which may often be attributed to other causes. Emanations from marshes were for a long time regarded as being the immediate cause of certain specific fevers in man and animals, but while marsh lands are undoubtedly unhealthy, it has now been demonstrated that malaria is caused by inoculation with the germs of the disease through the agency of mosquitoes. A somewhat similar case is that of the disease following upon the bite of the tsetse fly in South Africa. The most dangerous forms of organic contamination are undoubtedly the minute organisms, which under certain conditions produce specific diseases when introduced i'nto the bodies of animals, including man. The different disease germs are active in different ways; thus, the germs of phthisis (pulmonary consumption) may produce disease when inhaled; the bacillus of enteric (typhoid) fever when swallowed; and the tetanus (lock- jaw) bacillus when received into a wound or scratch. Pure air and water, cleanliness and sunshine, are important weapons against these invisible foes. It may be observed that while air charged with disease germs may be inhaled with impunity by the perfectly healthy animal, it may prove fatal to the animal which is in bad condition. Cases of the injurious effects of contaminated atmosphere might easily be multiplied, but enough evidence has already been advanced to prove the necessity for a sufficient supply of pure air as one of the factors in a condition of perfect health. Cubic Air-Space. — It has already been stated that each horse will require something over 15,000 feet of pure air per hour, but this by no STABLES 79 means implies the necessity for large cubic space in the stable, as any quantity of air may l)e passed into and out of a space which is only sutii- cieut to allow the animal to stand in it. Major Fred. Smith remarks that a very common error is made in considering that cubic space will supplant ventilation, and consecjuently too much stress has been laid on the importance of a large cubic capacity. In illustration of the error included in this assumption he takes examples of two stables — one of GOO cubic feet, and the other of 1500, a variation which is by no means uncommon. Obviously a horse stal)led in each of the two spaces would require the same amount of air; and, in order that this might be supplied to each of the animals, it would be necessary that the whole of the air in the former should be changed a little over fifty-four times per hour, while in the 1500-cubic- feet space the air need not be changed more often than a little over twenty- one times per hour. The advantage, therefore, of a large cubic space is that it does not necessitate so frequent a change of air. So far as the contami- nation of the atmosphere included in either space is concerned, the value of a lai'ge cubic capacity is comparatively trifling, being oidy the difierence of time which will be necessary for the contamination of the air it contains in each case, and it is hardly necessary to observe that when the air is equally contaminated the effect would be precisely the same on the animal organism, whether the stable contains 600 or 6000 cubic feet. The following table is given to illustrate this point, and shows exactly, at a glance, the result of the mixture of the products of respiration with the air in cubic spaces of different dimensions : — Breathing space for one horse in cubic feet. Ratio of CO. per 1000 at the end of first hour, if there has been no change of air. Amount of air necessary during the first hour. Amount necessary every hour after the first. 600 .5-03 U,400 1.5,000 700 4-38 14,300 15,000 800 3-7.5 14,200 15,000 900 3-33 14,100 15,000 1000 3-00 14,000 15,000 1100 2-72 13,900 1.5,000 1200 2-.30 1.3,800 15,000 1300 2-30 13,700 1.5,000 1400 213 13,600 1.5,000 1500 2 00 13,.500 1.5,000 1600 1-87 13,400 1.5,000 1700 1-76 1.3,300 15,000 1800 1-66 1.3,200 1.5,000 1900 1-.57 13,100 15,000 2000 1-50 13,000 1.5,000 3000 1-00 12,000 15,000 80 HEALTH AND DISEASE The cubic space for army stables has been fixed at 1G05 cubic feet per head, and for infirmary stables at 1900 cubic feet per head; these dimen- sions render it necessary, in order to provide the horse with the 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour, to change the air in the first staljle (1605 cubic feet per head) about nine and a half times per hour. These dimensions suggest the necessity for very complete and perfectly controllable means of ventilation. It is not probable that a space of more than 1000 cubic feet will l)e allotted to each horse in ordinary stables when only a few horses are kept, and this, with proper ventilation, will prove to be quite sufficient. Where new stables are being built under the control of the owner, the common plan of placing living rooms or lofts over the stables may advantageously be abandoned. Great height is not at all desirable, and where the roof is carried up, and ventilators are put in the ridge, a height of 10 to 12 feet to the eaves may be taken as a standard height. The most violent advocate of fresh air and free ventilation will not deny the stableman's assertion that in a warm stable the animals' coats are rendered fine and glossy, and the horses do better on a smaller amount of food than they would in a large, cold stable, in which, whatever is done to protect them, they always put on a half-starved ajjpearance, as the groom will designate it. The problem of how to provide a sufficient quantity of pure air in a reasonable cubic space, without keeping the animals too hot or too cold, is one that cannot be solved without incurring the expense of a somewhat elaborate system of warming and ventilation. Where the cost of warming the air required for ventilation is pro- hibitive, the best method is to provide windows on opposite sides of the stables and perhaps also in one end, the windows themselves being of the "hopper" type, so that the air enters the building with an upward current. Triangular side-pieces or cheeks should be fixed to the frames so that, when the windows are open, the air cannot enter except at the top. The windows at the rear should be well above the horses' heads. As windows are provided on opposite sides of the stable, it will always be possible to open some of them, without creating excessive draughts, whatever the direction of the wind may be. If the ceiling is flat, these windows will in many cases serve adequately for inlets and outlets, but where practicable it is better to provide one or more outlets at a higher level. The continuous ventilator along the ridge, with louvre boards on both sides, is certain to prove draughty, and cannot fail to admit air when the wind is blowing strongly against it. There are many different cowls or exhaust ventilators which are more suitable for the purpose. Much of the coldness complained of in stables is due to defective STABLES 81 constnictiou ; for example, the roof tiles may not be laid in mortar or "torched" witli mortar underneath, and the ceiling may be neither plastered nor boarded. The result is that the warmth given off by the horses is rapidly dissipated, and in winter the stable is nmch too cold wliile in summer it may be too hot. Tiles laid in the way described above do indeed allow a constant passage of air, and are therefore useful for ventilation, but the ventilation is not (as it ought to be) under control. The windows which liave been recommended can be opened and closed at will, and the e.xhaust ventilators are fitted with valves, operated with cords and pulleys, and by these means the inlet and outlet of air can be controlled. According to the table, 15,000 cubic feet of air are rec^uired by each horse per hour. If the velocity of the air entering the stable is 2 feet per second, the size of the inlet opening must be ^ ^ g^, — ^. — 2^2 sq. feet. This area would be provided by a window 3 feet wide, opening to the extent of about 8 inches. If the windows on the opposite sides of the building — that is to say, two for each horse — are of this size, the required amount of air will be admitted when only one is open. To prevent excessive velocity in the inflowing air, the top of the opening of the hopper is sometimes covered with finely-perforated zinc, but this necessitates a larger opening, as the effective area is reduced about one-half by the metal gauze. A higher velocity may be allowed for the air escaping through the exhaust ventilator, (say) 5 feet per second, and on this basis the area required for each horse will be f sq. foot. A ventilator with the internal circular shaft 20 inches in diameter would, therefore, serve for three horses. In jaractice the areas of inlets and outlets are often less than those given above, as a certain amount of ventilation takes place through the walls and roofs and through open doors, and somewhat higher velocities are considered to be admissible. When all is done, however, there are many days in our variable climate when it is impossible with safety to provide by the system of " natural " ventilation the full amount of fresh air which is theoretically required. The cold draughts which would follow the attempt would be dangerous tO' many animals, and the choice must be made between the two evils of cold draughts and insufficient ventilation. In nine cases out of ten the latter will be considered to be the less of the two. 82 HEALTH AND DISEASE DRAINAGE 111 applying the principles of drainage to the habitations of the domestic animals there are on the whole fewer difficulties to be overcome than in the case of the human being. The eft'ectual removal of solid and liquid excreta is the object sought in all cases; but while the sanitarian, in dealing with houses inhabited by human beings, is compelled to devise some method, not only for the removal of excreta, but also for destruction or disposal of it in such a manner that no nuisance may arise from its accumulation, the solid and liquid excreta of the horse have a commercial value as fertilizing material or manure, and are not therefore destroyed or deliberately allowed to pollute rivers and water- courses, as it pays better to store them for use. The difficulty in dealing effectually with solid and liquid excreta from the lower animals arises from the fact that the quantity voided by the larger quadrupeds is considerable, and, in respect of the solid manure, the act of excretion or expulsion is frequently performed, rendering it almost impos- sible to keep a large stal)le in a condition of even moderate cleanliness. Emanations from animal excreta are not likely to contaminate the air of a stable or cow-shed to any serious extent while in a fresh state, but both solids and fluids rapidly undergo decomposition, the result of which is to set free certain compounds of hydrogen and other gases, which are not only oftensive, but, some of them at least, poisonous — sulphuretted hydrogen, for example, arising from the solid excreta chiefly. Urine very quickly changes its state, and sets free a quantity of am- monia in a gaseous condition. Ammoniacal gas has an intensely pungent character, and causes severe irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes and nostrils, to an extent which can only be apjjreciated by those who have entered a badly ventilated or unventilated stable in which a large number of horses are habitually kept, or the holds of cattle-ships immediately after the cargo h?is been landed. A little experience of this kind should suffice to convince a horse-keeper of the great importance of making proper arrangements for the removal of excreta from the stable at once, no matter how often it may be necessary, to some convenient place of storage at a distance from the stable, so that the gases from the manure-heap may not be driven by winds into the stable or shed. Stables in large towns are generally situated in rows in a long mews, and the dirty straw, with the excreta, often form a conical heap outside the stable door. Usually the sanitary authorities insist on the removal of the heaps at short intervals, so that very little opportunity is allowed for putre- factive fermentation to go on; but the same system is often adopted in the open country, where there is ample space for proper storage. The real STABLES 83 difficulty is that the sjisice outside tlie stable door is the most conveuieiit spot for the atteudants to heap the manure temporarily, or until enough has accumulated to justify the use of a cart or wagon for its removal. In Loudon the regulations concerning receptacles for dung are now somewhat stringent. The capacity of the receptacle must not exceed 2 cul)ic yards, unless " the whole of the contents . . . are removed not less frequently than every forty-eight hours " ; the bottom must not be below the level of the ground; one of the sides must be readily removable to facilitate cleansing; and the receptacle must l)e so constructed as to prevent rain or water from entering it, and the escape of the contents, or any soak- age therefrom, into the ground or into the wall of any building, and it must also be freely ventilated into the external air. If the dung is removed from the premises not less frequently than every forty-eight hours, a metal cage may be used as a receptacle, but the ground beneath it must be ade- quately paved to prevent soakage into the ground, and if the cage is placed near a building, the wall of the building must be cemented " to such an extent as will prevent any soakage from the dung . . . into the wall ". Calculations have been made of the amount of solid and liquid excreta voided by different animals in a given time, and the results have proved useful, not only in physiology but also in practical farming. The late Professor Varnell, in the course of his observations at the Eoyal Veterinary College, found that a horse discharged from the body 49 lbs. of dung and 29 lbs. of urine in twenty-four hours. Col. Fred. Smith, from his own investigations, practically confirms Professor Varnell's estimate. He also records that a cow voids about 160 lbs. of dung and 18 lbs. of urine in twenty-four hours. In different animals the consistency of the solid excreta varies very much in proportion to the amount of water it contains. Fortunately the dung of the horse in health is fairly dry, and may often be lifted from clean straw with the stable-fork or shovel, leaving hardly a trace behind it. Some horses, however — animals of an excitable temperament, — void a quantity of soft dung from time to time, and in some the habit of evacuat- ing watery dung in small quantities at frequent intervals is maintained in .spite of treatment. Such animals can hardly be considered healthy, although no other symptoms of derangement may be observed. In the matter of the mechanics of stable drainage simplicit}^ is all-im- portant. The main object to be kept in view is the single one of perfect efficiency ; so long as that is attained, the means emjDloyed are of secondary consequence. Some differences in the system of drainage employed for stables in towns, as compared with those in the country, is not only pennissible, but 84 HEALTH AND DISEASE may in many cases be desirable. A town stable has, for instance, to be connected with the sewerage system, for which purpose advantage is taken of the sewer which is nearest to the stable, and the principal points to he considered are the best method of connecting the stable drain with the sewer, and whether the stable drain shall consist of an open channel or Fig -170 —Wrought iron < )[ tn ( iittei (bt Pancras Ironworks Co ) Fig. 471. — Covered Surface-drain a closed one in the form of a pipe sunk a short distance underground, and running to the outside of the stable into a trap. The object of trapping is to prevent the passage of gases from the sewer back into the stable, and it will be understood that, in the attempt to attain this very essential object, the disconnection of the stable drains by this means, whatever form they may assume, should be as complete as pos- sible. Undoubtedly the most simple and sanitary method is the surface- drain, which may be a mere open channel running from the front of the stall back- wards, or it may be provided with a movable cover, so as to admit of the necessary cleansing and prevent obstruc- tion. The two illustrations above show the two systems of the open and covered surface-drain (figs. 470, 471). In applying the system of surface- drainage, whether covered or uncovered, it is necessary that the floor should be inclined in such a manner as to allow a sufficient fiill for the escape of the sewage. In the case of stalls the fall is necessarily from before backwards. In the box it is commonly made to converge towards the centre, to which all fluid matters are conveyed by grooves in difterent parts of the flooring (fig. 472), and thence, by means of an underground drain, to the outlet; but with a little ingenuity surface channels can be used in boxes as well as in stalls, and are certainly better, as a drain-inlet Fig. 472 -Brick with Drainage Channel for Stable Floor STAHLKS 85 witliin the Imililin^ is ;i possible source of danger to the animals and also to the men employed. Various methods may be adopted, according to the size of the stable. In I lie case of a large one the separate channels in each stall or box run into a long channel at the foot of the stall, the outlet of which is at either end of the stable. When only two or three stalls or bo.xes have to be provided for, the urine may be convc\'ed from each by a separate channel to the outside of im^ii^ Fig. -173,— Draiii-iiipi' witli Kliq. Fig. 474. — 'W'in.ser's Iron CJully. the stable; in fact, so long as the true principle is maintained, it is a matter of indifference how the details are arranged. The channels in the stables must be disconnected from the drains out- side by being made to discharge over trapped gullies. The lic^uid passes from the channel through a short iron pipe built into the wall, and H *B'i ■ ■'W it is a good plan to fit on the ^ outer end of this pipe a brass or iron flajj hinged at the top to open outwards (fig. 473), so that, while the liquid can run out readily, the Hap prevents to a large extent the inlet of more or less foul air. Two good forms of gully are shown in figs. 474 and 475, one being of cast-iron and the other of stoneware, and each having a grating at the top and a strainer below to retain solid matter. The stoneware gully has a side inlet, to which the drain from a grid under a water-tap can be connected. If the sewage is conveyed by the drains into a manure-tank, cesspool, or public sewer, aerial communication between these and the drain must be stopped by an intercepting trap, which is most conveniently placed in an underground chamljcr or manhole provided with an air-tight cover. The Fig. 475. — Winser's Stoneware Gully 86 HEALTH AND DISEASE drains must be ventilated by means of a grated opening a little above the surface of the ground (for preference near the intercepting chamber), and by a 3^- or 4-inch stout pipe of lead or cast-iron fixed to the wall of the building at the highest point of the drain and carried up to such a height and in such a position as to afford a safe outlet for foul air. Stoneware pipes jointed with Portland cement and laid on a bed of concrete are commonly used for drains, but cast-iron pipes are more dui'able and more permanently water-tight. In the next illustration (fig. 476) a very good method of draining by the use of underground pipes, where that system is already in use or is at any rate determined upon, is shown. Fig. 476. — Underground Drain for Stable In this drawing A, A represent the walls of the stable, B, B the .stable drain-pipe starting from the manhole G outside one end of the stable, and running under the stable to the manhole at the other end in which the siphon-trap o is placed. Into this drain the gullies r, f, inside the stable, discharge. The siphon contains water the level of which is shown by the interrupted lines. In theory at least the water is a barrier against the passage of foul air from the outlet drain d back into the stable pipe, as such air will take its course through the clear opening of the ventilating pipe E rather than attempt to force the guarded part of the siphon c, which protects the stable pipe. As will be seen in this drawing, the drain is ventilated through pipes passing into the manholes at either end. These manholes are covered with air-tight iron covers, and provision is made for ea.sy access for the purpose of cleaning out the drain by means of a brush with jointed cane handle. A trap similar to c must be placed between the outlet drain and the sewer or cesspool. It is of course essential that the gullies and the drain .should be kept well flushed. Automatic fiusli- FOOD 87 tanks are now made for fixing at the highest points of drains, and can be regulated to discharge a fixed quantity of water periodically — (say) once or twice a day. They require no attention, except for cleaning and repairs, and are useful for keeping drains clean, particularly in fiat districts where the drains are laid with very little fall. The automatic fiush-taiiks may be supplied from an overhead rain-water tank, but a sujDplementary supply of water should be laid on for use in dry weather. FOOD Nutrition may be defined as the process by which the waste which is constantly going on in the animal's system is compensated by the deposit of fresh material derived from food, solid and liquid. To under- stand exactly what is required it is necessary to know something of the constitution of the body, and it may be stated, in the first instance, that four elementary substances, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, are the principal constituents of the important tissues of the animal body, muscle, nerve, and the solid particles of the blood. Constitution of the Body. — Organic bodies include albuminoids or proteids, gelatine, horny matter, and fats {composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, nitrogen being absent). All these constituents are combustible. Besides the combustible constituents there is a considerable proportion of incombustible, and when burned with those which are combustible they are left as ash, of which bone ash forms the largest proportion. Bone ash consists chiefly of phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a small quantity of the carbonate. The ash obtained from the burning of muscle or flesh contains a considerable proportion of the phosphate of potassium. The whole of the constituents of the animal body are combined with a very large proportion of water, which, however, varies in different animals, and at different ages, from a little over 40 per cent to nearly 70. The follow- ing table will show the proportion of water, nitrogenous matter, fat, and ash in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs : — Percentagk Composition of Whole Bodies of Animals Fat Calf. Half Fat Ox. Fat Ox. Fat Lamb. store Sheep. Fat Sheep. Extra Fat Sheep. Store Pig- Fat Pig. Water ... i 65 •! Nitrogenous }\ , . - Matter /! ^"^'^ Fat 1.5-3 Ash ... ! 3-9 56-0 18-1 20-8 51 48-4 15-4 320 4-2 52-2 13-5 3M 3-2 610 15-8 19-9 3-3 46-1 13-0 37-9 3 0 37-1 11-5 48-3 3-1 58-1 14-5 24-6 2-8 43-0 11-4 43-9 1-7 88 HEALTH AND DISEASE The Functions of Foods. — The fact that food contains albuminoids, which correspond to the constituents of flesh, and hydrocarbons, which represent fats, and also mineral constituents, which have been referred to, has led physiologists to adopt certain theories in reference to the function of each class of food in the animal body. The nitrogenous constituents and albuminoids have had ascribed to them the function of Hesh - formers. They are distinguished from other nitrogenous constituents by the presence of a small quantity of sulphur and phosphorus, which constituents are absent from gelatine. Fats and also carbohydrates, such as starch and sugar, are considered to represent the combustible materials or heat-forming substances which are consumed in the process of respiration, the excess being deposited in the form of fat. It is stated that animals cannot subsist on a diet composed exclusively of flesh-forming materials, nor on one from which carbohydrates are entirely excluded. On the other side there are instances recorded of animals having lived in perfect health for a considerable time on nitro- genous and also on non-nitrogenous foods. These exceptional cases need not be taken into account in practice, as there is sufficient evidence that the animal to-day requires for its support a food in which are combined all the constituents which are found in the organism. Experiments have shown that nitrogenous food can be used for the formation of fat, and it is admitted that all the fat which is found in the body could not have been obtained from the amount of fatty matters which have been consumed as food. And the fact of animals having lived and been maintained in health on purely nitrogenous diet, is sufficient in itself to show that a considerable proportion of the material must have been consumed in the process of respiration. Assuming that albuminoids are chiefly concerned in the formation of flesh and the development of force, only contributing in a minor degree to the formation of fat, it must also be allowed that fats have for their principal function the production of heat as a result of oxidation, and in this they are assisted by other carbohydrates — starch, sugar, and gums. But it is certain that they do not in any way contribute to the formation of nitrogenous constituents. An important point is to be considered in reference to the respective value of each article of diet and its digestibility. A food may contain a considerable proportion of albuminoids which are comparatively useless to certain animals, on account of the digestive organs being incapable of appropriating the nutriment they afford. Bean straw, for example, contains 8 per cent of nitrogenous substances, but its structure renders it comparatively indigestible as food for the horse, in which animal digestion FOOD . 89 is quickly performed, while it may be valuable diet for cattle, with their prolonged process of digestion, including rumination, which is really remastication. The following table from Warington's Chemistry oj the Farm indicates the amount of water, nitrogenous substances, fat, soluble carbohydrates (starch, sugar, gums), fibre, ash, and albuminoids in the foods which constitute the provender of farm animals, and most of these foods are employed for feeding horses: — Percentage Composition of Ordinary Foods Nitrogenous Substance. Soluble Food. Water. Fat. Carbo- Fibre. Ash, Albumin Amides, hydrates. oids. &c. Cotton Cake (decorticated) 8-2 43-2 1-8 13-5 20-8 5-5 7 0 Cotton Cake (undeeort.) ... 12-5 20-7 1-3 5-5 34-8 200 5-2 Linseed Cake 11-7 26-9 M 11-4 33-2 90 6-7 Rape Cake ... 10-4 28-1 4-6 9-8 29-1 10-3 7-7 Earthnut Cake 11-5 45-1 1-9 8-3 23-1 5-2 4-9 Beans 14-3 22-6 2-8 1-5 48-5 7-1 3-2 Peas ... 14-0 20-0 2-5 1-6 53-7 5-4 2-8 Wheat 13-4 10-7 1-3 1-9 69-0 1-9 1-8 Rye 13-4 10-5 1-0 1-7 69-5 1-9 2-0 Oats 13-0 10-6 0-7 5-4 57-3 100 3 0 Barley ... 14-3 10-2 0-4 2-1 66-0 4-5 2-5 Maize ... 110 9-8 0-6 5-1 700 2-0 1-5 Walt Sprouts 10-0 16-6 7-1 2-2 441 12-5 7-5 Wheat Bran 13-2 121 2-0 3-7 56-0 7-2 5-8 Brewers' Grains 76-2 4-9 0-2 1-7 10-7 5-1 1-2 Brewers' Grains (dried) . . . 9-5 19-8 0-8 7-0 42-3 15-9 4-7 Rice Meal 10-3 11-3 1-0 12-0 47-8 8-6 9-0 Oat Straw 14-5 3-5 0-5 2 0 37-0 36'8 5-7 Barley Straw Wheat Straw 14-2 136 3-2 0-3 1-5 1-3 391 39-4 36-0 371 5-7 5-3 3 3 Pea Straw 13-6 9 0 1-6 33-7 35-5 6-6 Bean Straw 18-4 8 1 M 31-0 360 5-4 Pasture Grass 76-7 2-9 11 0-9 10-9 5-2 2-3 Clover (bloom beginning) 81-0 2-6 0-8 0-7 8-0 5-2 1-6 Clover Hay (medium) 16-0 10-5 2-5 2-5 37-2 25-0 6-3 Meadow Hay (best) 15 0 10-2 1-8 2-3 39-5 24-0 7-2 Meadow Hay (medium) ... 150 8-0 1-2 2-2 420 25-4 6-2 Meadow Hay (poor) 14-0 6-3 0-5 2-0 41-1 31-0 5-1 Grass Silage (stack) 670 3-3 1-5 1-5 13-2 9-7 3-8 Clover Silage (stack) 67-0 3-3 2-7 2-2 10-5 11-9 2-4 Maize Silage 79-1 1-0 0-7 0-8 11-0 6-0 1-4 Potatoes 75-0 1-2 0-9 0-2 21-0 0-7 1-0 Cabbage 85-7 1-7 0-8 0-7 7-1 2-4 1-6 Carrots 87-0 0-7 0-5 0-2 9-3 1-3 1-0 Mangels (large) 89-0 0-4 0-8 0-1 7-7 10 10 Mangels (small) 87-0 0-4 0-6 0-1 10-2 0-8 0-9 Swedes 89-3 0-7 0-7 0-2 7-2 11 0-8 Turnips ... 91-5 0-5 0-5 0-2 5-7 0-9 0-7 i 90 HEALTH AND DISEASE Digestibility of Foods. — Experiments to determine the digestibility of the different kinds of food, a matter of the greatest importance to stock- owners, have not been carried on to any extent, if at all, in this country, and the author of The Chemistry of the Farm remarks that our know- ledge concerning the digestion of food by farm animals is derived almost entirely from German investigations. He quotes from the work of Dr. E. Wolff, Die Erndhrung der landiviy'thschaftlidioi Nutzthiere, and as the information is exceedingly valuable it is desirable to give a summary of it here. The experiments were chiefly conducted, in the first instance, with oxen, cows, sheep and goats, but Dr. Wolff carried on special investigations on the digestive powers of the horse, in comparison with those of the sheep, the same food being supplied to each animal. The general results are shown in the two following tables, which indicate the proportion of each constituent digested out of 100 parts of each kind of food supplied: — Experiments with Horses Proportion of each constituent digested for 100 supplied. Food. Total organic matter. Nitro- genous substance. Fat. Soluble carbo- hydrates. Fibre. * Pasture Grass ... Meadow Hay (very good) Meadow Hay (ordinary) Red Clover Hay Lucerne Hay (very good) *Oats * Beans ... * Maize 62 51 48 51 58 68 87 91 69 62 57 56 73 86 86 78 13 20 24 29 16 71 8 63 66 57 55 64 70 74 93 94 57 42 36 37 40 21 69 100 Experiments with Sheep * Pasture Grass Meadow Hay (very good) Meadow Hay (ordinary) Red Clover Hay Lucerne Hay (very good) *Oats * Beans ... * Maize 75 64 59 56 59 71 90 89 73 65 57 56 71 80 87 79 65 54 51 58 41 83 84 85 76 65 62 61 66 76 91 91 80 63 56 49 45 30 79 62 Mean of Several E.