THE

HORSEOWNER AND STABLEMAN'S
COMPANION

OR

HINTS ON THE SELECTION, PURCHASE, AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE

BY
GEORGE ARMATAGE, M.R.C.V.S.

EDITOB OP " CLATES'S EVEBY MAX HIS OWN CATTLE DOCTOB."

LONDON :
FREDERICK WARNE AND CO.

BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.

BALLANTYNE AND HANSON, EDINBURGH
CHAN DOS STREET; LONDON

f\7

CONTENTS.

PAGB

PEEFACB , .... ,. ix

PART I.
MISMANAGEMENT.

DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE:

Immediate Object of Food — Development — Main-
tenance— Waste or Decay — Importance of Good
Food for Young Animals — Evils of an Insuffi-
ciency 8

ORGANS or DIGESTION:

Enumeration — Prehension — Incisor Teeth — Tongue
— Cheeks — Molars or Grinders — Pharynx —
Gullet— Deglutition 14

IN SALIVATION :

Saliva — Salivary Glands — Solvent Action —
Chemical Action — Quantity of Saliva — Uses and
Importance of Saliva 16

STOMACH :

Peculiarities in the Horse, Ox, and Man — Broken
Wind, and Chronic Cough — Rapid Digestion in
the Horse — Small Stomach — Necessity for
Regular Feeding 20

vi Contents.

PART III.

SELECTION AND PUECHASE OF HOBSES:

Tricks and Frauds of Dealers — Bribery — Warranty —
Certificates of Soundness — Recommending Horses —
Precautions to be observed Ill

STABLE MANAGEMENT:

Early Operations in the Stable — Watering — Purity of
Water — Cleanliness — Disinfectants — Lighting of
Stables — Ventilation — Various Plans — Heat or
Temperature of the Stable — Grooming or Dressing
— Stable Tools — Washing the Legs — Bandages —
Clothing — Bedding — Disposal of Manure — Clipping
and Singeing 128

FEEDING :

Oats — Beans— Barley — Tares or Lentils — Hay — Straw
— Bran — Linseed — Linseed or Oil -cake — Maize or
Indian Corn — Locust or Carob Bean — Condiments
— Vegetable Food — Turning to Grass — Regularity
of Feeding — Feeding after Work 156

EXEBCISE 181

CONDITION 185

THE TUKKISH OB ROMAN BATH, AND WASHING
HOBSES AFTEB HUNTING 189

GENEBAL ABBANGEMENT OF STABLES:

Ordinary Arrangement Defective — Improvement on
the Plan — Paving of Stable Floors— Drains— De-
clivity of Stable Floors— Wooden Floors— Their
Economy — Loose Boxes 194

Contents. vii

THE CAUSES OF DISEASE AND ITS PEEVENTION:

Prevention Better than Cure 203

SIMPLE RULES FOR SHOEING, AND MANAGEMENT OF
THE FEET OF HOESES:

The Hoof— Wall— Sole and Frog— Nails— Shoes—
Their Shape — Bar Shoes — Leather Soles — Stopping
for Feet — Foot Ointments — Cutting and Brushing
— Groggy Feet — Sidebones — Pumiced Feet — Pricks
and Binds — Shoeing in Coal Mines 208

POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS 222

SENDING FOB THE VETEEINAEY SUEGEON .... 224

PEEFACE.

IT has been said, " What England is, she has been
made by the thinking and working of many
generations/' and the remark has an application
quite as special to the British stockowner as to
the merchant prince.

By the concentration of talent and English
perseverance the stock of Great Britain has been
raised to a standard of unparalleled excellence.
Throughout the operations of agriculture have
kept this end prominently in view, and with un-
paralleled excellence has been also derived a
proportionate collateral value. Both are qualities
which call for regard, and forcibly point out
the necessity for an orthodox system of preser-
vation. But neither — successful as they have
become — are the result of outside assistance,
which, as in other countries, the agriculturist
and horseowner can obtain on the most approved
and easy principles. They are due to the patient
working and deep intelligence which forms one
of the innate portions of English character.

x Preface.

All the advice and assistance which veterinary
science has almost up to the present time fur-
nished to the stockowner in the works to which
he has had access, have been far below the re-
quirements of the age, and shrouded beneath
faulty detail and even positive error, the result
of young and recent observation. Much incon-
venience, mischief, and vexation have been caused
by exclusive attention to effects, while the causes
have been altogether overlooked. The greater
part of the mortality among live stock is preven-
table, and, to demonstrate that, it is required that
the causes of disease should be clearly under-
stood. A scientific estimate of the animal body,
its habits, and nature has led to that understand-
ing, and the irrefragable proof; and both will
become more apparent day by day, as scientific
truths are submitted to the thinking and working
community. By these means we are daily adding
fresh stores of information in that department
which relates to the preservation of animal life;
and one of the great principles is to obtain a
thorough acquaintance with the laws of health
which always rightly precedes a study of the laws
of disease. Horsekeepers, stockfeeders, and flock-
masters require the first in order to adopt a cor-
rect system of prevention, rather than seek disap-
pointment in practising curative measures, the

Preface. xi

true nature and variations of which they can
have neither the time nor the opportunity to un-
derstand properly.

These truths have prompted the author to
treat rather fully the subject of the physiology
of digestion — nature of food — principles by which
economy and safety to animal life may be gained,
as well as other equally important matters which
come within the notice of all who have horses
under their care. With a correct knowledge of
the healthy functions of animal life must ensue
greater respect for the fabric which has been
termed " the tuneful harp of a thousand strings/'
and a correspondingly increased desire and ability
to put into force the valuable precepts which
are acquired by the lesson. The preservation
of our domestic animals is a comprehensive sub-
ject, and has been eminently fruitful in many
places already where it has met with even an
ordinary consideration. It is the desire of the
author to direct his efforts towards increasing
the success of the movement, and he feels as-
sured the present volume will prove no slight
aid where the disposition to improve exists. The
non-professional reader has been considered
throughout. Technicalities have been suppressed
as far as practicable, or supplemented by expla-
natory addenda, which it is hoped will bring

xii Preface.

the work directly into the hands of all who
have animals placed under their care; and suc-
ceed in the diffusion of useful knowledge in a
direction where tradition has so long and use-
lessly held a seat, to the immense sacrifice of one
of the greatest sources of national wealth — our
domestic animals.

EASTLAKE ROAD,

CAMBEEWELL, S.E.

THE

HORSEOWNER AND STABLEMAN'S
COMPANION,

PAET I.

MISMANAGEMENT.

MISMANAGEMENT in any department is universally
acknowledged to be the precursor of evil con-
sequences, and one of the golden rules in our
social economy is that which teaches how to re-
cognise the one and avert the other.

If there is a section of the community which
languidly basks in the oblivion of misrule more
than another/ it is that under whose care are
placed our valuable domestic animals, and to
which we trace deterioration of breed, prevalence
of disease, and a high rate of mortality.

As things at present exist in the many places to
which these remarks apply, one would be inclined
to the opinion that the study of system in the stable
and cow-shed is unworthy the time, trouble, atten-
tion, or altogether useless: hence the result; valu-
able animals are left to the care of illiterate atten-
dants, who prescribe for their wants and comforts
under predominate ignorance. At one time they

Mismanagement.

are fed with extravagance, and at another a
nutritious meal is denied them.

Unwarranted officiousness also too frequently
provides a novel system, and wonders are speedily
developed in adverse of a desirable state, while
indisputable obstinacy and prejudice prevent the
recognition of cause and effect.

In ignorance of the nature of food, principles
of feeding and management, the annual losses
from indigestion and its consequences among
horses and cattle are somewhat startling, and
unfortunately too common throughout Great
Britain. Even in places where we have a right to
expect practical information on the laws of health
and the animal economy, confusion only remains.
This is particularly the case upon some of the large
colliery establishments in the north of England.

Immense numbers of horses and ponies are
here fed in accordance with principles laid down
by a " land agent," upon corn usually purchased
by himself. These principles are generally
original, and resemble the laws of the "Medes
and Persians " in being unalterable.

During one part of the year, corn with an
excess of green food is supplied ; at another, the
grain is spoiled by steaming ; each period being
regulated in total ignorance and disregard of
existing conditions, without instituting the least
inquiry in most cases, and never making a descent
of the mines to examine the animals which come
in for a share of such magnanimous solicitude.

Mismanagement.

Besides this functionary, there are other mem-
bers of the executive called " viewers," who do
not forget their exalted position, attained in some
instances, I fear, at a speed which has not ad-
mitted of the mind assuming an adaptability to
it; at least, judging from the amount of pre-
sumption with which these men vaunt their
opinions upon professional matters, and in their
want of respect to others infinitely higher in the
social scale.

Under such principles of " grandeeism," it is
not surprising that, with unsystematic feeding,
hard work unnecessarily protracted, with cruelty
overlooked or connived at, mortality is excessive.
The ears of reason are, however, stopped, and as
some one must bear blame when it is forthcoming,
he who possesses the least influence in the matter
— the resident veterinary surgeon — receives the
whole in a most ignominious manner.

Happily all are not of this kind.

Some of my best friends are engaged in the
management of extensive collieries, and have amply
shown what can be done to ameliorate the life
and condition of the poor creatures employed
there. Such bear a remarkable contrast to the
former class, who never recognise the efforts of
others except when they can be appropriated as
their own good deeds, by which they seek the
adulation of the owner, and swamp into in-
significance him who feels it an imperative duty
to utter a word for reform or economy. This

Mismanagement.

is the " red-tape," for the exercise of -which
I presume owners who know it not pay rather
dearly,

It has been known that reports detailing the
existence of glaring evils easily remedied by a
change of system, requiring no extra outlay, but
insuring a highly profitable investment, drawn up
by able men — veterinary surgeons — who have
studied these matters for years and practised them
successfully, and who, after sending them to head-
quarters by desire, have been treated con-
temptuously— such men have been told, "your
information is only a parcel of figures" or after
being summoned to the office of the " viewer,"
"you had better not interfere in such matters; things
have gone along very well hitherto, and no com-
plaint has been made from above ; you receive your
salary, and it will be advisable that you should not
report these things beyond myself."

Existing affairs are permitted to go on as before,
but the information thus obtained is put aside, in
order to be applied as perfectly original matter
at a time when the proper owner is not present
to identify it.

A few years ago, in a paper read before a
certain farmers' club, I gave the details of a
system of feeding colliery horses which had been
successfully carried on by the resident veterinary
surgeon some years, and resulted in the annual
saving of hundreds of pounds.

The local newspapers gave full reports, the

Mismanagemen t.

executive was jealous of the honour given, and
immediately took the feeding into their own
hands.

On another occasion Mr. Hunting, M.R.C.V.S.,
attended the Newcastle Farmers' Club, in
obedience to a request, to detail the system which
he had carried out successfully both as to the
saving of expenditure and preventing mortality.
The usual feeling of malice and jealousy prevailed
here also, for some unknown person forwarded a
parcel of hay-seeds and rubbish to the chairman,
with the statement that the sample was taken
from the kind of provender which Mr. Hunting
used, and was about to recommend to the meeting.

Such is the treatment with which professional
men are met upon some of the extensive colliery
estates of Britain. Instructions received from
" head-quarters" point out the necessity for sur-
veillance over the provender, mode of feeding,
work, &c., by the veterinary -surgeon ; but to de-
tect an error and point it out as required,
although an enormous saving would accrue from
a change, is to render him odious in the eyes of
despotism. If he wishes to hold his appoint-
ment, it must be by the sacrifice of conscientious
duty, an assumed blindness to, and perfect silence
upon, such topics. If he persists in his course,
the results are known only to himself.

While this treatment is permitted, it is not
very likely that great improvements, or the
avoidance of unnecessary expenditure, waste, and

Mism anagemen t.

mortality will take place in tlie departments re-
ferred to. Owners may still complain about the
disparity between profits and expenses. Efficient
veterinary surgeons (and there are men in the
body of practitioners as valuable in their calling
as viewers are in theirs), desirous of establishing
necessary and profitable reformation in depart-
ments essentially their own, lose interest, and
weary in well-doing after repeated insults of the
kind referred to are heaped upon them. They are
not allowed a word in explanation, and at length
retire in disgust, and the places are filled by auto-
matons— mere machines — who generally occupy
such posts with greater satisfaction to those who
fill up the executive and revel in the exercise of
despotic power.

It is not only in reference to colliery animals
where mismanagement occurs. We need but
turn our attention to the system pursued in our
large town and farm stables ; and cattle and sheep
also are found to participate in the general results.
Veterinary surgeons in some districts can
testify to the bulk of their cases being those
which arise from indigestion, and the insurance
papers of many a defunct society would afford
doleful tales of sudden death from the same states,
causing rupture of the stomach, intestines, or
diaphragm, calculi (or stones), and incurable
diabetes running into farcy and glanders.

Farmers are fully conversant with similar
results also, which find an origin in the cheap

Mismanagem ent.

and inferior bean or pea straw, musty hay, and
supposed economical system of feeding with little
or no corn.

Among his cattle he endures losses from en-
gorged and ruptured stomach, splenic apoplexy,
black-leg, parturient diseases, diarrho3a, and
dysentery; and among his sheep, in addition to
the above, skin and parasitic diseases.

The London brewers have to lament the loss
of their plump dray horses from rupture and
disease of the liver ; and Scotch proprietors suffer
no less, though rather differently, fnom the use of
trashy boiled mixtures of food.

In the coal mines, where proper surveillance is
not permitted, and stupid customs are adhered to,
indigestion, with its attendant states, carries off
many valuable lives, and the cause is looked upon
as inducing a condition which must be endured,
or the evil as a manifestation of some peculiar
influence, probably of a planetary character.

Notwithstanding this, all busy themselves in
searching for a cure, without going further to
attempt a solution of the mystery, which may be
interpreted by the principle of prevention. We
thus go on in blindness and obstinacy, seeking
after some brilliant theory, and in eager pursuit
of that which is remote, neglect the highly pro-
fitable and easily deciphered lessons which, already
pregnant with most ample information,, are com-
pletely within the grasp.

DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE.

A discussion of the subject of food and its
application to the animal fabric, involves a con-
sideration of scientific principles which reveal the
exact nature of the substances employed, their
transformation within the organism, and the
offices they perform at their destination.

The immediate object of food is the development
and maintenance of the animal body.

Development may be briefly stated to be that
process by which the various parts or organs
assume their relative form, size, and capabilities
for functional activity — e.g., secretion, excretion,
and the like. Development is principally refer-
able to intra-uterine life, or that period during
which the future animal lies within the womb of
its mother, when the various organs, as the brain,
heart, lungs, liver, and in fact all parts of the
body, are acquiring their peculiar and characteristic
form.

Each primitive portion gradually and con-
stantly receives fresh additions, and each stage
constitutes also a farther elaboration and assump-
tion of higher powers.

Development continues also throughout a
period after birth. The long-legged, weedy-look-
ing foal is an example excellently suitable for
the purpose of illustration. Although as far as
internal organs are concerned, development may
be said to be in a measure complete, yet there

Development and Maintenance.

are important changes to be otherwise effected.
The muscles of the body are small and pale, and
the bones (so called) are very deficient in osseous
material (earthy salts). A few teeth only are
through the gums, and others are lying in
different stages beneath in the form of a highly
vascular pulp, quite unlike its future self.

In each there are important changes to take
place.

The bundles of cartilage in the centre of the
limbs and beneath the muscles of the body, &c.,
gradually become harder, and lose their charac-
teristic elasticity. Their structure is altered by
the deposition of bony material, and by and
bye we have the osseous framework or skeleton
completed.

The pale muscular fibres assume greater dimen-
sions, and at the same time a darker colour, and
power to act more forcibly on the individual
bones.

The tooth pulp within the gums, already pro-
vided with innumerable blood vessels and nerves,
gradually acquires the shape of a tooth, incisor
or molar, its different layers of hard substance
variously termed dentine, enamel, &c., and only
at a specified time will it appear above the
surface.

At length the animal is " filled up," " made
up/" or " furnished/'' in stable phraseology, and
the period of youth gives way to that which is
known as the adult stage.

10 Development and Maintenance.

Maintenance has been going on throughout the
whole of this time. Functional activity is at-
tended by a process of waste or decay of the
parts implicated. This process will be hereafter
expressed as metamorphosis of tissues.

In no period of life can this process be said
to be dormant or non-existent, but in none so
slow or so little required as in early youth. At
this time the building up of the animal body by
the accumulation of blood, bone, muscle, hoof,
horn, teeth, hair, &c., &c., is actively carried on,
and their waste or decay comparatively small.
In adult life, however, when development has
gone on to completion, and great exertion is
called forth, metamorphosis or change in the
constitution of the tissues above mentioned is
great.

This requires the process of maintenance or
repair to restore, during repose, that which has
being constantly lost during activity or exercise.

The movements of the arms or legs in walk-
ing, the tongue and jaws in speaking, lungs
during respiration, heart in its beating, and in-
testines during contraction, — in short, any act,
voluntary or involuntary, which calls forth mus-
cular movements in any part of the animal body,
is attended with the expenditure of vital force, as
shown in the change or alteration of the condi-
tion, waste, decay, or metamorphosis of the com-
posing material.

During metamorphosis of tissue chemical

Development and Maintenance. 11

action is instituted, and new compounds are pro-
duced which are no longer useful to the body.
They are called effete materials, and after being
collected by appropriate vessels termed lymphatics,
are by them conveyed to special organs for the
purpose of being expelled. If retained, they
would prove highly detrimental to the body, and
even destructive to life.

The waste of muscular tissue from work and
ordinary exercise is considerable, that substance
forming a great portion of the animal body.
It is constantly in need of fresh material to
restore or replace those parts which have been
removed by waste, and the elements necessary
are provided by the food, after undergoing im-
portant changes hereafter to be mentioned under
digestion.

Such facts, briefly as they are detailed, and
divested, as far as practicable, of technicalities,
present most important points to view, and
enable us to direct particular attention to the
application and economising of material (food)
for the production of the greatest amount of
actual force — strength and vigour in working
animals, or of fat in those destined for the
butcher.

With these before us, the effects of some of
the modes in which animals are kept, will be
clearly understood.

Under the subject of development it has been
stated the process is confined to intra-uterine

12 Development and Maintenance.

life and early periods of youth. It is then we
find the great demands upon the system in order
to complete the formation and building up of the
whole body. Every one almost knows that much
more food than ordinarily is consumed by the
pregnant mare or cow, and that the young
animal consumes much food of a nutritious
quality without the appearance being in all cases
obviously benefited thereby.

These illustrations serve to show the great
demands for blood, bone, muscle, skin, hair,
hoof, tendons, &c. &c., and a moment's reflection
will cause one to pause and wonder how some
persons can really expect to make a horse, cow,
or other animal upon the quantities of miserable
rubbish which are put in the poor creatures' way
when young.

How they can witness their colts and calves
standing without cover in an empty straw-yard
or bare pasture in the cold and rain during the
winter, and expect the grass of the coming sum-
mer will make up for the previous starvation, is
indeed a paradox. It appears quite sufficient
with some that a horse should taste corn only
when he is able to earn it, and cattle when they
commence to give milk, or there are prospects
of their being useful to the butcher.

All this is mistaken policy. The young horse
or ox requires ample food for the building up of
the frame, and we discern the wise provision of
nature in furnishing the rich elements in the

Development and Maintenance. 13

milk of the mother. Both need highly nutri-
tious food, and when this is denied, the owner
finds he is on the sure road towards spoiling
them. They always suffer acutely when good food
is afterwards given ; the change serves only to
engender serious, if not fatal, disease. Instances
will be found in the maladies black-leg or quarter-
evil, splenic apoplexy, blain, &c., of cattle and
sheep.

In the horse we find, when put to work for
the first time, he is " unable to stand the corn •"
the legs swell, coat stares, he performs his work
badly, and there are other indications of a dis-
ordered state within.

Colic, or purpura hamorrhagica, speedily kills
him, or he is left to dole out a miserable exist-
ence with protracted suffering from chronic
disease of the lungs or liver, diabetes, canker,
laminitis (founder), constant attacks of lymphan-
gitis (weed), and farcy, terminating, after
effectually propagating the contagion, in glanders
and death.

As life and development proceeds, food then
serves a different purpose. While it is expended
in supplying fresh elements to the blood, that
fluid has now to furnish elaborate materials to
replace the constituents of the body lost
during waste of muscle and other tissues,
which are rendered visible in the shape of
the products of respiration, perspiration, the
urine, and faeces. What formerly went to form

14; Organs of Digestion.

muscle, bone, &c., now goes to repair them. The
blood in all cases is the fluid which furnishes the
pabulum whence tissues derive their support.
That fluid is maintained by regular additions of
elements obtained from the food. The process
which prepares them we have to consider shortly.

ORGANS OF DIGESTION.

The organs of digestion comprise the mouth,
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, (esophagus
or gullet, stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas"
or sweetbread.

In connexion with the mouth we find appro-
priate muscles forming the bulk of the lips and
sides for the prehension or gathering of food, and
incisor teeth or nippers— six above and below in
the horse, and eight only below in the ox, sheep,
deer, &c. — for the purpose of cutting off the
herbage. Within the mouth the tongue performs
the important office of distinguishing by the
peculiar sense of taste, the difference in each
variety of substances introduced, and moves them
from side to side in order to bring them within
the pressure of the molar teeth or grinders. The
tongue at length, by a contraction upon itself
backwards, carries the bolus of food with it,
which is then seized by the pharynx, and passes
immediately along the gullet to the stomach.

The cheeks on each side being formed of

Organs of Digestion. ] 5

muscles, assist materially in keeping the food
effectually between the molar teeth. Through
their substance pass ducts or tubes which convey
necessary lubricating and solvent fluids to the
mouth.

The molars or grinders are twenty-four in
number, six of which are situated above and be-
low upon each side of the jaws in the back part
of the mouth. In order to observe them par-
ticularly the mouth must be held wide open.

They are large and rough upon the wearing
surface, and form most perfect agents in crush-
ing and grinding, or masticating the hard grain
and kernels which this animal requires as natural
food.

The pharynx is a musculo-membranous bag or
pouch which opens at the back of the mouth,
and grasps the bolus of food as it is presented
by the tongue. Arrived at this point, its appro-
priate muscles successively contract and force
onwards the pellet to the further end opening
into the gullet. The food is now beyond the
control of the will, and cannot be returned by
any effort of a natural character.

The oesophagus or gullet is also composed partly
of muscles and membrane. It forms an elastic
tube reaching from the pharynx above to the
stomach below, and occupies a position in the
neck upon the left side of the lower portion. A
knowledge of this fact enables us to trace the
passage of substances throughout its visible

16 Insalivation.

course. The remaining part of the gullet passes
through the chest, and is called the thoracic por-
tion. The passage of food through the pharynx
and gullet is termed deglutition or swallowing.

INSALIVATIOX.

The mouth is abundantly supplied with fluid
for the purpose of lubricating its surfaces during
motion in mastication. It also possesses peculiar
solvent and chemical actions upon alimentary
matters introduced, and thus effects special
changes in their constitution, of vital importance
to digestion and assimilation.

Saliva is the name given to this fluid, and is
the produce of glands in the vicinity, the largest,
the parotid gland, being placed below the ear
behind the angle of the lower jaw. In addition
there are others of a smaller character situated
beneath the tongue, between the sides of the
jaw, inside the lips and other parts ; all of which
separately contribute important properties to the
fluids which mix in the mouth, whence they are
conveyed by appropriate tubes or ducts.

The solvent action of saliva depends upon the
presence of peculiar salts and a principle called
ptyalin by scientific men, and is easily demon-
strated by placing food within the mouth. It is
also found to act efficiently when collected in
suitable vessels and brought into contact with

Insalivation. I 7

certain alimentary matters. Its power of alter-
ing the constitution of compounds is purely
a chemical action, and is most peculiarly well
marked upon those of a starchy character,
abundance of which are found in the food upon
which horses and cattle subsist. Through this
influence they are converted into a principle
called dextrine, and subsequently into grape sugar.

The salivary glands are under the control of
the nervous system. In the human subject, the
sight or smell of food of an agreeable character
is sufficient to cause a copious flow to the mouth ;
hence the common expression " the mouth
waters."

Saliva is secreted abundantly. The exact
amount of this fluid which is formed is not easily
obtained. A large horse is supposed to secrete
84lbs. per day, an ox 1021bs. Mr. Hunting ob-
tained half a gallon, or about five pounds in half
an hour.

The uses of saliva are important and manifold.
First, we have an abundant flow; second, its
peculiar solvent power ; third, its chemical action
in converting starchy matters into sugar; fourth,
its lubricating qualities during the presence of
absorbing, or coarse and rough, substances; fifth,
it is secreted in major part during mastic ationy
and continues as long as that act is carried on.

This category of properties in a simple-looking
fluid like saliva must have been conferred for a
beneficial purpose.

18 Insalivation.

We find such to be a law throughout nature.
That purpose is essentially the primary step in
rendering the component parts of the food
assimilable, i.e., converting them into constituent
parts of the blood.

Being secreted at the time when the food is
undergoing comminution between the teeth, it is
presented at a period when it will be most
effective. Food, therefore, which is swallowed
quickly or greedily, without proper mastication,
obtains little saliva, and the necessary trans-
formations are not carried out.

It is impossible to supply a fluid artificially
which can take the place of saliva. Mere satura-
tion of the food by water does not promote
digestibility as a consequence.

This has been satisfactorily proved many
times. If the salivary glands are prevented from
discharging their contents into the mouth during
mastication, and water is thrown among the mass
within the stomach, digestion is retarded. We
have positive evidence of this in daily practice in
those establishments where owners persist in using
boiled mixtures of food, which is done in utter
neglect of the most important fact that the horse
has perfect grinders to crush and break down
everything which comes in the way of natural
food, with the best solvent immediately at hand,
and in unlimited quantity, to effect a primary
transformation towards the production of blood,
bone, muscle, hoof, hair, &c. &c.

Insalivation. 19

The practice is an attempt to set aside nature,
and might be excused if none of the above ap-
pliances are present, or their capabilities in part
destroyed. We are so accustomed to treat the
horse by analogy, thus convicting him in the ex-
ercise of irregular practices, errors of body and
mind in common with ourselves, that we natur-
ally prescribed a mode of treatment based upon
conditions supposed to exist.

Even a moderate acquaintance with the or-
ganized fabric of man and the higher animals
leads to a different conclusion. It proves the
practice unscientific, unsystematic, foreign, and
unnatural.

I shall have more to offer upon the question
of boiled food when a description of other organs
has been given.

After the food has undergone the necessary
processes of mastication and insalivation, and, as
it passes backwards in the act of swallowing or
deglutition, it becomes coated with a thick mucous
or viscous secretion, thrown out from glands on
the inner surface of the pharynx and gullet. It
accumulates as the mass descends, and forms a
thick greasy kind of coating, the proceeding
having for its object mainly the avoidance of
aggregation and stoppage in the gullet, a condi-
tion which under aggravated states constitutes
choking.*

* It not uncommonly happens after hard work and long fasts
the horse, returning weary and hungry, ravenously swallows his

c 2

20

THE STOMACH.

Descending the gullet the bolus of food at
length reaches the stomach, a pouch or dilatation
of that tube. In the stomach further important
changes are executed in the constitution of the
food.

In man this organ performs the greater por-
tion of the process of digestion. In the horse
and ox but little analogy exists, and the essential
points of difference will repay even a cursory
examination.

The ox is endowed with four stomachs, or
what is more in keeping with anatomical descrip-
tion, a quadrisect stomach, i.e., containing four
distinct compartments, each of which possesses
different functions.

The first compartment is one of immense
capacity. It occupies three-fourths of the
abdomen, and is able to accommodate a great
quantity of ingesta.

The second is small, and contains more fluid

food without due mastication and insalivation. The secretions
are deficient by reason of fatigue or nervous depression and other
causes. The bolus is speedily despatched, almost dry, and
choking is apt to occur in its worst forms. If the food reaches
the stomach aggravated colic is almost certain.

See my Prize Essay " On the Diseases of Farm Horses,"
published in the Transactions of the High^nd and Agricultural
Society of Scotland, Article — " Choking."

Stomach. 21

than the first, but both act in common in mace-
rating and securing successive changes in the
food.

The third exerts a degree of pressure, by means
of its peculiar leaves, upon the alimentary matters
arrested by it.

The fourth is the true digestive compartment,
and resembles the stomach of man and the dog
principally.

The ox is essentially an animal capable only
of limited and not rapid exertion. The structure
and arrangement of the digestive organs are
clearly intended to accommodate large quantities
of herbage of a mixed character, for which the
functions are admirably fitted.

The horse, on the other hand, being made and
required for rapid exertion, could not fulfil those
ends with the digestive organs of the ox, and,
therefore, like man and the carnivora, but one
stomach or compartment is provided, which is
both comparatively and relatively smaller.

The process of digestion is also wonderfully
effective.

Whilst the ox has been known to retain food
for upwards of six weeks within his stomach,
little more than as many hours will suffice to
ensure digestion in the horse. The process is,
therefore, also wonderfully rapid.

The stomach of the horse, replete with food,
acts as a great impediment to the action of the
lungs, hence the great number of cases of broken

22 The Stomach.

wind and chronic cough, which are known to occur
from irregular principles of feeding.

The horse cannot occupy himself in ru-
mination or digestion almost entirely as
the ox. He is required to undertake the re-
moval of heavy loads, or otherwise engaged in
rapid exertion. A rapid digestion in his stomach
is therefore a very wise provision to relieve the
lungs during action.

I have purposely exhibited substances of
different degrees of solubility, and possessing a
strong odour, to animals about to be slaughtered,
and have been particularly struck with the fact
that, in the short space of time which has elapsed
between the administration of the medicine and
opening the stomach, not a trace beyond the
odour of the substance could be detected. The
paper in which it was wrapped was usually found
in the stomach,but the medicine had passed several
yards along the gut, frequently within one hour.

Similar facts are observable with regard to
food. I have known horses and ponies suddenly
killed in coal mines by a fall of portions of
the roof within one or two hours after a meal,
and on examining the stomach it has been ob-
served that digestion has progressed rapidly and
effectively in that organ, only a small portion,
the most indigestible, remaining behind. The
more easily digestible portion had usually passed
along the intestines in distances varying from ten
to twenty feet or more.

The Intestines. 23

It is a rule that all portions of greater solu-
bility iu the secretions, i.e., more digestible, first
pass out from the stomach in health.

Fluids also pass rapidly. They are usually
carried to the caecum, a large gut situate about
twenty yards from the stomach in large horses,
twenty minutes being usually sufficient.

These illustrations definitely explain why a
horse occupies so much time consuming food.
Put him into the stable after a day's work, and he
will be found eating the greater part of the
night. A small stomach, capable of effective and
rapid action, is quickly emptied of its contents,
and the desire for food, therefore, becomes almost
constant.

We should gather from this also the absolute
necessity of a regular supply of food, and abolition
of long fasts and full racks and mangers when
the animal returns to the stable.

THE INTESTINES.

The intestines are of two kinds, small and
large. In the horse they occupy the greater
portion of the cavity of the abdomen, and
constitute the largest part of the alimentary
track.

The whole length may be estimated at about
ninety feet, or ranging from twenty-six to thirty
yards.

24 The Intestines.

The small intestines commence at the stomach,
and in their course receive the several names
duodenum, jejunum, and ilium, the divisions being
purely imaginary.

About five or six inches below the stomach are
the orifices which discharge the secretions of the
liver (bile) and pancreas (a fluid resembling saliva) .
Besides these, other special fluids are poured from
the walls (coats) throughout the length of the canal.

The walls are strong and provided with mus-
cular fibres, as the gullet and stomach, to pro-
duce the necessary contractions (vermicular or
worm-like) in order to subject the contents
(ingesta) to the action of the various fluids, as
well as cause it to pass onwards.

Throughout the inner surfaces of the small
intestines a number of peculiar vessels are seen
to enter. Their office is to abstract the nutri-
tious elements of the food, which after meeting
with the various secretions in the tube, assumes
a whitish creamy consistence, and is termed
chyle. The vessels here spoken of are termed
lacteals. They communicate with other vessels
and glands. In them the chyle as it passes on-
wards alters its constitution, and by successive
stages assumes the character of the blood with
which it is afterwards mixed. This constitutes
the process of assimilation.

The small intestines are from fifty to sixty feet
in length, and will accommodate from eight to
elevens gallons of fluid.

The Intestines. 25

The large intestines of the horse are very
rapacious organs. The first, the caecum, is a
large conical pouch or bag, usually known as the
blind gut. In it are collected principally the
iluids drank, together with solid matters. The
former occupy the extremity, the latter remain
at the base. Absorption of fluids takes place
from the csecum in large proportion, and its con-
tents are usually alkaline from the changes which
take place in starchy constituents.

The colon is continued next in order to the
csecum. It is doubled upon itself, both parts
throughout its entire length being united by in-
tervening tissue, and traverses both sides and
front of the abdomen twice, terminating in the
rectum near the point from which it arises from
the csecum on the right side.

The csecum and colon do not possess such
thick muscular walls as the small intestines, but
strong bands run longitudinally on four sides.
These being considerably shorter than the intes-
tines, have the effect of drawing them into
puckers or folds, forming on the inner side a
number of pouches, which assist in giving the
characteristic form to the faeces or dung in the
horse.

The rectum is very strong and muscular, but
not so capacious, tolerably cylindrical, and termi-
nates the alimentary track at the anus or funda-
ment. Absorption from the large intestines is
principally confined to the csecum. The colon

26 The Digestive Process.

and rectum minister but little to that process.
The capacity of the large intestines greatly ex-
ceeds that of the small. The caecum will contain
about four gallons of fluid, the colon about
twelve, and the rectum about three gallons.

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS.

The process of digestion is most complex and
important, and deservedly receives an extended
notice in all authentic works on animal physi-
ology. It is impossible here to do more than
briefly notice the leading stages, which are in-
dispensable, but sufficient towards explaining
generally the object for which these pages are
written.

Gastric digestion. — In the stomach the food,
already incorporated with the salivary and other
secretions, is subjected to peculiar movements or
contractions of the muscular walls, described
usually as a " churning action/' It is thus
moved from one part to another and further in-
corporated with secretions (gastric juice) derived
from glands (gastric glands) situate in the walls
of the organ.

The gastric juice possesses acid properties, and
a peculiar principle termed pepsine, which with
the action of the stomach effects a reduction of
the food to a uniform mass. The particles are
in a fine state of division, and albuminous prm-

The Digestive Process. 27

ciples chiefly suffer chemical decomposition. At
length the whole becomes a thick fluid and passes
through the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the
small intestines.

This fluid is called chyme. It contains nutri-
tious matters in a state of mechanical suspension,
others in chemical and simple solution, while a
third variety are unacted upon from various
causes.

Chyme proceeds along the intestines by virtue
of the peculiar action of the organs. It first
meets with fluids from special glands in the vici-
nity of the outlet from the stomach. Next with
those from the liver and pancreas (sweetbread).
By constant motion perfect incorporation is
effected, and the following outline of changes
may be observed.

1st. The acid character of chyme is neu-
tralized— it is now alkaline.
2nd. Albuminous matters escaping from the

stomach unchanged are transformed.
3rd. Starchy matters, unacted upon by saliva,
are now effectually converted into sugar.
4th. Fatty bodies are emulsified or converted

into a kind of soap.

5th. and lastly, all the nutritious principles
have conferred upon them properties
which facilitate their absorption and pas-
sage through the lacteals towards the
blood, and the fluid mass now receives
the name of chyle.

28 Elementary Principles of Food.

Chyle passes through the lacteals from the in-
testines. Its constituents gradually form a
granular-looking mass, in which float a number
of small vesicles or cells. By passage through
an assemblage of bodies called mesenteric glands,
the cells increase in number, and at length ac-
quire colour, and eventually are poured into
blood vessels near the heart. It is thus the blood
becomes the pabulum whence all tissues are
nourished. In the elements of food are found
the materials which, after assimilation, partake of
the characters of the tissues of the body ; and the
circulation of the blood explains how each kind
receives its share.

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF FOOD.

The chyle contains the whole of the elements
of the food. These are of a mixed character.
First, we have nitrogenous, so-called because they
contain largely the gas nitrogen, or albuminous
principles which are strictly the elements from
which muscle is developed — hence the term
" flesh formers " which is applied to them.
Second, we have fatty bodies and saccharine or
sugary principles — starch, gum, sugar, &c. — heat-
producers. Third, there are essential constituents
in the form of salts — of lime, potash, soda, mag-
nesia, Sec. Fourth, various acids, as hydro-
chloric (muriatic acid or spirits of salt), nitric

Essential Characters of Food. 29

(aquafortis), sulphuric (oil of vitriol), lactic and
phosphoric, &c.

In a chemical point of view the acids are
most powerful agents, and by union with various
substances form compounds of vital importance.

Lastly, there are compounds of no service
whatever to the system. These are principally
indigestible bodies, such as ligneous or fibrous
parts of plants and foreign bodies which have
gained access to the digestive organs, cells,
earthy matter, and portions of undigested food
which have been present in excess. Liebig has
termed these the incombustible and unburned
parts of food. They are the refuse from the
digestive process, and together with effete or use-
less parts thrown off from the system, constitute
the faces or dung.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF FOOD.

Certain conditions are essential for the proper
digestion and assimilation of food. When pro-
perly understood, they indicate the principles of
an economical system of feeding animals with a
view towards the preservation of health and
vigour under continued laborious exertion, as
well as preventing an undue rate of mortality
resulting from it, and at a low rate of cost.

These conditions are, first, that food should be
nutritious ; second, that it contains elements of

30 Essential Characters of Food.

a mixed character ; third, that it possesses pro-
portionate bulk ; fourth, it should be regularly
supplied ; and lastly, the digestive organs gene-
rally must be in a state of healthy action.

It is imperative that food possess nutritious
principles. This must be apparent from the fact
that from it all parts of the body are built up
and being constantly renovated. In order to
possess this property, bodies rich in nitrogen are
requisite, which are denominated nitrogenous,
azotised, nutritious, or flesh-forming compounds.
Examples of these are albumen, fibrine, and
caseine — terms which would indicate different
substances. Chemically, however, they are alike
in composition, but exhibit physically different
appearances.

If wheaten flour be placed under a stream of
cold water a sticky paste is left behind. This is
called gluten, and is identical in chemical com-
position with the flesh of man and animals. It is
the nitrogenous or albuminous principle of wheat
flour.

If an egg be broken a glairy fluid escapes from
the shell, which becomes white and coagulates
into a solid mass when heated. This is albumen
— gluten in another form, identical in composi-
tion, and is the nitrogenous principle of the egg
from which the flesh, feathers, claws, Sec., of the
bird are formed.

If milk is taken and an acid added, a solid
mass of curds is speedily produced. This is

Essential Characters of Food. 31

caserne — or gluten, albumen, and fibrine in another
form, supplied in the milk of the mother to young
animals, and in peas, beans, &c., to older ones ;
from which also hoof, horn, hair, wool, skin, flesh,
and feathers, &c. &c., are formed, developed, and
repaired.

Lastly, if blood be coagulated, the mass which
separates proves itself an identical compound to
flesh itself—; fibrine.

The whole then are the various forms in which
the elements are conveyed to the blood, as found
in the food upon which the animal subsists. By
the action of vital processes within the system,
each assumes those conditions which in themselves
are vital. Their supply to the system must be
constant in order to keep pace with the waste.
Hence they are found abundantly in the food
upon which man and animals live. Horses and
cattle meet with them in the grass and corn
which they daily consume, and man and carnivora
obtain it directly by using the flesh and blood
(fibrine) of animals as food.

The following table shows how these substances
resemble each other in chemical composition : —

Carbon .
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen .

Gluten Caseine

from flour, from peas.
Boussingault. Scherer.

54-2

7'5

13-9

24-4

54-138

7-156

15-672

23-034

Albumen
from eggs.

Jones.

55-000
7-073

15-920

22-007

Ox-blood.

Playfair.

54-35

7-50

15-76

22-39

Ox-flesh.

Playfair.

54-12

7-89

15-67

22-32

lOO'O 100-000 100-000 100-000 100-000

32

NON-NUTRITIOUS PRINCIPLES.

In addition to the flesh-forming constituents
of food, there are also needed others known as
non-nitrogenous, non-azotised, or non-nutritious, so
named in contradistinction to those which contain
nitrogen. Examples are found in starch, sugar,
gum, and fat itself. They are composed of car-
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, minus nitrogen, and
are found abundantly in the different varieties of
?orn and vegetables used as food.

Their services are required in the system
equally with the albuminous compounds, but for
a different purpose, viz., the production of animal
heat, and formation and storing up of fat within
the system.

ANIMAL HEAT.

In order to render somewhat intelligible the
principles upon which heat is developed, and
maintained in the body, and the part which food
plays in that process, attention must again be
directed to facts.

Here it must be understood that although the
term " heat producer " is applied to the saccharine
principles of food, it by no means establishes an
isolated fact. They are not the sole agents in
the production of animal heat. I will attempt
to explain.

Animal Heat. 33

To those who have studied chemistry, even but
a little, the rapid development of heat unbear-
able in water previously cold is familiar. It is
a good illustration for our purpose.

A quantity of cold water is taken in a tumbler
or other thin glass vessel, and held in the hand,
taking care to grasp that part in contact with the
water. Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is then
added in nearly equal quantity, when by chemical
action, which immediately takes place between
the acid and water, intense heat is developed,
rendering it an impossibility to hold the vessel in
the manner adopted at the commencement.

The rubbing together of certain substances, or
beating of metals upon hard surfaces, also pro-
duces great heat. Here the molecular disturb-
ance— or the alteration of position of the ulti-
mate particles composing the mass — which ensues
from the concussion may not be unlike that
which accompanies chemical action, although the
means adopted to bring about each may be
different.

It is, however, an undoubted fact that heat is
developed by the chemical union of substances
outside the body, and similar conditions are now
found to apply to substances which are contained
within it.

There are always met with elements and sub-
stances which, in contact with vital organs and
their secretions assume the power of union by
chemical action. They pervade the whole of the

34 Animal Heat.

tissues of the body. All the actions essential to
life are carried on at the expense of the materials
introduced, and those which are present as ready
formed tissue. Their formation and development
are attended with the union and disunion of the
elements of compounds present, and their waste
or decay is likewise attended with the same
results. Thus we have a general chemical action,
and this accounts for the equal state of tempera-
ture throughout the body.

Under ordinary circumstances the saccharine
principles of food are being constantly caused to
assume the form of fat, which under passive
states, or where little exertion is earned on, is
stored up beneath the skin, between muscles and
around various organs, giving the animal that
appearance of rotundity so much prized when
intended for the butcher.

If an animal in such a condition were caused
to exert himself for any length of time, the fat is
absorbed and consumed. Its consumption is an
essential act, not only in maintaining animal heat
for the purposes of warmth, but as an agent
which facilitates the decomposition of other
bodies intended for the use of the system, in a
different manner. Such an animal becomes lean.
His muscles are distinctly observed to be well
mapped out beneath the skin. The same appear-
ance is also brought out by illness or disorder,
and is the process generally understood as " wast-
ing of the body/'

Animal Heat. 35

There are a number of animals,, as the hedge-
hog, (hybernating,) which during the summer
become enormously fat, and sleep throughout the
whole of the winter. In this case, as no food is
taken, the body maintains its animal heat entirely
by the consumption of fat which has been stored
up in the system.

The bear also disposes of himself nearly in the
same manner. It is also a notable fact that our
cattle lay on, during the summer, a great quantity
of fat, which is derived from the plentiful herbage
of the period. In both these instances we also
perceive the provision which is ensured towards
obtaining the necessary amount of warmth during
cold weather, and when food is either withheld or
not very abundant.

Animal heat is not maintained by saccharine
bodies or fat alone. In carnivorous animals, as
the lion, tiger and wolf, whose diet is confined to
flesh, also the wild hunters of some countries who
occupy their time chiefly in the saddle, sufficient
fat cannot be obtained, nor are saccharine com-
pounds forthcoming. Natural warmth then must
be procured from another source.

Wild animals in their natural state, and the
hunters of uncivilised nations, are on an equality.
The habits of both necessitate much exertion —
activity of muscle — and consequently waste or
decay.

Flesh, upon which they live, being purely a
nitrogenous compound, would furnish none of the

D 2

36 Animal Heat.

materials for warmth under other circumstances.
But under active work or movements, albuminous
compounds are broken up, and the carbonaceous
elements rendered available for the purpose.

A reference to the table at page 3 1 will explain
how this can be permitted. In farther explana-
tion it may be stated, that fatty or saccharine
compounds are serviceable only for the production
of heat as an adjunct to vital force ; but nitrogen-
ous compounds are capable, by peculiar action,
of becoming not only useful for the manufacture
of flesh, but also for the production of the neces-
sary animal heat during exercise or work.

This explains why animals in high condition
appear fresh and excited. There is a necessity
for movement created in order to consume the
highly nutritious material within the body. Wild
animals confined to cages are seen to move about
incessantly when awake. Here is another mode
in which the system endeavours to appropriate
the food, and bring about essential vital actions.
Were it not thus, disease or death would be an
early result, from an accumulation of deleterious
principles in the blood, by which it is no longer
able to support the body.

Man and animals consume little food when
the body is covered by fat, and exercise but
sparingly taken. The muscles are not developed
because they are not used, in fact such a body is
not capable of much exertion, by reason of that
•want of muscular development. It is neither so

Animal Heat. 37

healthy, and is prone to disease in consequence
of the absence of movements which promote vital
action.

These facts are well known to practical horse
owners, and they in consequence always avoid fat
animals for immediate active work, and delay
until the place is occupied by muscle.

We thus perceive that in feeding fatting
animals and working horses two opposite prin-
ciples must be carried out. It would be as absurd
to feed a hunter or draught horse on the materials
given to the cow or ox in the feeding house, as
to expect they should replace each other in the
scale of usefulness to man.

These facts dispose of the first and second
propositions. We find that food is nutritious
when it can minister to the formation and develop-
ment of the body, and maintenance against waste ;
while substances of a mixed character are needed
in order to keep pace with the requirements of
the body in the production of a necessary tem-
perature, and assistance in the accumulation of
vital force.

Without materials specially provided for the
latter process our working animals would be re-
duced to the condition of flesh-eating or caged wild
creatures, with this serious disadvantage, the work
imposed might act prejudicially, as it would not,
in all cases, be so nicely proportioned as to suit
the wants of the system, or when taken in accord-
ance with the promptings of instinct in the

38 Animal Heat.

creature itself. In short, food possessing elements
exclusively of one kind, too rich in nitrogen, or
too rich in carbon, at once proves insufficient to
support life in a proper manner for any length of
time. The experiments of Majendie and others
who fed animals exclusively on one of the sub-
stances known as sugar, gum, starch, albumen,
fibrine, or caseine, set this matter at rest for
ever, and we are thereby taught that the animal
economy can live and thrive only upon food pro-
vided naturally, and which contains all the ele-
ments calculated to minister to the tissues and
functions of the body.

The poor inhabitants of Ireland, as well as the
negroes of the Indies, also establish the truth of
the principle. The former, who consume potatoes
in large quantity, would exist in a poor degree
of capability for exertion, were they not to add to
this expensive and innutritious article of diet one
of the compounds very rich in nitrogen, viz., milk.

The coolies, who eat impure sugar, receive with
it also nitrogenous compounds, gathered from the
vegetable kingdom, and all the eaters of maize
and rice resort to milk for the azotised principle,
caseine.

Food, rich in mixed characters, supplies the
necessary elements without disturbing the balance
of the functions, which occurs when too much of
one kind is given indiscriminately. All vegetable
food is of a mixed character, but each kind
differs in the richness of its constituents. A

Bulk or Volume. 39

knowledge of this is of great valne to all con-
cerned in the keeping of animals.

BULK OR VOLUME.

Food should always possess an amount of
bulk. Nature has not been unmindful of this
when providing the nutritious principles of grain.
The grain, or kernel, contains the nutrition in a
concentrated form, and bulky material is to be
found in the husk or stem.

Proportionate bulk is requisite to ensure diges-
tion. The stomach cannot abstract nutrition
from small quantities of concentrated food with
benefit. The digestion and solution is not
efficiently performed, as the stomach lacks the
stimulus of contact, so essential to healthy
action and secretion.

Grass, straw, and hay contain but little nutri-
tion, and to ensure its abstraction, bulk is given
to it consisting of water, ligneous matter (woody
fibre), and salts.

The people of uncivilised nations have exem-
plified this from time remote.

The Kamschatdales mix earth and sawdust
with the train oil they use as food, and in other
northern regions a kind of bread is made from
sawdust.

The natives of Ceylon use scraps of decayed
wood with the honey consumed as food. Among

40 Errors to be Avoided.

animals the wolf is known to appease the sensa-
tions of hunger by taking into the stomach a
great quantity of mud ; the dog thrives best when
he obtains his food from the ground, when it is
mixed with grit and dirt, and in birds, small
stones or sand is constantly being swallowed.

Food thus accompanied is fully compressed by
the walls of the stomach, but when adventitious
matters are not present, however nutritive, it
does not fulfil the wants of the economy by
virtue of its elements not being extracted.

ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.

One of the great evils attendant upon the
feeding of horses, and even cattle, is the use of
too bulky material. By it the wants of the
system are not satisfied, the stomach is over dis-
tended, and the process of chymifaction is retarded
by the powers of the stomach being destroyed.

The walls are reduced in thickness, and rup-
ture frequently takes place from the effects.

Fluids, however nutritious, as a rule, are not
so easily appropriated as solid food. No better
evidence is found than where cooked food -is
served to horses. The soft watery mass is too
rapidly swallowed, and becomes as unnatural as
it is innutritious.

// is an acknowledged fact that no process of
cooking or preparation will render the food more

Errors to be Avoided. 41

nutritious, and there is positive proof that a mix-
ture of substances, boiled to a pulp, are not so
digestible as when given in a natural condition to
working horses.

I do not expect that all who read this state-
ment will be converted to the truth it proclaims.
I am, however, certain that in the many places
where the cooked system is carried out, there
will be found persons desirous of successful
reform and amelioration. To such I have great
pleasure in addressing these pages. Others there
are whom no amount of argument would con-
vince, or practical demonstration convert. Bigotry,
prejudice, and a stupid adherence to old customs
have blinded them.

To change is considered unmanly, and, as
existing affairs have probably prevailed for many
years, unguided by either the light of reason or
science, and having tradition only for their adop-
tion and continuance, alterations would amount
to sacrilege or disrespect to the blundering system
which is worshipped with such folly and
stupidity.

To resume. The stomach and intestines of
the horse are not intended for sloppy food. The
whole arrangement forms an assemblage of perfect
organs eminently fitted for bruising, insalivating,
digesting, and appropriating natural food, and
unnatural slops and trash concocted by the
device of man is attended with disease and
mortality. Among horses, if we go no further

42 Errors to be Avoided.

than colic alone, the number of cases which
occur where boiled food is used exceed those
where attention is paid to the selection and
supply of proper diet by ninety per cent.

Cooked food is open to grave objections. It
weakens the digestive organs. It is swallowed
rapidly, and the stomach becomes greatly dis-
tended, by which secretions are prevented or
altogether stopped. Little or no insalivation
takes place, and the food does not undergo those
important and preliminary changes which have
already been insisted upon. Secretions, otherwise
necessary, are of no use with such an excess of
fluid food, and if poured out are too far diluted.
The stomach acquires in time an immense
capacity and the muscular powers are weakened.
The liver becomes diseased and the natural
secretions very limited or absent. The intestines
now suffer from this combination of results, and
colic becomes of periodical occurrence, eventually
ending in death.

The horses of many firms with which I am
acquainted in Scotland, to whom boiled food is
given, suffer very frequently from colic, and
deaths are common.

Where proper systems are carried out, I have
known three hundred animals belonging to one
firm, doing the hardest work, kept in the best of
health, and for a whole year not a single case
occurs.

Mr. Hunting states that 120 pit animals under

Errors to be Avoided. 43

his care,, all in regular work, continued for six
years without a single case of colic.

The bulk given to boiled food is looked upon
by some as an advantage, and in illustration of
the belief, a gentleman remarked recently that
the food thus supplied to his horses must be
more nutritious than other kinds, as it is softer,
partially digested to begin with, and every twelve
pounds put into the copper are increased to
forty-eight. It must, however, be remembered
that thirty -six pounds of this is only water. I would
like to know who can conscientiously expect a
horse to work well and continue in health on food
which contains three hundred parts of water for
every hundred of spoiled grain. It is an injus-
tice to treat an animal in such a manner, which
deserves more consideration on account of his
usefulness, and whose better judgment would
enable him to take water with greater comfort
and benefit than can possibly accrue from de-
ceiving him to swallow unlimited quantities in
the form of a mess presenting such indescribable
qualities and disproportionate quantities.

Cooked food for horses is a form which cer-
tainly has no analogy in nature, and wherever
dictated, must inevitably arise from neglect or
total ignorance of the anatomy of the digestive
organs, with their physiology and the laws
which govern assimilation.

To another objection raised against the cooked
meat system, it is urged that horses so fed usually

44 Errors to be Avoided.

drink as much water as those confined to the dry
meat or manger system. I believe there is truth
in this as a rule, but the fact is not favourable to
the plan, and great reasons may be assigned in
the large quantities of common salt used in the
mess, which occasions an unnatural thirst. Excess
of common salt taken into the system proves
highly injurious and predisposes the animal to
disease, particularly of a congestive or low form, a
condition of unnatural plethora being established.

The continued presence of sloppy food, besides
acting — like bran mashes — as a foreign body,
deranges the balance and harmony of vital func-
tions generally, those of digestion primarily and
particularly, and the large quantities of nutritious
matter which may be present, having no admix-
ture with natural secretions are not rendered
assimilable. It therefore proves an expensive
mode of feeding.

Nutritious matters not having undergone those
necessary chemical and vital changes which are
ensured by the secretions of the digestive organs,
are not in a fit state to enter the blood. They
may be taken up, but will act as a foreign body
there as they do to the intestines, and must be
expelled or communicate disease.

If they remain in the intestines, diarrhoea is
induced by irritative action, and horses so fed
void their dung much like a cow. Such a state
in this animal is not proper order, and if allowed
to go on, disease of some kind supervenes.

Errors to be Avoided. 45

On the other hand, if the unassimilated prin-
ciple gains access to the blood, it is as soon as
possible carried to the kidneys, and by them ex-
pelled. The animal frequently voids his urine.
It will be frequently fonnd to contain modified
albumen, and even blood, and this accounts for
the excessive number of cases of diabetes or
profuse staling and albuminuria which have come
under my notice during my residence in Glasgow.

Such cases are so common that they are con-
sidered trivial, and no doubt are, primarily ; but
when the errors of diet are allowed to proceed,
they become marked by such characters as in the
man wine-bibber and gourmand, or epicure, are
modified, and appear as dyspepsia, biliousness,
severe headache, piles, &c., a tolerable bloating of
the countenance, with enlargement of the abdo-
men, which generally signifies organic disease.

The horse when suffering from these conditions
is usually well drugged while at work, and as the
same kind of feeding is persisted in, medicines
repeatedly follow the aliment, the animal loses
condition, and we may trace numerous instances
of farcy and glanders to this as an undoubted
cause.

Other terminations are dilated stomach, broken
wind, congested, or schirrus liver, calculi (or
stones) in the intestines, recurrent colic, organic
disease of the kidneys and bladder, or probably
speedy death from over-distention and fermenta-
tion of the contained food, causing rupture of the

46 Advantages of proper Food and System.

stomach, some part of the intestines, or dia-
phragm (midriff).

ADVANTAGES OF PROPER FOOD AND SYSTEM.

My experience, and that of others who have de-
voted attention to the conditions discussed in the
preceding section, clearly shows that the secret
lies in prevention. This is comprised in cleanli-
ness, ventilation, care and attention to the quality,
quantity, and regularity of feeding, and due pro-
portion of work.

The author is old enough to remember the
effect of a journey from London to the north by
stage coach, the character of animals selected for
the work, and the amount they were required to
perform. With such experiences he has fre-
quently paused to enquire how the facts have
failed to carry conviction in analogous cases at
the present day.

In many of the coaches which ran between
London, York, and Leeds, the horses were known
to " do their fourteen miles out and the same
number in " six days in the week. Their work
was testified by the wear of the shoes, which,
made of the toughest metal, and not unfrequently
having an admixture of steel, were worn out by
the fore feet in three weeks, and replaced on the
hind by new ones nearly every fourteen days.
Notwithstanding this, by proper feeding, care,

Advantages of proper Food and System. 47

and ventilation of the stables, these animals re-
tained their health and usefulness for years.
Among them was a celebrated mare, " Old Sal."
She ran in one of the above coaches as " off
wheeler " for years, was known by all upon the
road, had never been sick a single day, and when
railways revolutionized the system of transit was
over twenty years of age, and even then " as fresh
as paint."

When the fly-boats plied between Glasgow and
Edinbro' on the Forth and Clyde Canal, an old
mare named " Maggie Lauder," was stationed to
run between Port Dundas and Glasgow Bridge, a
distance of eight miles, the time allowed being
one hour. After a rest of one hour the return
journey to Port Dundas was made, and in the
afternoon she performed the whole distance over
again, thus travelling and drawing the boat
thirty-two miles per day.

The person from whom I obtained my infor-
mation rode the animal daily for seven years,
during which time she was doing the work
alluded to six days in the week, " was never sick
nor sorry a single day, nor ever had a day's rest
in addition to the usual Sunday."

When the boats were superseded by railways,
" Maggie Lauder " was sold at the age of twenty-
nine years.

A similar instance is related of a horse em-
ployed in like manner on the Paisley canal. He
was sold at the age of twenty -seven when the

48 Advantages of proper Food and System.

boats were discontinued, and, being " fresh as a
lark " at the time, suddenly fractured the bone
of one of his legs in his gambols while being led
home by his purchaser.

I am aware that breeding will in a measure
account for " pluck " and disposition to work in
animals as well as in man, but it will not stand
in the place of ability under any circumstances.
The willingness or pluck may be always present,
but ability will depend upon a condition of
strength.

One thorough-bred horse will resemble another
very much in disposition, but differ widely in ability
from mode of living. Take the first from the
green pasture and run him alongside that brought
direct from hard dry corn and sound hay, upon
which he has subsisted months, and performed
daily exertion. The effect is easily perceived;
weight or distance is scarcely an object to him,
but the first is blown or lamed before half a
dozen fences are crossed, or has received his
death summons from various causes.

Harness horses, and horses used in draught,
require similar treatment to produce strength and
endurance.

While pluck is derived from breeding, strength
is derived from food and a healthy digestion.
Corn and hay, transmuted within the penetralia
of the living organism, becomes muscle. Manure,
the refuse of digestion and the animal body, the

Advantages of proper Food and System. 49

agriculturist knows, nourishes his land, without
which he can expect no crop. In the production
of artificial light, all depends upon the supply of
combustive material and agents which support
or promote the process, which, in proportion to
quantity and quality, afford a good or bad kind
of illumination. In the warming of buildings
the maximum temperature can only be obtained
by instituting an operation of the laws of com-
bustion upon materials capable of undergoing
that process, and, likewise, by the operation of
laws within the animal organism, if we need
strength (force), it must first be supplied in the
shape of sound, dry provender.

There is a very erroneous idea, at least to my
perception, entertained by many, that where a
draught horse is required for moving extreme
weights he should be large and ponderous. If the
dealer is inquired of, l< You want weight," says
he. If a friend be appealed to, a similar recom-
mendation is given. It is in this way many r.se-
less, heavy-legged, unsightly, lugubrious, and
slovenly animals are tolerated. What these are
supposed to gain by superior capabilities in mov-
ing weights they lose in speed, and hence are
seen creeping along the streets, and, as occurs in
some towns, creating quite an obstruction to
general traffic.

It appears to me that strength is required, not
absolute weight, but a good development of

£

Regular Feeding.

muscle. If weight only is wanted, it would not
be so frequently remarked that horses "will not
pull a sitting hen off her nest."

And, again, if nothing but weight will suffice,
then a lump of lead or any inanimate object
would answer equally as well.

I would refer my readers to Youatt's excellent
treatise on draught, and they will perceive that
other objections are against tall animals for
moving loads, particularly on four-wheeled
carriages.

REGULAR FEEDING.

It is one of the essentials of good management
that horses should receive their food as regularly
as possible. Without regularity, and especially
with long fasts, the digestive organs are pro-
strated or weakened, and food, which would
otherwise be nutritious, brings about those
changes already described.

In coal mines, where feeding and work is dic-
tated by those who know nothing about it, broken
wind, colic, diabetes, organic diseases of various
kinds, calculi and death by rupture, are common.
When, on the contrary, attention is given, these
fatalities are rare, and when they occur are
usually traced to other causes.*

* Much valuable information has from time to time been de-
tailed to me by my friends, Mr. Charles Hunting, M.R.C.V.S.,
and Mr. Luke Scott, M.R.C.V.S., whose experience in the
management of pit animals is of the most extensive character
in Britain, and therefore to be received with respect.

51

CALCULI OR STONES IN THE INTESTINES.

The nature and aggregation of the particles
which compose these bodies are not without
interest, as affording information on the conditions
which are present in the stomach and intestines.
Calculi are very common in the horses and ponies
of some coal mines,, and also among the horses of
millers, general carters, and those used in large
establishments where the system of feeding and
work is defective.

Their origin is usually considered to arise from
water impregnated by the salts of lime, which
are precipitated in the same manner from solution
as occurs in the steam boiler or tea kettle.

It does not follow that calculi form on the use
of such kind of water. It is also a most noto-
rious fact that from water of precisely the same
character supplied to the animals in two coal pits,
different results are manifest. In one, where
proper care in feeding and work is observed, there
is the greatest amount of health, but in the other,
where systems are the reverse, and especially
when work is excessive and irregular, calculi
exist.

That the water draining from the magnesian
limestone, and holding lime in solution, has not
much to do with their formation, is proved by
several circumstances.

First: Many calculi which I have found iu

E 2

52 Calculi or Stones in the Intestines.

such animals have little or no lime in their com-
position, being mainly composed of mucus, hair,
dirt, coals, &c., closely matted together, and
known as "dust balls."

Second : The miners consume large quantities
of the same water, but are not known to suffer
from intestinal calculi.

Third : From personal experience and residence
in districts where calcareous or hard waters only
can be had, I have ascertained that calculi are
not more prevalent when system is observed, and

Fourth : I have found calculi to exist more
abundantly where water is of the purest character.
Some of the largest specimens which have been
obtained were from horses using soft water alone,
and therefore must have another origin.

To attribute their formation to any special
kind of water is a false theory, and negatives the
power of the intestines to remove useless matter.

The presence of a nail, piece of wood, stone,
or other hard substance, is also said to insure the
formation of calculi. But horses and cattle meet
with these things constantly among their food,
and, while many are doubtless rejected by the
sensitive lips, others are swallowed, as proved by
their presence in the dung during life, or in-
testines after death.

The origin of the material which forms the
substance of a stone or calculus is undoubtedly
from the food. Hard waters may assist under
certain circumstances.

Calculi or Stones in the Intestines. 53

They may contain a large quantity of lime, but
the food relatively contains a much larger pro-
portion. It is a substance largely in demand for
the wants of the system.

If the animal is enfeebled by overtaxing work,
long fasts, and supplied with food of an inferior
quality, a condition known by the term bulimia,
is established. This is known by an irregular,
capricious, and morbid appetite, irregular bowels,
staring coat, leanness, inaptitude for work, and
a desire to lick the walls. Sometimes, however,
these symptoms are either not well marked, or
escape observation.

Under such circumstances the animal swallows
sticks, stones, and rubbish of all kinds, to appease
the ravenous desire within. Food, under these
conditions, is not properly digested, the secretions
are vitiated, or altogether deficient, and act im-
perfectly. Farther derangement occurs, in which
the liver particularly suffers, and affairs now
assume an aggravated character.

During these conditions assimilation and ab-
sorption is not carried on perfectly, and the
mineral matters of food and water are deposited
in the solid form, and aggregate around any
rough surface or object which may be present.

As the mass increases in size corresponding
derangement is continued, and thus secures
material for its development, or the formation of
others — as many as fifty having been found in
one animal.

54 Objections to the Use of Dry Food.

Some time may elapse before acute symptoms
are observed. Suddenly abdominal pain arises.
Symptoms are continued, and become aggravated,
admitting of no relief, and the animal dies.

Upon making a post-mortem examination, one
or more of these stones are found to have passed
into a narrow part of the gut, and become
imprisoned by spasmodic action of the muscular
walls which tightly enclose it on all sides. Some-
times destruction of the gut has occurred, and
the stone is partially or wholly liberated along
with the contents of the intestines.*"

OBJECTIONS TO THE USE OF DRY FOOD.

It is urged by many persons enthusiastic in the
feeding and management of horses, that a change

* I have succeeded in obtaining a great number of these in-
teresting specimens during the past sixteen years. In less than
twoyeu-s twenty -six were obtained from pit animals, having
caused death, and many more were found in animals dying from
other causes.

Their composition was principally mucus, the felted down
from the oat, silicious matter and carbonate of lime. The last-
named substance usually formed the outer portion, while the in-
terior was filled by pieces of coal mixed with the other ingredients.
Many of these were presented to the museum of the Albert
Veterinary College, London.

Several fine specimens have recently been forwarded to me by
my friend. Mr. Thomas Foreman, M.R.C.V.S., Leadgate, Dur-
ham, exhibiting similar peculiarities. Of these he has collected
a great number from pit animals.

Objections to the Use of Dry Food. 55

to a system of bruising and cutting of food
gains only one advantage, viz., the animal fills
his stomach quicker, and is thereby enabled to
take more rest.

This property is pre-eminently claimed in favour
of cooked food, and in addition, that it is par-
tially digested for the animal. Experience and
systematic inquiry prove the fallacy of these
tenets.

I have shown that digestion, when properly
carried on, is wonderfully rapid and effective.

The stomach, being small, is rapidly emptied
again. This obtains in all horses, including those
fed on the manger system.

Every one knows the effects of bran mashes.
How much more, then, must constant supplies of
food, supposed to be half digested at commence-
ment, containing much water, and being an un-
natural mixture, act like a foreign body ?

The laws of the animal economy render such
results inevitable, for as quickly, in proportion,
as the stomach is voiding the digestible portions,
the sensation of hunger arises, and desire for food
is appeased by taking in more. Thus it will be
found, in opposition to the argument in favour of
a half-digested food, that the process of digestion
is accelerated, and more is required. Such food
always fails to give up the whole of its nutrition ;
the animal eats more, costs also more, and gains
the least by the method.

It is thus that an equally long time is occupied

56 Objections to the Use of Dry Food.

in the consumption of food, and visit him at any
hour of the night, he will he found having an
appetite, and like Oliver Twist " looking for
more."

Rapidity of digestion is a provision established
by nature. If the stomach had been from the
first intended to receive the large quantities fre-
quently placed before horses, or to perform func-
tions assigned to the teeth and salivary glands in
addition to its own, the logical inference is that,
as nature, in her development of all things, has
not studied ornament merely, the stomach would
have been endowed with greater capacity and
powers, and teeth and salivary glands in all
probability absent entirely.

It is also urged against the dry meat or manger
system, that horses fail to masticate or grind the
whole of their corn, that much in a state capable
of germination or growth passes out in the
excrement, and, of course, the cooked meat system
supplies this deficiency.

During a season of extreme scarcity in India,
it has been stated,* the famine-hunted wretches
followed the English camp, and drew their princi-
pal nourishment from the grains of corn extracted
from the excrement of horses.