\perinients. On comparing these figures it is evident that a horse digests meadow grass and hay less perfectly than a sheep does, and the difference between them is apparently as great when the food is young grass as when the FOOD 91 ordinary hay is employed. There is little difference in the proportions of albuminoids assimilated by the two animals, but the divergence becomes considerable when we come to the carbohydrates, fibre, and fat. Of the carbohydrates the horse digests 7 to 10 per cent, of the fibre 21 per cent, and of the fat and waxy matter 25 to 52 per cent less than the sheep. On the whole, the horse digests about 12 per cent less of the total organic matter of grass hay than the sheep. With red clover hay the results with the horse are better. With Lucerne hay of good (juality the digestion of the horse is still better, and (save as regards the fat) practically equals that of the sheep. The smaller digestive power of the horse for vegetable fibre is plainly connected with the fact that it is not, like the sheep, a ruminant animal, and it is thus unprovided with the same means of attacking an insoluble food. In a trial with wheat-straw chaflP, the horse digested 22'5 and the sheep 47' 6 per cent of the total organic matter. With the corn the digestion of the horse is apparently quite equal to that of the sheep. No stress must, of course, be laid on the digestion co- efficients found for ingredients of the food present in small quantity, as the fat and fibre of beans and the fibre of maize. In French experiments on horses, in which maize or beans were consumed alone without the addition of hay, it was found that with maize 94'5 per cent of the total organic matter and 87'1 per cent of the nitrogenous substance, and with beans 90"4 per cent and 89'3 per cent respectively wer^ digested. Of potatoes 93 per cent, and of carrots 87 per cent of the organic matter were digested by the horse. A difficulty which attends all experiments of this kind, in which special kinds of foods are given exclusively, is that their digestibility will be neces- sarily affected more or less when they are mixed with other foods. This is proved by the following facts, recorded by the same authority. If to a diet of hay and straw, consumed by a ruminant animal, a pure albuminoid, as wheat gluten, be added, the added food is entirely digested without the rate of digestion of the ordinary food being sensibly altered. The same result has been obtained in experiments with pigs fed on potatoes to which variable quantities of meal-flour were afterwards added. The alljuminoids of the meal were entirely digested, while the proportion of the potatoes digested remained unchanged. An addition of oil (olive, poppy, and rape oil) to a diet of hay and straw is also apparently without unfavourable influence on the rate of digestion; indeed, some experiments with small quantities of oil (^ lb. of oil per day per 1000 lbs. live weight) show an improved digestion of the dry fodder; oil supplied in moderate quantities is itself entirely digested. An addition of starch or sugar to a diet of hay or straw will, on the 92 HEALTH AND DISEASE contrary, diminish its digestibility, if the amount added exceeds 10 per cent of the dry fodder. The albuminoids of the food suffer the greatest loss of digestibility under these circumstances. The fibre also suffers in digesti- bility if the amount of carbohydrate added is considerable. When starch has been added, it is itself completely digested if the ratio of the nitro- genous constituents of the diet is not less than 1 in 8. These facts are of considerable ^Dractical importance. Nitrogenous foods, as oil-cake and bean-meal, may be given with hay and straw chaff without affecting their digestibility, but foods rich in carbohydrates, as potatoes and mangels, cannot be given in greater proportion than 15 per cent of the fodder (both reckoned as dry food) without more or less diminishing the digestibility of the latter. This decrease in digestibility may, however, be counteracted in great measure by supplying with the potatoes or mangels some nitrogenous food. When this is done, the proportions of roots or potatoes may be double that just mentioned without a serious loss of digestibility. Potatoes exercise a greater depressing effect on the digesti- bility of hay than roots, starch being more potent in this respect than sugar. The cereal grains are rich in starch, but contain also a fiiir propor- tion of albuminoids. They may be added to a dry fodder without seriously affecting its digestibility if the ratio of the nitrogenous to the non-nitro- genous constituents of the diet does not fall below 1 in 8. Common salt is well known to be a useful addition to the food of animals. It is stated to quicken the conversion of starch into sugar by the saliva and pancreatic juice. When sodium salts are deficient in the food, salt supplies the blood with a necessary constituent. Sodium salts are tolerably abundant in mangels and small in quantity in hay; they are absent in potatoes, and generally absent in grain of all kinds. SYSTEM OF FEEDING Quantity and Quality. — It is recognized as a principle in feeding animals that the quantity and quality of the food should bear a distinct relation to the purpose for which the animal is intended. With reference to the horse, it is always the case that the immediate object is to preserve the animal's health and condition, so that he may be able to do the largest amount of work without injury. With cattle, sheep, and swine, the atten- tion of the feeder is directed towards the attainment of as much fat and flesh as it is possible to derive from the food with which the animal is supplied. With this system of fattening animals for the purpose of food the horse -owner has absolutely no concern, and the system, therefore, is considerably simplified, as the horse-owner is only required to exercise his FOOD 93 judgment in determining what nmount and what quality of food is neces- suiy to keep the animal in the best working condition. In the chapter on stable management the details of ordinary practice are described, and it will be seen that the quantity of food which a horse can advantageously con- sume varies in proportion to the amount and character of the exertion which the animal has to perform; the materials employed remain the same — for example, oats, hay, wheat, straw, and bran, with occasional small quantities of carrots or turnips, and, at certain seasons, grass. In ordinary w'ork a horse will consume daily, on the average, three q^iarterns of oats, with a small quantity of bran, and the addition of what is roughly calculated as a double handful of chaff composed of chopped hay and straw. A truss and a half of hay in the rack per week is a reasonable allowance. The very wide limits which are permissible, and, indeed, advantageous, in regard to quantity may be gathered by reference to the feeding of a brougham horse in the most active part of a London season, during which comparatively short time a number of horses are worked out, as it is called, in spite of the amount of food which they consume, and are disposed of at the end of the time, often in a very feeble condition. A cab horse, again, in constant work in a large town, consumes an amount of provender which varies with the animal's appetite and the opportunities which niay be afforded for taking food. Usually the nose-bag is put on every time a journey is ended, and an interval is therefore allowed to the animal for refreshment. Notwithstanding the amount of provender which hard- worked horses will consume, it is evident that the exhausting effects of excessive exertion are not prevented by excessive feeding; but it is, on the other hand, quite certain that horses which are called upon to perform excessive work do better with a practically unlimited allowance of food — by which is meant supplying as much food as the animal is disposed to take — than they do when the quantity is limited. Food and Work. — While excessive work, even with a liberal dietary, produces more waste in the system than can be compensated by the food which is taken, it is equally true that rest with a liberal dietary would be more injurious than excessive labour, and the typical system with regard ta the proportion of food to the amount of work would be one which exactly supplied the amount of nutritive material accurately adjusted to the waste going on in the system. There are no means, however, of calculating this with absolute precision, and the matter is, therefore, necessarily left to experience. Arrangement of the Diet. — Under ordinary conditions, particu- larly in small establishments, the arrangement of the horse's dietary is left to the groom or coachman, and so long as the animals are performing the 94 HEALTH AND DISEASE amount of work required of them, and do not sutler from any particular illnesses that interfere with their work, the owner does not feel called upon to interfere. Nevertheless, it would be advantageous in many cases if an intelligent interest were manifested in the condition of the animals, and it is more than probable that in many cases it would be found desirable to make changes to meet the peculiarities of certain horses. For example, some horses, like some human beings, suffer from bad appetites, or, as the groom would express it, do not eat their rations clean. This fact is ascer- tained by merely observing that a certain portion of the food supplied is left in the manger, while another portion is probably found lying under the horse's nose. To remedy this condition of things a change of food by the addition of some compound which will add to its flavour will have a very excellent effect. An extra sprinkling of salt will be very grateful to some horses, while others would prefer some spicy additions in the form of tur- meric or some one of the advertised foods, which contain different condi- ments, mixed with meal, and have the advantage of inducing an animal to consume the provender, and at the same time stimulate the digestive powers. The horse-owner is often puzzled how to arrange a system of feeding for a horse which remains in poor condition notwithstanding the fact that he eats a considerable quantity of food. The story told will commonly be to the effect that the horse eats as much again as any other animal in the stable, and remains a perfect skeleton all the time. Such animals, it may be remarked, are often possessed of a highly nervous temperament and feeble digestion, and considerable difficulty is often experienced in arrang- ing the food to suit their particular case. Sometimes the addition of some new kind of diet will be found very effective — a small proportion of crushed oil-cake (linseed or cotton), malt meal, the wetting of the food when it is put in the manger, or the addition of an extra quantity of bran, will produce good results. In other instances, which are not benefited by this treatment, the addition of a certain proportion of animal food to the daily ration may have the desired effect. Some little care is required in pre- paring such food, and there may be some difficulty at first in inducing the animal to take it. A plan which has been found to answer is to make fairly strong soup from any coarse pieces of meat, and to pour the liquid, when cold, on to some bran, to make a mash. A small quantity to begin with of this mixture may be placed in the manger and covered with a sprinkling of oats and a little dry bran. Frequently this device is sufficient to induce the animal to take the mixture, of which he shortly becomes extremely fond. If the ration should be refused, however, and left uneaten at the end of an hour, the next thing is to clean the manger entirely and leave FOOD PLANTS— 1 1. Wheat (Tiiticiim viilgiire). 2. Oat (A vena sativa). 3. Barley (Hoidemii ilisiiclium). 4. Crested Dog's- Tail(C.viiosnruscristatus). 5. Meadow Cat'a-Tail or Tiinotliy (Plileum pratense). 6. Siuooth Meadow-Grass (Poa pratensis). 7. Cocks-Foot (Dactylis gloraerata). 8. Hard Fescue (Festuca duriiiscula). 9. Meadow Fescuf 'Festuca pratensis). 10. Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina). 11. Meadow Fox-Tail (Alopecurus pra- tensis). 12. Rye-Grass (Loliuui perenue). FOOD PLANTS— I FOOD 95 the animal without food for several hours, and then make some of the mash into small balls and place one after another into its nioutli. In this way the creature shortly becomes accustomed to the Havour, and will oiler no objection to the compound in future. GREEN FOOD The practice of turning horses out to grass during a certain period of the year is adopted with the idea that the animals will be materially bene- fited thereby. It is affirmed that the succulent herbage is cooling to the system, that the animals' legs and feet are considerably improved by the change of position and diet, and, in short, that the practice is altogether advantageous and free from objection. Experience, however, teaches that the effects of a run of grass very commonly fall short of the owner's antici- pations. Everything, indeed, depends upon the circumstances in which the animal is placed, and the provisions which are made for shelter. In addition, the character of the soil and the quality of the herbage will have to be taken into account. In dry seasons, hard ground and scanty herbage are by no means conducive to the improvement of the animal's condition, and certainly the legs and feet are not likely to benefit by the violent exercise in which the animal commonly indulges when first turned into the pasture. Again, animals which have been engaged in hard work and been supjslied with large quantities of concentrated food are likely to suffer from the sudden change to a diet containing a very large proportion of water, necessitating the consumption of a large quantity in order to make up for the deficiency of concentrated nutriment. The distention of the stomacli and intestines by the amount of food consumed leads to pressure upon the diaphragm, which is injurious to the respiratory organs; and at the time when it was customary to turn hunters out to grass as soon as the season was over, it was not uncommon for a considerable number of the animals to be brought up in the autumn suffering from " broken wind ". To get the full benefit from a change of diet from stable food to the meadow grass there should be proper arrangements for the animal's shelter, so placed that he can take advantage of it, should he feel inclined, to escape from wind, sun, or rain; and a moderate allowance of dry food, oats, bran, and hay should always be insisted on. This system has the advantages of giving the animal complete rest and change of position, with the addition of a proportion of succulent diet to the ordinary stable rations, and it is decidedly to be preferred to the haphazard system of turning a horse out to grass for several months and leaving him to take his chance. 96 HEALTH AND DISEASE METHODS OF CALCULATING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT ARTICLES OF DIET For ordinary purposes the horse-owner will be content to refer to what has already been stated for the purpose of deciding what article of diet will be most useful and economical, but the German and French investigators have not been content with this general knowledge, and we are indebted to them for a number of interesting and important experiments, the outcome of which is to enable the curious in such matters to calculate with almost mathematical accuracy the exact relation which the food bears to its digest- ibility and to the waste of the system. It appears that the power of assimilation in different animals varies very considerably in reference to the various constituents of food; thus a horse will digest, out of every 100 parts of mixed diet, 69 parts of albumi- noids, 59 of fatty matters, 68 of the carbohydrates (starch, sugar, and gum), and 33 of cellulose and fibre. The annexed table will show the difference in these respects of the digestive powers of the ox, cow, and sheep : — Horse. Ox. Cow. Sheep. Albuminoids Fatty Matters Carbohydrates Cellulose and Fibre 69 59 68 33 65 64 66 60 57 65 70 61 57 61 73 58 A further analysis indicates that the above proximate principles are differently digested in different articles of food, as shown by the table on p. 97, which relates to the digestibility of the proximate principles of different kinds of food by horses. Various circumstances appear to modify the digestibility of different articles of diet. Age and mode of growth and preparation are among the modifying influences. Young plants are more digestible than mature ones, and the digestiiulity of old hay is less than that of new. It is also stated by the authorities which have been referred to that the digestibility of food is not affected by the amount which the animal consumes, neither is it altered by the amount of labour which the animal performs. According to Wolff, however, the addition of one food will alter the digestibility of another. Thus starch or sugar added to a diet of hay or straw in a larger amount than 10 per cent lessens its digestibility, especially in regard to the albuminoids which the food contains. FOOD 97 Digestibility of Foop-stuffs, showing the Proportion Digested for 100 supplied Food. Animal. Total Organic Matter. Proteids. Cellulose. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Hoi'se 51 59 41 20 59 Green Grass Ox 77 75 75 66 78 Sheep Horse 62 48 60 57 61 36 52 24 66 55 Hay 1 1 Ox 60 57 58 49 62 Sheep Horse 59 51 57 56 56 37 51 29 62 64 Clover Hay Ox 57 55 45 51 65 Sheep Horse 56 58 56 73 50 40 56 14 61 70 Lucerne . . . Ox 62 78 42 33 70 Sheep Horse 59 23 71 19 45 27 41 66 18 Wheat Straw- I Ox 46 17 56 36 39 Sheep Horse 48 67 79 59 20 44 70 37 74 Oats Ox 70 78 20 83 76 Barley . . . Sheep Horse 71 87 80 80 30 10.0 83 42 76 87 Ox 86 70 50 89 92 Horse 89 77 70 61 94 Maize Ox 91 72 77 85 94 Sheep Horse 89 87 79 86 62 65 85 13 91 93 Beans Ox 89 88 72 86 93 Sheep 90 87 79 84 91 Oil in small quantities appears to increase the digestibility of hay and straw, but a large amount causes loss of appetite. Potatoes, owing to the amount of starch they contain, prevent the digestion of hay. Roots have a less depressing effect, owing to the sugar which they contain. Col. Smith remarks that in some of his own experiments the addition of 2 lb. of oats to 12 lb. of hay increased its digestibility by more than 9 per cent. He adds tliat, in calculating a diet to ascertain its suitaljility for an animal, it is necessary to obtain from the tables given a proportion of principles digested, and then to find out the nitrogenous, fatty, and complete nutritive ratios. In illustration of this method of calculation, it is assumed that a horse receives as a daily ration 12 lb. of hay of medium quality and 10 lb. of oats. It is required to know the ratio of this diet before and after digestion, and the proportion of proximate principles digested. This information is conveyed in the following table, referring to the con.stituents of hay and oats. It will be seen that the fat in the hay is 98 HEALTH AND DISEASE imperfectly digested, the fatty ratio falling from 1:4"1 to 1:12 after diges- tion. Otherwise the nutritive value of the food is raised, as the cellulose is excluded from the calculation. Hay : Analysis Per Cent. 12 1b. Hay contains Digestive Co-efficient. Amount Digested. Water 143 Albuminoids ... 8^2 Fat 2^0 Carbohydrates ... 41^3 Cellulose 30 0 Nitrogenous Ritio, 1:5-3 Fatty „ 1:4-1 Complete „ 1:9 lb. 1-70 ■98 ■24 4^95 3-60 58 19 52 37 lb. ■568 ■045 2^574 133 Nitrogenous Ratio, 1 : 4^6 Fatty „ 1:12 Complete „ 1:7 Oats : Analysis Per Cent. 10 Ih. Oats contains "lb. 1-20 ■60 5^66 ■90 Digestive Co-efficient. Amount Digested. Water 14-7 Albuminoids ... 120 Fat 60 Carbohydrates ... 56-6 Cellulose 9 0 Nitrogenous Ratio, 1 : 5-2 Fatty „ 1:2 Complete „ 1:6 87 78 76 25 lb. 104 ■468 4-30 ■22 Nitrogenous Ratio, 1 Fatty „ 1 Complete „ 1 4^5 2^2 4-7 In the above table it is clearly demonstrated that only a certain amount of the digestible matter is appropriated by the animal's system; thus the total diet contained: albuminoids 2-18 lb., fats -84 lb., carbohydrates 10"61 lb., cellulose 4"50 lb.; while the system of the horse only appro- priated: albuminoids I'G lb., fiit '5 lb., carbohydrates 6-9 lb., and cellulose 1"5 lb. In other words, only 10-5 lb. out of the total of 18 "IS lb. was : assimilated. Comparing the feeding values of difterent foods, the method of estab- lishing a nutritive equivalent is adopted. Taking one typical food as repre- sented by 100, every food containing the same amount of nitrogen as the typical food is considered to be equal to it, i.e. 100. A food, however, which contains twice the amount of nitrogen would have for its nutritive equivalent 50, because half the amount would be equal to the typical food; but if it possessed half the amount of nitrogen, its equivalent would be 200, as it would take twice as much food to contain the amount of the typical food. FOOD 99 Hay is taken as the standard of comparison, and the following table by Boussingault gives the relative values of the ditlerent articles of food in comparison with hay: — Hay ... 100 liirley ... 48 Lucerne Ha\- ... 90 Maize 45 Trefoil 95 Bran ... 60 to 150 Lucerne Green ... 4-20 Linseed ... 30 Trefoil Green ... 420 Linseed Cake ... 25 Oat Straw ... ... 280 Peas ... ... 40 Barley Straw ... 350 Beans ... 40 Oats ... 60 Carrots .. 290 Wheat 45 In reading the table, the nuniliers must be taken to indicate the numl)er of parts of each article which will represent the 100 parts of hay, i.e. 45 parts of wheat, 30 of linseed, 350 of barley straw, and so forth, are equivalent to 100 parts of hay. However interesting this information may be, its true value can only be realized by taking it in connection with the fact that the animal's temperament and digestive capacity have a dominant concern in the appropriation of the different articles of diet. It is quite conceivable that the table might be found absolutely correct for a certain number of horses, while in an equal or possibly greater number of animals of different constitution, and under difierent circumstances, the nutritive equivalents given would have to be considerably modified. All the elaborate experiments which have been performed by a large number of investigators have been mainly directed to the important object of discovering the influence of different foods in j^roducing heat and force, or working power. The amount of heat evolved from the oxidation of certain foods is readily converted into its equivalent of mechanical energy. It was found by Frankland that when a dried food mixed with a powerful oxidiz- ing substance, such as chlorate of potash, was placed in an apparatus sur- rounded with water, and burned, the heat developed raised the temperature of the water. 1 gramme (15'432 grains) when raised 1° C. (l"8° Fahr.) is called a heat unit. 1 lb. of albumen when oxidized raises the temperature of 4263 lb. of water 1*8° (Fahr.), while 1 lb. of fat raises the temperature of 9069 lb. of water to the same extent (r8° Fahr.). Joule of Manchester demonstrated that the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water 1° (Fahr.) was equivalent to the power rec^uired to raise the weight of 1 lb. 772 feet high. The foot-pound is, therefore, the unit of work, and 772 ft.-pounds is the mechanical equivalent of 1° (Fahr.). Knowing the number of heat units each substance is capable of producing, its potential or mechanical value may be calculated; and the author of Veter'inary Hygiene suggests that the most simple way of doing this is to multiply 100 HEALTH AND DISEASE the actual amount of food digested by certain numbers which represent the comparative heat-forming value of fat, albumen, and starch. The co-efficients are: fat 100, albumen 47'4, starch 43-1; and he gives the following example in answer to the (juestinn : " What is the com- parative heat-forming value of the following foods?" 1st Food Albuminoids -.568 X 47-4 = 27 Fats -045 X 100 = 4-5 Carbohydrates ... Cellulose 2-574) 1-330/ 2nd Food ^ 431 = 168-2 199-7 Albuminoids 104 X 47-4 = 49-3 Fats -468 X 100 = 46-8 Carbohydrates ... Cellulose 4-30 1 -22 J X 431 = 194-8 290-9 This second food is obviously about one and a half times as heat- producing and work-producing as the first food; the two foods together represent the typical average food of a horse, the first being equivalent to the 12 lb. of hay, the second to the 10 lb. of oats. To find out the number of foot-tons produced by this diet, it is nece,s.sary to go back to Frankland's table, and, having found the number of heat units for the article of diet in question in albumen, fat, starch, or sugar, deduct four- fifths, as not more than one-fifth of the whole potential energy of the food will be converted into work. Thus the typical diet of 12 lb. of hay and 10 lb. of oats will have their potential and actual energy expressed as follows : — Deducting four-fifths from the total potential energy leaves 2093 foot-tons for external work. Ft. -tons of 12 lb. of Hay. Lb. Potential Enerijy. Albuminoids -568 = 1,.572 Fats ■045 = 272 Carbohydrates 2-574~l . 1-330/ = 8,620 Cellulose ro74G4 Ft.-tons of 10 lb. of Oats. Lb. Potential Energy. Albuminoids . 1-04 = 2,879 Fats -468 = 2,830 Carbohydrates Cellulose . 4-30 \ •22 / = 9,980 1.5,GS9 Deducting four-fifths from the total potential energy leaves 3138 foot-tons for external work. FOOD 101 Colonel Fred. Smith states that from some careful experiments of his own he found that horses might be kept in jjerfect health without loss of body weight on 12 lb. of hay per diem, of which not more than about one-half was digested and assimilated by the system. Assuming that nearly 5 lb. of assimilated food possesses the same digestive co-eflicients as those of the 12 lb. of hay given in the table marked "First Food", the horses received: Lb. Alliuminoids ... ... ... '656^ Fat -lOoL, Carl-ohydrates 2.„ J The potential energy being Cellulose 1-330 eq"^! to 11,041 fooUons. Salt -150; 4-810 Presumably the animal referred to as having been kept in health without loss of weight on 12 11). per day did very little, if any, work, but the writer does not give any information on this point. He, how- ever, remarks that it is difficult to fix the number of foot-tons of daily work wdiich can be performed by a horse without loss of condition and weight, but he adds there are many circum.stances which lead him to believe that 3000 foot-tons per day is the quantity. FOOD AS A CAUSE OF DISEASE Very little reflection is required to make it jierfectly evident that good food of unexceptionable quality and free from any contamination with objectionable substances may, nevertheless, induce disea.se, as the consequence of variations in quantity and character. Dr. Parkes remarks that so great is the influence of food on health that the diseases connected with food are probably the most numerous of anv which proceed from a single cla.ss of cau.ses. Excess of Food. — When more food is introduced into the stomach than can be readily digested, the ordinary action of the gastric fluids is checked, and chemical changes, including fermentation, advancing to putrefaction, result. This final change is more likely to occur among flesh-feeding animals than among those which live on grain or herbage. A vegetable food is also of course capable of undergoing decomposition and producing considerable derangement in the alimentary canal. In cases where any of the products of decompo.sition are absorbed into the ])lood, signs of blood-poisoning may result, with a po.ssibility of a fatal termi- nation. Short of this, however, excess of food may only 2Ji'oduce more 102 HEALTH AND DISEASE or less serious indigestion, ending in recovery under appropriate treat- ment. But the habitual consumption of excessive quantities of food, by horses which are thrown out of work without having the quantity of diet materially reduced, will result in the deposit of large quantities of fat in and upon various organs of the body, some of it on the surface of the heart, in the cellular structure of the liver, and in other organs. In the first instance fatty material may be merely laid up as a deposit in the texture of an organ, or the cells and fibres composing it may undergo complete degeneration, by which its natural structure is con- verted into particles of fat. Insufficient food, on the other hand, produces extreme debility, and predisposes an animal to many diseases. If the deficiency is chiefly in regard to nitrogenous materials, the muscular structures suffer most, and fatal results may follow. This is e.specially the case when a horse is compelled, notwithstanding the in- sufficiency of food, to continue its ordinary work. Quality of food has also a considerable influence on nutrition, and foods grown on certain soils are known to be extremely poor in this respect. Where food of inferior quality is supplied on the assumption that it is of good quality, the nutrition of the liody will fail to V)e sus- tained, and wasting results. On certain soils the herbage produced, and even the hay made from it, exercise an injurious influence on the animals which partake of it; at the same time it may not be possible to decide what changes have occurred to render the food deleterious. The scour- ino- lands of central Somerset are a case in point, and although investi- gations have been made repeatedly, including analyses of the soil, herbage, and water, the cause of the disease which attacks animals feeding on the pastures has never yet been accurately determined. There are many cases in which there is no doubt at all of the fact that weakness results from a diseased condition of the food. It is gener- ally understood that plants suffer from a large number of diseases, many of them being easily recognized, but there is every reason to believe that there are others the exact nature of which has not been determined. Among the diseases which are known, those depending upon animal or vegetable parasites are most marked in their character. Plants are attacked by numerous fungi or moulds, which are not only injurious to the plant, but in many cases to the animals which partake of them. Mouldy hay, for example, produces derangement of the digestive organs. Ergotized grain, taken in large quantities, has an extraordinary action upon the animals which consume it, including nervous derangement, associated with mortification of the lower extremities, and occasionally FOOD 103 sloughing of the oxtiemitics about the region of the fetlocks. A curious fungus, which is known as actinomyces, or rayed fungus (fig. 477), attacks certain grains and grasses, especially in river valleys, which, on being consumed, sets up centres of disease in different parts of the animals which feed on the infested plants. Sometimes it gets an entrance to the alveolar cavities by the side of a loose or decayed tooth, penetrating into the sinuses of the head and the cellular structure of the bones, causing enormous swellings, giving rise to the disease which is known in America as " Lumpy jaw". In other situations it causes large tumours in the neighbourhood of the throat, in the stomach, , and also in the intestines. Besides the vegetable parasitic fungi which attack food plants there are numerous animal parasites, and animals supplied with food so attacked suffer in various ways; in the first place from the damage done to the fodder by the ravages of the parasites, and in the second place from the direct attack of the jDarasites themselves, some of which produce irritation of the skin. An unfortu- nate circumstance connected with the effects of damaged food invaded by animal or vege- table parasites is the difHculty of connecting the disease of the animal with the disease of the plant. The tendency undoubtedly is to exonerate the food from suspicion, even to ignore it altogether as a possible cause of disease, until a considerable fatality has forced the owner to conclude that some common cause must be at work to produce it, and even then it frequently occurs that the investigation which is made is directed into the wrong channel by the history of the case which is presented to the investigator, who is very likely to be informed that exactly the same articles of food have been, and are still being, supplied to other animals on the same premises, which have not suffered in consequence. This is a source of error which is particularly likely to occur when the food which is suspected is some kind of cake. It is quite possible that a cake contaminated with mould may be part of a lot which was supplied at the same time as the cake on which other animals are feeding with impunity, and that the animals which are poisoned arc the only ones which have eaten the fungus -in- fected food. The investigator, therefore, should not be satisfied until Fig. 47 3 -t -Actinomyces Bovis 1, The fungus on cow's tongue ; 2, Cell or group of cells with actinomyces ; 3, Clubbed filaments and centre filaments of the fungus; 4, Filaments from the centre enlarged. 104 HEALTH AND DISEASE he has made an exhaustive enquiry into the origin and quality of the food which has been supplied, and the particular animals which have suffered in consequence. Some plants have distinctly poisonous qualities, e.g. the yew, horse- chestnuts, the Colchicum autumnale, acorns, and potatoes in the raw state (see " Poisoning "). It is a curious circumstance that some of these poisonous plants may be eaten for a consideral)le time with perfect impunity. The yew, for example, only manifests its poisonous quality on certain occasions, and the same thing is true of potatoes, the poison of which seems to lie chietl}' in the skin, and horses which have consumed large quantities of them uncooked have died rapidly with symptoms of poisoning. Potatoes, or potato skins, however, appear to be perfectly harmless when boiled. Some foods become injurious in consequence of defective modes of pre- paration; for example, hay which has been highly dried or burnt in the making. Foxy oats, so called on account of the red colour which they assume as the result of having been exposed to moisture and subsequently dried in kilns, assume a decidedly poisonous character, acting chiefly on the kidneys. Numerous cases of the poisoning of cattle have been traced to the consumption of large quantities of frozen turnips. Of the rapidly poisonous action of the yew under certain circum- stances there is no doubt. Many instances have occurred where yew clippings have been thrown over a fence, and a considerable number of animals which had partaken of it have been found dead, or seen to be in a dying state, with the symptoms of narcotic poisoning. Yet horses have been known to graze for years in pastures the hedges of which were mainly composed of yew, and nothing has happened; when sud- denly the introduction of one or two strange animals has been followed by the death of them from eating a small quantity of yew. Perhaps in the majority of cases the animals which remain unaffected in the pastures do not eat the yew at all, and it is certainly the case that in experiments which have been made, some of them lately, the greatest difficulty has been met with in persuading the horses to eat the yew which was supplied to them, and it was always necessary to keep them without other food for a considerable time. In some experiments which were performed a few years ago a sheep, after being kept without food for two or three days, ate, in the course of twenty-four hours, 14 oz. of the dried leaves of the yew, and two days later it ate 6 oz., yet no effect was ol)served. A yearling heifer ate in twenty-four hours 2 lb. 6 oz. of half-dried leaves and twigs without effect. Three calves, about seven months old, consumed in two hours 3 lb. G oz. of half-dried leaves and FOOD 105 twigs without eti'ect. Tiiree days later the same calves ate 10 oz. in two hours, and two days afterwards one of the calves was noticed to be ill, and in half an hour it died. A donkey ate in twenty-four hours 5^ oz. of half-dried leaves without effect, and two guinea-pigs consumed 1^ oz. of dried leaves in seventy - two hours without suffering any inconve- nience. In another instance experiments were tried witli tlic yew leaves, some of which had been eaten by a valuable filly on the first night of entering the pasture, and which was found dead on the follow- ing morning. Some of the leaves from the plant of which tlie iilly partook were given to three guinea - pigs, mixed with bran and oats. Ten days afterwards, the feeding being continued during the whole time, one of the guinea-pigs died. On the following day a second one died, and four days after, the third guinea-pig died. On post-mortem exami- nation it was found that the stomach in each case was perfectly empty, the lining membrane of the intestines much congested, and the tube was filled with well-digested leaves of yew. Two sheep and a horse were hurdled on the same pasture and supplied with the yew leaves, but they steadily refused to touch them. The horse was subsequently placed in his stable and a quantity of yew leaves, finely chopiied, were mixed with the ordinary food and placed in the animal's manger, where it re- mained for the whole of the day without being eaten. On the follow- ing morning, however, the animal was found dead, and its manger was empty. It would appear in this case that the particular plant, the eating of which led to the death of the valuable filly, did possess actively poisonous qualities, at least for horses and guinea-pigs. The sheejj which were made the subject of the experiment escaped by refusing to eat the plant. Acorns are well known to be a useful article of diet under ordinary circumstances, and in places where they are abundant. On common lands they are carefully collected and sold by the collectors as food for horses, cattle, and sheep. Pigs thrive upon them, and the passage rights in forests where oak - trees are abundant are valued on account of the opportunities which the owners of jiigs have to turn them into the forest when the acorns are falling. Sheep and cattle also take acorns freely, usually, if not invariably, when )nixed with other food; but several serious outbreaks of acorn poisoning from time to time have occurred, attended with fatal results, when, owing to a long drought, the herbage has been extremely scanty, and the animals have, therefore, been in- duced to live on the acorns almost exclusively. The disease from which the cattle have suffered is not in any way due to the indigestible character of the food. Occasionally, in seasons when acorns are very 106 HEALTH AND DISEASE abundant, cattle and sheep, and even pigs, have suffered from a too free indulo-ence of a favourite food, and some of the animals have died from the impactment of quantities of the nuts in different parts of the diges- tive system; but this is not what is intended by the term acorn poison- ing. On the contrary, in the true disease the most marked symptoms are not present until a considerable time after the acorns have been digested, and no trace of them is to be found on post-mortem exami- nation. Of course this fact might be interpreted to mean that the animals have not died from the consumption of acorns, but the evidence is too clear to admit of any question. In 1868, when the malady was first recognized, a large herd of cattle, which were feeding in a park where acorns were very abundant and pasture very scanty, became affected, while other cattle on the same estate, sepa- rated from the diseased ones only by an iron fence, which shut them off from the acorns, remained perfectly well. Tlie symptoms were not at all violent in their character. In the first instance, after a week or ten days' feeding on the acorns, instead of improving in condition, the animals began to waste, and presented a remarkably listless and dull appearance. The appetite in the worst cases was entirely lost, and it was remarked that when the disease got to that stage the animal never recovered, but lingered on for some time, and was ultimately found dead on the pasture. Careful analyses were made, but no special organic poison was dis- covered— nothing, in short, which could be suggested as a possible cause of injury except tannic and gallic acids. It may be observed in this connection that the detection of an organic poison is extremely difficult ; in fact, the ftiilure of discovery is by no means evidence that it does not exist. Since 1868 several similar outbreaks have occurred, usually under the same conditions, i.e. a hot, dry summer, deficiency of grass, and the prevalence of high winds in the autumn, causing the fall of a quantity of acorns before they are perfectly ripe. On the other hand, these climatic influences have prevailed in many years when no outbreak of acorn-poisoning has occurred. SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FOOD Generally the horse-owner is content to leave the selection and prepara- tion of the horses' food to his coachman or groom, leaving them to arrange with the dealers as to the quality of the oats, hay, and other articles of fodder which will be supplied. This system has the advantage of saving a good deal of trouble, and in small establishments it would not lie possible to appoint a responsible FOOD 107 portjoii to exiimiiie samples of provender Ijcfore tlie purchase is made, and to see tliat the l)ulk corresponds with the sample. But the owner would very often find it economical, as well as advantageous to his animals, to examine the samples himself, and to see from time to time if the tjuality is maintained. It is true that this presuppo.ses a certain amount of know- ledge which the owner may not possess, but it is certain, on the other hand, that a good many who do possess the necessary knowledge do not take the trouble to apply it to a useful purpose. "^iThe ordinary articles of food of the horse are oats, bran, and hay, straw beiiig employed oidy in admixture with the hay to form chaff. Oats are placed first, as the most important, and there is no article of provender which differs more in quality. Between the best and the worst it is nof^ difficult for even a tyro to distinguish.. Anyone can recognize Ijright, plump grains, having a sweet odour, containing no shrunken or broken grains, free from dust and other foreign matter, firm to the touch and also to the pressure of the teeth, and weighing not less than 40 lb. a bushel. It is also an important character of a good sample of oats that the grain must vary very little in size. In judging a sample, the observer has to note particularly that the oats have not been artificially dried by heat after thev have become damaged by water. Dark-coloured oats, and those which have a peculiar odour, are always open to suspicion. At the present time, however, the methods of preparation to disguise the colour, as well as the taste and smell, of kiln-dried oats are so skilfully applied that damaged oats may very frecpiently pass muster, unless the observer has the skill which is only to be acquired by practice. In some private stables it is customary to give a feed of oats entirely unmixed; but there are certain disadvantages attending this procedure. Horses are disposed to swallow rapidly or bolt oats which are given alone, and the quantity ordinarily given would be insufficient in itself to satisfy the appetite of a hungry animal. A similar quantity, 5 peck of good chaff and a handful or two of bran, combined with the feed of oats, will force the animal to masticate the mixture and avoid waste. Crushing oats is undoubtedly a useful mode of preparation, and certainly facilitates digestion, and especially in the case of ravenous feeders which " bolt " their food without sufficient mastication. Although oats constitute the staple food of a horse, other grains are occasionally given. Barley is very rarely employed as food for horses, and it is admitted, by those who are disposed to favour its use in mixture with other food, that it should be boiled previously to being given. Brewers' grains are also occasionally used for horse food in moderate quantities. They are the refuse of malted barley left after the brewing of beer. 108 HEALTH AND DISEASE Grains and malt sprouts — the latter containing nearly six times more nitrogenous matter than exists in the grains themselves — are exceed- ingly useful for horses when given in small quantities mixed with other food. They constitute a grateful change and stimulate the ajopetite of delicate feeders; and as they contain a considerable quantity of carbo- hydrates, besides some fatty matter, they are likely to prove beneficial to horses in poor condition, whether in consequence of excessive work or from an attack of a debilitating disease. Dried grains have recently come into use, and they, as a matter of course, having got rid of a large proportion of the water, of which between 70 and 80 per cent exists in the grain, may be looked upon as a somewhat concentrated food. Maize. — When first introduced into this country it was used somewhat extensively by omnibus companies and in other large horse establishments, on account of its low price in comparison with that of oats, for which it was substituted. By the Paris Omnibus Company it is reported to have been found to be equal in digestibility to an equivalent quantity of oats. Experi- ments made in the army, as recorded by Colonel F. Smith, were not altogether favourable, as it appeared that in whatever proportion it was .substituted for oats, there was a diminution in muscle and energy. Five thousand two hundred army horses were fed, in Austria, partly on maize for six months, and it is stated that, although they imjjroved as regards their coats, they lost energy and sweated profusely at work. It is said to be largely used in America and South Africa for feeding purposes, and it ■does not appear that in those countries the objections which have been raised to its use as a substitute for oats exist, at least they have not been mentioned. Maize contains less nitrogenous matter than oats, but it is extremely rich in fat and also in salts. It is difiicult to masticate on account of its extreme hardness, and it is, therefore, absolutely essential that it should be submitted to some sort of preparation before being used, even if it is intended to be mixed with other food. The difficulty of mastication is, to some extent, disposed of by crushing. This process is certainly indispens- able. Without it it is hardly possible that maize could be digested, even by ruminating animals. An opportunity occurred lately of noting the con- dition of this grain in the digestive organs of some deer, which were fed on mixed food in addition to the grass which they consumed. The mixture •consisted of chaff, with chopped roots and maize uncrushed. A considerable number of the animals died durino- the season, after wasting. There was no reason, however, to suspect that they had suff"ered from indigestion ; in fact, it was ascertained that they died from parasitic disease ; but it was noticed that tlie maize, even in the fourth stomach, had escaped the action of the FOOD 10i> digestive fluid, as well as the action of the teeth, and remained as perfectly intact as though it liad been brought from the store, instead of being taken from the stomach. In fact, a portion of it, after being washed and dried, presented quite tlie ordinary appearance. The test may be taken as a crucial one, as the grain had been macerated in the first compartment of the deer's stomach, re- masticated during the process of rumination, passed through two other compartments of the stomach, and finally, in the fourth compartment, had been subjected to the action of the gastric juice. Wheat appears to be a fa\ouritc article of diet with horses, and it is stated that they will, if allowed, gorge themselves with it, with serious consequences. Colic, tympany, and other ailments are the result of taking too large quantities. It has also been accused of being the cause of laminitis, or fever in the feet of the horse. Recently experiments by Dr. Voelcker have shown that, at its present price, it may be used with economy for feeding sheep. Bran is constantly used in horse provender in mixture with oats and chaft". It is extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, and contains also a con- siderable quantity of carbohydrates and fatty matter. Formerly it was used as a food for horses in some parts of the country much more extensively than it is at present. It is stated that, as an exclusive food for horses, it is absolutely useless; but the writer remembers one establishment where all the cart-horses were fed upon bran alone, of course in unlimited quantity. The animals were all of them fat, and had remarkably glossy coats. Whether or not they would have borne an average amount of work cannot be stated, as tlie owner of the horses was a conspicuous member of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and took great pride in treating his horses with the greatest consideration. They were never consequently called upon to do any hard work, but of the fixct that they lived exclusively upon bran and looked remarkably well there is no doul)t. For practical purposes, bran can only be used with advantage to a limited extent in mixture with other food, as has already been pointed out. It is largely used in the sick stable in the form of mash, which is made by pouring over it a small quantity of boiling water, and allowing it to remain until it is cool. It is also the custom in many stables to give horses a bran mash once or twice a week, and the practice has very much to recommend it. It has already been suggested that a handful or two mixed with the regular rations has the effect of inducing an animal to masticate the whole of the food with which it is mixed, and is, therefore, particularly desirable as an adjunct to the rations of the horses which are known as gross feeders. If the digestive organs of grain- and herb-feeding 110 HEALTH AND DISEASE animals were adapted for the digestion of bran, it would be a most valuable article of diet for horses, as the followiusr table will indicate: — Analysis of Bran. Payen. Millon. Kiihn. Grandeau. Waringtnn. Wolfif. Water 13-90 13-90 13-40 12-80 14-0 13-6 Nitrogenous matter ... 18-77 14-90 14-00 13-82 14-2 13-6 Fatty matter ... 4-00 3-60 3-80 3-59 4-2 3-4 Carbohydrates 48-26 51-00 45 00 55-91 50-4 54-9 Cellulose 8-78 10-49 18-30 8-65 11-1 8-9 Salts 6-29 5-70 6-19 5-23 6-1 5-6 It will be seen that the results of analyses by different authorities are given, showing certain variations in the amount of nitrogenous matter, cellulose, and carbohydrates, but they all agree sufficiently to show that bran, chemically speaking, contains all the requisites for nutrition. The nitrogenous ratio varies from 1:2-8 to 1:4-3. Among the total salts are represented potash, soda, magnesia, lime, phosphoric acid, and silica. Hay. — Although the term hay has a general signification as being grass which has undergone the process of drying, it really includes several varieties of fodder which have different degrees of feeding value. The best hay, it is allowed, is that which is grown in the uplands. There is, besides, the ordinary meadow hay, and the hay from water meadows, and there is also hay which is made from various artificial grasses, such as the different varieties of clovers, vetches, lucerne, and sain- foin, all of which have a highly nutritive value. Different specimens of hay vary considerably in their nutritive value, according to the character of the soil in which the crop is grown, the time of mowing, and the care which is taken in making it. It is hardly neces- sary to add that a very great deal depends upon the state of the weather during haymaking time. Hay of good quality should not be less than one year old, should retain some of its greenish tint and be perfectly sweet in smell. The slightest trace of mouldy odour should lead to its rejection. Burned hay has a dark colour, powerful odour, and pungent taste, rather suggestive of tobacco, and, as a rule, horses, unless forced by hunger, object to eat it. It is said, however, that some horses will eat burned hay, when it is not too much damaged, with avidity, for a time, and after a while reject it. It is, however, always injurious to the animals which partake of it for any length of time, causing excessive thirst and serious loss of FOOL) condition. The following table shows the constituents of liay acconliii< to the different authorities named: — 1 American Farming. 3> q Sanson. S, Garola. Wolff. u s Full After Before M o > Bloom. Bloom. Bloom. Albuminoids 7-20 8-50 1011 8-40 9-5 9-88 8-63 9-44 11-63 Carbohydrates 44-20 38-30 40-90 4100 41-7 48-09 3611 41-40 36-01 Lignin and Cellulose •24-20 29-30 2.5-.52 26-80 •28-7 31-80 31-21 24-18 20-10 Fat 3 80 3-00 2-34 2-90 2-6 2-99 4-22 4-55 4-31 Salts 7-60 6-02 6-54 6-70 5-8 7-24 4-66 619 5-30 Water 13 00 14-30 14-59 14-20 14-3 14-30 7-45 7-13 7-79 Hay whicli is made from artificial grasses may be looked upon a.s an altogether more concentrated food than any kind of meadow hay, as the following; table will indicate : — ^ S s > •o 3 3 s 1 1 o s s p c £ cr ^3 «2 S8 :s3 S Si M 1 do Eh B. C .5 2 Water 80-4 80-5 81-5 80-0 74-0 81-4 82-0 48-7 Proteids 3 0 3-5 2-7 3-5 4-5 4-2 3-5 5-3 Carbohydrates 8-9 7-2 7-3 8-2 9-2 7-3 6-6 18-1 Fat 0-6 0-8 0-7 0-8 0-8 0-7 0-6 1-1 Cellulose 5-8 6-0 6-2 6 0 9-5 5-2 5-5 24-0 Salts 1-3 2-0 1-6 1-5 2 0 1-2 1-8 2-8 Water ... Albuminoids . Carbohydrates Fat Cellulose Salts ... 16-7 13-4 29-9 3-2 35-8 6-2 16-7 14-9 34-3 3-5 25-6 8-5 mO 16-7 15-3 29-2 3-3 30-5 8-3 16-7 12-2 30-1 3-0 33-8 7-2 16-7 14-6 36-5 3-3 26-2 6-0 16-7 14-2 35-3 2-5 25-5 8-3 16-7 19-7 32-9 3-3 22-0 8-7 14-2 14-8 35-7 3-3 26-4 6-2 The second table .shows the composition of hay made from various artificial grasses; the high proportion of albuminoids brings their nutritive value nearly up to that of oats. All the artificial kinds of hay, therefore, require care in their use. Various disturbances of the digestive sy.stem are 112 HEALTH AND DISEASE attributed to exce.ssive indulgence in them. In its ordinary use as fodder, hay is given both long and chaffed. It has already ])een stated that hay, when used as chaff, is mixed with sweet straw, as a rule, but chaff of good quality should have at least a double j^i'oportion of hay to straw, and hay is sometimes passed through the chaff machine and used alone. Long hay is placed in the rack which is generally above the horse's head, and it may be looked upon as absolutely essential for animals which stand much in the stable, not only on account of its nutritive value, but for the further reason that it gives them a certain amount of occupation during a portion of the day which, in the absence of the rack food, the animal would probably occupy in consuming the bedding. Straw. — For the purpose of feeding cattle, straw may be looked upon as a staple article of diet. It is also eaten in considerable quantities by horses which are turned into the straw-yard, and al-so by others in the stables, where they occupy some of their idle time in eating the straw which is used for litter. Indeed, it is often found necessary to apply the muzzle in order to prevent the indulgence of this somewhat dangerous habit. The principal and most profitable use of straw is when it is converted into chaff along with hay; there is no doubt that it very much assists in the jjrepara- tion of food by comj^elling the animal to masticate it thoroughly. The following table shows the composition of different kinds of straw, of which wheat and oat straw ai-e considered the best as food for horses: — Wheat. 13-55 Oat. 13-63 Pea. 14-28 Bean. Water 17-28 Proteids 3-03 4-55 7-56 12-01 Fat, 1-10 1-64 2-17 1-31 Carbohydrates 40-90 36-95 29-39 31-80 Cellulose 37-48 37-97 42-47 30-67 Salts 3-94 5-26 4-13 6-39 It may be remarked here that barley straw is generally considered to be very indigestible, and quite unfit for food for horses. Pea and bean straw may be placed in the same category It is true that they contain a large quantity of nitrogenous matter, and according to the analyses they would be estimated as possessing a high feeding value, but they contain a large quantity of woody fibre, which renders them indigestible, and, excepting in emergencies, they .should be excluded from the diet of the horse. ^^Peas, beans, and lentils are very useful articles of food of the concentrated order, containing a very large proportion of nitrogenous FOOD PLANTS— II 1. Clover ( Trifolium pratense). 2. Grey Pea (Pimm arvense). 3. Vetch (Vicia sattva). 4. Horse Bean ( Vicia /aia). 5. Bean Pod closed. 6. Bean Pod open. FOOD 113 uuitter. The following tables show the constituents of peas, lentils, vetches, and beans from the analyses naade by different authorities: — Peas. Gram. Water 14-4 10-80 Proteitls 22-6 19-32 Fat 1-9 4-56 Carbohydrates 530 \ 5-4 J 62-^0 Cellulose Salts 2-7 312 Pigeon Pea. Common Pea. Lentils. Vetches. Water Nitrogenous matter ... Fatty matter Carbohydrates Salts 10-77 20-19 1-32 64-32 3-40 12-70 25-20 1-10 58-38 2-53 12-70 24-57 1-01 59-43 2-29 10-10 31-50 ■95 54-26 3-19 Beans. Bhoot. Oorud. Moong. Mote. Cooltee. Water 14-4 8-12 11-0 9-20 11-22 11-30 Proteids 25-0 40-63 22-48 24-70 23-80 23-47 Fat 1-6 17-71 1-46 1-48 0-64 0-87 Carbohydrates 55-8 29-54 62-15 60-36 60-78 61-02 Salts 3-2 4-00 2-91 3-26 3-56 3-34 On account of the large quantity of nitrogenous matter which peas and beans contain, they are used for animals which are required to undergo severe exertion, and then they are only given in moderate quantities of 3 or 4 lb. daily. ; In selecting them, it is highly important to notice that they are perfectly sound, quite free from any trace of mould or unpleasant odour. It is not uncommonly the case that a hunter, after a lowg run, will have a handful or two of beans put into his food on his return to the stable, under the impression that this will help to restore his exhausted energies. It would be impossible to commit a greater dietetic blunder. Immediately after excessive or prolonged exertion, the digestive powers, in common with the other organic functions, are enfeebled and therefore incapaljle of appropriating food which is from its mechanical condition ditticult of digestion. A very moderate diet of good gruel or a small quantity of crushed oats with chaff and bran, the gruel by preference, is 114 HEALTH AND DISEASE iill that the animal's system is capable of taking with advantage. Beans and peas will be useful later on, when tlie animal has recovered from its exhaustion. iBeans and peas, which would seldom be given until they are at least a year oIcT^nd, therefore, make a very decided call upon the energy of the masticatoTy organs, are likely, to some extent at least, to escape even from the powerful grinders of the horse, jl They should consequently always be crushed and given mixed with the ordinary rations -in the quantities previously mentioned. Linseed. — Excepting for sick horses, or animals ni poor condition, linseed is not employed as an article of diet. Its occasional use in the form of linseed mash is a favourite device of the stableman for improving the appearance of an animal's coat. When given for the purpose of restoring lost condition it will be mixed with other food to the extent of about 1 lb. per day. Linseed is always ground, soaked, and boiled before being mixed with other food. The best plan is to boil it for a short time, as in making linseed tea, and when cold to mix it with bran or other articles of food. Linseed cake and the meal into which it is ground are sometimes used for sick and tired horses, either made into gruel or sprinkled over the food. It is obtained by crushing the seed and removing a large proportion of the oil for manufacturing purposes. It is consequently relatively richer in nitrogenous matter than are the seeds from which it is derived, as the two following tables will show. Linseed yields the following analysis: — Water ... Proteids Fat Carbohydrates Cellulose Salts 12-3 20-5 37 0 19-6 7-2 3-4 t. T3 "" Linseed Cake. c 8 6a Rape Cake. "3 S "A a . s -^ "Til" Cake. Water ... 10-29 11-8 10-6 8-9 10-4 10-2 9-8 11-1 Proteids 28-59 28-7 24-7 43-6 30-7 161 31-0 37-2 Fat 12-66 10-7 6-6 14-9 9-8 9-5 8-9 12-8 Carbohydrates 34-85 32-1 26-0 19-7 30-1 41-9 20-7 20-5 Cellulose 8-07 9-4 24-9 5-7 11-3 18-3 22-7 7-5 Salts 5-54 7-3 7-2 7-2 7-7 4-0 6-9 10-9 FOOD 115 In ict'eieuee to linseed cakes, it nuiy be lemtirkcd that the purchaser should carefully guard himself against the great risk of adulteration. Feeding cakes are of such great value to the agriculturist that the object of supplying them at a price which will attract custom could only be gained in a remunerative manner by adding to the genuine article a con- sideral)le proportion of useless material; and what is much worse, it has occasionally happened, whether accidentally or not can hardly be deter- mined, that castor-oil beans, mustard seeds, and other highly objectionable and sometimes poisonous substances have been discovered on analysis. Roots. — Mangels, swedes, turnips, and carrots, and also potatoes, which may be placed in the same group for convenience, are extremely useful articles for admixture with other articles of food, and they afford an opportunity of varying the diet from time to time. It has already been remarked that raw potatoes in certain conditions are poisonous, and especially is this the case in regard to the skins; consequently potatoes, when used for horse food, should always be boiled. The same precaution should also be taken when swedes are used. Mangels some- times are used for horse food, and carrots are extremely valuable and are also very favourite articles of food with horses. In consequence of the exceeding fondness of horses for carrots, even in their dirty condition, it is desirable that they should be washed. Usually they are given whole, a few being thrown into the animal's manger. Now and then a case of choking has resulted from a horse swallowing large portions too greedily. To avoid this it is suggested that the carrots should be either sliced or grated; the latter process, however, is far too troublesome to be generally adopted, and in regard to slicing, unless it is very carefully done, some irregularly shaped pieces may escape the teeth and become impacted in the oesophagus. Ensilage. — Some years ago the question of the preservation of green crops in pits or silos attracted an extraordinary amount of attention, and a commission was appointed, in which the present writer was concerned, to consider the question. The advantages which were most obvious in this method of dealing with grass and other crops which might be too poor to be worth harvesting in the ordinary way, were the indepen- dence of weather, increased facilities for storing in wet seasons, and the greater portability of the food obtained, as, under the effects of the pressure employed, a cubic foot of grass might be made to represent nearly the weight of an ordinary truss of hay. The method of preparation is extremely simple, although in the first instance a large amount of capital was expended in the construction of model receptacles, or silos of wood or bricks, either sunk into the ground 116 HEALTH AND DISEASE or raised above it. Later on it was ascertained that very excellent results could be secured by merely cutting the green crop irrespective of the weather and stacking it in the ordinary way. It was found advisable to have large stacks in order to ensure sufficient pressure, and it was necessary also to cover the top of the stack with planks, close together, and to place on the planks any available heavy articles, pieces of machinery, large blocks of stone, and, in fact, any articles which might be encumbering the farm premises uselessly. The added weight, however, to the top of the ensilage stack, whatever might be its amount, did not appear to affect the density of the mass more than 4 or 5 feet down, and some very fair stacks of silage were made without any added pressure at all; but there is no doubt of the advantage of pressure in preventing mould at the upper part of the stack. It was calculated during the enquiry that the process of preserving green crops in this way, in the silo and by stacking under pressure, was extremely economical. It was found that grass preserved in this way yielded about five times the weight of the same grass made into hay. The other crojjs which were used for preservation by converting them into silage were rye, oats, millet, maize, barley, and sometimes wheat. And if these crops were in condition for cutting before the middle of June, before the seeds began to get hard, the land would be cleared in time for a second sowing. Silage was intended to be used chiefly for cattle, but in reference to its use for horses also the commissioners reported as follows: — " Strong as the evidence has been of the advantage of ensilage for keeping all stock in healthy condition, farm horses have by no means been excepted. We have received highly satisfactory accounts from several quarters of the health of working teams when given a limited proportion of silage, mixed with food. Among the plans of silos which have been submitted to us, those which consist of external walls, either above or below ground, whether of concrete or of stone, brick or clay lump cemented within, appear to be the most efficient; but in all cases, the absence of air depends upon two conditions: first upon its expulsion from the mass of forage ensiled, and, secondly, upon its exclusion when this is covered. Whatever may be put into a silo, it should be thoroughly well trodden in, and rammed down at the edges into a compact mass; with this object the advantage of rounding off the corners has been impressed upon us by some witnesses. To ensure the exclusion of the outer air it has been fdund useful to cover the mass with close-fitting boarded lids or shutters in one or more divisions, with a layer of bran, saw-dust, or earth above them. Weights being required above this layer, to keep the mass compact, may be applied either in the form of any convenient dead-weight. FOOD 117 such as bricks, boxes or baskets of stones, or of mechanical pressure exercised by means of various systems of chains, screws, or levers. Instances are known of silos being successfully weighted without the use of boards, by simply covering the ensiled material with rushes, ferns, or other waste substances, and above these with dry earth or sand to the depth of 9 inches or a foot. " As in the case of all important innovations, it is not surprising that the introduction of the system of ensilage into this country has been met by a considerable amount of prejudice and incredulity. During the progress of our enquir}- we have endeavoured amply to discount all exaggerated estimates of its merits. After summing up the mass of evidence which has reached us, we can without hesitation affirm that it has been abundantly and conclusively proved to our satisfaction that this system of preserving green fodder crops promises great advantages to the practical farmer, and if carried out with a reasonable amount of care and efficiency should not only provide him with the means of ensuring liimself to a great extent against unfavourable seasons, and of materially improving the quantity and quality of his dairy produce, but should also enable him to increase appreciably the number of live stock that can be profitably kept upon any given acreage, whether of pasture or arable land, and propor- tionately the amount of manure available to fertilize it." Two kinds of ensilage are recognized: sweet and sour, but the sour silage is most commonly in use. This is made by filling the silo as quickly as possible, or stacking the grass as the case may be, and putting weights on the top in order to check the rise of temperature which always occurs when the silage stack is made slowly, and results in the formation of sweet silage. In reference to the changes which grass undergoes during the process of conversion into silage, the following tables will afford the information in a condensed form. The analysis on ensilage is the mean result of thirty-seven analyses made by Dr. Voelcker and published in the Field. The analysis of grass is that of Kuhn and Grandeau. Water. 3 II Fatty Matter. Carbo- hydrates. 1^ c .2 'a 3. 5o Salts. til . II Meadow Grass (Grandeau) ... ^ 78-3.5 Meadow Grass before flowering 7.5-00 Meadow Grass at the end of ^ co-aq flowering i; Meadow Grass (Kuhn) ... ' 72-00 DifTerent Sweet Grasses (Kuhn) ' 70-80 5-24 3-00 2 -.50 3-10 2-60 0-96 0-80 0-70 0-80 0-70 9-66 12-10 U-30 12-10 11-70 3-72 7-00 11 -.50 10-00 1210 2-07 2-10 2 00 2-00 2-10 1-2 1-4-3 1-6 1-4-1 1-4-7 118 HEALTH AND DISEASE Analysis of Ensila(;e. Water 71-42 Volatile acid (calculated as acetic acid) ... ... ... ... -28 Non-volatile acid (calculated as lactic acid) ... ... ... ... -42 Albuminous compounds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3'17 Indigestible woody fibre ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9'33 Digestible cellular fibre ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1039 Soluble carbohydrates, extractive matter, &c. ... ... ... ... 