I well remember an extensive firm employing
many horses, whose manure was objected to by

* Letter from an Indian officer to J. Curwen, M.P., quoted in
Blaine's (fifth) edition of "The Veterinary Art."

Objections to the Use of Dry Food. 57

several farmers because they obtained crops of
oats in places where they were not required, after
using it on the land. I have also observed the
heap of manure literally covered with green
blades from the growing oats. How was this,
and why has such a simple circumstance had no
better effect than to induce a system of porridge
feeding for an animal eminently unfitted for it ?

It was in this wise. The remedy was sought
for in a manner too superficially ; and in the
absence of an acquaintance with the principles of
management, the horse has been compelled to
suffer for the omissions of others.

In such cases I have known carpenters, and
even more unlikely men appealed to for informa-
tion and a remedy. The system resembles very
much that so commonly adopted under certain
Acts of Parliament, where discretion and power
is given to tailors, joiners, bailiffs, policemen
et hoc genus omne, to pronounce in a magisterial
court what is cruelty to animals in a medical
point of view, and to descant upon the patholo-
gical signs which prove a carcass to be diseased,
and all this in the teeth of an educated scien-
tific witness.

Such matters require dealing with philosophi-
cally. They are not within the comprehension of
every clodhopper, groom, and coachman, who
fancies he knows all about a horse because he
cleans him. Their duties lie in the practical ad-
ministration of the brush and broom, and faithful

58 Objections to the Use of Dry Food,
j «/ t/

execution of all orders entrusted to them.
Management and dictation form no part of
these.

The internal arrangements of the horse and all
domestic animals require the assistance of brains
not so illiterate, and if they were properly sup-
plied with such, the horse and his master would
enjoy a much longer acquaintance.

It is important to us to enquire whether
oats or any kind of grain are capable of growing
after having passed through from eighty to ninety
feet of intestines subjected to healthy acid, alka-
line, and other peculiar juices which convert their
starch into sugar, separate and modify their
albumen and caseine, and dissolve out salts, or
to a temperature varying from 98° to 102° R,
occupying time varying from ten to twenty-four
hours ?

I venture to predict not, and to assert that
very few grains will pass out unacted upon. If
such were the case the whole processes of masti-
cation, insalivation, digestion, and that of making
malt are but a farce, and cannot be accounted
for by the present deductions of science.

The solution of the growing oats, however, was
soon made apparent.

The manger system had been imperfectly
carried on for some time without any alteration
in the size or character of the mangers them-
selves. These were shallow, narrow, and not
provided with cross-bars. In this way much was

Objections to the Use of Dry Food. 59

wasted by the horses throwing out the corn when
searching for better portions.

In addition, I entered the stables on one occa-
sion when the premises were supposed to be
deserted^ and observed a number of those young
urchins who are always a kind of sine qua non
about lorries and stables, carrying on a mimic
warfare, the missiles in the case being oats, ob-
tained from the open corn-bin or granary. It
was afterwards ascertained this had been a
common practice. The successful remedy soon
followed in the shape of deep and wide mangers,
with iron cross-bars, padlocks to the corn-bin
and granary door, and institution of a proper
room for mixing the corn and cut food.

That the half-famished Indians picked some-
thing out of the excrements of the horses I have
no doubt, and they most probably resembled oats
in appearance. Birds, especially sparrows and
common fowls, are also captivated to make such
a selection for their crop. But only in outward
appearance would these abstracted matters re-
semble the grain of oats. Few have trusted them-
selves and their judgment in troubling in this
matter farther than making the broad assertion
on the strength of appearances. A superficial
mode, and very delusive proposition to be circu-
lated. I have tested the matter and found it to
be an error.

If the stomach and digestive organs generally
are in a state of health and order, very few

60 Objections to the Use of Dry Food.

grains escape their action, and the common in-
ference is that if the horses of the Indian campaign
referred to really parted with so much corn as to
support such a number of followers, they must
have been fed in a very imperfect manner, their
digestive organs in a state of disorder, and from
the loss of the food, in a condition certainly not
desirable in an enemy's country.

In France the subject met with the attention
of Boussingault and Papin, who instituted experi-
ments, and ascertained correctly that the passage
of undigested grain from the bowels of horses in
health is merely nominal.

Out of eight pounds allowed per diem only
one ounce of unchanged grain could be detected,
and this weight included moisture.

The digestive organs generally should be in a
state of healthy action in order to secure the proper
benefit from food.

Under this head there requires little to be
written. I have fully shown how disease origi-
nates by false management, and how waste
occurs in food supplied under such circumstances.
It must, therefore, be apparent that those organs
specially set apart for providing the fabric of the
animal body should not be overtaxed or en-
feebled. If such occurs the whole body suffers
more or less.

Care is especially needed after protracted hard
work and long fasts, avoiding the use of large

Objections to the Use of Dry Food. 61

quantities of cold water upon the contents of a
well-filled stomach, or supplying too much food
at one time. In fact these precautions would
repay, if followed, at all times ; neglect of them
is a frequent source of derangement, and from
which fatal consequences usually succeed.

Where a great number of horses are kept it is
far more profitable to employ a person whose sole
occupation is confined to the feeding department.
Corn, &c., should be transferred to his possession
under proper rules for mixture and use, the
quantities being accurately stated in documents
handed to him. In return he should furnish
evidence of having carefully complied with the
terms, and his papers should also afford particular
information as to consumption under all circum-
stances, regular or variable.

He should be a man who will carefully notice
the condition of all horses when brought to the
stable, and willing to minister to their comfort in
properly regulating the quantity of food each
may receive without injury.

The details of such management require
special attention in order to be properly applied
to the various circumstances which obtain in
different establishments. There is, however, no
particular difficulty beyond a willingness that
need be encountered, in order to make the whole
safe, satisfactory, and profitable.

In the absence of particulars it would be an

62 Objections to the Use of Dry Food.

impossibility to attempt to lay down a plan suit-
able for any particular establishment. An out-
line must be framed on the principles here given,
the work, size, and nature of animal, &c., being
points of importance for consideration.

flS

PAET II.

VARIETIES OF FOOD.

THE food used for working horses are those
cereals and leguminous seeds which, usually
denominated corn, consist of oats, barley, Indian.
corn or maize, peas, beans, and tares, together
with hay, straw, bran, and linseed.

These vary much in their properties as well as
nutrition, and on that ground alone arises the
question " What kinds are best, and what pro-
portion should be given ?"

An answer will greatly depend upon circum-
stances, such as the character of work imposed,
together with the market price and condition of
the provender.

The relative proportions of nutritious matter
contained in different kinds of food have been
ascertained from time to time by analysis, an
outline of which is as follows : —

T inn^ ,,«,!« Nutritious Fat, or

In 100 pounds. pro'ducers.

Turnips ...... 1 9

Red beet ...... 1J 8J

Carrots ...... 2 10

Potatoes ..... 2 25

Hay ....... 8

61 Varieties y* Food.

In 100 pounds. Nutritious Fat or

matter. heat pro lucers

Maize, or Indian corn .12 67

Oats 14 68

Barley 18 68 J

Bran 18 4

Linseed 24 64f

Beans 31 51J

Peas 32 51J

Tares, or lentils ... 33 48

Maize or Indian Corn. — By the above table
it will be observed that maize among corn con-
tains the least percentage of nutritious matter,
and from it we gather that it is not suited as a
principal article of diet for working animals. It
contains a great proportion of water and starchy
matters, and forms in consequence an excellent
food for pigs and fatting animals, given with
other varieties.

Oats stand next in proportion, and by custom
have been most commonly selected as a principal
article of diet for horses, but prove very expen-
sive as sometimes used. This is very apparent
on calculation, and results are demonstrative in
practice.

A horse doing little work, or what actually
only amounts to exercise, would be economically
and advantageously fed upon hay and oats, as
the demand for muscular power not being great,
such articles form a very suitable diet, without
causing him to become overloaded with fat and a
burden to himself.

Varieties of Food. 6 5

Estimating oats to weigh 421bs. per bushel,
and costing twenty-six shillings per quarter (eight
bushels), the cost per week for different allow-
ances, together with the amount of nutritious
matter contained, would be somewhat as fol-
lows : —

Azotised or

Pounds Pounds nutritious matter

per day. per week. Cost. in pounds,

s. d. v

10 70 55 9-8

12 84 66 11-76

14 98 77 13-52

16 112 88 15-68

18 126 9 9 17-64

20 140 10 10 19-60

In addition, sixpence must be added for each
stone (14lbs.) of hay consumed, which yields
ll'20oz. of nutritious matter.

Oats should be heavy in the hand, devoid of
thick husks, and short and plump in the kernel.
Good dry potato or Scotch oats, weighing 39 to
42 pounds per bushel, are undoubtedly cheapest
to purchase at all times, and to be preferred to
other kinds weighing from 33 to 37 pounds,
even when four or five shillings extra per quarter
is paid.

It is no saving to purchase corn, especially
oats, made up to a certain weight. Some dealers
guarantee four bushels of oats for a stated price
to weigh, say 160 pounds, and when measured

F

66 Varieties of Food.

the quantity considerably exceeds the four
bushels.

Under such circumstances the purchase can-
not be as beneficial as if the oats were 160 Ibs.
natural weight. The inference is, the grain is
of an inferior quality, the kernel being light
and the husks disproportionately heavy. It is
always more profitable to obtain standard measure
and weight, as this proves an important item in
twelve months, and particularly when animals are
doing variable work.

The lower priced oats may answer well for
moderate exercise or work, but as soon as the labour
is increased, or a change is made from standard
weighing oats to others of a lower nutritious per
centage, animals suddenly fall away in condition,
and become liable to disease, and in ignorance of
the real causes, are not unfrequently impregnated
with a course of useless and even dangerous drugs.
It is thus the expenses of feeding are obviously
increased, as to them are to be added less ability
for work, and an additional incurring of expense,
while the original cost of the provender is really
but a fraction below the price of good mate-
rial.

When the kernel of oats is small the husk
preponderates, the former containing as low as
eight per cent, only of nutritious matter, and the
latter no better than straw itself, but for which
the price of oats is paid.

Mr. Hunting proved this by a set of tedious

Varieties of Food. 67

but ingenious experiments. He says,* " One
ounce of foreign oats, 391bs. per bushel, was
weighed, the same weight of old Scotch, 401bs.
per bushel, and the same weight of Tartar oats
361bs. per bushel. The foreign oats contained
1,112 kernels, the Scotch oats, 1,084, and the
Tartars, 1,144. The husks were weighed. The
husks of the 1,144 grains of Tartars weighed
120 grains; of the 1,112 kernels of foreign oats,
126 grains ; while the husk of the 1,084 kernels
of Scotch only weighed 96 grains.1"

Under these circumstances, horses fed upon
three bushels of oats per week, weighing 421bs.
per bushel, would receive 1261bs total weight, of
which 251bs. would be husks, having a value only
of four per cent., in nutritious matter.

Change this to Tartar oats at 391bs. per bushel,
exactly 39lbs. must be extracted for husks, and
if the foreign oats are used, 361bs. would be the
amount of husk in the same quantity.

It must be borne in mind that the inferior
kinds of oats are not only remarkable for a pre-
ponderance of husk, but their nutritious matter,
and consequently their feeding qualities, are con-
siderably below the standard weighing Scotch
oats.

Similar rules should be applied to other kinds
of grain or corn, and their standard qualities

* " On the Feeding and Management of our Domestic Ani-
mals." p 14.

F 2

68 Selection and Purchase of Gram.

obtained from analyses upon which reliance can
be placed, and information will thus be easily
obtained whereby to institute a system of mixtures
for any purpose of feeding,

SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF GRAIN.

Most persons are aware that corn should be
thoroughly dry for feeding purposes, otherwise
inconveniences occur in the form of indigestion,
colic, weed, grease, or loss of condition, &c.

Besides, in purchasing that which is not dry,
or seasoned, a decided loss occurs, which buyers
should avoid by securing a reduced price in
accordance.

Owing to this, large feeders take advantage of
the markets, and purchase oats, peas, beans, barley,
&c., as they are aware that in good corn the loss
by a reasonable evaporation of water is an ample
payment for the construction of granaries for
spreading out and constantly turning ; added to
which, animals are kept in better condition, and
work is less interfered with by illness on that
account.

I have known hundreds of quarters of corn
purchased under such conditions, and with the
observance of other measures, to be noticed, a
balance has been shown which has cleared the
cost of keeping the animals for a great portion of
the time, as compared with the previous cost from
another mode of feeding.

Selection and Purchase of Grain. C9

The purchase of grain should not be referred
to week, month, or year, in fact, to no period if
it can be avoided. It is much better to store up
corn and ensure it being thoroughly dry, than to
depend upon purchase when it is immediately re-
quired. Many good bargains are put in the way
of owners who are open to purchase, and the
profit obtained helps to improve the appearance of
the credit side of the balance sheet.

Where roomy grain floors cannot be had, it
becomes a matter of greater necessity that the
provender should be dry, and of guaranteed weight
and measure. Of a necessity also, a higher price
must be paid for it, and even under those circum-
stances it answers far better than the use of inferior
kinds. To constant purchasers, dealers are to be
found who will endeavour to provide what is re-
quired in the shape of a regular sample, and thus
difficulties are greatly overcome.

These principles have been more understood of
late by those who feed large numbers of horses,
and whose competitive kind of work requires them
to study every item of expenditure. In some
instances animals are fed inexpensively, and pre-
serve their health and condition with remarkable
benefit from the system, even under much harder
work.

70

ECONOMY OF FOOD.

The method of economising food consists in
using a variety of grain instead of one kind, and
that exclusively oats. Some have tried the
different leguminous kinds also separately, but
found them inefficient in economy, and even
injurious.

A farmer of my acquaintance having about
thirty horses, purchased, at a cheap rate, a
quantity of Indian corn, under the idea that it
would effect a saving in the cost of feeding.
On the contrary, the health and condition were
greatly sacrificed.

Others, again, give a preponderance of beans,
acting upon the well known fact that, being more
nutritive than oats, they must be more economical.
In the mode adopted, however, they have proved
highly expensive as well as injurious.

Linseed is also added, and with pernicious
results. It is too laxative for general use in
quantity, but judiciously administered proves
assimilative, hastens the process of assimilation,
and assists in the formation of fat and flesh. As
a nutritious body it is very highly expensive.

Tares, which are the most nutritious diet we
can use for horses, are objectionable as being
unpalatable in quantity. Similar objections may
be urged against other varieties of food when
exclusively used, particularly in their liability to
produce disorder of the digestive organs.

Economy of Food. 71

A mixture, therefore, should be regulated by
special conditions. Due consideration is to be
given to the nutritious matter contained in each
ingredient, and as a whole, the amount and
character of the work, quantity allowed to each
animal, and the price paid at the time. Where
the consumer is compelled to go to the dealer for
his week's, fortnight's, or month's supply, this is
particularly needed, as there is no room for specu-
lation on the rise or fall of corn, upon which
frequently large sums are to be saved.

In estimating the amount of nutritious matter
contained in food of different kinds, and how
much is required to preserve horses in health
under their work, the table given in pages 63, 64
will be found of great service. Practically, it is
answered by observing the quantity of oats of
standard nutrition, or other kind of food, which
may be required to keep the animals in condition
for work and perfect health. The amount of
nutritious matter is then determined according to
the per centage stated opposite each kind by
simple rule of three. This done, the estimate of
nutrition contained in other kinds is observed,
and mixtures arranged, forms of which will shortly
be submitted.

It is to be next inquired, will this ensure a
less cost than is incurred by the principal use of
oats ? The answer is emphatically, yes, and with
a greater supply of nutrition.

I am indebted to a gentleman of great ex-

72 Economy of Food.

perience among horses for valuable information
in the feeding of his animals.

They are employed in the town of Sheffield,
which is not unlike Glasgow for its hills.

The work is severe, and consists in removing
the heavy manufactures of steel, stoves, hard-
ware, &c., to and from the railway station.
Drays or lorries are generally used, and three
tons is a common load.

In a letter to me dated April 4th, 1864, he
says : —

" Our horses' diet is as follows : —

Hay .... 16 pounds per day, 8 stones per week.

Oats .... 10 „ „ 5 „

Beans . . . 5 „ „ 2J „ „

Maize . . . 4 „ „ 2 „ „

Bran .... 2 „ „ 1 „ „

Total . 37 „ „ 18J „ „

No loose hay, all is chopped ; oats, beans, Indian
corn all crushed separately, then the whole is
mixed with the chop. The hay costs 4s. per cwt.,
oats, Is. per stone,* maize, lie?., beans, Is. 2d.,
and bran l\d. per stone.

" I always buy of the best quality without
regard to price, as I find that the cheapest, all
points considered. As a rule, I greatly prefer
English oats.f The harvest of 1862 was an

* The hundredweight is 112 Ibs., the stone 14 Ibs.

t I think the term English is here applied without prejudice

Economy of Food. 73

exception, and I bought foreign oats principally,
being in a superior condition to English. In
addition to the above — which is the winter scale,
the summer is somewhat reduced — we every
Saturday night give each horse a mash of linseed
mixed with a small proportion of bran, boiled
altogether and given warm.

" This serves to lubricate and clear the bowels,
and comforts the animals. I do not know whether
that is the cause ; but since its adoption we have
had few, if any, cases of colic, or severe inflam-
mation ; prior to the adoption of that system
these cases were of great occurrence/'

It must be borne in mind that these are heavy
horses, and we have here also an evidence from
an unprejudiced source, that a considerable
amount of nutritious matter is required to keep
up the health and condition of the animals, since
when the inferior kinds of mixture were sup-
plied, in the shape of oats principally, disease was
common. This I can testify, having been in pro-
fessional attendance.

We are also taught practically that a loss of
condition and proneness to disease is brought
about by food containing too little nutrition,
when the demands upon the system are excessive.

to Scotch oats, but as a distinction to foreign and inferior kinds.
The writer is keenly alive to the qualities of the various kinds of
corn, having had unlimited experience in the feeding and manage-
ment of the best draught horses in large numbers, and doing the
hardest work.

74 Systems adopted on various Colliery Estates.

Suppose these animals had been fed exclusively
upon oats and hay, they would require to con-
sume weekly four-and-a-half bushels of the
former, and about ten stones of the latter, in
order to receive the same amount of nutrition,
viz. 31 \ pounds derived from the mixture
quoted, and which would cost at the same prices
about eighteen shillings and sixpence.

Here is also a decided saving of three shillings
and sixpence per horse per week, by the use of
the mixture, which only costs fifteen shillings, and
with fifty horses would realize £& 15s., and for a
year £455, besides almost an immunity from
disease and death, to which they were before
exposed.

SYSTEMS ADOPTED ON VARIOUS COLLIERY
ESTATES.

It is by paying particular attention to these
matters that so much has been effected in the
saving over former expenditure, on many colliery
establishments, where the supply and mixing of
grain is under the management of the veterinary
surgeon.

Mr. Hunting, in his pamphlet already referred
to, has shown that with the number of horses and
ponies employed at the various collieries of the
South Hetton Coal Company — all doing the
hardest work — the saving effected in ten years
amounted to no less than the enormous sum of

Cut Food in Promoting Insalivation. 75

£31,876 2s. 7Jd. by cutting the hay into chaff and
mixing with small quantities of straw, and sub-
stituting superior kinds of beans, peas, barley,
tares, &c., in lieu of oats. He also states that
out of 225 horses employed in two pits, during
six weeks between 15th December, 1850, and
24th January, 1851, when the old system was
pursued, there died of colic and its consequences
three horses and ponies ; while with the same
number of animals under the improved regime
during seven years, there were less than three
cases per annum.

CUT FOOD AS AN AGENT IN PROMOTING
PROPER INSALIVATION.

The value of this kind of provender as an
agent in causing a proper insalivation of food is
undoubted. On this subject Mr. Hunting is as
explicit as he is full of information regarding it.
He found that a number of animals, all selected
as near as possible with an average age, height,
and common appetite, required much longer
time to consume the same weight and measure of
food cut and mixed in the manger than when it
was given in the shape of long hay in the rack,
and oats only in the manger, from ten to
thirteen minutes more being required.

After what has been said in reference to the
objects of the teeth and salivary glands and their

76 Cut Food in Promoting Insalwation.

secretions,, it must be obvious that iu giving food
in its naturally dry state, it serves more impor-
tant uses in the animal economy. And as the
quantity of saliva plays also an equally impor-
tant part, the use of cut food is here unmis-
takably shown to be a very desirable proceeding.
At the Helton Colliery, Mr. Luke Scott,
M.R.C.V.S. has followed out most useful prin-
ciples. His attention had been arrested in 1851
by the inefficiency of the existing system of
feeding, and proneness to mortality which was
constant among the horses and ponies employed.
The quantities allowed per pay * to each
animal employed in connection with the estate
were as follows : —

Oats in Cost. Hay in Cost. Total.

Bushels. £ s. d. stones. s. £ s. d.

Waggon Horse .8 160 28 14 200

Farm Horse . . 6 19 6 20 10 196

Pit Horse . . 6 19 6 24 12 1 11 6

Pit Pony . . 3 9 9 12 6 15 9

It is necessary to state, the whole of the hay
here allowed was not consumed. Much is constantly
wasted in collieries by being carelessly sent down
the pits, or conveyed to the stables in large trusses,
which come in contact with water, dirt, and
grease. The animals consequently refuse it, and
generally place it beneath them, sufficient being

* Colliery accounts in the county of Durham are made up
once a fortnight, when wages are paid ; hence the term " pay."

Cut Food in Promoting Insalivation. 77

frequently gathered to make a very good bed. I
have seen a week's supply of hay and corn lying
exposed to the dust flying from the pit mouth, as
well as steam, condensing as it falls from the
boilers, and, in common instances, to the rain
of one or two nights in addition, before being
sent down. The former kind of unsystematic
arrangement was of frequent occurrence at one
pit, but no kind of remonstrance succeeded in
effecting an alteration.

Pit animals are usually kept twelve hours at
work, and in many cases, without food and water*
or at least without a satisfactory amount of either,
and seldom periods of rest.

I have known animals kept from their stable
thirty-six hours at a time, and when complaints
have been made they have been met with a stout
denial from the powers that be ; or, where denial
has been useless, it has been assigned as a cause,
that the veterinary surgeon has not provided a
sufficient number of animals for the working of
the pit, an office which he does not include among
his duties without express orders. f

Such long fasts act very prejudicially upon

* The practice is not so common as formerly. In some pits
it is abolished, but slumbers in others.

f Lord Kinnaird, in his letter to the Home Secretary on the
Fearndale Colliery explosion, dated 15th November, 1867, has
fully shown the aspect of colliery affairs when he quotes the
words of the miner, who says, "If peop'es as knows dared to
8{»eak, thestf things would soon be stopped ."

78 Cut Food in Promoting Insalivation.

the animal. When he returns to the stable the
food is seized and ravenously swallowed, and, as
a consequence, it does the least good, but is more
frequently productive of the greatest harm.

By a reference to previous remarks on the
estimate of nutritious matter in the various
articles of food, it will be found that the Hetton
Colliery "old plan" of feeding was doubly ex-
pensive and extravagant. It was innutritions
as it yielded to the waggon horse (and others
proportionately) one fourth less nutriment than
the mixture given hereafter. It was expensive
because it cost nineteen shillings per week, from
its use much was wasted, the animals were in
bad condition, and mortality great.

It was decided at length, to allow Mr. Scott
to regulate the system, which he did, in the
following way : —

His first act was to have the hay cut in trusses
of sufficient size to fit a coal tub,* in which they
are sent down the pit, and thus totally prevented
from collecting dirt and grease as before. This
resulted in a saving of the amount wasted, and
also supply in a better condition, which would be
turned to account in the animal body.

The varieties of grain fixed upon to be used
were bruised separately, and mixed in the follow-
ing proportions : —

* This plan is also carried out at all the collieries under Mr.
Hunting's superintendence.

Cut Food in Promoting Insalivation. 79

Weight Price Actual

Grain. per bush, per qr. weight. CV>st.

Ibs. *. Ibs. 8.

Barley, 4 bushels . . 56 30 224 15

Oats, 4 „ . . 42 26 168 13

Peas, 2 „ . . 66 40 132 10

524 £1 IS

In order to arrive at an average number of
animals to be fed, the ponies and horses in the pits
are classed as follows : —

All above 15 hands are called horses.

Three above 13 hands, and under 15 hands,
equal to two horses.

Two above 11 hands, and under 13 hands,
equal to one horse.

Under this arrangement the whole were re-
duced to an average of 130 horses.

The superiority of the system is at once ap-
parent by a reference to the subjoined analysis,
in which the two plans are contrasted.

Old System, for One Pit Horse.

6 bushels of oats per pay, at 3s. 3d. . 19s. 6d.
24 stones of hay, at Qd. 12s. Od.

Or for 26 pays (one year) ,
Nutritious matter contained

SO Cut Food in Promoting Insalivation.

New System, for One Pit Horse.

176 Ibs. of the mixture 14s. 4eZ.

IS stones of hay, at 6 d 9s. Qd.

? 1 pounds of bran lid.

Total per pay ... £1 4s. 3d.

Or for 26 pays (one year) . . . £31 10s. Qd.
Saving effected for one horse for

one year 9 85. Qd.

Cost per horse under old plan . . £40 19s. Od.
Saving in 130 horses for one year £1225 5s. Od.
Nutritious matter contained . . . 48*18 Ibs.

In the old system it will be observed that
52-08 Ibs. of N.M. (nutritious matter) are contained
in the food supplied, against 48' 18 Ibs. in the new.
The greater part, however, was not obtained by the
animals on account of the excessive waste already
mentioned in the hay, and from the greedy man-
ner in which the corn was devoured.

The additional 4 Ibs. of N.M. supplied also
proved expensive, besides useless, as it was un-
available. For it the sum of 7s. 3d. per pay
was being paid, as forming part of a system which
engendered disease, and gave the animals even
less support, although professedly, a mode which
furnished a large amount.

It is now a custom to allow the pit animals
a portion of the hay and corn during the day,

What constitutes a Cheap Food. 81

instead of causing them to fast twelve hours, as
before.

The result is, Mr. Scott has found that the
food is more leisurely taken, masticated, and
thoroughly digested.

Besides the saving effected in actual expendi-
ture, the reduction of disease and losses by death,
is an important item. In repeated visits to the
animals in the pits fed upon Mr. Scott's princi-
ple, it is due from me to state that I never saw
a greater uniformity in condition while the
hardest work was being imposed, and cases of
indigestion, colic, and death in consequence, were
the exception, and of extremely rare occurrence.

WHAT CONSTITUTES A CHEAP FOOD.

It is usually considered a cheap mode of feed-
ing, when material can be supplied for one penny
per pound, and I find several owners base their
calculations of cost at this rate. But it must be
borne in mind that food costing only one penny
per pound is not inevitably an economical food.
We must look farther than mere cost. Economy
does not consist in price alone, to such must be
added the veterinary surgeon's account, whose
services in the main will be found to have been
occasioned by the supposed economical food, and
in addition, the value of the amount wasted by
refusal, fermentation, or that which is hastened

G

82 Objections to a Change of Gr

am.

through the bowels in the state of " partial diges-
tion/^ so much insisted upon.

Again, the amount of nutritious matter con-
tained must be accurately calculated, or no
reliable estimate of cheapness can be made. I
am aware of several large firms in Glasgow
who believe they are feeding economically upon
one penny per pound rates, while their food yields
ten per cent, less nutrition than the preceding
mixtures, and cases of acute indigestion, &c., &c.,
are constant and numerous. These form a good
comparison with the systems of Messrs. Hunting
and Scott, the mixture proposed by the latter
costing only ninety-eight parts of a penny per
pound, with a high scale of nutritive value.

OBJECTIONS TO A CHANGE OF GRAIN.

It is frequently urged that to adopt a total
change in the kind of grain used, is to produce
serious evils and fatal Disorder, as exemplified by
animals gaining access to the open corn bin, or to
a heap of wheat or barley, when either rupture
of the diaphragm, stomach, or intestines takes
place, and death speedily ensues, while at other
times founders (laminitis) occurs.

These certainly appear grave objections at first
sight, but in reality are difficulties of no moment.
We are speaking of systematic feeding, not de-
liberate engorgement. Death or disease results in

Nature, Uses, and Abuses of I$r an. S3

one case by repletion and fermentation conse-
quent upon the J Citing of an unnatural quantity
of food, which, if taken under proper principles,
would in the other prove nutritious and life sup-
porting. The death of horses by these means is
fully carried out in analogy among mankind, with
the exception that in the latter gluttony generally
exerts itself a little more slowly.

In no case, with proper caution, will evil conse-
quences ensue by a change to the dry, or manger
system, from any other. It need therefore cause
no apprehension.

NATURE, USES, AND ABUSES OF BRAN.

Bran will be found by analysis to contain from
14 to 18 per cent, of azotised matter, equal in
fact to oats or barley. In nutrition, however, it
is inferior to the straw of wheat or barley, a
property which appears to obtain with the husk
of grain generally. Owing to some peculiar form
of combination, the azotised matter is not liberated
by the process of digestion ; hence those who con-
sume bread in which the bran of wheat has been
retained, under the idea that such is more nutri-
tious, are greatly mistaken. The faeces or ex-
crement are loaded with bran which has passed
out almost unchanged, and horses fed upon it
exhibit the same conditions.

That an admixture of bran with wheat en flour

o 2

84 Nature, Uses, and Abuses of Bran.

or with the provender of horses, is useful and
even profitable, there can be no doubt. This is
to be attributed to the mechanical action set up
by the siliceous particles, which obviates constipa-
tion, and preserves the proper action of the
digestive organs when given in a judicious man-
ner. Messrs. Hunting and Scott take advantage
of this property, and use it daily with their
superior mixtures of corn.

As a laxative, bran is justly called into requi-
sition periodically as a warm mash for animals in
whom there exists an innate disposition to consti-
pation. I place the action of a bran mash, given
occasionally, as one of the safest, most natural,
and acceptable adjuncts towards the preservation
of health; which effect is produced with more
benefit and less deterioration to the system than
by any other means. There are few horses that
will not take it when offered as a change, and I
would recommend, especially in winter, that it be
given at the temperature of new milk, not cold,
and the use of it should not be insisted upon in-
discriminately, or ill effects are speedily shown.

Nothing can be more anomalous than the
opinion entertained on the use of bran, as it ob-
tains in many quarters. Believed to be non-
nutritious, it is given largely during disease, to
ward off critical inflammation, which a diet of corn
might increase, but why it is persisted in with
animals suffering from general prostration and
weakening complaints is quite paradoxical.

System at the Londonderry Collieries. 85

It too often occurs also,, when no appetite
exists, it is paraded continually before the creature,
and lies in the manger fouling the wood- work
by fermentation, which the animal shows his re-
pugnance to by standing as far back as his chain
will allow.

SYSTEM PURSUED AT THE LONDONDERRY
COLLIERIES.

The horses and ponies employed at the
collieries of the late Marchioness of Londonderry
(now Earl Vane's), during my appointment as
Veterinary Surgeon to her Ladyship, and subse-
quently for a short period to the Earl, were fed
upon oats and peas — five parts of the former to
one of the latter. The mixture was, however,
never regulated by weighing. It was quite of an
extemporary character, and entire guess work, a
dash of peas being hastily put into the bottom of
a "poke" and afterwards covered to the top with
bruised oats, and the whole then weighed. In
addition, hay, and green food in summer, was
allowed, the cost of which I find by returns in
my possession, amounted to £\ 3s. lOJc?. per
horse per pay, all ponies being classed as two
equal to one horse.

Under this arrangement 106 horses and 322
ponies exclusively employed in producing coal,
and of course below ground principally, would in
round numbers give 267 horses, the cost of feed-
ing each being £31 Os. 9d. per annum.

86 System at the Londonderry Collieries.

At first sight this appears, and is really believed
to be a very economical rate of feeding, being
lower than Mr. Scott's expenditure at Hetton-le-
hole. Quality, however, is the test of cheapness,
not the price alone at which the food is supplied.
This allowance yields not more than 37'52 pounds
of nutritious matter — assuming the one part of
peas are carefully added, which I have grave
reasons to doubt — against 48'18 in Mr. Scott's
feed, in which 10' 6 ft Ibs. extra are supplied each
pay per horse during the year, for which he in-
curs a cost only of 9s. 9d., the difference per
horse per year.

But, as in the case of the old system at Hetton-
le-hole, the animals do not derive the whole of
even this limited amount of benefit from the corn
allowed. In winter steamed food, consisting of
hay, linseed, and the one-fifth part of peas ab-
stracted from the mixture, are supplied. This is
sent down the pits during the afternoon, and
frequently before the animals reach the stable in
which the mess has been deposited by the horse-
keeper, I have found it undergoing fermentation.
Some, in fact many, of the animals refused it even
when fresh, and from these causes the most nutri-
tious portions were lost to them.

The process of steaming was conducted at
separate places contiguous to a number of col-
lieries, and the food conveyed in boxes or coal-
tubs placed in carts, and throughout the distance
a dark-coloured fluid drained in profusion, of

System at the Londonderry Collieries. 8?

course carrying with it some of the most useful
soluble principles of the food.*

The process of steaming food may answer well
where inferior food and hay abound, cattle are
to be fed, and aged dependants require some
light employment. But as applied to good food,
and carried out in the manner alluded to, it is a
complete farce, a useless addition to expenditure
— which, by the bye, is not made to appear in
connection with the feeding — and deprivation to
the hard-working animals. In fact, the whole
system of feeding is no better, hence the number
of cases of colic and indigestion, rapid falling
away in condition, diabetes, &c,, &c., which occur,
and not being required to be reported at head-
quarters nothing is known of them. But if the
gentlemen who attempt to feed horses without
visiting them at their work or in their stables,
and others who rule with pens and ink in a com-
fortable office, had to ride off at all hours in all
kinds of weather three, six, eight, or ten miles,
descend a coal-mine, remain in the heated at-
mosphere several hours, and take the place of
their coachman outside the conveyance in the
cold night air, after influences equal to a severe

* In a visit to a large estate owned by a noble earl, where
feeding is supposed to be conducted upon scientific principles,
steamed food forms a large item for cattle. After the process is
carried sufficiently far the food is removed, and the fluid accu-
mulated from the condensed steam, containing useful soluble
matters, is allowed to drain away in the gutter, while the ani-
mals are supplied with water for drinking. Cui bono 1

88 System at the Londonderry Collieries.

vapour bath, each would perceive the advisability
of reform. As such irregularities are in a coalpit
hundreds of feet below the surface,, they do not
see, and it is very useful to be determined not to see.