2 -.53 Mineral matter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 2'46 100-00 Both tables may be usefully comjjared with the table showing the analysis of hay at p. 111. DIGESTION Selection and preparation of food will be materially assisted by the knowledge of the physiological processes connected with the digestion of different kinds of provender. Very interesting experiments were per- formed by the celebrated French physiologist Colin, and Colonel Fred. Smith remarks that some of them he can fully bear out from his own observations. To avoid any mistakes, it will be advisable to quote the statements as they occur in the description wdiich is given of the results of these experiments by the French physiologist. No details are given as to the methods which were adopted, and the critical reader may be expected to wonder how some of the facts given could have been ascer- tained. The time occupied in digestion by the stomach of the horse is in proportion to the amount of nitrogen contained in the food — if hay be given before oats the hay will occupy one part (greater curvature) and the oats another part (lesser curvature) of the stomach. If the oats be given first they are deposited in the greater curvature, and the hay in the lesser curvature of the stomach. The two foods in both cases remain distinct until the mass reaches the pyloric end of the stomach, from which the intestine arises. According to Colin's experiments it is best to give the hay first and then the corn, otherwise the corn is sent into the intestine before being fully acted upon in the stomach. The arrangement of food in the stomach in layers is distiirl;)ed by the swallowing of a large quantity of water. This disturbance does not occur, however, by the taking of a small quantity of water. Assuming this statement to be true, and it certainly seems to be perfectly reason- able, it aff'ords a strong argument in favour of the usual practice in the best stables of always having water in the trough within the animal's reach. FOOD HI) The above results were obtained by giving diiferent articles of food separately, but it appeared that when the foods were mixed, as they usually are — oats, chaif, roots, &c., being given together, — the different foods remained in the mixed condition in the stomach and passed into the intestines together, that containing the most moisture passing in first. Tiie conclusion from this series of experiments was the very obvious one, that it is not desirable to mix foods of different degrees of digesti- bility, as they all pass into the intestines together, whether they have been acted upon by the gastric juice or not. Most horsemen are aware of the common impression, which is un- doubtedly true, that the digestion of the horse is extremely rapid — a necessary provision, indeed, to compensate for the smallness of the stomach compared with the animal's bulk. Colin found that very early after the commencement of a meal the stomach begins to get rid of the food; in fact, as soon as the stomach is distended to a certain point a portion of the food begins to escape into the intestine, and in a quantity proportionate to the amount which is being, eaten by the horse. This circumstance naturally leads to the suggestion that the rations should be small in bulk, and given frequently, and that water should be given before feeding. It was also ascertained that the conformation of a horse exercised a considerable influence upon the function of assimilation. Horses with narrow chests, badly ribbed up, and of a light mealy colour, animals which are known as bad doers, require great attention to their diet; in short, all the food which is given to them should be of the best quality, and the rule respecting small and frequent rations must be carefully observed. That the results of the experiments undertaken by the French physiologist are highly instructive will not be questioned. The probabili- ties, however, are that they will not be estimated by horse-owners in general as of sufficient importance to cause any interference with the ordinary routine of the stable; nevertheless cases may occur in which a strict attention to the principles which have been deduced from the facts discovered will be highly advantageous. WATER When it is known that something like four-fifths of the animal bodj'' consists of water, no argument will be necessary to prove the impor- tance of a constant supply of the fluid in a proper condition for appropria- tion. 120 HEALTH AND DISEASE By the process of evaporation which is constantly going on from the skin, through the respiratory organs, and in other ways, water is constantly being excreted from the body, and when there is no supply from with- out to repair the loss, it must ultimately happen that all the animal tissues would become perfectly dried, which means that an animal weigh- ing 100 lb. would be reduced to a mass weighing something under 30 lb. To compensate for the amount of water which is constantly being thrown off, even when in perfect rest, and to a much greater extent when undergoing exertion, it has been calculated that an adult man would require every twenty-four hours from -g^ to ^ oz. of the fluid for each pound of his body weight. A man weighing 140 lb., therefore, will require from 70 to 90 oz. daily, and in ordinaiy English diet about 20 to 30 oz. of this is taken in the so-called solid food, and the remainder is drunk as liquid of some kind (Parkes). The horse, it is calculated, will require 8 to 12 gallons daily, a cow or small ox about 6 to 8 gallons, sheep or pigs ^ to 1 gallon (Parkes). Colonel Fred. Smith states that from experiments made in 1866 the War Office fixed the daily supply for cavalry horses at 8 gallons, and artillery at 10 gallons per horse. This quantity, however, was to include all water used for stable purposes, and in the artillery was to include washing carriages. From Dr. Parkes's observation, however, this quantity vi'ould be quite insufficient, as he came to the conclusion that 16 gallons per day per horse for all purposes was not an excessive amount. Colonel Fred. Smith also remarks that in a stable of cavalry horses, doing very little work, and at a cool time of the year, the amount per horse was found to average 6^ gallons; and from experiments which he made in India he found that during the month of February a horse consumed on an average 8|- gallons daily, which was made up as follows: Morning water, 1-9 gallon; mid-day, 3-4 gallons; at evening, 3 "15 gallons. It does not appear to have been ascertained how much water a horse would consume daily when water is kept constantly in the trough in the stable or box, but it is generally believed that a less quantity is taken than when the animal has the water supplied to him at intervals three times daily. Granting that a very considerable quantity of water is absolutely essential to keep the animal organism in a perfectly healthy condition, it must also be allowed that it is quite as necessary to obtain pure water as it is to supply the system with pure food. The latter requirement can be complied with without much difficulty. The food of the horse is so simple in its character, and undergoes so little preparation, that a very moderate amount of care will secure the animal perfectly whole- FOOD 121 some provender; but in the case of water the circumstances under whicli it is collected are so varied, and the sources of contamination are so numerous, that it is recognized by the experimental chemist as a fact beyond question, that when he requires pure water for scientific purposes he can only obtain it by the application of heat to convert the Huid into a vapour, which he is bound to convey through perfectly sterilized cold pipes, from which it will fall in the condition of water dej^rived of all foreign matter. In this condition of purity, however, it has lost all the riavour which makes it grateful to the palate, and at least certain products which are beneficial to the system. It becomes, therefore, most important to ascertain what impurities may be safely or advantageously admitted. Water in its absolutely pure condition consists of oxygen and hydrogen, and in this condition it may be obtained, theoretically, by the process of vaporizing under conditions which render contamination impossible. As it occurs, however, in seas and rivers, it holds in sus- pension or in solution various substances which it obtains from the earth and air through which it passes. Rain-water is sometimes referred to as the purest form in which water can be obtained naturally, but this implies that the rain shall fall and the water be collected in a place quite remote from habitations of all kinds, otherwise the various gases with which the atmosphere is charged, from the gaseous products of manu- fixctures or living beings, are necessarily mixed with the falling rain, contaminating it sometimes to an extent which renders it poisonous or utterly unfit for use. Under ordinary conditions it is estimated that rain-water, even in rural districts, contains about 2 grains of solid matter to the gallon. In towns, particularly where large industries are carried on, the quantity of solids is necessarily much larger. The gases which contaminate rain-water are, in addition to carbonic acid, ammonia, sul- phurous acid, and the emanations from drains and sewers. Other im- purities are added as the rain passes over the roofs of buildings and along the gutters which are arranged for carrying it to the drains. Decaying vegetable and animal matters are frequently washed from the roofs of buildings, and when the water is carried along lead gutters, or stored in lead tanks, the sulphurous acid contained in the fiuid, in addition to the products of decomposing vegetable matter, leads to the solution of the lead and renders the water poisonous, or at least highly injurious to the animals which drink it. When the water reaches the ground it becomes at once exposed to other sources of contamination. There is, first, the presence of putrefying substances on the surface, animal and vegetable, which leads to contamination with ammonia nitrates, nitrites, pho.sphates, and other constituents of natural and artificial manures, and in passing 122 HEALTH AND DISEASE tlirough the soil it meets with various soluble salts of lime, magnesia, and soda, all of which tend to make considerable modifications in the quality of the Huid, to what extent may he gathered from the analyses of several specimens of water which are given by Professor Axe, pub- lished in the fourth volume of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, December, 1893. Tliree samples will suffice, and it will be observed that the first one is most remarkable for the amount of solid constituents, esjDccially common salt, which it contains. " At Woodhall Spa, in Lin- colnshire, a water said to possess valuable medicinal properties yields no less than 1542"2 grains of saline matter per gallon, as follows: — " Chloride of sodium (common salt) Chloride of calcium Chloride of magnesium Carbonate of sodium Total ... Grains per gallon .. 1330 0 1110 91-2 •• lO'O .. 1542-2" The next sample is drawn from the wells in the chalk at Croydon, and is noteworthy for the large amount of carbonate of lime it contains. Grains per gallon. "Silica 1-2 Carbonate of calcium ... ... ... ... ... 17-8 Carbonate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 1"4 Chloride of sodium ... .. ... ... ... 2'0 Sulphate of sodium ... ... ... ... ... 0'9 Total 23-3" This is a very hard water. The sample which gave the following analysis is from Sudbrook Springs under the Severn : — Grains per gallon. " Carbonate of calcium ... ... ... ... ... 13'6 Carbonate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 5"4 Sulphate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 3'2 Nitrate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 0-6 Chloride of magnesium ... ... ... ... .. 0-8 Chloride of sodium (with a little potassium) ... ... 35 Total 27-1" Besides a considerable amount of chalk, this water is noticeable for the number and variety of the salts of magnesia it contains. It is there- fore classed with the magnesian waters. On the other hand, water collected from formations which are mainly composed of insoluble rock, are naturally remarkable for their freedom from saline constituents, as the two analyses of Woodland and Holm- firth waters will show. FOOD 123 " Manchester Water (Woodland) Grains per gallon. Silica 0-30 Carbonate of calcium ... ... ... ... . . TTO Sulphate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 1"66 Chloride of sodium ... ... ... ... ... 0'91 Total f57 Hoi.MFiiiTH Water Griiin.s per gallon. Sulphate of calcium ... ... ... ... ... OS Sulphate of magnesium ... ... ... ... ... 0'6 Chloride of sodium ... ... ... ... ... 0'8 Nitrate of sodium or pota.ssium ... ... ... ... 0"2 Totiil ¥i" The above specimen.s of water are obviou.sly extremely .soft, and under ordinary conditions of water -.supj^ly the fluid i.s divided into two kinds, hard and soft water, the liardness being due always to the lime salts — chiefly carbonate of lime or chalk, wath the addition of a small quantity of the sulphate. Specimens of water containing large quantities of a great variety of mineral matters are properly classed as medicinal waters, which, however valuable in dealing with certain forms of disease, are not fit for use for dietetic purposes. The cjuestion of the influence of hard water upon health has been frequently debated, and various opinions have been given in reference to it. There is no doubt that hard waters are constantly used for drink- ing purposes without any harm being suffered by the persons who take them, but it is asserted, by the author of the article from which we have quoted, that horses drinking hard water suffer from derangement of the organs of digestion, indicated by attacks of colic and other intestinal disorders. The skin is also said to lo.se its polish and become dull and scurfy, the coat stares, and a general state of unthriftiness is induced. These results, however, suggest a very abnormal degree of hardness in the water which produces them. They are certainly not observed among horses w^hich are living in chalk districts, where the use of hard water for men and also for the lower animals can hardly be avoided. Gene- rally where hard water is distributed by the water companies it under- goes a preliminary process of softening by the addition of lime, which converts the soluble bicarbonate of lime into the insoluble carbonate or chalk, which is precipitated, and in this manner a considerable quantity of the lime is got rid of. The process, however, cannot be adopted on a small -scale, where hard water is stored in tanks or ponds. Hard water has occasionally been referred to as a cause of diseases of 124 HEALTH AND DISEASE boue and the formation of calculous concretions. It may be remarked, however, that the hardness of water is chiefly due to carbonate of lime, and would not, therefore, be likely to be very largely concerned in the formation of bony tumours, in which the phosphate of lime is the chief constituent; but there is no doubt that lime salts would be likely to contribute to the formation of calculous deposits in the digestive system or in other parts of the body. It has already been stated that water forms a very large proportion of the tissues of the animal body — from 70 to 80 per cent, — and in the lower forms of living beings it may reach as much as 90 per cent. Pro- fessor Axe, in his articles in the Royal Agncultural Society s Journal, has given the following table, showing the amount of water contained in 1000 parts of the various organs and structures: — Kidneys ... ... 827 Brain ... 7.-10 Fat . 299 Heart ... 792 Skin ... 720 Bone . 216 Nerve ... 780 Bone marrow ... 697 Ivory . 100 Spleen ... 758 Liver ... 693 Enamel of tooth . 2 Muscle . . 757 Caitilage ... 5.50 Sweat . . ... 995 Gastric fluid ... 973 Bile . 864 Saliva ... 995 Milk ... 891 Blood . 791 Tears ... 982 The supply of water to the system is introduced in various ways, but the larger proportion is taken in the form of liquid or solid food, and there is also a certain c|uantity of water formed in the system by the oxidation of the various organic substances, resulting in combinations of oxygen with hydrogen and carbon producing water and carbonic acid. Considering the important uses to which water is destined in the animal organism, it is remarkable that there is so little positive evidence of the injurious results attending the consumption of water which is polluted with animal and vegetable matter in various states of decomposition, with leak- age from drains, with constant admixture with animal excreta, with the gases which are given oft' from decomi^osing bodies, and also with the organisms of specific diseases. It is quite true that every now and then the public is startled by a record of a great outbreak of typhoid fever or other fotal disease in consequence of some accidental contamination of the watei-- supply; but, as a rule, polluted water is about the last thing which is thought of as a possible cause of the outbreak of disease. This indiff"erence probably arises in a great degree from the knowledge of the fact that people and animals continue to use the water of wells which are so placed as to be open to the entrance of the overflow of cess-pools; or, in cases of great scarcity, water from roadside ponds or ditches which are open to FOOD 1-25 every jjossible source of coiitainiiiatioii, not only troni causes which have been referred to, ])ut from the addition of various kinds of oft'al not merely from healthy animals but from those which have died of anthrax, .swine- fever, tubercle, and various other maladies. In addition to these sources of serious pollution there are the products of various kinds of manufactures. In mining districts the streams become contaminated with various poisonous substances; such manufactories as linen and jute works, starch factories, cloth works, tanneries, paper factories, and, in short, all kinds of manufactories which deal with organic substances in any form and discharge their refuse into ditches, or ponds, or rivers, or even on to the surface of the ground, through which they soak, contaminate the water springs at their sources. A great deal has been said and written about the infection of ponds, ditches, and even of small pools or puddles, as some of them may be called, with the germs of parasites which are easily swallowed by animals grazing on grounds where such contaminated pools exist. While this fact is fully recognized by stock-owners, it is remarkable that they seem to prefer to trace an outbreak of parasitic disease among their lambs, sheep, and calves to any cause rather than the one which lies before them. From the cir- cumstances of the case it is much easier to point to the sources of contami- nation of w'ater, and to reason from the disastrous results which are occasionally traced to its use, and to those equally disastrous results which are referred to other causes than the right one, than it is to suggest means for rectifying the evil. The difficulties which stand in the way of provid- ing a pure water-supply are in many cases absolutely insurmountable and in all cases extremely difficult. The celebrated engineer, the late Mr. Bailey Denton, spent a considerable portion of his life in trying to force public attention to the importance of water-storage. He constantly pointed out the very liberal quantity which was suj^plied every year in the form of rain, every inch which fell during a shower representing nearly a hundred tons of water to an acre, the whole of which amount is in the majority of cases allowed to soak into the ground w^astefully, at least so far as its dietetic use is concerned. It may contribute to the growth of herbage, but it may, on the other hand, saturate the soil which is already useless on account of its marshy character. "With a proper system of storage, such water, which is in excess of the immediate requirements either of the land or the animals upon it, could be preserved for future use; the only reason why it is not so preserved would seem to be the indifference of the authori- ties to the benefits which w^ould be secured by such a course. In the neighbourhood of large towns the system of water-storage is usually carried out by the means of reservoirs, but in rural districts the 126 HEALTH AND DISEASE hardships of a water famine have constantly to be endured in consequence of the absence of any means of storing. Presumably the question is one of cost, and it unfortunately happens that those districts which suffer most from scarcity of water in dry seasons are least capable of supplying funds for the formation of the required reservoirs. A due recognition of the importance of a liberal supply of water for hygienic purposes in thinly populated districts as well as in populous would ■oOOf. be naturally followed by the adoption of a proper system of inspection for the purpose of ascertaining the quality of the water, including its degree of hardness, whether arising from excess of carbonate of lime or from other lime salts which cannot be got rid of, and the employment of the jDroper means for the purpose of correcting any objection- able characteristics prior to the distribution of the fluid. j\Ieans for these purposes are easily applied under the circumstances referred to, but they are abso- lutely impracticable so long as the supply of water is drawn from ponds or from wells which in many places are open to pollution which can neither be prevented nor corrected. Natural Processes of Purification of Water. — Water in its most polluted form under- goes certain chemical and physical changes which have a distinct tendency to restore it to a wholesome condition. Under all circumstances water contains air, the oxygen of which acts with energy on septic bodies, causing them to undergo a new form of decomposition, resolving them into compounds of carbonic acid and ammonia. Further and even more destructive processes, the nature of which is not clearly understood, also take place under the influence of oxygen. It has been observed, for example, that water highly contaminated with sewage, so as to be quite turbid, if left entirely at rest for a long period becomes absolutely odour- less and perfectly transparent; and what is more remarkable, this change is not the result of the subsidence of solid particles, but of the oxidation and conversion of solid material into soluble compounds. It does not, of course, follow that water under such circumstances will be fit for drinking purposes, but the instance is a remarkable illustration of the changes whicli are effected under the influence of oxygen. Fig. 478. — A Sewage Fungus, BeciyinUm alba (sulphur bac- terium ) a, In a meiiium rich in sul- phuretted hydrogen, i, Almost depleted of sulphur granides by twenty-four hours' immersion in water free from sulphur. <:, Sulphur disappeared ; trans- verse walls now visible, after forty-eight hours' further im- mersion, rf. Decaying through lack of sulphuretted hydrogen. FOOD 127 479. — Blankei-weed 1, Anabsena flos-aquse. 2, Coelosphserium Kutzingianum, with detached cells. Stagnant pools undergo a considerable amount of purification owing to the presence of living vegetation, particularly when the plants belong to the flowering order. It can be observed, even in so small a space as that furnished by an ordinary acpiarium, that bubbles of gas are constantly being emitted from growing water plants or weeds, as they are called. In addition to the action of plants in furnishing oxygen, aquatic animals also contribute very largely towards the destruction of organic bodies. Myriads of minute creatures belonging to the infusoria spend their lives in the a,ssimilatiou of organic substances; in fact, the presence of these animalculre and plants may be accepted as a proof that the water is capable of supporting animal and plant life. On the other hand, however, it has been observed by Bennett, Rafter, and other writers referred to by the author of Water ill Relation to Health and Disease, that there are numerous living beings contained in water which tend rather to add to its pollution than to remove it. It would appear that nearly all the varieties of aquatic fungi derive their sustenance from decompos- ing substances, and their presence in water is proof in itself of the existence of septic material. Such organisms as live on decomposing bodies are described as saprophytes. The sewage fungus (fig. 478) is a notable instance of an organism of the class referred to, and it is most easily recognized in the description which is given of it as "a dirty-looking, jelly-like layer covering the bottom and sides of the water-course in which it occurs". Its presence may always be taken as proof of the existence of sewage contamination. Besides the various fungi which are found in .streams, and w^ater-courses, and drain -pipes, there are numerous algte, of which the blanket-weed (fig. 479) is a well-known example. Mr. Bennett describes algae in two distinct forms, the blue-green alga (fig. 480). -Blue-green Algse 1, Spii'uliua Jenueri. 2, Oscillaria Insignis. 128 HEALTH AND DISEASE and the chlorophyll-green alga (fig. 481). The first gives off a small amount of oxygen insufficient to exert any useful oxidizing function, while both excrete fetid gases during their decomposition; consequently, when found in water, they may be taken as an indication that it is unfit for use. Of the second class, one fomily (Conjugatse) is distinguished by the peculiarity of extreme sensitiveness to the influence of decomposing sub- stances. They can only live in water which is charged with oxygen. Their presence, therefore, in a flourishing condition may be accepted as Fig. 481.— Chlorophyll-green Alga ( Vauditrin sessiiis) 1, Plant. 2, Portion of filament en- larged. 3, Swarm spore. 4, Portion of the same enlarged. Fig. 482. — Volvox globator (colony) ], Aiithuroid. 2, Oosperm (mature). 3, Gogone. 4, Peripheral cells. 5, Antherozoids. 6, Mode of division of parent cell of a zoosporange. proof that the water is free from any large amount of objectionable organic constituent. It may be further noted of these plants that while they demand a large quantity of oxygen as a condition of their own life, they give off" a considerable quantity of the same gas, to the manifest benefit of the water in which they reside. An illustration of the purifying influence of plant-life on water is quoted as having occurred in India some years ago, when, by some accident, all the aquatic plants were removed from the water-tanks. The consequence was that the previously wholesome water quickly became unfit for consumption. According to Rafter, writing in the transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the well-known and extremely beautiful alga, the Volvox FOOD 129 fflobator (fig. 482), has on certain occasions appeared in enormous quantities in the reservoirs which supply Rochester in the State of New York, imparting to the water a fishy taste and odour, and apparently causing sickness and death among the cattle which drank it. The stoneworts (fig. 483), so called from becoming coated over with an earthy deposit, when existing in large quantities give off sulphuretted hydrogen, which is a highly poi-sonous gas. A variety of fresh-water sponge has been iden- tified as giving a nauseous odour and taste to water, owing to the presence of ammonia. Its remo\al from the places in which it grew was followed by the restora- tion of the water to a wholesome condition. Mr. Francis, of Adelaide, records that in 1878 the lakes which form the estuary of the IMurray contained a plant which he believed to be allied to the Protococcus, which formed a thick scum like green paint, some 2 or 3 inches thick, on the -surface of the water, and when swallowed by cattle, which drank of it, it rapidly caused death. Numerous other instances might be re- ferred to in proof of the fact that while certain plants, probably without exception all flowering plants, and to a large extent all the high order of green plants which flourish in water and give out oxygen, par- ticularly during the daytime and when the sun is shining, exercise a purifying influence upon water, there are others, including a number of aquatic fungi, which either exer- cise an injurious influence or indicate by their presence that the water is unfit for use. It is, therefore, a matter of considerable importance that the very common procedure of weed- cutting should be exercised with discrimination. All the aquatic plants which are beneficial, as well as those which are injurious, to water, are distinguished by botanical characteristics which can be readily identified by an expert. There will be no real difficulty, therefore, in determining, at any rate within certain reasonable limits, what plants should be as far as possible extirpated and which of them should be allowed to flourish. Examination of Water. — In works on hygiene which are exclu- sively intended for professional readers it is usual to describe the processes, both chemical and physical, for the analysis of water for the purpose of Fig. 483.— Stonewort [Chara fraffilis] 1, Plant. 2, Sporangivim and anther- idium. 3, Valve of antheridium. 4, Enlarged branch. 5, Section of spor- angium. 6, End of a filament. 130 HEALTH AND DISEASE ascertaining what constituents are present which may exercise any injurious action on the animal which drinks it. By the mere physical examination the general character of the water is determined by the unaided eyesight, but it must be understood that this kind of examination does not justify any conclusion as to the qualities of the water which may render it fit or unfit for use. It has been proved that some of the brightest water may be charged with deadly material. In one of the outbreaks of cholera which occurred in London, a certain pump, to the water of which several serious outbreaks of cholera were traced, was so noted for its bright, and sparkling, and palatable character that all the people within a reasonable distance round it came regularly to obtain, at any rate, sufficient water for drinking purposes, and as a consequence the disease was widely spread. As a matter of course, as soon as the character of the water was discovered, the pump was closed, and the spreading of cholera from that source was arrested. An illustration in the opposite direction was afforded by an examination of the porter -coloured water which is so commonly noticed in ponds near straw-yards, such ponds being the ordinary drinking-places for horses and cattle. The brown-coloured water is commonly said to suggest the presence of sewage, but the water referred to in the farm ponds was repeatedly examined by Dr. Augustus Voelcker, and found by him to be singularly free from organic contami- nation, the brown colour being due to the formation of humic and ulmic acids which did not appear to exercise any deleterious influence on the animals which drank of it. There can be no doubt that the water of these farmyard ponds, into which the drainage from the straw-yards is constantly running, must have received large quantities of organic matter; but, being at the same time perfectly open to the constantly moving atmosphere, the organic matter must have been oxidized into comparatively innocuous com- pounds. It is not suggested, of course, that porter-coloured water is a desirable fluid for horses or cattle, nevertheless it is an undoubted fiict that it was in former times the habitual drink of those animals year by year; and in one case in the writer's knowledge it continued for a dozen years on a large farm, where the stock remained during the whole of that time in a remark- ably healthy condition. It was during this period that the two circum- stances, i.e. the remarkably healthy condition of the stock on the farm and the habitual use of porter-coloured water for the horses and cattle — in the case of the latter the invariable use of it for the reason that there was no other water within the animals' reach, — attracted Dr. Voelcker's attention and led to the analyses referred to. The story itself suggests that a chemical examination of discoloured water is necessary in order to deter- FOOD lai mine ou what the discoloration depends. But, in any case, it must be clearly understood that the colour in itself is not a satisfoctory indication of the quality of the Huid. Tlic briglitest and most sparkling water may be absolutely deadly, wliilo dark-coloured and dirty water may be comparatively harmless. A rough test, which the unprofessional observer can easily employ, is to allow the specimen of water to stand in a glass for some hours, for tlie purpose of ascertaining if there is any sediment. Taste and smell are means of ascertaining something of the qualities of water, as in a wholesome state the Huid does not possess any decided taste, either acid or alkaline ; and an odour, either pungent or oflensive, may be at once accepted as proof that the water is not fit for drinking purposes. Then there are also certain simple tests which may be readily employed even by a person who has not more than a very elementary knowledge of chemistry. For example, the presence of lime may be detected at once by adding a solution of oxy- late of ammonium, which causes at once a white precipitate, and some idea may be formed of the amount by the quantity of precijiitate which falls. A mere turbid condition, rendering the water somewhat opalescent in appearance, does not indicate that the water contains more than an ordinary quantity of lime, while a large quantity of precipitate indicates a hard water. Colonel Fred. Smith gives a very simple process, which he has found effectual in estimating in a rough way the amount of hardness of water in which the oxylate of ammonium has caused the characteristic white precipitate. He proposes to use the ordinary soap liniment as a test, and he finds that 1 drop of this preparation added to \ oz. of water will indicate about l^ grain of lime per gallon, if on shaking the mixture a lather is produced. If, however, 4 drops are required to produce a lather there will be about 6 grains of lime per gallon. If 6 drops are required there will be 9 grains, if 12 drops, 18 grains. Calculating that the amount of lime per gallon in good water should not exceed 6 grains, it is easy to form some idea of the degree of hardness which exists in the water under examination. The process may be further extended in order to ascertain which of the lime salts is the cause of the hai'dness; which may depend upon carbonate of lime, and indeed generally does, but may also result from the presence of a sulphate, chloride, or nitrate. The presence of the carbonate is deter- mined accurately by boiling a portion of the water which has been tested by the soap liniment. Supposing that it takes 12 drops of soap liniment to jiroduce a lather before boiling, and only 3 drops to produce the same effect after the water has been boiled, it would show that the hardness was due to chalk (calcium carbonate). The advantage of acquiring this know- 132 HEALTH AND DItSEASE ledge will be obvious when it is rememl)ered that the hardness caused by the carbonate of lime may be got rid of by a comparatively simple process (the addition of a small quantity of lime, and precipitation of the carbonate. See page 123), while that caused by the presence of sulphate, chloride, and nitrate of lime cannot be removed. The test, however, for chlorine, sulphuric acid, and nitric acid would be rather beyond the powers of the amateur. The presence of organic bodies is generally considered to render water unfit for use, but a great deal must depend upon the nature of the organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, and also on the state of decomposition which has been reached. Samples of water which have been found to contain an enormous quantity of vegetable matter have been taken by animals with perfect impunity, doubtless on account of the matter being of vegetable origin, and not having undergone decomposition. Microscopic examination of water, especially water which deposits various impurities after rest, is the only satisfactory method of discovering the character of the impurities. A further step in the same direction is inoculation of nutritive media, such as pure gelatine and other similar subtances used by the bacteriologist, but this, as well as the use of the microscope, must necessarily be left in the hands of the expert. EXAMINATION OF AIR In an absolutely pure state, such as could only be secured by the admixture of the two essential constituents, oxygen and nitrogen, in proper proportion, the air does not exist in nature. The purest air contains a minute quantity of carbonic acid and a cei'tain amount of water vapour, with traces of ammonia and ozone, varying in amount according to the situation, as well as organic and mineral particles. Of the constituents of healthy atmosphere, oxygen deserves the chief consideration as a power- ful agent in the destruction of various impurities. Roughly, its proportion may be taken as one-fifth, while nitrogen constitutes the greater part of the remaining four-fifths, exercising apparently its chief function, that of diluting the oxygen and modifying its stimulant action. Animal life is not sustained by nitrogen, as it is a non-respirable gas; it is destroyed by oxygen by being carried on too rapidly^ — the animal under the violently stimulating, exciting influence may be said to live the whole of its life in a short space of time. It is only, therefore, by the combination of the two elements that a respirable atmosphere, capable of supporting life for its normal period, is obtained. Air is distinguished by its almost unlimited capacity for absorbing INDIVIDUAL HY(iIENK 133 impurities of all possible kinds. Wherever animals and plants exist carbonic acid and various organic substances excreted from the system are constantly being thrown into the air. Living organic bodies are also continually being conveyed by the air, sometimes long distances, and in this way certain infective particles are conveyed from diseased to healthy animals. A large number of these, however, cannot in all probability be carried to any great distance, unless under the influence of powerful currents. It is recorded that ships, when several hundred miles from land, sometimes have their sails and yards covered with sand; it can hardly be questioned, however, that such heavy material could only be conveyed such a distance by very high winds. Examination of air is only possible to the unprofessional observer l)y the use of the organ of smell, and it may be said of air, as it has already been said of water, that the presence of a smell of any kind is proof of contamination. The taste and the eyesight will assist in certain cases when the air becomes charsred with the smoke emanating from chimnevs of i^ictories in which trades, which are described as noxious trades, are carried on ; but for the purpose of detecting invisible suspended matters, organic bodies, carbonic acid, watery vapour, ammonia, and other solid and gaseous products, the knowledge and skill of the expert are absolutely essential. INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE Under the above heading Dr. Parkes, in his classical work on Hygiene, refers to individual hygiene as a large subject which would require a volume to itself; it will be understood that by the use of the term that great authority means to include everything which is in any way connected with the habits of the individual: — his work and his amusements, the nature of his diet, and the amount of exercise and rest which he takes, the kind of clothing which he wears, the climate which he inhabits, in short, everything which the man does or leaves undone. Even the exercise of his reasoning faculties, to quote the words of the author, " the amount of mental work, the practice of general good temper, cheerfulness, and hope", are all concerned in digestive processes, and they are all included in the term individual hygiene. Obviously in applying the term to the lower animals a very large part of the subject, i.e. everything which relates to mental processes and the exercise of volition, everything indeed which the individual does by intention, must be necessarily omitted, because the animal in domestication has no choice in the matter of his diet, the amount of exercise or work, the gratification of his wants, whether reasonable or otherwise, as everything is arranged by the stable attendants. For these 134 HEALTH AND DISEASE Fig. 484. — Curry-comb reasons the heading "individual hygiene" must be applied to the acts of the individual who attends to the horse, the animal itself being only called upon to submit to what is done for it or what it is constrained to do. The author of Veterinary Hygiene adopts Dr. Parkes's classification generally, and deals with such matters as grooming, clipping, clothing, bedding, and other items of stable management, which vary considerably in different establishments, according to the character of the work which the horse has to perform, or the views of the owner as to the comforts which are necessary for the animal's well-being, or the amount of luxury even which may be allowable in reference to stable construction and stable appliances. Grooming is the term which is used to include the various methods of cleaning horses, whether engaged in work or resting in the stable. The instruments employed for the purpose include brushes of different degrees of hardness; a curry-comb, which is a kind of iron rake with fine teeth; wisps, which are small bundles of hay or straw twisted up into a con- venient shape by the stable atten- dant who employs them; sponges, and an iron hook which is employed for removing mud from the feet. A thin flexible band of steel with handles at each end, known as a scraper, is also employed for scrap- uig wet mud from the sides and other parts of a horse on a return from a journey in wet muddy weather. In the ordinary course, horses are groomed in the morning for the purpose of cleaning the skin from the dirt which may have accumulated during the night. This application of the brush with a certain amount of force not only removes the surface dirt, but also stimulates the skin and improves the circulation. It is usual to follow the brush by the wisp of hay or straw , and this part of the process is usually carried on by the stable- Scraper INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 135 man with considerable energy, and witli the utterance of a pecidiar whistling noise, which may be taken as a habit on the part of the operator, but is also considered by some people to be soothing to the horse. The wisp is usually brought down upon the skin with a certain amount of force, and then drawn along the hair, and the whole effect is doubtless very complete as a method of beating out the dust from the animal's coat. The brush that is employed in the first instance is known as a dandy brush. (See fig. 48G.) At different times during the application of this brush the attendant employs the curry-comb, an instrument with an iron back, having secured to it a series of small plates with fine saw-like teeth, intended solely for the cleaning of the brush from the accumula- tion of dirt and loosened portions of cuticle (dandruff), of which word the name given to the brush is evidently a corruption. The curr\-comb is sometimes resorted to for the purpose of a.s.sis- ting in cleaning a thick coat and a very scurfy skin; it is hardly neces- sary to say that the curr}^- comb was never intended for any such purpose, and that its use is altogether objectionable. In fact, unless considerable care is exercised, it may happen that the skin of the animal, to which a new and therefore sharp curry-comb is applied, may be considerably damaged at those parts where the skin is closely applied to bone, as in the protuberant part of the hips, for instance, and the owner of a horse observing such injuries may be pretty safe in suspecting the curry-comb, and in declining altogether to believe the ordinary explanation that the horse has scratched himself against a wall or the side of the stall. The feet and legs, in muddy weather especially, are generally washed, and in the case of hunters, which after a run in heavy country in wet weather are covered with mud on the legs and lower parts of the body, washing with hot or cold water according to fancy is usually employed after the scraper has been used to clear away the greater portion of the mud. This procedure, so usual, and on the face of it so natural, a way of getting rid of the dirt that the stableman would have been once condemned as inefiicient and idle if he had neglected it, has for a very long time continued without the least suspicion that it could under any circumstances be objectionable. It was very well known, however, that there exi-sted a disease of the skin, which was called mud fever on account of its affecting horses which were working Fig. 48e.— Dandy Brush 136 HEALTH AND DISEASE Oil muddy roads or hunting in wet districts, and various methods of treat- ment were employed for its cure, and some countries had the credit of possessing soils which contained an unknown but extremely irritating con- stituent. It was, however, always the case that these parts of the country were perfectly harmless in dry seasons, but, having loose loamy soil, were readily converted into mud by heavy rains, and certainly no particular constituent likely to cause irritation was ever discovered, nor with our present knowledge of the subject is there any reason to suspect that such peculiar constituent existed. To complete the story it is necessary to relate that some fifty years ago a veterinary surgeon in the midland counties discovered, in the course of his practice, that mud fever never occurred in badly conducted stables, where the attendants were either too lazy or too mucli occupied to trouble themselves about the mud on the animals' legs and other parts, but turned them into their stalls untouched, and got rid of the mud the following morning with the greatest ease, commonly by the aid of the ordinary birch broom, which, being ajjplied to the parts where the dried mud remained, at once swept it off in the form of fine dust. The discoverer, whose name has escaped the writer's memory, as it has that of all modern writers on the subject, apparently induced some hunting men to try the method, to the great disgust of the grooms, as a matter of course. The system very soon became quite general in large establishments, and cracked heels and erup- tions on the legs and other parts of the body almost, and in some cases entirely, ceased to appear among the horses. In the best establishments, where the proper appliances are always to hand and understood, the practice is to envelop the muddy legs in dry, warm, flannel bandages, and brush the dust out of the coat the following morning. As soon as the fact was discovered that washing the muddy skin was injurious, and all the more when hot water was used, a satisfactory physio- logical explanation was at hand; indeed, an experiment by one celebrated physiologist has only to be cpoted in order to make the whole matter perfectly clear. The experiment was one connected with a series relating to the causes of inflammation under the influence of change of temperature. The ear of a rabbit was subjected to the influence of cold fluid until the blood was driven from the superficial vessels by the contraction of the arteries. The animal was then at once transferred into a warm chamber. The blood im- mediately rushed back into the channels from which it had just before been driven, with the necessary result that some vessels were blocked bj' the excess of blood, while in others the circulation was going on with rapidity. INDIVIDUAL HY(4IENE Fig. 487. — Barton-Gillette Clipping Machine All the essential phenomena of the inflammatory process were thus in- duced. Washing the feet is, of course, entirely free from the objection which attends washing the skin, as the hard horny substance which forms the hoof has no vessels, and consequently no circulation which can be disturbed; and when, in the case of light-coloured horses, washing the legs is insisted on, it should be done with cold water, the greatest possible care should be taken to dry thoroughly the parts which have been washed, and bandages should be at once applied. The practice of washing horses all over cannot possibly be defended. It is totally unnecessary, and, when it is done, the chances are entirely in favour of the animal being left in a wet condition, unless there are suflicient helpers at hand to ensure that the wisps, which must be frequently changed, are applied with sufficient energy, and for a sufficiently long time, to get rid of all the moisture. Clipping, or singeing, or both, are absolutely necessary in the case of horses which have a thick winter coat, and are engaged in ordinary work. There is no doubt that the presence of a heavy coat indisposes the animal to exertion; the warmth naturally leads to excessive sweating, and the coat wetted in this way is dried with very great difficulty. 138 HEALTH AND DISEASE It has been suggested, as an objection against clipping, that a horse, after the removal of a thick coat, is likely to take cold; but this objection may be easily disposed of by the use of extra clothing for a time. In some cases among working horses a portion of the hair is left on the back and loins and also on the extremities. Clothing, in the best establishments at any rate, is looked upon as one of the necessities of stable management, and if we accept Stewart's observa- tion that its eifect is to keep horses warm without endangering the purity of the air they breathe l)y restricting ventilation, it is evident that the use of clothing can be defended on hygienic principles. Clothing is in favour Fig. 48S. — Horse-clippers Fig:. 489. —Clippers for Tnmming Legs with grooms and coachmen, and is sometimes used to excess for the purpose of keeping a horse's coat fine and glossy. It must be quite obvious, how- ever, that thick clothing during hot weather is in every re.spect objection- able, and that, when it is employed, it should be regulated in regard to its weight, according to the climatic conditions under which the horses are placed. Bedding. — In stables where luxurious appliances are in vogue, a sufficient quantity of straw of good colour and quality is considered to be indispensable for the comfort of the horse, as well as for the appearance of the stable; but when economy is an object, as in the case of large estab- lishments, moss-litter is commonly employed, or, in place of it, saw-dust or tan. It was when moss-litter first came into use that there was a great outcry about the injurious efi'ects of the litter on the horses' feet; certainly in some cases the hoofs of animals standino- on the moss-litter were found INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 139 to be broken, and the «oles of tlie feet discoloured, as if from the efl'ects of a severe bruise. From experience, however, it would seem fair to conclude that the brittleness and the discoloration must have l>eeu due to other causes. Of late years, at any rate since its use has been l)ettcr understood, nothing has been heard of this objection. Some hor.ses exhibit an extraordinary fondness for the .straw of their litter, and eat it in large quantities to the neglect of the hay which is placed in the rack for their use. In these cases there are alternative means of prevention. One, the employment of a muzzle, and the other the disuse of straw altogether for the litter of the particular animal in fiivour of one of its substitutes. Management of the feet is a very important part of individual hygiene, and it consists chietiy in a rapid adoption in regard to healthy feet of the policy of non-interference. Hoof ointments, which are supposed to increase the elastic qualities of the hoofs, when they are not injurious 1)y plugging the openings of the horn tubes, many of which terminate, from their somewhat oblique course, on the wall, and all of which so terminate on the horny sole, are at best en- tirely unnecessary. The same thing a^Dplies, of course, to stopping the bottom of the feet. The mo.st important part of hygienics, as applied to the feet, is a careful observation of the condition of the hoofs, and of the position of the shoes, with a view to having the latter renewed when necessary, or removed and reapplied when not sufficiently worn to necessitate the application of new shoes. Horses which are kept to re.st in loo.se -boxes — the most successful method, as a rule, of summering hunter.s — require more than usual care in regard to their feet. The hind shoes are usually altogether removed, and the edge of the crust is rounded off by the ra.sp, in order to prevent chipping. A light tip would usually be applied to the fore-feet, leaving the heels to come in contact with the ground surface. The above remarks may be applied in regard to animals which are turned out to grass. In very dry seasons horses' hoofs, under such circum- stances, become exceedingly dry and brittle, and contract sometimes to a serious extent. This happens just as certainly as it would if the hoofs were removed and placed in a warm place, the only difierence being that, in the case of the living animal, the drying occupies a longer time. The only Toe-tip for Horses turned to gras.? 140 HEALTH AND DISEASE remedy is the application of moisture, which possibly may mean the fre- quent removal of the horse from the dry ground into a shed or other place where the soil can be kept moist. It may be taken as a golden rule that moisture is essential for the maintenance of a healthy condition of the hoof horn, and that no other outward application is necessary. Vices. — Certain liabits which horses acquire while standing in the stable, habits which depend upon peculiarity of temper and constitution in some cases, while in others they are due to imitation, require correction, as far as it may be possible to correct them. Crib-biting and wind-sucking are perfectly well known to horse-owners; weaving, a singular habit of moving the head from side to side; drawing the halter-ropes by the attached blocks up and down through the manger -rings; and the extremely un- pleasant habit of kicking, particularly at night, are all of them productive of a great deal of annoyance, and some of them — crib-biting and wind-suck- ing for example — are distinctly injurious, the two latter deserving to be classed under the heatl of unsoundness, as they certainly cause damage to the teeth, and lead to attacks of colic, loss of condition, and even more serious affections, and certainly render an animal less capable of performing the work which is required of it, than it otherwise would be. All these stable vices are fully considered in the chapter devoted to that subject. HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS In the case of horses suffering from any kind of sickness, the principles of hygiene can only be applied for the purpose of assisting the restoration of health, as it would be impossible to preserve what has already been lost. Undoubtedly it is the case that sanitary laws should be more strictly applied in cases of sickness than during health, and their strict ajjplication should have relation to everthing connected with stable management. Isolation. — First, the suliject of strict isolation has to be considered. At the commencement of an attack of illness it is impossible to determine, in many instances, whether or not tlie disease is infectious; in fact, it is even at present, notwithstanding our great advance in the knowledge of pathology, doubtful in respect of many diseases, whether they are infectious or non-infectious, and at any rate, at the outset, separation of the sick animal from the healthy is a simple precaution which should never be neglected, if it is possible to enforce it. Food is the next subject, and it is rather remarkable that in regard to sick animals, as well as to sick persons, a question which is most anxiously asked is, what is. the patient likely to fancy to eat. It was remarked by a HYGIENICS Al'PLIEI) TO DISEASED ANIMALS Ul celebrated physician tliat his great Jitticulty in serious cases was to induce the friends of his patients to refrain from supplying them with anything in the form of food until he gave instructions to that effect; and it is well known to physicians in fever - hospitals what disastrous results have happened from the friends of patients recovering from typhoid fever sur- reptitiously bringing in a currant-bun, under the impression that it would tempt the patient's appetite and be a pleasant change from the slops on which he had been kept. Should the patient attempt to consume the delicacy, the result to be apprehended, and one which has happened, as proved by post-mortem examination, is the lodging of some of the currants in healing ulcers in the intestines, and the setting up of a new ulcerating process. Some horses are certainly exempt, as a rule, from this special risk, but so extremely anxious are the attendants to support a sick animal's strength, as they say, that they not only tempt the appetite of the subject of inflam- mation of the lungs, or other acute disease, with carrots, green food, or some other delicacies, but, if they are refused, as most probably they would be, they insist on forcibly administering food in the form of gruel or thick linseed tea, quite forgetting that the mere act of exciting the patient, by the force which is necessarily employed, will do iav more harm than the food could do good, even if it were willingly taken. Attendants on sick horses have yet to learn that the want of appetite is Nature's unmistakable way of hinting that the animal is much better with- out food during the immediately acute stage of a fever attack. It is only during the stage of convalescence that food is absolutely necessary, and the ingenuity of the attendant may be wisely exercised in selecting articles of diet which he thinks the horse would be likely to take, always on the understanding that the food selected must be easy of digestion, and concen- trated in its character. All kinds of bulky food are out of the ciuestion. A complete change of food has been recommended even in the case of animals that have no particular disease, but suffer from want of condition, and this change is far more necessary with animals which are suffering from acute disease. The most perfect change which can be devised is the substitution of animal for vegetable diet. Good meat-soup mixed with bran, and placed in small portions in the animal's mouth, as previously directed, will often excite the animal's appetite, and when he once becomes accustomed to the flavour of the new diet he will take it with avidity. In extreme cases the fibrine of the blood, separated and dried, and mixed in the form of powder with bran mashes, has been found very effective as a restorative. Milk mixed with eggs forms an acceptable diet for sick horses, and is frequently taken by them without any difficulty, and it may be 142 HEALTH AND DISEASE allowed at auy time after the first acute stage of the disease has begun to decliue. One error which is commonly committed in feeding sick horses is that of leaving the food which the animal has refused in the manger, with the idea that he may take it later on. Certainly nothing could be more dis- gusting to a sick person than to have the plate of food which he has <;leclined kept close to him for some hours; and sick horses may be credited with a certain amount of taste in the same direction. When the food has been refused, it should be entirely removed from the manger, after the animal has been allowed a reasonable time to consume it, if he wished to do so. And no more should be offered until the horse indicates by his movements and looks, which an experienced stableman perfectly under- .stands, that he is anxious for another opportunity of taking nutriment. Water should be kept always within the animal's reach, and should be frequently changed, so as to be always cool and fresh. The plan that is frec[uently — and in former times much more frequently than it is now — adopted of adding hot water to take the chill off, the compound so formed being called oddly enough chilled water, instead of what it really was, warmed watet, is an act of unnecessary cruelty. Nothing can be more grateful to a man or horse suffering from feverish thirst than a draught of clear, cold water, and probably nothing more sickening than a draught •of warm water. Air, fresh and cool, is of equal importance with fresh and cool water, and with animals suffering from congestion or inflammation of the lungs it is often necessary to fix them in such a position that the cool air will reach them, as it is sometimes the case that sick animals will seek the most distant corner of the box, and get as far away from air and light as they possibly can — frequently standing with their heads close to the ground, a position in which they necessarily breathe the same air over and over again. Light. — The question of the amount of light which a sick horse finds grateful will easily be decided by an observant attendant who notices the animal's movements. In diseases in which the eyes are affected, as they commonly are even fi'om sympathy, a strong light is extremely irritating, and should be moderated at once, which can be easily done by fixing some kind of temporary blind to the window. Temperature. — The temperature of the animal's body in all forms of sickness is a matter which should be attended to with the greatest care, and the regulations to this end will vary very considerably according to the season and the situation of the box in which the animal is kept. In all febrile diseases the tendency is towards coldness of the surface HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS U3 generally, and of the ears and extremities particularly. Under such circum- stances it is important to conserve the heat by the application of clothing, which, if necessar}^ may be made to cover the whole of the animal's body. This is done by adding to the ordinary rug a hood which will cover the head down to the nostrils, with separate cases for the ears, and reaching downwards to the withers, joining the ordinary rug which should buckle across the chest (fig. 491). The further addition of tlaunel bandages to the Fig. 491.— Clothing for Sick Horse extremities will complete the clothing, which will naturally be thick or thin according to circum.stances. Grooming is very commonly entirely neglected in the case of sick horses, from a mistaken notion that it is better not to expose the surface of the animal to the open air, or to excite it by the employment of brush or wisp. This excess of precaution may be desirable during the continu- ance of the very acute stage of a febrile disease, and in cases generally where the animal's life depends upon perfect quiet being maintained; but as soon as the animal's condition will permit, friction to the surface should be employed daily, and two or three times a day it may be desirable to stimulate circulation in the extremities by removing the bandages and hand-rubbing the skin of the legs until warmth is restored, applying the bandages again immediately. Exercise. — Presuming that the horse has a good roomy box, the want 144 HEALTH AND DISEASE of exercise will not be severely felt for some time; but as soon as it is safe for the animal to be moved out of the stable, walking exercise once or twice a day, beginning of course with a very short time and gradually increasing, will be an important aid towards the restoration of the animal's health and condition. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE The two terms, sign and symptom, are constantly used to express the same idea. There is, however, in reality a well-marked difference between them. A symptom is one of the characters of a disease, just as a cough is a symptom of an ordinary cold; it is also a symptom of acute bronchitis and laryngitis, as well as a symptom of what is known as broken wind; while a sign is a definite indication of a particular disease, as the presence of the tubercle bacillus is a sign of the existence of tuberculosis. Notwithstanding the admitted difterence between the signification of the two terms, they always have been, and probably always will be, used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, however, this is only justifiable when symptoms are diagnostic, in which case the term signs may be properly applied to them. Symptoms may be described as local and general, according to whether they are limited to the diseased part or relate to the whole of the organism. They are also described as idiopathic when they arise directly from the diseased part, and sympathetic or secondary when they are due to secondary disorder. They are also premonitory and precursory when they are of a nature to suggest the advent of a disease, the indications of which are not yet defined. Thus it may occur to an attendant or to the owner of a horse that the animal has something the matter with it, but the most careful inspection and enquiry may fail to lead to the discover)^ of any precise morbid condition. Neither the pulse nor the breathing exhibits any special characters, and all that can be gathered from the animal's condition is the impression that it is sickening for something; and if it should be the case that influenza is prevalent in the district, the suspicion is at once aroused of the infection having attacked the animal. Symptoms are diagnostic when they indicate the precise nature of the disorder from which the animal is sufiering; for example, an attack of violent but intermittent abdominal pain is a diagnostic symptom of spas- modic colic. Prognostic symptoms include all those indications of disease which suggest the probable termii ation, as a failing pulse and coldness of the surface are warnings of a latal ending to the disorder. Therapeutic symptoms are those which indicate a particular line of treatment, as high SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 145 temperature, quick pulse, and I'apid breathing show the existence of fever, and point to the application of febrifuge remedies. tSyniptoms which are obvious to an observer are described as objective, but when they are only expressed or described as sensations experienced by the patient they are called subjective symptoms. It is evident that in the lower animals subjective symptoms are practically non-existent, as it is. rarely the case that an animal by its actions can express its sensations in such a manner as to be rightly interpreted. Again, symptoms are called dynamical when they are active or violent, and statical when they are subdued; the terms positive and negative are also used to express the same conditions. Pathognomonic is a term used in application to symptoms wliicli in- dicate a particular disease, as a peculiar cough and double action of the expiratory muscles are pathognomonic of broken wind. To the unprofes- sional reader these terms may appear to be unnecessarily complicated, but a little consideration will prove their usefulness as a means of saving time in description. General Symptoms of Disease. — In order to arrive at a correct diagnosis, the skilled examiner has a certain method which enables him to obtain the information which he desires without any waste of time. Symptoms which to the amateur resolve themselves into a general expres- sion of the presence of some illness, are to the eye of the expert in many cases distinctly indicative of the locality and nature of the disorder. When diagnostic symptoms are absent it becomes necessary to make a systematic examination, which, although comprehensive, is carried on with so little effort and occupies so short a time as to attract very little notice from the lookers-on. For instance, beginning with the animal's head, a few seconds will suffice to enable the experienced examiner to ascertain the condition of the visible mucous membranes; a mere glance at the mouth, the interior of the nostrils, and the eye will be sufficient to show whether or not the membrane is red or yellow, or pallid or spotted, or in any way changed from its normal condition. The general attitude of the animal will have been noticed at the first moment of inspection, and the con- dition of the surface ascertained by passing the hand over different parts of the body and the extremities, the examiner noting whether or not the skin is in a healthy state or is harsh to the touch, adherent to the tissues- beneath, hot, warm, or cold. The condition which is described as a staring coat, where the hair is more or less elevated or erect, is seen at once, and is always accepted as a symptom of bad condition, and may commonly be taken as premonitory of some serious disorder. After a general examination of the kind described has been completed. 146 HEALTH AND DISEASE attention is paid to the condition of certain organs, including those of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. The state of the circulatory organs is to a large extent shown by the character of the pulse, iv. the periodic expansion of the arteries, during the contraction of the heart in its effort to drive the blood throughout the body. This expansion, or beat as it is called, may be felt by placing the finger over any of the superficial arteries. The sub-maxillary artery {a, fig. 492) in the horse, as it passes under the edge of the lower jaw close to the bone, is a convenient vessel for the 23urpose. In the popular idea the object of feeling the pulse is to discover the number of pulsations in a minute. The pathologist, however, attaches fsir more importance to the character of the pulsation than to the numl)er of beats in a given time, and it may be added that the character of the pulse varies under different circumstances to an ex- tent which it may be difficult foi the unprofessional mind to realize. Many of these variations can l)e recognized by the touch; theii complete appreciation, however, re- quires the use of an instrument which is known as the sphygmo- graph, which enables the observer to obtain tracings showing precisel}' the condition of the circulation. The varieties of pulse which can be recognized by the touch are described by Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson in his hand-book of the sphygmograph under four heads: 1st, There is a frequent and infrequent pulse, terms -which mean the number of pulsations within a given time. 2nd, The quick or slow pulse, expressions which are erroneously used to define the same thing, i.e. the number of beats per minute. To the pathologist the words quick and slow bear a totally different signification, meaning not the number of beats in a minute, but the time occu- pied by each beat of the pulse irrespective of number in a certain time; thus a quick pulse may be slow so far as the number of beats in the minute is con- cerned. 3rd, The large or small pulse, terms relating to the degree of dilata- tion of the artery in length and breadth. 4th, A hard or soft pulse, so called from the impression which the beat communicates to the touch : a soft pulse is easily compressed, while a hard pulse only gives way to considerable force. Fig. 492. — Points for Feeliiii^ the Pulse a. The sub-maxillary artery, i, The zygomatic arter)'. <■, The carotid artery (behind the jugular vein). The pulse is felt at the points indicated by crosses, .at a by preiising against the inner side of the lower jaw with the finger.s, at h and c by pressing down upon the artery. SIGNS AND SY.MrXO.MS OF DISEASE 117 All the above deacribed conditions of the pulse, which ciin be a])pie- tiatcd without tiie aid of any instruments, convey to the mind of the expert certain iileas as to the state of the animal's system or of some particular part or organ. The frequent pulse, for instance — that is, a pulse which beats more frequently than the standard number of 40 in the minute, — in the horse indicates some degree of excitation in the circulatory system, which may depend on a variety of causes — exercise, a sudden alarm, the mere entrance of a stranger or a strange animal, may increase the frequency of the pulse within certain limits; but when in the horse the beats reach to 50 or GO in the minute, or above, fever is obviously indicated. Fig. 493.— Feeling the Pulse A very frequent pulse may, however, be associated with extreme debility; but in addition to the rapidity of the pulse in such circumstances there will be an important change in its character. An infrequent puLse is found in diseases of the heart or brain, and in such cases the pulse is often intermittent, a condition which is extremely characteristic and ea.sily recognized; a number of regular boats being fol- lowed by a period of rest, and then succeeded l)y another sequence of regular beats. Quick pulse as distinguished from frecjuent pulse is more easily dis- covered by the spliygmograph than by the finger. It depends upon the sudden contraction of the ventricle; the expansion of the artery con- sequently occupies less time than in the healthy pulse, although by cal- culating the number of beats during a given period the quick jDulse may be found to be also less frequent than the normal. The quick pulse would usually be taken to indicate excess in irritability of the muscular structure of the heart. • 148 HEALTH AND DISEASE Slow pulse as distinguished from iMfre(|uent is due to the slow con- traction of the ventricles, so that each beat is prolonged independently of the number of beats in a given time. Reference has already been made to the sphygmograph, which is used for the purpose of obtaining a tracing of the pulse. This instrument has Fi?. 494. — Sphygmograph Diagrams uf tlie Pulse (after Sanderson, Dudgeon, and Steell) In the Human Subject. — 1, Normal healthy pulse: «, systolic wave produced by contraction of left ventricle; i, apex of upstroke indicating highest pressure; t% downstroke; rf, first tidal or predicrotic wave; e, aortic notch, probably indicating the end of the systolic and commencement of the diastolic action of the heart; /, dicrotic wave due to sudden closure of aortic valves; y, second tidal wave; g to h, period of rest (after Dudgeon). 2, Feeble pulse of age (weak contractility of artery). 3, Senile pulse (muscle failure of heart). 4, Hard wiry pulse of rheumatic fever. 5, Hard and long pulse of hypertrophy of left ventricle with dilatation. 6, Soft pulse of irritative fever. 7, Nervous excitement. 8, Mitral and aortic disease. 7)1 tite Horse. — 9, Tracing from the facial artery (normal). 10, From the same animal, after the destruction of the aortic valves, .showing absence of the dicrotic wave. 11, Hcemator/raph. Blood sjiurted from a human artery received upon a revolving drum, showing systolic and dicrotic waves (after Landois). not come into use in general practice, nor is it probable that it will for some time at least replace the ordinary method of taking the pulse; never- theless, it may be interesting to examine the above illustrations, which show very clearly how the different tracings are interpreted; and further information on the subject will be found in the treatises on the sphyg- mograph ])y Dudgeon, Steell, and others. With regard to the respiratory system, .symptoms having reference to SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 149 the number of respiratory movements in a given time, and their character, are almost as varied as are those affecting the circuhitory .system; thus the breathing may be quick or slow, spasmodic or ditiicult. Stertorous breath- ing is attended with a noise which may be compared to snoring. Breathing may also be irregular, sometimes being carried on by the abdominal muscles while the ribs remain fixed, and at other times by tlie thoracic muscles almost exclusively, as in cases of acute peritonitis. A peculiar form of the expiratory effort is exhibited in the act of coughing, the sound of which is produced by a sudden spasmodic expiration, and varies as to its character in different forms of disease; thus thei-e are described moist, dry, and spasmodic coughs. There is also a cough which is peculiar to the broken-winded horse and to the roarer. A soft painful cough is present in bronchitis of the acute kind, and its character is so well defined that the expert will accept the sound as a diagnostic symptom. A hard, dry, or husky cough indicates the absence of mucus, a fiuid which in the normal state moistens the lining membrane of the respiratory tubes, and in one stage of bronchitis, or bronchial catarrh, is secreted in excess and often assumes a purulent character. A dry cough is also a .symptom of parasitic bronchitis, which is commonly on this account designated " husk". Symptoms which are observed in relation to the digestive .system are often rather obscure in their indications; diarrhoea, for example, may arise from so many and diverse causes that its presence does not materially assist the examiner in forming a diagnosis. Nervous excitement is capable of inducing it in some horses. The sight of a red coat or other preparations for the hunting-field act on some sensitive hunters much more rapidly than a dose of purgative medicine. Indigestion may be accompanied by this symptom, or the presence of parasites in the in- testinal canal may produce the disorder; and it may also be the sign of a critical stage in certain febrile affections. In the opposite state, i.e. constipation, the same difficulties occur in the endeavour to interpret the symptom, and in both ca.ses it becomes necessary to take cognizance of other symptoms in order to arrive at a correct conclusion. Diarrhoea or constipation, in association with a yellow tinge of the mucous membrane or the skin, or of l)oth, will naturally lead to a suspicion that derangement of the li\er is the primary cause. This symptom is also progno.stic, as it points to the necessity of treatment being directed to the liver rather than to the digestive tube. Di.sorder of the urinary organs is usually marked by obvious changes in the quantity and character of the urine secretion, and the practitioner frecjuently gains valual)le information by observing that the secretion is 150 HEALTH AND DISEASE excessive, defective, or altered in character. An examination by means of the microscope and the application of chemical tests are among the means which the modern veterinarian employs to complete the evidence on which his diagnosis must be based. It is not of course expected that the horseman will devote himself to the study of symptoms sufficiently to master the subject thoroughly, but he cannot fail to be interested in an account of the methods which are employed by professional men to arrive at correct conclusions as to the localization and pathological character of the derangements which it is their object to rectify by the use of appropriate remedies. Special Character of Infectious Diseases. — Certain maladies which are due to the action of virulent micro-organisms, and also those in which, up to the present time, no special microbe has been detected, are distinguished from ordinary non-infectious diseases by certain features. The most prominent character of all infectious maladies, which has been recognized from the earliest times, is their tendency to render the system of the animal which they attack proof against a recurrence of the same affection for a considerable period, and in some cases for the life of the subject. Further, they are marked by the occurrence of certain phases or stages, beginning with what is called the period of incubation, by which is meant the time which elapses from the moment of infection up to the declaration of the disease, indicated by the appearance of the first definite symptoms. Following this, which may be described as the period of invasion, there is in eruptive affections a perfectly well-defined series of changes in the character of the eruption, from its first appear- ance to its decline. Small-pox furnishes the most typical instance of these changes, which begin with the appearance of papules or pimples (papulation). The effusion of serous fluid beneath the cuticle converts the red pimples into vesicles (vesication), subsequently the contents of the vesicles become purulent (pustulation), and at last dry up and form a scab (desquamation), which ultimately falls off, leaving an eschar behind it (pitting.) These changes occur at intervals on an average of some- thing like three days. In infectious diseases which are not eruptive the stages are not so definitely marked, but there is always the period of incubation, followed by invasion indicated by febrile symptoms, then the progress to the acute stage, and the gradual subsidence of the disorder to the period of convalescence, or, on the other hand, the increase of the energy of the attack until a fatal result occurs. Another peculiarity of infectious diseases is their refractory char- acter in reference to remedial measures. Medicines are for tlie most SHINS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 151 part of little or no xaluc in controlling the progress of these disorders, and it is recognized as an axiom in the treatment of all such afl'ections that the aim of the physician should l)e to maintain the patient's strength to enable him to resist the eti'ects of the malady during its progress, which it is admitted cannot be arrested. The recognition of the fact that an attack of an infectious malady exhausts for a certain period the susceptibility of the system, very early led to the adoption of inoculation as a means of controlling the virulence of the disorder, and, further, of causing the attack at a period when it might l)e considered to be of least importance. AVhen the inoculation was properly performed, even in a virulent disease like small-pox, the resulting attack was generally very mild in its character. The extremely minute quantity of the virus which was employed had a great deal to do with the more benign character of the infection, and the operation had further the advantage of enabling the operator to determine when the disease should be produced, and selecting a* period when the patient was in the most fevourable con.dition. The one insurmountable objection which presents itself, both in regard to man and the lower animals, is the danger of communication of the inoculated disease to susceptible subjects, who are as likely to suffer from a severe or fatal attack as if they had taken the affection from the most virulent case. The dis- covery of certain microbes which were proved to be the cause of disease, and the results of artificial cultivation in modifying this virulence, turned the attention of pathologists to the subject of protective inoculation by means of the ameliorated virus, which was found to produce an extremely mild form of the disease and to confer immunity with a very slight amount of risk. This method of protection has been tried with a certain amount of success in anthrax, and in the disease which is known as Blackleg in young cattle. In this country the system was not at first favourably received; accidents occurred among inoculated animals which led to losses as great as would in ordinary seasons occur in the unprotected. Improved methods of preparation of the virus, and simpler means of inoculation, have since been attended with a large measure of success. For a long period there was only one infectious disease — glanders — to which the horse was believed to be subject, and in regard to this affection its infectious origin was frec^uently disputed. Of late years the progress of the science of bacteriology has led to the addition of a number of diseases which are classed as infectious, the term being now understood to include disorders the virus of which may, according to some authorities, be generated in the organism instead of being introduced from the outside. This view, however, of auto- infection is not capable of 152 HEALTH AND DISEASE demonstration, because it is impossible to prove that the infection has originated in the organism, in face of the fact that the atmosphere is capable of conveying the spores of bacteria into the animal's body. The following diseases of the horse in the present day, among others, are in- cluded in the term contagious, infectious, or epizootic affections: — Anthrax, variola (horse pox), tetanus, pyaemia, malignant oedema, contagious stoma- titis, purpura, strangles, influenza, contagious pleuro-pneumonia (which belongs to the influenza group), cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and certain affections of the skin, as mange, ring-worm, and epizootic lymphangitis, depending on the invasion of animal or vegetable parasites. PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES Prevention. — Preventive measures are of the utmost importance in relation to all diseases. They have a special value when directed against infective disorders on account of the peculiarity which those maladies possess of extending the area of their prevalence, unless severe restric- tions are imposed upon the movement of diseased or infected animals, and even of persons or substances which have been in contact with them. Prevention naturally occupies the first place in dealing with infective diseases; its immediate object being to oppose, as far as possible, their introduction into a country or a district. The measures of suppression can only be employed when the disease has been introduced, and it becomes necessary to check its progress. Preventive measures in relation to the infective diseases of the horse must necessarily be limited in the majority of cases to individual action, as all the maladies which have been named already exist in the ■country, and every purchaser of a horse incurs a certain amount of risk •of introducing an infected animal into his stables. Glanders appears to be the only affection which could be consistently dealt with by any restrictive enactments against the entrance of animals from those countries in which the disease is known to exist. The horse-owner may, however, protect himself by the exercise of care in the selection of fresh animals, and further, liy enforcing a certain period of quarantine on his own premises, for the purpose of satisfying himself that the animal is free from the more common infective diseases, such as those which belong to the catarrhal group — influenza and strangles, for example. It is also possible for him to ensure perfect cleanliness and thorough disinfection, and he can avoid purchasing second-hand harness, clothing, brushes, buckets, or any apparatus used about the stable; or at least, in the event of such things being introduced, it is not difficult to have them properly PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES 153 ■disinfected. It is also important for the horse-owner to recognize the added risk which horses incur of contracting disease when they are affected with cracked heels, abrasions of the lips, and generally any wound on the surface which may give access to the infective matter of glanders, strangles, tetanus, and other infectious diseases. Away from home, tlie horse i.j expo.sed to fresh dangers which can hardly be averted. It may be true that the risks associated with public stables and water-troughs are exaggerated, but there can be no doubt that some risk has to be faced every time advantage is taken of such convenient arrangements. In respect to horse-boxes on railways, complaints have been loud and deep that no provisions have been made for proper cleansing and disinfec- tion, and that in consequence a sound horse may be put into one from which a diseased horse has just been taken. This may be done, but only in defiance of the law which has been in operation for many years past, and is generally enforced on all the railways in the country. The order pro- vides that the floors of horse-boxes shall be thoroughly swept and scraped, as also all other pai'ts with which the droppings of any horse, ass, or mule have come in contact. The sides of the horse-box and all other parts thereof with which the head or any discharge from the mouth or nostrils of any horse, ass, or mule has come in contact shall be thorougldy washed with water by means of a sponge, brush, or other instrument. All the above-named steps are to be taken on eveiy occasion after a horse, ass, or mule is taken out of a horse-box and before any other horse, ass, or mule, or any animal is placed therein. That the provisions for cleansing and disinfecting horse-boxes are not universally appreciated may be gathered from the circumstance that com- plaints have been made by hunting-men of the use of water in cleansing horse-boxes on the ground that when a horse comes in from a run he wants a dry, warm box rather than a damp one, which being admitted, it never- theless follows that proper cleansing is not possible without the free use of water. Suppression of infective diseases implies the adoption of measures more or less stringent, according to the character of the disease. First in order stands the so-called stamping-out system, which includes slaughter of diseased and infected animals, or in place thereof jjerfect isolation, which would be equally effective if it were not that it is almost impossible to ensure it. In cases of disease which terminate fatally in the majority of instances, slaughter does not imply any great sacrifice, but in other infec- tive maladies which ordinarily end in recovery isolation would naturally be .substituted, and it may be here u.seful to suggest some of the precautions 154 HEALTH AND DISEASE which the effectual adoption of tliat system invohcs. The tirst requisite is a box which is entirely disconnected from other stalls or boxes, by which, of course, is meant that the walls and boundaries — no matter of what material they may be composed — although as a matter of course brick walls properly cemented so as to obtain a smooth surface are preferable to any other material — should extend from the Hoor to the ceiling; the entrance door should be also solid, light being admitted by a properly arranged window, and ventilation provided for as far as possible by openings in the ceiling. Next, all the appliances which are necessary in the feeding and general management of the animal should be kept in the box; and further, the man attending on the sick beast should have a waterproof covering which he can put on when entering the box, taking it off and leaving it in some con- venient place as he comes out. It may seem hardly necessary to suggest that washing his hands in a disinfecting fluid and cleansing and disinfect- ing his boots are simple matters of precaution which commend themselves to common sense, and cannot possibly be omitted without definite and incalculable risk being incurred of spreading the disease. During the time that a sick animal is kept in the isolation-box the free use of disinfectants is to be recommended. In the present day there are disinfectants which possess no odour, which can be used without giving offence to the most delicate nostrils, so that the common objection to their employment is easily disposed of. As soon as an animal has recovered, and is considered to be sufficiently well to leave the box, thorough cleansing and disinfection will necessarily follow. The procedure will not materially differ whether the animal has been slaughtered in consec|uence of having been affected with glanders or has recovered from an attack of influenza or strangles; in the latter case, however, it would not be unreasonable to dis- infect the animal itself, immediately it comes outside the box, by sponging it over with a solution of Chinosol, and thoroughly washing its feet. In regard to the box from which a diseased animal has been taken, the litter which has been used during the time of its illness, instead of being carted away for manure, should be taken to a convenient place to be burnt, or, this being impossible, it should be thoroughly mixed with quicklime ; the floor, after being sprinkled with lime should be tlioroughly swept, and the walls and all parts of the box should be thoroughly waslied with hot water in which a liberal quantity of washing-soda has been dissolved. This preliminary washing is perhaps the most important part of the whole process, and no amount of disinfection can compensate for its neglect. In a properly constructed isolation-box the rack and manger and water-trough would all be made of iron, and therefore could easily be cleansed and dis- infected; but if the animal has been kept in a place where wooden racks and PREVENTION AM) SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES 155 mangers are used, the most effective measure would be to liave them pulled down and burnt, especially if the wood-work is in any way damaged, and the same course would be wisely adopted with regard to brushes, buckets, sponges, rubl)ers. and any other apparatus which lias been used about the diseased animal. After the sweeping and washing have been thorougiily done, all parts to which the cleansing [)rocess has been applied should undergo disinfection, and there is no doubt whatever that fumigation with chlorine gas, or sulphurous acid from burning sulphur, is the most eti'ective means which can be adopted; but to l)e perfectly eti'ectual the place must be so arranged that it can be coniiiletelv elosed while the gas is beino- (bsenoaoed. The ordinary sulphur candle supplies a convenient and satisfactory means of filling a place with sulphurous acid gas. Chlorine may be most readily set free by filling some common dinner-plates with a mixture of common salt and peroxide of manganese, and then pouring over the mixture ordinary commercial hydrochloric acid. As soon as the gas commences to escape, either from the sulphur candle or the mixture of salt and manganese, the door should be closed and the place left for twenty-four liours. The disinfection may be completed by applying to the ffoor and walls and all parts of the box a solution of any of the numerous disinfectants which are in use. Carljolic acid is most commonly employed, and in a mixture with twenty or thirty parts of water is very effectual for the purpose. A place which has been properly disinfected should be fit for use for another animal as soon as the walls are dry, and this statement will answer the question which is commonly put as to the length of time which ought to be allowed before infected premises are again used for keeping animals. Clearly it must be the case that if the infected matter has been thoroughly destroyed or removed, time is a matter of no consequence, and if the process has been imperfectly done, and active infective matter is still left, it is impossible in many cases to say how long it may remain active. In fact, it would be necessary to make a difterent calculation in regard to each infective disease, ilost probably the duration of the life of many kinds of virus discharged from diseased animals is lirief, otherwise infective disorders would be more rife than they ai'e. There are, however, always ready for quotation, stories of the wonderful vitality of infective matter, and it is at least sati.sfactory to keep an animal out of a place where microbes may possibly lurk until the danger may reasonably be regarded as a thing of the past. A more serious difficulty is the want of proper appliances, in most private premises, for isolation and disinfection, and, further, the failure on the part of the owner and the attendants to realize the necessity of minute 156 HEALTH AND DISEASE attention being paid to each detail of the cleaning and disinfecting process, whereas the smallest blunder may render the whole procedure useless. It will probably be a subject of enquiry what is the best course to l)e pursued in instances when, from the construction of premises and other circumstances, it would be absolutely impossible to carry into effect in their entirety the means which have been recommended, and the answer can only be in effect what is provided in orders relating to disinfecting and cleaning processes, viz. that where the premises cannot be disinfected, as in the case of a field, for example, in the manner directed, it shall suffice that they be disinfected as far as practicable. 27. OPERATKWS MEANS OF RESTRAINT Dealing with animals like the horse, of high nervous organization, great strength and activity, and often considerable weight, it is sometimes necessary to employ means of restraint whereby operations of greater or less severity may be per- formed. Minor ones can often be accomplished under the restraining in- fluence of the voice alone ; and in this connection it may be remarked that it is given to some men to exercise great authority over the brute kingdom, while a want of tact and judgment would seem to preclude others from ever attaining such a desirable influence. Some of the means employed for this purpose are mechanical, others physiological, and in their application may be confined to a limb, or to one portion of the animal, or applied to his whole body. By superior force the animal is rendered incapable of resistance, and the same may be effected by the administration of drugs which overcome consciousness and paralyse movement. Fig. 495.