With the exercise of common knowledge a
man may be expert at purchasing corn, and
make good bargains, but it requires a little
more than that to adapt a proper system to the
constantly varying wants of a large number of
animals. If the principles of dieting and
management require no more philosophy, and
can be conducted with success without presence
or information, the sooner such gentlemen take
up also the treatment of disease by a system of
telegraphy the better, and probably they may
then make both ends meet still more satisfactorily
to themselves.

From a strict examination of all phases and
conditions, as they exist on that estate in com-
mon with many others, a more highly nutritious
diet can be guaranteed — a reduction of disease
and mortality therefrom to a minimum by the
exercise of care and watchfulness, and these with
a saving of hundreds of pounds annually.

The principle is of easy calculation. In large
numbers, say three or four hundred animals, if
two or three shillings only per week can be saved,
it is a large sum at the end of the year. With
other agencies it may also be increased. But on
collieries there are objections to figures, except
when they are used by the powers that be, and

Other Forms of Admixture. 89

reports, although desired, are as waste paper.
Like the phoenix, however, these may rise from
their ashes, and, under another name, with an
official envelope, appear as new and original
creatures altogether.

In leaving this part of the subject, I would
enquire how it is possible for a pit horse of
fifteen or sixteen hands, with his large muscular
system — doing from twenty to thirty miles a day,
drawing a train of coal tubs, one way empty the
other laden with many tons, in a highly heated
and dusty atmosphere, and perspiring freely —
to obtain sufficient nutriment from an allowance
of twelve pounds of oats per day. The same is
allowed to many carriage horses, and those of our
cavalry regiments receive it within a fraction, for
which exertion amounting to heal thy and necessary
exercise only, compared with the work of a pit
horse, is exacted.

OTHER FORMS OF ADMIXTURE.

I have shown that nutritious mixtures of corn
may be used with great advantage at a low cost.
Their use and application should be guided by
existing circumstances.

Animals should be selected as much as possible
from an average class, character, and age ; but
an intelligent overlooker would soon be able to
perceive, even among a mixed class where any
differences existed, and modification is required.

90 Other Forms of Admixture.

Some would need a little more food than others
— particularly aged ones — while there are others
whose assimilative powers being more active,
would derive more nutrition even from a little
less food, and thus spare a trifle to their less
endowed neighbours.

In the studs under the care of Mr. Hunting
at South Hetton, Murton, Rhyhope, Trimdon
Grange, Seaton Delaval, &c., &c., and Mr. Scott,
in the old Hetton Collieries, animals of all ages
are to be found, and, by the system carried out,
are equally well provided for.

If, owing to the severity of the work, a more
nutritious diet is called for, it will be found in
the forms as follow, which provide it at an equally
cheap rate.

Mixture No. 1 (Low rates).

Weight.
Ibs.

Cost.
£ s. d.

Peas 4 bushels

. . 264

100

Barley 4 „
Oats 3 „
Bran* ....

. . 224
. . 126

98

15 0
9 9
4 1

712 £2 8 10

This mixture, divided among seven horses
during one week, would allow each over 14J
pounds per day, at a cost of 6s. life?., out of
which 20*14 Ibs. of N.M. (nutritious matter)

* The nitrogenous principle of bran is not calculated in these
mixtures for reasons stated on page 83.

Of her Forms of Admix tu-re. 91

would be obtained. Divided among six horses
each would cost 8s. l^d., and obtain 23*63 Ibs.
of N.M.

Divided among five horses, each would cost
9s. 9d., and obtain 28-36 Ibs. of N.M.

Mixture No. 2.

Weight. . Cost.

Ibs. £ 8. d.

Peas 4 bushels . . 264 100

Barley 4 „ . . 224 15 0

Tares 1 „ . . 67 5 41

Oats 1 „ . . 42 39

Bran 98 41

695 £2 8 2J

Divided among seven horses, each would receive
over 99 Ibs. per weok, costing 6*. lOJ^., and
obtain 21-65 Ibs. N.M.

Six horses would receive 115J Ibs. each, costing
8s., and obtain 25'26'lbs. N.M.

Five horses would receive ] 39 Ibs. each, costing
9s. !\d., and obtain 30-31 Ibs. N.M.

Cost.

£ s. d.

100

15 0

10 9

4 1

720 £2 9 10

Mixture No. 3.

Weight.

Ibs.

Peas 4

bushels . .264

Barley 4

. . 224

Tares 2

. . 134

Bran

98

92 Other Forms of Admixture.

Divided among seven horses, each would
receive over 102 Ibs. per week, costing 7s. l^d.,
and obtain 23'86 Ibs. N.M.

Six horses would receive 120 Ibs., costing
85. 3Jd., and obtain 27'84 Ibs. N.M.

Five horses would receive 124 Ibs., costing
9s. lljd., and obtain 33 40 Ibs. N.M.

It must be borne in mind that good hay yields
five per cent, of N.M. which must be added to
the above for the quantity used.

It will also be observed that peas are named
in the foregoing mixtures to the exclusion of
beans. They are not so productive of consti-
pation as beans, which on that account enables us
to use them with greater freedom. Beans are,
however, unobjectionable when used with oats
and bran, chaff, &c., in sufficient quantities.
Prices must regulate these mixtures from time to
time, due consideration being paid to the N.M.
contained in the various kinds of grain.

When the prices of grain are much increased,
such mixtures as the following must be taken,
and will be found adequate at an equally low
cost.

From the Field of 21st September, 1867, we
learn the prices current at Mark Lane were, for
oats, 35^. ; barley, 43s. ; peas, 43s. ; beans, 44s.
per quarter of eight bushels, and tares, 7s. per
bushel. Bran cost at that time 6s. per cwt. of
eight bushels.

Other Forms of Admixture. 93

Mixture No. 4 (High rates).

Weight. Cost.

Ibs. £ s. d.

Peas 6 bushels . . 396 1 12 3

Beans 4 „ . . 264 120

Tares 2 „ . . 134 14 0

Barley 1 „ . . 56 56

Bran 112 60

962 £3 19 9

Divided among twelve horses, each would receive
80 Ibs. per week, costing 6s. 7%d., furnishing

Eleven horses would receive 87 J Ibs. each,
costing 7s. 3d., and obtain 23J Ibs. N.M.

Ten horses would receive 96 Ibs. each, costing
7s. llfrf., and obtain 25f Ibs. N.M.

Nine horses would receive 106J Ibs., costing
8s. 9Jc?., and obtain 28J Ibs. of N.M.

Eight horses would receive 120 Ibs. each,
costing 9s. ll±d., and obtain 32| Ibs. of N.M.

Mixture No. 5.

Weight. Cost.

Ibs. £ s. d.

Beans 4 bushels . . 264 120

Peas 4 „ . . 264 116

Tares 2 „ . . 134 14 0

Oats 1 „ . . 42 4 4J

Bran , 112 6 0

816 £3 7 10|

94 Other Forms of Admixture.

Ten horses would each receive 81 J Ibs., costing
6s. 9Jd., and obtain 21 Ibs. N.M.

Nine horses would each receive 90^ Ibs., cost-
ing 7s. 6%d., and obtain 23J Ibs. of N.M.

Eight horses would each receive 102 Ibs., cost-
ing 8s. 6d., and obtain 26^ Ibs. of N.M.

Seven horses would each receive 10GJ Ibs.,
costing 9s. S^d.y and obtain 3Q| Ibs. of N.M.

Mixture No. 6.

Weight. Cost.

Ibs. £ s. d.

Beans 4 bushels . . 264 120

Peas 4 „ . . 264 116

Barley 3 „ . . 168 0 16 lj

Tares 2 „ . . 134 0 14 0

Bran 112 060

942 £3 19 1\

Twelve horses would receive per week each,
78Jlbs., costing 6s. 7%d., and obtain 19f Ibs. N.M.

Eleven horses would receive each 85f Ibs.,
costing 7s. 2f d., and obtain 21 £ Ibs. N.M.

Ten horses would receive each 94 Ibs., costing
7s. llid., and obtain 23f Ibs. N.M.

Nine horses would receive each 104 Ibs., cost-
ing 8s. 9d., and obtain 26 Ibs. N.M.

Eight horses would receive each 117J Ibs.,
costing 9s. llftf., and obtain 29 J Ibs. of N.M.

Seven horses would receive each 134J Ibs.,
costing 11s. 4±d., and obtain 33| Ibs. of N.M.

Oilier Forms of Admixture. 95

The present prices of grain, &c. (February,
1871), afford the means of suitable contrast with
the foregoing. By using the following mixtures,
actual cost need not be increased.

Mixture No. 7.

Weight. Cost.

Ibs. £ s. d.

Peas 8 bushels . . 504 200

Beans 4 „ . . 252 160

Barley 4 „ . . 200 0 15 0

Oats 4 152 0 12 0

1108 £4 13 0

Fourteen horses would receive 79 Ibs. per week,
at a cost of 6s. l^d. each, yielding 21 Ibs. of
nutritious matter.

Thirteen horses would receive 85 Ibs., at a
cost of 7s. 2d., yielding 22} Ibs. N.M.

Twelve horses would receive 92 J Ibs., at a cost
of 7s. 9d., yielding 24} Ibs. of N.M.

Eleven horses would receive 100 Ibs., at a
cost of 8s. 5%d., yielding 27 Ibs. N M.

Ten horses would receive 11 Of Ibs., at a cost
of 9s. 3Jd., yielding 29} Ibs. N.M.

Mixture No. 8.

Weight. Cost.

Ibs. £ s. d.

Peas 8 bushels . . 504 200

Barley 4 „ . . 200 0 15 0

Oats 4 „ . . 152 0 12 0

856 £370

96 Other Forms of Admixture.

Tea horses would receive 85 Ibs. per week, at
a cost of 6s. 8Jo?. each, yielding 21 Ibs. N.M.

Nine horses would receive 95 Ibs., at a cost of
7s. o^d., yielding 24 Ibs. N.M.

Eight horses would receive 107 Ibs., at a cost
of 8s. 4Jrf., yielding 27 Ibs. N.M.*

It remains only to be added that by a careful
estimate of the prices of grain and leguminous
seeds, together with the relative amounts of
nutritious matter contained in each, it is possible
to vary the mixture in such manner as the fore-
going, that, notwithstanding the excessive fluc-
tuations of markets, the cost of each animal per
week for corn will not vary throughout the
entire year more than a few pence.

The bulk will, however, be somewhat less,
and requires to be made up by the use of hay,
or hay and straw chaff.

As these mixtures are designed for hard-
working animals only, it will be almost un-
necessary after what has been said when speak-
ing of animal heat, &c., to state that such food
will prove pre-eminently injurious to idle animals,
except given in very small quantities. To those
doing no work or light exercise, oats are decidedly
the safest article of diet.

* In feeding horses upon oats only, weighing 38 Ibs. per
bushel, costing 24s. per quarter, each must consume 5 bushels
weekly, at a cost of 15s., in order to derive the same nutrition as
htTe afforded by a mixture of 27 Ibs. per day, at a cost of 8s. 4gC?.
per week.

97

GREEN FOOD.

Among hard- working horses, I have found the
use of green food too indiscriminately adopted,
and it frequently proves as injurious as a mass of
cooked food.

That it is useful and beneficial I fully be-
lieve, but this occurs under proper management.
When given, it should by no means take the place
of corn. This is, however, too commonly done,
the animal being allowed too much.

He then perspires freely, becomes weak and
liable to disease. I have known for years that
among town cart and cab horses to whom grass
has been allowed as described, sore throats and
influenza have appeared almost simultaneously
with its use, besides colic, weed, &c., &c.

Two or three weeks' feeding while the plants
are young may answer for easily wrought
horses, but in my opinion that state of the
animal's body which we term condition should
not be so trifled with. Aptitude for work is
iiot a condition which is obtained in a few
days or hours. It is only obtained during
weeks, and at considerable expense. Most per-
sons know, or at least presume to know, what
training the racer requires, and how long a
hunter is in being got ready for the field;
yet we find the same people sacrifice the con-
dition of a draught horse during a season

H

98 Green Food.

when he requires the greatest strength, by the
supply of an innutritions and watery food.

I maintain, if horses are in condition and
required for work, that green food is an inter-
ruption to the formation and maintenance of
muscle, and it should be avoided. If he requires
rest, green food will be serviceable ; and, like his
more favoured master, he should be allowed a trip
to the country, where, in a roomy loose box or
covered yard, he can enjoy the green fruits of the
earth, which are regularly mown and brought to
him, protected from the rays of a scorching
summer sun, or the pelting rains that fall, and
flies which torment at this season.

When these conditions are not fulfilled, green
food proves expensive and unprofitable. The
animal loses condition and is below the standard
for work, while he becomes peculiarly liable to
disease, and exhibits the greatest difficulty in
taking on flesh, appearing lean, hide bound, and
generally betokening want of power and activity.

Similar remarks apply to the use of turnips or
carrots. Moderately used raw in winter they
prove serviceable — in excess they are positively
injurious.

99

ECONOMY OF USING CHAFF AND BRUISED
CORN.

With regard to the bruising of corn and cutting
hay into chaff, I find the practice attended with
good results. It suits a mixed class of animals
better, and causes a more perfect mixture of each
kind than would be derived from the food in the
whole state.

It is an important proceeding where boys are
employed ; for where they have access to unbruised
com, they often take out beans, peas, or tares for
pigs, rabbits, poultry, or pigeons at home.

The cutting of food, as already shown, causes
a proper and continued flow of saliva — an im-
portant process, in order to ensure digestion of
the numerous starchy elements of food upon
which horses and cattle live. The cost* incurred
is very little with proper machinery, and amply
repays for the outlay in a very short time.

By the addition of oat or wheat-straw, a saving
is not only effected, but the food is further aided
in digestion. The usual proportions are one-
fourth straw and three-fourths hay, but many
persons use equal parts.

These are strictly non-nutritious agents as
used. They are given purposely for providing

* It is frequently estimated that hay costs 2s. per ton cutting,
and the bruising of corn one penny per bushel. Mr. Hunting,
however, informs me that the work is performed at the South
Hotton colliery for half these sums.

H 2

100 Economy of CJiaff and Bruised Corn.

necessary bulk, and assisting in grinding down
the other portions of food within the digestive
organs. As an agent of nutrition hay is very
expensive, and in that respect little superior
to straw, which, with other food, I have known
given regularly to animals, no hay being allowed,
while the condition has been all that could be
desired.

In all the cereals and leguminosse ripeness of
the plant is evidenced by the development and
perfection of the seed in the various receptacles ;
prior to that stage the stem contains the nutri-
tion. Notwithstanding this fact, so apparent as
it must be to every farmer that the analogy
exists in each, hay is allowed to stand for days,
and even weeks, before being cut, when it must
be an utter impossibility for any increase to take
place. Growth is completed, the plant ripens, as
indicated by the seeds becoming plump. They
contain all the nutriment, and in the main arc
shed upon the ground by every wind that blows,
leaving the hay nothing better than a fine sample
of straw.

The higher price asked for this fine sample,
we may infer, is to cover the loss occasioned by
this species of neglect.

I wish it to be understood that I am not pre-
judiced to the exclusive use of cut hay and
bruised corn. When given whole these sub-
stances may be effectively masticated, and the
animals will appear excellent and pay well for

Pea and Bean Straw. 101

the proper selection and mixture of food. I,
nevertheless, consider that a larger profit accrues
by avoiding the waste which always happens when
hay is given whole (or long), besides suiting for
general purposes much better.

Food so prepared will require wide and deep
mangtrs fitted with cross bars, to prevent the
animals throwing it out in their search for the
more tasty portions.

On this subject many investigations have taken
place at home and abroad, and the results are,
without exception, favourable.

In France, Leblanc found that animals fed
upon boiled food fattened, but lost vigour
and became affected with disease ; while dry
food had a contrary effect. M. Charlier
says, with cooked food the animals are very
subject to disease, but since the regular adoption,
by omnibus proprietors, of dry, bruised, and cut
food, founder, colic, and illnesses generally,
which each week were numerous, had become
quite exceptional.

PEA AND BEAN STRAW.

The question has frequently been put to me,
" Is pea or bean-straw useful for feeding horses ?"
To this an affirmative answer may be given, when
the article has been carefully gathered and housed.
It should always be cut up small, and mixed with

102 Saving to be Effected.

the bruised mixtures of corn, and large quantities
should be avoided by using with it cut hay.
Equal parts of hay and pea-straw, or three parts
of hay to one of bean-straw, will answer very well
for working horses, but I deprecate filling the
racks with either.

The many fatal cases of disease which occur
from their use, is owing to the inferior condition
of the straw, coupled with being in undue quanti-
ties and other irregularities, which too often exist
in the farm stable.

SAVING TO BE EFFECTED.

Carefully carried out, these principles will
effect an enormous saving, and I have no hesita-
tion in stating that, among the numbers of animals
employed in Glasgow and other large towns of
Great Britain, it may be raised to thousands of
pounds annually, and, in addition, a corresponding
sum by the avoidance of disease.

The farmer need not grudge his horse corn,
since it can be shown that he can be fed at less
cost than many now incur on inferior hay, straw,
and provender generally, and derive greater
aptitude for work.

The poor man may also feed better and save a
few shillings weekly, which would be well applied
to the formation of a fund wherewith he could
replace his animal in the event of death, without

Saving to be Effected. 103

resorting to the subscription system over his
immediate district, which is too commonly done.

The principles are important to large owners,
who might also raise a fund with the savings for
the same purpose, and to remunerate, in some
cases I could name, those who are able, and study
to apply effectually the system calculated to
bring about the change.

All food should be of the best quality and kind.
If inferior kinds are purchased, and require dis-
guising by some process to make them palatable,
the sooner he who purchases such is removed the
better.

No mixture or process of doctoring can render
such available as nutritive food when the elements
are not present, nor can any admixture of con-
dimental nonsense effect it either. The experi-
ments of Mr. J. B. Lawes have definitely proved
that when animals improve their condition with
the use of condiments — which in themselves have
no nutrition scarcely — the result occurs from an
increased consumption of corn. The proprietors
of such compounds may state what they please
in puffing their wares. But against their puffing
it can be positively asserted, as an undoubted
fact, that condiments, spicy foods, or by what-
ever term they are known, do not effect any im-
provement upon inferior food with which they
may be mixed, and are not economical, as set
against common salt, which is far superior at
one-fortieth the price. On the other hand, they

1 04 Importance of Grooming.

are expensive articles of diet, and can only be
looked upon as substances quite dispensable, and
of no great service in the feeding of animals.

Within a recent period a sample of food
intended for working horses, cattle, and sheep,
has been submitted to me by Messrs. Whyte and
Cruikshank, Chryston Mills, near Glasgow, which,
although bearing the name of a " Patent
Prepared Food/'' it is only justice to state,
partakes of none of the qualities of condimental
or spicy foods. It is a preparation embodying,
to a certain extent, the principles laid down in
these pages, the whole of the ingredients being
carefully selected, decorticated, ground, and
baked. It is highly spoken of by several pro-
prietors, and will doubtless prove a great boon
to those who cannot devote attention to the
selection of provender for horses, or where only
one or two are kept. I, however, have no ex-
perience of its use, but judging from information
received as to its composition, and the respecta-
bility of its inventors, have no doubt it will fulfil
the ends claimed for it, and call for an extended
trial.

IMPORTANCE OF GROOMIXG.

There is one particular in the management of
horses which so materially influences the effects of
food upon the system, that it will not admit of
being unnoticed, although the attention be ex-
ceedingly brief. This is grooming.

Importance of Grooming. 105

How far this principle is carried with many
of our town dray and cab horses can be clearly
ascertained by merely passing within a few yards
as they stand in the street. After they have
spent hours in the open air, the odour of the
stable is yet strongly upon them.

There are, doubtless, good reasons to be
assigned for this in some instances, the most
common being that of absolute laziness. There
are, however, cases where a groom or horsekeeper
is expected to execute multifarious duties in
addition to those 01 the stable, and in conse-
quence the horse is neglected. Another fruitful
source of neglect is to be found in low wages,
and the men endeavour to make up the deficiency
by looking after per-centages.

Therefore it proves to his interest to be care-
less and incur expense upon all sides, which is
done to an alarming pitch in some instances. A
third cause is the unreasonable number of horses
which are placed under the care of horsekeepers.
This is a most monstrous practice in some of the
coal mines. I have found it to occur invariably,
that where the animals are working in the greatest
amount of heat and dust — two or even three
miles from the bottom of the shaft — where they
perspire most freely, and endure every vicissi-
tude inimical to general health, there they have
had the least attention.

All this arose from an excess of duties.

In such cases I found men having the care of

106 Importance of Grooming.

almost a fabulous number of animals, and the
only reasonable conclusion one can come to is,
that such work and conditions are imposed upon
the poor creatures, that it would amply repay the
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,
and other adherents to Martin's Act, for an
application to Parliament to institute special
investigations into their condition, with a view
to an amelioration. For less than one-twentieth
— aye, one-hundredth — of the physical appear-
ances of a pit animal witnessed in a horse in our
streets, the keen eyes of the policeman would
have a case, but from these places in the recesses
of the earth there comes no cry, and nothing is
known.

One horsekeeper had under his care fifteen
horses and nineteen ponies ; a second, four
horses and twenty-four ponies ; a third, twenty-
three ponies ; a fourth, two horses and thirty-
eight ponies; a fifth, nine horses and twenty-
eight ponies.

Three men had the care of five horses and
eighty-nine ponies in a sixth instance, and
three others had the care of twenty-two horses
and fifty-one ponies.

These animals are to be fed, harnessed, and
cleaned to go out to work at 5 a.m. by these
men, who descend several hours previously in
order to attempt an impossibility.

If we take the mean of these numbers, we
shall find that each man had an average of
thirty animals to attend to. The arrangements

Importance of Grooming. 107

of the stables are not always suited towards
reducing the labours of the men, being fre-
quently in a continuous line of stalls arranged
on one side, which necessitates several journeys
to each animal for turning to water, tying up,
supplying with corn and hay when they cannot
be fed at the head. Estimating the trouble
which these men have, and the risk they run
for a few shillings a week, one cannot be sur-
prised that the horses and ponies do not receive
their proper share of attention.

The idea of cleaning them is estimated as
the boy did the operation of washing his hands
and face when he refused on the score of their
becoming as bad again shortly. Such an esti-
mate, however, does not render the fact as it
exists less flagrant.

Let each man be limited to a specified time
for the execution of the various details ex-
pected from him, and it will be more apparent
how absurd must be the belief that these animals
can obtain one-fourth the necessary attention
under their peculiar and extreme conditions.

Feeding with corn, each one minute = 30 minutes.

„ hay, „ = 30 „

Harnessing, with repairs, two minutes = 60 ,,
Turning to water and tying- up, one

minute - 30 „

Brushing down, each five minutes =150 „

Which occupies for thirty animals
or five hours in all.

300

108 Importance of Grooming.

The men descend at 2 a.m., which only leaves
three hours to perform a number of duties, the
time for which, estimated as low as possible, is
not sufficient to allow of their being effected in
any other than a most slovenly manner — really
occupies two hours more than the men can
actually bestow on them. At night they are
merely stripped, watered, and fed, in order to
allow them rest.

To occupy more time with them would be
also prejudicial, as the hours of rest would be
materially interfered with ; and consequently an
average of thirty animals, estimated at about
£300, are thought no more of than to value
their care and management at the rate of fifteen
shillings a week, or sixpence per head — the
amount paid to the horsekeepers.

Here, where the truth of the old maxim, " A
good cleaning is equal to a feed of corn/' would
be faithfully realized, it cannot be carried
out.

When complaints were made, and exact con-
ditions represented, all was pooh-poohed, and any
alterations it was said would cost the estate
£300 per annum, as ascertained by figures, which,
emanating from the executive were reliable, but
worth nothing when they arose from the
mental calculations of one who was not a
" Viewer/'

Such is the connexion which exists between
the skin and digestive organs, that if these poor

Importance of Grooming. 109

creatures could receive a guaranteed dressing of
fifteen minutes only, each night and morning,
the effects would be marvellous.

In a solitary instance, one man had fourteen
animals under his care. As he was infirm and
contented himself solely with the employment as
horsekeeper, he could devote more attention to
them than was possible in the other pits.

Every morning and night each was well dressed
with a coarse brush, and left in a much more
comfortable state.

His horses and ponies would have caused
many owners of animals above ground to blush
with shame at their superior condition and clean
shining skins. They were always doing equal
work with the animals of other collieries, but
suffered the leant of all, and consumed the least
corn.

I have preferred to recite these facts rather
than dictate a philosophical explanation of the uses
of a brush and comb to the body of the horse.
Those who are so pertinaciously obstinate as to
deny him the influence of this luxury, I am
afraid are not in a condition to explain the
benefits of such an application from any ex-
perience of the adoption of similar means to
themselves. However, these are considered to
be measures not truly essential, and therefore,
while the attempt is on the one hand to save, as
these pseudo savants suppose, the sum of .£300
per annum, they have not the philosophy to see,

110 Importance of Grooming.

or the honesty to allow another to show, that
four times that amount could be saved in the
feeding in twelve months, and as much more
in a variety of ways of which they cannot form
any conception.

We shall refer to further details on this sub-
ject in a subsequent part of the work.

r

PAET III.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT*

THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE
OF HORSES.

THE arduous nature of the various conditions
which attend the selection and purchase of
horses, is generally understood and acknowledged
even by those of little experience. There is no
subject upon which buyers so often feel the
greatest need of assistance and advice, and, at
the same time, where greater difficulty exists
in rendering these profitable and acceptable.
Circumstances may arise, phases previously
hidden may appear, or gratuitous interference
disturb the aspect of affairs, and thus begin all
the troubles and vexations which too commonly
supplement the efforts of those in search of a
horse.

The tricks of low and disreputable dealers
render the process at once tedious, harassing,
and difficult ; while the subsequent ordeal may be
fairly represented as being irremediable as well

12 The Selection and

as inevitable. Purchasers at fairs are greatly
exposed to the practices of such rascals, -who
never fail to secure both animal and money in
the end, and thus provide the means of con-
stantly possessing a trap wherein unsuspecting
persons easily fall.

Some years ago a hard-working honest man,
well known to the writer, attended a fair in
Yorkshire for the purchase of a cart-horse. He
was by no means a bad judge of the physical
characters required in the animal sought, and
soon his eyes fell upon one in which was con-
centrated, to all appearance, the qualities so
essential for the purposes. Price being asked,
and the animal shown through various evolutions,
no objection was found. Accordingly a purchase
was made and the horse led away.

The new owner had not proceeded far before
a stranger, to him at least, stepped up and
offered a small sum for the horse, adding,
" You'll not like to take him into your stable as
he's ' blaundered ' " (i.e. glandered). And thus
he continued to pester the poor fellow, while
others privy to the game joined at various
stages on the road, and kept up the spirit which
was to secure again their prize.

Upon examination the animal was found to be
a most confirmed roarer — in the language of the
dealers, said " to have the bellans " — and had
been drugged in order to cause the defect to pas«»
unobserved.

Purchase of Horses. 113

Upon another occasion a merchant purchased
a very eligible-looking animal for his cart,
giving rather a high sum to a person who repre-
sented himself as a well-to-do farmer in the
neighbourhood. A warranty of soundness was
drawn up by the vendor,, signed and transferred
at the same time, and a groom removed the
horse to his master's stables. For days several
men — of course members of the gang — lingered
about the premises of the merchant, offering
various small sums, declaring the animal to be
affected with glanders. The merchant took no
notice for some time, but at length said he was
very glad he had obtained such an animal, as a
friend of his wished to have him, in order to
catch the dupes at fairs. This spurred up the
gang, who, rather than lose their profitable horse,
actually purchased him back again at a sum very
little below the original price. This animal was
found to be affected with a chronic discharge
from one of the nostrils, which had been arrested
during the purchase by a piece of tow pressed up
the passage for the purpose.

These tricks are very commonly practised, and
suffer modification in order to render the end
more easy of accomplishment. A horse but
slightly lame in a forefoot is " beaned."

This consists in paring thin the sole of the
opposite forefoot near the toe, and replacing the
shoe, having first put a small pebble beneath it.
It has the e fleet of rendering the action of both

114 The Selection and

fore legs nearer alike, and if properly done suc-
ceeds in causing animals to change hands fre-
quently.

Another species of fraud consists in filing
down the wearing surface of the front or incisor
teeth of old horses, and graving hollows to re-
semble those of young teeth. This is called
"bishoping/' but by those who study the form
and angularity of the teeth, as well as the varied
changes which they undergo throughout advanc-
ing age, the trick is easily detected. Young
horses a,re also practised upon, in order to palm
them off at a higher price as being four or five
years old.

Many breeders who aim at respectability are
foolishly tempted to carry out this fraud, which
consists in extracting the corner, and sometimes
the middle incisor teeth. At best it is but a very
clumsy and barbarous plan, and signally fails to
produce the appearances desired. The custom is
so prevalent in Ireland and other parts among
dealers, that it cannot long fail to attract the at-
tention of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, and, we hope, meet with total abolition.

The signs of age are otherwise dealt with, in
order if possible to obliterate them. The
measures, however, seldom succeed before a
practised eye. In animals of great age, large
depressions or hollows are found above the eyes,
and horse-copers prick through the skin and blow
in air, as butchers inflate the carcass. For a

Purchase of Horses. 115

time the hollows disappear, but are seen again
when the air is absorbed or has escaped.

White place s, such as a star, stripe, or blaze
in the face, white heels or fetlocks, and patches
of white hair which are found on the knees and
other parts indicating previous damage to the
skin, are painted or dyed with coloured solutions.
This is called " gypping/-* and is recognised by
the different shades employed and dissimilarity of
colour to that of the hair over the rest of the
body. Besides, it is usually found to wash off or
gradually disappear with subsequent growth of
hair.

Animals affected with broken wind are dosed
with shot and fat, under the false belief that the
former by actual weight causes the stomach ts.
" hang away from the lungs," and the latter
" lubricates the air-passages." Neither, however,
succeed with the practised veterinarian. The
dupes who suffer from these frauds are usually
men who rely upon the so-called judgment of
one representing himself as a friend, and who
contrives to come upon the scene at the moment
when his opinion has greatest weight. Under these
circumstances, if the purchaser misses an animal
which is either " broken- winded," " bishoped,"
" gypped," " puffed," " blaundered," or has the
" bellans," he may have secured a more worthless
prize in the shape of a dangerous brute that will
shy at everything on the road, kick and bite, plunge
and rear or run away, after the passions are

113 The Selection and

relieved of the powerful drugs which have been
used. Otherwise he obtains one lame in the
back,, called by the rogues " a kidney dropper/'
or another having a nervous affection and known
by the term " shiverer."

These, however, by no means complete the
category of defects which hang to the horse.
There are others which form admirable qualities
for the low horse-coper whereby to catch the
unwary purchaser, but even these are sometimes
met with in animals coming from other sources ;
and while I am desirous of letting all have the
benefit of a doubt, if such there be upon the
question at issue, it is, I think, too much to believe
that such screws are always produced in ignorance.

Being in want of several heavy draught horses
upon one occasion, I presented myself at the
stables of a certain dealer and made known my
wants, but did not discover my profession to him.
" All right, sir," said he, " I have just your sort ;*'
and addressing his satellite, " I say, Bill, bring
out them 'ere cart 'asses in the little stable.
Look there, sir," he began, as the creature was
being led out of the doorway, "you never put a
collar on sech a piece o' stuff in all your born
days. Talk o' pullin, sir, why I never had sech
a 'oss to pull. I have been a dealer off an' on
for the last forty year, an' I don't know as I've
had such a bit o' mettle. Put him alongside the
wall, Bill ! woho, now ! There ! look at his legs,
sir ! sech pints for a cart 'oss ! why. he's like

Purchase of Horses. 117

?axwork itself! talk about simmertery, did you
ever see secli as that ? I'm blessed if I ever seed
sech a splendid carcass on sech strapping lims,
an', lor bless you, the money's nothink. See him
trot, sir ? why, he moves like a pony. Now, Bill,
where's your ginger ? look alive, my boy ; don't
keep the gentleman waiting."

" Excuse me, sir/' I remarked, " you will
have the goodness to spare the animal the torture
about to be inflicted ; it affords me no gratifica-
tion, it will not enhance him one atom in my
estimation, and let him return to the stall, as his
qualities are not suitable for my purpose."

Rather crestfallen, the dealer said, " All right,
sir, I'm sorry, but we'll show another."

A second and a third were brought out, and
successively rejected, when the dealer remarked,
" You seem rayther queer to please, sir." " Not
at all, I assure you," was my reply. " Then why
can't you take these 'osses?" and he was about to
go off express again in canting description of
their virtues and other qualifications, when I cut
him short by saying, " Upon all occasions when
purchasing horses, I endeavour to obtain sound
animals, as they suit our purpose much better
I prefer them without spavins, ringbones, and
other prejudicial bony deposits in the neighbour-
hood of important joints, as the work they are
put to usually is sufficient to cause them to
appear soon enough."

He flew into a wild and violent passion, and

118 The Selection and

declared I wished to take away the character of
his horses, and what was more, called me a muff,
and a fool, as his horses were perfectly sound,
and I could not know whether they had spavins
or anything else, as I had not put a hand upon
them. He was, however, brought to a little, by
my telling him the statement was much the
worse for him if the defects were so plain that
they needed no manipulation to confirm the ap-
pearances already present. He protested, how-
ever, his ignorance of anything wrong, and I
advised him to take them to a respectable veteri-
nary surgeon for examination, and show me the
report. I here handed him my card, when he
became perfectly silent, and got out of my sight
as quickly as possible.