— Twitch applied PLATE LI HORSE HOBBLED HORSE CAST MEANS OF RESTRAINT 157 The twitch is a simple and effectual appliance by which a horse may be induced to submit to some trifling operation. It is, however, too often resorted to in many stables in lieu of gentler methods of persuasion. This instrument consists of a loop of stout cord attached to a strong- stick by means of a hole an inch or two from the end. In applying it the loop is placed on the horse's upper lip, and the stick is then twisted until sufficient force has been applied to overcome resistance (fig. 495). It is sometimes applied to the ear and tongue. The ear is liable to V)e per- manently injured by it, and the ])ractice of twitching the tongue is so cruel, as well as dan- gerous, that it cannot be too strongly con- demned. As soon as the twitch is removed from the lip, the latter should be gently rubbed with the palm of the hand, as this gives relief to the horse, and his grati- fication is evident by his manner. Holding up a leg will be a sufficient de- terrent in many cases where a restive animal will not otherwise sub- mit to be handled. If strapped up with a stirrup-leather — a method of restraint to be remembered in emergency (fig. 496) — knee-caps should not be forgotten, in anticipation of a fall. Eestive horses are sometimes induced to take medicine, or remain quiet while a hay seed is being removed from the eye, or some other simple operation is performed, by inserting the running portion of a hemp halter under the upper lip while the head piece is passed over the poll; any resistance made by the animal while so secured increases the amount of punishment and causes him to desist. Attaching the head to the tail is one of the lircaker's means of secur- ing obedience, but is rarely applicable for the purposes of medication or minor surgery, so that we need not particularly describe it. The bag of Fig. 496. — Fore-leg strapped up 158 HEALTH AND DISEASE corn wliicli the breaker finds useful in the case of determined rearers is also of service in the stable when a horse refuses to be drenched or "balled" and strikes out with his front legs. Here an ordinary corn sack is about half-filled with heavy oats or maize, and the ends firmly secured to a harness collar (previously put on the animal's neck) in such a manner that the contents are suspended in front Fig. 497.— The Ti-avis of the creature's knees. He cannot strike, and it is with difficulty he can rear. The horse-hair crupper is a useful restrainer, l)ut l)elongs rather to the cure of vice than that of disease. The travis (fig. 497) — a fixed apparatus seldom seen at the present day, though in general use formerly at all country smithies — is an arrangement of po.sts and rails, in length rather less than that of a horse's body, and in width only sufficient to permit those of large size to enter. By means of bars, straps, and cords a restive animal can be secured in a variety of Plate? L \l.\SOrS OPERATING TABLE MEANS OF RESTRAINT 159 attitudes, but the patient is liable to injure himself while struggling, and for this reason the travis has to a great extent fallen into desu-^tude. " The side-line is a useful and lunnane appliance, having few objections, although, like all other metliods of securing a horse, it is not wholly free from danger, either to the animal or attendants. A snigle and a double side-line are recognized among those in the habit of operating upon animals. The former consists only of a long rope passed round the neck and fastened in form of a collar, the free end being carried between the hind-limbs and into the hollow of the heel, whence it is brought round to the front, and looped or fastened by a "half hitch" to the collar portion again. Fig. 499.— Hobbles Fig. 498.— Side-liue Fin-. r,00.-rinss Hol.blfs The hind-leg can in this way be brought forward, and the horse pre- vented from kicking on that side. The double side-line is employed in the same way on both limbs, but in addition it is also used to cast and firmly secure an animal on the ground. A common wagon rope is all that is necesisary, but very much more con- venient lines are now supplied by veterinary instrument makers. They are provided with eyes through which the rope ends are made to pass, with a minimum risk of either rubbing the skin or drawing the line too tight (tig. 498. See also Plate XLIII). HobbleSc — This term may be employed to describe the apparatus used by veterinary surgeons for ca.sting and .securing horses on the ground. It consists of stout leather straps with steel eyes and buckles, and a specially made rope terminating in a few feet of chain, where the principal strength is required (figs. 499 and 500). The sul)ject may be ca.st on either side or 160 HEALTH AND DISEASE readily turned over, when down, from one to the other. The accompany- ing illustrations give an idea of the modus operandi of casting (Plate LI). The horse to be cast is first made to stand with all four legs close together; the rope is then drawn up tight, the leading man standing near to the fore hobble, and at the word of command the three or four men engaged on the rope pull together in an outward and backward direction. To ensure the animal falling on the side opposite to that on which the men are pulling, another rope is usually attached on the falling side to a surcingle or else under the opposite arm, and given into the charge of one who can be depended on to exert the necessary power when the right moment arrives. AVhen down, the rope is prevented from running out, and the horse from moving his legs, by a spring hook (fig. 501) being inserted between one of the links of the shortened chain, while his head is held back and pressed ujDon the ground. A piece of old pasture is the most convenient and at the same time safest bed upon which to cast animals, but where this is not jjrocurable, a thick bed of straw answers the purpose equally well. Fit'. 501. -Spring Hook for Hobbles For the mofc important operations, and especially in well -equipped stables, an oper- ating-table, such as that illustrated in Plate LII, is of course desirable, though not by any means essential. The physiological means of restraint have been incidentally referred to in other parts of this work, notably that dealing with the subject of local and general aneesthesia. For minor operations cocaine is one of the most valuable of recently discovered anaesthetics. By its aid we may perform minor operations upon the eye, the mucous membranes of the mouth, nostrils, &c. By injecting it under the skin, even such severe pain as that infiicted by firing can be obviated, and the patient made to stand during the operation. A solution containing from 4 per cent to 10 per cent of the drug is commonly em- ployed, whether for jDainting on a mucous membrane or injecting subcu- taneously, and up to about 15 grains, there is absolute safety. No greater amount should be used at any one time except under jjrofessional direction. (See Anesthesia, Vol. II, p. 479). NEUROTOMY, XKrurXTOMV, UNNKRVIXO 161 NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING The operatiou kimwii Itv the above terms is uiuhntakeii with the nljjeet of depriving some pait of an animal of sensation when afh'cted with an incurable disease. It is resorted to in eases of navieuhir disease, of side- bone, ring-bone, and other forms of himeness of a chronic and painful character, more especially in the region of the feet. Unnerving, although always eftectivc in depriving the part of sensation, is attended with a varying measure of success, largely dependent upon the judgment of the surgeon. If undertaken upon a subject of navicular dis- ease, for instance, it is important that the foot shall have sutticient strength of horn to receive the nails, without risk of binding or pricking in the course of shoeing. When deprived of sensation, injuries of this kind are not recognized by the horse, and he continues to use the diseased and unfeeling foot without that care which he would otherwise take of it, and without showing any signs of lameness. The presence of corns, which may fester in a foot deprived of sensation, is another element of danger, since in the absence of pain and lameness it is liable to pass unnoticed, until irreparable mischief is wrought. It is, however, an error to sujipose that reparative power is lost when the purely sensory nerves are divided. If a pricked foot or one with a festered corn is detected before serious inflammatory changes have taken place, recovery may be looked for, if judiciously treated. Neurectomy, if performed on suitable subjects, is undoubtedly a valu- able operation, and may add two or three years or more to the usefulness of an animal. Methods of Operation. — The operation is distinguished topographi- cally as the liigh opfration and the low ojieration. These terms are some- what confusing to the beginner, as there is another neurectomy frequently performed, but adopted much later. It is called median, and is the highest on the limb, the median nerve being situated on the inner aspect of the forearm as shown at Fig. 502. For the present the old nomenclature mu,st be retained. The high operation consists in division and removal of a portion of the trunk of the plantar nerve immediately above the fet- lock. Here it runs a little to the front of the border of the back tendons (fig. 502), and, being immediately beneath the skin, affords the surgeon facilities for division without the risk of injuring other structures. It is rather more su"?grficially placed on the outside, and as its bifurcation takes place somewhat lower down than on the inner side, the incision in the skin may be made a little farther down the limb in the former than the latter. It is usual to divide both nerves, though not always necessary, as, for 162 HEALTH AND DISEASE instance, wlien side-bone exists on one aspect of the pastern only. More- over, by leaving the nerve of one side intact, the foot will continue to enjoy a certain amount of feeling, which will not only give security to the animal's movements, but ensure some degree of caution in the use of the limb, which will be to the advantage of the neurotomized half of the foot. It is necessary to cast the animal prior to operation, and if total anaes- thesia is to be produced, a period of some fifteen hours' fasting is recom- Fig. 502. — Tenotomy and Neurectomy. Localities of tlie various operations 1, Jledian neurectomy. 2, Neurectomy of the ulnar nerve. 3, Tenotomy of deep Hexor tendon. 4, High plantar neurectomy. 5, Low plantar neurectomy. 6, Cunean tenotomy. mended; indeed, fasting by way of prejjaration for throwing is by many veterinary surgeons considered a necessary precaution against risk ol rupturing some of the abdominal organs, especially the stomach and bowels. If, immediately the horse is cast, the precaution is taken to apply a powerful india-rubber band (with hook-and-eye) to act as a tourniquet, bleeding from the wound is prevented, and the operator has no difficulty in dissecting the nerve from its surroundings. The site of the operation is closely clipped, and washed with soap and water, and afterwards dressed with an antiseptic, the Sfj^.ne precautions being taken in respect to instruments and appliances to be used. A longi- tudinal incision about three-quarters of an inch in length is then made with a sharp scalpel, and the underlying connective tissue divided until a clear NErKO'l'OMV, NEUKECTOMV, UNNERVING 1G3 -Neurotomy Xeei view of the nerve is obtained. A bluiit-poiiitcd needle (fig. 50;], Plate LIII, fig. 2) with an eye in it is then passed under it. AN'hile so jjlaeed, the end of a piece of carbolized silk or gut is passed through the eye of the needle and drawn back- under the nerve, which may now be raised from its bod and divided Ijv a pair of blunt-pointed scissors. The chief difficulty attaching to this rather delicate operation is to vecoguize the nerve when exposed, and to distinguish between it and the artery which runs alongside of it. In old horses, the victims of many blisters, these two structures are somewhat firmly attached together, and require careful dissec- tion. Three-quarters of an inch of the nerve trunk must now be removed from that portion con- nected with the foot. Then the wound must be irri- gated with an antiseptic, and covered with a pad of cotton -wool su23ported by a clean linen bandage, and subsequently treated by the ordinary antiseptic method. JNIany modern practi- tioners who are adept at this operation make a trans- verse incision, and cut down upon the nerve with very little disturbance of the adjacent tissues. The nerve is divided by means of a combined needle and knife (fig. 504). In order to remove a sufficient length of it, through an aperture no more than half an inch long (fig. 505), High Plantar Neurectomy by Transverse Incision 164 HEALTH AND DISEASE the insensitive end that has just been divided is picked up ]>y strong pliers, and pulled out until sufficient is exposed for removal, as above advised. Next in frecjuency of performance is the low operation, in which the posterior branch of the plantar nerve (fig. 502) is divided as it passes along beside the perforans tendon, midway between the fetlock and the coronet. The mode of procedure is the same as that described for the higher neurec- tomy. It is sometimes resorted to in navicular and other diseases of the posterior part of the foot, but it is not so uniformly successful as when the Fig. 506.— Low Plantar Xeni-eutomy, Kaisiny the digital nerve by an aneurism needle threaded with carbolized silk or gut Fifr. 507.— Low Plantar Neurectomy. Sever- ing- the digital nerve held out by carbolized silk or gut main trunk is divided above the fetlock. It has the advantage, however, of leaving a certain degree of sensibility in the front part of the foot, which greatly adds to the safety of the animal's movements. Dealers in unsound horses are much in favour of the low operation, as the scar resulting from it is not readily seen, and the unwary are in this way imposed upon. Median neurectomy (fig. 508) is sometimes performed for the relief of lameness affecting some part of the limb from the fetlock upwards, such as that arising from " knee splints " and other ossific depositions which have not yielded to ordinary measures of treatment. Division of the ulnar branch (fig. 509) is also practised for removing sensibility of parts at the back of the knee. PLATl' LIN NEURECTOMY: THE HIGH PLANTAR OPERATION Making the Incision. 2. Xeedle passed below llie lateral digital nerve and threaded with carbolized silk or gut. 3. Severing the Nerve. 4. Removing portion of the Nerve. 5. The Operation completed. NEUHOTO.MV, NEUKKCTOM V, INNKRVING 165 Fisf. 508. — Median Neurectomy 1, iMedian nerve. -, Brachial artery. 3, Brachial vein. 4, Ante-brachial fascia. Neurectomy has also been resortetl to in the ca.se of spavin, when all otlier ti'eat- liient has failed, hut not with satisfactory results. Horses which have been unnerved, although free from lameness, usually give some indication of the fact. When the hand is passed over the site of operation the foot is sharply raised as though the animal had been asked to hold it up, or the horse flinches on the application of slight pres- sure over the nerve end, which always remains sore for some time after division. In many cases a nodule of more or less hard material forms on the end of the upper division of the nerve, which can be felt on either side of the leg where the incision was made. When these exist they form serious ground of suspicion as to neurectomy having been performed, and all that is needed to settle the point is a few pin-pricks over the pas- tern. If the nerves have been divided there will be no snatching up of the foot, as occurs when sensibility of the skin is intact. SequelSB. — Some of the con.se- C|uences uf neurectomy have been inci- dentally alluded to: gelatinoid de- generation of tendons, sloughing of the hoof by undiscovered suppuration arising from pricks, w^ounds, corns, &c. When the operation has been resorted to for navicular trouble, the diseased rig. .509. — Neurectomy of the rinar Nerve bone will sometimes fracture or the flexor tendon passing under it becomes excoriated, its fibres soften, and Tupture under the weight imposed upon them; the toe turns up, and the 1G6 HEALTH AND DISEASE liindniost portion of the heel comes to the groinid. A swelling now appears round the coronet, a bulging is seen in the hollow of the heel, and ultimately the hoof sloughs away and the end has been reached. Fig. 510. — Firing Irons FIRING OR THE ACTUAL CAUTERY Firing has been referred to, in other parts of this work, as an indis- pensable operation for the cure of lameness, while the actual cautery has also been advocated for the treatment of other forms of disease. In veterinary practice the term "firing" has by common consent been applied to operations upon the limbs, as distinct from the use of the actual cautery for the de,struction of morbid tissues, the arrest of haemorrhage, or the severance of organs (as in castration). In the former case it is employed with two principal objects, namely, the excita- tion of sujDcrficial in- flammation outside, but as near as pos- sible to, the seat of injury or abnormal growtli, and by its subsecjuent thickening and contraction of the skin to atibrd an abiding support un- obtainable in any other way. No humane man can witness the operation of burning the living tissues without pain to him.self, and it is a matter for congratulation that not only is firing much less practised at the present time than formerly, but the more general use of chloroform by veterinary surgeons has deprived the operation of all unnecessary suffering. Since the necessity of firing is admitted by the best-informed as well as the most humane practitioners, we need not stay to defend the practice, but proceed briefly to describe the methods. AVhether the operator propo.ses to fire in .straight lines, on " feathers", " diamonds", " lozenges", or to make punctures with a pointed iron, the preparation will be the same. The part of the limb to be fired should be closely clipped, or the skin will be scorched by the burning hair, and the smoke and charred remains will obstruct the view of the surgeon and prolong the oijeration. It is usual to cast the patient with hobbles (Plate LIT), but many men, expert by long practice, succeed in making a fairly good pattern with no greater restraint than that afforded by the twitch, and a front or hind limb held up. Cocaine, injected by several punctures a few Plate I. IV 511. — Spavin-punch FIKINCI OK THE ACTUAL CAUTERY 167 ininutes prior to operating, undoubtedly reduces the pain to the animal, and I'isk to the surgeon who undertakes to fire while the patient is stand- ing. Plain lines about three-quarters of an inch apart probably answer quite as well as the most artistic patterns where the firing is intended to act upon a considerable area, as, for instance, in broken-down ligaments and tendons ; but in the case of bony growths, as spavins, side-bones, and splints, punctures may be made with a fine-pointed iron (fig. 511) heated in a fire, or by an aluminium point heated by spirit vapour, as practised in the use of the tliermo-cautery. Whether an iron or aluminium instru- ment is used, the acting surface of the implement should be slightly rounded at the edge, and applied in such a manner as to burn until a dull white appearance of the skin is produced, but avoiding complete division of it, which might result in sloughing and permanent blemish. Besides the immediate superficial infiammation produced by the iron, which should be at red heat when taken from the fire, it lil^L is claimed for this ancient method of treating lameness, that l)y causing the skin to thicken and contract it is made to afford permanent support to the part. There are not wanting authorities who deny the claim that firing has the effect of contracting the skin and producing a permanent bandage, and who assert that all the beneficial results the operation confers are obtain- able from repeated blisterings. Viewed from the humanitarian aspect, a verdict in favour of firing might be given, in preference to l)listering repeatedly, as it is more than likely that a horse sufters as much pain from a blister as from firing, if the latter operation is performed under chloro- form. The infiammatory action set up by firing is not more painful than that produced by a severe blister, and as the effects produced by the former can only be obtained by a repetition of the latter there is little to be said against firing on the score of humanity. The practice of applying a blister immediately to the skin already treated by the iron is not desirable where the lines are drawn close together, but it may be done with advantage in "open" firing. A minimum of two months' rest should be ensured to a fired horse, and as much longer as circumstances permit; the latter part of the time may be spent in a pad- dock or well-littered yard in preference to a loose-box, where during the first few weeks the patient should be confined. No good object can be obtained by removing the thick and scabby layer which results from the operation, and, unless an early repetition of the blister is required, it should be left to fall away after an under-covering of hair has been produced. 168 HEALTH AND DISEASE TENOTOMY For the most part this operation aims at straightening deformed limbs by division of the tendons where, as the result of sprain or other causes, they have become contracted, or where from congenital deficiency of development they are abnormally short. A preliminary dose of aloes or some diuretic medicine may be advantageously employed where the limb is thick or swollen, as this tends to remove any temporary swelling and bring the tendons more clear- ly into view. Animals with contracted tendons have usually a very overgrown foot at the heel. This should be brought to the ordinary level before oj^eration. The tendons which most fre- quently call for treatment are the large flexors of the fore and hind limbs, " per- forans " and " perforatus ". Cunean tenotomy is prac- tised for stringhalt when due to adhesions connected with spavin or other lesions in the immediate neighbour- hood, but is of doubtful value. The operation, in any ca.se, should be per- formed under chloroform. The position cho.se n for dividing the "perforans" or "perforatus" tendon is a little below the middle of the canon, or rather less than half-way between the fetlock and knee of a fore-limb, and the fetlock and hock of a hind one. The horse having been prepared, and everything in readiness, he is cast in the usual way, and the cross-straps are placed upon his legs above the hocks and knees (Plate LIV), the horse lying upon that side on which are the limbs we intend to operate upon, a position which will enable us to operate on the inner side of the limb. The writer's rea.sons for preferring the inner side are that the cicatrix is less in view than it would be if it existed on the outer side, and we are not likely to wound the oblique branch of nerve Fig. 512. -Cu n Tenotomy. Scalpel inserted, forceps holding away fascia TENOTOMY 169 (fig. 502), which leaves the inner metacarpal nerve at the upper third of the space between the knee or hock, ami fetlock, to join the outer at the lower third. If we are about to operate on the hind-leg, the upper cross- strap (Plate LIV) is buckled up tight, thus drawing the upper- most hind-leg as far forward as possible. The foot of the leg to be operated upon is now removed from the hobble; a web halter is placed around the leg above the liock, but below the cross- strap, its free end being held by two assistants, who are to pull, when desired to do so, in a backward direction. It will be seen that this traction will be directly against the cross-straps, which will fix the leg. A similar piece of rope is to be placed around the hoof; the heels of the shoe will prevent it from slipping off. and the free end is to be held by an efficient assistant, who also is to draw steadily when directed. To raise the leg a little it may be placed upon a cushion. The operator is now to place himself so as to be out of personal danger. The two men at the pos- ' i tenor rope are to draw firmly and steadily. The assis- tant at the foot rope is to ilex the foot as the operator directs, who is now to grasp the tendons, which are quite lax, about midway between the hock and fetlock with his left hand, the fingers being placed beneath the tendons and the thunil) above them (fig. 515). In this way we can to a slight extent separate one tendon from another, so as to feel distinctly the space between the two. (Varnell.) Fig. 513. — Tenotomy. Tenotomy knife inserted beneath tendon. Skin cut away to show position of blade beneath tendon. Forceps holding sheath Fig, .S14. — Tenotomv Knife 170 HEALTH AND DISEASE After making a very small incision in the skin, the leg is slightly Hexed. The tenotomy knife (fig. 514) is then forced sideways between the tendons and the suspensory ligament. The point of the knife must not be allowed to puncture the skin on the opposite side of the limb, and when introduced it must be kept close to the tendons to avoid injury to the vessels and nerves running along their border. The blade is now turned so that the cutting edge is brought into contact with the part to be divided; the foot is then forcibly extended by an assistant acting on the foot rope, and by a firm, steady, sawing movement of the knife the tendon is severed. This will be made known by a sharp snapping noise emitted by the sudden parting of the divided portions. The operation being accomplished, the knife is withdrawn and the animal is allowed to rise. A piece of carbo- lized wool is now applied to the wound, and sup- port given to the leg by the application of a linen bandage from the foot upward towards the hock or knee, as the case may be. In order to prevent any undue lengthening of the divided tendons during reparation a high-heeled or a patten shoe will recjuire to be placed on the foot, and the animal must be supported by slings. At the expira- tion of a fortnight or three wrecks the heel of the shoe must be lowered, and the position the foot takes on the ground carefully noted from day to day, so that should the heel show any signs of being drawn up as the tendon becomes reunited, a shoe with a long toe-piece or lever must be fitted to the foot in order to prevent undue contraction in the uniting substance. It is customary with some to divide both perforans and perforatus, but in recent cases of contraction it suffices to divide the one or the other, -Tenotomy of the Ferforans Tendon, showing position of hands and knife CASTRATION 171 whichever may need it. The complete straightening of the limb is not always immediately ajjparent, as in long-standing cases numerous adhesions may still prevent the heel from being brought to the ground, unless they are put upon the stretch and broken by forcil)le extension of the leg while the animal is under control. Wlu'rc no such adhesions e.xist, the patient at once puts the heel down and the toe has a tendency to turn up. After-treatment consists in keeping the wound aseptic by bandaging with suitable dressings (see Antiseptics Employed in the Treatment of Wounds) for a few days, during which it may be expected to heal. Tying up the animal's head to prevent interference with the limb is always desirable. When the tendons have reunited and the new connecting material has become firm and dense, the horse may be turned into a soft meadow for two or three months until the parts have regained their original strength. The application of a repetition of blisters to the leg will reduce any slight enlargement which may result from the operation, and if at the same time the patient be subjected to a course of iodide of potassium a still better result may be effected. The success of the operation is generally greater in the fore than the hind limbs, but very much depends on the time which is allowed for repair. The posterior extremities having to bear the strain of propulsion in heavy draught, require that reparation be thoroughly completed before the horse resumes work, and for this reason a longer time should be allowed. ^lore or less thickening of the tendons always remains after the opera- tion, but by keeping the wound thoroughly aseptic this will be very much under control. The only operation of much practical value is that on the back tendons of the leg. ^ CASTEATION The necessity of this operation, at least .so far as the British Islands ai-e concerned, is its justification. There are not wanting extreme humani- tarians who are prepared to deny the necessity of castration, and point to the fact of entire animals being employed to a considerable extent in European capitals. In the omnibuses of Paris, stallions are commonly found yoked together, and apparently upon good terms with each other. In this country it has been proved dangerous and inconvenient to employ them for such purposes. We may claim, too, that the custom of castration having been general for centuries, has tended to the survival of the fittest, and that being so, our horses are in every respect superior to those of other countries, and being more high-spirited, are con.sequently dangerous for genei'al use when not emasculated. It is obvious that breeds cannot be 172 HEALTH AND DISEASE maintained pure if at pasture the sexes are permitted to associate, and the inconvenience of having to keep them apart on an ordinarv farm holding would very materially interfere with horse-breeding. In the town stable a similar objection applies, notwithstanding that certain mechanical re- straints are employed to keep mares apart and stallions from fighting. Castration in some crude form would seem to have been a means adopted very early in the history of the world, not only for the purposes of taming and controlling animals used in the service of man, but also for improving their flesh. In the Pentateuch we have references to animals "maimed, broken or lacking in their parts", and a very distinct one to mulling ' as still practised in Asia. Age. — It is usual in this country to castrate yearlings, provided the colt lias wintered well and developed sufficiently in the forehand. There is much to recommend this custom, inasmuch as the animal may continue after operation to run with other horses. It is, however, found that some considerable number of colts are not fit for operation at this age, for the reason that only one testicle is to be seen in the scrotum, the other not having made the second descent (they are both usually present at birth). It is then advisable to wait until autumn or perhaps until the following spring. Castration is also postponed until the second year when colts are low at the wither, light or of ewe-formation in the neck, or generally back- ward in development, or where it is desired to have male features more pronounced. For the last reason, operation may be deferred until the third season, when all the inconveniences of keeping an entire horse are of course encountered. When the operation is too long deferred the shoulders become thick and heavy, the crest high and coarse, and the forehead broad; in a word, the masculine features wdiich distinguish the horse from the gelding become developed. METHODS OF OPERATION These are many, and vary not only in different countries, but also in counties and districts of England. Some are practised while the animal is upon his feet; others necessitate casting with hobbles or ropes. The oldest, and what is still regarded by many expert operators as the best method, is by actual cautery. Hobbles of various designs (see INIethods of Restraint) are employed by some operators, while others attain their object with no other apparatus than a wagon rope (see Plates LI and LV). The colt being cast upon his left side, and the hind-limbs drawn for- ward out of the way of the castrator, the parts are fully exposed. The * Lerit. xxi. 20; "or having his stones broken ". Dent, xxiii. 1. Plate LV O I CASTRATION 17.3 stratin^' Knifo penis and scrotum arc now tliorouglily cleansed with soa[) and water, and freely anointed with <'ail)olized oil or vaseline, so that in the event of any considerable swelling following the operation, the penis may be extruded without difficulty in the art of urination. While this is being done, the scrotum is examined for possible hernia or malformation, and having satisfied himself that all is normal, the operator seizes the testicle in the left hand, and drawing the skin tightly over it, proceeds to lay open the scrotum with a liold long sweep of the knife (fig. 516), which shall by one stroke divide the common integu- ment and investing membranes. He will choose the under testicle first, as the second operation will not then be so much obscured by blood as when the reverse order is pursued. The gland, having been freed from the purse, is firmly grasped, and the action of the cremaster muscle, which tends to draw it back again into tlie scrotum, is steadily resisted. Any attachment which may be found to exist between the testicle and the investing membrane is divided by the knife, until the gland is clear of everything but the cord. A clamp or force^is made for the purpose (fig. 518) is then placed upon the latter, and either locked by a hook or serrated catch at the end, or firmly held by the oper- ator, while in the right hand he holds a red- hot iron, with which the cord is divided by a gentle sawing movement of the instru- ment. To prevent hemorrhage from the sper- matic artery a little powdered resin is dusted on to the divided extremity of the cord, and a somewhat cooler iron is then employed to seal up the vessel. The majority of castrators employing this ancient but truly aseptic method also adopt the precaution of smearing the clamp, and afterwards anointing the in- terior of the purse vnth an ointment composed of verdigris, V^enice tur- pentine, and bees'-wax, with the object of jjreventing too rapid healing Fig. 517.