Later in the day several friends, at my request,
called upon the dealer and inquired for animals
of the kind. All that I had seen were brought
out, and upon each occasion declared as before
sound and immaculate.

To say there are no honest horse-dealers would
be a gross calumny, but I must express my sus-
picion that many are so accustomed to chant
the praises of sound animals — that is, sound to the
best of their knowledge and belief — that one may
ascribe such a mistake as just related to a lapsus
linguae. We must therefore look over it accor-
dingly, and of course at the same time the
animals upon which such vile praise has been
bestowed.

Purchase of Horses. 119

Amongst the defects which are found to
lessen the value of horses as well as their useful-
ness, are diseases of the eyes. An ordinary
observer may regard these organs as perfectly
sound, and their appearances justifying purchase,
but alas ! finds the animal either suffering from
impaired vision, or, may be, totally blind. In such
cases the ears will be observed to be carried for-
ward, and their movements are exceedingly
rapid, and the eyes staring, the central opening
or pupil being wider than in health, and colour of
the organ probably being blue or yellow. Other
conditions are present, which however are only to
be detected by those conversant with the different
structures of the organs.

Chronic cough, disease of the lungs and
heart, stomach, liver, &c. now and then is found
to be present. Malformations, the result of
accident or vicious propensity, may be detected ;
or the beast may be a crib-biter, or wind-sucker,
washy, and a bad doer, no matter what he gets
to eat. Whatever may be his qualities at work,
in the stable he may be a perfect demon, or he
may unite the kicker at work, with the " jibber/'
or one that will not draw.

Another may be as gentle and docile as a
lamb in the stable, quiet in harness or under the
saddle, and capable of doing the highest rate of
speed with action and grace unparalleled, but the
pleasure of sitting behind such a creature is
marred by the fact that on reaching the stable

120 T/te Selection and

the appetite is gone. The animal is overdone ;
and be careful as you will, the scene recurs after
each journey, and is sometimes supplemented by
irritation of the bowels, colic, &c.

Several days are passed before the animal is
pronounced safe for work, or still further cause
for dissatisfaction appears in a variety of ways ;
and no other conclusion is justifiable, than that
the animal has been sold on account of these
faults. He is sold again quickly if death does
not prevent the opportunity.

In the multitude of conditions which render
horseflesh (in a state of animation, not as cheva-
line a la mode) such a ticklish commodity, one
cannot but be surprised at the few opportunities
there are to avoid the disagreeable consequences.
Many purchasers, relying upon their judgment
alone, make fearful work. They know nothing
of the nature, form, or habits of the animal they
seek, and consequently become very lucrative
victims. To purchase horses in a profitable
manner requires much tact and judgment, and a
knowledge of their structural anatomy is indis-
pensable towards detecting blemishes of different
kinds. Much practice is also required, but this
alone will not do, as we have often known horse-
dealers of forty and fifty years' experience quite
as easily taken in as other people.

Bribery in horse-dealing. — Like horse-racing,
horse-dealing practice is carried on more for the
emolument derived, than for any desire always to

Purch ase of Horses. 121

distribute a good and serviceable breed of horses.
Many patronize the turf under a mistaken idea
that present systems improve our breeds of
horses, but by far the majority have personal in-
terest only to serve. Horse-dealing often assumes
the latter in the blackest dye. Upon the turf,
races, horses, riders, and owners are sold) and in
the trial ground of many dealers the like also
occurs.

" What do you want for that pair of carriage
horses ?" said a veterinary surgeon to a large
dealer not long ago. " Well, look here," replied
the owner ; " all that will depend upon what you
require as premium. I can afford to make it
worth your while, only state what you wish."
" Well, suppose you wanted one hundred and
fifty pounds for the pair, what premium could
you afford ?" " Twenty pounds," said the dealer ;
" but if you will get your client to stand two
hundred pounds, I can then give you fifty."

This statement is nearly verbatim as received
from a great friend who was employed to select
a pair of horses for a gentleman, who being in
attendance as previously requested, was thus
informed how he might have been sold if he fell
among thieves.

Bribery is one of the greatest banes which
waits almost upon every transaction in reference
to horses. They cannot be shod, physicked, sold,
nor exchanged, but a host of parasites hover
round, " for wheresoever the carcass is, there will

122 The Selection and

the eagles he gathered together." If there were
no receivers of bribes, there would be no one
found to offer them. Under the system the
security of property is sacrificed, and its sub-
stance eaten out as by the canker-worm to the
very core.

A dealer in horses called upon a veterinary
surgeon in one of the largest towns in Yorkshire,
and promised to send for examination all the
horses he had for sale, providing they were passed
as sound, backed by a certificate to that effect, and
the fee did not exceed five shillings. In addition,
the considerate rascal offered to dispose of any
screw which the other might have on his hands.

Upon making inquiries, it turned out that an
unfortunate individual who had lost all sense of
honour and decency, had fallen into this great
error. From intemperate habits he was not always
available when required even to write a certificate
without examination, and his patron was desirous
of finding some one to supplant him, but in his
application barely escaped being kicked out of
doors.

Warranty. — By some there is entertained a
great but fancied security in a warranty. Half
that are given are but as waste paper. Many
cases are on record which prove this : one will
suffice. A warranty of soundness had been given
with a horse having spavins and side-bones, and
there were not wanting witnesses who would
swear no such morbid conditions existed. A law

Purchase of Horses. 123

case followed, but as usual, he who won, actually
lost. The defendant, although guilty and con-
victed, was not wort^ the paper upon which the
summons was printed, and a poor widow was
doubly a loser in consequence.

Under such circumstances a warranty is of no
service whatever, and even in others where there
is no actual fraud existing in the transaction,
the opinions of many upon the existence or non-
existence of defects, and the constitution of un-
soundness, being at variance, much trouble and
vexation occurs. Nor is there any likelihood of
help from the law to be expected in future, at
least as far as can be seen at present. As science
advances and receives its share of encouragement
from the government and public, definite condi-
tions relative to certain diseases may be insisted
upon, but under present circumstances a warranty
affords but very slender protection, and is an in-
strument of little power where the parties con-
cerned are determined to be fraudulent.

Certificates of Soundness. — A very common
mistake occurs with many when purchasing horses;
that is, to seek a veterinary surgeon's opinion
after the contract is completed. This does not
always occur only with low-priced animals, but
frequently with those of high value. They are
examined and found defective, but there is no
help in many cases, and the affair amounts to so
much money absolutely thrown away. Purchasers
who desire a professional opinion upon the sound-

124 The Selection and

ness of horses, should always obtain it before the
animal becomes their property. The proceeding
is advantageous in many ways, and much trouble
and petty annoyance is avoided.

In Ireland, in nearly all transactions in which
horses are concerned, the purchase is effected on
the result of an examination by a qualified ve-
terinary surgeon. The principle is more in favour
in England than formerly, and if properly con-
ducted, many legal quibbles are undoubtedly
avoided, as well as the loss of time, money, and
reputation, and hard swearing on both sides. In
practice, the proceeding also proves more pro-
fitable than even a written warranty. If the
animal is sound, he is at once removed and
the money paid ; if the reverse, no transaction
occurs.

The certificate given by the professional man
proves as powerful as a warranty; because in
the event of unsoundness, the dealer cannot sell
his horse. In case the animal is sound, the
purchaser receives an assurance to the effect, and
nothing further is needed, as the whole thing
hinges upon the question.

Recommending Horses. — No greater mistake, in
the author's opinion, can be made by a profes-
sional or other person, than that of recommend-
ing horses. Many horse proprietors are totally
ignorant of the nature, habits, capabilities, and
resources of a horse, and in eager search for a
desirable animal, meet with a friend who sin-

Purch ase of Horses. 125

cerely and honestly recommends one which, were
he to drive, feed, and house, there can be no
doubt would prove all that is desired. But,
alas ! as soon as the new purchase is made, the
elated proprietor, well posted in all the good
qualities of the creature, takes him to his own
stable. No attention is paid to the different
characters which exist in contradistinction to the
one just left ; and, it may be, a case of cold,
influenza, or something worse, soon appears.
The feeding may be different, and produce
colic, and even death. If, however, he escape all
these, the owner rides or drives out, in order that
his good lady may give her opinion.

Afterwards a friend in the next street is ap-
pealed to, with probably fifty others, and at last
a friend in the country. All are particularly
knowing, or at least appear to be so. One sees
a spavin, another a splint, a third thinks he is
lame ; a fourth thinks he hears a slight noise, as
from roaring or whistling. And thus the game
goes on, the owner fishing for compliments upon
his judgment and selection, while none of the
persons consulted are disposed to pay any, but
feel, if they had been purchasers, the animal
would not have been selected by them.

In order to detect the lameness or the fancied
sounds so offensive to the ear, it is suggested that
the animal shall be galloped. The owner tries
his best, but fails ; the friend who suggested the
defect also mounts or takes the reins, and pell

126 The Selection and

mell the animal goes again. He may not be
found a roarer, but probably he is found lame.
Then comes the tug of war. All agree to swear
to the lameness ; which is of course believed to
occur from conditions present at or prior to pur-
chase. Recriminations pass, the vendor is de-
clared not to be honest, and he who recommended
the animal pronounced as being actuated by
selfish motives. Money is wasted in useless law
squabbles, no one but the lawyer reaps profit,
while vexation crowns him who wins as well as him
who loses.

Precautions to be observed. — When it is desi-
rable that a horse should be purchased, recourse
should be had if possible to the farmer or breeder
usually possessing the character of animal required.
If this cannot be done, there are to be found
dealers who know it is to their interest to give
purchasers every advantage in scrutiny. When
a suitable animal is found, seek the opinion of a
qualified veterinary surgeon, who for a guinea
will give the results of a careful examination,
and if he cannot advise as to purchase or put
into your hands a genuine horse, he will at least
be able to save you from a worthless screw.

Remember also there are circumstances re-
garding the future treatment and work to which
the animal is subjected. These should form a
subject upon which your veterinary medical ad-
viser is to be consulted afterwards. Let him
advise as to these, and depend upon it another

Purch ase of Horses. 127

source of vexation is thus avoided. It is far
better to pay for advice suited to each particular
case, than to receive a course of drugs in after
time, and pay dearly for a horse in hospital
labouring under disease which for one-tenth part
of the expenses might have been avoided most
certainly.

123

STABLE MANAGEMENT.

THE secrets of success in profitable stable man-
agement are punctuality and regularity. These
contribute towards the system which is so parti-
cularly required. Without them, it is an utter
impossibility for proper attention to be directed
to all the details which call for notice, while
nothing will operate as prejudicially upon the
health of animals.

Stable management will receive a due share of
consideration under several heads throughout the
present work.

Early operations in the Stable consist in first
making a general examination of each animal,
particularly those which have been tied up by
halters or chains in stalls.

This is useful in order to detect injuries from
being cast or loss of shoes during the night, and
to detect signs of disorder or illness, which if
present are best reported early , on the principle
that " a stitch in time saves nine."

A careful inspection having been made, the
animals are watered and fed, and while they are
consuming their food the bedding should be turned
up, and stalls and other parts carefully swept
out. Any time remaining may be devoted to
the examination of harness, in order to secure the
cleanliness of pads, &c., observe defects, and have

Stable Management. 129

them remedied if possible. As soon as the food
is consumed, the operation of cleaning is to be car-
ried on in good earnest, which done, harness and
prepare for daily work.

In large establishments it is most profitable to
employ a horsekeeper, who, having charge of the
provender and stables, enters at a certain hour,
say five a.m., and feeds the whole. Each driver
as he arrives, then turns up the bedding, exa-
mines the harness and cleans his horse. By this
plan animals are better cared for in the feeding,
and much waste is avoided.

The duties of the horsekeeper are, during the
day, to see that the stables are cleaned thoroughly,
receive all horses coming to bait, and see to the
feeding of the whole at night.

Each horse as he comes from work is carefully
examined by him, also the harness, and if nothing
calls for other treatment, the animal is led to his
stall, watered and fed, dressed down by the driver,
bedded and left for the night. The horsekeeper
has also to see to their being safely tied up, all
gaslights turned securely off, and report any ir-
regularities, lameness, disease, &c., which he may
observe.

In hunting and racing stables modifications
exist, and, to the credit of those at head quarters,
we are able to establish the principles by which
punctuality and regularity may be caused to work
so much good. Many ailments of the farm or
cart horse are unknown in hunting or racing

K

130 Stable Management.

stables. And why ? Simply from the fact
that animals there are fed, worked, or exercised
with the clock. If these principles pervaded
the minds of those who keep and work, or drive
carriage, cart, and cab horses, there would be
less of those serious consequences which so often
arise and mar the prospects. A young man in the
racing or hunting stable, goes through a kind of
apprenticeship, by which he becomes au fait at
his duties, and habits of regularity are enforced.
If coachmen and grooms in general had such
training always, we should find that stable man-
agement in our towns and villages would be
a question upon which there would be but lit-
tle to condemn. In no other horse establish-
ments is there such wanton waste and careless-
ness, or where the results are more inconvenient
and harassing.

In hunting and racing stables the morning
hour is from five to six o'clock. The horses are
to be fed and watered, bedding turned up, and
stables swept. Those animals going to work are
next thoroughly dressed, and afterwards receive
a small feed of corn if their work is likely to be
hard and time will permit. Others merely
going for exercise are wiped over and taken out
for the prescribed time, and on their return
receive a little hay, are clothed, have their feet
examined and washed, and by this time is the
hour for breakfast.

The grooms on their return to the stable dress

Stable Management. 131

over their horses thoroughly, clothe, put the
stable neat after sweeping out all manure,
throw down a light clean layer of straw, rack up,
and leave for outside duties. At noon, corn, hay,
and water are given to resting horses, and the
stable again locked up. Other animals coming
from work are fed and dressed on arrival.

At four o'clock it is the custom in some stables
to feed again with corn ; the plan in the main is
very good. At seven or eight o'clock each horse
has his clothing removed, is carefully wiped down,
and reclothed. Clean or dry straw is thrown
down for bedding, the stable utensils carefully put
away, and water, corn, and hay supplied. Collar
chains, head collars, and halters should be care-
fully examined, in order to test their security for
horses tied up with them.

See that in loose boxes there are no gas brackets
at which the horse can get. It has been known
that playful animals have turned on the gas and
caused their own death from its inhalation during
the night. Boys should be cautioned against
leaving pails in stalls or boxes, unless specially
ordered and required.

Among cart horses, cab horses, &c., which re-
main an uncertain length of time from the
stable, the nose-bag is of great service. It has,
however, defects, one of the most important
being detrimental to respiration. The material
of which it is usually made is strong and of too
close texture; a coarser and pervious material

132 Stable Management.

would be an advantage, and avoid the necessity of
breathing over and over again the same air, by
admitting a current through the meshes.

Watering. — Much variety of opinion exists in
reference to the quantity of water which should
be allowed the horse. This must depend upon
circumstances. To define a special rule for all
animals would be as absurd as its carrying out
would be impossible. Animals sometimes drink
ravenously, and the cause will be found to arise
from the stupidity of grooms in not allowing suf-
ficient at proper intervals. In Switzerland, horses
are allowed water in a separate tank, in their
stalls, usually supplied from a running stream,
and the results are said to be useful.

The writer has given the plan a fair trial
years ago, and has found that where a given quan-
tity is regularly placed before a horse, if no mor-
bid thirst be present, the actual daily quantity
consumed is much less. But when stated inter-
vals are not observed, or irregularity in watering
occurs, the quantity is often enormously increased.

It is from this circumstance that inconvenience
and even danger arises, particularly when the
animal is allowed to satiate his thirst before
severe work, when over- heated, or the stomach
is previously overloaded with food, particularly
when water is very cold.

The practice of depriving hunters of water be-
fore going to cover is objectionable. If the rules
of feeding and watering are observed with due

Stable Management. 133

regard to time, excessive thirst will not usually
occur.

Harness horses and hacks used on long jour-
neys are greatly relieved by small quantities of
water in which oatmeal or barley meal is sus-
pended, given when rest is allowed ; about two
quarts of water with a handful of the latter being
sufficient.

Horses at rest should be watered at least three
or four times daily.

The practice of putting nitre or other saline
materials in the water, is not to be carried on
indiscriminately. The advice of a veterinary
surgeon should guide upon that question.

The purity of water is a question which should
always be established where animals are to be
kept, and particularly where new sources are
opened out. There is frequently greater reason
to attribute disease amoDgst stock, and even
human beings, to the water with which they are
supplied, than is generally known.

In sinking wells never select any place near
to drains or ditches, privies, and manure heaps ;
avoid also gardens or fields. The danger which
occurs is traced to the entrance by percolation of
the compounds which are formed as the result of
putrefaction of manure and animal and vegetable
matter in general. Not long ago a whole
family was continually suffering from attacks of
fever, which, as usual, was for some time attributed
to the atmosphere. Subsequently it struck the

134 Stable Management.

owner that the water might be at fault, and ac-
cordingly sent some to an eminent chemist, Dr.
Penny, of Glasgow. Upon examination, that
gentleman detected a great proportion of sub-
stances, the result of putrefactive changes in
animal matter, which were proved to have been
conveyed by the manure to flower beds in the
garden upon the sides of the well from which the
water had been used.

Such water has a brackish or saltish taste,
and is sufficiently conspicuous to be easily
detected and lead to its being avoided.

Water may also contain mineral poisons.
These, however, occasion serious symptoms of dis-
turbance, for which a veterinary surgeon will be
needed to give the necessary instructions at the
time.

Cleanliness. — Too much cannot be written or
urged upon this point. Many disorders and ail-
ments can be traced to a neglect of it. Holes
and corners which cannot be got at regularly
should not be permitted in a stable.

It must be borne in mind that the food, dung,
urine, straw, &c., used in stables are all capable
of generating unwholesome gases, by their prone-
ness to putrefaction when lying about.

These materially interfere with the circulation
of pure air, and in consequence the health of
horses and men suffers. In order to have them
removed, the bedding should always be taken
from the sta1!, and in fine weather spread outside

Stable Management. 135

if possible. The dirty portions are to be separ-
ated, the whole of the floor and drains thoroughly
swept out, and every portion of refuse carefully
removed to a manure heap at a distance from the
stable.

Mangers should always be well cleansed —
especially wooden ones — after the use of mashes
or soft food of any kind. Woodwork of all kinds,
and even harness and clothing, require cleansing
after the existence of contagious skin or other
diseases. For this purpose a solution of black
or pearl ashes may be used, the strength however
being varied for the several purposes.

For harness, clothing, and painted woodwork,
two or three ounces to a pail of hot water will
be sufficient. But to bare woodwork the strength
may be quadrupled.

Besides this it is sometimes necessary to use
disinfectants of a special character.

For the floors, crude carbolic acid in solution
may be sprinkled over the surface, and the whole
afterwards well scrubbed with hot water having
black ashes in solution.

A solution of crude carbolic acid is also
eminently serviceable for the mangers when con-
tagion is feared. The proportions are about one
pound to a gallon of water in which soft soap
has been dissolved, with the use of large quanti-
ties of pure water afterwards. A grand agent in
the purification of the atmosphere of stables is
M'DougalFs disinfecting powder, which should

136 Stable Management.

be thinly spread over the stall floors and other
parts wherever dung or urine has been deposited.

The prices to be paid for these articles are,
for black ashes about 2Jd. per Ib. ; M'DougalFs
disinfecting powder, 10s. per cwt. ; and crude car-
bolic acid, 2s. 6d. per gallon.

When contagious diseases are known to arise
in a stable, remove the diseased animal at once.
Carry with him all harness, clothing, stable
utensils, &c., which have been used for his pur-
poses ; do not use anything belonging to him for
another ; and those in attendance upon him should
not go into the stable where healthy animals are
confined.

Lastly, carry out all injunctions which may be
given by the veterinary surgeon in attendance.
He has many strong reasons for enforcing regu-
lations which may not be understood by others.
Upon these his success depends. Grooms should
therefore strictly act in concert with him, and
faithfully carry out his desires.

Lighting of Stables. — One of the greatest
causes of a want of cleanliness is the absence of
light in stables. It also gives rise to other in-
conveniences.

When stables are badly lighted, or have no
windows, dirt accumulates, foul gases are formed,
and the animal's health suffers in consequence.
In dark stables the men cannot see to clean the
floors properly, the air becomes impure, and
ventilation interfered with. During the night,

Stable Management. 137

when the doors are closed, the animals are nearly
stifled, they become too hot and easily take cold.
They also suffer from diseases of the eyes and
lungs, and in the end not uncommonly die, or
require to be destroyed on account of glanders.
In the morning, when the doors are opened for
carrying on the operations of the stable, the air
is penetrating and suffocating, and while these go
on, draughts of cold air in winter produce bane-
ful effects.

Wherever such stables exist they should be
altered, large windows and ventilators put in to
admit nature's great purifiers, light and air ; they
are relics of a barbarous age, and ought to be
razed to the ground in numerous instances.

Ventilation of Stables. — Upon this question
also there is every conceivable and contrary
opinion. It is a subject which urgently calls for
scientific memoranda, in order to apply the prin-
ciples directly and practically.

An acquaintance with the laws of gaseous
diffusion, draught, heat and cold, &c., at once
shows that one principle of ventilation will not
admit of being applied to all buildings. This is
particularly the case with stables in large towns.
The close proximity of other buildings, together
with their irregularity of form and arrangement,
greatly interfere with plans. It is therefore a
matter of concern, and one not to be hastily or
inefficiently adopted.

Buildings closely surrounded by others OT

138 Stable Management.

lying at low levels, those also having hay lofts,
always call for a more extended arrangement
than isolated ones. In the latter also there is
great danger to be feared from reverse currents
when the wind sets in any particular quarter.

The object of ventilation is to afford a plentiful
supply of pure air to every animal in the building,
to maintain an uniform temperature, and prevent
the occurrence of cold draughts, or currents.
To effect these, various plans are carried out : —

1st. Holes are made in the wall over each
horse's head; opening to the outside, being about
the size of a brick. These are either occupied by
wood or cast iron frames and gratings, or are
faced with wire gauze or perforated zinc.

2nd. Holes are also made opposite, but near
the ground, and similarly protected.

3rd. Louvre boards are placed in windows at
the side, or in raised portions of the roof, which
also act as a skylight.

4th. Swing windows and skylights are also
used to open at pleasure.

5th. Ridge tiles are raised at intervals, so that
a space is formed under each, communicating
with the external as well as internal air.

6th. Hollow stones or pillars are in some cases
placed in the outer walls, having an opening to
the external air at the bottom on the outside, and
another at the top on the inside.

7th. Shafts or tubes of wood or zinc, &c., are
used to discharge the foul air from the roof.

Stable Management. 139

However good these may appear in theory, it
is found that in some buildings the greatest diffi-
culty exists in procuring ventilation. Let the
arrangement and device be what it will, we shall
find that sometimes the air will refuse to come
in or go out through these scientific labyrinths,
and at others it ruthlessly traverses them in fit-
ful gusts, and deeply offends by going in an oppo-
site direction to that intended.

The atmosphere is as insensible to human or-
ders, as the sea was to Canute and his flatterers.
Any number of shafts may be placed in a build-
ing, and all the arrangements named carried out,
but mortification will come at the end. And not
only mortification from an inability to carry out
practically details which are taught in theory,
but feeling of a more intense character, it may
be as disease continues to devastate the stock or
prolong the weakness arising from it.

The writer has succeeded in efficiently ventila-
ting stables in the following manner. Where
disease and mortality had extensively occurred pre-
viously, it is gratifying to state immense improve-
ment took place. Coughs and colds, diseases of
the organs of vision and respiration, were reduced
to a minimum by the plan.

In stables where ventilation is effected by
hollow bricks, &c., over the animaFs head, where
shafts are carried through a hayloft to the roof,
and other appliances exist, cold currents are apt to
go in the opposite direction, and thus produce

140 Stable Management.

not only defects in ventilation, but serious disease
in the animals.

The small amount of pure air thus obtained,
frequently proves as injurious in another way as
the foul air within, thus establishing the dogma of
the couplet —

" If cold winds reach you through a hole,
Go make your will, arid mind your soul."

The plan, then, which has succeeded, was to
arrest the back current and ensure a constant
discharge in one direction only, while a fresh
supply is received in an opposite part of the
building.

Where ventilating bricks occur, a piece of thin
leather was nailed to the top of the frame, on the
outside, so as to form a kind of valve, the lower end
hanging loose and floating. In long ventilating
shafts which were formerly open at the bottom,
a short tube of three-fourths size is made, about
a foot long, the top being closed, and the sides
perforated by holes bored with an inch and half
centre- bit.

The holes are protected on the outside by means
of a flap of thin leather nailed at the top edge to
form a hinge, and the whole is then fitted inside
the original shaft, but in such a manner as to
be moveable at will. All cold currents are pre-
vented from entering downwards, as they imme-
diately close the leather valves, which are very
light and sensitive.

Stable Management. 141

One great objection to shafts is, that when the
stables have been empty some time they become
cold, and refuse to convey warm air after the ani-
inaPs return. To obviate this great drawback,
the gas-lights should be placed beneath each
shaft, the heat from which raises the tube and
contained air to a higher temperature, and thus
conveys away the foul air. This may be only
required for the space of ten minutes, or while
the attendants are doing up their horses, after
which the light may be turned down low, or off
altogether, and ventilation will be found to go on
very well in most instances.

Where gas-lights are not to be had, the oil or
paraffin lamps, &c. should be suspended beneath,
which will be found to answer nearly the same
purpose.

Beat or Temperature of the Stable. — This is of
great importance to the horse proprietor. Heated
stables usually indicate deficient ventilation, but
the two must not be confounded.

Stable temperature, it has been stated by dif-
ferent writers, should not exceed 50° or 60° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer.* This is purely a
mistake: for how can it be, when the same instru-
ment registers 70° in the shade, that a stable may

* This principle was extensively taught some time ago, and
advocated by the writer on the authority of a teacher from
whom it was received. He has now, however, grave reasons
for questioning its accuracy.

142 Stable Management.

be kept ten degrees lower, without incurring great
currents sufficient to turn a windmill?

Temperature of the atmosphere inside a build-
ing will, under ordinary circumstances, be regu-
lated by the temperature of that on the outer;
and the principle involved is to preserve as much
as possible an equal condition, by increasing the
discharge of air rarified by respiration, &c. But
in this there may be some difficulty, as under all
circumstances in summer, when the heat is great
and air still, that which replaces the discharged
portions received from the outside must be quite
as hot. To state that a stable is always to be
kept at 50° or 60° is simply absurd. Such may
answer very well for winter, but cannot be main-
tained in summer.

The temperature of a stable will materially
affect all new comers. Horses that have been,
out at grass, should never be brought into stables
where others are confined. The only safe prac-
tice is to put them first into a shed or hovel, and
gradually introduce them to work and the stable
at the same time. It has been truly observed,
that under neglect of these precautions the
animal is likely to suffer far more than by being
exposed to the contrary changes.

In all cases regulate the temperature of the
stable by allowing foul air to escape effectually,
without establishing currents over the animals.
In summer the temperature may be considerably
elevated above 60°, but nevertheless the atmo-

Stable Management. 143

sphere may be rendered quite as pure as can be
expected, and to reduce that temperature would
be impossible.

The object of maintaining a cool state of the
temperature in buildings is to promote healthy
respiration, purification ,of the blood, .and venti-
lation.

Grooming or Dressing. — I must here refer my
readers to page 104 of Part I. for certain facts
in connexion with this portion of stable manage-
•ment.

With regard to implements for the purpose
but little need be said. They are well known to
most persons. It is to their proper use that our
(remarks will apply in greatest force.

The curry-comb is intended for use when the
coat is clapped to the skin and glued, as it were,
by the products of perspiration. It may be used
aleo to the dirty legs of cart-horses when dry,
or to the bodies when the old coat is to be gra-
dually removed. But grooms should be warned
against using it with too much roughness, as the
animal is irritated, and temper not uncommonly
spoiled, while injuries are sometimes inflicted.

The main use of the curry-comb is to clean the
brush ; which, used by the right or left hand,
according to circumstances, is lo be plied with
vigour.

The body brush is oval in outline -and provided
with a strap across the middle, through which
the working handds put. >A 'great fault in many

144 Stable Management.

of these brushes consists in the bristles being too
weak and too close. They thus fail to reach the
skin.

The dandy, or whalebone brush, is a most use-
ful agent in removing loose and rough dirt from
the body and legs, mane and tail, and should
deservedly find a place in more stables than it
does.

The wisp is made of straw and also soft hay —
the former is to be used for rough purposes,
while the later is damped and used at a later
stage.

The rubber consists of linen or flannel,
usually the former, made up like a towel, having
a loop that it may be hung up when done with.
Many grooms use also two chamois skins, or wash
leathers — the one for wet, the other for dry
purposes.

The mane comb should not, in my opinion, be
used to the same extent as is frequently done.
The dandy brush will perform the major part of
the work of the mane comb, and the hair of tail
and mane suffer much less. In fact, there are
stables where owners do not permit the use of a
comb, and the appearance of those graceful appen-
dages to the horse may defy all comparison.

The constant use of a comb reduces the hair
too much, and proves profitable at the time when
the " rag man" or " general pick up" comes
round, hence its common use. If the mane or
tail becomes too luxuriant under the use only of

Stable Management. 145

a brush, it can be thinned in a legitimate manner ;
but this is not frequently required.

Foot pickers are required to remove imprisoned
stones or other objects from the feet after jour-
neys, and water brushes for washing them.

After this enumeration of stable tools, and the
groom is provided with a requisite number, the
rest depends upon himself. The appearance of a
horse always reflects the character of the groom ;
no better test need be resorted to.

A certain gentleman, well known for his
superior stable management, when asked by the
writer how many grooms he kept, replied, " Three
helpers and one groom ; that groom is myself. I
look on and have the things done in proper order.
That is the reason you are able to admire the
clean and tidy state of the place and animals."

On another occasion a smart young fellow
stepped up, gave the usual salutation, and said,
" I hear, captain, you require a young man in
your stable, I have come after the place," and
went on to say a great deal about last place,
character, &c. The captain having heard him
out, said, " Well, my man, I do not doubt
one word of what you have said ; but let me see
the horses you have been looking after, aud I
will at once inform you whether I can take you
or not."

Good grooming removes dirt and the products
of perspiration from the skin, which if allowed to
remain obstructs natural and healthy functions

L

146 Stable Management.

and endangers health. The proof that horses are
well groomed, is shown by the clean, shiniiig skin
and absence of dirt on the finger when it is
passed over the hair. The operation not only
removes dirt, but causes a quickened circulation
of blood in the skin. This helps to remove by
perspiration useless parts from the body, and gives
further nutrition to the skin and hair, hence the
improved appearance, better health, and con-
sumption of a less amount of food than in other
horses.

Dressing is usually carried on in successive
stages.

First, the curry-comb is carefully used to all
parts when the hair is matted and glued down,
the direction being in that of the hair itself.

Second, usually the straw wisp or dandy brush
to the whole of the body.*

Third, the body brush in one hand and the
curry-comb held in the opposite, to remove dirt
from the bristles. The brush also goes over the
whole of the animal in a thorough manner.

Fourth, the damp hay-wisp also, applied with
a will.

Fifth, the dandy brush to mane and tail, and

Lastly, the rubber, to use the whole of which
occupies fully one hour.

The operation of dressing horses should always
be set about as soon as possible after entering

* In hunting stables, this is the first operation. The
curry-comb is not used to the skin.

Stable Management. 147

the stable in the morning, excepting of course
while horses are eating their provender and when
required to go out to exercise.

A good daily grooming is absolutely necessary
independent of that which is required after com-
ing from work. Those animals which have not
been out of the stable since exercise need only
their clothing removed, dressed with the cloth rub-
ber, and reclothed.

The operation should if possible be always
conducted in an outhouse or shed for the pur-
pose. Grooming in stables is prejudicial, and
should be avoided on the score of health.

Washing the Legs. — The use of water in wash-
ing horses' legs is often very much abused.
Without care nothing produces more inconve-
nience.

In many places the blessings of pure water
have been extolled and received as a cure almost
for everything, and, acting upon the belief, the
converts imagine that they " cannot have coo
much of a good thing." Results are, however,
against the supposition. The evil consequences
are, cracked heels, swelled legs, grease, &c., all of
which may be avoided in ninety-five cases out of
a hundred.

In many stables visited by the writer, the
horses when returning from work, cold, tired, and
hungry, are compelled to stand some minutes
while each leg, almost to the middle of the body
in very dirty weather, is drenched with water from

148 Stable Management.

a hose. From this cause a man is almost con-
stantly kept to dress the legs, which are un-
usually affected. In one establishment,, from out
of nearly one hundred and twenty horses, one-third
had to be thrown off work in consequence of
internal disease arising. Carriage horses and
hacks suffer much from cracked heels, while their
breed defends them frequently from grease. All
this comes from the treatment to which they are
subjected afterwards.

To the mere washing of horses'' legs, if con-
ducted properly, none can offer objection. In
wet dirty weather, when the hair is matted with
mud, no animal can rest comfortably with such
an accumulation about them. If allowed to
remain, the sand and grit is moved during exercise
to the wrinkles of the skin about the joints and the
parts are chafed, soon becoming raw, and pre-
senting obstinate sores. By all means let the
filth be removed as quickly as possible, using in
summer cold, and in winter warm water. A
good brush with a small quantity of soap will
also be required.

Next press out the superfluous water and
briskly rub with coarse towels kept for the pur-
pose, and put loosely a bandage upon each leg as
high as the parts that have been washed, which
should scarcely ever be above the knees or hocks.
This process will very certainly limit the number
of cases of cracked heels, grease, &c., all of which
occur from the amount of cooling to which these

Stable Management. 149

parts are exposed when wet. If any person
wishes to test the truth of this statement, let him
go out of doors with his head and hair fresh from
beneath a stream of water. The experiment may
be repeated from day to day, but like the horse's
it will be found he will never become so hard as
to be able to defy the consequences.