— Castrating Iron Fig. 518.— Clamp for Castration by Firing 174 HEALTH AND DISEASE Fig. 519.— Fixing Forceps for Castra- tion by Torsion of the wound and imprisonment of blood -clots, which may decompose and set up septic poisoning. Whatever the origin of the custom, we know that verdigris (copper acetate) is a valuable antiseptic, and that the success of this apparently crude application of the antiseptic system is beyond dispute. The method above described is that most commonly practised among those who employ the actual cautery and cast horses as a preliminary to castration, liut the details vary, and some operators do not use a knife at all, but divide the coverings of the testes by a thin -edged and very hot iron. Dexterously carried out, this is not so painful as from the bare recital of the method it would appear, the severance being very rapid when the investi- tures are I'endered tense by the hand or clamps grasping the scrotum below. Hsemorrhage from the s^^ermatic artery when imperfectly sealed is the chief danger to be feared; a moderate amount of bleeding from the small vessels divided is rather welcomed as presaging less swelling subsequently. Un the completion of the operation the inner aspect of the thighs should be anointed with lard or vaseline to prevent scalding of the skin by matter discharged from the wounds in the course of healing, and it may be advisable to tie up the tail when long, lest the decomposing blood and matter gathered upon it be transferred to the wounds and set up septicaemia or blood poisoning. This is esjDecially liable to take place in summer, when flies are troublesome and the tail is lashed between the thighs to effect their dis- placement. Torsion. — A favour- ite method on the Con- tinent, and in vogue in some jDarts of Scotland and Wales, is that of twisting and drawing out the artery until its coats break and all possibility of hsemorrhage is precluded. To castrate in this manner, the animal has to be cast in the way jjre- viously described, and the testicle let out of the purse by the knife. The jDosterior or non-vascular portion of the cord is then divided, leaving the testicle suspended by the vascular jjortion alone. The cord is then secured in the clamp above the epididymus. This portion is now seized by the Fig. 520. — Torsion Forceps CASTRATION 175 "fixing forceps" (fig. 519), which are firmly held by an assistant (Phxte LVI, fig. 2). The operator now seizing tlie cord still nearer the testicle b\- the "moving forceps" (fig. 520), twists the intervening portion nniiid and round from left to right until all the structures break awa\-, and the testicle is rcniovetl. It is an operation requiring more skill than the method previously described, and occupies more time. If the traction and twisting are too quickly executed, the vessel may be broken before its coats are sutficicntlv torn and separated from eacli other (tlie object sought) to stop the bleeding. Ligature. — With the same methods of restraint and preliminaiy preparation, severance of tlie glands may be effected by ligature. In this method the posterior or non- vascular portion of the cord is divided b)- the knife as in the preceding operation, and the artery is tightly bound round by some suitable material, as carbolized gut, waxed silk, or fishing cord. The first of these presents an advantage in that it is capable of being liquefied and ab.sorbed during the healing of the w'ound, while the others require to be removed from out- side when strangulation of the rig. .'■.21. — Clamps and Forceps for holding the same vessel has been effected; but none of them is wholly satisfactory. The general opinion in this country among castrators of experience is to the effect that this, the most simple and cleanly method, is the least successful of any. Caustic Clamps. — Destruction of the cord by a corrosive agent, com- bined with compression in a wooden clamp, is among the older methods, probably next akin to that practised among savages of including the whole scrotum in a ligature, and turning the wretched beast adrift until the testicles dropped off. In castrating by clamps one of two methods is adopted — the covered or the uncovered ojjeration. In the covered operation the testicle is not completely exposed. The skin and dartos muscle are cut through, leaving the internal envelope immediately enclosing the organ intact. The clamp is then placed upon the sjjermatic cord and its investing tunic, with the ends directed backward and forward. They are then brought forcibly together by the castrating forceps (fig. 521), and securely tied by means of strong cord. 176 HEALTH AND DISEASE In tlie uncovered operation all the structures enveloping the testicle are cut through, and the gland is fully exposed. The clamps are then adjusted over the spermatic cord only (Plate LVI, fig. 1), in the same manner as in the covered operation, but a little more aljove the testis. When securely clamped the testicles may be removed or left to slough away. The clamps employed in the operation of castration are sometimes grooved (fig. 521) along the centre for the accommodation of a charge of caustic paste, which, acting on the tissues of the cord, brings about their more immediate destruction. Standing Operation. — It has been previously remarked that an element of dangiT necessarily enters into the act of casting horses and _ retainino- them in a fixed position on the ground. The risk is comparatively small in connection with colts, whose tissues are elastic; but injuries aris- ing from this cause hav- ing from time to time cjccurred to animals of great value, an exag- gerated importance has been attached to it, hence the standing operation, which in recent years has been largely adopted, both by veterinary surgeons and the ordinary castrator. The usual plan of the standing operator is to have the subject placed against a padded wall or partition in which a strong ring staple is fixed, and a running noose through it is passed over the animal's withers, whereby it is possible to keep him from turning round. A twitch is placed upon the upper lip in the usual way, and then by dint of threats and feints and the pain of the twitch together, the colt is induced to remain upo-n his feet. Many colts can be induced to stand with no other restraint than the twitch, as the fact of having the testes firmly held prevents them from kicking or striking. One effect of the pain they suffer is to make them crouch in a manner inconvenient to the operator. To keep them on their feet is the chief difficulty, and despite the twitch, shouts, and gestures of those who adopt this method, some will lie down. Taking advantage of the upright position the castrator grasps the scrotum in the left hand, and with a clean stroke of the knife liberates first one testicle and then the other. The testicles being liberated from the scrotum, there remains a choice of methods as to their removal. Some apply the caustic clamp, the central groove of Fig. 522 PLATE LVl CASTRATION A. By uncovered testicle. B. By limited torsion. PASSING THE CATHETER 177 which is charged witli a iyc\f,te of porehloriili' of nieiviirv .uid whitiiiji;, or some other destructive agent, which, togetlier with tlie compression of the cord, corrode and strangulate the tissues. When this has been effected the clamps are removed. A quicker way of performing the standing operation is by severing the cord at once with a ,r--^— , — , , icri>tuni. 74. Aug. 27, 1902 Cart 2 years Left Abdomen f Had been re- 1 moved. 75. .Aug. 17, 1902 Cart 5 years Right Do. In scrotum. 76. Oct. 17, 1902 Cart 3 years Right Inguinal canal f Had been re- \ moved. 77. Nov. 4, 1902 Cart 3 years Left Do. do. Do. 1 THE CiRE5HAri PUBLISHING COriPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. ■t- •* ■*■ * •* ■*■-*■* The New Popular ^ library m itself, a General DIc r tionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, Biography, F fl CVC I OOedi a. and History. Edited by Charles Annandale, J r ' M.A., LL.D., Editor of O^ilvie's "Imperial Dic- tionary of the English Language". Profusely illustrated. In u handsome volumes, super- royal 8vo, in Ro.xburgh library binding. A New Century demaada a New Encyclopedia. As time advances, knowledge increases. To sum up that knowledge a new Encyclopedia is required, and everyone ought to possess that new Encyclopedia. The Gresham Publishing Company, having acquired exclusive control of the well-known POPULAR Encyclopedia, are now issuing a New and Revised Edition of that famous authoritative work o( reference. The entire work has been revised to date under the editorship ol Dr. Charles Annandale, assisted by a staff of Specialists and Encyclopedic Experts. The New Popular Encyclopedia is a worthy successor to the previous edition, which numbered among its contributors men of the high position of Lord Kelvin, Sir Andrew C. Ramsay, Pro- fessor J. D. Everett, Mr. Comyns Carr, Captain Ord-Brown, Mr. M. M. Pattison-Muir, &c. In the matter of pictorial illustration the New Popular Encyclopedia is alone of its kind. In no British Encyclopedia, not even in previous editions of the Popular, has so extensive a use been made of the pictorial arts to assist the elucidation of the subject-matter. In addition to the large number of plates in colour, there are v ^ry many plates in liiack and white : pictures of machinery-detail, portraits, ordnance such as Vickers, Creuzot, and Krupp guns, flying -machines, ethnological types, and the hundred-and-one different objects which can be rendered clearer by the use of pictorial illustration. A complete series of Maps is also provided. The Supplements form a very special feature of the New Popular. Besides containing many articles on general subjects they give biographies of living men or of men recently deceased. Thus we have Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Kruger, Lord Salisbury, Lord Rosebery, Mr. Arthur Balfour, Mr. George Wyndham, Lord Roberts, General Buller, Major-General Baden-Powell (whose brother. Major Baden-Powell, secretary of the Aeronautical Society, contributes the Article on Aeronautics), &c., &c. 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In 4 divisions, super-royal 8vo, cloth ; also in Roxburgh binding, in I volume or 2 volumes. One aim of this book is to supply in as plain language as can be used some knowledge of what science has to say as to the body which we inhabit ; the second aim is to give reliable assistance in the domestic treatment of simple ailments. The bodily ills to which young and old are liable are considered more fully than is usual in popular works. The first portion of the book treats of the human body in health, and the various changes produced by disease. This part has been divided into sections, each section being devoted to one set of organs. For example, the bones and joints are considered in one section, the nervous system in another, the digestive organs in a third, and so on. The first half of each section describes the particular organs in their healthy condition, and the second half discusses the diseases to which they are liable. 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This edition of the Imperial Dictionary is beautifully printed on paper of imperial size, specially made for the Work. It is issued in eight Divisional Volumes of a handy size for reference, bound in cloth, with a fine design on side; or in four volumes Roxburgh binding. The reception accorded by the press and the public to this new edition of the Imperial DlCTION.^RY has been such as to show that the care and labour bestowed upon it have met with due recognition, and to prove that it will continue fully to maintain its established position as a standard lexicon of the English language, and as a work of the highest utility for the purposes of general reference and everyday requirement. DISTINCTIVE POINTS. To sum up the chief points of this edition— I. It is the latest revised dictionary, and has a supplement of many thousand new words. 11. It contains more words, exclusive of compound and obsolete words, than any other English dictionary. III. The pronunciation is explained on a plan which is simplicity itself. IV. It gives the pronunciation and the meaning of the word as recognized fo-day. V. It has more illustrations than any other English dictionary. VI. It has full-page plates (coloured and otherwise), which are an outstanding feature of the worlt No other English dictionary contains full-page plates. VII. It has clear type, beautifully printed on fine paper, and is substantially and elegantly bound. VIII. It has a specially prepared Supplement issued with each volume, and not, as is usually the case, relegated to the end of the complete work. IX. It has a very full Appendix, probably the best and finest given with any dictionary in the world. X. It is sold on a plan at once acceptable and convenient, within the reach of all, and the price is very moderate. "The Imperial Dictionary", says the St. James' Gazette, "is a work which fairly deserves the epithet of monumental. 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Prospectus of any Book post fre«. The Gresham Publishing Company. The Cabinet of Irish Literature: Selections from the Works of the Chief Poets, Orators, and Prose Writers of Ireland. Edited by Charles A. Read, f.r.h.s., and Katharine Tynan Hinkson. In 4 vol- umes, super-royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges. ulson Kc As there is an Irish Nationality, so there is an Irish Literature, in which that N-itionality has found expression. .'\nd what a magnifi- cent Literature it is ! how brilhant the roll of Irish writers from Swift, Steele, and Goldsmith, to Sheridan, Grattan, Moore, and the score of gifted men and women who are identified with the present renaissance of Irish letters ! The Cabinet of Irish Literature is an attempt to give every Irishman, every Irish household, a share in the priceless treasures with which the literary genius of the race has enriched mankind. It brings within the compass of a single great work a representative selection of all that is best in Irish L iterature. Not, be it said, the old Irish Literature in the old Irish tongue; of that most is unknown to the people itself, though a good deal of it, in translation, will be found in this book. By Irish Literature is meant the Literature read and understood by the Irishmen of the present day — the expression of the ideas they really feel, of the life they truly live, in Mayo, in Limerick, in Cork, and in Derry. It is a selection made without fear or favour, free from any bias, religious, political, or socia.. Merit is the only passport to its pages. It gives, in brief pointed biographical notices, the life-history of every great Irish writer. We are enabled to realize the personality of the man as well as appreciate the qualities of his work. It deals not only with the past but with the present ; and it is the only work that brings home to us by illustrative extracts the great revival in Irish Literature that is now taking place. W. B. Yeats, Douglas Hyde, George Bernard Shaw, Nora Hopper, Seumas MacManus. Richard Ashe King, George Egerton, Moira O'Neill, are a few among the many scores of modern writers whose works are represented in the CABINET. No Irishman who is proud of his nationality can afford to be without a work which thus focuses the whole intellectual activity of the race. To the younger generation it will be an inexhaustible source of in- spiration, a priceless influence in forming their taste, in moulding their character— in a word, in perpetuating those qualities which now, as in the past, are associated with the name of Irishman. The Cabinet was originally planned by Mr. Charles Anderson Read, but this accomplished Irish poet and novelist did not live to see the fruition of his hopes. His work was completed by Mr. T. P. O'Connor, under whose auspices the first edition was issued. Now, after the lapse of nearly a quarter of ci century, (he time has come for a new edition of this monumental work, whicn shall take due account of the extraordinary activity in Irish letters during the intervening years. Under the able editorship of Miss Katharine Tynan (Mrs. Katharine Tynan Hinkson), herself one of Ireland's most distinguished writers, the work has been thoroughly revised and brought down to the present hour. In its get-up it is all that a book of its great importance should be. The illustrations are many and of the highest artistic value. Some of the most eminent black-and-white artists of the day, including John H. Bacon, Charles M. Slieldon, W. Rainey, R.I., G. P. Jacomb- Hood, R I., and W. H. Margetson, have been commissioned to illus- trate typical scenes from the masterpieces of our literature, and tliese drawings, rendered by tlie latest processes of photographic reproduc- tion, and printed on specially prepared paper, add an unique charm to the work. The Cabinet is further embellished with a large num- ber of photographs of the most eminent Irish writers; and the cover design, in gold upon green cloth, is the work of Talwin Morris, the 'vell-known designer. Prospectus of any Book post free. The Gresham Publishing Company. The Book of the Home. An Encyclopaedia of all Matters relating to the House AND Household Management. Produced under the general editorship of H. C. Davidson, assisted by over one hundred specialists. Copiously illustrated by coloured and black-and-white plates and engravings in the text. In 4 volumes, super-royal Svo, cloth, with artistic design ; also in 8 divisional volumes, cloth. The Book of the Home is intended to form a complete work of reference on all subjects connected with houseliolil nianageinent. No efforts have been spared to ensure that every matter bearing upon the Home and Home I.ile shall receive full and sufficient treatment, and that the information given shall be reliable and in the best sense of the phrase up-to-date. A few among over one hundred specialists who have contributed to the work: Mrs. Ada S. Ballin, Editor of Baby— the Mothers Magazine, vi.nA of Womanhood. Miss Bertha Banner, Training Teacher of Sewing and Dressmaking at the Liverpool Technical College for Women. Mr. A. Black, C.E., Architect, Author of First Pnntiples 0/ Building. Mrs. Davidson, Author of Dainties, What our Daughters can do for themselves. &c. Miss J. FoRSTER, Principal of the Cheshire County Council Dairy Institute. Mrs. H. R. Haweis {the late), Author of The Art of Decoration, The Art of Beauty, &c. Miss Helena Head, Principal of the Liverpool Girls' School for Secondary Education in Domestic Science, and Author of the Manual of Housewifery. Mrs. A. Hodgson, Home Decorator to The Lady. Mr. R. Keith Johnston, Author of Household Dij^culties and Haw to overcome Them, Miss Gertrude J. King, Secretary to the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women. Miss E. E. Mann, Head Teacher at the Liverpool Training School of Cookery. Colonel M. Moore-Lane, Contributor to the Field and other agricultural papers. Mrs. C. S. Peel, Dress and Household Editor of Hearth and Home, and Author of The New Home. Miss. B. SiBiHORPE PooLEV, Lecturer to the Liver- pool Ladies' Sanitary Association. Miss Rankin, Head Teacher of Laundry Work at the Liverpool Technical College for Women. Miss Florence Stacpoole, Lecturer to the National Health Society and the Councils of Technical Education, and Author of Handbook of House- keeping for Small Jncomes, &c Mr. David Tollemache, late editor of The C/te; and Connoisseur. The contents of The Book of the Hom" may be grouped under four heads. The first deals with all matters concerning the House — from the choice of its site to the least of its internal decorations. The householder is instructed in the laws regarding landlord and tenant, and counselled in the important matters of sanitation and ventilation, heating and lighting, and the stocking and management of the garden. The housekeeper is advised as to furnishing, everything necessary for the comfort and adornment of a well-equipped house being described in detail, hints being also given regarding removals, painting and papering, artistic decoration, arrangement of linen and store cupboards, &c. 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Other subjects treated under this head are dress, home occupations, visiting and entertaining, and indoor and outdoor amusements. In the fourth sound, systematic, and practical advice is given as to the management, in health and sickness, and the education, of children, and also on such important subjects as occupations for boys and girls, the ceremonies necessary on the coming out of a daughter, and the preparations and formalities necessary before and after a marriage. The Book of the Home will thus be at once an indispensable ally to the young bride and the novice in housekeeping, and a valuable work of reference to the more experienced. Prospectus of any Book post free. The Gresham Publishing Company. Ti^Ck lVa-f<«»*ol H Jc?-f/-k»-«r I'he Animal Life of the World in its ine l>iaiUrai niSlOry various Aspects and Relations. By J. pw-ff Anim^lQ* K. AiNswoRTH Davis, M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, Ul /\llllllctlS. ^nd of University College, Aberystwyth. Profusely illus- trated with full-page colour and black-and-white plates, and engravings in the text, by eminent animal artists. In 8 half-volumes, cl. extra; also in 4 volumes, Roxburgh binding. While the sum of human knowledge is gigantic now as compared with what it was a hundred years ago, in the department of Natural History the books upon which the great majority of us must depend have undergone practically no change. The general Natural History still follows the lines adopted by Goldsmith in his famous and delightful Earth and Animated Nature. That is to say, they are little more than classified catalogues of animals, taking up in succession the various groups and individuals, and describing them one after another, each as standing by itself This is not what the intelligent reader of the present day requires. He must be put in a position to take a comprehensive grasp of the subject; he demands a competent guide, not a directory, however accurate. It is with this end in view that The Natural History of Animals has been compiled. It treats this great subject on essentially modern lines, giving an accurate and vivid account of the habits, relationships, mutual interdependence, adaptation to environment, &c. , of the hving animals of the world. It is needless to say that the production of such a work demanded a man who has devoted his life to the study of biology and zoology, and who at the same time is a gifted writer and expounder. This rare combination has been found in the person of Prof J. R. AiNSWORTH Davis, m. a., of Trinity College, Cambridge, and of University College, Aberystwyth, the author of the present work. Prof Davis is well known to naturalists as an ardent worker in Natural History, particularly in the field of marine zoology. He is a very distinguished graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, the chief scientific school in Britain, perhaps in the world, and has done a great deal of literary work, both scientific and in other directions. Briefly, the object of Prof. Davis's work is to give in a readable form and in non-technical language a general survey of the whole animal world from the stand-point of modern science — and the work may fairly claim to be a Natural History on a new plan, the first comprehensive work in English of its own special kind. Formerly Natural History had much the character of a miscellaneous aggregate of disconnected facts, but hardly any fact or feature connected with any animal can now be considered as isolated from others; and animals as a whole must be looked upon as interrelated in the most surprising manner both with one another and with their surroundings. Every household library should contain a Bible, a Dictionary, an Encyclopedia, and a work on Natural History. This is the "irreducible minimum"; other books we may have, these we must. For The Natural History of Animals it may fairly be claimed that it has a better title than any other work to become the Natural History for the Household. It is a work in which the adult reader will find a never-failing mine of information, while the younger members of the family will delight in its wealth of illustration, and its store of interesting and suggestive anecdote. To teachers The Natural History of Animals may be regarded as indispensable. More than usual attention has of late been directed to the important subject of Nature-study; and in this respect the appearance of Prof Davis's work could scarcely have been more fitly timed. In the domain of Natural History it is pre-eminently the book for the purpose. Its clear and orderly arrangement of facts, its masterly grasp of general principles, its comprehensiveness of scope and simplicity of style, combined with the most absolute scientific accuracy, render this work an invaluable book of reference /or those who aspire to teach Nature-study on up-to-date principles. The Illustrations, as befits a work of such importance, are on the most lavish scale. A large number are in colour, reproductions, by the latest processes of colour engraving, of exquisite pictures by the most eminent animal draughtsmen. In illustrating the work talent has been sought wherever it was to be found ; and the list of artists is representative of several nationalities. A large number of the designs are the work of Mr. A. Fairfax Muckley, who is probably unsurpassed in the capacity to depict living creatures with absolute fidelity to detail without sacrificing the general artistic effect. Friedrich Specht, one of the most eminent German animal painters of the past century, is represented in The Natural History op Animals by many of his best designs in colour and black-and-white. W. KUHNEKT, another German artist whose work is universally admired ; and M. A. KoEKKOEK, the talented Dutch painter, are also among those who have assisted in the embellishment of the work. An important feature is the series of diagrammatic designs showing the structure of certain typical animals, specially drawn under the direction of Prof. Davis. Prospectus of any Book post free. The Gresham Publishing Company. The Modern Carpenter, JJ^V^d 1ST editorship of G. LisTE ciate of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Mem- J_*j_^„ ftrtri editorship of G. LisTER SUTCLIFFE, Architect, Asso- /^ _ |_ • f-« p^-f _ J^ n L'tit* • ^^'^ °^ '^'^ Sanitary Institute, editor and joint-author of ^dUIIlCL— iYldlvCl • "Modern House-Construction", author of " Concrete: Its Nature and Uses", &c. With contributions from many specialists. Illustrated by a series of about loo separately-printed plates and looo figures in the text. In 8 divisional volutnes, super-royal quarto, handsomely bound in cloth, with cover design by Mr. Talwin Morris; also in 2 volumes, Roxburgh binding. In complete sets only. In preparing The Moiiern Carpenter the editor has had the great advantage of working upon the basis of Newlands's Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant, which for nearly half a century has been accepted as a standard authority on the subjects of which it treats, and for many years has been recommended by the Royal Institiue of British .Architects as a text-book for the examination of that society. And yet in the present work it has been possible to preserve only a very small part of Newlands's treatise, invaluable though this has been to two generations of craftsmen. While the fundamental features of arrangement and method which distinguish this famous work have been retained, the matter has had to be entirely rewritten, and many new sections have been added, on subjects not touched upon in the older work, with which the carpenter of the present day requires to be familiar. In the new book, indeed, the old foundations that have stood the test of half a century of practical use have been retained, but the superstructure is wholly new. * The lesson to be learned from this fact is not lar to seek. It is that the modern carpenter requires a far wider expert knowledge than sufficed his predecessor. The development of wood-working machinerj', the introduction of new kinds of timber, improvements in the design of structures, the more thorough testing of timbers, and progress in the various industries with which Carpentry, Joinery, and Cabinet-making are intimately allied, have all helped to render the craft more complex. The carpenter of the present day has no use for the old "rule of thumb" methods; his caUing is both an art and a science, and knowledge, knowledge, and again knowledge is the primary condition of success. The editor of The Modern C.vrpenter, Mr. G. Lister SutclifFe, Associate of the Royal Institute of Architects, needs no introduction to practical men ; his name is already well known not only through his professional position in the architectural world, but through his editorship of Modern House- Construction, a work which, although issued only .a few years ago, has already become a standard book of reference. Mr. SuTCLiFFE's large experience has enabled him to enlist the services of a highly- qualified staff of experts, whose special knowledge, acquired through long years of practical work, is now placed at the disposal of every member of the craft. The first condition in selecting the contri- butors to the work was that they should be practical men, not only possessing the indispensable knowledge, but having the ability to impart it. The result is that within the eight divisional-volumes of this work we have a treatise on every branch of the craft, distinguished by four outstanding qualities : — It is (i) complete, (2) clear, (3) practical, and (4) up-to-date. An idea of the scope of The Modern Carpenter may be gathered from the fact that while its predecessor, The Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant, comprised only eight sections, the new work includes no fewer than sixteen. A glance at these will show that the work covers the whole field ; it is a complete encyclopaedia upon every subject that bears upon the everyday work of the practical man. I. Styles of Architecture. II. Woods : Their Characteristics and Uses. III. Wood-working Tools and Machinery. IV. Drawing and Drawing Instruments. V. Practical Geometry. VI. Strength of Timber and Timber Framing. VII. Carpentry. VIII. Joinery and Ironmongery. IX. Staircases and Handrailing. X. Air-tight Case-Making. XI. Cabinet-Making. XII. Wood-Carving. XIII. Shop Management. XIV. Estimating. XV. Building Law. XVI. Index, Glossary, &e. The Illustrations are not the least of the many notable features of this great undertaking. The work is embellished in the first place with about 100 full-page plates, reproduced, some in colours, by the most approved processes of mechanical engraving, and printed on specially-prepared paper. In addition to this unique collection there are no fewer than 1000 diagrams and designs in the body of the work. No trouble or expense has indeed been spared to procure illustrations where these could elucidate the text. Prospectus of any Book post free. The Gresham Publishing Company. Charles Dickens' Novels. The Imperial Edition of the Novels of CHARLES Dickens, in i6 volumes, large square 8vo, cloth extra, gilt top. An Ideal Issue. One Novel, One Volume. Despite varying lengths, the paper, &c., is so adjusted that each volume is uniform in thickness and size. The Cheapest Edition. The price of each volume makes the edition the cJieapest of the best editions. Sumptuously Bound. The cloth is of the finest and is im- perial red in colour. The embellishments (produced in gold) are an appropriate design of national arms and imperial em- blems by the eminent designer, Talwin Morris. Illustrations a Unique Feature. Every picture drawn spe- cially at enormous cost for this "Imperial" edition by the best known and most celebrated Artists of to-day. George Gissing's Masterly Study. A literary character study, the work of this great authority, forms one of the volumes of this issue, and is illustrated with pictures of some of the quaint old hostelries and places made famous by Dickens, and is altogether an invaluable addition to this issue. Presentation Portrait. To every subscriber to this edition will be presented with the last volume a magnificent Photo- gravure of Charles Dickens. It is printed on the finest plate paper, 22 inches by 30 inches, and has been specially engraved for this edition. A List of the Novels. The following is a list of the volumes in the Imperial Edition: — The Pickwick Papers. Oliver Twist. Nicholas Nickleby. Martin Chuzzlewit. The Old Curiosity Shop Barnaby Rudge. David Copperfield. Bleak House. Sketches by Boz. Hard Times and Master Humphrey's Clock. Christmas Books. Dombey and Son. Little Dorrit. A Tale of Two Cities. Great Expectations. Charles Dickens: A Critical Study. By George Gissing. Prospectus of any Book post free.