We frequently hear in stables the directions
given to " be sure and rub the legs dry."" Who-
ever gives such instructions, cannot be aware of
the impossibility almost which they require,
unless men and horses are entirely deprived of
rest. The easiest and most economical method
is decidedly the use of flannel or linen bandages.
For cart-horses a coarse kind of material is ob-
tained, low in price and exceedingly strong, com-
monly used to make wrappers for linen goods,
called « pack sheet."

Bandages are usually required about four
yards long and three to five inches wide. At
one end the corners are turned in and stitched
down, and upon the narrow part is also stitched
a piece of tape doubled, so as to allow the use of
the free ends for tying.

The usual plan is to take a piece of flannel or
other material of the requisite length, and tear it
up into ribbons of the proper width. For large
cart-horses they will be required at least five
yards long and five or six inches wide. By their
use the legs dry rapidly through the means of
natural heat, and in this way the groom will

150 Stable Management.

generally be enabled to remove them, and rub
down the legs before leaving for the night.

Clothing. — The object of clothing horses is to
compensate for the loss of temperature from the
body which naturally takes place in cold weather.
For this purpose woollen rugs are employed, which
are kept on the body by means of a roller.
Hoods and breast clothes are also used with ad-
ditional clothing as the weather demands, but in
this sometimes error occurs. Too much clothing
renders the animal sensitive, by keeping up great
action in the skin, while health is prejudiced
thereby. In most instances, proper exercise, pure
air, and moderate clothing will be found most
conducive to health.

Bedding. — The material used for bedding
horses varies according to the locality. That
most generally used is the straw of wheat,
selected principally on account of its brittleness,
which prevents the animal getting his feet entan-
gled and injury occurring.

Oat straw is usually considered objectionable
on account of its toughness. Barley straw is too
dusty, and causes great irritation of the skin.

In wheat straw there is an advantage in the
fact that beds made of it are cleanly and com-
fortable, but on the other hand, it is expensive in
towns. For this reason tan and sawdust are
used extensively in some establishments.

In farm stables ferns and dried leaves of various
kinds,, when obtained in abundance, are employed.

Stable Management. 151

Pea and bean straw is also used, and flags from
the rivers are mown and dried for the purpose.

The service and economy in each of these sub-
stances vary in accordance with the condition in
which they are used, as well as supply. That
none, however, are equal to a straw bed few will
deny. When, however, the manufacture of ma-
nure is estimated, some of these articles may be
more profitable.

In some districts farmers are prevented by
their covenant from selling straw from their
farms, and this causes the small quantity which
finds its way there to fetch still higher prices.
Under such conditions some agriculturists have
no objection to allow straw for manure in return,
with the payment of a small sum annually, to
defray the cost of transit.

It is important to allow horses good beds.
They are prevented from doing damage to their
limbs or skin, and besides, rest much better, and
thus is preserved greatly their usefulness.

Disposal of Manure. — -As already referred to,
stable manure is greatly deprived of its obnoxious
qualities if it is treated before removal with that
useful agent, M'DougalFs disinfecting powder.
This remark applies with no less force to manure
after removal to the tank or proper receptacle.
Its proneness to decomposition is very largely
diminished. The compounds which give rise to
the formation of foetid and hurtful gases are at
once seized, locked up — companionized with other

152 Stable Management.

agents in the powder — and the whole remains al-
most a passive heap.

This is profitable in more ways than one.
While the stable atmosphere is rendered pure by
the use of such an agent, the air on the out-
side of the building is prevented from receiving
contaminations it would otherwise gain from de-
composing manure.

The farmer also who gets it after being so
treated, receives much benefit in the greater
amount of serviceable matter which is furnished to
his crops.

Manure heaps should be removed as far as
possible from buildings, as the putrefaction which
usually goes on, resulting in hurtful emanations
or disagreeable smells, contaminates the air of all
places where animal life exists, and renders it un-
fit to support it for any length of time in a
healthy manner.

When tanks or places for manure are made,
care is to be observed that they are not located
near wells from which water is drawn for drinking.
If space will not admit of this being carried out,
the receptacle should be lined with bricks and
cement, to prevent the fluid portions from perco-
lating the soil, running along drains, and then
finding their way to drinking water.

Clipping and Singeing. — These are to be viewed
as necessary evils attendant upon the keeping of
horses. There are arguments to be adduced,
strong in their tendency towards truth, and bid

Stable Management. 153

fair to destroy the validity of the grounds on
which the practices are based. There are, how-
ever/others which are equally strong in their
justification and continuance.

Both these operations bring about the same
result — viz., reducing the length of the coat or
hairs over the whole body.

Clipping is performed by scissors and a comb,
and recently by a newly-invented machine which
bids fair to answer well the purpose.

Singeing consists of burning off the hair by
means of a lamp charged with naphtha, spirits
of wine, or, what is better, coal gas.

The merits of each operation are considered to
be widely different. While by the use of the
new clipping machine a horse can be deprived
of his coat in a most incredibly short space of
time, simple division of the hair is thought to
favour exudation or evaporation of the fluid nu-
tritive portions which occupy the interior. The
advocates of singeing claim an advantage by their
process in which the end of each hair tube is
sealed up by the insoluble portion left upon the
end.

Both these opinions are worthy of being re-
membered ; but nevertheless it may be safely
argued the disadvantages resulting from the
operation of clipping are certainly not covered
by that of singeing.

It must be evident to all who give considera-
tion to the subject, that singeing has much greater

154 Stable Management.

disadvantages than even clipping under the more
protracted mode by scissors and comb. We need
only mention that the flame alone is sufficient to
render many horses very tedious and troublesome.
Some will not permit it to approach them, while
others stand trembling, and a sudden fit of per-
spiration at once proclaims this impossible.

In singeing also, the skin is not unfrequently
burned, eyes are damaged, mane and tail dis-
figured. And lastly, it is a dirty and tedious
operation. It answers well for taking off the
thin hairs which continually shoot up during the
winter; but for effectually and expeditiously re-
moving the coat, the machine, when in proper
order and efficiently worked, is decidedly to be
preferred.

The policy of removing the coat of horses in
winter has, as already stated, been vehemently
called in question. While great respect is en-
tertained for the opinions and the writer who sent
them forth to the world, we cannot admit the
constant baneful effects which are said to be
attached to the practice.

Lengthened experience has taught that our
horses are kept in an artificial condition, and the
thick rough coat endowed by nature each win-
ter unfits them for that condition. This we
gather from the fact that in all cases of cab, hack,
omnibus, and job horses, also hunters, and even
some cart-horses with thick long coats, where
they are worked during the murky November

Stable Management. 155

month, without being clipped, coughs and colds
are most common. Frequently serious disease
befals these animals, but if they recover sufficiently
to be able to have the coat removed, nothing can
be more remarkable for their good. We have
seen a horse, owned by a gentleman who held these
operations in aversion, after being brought off a
journey in a lather, stand with the wet coat,
literally starving through the night, and his even-
ing meal untouched next morning in consequence.
To stand shivering in the stable is usually con-
sidered indicative of the first stage of disease ; in
fact, there is but a hair's breadth between them ;
and we must confess it is not plain that a cold
wet coat, always inevitable upon work at these
seasons, which by scarcely all the rubbing a man
can bestow will not dry, can be a greater luxury
than a dry and short one suitable to an artificial
condition supplemented by a thick warm woollen
rug.

No doubt a horse soon takes cold when his
coat is off and he is placed in adverse conditions.
Nevertheless, a thick wet coat must be equally
productive of colds, obstructed perspiration, and
far more mortality ; therefore it has very wisely
become the practice to remove the coat of working
liorses.

156

FEEDING.

THIS is one of the most comprehensive subjects
connected with the keeping and management of
horses.

Before going into details,, we must again refer
the reader to Parts I. and II. for the intricacies
to be understood. The dogmatism to which a
writer on popular subjects is compelled to de-
scend, forbids the indulgence of going into cause
and effect. They will therefore prove a ser-
viceable guide to those desirous of pursuing
the theory of that which we now take up in
description.

The provender used for horses consists of oats,
beans, peas, barley, lentils, or tares, hay, straw,
and bran. Besides, fashion, and a view to
economy, has led the way towards introducing
additional substances, as Indian corn or maize,
the locust or Carob bean, linseed oil -cake, con-
diments or spicy foods, and with the season, grass,
clover, rye-grass, tares, potatoes, turnips, and
carrots, usually called vegetable food.

Oats form the principal article of diet for
horses in almost all parts. Of these there are
many varieties, the most economical being pro-
bably the potato and Scotch white oat. In
contradistinction to these, the most common are
the English black and the white Tartary oats ;

Feeding. 157

but in all respects they are an inferior article of
food. While the potato and Scotch oats are
short, plump,, heavy in the hand, possessing thin
husks, weighing from 40 to 46 pounds per bushel,
and possessing a high percentage of nutritious
matter, the black and Tartary oats are long, light,
and slender, their husks are thick and bearded
(or tailed), the proportion of meal, and conse-
quently the nutrition, is much less, they seldom
weigh more than 36 pounds to the bushel, and
prove very inadequate for working horses.

Good oats yield about 14 per cent, of nutrition.
They are as a rule very digestible, and when
clean, dry, sweet and sound, answer very well
for all horses doing light work.

The proportion required for different animals
varies in accordance with bhe work; but size
of animal also calls for modification in the
daily allowance. Horses from 15 to 16 hands
in light work or exercise only, will do very well
upon 8 or 10 pounds per day, which may be
increased to 12 pounds under greater work.
Cart-horses will require 12 to 16 or 18 pounds,
and wagon-horses of large build as much as 20
to 25 pounds.

A small quantity of cut straw, or hay and
bran, is advantageously given with the oats in
the manger or nose-bag. Mastication is much
more perfect and digestion facilitated thereby.
This equally applies to all kinds of corn.

It is not necessary always to bruise oats. If

158 Feeding.

the horse is endowed -with his proper masticatory
powers, no human invention or appliance will
supersede them. It is more natural for the
horse to masticate his food than to receive it in
a partially cooked or digested state.

Among beans, the Lincolnshire tic is the
favourite for feeding horses. This variety is small,
having a thin bright husk and a highly nutritious
kernel, weighing heavy in the hand, and proves
a very profitable feed during excessive work.

The nutritious matter of beans amounts to as
much as 31 per cent., and they are very advanta-
geously mixed with oats and chaff to the extent of
one- quarter or one-half by weight of the former.
The weight of beans ranges from 60 to 66 pounds
per bushel.

As a separate feed they are positively injurious.
Under all circumstances they should be combined
with other varieties of food, and carefully with-
held from idle horses. Their immediate effects
are the production of constipation and disorder
of the digestive organs, the end of which is fre-
quently fatal.

In the animal body, when properly administered,
beans form a very useful agent in the manufac-
ture of flesh (muscle), hence their superiority in
producing a great amount of hardihood. The
weight of the body is greatly increased by their
use in proper form and qualities, and the general
health steadily maintained under greatest vicissi-
tudes.

r~

Feeding. 159

Peas contain even more nutrition than beans,
which they greatly resemble in general properties.
They are, however, less liable to produce dis-
order of the digestive organs, being much more
digestible. White or Canadian peas are usually
preferred, which weigh from 60 to 66 pounds per
bushel in a dry state, when they prove a very
substantial and economical feed given as directed
for beans. The maple or brown pea is also very
good feeding.

Barley usually weighs when good about 56
pounds per bushel, contains 10 per cent, of nutrition,
and 68 of fatty matter. It forms a most useful
agent with other kinds of food, is highly diges-
tible, and promotes their digestibility and assimi-
lation. For sick and convalescent animals, a
small quantity of barley which has been boiled
sufficiently to swell and burst each grain, and de-
prived of its water, proves acceptable when the
digestive powers are weakened and prostrate.

Tares or Lentils are not so commonly used as
the preceding. Their principal use appears to
be for producing a summer green crop, and
horse feeders with few exceptions know little of
them in other respects. They weigh from 65 to
70 pounds per bushel, contain as much as 33 per
cent, of nutrition, are very digestible, and prove
admirable agents for increasing the amount of
muscle-producing principle of a mixture of corn.

They are, however, unpalatable, being bitter;
and on this account are not relished when given

160 Feeding.

alone. To use them with advantage oats,, peas,
barley, bran, and chaff should be given with
them, which forms a most nutritious and easily
assimilable mass for hard-working animals.

Hay and straw with bran,, are articles used
entirely for the purpose of giving bulk to the
forms of food which occur in grain, See., and also
on account of their mechanical action on the coats
of the digestive organs. By their use the food is
more perfectly masticated and digested, and
healthy action maintained with greater per-
sistence and regularity.

Hay very frequently proves no better or more
economical than oat straw ; much depends upon
the mode in which it is gathered. If allowed to
stand until the seeds are ripe, greater part is
shed upon the ground; and as they then contain all
the nutrition, that which remains is not worth the
money usually paid for it. Nutrition exists in
good upland hay to the extent of 32 or 13 per
cent., but in other varieties not more than 6 or 8
per cent, is to be found.

The quantity allowed to each horse is from 12
to 24 pounds. Greater economy is to be main-
tained by cutting up the hay and mixing with it
one-fourth or one-half cut oat straw. When
given in the long or uncut state, much waste
occurs by the animal drawing it beneath the
feet and trampling upon it. In the cut state it
id very closely consumed.

Straw forms an indispensable article of diet,

Feeding. 161

particularly among cart-horses and those used in
cabs, omnibuses, &c. Oat straw is always to be
preferred, which in times when hay is very dear
or scarce, may very properly take its place.
It is possessed of nutrition to the extent of 6 per
cent., but this principle is not looked at primarily.
Straw should always be given cut into chaff. The
practice of giving unthrashed straw to working
horses is a most uncertain method, and greatly
prejudicial to their working qualities. The
quantity of grain they receive is doubtful, and no
method can be more destructive to the owner's
interest when work is required. In farm stables
a great amount of inconvenience takes place from
the practice ; it forms one of the causes of disease
in the category, which is a lengthened one.

Bran contains as much nutrition as barley.
It is, however, very indigestible, and in conse-
quence furnishes none of its beneficial ingredients
to the system. Bran finds favour as a laxative.
For this purpose it is given with other kinds of
food in order to correct any tendency towards
constipation or accumulation within the intestines.
Bran contains much siliceous or sandy matter,
and to this is due the mechanical irritation which
proves so very useful when given with the food
daily. The quantity used is from 10 to 14*
pounds per week.

Among horses doing heavy work and receiving
a great quantity of hard corn, bran is a most use-
ful article, being given as a mash once a week —

M

162 Feeding.

viz., Saturday evening. For this purpose two or
three pounds of bran are saturated with boiling
water, scarcely half a feed of oats is also added,
together with a little linseed prepared according
to details which follow. The whole is then allowed
to cool, and when at the temperature of new milk
given to the animal. In many well regulated town
stables this forms a constant practice.

In some places the laxative qualities of bran
are believed to be useful in removing calculi or
stones from the intestines, and on this account it is
used very extensively. Having specially investi-
gated this subject, we do not think it improbable
that the bran itself has much to do with their
formation. Where it is so largely used, containing
a quantity of dust also from the floor of the mill,
these effects are common.

During a recent conversation in London with
Mr. William Ernes, M.KC. V.S., Dockhead, Ber-
mondsey, that gentleman stated a miller of his
acquaintance once fed largely upon bran. The
result was constant colic and irritation from cal-
culi. He was advised by Mr. Ernes to discon-
tinue the bran, or give a pure variety free from
dust, &c. ; the consequence was that since the
time, now some years ago, there have been no
further cases. Buyers of bran should insist upon
i'- being free from sweepings from the floor, &c.
Bran mashes are used for animals suffering under
acute fever to replace corn, which would aggravate
the complaint. They produce a softened state

Feeding. 168

of the excrement,, and thus relieve high vascular
action. Prior to the administration of Physic
they are also judiciously administered, whereby
much pain and irritation as well as loss of time
is avoided — a less powerful dose being required.

Bran mashes are not nutritive, and therefore
should not be given too frequently to animals
labouring under weakening ailments. In such
cases they prove positively injurious, by prolonging
the disease and prostrating the powers of the
animal body. After their use mangers should be
well washed out with a brush and hot water having
soda dissolved in it, to remove the sour smell left
by the fermenting portions ; otherwise any food
which is given afterwards will be refused by the
animal and occasion waste.

Linseed contains about 24 per cent, of nutritious
matter, with upwards of 60 per cent, of fatcy or
heat-producing material. It is never used alone
as an article of diet, but proves eminently ser-
viceable given in a state of solution with other
food.

Linseed is laxative and nourishing. While its
daily administration promotes a regular state of
the digestive organs, it also proves highly assimi-
lative, and hastens the assimilation of other
articles of food. Horses which receive linseed
usually look fresh and bright in the skin, in
consequence of the special influence it has upon
the bloodvessels and secreting organs of that
part.

104 Feeding.

Horse-dealers and grooms who desire to put on
a fine coat rapidly, and improve the general
condition of animals coming up from the pasture
in a lean and poor state, are well aware of this
property, and therefore use linseed. The laxa-
tive qualities are due to the presence of an oil,
known as " linseed oil" obtained by expression
from the seeds. As a constantly soft condition
of the dung of horses is not a natural, but very pre-
judicial state, care must be exercised in order not to
use linseed too much. By some the oil itself is
used, one or two tablespoonfuls being mixed each
night with the bran, chaff, and corn. Horses
soon take to it, and improve visibly under
its influence, but the reader must be informed
that strength is not produced directly by its use ;
on the other hand, fat is laid down, and this gives
the altered appearance. Indirectly, when good
food is used at the same time, the digestion and ap-
propriation of the nutritive portions are carried on
with greater vigour, and thus the muscular system
is regenerated from time to time. The form in
which linseed is given to horses is that of solution,
or as tea. It is sometimes termed " cree'd linseed."
In some districts it is placed in water and boiled
until the capsule of each seed bursts from imbi-
bition, and the whole becomes a thick mucila-
ginous fluid. All the trouble, however, may be
saved, as linseed will assume this form quite as
well and as rapidly in cold water as by boiling.

The proportions are about a pound of linseed

Feeding. 165

to one gallon of water. The whole is placed in
a glazed earthenware vessel, covered over and
allowed to stand until ready, about twelve hours
being sufficient, during which it may be stirred
once or twice. Half a pint of this is given to
each horse with the evening feed.

Two vessels having covers should be used.
When one is charged the other is to be wall
steeped and cleansed and again charged, in oidjr
to come into use at the proper time. The quan-
tity made should not last over two or three days,
as there is a great tendency towards fermentation,
by which the whole becomes very offensive, and
consequently useless.

Among horses receiving a great quantity of
hard, dry corn each day, linseed thus treated will
be found very beneficial, and promote health.

Linseed or oil-cake, is somewhat richer in flesh-
forming constituents than linseed, but does not
prove serviceable as a regular article of diet for
horses. The objects of its use may be clearly
denned to be for the purpose of assisting, like
linseed, in the assimilation of other kinds of food,
the production of fat, and, when broken into
small pieces, is given to young horses for the
purpose of hastening their growth and develop-
ment.

Many animals refuse it altogether; but when
they do not, the quantity allowed should never
exceed a pound per day, as it then takes the
place of more serviceable materials and adds con-

166 Feeding.

siderably to the weekly cost, without affording
proper return for the outlay.

Sheep and cattle partake of it readily; but
farmers make a great mistake frequently in not
using it with other kinds of nutritive food at a
much earlier period, by which many diseases in-
cidental to their stock would be avoided.

Maize or Indian corn has not proved very
useful as an article of diet for horses. On the
contrary, great derangement and disease have been
produced in many stables, principally from the
presence of a great quantity of water, as well as
having irritative properties.

Maize contains 11 or 12 per cent, only of
nutrition, and forms a very suitable article of diet
with many others for pigs, cows, oxen, sheep, Sec.
When used for horses the quantity should be
small, mixed with an abundance of beans, peas,
or lentils, to reduce their stimulative and other
properties, and always rejected if not dry and
good.

The locust or carob bean, imported from the
East, forms one of the principal ingredients of
condimental foods. As an article of diet it is not
rich in nutritious or flesh-forming constituents,
from 7 to 9 per cent, only being present. The
chief ingredients are mucilage and sugar, upon
which its fattening properties depend. Nor does
it prove digestible. Like beans, peas, Indian
corn, and lentils, all of which are enclosed in a
strong shell which greatly resists the action of the

Feeding. 167

fluids of digestion — they should always be split,
that the internal portion or kernel may be acted
upon, and never given alone or in large quantities.
They are apt to accumulate in the intestines,
where they set up disorder and remain almost
unacted upon for a considerable time, until
severe and intractable diarrho3a comes on, and
from which death may result.

A large firm not long ago, desirous of saving
money, began the wrong way, by purchasing
locust beans and lentils mixed with all kinds of
unknown rubbish. These were given indiscrimi-
nately to all the animals while doing the hardest
work. The digestive organs failed to extract
the nutritious portions, disorder fell among them,
and several, after only 24 hours' illness, died,
indicating all the signs of a blood poison. In
former times, when little or no attention was
paid to the feeding of horses, such an occurrence
would have been looked upon as an epidemic, and
met by bleeding and physicking the whole of the
healthy animals, by which the mortality would
doubtless be increased. In this case the sagacity
of the gentleman who was consulted immediately
caused a detection of the error, and thus put a
stop to the destructive disorder.

Condiments. — Many of these compounds, all
said to possess wonderful properties, are at present
appearing in the market. Their principal com-
position appears to be oil-cake, ground locust
beans, fenugreek, sulphur, common salt, &c.

168 Feeding.

Consumers of condiments are not usually aware
that when they pay the high price charged for
them a considerable portion goes to provide the
attractive bills and woodcuts which are so exten-
sively circulated, and also that the compound does
not possess the nutritive qualities which half the
money would procure in the shape of sound dry
corn. They are also not aware that when
animals improve their condition by the use of
condiments, the change is brought about by the
consumption of an increased quantity of food.
Nutrition is demanded to support life. It is not
contained in condiments to the extent required,
and as it must be obtained in order to keep up
life, the only source is ordinary food. If any one
doubts the truth of this remark, let him take any
one of these batches of condimental nonsense
and keep a working animal upon nothing else,
excepting hay or straw chaff, and he will soon
have to pay for the result.

Condiments being usually sold as secret com-
pounds, appear to inspire purchasers with a great
amount of veneration. A fine wrapper and
naming placards exhibiting a monstrous animal
rendered ugly and almost unrecognisable, work
wonders among the unthinking portion of the
community, who usually pay double for the lights
so commonly dazzled before them.

The time, however, is fast approaching when
the son of the agriculturist will combine philo-
sophical studies with the consideration of the

Feeding. 169

practical details of the farm. He will be con-
versant with practical as well as physiological
chemistry. The profits of husbandry will be de-
rived from the proper application of science, and
in his own hands will be held the key to his
success.

Vegetable food consists of two kinds. One,
supplied in summer, is called the green crop, and
consists of varieties of grass, as well as tares or
vetches, sometimes called also lints, and clover.
The other kind of vegetable food consists of roots
or tubers, and comprises carrots, turnips, and
potatoes.

Great mischief occurs among all working
horses by the indiscriminate use of vegetable food.
Containing much water they cause the animals
to perspire very freely, they also urinate pro-
fusely, the food is hurried through the body, and
being weakened thereby, they are liable to take cold
easily. They are thrown out of condition, which
hard corn and proper exercise only make, and
the profits and peace of mind of the owner often
considerably endangered thereby.

Roots should always be given very sparingly,
every bit of dirt carefully washed off ; and in the
case of turnips and potatoes the peel or rind
pared away, as this portion proves very indiges-
tible.

Mangold-wurtzel and Kohl Rabi are also used
occasionally, but our previous remarks apply to
them also. Among sick animals, particularly

170 Feeding.

when suffering from low debilitating diseases, as
influenza, strangles, &c., and during convalescence,
the roots prove very useful. They are cooling
and laxative, and furnish to the blood those
materials which disease has taken from that fluid,
but they require to be given in small quantities
and at regular intervals.

Grass, clover, and vetches produce greater
harm than many suppose. During their use in
summer violent colic, sore throats, coughs, colds,
influenza, laminitis, swelled legs, &c. &c., occur
most commonly among our cab, omnibus, and
cart-horses. When animals are in good con-
dition, healthy, and doing their work well, it is
a great mistake to change the diet to green food.
In most instances the voracity of the animal's
appetite causes it to replace natural corn, and the
whole of that which months have been required
to produce, is spoiled and sacrificed in two or
three days.

If horses are unfit for work by reason of lame-
ness, or operations and other causes, &c., which
call for rest in the summer season, the most
economical method of keeping them is to allow
grass or clover, &c., with oats under certain cir-
cumstances. To expect them to work upon such
food is to look for an impossibility, and is entirely
foreign to the horse in an artificial condition.
Green food and roots contain in every hundred
parts from 70 to 90 parts of water, and little over
5 per cent, of nutrition. During their consump-

Feeding. 171

tion therefore, animals cannot be expected to gain
much support, and it will be seen at once why
we claim for the horse entire rest while subsisting
upon them.

Turning to grass. — The more we become
acquainted with the nature, habits, and require-
ments of the horse, the less favourable does the
practice of turning to grass become. In addition
to the inconveniences already enumerated as
arising from the adoption of green food, there
are others which prove more embarrassing and
destructive to profits. The changes of tempera-
ture, that of the outer air being much cooler than
the air of the stable, are sufficient after sudden
exposure to work great and mischievous results.
In addition to the comparatively innutritious
nature of grass, as set against dry food, the
animal is less able to withstand the cold air of
nights, of rains, and winds. He therefore suffers
more or less, and not uncommonly comes up a
ee rank roarer." If greater fortune has been upon
his side, the bulky nature of the food may pro-
bably let him off with " broken wind." Besides,
he has accidents to encounter from mischievous
boys, a malicious companion, or a furious bull,
an opposing fence or hidden ditch. At one time
he stands shivering with his tail to the wind and
pelting rain, or is exposed to the rays of a scorch-
ing sun, tormented and harassed by stinging flies,
from which he finds no escape till nightfall. When
he should be quietly lying down to rest, and to allow

172 Feeding.

of proper digestion going on, he has not filled his
stomach, and is therefore compelled by the pangs
of hunger to roam about in order to obtain his
food.

Besides doing damage to the pasture and to
his hoofs, which a hundred sheep or cattle would
scarcely effect, he has sustained irreparable
blemishes from which his value is considerably
diminished. Taking these and many other results
into consideration, it naturally occurs that there
is seldom any gain in giving a horse a run at
grass after being worked for months on hard corn
and accustomed to the heated atmosphere of the
stable, to which in a measure he is now accli-
matized. When he deserves or requires cessation
from work, rest, absolute rest, is the object
sought. It may be the lungs require exemption
from accelerated respiration in consequence of
their tone and powers being deficient by reason
of disease. The legs also demand that they be
relieved of strain and all possible pressure in
consequence of tendons suffering from laceration,
joints from acute pain and inflammation, and
muscles from damage done to their substance from
various causes.

Such being the case, and probably in addition
the system suffering from the effects of weaken-
ing medicines, blisters, and even the firing iron,
one cannot but pause on the folly and injustice
inflicted when we turn out that most useful ani-
mal and subject him to the very opposite treat-

Feeding. 173

ment which his case and value demands. If the
reader should possess an old animal whose services
are no longer required, and upon their account
or pleasurable associations it is desirable that he
should be allowed to spend his days in freedom,
after the usual preparation there can be no di-
rect harm in his doing so. In a short time he
will become as comfortable and satisfied with the
cool air of heaven as he previously was with that
of the stable. Nature will soon provide a coat
suitable for all weathers, and in his paddock, with
only a bare shed, visit him when you will, he
comes with a freshness and grace which contrasts
strangely with the states we have been consider-
ing. He has taken a fresh lease of life, and ap-
pears all youth and buoyancy. The poor stiff and
decrepit favourite now gambols like a foal, and
has thrown aside the accumulations of age, and
in such a condition, which resembles the natural
one most closely, he may live for years.

With the working horse matters are different.
The changes are too severe upon his constitution.
He no sooner has become inured to the change
of climate and other vicissitudes, than he is called
upon to make another sacrifice of his constitu-
tion, and subject himself again to the oppressive
atmosphere of his town stable.

In all fairness such an animal should not be
turned loose upon pasture land. A large loose
box and yard is best, in which for the sake of his
health, present and future, his feet and legs, lungs

174 Feeding.

and digestive organs, lie can exercise himself pro-
portionately with the food he gets, rest and be
thankful, preserved from cold winds, rain, or
the burning sun. Here his green food is to be
brought along with water and a feed of corn in
most instances, and with a dry bed beneath him,
a few weeks may be spent. He thus requires
less time to be got again into condition, maintains
it better afterwards, and gives greater satisfaction
in the end.

With some proprietors, turning a horse to grass
is tantamount to avoiding expense under a false
belief in the efficacy of the plan. Horses that
are lame or ill and recovering slowly, are usually
trotted off, along with others not required for a
week or two, to the pasture. Such men can have
no idea what harm they bring upon themselves ;
they can have no idea what condition is, and the
cost required to establish it in the horse's body,
or they would not so lightly sacrifice it. Under
such treatment we no longer feel surprised at the
cases of swelled legs, grease, cracked heels, can-
ker, inflammation of the lungs, pleurisy, fatal
colic, surfeit, &c., which crowd the stables with
victims under some kinds of management. Our
experience too plainly shows the truth of all this,
and we feel we should be unfaithful to our trust if
silence was maintained upon the point. It is mis-
taken economy. Such management — it scarcely
deserves the name — is always productive of more
loss and inconvenience than profit, as is demon-

feeding. 175

strable too frequently in very plain and unmis-
takeable ways.

Regularity in Feeding. — In all horse establish-
ments the system of feeding, to be successful,
should be regulated by definite rules having special
reference to the kind and quantity of work to be
performed.

The hours also of feeding should be strictly
adhered to. The latter is highly necessary on
account of the small size of the horse's stomach
and rapidity of digestion. Upon this account
horses should not as a rule be fed fewer than four
times a day. With hunters and other horses
when out during unexpected times, this cannot
always be accomplished ; but with town, farm,
cab, and omnibus horses, it may be greatly over-
come by the use of the nose-bag.

When work is light and calls for little exertion
of muscular power, horses may be fed economically
upon oats, with Indian corn, chaff, and bran.
Every 12 pounds of oats being mixed with 4
pounds of maize, 2 pounds oi bran, and 14 or 16
pounds of hay, or hay and straw chaff. These
quantities, which are allowed each day, will do for
a horse of 15 or 16 hands, but larger horses will
require a few pounds more.

When work begins to be excessive, it must be
the care of horse-keepers and those in charge to
furnish a food containing greater nutrition. For
this purpose, beans, peas, and lentils may be
taken, and mixed with barley in different propor-

176 Feeding.

tions, all being bruised separately. Chaff and
l/fan also will be required to give bulk to the
whole.

If prices of grain fluctuate much or rise con-
siderably, by substituting the more nutritious
kinds of corn, horses may be fed for much less
money. The details which furnish information
on this matter will be found at pages 89 and
93 f wQich the reader is referred for full infor-
mation,

mere is scarcely any department ot norse
management wherein there exists greater scope
for the exercise of economy as compared with
present modes. Nor is there another where by
the exercise of that economy a greater saving is
to be made, by not only avoiding useless expen-
diture but also disorder, disease, and death, which
now stalks with ghastly grin and fearful strides
through many parts of our land.

There is one other question which is frequently
neglected by horse proprietors. This is the
quality of provender. A short time ago, we were
standing in conversation with an extensive owner
when a grain merchant stepped up and offered
oats, beans, wheat, maize, and lentils for sale.
Upon examination these articles were found to be
very inferior, mixed with all kinds of dirt, and
also soft as they could be. The prices were asked
and given, and our opinion was requested. We
remarked, " The samples were very inferior, da-
maged, and very wet, and certainly not fit for

Feeding. 177

working horses." The owner remarked, "But
we boil these, and their being wet and damaged
kinds can make no difference, as boiling makes
them more nutritious.""

For the first time then we learned that to cook
food rendered it more valuable in its strengthen-
ing properties. The operation appears to our
mind as an attempt to smuggle into the horse's
stomach such a mixture of rubbish that he would
not swallow in any other condition. It is a cloak
for the purpose of buying inferior corn, and in it
may be looked for all the causes of the mischief
which is known among horses to which such
trash is given.

Without good food, no horse can maintain an
aptitude for work. If he is deprived of it and
inferior kinds are substituted, the body suffers, his
organic functions give way, and he becomes a
sufferer from disease. There is more damage
done to studs from this cause alone than from any
other, and what is most surprising, owners are
not slow to believe in this " penny wise and pound
foolish" system.

To arrange diet for horses is not a difficult
matter, nor is it a thing impossible. Hunters
and race horses execute a laborious kind of work,
which differs from that of the cart, cab, or omni-
bus horse but very little. All require the same
amount of stamina in order to execute their work.

None grudge the former their share of the very
best, but for the poor hard-working dray horse,

K

178 Feeding,

with his equally unfortunate companions in exile,
the cab and cart-horse, anything will, it is thought,
do for them. Nothing is more false than such
an argument. As we grow older, however, and
with repeated opportunities, the absurdity of the
system may be shown up, and thus gradually com-
pelled to disappear from its strongholds.

Feeding after work, when the exertion has been
very severe and prolonged, is a matter requiring
great care. Among hunters and racehorses
nothing can be more marked than the attention
paid to them when they return to the stable.

It must be apparent to all who give the subject
any consideration, that after a severe run with
hounds, sharp race, or the drawing of heavy loads,
much wear and tear of the whole system takes
place. It is not merely the muscles which move
the limbs, but the muscles also which regulate
circulation of the blood and digestion of the food.
In a word, all are tired and need rest. When
the hunter or racer arrives at his stable, so
well are those in charge aware practically of this
fact, that they avoid torturing the stomach by
causing it to perform unnecessary labour. The
mouth is washed out, the face, nostrils, and eyes
carefully sponged with cold water, which refreshes
the creature almost beyond estimate, and when
that is done he receives a quantity of warm oat-
meal gruel which has been prepared during the
afternoon. After taking off the rough dirt,
washing the legs, &c., he is left for a time. On

Feeding. 179

the return of the groom, he is cleaned in right
earnest and supplied with corn and hay.

What is the rule in cart-horse and other
stables ? In many the horse is first allowed to
satiate an excessive thirst with cold water at a
trough in all seasons, his feet and legs washed very
roughly, and half his body wetted at the same
time. He next is allowed to go to his stall, and
during the time he starves with the washing he
is allowed to fill his tired stomach with a large
quantity of food, while a man teases him under
the pretence of cleaning. Surely these animals,
which are directly concerned in the building up
of our colossal fortunes, are worthy of a little
more consideration. If the labour in which
they are daily engaged is not productive of
amusement, it is certainly a source of profit with-
out which amusement could not be afforded. We
appeal therefore for a little more consideration
for our four-footed friend the cart-horse and his
allies, who in their spheres are equally as useful
as any other animal, certainly an indispensable
agent in our social economy.

Instead of cold water supplied in hurtful
quantities, let us suggest hay tea, or a little tepid
water with oat or barley meal thrown in. These
would be far more agreeable to a thirsty horse,
and refresh and cheer instead of paralysing the
stomach. Hay tea is made by pouring boiling
water upon a handful of good hay placed at the
bottom of a pail, and covered with a cloth or sack.

180 Feeding.

After a time cold water is added to fill the pail,
when it is given to the animal at the temperature
of new milk.

In place of the heavy food, such as beans, peas,
&c., we recommend for a tired horse a few oats or
a little barley which has been steeped in hot water
for a few hours. This is mixed with a handful
of bran, and given on arrival in the stable after
the hay tea, or meal and water. The cleaning
operations over, and beds put down, the rest of the
food may be given and stable closed for the night.
By this method the animals are recruited and food
proves useful, but in tb^ unnatural systems so
often carried out, it causes their destruction in
not a few instances,

181

EXERCISE,

ONE of the greatest sources of health among
horses is to be found in exercise. By that term
we understand exertion or use of organs of loco-
motion, as the legs, &c., and other parts of the
body more or less, not strictly called work.
Exercise, or the use of the body, is intended to be
engaged in at those times when the animal capa-
bilities are not required for work. It is a duty
which relieves from the close and monotonous con-
finement of the stable. Horses kept for a length
of time without action suffer in a variety of
ways. The circulation of blood is languid,
digestion of food retarded, fluids which in health
are formed in various organs of the body for the
purpose of changing substances and rendering
them fit for the system, are not poured out
during continued rest with sufficient activity.
Muscles become soft and flabby, and such an
animal is thoroughly unfit for work or exertion
of any kind ; he is soon tired and knocked up.
The skin looks dull and rough, the bowels are
constipated, and he becomes a prey to disease of
various kinds.

Exercise must not be confounded with actual
work. The two are totally different. What
work takes out of the system, exercise is intended
to build up and strengthen. Exercise stimulates

182 Exercise.

all the energies of the body and promotes strength
and vigour. It causes all the tissues of the body
to receive their support by reason of the tone
given to the circulation of the blood, and diges-
tion and appropriation of food. Work, on the
other hand, goes farther than this, and lowers the
body — causes it to waste or wear out. On this
account therefore exercise must be a duty which
promotes health by stimulating all the animal
functions, but stops short of producing weariness
or exhaustion. It renovates the body, and makes
it ready to encounter excessive and prolonged
exertion, which we call work.

Exercise should be taken regularly. All
horses not intended to go to work ought to
receive an amount of exercise daily. It is not
necessary that the time spent should always be
the same, nor is it proper that it be prolonged too
far, as it then ceases to be useful and beneficial.

Hunters are usually exercised two hours,
and this always immediately after the first
morning feed, each animal having been quartered
and wiped over. The night clothing is to be re-
moved, and exercising rugs substituted.

Usually walking exercise only is taken, and in
most instances is found to answer all purposes.
If, however, a trot is indulged in, horses should
never be hurried, or during a canter put so fast
as to " blow" them, nor should the distance gone
over amount to more than one-quarter that used
for walking.

Exercise. 183

Many gentlemen prefer to have their animals
exercised within call, and for this purpose
a long covered ride is arranged. The stables of
many noblemen are built in a square, the inner
sides of which form. a ride, the upper stories
being brought over and supported on pillars. In
each case sawdust, tan, or short litter is spread,
which prevents slipping, and the whole being
covered, exercise is taken in all kinds of weather.
The arrangement avoids the necessity of going
from home, and the chance of meeting with acci-
dents which attend the leading of fresh animals
along streets or roads, and actions of grooms in
concert when beyond the eye of watchfulness.

Cart-horses, those used for cabs, omnibuses,
spring vans, and sometimes even carriage horses, do
not receive exercise as frequently as they should.
Many of these animals suffer immediately when
confined to the stable but even a single day. It
is a common thing to find cases of weed or thick
leg occurring with unerring regularity on Monday
morning, not unfrequently also colic, and even
founder or inflammation of the feet. Why should
these complaints have special predilection for
that day ? Simply because Sunday was a day of
rest. During the week each of these animals
has been working hard, their bodies have been
wasting, and the food taken has been appropriated
to the repair of that waste. But when Sunday
comes, with its cessation from all labour, the food
which is taken, being of the same quality and in

184 Exercise.

similar quantity as during the week, cannot be
appropriated. The same waste of system is not
going on. The food is not required. It is,
however, taken into the stomach, and afterwards
goes to the blood, which becomes overcharged
with nutritious material, and as there is not time
to get rid of it by natural outlets the constant
occurrence by unnatural means is inevitable,
those means being a diseased state.

Such horses, although coming to the stable
tired at the week end, would be certainly bene-
fited by a walk of three or four miles on Sunday
morning. The time occupied would admit of the
stables being thoroughly cleaned, the animals
would obtain fresh air instead of breathing
noisome odours during the operation, and in
many cases ward off the attacks mentioned, par-
ticularly if the precautions referred to under
" mashes " were carried out, as directed at pages
161 and 164.

When horses come up from grass, straw-yards,
or rest on green food, &c., the amount of exercise
at commencement should be very limited, and
gradually increased until the full amount is taken.
Our further remarks in connexion with exercise
will lead us to a consideration of what is under-
stood by

185

CONDITION.

THE object of exercise is the preservation and
maintenance of that healthy state or general
capacity for work which is known in stable
technics as condition. To acquire it, good food,
pure water, well ventilated buildings, scrupulous
care and regularity in all stable routine, and
exercise in the open air, are indispensable.

Early morning is usually chosen among racing
and hunting grooms, in order to avoid the heat
of day, rabble of boys, or annoyance from any
other quarter. Sometimes the exercise is ap-
portioned, one part to the morning another to
the afternoon. This is done frequently in winter
when hunting is stopped by hard frosts, the
stable yard being well covered with short litter.
It also admits of other work being carried out,
which would not be done if all the exercise were
taken in the morning.

The usual process of getting a horse into con-
dition, consists in the use of certain doses of
physic. Some grooms go so far as to assert,
"No horse can be got into condition without
physic." Not long ago a certain gentleman
lent his name to the statement that the Turkish
bath was the only means whereby condition could
be obtained. Practical experience, however, com-

186 Condition.

bined with philosophical examination,, has proved
the fallacy of such reasoning.

Some time ago the writer was thrown into
conversation with a gentleman holding these
tenets with extreme force. No argument could
shake the view he held of the necessity for two or
three doses of physic. " It had always been
the practice, and would always remain so/' he
contended. It happened that an old vicious animal
belonged to the stud, to which no man dare give
a ball, nor could he be induced to take any medi-
cament in his food, and the circumstance rushing
to the mind, prompted the following queries in a
way which looked at first like yielding up the
point and turning the conversation.

" By-the-by, how many horses have you 1"

" The old number, eight/'

" Oh ! is the old gray alive yet ?"

" Alive ! of course — when will he die ? He's
too tough, I assure you."

" How long have you hunted the old fellow ?
— if I remember rightly, some years/'

" Yes, nine this season. He has carried me
without a stumble, and cost me not a fraction
for illness. I am never carried so well as when
upon old Sergeant's back. No matter what
country, he goes pell-mell, and I am sure to be in
first."

" You say he never cost you a fraction through
illness ; do you mean me to infer that he has
never been ill?"

Condition. 187

" Quite so."

" But if he were ill, physic would be of no
use to him ; he refuses to be balled if I remember
rightly."

" Why, the old un himself couldn't do it.
Such a vagary he'll kick up if you only hold out
a ball to him. Oh ! he's a cunning old dog."

"Then allow me to inquire farther, if you
please, How did you succeed in getting him into
condition for hunting ?"

The reader will understand our friend was
fairly caught in his own trap, and afterwards
always maintained a perfect silence in reference
to the necessity of physicking a horse's inside out
for the purpose of gaining condition.

The Turkish bath is also by some used under
the idea that there is something always to be got
rid of which militates against condition, and the
poor creatures are parboiled and sweated un-
mercifully

The art of getting a horse into condition lies
totally apart from either of these processes.
Hundreds of horses are brought forward every
year without them, and on the score of what can
be done, and is done every day of our lives, we
appeal for our noble servant, and beg he may be
spared this useless and aggravating treatment,
except when illness demands it.

Condition is that state of the muscular system
in which the body is strong, healthy, and capable
of endurance under prolonged action. Muscle

138 Condition.

has to be built up and thoroughly developed.
Every one knows the blacksmith's arm or the legs
of the danseuse become thicker by the exercise.
Their action stimulates their growth, and when
after a time they are so developed, they may be
said to be in perfect condition.

The muscles of the horse also admit of this
gradual development. It is caused by their
being regularly exercised, and drawing to them
the nutrition from the blood which has first been
put into that fluid from the food. Regular
exercise causes the body to rid itself of all hurtful
substances. Good food produces good muscle ;
and unless there are special circumstances to
consider, nothing else is required to produce
condition, excepting regularity of system.

The effect of physic is to weaken the system
and retard the development of muscle and forma-
tion of good blood. They are similar to bleeding,
but a little less intense. Professor Dick was wont
to state in his lectures, that " physicking horses
in order to get them into condition is carried on
to an absurd degree, as many as three doses of
physick being given to one animal prior to the
season in the space of a few weeks. The first
ball/' remarked the Professor, " was said to stir
up the humours, the second to set them moving,
and the third to carry them off; and/' he naively
adds, " which it frequently did by carrying oif
the horse as well."

189

THE TURKISH BATH, AND WASHING
HORSES AFTER HUNTING.

THERE is nothing which militates so strongly
against the success of any newly-introduced
measure or plan as its immediate indiscriminate
adoption. Regardless of all conditions and modi-
fications which render the application difficult,
partial, or unsuited, we frequently find people
rushing to embrace and hastily adopt anything
new. At the same time unsuccessful use and
application become evident day after day. Such
occurs in almost all departments of daily life.
A new toy is soon in the hands of nearly every
boy in the nation, and often caused to execute
very foreign and absurd purposes. In medicine
a new pill or lotion, well advertised and garnished
with a dazzling label, proves attractive. A simple
headache or a still simpler sore is cured, hundreds
rush to write their testimony on such occur-
rences, and swear to a great deal more, and a
world wide popularity is obtained. Believers
are also found who never entertain the idea of
failure, and go on fully convinced if these great
preparations do not cure everything, it is not the
fault of the composition, and are content to live
in mystery and martyrdom.

The Turkish bath and practice of washing

190 Tlie Turkish Bath, and

horses have enjoyed such popularity — they have
also endured degradation at the hands of their
promoters. In a few accidentally well selected
cases the results of the former were astounding,
but when news of men dying in wet sheets,
others barely escaping, and similar results among
animals came to be talked over, men looked
aghast, shook their heads, and said gravely,
" Ah ! this will not do." As much as they had
been applauded, as much have they been con-
demned.

In some districts the Turkish bath has been
used for horses, and found to answer very well
when not pushed too far.

In strict language it should be called the
Roman bath, the principles of that in common
use having been carried out in Rome in the first
instance.

When hunters return after a severe day, tired,
dirty, and hungry, the great secret of restoration
is to get them clean and comfortable in the least
time possible. The bath and washing with warm
water enable grooms to accomplish this very
readily when all hands are at the post. It is
when the assistance is small that time is lost,
the animal starves, and probably at once takes
severe cold.

Whenever the bath or washing is had recourse
to, plenty of warm water and sufficient men should
always be at hand. While water is being thrown
on. the dirt should be well worked out of the

r™

Washing Horses after Hunting. 191

SKirx and hair. A good scraping follows imme-
diately, and all Lands " fall to" in order to dry
the animal at once.

Experience in these matters points out that a
modification of the Roman bath and washing
house would be highly useful. It is not ab-
solutely necessary that a horse should be again
placed in a state of perspiration after the day's
hunt. The washing may be used, but with the
addition that the house in which the operation
is Conducted should be raised to a temperature
of 100° or thereabouts, in order to assist in
drying the animal's coat, which accomplished,
part of the clothes are put on, and the horse is re-
moved to his stall, when the remainder are placed.
By these means, the operation is more quickly
effected, there is less wear of the system than
by the sweating of the bath, and animals are
not so liable to take cold as the coat is rapidly
dried.

The danger which is believed to occur when
horses are washed after hunting and other hard
work is not so great as some suppose. When
all necessary precautions are taken, it may be
almost said to be absent. All that which
is to be feared results from after-treatment.
Grooms sometimes ignorantly pursue a system
with a small stud, few appliances, and deficient
help, as if all these were absolutely present, and
from such a want of forethought the greatest
inconvenience arises.

192 The Turkish Balk, and

Not long ago a professional friend related a
circumstance which nearly cost him the spore
of the season. He had engaged a groom in
whom it was said was concentrated every
essential of good management, having had good
places and seen much experience among different
kinds of horses. The groom was a staunch ad-
vocate for the washing of horses, and constantly
advocated the principle under all circumstances.
One evening after a hard day our friend re-
turned, he and his horse well bespattered with
dirt, but by gentle riding homewards the animal
was quite dry on arrival. Notwithstanding this
the groom, single handed, stripped the horse,
obtained warm water, and was on the point of
making a commencement, when the proprietor
luckily entered and put a stop to the proceedings.
Had he been allowed to go on, the chances are
that with no other assistance the horse would
have remained a long time wet, and consequently
suffered from cold to such an extent as to lay him
off work altogether.

In such cases as the one referred to, much more
reliance is to be placed upon the use of a straw
wisp or dandy brush, followed by the tools
already named at page 143. There will certainly
be no danger to be apprehended as by the adop-
tion of a protracted washing.

It is impossible to lay down a code of rules
which are to the letter suitable for all stables.
What we have gone over already will be found

Washing Horses after Hunting. 193

principally applicable as general regulations
whereby the preservation of the health and use-
fulness of horses may be effected, which is the
end and object of all the attention paid them.
The principles that are carried out in one estab-
lishment must not be taken for granted as
applicable to all others. This is a too common
error ; and from which mischief may unex-
pectedly occur some time or other. With slight
modifications, certain regulations of an establish-
ment may be adopted in others with success, all
these depending entirely upon the nature of
duties and the influences whicii are extended to
them. Without taking these into proper con-
sideration inevitable confusion will be the conse-
quence*

o

194

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF STABLES.

VERY little variation exists in the plan of arrange-
ment in stables. Out of many hundreds of such
buildings, as well as cowhouses, that I have visited,
not more than a few attempts are made to
depart from the one common principle of tying
up to the wall, or manger which projects from it.
The prevalence of the system surely indicates a
very slow march in the way of improvement, and
points out how few must be the resources where
it is adopted without change.

The tying up of animals in numbers beneath
one roof, separated by boarded partitions running
at right angles to the wall, is a very defective
system, and obstructive to the circulation of air
in a proper manner, to say nothing of the great
hardship which is inflicted upon the animal in
being compelled to look at a blank wall conti-
nually when in the house.

In addition we usually find holes are either
made or recommended to be placed over his head.
Unfortunately, by making merely a hole we do not
compel the foul air to go out there as we might
be led to believe. Sometimes it may do so, when
it cannot fail to rise upwards from the floor and
carry with it the hurtful emanations of dung and
urine. These pass beneath the very nose of the
horse or cow, and are breathed to their detri-

General Arrangement of Stables. 195

nicnt. On the other hand, we may expect cold
air to find its way through, and falling upon the
head, produce a chilly stratum which gives rise to
sore throats and other affections. The writer is
aware of such a stable producing great damage
at times. One gentleman returned three horses
in succession to a dealer for ophthalmia, which
always appeared in a day or two after each new
animal entered the building. Proper arrangement
of the stalls and efficient ventilation prevented the
malady again appearing. Another stable, where
thirty farm horses were kept, was always productive
of tedious complaints. The cause was pointed
out but disregarded, and the result was total
blindness of every animal.

A third stable, which is owned by a gentleman
who revels in a propensity for horse dealing in
addition to other professions, during the short
space of two years produced more sore throats,
chronic coughs, and absolute whistlers, than
many meet with in the course of a lifetime.

Imperfect arrangement induces all kinds of
unsystematic and unscientific principles of clean-
liaess and ventilation. When cold air reverses
the order of currents, straw is at once stuffed into
the channel and another extreme brought about.
Thus one evil stalks in the train of another, and
we fail to recognise them frequently until too
late. But not uncommonly the results of such
imperfection tell upon the pockets of strangers,
and a greater hardship is perpetrated.

196 General Arrangement of Stables.

In order to overcome the many disadvantages
which occur from the present system of tying up
horses and cattle to the wall, a plan has been
adopted, in several instances with success, by
which neatness of arrangement and appearance
are in perfect keeping with other points. The
stalls are placed in one or two rows, as in the old
system, according to the size of the building,
which should be wider than they are usually
made.

Each animal has allotted to him a space
equivalent to 1500 cubic feet, in which he can
breathe freely. This would require a stall 6 feet
wide, 9 feet long, with height above to the extent
of 14 feet, 3 feet in front of manger, and 6" feet
behind the stalls. The mangers are accordingly
brought 3 feet clear from the wall and placed
between the stall partitions. This plan thus
leaves a foot-path between the wall and manger,
which is used for the purpose of feeding the
animals.

Behind each stall the space allowed answers for
passage in and out and proper cleaning opera-
tions, while animals enjoy a purer atmosphere, and
the whole admits of a better principle of lighting
raid ventilation to be carried on.

The paving of stable floors should be of the
very best kind. When holes or other irregu-
larities are present, dung and urine accumulate
in fermenting masses and interfere with the
health of the inmates. One of the best materials

General Arrangement of Stables. 197

is stone laid in large squares, or other forms, ac-
curately jointed. Dutch tiles are very service-
able and cleanly. There are also square thick
tiles used in some districts. These are made
from fire-clay and burned. When laid down they
present a very good and even surface. Asphalt,
or coal tar, and common brick floors are used in
some stables, but soon wear into holes. In cart-
horse stables this is a great objection, their shoes
doing great damage.

Cement floors are probably the best when
properly laid down. The materials are composed
of what is termed by builders " hydraulic lime/;
The compound has the property of immediately
hardening when placed in contact with water,
becoming quite solid and resisting external agen-
cies in a most remarkable manner.

Stable drains are a great nuisance in many
instances. They are either too deep and narrow,
or are fitted with some peculiar arrangement or
apparatus which is principally designed to exhibit
the resources of a cast-iron foundry. The less
these things are fettered by details the better.
Complications are not always understood by
grooms, and in consequence such an arrangement
is likely to get out of order by neglect and even
tampering. We were at one time great advocates
for all drains in a stable being covered, their
entrance only being seen, and that guarded by a
trap. Further experience, however, has con-
vinced us that plan is not the most correct

198 General Arrangement of Stables.

either in scientific theory or practice. Drain
traps are likely to prove a greater nuisance
than that which they were intended originally to
set aside. On account of the drain becoming
plugged up below by breaking, damage, or
stoppage of solid matters, all the gases which
result midway find their outlet back through the
trap.

To remedy this, we now recommend all stench
traps to be placed outside the building. The
drains inside are to be made very wide and shallow,
having a moderate fall to carry off the water.
By this arrangement there is less danger from
horses slipping, and no possibility of getting feet
or shoes fast in them.

The declivity of the stable floor is frequently
very injurious to horses' legs. For the purpose
of carrying off the urine, or water during wash-
ing, the stall floor falls considerably from head to
heel, as much as one inch to the foot being no
uncommon estimate. This causes the animals
to suffer great pain in the back tendons, and lays
the foundation of lameness in that region.
They are also found to stand back from the
stall as far as the chain or halter will allow,
and mischievous grooms strike with the first
weapon they lay hold of, and are apt to cause
injuries to the shoulder by the force with which
the horse strikes the munger in rushing forward
to avoid the blow. Sometimes he stands across
the stall, and thus also irritates his attendants by

Gen eral Arrangcm en t of Sta Ues . 199

ruffling the bedding. The remedy is a level
floor. But all to whom we make the assertion
at once rejoin, " How are you to drain a level
stall ? Look at the cost of straw when the water
cannot get off; and besides, you can never keep
your horse dry." The matter has been arranged
by the author, in many instances with success, as
follows : —

The first object is to lay down a stout perma-
nent flooring of thick paving stones well jointed,
or other hard material, perfectly level, and behind
the stall an open drain ten inches wide, and
about two inches deep in the centre. This is
either made of strong; baked fire-clay, or cut out
of thick stones. To drain the stalls there are
cut by means of a chisel, three or four grooves
running down the stall to the cross drain behind.
Each groove commences at a part a little in
front of the middle, very shallow at first, but as
the drain is approached they become a little
wider and deeper until the outlet is upon a level
with the bottom of the drain. After this arrange-
ment has been carried out the horses are not
found to stand away back, or seldom across the
stall, while perfect drainage is effected.

Wooden floors are used very extensively in
coal mines to save bedding, and there can be
no reason why the arrangement may not be
introduced to the stables of large owners of cart
and other horses above ground, where scarcity of
bedding occurs.

2 00 General Arrangement of Stables.

As usually put down, however, they are a great
nuisance, as they confine beneath them great
quantities of dung and urine, and render the
stench sometimes unbearable. To overcome this,
and render the wooden floors both efficient and
economical, the author had several stables fitted
according to plans furnished, and which were
found to answer admirably.

The first part of the plan consisted in pulling
up the old floor between the roof supports, and
laying bare the rock beneath. By means of a
pick the surface was cut away behind, in order
to cause water to run backwards, a fall of five or
six inches being given to it.

Next three joists were laid longitudinally from
manger to heel posts — one upon each side, and
a third in the middle. The end at the manger
is previously thinned down in order to cause each
joist to lie upon the slanting rock in such a
manner that their upper surfaces are perfectly
flat and level. Upon the top of these, cross-
wise, are nailed strong planks one and a half
inch thick. At the part near the manger they
are close together, but from the middle to the
bottom of the stall they are kept three-eighths of
an inch apart, to admit of the urine passing
below.

Another feature consisted in making the
whole of this to fit the stall and admit of being
raised at the heel, so as to enable the groom to
sweep all the accumulations from beneath. The

General Arrangement of Stables. 201

floor behind the stalls consisted also of a similar
arrangement, and when each part was in its place,
110 drains were to be seen. Water thrown down
found its way readily and carried the filth effec-
tually,, by which the stables were rendered sweet
and wholesome, while little trouble was required
to keep them so. If the spaces between the
planks become blocked up, a piece of hoop iron,
or an old knife, is used to clear them.

Loose boxes are invaluable where horses arc
kept. No stable where there are more than one
horse should be without them. They are far
preferable to stalls under most circumstances,
but are not always admissible, on account of
deficiency of room.

A loose box is a great advantage to a sick
horse. For that purpose it should be situate at
a distance from the usual stable, as a guard
against infectious or contagious diseases. It
should be well lighted and ventilated by the wall
below or door, and above by the roof, as already
described at page 140. The dimensions should be
not less than twelve feet square, with twelve feet
space in a perpendicular direction also. The
floor composed of hard impervious material,
slightly falling to the centre, so as to cause
urine, &c., to flow off by means of a .very shallow
and wide open drain to the outside.

The doors should slide along the wall on the
outside if possible ; an arrangement which is
more approved than their being hung upon

202 General Arrangement of Stables.

hinges. When doors are hung upon the outside,
horses have been known to draw the door
towards the wall by their head, and thus nearly
hang themselves. To allow of fresh air, a rail
or bar door is useful. It should fit the doorway
from top to bottom. Half doors are objec-
tionable.

203

THE CAUSES OF DISEASE, AND ITS
PREVENTION.

THIS is a subject upon which volumes might be
written. At present the information has little
weight in many quarters, either from a lingering
prejudice in favour of old customs, or incapability
of accepting the full nature of the truths con-
tained in the premises.

In a majority of instances disease arises from
mismanagement and a want of the proper
principles which insure health. Imperfect stable
management is a prolific source. Much of this
has already been detailed. If we need incontro-
vertible proof, we have but to turn to the racing,
hunting, and other stables, where all is order and
perfection. There disease seldom appears. If
it does, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it is
of the most intractable character, and traced to
be dependent upon causes beyond control.

Among many of our farm and town studs^
feeding upon inferior provender, and the use of
so called " alterative" medicine, works great mis-
chief. The common principle is to allow mis-
management to proceed for some time, and
constantly drug, the animals with medicines of
which the groom can know but very little. The

204 T/te Causes of Disease,

use of nitre (saltpetre) is frequently attended
with baneful results. The lowering and cooling
properties of this salt are such that when it is
supposed that one disease is driven out, the animal
is not unlikely to be affected with sore throats,
coughs, and colds.

When horses are treated properly, then exists
a state which we call health. That word means
more than is usually ascribed to it, and signifies
that condition which admits of no improvement.
Of what use then are the medicines so commonly
and constantly used to nauseate and interfere
with the animal functions ? Such things cannot
be administered without producing a disturbance
in the system. That disturbance is not unlike
disease, and is used by the medical man to over-
come, as it were, any unhealthy condition \vhich
he may be called upon to eradicate.

Into no greater mistake can owners and stable-
men fall than to suppose it is consistent with
reason to drug an animal in health, or that medi-
cines given regularly prevent disease. The
reverse is frequently the result. But tell sr.ch
people that disease is always, or nearly always,
the result of mismanagement, neglect, or want of
forethought and knowledge, they would laugh in
derision. "We do know how to manage/" say
they ; " give us information how to cure" Such
was the statement of an individual a short time
ago. He had boasted how he managed, of his
profits, and how he kept his animals in health,

and its Prevention. 205

but nevertheless lost greater part of his stock by
ms-management

It is far better to prevent than to cure. — The
laws of the former are better understood than the
laws of the latter, and should comprise greatly the
foundation of every man's ordinary education. But
how expensively and roundabout do many choose
to go to work. Actually allow disease, the
thief, to enter a stock — the stable, and even
favour its entrance by taking off the bolts and
bars, i.e., lowering and devitalizing the constitution
by medicines when the animal is in health.
After the steed is stolen, lamentation occurs,
and a lock — the veterinary surgeon — is sent for,
and expected to restore that which is lost.

And what interest, we may ask, can there be
in a professional man urging attendance to the
correct principles of routine and effective ma-
nagement ? Can he be convicted of selfishness ?
Does he sell his physic by the advice ? Neither,
but in execution of the trust committed to his
charge, labouring under the full conviction that,
after his years of study, nature is not to be
trifled with, even though it be against his pecu-
niary interest, he knows it is his duty to expose
the fallacy and insecurity of the support on which
rests the idea that health can be maintained
under such imperfect regulations and treatment.
It amounts to a species of cruelty to animals, and
owners and stablemen would profit much more by
the study of duty and management, than that of

206 The Causes of Disease,

the actions and uses of medicines which is an
affair of a lifetime. Let them become perfect
in stable management, it will gain them far more
lasting emolument than they can hope for in a
scientific path which their feet are not designed
by nature to tread.

An instance of the absurdity of these daily
mistakes may not be out of place. A groom
recently consulted the author and desired to have
medicine, naming the constituents, and stated he
had been .with a medical man and knew all the
properties of drugs.

It transpired the animal for which the medi-
cines were required had been dosed for months,
under the supposition that she was suffering from
worms. " But/' said he, " it's all to no purpose, she
gets no better, and I thought I would give you a
trial." Searching inquiries were instituted, and
DO doubt being raised as to the proper nature of
the ailment, and its entire dependence upon causes
hidden from the applicant, he was sent home with
instructions " to give good food at regular inter-
vals, exercise daily for two hours when not at
work, and either put a muzzle upon the animal
after feeding, or allow her only tan or sawdust
for bedding."

The advice was, however, thrown away. As he
could not obtain medicine which was known to
be not required, and even dangerous, another
was applied to ; the man physicked, and the mare
died suddenly, her carcass blocking the entrance

r~
i

and its Prevention. 207

to the stable when the morning visit was
made.

This animal was a ravenous or greedy feeder,
a condition which exists as a result of some
morbid state of the digestive organs, brought
about originally by neglect and mismanagement.
Such subjects often look rough and out of con-
dition, and medicine aggravates the case if pre-
scribed wantonly. The extent to which a groora
should go is to carry out the advice already
given, and if medicines are needed let them be
prescribed by one who has studied them in a
way he cannot.

208

SIMPLE RULES FOR SHOEING, AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET OF
HORSES.

LA FOSSE, a celebrated French veterinarian, said,
" Pas dtpied, pas de cheval" which British writers
interpret, " No foot, no horse/' and thereby
indicate the amount of importance which is at-
tached to the member, as forming an integral
part of the animal body. Many have enlarged
upon the theme in various ways, with not unsuc-
cessful eloquence ; others have sown broadcast a
mass of error, their observations being superficial
through their want of preliminary training.

To preserve the foot is to maintain the capa-
bilities of the animal in a remarkable manner.
Its anatomical structure is of the most wronderful
character, and suggests the advisability of greater
respect than is usually paid to that important
part.

The hoof is a fibrous box or case, in which is
accurately fitted the softer and sensitive parts.
Its growth is secured from above at the coronet
downwards, where a special arrangement exists
for its formation. The sole and frog are also
developed and formed by structures of counter-
part shape on the inner side.

The hoof is capable of a limited amount of

Simple Rules for Shoeing. 209

elasticity, and it resists shocks in a remarkable
manner. It conducts heat badly, and on these
accounts proves highly serviceable for protection,
while its constant growth, thickness, and insen-
sibility, admirably adapts it as a substance to
which an unyielding defence, the shoe, can be
applied. In shoeing horses' feet it is a mistake
to cut, burn, and rasp them so much as is usually
done. It must be remembered that scraping or
biting our finger nails renders them sore and
useless as a defence or means of prehension.
How much more then do we render the hoof of
a horse by these reducing measures, unable to
act as a means of defence and resistance, to bear
the weight, and hold the nails by which the
shoe is attached ? The better the foot, the better
must be the protection. The animal will perform
his work more readily and with greater safety,
and last the longer. Many forget the horse
has to carry weight beside that of his own body,
or compelled to draw loads and sutler concussion
011 the stones at a high speed. Then why cut
away from the foot that which the animal re-
quires so much ? Some say it is to prevent the
foot growing out of shape, but that is a mistake.
There is more mischief occurring (and nothing
causes a faulty shape as soon) from the practice
of reducing the hoof, that from any other plan
adopted.

Each part of the hoof is possessed of different
properties. The outer part, the wall or crust,

P

210 Simple Hides for Shoeing > and

grows downwards, and the ends of the fibres of
which it is composed are presented to the ground.
On this account it is more resisting to the wear-
ing forces, and does not fall off in flakes or
scales. The ends of these fibres, or, in other
words, the ground surface of the wall or crust
only, should be absolutely cut away, and that
principally towards the toe, where the greatest
growth usually takes place in health.

The sole and frog are capable of what is termed
exfoliating, or, in other words, detaching their waste
parts in flakes or scales. None but loose por-
tions should be cut away. These parts are quite
capable of their own reduction, and need no in-
terference. When shoes are being fitted, do not
apply them too hot, particularly to thin shelly
feet. If the feet are good, and no cutting is
carried on, as just directed, a hot shoe will do little
harm.

Use well-drawn nails. Thick-necked nails
" bind" in the holes of the shoe, and frequently
press upon the sensitive structures of the foot,
causing severe lameness. Besides, they act as
perfect wedges to the hoof, splitting off portions
to its detriment.

Let the nails be pointed with a long lead, and
nail holes in shoes be coarse, i.e., not too near
the outer web or edge. In this there is less
danger of laming horses than by the fine seam
and snub pointed nail. The former nail is driven
straight down, always having a tendency to go

Management of the Feet of Horses. 211

away from the sensitive structures, but the lat-
ter has to be driven inwards, by which it is al-
most certain to lame by a " prick" or " bind" as
it approaches too near.

Shoes should always be made to possess a per-
fectly level surface for the foot to rest upon.
That part of the foot which comes upon the shoe
is to be the ground surface of the wall. No part
of the frog or sole need touch the shoe.

The shape of shoes is an affair of little moment.
There is no call for beauty or grand work. The
secret of shoeing is to afford a protection which
the hoof alone cannot give, and that is the point
to study.

Bar shoes consist of the ordinary shoe, the
heels being turned round to meet, and afterwards
welded ; or a bar is placed across in front of the
heels. Their use is adopted in order to throw a
portion of the bearing upon the frog, to relieve
other parts which may be injured or diseased.
If the frog is too small to reach the bar, punch a
hole in it, and rivet a piece of leather on, to
press upon the frog, and thus gain the desired
bearing. Bar shoes are very useful for curing
running thrushes, if the weight can be borne.

Leather soles are useful agents to protect feet
which have been cut away in operations, and
prevent the access of dirt. As a means of pre-
venting concussion the writer has reason to
doubt their efficacy. Shoeing as at present
carried on is to be likened to breaking a man's

212 Simple Rules for Shoeing, and

head, and the leather sole to the plaster. It is
a too common practice to pare the feet almost
like paper, and then put on leather soles. If
healthy feet are treated judiciously they possess
a natural protection, and need no leather soles.

Stopping for feet is quite unnecessary. Grooms
and smiths call loudly for stopping in order to
pare the foot easily, and forget that as they
pare the horn dries more rapidly, and therefore
is the harder. Let them try the method al-
ready laid down, and they will find the foot is
soft beneath the scales which fall off as soon as
the shoe is removed, showing that nature uses
her own stopping, which is far better than clay
or cow dung. The same remarks apply to wet
swabs and other allied treatment.

Horses' feet should always be kept as dry as
possible when healthy. Their natural con-
dition of usefulness as a protection consists in
being hard and bulky. If disease overtakes
them, poultices and fomentations are then needed,
as prescribed by the veterinarian. No greater
mischief occurs to horses' feet than that which
arises from the effects of wet straw yards and
pastures. The salts that are in the fluids found in
those places reduce and dissolve the hoof, and ren-
der it unfit as a protection. Such places are best
avoided unless well drained.

Foot ointments when properly made are very
useful. Equal parts of Stockholm or Archangel
tar and mutton suet are to be melted together,

Management of tlie Feet of Horses. 213

and a small portion brushed round the hoof each
day. This will be found the best and cheapest
preparation. Grooms, however, are often very
fond of some high sounding and unintelligible
name for a horse preparation, and would rather
pay five shillings for mutton suet or bacon fat
and the refuse of kitchens coloured with cop-
peras, if it has only a long name such as,

"'CUITOMOUTONETTARGPODOSUNGUENTON,"

or such like mummery, than be content to use
a better remedy which may be obtained for one-
tenth the price.

Foot ointments find their basis in the Archan-
gel tar very properly. That agent prevents
evaporation, and promotes the necessary elas-
ticity of the hoof. Grease and fats with other
admixtures are very prone to render the hoof
brittle. As for curative effects being pro-
duced on the sensitive part by dressing the hoof
outside, there is no evidence to show beyond
what quackery swears on false premises.

Cutting, brushing, &c. — These are terms by
which is understood that damage of greater or
less extent is inflicted, generally at the fetlock of
one leg, by the opposite foot during action.

In the former case the skin is usually cut or
very much bruised, and great lameness occurs,
while in the latter the hair is slightly removed
from the surface by attrition, and the skin suffers
in a less degree. Horses, however, may " brush"

214 Simple Rules for Shoeing, and

for some time, and suddenly become desperate
cutters in consequence of repeated injury being
done to the parts.

Cutting sometimes takes place in animals
with high action, when the toes are naturally
turned inwards, and the foot is carried towards the
opposite leg. In this case the seat of injury is
below the knee, and great lameness occurs, some-
times attended with permanent swelling of the
bone, called a " splint."

The causes are generally traceable to pre-
ventible circumstances. Animals are either out
of condition — weak — or they are driven too fast
and worked too hard in a variety of ways. The
victims are usually the horses of butchers,
bakers, and other fast drivers, omnibus and cab
horses especially- — in fact, cart and other horses
will be guilty of the practice if badly kept and
harassed about. When work is prolonged too
much and animals are heavily shod, they become
" leg tired" in stable phraseology, and the action
becomes slovenly and false.

The remedies are careful feeding and work
at all times, but especially when the latter is
unavoidably prolonged. In the matter of shoe-
ing much may be done. It is the fancy to
place upon the feet the most fantastic, and
even the most clumsy shoes, and there are scores
of smiths who may be found ready to accept a
wager " to take any horse off the cut." There
is no need for these, or even to mutilate the hoof,

Management of the Feet of Horses. 215

as is too commonly done. If great lameness arises,
let the injured parts receive immediate attention,
and keep the animal at rest. Next, place on the
feet very light shoes, and when put to work let
common humanity prevail. Horses are not
machines or steam-engines, that they can go in-
cessantly ; if their periods of labour are not pro-
perly regulated, and the amount be too exacting,
the animal constitution must give way. To
those who are willing to recognise early signs
of degeneracy, we beg to name cutting and
brushing; if they are not attended to, further
aggravation is succeeded by serious complications,
as broken knees, fractures, &c., to the animal,
besides others of an extraneous character.

Groggy feet, or those understood to be affected
with disease of the coffin joint, require special
treatment, in order to limit as much as possible
the suffering of the animal. There is little of
service to be done in a medical point of view
except by dividing the nerves going to the part,
thus to cut off sensory communication. After
such operations great care is required in driving
the nails, for if the sensitive parts are wounded,
no evidence of pain being felt, inflammation and
suppuration follow, and in some cases sloughing
of the entire hoof. The smith should always be
informed when he has such feet to deal with.

Groggy feet do not require shoes of great
weight: They should be rounded off or turned
up at the toe to diminish leverage in the first

216 Simple Rules for Shoeing, and

act of progression. In the variety of horse
most subject to this disease, five nails, or even
fewer, may be sufficient to hold on the shoe, as
the foot is always very firm, and the animal cannot
endure severe exertion. A light hammer should
be used, and the blows sharp and in rapid succes-
sion, to avoid shaking, which always occurs with
heavy tools used without caution.

The feet are to be prepared according to rules
already given at p ige 210.

Sidebones among cart-horses are very com-
mon. When the natural elasticity of the cartilages
which surmount the wings of the coffin bone is
lost, the parts are found to have been involved
in the process of inflammation and subsequent
conversion Into bone (ossification.) The motion
of the joint is more or less interfered with, con-
cussion causes pain, and the tendency is towards
an increase of size,

If the feet are properly preserved and pre-
pared for the shoe, all that is required is to
keep the heels and toes low and stiff, and be-
neath the sidebone ; the heel of the shoj is best
made to pass straight backwards from ike quarter,
in order to extend the surface of bearing. The
foot should be hammered as lightly as possible.

For ring bones the toes and heels of shoes
should also be kept low, in order to avoid con-
cussion

In all cases, however, where these affections
are of long standing, and medical treatment pro-

Management of the Feet of Horses. 217

duces little or no good, lameness being per-
sistent, the animal will be of scarcely any
service for town work. It is best to place them
upon soft land in the farmer's hands, where many
kinds of light work may be performed without
any sacrifice of feeling or increase of suffering
to the animal.

Under certain aggravated conditions of the three
forms of disease we have been considering, the
advice of a veterinary surgeon should be sought
as to the policy of such animals being retained
whose life can only be one of protracted misery.

Pumiced feet, so called, are of frequent occur-
rence among cart-horses, but others also are
liable when mismanagement occurs. The
appearances which give rise to the term are
convexity of the sole and concavity of the wall,
with great tendency to elongation towards the
toe. They are the outward manifestations of an
inward diseased state of the sensitive and secret-
ing structures — hence the deformed shape and
growth.

Shoeing may greatly palliate the case, but
nothing is known that will cure it. Put on a
strong shoe having a great amount of cover to
protect the sole. Seat or hollow out the upper
surface, that no part but the wall shall receive
weight. Let the heels and toe be low and stiff;
keep the toe of the hoof moderately short ; avoid
paring the sole, or otherwise reducing the foot ;
use well-drawn nails, put well up ; keep on the

218 Simple Rules for Shoeing, and

shoe always as long as it is secure and serviceable,
so as to avoid breaking the foot by too frequent
removes. Use daily dressings of hoof ointment,
inside and out, after the foot is cleaned, by which
means many animals will be enabled to perform a
great amount of work with ease and cheerfulness.

Pricks and binds are the natural consequences
of the system of shoeing with nails. Some per-
sons ignorantly suppose they can only occur from
carelessness. They must, however, be informed
that workmen of the best class, well known for
their superior skill and care, are liable to cause
lameness by a prick or bind with the nail in
shoeing. There are many causes for it, most of
which are beyond his control. Great mischief
ensues frequently after such an occurrence, and
the difficulty commences in attaching the blame
to the proper person. In ninety-nine cases out
of a hundred such ought not to occur, yet it
does, and how ? As soon as a horse is lame he
is usually walked off to the smith, who receives
the information that he has pricked the horse.
Knowing the estimate placed by owners generally
upon such a case, the smith naturally endeavours
to prove the contrary, and in many cases suc-
ceeds by ignorance of the proper symptoms and
mode of manipulation, in having the horse sent
home with the qualifying announcement, that
the lameness is in the shoulder or other place,
" but not in the foot"

At this stage, simple matters would set the

Management of the Feet of Horses. 219

animal sound in a few hours, but alas ! too fre-
quently delay occurs, or some quack treatment is
pursued, and at length matter issues from the
coronet, and the foot is diseased and disfigured
for life.

In all cases of lameness, the shoe should be
removed, and foot properly examined by percus-
sion with the hammer, and pressure by the pin-
cers. The situation of nail holes in the hoof
will determine if some are too near, and evidences
of pain will usually point to the part under trial.

If the lameness is not great, mere removal of
the shoe and nails will mostly be sufficient ; or a
warm poultice of bran or sawdust may be applied
for twelve hours. If, on the other hand, the pain
and lameness be excessive, having gradually in-
creased in severity, matter may be suspected to
be present within the hoof. Exploration with the
knife should follow percussion and pressure, by
which the precise spot will be detected, and exit
thus given to the imprisoned pus will afford al-
most instant relief. Poultices preceded by hot
fomentations will be required, besides other treat-
ment, to allay febrile excitement and expedite the
case, for which a qualified veterinarian is best to
dictate, according to existing circumstances.

It is advisable in all cases of lameness to apply
at once to a veterinary surgeon ; much tedious-
ness and disappointment as well as expense may
be avoided. As in many other cases, " the first
cost is the least in the end."

220 Simple 'Rules for Shoeing, and

The shoeing of lame horses requires special
measures, and could not be treated any further
in a work of this kind without extending it
beyond ordinary limits. The instructions already
given will in greater part be found applicable.
By their observance much harm may be avoided,
and the usefulness of our valuable servants
greatly extended. Brittle feet, so called, may be
wonderfully restored in a short time, the fulling
off or losing of shoes greatly avoided ; and re-
member that the greater evil exists in doing too
much, rather than knowing what should not be
done.

Horse-shoeing in coal-mines fully exemplifies
this statement. Here, where the smiths have
many horses and ponies to shoe after working
hours in the pit have ceased, the benefits of not
doing too much are to be observed. There is
seldom to be seen a bad foot. Except where the
roadways are saturated or overflowing with water
having mineral salts in solution, such may be
said scarcely to occur. Animals are also very
seldom lamed in shoeing. When they run upon
dry ground the feet grow thick and strong. At
each shoeing the smith merely cuts down the foot
to produce a level surface, " lets in the clip " to
the required distance at the toe backwards, nails
on the shoe, clenches and roughly rasps off over-
hanging portions. By these means the shoes
are seldom lost, and the best of feet are found.

It is a pity the system cannot be exhumed in

Management of the Feet of Horses. 221

greater part from the coal-mines, and transferred
for the benefit of our town and other horses in
parts where proper care is not exercised. Any-
thing likely to prove beneficial, even if brought
from a coal-mine, would be acceptable, and the
value of our horses demands this consideration.

O -")

POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS.

THERE is frequently great need of these agents
as auxiliaries to the treatment of disease which
arises among horses. In contradistinction to
the great amount of good which they may be
caused to effect, much harm may ensue by igno-
rance or misunderstanding.

A poultice is employed for two purposes — to
apply heat and moisture conjointly to a part, or
cold and moisture. We have therefore warm
and cold poultices. Fomentations, on the other
hand, are always hot. They consist usually of
water alone, or infusions of some plant whose
active principle has some medicinal effect.

The object in either case is to perpetuate in a
part by external means, either a degree of heat
or cold which cannot be effected otherwise, in
order to promote some desirable curative action.
To render these means effective, their use must
be long continued, and the desired temperature
maintained as near as possible. A poultice
loosely applied, or a fomentation imperfectly
maintained, produces absolute harm by the
evaporation and cooling which ensues, and its
effects upon the internal structures. When
parts have been fomented or poulticed, they
should either be dried or protected by covering
from the atmosphere.

r™

Poultices and Fomentations. 223

In the treatment of wounds or abscesses, neg-
lect of these precautions produces serious
obstructions to the successful recovery of a
case, and the medical attendant too frequently
incurs undeserved censure.

224

SENDING FOR THE VETERINARY
SURGEON.

IN the hurry and excitement consequent upon
sudden accident or illness among animals, mes-
sengers are frequently despatched with imperfect
reports, and therefrom much error and incon-
venience results. These facts may be sufficient
excuse for appending a few plain rules to be
observed in order to avoid the occurrence of un-
toward events, and rather expedite matters to-
wards a favourable if not successful issue.

First. — As far as possible always send a writ-
ten message. Never trust verbal messages to boys
or illiterate persons ; and let the name and ad-
dress be legibly inscribed.

Second. — Send early, that the practitioner may
see the case before it is aggravated by serious
and irrecoverable complications. " A stitch in
time saves nine/" and the first cost may avoid
the necessity of incurring greater ones.

Thirdly. — Afford as much information as
possible as to what has been observed of the
symptoms manifested by the animal. The prac-
titioner may be greatly assisted in preparation
of remedies to take with him. Never send such
a message as " You are to come directly, we have
a horse (or cow) badly." This is a very useless
and perplexing statement.

Sending for the Veterinary Surgeon. 225

Fourthly. — Avoid absolute doctoring the animal
for which you desire a professional opinion.
Attend implicitly to the instructions received,
and success will be more certain.

Fifthly. — Never withhold information upon
matters which are calculated to throw light upon
the causes, nature, symptoms, &c., of the ailment.
Absence of such paralyses the hands of skill,
and prevents the adoption of proper measures.

These may admit of some variation under
certain circumstances, but in the majority of
cases, if carried out properlj , they will effect more
good than is to be expected at the present day
in many places, from the utter disregard of sys-
tem which prevails, particularly in agricultural
districts.

INDEX.

ABILITY, 48.

Absorption, 24.

Acids of digestion, 29.

Advantages of proper food and system, 42, 4&

,, clipping and singeing, ] 54.

,> loose boxes, 201.

„ sliding doors, 201.

Albumen, 30.

Albuminous principles of food, 28 — 30.
Albuminuria, 45.
Animal heat, 32.

,, not maintained by fat alone, 35.

,., produced in part from nitrogenous compounds, 32.

Animals hybernating, 35.
,, tying up of, 194.
Arrangement of stables, 194.
Assimilation, 24.

BAD arrangements of stables, ill effects of, 195.

Bandages, use of, 149.

Barley, 159.

Bar-shoes, 211.

Bean and pea-straw, 101.

Beans, 158.

,, require to be bruised, 175.
Beaning horses, 113.
Bedding, 150.
Bellans or roaring, 112.
Bishoping, 114.

Black-ashes as a detergent, 135.
Blaunders or glanders, 112.
Body-brush, 143.
Boussingault and Papin, experiments to determine whether hoivot

pass grain unchanged, 60.
Bran : its nature, uses, and abuses, 83, 161.

„ mashes, 162.

„ as a laxative, 84.
Breeding or pluck, 48.

u2

228 Index.

Bribery in horse dealing, 120.
Broken wind, how caused, 21.

,, how disposed of, 115.

Bruised coi-n, economy of, 99.
Bruising oats, not always necessary, 157.

,, peas, beans, &c«, necessity for, 175.
Brushes, 143.
Brushing, 213.
Bulk or volume, 39.

C^CUM, 25.

,, contains fluids principally, 23.
Calculi or stones in the intestines, 51, 162.

„ „ their origin, 51, 52, 162.

,, ,, usual composition, 52.

,, ,, presented by Mr. Foreman, M.E.C.V.S., 54.

Capacity of large intestines, 26.

,, small ditto, 24.

Carbolic acid as a disinfectant, 135.
Care required in feeding after work, 60, 178.
Carob bean, 166.
Carrots and turnips, 98, 169.
Caseine, 30.
Causes of cutting and brushing, 213.

,, disease, and its prevention, 203.
Certificates of soundness, 123.
Chaff, economy of, 99.
Changes in chyme, 27.
Change of grain, objections to, 82.
Cheap food, what constitutes a, 81.
Cheeks, 14.

Choking, causes of, 19.
Chronic cough, one of the causes of, 22.
Chyle, 24.
Chyme, 27.

„ changes in, 27.
Cleanliness, 104, 134.
Clipping and singeing, 152.
Clothing, 150.
Coal mines, feeding in, 2, 79, 85.

,, neglect of horses and ponies in, 77, 105.

„ shoeing in, 220.

Colon, 25.

Colliery estates, systems of feeding adopted upon, 74, 76, 79 85.
Condiments, 103, 167.
Condition, 185.

,, physic not always required for, 186.

Index. 229

Consequences of an imperfect system of feeding in coal mines,

2, 75, 76.
Cooked food, 18, 42, 101.

,, does not render food more digestible or nutritious, 41.

„ diseases arising from, 45, 101.

,, is expensive, 44.

,, injurious effects of, 18, 45, 101.

,, not economical, 55.

Corn, mixture of, 89.
Cost of feeding horses in Sheffield, 72.

,, ,, ,, upon oats, 65.

Cough, chronic, how caused, 22.
Cree'd linseed, 164.

Cubic space required by each animal, 196.
Currycomb, 143.
Cut food promotes salivation, 75.

,, ,, use of, 160.
Cutting and brushing, 213.

DANDT-brush, 144.

Danger of gas-brackets in stables, 131.

, , the indiscriminate use of drugs, 1 33, 206.
Dealers, tricks of, 111.
Declivity of stable floors, 198.
Defects of horses, 119.
Deglutition, 17, 19.
Development and maintenance, 8.
Diabetes, 13, 42.
Digestion, organs of, 14, 108.

,, should be in a healthy condition, 60.

acids of, 29.
in stomach, 22.
in intestines, 27.
rapid in horse, 22, 56.
Digestive process, 26.
Diseases arising from cooked food, 45, 101.

induced by the use of impure bran, 162.
causes and prevention of, 203.
produced by badly arranged stables, 195.
Disinfectants, 135.
Disposal of manure, 151.

Do horses masticate the whole of their grain ? 56, 60.
Doors, sliding, 201.
Drain or stench traps, 198.
Drains in stables, 197.
Dressing or grooming, 104, 143.
Dry food, objections to, 54.

230 Index.

Dung or faeces, 29.
Duodenum, 24.
Dyeing, 115.

EAELY operations in the stable, 128.
Economy of food, 71, 176.

„ of using chaff and bruised corn, 99*.
Effects of badly arranged stables, 195.
Effete or useless matter, 11, 29.
Efficiency of gas lights in ventilation, 141.
Elementary principles of food, 28.
Ernes, Wm., Esq., M.R.C.V.S., his experience on the exclusire

use of bran, 162.
Errors to be avoided, 40, 96.
Essential characters of food, 29.

,, qualities of oats, 65.

,, ,, other corn, &c. 156.

Evil effects of insufficient food for young animals, 12.
Exercise, 181.

„ importance of, for hard-working horses, 183.
Experiments of Boussingault and Papin, 60.
Extracting temporary teeth, custom of, in Ireland, 114.
Eyes, disease of, 119.

FALLACIOUS ideas as to the passage of unchanged grain, 54, 58, 60.
Fat or heat producers, 28, 32.
Feeding, 156.

after work, 23, 178.
economy of, 55, 74, 80, 176.
manger system of, 55.
regular, 23, 46, 50, 175.
saving effected in, by Mr. Hunting, 74.
saving effected by Mr. Scott at Hetton Colliery, 80.
system of, at the Londonderry Collieries, 85.
, „ at the Hetton Colliery, 76.

Feet of horses, their shoeing and management, 208.

„ ,, stopping of, 212.

Fibrine, 30, 31.
Flesh formers, 28.
Floors, wooden, 199.

,, declivity of, 198.
Fl uids, passage of, 23.
Faeces ur dung, 29.
Food, advantages of good, 12, 42, 46.
„ economy of, 71, 176.
„ elementary principles of, 28, 29.
essential characters of, 29.

Index. 231

Food, green, 97, 169.

,, immediate object of, 8.

indigestible parts of, 29.

insufficient, effects of, on young animals, 12.

relative proportions of nutritious and starchy matter in, 63.

requires bulk or volume, 39.

steamed, objectionable, 87.

varieties of, 63, 156.

when cooked expensive, innutritious, and not economical,

18, 42, 55, 101.
Foot ointments, 212.

„ pickers, 145.

Foreman, Thos., M.E.C.V.S., collects specimens of calculi, 54.
Forms of mixture of grain, 89.
Frog, the, 210.

GAS-brackets in stables, danger of, 131.

„ lights, their efficacy, in ventilation, 141.
Gastric j uice, 26.

„ digestion, 26.
General arrangement of stables, 194.
Glanders or blaunders, 112.
Gluten, 30, 31.
Grain, economy in storing, 68.

,, objections to a change of, 62.

,, selection and purchase of, 68, 156.

,, does it pass unacted upon ? 57, 58, 60.
Grass, turning horses to, 171.
Green Food, 97, 169.
Grinders, 15.
Groggy feet, 215.
Grooming, 104, 143.
Gruel after work, 178.
Gullet, 15.
Gypping, 315.

HAED work, care required in feeding horses after, 23, 60, 178.
Hay and straw, 99, 101, 160.

,, tea after work, 179.
Health, what is it ? 204.

Healthy condition of digestive organs necessary, 60.
Heat, animal, 32.

„ producers, 28, 32.

,, ,, relative proportion of, in food, 63.

„ or temperature of stable, 141.
Heavy draught horses objectionable, 49.
Hetton Colliery system of feeding, 76.

232 Index.

Horse, digestive organs of, not intended for cooked or sloppy

food, 41.
Horse dealing, bribery in, 120.

„ shoeing in coal mines, 220.
Horses, defects in, 119.
„ recommending, 124.
„ feet should be dry, 212.
,, their selection and purchase, 111.
Hoof, the, 208.

Hours of work of pit animals, 77.
How to prevent cutting and brushing, 214.
Hunting, C., M.R. C.V.S., his determination of the proportion of

husk in oats, 67.
,, ,, his saving in the feeding at South

Hetton, 74.

Husk in oats, proportion of, in different varieties of, 67.
Hybernating animals, 35.

IDENTITY of nitrogenous compounds from all sources, 31.
Ilium, 24.

Ill effects of maize, 70.

Importance of exercise for hard-working horses, 183.
,, of grooming, 104, 143.
,, of prevention, 4, 46, 203.
Impure bran, a cause of disease, 162.
Immediate objects of food, 8.
Incisor teeth, 14.

„ ,, practice of extracting, 114.
Indian corn, 70, 166.
Indigestible parts of food, 29.
Inflating the skin, or " puffing the glym," 114.
Insalivation, 16.

Insufficient food, evil consequences of, in young animals, 12.
Intestines, stones or calculi in, 51, 162.

„ their capacity and division, 26.
Injurious effects of cooked food, 18, 45, 87, 101.

,, ,, insufficient food in young animals, 12.

Ireland, mode of selling horses in, 124.

JEJUNUM, 24.
Jibber, the, 119.

KiDNEY-dropper, 116.
Kohl-rabi, 169.

LACTEALS, or absorbents. 24.

Lameness, foot should always be examined in, 219.

Index. 233

Lameness in horses, how disguised, 113.

Large intestines, 25.

Large number of horses, importance of a superintendent for, 61.

Laxative, bran as a, 84, 161, 162.

Leather soles, 211.

„ valves used in ventilation, 140.
Legs, washing the, 147.
Leguminous seeds require bruising, 99, 175.
Lentils, 159.

Level floors, necessity for, 199.
Lighting of stables, 136.
Linseed, 71, 163.

„ or oil cake, 165.

,, „ value of, for young stock, 166.

,, oil as an improver of condition, 164.

tea, 164.

Locust or carob-bean, 166.

Londonderry Collieries, system of feeding adopted at, 85.
Long fasts prejudicial, 23, 78.
Longevity promoted by good food, 40.
Loose boxes, 201.

McDouGALL's disinfecting powder, 135, 161.

Maintenance, 10.

Maize or Indian corn, 70, 166.

Management of horses' feet, 208.

Mane comb, 144.

Manger system, 55.

Mangold wurtzel, 169.

Manure, disposal of, 41.

Mashes of bran, 162.

Mastication, 15.

Materials for stable floors, 197.

Medicines, danger of their indiscriminate use, 206.

Mesenteric glands, 28.

Metamorphosis of tissue, 10, 11.

Mismanagement, 1.

Mixtures of corn or grain for horses, 89.

Moisture, injurious effects of, on horses' feet, 212.

Molar teeth or grinders, 15.

Mortality from mismanagement, 5, 7, 13.

,, saved by Mr. Hunting's system, 75.

,, ,, ,, Scott's ditto, 81.

NAILS in shoeing, 21 0.

Nature, uses, and abuses of bran, 83, 161, 162.

Neglect of grooming pit animals, 105.

Index.

Nitrogenous compounds, their identity from all sources, 30.

,, principles of food, 30, 63, 156.

Non- nitrogenous principles of food, 32.

,, „ relative proportion of, in different kinda

of food, 63, 156.
Nose- bags, 131.

OATS, 64, 156.

cost of feeding upon, 65.

do not always require bruising, 157.

essential qualities of, 65.

proportion of husk in, 67.

quantity to be used, 157.

straw, 99.
Objections to a change of grain, 83.
„ to green food, 97, 170.
„ to the use of dry food, 54.
CEsophagus, 15.
Oil-cake, 165.

,, „ value of, for young stock, 166.
Ointment for feet, 212.
Organs of digestion, 14, 108.
Origin of calculi, 52, 162.

PATENT baked food, 104.
Paving of stable floors, 196.
Pea and bean straw, 101.
Peas, 159.

,, and beans should be bruised, 175
Pharynx, 15.
Pit animals are much neglected, 77, 105.

„ their hours of work, 77.

„ horsekeepers have too many animals under their care, 105.
Pluck or breeding, 48.
Precautions to be observed in feeding, 23, 46, 50, 95, 167, 170.

,, to be observed in purchasing horses, 126.

Prehension, 14.

Prejudice against system on colliery estates, 4, 77, 87, 108.
Prevention, importance of, 4, 46, 205.
Pricks and binds in shoeing, 218.
Process of digestion, 26.
Profuse staling, 42.

Proportion of husk in different kinds of oats, 67.
Provision for maintaining warmth in the body, 35.
Ptyalin, 16.
Puffing the glym, 114.
Pumiced feet, 217.

Index. 235

Purchase and selection of horses, 111.

,, „ precautions to be observed in,

126.

Purity of water, 133.
Putrefaction, its effects upon drinking water, 133.

RAPIDITY of digestion, 22.

Recommending horses, 124.

Kectum, 25.

Regular feeding, 23, 46, 50, 175.

Relative proportion of heat producers in different kinds of

food, 63.
,, ,, nutritious matter in different kinds of

food, 31, 63.
Ring-bones, 216.
Roaring or " bellans," 112.
Roots, 98, 169.
Rubber, the, 144.
Rules, simple, for shoeing, 208.

SACCHARINE principles of food, 17, 28, 32, 63.
Saliva, 16.

„ is secreted abundantly, 17.

„ chemical action of, 17.

„ flow of, promoted by cut and dry food, 75, 99.

„ cannot be replaced by any artificial agent, 18.

,, quantity of, an important agent in digestion, 17, 99.

,, solvent action of, 16.

,, general uses of, 17, 18.
Saving effected by Mr. C. Hunting, 74.

,, „ by systematic feeding, 102.

,, ,, by Mr. L. Scott, 79.

Selection and purchase of grain, 68.

,, ,, horses, 111.

Sending for the veterinary surgeon, 224.
Sheffield, cost of feeding horses in, 72.
Shiverer, the, 116.

Shoe, necessity for its removal in all cases of lameness, 219.
Shoeing, pricks and binds in, 218.
Shoes, their shape, 211.
Side-bones, 216.
Singeing, 152.
Slid ing-doors, 201.
Small intestines, 24.
Sole and frog, 210.
Soles, leather, 211.
Soundness, certificates of, 123.

236 Index.

Spicy foods or condiments, 103, 167.
Stable management, 128.
Stable, early operations in, 128.

„ drains, 197.

„ floors, materials for. 196.

,, declivity of, 198.

„ paving of, 196.

,, should be level, 199.
Stable-tools, 143.

„ „ use of, 146.
Stables, arrangement of, 194.

,, lighting of, 136.

,, various modes of ventilating, 137.
Staling, profuse, 42.
Steamed food objectionable, 86.
Stench traps, 198.
Stomach of horse, ox, and man, 20.
„ small, 21.

,, of ox divided into four parts, 20-
Stones or calculi in intestines, 51.

i, ,, their origin, 52, 162.

Stopping for feet, 212.
Storing of grain, 68.
Straw as provender, 99, 101, 160.
Strength or ability derived from food, 48.

„ not weight, required for moving heavy loads, 49.
Superintendent, importance of a, 61.
Swallowing, 17, 19.
System of feeding in various collieries, 75, 85.

,, „ saving to be effected by a complete, 102.

TARES or lentils, 71, 159.
Teeth, incisor, 14.

„ molar, 15.

„ extraction of, to accomplish fraud, 114.
Temperature of stables, 141.

,, „ its effects upon all new comers, 142.

Tissue, metamorphosis of, 10, 11.
Tongue, 14.
Tricks of dealers, 111.
Turkish bath, as an aid to condition, 187.

„ ,, the, and washing horses after hunting, 100.
Turning to grass, 173.
Turnips and carrots, 98, 169.
Tying up of animals, 194.

UNDIGESTED food, 29.

„ grain, passage of, 57, 58, 60.

Index. 237

Urination, profuse, 42.

Use of dry food, objections to the, 54.

„ stable tools, 146.
Useless or effete matters, 11.
Uses and abuses of bran, 83, 162.

„ saccharine principles of food, 17, 28, 32.

,, saliva, 17.

VARIETIES of food, 63.
Various forms of mixing grain, 89.
Vegetable food, 169.
Ventilation of stables, 137.

„ by the use of leather valves, 140.

,, various modes of, 138.

Veterinary surgeon, sending for the, 224.

WALL, the, 209.

Want of condition, effects of, 13, 97, 21&

Warranty, 122.

Washing horses, 189.

Washing the legs, 147.

Waste of animal tissues, 10, 11.

Wasting of the body, causes of, 34.

Water brushes, 145.

Water, purity of, 133.

Watering, 132.

What constitutes a cheap food, 81.

Wisp, the, 144.

Wooden floors, 199.

Work, feeding after, 60, 178.

YOUNO animals require good food, 12.

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EVERY MAN HIS OWN HORSE DOCTOR.

In which is embodied Elaine's " Veterinary Art."

By GEORGE ARMATAGE, M.R.G.V.S.

330 Original Illustrations, Coloured Plates, Anatomical Drawings, &c.

In demy 8vo, price 15*., half-bound, 690 pp.

EVERY MAN HIS OWN CATTLE DOCTOR.

By FRANCIS CLATER.
Entirety Rewritten by GEORGE ARMATAGE, M.R.O.V.S.

Forming a suitable Text-Book for the Student and General Practitioner.

With copious Notes, Additional Recipes, &c., and upwards of 200
Practical Illustrations, showing Forms of Disease and Treatment, in-
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A VALUABLE WORK FOR EVERY AGRICULTURIST.

In demy 8vo, price i$s. , half-bound, 640 pp.

THE FARMER'S CALENDAR.

FOURTH EDITION, ENTIRELY REVISED,
By J. CHALMERS MORTON,

Author of "The Prinee Consort's Farm," "The Cyclopaedia of Agriculture,"
"Farmer's Almanac," &c.

A Systematic Work on Farm Practice, accompanied by Explanations
and References to Theory when necessary, but mainly and intentionally
Descriptive of actual Experience and Work in Field, Fold, and
Farmery. It is fully Illustrated with Wood Engravings of Buildings,
Land Drainage, Machinery, and Plants.

ENTIRELY NEW EDITION OF A POPULAR HORSE-BOOK-

In large crown 8vo, price $s., cloth gilt.

THE HORSEOWNER & STABLEMAN'S COMPANION

Or, Hints on the Selection , Purchase, and Management of the Horse.

By GEORGE ARMATAGE, M.R,C.V.S.

Editor of *' Every Man His Own Cattle Doctor."

"The whole duty of man as regards horses may be found in these pages-."
—Sporting Life.

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A NEW WORK ON BIRD-KEEPING. By the Author of " Domestic Pets."
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BIRD-KEEPING:

A Practical Guide for the Management of Singing Cage Birds.

By C. E. DYSON.

With Coloured Plates and Woodcut Illustrations.

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OUT-DOOR COMMON BIRDS:

Their Habits and General Characteristics.

Describing nearly Sixty of our most Common Birds ; a Picture of the
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By HENRY STANNARD.

With upwards of One Hundred Original Illustrations.

" The habits, appearance, and peculiarities of the birds are graphically and
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A VALUABLE WORK OF REFERENCE.

In large crown 8vo, price js. 6d.t half-bound, 750 pp.
A MANUAL OF

DOMESTIC MEDICINE & SURGERY

A Completely New Edition.
By J. H. W A LS H, F. R. C. S.

Illustrated by Forty-four Page Engravings, Sixteen printed in
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General Heads of the Contents of this Work : —

GENERAL LAWS WHICH REGULATE HEALTH AND DISEASE.

THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISEASE— THEIR CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS.

THE METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE REMOVAL OF DISEASE.

THERAPEUTICS.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE HEALING ART.

THE MANAGEMENT OF CHILDREN IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.

DOMESTIC PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY IN THE ADULT.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

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